house 03.1.1, group no. 9, 141026

Group 9
Christina Holberg
Diana Thomsen
Fabian Uth Nielsen
Frederik Rølle Svanholm
Noella Chituka Birisawa
Shabnam Javadian
Tringë Berisha
3.1.1 International Bachelor Program in the Humanities
Semester 2, Spring 2015
Supervisor: Ana-Stanca Tabarasi-Hoffmann
Character Count: 141.026
“With rapid body changes, young adolescents become more
interested with how they look to others than who they are.”
- Palombo, Bendicsen, & Koch
“They sell values, images, and concepts of love, sexuality, success,
and normalcy. They tell us who we are and who we should be”
- Jean Kilbourne
“If celebrities, with all their high-profile diets and beauty treatments,
cannot find self-fulfillment through weight loss, then what chance
does the ordinary teenager stand?”
- David Giles
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Abstract
English
This project will take the form as an analytical look into how media affects
adolescent girls in order to answer the question if media exposure affects
an individual and to what extent. We will examine different theories within
the branch of psychodynamics theories. We will consider Freud and how
his main ideas has affected the advertisement industry, furthermore we
will elaborate on Erik Erikson and his development theory in order to
understand which affect the media can have on the adolescents
development of identity.
We have used Maybelline’s Dream Matte Mousse beauty campaign as an
example of a media source that produces certain values, ideas, images, etc.
and investigate what exposure to these images means for a selected group,
which has been considered vulnerable to the effects of media. Adolescent
girls are our group of choice, since they are most known to suffer from
mental instability such as eating disorders. A goal of this project is to
uncover whether or not girls are in fact susceptible and what it is that
makes someone more or less prone to the effects media can have.
German
In diesem Projekt werden wir einen analytischen Blick darauf werfen, wie
Medien heranwachsende Mädchen beeinträchtigen, um die Frage zu
beantworten, ob die Exponierung von Medien einen Einfluss auf
Individuen hat und im Falle dessem, in welchem Ausmaß.
Wir werden verschiedene Theorien aus dem Teilgebiet der Psychodynamik
untersuchen, darunter betrachten wir Freud und wie seine Hauptideen die
Werbebranche beeinflusst haben. Außerdem werden wir uns mit Erik
Erikson und seiner Entwicklungstheorie beschäftigen, um einen Einblick
darüber zu gewinnen, welchen Einfluss Medien auf die
Identitätsentwicklung von Jugendlichen hat. Des Weiteren haben wir uns
dafür entschieden, Maybelline’s Dream Matte Mousse
Schönheitskampagne als ein Beispiel für eine Werbequelle, die gewisse
Werte, Ideen, Bilder etc. vermittelt, zu nutzen und zu untersuchen, welche
Auswirkungen das Exponieren dieser Werte auf eine von uns auserwählte
Gruppe, die besonders anfällig für die Einwirkung der Medien zu sein
scheint, hat. Diese von uns auserwählte Gruppe sind junge,
heranwachsende Mädchen, da diese bekanntlich an psychischer Instabilität
, wie beispielsweise Essstörung, leiden.
Das Ziel dieses Projekts ist es, herauszufinden, ob Mädchen tatsächlich
anfällig und dadurch auch beeinflussbar sind oder nicht, und was es ist,
dass jemand mehr oder weniger anfällig für die Auswirkungen der Medien
ist.
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Table of Content
1. Introduction……………………………………………………..5
1.1 Motivation……………………………………………………...6
1.2 Dimensions……………………………………………………..7
1.3 Problem Formulation………………………………………….8
1.4 Delimitation…………………………………………………….9
4.4 Advertising……………………………………………………15
5. Psychology……………………………………………………...17
5.1 Psychodynamic Theory………………………………………17
5.1.2 Sigmund Freud……………………………………………..17
5.1.3 The Unconscious and the Conscious………………………18
5.1.4 The Id, the Ego, and the Superego………………………...19
5.1.5 Critique of Freud…………………………………………...20
2. Methodology…………………………………………………….9
5.1.6 Freud Today………………………………………………...21
5.2 Erik Erikson and the Developmental Theory………………22
3. Definitions……………………………………………………...11
3.1 Subject………………………………………………………...11
3.2 Western Society………………………………………………11
3.3 Potential Audience……………………………………………12
5.2.1 Adolescence: Puberty………………………………………25
5.2.2 Critique of Erik Erikson…………………………………...27
5.3 Creation of Identity in Relation to Media: Erik Erikson,
Jean Kilbourne, and Adult Attachment Theory……………….28
3.4 Western Beauty Ideal………………………………………...12
6. Analysis of Dream Matte Mousse Advertisement…………...33
4. Body Image, Mass Media, and Media Psychology…………..12
4.1 Jean Kilbourne on “Body Image”…………………………..13
4.2 Mass Media…………………………………………………..14
4.3 An Introduction to Media Psychology……………………....14
6.1 Visual Analysis with a Media Psychological Approach……33
6.2 Analysis Through Semiology………………………………...37
6.3 Analysis of the Textual and Spoken Words Through Media
Psychology………………………………………………………..43
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6.3.1 “THE SECRET” …………………………………………..43
6.3.2 “NEVER DRY” ……………………………………………44
6.3.3 “100% MICRO-FINE PERFECTION”………………….46
6.3.4 “#1 MAKEUP WORLDWIDE”…………………………..47
6.4 Analysis of Sound Features in the Dream Matte Mousse
Advertisement…………………………………………………….48
6.5 Slogan…………………………………………………………50
6.6 Maybelline and the Presented Beauty Ideals……………….51
6.7 Sub Conclusion……………………………………………….54
6.8 Media Effects: Blurring the Lines Between Reality and the
Advertising World……………………………………………….54
7. Discussion………………………………………………………56
8. Conclusion……………………………………………………...62
9. Bibliography…………………………………………………...65
10. Appendix……………………………………………………..69
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1. Introduction
This project will focus on the image of women portrayed in the
media and how these images affect adolescent girls. Using Jean
Kilbourne’s view on the depiction of women in the mass media,
David Giles’ descriptions and definitions of mass communication,
media psychology and advertising, and theories from the
psychodynamic branch of psychology, we will attempt to elaborate
on the psychology behind advertisements and its receivers. Our
project report will present examples from Freudian psychology on
the unconscious and compare this to advertisements and media
psychology, while considering concepts, such as Freud’s tripartite
structure of the mind.
Further on, we will examine the theory by Erik Erikson on the
development of identity and its different stages, however, due to the
chosen point of focus, we will elaborate and go into depth with the
stage of adolescence and compare this theory to the claims and
arguments presented by Kilbourne’s documentary named “Killing
Us Softly 4”. This has helped us create an image and an overview of
adolescent girls.
In order to support our hypothesis and argument presented in this
project, there will be an in-depth analysis of the 31 second long
audio-visual advertisement, which is a part of the Dream Matte
Mousse campaign from 2013 by Maybelline New York. We will
analyze and interpret the advertisement in attempt to illustrate an
example of how our selected form of media can affect people - more
specifically - how beauty campaigns can influence adolescent girls
in relation to their formation of identity and the promotion of a preexisting ‘universal beauty’/beauty ideal.
We will analyze and interpret the advertisement, whose slogan is:
"Maybe she's born with it - maybe it's Maybelline", from both the
perspective of media psychology. Using methods and theories such
as subliminal advertising, adult attachment theory, and theories of
the sign, to discover the subliminal messages of the advertisement,
which may have a certain effect on adolescent girls. Our hypothesis
is thus: adolescent girls are more affected by beauty campaigns than
girls from other age groups.
the affect and role that the advertising industry can play in the
creation of the ”perfect” body image and how this can affect
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1.1 Motivation
subject. We chose to focus on young adolescent girls, as we
The motivation for investing this semester in a project centered on
perceived this focus group to be very susceptible and very
the creation of identity and the influence of media is that we, as
influenced by beauty campaigns, products, etc. We moved away
individuals, experience media with different degrees of awareness. It
from this idea of natural and unnatural human desires, because our
has been stated time after time that media has somewhat an affect on
focus was not on the definition of these terms. Our focus was on the
us, from forming an opinion about something specific to developing
adolescent girls, and on how and why they are affected by the
consumerist behaviors.
media. As a group, we are interested in the concepts of media and
It can be perceived as being highly relevant to increase awareness of
what role they play in our society. It is based on this interest, that we
this subliminal ‘problem’ – media’s presence in society – to
have chosen to go into depth with what kind of relationship is
understand how adolescent girls, for instance, establish a view of
established between a form of media (beauty advertisement) and a
themselves in relation to the content of media. By discussing the role
particular group of receivers/audience (adolescent girls) in the
of media, and recognizing the different methods, which are utilized
context of a Western society. In our project, we have chosen to focus
by advertisers, one may be able to work around the forces of media
on Western society because we experience media within this
and develop independent opinions about the world disregarding
context, although we cannot conclude anything on e.g. the United
what the media dictates.
States as a whole.
We began with an interest in the concept of unnatural human
We chose Maybelline New York as an example of a cosmetic
desires; with the understanding that cosmetics appeal to an unnatural
company, which is an international brand (owned by L’Oreal Paris).
human desire, as cosmetics are not found in nature and are man-
Maybelline is marketed and recognized worldwide, and is present in
made, to make up for any flaw we may or may not have been born
both the United States of America and Denmark. Furthermore, we
with. We wanted to see what effect, having this desire can have on a
were drawn to this particular cosmetics company, as we all were
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familiar with their slogan: “Maybe she’s born with it, maybe it’s
theory. It will help us answer our two first research questions and
Maybelline”. By consideration, we were thinking if the slogan
possibly set the ground stones for understanding what happens when
without the commercial, the happy-sounding music, and the females
these two elements meet.
almost singing the slogan would be received or perceived as
Through Text and Sign, we will analyze the Dream Matte Mousse
something positive. This consideration lead us to discussing a
campaign by the use of theories of semiology by Ferdinand de
possible project.
Saussure and Roland Barthes. We include an aspect of media
psychology to our analysis of both the subject and the
1.2 Dimensions
advertisement, which forms a combination of Text and Sign and
The project will anchor in two dimensions: Subjectivity and
Subjectivity and Learning in itself. The analysis will be used as an
Learning and Text and Sign. Through Subjectivity and Learning we
example of what our selected form of media presents to its viewers,
will view the matter of the media from a psychological aspect with
and the subliminal messages an advertisement can carry. To
emphasis on the developmental stages of the formation of identity,
combine these two elements, we will finally conclude and discuss
together with Freud’s ideas on the unconscious part of the human
the influence of media on the subject (adolescent girls) based on our
mind. This will allow us to set the stage for understanding the
interpretation of the advertisement. As an addition to this, we will
adolescent girls’ process of being affected by advertisements when
investigate possible methods of advertising, the psychology behind
developing an identity. The chosen theories are essential to this
it, and how these things may apply to Maybelline New York’s
theme when viewing the affects of challenges created by media in
Dream Matte Mousse advertisement.
Western society. Possible consequences of advertisements produced
Through the application of semiology, we will hopefully be
by a cosmetics company are a central factor in our project that builds
provided with theories that can assist us in decoding the hidden
upon Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and Erikson’s developmental
symbols and signs in the beauty campaign by Maybelline. We will
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also briefly touch upon which rhetorical features are used in the
1.3 Problem formulation
Dream Matte Mousse advertisement regarding physical beauty;
By the use of the chosen dimensions to this project, and caused by
rhetorical features which also have a place in media psychology.
our areas of interests, we have raised the question of how and to
The theories chosen have assisted us through conducting an analysis
what extent cosmetics advertising can influence a group of viewers,
of the beauty campaign and in decoding the signs that may appeal,
who are perceived to be more vulnerable during their early
or speak to, the perceivers’ unconsciousness.
adolescent years. The research questions will idealistically break
Through the application of Barthes’ theory, which includes the
down the different components that are included in this equation;
perceiver of the advertisement, we further are enabled to investigate
what their roles are individually, and how these elements interplay
how the subject can be influenced by media. In contrast, Saussure’s
with one another, to better understand what underlies the effects of
theory of semiology - the decoding of signs - focuses more on the
media. Thus, our problem formulation takes form in the following
language itself and on how words related to other signs create a
questions:
particular signification. His point of view has assisted us in decoding
How does Maybelline’s “Dream Matte Mousse” beauty campaign
words used in the beauty campaign by relating them to other signs
influence adolescent girls in Western society?
that appear. Using his theory produced a possible idea of
signification that viewers of the campaign may receive, leading us to
Research Questions:
the interpretation of a possible message which the Dream Matte
- What are the basic ideas of Freud on the unconscious and how is
Mousse advertisement may have.
Freud linked to (subliminal) advertising?
- What characterizes a subjects’ development of their identity during
the stage of adolescence, and how is this affected by the existing
body ideals promoted by advertisements?
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- How are body ideals portrayed and displayed in the media and
problem by unfolding our research within this age group and gender
what methods does Maybelline utilize to sustain them in their Dream
in relation to cosmetic advertisements as sources of influence.
Matte Mousse advertisement.
There are countless advertisements, regarding hair, health in relation
- How do these elements in advertising influence the development of
to physical beauty (body ideals), and clothing. We acknowledge that
identity for adolescent girls?
all of these play important roles, which together further fuel the fire
of teenage girls’ insecurities. We have determined to focus on one
1.4 Delimitation
specific advertisement, which is Maybelline New York’s “Dream
Acknowledging that there are many forms of media other than
Matte Mousse” campaign concerning foundation , as an example of
audiovisual commercials such as bus stop ads, product placement in
what concepts are presented in an audio-visual cosmetics
movies, etc. and that exposure to all of them have different kinds of
advertisement.
effects. We have chosen to focus on the audio-visual part of the
Maybelline campaign as compared to other forms of advertisements,
the audio-visual portion has the most content. It seems apparent to
question the effects of the audio-visual advertisement, since our
focus lies on this particular medium.
