Dimensions - Southern Early Childhood Association
Transcription
Dimensions - Southern Early Childhood Association
10495 Summer 10 Cover:Layout 1 7/16/10 3:40 PM Page 1 Volume 38, Number 2 D imensions Spring/Summer 2010 Southern Early Childhood Association of Inside this issue: • Social Skills • English Language Learners • The South Leads in Pre-K • What Age Gap? • Talk About Math Early Childhood 10495 Summer 10 Cover:Layout 1 7/16/10 3:40 PM Page 2 Don’t Forget to Vote for Your 2010 SECA President-Elect Candidates! The Nominating Committee of the Southern Early Childhood Association has certified two President-Elect candidates for the 2010 election that will be held in the fall. We introduced the candidates at SECA 2010 in Little Rock, and they are: Nancy Cheshire of West Virginia and Beverly Peden of Mississippi We know you want to be able to make an informed decision when you vote, so we’ve included information about each candidate below. For more information on each candidate’s unique vision for SECA, refer to the Summer 2010 SECA Reporter or any of this year’s issues of What’s Happening at SECA, all available at www.SouthernEarlyChildhood.org. Look for ballots to arrive in your mailbox in August 2010. Nancy Cheshire Nancy is Early Childhood Professor Emerita at Pierpont Community and Technical College in West Virginia. She has a Master of Education Degree with an emphasis in Early Childhood Education from West Virginia Wesleyan College and completed additional graduate work at West Virginia University. As a Professor of Early Childhood at Pierpont, she served as the Early Childhood Program Coordinator, Supervisor of Early Childhood Practicum Students, Director of the Fairmont State Laboratory Preschool, and Advisor to the Associate of Applied Science Degree majors and Early Childhood Occupational Development majors. In 2007, she received the Fairmont State Paul Edwards Outstanding Teacher Award. Prior to her role as a professor, she served as the Executive Director of Lasting Impressions Child Development Center, Inc., which is located at the FBI Complex in Clarksburg, West Virginia, and received a letter of commendation and merit award from the United States Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1996. Nancy has been a Governing Board member of the West Virginia Association for Young Children since 1995. She served as the West Virginia representative on the SECA Board of Directors from 1998 to 2005 and was named SECA’s Outstanding Member in 2009. She currently serves as co-chair of the SECA Editorial Committee. Beverly Peden Beverly recently retired as Executive Director of Crossgates Methodist Children’s Center in Brandon, Mississippi, a position that she held from 1993 to 2009. She has a B.S. in Elementary Education from Belhaven University. In 2004, she achieved the Director’s Credential Designation from the National Institute of Child Care Management and completed the Montessori Training from the Association for the Catechesis of the Good Shepherd. She currently is an early childhood consultant, including working with the Mississippi State University Early Childhood Institute to assess programs with the Early Childhood Quality Rating Scale. Beverly has been a member of the Mississippi Early Childhood Association since 1988, serving as President in 2001, and was recognized with MECA’s highest award, the MECA Award. She currently serves as the Mississippi Representative on the SECA Board of Directors. She served on Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour’s Early Childhood Committee from 2007 to 2009 and currently serves on the Mississippi Department of Health Advisory Council. In 2004 she was named National Director of the Year by the National Association of Child Care Professionals and was recognized by the Mississippi Business Journal as one of the 50 Leading Business Women of Mississippi. In 2007, she received the Bettye Quinn Education Award from Belhaven University. Southern Early Childhood Association Editor - Janet F. Brown Cover photo by Elisabeth Nichols Dimensions of Early Childhood Copyright ©2010, Southern Early Childhood Association (SECA). Permission is not required to excerpt or make copies of articles in Dimensions of Early Childhood if they are distributed at no cost. Contact the Copyright Clearance Center at (978) 750-8400 or www.copyright.com for permission for academic photocopying (coursepackets, study guides, etc.). Indexes for Dimensions of Early Childhood are posted on the SECA web site at www.SouthernEarlyChildhood.org. Additional copies of Dimensions of Early Childhood may be purchased from the SECA office by calling (800) 305-SECA. Dimensions of Early Childhood (ISSN 1068-6177) is SECA’s journal. Third Class postage is paid at Little Rock, Arkansas. SECA does not accept responsibility for statements of facts or opinion which appear in Dimensions of Early Childhood. Authors are encouraged to ask for a copy of SECA’s manuscript guidelines. Submit manuscripts that are typed and double spaced with references in APA style. E-mail manuscripts for review to the editor at [email protected]. SECA serves the interests of early childhood