by PANTELIS A. TSOURIS - Surrey Research Insight Open Access

INVESTIGATION
OF COHERENT
SIGNALS
IN
WATER
by
PANTELIS
The
Robens
Institute,
A thesis
University
TSOURIS
University
for
submitted
Doctor
The
A.
of
of
Surrey,
the
degree
Guildford.
of
Philosophy
to
Surrey,
January
of
Guildford,
1995
England.
ABSTRACT
This
deals
study
in
considerations
A review
the
of
the
reference
to
molecular
structure.
The
An
and
calculated
designed
and
ultra-low-noise,
detecting
"treated"
was
amplifier
water
The
water.
sample
a
for
pair
which
and
properties
in
terms
its
at
the
of
interfaces
electric
built.
and
Its
magnetic
has
performance
verified
especially
with
instrumentation.
design
coherent
weak
from
and
input-impedance,
high
the
cells.
experimentally
the
this,
in
particular
with
physical
especially
and
been
have
changes
given,
biological
designed
constructed
Following
for
been
has
"treated"
which
reviewed
free
adequately
enclosure
the
liquid
with
been
constant.
is
water
are
the
experimental
concerning
between
and
electrodes
interference
literature
water
has
which
Avogadro's
"treated"
of
structure
metal
been
of
and
substances
beyond
relations
properties
molecular
with
relevant
of
water
of
water
properties
physical
oºt
_03xpoVV`"eVkc.
and
in
diluted
serially
with
respect
fields,
magnetic
with
with
of
the
wire
low-drift
amplifier
thought
transducer
gold
of
and
signals
main
construction
to
system
electrical
in
involved
be
for
used
characteristics
this
in
immersed
electrodes
an
were
the
to
be
measured.
Suitable
particular
experiments
theories
were
relating
developed
to
"treated"
i
for
the
water
evaluation
and
for
of
the
detection
of
oscillations
frequency
In
and
the
acoustic
magnetically
but,
the
fundamentals
theoretical
weak
in
which
signals
water
might
the
over
from
result
VLF
part
spectra
of
of
the
coherent
non-ionizing
spectrum.
course
of
this
work,
absorptions
(ie
exposed
complete
involved
and
were
to
obtained
specific
understanding
will
from
frequency
of
involve
coherent
the
considerably
experimental.
ii
oscillations
water
magnetic
exact
more
"treated"
fields)
physical
work
both
DEDICATION
A(PLEpwua vrous
Avaazaaws
xac
7oveLs
{tou
Zwrl Taoupns.
Dedicated
Anastasios
iii
to
my parents
and
Zoe
Tsouris.
OF
TABLE
CONTENTS
Page
i
ABSTRACT
iii
DEDICATION
iv
OF CONTENTS
TABLE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
viii
ix
GLOSSARY
1
INTRODUCTION
I.
Chapter
1.1
General
1.2
Properties
Historical
Potentized
of
Introduction
1.2.2
Biochemical
1.2.3
Physical
1.2.4
Physical
Magnetic
1.2.5
5
Introduction
1.2.1
of
7
Review
1.4
The
C. W. Smith
1.5
The
Vithoulkas
1.6
The
Del
1.7
The
Preparation
Magnetic
1.8
Potentization
1.9
Inactivation
II.
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Properties
8
Effects
Properties
and
Analytical
of
7
Water
of
Clinical
Water
Potentized
12
Chemical
the
"Memory
15
Investigations
Mechanism
of
Water
Hypothesis
21
22
Hypothesis
of
Homoeopathic
and
24
Potencies
with
of
17
19
Hypothesis
Giudice
10
Properties
Potencies
1.3
Chapter
Review
a magnetic
Potentized
Properties
of
Vector
Water
Potential
26
27
water
28
of
28
Water
iv
2.3
Quantum
Field
2.4
Vicinal
and
2.5
Acoustic
Chapter
Theory
Interfacial
Properties
III.
Introduction
3.2
Shielding
3.3.
Circuit
to
Water
and
33
33
Water
of
Electric
3.1
Approach
37
Water
Magnetic
Shielding
39
39
Theory
Approach
Theory
Shielding
to
Effectiveness
41
Shielding
3.4
Measurement
3.5
Results
53
3.6
Comments
54
3.6.1
of
Comments
on
Shielding
3.6.2
IV.
Chapter
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Low
the
50
Effectiveness
Calculation
of
55
Effectiveness
Comments
on
the
Measurements
Shielding
Effectiveness
Low
Instrumentation
Noise
of
56
58
Noise
Amplifiers
4.2.1
Physical
4.2.2
Low
4.2.3
Noise
58
Properties
Noise
in
of
Noise
Design
the
Amplifier
of
Amplifier
62
Effect
Transistors
63
65
4.3
Low
4.4
Measurment
4.5
Results
70
4.6
Comments
71
Noise
FET
Field
58
Noise
68
V
Chapter
Characteristics
Electrode
V.
72
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Electrical
5.3
Measurements
5.4
Results
75
5.5
Comments
76
Properties
VI.
Chapter
Introduction
6.2
The
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Electrode
Experimental
6.1
and
of
of
Electrodes
Impedance
72
73
Work
78
Preparation
of
Magnetic
Homoeopathic
79
Potencies
Experiment
I
6.3.1
Introduction
80
6.3.2
Method
80
6.3.3
Results
82
6.4.3
Conclusion
83
Experiment
II
6.4.1
Introduction
83
6.4.2
Method
83
6.4.3
Results
84
6.4.4
Conclusion
85
Experiment
III
6.5.1
Introduction
85
6.5.2
Method
86
6.5.3
Results
86
6.5.4
Conclusion
87
Experiment
IV
6.6.1
Introduction
87
6.6.2
Method
87
vi
6.6.3
Results
88
6.6.4
Conclusion
89
Chapter
VII
90
Discussion
98
Conclusion
Appendix
I
102
Appendix
II
103
106
References
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This
thesis
requirements
of
degree
of
has
the
Doctor
of
been
University
fulfill
to
order
for
Surrey
of
Philosophy
of
in
written
the
the
award
by the
as specified
the
regulations
University.
the
I
indebted
am
of
this
to
provide
guidance
I
the
their
gave
work
who
and
I
during
who
freely
so
to
grateful
this
supervised
the
course
in
willingly
and
to
tutor
my personal
work,
offered
indebted
am
people
order
information.
and
guidance
many
time
am particularly
Hawkins,
wisdom
to
his
and
useful
Dr.
L.
words
of
so generously.
Prof.
W.
for
Rae
guidance
useful
and
discussions.
I
like
would
Mr.
E.
all
through
Tsouris
I
for
his
and
University
Dr.
bioelectromagnetics
suggestions
studies
and
Without
his
encouragement,
Smith
information
helping
for
and
my
brother
support
enormous
Mohammed Mekcael
me
finding
for
to
study
due
to
for
me to
giving
start
and
financial
not
viii
the
my
support
for
his
have
been
Salford
of
subject
scientific
am also
complete
support,
would
I
generously.
at
his
me
in
help
studies.
my Teacher
introducing
so
his
for
my postgraduate
is
professional
this
help
throughout
and
and
for
Dr.
praise
C. W.
to
appreciation
years.
support
lavish
my
guidance,
to
am grateful
Finally
him
express
my academic
mathematics
to
to
grateful
postgraduate
this
supervision
completed.
work.
and
GLOSSARY
Activated
water
:
the
Allergy
von
pediatrician,
'ERGON'=
and
the
x
allergy
Pirquet
is
This
gram-molecular
1023
the
weight
number
of
any
'ALLOS'=
the
is
often
on
allergic
effects.
to
needed
molecules
it
substance,
in
used
of
subset
antibody
of
change
reactivity
altered
It
to
Austrian
has
the
make
value
molecules.
Boltzmann's
constant
it
NUMBER,
of
factor.
'refer
the
words
immunoglobulin-E
abnormal
:
Greek
the
a state
to
by
coined
environmental
sense
have
was
describes
It
(q. v. )
water.
from
,
specific
number
one
6.02
a
who
Avogadro's
up
term
restricted
more
patients
potentized
action.
to
exposure
means
is
:
to
relates
GAS
the
the
energy
by
divided
CONSTANT
degree
per
AVOGADRO'S
of
absolute
temperature.
Coherence
the
the
:
phases
a measure
of
existence
otherwise
the
of
degree
of
definite
separate
of
fixed
waves
precision
makes
of
between
relationships
them
the
is
It
coherent.
frequency
velocity,
and wavelength.
Hall
effect
field
magnetic
number
:
of
charge
is
the
deflection
of
and
its
importance
is
carriers
per
unit
semiconductor.
ix
an
that
volume
it
gives
of
by
current
electric
the
the
sign
conductor
a
and
or
Hypersensitivity
A
environmental
Allergy
chemical
agents.
biological
or
from
arise
for
Josephson
:
occurs
is
and
potency
of
Memory
:
liquid
or
term
can
electromagnetic
is
treatment
quantised
two
flux.
It
in
the
and voltage.
been
has
which
between
magnetic
frequency
is
prepared
can
in
change
one
substance
which
has
the
form
reached
its
of
treatment.
a particular
has
more
or
a
of
property
some
as
undergoing
a
and
herein
defined
it
after
:
junction
field.
whereby
Tincture
specific
and
weak-link
with
potency
memory
solid
a
between
:a
properties
Mother
temperature
associated
a magnetic
The
physical
particular
hypersensitivity
Physical
at
an interconversion
presence
to
example.
sUýýccoýýýýýoýý
Magnetic
to
sensitivity
a hypersensitivity
high-.
noise,
effect
provides
is
allergen.
acoustic
radiation
increased
of
state
a
undergone
it
where
very
be
can
potentized.
Potency
a
therapeutic
Potentized
thesis
as
involving
(and
water)
A
The
water
water
which
dilution
term
has
has
which
potency
in
succussion)
:
serial
and
(usually
property.
dilution
serial
field
liquid
:A
also
the
and
succussion,
succussion.
X
denotes
preparation
potentized
undergone
been
water,
a
the
of
is
to
treated
specific
or
exposure
of
number
the
defined
very
give
remedy.
in
this
treatment
to
magnetic
Succussion
:
this
the
process
strong
impacts
against
a hard
Treated
water
: means
potentized
where
surface.
water.
xi
a
solution
is
subjected
to
INTRODUCTION
This
in
contained
German
a
medium
Smith
C.
(1985b)
both
fields
mechanisms
in
the
not
in
way
they
which
/
orthodox
based
on
the
through
person
who
illness
for
takes
a
which
a particular
water
in
solvent
the
the
same
a
dilutions
which
initial
may
case
of
the
exceed
solution
a
Avogadro's
will
not
substance.
1
characterized
prescribed
is
and
a
to
of
a
the
prepared
in
with
the
The
succussion.
single
as
regarded
diluted
(6.02
constant
the
of
patterns
usually
on
not
a healthy
symptoms
is
substance
include
in
is
dilution
serial
are
potency
are
is
and
proving
remedies
where
alcohol,
sequence
The
for
from
patient
the
matches
the
also
method
develop
which
remedy
as
but,
prescription
the
homoeopathic
symptoms
1990).
or
which
same
difference
remedies
symptoms
and
the
systems.
remedy
homoeopathic
the
(Vithoulkas,
distilled
at
remedy
Thus,
having
remedy
serial
proving
was
allergens
share
fundamental
The
it
this,
medicine
of
result
"treated"
diluted
alternative
weak
clinical
water
biological
pattern
a
the
must
particular
subsystems.
so-called
therapeutic.
patient
symptom
the
of
a
be
From
the
of
bio-information
of
The
that
holistic
the
diseases
the
is
medicine
based.
fields
of
disease.
curing
water
and of
living
upon
form
to
serially
storage
act
is'a
Homoeopathy
treating
the
thought
people.
magnetic
for
only
allergens
remedies,
with
detection
demonstrated
already
by
published
the
usually
hyper-sensitive
on
"treated"
water
and
had
homoeopathic
that
evident
which-is
diluted
serially
magnetic
remedies
information
of
report
regarding
homoeopathic
the
of
with
in
in
coherence
(1988)
basis
the
on
commercial
W. Ludwig
signals
effects
initiated
was
scientific
physicist
coherent
of
work
x
23),
10
molecule
of
The
objective
Ludwig's
experiment
involved
in
"treated"
latter
This
1991).
work
There
properties
water
d)
the
considerations
structures
has
Water
the
structure,
as
the
to
form
in
present
at
the
or
close
and
terms
in
Since
ice.
of
vicinity
to
of
which
characterize
The
other
also
substances,
of
effects
potentized
treated
theoretical
the
of
possible
in
order
reference
to
sustain
its
to
to
as well
water
and
structures
liquid
its
molecular
liquid
suggested
in
its
of
possibility
been
water
has
to
those
which
when
it
defects
similar
been
investigated
and
physical
on
terms
its
of
ionic
has
Water
biological
water
relations
possible
the
the
special
their
structure
crystalline
(Tsouris,
subject
a)
the
it.
with
versatility
is
review
magnetically
might
into
bio-information.
store
of
reviewed
are
properties
flexibility
ability
some
and
properties
physical
both
of
investigations
water
investigated
been
measurements
water
includes
imprinted
frequency.
biochemical
in
been
correctly.
;
of
water
the
which
all
this
the
interest
potentized
bio-information
the
b)
chemical
of
to
given
molecular
store
area
of
interest
of
properties
analytical
last
The
water.
physical
known
a comprehensive
on
liquid,
"treated"
the
c)
followed
areas
of
"treated"
published
five
the
of
and
already
has
properties
-the
It
signals
which
be measured
to
magnetically
thesis.
were
liquid,
the
had
into
and
this
of
relevant
of
imprint
remedies
part
starting
assessment
repeat
coherent
water
fields
critical
investigation
homoeopathic
in
to
was
detecting
and
magnetic
frequency
An
by
remedies
the
allowed
work
present
1988)
alternating
a known
since
(Ludwig,
homoeopathic
with
the
of
particularly
when
is
inside
cells.
which
is
"treated"
2
with
magnetic
fields
is
investigated,
the
investigations
had
design
The
and
to
reference
very-low
is
shielding
which
expected.
Suitable
test
enclosures
and
construction
of
special
water
with
water.
gold
can
given
as
has
been
also
The
take
in
when
to
the
constructed
and
of
involved
development
the
and
design
the
field
magnetic
shielding
of
effectiveness
this
this
were
work
in
terms
was the
with
of
an
electrolyte.
were
measured
to
and
in
wire
weak
interfacing
which
structure
The
electrical
consideration
and
involved
sources
the
electrodes
metal
particular
noise
result
gold
effect
the
mechanical
of
induced
being
signals
at
at
electrodes.
The
investigated
built
been
made
discreet
from
signals
with
an
into
the
ultra
for
specially
on
available
ultra
for
possible
could
were
entity.
interface
which
magnetic
interest
of
create
could
high
effectiveness
This
the
electrodes
various
and
shielding
DC magnetometer
contact
these
of
the
considered
for
reason
an
particular
electric
designed
devised.
were
used
with
of
with
signals
was
measuring
a working
given
the
where
measuring
transducers
fluctuations
and
(VLF)
which
for
electrode-electrolyte
the
frequency
coil-structures
parameters
was
is
an AC and
of
suitable
The
so,
for
began
work
characteristics
enclosures
constructed
enclosures
the
of
region
these
environment.
instrumentation
procedures
the
patterns
the
so the
and
free
calculation
shielding
performance
and
controlled
field
and magnetic
electric
the
be
to
for
environment
experimental
the
low
noise
amplifier
low
this
and
through
water
noise
after
of
the
these
amplifier
purpose
characteristics
market,
semiconductor
the
noise
the
design
The
include
considerations
was
designed
investigation
low
associated
components.
3
which
an
were
electrodes
had
noise
devices
with
various
details
of
its
ability
of
this
to
work
virtually
at
with
contact
any
water,
capacitive
Practical
water
were
of
considerations
water
by
a)
activated
with
detection
of
magnetic
vector
in
which
water
from
the
the
of
acoustic
waves
signals
from
potential
was
not
and
under
for
were
weak
both
coherent
water
activated
the
c)
detection
intentional
any
4
and
from
investigation
the
main
from
and
in
signals
water
of
three
signals
sources.
weak
models
used
There
detection
the
detecting
theoretical
apparatus
workers.
other
experiments
for
in
electrodes
impedance
inductive
and
experiments
devised
including
'impedance,
source
classes
water
incoherent,
by
of
an
of
that
b)
was
the
alternating
coherent
excitation.
of
signals
CHAPTER
HISTORICAL
1.1
GENERAL
This
with
from
and
Since
homoeopaths
in
had
which
a sequence
of
for
looked
for
the
been
serial
"potentised
has
which
serial
dilution
wave).
The
liquid
it
when
properties
In
substance
followed
by
is
very
is
water
diluted
The
is
serial
5
have
to
by
stimulated
the
characterize
in
here
one
or
thesis
this
to
a
as
some
mechanical
of
more
as
involving
treatment
specific
property
its
shock
of
a
physical
treatment.
activated
with
solvent
exposed
been
defined
a particular
undergoing
succussion.
in
change
can
serially
defined
the
being
the
to
Physicists
which
in
organisms.
(exposure
succussion
homoeopathy,
is
water"
a
"memory"
term
whereby
living
undergone
and
effects
on
tested
century,
phenomena
with
have
studies
clinical
19th
corresponding
diluted
Both
or
homoeopathic
"memory"
effects
clinical
physico-chemical
the
after
biological
water
in
of
evidence
"memory"
physics.
water
the
term
theoretical
water
application
both
from
in
These
the
liquid
fields.
The
in
succussion.
magnetic
when
water.
and
time-varying
liquid
in
dilution
in
potentized
have
near-infinitely
changes
observed
which
homoeopathy
of
giving
effects
changes
of
and
looked
of
phenomena
originating
beginning
have
capable
terms
experimental
the
of
prepared
liquid
the
of
substance
in
review
"memory"
remedies
reviewed
properties
water
to
reference
are
sources
a historical
gives
chapter
homoeopathic
effects
REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
special
in
I
water,
dilutions
or
potentized
each
are
dilution
usually
when
a
being
made
by
volumetrically
ten
C or
and
serial
dilution
strong
impacts
a hard
on
done
for
CH
phial
such
as
bound
Potencies
plus
potential
the
of
presence
or
tube
glass
wood,
number
of
these
symbol
x
or
D for
1980).
After
each
10
of
consists
the
containing
to
100
solution
this
was
referred
to
traditionally
although
fields
magnetic
are
field
a static
a
of
materials
the
an
magnetic
vector
in
or
succussion
which
is
to
be
may
be
potency
magnetic
of
presence
field
magnetic
of
in
alternating
frequency
are
which
prepared
or
particular
dilutions
Serial
the
(Vithoulkas,
it
potencies"
either
and
follows,
with
, magnetic
alternating
number
The
book.
prepared
"magnetic
hundred.
hundred
a
the
of
surface
as
the
succussion
on a leather
herein
by
or
ten
of
denoted
are
operations
a factor
the
imprinted.
performed
subsequently.
In
field
the
in
changes
treatments
their
they
which
a brief
paragraphs,
of
physical
different
have
which
according
to
the
addition,
the
oxidization
treatment
acquire
shape
effect
which,
is
the
alloy
forced
will
to
the
arise
those
"memory"
of
treatment
of
to
following
treatment.
and
as
typical
into
material
of
a
Gutmann,
given
same temperature.
6
In
undergone.
to
proportionally
1987).
Other
result
having
a
shape
and
shape
at
shape
when
a
metals
heat
of
50% titanium,
desired
that
a
energy
has
alters
of
properties
their
it
which
copper
(Resch
consisting
recover
In
according
properties
A
the
undergone.
thermochemicoluminescence
rate
received
memory
- when
temperature
exposed
previous
treatment.
mechanical
given
different
gives
milling
is
history
the
to
according
previously
review
materials
Copper
properties
show
substances
many
science,
50%
and
memory
nickel
particular
subsequently
"memory"
Similar
ice
of
structures
would
Yosaki
and
mixture
a
of
switching
and
materials
similar
oxides
and
et
solution
changed
dilutions.
on
crystalline
temperature
and
and
recrystalized
those
1.2.1
INTRODUCTION
The
establishing
alternative
or
research
to
the
found
-they
organic
certain
metal
of
NaCl
conductivity
of
the
had
been
implies
that
beginnings
the
by
complementary
by
and
succussion
some of
changes
doctors
for
the
tools
their
of
this
homoeopaths
is
given
7
by
express
In
of
The
and
medicine.
influence
been
homoeopathy.
of
the
have
water
medical
medicine
standardizing
between
succussed
water.
of
action
conductivity
sample
properties
done
the
the
WATER
to
and
in
found
the
mainly
related
valve
containing
that
POTENTIZED
since
directed
water
observed
in
"memory"
investigation
in
experiment
They
properties
OF
this
investigated
experiment
PROPERTIES
In
gel.
originally
(1982)
if
1.2
closely
and
a mechano-chemical
semiconductors.
water.
This
physical
reference
heated
was
phenomena
to
al.
in
been
water
memory
dilutions
the
specific
pressures
developed
(1985)
amorphous
Resch
has
ice
the
Studies
1949).
