Phonetics in Conversation
Transcription
Phonetics in Conversation
Phonetics in conversation Paper 9 Foundations of Speech Communication Michaelmas Term: Week 2 (practical class) Katharine Barden Aims • To think about what is conveyed during speech communication • To introduce the anatomy and physiology of the larynx and its role in communication • Introduce examples from Conversation Analysis Communication • Usually involves more than one person (interaction) • A means ‘to get something’ – for babies: food, attention, comfort (maintain biological equilibrium) – for older people: the same, though we normally think of them as more complex e.g. “understanding, friendship, discussing ideas, making decisions and contracts” Linguistic units • Traditionally, focus on contrastive lexical meaning (identifying words) • Emphasis on: – Phonemes: abstract units related to the sounds that distinguish words • e.g. sap vs tap contrast in terms of the phonemes /s/ and /t/ – Allophones: physical phonetic differences, more or less predictable from word structure, that, if done “wrong”, do not change the meaning of the word but could make its pronunciation sound strange • e.g. ‘clear’ vs ‘dark’ /l/ in SSBE: [l] (syllable-initial) vs [ɫ] (syllable-final) - lull [lʌɫ] – Features: abstract dimensions that relate to the sounds that distinguish phonemes • e.g. /p/ and /b/ contrast in the feature ‘voice’ Broad approach to communication • But, within an interaction, a lot more is conveyed than linguistic units • Phonetic cues can contribute to linguistic, paralinguistic and extralinguistic aspects of communication • ‘Meaning’ derived not just from what is in the speech signal, but how it relates to prior experience The larynx Biological function: a valve to protect the lungs The vocal apparatus Source: Lieberman and Blumstein, Speech Physiology, Speech Perception and Acoustic Phonetics (1988). 3 main parts: subglottal system, larynx, supralaryngeal vocal tract Laryngeal anatomy basic checklist 1. 4 main cartilages (cricoid, thyroid, pair of arytenoids, epiglottis) • joined to each other and slung from one bone (the hyoid) by membranes • joined to bones by extrinsic muscles – these fix it or move it in the neck • joined to each other by (mainly paired) intrinsic muscles which – move the cartilages relative to one another (4 main pairs) – comprise the bulk of the vocal folds (2 pairs) 2. The vocal folds are inside (and thus part of) the larynx • bundles of muscle, ligament and mucous membrane • extend horizontally from the front (thyroid notch) to the back (arytenoids) • space between them is the glottis 3. Laryngeal musculature enables vocal fold closure and opening (affecting size and shape of the glottis) , and all adjustments for phonation The larynx anterior (front) view The larynx posterior (back) view Structure of the larynx • 3 +1 main cartilages: – large thyroid (Adam’s apple) comprising 2 plates and 4 horns. connected upwards to hyoid bone by thyrohyoid muscle/ligament) – smaller, circular cricoid with ‘signet ring’ shape: higher at back than front – 2 small, pyramid-shaped arytenoids sitting on top of posterior surface of cricoid – (+ epiglottis: up from thyroid angle, rests against back of tongue) • Vocal folds connect vocal process of arytenoids to inner front of thyroid cartilage Front view Rear view Side view View from top Inside the larynx: the vocal folds mid-sagittal view Glottis = space between folds Vocal folds can be in an open (abducted) or closed (adducted) configuration View from above: Folds open (abducted) View from above: Folds closed (adducted) Phonation (voicing) basic checklist 1. To phonate, the vocal folds must vibrate 2. To vibrate, they must be held close enough together to impede the airflow through the glottis 3. Muscles bring them together & hold them there 4. The transglottal airflow itself sets them into vibration, and maintains the vibration – myoelastic aerodynamic theory of phonation (elastic recoil and Bernoulli forces) Vibration of the vocal folds results in phonation (voicing) Myoelastic aerodynamic theory of vocal fold vibration (van den Berg, 1950s) 1. Muscular activity rotates and rocks the arytenoid cartilages so that their vocal processes come together in the midline, thus positioning the vocal folds close together or in actual contact. 2. Air pressure increases below the glottis until folds forced apart. (The subglottal pressure increase leads to a transglottal pressure drop.) 3. Air travels faster through the glottis when it is narrow. This causes a local drop in air pressure (Bernoulli effect) which causes the folds to be sucked towards each other. 4. The Bernoulli effect, together with the elastic recoil force exerted by the displaced vocal folds, causes complete glottal closure again. 5. The process begins again at step 2. Vocal folds during a vibratory cycle Open for breathing http://cspeech.ucd.ie/~fred/teaching/oldcourses/phonetics/pics/vfold1.gif Vertical views of the vocal folds during one vibratory cycle The folds are threedimensional, and they vibrate in three dimensions. 1 4 The pattern of vibration is like a ‘wave’ travelling up them. The lower sections part first, and come together first. 