educators concerned with child development, including university researchers and teacher educators; early childhood, kindergarten, and primary-grade teachers; and early childhood program administrators and proprietors. The association has affiliates in 13 Southern states. Non-affiliate memberships are available to anyone living outside the 13 affiliate states. For information about joining SECA, contact the executive offices at P.O. Box 55930, Little Rock, AR 72215-5930, (800) 305-7322. Members receive a one-year subscription to Dimensions of Early Childhood and discounts on SECA publications and conference registration fees. Dimensions of Early Childhood Volume 38, Number 2 Spring/Summer 2010 —Refereed Articles— 3 Social Skills: Laying the Foundation for Success Sharon A. Lynch and Cynthia G. Simpson 13 Teaching English Language Learners: Recommendations for Early Childhood Educators Sarah J. Shin 23 What Age Gap? Building Intergenerational Relationships Stephanie R. Davidson and Beverly Boals-Gilbert 30 One, Two, Buckle My Shoe: Using Math-Mediated Language in Preschool Loretta C. Rudd, Macy Satterwhite, and Matthew C. Lambert —Departments— 2 President's Message Janie Humphries 22 The South Leads in Pre-K Education Glenda Bean 39 Southern Early Childhood Association P.O. Box 55930 Little Rock, AR 72215-5930 (800) 305-7322 e-mail: [email protected] Web: www.southernearlychildhood.org Spring/Summer 2010 Book Reviews: Books for Early Childhood Educators E. Anne Eddowes, Editor DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 1 BOARD OF DIRECTORS Dr. Janie Humphries President 2310 Lily Drive Ruston, LA 71720 Georgia Lamirand Past President 2013 Rocky Point Drive Edmond, OK 73003 PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE AFFILIATE REPRESENTATIVES Dee Ard 1805 Townshend Trace S.W. -AlabamaDecatur, AL 35603 Dr. Joanna Grymes Arkansas State University PO Box 2350 State University, AR 72467-2350 -Arkansas- STAFF Glenda Bean Executive Director As I travel around the SECA region I am excited to learn what programs the states are providing for young children of the South. The South now has the highest enrollment of 3- and 4-year olds in prekindergarten of any region in the country. Even with a recession, the SECA states have been able to maintain or increase their public prekindergarten programs in the past 2 years. Each SECA state either has a quality rating system for early learning and care programs or is in the process of designing a system. We are providing more and more educational and care programs for young children in the SECA states. In reviewing this information, I have to stop and consider: Are we providing our children with good-quality early care and education? Providing programs is not enough. We must work to ensure that each program is a good-quality experience. Children do not benefit from just any type of early care and education programs. Children benefit, grow, and prosper when they are provided high-quality early care and education. How do we ensure that young children in our Southern states are in goodquality programs? We provide information to legislators, state agency personnel, and administrators about the characteristics of high-quality programs. We help parents know and understand what good-quality programs are. We educate our communities on what good-quality early care and education programs look like AND what good-quality programs cost to provide. We help parents, administrators, community leaders, and legislators understand that children start learning before they are born. We do not have “to get them ready to learn” when they enter school at 4 or 5 years of age. Instead, we must ensure that programs for all ages are good quality. High-quality programs for children from birth to 5 years have supportive relationships and stimulating environments. They have certified teachers trained to work with the ages they teach. Good-quality programs are funded sufficiently. Young children have ample, interesting materials to manipulate, to explore, to experiment with, and to use to make fun and exciting discoveries in their environments. Good-quality programs have appropriate student-teacher ratios. Classrooms where learning happens are not crowded. Excellent programs intentionally plan the curriculum so that children have time to focus on learning. They help children make connections between materials they are using as well as more unusual connections. They encourage children to use manipulatives and explore to develop and extend their creativity. Megan Sullins Executive Assistant continued on page 40 -Florida- Sister Roberta Bailey PO Box 2450 Saint Leo, FL 33574-2450 -Georgia- Terrie Buckner 655 Singley Drive Lawrenceville, GA 31406 -Kentucky- Katie Shaughnessy-Williams 500 Metro Street, 17th Floor CPT Louisville, KY 40245 -Louisiana- Cynthia Ramagos 815 Bourbon Avenue Baton Rouge, LA 70808 -Mississippi- Beverly Peden 21 Crossgates Drive Brandon, MS 39042 -Oklahoma- Susan Carrigan 2427 Foliage Drive Ada, OK 74820-4626 -South Carolina- Crystal Campbell 235 Woodhouse Dr. Irmo, SC 29063 -Tennessee- Lisa Maddox-Vinson 548 Bumpus Mills Rd. Dover, TN 37058 -Texas- Mary Jamsek 7603 Basil Cove Austin, TX 78750 -Virginia- Joyce P. Jones 802 Cub Ridge Court Chester, VA 23836 -West Virginia- Melanie Clark 3272 Birch River Road Birch River, WV 26610 MEMBERS-AT-LARGE Dr. Herman T. Knopf Carol Montealegre 133 Old Pond Lane 1322 Castille Avenue Columbia, SC 29212 Coral Gables, FL 33134 EDITORIAL COMMITTEE Nancy Cheshire Connie Casha West Virginia Tennessee Stephen Graves Anita McLeod Florida South Carolina Jaesook Gilbert Cynthia Simpson Kentucky Texas Wilma Robles-Melendez Florida 2 Dr. Janie Humphries Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010 What strategies are most effective to help diverse groups of young children learn positive social skills? This review suggests ways to build a foundation for children’s future success at home, in school, and in the community. Social Skills: Laying the Foundation for Success Sharon A. Lynch and Cynthia G. Simpson Well-informed teachers of young children recognize the importance of children’s social development. The development of social skills lays a critical foundation for later academic achievement as well as work-related skills (McClelland & Morrison, 2003). Social development is such a key issue with young children that a number of methods to address social skills have been advocated. Some of these methods include • setting up classrooms to enhance social development, • providing play opportunities to promote social functioning, and • teaching social skills directly. Teaching social skills can incorporate a number of techniques, including direct instruction, learning from peers, prevention of problem behaviors, and children’s books. Many social behaviors are better learned among peers (Ladd, 2005), so teachers of young children are in a unique position to promote social learning in their classrooms. The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with several research-based strategies to promote young children’s social skills development. What Social Skills Are Important? All children need to learn appropriate social skills. Social skills are behaviors that promote positive interaction with others and the environment. Some of these skills include • showing empathy, • participation in group activities, • generosity, • helpfulness, • communicating with others, • negotiating, and • problem solving. Spring/Summer 2010 What are social skills? Social skills are behaviors that promote positive interaction with others and the environment. Some of these skills include showing empathy, participation in group activities, generosity, helpfulness, communicating with others, negotiating, and problem solving. Children learn these skills from the adults and children in their environment who model and explain how to behave in particular circumstances (Ladd, 2005). The social skills that children learn when they are young form the basis for subsequent relationships that they develop in later childhood and adulthood (Ladd & Burgess, 2001; Ladd, Kochenderfer, & Coleman, 1996). Because of the importance of social development in the formative early years, all children need to learn and practice social skills. Many children spend a significant Sharon A. Lynch, Ed.D., is Professor, Department of Language, Literacy, and Special Populations, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas. She is the author of Preschool Classroom Management (2004) and has published extensively on the subject of social skills. She has 10 years experience in public schools, 4 years experience as an educational consultant, and 16 years in higher education where she teaches courses in special education. Cynthia G. Simpson, Ph.D., is Associate Professor, Department of Language, Literacy, and Special Populations, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas. She has published numerous books and articles on the subject of preschool inclusion. Simpson has extensive experience in both private and public schools as a classroom teacher, educational diagnostician, child care director, educational consultant, and administrator. She teaches courses in special education. DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 3 social interaction, smooth transitions, and social communication (McEvoy, 1990). Learning areas can be large enough to give children the space they need to play together, but small enough to provide an intimate setting for social interaction. For example, in the housekeeping center, low dividers enable adults to supervise children as they play and learn. They also set clear boundaries to provide sufficient space for several children to play with the sink, appliances, and table. Toys that promote cooperative play Elisabeth Nichols as well as isolate play are always Learning areas can be large enough to give children the space they need to play available in a classroom designed to together, but small enough to provide an intimate setting for social interaction. Select facilitate social skill development. toys and activities that promote cooperation, helpfulness, and generosity, rather than Learning materials that encourage those that are competitive. cooperative play include pretend cars portion of their