Osada
with
different
under
when
that
showed
ice.
for
found
are
ice
formed
reproduce
(Bridgman,
of
in
transformations
phase
the
properties
the
under
research
scientists
purpose
in
profession
section,
with
homoeopathic
a
of
review
particular
remedies
biological
on
identify
to
used
the
of
that
homoeopathy
reproducible
of
to
in
vary
direction
up
of
two
starch
and
diastase
containing
an
Specific
implies
seems
which
in
changes
usually
or
change
water
specified
by
the
one
author.
in
a variation
fifteen
journals
and
the
enzyme
distilled
same
rates
absorption
used
and
to
years
study
plus
The
was
were
experiment
the
by
Boyd
published
in
Potencies
of
hydrolysis
had
flasks
compared
with
chloride
at
studied
showed
effect
on
out
of
mercuric
were
8
rate
control
They
hydrolysis
meter.
the
the
study
newspaper.
The
only.
substances
research
trypsin.
and
carried
by
starch
showed
was
British
a
of
important
water
chloride
mercuric
by pepsin
clearly
most
diastase.
water
of
fibrin
of
potentized
of
fermentation
the
obtained
of
were
The
potency.
a
potency.
on
The
of
outcome
the
potentized
potencies
lysis
on the
chloride
and
the
effect
were
effects
with
(1994)
al.
an inexplicable
in
if
investigated
their
homoeopathic
mercuric
et
mention
given,
"change"
potencies.
This
in
only
with
Persson
different
(1954).
are
term
results
biochemical
Reilly
properties
EFFECTS
for
Significant
with
the
amylase
salivary
methods
chemical
placebo
fashion.
fluctuates
1930,
120X
to
from
quantity
another,
BIOCHEMICAL
In
by
work
described,
fluctuating
which
1.2.2
recent
studies
a
case,
activity
and
physical
differs
a particular
or
other
the
chemical
way.
following
variation
most
analytical
various
in
changes
The
The
In
and
remedies.
concludes
but
systems,
of
starch
flasks
the
61X
colorimetrically
that
mercuric
potencies
chloride
five
hundred
comparisons.
Jussal
(1984)
remedies
and
performed
enzymatic
in
change
when
the
The
the
with
enzymatic
activities
diagnosis
based
blood
on
the
the
influence
of
of
a
potencies
new
a
with
of
method
for
tested
homoeopathic
of
of
experiments
of
are
activity
the
of
Further
which
than
more
indication
clear
development
samples
influence
the
under
homoeopathic
presence
flasks.
the
to
involving
a very
the
under
control
led
in
under
showed
rate
hydrolysis
Specifically,
investigated
results
reaction
compared
enzymes
experiments
was
potencies.
of
rate
reactions.
acetylicholinesterase
arsenic
the
accelerated
different
' (Jussal,
remedies
1984).
A
team
study
the
biochemical
(IgE)
with
surface
results
in
The
results
same
through
and
molecule
that
However,
when
a
laboratory
the
the
of
in
the
the
to
verify
to
effect
to
repeat
the
"Nature"
the
results
9
120X
1988;
used
human
of
their
visited
once
were
and
that
the
be
must
anti-IgE.
were
solutions
in
E
world.
demonstrate
to
al.,
type
potency
the
substance
the
Journal
if
even
to
the
of
around
order
they
20X
effects
original
failed
results
order
in
of
cause
from
team
the
obtained
sieve
a molecular
single
from
et
a
on
work
immunoglobulin
the
of
laboratories
were
(Poitevin
in
world
their
experiment
potencies
showed
different
the
the'
over
published
water
antibodies
and
clearly
repeated
potentized
For
attached
their
on
of
all
Benveniste
1988).
al.,
basophilis
Prof.
action
et
from
scientists
by
co-ordinated
Davenas
The
thirteen
of
not
potency
in
own
Prof.
more.
the
passed
even
remained
solvent.
satisfaction
Beveniste's
a
An
extensive
effects
zoological
in
out
carried
institutions
that
size
what
implies
decoding
able
to
essential.
share
in
1.2.3
PHYSICAL
The
is
forms
of
life,
due
to
the
be applied
the
coherence
skin,
way
of
and
be
a biological
the
that
all
wide
the
common
in
life
no
biological
a potency
within
factors
main
in
carried
remains
to
a
be
could
through
share
To sustain
and
of
all
and
of
homoeopathic
possibility
all
is
which
effectively.
PROPERTIES
first
research
was
out
investigated
with
wavelength.
The
differences
in
through
Ansaloni
carried
light
The
OF POTENTIZED
scientific
water
1955).
must
number
The
inhalation,
systems
one
can
a
from
Furthermore,
injection,
it
are
illness
activate
potencies
1991).
today's
1990).
to
been
are
system
living
systems
common.
potentized
passed
which
bio-communication
This
the
complexity.
bio-information
respond
system,
90% of
able
living
that
this
to
and
orally,
eg.
systems,
is
there
reports
(Vithoulkas,
in
ways
of
varieties
illness,
and
already
(Tsouris,
author
recent
about
water
potentized
matter
that
homoeopathy
with
cured
and
has
remedies
the
human
of
written
show
by
work
treatment
Medica
Materia
homoeopathic
of
botanical,
bacteriological,
of
a previous
the
For
it
review
the
different
and
Vecchi.
physical
by Wursumser
from
to
reference
intensity
the
on
absorption
transducer
WATER
a
in
was a photoelectric
of
the
1948
different
luminous
(Stephenson,
was
potencies
source
cell
incoming
of
properties
light
fixed
of
which
after
detected
it
had
potencies.
(1989)
detected
10
similar
optical
density
in
changes
in
water
Boiron
with
distinguish
six
results
fashion
for
field
different
measurements
dielectric
(1983)
for
according
Hadley
detected
to
a
the
alcoholic
measurements
the
and
also
a
function
of
measurements
made
in
in
the
detected
a
potential
in
to
be
±
by
Hz.
Jussal
and
changes
both
the
potency
to
in
and
bridge.
this
repeat
homoeopathic
remedies.
varied
which
signal
et
made
were
a capacitive
test
10
10)
effort
variations
kHz
kHz
potencies
with
an
50
al.
bridge.
These
(base
et
found
50
at
C.
at
investigated
shift
across
two
solution
in
fashion
a fluctuating
fluctuating
potency.
Carbonyl
Kumar
as
phase
range
Bismuth
the
against
Smith
was
water
scale
(1981)
(1984)
Jussal
millivolt
for
was
potencies.
capacitance
of
When
a
potentized
a capacitance
was
based
detected
Pharh
determination
according
made
by
constant
with
logarithmic
used
and
They
were
a
frequency
Water
untreated
constant
were
capacitance
the
of
alcohol
to
in
from
potency
plotted
vary
measured
dielectric
the
that
The
also
was
potencies.
and
from
These
in
constant
magnetic
magnetic
to
to
able
water.
were
constant
were
54X
distilled
found
collaboration
they
in
of
1955).
dielectric
for
dielectric
they
in
work
chloride
only
Gay
constant
apparatus
sodium
number
(Stephenson,
(1985a)
this
same
containing
the
dielectric
the
extended
the
containing
dilution
The
the
using
similar
serial
al.
when
flasks
obtained
the
1953,
biohealers.
by
potentized
in
he
In
flasks
other
been
anomalies
water.
potentized
a
which
detected
1951
had
Jussal
Natrium
involved
(1985)
The voltage
to
according
the
potency
investigated
Muriaticum
potencies
the
determination
11
in
immersed
electrodes
water.
in
difference
the
from
of
was
the
to
vary
tension
of
dilution.
surface
6C
Barium
a
found
the
up
rise
to
30
of
the
C.
The
liquid
in
fine
a
of
dispensing
of
rise
two
the
the
to
the
The
The
microscope.
a fluctuating
and
that
showed
1.2.4
at
certain
nine
pure
potency
from
structure
CLINICAL
on
magnetic
field
structure
of
magnetic
field.
region.
The
the
The
crystal
who
were
that
formed
the
of
the
orientation
magnetic
was
12
on
the
pellets
structural
each
up by
potency
lactose.
POTENCIES
to
an
of
orientation
depends
to
lactose
and
taken
exposed
is
the
used
OF MAGNETIC
water
remedies
potentization
of
in
formations
frequency
the
1966).
used
change
120C were
PROPERTIES
shown
ice
a
potencies
according
action
10C to
supercooled
have
the
(1979),
display
to
Potencies
specific
Jussal
and
maximum.
and Massachusetts,
display
to
approach
of
varies
and
maximum
chloride
mercury
strength
water,
(Brucato
a
on
break-down
of
Kumar
Studies
test
the
that
first
first
the
distinct
found
the
after
in
varied
showed
was
after
travelling
a
and
It
potencies
controlled
tension
surface
of
same purity.
with
potency
potencies
dielectric
by
made
potencies.
eighteen
the
of
ratio
tension
temperature
the
the
The
surface
alcohol
the
with
tube.
the
a
that
compared
capillary
were
to
were
of
in
according
that
PHYSICAL
of
strength
A different
arrangement.
tension
showed
occured
the
in
ratio
place
potentization
taken
the
gave
occurred
than
of
soaked
same
dielectric
different
was
the
results
minimum
The
degree
in
measurements
minima
maximum
showed
alcohol
manner
and
the
values
took
environment.
second
the
surface
experiments
maxima
and
measurements
potency
The
tube
capillary
alternating
the
direction
the
field
frequency
was
in
dependent
crystal
of
the
the
kHz
and
independent
of
the
the
of
crystals
field
were
density
the
Piccardi
(1950),
on colloidal
alternating
magnetic
in
the
by
water
the
with
frequencies
in
comparison
with
in
rate
sunflower,
to
(Presman,
C.
et
water
allergies.
Water
another
to
static
only
with
and
a
exposed
to
weight
in
showed
field
on
in
acceleration
thickness
and
The
water.
magnetic
soybeans
1965.
to
in
ordinary
static
height,
water
increase
receiving
biological
back
date
receiving
animals
control
constant
the
on
fields
showed
in
field
magnetic
exposed
experiments
region,
increase
on
the
of
plant
which
were
treated
with
demonstrated
the
clinical
effects
samples
pure
1979).
potentized
the
pigs
corn,
the
dependent
dielectric
water
salt
altered
be
to
the
in
of
1 mT.
magnetic
"exposed"
have
and
in
(1979)
and
control
comparison
activate
which
range
mixtures
found
anomalies
of
to
kHz
the
growth,
Smith
to
exposed
kHz
the
field
was
absorption
order
mice
of
water
cosmic
were
that
shown
solution
found
exposed
water
of
the
Presmann
water
Experiments
the
the
of
to
of
investigate
in
magnetic
tension
in
light
the
have
static
surface
in
of
seedlings
a
(1979)
According
effect
to
Presmann
fields
effects
only
1989).
These
frequencies
at
magnetic
field
magnetic
to
and water.
(1986)
present
changes
magnetic
first
solutions
The
substance
and
the
of
the
of
(Jaberansari,
the
was
fields
exposed
strength.
magnitude
alignment
Mu-Shik
tension.
surface
independent
be
to
orientation
environment.
Studies
and
the
of
influences
occur
the
and
The
crystallization.
of
found
also
time
exposure
altered
temperature
al.
allergic
particular
on
(1985b)
certain
potentised
symptoms
frequency,
hyper-sensitive
at
of
a
13
and
a patient,
specific
with
certain
frequency
could
people
particular
for
the
of
water
exposed
patient,
to
could
the
neutralize
Thus,
water
has
as
to
the
single
water
C.,
Water
a
effect
imprints
water
on
chemical
reaction
all-or-nothing
system
appears
is
another
to
can
Organon
a
to
is
Hahnemann
homoeopathic
Medicine
the
founder
one
have
is
that
for
a
reactions
remedies
of
has
alternative
to
frequencies
to
say
every
allergic
frequency
of
it
develop
may
with
in
is
to
patient
set
or
In
by
mentioned
of
have
symptoms
1810
to
those
potencies.
written
of
or
correlation
homoeopathy,
14
The
magnetic
field
topically
no
1983)
when
magnetic
patient
suppressions
be
can
potency
an
frequency.
decoding
reactions
of
as
allergic
and
(Hahnemann,
any
that
This
orally,
particular
and
show
the
particular
1989)
An
allergic,
a
be given
Best,
than
more
in
frequency
either
not
indicates
liquid.
the
person
frequency.
sensitive,
Similar
of
in
with
and
does
involved
be
to
neutralized
C.
used
effect.
a particular
which
to
water
fields
clearly
which
hyper-sensitive
characteristically
with
a
different
for
particular
strength
persons
imprinted
a
person
frequencies.
found
an
(Smith
one
field
are
symptoms
into
1.8).
allergic
by
limit
no
500
required
the
on
on
are
neutralization
reacts
a stronger
allergen,
injection
which
with
exposure
these
when
people
potentize
to
up
strength
depends
section
when
activated
which
it
bio-information
the
demonstrated
by
field
(see
biological
The
which
prepared.
and
potentized
with
or
over
shown
can
one
samples
minimum
1992)
enhanced
or
been
have
effects
frequencies
and
range
hyper-sensitive
on
clinical
different
potentized
(Smith
The
frequency
The
tested
and
sample,
is
to.
frequency
the
"remember"
to
able
exposed
GHz.
of
have
become
been
to
number
There
be
to
potentized
mHz
frequencies
of
has
been
from
ranges
symptoms.
seems
it
frequencies
water
allergic
the
Samuel
that
homoeopathic
remedies
Remedies
fields.
the
a magnet,
one
C.,
can
whether
of
with
bio-information
is
carried
that
or
a
succussion
These
studies
are
number
different
of
that
potential
vector
solenoid,
or
vector
or
that
the
potential
and
formats
the
to
water
molecular
homoeopathic
in
in
terms
structure
of
to
to
the
of
with
water
of
as
properties
physical
liquid.
the
In
this
chemical
an
section,
investigate
to
is
potencies
found
changes
the
the
of
action
in
used
magnetic
structural
the
express
by
water
potentized
alterations
methods
and
remedies
in
studied
order
analytical
reference
particular
have
methods
the
of
treatment
INVESTIGATIONS
researchers
potencies
overview
of
potencies.
CHEMICAL
chemical
analytical
and
poles
two
considers
field
changes
causes
homoeopathic
ANALYTICAL
A
of
effects
a coil,
magnetic
the
that
similarly
in
evident
1.2.5
in
magnetic
suggest
fields
magnetic
static
pole
clinical
He
the
on
South
the
magnetic
field
electric
bio-information.
this
accept
a
transformer.
toroidal
a
with
a magnetic
between
through
shown
water
on the
prepared
or
and
magnetic
static
a magnet,
has
(1991)
produced
through
pole
potentize
also
by
be specifically
can
North
Smith
magnet.
be made
can
the
with
given
in
potentized
of
Aconite
in
in
the
liquids.
Kahan
(1985)
1X
potencies
studied
to
spectra
of
the
between
the
same
300X.
potencies
drug
the
He
ultraviolet
observed
which
prepared
spectrum
significant
enable
by
15
changes
different
him
to
make
pharmacists.
comparisons
Similar
and
observations
infrared
using
an
were
very
significant,
standardizing
different
Further
magnetic
to
Triacetate
Boericke
spectrum,
different
those
Smith
1966).
R.,
and
same
verified
by
Smith
R.
remedies
the
show
prepared
spectra
(Boericke
by
out
the
Boericke
ultrasound
be
could
a potency
potency.
N. M. R spectra
Boericke,
and
and
Viras
(1968)
associated
with
thermodynamic
disengaging
as
that
(1992)
a differential
with
different
evident
made
of
the
found
in
using
a
hydroxyl
the
high
modern
spectrometer.
Anagnostatos
become
a traditionally
of
did
potencies
adjusting
N. M. R spectrum
in
displayed
carried
his
sulphur
potencies
made
by
that
with
changes
succussion,
by
in
potencies
(succussed)
N. M. R studies
of
found
also
compared
traditionally
the
amplitude,
(1983)
resolution
of
showed
Sacks
region
the
Other
(1966)
that
as
of
were
ultrasonic
instead
spectrum
water.
potencies
Furthermore,
NMR
used
potencies
insignificant
showed
for
nuclear
the
of
sulphur
were
sulphur
ultrasound
R.,
frequency
the
of
from
Smith
and
while
region
used
of
(1968)
region
spectra
which
changes.
use
who
those
distilled
hydroxyl
(1966)
N. M. R
in
up
obtained
proposed
investigated
The
made
1985).
Boericke
hydroxyl
the
the
(unsuccussed),
the
and
R.
The
significant
in
results
involve
and
where
was
(Kahan,
R.
made
in
Smith
and
experiments.
by
.
were
changes
dilutions
Smith
the
technique
methods
potencies.
Similar
N. M. R
chemical
area
different
the
potencies
more,
pharmacopoeias
increased
Biadykinin
Once
and
(NMR)
resonance
using
different
spectrometer.
analytical
identify
for
comparisons
scanning
some
order
form
properties
and
of
and
more
16
investigated
bonded
homoeopathic
Water
calorimeter.
increased.
temperature
more
have
which
absorb
From
these
molecules
have
can
order-structure
more
heat
before
results,
are
has
present
it
is
in
In
degree
same
all
in
corresponding
or
the
scanning
REVIEW
The
OF THE
of
,
water
are
regarded
in
monomeric
unbonded
in
molecules
and
undergo
order
to
molecules
is
water
forming
introduced
vicinity
a
way,
involved
particular
adopt
a
a
by
of
size
higher
energy
17
which
in
molecule
to
state
lower
in
stereospecific
This
structural
that
there
are
bonded
be
can
When an ionic
group
of
interact
energy
which
the
water-alcohol
water.
a
solvent,
solute
packed
fact
the
up by
stereoscopic
in
molecules
the
the
the
the
(Barnard
taken
catalysts.
variable
into
minimum
closely
ionic
assumes
water
structures
diolefines
water
of
This
to
of
structure
in
similar
supported
from
transitions
achieve
The
of
solvent
clusters
the
structure
and
presence
formation
substance
the
the
isomeric
being
as
for
homoeopaths.
olefines
the
is
like
differential
the
of
a
OF WATER
model
1965,1967,1969).
of
polymerization
together
a function
the
with
this
be
could
of
by
proposed
a stereoscopic
Stephenson
in
output
MECHANISM
accepted
was
and
mixtures
"MEMORY"
widely
water
formation
be
to
In
which
The
just
tincture.
mother
artifacts
found
measured
were
controls
to
involved.
most
potentized
no
equalized.
was
tinctures
mother
The
experimental
calorimeter
were
potency
remedies
diluted
serially
and
calorimeter.
were
experiment
homoeopathic
results,
succussed
containing
contaminants
1.3
the
initially
but
remedy
his
been
scanning
water.
unpotentized
had
of
differential
ordinary
cross-check
which
water
and
to
order
in
than
water
potentized
the
solvent
with
levels
group
arrangement.
it
in
of
In
to
order
assumed
meet
the
energy
that
an
isotactic
of
association
possible
solvent
packing
the
All
shape.
monomeric
molecular
Each
own,
configurations
The
to
requirements
forces
must
have
a
an
best
the
orientation
carry
solute
The
minimum
is
helical
and
the
of
each
Boltzmann
difference
lifetime
kT
of
"t"
T the
be
Taking
at
The
10-10
Y=
5-14
thermal
all
in
groups
the
the
solvent
polymer
energy
levels
in
on two
energies;
on
calculated
to
10-14
,
and
30 °C;
while
polymers
are
to
the
exp
motion
ratio
follows
as
a
effect
each
.
the
change
of
is
the
likelihood
The
kW
a)
K
where
temperature.
absolute
depends
state
can
Y=
one
energy
by
molecular
necessary
of
t=Y
where
from
threshold
determined
the
depends
(W)
energy
and
constant
change
lifetime
polymer
the
and
solute
vary
a particular
to
as
overall
different
the
is
or
that
assumed
different
would
to
structure
molecule.
expected
energy
polymer
atoms
information
precise
particular
a
which
the
particular
many
according
all
a
many
the
such
interaction
it
Therefore,
chain.
another
for
has
for
of
the
of
secondary
8 days
have
and
therefore
possible
stability
configuration
a
length
polymer
and
are
molecules.
state
to
is
from
equivalent,
are
bond
the
solvent
its
of
must
units
formed
order
structure
it
unit.
stereoregulated
form
of
in
lies
stereospecificity
In
molecules.
the
is
chain
polymer
arrangement,
interactions,
the
of
requirements
The
expected
:
( W/kT
sec.
W=1.15
for
assumed
eV ,
W=1.45
to
18
eV,
be
the
t=
equally
expected
2000
lifetime
is
years.
stabilized
by
the
of
process
succussion,
frictional
electrification
of
However,
energy.
set
by
chains
the
of
The
N. M. R,
part
of
the
such
as
Raman
1.4
THE
al.
but
properties
field
of
and
In
pentagonal
in
clinical
in
water
molecule
of
for
ring
the
hydrogen
1.1
0.4nm
(from
are
clinical
protons
bond
Smith
the
Other
O-H
studies
helical
of
ring
would
and
et
et
the
If
such
with
al.,
by
through
in
in
last
ring,
a pitch
1985b).
19
is
water
ice.
et
memory
a magnetic
based
had
It
properties
are
1985b).
al.
C.
Smith
the
to
couple
effectiveness
vapour
another
suggested
Stephenson
approach.