Moreover, we acknowledge that the effect of media does not start
when one becomes a teenager and that it does not stop after one
becomes older than 19. There is an on-going debate about young
teenage girls being strongly influenced by what is presented to them
through the media (Kilbourne, 2010). This causes us to examine the
2. Methodology
This project is grounded in the application of theories with preexisting research. It takes the form as being explanatory and
interpretive because we use theories and ideas connected to the
themes of media and psychology in hopes of answering our problem
formulation. The issue of a chosen form of media’s affect on a
subject is an existing concept, which we have explained using our
interpretation of Maybelline’s beauty campaign as an example of
this larger issue. We have created a parallel connecting
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psychodynamic theories with theories of media psychology to the
Using a deductive approach to our project, as a first stage we
ideas present within our chosen form of media.
attempt to produce a possible answer to our problem definition, and
As an approach to our project we have chosen the deductive
look for an explanation for the problem in existing theory (Blaikie,
research strategy as well as the inductive approach for various
2007). We have divided our project into various sections dealing
purposes. The works of Saussure regarding semiology, language
with the formation of identity, psychology (media and
usage, and meaning-making give definite conclusions no matter
psychodynamics), and semiology. Within these sections, we have
what is being analyzed, which leads to the deductive approach. Also,
found theories, which we use to explain and go into depth with how
as we have developed a hypothesis, which will be denied or
each part contributes to our problem formulation. Dealing with
confirmed based on secondary empirical data we have collected. Our
formation of identity, we have chosen Erik Erikson’s stages of
hypothesis is that adolescent girls are more affected by beauty
psychosocial development as a way to describe how a chosen group
campaigns than girls from other age groups. We are attempting to
of subjects (adolescent girls) create their identity in relation to media
understand a pre-constructed idea that adolescent girls are
exposure. Erikson’s theory has been connected to Kilbourne’s
vulnerable to the effects of media exposure. In contrast to the
statements/opinions concerning media’s relation to women. When
deductive approach to our project, we also ground our research in
researching media connected with women we came accross the
the theories and works of psychological theorists such as Freud and
findings of Jean Kilbourne’s documentary. After looking into depth
Erikson. The analysis formulated in our project based on these
with the statements made by Kilbourne, our project needed theories
theories produces conclusions and ideas that are probable - they vary
that could explain and support the concepts Kilbourne presents in
dependent on the subject in question, which gives way to an
her documentary. This brought us to one of the themes of our
inductive approach as the results are not definitive.
project, which is why and how the concept of “self” and identity is
formed; this lead us to Erikson. In order to further support the
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concepts presented by Kilbourne, we found it applicable to analyze a
campaign analysis, we have also chosen to use Ivan Petrovitch
beauty campaign through the spectacles of Ferdinand de Saussure
Pavlov’s theory of subliminal advertising to understand the structure
and Roland Barthes. The theories of Barthes and Saussure assist in
of an advertisement and how exactly the advertisement in question
decoding signs that are present in Maybelline’s beauty campaign, in
affects a subject.
hopes of understanding how a message can be perceived by a given
It is crucial with any form of research to be critical of the sources we
audience. When utilizing Kilbourne’s documentary, we have chosen
have used. After presentation of various theories in our project, we
a transcription of the documentary as a way of integrating her works
have included sections critiquing the usage and background of the
to answer our research questions.
main theorists we have chosen.
Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic theory has been utilized to create a
foundation for techniques used in advertising which appeal to and
affect the subconsciousness of an agent. Erikson has used Freud’s
work to develop his theory to further the concept of how an identity
is formed. We have then used John Bowlby’s theory of adult
attachment theory, which has been furthered by Kim Bartholomew
and Leonard M. Horowitz. We will be using this theory as a way of
3. Definitions
3.1 Subject
While the subject could be anyone or anybody, based off of our
choice of advertisement (cosmetics appealing to females, and the
debate concerning young girls being highly influenced by media) the
subject of this project report is the adolescent girl.
connecting “attachment styles” to media psychology, in order to
determine a correlation between personality traits with susceptibility
to media exposure. Adult attachment theory also connects to
consequences presented in Kilbourne’s documentary, as well as
3.2 Western Society
The words “Western society” can engender confusion regarding
what lies behind those words.
Erikson’s theory of formation of the identity. Connected to the
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In this project we take a point of departure in a contemporary
3.4 Western Beauty Ideal
Western society (e.g. the United States of America). We define
We will be using Kilbourne’s description of the Western beauty
Western Society as a product of Western culture, which has its
ideal as presented in Killing Us Softly 4.
origin in European history and development. According to ‘Western
We’re told that women are acceptable only if they’re young,
Culture Global’ Western Culture is defined as a body of knowledge
thin, white – or at least light-skinned – perfectly groomed
derived from reason, a Western society therefore becomes a society
and polished, plucked and shaved. And any deviation from
built upon ideas such as: Individualism, liberalism, democracy,
this ideal is met with a lot of contempt and hostility
capitalism etc.
(Hodgson, 2010, pg. 6).
We find it relevant to take the United States as our context in which
the subject is examined, because the beauty campaign has been
produced in USA. Kilbourne and Erikson’s works were also
produced in the United States.
4. Body Image, Mass Media, and Media
Psychology
Setting the stage for our project report above, we will in the
3.3 Potential audience
While not knowing with certainty who the audience is, we are aware
that every advertisement usually has an intended target group within
an audience. Our analysis similarly concludes that it has an intended
target group/audience, and we will operate with this by naming it
“audience” and “receiver”, instead of “intended audience” and
following section touch upon the areas that will be the framework
for our chosen perspective in this project, including the concept of
commercials and how these can affect adolescent girls. By
presenting Kilbourne’s main claims concerning advertisements and
the depiction of women in the media, we will move on to account
for the concept of mass communication, media psychology and
“intended receiver”.
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advertising to gain a more nuanced image of how advertising
creates ideas and images of how we are supposed to behave and look
functions.
like.
Killing Us Softly 4 consists of Kilbourne describing how women are
4.1 Jean Kilbourne on “Body Image”
depicted in the media, and by analyzing and breaking down different
Jean Kilbourne is a famous author, speaker and filmmaker. She is
advertisements she attempts to support and demonstrate her main
mostly famous for her critical view on the advertising industry and
claims. She stresses the importance of raising awareness about the
for creating documentaries such as Killing Us Softly 1, 2, 3, 4, and
influence of advertisements, both unconsciously on our mind but
Slim Hopes: Advertising and the Obsession with Thinness, which all
also on society in general (Kilbourne, 2010).
address the problem of the influence that advertising have on our
Being aware of her critical point of view towards the advertising
culture and society.
industry, we use her research as an inspiration to our own: we align
Kilbourne is a feminist and one of her fundamental focuses is on the
with her main claims, and therefore examine our problem from the
objectification of women and the female body. In her documentary,
same point of view. To be able to investigate the phenomenon of
Killing Us Softly 4, she demonstrates and elaborates on the effects
advertising psychologically influencing receivers, it is first
that beauty advertisements have on women’s self-perception, and
necessary to understand the concepts involved, such as mass media,
how the advertising industry has helped create an unnatural view on
media psychology, and advertising.
how the “perfect” body is supposed to be. She claims that
Our project takes grounds in many of the statements made by
advertisements contribute to the shaping of our cultural values and
Kilbourne, which we will hope to uncover the truth of. Kilbourne
views without our awareness. According to Kilbourne,
takes a feminist standpoint regarding media and its perceived
advertisements affect and influence us on an unconscious level: this
effects, which in many ways colors her research and the way she
presents factual information. Kilbourne is a respected academic
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within the field of media which gives her credibility for us to be able
communicative devices need electricity to function, they are not
to go into depth with her statements.
considered to be a mass medium, such as a cell-phone. There are
also newspapers and magazines who are forms of mass media, but
4.2 Mass media
do not require electricity in the same way to function, who together
Mass media has been developed throughout the past fifty years
with the cell-phone create gaps in the definition of what mass media
(Giles, 2003). In a postmodern world, technology has improved
is. Ultimately, mass media is a forum for communication that
meaning that we now have various forms of communication: the
delivers a message to a large group of people, most often through
concept mass media is a modern notion, since it deals with all the
technological devices such as TVs and computers.
different kinds of media that require technology or electricity in
order to reach the receivers. Before something can be considered as
4.3 An introduction to Media Psychology
a mass medium, it has to fulfill these following requirements:
Dealing with media psychology one has to be aware of the fact that
communication, culture and technology. The word mass is used to
it covers a large field. Media studies are looked down upon in the
describe the majority of a potential audience, which is ideally
discipline of psychology, and many intellectuals do not recognize
covered by up to 10% or 20% of a certain population (Giles, 2003).
media psychology as an academic field, but rather as a practice.
Traditional mass media deals with “an information medium in which
“Psychologists are rarely found in European media studies
cultural material is communicated electronically to a defined
departments” (Giles, 2003, pg. 5). Most of the media researchers
audience” (Giles, 2003, pg. 8). To define what exactly mass media
within the academic world are often driven by textual analysis in
is, can be a difficult task, since it is necessary to distinguish between
order to back up their empirical data, which is conducted on their
the different mediums; some devices need electricity to function,
audience of choice. Conversely in psychology, researchers are more
thus, fulfilling that requirement for mass media. Even though some
driven by the enhanced necessity for qualitative investigation,
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“which leaves the way open for media psychology that is more
Firstly, all the information that the media provides, makes it possible
interpretative in nature” (Giles, 2003, pg. 27).
to have some sort of understanding of the world. This understanding
There is no universal definition of the conceptualization "medium",
provides information about oneself in relation to the world, which
since the definition differs from society to society. "The concept is
can be useful during the creation of “self-understanding”. When
forever in a state of flux” (Giles, 2003, pg. 6). While being aware of
forming an identity, the given information allows one to interpret
the varying definitions of ‘medium’, it is also important to note, that
their behavior, thus, comparing one’s “self” with the “selves” of
the word psychology in media studies is associated with something
others. Secondly, in a Western world people are more or less
negative within the field. It is therefore often applied to show the
dependent on media, due to orientation which includes action or
negative impact media has on a psychological level. This means that
interaction. Lastly, the medium leaves one with some opportunities
media scholars then should focus equally on the audience as it does
for play; in terms of relaxing on your own or by some social
with media itself. However, to define media psychology, one needs
activities with others (Giles, 2003). Out of these three concepts, we
to combine the two largest aspects within the field: technology and
will be using the concept of understanding in relation to forming a
culture. "These two aspects are common to all human societies
worldview and identity in connection to Erikson.
throughout time and space” (Giles, 2003, pg. 7). In short terms,
media psychology deals with how technology affects human
4.4 Advertising
behavior. Hence, behavior is the framework for most theories within
A main part of mass media is advertising: one is exposed to
the field of psychology. Melvin Lawrence De Fleur is a scholar
advertising regardless of what they do and where they go (e.g.
within media psychology and contributed to the field by focusing on
through TV, buses, cars, clothes, etc.). As a result of advertising’s
communication and advertising. According to him, media introduces
significance and constant presence in the social sphere, it is key to
three things: understanding, orientation, and play (Giles, 2003).
understand it’s structure in order to comprehend what effect
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advertisements may have (Giles, 2003). Consumers subconsciously
which focuses on how to obtain the consumer’s memory and
invite advertisements into their lives through the overall time one
attention, forming visual stimulus. The way that advertisements
has been viewing advertisements, “An advertisement is not a single,
affect one on a psychological level is by using elements and factors
independent event; it is a text woven into the cultural fabric, cueing
that can disguise the subliminal message in an advertisement.
memories of other advertising and product characteristics” (Giles,
Advertisements appeal to the receivers' subconsciousness through
2003, pg. 121). The most productive method of advertising often
the use of for example Freudian theories and ideas, meaning that
happens through television because of the usage of images, sounds
psychology plays a major part in advertising. Advertising appeals
and words, which interplay with one another. Altogether, they tend
more to the consumers’ dreams, desires, and aspirations instead of
to have a stronger impact on the receiver. To achieve success in the
their rationality, in attempt to sell products that the subject may not
advertising industry, it is crucial for the advertisers to be able to
genuinely need in their current situation:
affect their consumers, thus affecting their impression or their
procedure of making decisions in regards to the product:
This is sometimes expressed as the difference between one's
current sense of self and an "ideal self", which is one of a
Subliminal advertising work on the assumption that attention
number of "possible selves" that a person might generate at
and perception are sufficient motivation for consumers to
any given time (Giles, 2003, pg. 115).
buy products, as though shopping in an activity conducted by
solitary individuals in a state of trance (Giles, 2003, pg. 113-
Teenagers are being offered various options of lifestyles suggested
114).
by the media, which will give them the ability to combine these
styles, thus forming an identity. This process results in a patchwork
Another powerful tool advertisers utilize is the perceptual effect,
identity (Giles, 2003), where young girls have to patch all these
16
possible selves together, in order to form their own identity. This
theories is the theory of psychosocial development by Erik Erikson.
often results in social comparison, where the receivers begin to
It is built upon the ideas and thoughts established by Freud.
compare themselves with the presented images that the media
However, Erikson takes these ideas in a new direction and, in
displays.
contrary to Freud, as stated by Palombo, Bendicsen, and Koch
(2009), Erikson did not believe that every human situation could be
5. Psychology
traced back to a previous one. Erikson focused more on the physical,
Due to the nature of advertisements, which include the receivers’
the psychological, social and cultural factors that affect the creation
subconsciousness, we find it relevant to account for Freud’s ideas
of identity and considered: “strengths over weaknesses, health over
and thoughts regarding just that. As a continuation of Freud’s ideas,
neurosis, and the future over the past” (Palombo et al., 2009, pg.
we occupy ourselves with Erikson’s theory about developmental
207).
stages. We will focus on the stage of adolescence, to create an image
of what factors may be a part of the creation of identity for
adolescent girls, and finally, how this can be affected by the media.
5.1.2 Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed several theories and
methods contributing to the world of psychology, which can roughly
5.1 Psychodynamic theory
Psychodynamic theory is a branch of psychology that deals with the
be divided into four categories:
1. (1880 - early 1900) ideas of the conscious and the
processes and structures of the conscious and unconscious part of
unconscious mind, which emerged from his practice with his
the human mind. Psychodynamic theories all try to explain the
patients.
origin of personality and they are rooted in the ideas and works of
2. (1890s - approx. 1910) ideas formulated concerning sexual
Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud. Belonging to psychodynamic
development from childhood to puberty and beyond, in
17
attempt to create a general theory of the structure of the
thoughts of the human mind, is that it is controlled by a flow of
human mind.
sexual energy, which he named as libido. (Storr, 2001)
3. (During WW1 - early 1920s) the theory of the Id, the Ego
Through clinical research with neurotic/hysteric patients, Freud
and the Superego was formulated, which is considered to be
applied techniques such as hypnosis, pressure technique, and free
his most elaborate thinking on the subject.
association on his patients in attempt to bring repressed memories to
4. (1930s) focused on what psychoanalysis could say about the
broader issues of culture and society.