day in child care How Can Teachers and trucks, blocks, imaginary food or preschool settings, so it is incumand cooking props, and puppets. bent on teachers of young children Help? Select toys and activities that promote Many teachers of young children to positively influence children’s cooperation, helpfulness, and genare more comfortable with approaches social development. erosity, rather than those that are comWith the passage of the Individuals that involve setting up environments petitive (Honig & Wittmer, 1996). With Disabilities Education Imp- to promote social growth and making rovement Act (IDEA, 2004), there is an the most of teachable moments as Enhance Social increased focus on including all children they arise, while other teachers prefer in typical classrooms (Jacobson, 2005). a more direct instructional approach Functioning Through Play Children learn a vast array of skills As a result, there are more children to teach specific social skills. Although with disabilities in early childhood philosophies may vary, many experts during play opportunities. From who work with young children with building with blocks and role playing and primary-level classrooms. problem behaviors advocate tech- in the dramatic play area, for instance, niques that address specific social children develop skills such as one-toIntervention can improve behaviors directly, while also rec- one correspondence, early writing and social relationships. ognizing the need to structure the reading behaviors, as well as counting environment and take advantage of and patterning. Some authorities contend that for situations that provide spontaneous Play also provides a means and young children with disabilities, social opportunities for teaching (Vaughn, opportunity for children to learn and skills development should be the et al., 2003). improve their social skills (Barbakoff central goal of early childhood & Yo, 2002). For children who are programs (Guralnick, 1999). In Arrange the Environment socially isolated, play offers important addition to children with identified occasions for social interaction and to Promote Positive developmental problems, there are skill development. Children with often other children in classrooms Social Skills disabilities also benefit from the who lack social skills or demonstrate The classroom environment def- experience of playing with typicalproblem behavior, although they do initely can be structured to promote developing peers, who provide not have an identified disability. 4 Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010 suitable role models, initiate social interactions, and maintain ongoing communication. Additionally, free play is an effective, spontaneous way for children to apply social skills that have been taught directly. The four stages of play are marked by different types of social interaction in which children engage: • onlooker, • solitary, • parallel, and • cooperative play. Each type of play elicits different types of social interactions. Select toys that stretch each developmental play level to increase children’s social learning opportunities. For example, a well-stocked pretend play center is filled with real objects, writing materials, play telephones, and dressup clothing. These items foster children’s social development as they begin to interact with others using social skills such as turn taking, sharing toys, listening, and using appropriate greetings. The social learning that takes place during center time activities can be unlimited when best practices are implemented. Engage children in discussions and physical movement, ask assistants or volunteers to sit with wiggly children to help them focus, and keep group times short. Follow this simple guideline: Actively involved adults lead to actively involved children. opportunities to teach social skills include sharing in the work of cleaning up, thanking a classroom visitor for bringing her dog, or inviting a newcomer to the classroom to join in play. Children learn social skills from adults and children. When teaching young children appropriate social behaviors, everyday events often become teachable moments. For example, when a child demonstrates a problem behavior, view it as an opportunity to facilitate social growth. When Madison, an older toddler, grabs a new doll from Carly and Carly cries, good teachers recognize that these children are ready to learn negotiation, communication, and conflict solution skills. Most such events also provide opportunities for children to learn about the feelings of others, a foundational support for social growth. Young children are still learning to recognize and understand the feelings of others, so they can benefit from specific guidance to learn to identify the emotions of other children and adults. With these children, the teacher can • name feelings as other children demonstrate them, and • suggest why they may feel that way; then later • describe feelings observed Build on Teachable in additional children, and Moments • ask the children who are Teachers are urged to show having difficulty why they children how to share and negotiate think their peers