"memory"
in
close.
and
to
able
formed
also
molecules
C.
in
Barnard
justified
structure
C.
diameter
hypothesis
this
existence
different
(Smith
to
the
also
be
to
the
a pentagonal
to
ruptured
1966).
by
and
helix
the
their
frozen
be many
increase
an
Boericke,
was
a completely
that
is
it
had
which
which
liquid
ruptured
support
find
proposed
work
and
be
would
a remedy.
support
derived
was
water
rings
potencies
with
it
case
is
chain
1976).
water
represented
this
of
a supply
polymerized
would
which
and
also
structure
potentized
(1985b)
R.
providing
chain
there
process
HYPOTHESIS
helical
for
(1965)
the
repeatedly
(Boiron,
water
C. W. SMITH
The
these
spectroscopy
in
structures
of
methods
(Smith
spectrum
length
in
length
chemical
involve
mostly
a'pump
potencies
same average
analytical
and
length,
high
at
the
on
the
as
regarded
water
a certain
So,
succussion.
of
a limit
beyond
that
so
is
which
be 17.5°
then
retained
bond
104.5°,
the
off
molecule
a
of
0.25nm
The
life-time
been
so
as
the
angle
of
the
fifth
required
through
can
shown
of
found
when
360°
combines
helix
the
magnetic
of
The
is
state
on
the
be
formed
in
Figure
hydrogen
a
Figure 1.1. Molecular
model
in potentized
water. Redrawn
Figure
1.2. Possible
Redrawn
formation
cluster
from Jaberansari
for the helical structure
from Smith C. W. (1985b).
in potentized
M. (1989).
water.
is
bond
the
of
the
spectra
order
Thus
coherent
oscillations
together
for
to
be stable
If
the
the
flux
that
63nm
and
against
thermal
can
be
for
However,
m long
rope
involve
would
of
coherent
all
the
Jaberansari
magnetic
Figure
Smith
R.
shown
in
This
and
could
bonds
providing
structure
in
1.3
still
form
(1968)
(from
of
from
of
the
helix
is
also
found
enough
then
These
would
R.
paths
bond
a possible
memory.
20
17 mHz an
be
required
which
water,
as
out
by
which
1968).
Boericke,
through
way of
shown
in
carried
remedies
hopping
8x108
water.
of
clusters
and
together.
supercooled
homoeopathic
length
rope
of
N. M. R studies
helical
hydrogen
flux
linked
volume
in
magnetic
minimum
of
would
lml
a
with
on
the
rings
dodecahedron
Smith
as
is
such
that
consistent
1991)
high
a frequency
in
showed
provide
C.
is
order
forces
available.
helices
water
coherent
(Smith
a dynamic
is
model
A helix
252
remember
could
the
This
become
1985b).
molecules
Boericke
Figure
chains
to
for
the
sections
which
ie
(1989)
potencies
1.2.
C.
required,
water
join
frequencies
quantization
the
in
time
life".
phenomena
(Smith
exist
are
infra-red
diffusion.
the
flux
water
ample
and
resonant
of
type
would
align
a "long
magnetic
has
system
to
superconductivity
in
from
while
seconds,
frequencies
coherence
include
of
vibration
10-14seconds.
10-11
their
along
storing
are
Such
hydrogen
the
helix
a frequency
Figure
1.3. Water group
by 28 molecules.
forming a hexakaidecahedron
formed
Redrawn from Smith R. (1968).
1.5
VITHOULKAS
THE
Vithoulkas
water
on
process
HYPOTHESIS
et
certain
and
the
modelled
formations
cluster
dilution
of
(1988)
al.
in
produced
for
succussion
the
in
mechanism
memory
during
water
the
the
of
potentization
solute.
he
Specifically,
small
potentization,
The
cluster.
shape
usual
to
size
the
clusters
for
ionic
are
smaller
During
the
to
presumed
inertia
process
from
a
clathrate
new
clathrate
original
substance,
can
the
process
before
since
bonds.
In
formed
be the
case
new cavity
on
which
is
more
potentization
which
have
the
same
larger
in
size,
and
shape
as
the
as
the
process
21
The
shapes
specific
water
small
clathrates
the
dilution.
and
more
of
be
the
formed
substance
dilution
The
same
as
"empty"
as
size
hydrogen
the
the
around
replicate
create
the
Thus,
be the
strength
the
the
of
absence
more
eventually
of
the
solution.
than
original
in
However,
new
could
are
clusters
infinite
may not
organized
will
atoms.
them.
in
at
each
continues,
dependent
of
differences
to
even
in
shape
in
small
around
a mantle-clathrate
addition,
Further
clusters.
is
The
due
refilled
potentization
this
core-clathrate
is
its
formed.
are
the
clathrates
as would
replicate
of
clathrates
the
the
them.
succussion,
now becomes
original
clathrate
of
to
limited
forming
thus
clusters,
ionic
is
the
addition,
inside
clusters
escape
and
big
with
of
are
and
In
substances.
hundreds
of
an
similar
which
a few
bonds
be
to
water,
to
tens
stage
surrounded
assumed
in
formed
hydrogen
surrounded
include
which
by
water
is
first
the
at
of
cluster
a few
of
formed
specific
the
cluster
order
are
clusters
clusters
of
hydrophobic
that
assumes
empty
clathrates
but
continues
be
will
their
increases.
number
1.6
THE
Giudice
Del
physics
a
GIUDICE
DEL
and
long
(1991)
as
memory
phenomena
Del
in
been
Giudice
water
When
water
is
model
a condensed
are
the
number
a critical
of
coherent
electromagnetic
if
thermodynamics
coherent
This
gas
is
regime
in
formed
in
is
two-fluid
water
which
some
given
with
the
in
are
volume
dipoles
a
produce
dependent
is
and
with
consistent
fluctuate
molecules
dipoles
water
The
a
time
model
field.
rest
They
phase.
which
phase
coherent
dipoles
the
be
to
frequency
oscillate
so
And
establish
of
oscillation
Hz
x1012
i. e
be about
100 to
300
molecules.
In
propagating
through
such
of
coherently,
they
rest
at
electrostatically
1.5
dipoles
the
water
only
interact
they
appear
at
a
as
ensemble.
If
other
vapour
field
the
the
while
phase.
oscillating
liquid.
a
gas
and
of
to
in
liquid
phase
on
investigation
a magnetic
liquid
a new
and
to
condense
water
number,
coherent
random
coherent
the
theories
relevance
two-fluid
a
as in
with
for
superconductive
the
special
quantum
working
Their
to
extend
have
on
the
and
helium.
treated
or
based
highly
and
2,
and
random
becoming
they
Chapter
been
have
Theory
liquid
as
potentized
molecules
exceeds
in
Field
in
specializing
phenomena
such
reviewed
has
which
quantum
liquids
water,
co-workers
Quantum
on
of
his
and
particular
time
properties
HYPOTHESIS
could
have
hydrogen
the
dipole
time
bonds
domain
a 50 cm-1 oscillation,
pm in
an
the
size,
involving
arrangement
system
would
22
to
between
is
in
each
the
with
The
them.
order
of
would
1017 water
wave
electromagnetic
interact
each
attract
domain
approximately
an
to
the
whole
domain
the
and
mode will
coherent
(1990)
al.
in
kHz
water
the
coherence
the
/
3x108
impose
12.4
eV
existence
larger
of
et
will
velocity
).
by
work
Different
and
Arani
al.,
et
fundamental
more
domain
domains
then
will
velocities
fundamental
the
gives
kHz
=5
is
resonance
Giudice
wave
different
Subsequent
the
frequency
coherent
1.5x1012
will
this
and
although
the
of
fluctuation
a
an electromagnetic
frequencies.
that
shows
in
molecules
1 m/s,
(
by Del
was calculated
give
domains
different
(1993)
to
region
coherent
therefore
nm,
300 Mm/s
the
of
and
frequency
the
and
wave
3x108
coherence
from
sizes
It
1017
the
decrease
appear
be lowered.
that
break
not
of
the
velocity
75
as
size
well
as
to
a
remains
possibility.
Given
enough
through
other
coherence
at
it
In
is
in
on the
transcribe
remedies
or
by a field
of
another
dilution
in
the
the
frequency
to
the
Further
the
dependent
bio-information
in
field
The
value
on
the
is
the
of
in
carried
phase
field
to
relevant
in
the
of
as
23
which
the
during
the
water.
the
field
have
This
carrier
domain
modulation
which
change
Giudice,
model
coherent
velocity
secondly,
then
can
be
may
homoeopathic
of
order
(Del
this
coherent
for
this
internal
coherent
applied
modulation
maintain
hydrogen
the
and
the
water,
disrupted,
potencies,
can
basic
the
size
into
preparation
magnetic
involved
of
in
molecules
publications
form
the
temperatures
Firstly,
temporally
which
water
bio-information
take
be
as
as
water.
coherent
each
on
only
superconducting
necessary.
should
succussion
presence
to
couple
depends
which
bio-information
are
domain
the
not
could
observed.
to
the
by
to
and
considerations
achieved
the
effect
usually
order
following
keeps
Josephson
established
which
bonds
the
domains
these
coherence,
its
1991).
considered
is
likely
frequency
and
with
is
the
a
waveleng-L
constant
velocity
proportional
to
frequency
theories,
do
show
These
may be
in
formed
succussion
The
of
water
"memory"
mechanism.
imprint
of
homoeopathic
section,
the
various
substances,
potentize
frequencies
potentials
is
procedures
with
is
implied
fields.
by
the
POTENCIES
to
water
potentize
is
the
the
with
of
preparation
the
fields
these
possible
AND MAGNETIC
Additionally,
magnetic
and
magnetic
explain
that
outlined.
dilution
serial
with
which
structures
and
to
procedure
vector
magnetic
described.
homoeopathic
Traditional
animal
is
of
"treated"
OF HOMOEOPATHIC
remedies,
molecular
would
and
1991).
C.,
influence
water
length
coherence
specific
water,
PREPARATION
this
that
structures
"treated"
on
In
these
of
models
THE
or
the
(Smith
the
upon
a substance
capability
1.7
to
equal
minerals,
extracts,
remedies
are
microorganisms,
made
electric
from
plants,
and
magnetic
fields.
methods
the
preparation
Mixture
If
the
by Hahnemann
formulated
The
of
the
of
the
tincture
mother
juice
of
the
Maceration
of
fresh
plant;
Maceration
of
dried
plants;
the
remedy
method
of
is
insoluble
trituration
in
is
used
24
of
homoeopathy
for
are:
plants
water
founder
the
with
as in
the
(Vithoulkas,
alcohol;
case
of
1980).
then
a metal
This
is
the
be
lactose
of
grinding
solid
potentized.
lactose
the
/
water
mixed
the
substances
of
stage
granules
in
dissolved
are
dilution
and
grinding
to
substance
water
or
with
alcohol,
or
mixtures.
alcohol
For
later
At
the
of
granules
with
sugar
present
kindly
were
the
work,
by
provided
tinctures
mother
the
thirty
of
Institute
Homoeopathic
of
Brazil.
In
the
a factor
by
diluted
0.5m1
water
of
is
distilled
as
noted
degree
taken
with
water.
After
2X,
of
ten
form
molecular
of
be
distilled
by
ten
from
1X and
noted
4.5
ml
the
new
to
given
an
desired
special
homoeopathic
(1980)
potentized
with
to
reference
any
that
water,
are
on
remedies.
in
substancemethod
hypothetical
these
in
contained
97a-e.
25
the
the
and
pharmacopoeias,
homoeopathic
the
of
review
extensive
with
potencies
preparing
comments
is
potency
mother
irrespective
complexity.
Critical
this
double
of
the
untill
repeated
strong
achieved.
Vithoulkas
to
can
can
different
methods
is
serially
double
of
succussions
be
were
followed
added
and
processes
4.5m1
added
strong
homoeopathic
by
According
potentized
pipet
has
alternative
its
new potency
(1991)
given
tincture
The
is
of
in
is
potentization
preparation
is
That
tincture
a
the
and
Tsouris
guides
mother
tinctures
mother
-the
ten.
of
on a bench.
succussions
0.. 5m1
work
present
discussion
models
of
on
page
of
1.8
POTENTIZATION
has
Water
The
necessity
related
field
Az
to
that
two
a)
An alternating
180
nWb m-1
Alternatively,
less
potential
To
a glass
tube
There
imprinted,
to
Best
(1989)
ought
to
vector
be
to
no
magnetic
4200
1mHz
MHz,
12.5
to
be
able
sub-millimeter
appropriate
on a wooden
seemed
or
for
found
to
THz
biological
and
store
field
field
1mT.
z
15
of
µT
a
at
vector
magnetic
can
limit
to
has
in
the
the
have
shown
been
potentized
intermediate
the
frequency
range
coherence
26
that
range
clinical
violet.
(Fröhlich,
could
from
effects
by
In
Smith
Fröhlich
1983).
C.
and
water
general,
frequencies
which
an
m-
frequency
ultra
in
potentization
Z 20 pWb
potential
impact
A single
necessary.
provide
potential
vector
magnetic
be
to
bench
water
GHz
magnetic
of
alternating
the
with
potencies
and
the
potentization.
was
magnetic
the
of
water
succession
alternating
be
of
potentize
only,
of
that
the
with
magnetic
magnetic
C.
conditions:
potential
a static
with
alternating
than
critical
vector
required
frequency
or
b)
is
Smith
from
separated
vector
mathematical
potentization
independent
and
of
IB=curlA.
that
of
a magnetic
is
lB
such
potential
magnetic
an
frequency
A
process
vector
with
potentize
density
vector
the
separate
to
flux
a
magnetic
are
found
POTENTIAL
VECTOR
A MAGNETIC
magnetic
shows
alternating
been
also
potential.
(1994a)
WITH
in
the
considers
1.9
INACTIVATION
OF POTENTIZED
factors
The
which
water
can
be
which
can
destroy
consequently
its
destroy
clinical
the
living
inactivate
can
in
classified
the
WATER
to
two
physical
clinical
potentized
properties
effects;
effects
First,
categories.
once
imprinted
or
potentized
of
and
secondly,
the
remedy
factors
the
those
is
water
and
which
can
to
applied
a
system.
The
application
°C will
remove
Homoeopathic
heat
of
the
potentized
properties
are
temperatures
inactivate
raise
imprinted
any
potencies
atmospheric
to
used
all
which
effectiveness
of
the
be
°C
40
has
It
a potency.
thus
world,
to
up
70
above
bio-information.
and
over
may
water
normal
will
been
not
suggested
0
that
potentized
has
water
its
imprinted
One
of
through
passed
or
100
a tube
stored
information
external
factors
erased
A in
diameter,
(Smith
C.
1990).
clinical
of
term
of
mint,
exposure
system
of
by
homoeopathic
act
this
potencies,
different
specific
potency
light
will
from
to
the
to
of
takes
the
ones
particular
which
a
sun
odorous
remedy.
place
at
frequency
which
a
initiated
person.
27
In
the
Long
monochromatic
neutralization.
to
remedies
a given
as
such
biological
a
substancies,
to
the
1980).
or
applied
tautopathic
called
light
its
to
potency
by
substancies
(Vithoulkas
etc
lead
inactivate
can
odorous
strong
also
neutralized,
an antidote
as
camphor
the
remedies
is
remedy
effects
clinical
can
the
eucalyptus,
polychromatic
The
to
major
effects
those
or
the
the
or
or
which
case
set
symptoms
of
of
are
other
able
magnetic
frequencies
and
which
are
II
CHAPTER
OF WATER
PROPERTIES
2.1
INTRODUCTION
This
in
terms
its
of
molecular
a basis
provide
introduces
chapter
for
the
structure
"memory"
physical
and
properties
considers
in
phenomena
they
whether
water
water
of
and
other
can
polar
liquids.
The most
water
are
for
are
the
and
interface
the
structure
possible
with
metals,
PROPERTIES
OF
the
approaches
water.
Water
in
the
all
only
1983).
As
the
in
crystalline
water
of
water
liquid
a
chemical
of
any
is
and
its
of
their
any
the
at
chemical
the
at
biological
states,
that
cells
than
latent
heat
liquid.
known
liquid,
nutrients
from
that
a
that
of
any
The
is
surface
tension
and
this
is
the
soil
(Conn
28
widely
and
and
vapour,
(Franks,
earth
other
vaporization
naturally
heat
good
of
simplicity
and
on
is
substance
occurs
naturally
water
of
the
liquid,
solid,
higher
other
time
same
occurs
known
no
compound
substance,
heat
other
science,
and
only
inorganic
that
transfer
complexity
is
specific
highest
natural
physical
ammonia,
to
vicinal
theory
WATER
three
than
the
reformation
the
and
field
the
addition
of
structure
quantum
In
water.
structural
Throughout
its
recent
the
reviewed.
2.2
the
the
of
for
proposed
models
including
outlined,
approach
phase
acceptable
conductor;
liquid
other
as high
twice
of
used
water
by
Stumpt,
is
plants
1966).
In
with
contrast
high
has
water
its
has
is
maximum
freezing
to
to
life
provides
on the
carry
to
not
chemicals
dissolved
chemically
identical
despite
1963),
as
to
systems
it.
and
that
of
single
and
water
turn
show
a great
but
also
to
the
water
is
heavy
to
(Thomson,
in
150ppm
its
but
water
many ways
at
allows
fact,
or
in
present
causes
In
similar
D20 is
this
ice.
D20
different
are
which
ponds
content
very
density,
and
in
which
example
physically
fact
the
water
For
systems
the
below
normal
important
climates,
lakes
the
its
of
cold
of
their
in
on biological
effects
Nature's
biological
only
behavior
surface
on
all
sensitivity
In
weight,
Another
points.
anomalous
°C.
4
molecular
similar
of
boiling
and
the
at
occur
life
marine
substances
melting
water
of
property
other
ordinary
water.
The
ground
The
is
state
1972).
(Rao,
hydrogen
bond.
molecules
are
the
0.0958
Two
adjacent
A
1972).
is
than
More
(from
to
calculated
hydrogen
form
formulate
physical
up
bonds
and
properties
Water
of
be
dissolved
Kern
molecules
possible
linear
one,
and
bifurcated
molecules
stable
and
the
to
20°.
make
might
of
the
molecules
substances.
the
structures
as
flexibility
of
The
of
the
molecular
the
the
for
account
the
may
2.3
has
been
to
molecule
very
structure
five
Figure
H-bond
water
is
Karplus,
or
in
shown
most
stable
and
four
three,
e. g.
a
water
The
more
(Kern
one
ability
1972).
next
form
two
of
Rao,
104,27°
to
combinations
the
the
interact
may
(from
is
angle
the
1972).
Karplus,
and
bond
O-H-O
2.2
water
this
the
and
of
(from
Figure
form
1972),
Rao,
2.1
water
by
two
and
combine
also
nm
a
in
molecule
water
in
followed
cyclic,
Figure
number
shown
structure
stable
in
shown
is
bond
O-H
density
electron
to
complex
in
anomalies
the
liquid.
may combine
In
the
29
differently
case
of
in
non-polar
the
presence
substances,
4
>r?
ýiýýi
ý ý;
Figure
dimensional
2.1. A three
density
of the ground
Redrawn
from
plot of the total
state of water.
Kern (1972).
electron
HHH
HH
ý
0-H---O
H-Q.
...
Q.
Q/
o1/
\\
0-H
HH
Figure
{ý
(I)
(II)
LINEAR
CYCLIC
2.2.
N
(III)
BIFURCATED
Possible
configuration
Redrawn
from Rao
of two water
W. (1972).
molecules.
H
HH
- ýý
0
o.ý
HH
ý
b*
ý
H
10
H
(1)
N
\N
0
ý
ý{
(2)
Fi\
H
H
,
0" --H-ý.
(3)
WATER
TRIMER
H
H
ý
Ö,
\
H
0ý
ýH.
H,
'0.
!.
H
HH
0 ,'%1.
.H
-
\%
HHI
N
/
ý
f{
ýf
'0
H
ý
ºt
H
(4)
WATER
Figure
molecules
(5)
TETRAMER
WATER
2.3. Possible
configuration
(1), (2), (3), four (4), five
Redrawn
from
Rao
PENTAMER
of three water
(5) water molecules.
W. (1972).
forms
water
hydrophobic
1983),
Franks,
the
but
the
the
is
water
of
1980).
involved
in
the
is
the
of
position
the
These
the
the
oxygen
known
not
(Seffey
are
clusters
structure
of
state
and
the
hydrophilic
long
size
and
hydrophobic
and
the
by
formed
of
shape
found
those
in
water
chains
substance
to
similar
in
formed
are
dissolved
the
on
both
of
symmetry
how far
be
can
solute,
defects
Protonic
from
vary
clusters.
substances.
and
is
and what
can
The
atoms
known
not
structures
dependent
more
is
other
the
molecules
once
it
dissolved
the
on
(from
according
the
hydrogen
2.4
(forty-sides)
1967).
by
Figure
they
general
McMullan,
the
Also
each
polar
dependent
determined
of
Hydrophilic
presence
are
tetracathedral
and
1967).
between
water
In
to
position
between
situated
which
1972).
structure
McMullan,
and
of
(Seffey
solute
hydrophobic
atoms
size
(five-sides)
pentahedral
as
clusters
(Franks,
substance
to
the
in
shown
are
which
(Sceats
and
Stuart,
in
may
also
ice
be
(Pethig,
substances
1986).