(Renninson, 2001, pg. 29)
the surface. By accessing the unconscious parts of the mind the
material gathered from these sessions provided the foundation for
Freud’s ideas on sexual development and the division between the
conscious and the unconscious. Freud realized that many of the
5.1.3 The unconscious and the conscious
mental processes that take place on an unconscious level have a
In accordance to Anthony Storr (2001), Freud’s main ideas and
powerful effect upon behavior. He concluded that the subject can
claims are that most of our mental processes happen on an
have certain behavior caused by an experience in the past that he/she
unconscious level, and he suggested that our rational and conscious
is not aware of. He used hypnosis as a method of helping the person
mind is only the tip of the iceberg. His theory deals with the
to recall the forgotten origins of this experience. He discovered that
unconscious’ desires and wishes of the subject, and attempts to
these reminiscences are usually invariably painful, shameful, or
explain the existence of personality by claiming that this arises
alarming. Freud then concluded that the mind has to consist of some
because of a conflict between the different levels of the mind; the
mental mechanism that protects the conscious part of the mind from
unconscious, the conscious, and our morality. According to Freud,
the unpleasant memories, and stores them in the unconscious part of
humans are controlled by biological and physical powers. His
the mind. This ‘mechanism of defense’ Freud called repression and
it is one of the cornerstones of psychoanalytic theory. Freud further
18
realized that what was subjected to repression is not usually the
mind, consisting of the unconscious and the conscious, was, thus
memories of actual events, but instinctual impulses that will
inadequate. The part of the brain instituting repression must be
manifest themselves as phantasies. (Storr, 2001)
derived from the ego -the conscious part of the mind- however the
The unconscious is a result of repression, but the repressed is not
patients on his couch acted as if this agency was unconscious by
only traumatizing hidden memories: it is a product of all thoughts,
manifesting resistance. Built upon these reflections, amongst others,
desires and feelings that the conscious mind cannot accept. The
Freud constructed a new model of the mind, a tripartite structure
unconscious will always seek means of expression beneath the
consisting of what he described as the id, the ego and the superego
conscious, and according to Freud this will happen through jokes,
(Storr, 2001).
human mistakes, and most importantly; dreams. Dreams function as
disguised and symbolized wishes and desires of the subject that can
5.1.4 The id, the ego, and the superego
be traced back to early childhood. They are neurotic symbols, and
The id is the primary component of the mind and it is from this that
because of the mechanism of repression, they consist of
the other parts derive. It is congenital and it holds all primitive
unacceptable wishes, therefore the unconscious carries a negative
instincts. It is unorganized and emotional, and therefore, the illogical
sign. Freud spent time on dream analyses in an attempt to derive the
part of the mind. This is also the unconscious part of the mind and it
true meaning of the intention behind the different actions that occur
is driven by a concept that Freud described as the pleasure principle,
in dreams. However, this theory had a hard time explaining anxiety
which strives for immediate gratification of one’s desires, needs, and
dreams such as nightmares, since these do not appear to add up to
wants, thus it ignores the category of time and space. The avoidance
the idea of wish fulfillment. Later on, Freud came to realize that
of pain in contrary to the pursuit of pleasure, will create a state of
although everything that was repressed was unconscious, not
tension if not immediately satisfied: the id holds the essential
everything unconscious was repressed. His bipartite division of the
survival instincts. However, immediate satisfaction would be
19
socially unacceptable, therefore, the mind attempts to resolve this
externally applied laws and regulations through making the subject
through a concept that Freud describes as the primary process. The
feel guilt. It is the organized part of the personality structure and it
purpose of the primary process is to form a mental image of the
strives for perfection and to act in a socially acceptable manner. It
desired object (dreams, phantasy, etc.) and keep the subject
controls the sense of right and wrong and criticizes the feelings,
temporarily satisfied (Rennison, 2001).
desires, and actions of the subject. Freud implies that it is the
The ego is the rational and conscious part of the mind. It allows the
symbolic internalization of cultural regulations (Rennison, 2001).
subject to adapt to reality and weighs the pros and cons of desires
before acting upon them. The ego’s essential task is to identify and
5.1.5 Critique of Freud
guide the desires and wishes of the id in socially acceptable ways,
Freud managed to form and create many of his ideas on the
which is named the reality principle. It develops throughout
unconscious mind through self-study and clinical research.
childhood and a large part of the ego’s function is to delay the
However, his methods have been highly critiqued, since many of his
demands of the id until the appropriate time to fulfill them appears.
conclusions are drawn from studies based on a small group of
The ego works by something that Freud described as the secondary
people. Moreover, his patients were mainly women from the upper
process, by looking for an object in the real world that matches the
class suffering from hysteria, meaning that the group of individuals
desired object that exists within the mind of the subject. This
he examined lacked variety regarding their backgrounds (social,
discharges tension between the id and the ego created by the urges
cultural, economical, etc.). He has also been strongly criticized for
and needs (Rennison, 2001).
being unscientific. The majority of his theories and concepts have
The super-ego holds all moral responsibility required from society
not been scientifically proven and he only has very little empirical
and the culture. It provides the guidelines for the subject’s judgment
data to support his research. There is no proof of his theory on the
and emerges around the age of five. It creates obedience to
psychosexual development and the different stages, and no further
20
evidence for his theory of the structure of the mind. Some criticize
though the subconscious might not exist in the way that he
him for being extremely sexist or simply wrong. There is no proof of
suggested, it is now recognized as that it does in fact exist. Even
Freudian psychology working better than other forms of therapy,
though a lot of Freud’s theories and ideas are today rejected as being
thus we use Freud’s work inductively (McLeod, 2007).
unscientific, he has contributed to a broad knowledge of human
behavior and experience and has laid a foundation for understanding
5.1.6 Freud Today
the mind (Whitbourne, 2012).
All criticism aside, Freud’s ideas have created a starting point for
The field of advertising is one area where Freud's ideas about human
revolutionizing the way that the Western world considers the human
nature and the role of the subconscious have been highly applicable.
mind and behavior. He was the first European to investigate the
According to the documentary, Century of the Self, Edward Bernays,
concept of the unconscious and today his thoughts can be observed
Freud’s nephew, created public relations using the ideas and
in art, literature, notions of identity, memory, childhood, sexuality,
thoughts of Freud as a basis for what would later influence and form
etc. Theories have been shaped in relation to and in opposition to the
the advertising industry. He used the knowledge of the
works of Freud. Some things Freud illustrated were that the subject
subconscious, especially the notions of the irrational subconscious id
is not the master of his/her own mind and human experience.
and the power of human instincts as an inspiration and a marketing
Moreover, thoughts and needs are not necessarily determined by
strategy in the creation of advertisements.
conscious rationality, but by irrational forces external to one’s own
Kilbourne -takes a critical stand- and addresses this matter in her
awareness. He also showed that these forces could be understood
documentary. She claims that a lot of the influence of advertising
and controlled by extensive therapeutic process, which he called
happens on a subconscious level and she quotes the editor in chief of
psychoanalysis. Freud took perceptions and concepts to the next
the magazine Advertising age, Rance Crain who states, “Only 8% of
level by structuring and breaking them down even further. Even
of an ad’s message is received by the conscious mind. The rest is
21
worked and reworked deep within the recesses of the brain”
in which he states that a child goes through a series of conflict
(Hodgson, 2010, pg. 5).
stages. The way these stages are resolved is crucial for the outcome
Thus, it is important to note, when working within the field of media
of the child’s development of identity and future self-perception. In
and psychology that many known strategies and theories within the
Freud’s theory of sexual development the emphasis lies within the
field of advertising use elements and methods that are based on the
first five years of a child’s life, however, Erikson takes his theory
Freudian tradition and his view on unconscious human behavior.
further. Erikson investigates the tendencies and challenges of
Many Freudian terms do also appear in different context, usually
development both during the first five years, and in
without people being aware of its original usage or the thoughts
adolescence/adulthood.
behind them. It is therefore important to have a certain knowledge of
Due to the chosen focus group, we find it key to touch upon the
Freudian tradition when concerned with exploring the effects of
challenges that appear during adolescence to understand what
advertising, especially when diving into the thoughts and ideas
challenges they may face throughout this stage.
behind the culture of media.
Besides having had a large influence on today’s culture and society,
5.2 Erik Erikson and the Developmental Theory
a lot of Freud’s ideas have also been subject to rewriting and
Dr. C. George Boeree is a Dutch professor in the Psychology
interpretation by later theorists, as well as inspiration for
Department at Shippensburg University who teaches and occupies
development of new ideas.
himself with personality theories. He has devoted time breaking
down theories and one of them is Erikson. When discussing Erikson,
Erikson was a developmental psychologist, who was highly inspired
he states that Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994) is known to be a Freudian
by Freud’s thoughts on childhood and the different stages of
Ego-psychologist, meaning his work claims that Freud's theories
development. Freud outlined a theory of psychosexual development,
22
essentially are correct. Erikson introduced his developmental theory
The biological process of hierarchical organization of organ
first in “Childhood and Society” (1950).
systems constituting a body (Soma); there is the psychic
The book Guide to Psychoanalytic Developmental Theories (2009)
process organizing individual experience by ego synthesis
by Palombo, Bendicsen and Koch adds knowledge to the
(Psyche); and there is the communal process of the cultural
understanding of Erikson’s theory. They have been teachers within
organization of the independance of person (Ethos)
the subject of psychoanalytic theories for more than two decades and
(Palombo et al., 2009, pg. 207).
found it necessary to provide a remedial material for students in the
field of psychoanalytic developmental theories. In this we receive a
In short, Soma is the biological process or development of the body.
thorough and explanatory summary of the developmental theory by
Psyche is the process of cognitive development of the mind, that is
Erikson.
affected by experiences and explained through the roots of Freud’s
ego psychoanalytic theory. Finally, Ethos is the cultural aspects that
Erikson builds his theory as an extension of Freud's sexual
affect an individual.
development theory. However, he emphasizes the importance of
Two processes of the eight stages characterize each stage and are
society and culture's 'presence' and it’s influence on an individual's
located in the core of either the individual, which is mostly
psychological development (McLeod, 2008). Erikson's
dominated by the Psyche, or the communal culture, which is mostly
developmental theory is known as "psychosocial theory of human
dominated by the Ethos. The communal is the psychosocial stage
development", which is based on a notion that humans contain three
and modes for each stage and the individual process is the
types of systems that are affected. These systems are explained as:
psychosocial crisis. In frame no. 29 (appendix 2) all processes are
depicted for every specific stage as A and B, with the addition of six
dimensions that are: (C) radius of significant relations, (D) basic
23
strength, (E) core pathology basic antipathies, (F) related principle
of social order, (G) binding ritualization, and (H) ritualism. C is a
8. Generalization of sensual modes (Old Age): Integrity vs.
Despair (Palombo et al., 2009).
person’s closest relation, and D is the natural basic strength that an
These stages cover an entire lifespan unlike Freud's theory, which
individual develops alongside each stage: the dominance of this
emphasizes the first five stages of an individual’s life. Erikson adds
strength has a large effect on the outcome of a stage. E, on the other
new stages of development and includes the interactions between
hand, is the basic weaknesses and if this dominates the stage, then an
different generations to his theory. The interaction, referred to as
unfavorable outcome from the crisis is most likely to occur. F
mutuality, between children and their parents are touched upon.
signifies a guiding principle of the worldview that an individual has.
Freud stated that parents have an influence on their child's
G presents the routine actions that we perform every day, e.g.
development -- Erikson added; not only do the parents influence the
greetings, while H is the actions we perform in order to conform to
child's development, but the child also influences the parents'
social norms (Palombo et al., 2009 / appendix 2).
development. This means that parents change or adjust when their
Erikson’s Eight Stages Of Psychosocial Development are:
child is born, while grandparents do as well (Boeree, 1997).
1. Oral-Sensory stage (Infancy): Basic trust vs. basic Mistrust
According to McLeod (2008), Erikson sees the development as
2. Muscular-Anal stage (Early Childhood): Autonomy vs.
based on the epigenetic principle, which is the principle that
Shame
implicates our personality's development is fixed on eight
3. Genital-Locomotor stage (Play Age): Initiative vs. Guilt
developmental stages. The progression from one stage to another
4. Latency stage (School Age): Industry vs. Inferiority
depends on how often and to what extent one has succeeded or
5. Adolescence (Puberty): Identity vs. Identity confusion
failed in the psychosocial crisis/challenges that are correspondent
6. Genitality (Young Adulthood): Intimacy vs. Isolation
with the previous stages.
7. Procreativity (Adulthood): Generativity vs. Stagnations
24
Every stage contains the psychosocial challenges that need to be
of maladaptations might occur, meaning that this can result in
solved in order to develop, and thereby reach the next stage. The
additional failures in the future stages.
different challenges each contain two virtues, which can vary
While each of the eight stages occupy themselves with different
between negative and positive. Erikson attempts to clarify that a
challenges/crises, we focus on the fifth stage, which concerns itself
certain balance between positive and negative is needed in order to
with the challenges and crises that the individual deals with during
learn. For instance, the first challenge an infant faces, is the matter
adolescence.
of trust versus mistrust: an infant should learn how to trust fellow
human beings, while correspondingly learn what mistrust is to avoid
5.2.1 Adolescence: Puberty
complete naivety.
Boeree (1997) says that Erikson considered the crisis of the fifth
Moreover, every stage has its own optimum time. It is useless to
stage the most important. It initiates from the age of 12-13 and ends
attempt to rush children through the obligatory stages in order for
at the age of 18-20. Adolescents struggle with the crisis of finding
them to reach adulthood faster. On the other hand it is also not a
an identity and avoiding role confusion.
possibility to slow down an individual's progress and protect them
The need for creating one’s own identity is called the Ego identity. It
from what life requires.
is necessary to combine everything one has learned about life and
Ultimately, McLeod (2008) believes that every stage has its own
oneself in order to create a self-perception, a perception that society
time and order. By completing a stage successfully, one learns a
can consider as important and significant. According to Erikson’s
certain virtue or psychological strength that accompanies them
theory, society needs to have certain rituals when transforming a
throughout the next stages in their life. Boeree (1997) notes that if
subject from being a child to an adult. Boeree (1997) mentions that
the individual does not complete a stage successfully, development
the child has to see the symbolical change (like ‘confirmation’ in
Christianity) to realize that he/she experiences changes occurring.
25
He/she is not a powerless subject anymore, but now a more
The lack of Ego Identity may be more difficult than just that: this
independent and reliable individual. Without such a ritual, Boeree
maladjustment is called repudiation. People who suffer from this
(1997) notes that one can suffer from what Erikson calls a role
maladjustment withdraw themselves from the adult's world and
confusion. While becoming more insecure, feeling uncomfortable
often refuse to accept the advice that comes from their closest adult
about one’s bodily changes, and having trouble to find a place in
relations. Moreover, they negate their need for an identity, by for
society, one can experience an identity crisis. On the other hand, it
example placing themselves in groups of people who provide a
may occur that the ego identity dominates an individual’s self-
detailed identity (e.g. religious cults, militaristic organisations etc.).
perception by growing up in a society that urges him/her towards a
Some groups are built on hate and have the aim to put an end to the
human being with no sense of tolerance; this tends to lead to
mainstream society's requirements. Boeree adds, that some of these
fanaticism. A fanatic individual has the belief that his/her approach
groups’ consensus is that it is better to be an outsider proudly, than
is the only right approach to handle the challenges or choices that
to not know who they really are. Where some individuals may
life offers. Many adolescents are known for their idealism and they
choose the outsider-role, others may want to become a part of the
tend to see things as being black and white, in accordance to Boeree
bigger picture.
(1997). Palombo, Bendicsen, and Koch (2009) writes that the stage-
Ideological charged ritualizations, values and ideals are established
specific ritualism is Totalism, which means that the adolescents form
during this stage because of the stage’s new principle of social
cliques and stereotype everything including themselves. This makes
order, which is an ideological worldview, in accordance to Palombo
one ready to categorize others easily. Boeree (1997) adds that when
et al. (2009).
they are surrounded by like-minded people they spread their beliefs
Boeree (1997) concludes that when this stage has been balanced
and habits without respecting other people's right of objection.
successfully, one reaches the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity provides one
with the ability to live accordingly to society's standards, although
26
they do not seem to be perfect. One should know his/her place in
society, but still be able to see its flaws, while try to contribute
The first five stages are set accordingly to biological growth, but
everything possible to make society better.
there are no criteria for setting the last three stages of Adulthood. In
addition, Erikson does not include differences in sex, class, and
5.2.2 Critique of Erik Erikson
culture, which may have an impact on one’s psychosocial
Once he had introduced his developmental theory, it had achieved a
development.
high level of popularity, even outside the field of psychology.