may feel before problem behavior occurs, as they do. because it is nearly impossible to teach When teachers use classroom conchildren social skills when they are flict as an opportunity to promote arguing or upset. Typical classroom social growth rather than to punish Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD children, everyone involved benefits (Stone, 1993). Teachable moments do not necessary revolve around negative behaviors. Everyday events can also be designed as proactive measures to teach social behaviors. Teachers can teach alternative behaviors and prompt their use before the time when the negative behaviors are likely to occur. For example, negative behaviors— biting, pushing, screaming, or hitting—are likely to occur during transition times. An example of setting up a teachable moment is to design transition activities around those times in the day in which children move from one activity or area in the classroom to another. Effective transition activities can include chants, games, and songs that are designed to help bring closure to activities as well as to assist children in moving to and from group activities. In addition, effective transitions help focus children’s attention while waiting for a turn (Pica, 2003). Prevent Inappropriate Behavior In addition to arranging furnishings and learning materials to promote appropriate social interactions, classroom routines can be structured in ways to avoid problem behaviors to the greatest extent possible (Warner & Lynch, 2004). Problem behaviors have a variety of causes and effects. • Problem behaviors attract teacher and peer attention. Some children seek this attention, even when it is negative. Volume 38, Number 2 5 Nancy P. Alexander Show children how to share and negotiate before the problem behavior occurs, because it is nearly impossible to teach children social skills when they are arguing or upset. When teaching young children appropriate social behaviors, everyday events often become teachable moments. • Problem behaviors provide negative role models that other young children may imitate. • Problem behaviors can create situations where children are hurt, resulting in a classroom where children do not feel safe. With individual children and even the whole group, an observant teacher often can predict when inappropriate behaviors are likely to occur. There are various ways teachers can help children avoid negative behavior. (Briody & McGarry, 2005). Some effective techniques for smooth transitions are to • provide a signal that the activity will soon end, • sing or chant a predictable song or fingerplay to cue transitions, • set a timer, and • alternate free play with more structured activities. The “plan-do-review” process (Schweinhart & Weikart, 1999), or posting a picture schedule, enables children to learn the daily routine and predict upcoming activities. As a result, Plan for transitions. In addition children learn the social skill of to addressing teachable moments, following group customs. This builds a planning for transitions can avoid foundation for following routines that problem behaviors when children children will encounter in elementary change from one activity to the next classrooms and through-out their lives. 6 Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Entering and leaving structured settings such as circle time or table tasks are difficult for some children. When teachers maintain a fast pace, encourage personal involvement, and change activities every 5 to 10 minutes within the structured setting, children are more likely to be interested and engaged. When a child is becoming restless, give the child a delay cue—such as “just one minute and then we will play outdoors,” or “after this story we will sing a song”—depending on the activity that is planned next (Warner & Lynch, 2004). When children learn to attend during group times, they are gaining a social skill that will help them in their classroom learning for many years to come. Spring/Summer 2010 Offer choices. Providing opportunities for choice is very important when working with young children (Ward & Dahlmeier, 2004). Even with low-preference activities such as naps, choice making can give children a sense of autonomy, enabling them to settle into a routine that otherwise might be problematic. For example, at rest time, a teacher might give a child the choice of sleeping on a cot or a rug, or of sitting quietly and playing with a toy or reading a book. Choices should be limited, safe, and appropriate. Choices should be limited, safe, and appropriate to the child’s age and to the activity. Choice-making helps children adjust to the social demands of a group setting and promotes responsibility. Working cooperatively within the group becomes increasingly important as children move into intermediate grades. Teach Social Skills Direct instruction typically involves teaching children specific social behaviors such as sharing, taking turns, or asking for a toy. This method can be used with a group of children during circle time, or with an individual child who has difficulty with a specific social skill. When social skills instruction is targeted to the needs of children with social difficulties such as aggression or isolation, the intervention can significantly improve the nature of the child’s social relationships (Ladd, 2005; Mize & Ladd, 1990). Direct instruction using a social skill script usually involves these steps. Spring/Summer 2010 1. The teacher models the appropriate behavior. 