All
are
water
the
modelled
anomalies
found
according
to
formulate
and
for
Models
"uniform
two
which
and
more
consists
1927),
but
concept
of
the
hydrogen
which
assume
vanished
bonding.
categories,
models"
a
30
liquid.
the
namely
have
the
the
presence
1979).
of
few
with
Franks
the
of
molecules
can
which
model
water
of
But,
purity.
all
structure
polymers
theories
two
(Pethig,
water
no
properties
into
that
"mixture
for
of
these
fall
of
is
there
and
properties
100%
assume
physical
assumes
the
species
theories
liquid
the
the
of
of
structure
molecular
some
and
(1975)
all
the
satisfy
liquid
the
structure
water
Early
to
as
explain
for
proposed
Strillinger
model"
or
so
in
same structure,
of
models
water
molecules
the
(1983)
that
considered
long
the
(Chadwell,
introduction
investigated
of
the
the
Figure
Circles
2.4.
hydrate
clathrate
cage geometry.
oxygen
atoms
and the lines hydrogen
A typical
represent
Redrawn
from
Franks
F. (1972).
bonds.
H-bonds
and
clusters
of
they
proposed
have
independent
each
cluster
performs
clusters
is
Scherga,
1961a)
in
are
to
the
the
density
the
hydrophobic
and
Ohmine,
in
motions,
binding
water
Another
et
1973).
al.,
branched
accounts
the
for
the
a
is
energy
associated
associated
1988).
structure
to
similar
as
bonds
hydrogen
The
large
melting
and
(Gibbs
a gel
branched
randomly
forming
water
of
gel
This
rings.
boiling
points
liquid.
the
Another
important
model
in
equilibrium
with
clusters
the
viewed
(Tanaka
component
for
model
result
water
component
Tanaka,
and
simulation
liquid
the
slow
a structure
is
liquid
satisfactorily
model
having
in
fast
the
(Ohmine
accepted
as
The
randomly
with
of
liquid
the
considers
widely
b)
for
reformation
1988).
the
a)
and
structure
in
the
as
satisfies
Computer
Tanaka,
and
headings:
two
structural
bonding
(Ohmine
calculated
model
fluctuations
energy
The
together
This
structures.
H-bond
1987);
the
and
molecules
is
bonded
1961b).
and
large
that
shown
under
water
flickering
water
clusters
and
Scherga,
hydrophylic
and
librational
with
in
the
H-bonds
fluctuations.
surrounding
of
but
(Nemethy
energy
H-bonds
and
cooperative
classified
size
forty
of
(Nemethy
have
the
The
the
fluctuations
if
met
Overall,
these
of
of
bonds,
to
respect
local
large
is
variations
from
with
energy
state.
order
structure
programs
local
impose
and
monomer
of
ice-H
dissociation
equilibrium
the
be
by
and
a time.
forming
and
with
consisting
at
many
breaking
cooperatively
governed
thermodynamic
for
timing
liquid
the
bonding,
and
formation
The
for
model
breaking
H-bonds
they
involved.
a
gas
phase.
single
water
model
satisfies
The
structured
molecules
the
are
visualizes
water
each
and
other
is
water
free
to
dielectric
not
rotate
relaxation
31
as having
separated
free
to
solid-like
by water
in
but
the
rotate
(Eyring,
constants
1963).
of
This
water
1980).
(Dorst-Hansen,
In
liquid,
the
complexity
but
and
pressure
several
temperature
conditions
(Bridgman,
1949).
is
structure
(from
ordered
perfectly
the
crystalline
The
first
OH
produced
bonds
in
by
bonds
leaving
take
place
lattice.
(Franks,
to
by
Figure
ice.
are
an
to
due
the
This
occupied
empty
bond
various
noted
that
%"'not the
case
the
the
2.6
two
types
shifting
of
and
by
protons
the
oxygen
atoms
defect
accounts
is
defect
and
lattice.
32
the
the
defect
fact
that
at
jumping
can
D. C conductivity
be
A. C
protons
protons
0-0
can
the
the
no
In
H3O+ and
along
to
are
found.
are
explain
have
2.5
atoms.
ions
This
Proton
eventually
for
1983).
or
ice
atoms
hydrogen
due
found
Figure
oxygen
protons
and
the
negative
can
to
been
defects
1965).
are
sensitive
in
the
of
and
(Jaccard,
there
have
the
positive
second
in
for
it
which
pressure,
be
the
pressure,
shown
a
solid
water,
as
is
structures
activation
The
at
its
from
structure
as
ice,
of
problems
hexagons
of
of
case
atmospheric
should
thermal
of
thus
different
this
pairs
in
shown
conductivity
certain
is
defect
as
having
structure
influenced
the
but
ice
of
of
liquid
the
Ice
of
It
the
unsolved
1983).
form
1983).
by
many
normal
the
In
types
At
in
Franks,
as
(Franks,
phase
structure
crystalline
determined
introduces
this
liquid
the
is
structure
molecular
information.
ice
the
the
the
of
significant
of
freezes
in
examination
reveals
often
investigate
to
order
move
all,
then
through
of
ice
Figure
Filled
2.5. Crystal
structure
of hexagonal
in circles
represent
oxygen
atoms
open hydrogen
atoms.
from Franks
F. (1983).
Redrawn
ice
and
(ice-h).
the
(o)
(b)
Figure
2.6. a) Ionic, b) non ionic
Redrawn from Jaccard
lattice
defect
C. (1965).
in ice.
2.3
QUANTUM FIELD
The
been
not
strange
fully
(QFT)
field
and
coherent
and
exchange
the
domain
The
is
that
laser
(Del
water
Giudice
correct
static
correct
latent
et
1988).
al.,
dielectric
heat
behave
can
constant
of
water
a
electric
for
are
structures
in
microns
free
size.
dipole
electric
Under
these
be
derived
as
Guidice
and
(Del
showed
conditions
hundred
as
can
vaporization
the
coherent
few
a
local
the
(1989)
satisfies
Such
of
grain.
between
field,
macroscopic
from
arise
Field
conditions
'Preparata,
radiation
be-only
may
a
in
a colloidal
and
structures.
a
outcome
Giudice
that
water
can
or
Quantum
applied
in
have
above,
proposed.
shown
arise
existing-electric
microscopic,
have
conditions
of
ordered
generating
easily
Del
and
theories
have
a macromolecule,
(1989)
dipoles
problem
discussed
water
the
of
the
Such
Preparata
any
studies
disturbance.
by
of
theoretical
can
produced
that
by
polarization
permanent
electric
to
TO WATER
APPROACH
properties
explained
Recent
Theory
THEORY
the
conditions
the
as
well
Preparata,
1989).
2.4
AND
VICINAL
The
"concept
INTERFACIAL
vicinal
of
explain
a large
number
aqueous
surfaces
and
found
and
systems
150 water'
The
since
to
adjacent
it
WATER
of
in
most
water
was
thermal
anomalous
colloidal
up to
micromolecules
responses
in
particles
distances
of
water
at
can
be
biological
water,
about
to
observed
Vicinal
systems.
insoluble
introduced
originally
10 nm or
30 to
molecules.
existence
represents
of
vicinal
water
water
at
an
33
is
important
interfacial
to
level
this
which
work
may
essential
provide
electrode
transducer
biological
systems.
Vicinal
it
(1977)
as
is
water
anomalies
'recorded
in
of
conductivity
found
differ
to
them
water
from
bulk
mica
those
in
of
of
Etzer
temperature.
and
viscosity
distance
5 nm and
of
as a function
water
ordinary
the
Drost-Hansen
the
plates
within
constant
of
investigating
an
through
water
dielectric
a function
and
and
properties.
the
as
between
water
instrument,
an
from
in
water
coherent
physical
(1987)
Drost-Hansen
and
its
on
anomalies
spheres
in
used
distinguished
imposes
polystyrene
between
coupling
of
temperature.
disjoining
The
(1974)
Churaev,
anomalies
in
water
mainly
the
vicinity
ion
and
water
(1987)
Drost-Hansen,
ellipticity,
liquid
up to
intermolecular
of
pores
the
in
distances
over
the
to
related
between
tension
3 to
in
the
change
in
Etzer
and
showed
which
5 nm.
coefficient
of
optical
structure
of
index
refractive
the
a
bulk
the
gel.
interface
the
from
water
silica
of
has
(1977)
vicinal
potassium
of
of
reconstruction
surface
variations
bonds
the
the
gives
coalescence
interface
water/water
in
these
that
Drost-Hansen
and
a
in
the
tension
surface
a
of
5 nm.
of
study
sodium
indicating
region
distances
surface
local
through
interface
of
measured
is
which
structural
surface.
studied
(1987)
Bedglehole
a
and
and
concluded
phenomena
temperature
with
anomalies
of
selectivity
vicinal
water
result
Derjaguin
temperature,
with
vicinal
of
distribution
the
of
phase
anomalies
a
by
measurements
of
are
on
reported
study
showed
treatment
theoretical
The
pressure
liquid
in
Results
water.
showed
free
(Owe Berg,
bonds
1965).
34
information
from
pointing
the
about
this
of
study
outwards
from
a
the
In
films
thin
larger
for
densities
breakage,
with
hydrogen
the
liquid
Measurements
have
region
microwave
shown
et
as
showed
hydrogen
outwards
bond
density
and
1991).
al.,
constant
a
water
this
pointing
dielectric
in
existing
structuring
(Zhu
programs
simulation
interpreted
bonds
the
of
computer
and
water
the
in
fluctuations
water,
of
of
degree
considerable
to
adjacent
in
water
of
the
ordered
(Drost-Hansen,
colloids
1980).
Computer
simulation
interfaces
conclude
associated
with
30{. an.
density
(Etzler
the
specific
water"
inside
the
nm from
the
in
out
extending
in
velocity
to
respect
distance
temperature
liquid
the
as
(Etzler
which
cell
wall,
wall
how
that
far
any
there
just
b)
is
water
a few
"vicinal
and
c)
no
but,
the
a
hydrophobic
"bulk
drawn
regarding
exists,
but
hydrophobic
clusters
they
might
be.
are
three
distinct
layers
molecular
water"
35
be
can
something
complex
water,
is
structure
vicinal
that
is
or
cell
cell
the
is
there
water,
most
1987).
water
to
vicinal
water
conclusion
as
on
vicinal
Drost-Hansen,
biological
"Bound
with
data
for
how large
nor
arranged,
a
only
details
In
for
vicinal
of
structure
and
ultrasound
with
of
structure
and
Thus,
ice
the
an
predicts
phenomena
near
anomalies
amount
model
accepted
widely
water
1981).
(Croxton,
1987).
the
particular
these
are
phase
vapour
potentials
of
variations
Drost-Hansen,
Despite
one
found
the
water
of
structure
in
investigating
studies
have
of
electric
by
up
the
molecules
treatment
Other
a result
water
surface
taken
water
vicinal
and
large
structure
ordered
to
that
theoretical
The
for
programs
existing
water"
which
the
with
may
states.
thick
between
has
be
a)
and
3 to
the
no
is
50
usual
is
latter
The
bound
is
in
Bound
water
specific
also
Another
metals
general,
results
in
in
the
or
both
presence
the
through
of
(Zhu
studies
calculate
water
(Howard
and
even
is
breaking
100
Robinson,
the
non-linear
In
long
place.
H-Bonds
hydration
the
to
water
range
to
set
range
ordering
is
expected
in
an
applied
1982).
behaviour
are
symmetry
spontaneous
between
field
applied
field
the
to
1991).
This
and
Brodsky,
to
distances
of
and
Brodskii,
(1987)
extend
of
transitions
parallel
(Watanabe
liquid
the
(Greiger,
and
of
predicted
fields
phase
ordering
to
have
dielectric
In
water.
with
of
1990);
is
water
electric
field
case
interfacial
properties
Distinct
applied
expected
order
of
nm.
has
It
phase
been
transitions
of
result
monolayers.
in
expected.
by
contact
and
and
is
vector
long
zero
take
can
programs
bulk
1990).
with
the
creating
fixed
of
in
plates,
Levy,
plates,
conducting
problem
and
conducting
plates
for
specific
simulation
dynamic
the
the
plates
computer
These
associated
the
at
conducting
from
to
or
but
1983).
look
to
way
through
anomalies
(Clegg,
is
1987).
biomolecules,
reactions
which
water,
biomolecules
on
of
responsible
enzymatic
to
refers
50 nm (Clegg,
presence
be
metabolic
biomolecule
the
the
to
supposed
than
greater
by
affected
which
sites
distances
at
not
water
environment
of
water
of
properties
an
proposed
in
atoms
of
state
is
correspond
1989).
Reports
monolayers
of
type
of
to
have
(Brodskii,
metal
its
between
potential
defined
a semi-infinite
which
film
the
Increasing
structure
Benderskii
antiferroelectric
a para-electric
surface
thin
by
ideal
suggested
1989).
as
a
bulk
that
36
the
gold
place
as
in
water
plates,
whereby
take
lattice
can
a
resulting
reconstruction
do not
crystal
take
ordering
The
situation
structure
water
that
of
the
up
surface
the
sites
(Brodskii,
reconstruct
its
a
in
structure
take
to
the
up
layers
on
1980).
This
stable
than
(5x20)
a
the-top
in
gold
to
at
approximately
work
as
place
the
on the
OF
when
state
When
from
a
water,
expansions.
creating
taken
state,
the
use,
decompose
is
equilibriuum
any
perturbated
is
equilibrium
restored
Thus
it
the
system
is
any
and
lower
the
defined
structural
region
densities
37
in
is
of
the
of
the
flow.
equilibrium
time.
relaxation
wave
regions
its
to
in
not
to
ability
return
sound
alternate
given
to
called
longitudinal
in
has
is
level
molecular
since
form
original
results
higher
in
its
at
for
low-amplitude,
it
system
equilibrium
its
before
WATER
a
water
thermodynamical
time
flamed
always
time
and
sterilize
of
respect
proccess.
liquid
The
in
were
CO for
surface.
PROPERTIES
relaxation
The
to
order
is
800
at
this
been
has
1987).
effect
for
of
treatment
Poss,
used
and
type
Au
electrodes
electrodes
temperature
a non-equilibrium
the
Au
for
flame
important
a very
gold
and
and
and
more
solutions
when
the
be
that
and,
structure
(D'Agostino
flaming
is
in
By definition,
into
take
since
initially
ACOUSTIC
2.5
to
this
matter
organic
(5x20)
packed
to
concentrations
same
1985);
found
as
Schneider
and
electrolyte
the
on
This
seconds.
present
certain
involves
process
was
state
the
(Kolb,
gold
the
this
structural
in
proved
2-3
ordinary
depend
experimentally
This
gold
is
so
close
(Kolb
structure
structure
state
However,
hexagonal
of
original
its
this
electrolyte.
about
its
solutions
electrolyte
aqueous
super-structure
of
electropotentials
applied
of
reconstructed
sustain
can
presence
applied
to
compression
liquid
liquid
is
and
vibrating,
within
this
region.
So
the
system
may
lead
the
periods)
the
of
viscosity
is
pressure
by
followed
a slower
range
expected
to
First
is
time
Any
at
any
have
no
flow
zero.
If
a
a
in
the
acoustic
the
order
exitation
atmospheric
thermodyamic
.
38
in
rapid,
change.
normal
of
change
In
of
of
a
can
step
If
(shorter
periods
time
the
relaxational
and
significantly
liquid,
a
points.
1972).
Jarzynski,
frequency
nor
two
to
relaxation
structural
alter
applied
to
goes
part
fluctuations.
the
exceeds
wave
relaxation
liquid
the
one
temperature
and
sound
structural
of
into
separated
and
the
density
applied
in
fluctuations
pressure
both
to
the
of
period
applied
occur,
and
function
of
could
volume
change
solid-like
the
case
10-12
of
pressure
properties
the
water
(Davis
seconds
therefore
be
the
at
should
of
low
not
water
III
CHAPTER
ELECTRIC
3.1
SHIELDING
AND MAGNETIC
INTRODUCTION
A high
performance
designed
was
to
level
a
high
by
from
free
a
any
to
necessary
bio-information
shielding
reduce
sensitivity
of
had
in
fields,
been
environment
was
considered
no
additional
during
samples
water
A
water.
An
that
into
noise
previously
1988).
reassurance
low
the
resonances
magnetic
imprinted
enclosure
environmental
of
(Ludwig,
and
be
to
worker
electric
could
order
enclosure
previous
the
magnetic
detection
the
give
and
the
shielding
performance
recommended
below
for
necessary
amplifier
in
built
and
interference
electric
the
experiments.
for
values
the
these
shielding
value
for
3.2
SHIELDING
A
shielding
is
shielding
the
of
outlined
shielding
has
test
been
is
which
low
and
to
able
measured
constructed
enclosures
developed
frequency
and
provide
applied
an
to
accurate
effectiveness.
THEORY
is
"shield"
as
or
a
enclosures
their
Electronics
electric
performance
in
involved
theory
field
Finally,
given.
the
magnetic
and
electric
are
Chapter,
this
In
defined
"Material
magnetic
field
in
the
IEEE
to
used
within
suppress
or
39
Standards
beyond
the
Industrial
on
effect
a defined
of
region".
an
A
"shielding
(Ott,
material"
and
methods
prediction
of-the
1979).
For
more
that
they
In
model
King
(1933).
plane
wave
enclosure
value
nor
which
first
large
of
for
techniques
is
to
of
case
a
1)
are:
the
that
This
the
frequency
the
and
shield
a
makes
of
geometry
at
by
developed
assumption
the
wavelength
to
transmission
extent.
where
complex
available
as
infinite
between
so
the
the
on
a sphere.
1968).
approach
based
metal
distance
the
main
theory
the
compared
are
two
These
model
a sheet
solutions
(Bridges,
are
geometries
and
an engineer
circuit
approach
second
a
as
(Miller
and
for
the
the
are
1968)
However,
neither
involving
the
of
source
excluded
and
of
from
the
the
for
the
calculations
3.6.1.
40
can
since
are
approach
neither
"ideal".
are
for
suitable
give
outlined
the
frequency
ELF
theory
circuit
calculations
enclosure
the
is
therefore
of
geometry
entire
suitable
effectiveness,
shielding
construction
is
This
Bridges,
approach
other
the
considers
whole.
purpose.
present
the
idealized
exact
large.
enclosure
any
2)
and
relative
range
to
field
However,
cylinders,
exact
an enclosure
Maxwell's
conditions.
long
the
use
suitable
investigation,
The
such
analysis
such
solving
certain
infinitely
there
strikes
technique
for
performance.
The
is
of
mathematical
of
by
boundary
only
literature,
and,
is
approach
little
of
the
effectiveness
structures,
shielding
line
is
shielding
planes,
are
estimate
composed
structure
for
available
available
complex
the
"A
as,
appropriate
infinite
as
are
classical
the
are
solutions
such
The
with
equations
defined
1979).
Several
(Ott,
the
is
enclosure"
a
the
the
nor
precise
materials
Those
factors
in
section
3.3
CIRCUIT
First,
the
considered
the
In
case
the
generates
1966).
Each
charge.
Since
field
in
induced
flux
line
there
to
resistive
portions
of
the
charge
field
and
the
enclosure
The
rectangular
approximating
within
this
and
(a)
(Miller,
an
induced
the
box,
field,
no
edges
loop
box.
between
inside
to
current
upper
The
enclosure.
the
rate
and
and
electric
of
the
current
a
the
the
magnitude
charges
This
both
therefore,
the
The
cause
the
of
is
energy
changes.
proportional
induced
current
in
the
applied
of
change
in
the
simpler
rectangular
charge
frequency.
approach
was
volume.
41
but
Any
sharp
corners
for
effectiveness
of
to
small
it
there.
presence
box
be
will
shielding
of
calculations
the
effectively
to
increase
with
A
and
appear
is
the
enclosure
field
and
will
concentrate
complicated.
on
the
field.
electric
directly
increases
box
current
frequencies,
low
the
current
proportional
the
applied
3.1
applied
lower
and
components
thus
as
themselves
is
Figure
charges
alternating
enclosure
a
induced
box
the
of
to
applied
terminates
hek
an
represents
magnetic
very
of
upper
field
field
the
no
the
lower
in
shown
be used.
is
surface
fields
magnetic
to
field
are
enclosure.
the
between
flow
the
are
the
as
of
frequency
electric
the
fields
electric
as that
such
on
flux
low
of
induced
redistribute
flow
of
is
case
those
a static
electric
the
coupled
At
where
penetrates
In
of
to
EFFECTIVENESS
frequency
enclosure
a charge
enclosure,
low
of
a rectangular
striking
to
effects
compared
and
TO SHIELDING
APPROACH
THEORY
an
a hollow
field
electric
used.
sphere
This
of
a
are
involves
the
same
Arrows
indicate
direction
and region
of maximum
current
flow
E
Figure
3.1. a) Quasi-static
and induced
Lines
B
Figure
electric
currents
indicate
induced
3.1. b). Induced
from the
Redrawn
field distribution
Redrawn from (Miller
on the structure
currents
currents
1966).
on the
time-varying
from (Miller
structure
magnetic
1966).
fields.
induced
the
Then,
where
8.8542
E0 is
the
zero
the
x 10-12
this
the
calculation
case
gives
was
that
the
of
of
a
( the
sphere
sphere
over
having
the
for
chosen
same
volume
equator,
and
as
field,
3ne0 E0a2ejwt
net
value
used).
a time-varying
resulting
dt
For
voltage
Integrating
charge
(3.3)
flowing
across
the
the
as
current
ring
radius
of
q(t)=
the
and
space,
(3.2)
the
enclosure
rectangular
the
field.
electric
free
of
3neoa2Eo
is
a
In
applied
permittivity
gives
q=
where,
by
given
(3.1)
F m-1 the
frequency
hemisphere
charge
3e0 E0 cos(6)
q(9)=
so=
surface
is
density
of
low
(t)=
frequencies,
thickness
drop
across
(3.4)
jw3ne0E0a2ejwt
d
and
this
the
voltage
height
h
loop.