Despite critique, Erikson’s claim that the main challenge in one’s
Palombo, et al. (2009) critique Erikson and state that he picked the
life is the creation of the Self during the stage of adolescence is
fundamental questions of human life out as a central theme and
widely accepted. However, Erikson is also criticized for his idea that
made his theory easy for everyone to understand and to relate to.
identity is defined as inalterable and determined in the stage of
This is why most people do not notice Erikson’s statements are
adolescence. The theory does not imply that creating and holding a
vague and lack empirical evidence:
self steady is an active process performed by the individual.
Additionally, it is not proven that only people during the stage of
Erikson fails to explain how it is that good nurture leads to
adolescence strive for creating an identity.
trust, that is, how a set of physical/biological interactions
Importantly, the theory generalizes human development and
with the environment leads to a psychic structure that
excludes individual developments. Despite criticism for being a
translates those interactions into experiences that have
generalizing theory, we find it to be applicable to have a general
meanings; meanings that reflect a person’s interactions.
theory to uncover the general concepts of media.
There is something poetical rather than literal in this theory
(Palombo et. al, 2009, pg. 223).
27
5.3 Creation of identity in relation to media: Erik Erikson, Jean
(F) related principles of social order, (G) binding ritualizations, (H)
Kilbourne, and Adult Attachment Theory
ritualisms (see appendix 2, Frame 29).
The creation of identity in adolescence is explained as having a
Teenagers’ experience often have to cope with the dimension of the
strong desire to succeed within integration. That is the process of
correspondent psychosocial crisis: identity versus identity confusion.
developing an ego, which establishes a beneficial id. Palombo et al.
This, and the troubles of puberty are very much affected by
speaks of Erikson’s theories as a product of Freud’s psychodynamic
advertisements that sell beauty as a product. Adolescents are
theory that is advanced through the addition of a cultural aspect.
searching for their identity as hormonal changes dominate their
The dimension of the psychosexual stage and mode within the stage
everyday lives. Advertisers put forward beauty ideals within their
of adolescence is puberty:
ads, which prove to be effective in gaining the girls’ attention and
admiration. In fact, Kilbourne believes they sell more than just
a phase during which hormonal changes become dominant,
beauty: “They sell values, images, and concepts of love, sexuality,
adolescents struggle searching for a set of roles that are
success, and normalcy. They tell us who we are and who we should
concordant with their social context, and their need to find
be” (Hodgson, 2010, pg. 5). In Kilbourne’s documentary about the
an adequate place for themselves in society (Palombo et al.,
advertising industry she states that:
2009, pg. 215).
Ads create an environment. Just as it’s difficult to be healthy
Palombo et al. (2009) explains how there are six dimensions for
in a toxic physical environment, if we’re breathing poisoned
each stage beyond the (A) psychosexual stages and modes and (B)
air or drinking polluted water, it’s difficult to be healthy in a
the psychosocial crisis, which are: (C) radius of significant
‘toxic cultural environment’ that surrounds us with
relations, (D) basic strengths, (E) core pathology basic antipathies,
28
unhealthy images and constantly sacrifices our health and
thin enough, Photoshop is used to make them appear thinner”
well-being for the sake of profit (Hodgson, 2010, pg. 5).
(Hodgson, 2010, pg. 6).
The basic strength of adolescents is fidelity, which also relates to the
She criticizes the beauty industry because of this form of
ritual in Erikson’s developmental theory. The ritual for the stage of
misconduct. She places importance on the psychological effect of
adolescence is ‘totalism’: “The stage-specific ritual is ‘totalism’ in
the industry’s mark on all of its receivers. This metaphor can be
which adolescents test fidelity by forming cliques and by
taken further into Erikson’s theories.
stereotyping themselves, their ideals, and their enemies.” (Palombo
The “polluted air” is disclosed with the advertising industry’s
et al, 2009, pg. 216). Since there is no room for flaws in the way
display of computer-edited models everywhere. The Radius of
models are displayed, then for young girls to stereotype themselves
significant relations for these adolescents is peer groups and out-
with the ideals that are presented could be vital for their upbringing.
groups that act as models of leadership. The youths’ attempt to
Their fidelity is attached to a beauty ideal that is created by cosmetic
“appoint well-meaning people to adversarial roles and install ideals
companies with one purpose; incorporate a consumerist addiction
as guardians of their newfound identity” (Palombo et al., 2009, pg.
for profit in especially women and girls.
215) is sabotaged when their newfound identity is based on ideals
The repudiation that is figured as their core pathology basic
that are only valued by their physical beauty, which furthermore is
antipathies does not benefit their search for a place in society when
artificially created and adjusted in the media.
the interaction of mutuality fails. An interaction between a child and
This form of ubiquitously advertisement creates beauty ideals that
their parent is often dominated by repudiation in the teenage years.
the youth tends to install as idols, whose beauty is impossible to
Therefore can a parent’s wisdom of beauty ideals and creating a
achieve: “Models keep getting thinner and thinner. If they are not
self-identity sometimes be lost and repudiated. “Man-made” beauty
ideals are even further supported in society as Kilbourne states:
29
“The average American is exposed to over 3,000 ads every single
As girls learn from a very early age that their sexualized
day and will spend two years of his or her life watching television
behavior and appearance are often rewarded by society,
commercials” (Hodgson, 2010, pg. 5). Whole groups of adolescents
they’re encouraged to see this as their own choice – as a
are therefore effectively swayed to follow the ads’ persuasive
declaration of empowerment (Hodgson, 2010, pg. 7)
messages of how beauty is perceived by the broadest population.
The notion of ritualization is also of an ideological character “as
Society then creates more difficulties for generations to pass on
adolescents are powerfully motivated to seek affirmation from peers
intelligent insight for a healthy beauty ideal and in some cases
and confirmation by rituals, creeds, and programs that define what is
probably dissolves any parent’s good intentions of adding
evil, uncanny, and inimical” (Palombo et al., 2009, pg. 216). Typical
knowledge to the creation of a self to their children. Through
for the stage of adolescence is, that young adults seek out their peers
Kilbourne’s study everything leads to the notion that society
to achieve validation. Beauty ideals are therefore also mirrored in
influences people more than ever. Adolescents are especially
how they perceive each other. Any form of deviation from the
manipulated, from a psychological point of view they are the easiest
beauty ideals appreciated by the largest amount of people within a
receivers to influence.
group, is not respected as a correct behavior. The rituals can be
Their related principle of social order is an ideological worldview,
depicted as their choice of clothes, makeup, or general appearance.
which means they do not think factually or realistically of the world.
Of course, this grants the companies additional grounds for
They are drawn to ideologies that are missing an aspect of self-
enchanting the young adolescent because one customer can easily
critical openness. As a consequence, they are easily inspired and
develop into two, as they are more likely to aspire to an appearance
influenced by the community that they live in, and our Westernized
that is indifferent from their peers. In the media and our society a
community, advertisements are constituted as a controlling element:
hostile atmosphere is created within the adolescents’ childhood.
30
Kilbourne exemplifies this aspect by also adding a racial feature to
of early caregivers” (Shrum, 2004, pg. 294). The people, who
this problem:
become important to the children early on, adjust these working
models, which they carry with them throughout the course of their
We’re told that women are acceptable only if they’re young,
lives. The working models determine how one navigates through
thin, white – or at least light-skinned – perfectly groomed
their social environment, because ways of thinking, responding and
and polished, plucked and shaved. And any deviation from
negotiating are shaped through one’s working model, which will
this ideal is met with a lot of contempt and hostility
form an attachment style. Depending on early experiences – positive
(Hodgson, 2010, pg. 6).
and negative – with caregivers, “people acquire a sense of felt
security that enables them to feel protected and valued by others,
To create a broader investigation we are interested in highlighting
even when they are alone.” (Ibid.) If they fail, it may result in the
the importance between the individual and its closest relations
formation of negative views of either oneself, negative views of
established during infancy from a different perspective. Instead of
others, or both. It is the early attachment experiences that shape the
accounting for Erikson’s first four stages we apply the Adult
beliefs, values, and sense of self of the subject.
Attachment Theory, which focuses on attachment styles individuals
Bartholomew and Horowitz describe four different attachment
develop based on their closest relations.
styles, which are based on the two dimensions of how one models
The “adult attachment theory” by Kim Bartholomew and Leonard
themselves, and how one models others. This gives way to four
M. Horowitz (1991), is built upon John Bowlby’s theory concerning
different styles of adult attachment; secure, preoccupied, fearful-
the attachment of infants to their caregivers, and suggests that,
avoidant, and dismissing-avoidant. Each is – among other things –
“children build internal working models of themselves in relation to
measured on the degree one feels anxious, and the degree of
others on the basis of the responsiveness, availability, and sensitivity
avoidance in creating intimate interpersonal relationships.
31
Dependent on which attachment style an adolescent girl is
categorized to have, works to define (according to Bartholomew and
It is crucial to note that just because an individual has been
Horowitz), how much she is affected by media campaigns. Girls,
categorized to have a specific attachment style, does not guarantee
who experience higher dependency on others in their working
that they will develop an eating disorder or eating disorder behavior,
models are more prone to creating attachment to idealized beauty
but there has been proven to be a correlation between the two.
characters (such as celebrities) as defense mechanism which
Kilbourne (2010) says that less than 5% of American women who fit
theoretically provides the subject with a sense of security and self.
the body ideal that is portrayed in ads, thus many young girls would
According to Adult attachment theory there are various personality
not be able to achieve the perfected image that they are encouraged
types which make individuals more or less prone to being affected
to strive for, thus pushing some adolescent girls with a preoccupied
by the media, thus leading to the consequences of media exposure.
attachment style to develop eating disorders. Since they are always
Using this theory it is proven that girls with a preoccupied
surrounded by these images of flawlessness, it is also a challenge for
attachment style are present in eating disorder populations:
the girls to avoid feelings of self-contempt, psychological
impairment, and identity confusion in the creation of an identity.
Both quantitative and qualitative studies have documented
striking parallels between the psychological patterns
underlying attachment insecurity and body image and eating
concerns. Empirical studies have found a link between
insecure attachment and relational anxieties in adult
relationships and eating disorder symptoms (Shrum, 2004,
Gaining insight on which factors affect the development of the
individual when reaching the stage of adolescence, we then will
analyze and interpret the Dream Matte Mousse advertisement, to
examine how this type of advertising appeals to specific subjects
belonging to this age group and gender.
pg. 297).
32
6. Analysis of Dream Matte Mousse
advertisement
Maybelline New York is a global cosmetics company, and is the
number one selling makeup brand in the United States according to
Maybelline’s website. It is owned by L’Oréal Paris, which is one of
To develop an understanding of the way that media affects a target
the largest cosmetics companies in the world. The Dream Matte
group, it is necessary to decide on a singular form of media as we
Mousse campaign was launched in 2004 and the part of the
are exposed to and affected by thousands of forms of media
campaign we will be analyzing is in the form of an audiovisual
everyday (Kilbourne, 2010). The effects that media has on an
presentation in the form of a filmed advertisement, which was
audience will be discussed further on in the analysis, where we will
launched in April of 2013. It has been discovered that although the
present the in depth analysis of the advertisement, what methods are
campaign is the same, there is slight variation in the spoken words
utilized, and what can happen psychologically when young girls are
of the commercial, and the textual aspects change depending on
exposed to these media campaigns, by analyzing the visual aspect
which country it is shown in (i.e. Danish text versus English text).
combined with a semiological analysis of the verbal statements, text,
We have chosen the American advertisement as it is chronologically
and music.
the longest and furthermore, we perceive it to have the most content
Through the usage of theories by Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov, David
open for analysis.
Giles, Ferdinand de Saussure, and Roland Barthes, we will analyze
the advertisement in regards to it’s structure and methods in relation
6.1 Visual Analysis with a Media Psychological Approach
to (the presentation of the product. Using methods of media
The Dream Matte Mousse advertisement (Appendix 1) presents
psychology, and semiology investigating the technical construction
within 31 seconds, five female models spread out over 28 rapid
of the advertisement, as well as the present subliminal messages.
frames, shifting between the models and the product. The models are
presumably applying the foundation onto their face in four frames;
33
the product is exposed in five frames, which leaves 19 frames with
With a brown nuance present, the models perform soft movements
no direct reference to the product.
emphasizing femininity, as they combine this with sensuality by
The five models presented are tall, skinny, conventionally beautiful,
throwing their heads back, slightly opening their mouths, and
light clear-skinned, and dark haired. They are all wearing beige or
closing or squinting their eyes with dreamy, sensual looks.
light-brown dresses. The only variances shown are their nuances of
Moreover, a naked female is lying on the floor wrapped in beige silk
brown hair, and the fact that one of the five models is African-
sheets squirming (Appendix 1, frame 6), and a male figure interacts
American, while the rest are Caucasian. Together, they are the
with one of the females implicitly showing the phase that leads up to
protagonists in the ad.
intercourse between the two, creating a reference to sex (Appendix
During the advertisement, the models are individually in different
1, frame 12-13).
settings; in a home, driving over the Brooklyn bridge, in front of
As an emphasis to the femininity, there is also an interaction
concrete buildings, in a studio with illuminated magnifying glasses,
between the African-American model and an African-American
and in the nature with a clear blue sky as the background – in other
child, resembling a mother-child relation (Appendix 1, frame 19).
words: home, in a big city, in the nature, and in a laboratory,
This may imply that the foundation is easy, and wearing it is
implying that the product is suitable for diverse scenery and
effortless, thus, suggesting that it also is suitable for a busy mother.
occasions, and that it is scientifically approved. In every setting, the
The inclusion of a motherly figure may be due to the attempt of
colors brown and beige are present: in the color of the models’ hair,
broadening the target group of the campaign, to ensure a higher
dresses, and on the furniture/props placed in the background – the
number of sold products.
color scheme used throughout the ad subtly represents the different
The feminine movements, the shut eyes, the slightly opened mouths,
nuances of the Dream Matte Mousse foundation.
the blue sky, and the soft wind blowing through the models’ hair is
united with the softly speaking female narrator. This adds a dreamy
34
effect that alongside with sensuality constitutes the two ground
when to use – and who uses – a particular product” (Shrum, 2004,
stones; the strongest elements of the advertisement.
pg. 106). It is imaginable that Maybelline stresses the importance of
Throughout the advertisement there are not presented any problems
who uses the product. They display beautiful, presumably successful
– in this case: troubled skin – which the coverage is the function of
females in their ad, who consumers perhaps can begin to identify
the foundation. The absence of the problem (troubled skin) may
with, by purchasing and utilizing the Dream Matte Mousse
imply, that this advertisement illustrates the life one lives after one
foundation.
initiates the utilization of the Dream Matte Mousse Foundation – in
There are yet 19 remaining frames which have no direct reference to
the very beginning of the advertisement, a woman is seen stroking
the product and/or the use of it. To explain how these 19 frames can
her face, presumably using the product. Hereafter, this life is
be involved, without leaving the viewer questioning the presence of
presented as a result of the application of the foundation. The ad can
these, one can refer to a subgenre of subliminal advertising:
thus be interpreted as a dream/future scenario for the consumers of
Pavlovian subliminality. Through Pavlov’s laboratory studies
this product. The advertisement hereby may imply that using Dream
conducted in 1927, he discovered that information can be induced
Matte Mousse brings the consumer one step closer to the scenario of
associatively, which advertisers take great advantage of, when they
living a dreamy life involving beauty, interactions with handsome
establish an advertisement campaign (Shrum, 2004). In the process
men, and having a beautiful child.
of classical conditioning (associative induction of meaning, or in this
The demonstration of how to apply the foundation in the
context, the content of an ad) the activation of stimulus is involved.
advertisement – which is presented several times throughout the
Pavlov refers to several kinds; conditioned stimulus (CS),
advertisement, before the viewer is exposed to the male, and the
unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), and
child – can help future viewers by teaching them how to use the
conditioned response (CR). One of the purposes of an advertisement
product. The demonstration also “enables consumers to see how and
is to associate CS with US, which is defined as “any stimulus that at
35
the beginning of the experimental session reliably produces a
now reflect on the makeup:
particular response, designated the UR” (Shrum, 2004, pg. 23). The
Dream Matte Mousse campaign can be an example of this. The use
USmodel → URsalivation
of some exciting stimuli is often seen in advertising (such as the
/
presentation of a sexy model along with the product), which most
CSmakeup → CRsalivation
likely produces something close to salivation (Shrum, 2004). This
leads us to the conditioned stimulus, CS, which does not produce
This method of associating elements has proven to be effective to
anything like UR. Therefore, US, which results in, say, salivation, is
the extent that the consciousness of the viewer is minimized. Too
combined with the product, which is in this context makeup:
much consciousness of this pairing can result in the viewer realizing
that CS and UR has no connection to one another, thus taking a
USmodel → URsalivation
critical stance in regard to the intended messages of the ad, which
/
can finally lead to rejecting the product. Only if the message (e.g.