2. The child demonstrates the behavior with the teacher. 3. The teacher models a correct and incorrect example of the target social behavior. 4. The teacher asks the child to identify the correct social behavior. 5. The child role plays the positive skill with another child. 6. To promote generalization of the social skill, the teacher reminds the child of the skill before the activity where it is likely to be employed. An example of direct instruction using a social skill script with an older preschool child is provided in Table 1. Notice that with young children, a social skill is broken down into just a few behaviors. Promote Peer Learning According to social learning theory (Bandura, 1986), individuals learn many social behaviors by observing others. Teachers can take advantage of this phenomenon by grouping children in activities to promote appropriate social behavior. These are just two examples. • When a child has difficulty with social skills, seat her between two socially adept Table 1. Example of direct instruction using a social script Teacher: Let’s learn how to share. First, I look at my friend. I give her a truck. And I say, ”Here.” Tell me, what do you do when you share? Child: (teacher may need to prompt the child) I look at my friend. I give her a truck. I say ”Here.” Teacher: Yes, that is one way to share. Now watch me and tell me if I share. I look at Libby. I give her the doll. And I say, “Here.” Did I share with Libby? Child: Yes. You shared with Libby. Teacher: You were really watching. Now tell me if I share this time. (demonstrate with another toy, but grab it and say “That’s mine.”) Did I share? Child: No, you grabbed the doll. Teacher: I see that you were watching carefully. Now watch me this time. (Demonstrate sharing a car with the child). Did I share with you? What did I do? Child: You did. You gave me the car and said, “Here.” The teacher then has the child role play the act of sharing with a friend. Before the children go to play in centers, remind them to remember to share with their friends. Some teachers may want to role play again just before center time to reinforce the skill. DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 7 peers during circle time and snack time. • During playground time, centers, and other play activities, encourage the children with strong social skills to invite a child with less mature social development to join them. When teachers affirm appropriate social behaviors, other children see this happening and are more likely to imitate behaviors that are socially enhancing. At the same time, be careful not make the same children always the caretakers of less socially adept children. One way to avoid this is to pair the child with social difficulties with a variety of children rather than with the same child all of the time. Tell Social Stories Originally, teachers used social stories to assist young children with disabilities to learn social skills. The effectiveness of social stories with children with disabilities is widely documented (Sansosoti, PowellSmith, & Kinkaid, 2004). In recent years social stories have become increasing popular among preschool and elementary teachers (Lynch & Simpson, 2005). Through the use of social stories, teachers can address specific social skills such as how to greet friends or share a toy. After the target skill is identified, the teacher, along with the children, creates a story that demonstrates how to use that skill. Later, the teacher reads the social story during circle time and follows up with interactive role playing where children can practice the skill informally. After the children are familiar with the appropriate behavior, the teacher 8 Volume 38, Number 2 reminds them to use the skill throughout the day. This technique is highly effective for children who may not have appropriate role models of social behaviors at home, or may not be able to generalize skills into alternate environments. Very often children independently use their newly learned skill in various learning centers. The process for implementing social stories presented here has been adapted from its original format to assure that the activity is developmentally appropriate for typically developing young children. When developing the social story, Gray (2000) recommends that the stories follow a specific five-to-seven-sentence format. • The first sentence (descriptive sentence) simply describes the appropriate behavior in social situations. • The following sentence describes positive, observable, appropriate responses (directive sentence). • The next sentence (perspective sentence) helps children to understand the viewpoint of others as they react to a situation. This perspective sentence was developed by Gray (2000) for children with autism spectrum