42
drop
is
an
across
equal
to
equatorial
the
(I
x
R)
The
the
of
resistance
loop
Rh is
to
equal
h
Rh=
(3.5)
a a 2nad
as is
where
The
the
conductivity
drop
voltage
it
across
jw3e
Vh(t)=
the
of
is
sphere-wall
material.
then
ejWt
°a2E ýh
(3.6)
-,
2vd
a
Because
of
the
the
equatorial
the
centre
to
parallel
intensity
at
the
at
by
divided
drop
voltage
Ei=
original
sphere
equator
( this
).
in
value
a
loop
is
same
not
that
as
on
the
loop
a
case
field
electric
equatorial
h
field
exactly
the
the
height
electric
are
equator
(I
x R)
where
2o d
a
is
depth"
the
to
the
the
Therefore,
equal
the
(3.7)
-=j
h
propagating
the
of
is
making
near
3wsoaEo
Vh
"Skin
plane
the
centre
lines
equipotential
structures
rectangular
intensity
to
close
very
surface
for
symmetry,
defined
material
(Morrison,
as
to
1981)
the
distance
attenuate
and
43
is
required
by
1/e
given
by
or
for
(37%)
a wave
of
its
ö-1
(3.8)
nfµ
The
ratio
impedance
is
high-frequency
the
of
v
aa
low-frequency
to
surface
loop
by
given
ZHF
(3.9)
2d
ZS
LF
d»S
that
provided
factor
it
before
attenuated
and
Thus,
a»d.
inside
appears
the
the
applied
enclosure
by
an approximate
of
-d/6
2e
d the
field
internal
j3Y
E. =
i
By
definition,
the
ratio
applied
field,
the
centre
at
where
d»S,
2n/X
«1
and
a»
is
090 Eoa
Z
(3.11)
e_dýa
ora
the
of
the
(3.10)
frequency,
a high
For
inside
is
voltage
the
enclosure
"shielding
externally
and
(SE)
effectiveness"
field
applied
is
by
given
44
to
the
is
determined
field
appearing
by
E
SE = 20 log10
0
(3.12)
E.
32
weoEoae-d/b
ý)3.13
loglo
SE = 20
vSa
the
In
flow
current
loop
the
divided
as
in
field,
frequency
loop
the
associated
with
and
of
flow
as
currents
a
in
shown
because
occur
leave
and
the
concentrated
little
the
time
(from
is
of
varying
of
proportional
loop.
the
cancellation
or
field
45
reflection
increases,
a
At
to
the
This
small
field
applied
1966).
Miller,
coil
magnetic
as
the
900 out-of-phase
applied
loop
considered
frequency
resistance
are
The
enclosure
current
effectiveness,
(shorted-turn)
R.
the
(a)
it
shielding
single
the
to
3.2
Figure
by
cancel
resistance
and
voltage
the
These
calculating
proportional
frequencies
field
L
a
in
modelled
magnetic
As
modelled
is
which
voltage
the
is
induces
field
low
of
inductance
having
1966).
and
the
striking
edges.
purpose
enclosure
produced
elements
the
near
the
For
Miller,
field
magnetic
be
will
current
eddy
adjacent
as
(from
3.1(b)
Figure
homogeneous
a
currents
eddy
enclosure,
the
of
case
very
applied
current
the
with
is
the
and
applied
expected.
inductive
D
I4
Figure
3.2. a). Large
flat
to small
from
Redrawn
loops
(Miller
1966).
LE
Current
-ý
source
-----
LR
irss
-
ýýý
,
ý'ý
ML-S
Figure
3.2. b). Equivalent
(King
enclosure
circuit
1933).
of the
in
flow
the
of
reactance
turn
that
tends
in-phase
comes
increased,
the
the
on
appear
the
addition,
in
which
the
Thus,
uniform
in
no
the
Figure
3.2(b)
1933).
with
dimensions
enclosure
wave
transverse
(King,
a, b, d and
inductance
a, ß, D, the
field
Assuming
distribution,
current
is
guide
in
effectiveness
follows.
as
estimated
shielding
increase
the
of
be
the
which
In
surface.
increase
to
increase
of
enclosure
can
of
the
frequency.
the
of
localization
the
of
be
enclosure
can
For
a rectangular
the
in
attenuated
impedance
rate
further
fields
interior
series
the
reduce
with
effectiveness
shielding
shown
to
tends
turn
the
causes
eventually
is
the
to
the
on
current
absorbed
causes
enclosure
appearing
skin-effect
may be
This
the
of
outside
flow
frequency
energy
mechanism.
before
exponentially
of
the
and
current
the
As
amount
skin-effect
so the
field.
the
with
dominate
to
tends
dominate
to
a significant
by
walls
turn
single
large
large
loop
loop
field
be
and
as
modelled
shielding
the
generating
regarded
as
a
by
given
a
L1=
(3.14)
u-D
0
and
for
the
L8=
The
field
magnetic
transverse
and
can
is
enclosure
rectangular
given
(3.15)
µbd
produced
be written
by
by
the
as
46
parallel
loop-cum
waveguide
is
III1
B1=
(3.16)
uH=
p
I1
where
is
the
current
the
of
the
u
coil
permeability
the
of
medium.
M is
inductance
The mutual
by
given
dIl
es=M1-$
The
es -ß
the
Thus,
dt
1933),
King,
is
of
the
leakage
the
a
low
one
(3.18)
dt
adp
0
in
the
where
R.
(3.19)
equivalent
is
inductance.
frequency
used,
dII
adp
M1_S =
as
is
loops
inductance
mutual
represented
the
around
appearing
voltage
(3.17)
and
applied
can
the
in
circuit
resistance
The
of
latter
field
is
and
be ignored.
At
47
the
very
solid
low
Figure
small
small
wall
frequencies
3.2(b)
loop
in
the
enclosures
then,
(from
L.
and
case
like
= jwM1_$I1
REIZ+jwL$IZ
the
where
The
current
first
is
term
in
It
the
the
(3.20)
drop
voltage
is
loop
small
given
_,
around
the
by
7wM1_$I1
I1
and
=
(3.21)
RS+jwLs
12
ýwr
lI
adµ
lR
12=
(3.22)
R$+jwL$
and
the
field
magnetic
within
=
_µ
ßb
therefore,
the
shielding
SE = 20
is
jwMl_sIl
uIl
B1-BZ
loop
the
log10
Rs+jwLs
1
(3.23)
effectiveness
(
B1
)
B1-B2
48
(3.24)
small
loop.
the
and
overall
is
effect
shielding
including
effectiveness
wL
log,,,
SE = 20
II
2d
11
1a
DL$
R
S
the
overall
rectangular
boxes
approximate
circuit
can
be
is
made
shielding
effectiveness
enclosures
one
of
two
inside
effectiveness
the
available.
to
the
use
infinite
Lengthy
of
is
inside
in
long
the
an
approximation
result
infinite
two
even
theory
cylinder
multiple
not
closest
calculations
coaxially
positioned
The
these
of
there
other,
theory
(1968).
Shenfield
after
shielding
one
(3.25)
/K
L,,L ln
that
depth
skin
by
given
For
the
other.
approach
the
overall
cylindrical
In
the
case
enclosures,
such
V1
1+S1+S2+S1S2
S=
1-
(3.26)
V2
where
V1 and
the
V2 are
respectively.
According
effectiveness
of
calculated
and
is
the
volumes
this
to
of
in
first
equation,
arrangement
plotted
the
at
Figure
49
various
3.3.
and
the
second
over-all
frequencies
enclosure
shielding
has
been
o0000o00
cß
rrTT
le
N0
Co
t©
vN
3.4
MEASUREMENT
This
section
determination
by
the
measuring
that
a
the
enclosure
with
gross
measure
of
1968).
The
currents
small
measurement
by
developed
originally
than
rather
relatively
and
system
shown
the
in
particular
in
turns
of
enamelled
copper
posts
of
a plastic
frame
is
kept
5
cm
makes
the
the
by
or
coil
causes
shielding
is
effectiveness
for
taken
The
method
the
one
large
loop
rooms
The
present
arrangement
consisted
diameter,
It
used.
the
of
a
was
screening
as
be
can
measurement
test
be made.
enclosure
the
time
to
for
constructed
significant
3.4
dimensions
mm in
for
Figure
of
the
such
the
0.5
to
method
box
easy.
1968)
been
current
shielding
relatively
which
wire,
from
away
This
have
the
one
the
measurements
3.5,
Figure
that
of
suit
in
seams
so
the
loop
of
shown
enclosures
to
a
testing
a
various
Transmitting
transmitting
all
(Bridges,
order
this,
to
loop
set-up
small
in
be modified
to
large
manner
the
Large
effectiveness
frequency.
and
The
the
testing
range
In
large
a
for
suitable
"
subjected
an indication
applied
given
most
across
uniform
gives
and
significant
is
a
The
Method".
the
flow
to
in
the
Loop
is
uniform
frequency
is
the
of
kHz
for
used
available
effectiveness
Detecting
(Bridges
enclosure
(1968).
shielding
obtained
methods
the
enclosure
surrounding
had
in
procedure
effectiveness
The
used.
the
of
test
shielding
O'Young
Small
to
portion
at
the
effectiveness
summarized
so
the
enclosures
shielding
EFFECTIVENESS
outlines
of
shielding
Loop
OF SHIELDING
wound
this
experiment.
as
recommended
of
105
on
the
loop
The
by
Vance
(1989).
In
to
order
effectively
tests
positioned
so
produce
all
that
sides
c=1+
an
of
even
the
wh
50
field
enclosure,
=
14cm,
in
all
the
d=1+wh=
planes
large
which
loop
20cm,
was
as
X
I
p
BI-
0
IN
4n
(
x
1)ý'
Cl-
Cz=
-
.,
i+I
r
(ý-1)
a=4
('4
L
(a+x)?
r. _
i
-a+x
(a-x)`
r-ý
C=a-x
ý
(r
:a.,
+d)
+ (b+Y)l
+
ý
4 zz
(b+y)l
z
z
2
d=
i
d3=
d2
L.
=b+Y
+ (b--y)`
a-x)
3
a+x)ý
d4
ýý IN
Bco,
Figure
3.4.
loop
o, oý
Coordinate
generating
4n
-
18
system
magnetic
(Wever 1956).
T
for
current
field
BZ
4z
cm
4-
(L)
(0
p >
0)
a)
r-
OU
wý
ý
aý
=3
U
C
CY)
4- c a)
a)
CO «a C)
L
O
ý
ý
LL
E
---- .--.
U
O
(D
ý
xý
Oý
E
E'
U
0I
ýI
U
rr
IO
I CV
i
IIl ný
ý.,
.a
ý
aý
Uý
7
a .ýý
ý
I
Yý
0
CO
ä
\\
N
X
O
ý
0)
C
0
C)
L
(-I)
ý
aý
Q) E
ý
ý
cý 0
w
.`
ý
cý c
>
cß
ý
H
(ý
...
C
ca
+.
Cl,
a,
ýý
4c 0
0 >
0
Lý
ýI
v-
a
E
¢
n
ýj
ý
O
(0 M
c 4OQ)
E
U
i
C7
I
by
recommended
72
its
and
cm
The
magnetic
the
origin
100
a
range
in
3.6.
This
the
as
this
was
this
the
input
from
current
2 and
in
drive
the
frequency
current
minimum
The
observed.
1kHz,
and
of
test
at
shown
that
kept
testing
frequencies
supply
also
a
offers
500mHz
Graph
There
was
the
to
250
it
mA
to
this
constant
field
actually
2 kHz.
51
6
to
had
an
RMS
kHz
limited
have
to
constant
a
a gain
8A)
as
adjustable
shown
the
available
over
at
frequency
which
mA
at
testing
used
of
current
experiment,
100
the
100 and
were
with
particular
at
the
be driven.
loop
offers
3.7,
limitation,
one
higher
and
of
order
(type-Variac
dc
For
It
to
in
could
amplifier
to
to
characteristic
loads
transmitting
up
in.
the
is
from
Referring
2 V(p. p)
of
near
actually
coupling
linear
arrangement
from
loads.
current
auto-transformer
sets
was
3.7.
the
with
range
audio
measurements.
Figure
voltage
This
coil
self-resonance
when
the
able
response
resistances.
supply
be
impedance
low
values
a constant
3.5.
feeding
at
amplifier
diagram
to
order
output
in
a variable
Figure
G)
1965)
over
circuit
frequency
voltages
to
order
(Weber,
power
The
in
by
resistance
smallest
In
(0.189
MT
x
kHz.
6.3
at
constant-voltage
versus
higher
that
was
constant
as
becomes
at
a
flat
shown
linear
a
loads.
well
resistance
is
from
confirmed
characteristic
remains
3.4
Figure
modified
a
and
amplifier
R/I
by
load
load
The
18.9
was
coil
was
57
1985).
was
circuit
and
in
inductive
(Technics,
distortion
200kHz
shown
deliver
to
to
impedance
low
the
driven
was
frequency
dimensions
mA current.
made
Figure
as
had
coil
frequency
by
produced
coil
originally
large
The
self-resonance
B(0,0,0),
The
high
(1968).
measured
field
by
driven
Bridges
were
which
apparatus
10Hz
the
value
was
100Hz,
V
+I
+1 E
1
c, K
^ý
\10ý. /"
k'
.ý
to <''
<\
;;
if;
LM? 4 1
-J
J
=.
4 I
LPl?
I
-
J-_
41I
__ ýý
10ý
C
411
O
C
-- ý --ý
-1
_r
-t
I
r,
L,
1 'J ý-
_'.
T
F--
t
1aE,
, '. .ý r--
Tr ar
=. i
_t
:'
-11
r- rnerýJ
Iý
diagram
Figure 3.6. Circuit
voltage amplifier.
of the constant
_
Current
Output
-
In
mA
1000
100
10
I--
[0.1
LL
1
I1
11111
11l1
100
10
Load
Figure
11111
II
iii-L-1_
-L-1
1000
Resistance
3.7 Load resistance
for the constant
]_-I
>> IIIII
10000
10000
Olims
versus output current.
voltage amplifier.
transducer
The
field
in
a coil
was
diameter
length.
The
at
kHz.
The
wound
,
1.5
cylinder
a plastic
50
detection
the
turns
calculated
(300mV/G)
6.3
3848
of
on
for
used
Hz,
the
and
copper
cm in
diameter
the
limit
magnetic
0.125
in
3mV/PT
=
at
measured
was
the
mm
5 cm
and
was
coil
thus
was
AC
wire
frequency
resonance
frequency
upper
from
of
sensitivity
the
of
for
same
both
coils
DC
the
For
(type
transducers
Effect
in
back-to-back
in
shown
V/G)
for
INC
data
3.8.
to
The
and
planes,
the
two
and
the
The
same
The
shielding
last
the
(0.5
Microsystems
INC
(1989).
enclosure
was
of
placed
the
middle
output
the
loop
loop
voltage
coil
in
loop
all
were
the
The
obtained.
a
in
loop
the
=
voltage
the
of
to
converted
linear
the
of
inside
was
measured.
output
within
middle
measurements
was
a noise
thus
Hz,
are
a
RC
the
1.5
field
induced
in
again
the
3.8,
of
static
and
in
placed
voltages
Figure
guarantee
field
voltages
measured
for
the
set
another
Figure
its
Allegro
frequency
cut-off
a
magnetic
inside,
in
shown
for
values
positioned
was
the
as
system
= 5mV/µT
of
in
specifications
was
coil
pick-up
Then,
recorded.
to
placed
were
the
of
sensitivity
diagram
values
Microsystems
and
planes
These
used.
Hall
two
enclosure
sensitivity
a
circuit
device
applied
Allegro
10µV
the
according
has
the
only
versus
voltage
the
output
Effect
Hall
The
the
that
ensuring
were
provided
fields
the
of
(1989).
sheet
Referring
network
double
This
DC magnetic
test
UGN3501U)
to
order
Figure
at
field
magnetic
all
ratio
ratio
3.3.
procedure
was
effectiveness
experiment
was
carried
is
carried
52
out
also
out
for
the
shown
in
with
one
second
Figure
enclosure
3.3.
enclosure
inside
of
as
Y_.'
47F:.
F-,-iov
1
1
i5O1
470
--I
Lrý,
<ýý
ý1
Z
-ý+
-=
.
F
I
J-
1
rrý
IIJF
.;
4 1
ý--1
---
, sýýi1
, tý_1at
C
IF
ri
-1ý.
47F
1k
1H
E:
Figure
3.8. Circuit
diagram
of the static
magnetometer.
the
so the
other
this
and
evaluated
A final
performance
(the
voltage
voltage
measuring
of
Effect
Hall
the
the
limiting
61
coil)
that
with
in
placed
there
the
connecting
sensitivity
of
the
from
voltage
was
no
the
to
coil
outer
were
coil
voltmeter
the
fed
Thus,
limit
the
this
the
middle
The
DC.
no
showed
field
static
detection
of
with
the
2A
with
1mV and
was
sensors.
in
placed
was
tested
was
enclosures
sensors
exceeded
effectiveness
the
of
These
sensors.
the
was
which
RESULTS
the
Using
same
for
values
The
dB
mild
the
ua= 1.2-3
field
shielding
on the
assumption
sphere
having
H m-1
as
the
typical
1991).
effectiveness
consistent
with
comes
published
to
=
values
280
by
(1991).
Following
individual
The
which
calculated
and
shielding
is
electric
m for
1
1,
0_ m_
(Hemming,
field
100Hz
was
a=0.274
108
steel
electric
at
Hemming
aa=
and
volume
the
enclosure
steel
radius
effective
an
(3.13),
equations
of
effectiveness
the
shorted
dB.
3.5
of
DC performance
and
shielding
the
of
verify
wire
coaxial
enclosures
detectable
to
order
wire
circuit.
the
Finally,
coaxial
resistance
in
the
on
pick-up
equivalent
loop
the
of
middle
the
be
could
3.3.
Figure
using
together
enclosures
in
shown
involved
check
a 500 H resistor
the
is
also
both
of
first
the
(3.15)
equation
enclosures
enclosure
was
to
the
shielding
effectiveness
calculated.
be considered
53
has
dimensions
1=0.5m,
of
h=0.35m,
as
w=0.35
typical
0.13m,
effectiveness
The
for
SE
the
The
shielding
'calculated
and
enclosures,
and
is
enclosures
The
typical
as
values
shielding
boxes
the
of
according
to
from
10Hz
range
the
in
outlined
both
effectiveness
for
results
individual
enclosures
calculated
data
the
in
the
one
to
2kHz
of
the
placed
(3.26)
equation
shielding
Figure
is
in
shown
boxes
was better
magnetic
in
are
similar
effectiveness
shielding
that
the
of
effectiveness
overall
shielding
effectiveness
agreement
with
the
of
published
(Schulz,
structures
shielding
61 dB.
than
good
individual
3.3.
DC magnetic
showed
the
for
overall
3.4,
section
of
values
measured
plotted
of
measurement
The
w=
'
3.3.
Figure
frequency
the
h=0.13m,
calculated
effectiveness
calculated
was
other
calculated
100Hz.
at
shielding
over-all
the
dB
38.1
H m_1
.
H m-1
its
1991)
Hz
Its
1=0.2m,
0.125
u=
and
1991).
100
at
dimensions
with
(Hemming,
is
dB
1.2-3
Ma =
and
(Hemming,
34.8
1,
lm_
S2_
3210
Ca=
mu-metal
inside
box
108
=
steel
is
a mu-metal
and
as
mild
effectiveness
For
and
and
for
values
shielding
for
in,
1m-1
0;
1968);
and
(Vance,
1989).
3.6
The
COMMENTS
comments
to
followed
could
includes
could
not
divided
the
estimate
alter
be
comments
the
two
shielding
in
the
(3.6.1)
subsections
comments
shielding
included
on
into
includes
(3.6.1)
Section
(3.6.2).
which
are
on
the
performance
the
techniques
of
the
the
enclosure
Section
calculations.
employed
calculations
and
effectiveness,
for
and
measuring
factors
and
(3.6.2)
the
effectiveness
shielding
COMMENTS ON THE
3.6.1
following
The
the
the
within
the
shield
and
b)
or
a
can
through
Depending
of
to
the
on
field
inside
in
permittivity
performance
of
the
location
of
any
high
field
strengths
any
magnetic
throughout.
enclosure
shock
mechanical
of
any
degrade
will
factory
c)
Effect
of
one
for
like
the
have
a near-absolute
manufacturing
balancing
must
form
be
locally
mechanical
or
areas
use
of
it.
near
be
machining
subtract
small
the
not
rise
giving
to
used
must
including
the
High
to
subjected
operations
(Vance,
performance
or
since
1989)
and
be required.
In
present
and
all
the
application
within
shielding
of
during
tools
mu-metal
Discontinuities:
costs
add
over
taken
or
magnetic
will
the
either
or
field
the
either
materials
the
re-annealing
will
shield,
like
materials
permeability
these
the
field
shape
material
either
magnetic
and
remanance
the
with
and
magnetization,
magnitude
therefore
Care
general,
of
application
the
the
In
a remanant
acquire
magnetization,
careful
included
not
particular
subjected
Magnetization:
Remanance
overall,
from
to
when
affect
3.3.
overall
the
at
performance
permittivity
shield
shock.
to
the
which
are
variation
the
affect
which
section
The
will
factors
1988).