CSmakeup → --
this makeup will ensure you sexual interaction with handsome men,
a child, and beauty, or with other words, an effortless and successful
After the pairings, the wish of an advertiser is for classical
life) is subtly implied, the conditioning occurs, which might result in
conditioning to occur as a result. From this point, CS should produce
the viewer purchasing the product in the advertisement in the hope
a response, which hopefully is like the UR. With other words, the
of achieving this (Shrum, 2004).
pairing should establish a learned response within the viewer, which
To explain this in depth, a reference to the thinking processes
is designated the CR. So, the process moves from CS being neutral,
belonging to the concept of focal consciousness shall be made: the
to CS producing CR, meaning that the response to the model will
thinking processes are divided in two: the primary- and the
36
secondary-process thinking. The primary-process thinking is what a
USmodel and CSmakeup. Hereafter, 19 frames, which are unrelated to
viewer experiences at the very beginning, as they are exposed to a
the product, are flashed in front of the viewers’ eyes, emphasizing
new advertisement. The primary-process thinking is defined as not
the connection between USmodel and URsalivation. As the viewer
realistic or logical, it abides contradictions, and its language is
approaches the end of the advertisement, the product is exposed
imagistic and enactive. Furthermore, one fails to make distinctions,
again, to finally emphasize the link between CSmakeup and CRsalivation,
and one displaces and condenses ideas and images (Shrum, 2004). In
in attempt to make the reaction to the models reflect onto the
opposition to primary-process thinking, secondary-process thinking
reaction to the product, leaving the viewer with a positive attitude
is linked to consciousness, meaning that the process is defined as
towards the product. Maybelline New York aims for these positive
realistic, logical, discriminating, inhibiting, and its language is
attitudes to be built upon these summarized/paraphrased keywords,
verbal (Ibid.). An advertisers’ aim is to weaken the secondary-
which are represented in the advertisement: femininity, versatility,
process thinking, meaning degrading the consciousness of the
practicality, sensuality, science, and perfection.
viewer in attempt to prevent the viewer from being critical towards
The visual aspect of the advertisement alone has its methods of
what is being exposed to them (Ibid.). If the degradation succeeds,
presenting the product to Maybelline’s advantage; its intention is to
the viewer may purchase the advertised product as a result.
impact the viewer’s way of perceiving the product by creating a
Returning to Pavlov’s theory of information being induced
storyline, which includes characters. The visual presentation as well
associatively, the purpose of the 19 frames can now be explained:
as the audio portion can carry a message.
regarding the chronological order of the commercial, an attractive
female is presented (USmodel → URsalivation) in the very first frame.
6.2 Analysis Through Semiology
Split seconds later, we realize that she is presenting the product, by
To further decode the messages of the advertisement, it is then
applying it to her face, thus establishing a connection between
relevant to investigate the textual aspect of the beauty campaign,
37
which may give us a more nuanced idea of what the messages mean,
Saussure sought to investigate the relationship between signs, and
and how they are presented through the theory of semiology by
how they affect a society in a broader context. His theory on
Ferdinand de Saussure and Roland Barthes.
semiology can be useful for understanding the foundation of
language structures and systems in a given society. Since language
There are three main areas of the study of semiology. The first area
is created from signs, and by applying all the different signs together
deals with the sign itself that focuses on the different varieties of
one can construct a sentence, which then can be interpreted into a
signs in a given context. Signs convey different meanings and these
message.
meanings appeal to different people in varying ways: signs are
According to the study of semiology, meaning is an active process,
constructed by humans, and it allows us to further understand that
which is perceived by a receiver in a particular society and culture.
signs can only be understood in the ways that people make use of
Meaning is not something that is absolute. In the active process of
them. The second deals with the signs that are put into organized
perceiving a certain meaning there is a great focus on negotiation as
systems. The study of these systems covers a variety of developed
one comes to terms with the given message.
codes, which will help meaning to transfer through communication
Saussure argues that every sign contains content and expressions,
to a given receiver. Lastly, the third area deals with the culture that
which are arbitrary and cannot be separated. So, there must be an
these codes and signs operate in.
agreement upon those signs by a group of people within a certain
The studies by Ferdinand de Saussure and Roland Barthes will
society, before the signs can be effective, “this mental concept is
provide us with theories of semiology that can assist us in decoding
broadly common to all members of the same culture who share the
the, sometimes hidden, symbols and signs in the advertisement by
same language” (Locke, 1990, pg. 47).
Maybelline.
To further explain this concept, a fundamental part of Saussure’s
theory explains the difference between something he refers to as
38
signifier and signified. According to Saussure, the sign is a physical
different letter. These units must share the same characteristics so
object that conveys meaning, and consists of a signifier and a
that one knows that the letter “m” is part of the alphabetic paradigm,
signified. The signifier is the image of a given sign that we perceive
and the number “5” is not. The units, which are part of the same
- here a sign is seen as an object of anything from a sound in the air
paradigm, must also differ from one another in terms of the units’
to marks on a piece of paper - whereas the signified is the mental
signifier and signified. Summarized, a paradigm is a set of signs that
concept that is referred to when perceiving a particular image of a
has certain features in common.
given sign. The mental concept is more or less common to all of
A syntagm is the combination of a chosen unit, from a particular
those whom share the same language and whom share the same
paradigm combined with other units, which can be from the same or
culture, e.g. the signs “9/11” would, to most people from the
other paradigms. For example, a sentence is a syntagm of words
Western world, signify the terror attack that took place in America
where a chosen unit can be from one particular paradigm, e.g. the
on the 11th of September, because they share the same mental
word perfection is from the paradigm of nouns, which is combined
concept that is referred to. So, in order to share the same perceptive
with other units from the same and other paradigms when analyzing
image of a sign, the perceivers need to have the same mental
the meaning of a sentence. The relationship that this particular unit
concept - this is called ‘signification of the sign’ (Fiske, 1982).
from one paradigm has with the other units from other paradigms (in
There are two ways that signs are organized into codes. These two
this case other words), determines the meaning - this is called a
ways are called paradigm and syntagmatic (Fiske, 1982). A
structural relationship. Structural relationship is, according to John
paradigm is a set of signs whereby a unit is chosen from and used to
Fiske and Saussure, key to comprehending meaning (Fiske, 1982).
create a certain meaning. For instance, a paradigm can be a set of
In accordance to the theory by Saussure, there are two types of
verbs, and so the paradigm is called a paradigm of verbs. As another
structural relationships (Fiske, 1982). The first type of structural
example could be an alphabetic paradigm, where each unit is a
relationship is called a paradigmatic structural relationship, and the
39
second type is called a syntagmatic structural relationship. The
perfection derives from a paradigm of nouns and is combined with
paradigmatic structural relationship involves choices whereby
other units from other paradigms such as dreaming and matte
meaning of a chosen unit mainly is defined by the units that are not
perfection as well as with the models who operate as signs. The
chosen. In reference to the campaign, the models chosen are
combination of these units and the signs determine what Saussure
beautiful with symmetrical faces and pure skin, and while they
calls value, which is what determines meaning. The meaning
represent perfection of which one can achieve when using
conveyed and the signifier of the signs are that women are beautiful
Maybelline's product, the unit perfection is emphasizing the idea
and perfect if they look like the models in the beauty campaign.
that girls who do not look like the models present in the beauty
Furthermore, the unit dreaming that derives from the paradigm of
campaign are not perfection, and might thereby be suggested as
verbs, and is combined with the units matte perfection, convey the
being unattractive. The syntagmatic structural relationship signifies
meaning that if one is dreaming of looking perfect or having a
that the paradigmatic chosen sign, also called unit, combined with
perfect matte-looking skin, one can achieve this by buying
other units are what determines the meaning. If the chosen unit is to
Maybelline’s product. As what can be observed as another signifier
be combined with other units, the meaning of the sign will change
of the signs in the beauty campaign, is the facial expressions of the
(Fiske, 1982).
models. Their facial expressions convey a feeling of self-love and
In the case of the beauty campaign by Maybelline, the sign
seduction by the way they tilt their head back, close their eyes, and
perfection, which derives from a paradigm of nouns, is combined
touch their own skin. It is important here to take into account what
with other units of other paradigms, and the combination constructs
Saussure calls signified, which is as aforementioned the mental
a sentence. E.g. from time 00.00 seconds - time 00.04 a short
concept that one uses to divide reality and categorize it, in order to
sentence spoken by a female voice utters, ‘dreaming of matte
understand the meaning of various signs. As John Fiske mentions
perfection that feels as light as air?’. As aforementioned, the unit
then signifieds are man-made according to a particular culture of
40
which one belong to. In this case the signified assists in determining
a particular frame appeals to the receiver’s emotions and feelings
the signifier as being seductive and self-loving because in the
whom is from a particular culture (Fiske, 1982). John Fiske states
Western culture we live in, these signs have been ascribed this
“connotation is the human part of the process, it is the selection of
meaning. The models in the commercial, as mentioned before,
what to include in the frame, of focus, aperture, camera angle,
operate as signs, and the signifier of the sign assists in giving the
quality of film and so on” (Fiske, 1982, pg. 91). To simplify it,
brand Maybelline its image as a brand.
denotation is what is captured and connotation is how it is captured.
Connotation belongs to Barthes’ second order of signification
Another semiology theorist of whom we find relevant is Roland
(Figure of Barthes’ two orders of signification, appendix 3). John
Barthes. A part of his theory introduces terms such as denotation,
Fiske further extends his explanation of Barthes’ concept of
connotation, myth, and the symbolic, which give grounds to further
connotation by implying that the tone of a voice, the tone of which
analyze the text and signs presented in the beauty campaign.
something is executed in, connotes the feeling or values about what
Barthes’ theory enhances two orders of signification, the first order
is being said (Fiske, 1982). The sender of a particular beauty
contains the concept of denotation, and the second contains the
campaign that has a portion of audio can therefore convey a
concept of connotation. To Barthes, denotation was what Saussure
particular signifier, based on which connotative values and emotions
described as being the relationship between the signifier and the
that the tone of a particular voice speaks to (Fiske, 1982). In the
signified. For example, in Maybelline’s beauty campaign, the
Dream Matte Mousse beauty campaign, the words uttered are
presence of the women denote only the women. However, the way
spoken by a female voice. It is soft and soothing sounding, which
in which the women are presented and edited (colors, perspectives,
connotes a sense of sensuality. In accordance to the theory by
lightning, etc.), determines the connotation of their presence. The
Barthes, connotation works on a subjective level (Fiske, 1982), and
connotation requires an analysis and description of how the signs of
a kind of misreading of denotative values can take place. As Fiske
41
states a semiotic analysis can provide one with the analytical method
through signs in the campaign such as the models. The presented
that can prevent such a misinterpretation of value. For example, in
cliché that models are portrayed with an idealistic beauty standard
the Maybelline campaign, the flawless-looking skin of the
that one can only dream of, relies on what Fiske presents as being
models/women can be perceived by the audience as a denotative
Barthes’ second order of meaning of the signified, which is the myth
fact, meaning that women's skin is supposed to look perfect and
of the models that is common in Western culture. A myth of a photo
flawless. To sustain focus on the connotative values given in the
or a campaign conveys a story that a particular culture understands
beauty campaign, Fiske also presents another concept of Barthes’
or explains as being a part of reality or nature (Fiske, 1982). As can
systematic model called myth, which belongs to the second order of
be observed, Barthes’ model presents that connotation and myth
signification. Fiske explains, “a myth is a story by which a culture
belong to the second order of signification, and as Fiske states, this
explains or understand some aspect of reality or nature” (Fiske,
order is where interaction between the sign and the receiver/culture
1982, pg. 93). To summarize, it is a certain culture’s way of thinking
is most active. A third way of signifying is through what Barthes’
and therefore a form of conceptualization (Fiske, 1982). According
terms the symbolic (Fiske, 1982). In accordance to Barthes’ idea of
to Barthes, a myth is a chain of related concepts, and as an example
the symbolic, an object becomes a symbol when it obtains the ability
the beauty campaign presents a myth in the way the campaign deals
to represent something else than its denotation. This ability to stand
with the concepts of: ‘Dream, Dream Matte Mousse foundation,
for something else is obtained through convention and meaning
perfection and success. The beauty campaign represents a
(Fiske, 1982). As an illustration of a symbolic scene, Barthes uses an
sophisticated myth, which is according to Fiske created based on
example of a young Tsar in “Ivan The Terrible” who is baptized in
concepts such as femininity and success. These concepts alongside
gold coins. This scene conceptualizes that gold is a symbol of
beauty, sensuality, dream, and perfection are present in the
wealth, power and status (Fiske, 1982). In the beauty campaign there
Maybelline beauty campaign. These concepts are represented
are several frames where gold is presented. For example, the
42
product’s lid and the product itself appear as being gold, as well as
6.3 Analysis of the Textual and Spoken Words through Media
the clothes of several of the models’ and their skin is colored with a
Psychology
touch of gold. To further exemplify the symbolism of gold presented
There are many ambiguous texts that are continuously presented in
in the chosen beauty campaign, one of the models is somewhat
the video which are significant to the understanding of Maybelline’s
bathing in a silky and gold-looking fabric, which can be observed
implicit and explicit messages. The following section will be dealing
from time 00.04 sec - 00.05 sec. Therefore, it might appeal to the
with decoding these hidden signs, that Maybelline integrates into
receiver that Maybelline’s product and those who use their products,
their advertisement. One approach to the analysis of the text in the
are wealthy, powerful, and of a rich status due to the connotation
advertisement can be to examine the rhetoric effect, which is a
that gold has in Western society.
method belonging to media psychology. Aristotle presented this way
The hidden signs in the beauty campaign have, with the theoretical
of examining a non-fiction text: it contains among other things three
approach of two theorists Saussure and Barthes, been analyzed
different appeal forms: logos, pathos and ethos, which each appeal
upon. The receiver of the beauty campaign might portray the models
to the receiver’s logic and reason, emotions, and credibility and
as being wealthy, with a flawless beauty standard, successful, even
trust, respectively (Rapp, 2010). They are means of persuasion
perfect, which can be an attainable dream for adolescent girls. All
within the field of rhetoric - they provide the sender with an
the adolescent girls, as well as other receivers of the campaign are
applicable tool for impacting their receiver(s).
encouraged to buy Maybelline’s product “The Dream Matte
Mousse” from Maybelline New York in order to attain the
6.3.1 “THE SECRET”
unattainable.