2 5 ‘Cover’ (outer layer) and ‘body’ (inner layers) of folds are often distinguished because they vibrate fairly independently 3 6 After Stevens (1998) Acoustic Phonetics (Baer, 1975) Controlling phonation: Intrinsic laryngeal muscles This lecture does not address external laryngeal muscles, nor detailed vocal fold anatomy (read e.g. Hardcastle) No phonation, or stopping phonation Front view Rear view Side view from above • Abduction: Vocal processes of arytenoids (front part) rotated backwards and outwards (posterior cricoarytenoid muscle) • This moves the vocal folds apart and so widens the glottis Starting and maintaining phonation Front view Rear view Side view from above • Adduction: vocal processes of arytenoids moved together (lateral cricoarytenoid, interarytenoid muscles) • This brings the vocal folds together, thus closing the glottis Coordinating glottal and oral constrictions oral closure oral constriction area oral release stop VOT glottal constriction and vibration [aba] voiced negative [apa] voiceless unasp. zero [apha] positive [ahpa] voiceless aspirated preaspirated [aʔpa] glottalised “zero” [abʱa] breathy time key top row: complete oral closure; all other rows: vocal folds adducted but not vibrating top row: oral articulators open; all other rows: vocal folds abducted and not vibrating modal phonation: vocal folds adducted and vibrating breathy phonation: vocal folds partially adducted and vibrating Periodic sounds Fundamental frequency (f0) = 1/period period ≈ 6.3 ms F0 ≈ 160 Hz period ≈ 5.8 ms F0 ≈ 172 Hz period ≈ 11.2 ms F0 ≈ 90 Hz shows 1 period Pitch control Front view Rear view Side view from above • Increasing pitch: contracting cricothyroid muscle: pulls front of cricoid up towards thyroid, so back of cricoid moves down and back, taking arytenoids with it and stretching/tensing vfs → vibrate faster • vocalis – complex adjustments to length, tension, thickness & medial compression of vocal folds Pitch control Front view Rear view Side view from above • Increasing pitch: contracting cricothyroid muscle: pulls front of cricoid up towards thyroid, so back of cricoid moves down and back, taking arytenoids with it and stretching/tensing vfs → vibrate faster • vocalis – complex adjustments to length, tension, thickness & medial compression of vocal folds Voice qualities Classification systems vary from very simple e.g. creak - modal - breathy, Ladefoged (2001) Vowels and consonants to very complex e.g. Laver Open quotient = the proportion of the cycle for which the vocal folds are open Low for creaky voice Approx 0.5 for modal voice High for breathy voice Communicative uses of voice quality • Indexical: part of an individual’s characteristic speech patterns • Cultural: some cultures have distinctive voice qualities • Communicative function: – controlling conversation cf. ‘so’, ‘I think’, ‘and’ – conveying affect (emotion) • Phonemic contrast Pathological disorders of vocal fold vibration • neural: e.g. – paralysis, spasmodic dysphonia → incomplete closure → breathy → quiet; usually high pitch; or harsh if tense. – Parkinson’s → immobile + tremor, quiet, restricted pitch range (often high), hoarse • viral laryngitis → inflamed VFs → hoarse, or silent • habitual abuse (shouting, smoking) → hoarse, harsh • physical damage to the folds (nodules, scars....): incomplete closure + irregular vibration → breathy, hoarse, low volume Vocal fold nodules Sulcus vocalis (vocal fold scar) Conversation analysis • Developed by sociologists in early 1970s • Emphasis on the structure of interactions Stand-alone “so” in American English holding-‘so’ the same speaker continues with more on-topic talk trailoff-‘so’ there may be a change in who talks For more details, see Local (2007) ICPhS http://www.icphs2007.de/ (click on Plenary Speakers) Phonetic characteristics • In contrast to ‘holding so’, ‘trail-off so’ tends to be: – quieter and lower in pitch than the accented part of the final foot of the preceding speech – it never has final glottal closure – can be creaky throughout the whole syllable. Turn co-completion – once those cameras start flashing particularly with the infants it puts them off – but when we walk out of the class nobody knows what went on • There is nothing remarkable about these stretches of coherent speech – except that they are jointly accomplished by two speakers rather than one Turn co-completion (1) C&M Xmas Photo K: once those cameras start flashing particularly with the infants .hh C: it puts them off K: it puts them of[f and C: [yeh Courtesy John Local Turn co-completion (2) Two Girls (5) B: .hhh and we nod when he wants us to say yes (h)e[n ] .hhh A: [ye]ah B: we raise our hands when he wants to take a poll [.hh you know A: [mm B: but when we walk out of the class A: nobody knows what went on Courtesy John Local Talk which completes another’s turn is: 1. 2. 3. 4. not slower than the talk they complete not louder than the talk they complete rhythmically integrated with prior talk narrower in pitch range than the talk they complete 5. closely pitch-integrated with prior talk Turn co-completion Courtesy John Local Summary • Speech communication is about more than conveying linguistic units • Phonetic cues can convey many other types of meaning which are crucial for successful interactions