(Vance,
in
in
outlined
EFFECTIVENESS
those
and
permittivity:
material
in
anomaly
effectiveness
already
Variable
OF SHIELDING
discuss
paragraphs
calculations
a)
enclosures.
CALCULATION
shielding
overall
the
of
practical
the
factors
55
case
of
large
it
is
not
a reasonable
budget
It
to
to
possible
cost
difficulties.
involved
enclosures
due
requires
achieve
an
effective
design.
thickness
of
the
two
kept
as
as
areas
enclosures
the
d)
High
performance
to
prior
the
properties
indefinitely
and
values"
The
these
may differ
Hz.
following
measurement
The
a
of
good
agreement
Below
observed.
values
and
This
the
for
from
the
the
above
that
was
due
welded
in
the
from
the
of
the
high
offer
they
welding
and
require
completed
afterwards
to
enclosure
strong
desired
their
retain
materials
actual
those
for
taken
values
are
materials
the
"standard
used.
EFFECTIVENESS
factors
which
affect
enclosures.
shielding
measured
frequency,
to
of
away
can
OF SHIELDING
discuss
calculated
the
with
the
the
of
shielding
the
was
1988).
paragraphs
of
reason
made
far
and
should
Finally,
permeability
this
enclosures
atmosphere,
they
(Vance,
the
However
drilling
inert
,
in
disturbance
avoid
subjection
this
changes
minimum
as
These
all
an
the
regions.
COMMENTS ON THE MEASUREMENTS
3.6.2
the
no
and
conductivity
made
in
holes
The
thickness.
with
Values:
Standard
these
in
given
mechanical
to
small
annealing
with
were
materials:
annealing
shock,
e)
in
the
require
wires
both
of
(1991).
order
relative
handling
careful
in
permeability
temperature
high
of
currents
with
to
as
Hemming
access
eddy
concentrated
design
changes
For
performance.
the
so
and
corresponding
overall
and
by
possible
as
corners
used
recommended
for
give
the
possible
as
simple
will
affect
were
enclosures
discontinuities
material
and
currents
eddy
Electrical
values
effectiveness
at
a deviation
large
approximations
56
was
frequency
the
of
up
to
involved
of
40
in
100
dB was
for
the
the
estimation
of
estimating
the
to
be
thus
and
reading,
away
experiments
from
than
the-calculated
any
The
an
and
the
have
steel
framed
the
case
measured
values
are
expected
for
in
to
the
have
out
the
the
SE,
small
coil
In
order
have
and
to
been
made much
in
the
of
with
measurements.
errors
carried
building.
57
measuring
the
should
been
However,
ones.
such
loop
should
for
capacitively
error
other
test
especially
used
couple
could
producing
this
eliminate
accurate
boxes.
fields
electromagnetic
transducer
both
arrangement
coil
particular
to
SE of
precise
more
boxes
shielding
open
a
more
larger
air
or
CHAPTER
LOW NOISE
4.1
the
amplifier
generated
by
detected
noise
in
resonances
Accordingly,
amplifier.
practicable
the
noise
performance
was
their
in
measured
and
measured
by
in
a spectrum
in
is
This
unit
of
devoted
a
to
followed
by
low
noise
the
noise
design
the
built.
actually
noise
of
the
low
the
the
devices
stage
noise
its
as
amplifier
amplifier
of
are
spectral
well
used
noise
outlined
as
for
this
performance
density
in
function
is
as
analyzer.
OF
broadest
occurs
discrete
of
preamplification
terms
PROPERTIES
that
choice
Finally,
given
PHYSICAL
disturbance
a low
given.
are
the
stages
subsequent
Noise
for
reasons
use
is
section
components.
amplifier
construction
AMPLIFIERS
LOW NOISE
The
and
A small
electronic
of
design
the
described.
description
4.2.1
low
a
best
the
Chapter,
this
is
work
using
work
had
(1988)
for.
In
the
Ludwig
potencies
present
aimed
and
by
work
homoeopathic
4.2
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
Previous
in
IV
NOISE
sense,
or
can
interferes
58
be
defined
with
as
a
any
desired
unwanted
signal.
in
is
Noise
is
The
of
time
is
than
the
(Bell,
for
r. m. s.
in
distribution
root-mean-square
is
value
99.7
of
1960).
expressed
peak-to-peak
randomness
Normal
or
However,
phase.
the
of
frequency
of
and
amplitude
a Gaussian
level
the
consists
features
with
and
higher
both
have
noise
It
signal.
certain
voltage
quantities
six-times
in
random
amplitudes
noise
m. s. )
a random
predict
types
Most
instantaneous
of
(r.
are
to
possible
noise.
words
which
components
it
other
% of
the
be
to
expected
(Keithley,
time
1987).
For
1
n
1
domain.
The
most
density
function
can
To
n2(t)
JT
an
average
it
(SDF)
defined
:
as
dt.
(4.1)
for
value
a
relatively
The
the
time
as a function
of
density
spectral
designated
voltages
(f)
en
as
and
is
defined
currents
are
the
function
average
noise
the
spectral
Fourier
transform
1960).
(Bell,
power
(t)
n2
In
over
a
frequency.
function
and
as
frequency
the
is
here
characteristic
which
in
characterized
autocorrellation
represents
1 Hz bandwidth
be
also
important
temporal
the
practice
that
SDF
of
a
en(t)
is
Since
the
voltage
In
current
this
squared,
of
(f)
.
represents
normalized
density.
Noise
value,
is
r. m. s.
T.
time
noise
power
indicates
bar
Random
of
the
n(t),
2
the
Where
long
voltage
a noise
are
sources
defined
as
a
often
square
characterized
root
of
59
power
in
density
terms
of
a
designated
spot
as
Hz
/
V(rms)
is
noise
electronic
processes,
Thermal
vibrations
by
observed
is
this
of
value
reason
"white
noise"
T
-23
the
in
charge
flow
series
of
electronic
called
is
calculated
(V2/
is
the
absolute
is
the
Boltzmann
and
which
the
device,
is
pulses
average
charge.
not
of
current
flow
of
The
two
excited
after
by
flat
frequency
1928.
spectrum
The
it
whom
in
Nyquist
noise".
first
was
and
density
power
follows:
as
(4.3)
of
the
K=
resistor,
constant
is
due
is
tubes,
to
density
60
noise
but
clusters
carriers
nature
Shot
continuous
or
is
there
the
called
and
spectral
It
analyzed
its
to
randomly
Hz)
vacuum
smooth
the
Laboratories
temperature
this
(4.2)
conductor.
"white
also
1Hz
a
attributed
by
any
theoretically
by
over
noise.
Telephone
=4KTR
produced
flowing
constant
is
semiconductors
noise
Bell
value
be
to
caused
in
characterized
it
where
In
was
is
e2
1.38x10
of
it
is
noise
The
meaning.
(f)
In
=
Shot
and
carriers
Johnson
noise
Thermal
for
charge
and
called
noise
2
is
devices
Johnson
of
In
rms
practical
is
this
and
in
or
for
of
physical
the
to
matter
a
intuitive
equal
used
is
This
.
the
(f)
e2
Thermal
Hz
limits
notation
En =
Noise
/
numerically
The
bandwidth.
main
it
but
convenience,
spot
A(rms)
or
of
each
of
is
a
of
component
of
the
current
.
The
electron
like
rather
charge
one
carrying
this
source
the
within
a
is
a
single
given
by
:
In
Where
Io
is
the
In
called
or
This
pink-noise.
In
usually
The
In,
break-point
flicker
noise
n
the
is
represents
particular
is
a
constant
to
referred
as
it
flows
(Van
material
and
is
the
excess,
or
from
results
a fluctuating
produces
noise
it
frequency,
to
the
of
by
given
o1+
`f
the
white
noise
1n
and
device
additional
Der
Ziel,
drop
voltage
constitutes
is
what
:
fn
flicker
a constant
an
is
also
In
component,
have
noise.
density
where
noise
semiconductors,
current
22=
In
Where
is
a consequence
spectral
Shot
there
conductivity
frequency
called
It
device.
the
proportional
which
as
low
a
inversely
the
1.60217X10-19
equals
1960).
noise,
in
fluctuations
(4.4)
and
the
and
devices,
is
f
flicker,
1978).
noise
semiconductor
component
through
passing
(Bell,
which
)
HZ
charge
electronic
Thermal
density
spectral
when
the
DC current
the
Both
so
is
q
( A2 /
Io
=2q
varying
involved
is
(4.5)
J
shot
is
the
between
equal
flicker
0.6,1.1
(Halford,
61
noise
in
fc
component,
to
magnitude
noise
and
1968).
the
component
which
is
the
white
where
depends
on
LOW NOISE
4.2.2
designing
When
keep
to
in
circuit.
in
by
do tend
inductive
are
devices
the
In
it
be
to
it
for
a frequency
have
high
a very
and
Oxide
from
suffer
a
one
operate
they
and
better
with
limits
of
driven
by
the
be
to
integrated
one
look
must
of
operational
at
are
added
circuits
discrete
at
it
at
a
had
also
a few
of
capacitive
sources,
in
a
low
drift,
20
kHz.
In
sensors
such
which
head
the
levels
voltage
mHz to
a variety
for
set
have
to
discrete
devices
had
Transistors
(BJT),
Field
Semiconductor
Field
Effect
low
equivalent
that
input
input
62
be
to
as
the
nV
and
to
addition,
coils
or
it
required
to
between
made
Effect
Transistors
Transistors
have
transistors
mid-frequencies,
relative
considerable
to
sensitive
from
to
objectives
impedance.
bipolar
noise
noise
voltage
have
for
Junction
Low
that
or
input
choice
Metal
be
compatible
electrodes,
Bipolar
an
performance
to
Therefore,
the
to
response
inductive
The
if
solution
case,
implies
which
has
right
present
were
amplifier
have
to
market
an alterative.
as
range,
the
always
not
the
However,
difficult
the
amplifier
giving
amplifier
sources.
capacitive
or
an
in
the
change
and
to
of
often,
to
able
especially
specifications,
circuits
Q,
o+(t_.ýeACýI,
ý oº,;,oý;, oý14e
circuits
objective
flexibility
response
characteristics.
become
to
integrated
cases,
operational
electrical
amplifiers
their
the
changing
a prime
frequency
being
of
always
and
4deJkccc;
respect
different
or
and
is
simplicity
integrated
with
flexibility
a circuit
gain
choice
designing
most
offer
of
A wide
In
simple.
terms
it
amplifier,
amplifiers
operational
for
an
design
the
design
DESIGN
is
low
in
impedance.
current
(FET)
(MOSFET).
input
equivalent
the
In
noise
kHz
region,
BJT's
addition,
(Van
but
Der
Ziel
A,
1970).
higher
low
have
they
However,
transconductance
to
impedance
and
input
the
MOSFET
therefore
only
a very
noise.
MOSFET's
and
current
low
suitable
noise
best
the
often
through
a
for
choice
flicker
noise
devices
from
devices
small
amount
levels
equivalent
suffer
which
few
a
of
FET's
some
input
high
offer
affect
tens
low
at
otherwise
Hz
of
upwards
1965).
(Lauritzen,
The
of
choice
availability
of
dual
pair
matched
FET's
low
the
work
both
by
Hitachi.
compared
U301,2N4658,
and
2SK146
type
of
made
were
determined
was
FET's
noise
devices
these
as
such
this
2SK147
version
of
for
FET
a.,
special
characteristics
noise
and
high
from
frequencies
are
FET's
over
impedance.
source
of
JFET
the
Both
advantage
and
value
values
moderate
an
the
and
the
The
with
noise
low
similar
found
were
by
to
be
superior.
NOISE
4.2.3
The
where
IN
the
Part
noise
is
2 of
shown
the
in
of
component
of
according
shown
the
the
of
the
are
Figure
graph
TRANSISTORS
sources
typical
The
transconductance)
1985)
In
and
en
EFFECT
noise
equivalent
respectively.
sources
FIELD
voltage
and
in
(Siliconix,
Figure
device
FET,
and
to:
63
are
in
4.1
Figure
noise
sources
function
of
these
the
white
1985).
4.2
due
is
shown
current
density
spectral
4.2
FET
a
corresponds
to
to
the
calculated
gm
(from
(mutual
Siliconix
J7
e2
n
R
L
nI
e2
T
Noise
free
FET
4.1. Equivalent
Figure
FET
noise
circuit.
1.000A; +0: 3 F
: Thermal Noise:
Region
Flicker Noise
Region
Shot
Noise
Region
1. U()UV -- 1:
-,
1. ooo
1.000E+02
Break Points
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100
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1kHz
4.2. Characteristics
Redrawn from
--
t 0kiiz
1.000E-15
100k11"r.
of FET noise.
(1985).
Siliconix
14
e2
At
by
In
which
advantage
1/f
of
in
refers
and
it
by
The
flicker
in
is
of
flicker
=4KTI0.67
from
decrease
gm
the
to
the
is
no
heat
increases
the
the
which
the
the
flicker
corresponds
in
current
an
main
defects
as
follows
(Siliconix,
to
centres
and
voltage
or
a
flickers.
or
impurities.
or
fc
source
electron,
varies
crystal
in
Referring
gate
to
1985):
(4.7)
f"
equation
except
to
carriers
generation
and
change
II`1
J
`
noise,
hole
the
centers
diode.
1978),
channel
formulated
of
the
are
silicon
a
a
due
are
above
the
emit
trapping
centres
is
This
recombination
Whiting,
and
67
clearly,
near
excessive
noise.
the
generation
between
centres
from
current
Thus,
noise
en
so
flicker
the
to
alternately
signal.
generation
and
can
there
so,
addition,
gm
These
Kandiah
Xs
simultaneously
The
proportional
I_
In
region.
fluctuate
input
is
1/4
which
to
ID
to
arises
Hall
leakage
(from
represented
inversely
current
gm
value.
4.2
Read
-
bias
4.3
of
effective
depletion
reverse
true
FET
the
junction
Figure
Figure
Shockley
the
drain
value
is
noise
transconductance
mutual
the
this
the
of
Ig.
1 of
noise
the
beyond
current
Part
the
proportional
reduces
leakage
type
this
of
The
is
going
dissipation
value
Ioss.
En
in
gm
maximizing
point
saturation
in
the
to
increased
(4.6)
temperature,
constant
proportional
be
=4KT0.67
the
noise.
64
the
the
white
only
variable
temperature,
noise
which
is
component
the
can
value
of
the
Gate
Source
Drain
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--ý
Substrate
Figure
4.3. FET Cross-section.
Redrawn
from Kandiah
(1978).
(V)
rms noise
A
VnL
VnR
VnO
CM
ýý
Figure
4.5.
Noise
spectrum
of
the
Log F (Hz)
head
amplifier.
The
current
In
where
in
first
the
thermal
terms
2
Figure
Again,
design
circuit
and
consisting
of
occurring
below
intermediate
by
of
noise
random
bursts
10Hz.
(Van
manufacture
to
consideration
head
the
spot
Johnson
the
or
level
white
believed
aluminum
-
the
Cgs.
the
"pop-corn"
amplitude
be
silicon
noise
noise
to
and
are
not
by
generated
contacts,
oxidization
-'
chosen.
"pop-corn"
same
of
and
also
during
process
1978).
dual
equal
noise
low
the
of
produced
as
FET
pair
0.75
nV
by
65
amplifier
semiconductor
given
matched
to
noise
the
of
was
stage
fabricated
noise
are
selection
amplifier
specially
but
value
AMPLIFIER
design
the
In
of
Zeil,
Der
FET
LOW NOISE
4.3
origins
during
contamination
the
almost
the
through
device
is
shown
to
The
be done
on the
FET
The
at
conduction
in
as
capacitance
can
depend
of
noise
corresponds
input
optimization
found
Shot
admittance.
total
variables
identified
completely
the
the
/
follows:
as
(4.8)
terms
second
of
noise
most
form
Another
a
little
very
is
impedance
that
calculated
,
* w2Cgs2
equation
the
input
two-thirds
about
*
and
the
of
4 gm
the
of
3,
part
noise
Cgs is
+ 0.67
Ig
=2q
an FET is
in
'I
noise
/
a resistor
2SK147
give
35
The
above.
at
0 at
1
to
equivalent
of
for
component
described
Hz
careful
290
kHz
the
K and
a
frequency
corner
The
diagram
circuit
2SK147
The
is
design
the
feature
of
data
IDss
needed,
The
boxes.
first
the
12 V which
In
both
are
box
first
both
contained
and
fields
and
temperature
low
the
third
noise
SDF
resulting
increased
are
frequency
the
by
highest
separate
three
head
where
for
the
produced
- electrical
fluctuations.
This
and
low
66
against
is
drift
a
acid
contained
the
from
including
by
In
in
in
particular
measurements.
50
the
the
the
addition,
air
any
the
lifts
machines
room.
isolation
lead
arrangement
isolated
was
computer
remaining
which
this
and
shielding
the
enclosure
interference
lights,
the
boxes,
With
steel
transistors
additional
second
fields
other
shielding
mild
contained
provided
and
thermal
amplifier
box
box
electrical
thermal
is
point
in
electrodes.
near-by
operating
best
the
gives
so
amplifier
precision
the
shielding
the
it
dependent
second
first
mu-metal
and
laboratory
for
y1f 2a
of
The
that
(gm)
the
the
produced
fluorescent
rapid
and
(1985).
uncorrelated
1989).
at
build
stage;
head
offered
is,
contained
and
building,
enclosures
Figure
was used.
was
the
the
samples
environmentally
mains
the
show
temperature
device
the
non-differential
Hz
1.7
mode
a factor
capacitance
device
that
mA,
stages;
water
input
transconductance
of
amplification
the
(Toshiba,
this
=5
amplification
batteries,
by
of
source
Vannaroni
and
use
in
given
common
noise
make
the
and
in
voltage
to
is
amplifier
Pallottino
of
circuit
for
ID
at
and
En and
was
configured
the
of
sheets
voltage
supply
to
n=1.6
factor.
figure
ID
is
used
noise
same
noise
and
type
current
The
was
head
the
SDF of
pair
this
of
the
the
factor
a minimum
of
that
on
the
matched
P2
pair
based
To lower
dual
with
1989).
(Toshiba,
4.4.
3 Hz
of
draughts
and
advantage
11-11-1
'V
+1:
O
-121'
1001-IF
T
1n0Uf
ý ýý
ýi+i
,
R
+1ýV
F1
fl'
ý=K14t,
Re
N -ý
()I
/
IsF.
J-111/1-1-
lCý_ý
z
-11CFN111
+
22 000F
1,ýýý=
:`--ý
SK 14 6
GIITPUT
3OF'
a
:
ký
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ý
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CIN
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i'I
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ý_f
II ILIF
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4
N,
ISO
Figure
4.4.
Circuit
diagram
of
the
head
amplifier.
A
50
common
ripple
regulation
was
found
so,
the
amplifier
batteries
amplifier
for
each
low-noise
bias
the
P2 pair
the
power
on
Pi
Pi
to
at
turn
Figure
only
recharged
RL
and
4.4,
the
which
when
operation
1990).
FET
FET
is
pair
Pi
the
current
this
In
produce
input
the
supplies
VA lead
0.6
a high
permits
thus
input
the
gives
way,
negligible
any
effect
battery
acid
value
there
are
turns-on
bias
of
a strong
the
lower
presence
Cix
and
electrodes
high-pass
input
the
adjust
the
the
of
resistor
in
reduction
negligible
gain
effects
on
P2 pair.
the
of
determines
addition
were
acid
P2 pair.
consequently
and
pair
to
chosen
order
continuous
in
lines
supply
RF and
with
Referring
the
target
lead
VA
the
of
3 hours
gave
lines.
power
6
They
(Siliconix,
a2V,
in
which
compared
RIN
noise
1989).
resistor
the
of
battery,
pair
drain
the
line
and
performance
two-12V,
current-source
current
third
The
of
and
noise
the
at
present
from
diagram
the
as
drain
the
use
circuit
by
loaded
fluctuations
RB as
in
the
to
is
to
the
the
Vermanen,
and
was not
configured
the
for
MV
power
charge.
P2
needed
a few
a power
regulated
interference,
of
supplied
introduced
Referring
on
was
(Vandewoude
the
order
be inadequate
to
which
nV
pair
the
well
and
introduce
to
of
This
transformer
supply
found
were
supplies
a few
Hz
filter
resistance
the
of
frequency
cut-off
blocks
also
RIN
DC
shunts
the
amplifier
of
voltages,
the
CIN,
-
the
and
of
noise
is
CIN
In
amplifier.
drifts
and
thermal
value
produced
by
produced
RIN.
The
in
avoiding
The
device
large
this
way
low
any
long
CIN can
bias
current.
be
discharge
It
67
is
quickly
time
OP-111
amplifier
operational
having
of
capacitance
discharged
via
constants.
is
a precision
an
ultra
op-amp
low
noise
operating
Si
in
drain
capacitance)
introducing
The
P2
in
pair
factors
magnifying
due
parallel
to
Ggd (gate
Rix
with
to
without
Miller
gate-drain
feedback
and
the
a
very
maintains
frequency
does
Cgs
capacitance
gate-source
impedance
input
effect
gate
to
value
of
to
contribute
bandwidth
amplifier
low
not
because
source
the
series
in
voltage
this
range.
the
Therefore,
theoretical
is
Cgd which
to
The
frequencies
0.1
of
Additional
the
with
required
40
25 kHz
to
up
70
amplifier
be
to
Hz to
gain
about
the
of
found
and
to
equal
gain
overall
measured
were
the
of
the
places
effectively
1973).