disorders who may not understand the feelings of the teacher or peers in the situation described in the story. For typically developing children, the teacher may want to include a sentence that reflects a more internal locus of control and reflects on the child’s perspective rather than the perspective of others. • The next sentence is optional. It describes a commonly shared value or opinion. • The last sentence reminds children of the appropriate behavior in the social situation (control sentence). The social story in Table 2 was written to assist children who were having difficulty in cleaning up after center time. For children with autism spectrum disorders, a perspective sentence from Gray’s framework would be included to provide the child with insight about the viewpoint of others. Instead of “Tomorrow our toys will be ready to play with again,” the sentence might read “Our teacher is pleased when we pick up our toys.” Because the Table 2. Social story to assist children with clean-up time Center Time We like to play with toys during center time. When it is time to clean up centers, our teacher sings the clean-up song. Sometimes we are having fun playing and do not want to clean up. Even when we want to keep playing, we pick up our toys. After we clean up our toys, we can go outside to play. Tomorrow our toys will be ready to play with again. We feel proud when we get all of the toys picked up. It is very important to pick up our toys and put them away neatly. We will try to remember to pick up our toys when we hear the clean-up song. DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010 social story in Table 2 is applicable to Developmental bibliotherapy most classrooms, and not necessarily for Reading stories to children that children with autism, the perspective address issues that most children sentence was adapted to provide an are likely to experience at a particular age. example that promotes internal locus of control, rather than doing something If the teacher reads When Sophie simply to please the teacher. Gets Angry—Really, Really Angry by Molly Bang, there are a number of Explore Story Books issues that can be discussed, such as Teachers have long used story the fact that everyone feels angry, books to promote children’s social what makes us angry, how we know development. Doll and Doll (1997) when we feel angry, and what we do introduced the term developmental when we are angry. Using children’s literature in this bibliotherapy, which is reading stories to children that address issues that way offers children perspectives and most children are likely to experience options for their thoughts, feelings, at a particular age. Many young and behaviors. As a result, children are children are likely to experience feel- able to gain insights about, and learn ings of anger, teasing, or bullying healthy ways to face, common difficulties (Heath, Leavy, Young, & during the preschool years. Money, 2005). When selecting picture books to promote young children’s social development, choose books that contain • attractive illustrations, • interesting story content, • situations that are developmentally appropriate for young children, and • appealing recurring refrains (Nicholson & Pearson, 2003). Young children often enjoy stories where animals portray characters, and this eliminates the uncertainty about whether or not children will identify with characters due to age, gender, or race. Because story reading is a part of everyday classroom activities, this method affords a natural way to help children to learn to deal with problem situations and express feelings. Some of the goals of developmental bibliotherapy include providing Subjects & Predicates Read stories to children that address issues that most children are likely to experience at a particular age, such as anger, teasing, or bullying. Using children’s literature in this way offers children perspectives and options for their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. As a result, children are able to gain insight and learn healthy ways to face difficulties. Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 9 appropriate role models through book characters, validating children’s feelings, giving children the vocabulary to talk about their feelings, and improving children’s self-esteem (Bauer & Balius, 1995). Assist Children Who Have Experienced Trauma Some children who have difficulty with social interaction have experienced trauma, such as neglect. These experiences have a serious impact on young children’s developing neurological systems. These children may experience physiologically altered states of arousal and brain chemistry, making it difficult for them to regulate their behaviors (Anda, et al., 2006; Cicchetti & Toth, 2005). Children who have experienced trauma also may have attachment problems that contribute to significant difficulties in relating to and interacting with others (Lieberman, 2002). Some estimate that 35% of children in the United States exhibit some difficulty with attachment (Lubit & Maldonado-Duran, 2006). Such children need a predictable, nurturing classroom with non-punitive caregivers who establish a safe and rewarding environment for them. Teachers are urged to collaborate with specialists when children who have experienced trauma are enrolled in their classrooms. An extensive discussion of children experiencing trauma and neglect is beyond the scope of this article, so interested readers are encouraged to explore the principles of the Neurosequential Model of Therapeutics discussed by Perry (2006). A few common techniques are described here as an introduction to the topic. 