In the 14th frame (appendix 1, 00:00:12), a woman is sitting in a
studio surrounded by illuminated microscopes, where she is placed
in the middle. When the voiceover reads “the secret”, it
43
simultaneously appears in the text. This shot creates a scientific vibe
which contains scientifically-advanced formulas, but still at an
to the audience: by showing magnifying glasses in an environment
affordable price, which is the secret. This can give a sense of what
that resembles a laboratory. Maybelline connotes that the foundation
Maybelline’s segment looks like. Maybelline tries to target people
has been in the hands of scientists and its success and ‘perfection’ is
who are searching for a foundation with good quality, but at an
scientifically proven to be guaranteed. The woman is personified -
affordable price - which may be adolescent girls, because they do
she is transformed into a passive object, and becomes a guinea pig
not have full time jobs to invest large amounts of money in cosmetic
for Maybelline. This might be to demonstrate that Maybelline
products. Another observation that can be made is the usage of the
wishes to liken their process to scientific work. One of L’Oréal’s
word secret, the signification of this word, creates an illusion of
annual report statements is “Beauty is Science” (Maybelline, 2015).
exclusion. Meaning, only the ones who belong to the circle of
Since L’Oréal owns Maybelline, they share the same belief. This is
Maybelline, know about this secret. This creates some sort of
reflected in Maybelline’s Dream Matte Mousse advertisement,
“community” for Maybelline’s customers, hence the excluded ones
hence their marketing contains scientific references, such as “100 %
do not know about this secret. Moreover, this exclusiveness
micro-fine perfection”. It is confirmed on Maybelline’s website
engenders a sort of mystery, which evokes a sort of curiosity within
(Ibid.), where they promote the ingredients that their products
the ones who are not a part of this secret. It could then be argued,
contain: “Maybelline gives you scientifically-advanced formulas…”
that Maybelline uses this as a trick to draw new customers to
- Maybelline takes advantage of the modern technology to offer a
become a part of their secret.
high quality of makeup to their consumers. Maybelline still takes
into consideration that the price should be in the low category. This
6.3.2 “NEVER DRY”
strategy may be used as a tool towards their competitors. Hence,
When the voiceover says, “never dry” (Appendix 1, Frame 18:
Maybelline differentiates themselves by having a unique product,
00:00:18) there is a visual close up of a female with a text that
44
simultaneously states “never dry”. Her facial expression is sensual,
words “never dry”, unless Maybelline is referring to a subliminal
even though it is her skin that is supposed to be the most noticeable.
metaphor/message, which can be the vagina, which gives better
In this frame, a model with untroubled skin is displayed, assumedly
grounds for the sensual facial expression. It is arguably dispensable:
to emphasize that untroubled skin is the result the consumers will
the viewer would still be able to comprehend the text if Maybelline
achieve after purchasing the Dream Matte Mousse foundation. It is
had chosen a female with a neutral/non-sensual facial expression. By
also remarkable how the female’s facial expression plays a major
viewing this through the spectacles of Saussure and Barthes, this
role in this frame: her eyes are closed and she tilts her head sideways
stresses how meaning is not absolute and is always in an active
referring to the dreamy theme. The outcome of this frame can easily
process. For the audience to perceive this certain message “never
create a misunderstanding to the audience since a dominant sensual
dry”, the negotiation between the sender and the receiver might not
atmosphere is present. In this context, the signifier and the signified
fall through, caused by the interplay of the audio and visual, which
can be interpreted differently: Maybelline wishes to show a woman
might confuse the viewer when establishing a perception of the
with perfect skin - which can appear to be signified since she is the
meaning determined by the signification in the text.
real physical image. The signifier would then be the verbal element
Maybelline applies the word “never” to further highlight that one’s
of the actual sound pattern “never dry”, which can create a mental
skin problems will be solved immediately as one uses the Dream
comprehension in the viewer's mind, addressing how one’s skin will
Matte Mousse foundation. This is confirmed on their website with
not experience dryness again. The audience might interpret it
the following description of their product: “revolutionary air-soft
incorrectly, due to the sensual facial expression, which may signal
mousse provides perfecting coverage for 100% velvet-matte
that the woman almost looks like she is climaxing during
perfection” (Maybelline, 2015). This is supposed to assure the
intercourse. One can then question why the woman needs to have
audience that if they begin to use the foundation they will
that particular face expression - what does that have to do with the
experience a marked change in their lives.
45
in many advertisements (Giles, 2003). Firstly, in a contemporary
6.3.3 “100% MICRO-FINE PERFECTION”
western society with highly developed technology, science is often
It is proven that if an advertisement refers to science in advertising
not argued against, and so the reference to science in advertisements
their product (“this product is scientifically tested”, ”clinically
has emerged substantially (Giles, 2003). Secondly, it is known that
proven”, etc.), the commercial tends to be more influential. This
‘sex sells’ (Kilbourne, 2010), and it is utilized in Maybelline’s
type of discourse is called imaginary science (Giles, 2003). In
advertisement (they display attractive models, a sensual voice over,
Maybelline’s advertisement, the example illustrating this is “100 %
etc.), to create a sexual/sensual atmosphere throughout the
micro-fine perfection” - Maybelline references to science when
advertisement.
applying words such as “micro-fine” and “spheres” and combine
them with a laboratory-looking environment. This advertising
Maybelline’s reference to science appeals to the receiver’s logos
technique is used to make corporations sound more reliable, when
(common sense) by using logical or rational basis (referencing to
utilizing numbers in their commercial and selling them as facts to
scientific studies) to support their argumentation. The relationship
the audience.
between claim and evidence is being substantiated through logic in
Moreover, Maybelline states on their website, that their products are
attempt to persuade the receiver in a rational way, but conversely the
“fragrance-free, dermatologist-tested, allergy-tested, non-
weakness can be that the receiver interprets the message as being too
comedogenic - won’t clog pores, safe for sensitive skin”
factual and may find it ‘boring’ (Rapp, 2010), which may be why
(Maybelline, 2015) emphasizing the reliability by referencing again
Maybelline applies the element of sex to entice the receiver. The
to science.
way Maybelline uses scientific information might be to paint a
In Maybelline’s advertisement, they ultimately use two factors to
picture of their desired segment to the viewer, which, in this case,
sell their products; namely science and sex, which is to be observed
would be: people who might have sensitive skin, thus cares about
46
what kind of ingredients the usable product consist of, and/or people
the list as the third best-selling brand worldwide. On L’Oréal’s
who are rational and refuse to apply just anything onto their face.
official homepage, they describe Maybelline as being “the world’s
When Maybelline states that their foundation is “allergy tested” they
leading cosmetics brand, available in over 100 countries” (L’Oréal,
signalize that their product is versatile and thereby they show
2015). This is also stated on Maybelline’s website, where a
consideration for everyone. Maybelline attempts to keep their target
description of themselves reads “the number one cosmetics company
group open by not excluding anyone, to ensure a higher number of
in America” (Maybelline, 2015). However, it has not been possible
sales, and to support their claim concerning “beauty for all”
for us, to find the sales statistics that Maybelline base their claims
(Maybelline, 2015).
on. So, according to whom is Maybelline the number one worldwide
makeup? From which source does Maybelline base this statement of
6.3.4 “#1 MAKEUP WORLDWIDE”
their company on? Even though Maybelline is available in over 100
Maybelline promotes themselves as being the number one makeup
countries, the availability of their products are still limited. For
selling brand worldwide, but here it is important to keep in mind,
instance, in Denmark the Dream Matte Mousse is only available in 6
that since Maybelline is owned by L’Oréal, they are combining
shades (only suitable for Caucasians) although Maybelline produces
L’Oréal’s sales numbers into their own marketing strategy (L’Oréal,
the foundation in 12 shades (Matas, 2015). So is Maybelline only
2015). Forbes, as a reliable online business magazine, publishes
the number one makeup brand in Western societies? In communities
reports regarding investments, technology, and entrepreneurs. In
with large numbers of Black populations, Maybelline might not be
2012, Forbes made an investigation regarding the top ten cosmetics
considered to be the preferable cosmetic product, due to the
brands worldwide (Forbes, 2012). Maybelline is not considered as
limitation of the shades they offer, meaning that Maybelline has not
being the number one makeup worldwide, in fact, their brand name
managed to meet all the different needs that potential customers
is not to be found on the toplist. Instead of Maybelline, L’Oréal is on
have. The application of this sentence in Maybelline’s advertisement
47
may influence the audience on a psychological level, by creating a
the ad - we therefore cannot neglect this element when analyzing
sentiment of enhanced reliability, here again, Maybelline tries to
and interpreting the advertisement.
appeal to the consumers logos. When Maybelline presents itself as
being the number one makeup worldwide, it appears as if they are
Maybelline has chosen a certain kind of background music to evoke
the very best selling makeup brand worldwide. So one could then
the right atmosphere in the viewer's mind. Maybelline uses different
argue that, Maybelline uses this illusion of credibility as a
kinds of musical instruments such as: piano, soft drums and a violin
motivating tool towards their consumers for purchasing the Dream
to evoke a dreamy atmosphere that their commercial is reflected
Matte Mousse foundation. Adolescents tend to compare themselves
upon, plus to substantiate the usage of the sensual female voice-
with their peers or role models, meaning if people in their circle
over.
utilize Maybelline cosmetics, they are more likely to start using the
Throughout the entire advertisement, there are two females speaking
same products. Moreover, when Maybelline suggesting they are the
directly to the camera in short lines - the remaining utterances are
number one, this might indirectly tells the viewer that, everyone
spoken by a female voice-over with an air of sensuality. The reason
utilizes their cosmetic products, since they are the best in the beauty
for this might be to show that Maybelline 1) wants to put emphasis
industry.
on the visual picture, and 2) to underline the dreamy effect with an
airy sensual voice. For instance, in frame 10 (Appendix 1, 0:00:07) a
6.4 Analysis of Sound Features in the Dream Matte Mousse
model says, “touch it”, she is looking directly at the camera,
advertisement
establishing artificial eye contact with and speaking directly to the
As a part of an audiovisual advertisement, sound plays an important
audience. This might be used as a tool, to make the viewer feel more
role since this type of advertisement is a mixture of images, texts,
connected to the model, creating the illusion of a relationship
and sounds. Each aspect is supposed to emphasize the message of
between the sender (model) and the receiver (audience).
48
The use of a sensual female narrator is a tool to highlight some of
1, 0:00:13). Her voice is supposed to be persuasive, in order to
the ground elements the advertisement is built upon: sensuality and
guarantee that if the viewer invests in the Dream Matte Mousse
femininity, ensuring that the voiceover suits and emphasizes the
foundation, they will not regret it.
overall plot of the advertisement. It also turns abstract statements
In frame 17 (Appendix 1, 00:00:17), where the naked model glides
(which can be misunderstood if taken out of context) into literal
smoothly over the floor, wrapped in silk sheets, as the voiceover
interpretations by combining audio and visual elements. The sensual
utters, “it glides more smoothly”. This is another example of
voice is combined with sensual women who appear to possess things
interplay between the visuals and audio: it is to symbolize how soft
that may be viewed as desirable (e.g. good looks, career, car, house,
the foundation will feel on one’s skin, although the images do not
man, and a child). Maybelline enhances the importance of “a perfect
directly relate to the foundation. Also, a thin model in a lightweight
look”, which they suggest is suitable for this life, to finally associate
dress, thin material, prancing around with light and airy motions,
this life with their foundation.
creates a metaphor for how light their foundation feels upon
The use of the voiceover might be to paint a picture: the viewer is
application. Simultaneously, the voiceover says, “the sensuous air-
following a woman's dream and the viewer is seemingly listening to
whipped sensation” (Appendix 1, 00:00:05), to imply that the
her thoughts. In the end of the advertisement (Appendix 1, frame 25,
texture of their foundation is so light, that it feels like one is
0:00:25) another model utters, “Live the dream”. This line may
applying air onto their face.
imply that, the viewer now is not hearing the woman’s
Furthermore, this explains the name of the product; “Dream Matte
thoughts/seeing her dream, and so the viewer is now back to reality.
Mousse”. The word Dream is assumedly chosen to create the
It is presented that the only way of achieving this dream is by
illusion of this unachievable perfect look, which becomes achievable
purchasing Maybelline’s product. Furthermore, the voiceover states,
with Maybelline’s foundation. Matte, to show that the foundation is
“only our foundation has silky matte powder-spheres…” (Appendix
made in mattifying texture, which is reflected in the comfortable
49
tactility displayed in the advertisement. Lastly, Mousse which is a
can be that when customers discover Maybelline’s foundation, it is
food related word, to maybe demonstrate how airy and soft the
like a dream coming true for them.
texture in their foundation would feel upon application; almost
relating the texture to an edible dessert. The foundation in fact
6.5 Slogan
resembles an edible mousse. Maybelline uses these terms throughout
Although skin problems are seemingly absent in the commercial, the
the campaign to create a description of how ‘silky’ their foundation
problem of the advertisement implicitly and subliminally appears in
feels. This is being vouched for in frame 23 (Appendix 1, 00:00:22)
the end. It is not obvious in the beginning; Maybelline starts by
when a man touches the model’s skin, which may suggest that when
presenting the results to the viewer. They promote all of the benefits
applying the Dream Matte Mousse foundation, one’s skin becomes
that their foundation is supposed to provide; for instance
so soft that it becomes irresistible for a man not to touch it: “More
“perfection”. In the end of the video (Appendix 1, 0:00:28) their
often than men, female models were seen to be lying down, touching
slogan appears, which reads “Maybe she’s born with it, Maybe it’s
objects, or gesturing submissively toward a male model” (Giles,
Maybelline”. This slogan indicates the problem. When posing the
2003, pg. 168). This can also be used to differentiate foundation
first question, “Maybe she’s born with it”, no confirmation is
from other foundations, as the touchability of the Dream Matte
provided. It is instead answered with the utterance; ‘Maybe it’s
Mousse may make it desirable to have one’s skin touched in relation
Maybelline’. This answer appears to be a veiled way of saying ‘No,
to other foundations. Finally, the repetition of Maybelline’s chosen
she is most likely not born with it, it is because of Maybelline’s
words (‘perfection’, and ‘dream’) creates a paradox: how can one
products that she is able to achieve the flawless look’, hinting that
obtain perfection if it all is a dream/ideal scenario? The life one will
because she is not born with natural beauty, she needs beauty
have after the usage of the foundation (according to Maybelline) is a
products by Maybelline to conceal her blemishes to finally achieve
metaphor - it is a dream. A possible message of the advertisement
the looks that the models present.