(Sonde,
equal
This
mode.
virtual-ground
additional
its
1989).
frequency
lower
with
is
capacitance
(Toshiba,
pF
and
and
response
upper
cut-off
respectively.
further
a
input
the
dB
60
amplification
be
can
stages
if
obtained
in
shown
Figure
4.4.
MEASUREMENT
4.4
The
power
noise
The
of
the
the
type
ONOSOKI,
In
resistor,
this
were
made
which
was
be
could
band
a wide
the
connected
to
noise
generator
the
measurement
which
with
have
to
assumed
a flat
spectrum.
RMS
resistance
source
NOISE
measurement
amplifier.
film
a metal
was
with
analyzer,
the
of
output
noise
amplifier
FFT
digital
OF AMPLIFIER
input
amplifier
voltage
was
grounded.
could
spectrum
then
The
be
measured
this
with
compared
with
the
current
noise
produced
neglected
68
due
to
its
known
spectrum
very
at
noise
obtained
the
high
input
input
leaving
impedance,
flicker
a main
noise
consisting
component
white
and
noise.
The
square
mean
output
Vö = 4KTRn
The
VR = 4KT
Rn
the
where
ratio
with
HZ)
due
voltage
output
+ R)
is
the
/
Vö
the
(Rn
VR
to
finite
a
source
(V2
/
Hz)
(4.10)
input
equivalent
of
the
the
Rn equals:
Vö -1)
band
frequency
the
From
resistance.
(4.11)
22
(VR /
peak
source
(4.9)
Rn =R-
For
zero
R equals:
resistance
of
/
(V2
square
mean
voltage
noise
:
equals
resistance
the
of
noise
20 kHz
1Hz to
spectrum
was
the
measured
plotted
and
resistance
R,
is
average
shown
in
of
Figure
4.5.
For
component
made
at
voltages
values
small
dominates
1Hz.
were
At
of
at
low
frequencies;
frequencies
mid-band
measured
source
and
are
also
69
the
flicker
noise
a measurement
of
V rms
differences
in
the
noise
and
these
the
shown
in
Figure
4.5,
was
later
were
to
used
the
calculate
input
equivalent
noise
resistance.
The
the
using
input
equivalent
to
frequency
the
of
ratio
that
at
and
the
Rnl
where
Rnl
of
ratio
=
is
(Rn
the
noise
calculated
voltage
at
low
at
low
mid-band:
VnR = 4KT(Rn
from
1 Hz was
at
squared
mean
ý HZ)
(V2
= 4KTRn1
Vnl
resistance
noise
two
these
+ R)
/
(V2
+R)
/
Vnl
(4.12)
HZ)
(4.13)
equations
VnR
(4.14)
input
noise
section
(4.4)
equivalent
resistance
frequencies:
RESULTS
4.5
Using
for
value
the
method
source
was
resistance
noise
40
the
at
1Hz
Rnl
=
48052
in
shown
resistance
R of
calculated
for
or
2.8
nV
70
/
47
the
Hz1i2
Q,
and
the
amplifier
and
at
using
a
typical
input
equivalent
with
a
gain
10kHz
Rnt
=
of
47
Q
or
0.86
The
white
by
mainly
the
0)
(10
RF
the
/
nV
1/2
Hz
this
1
layout
of
FET
the
the
to
contributes
to
the
0.85
the
total
of
the,
first
FET pair
of
the
circuit.
nV
of
the
is
noise
/
nV
that
0.75
sources
RF the
resistor
been
have
would
which
connected
which
due
expected
P2
pair
makes
may be
noise
level
noise
For
ground.
and
Hzii2
/
to
1/2
Hz
any
from
1/2
Hz
P2
equal
and
produced
the
and
FET
pair
0.4
nV
/
additional
physical
amplifier.
COMMENTS
4.6
In
order
to
was
consideration
given
amplifier
components
grounding.
In
order
at
the
terminated
were
decoupled
pF
)
low
of
the
pass
amplifier
to
and
to
avoid
main
ground
the
power
from
network.
Figure
low
this
achieve
These
the
noise
performance
construction
to
ground-loops,
junction,
supply
are
not
4.4.
71
lay-out
and
particularly
wire
every
and
with
shown
an
in
all
of
bonding
ground
circuit
the
and
wire
discrete
RC ( R=1000
the
special
was
devices
,
C= 100
diagram
V
CHAPTER
CHARACTERISTICS
ELECTRODE
INTRODUCTION
5.1
The
into
the
input
In
the
amplifier
the
present
electrodes
are
electrode
used
and
the
the
overall
electrolyte,
for
tendency
formed
and
Baker,
1989).
The
was
and
develop
The
particular
to
first
the
capacitance
of
interface
electrolyte
an
to
is
electrical
electrode
of
of
types
noise
of
with
an
to
be
and
a
chemically
an
Warbug,
a capacitance.
for
in
terms
is
layer
and
electrode
-
(1899,1901)
interface
electrode-electrolyte
model
the
(Geddes
polarized
a
tendency
with
a double
at
is
There
solution
distribution
the
conduct
transferred,
said
charge
investigate
magnitude
those
occurs.
combine
is
charge
a
into
enter
produces
as a series
of
characteristics,
into
exchange
to
electrode
presence
to
properties
instrumental
the
comes
electron
A net
the
electrical
electrolyte
electrode.
'the
OF ELECTRODES
ions
the
to
system.
/
metallic
in
ions
their
to
electrodes
leads
short
electrical
reference
electrode
ion
two
4.
special
contribute
PROPERTIES
an
metallic
they
metallic
a
Chapter
the
work,
measurement
When
for
this
which
noise
in
Chapter,
for
by
connected
were
with
inserting
by
measured
described
outlined,
ELECTRICAL
5.2
these
and
water
of
were
samples
water
of
resistance
and
network.
the
R and
type,
C components
the
72
surface
is
area,
dependent
the
on
the
surface
the
conduction,
in
density
used
Baker
1989).
,
the
of
currents
signal
The
is
in
involved
one
hydrogen
a
the
of
single
pair
is
which
giving
electrode-electrolyte
of
The
but
present
pV range
the
electrodes
which
potential
of
electrode
can
be
the
standard
specified
"half"
the
potential",
system.
measured,
the
and
pA.
"half-cell
electrode
electrode
to
at
each
of
fA
for
nV to
the
current
(Geddes
electrodes
in
were
the
and
negligible
was
of
order
the
be
metallic
specific
the
practical
a
cannot
electrode
factor
signal
the
with
levels
called
to
corresponds
last
developed
voltage
interface
measurement
This
as
experiments
a
frequency,
the
electrolyte,
must
single
a
potential
with
be
respect
of
a
to
a
reference
electrolytic
potential.
MEASUREMENTS
5.3
The
interface
electrode-electrolyte
I Rb
where
a function
resistance
Re is
Ze is
is
a
Rb is
the
of
electrode
of
the
the
the
frequency
be
can
modelled
three
as
thus:
impedances
series
IMPEDANCE
OF ELECTRODE
I Ze
I
bulk
geometry
(Hary
of
gold
and
Bekey,
interface
and
follows:
73
which
which
electrolyte
to
proportional
electrodes
quantity
I
the
of
and
electrode-electrolyte
dependent
I
resistance
electrolyte
resistance
I
Re
the
is
specific
1987).
which
was
negligible
impedance
can
be
,
modelled
and
as
Ue
I
where
The
and
some LCR bridges
in
however
fluctuations
small
The
condition.
the
circuit
the
two
them
Figure
a LCR bridge,
with
the
of
in
balance
the
was built
5.1
electrodes
disturb
may
electrodes
gold
quantities.
potential
in
in
shown
measured
static
produced
Ce for
Re and
the
dependent
be
Ce can
Re and
of
values
frequency
both
Ce are
Re and
I
ice
a
for
measuring
0.9
% saline
solution.
configured
the
with
source.
this
0
angle
The
graph
against
values
direct
reading
of
the
From
the
characteristic
1989).
of
relationship
plot
is
also
Ze
observed.
is
on
small
electrolyte
is
range
series
current
and
obtained
the
Ze and
(excluding
This
be
constant
graph
Rb)
represents
74
Figure
used
versus
5.2,
so
be
can
the
versus
is
a
(Geddes
law
from
a
and
line
straight
on
a
made
which
frequency
a power
high
At
phase
Ze
electrodes
in
Ze plotted
neglected
Rb
for
observed
10 kHz.
scales.
to
enough
a
for
value
kept
was
10 Hz to
resistance
particular
same
the
G2)
logarithmic
subtracted,
is
relationship
frequency
Baker,
Rb
If
was
(type-Level
shows
are
Ze
the
of
1968).
(Block,
f,
frequency
of
5.2
Figure
both
f
frequency
a
impedance
the
frequency
the
over
in
shown
figure
of
generator
signal
100 mV(rms)
at
in
generator
signal.
the
of
measurement
the
of
amplitude
constant
direct
is
amplifier
constitutes
Lissajou
a
oscilloscope,
the
allowed
phase
The
the
signal
interface
electrode-electrolyte
on
operational
The
amplifier.
a current
as
the
5.1,
Figure
to
Referring
log-log
which
the
CHART
RECORDER
GOLD
ELECTRODES
5K
Cý/
r
VPkTER
LM411
IN BEAKER.
OSCILLOSCOPE
Figure
5.1. Diagram
of
the electrode
the circuit
measuring
impedance.
J%ýinh0
1000 ý_
-=
}ý in
Degree',
1 100
ý
80
100
60
I0
40
4k
,'
L--
0.1 L-10
100
-`-
Z electrode+Rbulk
Figure
5.2
,I 10
1000
Frequency
- 4--
in
I'hRec'
Atigle
Electrode-Electrolyte
-4, 'ti0
10000
IIi
--*
-Z
electrodes
impedc
vºcc.
the
of
slope
graph
Ze is
of
f"
to
proportional
where
is
n
a
constant.
the
that
been
has
It
Ce are
Re and
of
values
by
approximated
(1972)
Geddes
Therefore,
equal.
almost
Block
and
(1968)
from
the
of
the
are
not
formula
lRe
_
It
be
should
to
the
of
characteristics
noise
generated
5.4
RESULTS
The
system
noise
al.,
the
that
of
component
10
noise
minimum
is
equals
of
the
0.5
resistance
and
equal
of
the
samples
the
the
and
can
be
2.3
from
the
the
/
to
electrical
the
estimate
that
by
.
the
the
of
values
(5.1)
Johnson
From
to
contribute
expression
for
75
the
and
measured
Hz-1'2
electrolyte
input
amplifier
can
and
formulated
nV
experiment
system.
electrodes
From
the
and
one
determine
used,
electrolyte
KO
the
from
electrode-electrolyte
which
to
solution,
to
to
made
water
resistance
the
compared
electrodes.
contribution
1991)
the
the
at
electrolyte
quantities
negligible
were
measurements
of
variable
Measurements
impedance.
kHz
are
are
and
and
concentration
separation
another
accurate
impedance
since
electrode
that
noted
electrode-electrolyte
necessary
(5.1)
be estimated.
Re = Ce can
for
values
+
the
resistive
this
Re
noise
measured
particular
the
Ze
=
353
(Godin
values
electrode
at
O
et
was
arrangement
4.7
/
nV
in
the
electrodes
is
ideally
In
the
noise
of
100
than
shorter
The
1983).
surfaces
first
liquid
the
the
liquid,
these
the
the
fluctuations
were
water
the
is
present
at
are
are
frequency
nonduration
a
(Kramer,
1966b);
contamination
the
on
at
Resistive
generated.
input
of
a
is
This
electrodes.
the
instant
the
the
as well
an
amplifier,
electrodes.
bulk
used
under
movement
until
of
were
their
in
stored
temperature
this
the
water
due
liquid.
the
investigation.
and
water
detected
were
experiments
they
time
or
two
potentials
have
and
found
amplitude
potential
fluctuations
Voltage
is
noise
with
contact
electrode
capacitive
connected
in
loads
to
in
fluctuations
comes
when
time
mV
for
even
electrodes.
biggest
The
1
of
low
are
1966a,
this
of
source
the
order
differential
expected
These
(Flasterstein,
msec
main
of
the
of
be
which
because
1989).
material.
signals
but
their
used
to
are
potential
1973),
Baker,
and
same
to
rise
give
were
potentials
fluctuations
periodic
20
a
half-cell
(Strong,
V
metal
(Geddes
zero
nominally
and
1.50
+
same
small
of
stable
not
is
the
practice,
electrodes
in
producing
the
used,
electrodes
saline
of
potential
of
wire
gold
physiological
two
for
thus
KQ,
Hz-1/2_
For
the
1.4
COMMENTS
5.5
as
be
to
measured
The
hot
a
was
motion
sec.
76
in
ceased,
ionic
at
motion
low
beakers
80
At
than
was
frequency
usually
used
Co.
higher
still,
in
drifts
glass
oven
Convective
resulted
to
within
the
that
observed
voltage
10
to
Mechanical
vibrations
found
were
noise
acoustic
vibrations
gave
mechanical
resonance
was
experiment
layers
Additional
in
electrodes
used
were
were
salts
the
of
sample
the
or
flame
were
of
to
gold
surface
of
the
when
not
a part
by
produced
by
5.2nV
an
and
flamed
again
for
the
electrodes
keep
to
also
to
break
onto
the
three
and
the
1/2
Hz
77
dipped
of
is
electrolyte
into
follows
the
After
each
flame,
alcohol
15
to
20
sec.
in
heating
this
a
any
surface.
of
amplifier.
system
been
short
electrodes
by
gold
orders
noise
the
up
contribution
detection
the
/
with
only
kept
(1989).
cleaned
not
and
This
were
bonded
low
of
had
Baker
noise
the
they
after
electrodes
water
and
least
at
sec
clean
Geddes
was
white
be
to
in
measured.
water
minimum
the
being
but
vicinal
found
is
removal
handling
due
The
electrodes.
potency
water
condition
sensitivity
that
from
from
made
be
to
The
procedure,
30
electrodes
the
sterilized
produced
or
distilled
of
role
least
water
the
into
that
% purity.
together
by
experiment,
been
the
the
4 cm thick.
found
of
grease
bench
foam
plastic
were
general
at
recommendations
The
and
the
at
Accordingly,
absorbing
surfaces
and
frequencies
at
acoustic
these
electrodes
electrodes.
99.99
of
shorted
circuited
ordered
an
the
on
of
until
The
on
the
environmental
procedure.
As a part
dipped
the
and
to
signals
fluctuations
by
experimental
use
couple
2mm thick
and
contamination
in
up
voltage
impurities
to
of
tiles
cork
of
the
electrical
set
building
of
the
higher
magnitude
Thus,
limited
the
by
the
has
electrodes
best
than
overall
the
noise
case
of
CHAPTER
VI
EXPERIMENTAL
this
In
the
present
for
the
chapter,
with
work
procedure
the
imprint
existing
order
to
particular
potentized
water
in
their
respective
might
As
to
method
liquids
other
exact
nor
experimental
experimental
validation
which
were
models
for
clinical
formulation
restricted
and
to
the
be
of
with
proposed
for
by
which
mechanism
writer
information
in
each
his
based
turn
are
in
each
to
the
described
on
proposed
on
Therefore,
experiment
case.
in
particular
based
particular
water
setup
experiments
are
no
in
susceptible
potencies.
available
78
the
and
Those
for
was
of
homoeopathic
specifications
it
offers
experimental
of
his
extend
"memory"
but
rest
to
Ludwig
his
Ludwig's
repeat
and
assessment
given
the
to
made
water.
describe
the
water.
potentized
made
information
obtain
remedies
theoretical
by
developed
effects
he
does
cannot
work
were
models
was
any
concerning
Therefore,
detail.
attempt
potentized
magnetically
scientific
chapter
to
homoeopathic
explanation
outlined.
theoretical
attempt
an
involving
experiments
this
procedure
variabilities.
earlier
mentioned
is
is
that
the
and
for
water
substances,
remedies,
in
to
reference
potentize
various
fields
described
experiments
test
of
magnetic
to
used
homoeopathic
with
water
potentize
the
of
preparation
The
or
-
INTRODUCTION
6.1
to
WORK
the
the
are
PREPARATION
THE
6.2
this
For
the
work,
provided
by
dilution
were
made in
double
distilled
Tsouris
(1991)
kindly
homoeopathic
large
The
binding
Kg.
The
time
and
The
was
by
on
of
used
ten
of
strong
Thus,
0.05m1
of
of
given
preparing
new
of
in
for
of
succussions.
any
the
the
bench.
for
of
dilution
5ml
For
tincture
the
79
a
that
was
of
was
be
to
not
using
of
second
added
dilution
10
measured.
a
constant
sec.
4.95m1
a potency
was
on
succussion
found
and
1 per
impacts
hard
in
was made volumetrically
preparing
if
and
ensure
force
potency,
succussion
mother
The
response
every
produced
prepared,
to
not
laboratory.
the
given
scales
scale's
was
were
as those
involved
weighting
dust
from
way.
originally
on
given
serial
was
in
attention
in
were
with
dry
to
fields
computer
attention
succussion
ordinary
addition,
such
potencies
°C
away
DC magnetic
or
cleaned
80
at
for
prepared
were
environment
In
personal
book
oven
potentization
then
frequency
process
and
AC
mishandled
were
the
100.
strong
made
an
air
sunlight.
made,
constant
succussions
force,
of
guides
were
which
the
a clean
the
a thick
of
was
Ten
the
potencies
in
strong
or
of
process
in
process
was not
measured
fold
was
quantity
remedy
the
the
experiment
every
the
that
motors
electric
For
1.7.
preparation
methods
phials
left
and
and
ensure
magnetic
silica-glass
made
were
during
present
by
in
smells,
strong
given
alternative
in
(iCH)
section'
the
to
Serial
100
of
in
of
reference
and
and
water
Remedies
to
review
special
with
fold
described
an extensive
remedies
distilled
and
manner
given
work
present
air.
in
Brazil.
of
the
were
remedies.
Homoepathic
triple
in
bases
the
substances
Institute
volumetric
POTENCIES
thirty
of
Homoeopathic
pharmacopoeias,
homoeopathic
the
the
potencies
different
by
tinctures
Mother
water
has
AND MAGNETIC
OF HOMOEOPATHIC
to
water
0.05ml
of
the
water
followed
is
taken
a clean
with
repeated
pipette
and
the
desired
until
Magnetic
magnetic
a signal
generator
The'water
sample
generator
until
was
then
This
not
away,
in
the
imprinted
into
water.
EXPERIMENT
6.3.1
INTRODUCTION
on
different
6.3.2
potencies
to
of
and
the
and
been
was
set.
succussed
frozen,
when
were
of
the
the
coil.
signal
The
water
10 times.
but
field.
geomagnetic
frequencies
insulated
terminals
the
coil
had
information
multiple
alternating
turns
from'the
coil
of
the
was
would
The
required
same
to
I
6.3
homoeopathic
absence
if
the
its
retain
procedure
of
of
process
35 V p. p across
frequency
and
front
1000
connected
well
followed
aim
was
kept
was
The
coil
using
out
of
producing
could
potentize
coil
of
amplitude
in
carried
a
The
water.
of
made.
capable
was
brought
potency
by
SWG. The
24
of
wire
copper
is
was
produced
4.95m1
potency
potentization
field
to
added
this
experiment
remedies,
in
terms
was
to
is
that
their
of
METHOD
80
to
reproduce
be
able
frequency
Ludwig's
to
results
characterize
spectrum.
be
Steel
Mu-metal
Gold
wire
box
box
electrodes
"aI
I
I
Water
sample
ow
I
S
noise
Amplifier
r-ý.
i
A
Grease
Batteries!
-}1
Piezo
transducer
Signal
inplit
Random
noise
output
Spectrum
Analyzer
Figure
6.1. Experimental
setup
in water.
signals
for
detecting
coherent
The
the
experimental
is
author
double
distilled
the
writer
bykhe
potency
The
the
In
was
apparatus
the
The
protocol.
placed
(an
were
voltage
the
water
was
was
was
Onnosoki
to
C
enclosures.
activated
acoustically
a procedure
Ludwig's
of
in
was
50
6.2.
shielding
and
the
section
generated
2048)
type
in
by
remedies
prepared
inside
activation
followed
and
Homoeopathic
described
method
This
noise
used
analyzer
water
potentized
noise.
random
with
then
remedy
Ludwig
6.1.
Figure
in
potentized
by
in
shown
by
as described
setup
the
spectrum
available
30
at
V
p"p"
The
noise
random
output
by
by
produced
It
SKM21.
Kynar
directly
into
potency
sample
the
standardized
glass
beaker.
The
piezo
silver
paint.
This
since
the
interference
foil
which
maximum
the
to
was
couple
irradiate
electrical
the
the
covered
this
stage
the
noise
electrodes.
of
the
the
the
work
as
a result
In
order
order
to
of
In
water
sample
brass
layer
cage
acoustic
to
the
small
eliminate
81
0.3
joints.
They
electrodes.
gold
In
within
a thin
with
through
signals
all
between
coupling
acoustic
excite
75
a
the
avoid
mm thick
of
and
to
ml
with
but
order
the
of
shielding
to
mm
dipped
coated
used
electrodes.
was enclosed
in
supplied
of
be
volume
placed
type
0.5
and
could
The
and
factor
signals
around
soldered
transducer
At
of
was
film
ml
was
some
the
at
piezo
50
transducer
electrical
be detected
also
could
the
it
measured.
to
provides
so
film
was
2 cm width,
proof
this
piezo
transducer
piezo
being
sample
was
inadequate
water
was
water
This
from
produced
(PVDF)
5 cm height,
transducer
The
thickness.
Film.
dimensions
of
was
Piezo
were
difluoride
polyvinylidene
a
using
waves
acoustic
was
piezo
noise
brass
achieve
the
silicone
piezo,
grease
.
waves
were
in
resulted
mechanical
these
to
used
increased
vibrations
vibrations,
the
Steel
Mu-metal
Gold
wire
box
box
electrodes
-oU
I
I
ýow
noise
jAmplifier
Water
sample
ý
1
Grease
Batteries
Piezo
transducer
I
Signal
input
Random
noise
outpu
Spectrum
Analyzer
J
Figure
6.1. Experimental
setup
in water.
signals
for
detecting
coherent
The
the
experimental
is
author
double
distilled
the
writer
bykhe
potency
The
In
the
remedy
was
apparatus
the
The
protocol.
analyzer
This
(an
inside
the
water
was
was
activation
voltage
noise
used
placed
2048)
type
to
acoustically
procedure
Ludwig's
of
in
was
C
enclosures.
activated
and
50
6.2.
shielding
a
the
section
generated
was
Onnosoki
in
by
remedies
prepared
described
method
followed
and
Homoeopathic
were
water
potentized
noise.
random
with
then
Ludwig
6.1.
Figure
in
potentized
by
in
shown
by
as described
setup
the
spectrum
available
V
30
at
p"p"
The
noise
random
a
using
output
by
by
produced
It
SKM21.
Kynar
directly
into
potency
sample
water
standardized
glass
beaker.
The
piezo
silver
paint.
This
since
could
the
interference
foil
the
to
transducer
couple
At
irradiate
electrical
of
the
was
this
stage
the
between
noise
electrodes.
of
the
the
the
work
a result
In
order
to
excite
In
order
to
of
joints.
In
water
sample
brass
layer
cage
acoustic
to
the
small
eliminate
81
0.3
within
75
a
the
avoid
mm thick
and
to
ml
with
but
order
of
the
of
shielding
mm
dipped
coated
used
They
electrodes.
as
of
a thin
with
through
gold
all
in
supplied
factor
was enclosed
covered
signals
was
be
volume
placed
type
0.5
and
could
The
and
electrodes.
around
coupling
acoustic
the
film
ml
signals
the
at
piezo
50
some
electrical
soldered
was
which
maximum
the
it
measured.
transducer
provides
be detected
also
to
so
film
was
2 cm width,
proof
this
piezo
transducer
piezo
being
sample
was
inadequate
water
was
from
produced
(PVDF)
5 cm height,
dimensions
the
This
Film.
transducer
The
thickness.
Piezo
were
difluoride
polyvinylidene
of
was
waves
acoustic
was
piezo
noise
brass
achieve
the
silicone
piezo,
grease
.
waves
in
resulted
mechanical
these
to
used
were
increased
vibrations
vibrations,
the
Photograph
c):
left
to right)
(From
shows
box and the
generator
signal
driving
or
water
potentizing
Photograph
the
toroid,
left)
(far
toroid.
the
the
steel
for
used
screening
d):
the
box.
left
The top view
(From
to
of
steel
shielding
The outer
black
is
box,
the
the
right)
enclosure,
steel
box contains
internal
in turn
box,
the
metal
the mu-metal
electrodes
to a stand,
attached
gold
and the head
amplifier.
far
In the
the
lead
batteries
right
are
one on
shown
acid
the
other.
of
top
electrodes
wire
gold
so
that
the
of
the
water
start
electrodes
The
the
moment
two
around
wrapped
1 cm apart
were
sample.
the
at
were
noise
source
2 cm below
was
synchronized
was
3mm thick
rods
and
analyzer
spectrum
glass
the
surface
so
to
seeking
to
as
acquire
data.
RESULTS
6.3.3
The
in
results
A
is
the
between
but
Al),
Homoeopathic
respect
of
process
of
potentization,
which
the
potencies.
in
were
this
In
large
instrumentation
the
of
the
With
refer
and
water
This
to
serves
into
has
as
origins
In
order
at
cited
the
to
for
in
(b),
frequency
in
the
of
book
82
from
prepared
be prepared
tested
and
in
only
Every
the
remedy
away
as
described
Figure
6.3.
from
was
of
any
kHz
High
is
The
traces
at
the
has
some
above,
potentized
which
1.10
Ultra
the
variables,
magnetically
water
c)
in
systems.
up
tracing
these
frequency,
in
sources
tinctures
concentrated
supply
water
and
involved
eliminate
could
single
shown
complex
mother
experiment.
set
and
the
variables
a
spacings
(Ag/AgCl,
variables
of
samples
50 Hz mains
made
untreated
control
different
as
using
the
of
a control
which
been
and
with
unpotentized
a)
the
experimental
were
observations
spectrum,
the
the
Ludwig.
observations.
considered
continued
potentized
the
electrodes
were
water
part
harmonics
different
way,
numbers,
magnetically
and
prepared.
experiments
by
reported
using
no significant
frequency
were
repeated
potencies
their
they
was
still
were
as
significant
6.2.
Figure
electrodes,
there
any
show
with
compared
output
experiment
same
to
resonances
coherent
the
in
shown
The
of
of
graph
sample
water
form
the
failed
output
analyzer
spectrum
same
been
Dilution
shown
1.00kHz,
sample
of
imprinted.
(Smith
C.,
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i
ý
ý
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i
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Figure
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6.2. Top trace shows the control double
distilled
water.
Bottom trace shows noise of NaCl potentized
ýkH:
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1 kHz
at 50 C.
CD
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a) t
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1994a).
CONCLUSION
6.3.4
initial
The
is
detect
to
objective
coherent
homoeopathic
a frequency
with
has
remedies
Ludwig's
repeating
signals
electrical
coherent
of
failed.
in
activity
that
experiment,
spectrum
to
related
indications
However,
some
magnetic
potencies
of
has
been
detected.
6.4
EXPERIMENT
6.4.1
INTRODUCTION
II
to
According
coherent
domains
electric
fields
magnetic
water
as
a
and
potencies
coherence.
of
those
electrical
their
evaluate
establishment
in
result
could
result
detect
to
the
(1991),
Giudice
of
weak
emissions
The
aim
this
of
involved
signals
electrical
of
in
characteristics.
METHOD
6.4.2
The
acoustic
same
The
The
background
typical
waters
bought
noise
levels
concentrations
analyses
described
as
in
for
procedures
and
this
experiment
I,
but
levels
of
several
are
given
experiment
the
without
excitation.
The
mineral
set-up
experimental
the
were
I.
in
was
experiment
Del
in
from
were
the
as specified
"staircase-shape"
water
in
their
noise
a supermarket
found
samples
to
be
according
different
in
related
to
to
the
Appendix
the
salt
different
labels.
spectrum
83
of
the
noise
from
water
at
frequencies
different
when
repeated
input
by
produced
a resistor,
the
of
as
it
thus
spectrum
was
network
capacitor
amplifier,
the
have
must
analyzer
to
connected
been
was
the
instrumental
an
effect.
if
Clearly,
two
any
at
exist
shapes
to
detect
the
weak
such
became
there
should
domains
are
their
that
the
evident
increase
to
was
voltages
then
between
nor
have
and
coupling
sample
spacing
Giudice
It
any.
coherent
likely
Del
water
the
overall
only
way
sensitivity
of
amplifier.
RESULTS
6.4.3
The
by
the
4096
perform
for
averages
component
component
of
analyzer
in
Figure
untreated
observed
6.5.
the
water,
625
The
to
913.1250
Figure
to
be
far
the
Hz.
in
order
described
signal
the
lower
The
Figure
trace
noise
84
6.5
to
was
to
6.4.
This
from
away
to
decrease
in
this
only
the
shows
bandwidth
the
in
spectrum
there
water
detected
trace
frequency
was
harmonic
noise.
upper
the
with
particular
section,
be
maximum
Hz
any
of
set
A typical
pV.
4165.6250
at
imprinted
could
However,
The
= 100
bandwidth
component
output
and
in
Hz
set-up
case
The
sensors,
analyzer
signal.
shown
Hz.
50
FFT
was
this
chosen
a frequency
Referring
at
in
attendant
electrodes.
incoming
method
is
to
with
of
averages.
this
mains
limited
However,
indication
the
with
was
the
was
an
further,
resolution
frequency
the
at
the
its
and
produced
potentized
water
frequency
this
amplifier,
on
achieved
sensitivity
display
noise
investigate
to
able
the
of
sensitivity
limited
is
be
if
arrangements
or
by
in
a potency
The
formulated
been
not
a result
within
difference.
involved
are
as
space
points
arbitrary
a potential
have
in
arrangements
specific
domains
coherent
125
was
as
shown
after
128
is
for
component
Hz,
and
the
0_ S
r
F
1
L
ýý1AG
µV
ý
ý2ocl
1
ý6
CJ
250
F
PV
1
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Figure
resolution.
6.4. The trace
shows noise at 100pV
The head amplifier
gain was set to 200.
ý/ý.
.
ý-:
ll1i
_
I
z. 5
ý
T
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Figure 6.5. The top trace shows the power spectrum
of
untreated
water, and the bottom trace water treated with
field.
a 905.1250 Hz magnetic
<> - frequency
marker is the same in both traces.
resolution
by
produced
its
using
6.4.4
0.0015
Hz.
the
spectrum
analyzer,
the
middle
was
and
the
of
always
is
trace
observed
when
CONCLUSION
leakage
some
Coherent
of
through
and
it
the
mains
to
of
the
from
a
in
a
show
the
wiring
once
6.5
degree
high
very
been
enclosure.
but
Figure
have
may
shielding
observed
Referring
the
the
outside
were
manner.
sharpness
extreme
repeatable,
but
signals
temperamental
not
signal
nearby
generator
signal
was
experiment
of
result
again
resonances
coherence
which
must
of
the
present.
III
EXPERIMENT
6.5
INTRODUCTION
6.5.1
Further
I,
Chapter
structures
absorptions
of
alterations
in
10-12
frequencies
of
if
a
large
the
The
sec.
up to
molecular
structural
but
the
of
should
relaxation
instrumentation
20 kHz.
ý
85
be
also
of
different
a
to
the
time
built
property
of
for
any
test
liquid
of
in
helical
or
slightly
attempts
structure
introduced
coherent
liquid,
the
method
idea
The
number
waves
This
investigations
the
potencies.
in
acoustic
water.
of
the
present
were
range.
of
that
was
potentized
frequency
involved
experiments
properties
acoustic
order
in
spike
facility.
zooming
The
be
The
in
the
water
is
was
limited
in
low
the
to
METHOD
6.5.2
The
spectrum
to
synchronized
and
was
The
for
reasons
to
sensitive
This
was
5
with
involving
exactly
the
was
overcome
and
injecting
in
shown
by
plastic
foam
by
500111
waves
were
it.
too
was
amplifiers
The
sensitive
were
extremely
thirdly
the
both
potentized
on
a
the
of
This
wooden
the
be
to
performed.
between
water
waves
had
water
was
piezos
problem
standing
of
experiment
a
dimensions
the
depth
the
the
Since
beaker
box
shielding
Secondly,
water.
the
of
mu-metal
around.
the
firmly
of
repeatably.
the
all
time
holding
it
covering
surface
every
samples
5 mm from
placed
6.6
the
containing
and
same
acoustic
Figure
perform
2 kHz,
noise.
overcome
significant
was
in
first
audio
the
at
which
to
were,
beaker
produced
were
stand,
piezos
as
6.6.
Figure
RESULTS
6.5.3
The
frequency
the
some
to
that
produce
water
and
These
potentized.
such
any
which
show
it
are
shown
in
a complicated
especially
discrete
any
had
been
peaks
different
significant
memory,
to
definite
quite
water,
ordinary
clear
failed
experiment
produce
of
cm
the
beaker
this
ambient
problem
were
difficult
extremely
10 Hz to
The water
the
and
shown
,,
from
sweep
simultaneously.
piezo,
piezo
arrangement
experimental
and
SKM21
a
to
set
data
an identical
by
detected
was
acquire
with
exited
were
at
analyzer
at
water
Figure
6.7
and
this
86
makes
in
low
it
the
frequency
absorption
but
it
did
frequencies
certain
for
interpretation
of
potentized,
peaks
spectrum
in
peak
had
which
Figure
very
6.8.
difficult
absence
region.
for
of
been
is
It
to
a theory
Steel
Mu-metal
box
Stand
Water
sample
Low
P iezo
transducers
Random
or
sinwave
output
i
noise
Amplifier
,-,
+
Batteries
Sig naI
Input
Spectrum
Analyzer
_1
Figure
6.6.
of
Experimental
acoustic
setup
resonance
for the detection
in water.
box
T-
r-C. S
i
Iýt
i
M P.G
V
xidiCi
ý ýr11 ýYYYT
r
/
r`YIý`rr'K''r+`n'..
+'f""'ý---r»"rýiýfý'm,
ý: i'ýh'1ýýV'+
Y 1,ý
I
I
I
I
r
i
ý
i
----}---
--
-ý'---
F-ý
-__}-------
0
6.7. The top trace shows the acoustic
absorption
of tap water.
spectrum
The bottom trace shows the frequency
of the piezos.
response
Figure
-----1-------
-ý
SkNz
Cwvi
I-
r
MA C;
µv
Scý
,;
r
ýr
LTi
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rr
I
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r
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i.
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I
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ý
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ý
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,ti
ý
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I
N
'n11
t
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-
ýýýý
ýk ýý:-
d
Figure
6.8. The top trace shows
of deionized
water.
bottom
same water
The
trace
treated
shows
with
the frequency
the frequency
response
field.
1230.0Hz
magnetic
response
of the
CONCLUSION
6.5.4
The
failed
expected
test
the
dense
potentized
had
which
However,
broad
band
water
may be
due
and
liquid.
the
IV
INTRODUCTION
6.6.1
The
aim
this
of
and
investigate
to
was
water,
the
whether
the
on-off
noise
appearance
justified.
be
could
signals
coherent
experiment
potentized
of
properties
METHOD
6.6.2
Further
theory
special
with
size
from
300
the
Mm s-l
is
system
then
from
distance
will
signal
pm width
1m
the
by
electrodes
as
one
would
300
tim height
cell,
to
kHz
signal
have
either
reduced
domains
radiating
random
and
at
to
and
87
a
the
wave
the
electrodes.
minimum
potency
possible
are
At
range.
resulting
the
coherent
velocity
throughout
confine
the
the
a
reduction
in
wavelength
the
having
a velocity
frequency
1 cm
of
in
Guidice
microscopic
the
and
is
Del
A domain
water.
the
the
proposed
result
If
s-1.
frequency
many
appear
coherent
parameter
the
with
electrodes
sample
to
a constant
variables,
in
to
given
his
to
a 300 Fan would
of
order
been
reference
involved
domains
in
have
considerations
coherent
this
in
frequency
the
sample.
in
obtained
clusters
ordered
water
frequencies
particular
at
measuring
the
been
EXPERIMENT
6.6
absorptions
successfully
into
have
resonances
of
of
imprinted
been
to
sharp
at
a
the
water
To
in
detect
a 300
depth
so
-----..
ý,.
ýý ý_
;i 4
111:
s
ýýý..
..
Photograph
The gold
'fabricated
Photograph
The toroid
potential,
the water
a):
electrode
perspex
wires,
stand.
mounted
immersed
on a specially
in water.
b):
for
the
used
generation
of magnetic
vector
for
used
potentizing
water
or activating
in
the enclosure
samples
contained
on the
right
that
domains
coherent
However,
these
at
As
distances,
small
dimension
two
to
restricted
is
there
a
coherence.
risk
of
actually
bio-information.
the
erasing
are
an
the
alternative,
water
potentized
this
bio-information
be
could
noise
properties
examined.
If
in
result
would
of
one
and
the
contains
different
a
water
noise
spectral
density.
An experiment
to
order
to
asymmetries
the
outside
diameter
screening
The
(1994b).
mm,
Mr
from
data
same
1.000
gain
of
of
data
kHz were
is
had
which
Fourier
The
transform
"Easyplot"
software,
and
frequency
components
were
water.
kHz
as
had
driven
with
on
a floppy
had
Smith
set
to
Ten
C.
two
data
the
samples
data
of
from
beaker
same
a
voltage
by
II.
the
a mean
a
with
a
placed
core
samples
in
with
turns,
was
ten
giving
was
the
mm,
Appendix
potentized
stored
333
collected
and
in
excited
recomended
in
used
and
which
amplifier
were
and
at
disk.
RESULTS
6.6.3
plot
was
water,
been
and
collected
it
the
was
no
copper
sample
toroid
a
toroid
described
Perth
sample
with
were
the
25x3
and
=87
which
untreated
water
by
The
of
samples
system
acquisition
to
The
water.
one
electrodes
cross-section
a
enclosures
electrodes,
signal
enclosures.
overall
The
thousand.
bias
of
frequency
a
and
of
produced
permeability
10Vp. p
1.000
101
of
relative
the
sample
shielding
metal
d. c.
potential
vector
magnetic
of
the
the
a pair
a small
provide
in
up
different
two
The
gold.
of
set
using
excitation
acoustic
one
was
of
the
The
mean
plot
and
for
the
of
the
also
standard
mean
and
calculated
deviation
potentized
water
88
data
deviations
standard
Figure
.
of
shows
with
calculated
was
water
large
6.9
of
shows
and
"a
"treated"
fluctuations
the
Arbitary
r) 51
units
Li
_. __
_ýý-ý
.
ýj} ý----ý_--
ý-----
_ t=ý ----f=3
ý1
i:ý
ýý
:ý..
ý
-ý
4
Number
Mean
Mean
treated
8i
dat.
of'
<i ýý<11r1p1cs
I
water
( -}
water
6.9. The mean and
Figure
frequency
components
and a control
sample.
ýi
SI) treated
SI) water
deviation
standard
of water treated
with
the
water
of the
1kHz
(,'ý
the
about
that
than
is
mean
the
The
standard
the
the
the
of
square
a
of
is
of
another
treated
of
distribution,
the
N and
events
The
.
standard
larger
a statistical
Poisson
1/
to
of
change
existence
which
number
mean
is
water
deviations
control
with
proportional
a
give
the
dealing
to
is
6.9
indicating
of
is
one
deviation
Figure
that
proportional
approximately
values
deviation
shown
is
which
mean.
CONCLUSION
6.6.4
From
the
very
likely
motion
required
to
detected
it
has
be
to
constant
potentized
treatment
statistical
water
potentized
is
than
treated
1kHz
the
component.
Since,
standard
in
control
smaller
is
for
mean
frequency
expectation.
the
the
of
additional
water
The
mean.
which
on an on-off
the
the
shown
that
randomly
spaced
inside
establish
water,
been
liquid.
probability
may also
the
of
explain
basis.
89
frequency
domains-in
coherent
in
a potency
Further
speckrcAw. ý of
or
water
be
to
experimentation
distribution
why coherent
of
water
signals
in
a
is
and
were
CHAPTER
VII
DISCUSSION
The
objective
in
involved
The
The
1989.
published
initiated
was
work
property
water
appeared
in
homoeopathic
homoeopathic
related,
closely
the
have
can
their
potencies
addition,
homoeopathic
prepared
but
water,
frequency
bases
no
frequency
there
of
and
to
to
the
molecular
not
as
can
within
of
of
that
the
coherence
water
solute
In
patient.
using
remedies
X-rays.
and
potentize
This
being
concluding
In
fact
with
a
a remedy.
remedies
upon
prepared
symptoms
Ludwig.
having
had
Ludwig
particular
In
addition,
the
property
but
arrangement
molecular
is
able
to
"copy"
so
that
it
acts
chemically
system.
This
raises
on a living
90
are
fields
with
a certain
water
reactivated
currents
static
characterize
both
hyper-sensitive
been
remedies
which
based
or
patient.
by
memory
that
is
This
particular
fields,
homoeopathic
believe
structure
result
could
of
coherence
homoeopaths
a
electric
homoeopathic
of
magnetically
have
not
number
relieved
to
only
and
a
where
and
particular
author
which
spectrum
sustaining
not
a
relate
was no evidence
instead
of
made by
symptoms
alternating
can
specific
is
remark
that
shown
so
C. W. Smith,
fields,
to
potentized
practitioners
of
opinion
believes
author
mechanisms.
specific
magnetic
static
has
C. W. Smith
by
scientific
large
a
remedies
frequency
being
in
memory
existence
referring
The
allergic
homoeopathic
both
with
of
found
effects
clinical
people
terms
Ludwig's
magnetically
and
the
signals
liquid.
the
discussed,
journals.
remedies
in
in
publications
been
have
coherent
establish
after
many
in
to
and
detect
to
was
mechanism
memory
or
work
water,
potentized
coherent
any
this
of
the
shape
the
did
question
Ludwig
homoeopathic
In
remedy
physical
their
information
in
by
analysis
liquid
is
but
due
Proposed
example
none
to
of
chemical
it
its
a molecular
molecules
is
of
models
physical
involved
bonds
in
flexible
so
fact
a number
all
hydrogen
the
water
are
explain
in
water,
number
have
those
because,
been
terms
not
proposed
in
properties
between
the
its
of
the
physics
However
these
works
structure
is
of
water
structural
the
even
molecular
or
disproved
and
scientific
This
justify
no
the
is
attention
of
since
memory
ambitious.
to
structure
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91
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92
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93
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filter.
circuit
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