50
The effect that Maybelline presents by using the word “maybe” in
companies to air their advertisements on television. The prices
their slogan indicates, that they implicitly state that they have the
increase depending on what time of the day they are displayed and
solution and the consumer is the problem - the consumer has just not
the duration of the advertisement. This means that the division of the
realized it yet. This explains the commercials choice of words, such
slogan may be shortened to save money. The second reason, which
as “discover the dream” and “the secret”. It is also remarkable how
is an extension to the first, can be because while Maybelline saves
the slogan always appears in the end of each Maybelline
money on having a shorter advertisement, they have also managed
commercial; this repeated pattern creates an association towards
to strengthen the association of “Maybe she’s born with it” to
attention. Within the advertising field, memory and attention are the
“Maybe it’s Maybelline”, so when the first half is excluded, the
keywords in order to influence the audience. (Giles, 2003) So, when
viewer will still associate the second half of the slogan to the first
Maybelline positions their saying “Maybe she’s born with it, Maybe
half. Advertisers draw on pre-established associations (Pavlovian
it’s Maybelline” it might be easier for the viewer to remember their
Subliminal Advertising), both appealing to the subconsciousness of
slogan, especially due to the way the voiceover sings it with an air of
the viewer, and saving money (Giles, 2003).
sensuality mixed with the background music. The usage of
psychology of music in advertising gets implemented in order to
6.6 Maybelline and the presented beauty ideals
enhance one’s ability to remember an advertisement (Giles, 2003).
We can then argue that there is a subliminal message in
So when their slogan appears, it becomes catchier for the receiver.
Maybelline’s advertisement; they promote a certain unachievable
If the newer Maybelline (Maybelline, 2014) advertisements are to be
beauty ideal, which they claim can only be attained through the
observed, it is notable that Maybelline shorten their slogan, so only
usage of their product.
“Maybe it’s Maybelline” is included. The dissection of the slogan
It is known that the models appear “perfect” having been airbrushed.
may be a combination of two reasons: firstly, it is expensive for
They have the body type that less than 5% of American women
51
have. The beauty ideal and standard Maybelline along with many
American model out of five models in their advertisement, it is
other cosmetic companies promote, are statistically unachievable to
presumably to assure the audience that the product is versatile also
95% of women in America (Kilbourne, 2010), yet Maybelline
regarding skin color. The foundation is produced to be suitable for
claims that their products create a concept of “universal beauty”
every skin color, and it comes in “12 air-soft shades” (Maybelline,
(L’Oréal, 2013). The fact that the beauty presented in the
2015). However, out of those 12 shades there are solely 2 shades
advertisement, is not representable for the rest of the United States’
that are suitable for African-American women, while the remaining
population, can engender body dissatisfaction within adolescent
10 shades are suitable for Caucasian women. The choice of only
girls:
having one African-American model out of five models in total,
paints the picture that the African-American woman is a minority.
It is the cumulative effect of images of thin women in
This may be true in certain contexts, but it functions as a factor that
magazines, television, films and the fashion industry that is
further promotes the attitude of othering the minority group.
said to promote body image dissatisfaction and eating
Another observation that can be made is what technique has been
disorders among teenage girls (Giles, 2003, pg. 157).
used when applying makeup to the African-American woman. In
frame 19 (Appendix 1, 00:00:19), there is a close-up of the woman,
One example of excluding certain body ideals could be the way that
which reveals that her face has been ‘contoured and highlighted’
they misrepresent the natural African-American woman. Even
(Panosian, 2014). The result of this makeup technique is, to reduce
though Maybelline claims that everyone can obtain this “universal
the looks of the actual size of one’s nose, by experimenting with the
beauty” by the usage of their product they still tend to promote only
shadows of one’s face to make it appear smaller/thinner and to
one type of beauty ideal, namely the Western beauty ideal. In frame
enhance one’s best features. The African-American female in
8 (Appendix 1, 0:00:06), where Maybelline includes one African-
Maybelline’s advertisement has presumably been through more or
52
less the same make-up process to achieve the Western beauty ideal.
‘universal beauty’:
In general, an African-American’s nose is wider and lower
compared to Caucasians’ noses. This may mean that Maybelline
Most studies of body image support the argument that the
somewhat neglects and does not fully promote African beauty, but
modern Western ideal of the super-slim, low waist-to hip
instead tries to make this African-American female blend in with the
ratio female figure is the result of cultural changes rather
majority, by making her fit into the Western beauty standard.
than a biological imperative (Giles, 2003, pg. 157).
A question can now be posed: is Maybelline trying to fit everyone
into the proclaimed concept of “universal beauty”? The purpose of
It can therefore seem like Maybelline is suggesting that everyone
including other skin colors, might be to show versatility - also in
should strive for this certain look in attempt to fit better with
relation to races (L’Oréal, 2013). However, they still tend to make it
Maybelline’s conceptualization of ‘universal beauty’. It is unknown
appear as if the Western beauty ideal is dominant. Maybelline -
to us if Maybelline is avoiding to promote diversity in beauty, or if
intentionally or unintentionally - somewhat creates a generalization
the demand from consumers is not high enough. Either way, it
of African-American women, by showing even less variety
becomes problematic when adolescent girls cannot fully identify
regarding looks of African-American girls. Thereby further
with the models “Where body dissatisfaction does occur among
narrowing the beauty ideal for receivers, which fall under the
African American women, it tends to affect those who identify most
category of African-American adolescent girls.
strongly with White culture” (Giles, 2003, pg. 160). Advertisements
Moreover, the African-American model shares many other physical
tend to give a misrepresentation of minority women, and this
features that resemblance the Caucasian models, such as; hair type,
underrepresentation is particularly evident in mainstream beauty
light skin tone, and Western body ideal, which altogether may be
magazines, television, etc. where the majority of advertisements
interpreted as Maybelline promoting a Western beauty ideal as a
feature Caucasian models (Kilbourne, 2011).
53
for different races (Caucasian and African-American) -- can be
6.7 Sub Conclusion
interpreted as doing the opposite despite their effort of signalizing
Maybelline uses an integration of images, text, and sound to provide
versatility. Their advertisement portrays a narrow selection of looks,
a dynamic presentation of their product to the audience. Throughout
promoting that, and naming it ‘universal beauty’. In other words,
the advertisement, Maybelline only presents the result from their
they do not only announce the appearance of the models’ faces, but
foundation, instead of showing a specific issue that argues for, why
also their body types, which are all the same (tall and thin), by only
the receiver needs the foundation. Maybelline’s advertisement is
displaying this kind of body type. Even though Maybelline’s
more results-oriented than problem-oriented - the problem is the
comprehension of universal beauty is subjective, it is being
receiver’s skin problems, which are not exposed in the commercial,
promoted as being, in fact, universally beautiful and desirable, by
because skin problems are not a part of a dream/ideal scenario. The
only giving models who fulfill specific requirements regarding
advertisement is structured in a way, which demonstrates how one's
appearance airtime on TV. The frequent display of a certain look,
life would become after “Discovering the Dream”, which is the
and the neglect of other looks, may eventually form the audience’s
foundation and the success it provides one with.
opinion of what is desirable and ideal, by firstly exposing what they
Maybelline’s campaign slogan, “Maybe she's born with it, Maybe
should think is desirable and ideal, which is determined by media.
it’s Maybelline” indirectly tells the viewer it is most likely not her
who is born with it, it is Maybelline that does the magic.
6.8 Media effects: Blurring the Lines Between Reality and the
Maybelline’s attempt to promote their Dream Matte Mousse
Advertising World
foundation as being a versatile and functional cosmetics product --
It is claimed, “mass media uniformly affects how individuals
appropriate for different environments (city and nature), for different
construct and understand social reality” (Shrum, 2004, pg. 291). The
situations (e.g. interacting with males, or being a busy mother), and
message that is perceived to the viewers/receivers is controlled by
54
the senders (in this case Maybelline), so it is up to the advertisers
As individuals living in a time and place – such as a contemporary
what messages the receivers build their social realities upon. The
Western society – where technology has become a big part of the
message of almost any advertisement will most likely be ‘purchase
everyday life of the average citizen, exposure to advertising is
this product’. The product can be strategically presented in various
unavoidable. What can affect attitudes, beliefs and behaviors is not
ways, which impacts the viewer’s perception of it. One of the
only exposure to television and its content, but also to what degree
strategies is that products – Dream Matte Mousse – usually are
one is exposed. “The images created by the entertainment media, do
presented in positive contexts, (e.g. via storylines in an
appear to blur the lines between reality and what we perceive it to
advertisements, or in relation to the actors in the advertisement). In
be” (Shrum, 2004, pg. 137) and so, it is found that individuals who
regards to Barthes’ theory concerning the term myth, we are able to
watch television frequently, are more likely to overestimate the
deduct that the positive context presented affects the receiver's
commonness of affluent lifestyles than infrequent television viewers
attitude towards the product. The myth presented in the beauty
(Ibid.). This may be because “individuals might use the situations
campaign is a storyline of concepts such as success, femininity,
and events that occur frequently on television as standards of
sensuality, and beauty.
comparison in evaluating their own life circumstances and thus, may
The positive contexts serve the purpose of triggering positive
be motivated to engage in behavior that attains these standards”
attitudes towards the product presented in the given context (Shrum,
(Shrum, 2004, pg. 139). With other words, heavy television viewers
2004, pg. 105-106). To draw a parallel to Maybelline’s
are more likely to be affected by its content: as an example some of
advertisement, the positive context is the beauty and the seemingly
these heavy viewers are adolescent girls, who begin to insist on
effortless lives of the models. This context may generate positive
viewing television alone, separated from the family (Giles, 2003, pg.
attitudes towards Dream Matte Mousse, because it is portrayed to be
126). When separated from the family, adolescent girls have a
causing beauty and effortlessness.
higher degree of control of what they watch on television. They are
55
likely to watch series, films and advertisements that they find
If adolescent girls are easily influenced by the use of possible role
appealing and something they want to identify with - Dream Matte
models, an issue can perhaps come to the surface: the variety of
Mousse can be one of these advertisements, which draw adolescent
beauty standards presented in the Dream Matte Mousse
girls’ attention to it, and hereby establish the scene for persuading
advertisement is narrow, which means that one beauty ideal more or
them, uninterrupted by their families (Ibid.). According to the Adult
less is promoted. “It is made more complicated by societal demands
Attachment Theory, separation from the family can also lead to a
for physical beauty” (Giles, 2003, pg. 157), which may become an
higher vulnerability towards advertisements.
issue for young girls because adolescent females initiate
As adolescent girls view one advertisement after another, one has to
comparisons between themselves and models in advertising when
bear in mind that many of the ads concern cosmetics, and so
they reach the age of 12 or 13 (Giles, 2003). It is natural for them to
exposure to the Western beauty ideal is on-going and almost
attempt to close the gap between their “actual (or perceived) self and
constant. These cosmetics advertisements always contain beautiful
their ideal self” (Giles, 2003, pg. 159), resulting in their purchases of
(thin and tall) models, and young girls easily become inspired by
advertised beauty products as an attempt to reach this projected
these (role) models (Giles, 2003). Say, that an adolescent girl is
standard of beauty.
exposed to the advertisement for the Dream Matte Mousse
foundation: she sees the beauty of the models, and begins
unconsciously to link the beauty of the models to the lives presented
in connection to the product (Pavlovian subliminal advertising). It is,
then, imaginable that the scenario presented in the advertisement
will become something she somewhat will strive for and will do so
by initiating utilization of the product.
7. Discussion
Assuming that our interpretation of the advertisement is true – that
the advertisement, in fact, prioritizes the Western ideal over the
beauty standard of the receivers for profit – and that the target group
is (adolescent) females that aim for a life, which is presented in the
advertisement.
56
Based on the analysis of the beauty campaign formulated through
This becomes much more complicated when they are simultaneously
the spectacles of Saussure and Barthes, we recognize the signs that
being exposed to advertisements promoting unattainable beauty. It
may appeal to the receiver. As an example of this, a sign in the
can be discussed if having the promoted appearance and body type
beauty campaign that can speak to the unconscious mind of the
has become a part of what society requires. According to the
individual is the symbol of gold present in the color scheme. The
National Eating Disorders Association:
symbol signifies success and it can appeal to the unconscious mind
of the receiver and create a desire to achieve the same kind of
35-57% of adolescent girls engage in crash dieting, fasting,
success, which may be linked to Freud’s idea of the id.
self-induced vomiting, diet pills, or laxatives. Overweight
Advertisements appeal to desires, which the id strives for. When the
girls are more likely than normal weight girls to engage in
receiver strives for success displayed in advertisements, it makes the
such extreme dieting (NEDA, 2015).
receiver possibly want to identify with the models who represent
success. Freud’s concept of superego, which as aforementioned is
It is crucial to note that people develop eating disorders for a variety
the part of the individual that puts effort into meeting the
of reasons and as argued prior, exposure to media campaigns (such
requirements of society, may be enhanced in the adolescent stage.
as Maybelline) may increase the chances of developing these
Their way of meeting those requirements may be through
behaviors.
purchasing advertised products, which enable them to come closer to
When looking at Adult Attachment Theory, there are attachment
the beauty displayed in the media, so that they may be perceived as
styles that make one more or less susceptible to these disorders. On
acceptable by society.
the contrary, Kilbourne claims that these consequences are almost
An issue arises when the adolescents try to meet the demands of the
inherent when exposed to media campaigns, while Bowlby's theory
superego, while at the same time trying to find their place in society.
57
states it simply increases your chances rather than guarantees mental
Dream Matte Mousse campaign as a role model, she may idealize
illness.
traits such as: White flawless skin, smooth hair, overall thinness, etc.
As described in Adult Attachment Theory, the way that one is raised
Less than a century ago the vast majority of children elected their
by their parents, affects the attachment style they develop in their
parents, relatives, neighbors and teachers as role models. In
lives. The attachment style that a subject develops, affects their
contemporary Western society, there exists another option: adults
susceptibility to media exposure and the consequences thereof.
displayed in the media have become possible role models. As a
According to Erikson’s developmental theory, in the stage of
result of our Erikson analysis, the consequences are that new values
adolescence, individuals tend to become more insecure, and may
and ideals are established by media, while the role models portrayed
experience trouble in creating their identities, and therefore may
in media are now constituted as a big part of the radius of significant
seek role models as guidelines to place themselves in society. It is
others. This change in the background for the next generation may
the presented figures in the media such as models in the Maybelline
be alarming when the new role models are portrayed as flawless,
campaigns that adolescent girls may wish to be associated with.
strong, rich, and constantly content human beings with struggles that
When choosing a role model there becomes an aspiration to
often seem minor or insignificant. They are pictured as more
resemble these figures that are idolized. This poses an issue when
successful than people from one’s own local community and are
the adolescent girls are revering models who have an unattainable
therefore often a vital part of their upbringing.
beauty standard. The association of these role models with the
Furthermore, the ideological worldview that adolescents take on in
unattainable beauty causes a dilemma in which the adolescent girls
their puberty is highly affected in this process. They perceive the
associate themselves with these models whom they idolize. For
society from an uncritical point of view and have a higher tendency
example, if an adolescent girl were to choose the protagonist of the
to absorb what is presented to them. Thus, adolescents are more
vulnerable to the ideals and values projected by the media due to
58
their ideological worldview. This means that it may be rather easy
cannot always be noted as a negative development. We believe, that
for large cosmetic companies to affect such individual's behavior
in some cases adolescents do not acquire a suitable role model
through advertisements, in a way that promotes consumerism in an
within their local communities. So when the media can provide an
attempt to sell their products.
adolescent with a more motivational role model than one present in
their own community, there is the possibility for underprivileged
It can be discussed that many adolescents are able to cope with the
adolescents to still acquire this supportive figure/role model.
problems of being a teenager, but some are more influenced by
certain advertisements than others. They may put a great effort into
As for the beauty ideal that is depicted in the media, which we and
striving for the ideals presented in the media, since the consensus
Kilbourne among others describe as a flawless, compute-edited, and
must be that the displayed images are generally accepted by others.
unreachable ideal, it is important to note that Maybelline New York
If they can obtain these ideals, they then will also automatically be
did not create this beauty ideal. The advertisement we have analyzed
accepted by their peers. If the psychosocial crisis of identity versus
is merely an example of advertisements that sustain it. This ideal
identity confusion has an unfavorable outcome, the challenges could
provides the cosmetic industry with an unattainable goal, which can
be many and vital. Palombo et al. writes: “An unfavorable outcome
be projected through advertisements to possible subjects and
or core pathology consists in role confusion manifesting in doubt as
consumers. The beauty ideal of extreme thinness and flawlessness is
to one’s sexual identity, delinquency, or outright psychosis” (2009).
a historically complex concept with many layers. One can argue that
Because of their ideological worldview, today adolescents much
the beauty ideal is created through our society and that the
more commonly idolize media figures. Prior to this, we argue that
advertisement industry simply uses this ideal to sell their products.
this can be a negative development because of the flawlessness that
One might say that the existing beauty ideal is a result of capitalism,
media figures display. Yet, it is important to emphasize that this
and consumerism, since the advertising industry has to create an
59
unattainable ideal in order to create a profit through mass
outsiders, whether it is one's unfulfilling looks or one’s lack of
production. The industry takes advantage of the notion of body
education we are judged by. As long as we are constantly judged
image and uses this as means in selling their product to the
and measured in our society, new measurements to be judged by are
consumer. Therefore, an unattainable beauty ideal within a
installed and generated by everyone that plays a part within the
capitalistic society could be one of the possible elements that have
system. For example the fact that we are students in University is
created an unfavorable outcome for any adolescent. However, one
because of the fact that the government has established the necessity
might also say that the subjects are to blame because they are the
to have a degree in order to be successful and accepted in society.
ones supporting this industry, by buying the products and thereby
sustaining the ideals.
When that has been said, we cannot neglect the fact that the beautyand advertisement industry are selling adolescents beauty ideals that
Kilbourne states that the advertisement industry sells us concepts of
are unreachable to the vast majority. Therefore, it may cause for
love, sexuality, success and normalcy, but we cannot neglect the fact
young girls to feel less about themselves, and it will possibly hurt
that most other industries do the same. The concepts that are
their development of an identity. One could wish for a beauty ideal
portrayed in almost every Hollywood produced movie are just as
that resembles the authentic looks of the average woman but that is
harmful to the adolescents’ creation of an identity as the Maybelline
not our reality.
advertisement is predicted to be. Furthermore, we are also sold
concepts of normalcy and happiness through something as
Exposure
influential for our whole society as our government. We are almost
Exposure to the images and concepts presented in the media of
guaranteed success in life through education and the concept of
Western society such as Maybelline’s Dream Matte Mousse
family. In a capitalistic society, there is only little room for
campaign can lead to lifelong consequences for the participants in a
60
Western society. There is no guarantee that exposure to media will
lead to consequences such as eating disorders or depression, which
Consequences
we will discuss further, but living in an environment that promotes a
A topic which has been heavily debated in relation to media has
certain unattainable body type and a specific ideal of beauty, lays
been concerning media engendering consequences. While we
ground for psychological illness and dissatisfaction with one’s own
acknowledge the fact that the list of consequences is longer than our
body.
following section, we only list the consequences, which may appear
We have built our project on the idea that there are inherent
as a result of beauty advertisements, and thereby may affect
consequences and effects that come with “exposure to media”.
adolescent girls.
Experts do not agree on the exact number of advertisements that the
According to the National Institute of Mental Health in the United
average American is exposed to everyday, as well as the definition
States, one in five women struggles with eating disorders or
of “exposure”. For some glancing at a billboard while driving past
disordered eating and according the US Department of Health and
on the bus would not count as “exposure” to the advertisement
Human Services 90 % of these are between 12 and 25 years old.
considering the brief observation may not have allowed for any form
Being aware of the fact that far from all receivers develop
of affect on the viewer. While other experts such as Rance Crain
instabilities in relation to health (in the form of eating disorders), we
claim “Only 8% of of an ad’s message is received by the conscious
cannot neglect the fact there have been several cases in which
mind. The rest is worked and reworked deep within the recesses of
adolescent girls have starved themselves to achieve the looks of
the brain” (Kilbourne, 2010). It is nearly impossible to avoid
recognized supermodels (Giles, 2003). It can be found relevant to
exposure to media campaigns like Maybelline’s Dream Matte
list possible outcomes of beauty ideals being maintained by
Mousse, and the implicit messages presented and projected from
cosmetic’s advertisements, to be aware of what adolescent girls can
these campaigns.
be subjected to.
61
A result from the rather extreme cases of exposure to media, which
some form of “peer influence” (Giles, 2003, pg. 161).
only display ideal beauty have proved to engender eating disorders.
So advertisements alone do not influence adolescent girls - an
The most common forms of eating disorders are known to be
addition of peer influence may fuel the fire of striving for
anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating. Each disorder
unattainable beauty. Besides peer pressure, and advertisements,
comes with unique symptoms, causes, and effects on the body (both
there must be something deeply-rooted in an individual, since it is
mental and physical). We will be focusing on how media exposure
possible for some to be so heavily influenced in contrary to others
creates an environment that can lead to eating disorders of all types.
who may not direct much attention towards media content.
Eating disorders of all types:
8. Conclusion
Include extreme emotions, attitudes, and behaviors
Understanding and outlining Freud’s ideas has been essential for us
surrounding weight and food issues. Eating disorders are
in order to understand and comprehend the methods behind
serious emotional and physical problems that can have life-
advertising. We found that notions of the unconscious and Freud’s
threatening consequences for females and males (NEDA,
structure of the mind can be found in many different layers of our
2015).
culture and society today. Freud’s terminology is also highly used in
different contexts, and as one example, Pavlov uses terms, such as,
According to Giles (2003), 44% of 12-14 year olds discuss
primary process and secondary process to describe illogical and
magazine content with their friends, which involves fashion,
logical thinking processes. Many of Freudian terms can be found
appearance, dieting, and ultra-thin celebrities. Not only do they
within the field of media psychology. One of the most important
discuss magazine content, but they may also have their attention
aspect of Freud’s theory has been the notion of the unconscious. The
directed towards cosmetics advertisements, which may result in a
knowledge thereof has been used; as a means to sell products and
62
create profit for years; many marketing strategies are built upon this
means that our interpretation of the effect that beauty campaigns
idea. One of the techniques that are based upon the importance of
have on adolescent girls can only provide us with a probable
the unconscious is Pavlov’s theory of association. In the Maybelline
conclusion. It can only support the idea that adolescent girls are a
commercial the product is associated with attractive models,
possible and vulnerable target group. Therefore, our paper shall
sensuality, elegance, and beauty-creating associations of reaching
rather be understood as an example of how it is possible for media to
the same type of perfection as displayed in the campaign if
affect adolescent girls as a larger concept. We illustrate one case out
purchasing and owning their product. All the different elements
of many, which can be observed in our world.
included in the campaign all have positive coalitions emphasizing
Media shapes a certain body ideal that is unrealistic, unhealthy and
and creating positive feelings. Both text, sign, and visual stimuli is
unattainable (Giles, 2003). When young girls enter puberty, their
used to appeal to the receiver, creating associations, emotions and
bodies begin to change. When their bodies go through such a
desires, to manipulate the receiver to long for the product.
development, they begin to become more aware of the imposed
We are aware that every advertisement is not the same, and that the
body ideals that the media projects, as a result of media's lack of
development of every individual is not absolute, but varies from
variety regarding exposing body types and looks, thus, turning the
individual to individual. In conclusion and based on the analysis
body type which is most frequently presented into the most desirable
made throughout our paper, we confirm our hypothesis that
one. Although awareness towards media’s effect is rising, it does not
adolescent females are strongly affected by media exposure in
necessarily mean that adolescent girls are able to be more critical
relation to women in other stages of their lives. As our examination
towards the presented body ideals.
of the hypothesis presented in our paper anchors in theoretical
framework, it is a necessity to touch upon the fact that our
An alternative explanation is that adolescent females may
psychological analyses on the subjects are of inductive work. This
not attribute their body dissatisfaction to the media at all,
63
instead blaming their own biological make-up, their parents'
Due to our psychoanalysis, we have discovered that adolescent girls
genes, or specific instances of rejection or unrequired love.
are very easily affected by the media. Also with Erikson we know
(Giles, 2003, pg. 161)
that adolescent girls are in the process of developing their identities
and searching for social acceptance. Using our media psychology
Media can have a psychological effect on girls, which then can
analysis we have discovered that Maybelline in fact uses these
develop into a physical one. Studies show that when young teenage
techniques as signs of sex, success, and a desirable lifestyle in order
girls entering the adolescent stage, they are more likely to develop
to sell their products, and speak to the desires within most
eating disorders, hence, young females by the age of 12-13 tend
adolescent girls.
more to develop this unachievable desire for thinness, that they are
being exposed to through the media (Giles, 2003).
In the 21st century and in the society that we live in, media is
unavoidable; there is no way to escape the ideas, concepts, and
Kilbourne has concluded in her studies that the advertising’s image
images projected and presented to us on a daily basis. The
of women has gotten worse over the past forty years, and that the
consequences of these images are not guaranteed, but the way we
ads create an environment that has a strong impact on our social and
build and shape our identities is. Media plays a large role in how we
individual development. When applying Erikson’s theories to
view ourselves and the world, and in the environment we live in,
Kilbourne’s studies, we conclude that adolescents are supposedly
there is an attitude that promotes dissatisfaction with the person that
the group, that is affected the most and with the worst possible
you are.
consequences, such as eating disorders, mental illnesses, etc.
- You’re most likely not born with it.
64
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10. Appendix
Appendix 1: Structure of Dream Matte Mousse advertisement
The Advertisement: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qnu4aKsm6S0
Frame 1 (0:00:01): a woman rubbing her face (presumably putting the foundation onto her face)
Frame 2 (0:00:01): close-up, wind blowing her hair, eyes closed, sensually throwing her head back
Frame 3 (0:00:01-02): looking up into the sky, ground perspective, filmed from behind, doing a hand gesture towards the sky (simultaneously with
“discover the dream”)
Frame 4 (0:00:02-03): presenting the product
Frame 5 (0:00:03-04): (new) white woman hanging out of the window of a car, driving over Brooklyn Bridge + Maybelline’s logo, sexual/demure
look into the camera.
Frame 6 (0:00:05): (new) black naked woman laying on the ground wrapped in gold silk sheets, squirming sensually (+ ‘sensual’) -- African
American, but very light skinned, extensions on.
Frame 7 (0:00:05-06): finger going across the foundation (ready to apply)
Frame 8 (0:00:06-07): mirror-shot, filmed from behind of the woman applying the foundation onto her face - focus on her reflection in the mirror,
cleavage showing, golden settings (shirt, curtains, mirror) - the color scheme of the commercial matches the color of the foundation.
Frame 9 (0:00:07): finger going across the foundation (ready to apply)
Frame 10 (0:00:07-08): (new) white woman, close up
69
Frame 11 (0:00:08-09): (new) white woman, on the back seat of the car, rubbing her foundation onto her face with both hands, with elegance (using
the tip of her fingers) à brown-ish/golden color scheme, looking sensually straight forward, then down à transition to next scene, from cab ride to
date:
Frame 12 (0:00:09-10): same white woman positions herself elegantly on top of a handsome guy (both brown hair)
Frame 13 (0:00:10-11): close-up of the same woman, guy touching her face, her reacting to it by throwing her head back, closing her eyes sensually
Frame 14 (0:00:11-12): new woman sitting in a studio-set, her placed in the middle, grey/black background, brown dress and heels, brown hair,
sitting under illuminated microscopes à scientific vibe / reference to science
Frame 15 (0:00:12-15): close-up of the product (foundation), microscope onto it, partly zooming into the ‘powder spheres’ of the foundation - again,
reference to science
Frame 16 (0:00:15-16): (new) white woman, brown hair, close-up, already has a lot of makeup on, looks natural to an extent, yet putting on the
foundation like it’s the first time she puts on makeup that day.
Frame 17 (0:00:16-17): white woman, brown dress, sensually gliding over a wall/floor of a building, ground perspective.
Frame 18 (0:00:17-18): white woman, close-up, throwing back her head, closed eyes, sensual, almost climaxing
Frame 19 (0:00:18-19): black woman, close-up, lips pursed, eyes squinted, black child (maybe her child) holding a magnifying glass, holding it over
her face (as if to examine/inspect the foundation), and she’s confidently looking into the camera, as if she knows that the foundation is flawless.
Frame 20 (0:00:19-20): white woman, close-up, white flowers in the foreground, her in the background, only see her nose and piercing blue eyes,
brown hair.
Frame 21 (0:00:20-21): black screen with the text: “100% Micro-fine Perfection”, brown/beige color text
Frame 22 (0:00:21-22): white woman, sitting in a concrete area, brown hair, brown dress, wearing beige stockings, doing a hand gesture that
signalize that she is about to take the stockings off, semi-ground perspective
70
Frame 23 (0:00:22-23): close-up, male and female faces close to each other, about to kiss, his hands are holding the sides of her face.
Frame 24 (0:00:23-25): ‘overview’, eagle-eye view, above the foundations (multiple, in different shades) + #1 MAKEUP WORLDWIDE
Frame 25 (0:00:25-26): white woman, semi-close up, brown hair, beige top, brown eyes, sensual look, stroking her shoulder/chest with her hand.
Frame 26 (0:00:26-27): ( white woman, brown dress, brown hair (tied up), brown eyes, ground perspective, filmed from behind, looks at the camera
and then looks beyond the camera over the shoulder, about to undress, by taking off the strap of her dress, letting it glide over her left shoulder,
blue sky as a background + logo
Frame 27 (0:00:27-28): same woman, filmed from the front, semi-ground perspective, hair down, eyes closed, hands up in the air, wind blowing
gently, brown dress, mouth slightly open - sensual
Frame 28 (0:00:28-29): new white woman, close up - side of her face, sensually looking straight forward, mouth slightly opened
Frame 29 (0:00:29-31): black screen
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Appendix 2
72
Appendix 3: Roland Barthes’ two ways of signification
From Fiske, 1982, pg. 93
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Appendix 4: Transcription:
Discover the dream, dream matte mousse from Maybelline NY. The sensuous air-whipped sensation! Touch it, for 100% micro-fine matte
perfection. The secret? Only our foundation has silky matte powder spheres inside, so it glides more smoothly, never dry or flaky. For 100%
micro-fine perfection and skin that begs to be touched. Number 1 Dream Matte Mousse, live the dream, maybe she's born with it, maybe it's
Maybelline!
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