10 Volume 38, Number 2 Stein and Kendall (2004) provide an intervention model for children who have experienced psychological trauma. Their model consists or three components: 1. safety and stabilization, 2. symptom reduction and memory work, and 3. teaching developmental skills. For safety and stabilization, children need a safe, predictable environment. A nurturing classroom with a predictable schedule and planned transitions supports these children. Firm limits and boundaries, where children are aware of classroom expectations, are important as well. Stein and Kendall (2004) also recommend that caregivers redirect children toward more appropriate behaviors and teach them coping strategies. Providing a safe space in the classroom where children can calm down and regain composure is helpful. This should be a comfortable area that is not associated with punishment or time out. Intervention can improve social relationships. The second component of this model, symptom reduction and memory work, involves a counselor who is trained in working with abused and neglected children. Caregivers can support these children by teaching them ways to calm down. A number of methods have been developed to teach young children to calm themselves. • One approach to teaching a relaxation response is through self-instruction by crossing one’s arms and repeating “control.” DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD • Another calming technique is to teach children to cross their arms pretzel fashion, bring their arms toward their body, and take deep breaths (Miami Dade County Public Schools, 2007). • The turtle technique (Guetzloe, 1998) is another approach to help children calm themselves by using the concrete example of a turtle. The class can observe a real turtle or read about a turtle in a book. The teacher shows children how a turtle draws in its arms and legs when scared or angry. Children are then taught to imitate the turtle by pulling their arms and legs in close to their bodies. They can also learn to "turtle" while standing. Children practice this response and the teacher prompts them to use it when they are agitated. The third component of Stein and Kendall’s model is teaching developmental skills. They recommend directly teaching social skills and problem solving. The goal is to foster social development so that children can learn compassion, responsibility, and concern for others. * * * Learning social skills during early childhood is essential, so teachers can employ a variety of developmentally appropriate approaches to address children’s individual needs. Designing effective classroom environments, taking advantage of teachable moments, implementing proactive approaches when teaching social behaviors, and giving direct social skill instruction are Spring/Summer 2010 some of the options available to teachers. Each of these strategies can be implemented within any classroom structure and is appropriate for diverse groups of learners. When teachers assist children to learn the social skills that are needed for success in their homes, schools, and communities, they are building a strong foundation for everyone for many years to come. References Anda, R.F., Felitti, V.J., Bremner, J.D., Walker, J.D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B.D., Dube, S.R., & Giles, W.H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 174-186. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Publishing. Barbakoff, S., & Yo, Y.P. (2002). Levels of social play: Observing and recording preschoolers. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED472748). Bauer, M.S., & Balius, F.A. (1995). Storytelling: Integrating therapy and curriculum for children with emotional disturbances. Teaching Exceptional Children, 27(2), 24-28. Briody, J., & McGarry, K. (2005). Using social stories to ease children’s transitions. Young Children, 60(5), 38-40. Doll, B., & Doll, C. (1997). Bibliotherapy with young people: Librarians and mental health professionals working together. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. (2005). Child maltreatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 409-438. Gray, C. (2000). Writing social stories with Carol Gray [Videotape and workbook]. Arlington, TX: Future Horizons. Guetzloe, E., & Rockwell, S. (1998). Fight, flight, or better choices: Teaching nonviolent responses to young children. Preventing School Failure, 42(4), 154-159. Guralnick, M.J. (1999). The nature and meaning of social integration for young children with mild developmental delays in inclusive settings. Journal of Early Intervention, 22, 70-86. Spring/Summer 2010 Heath, M.A., Sheen, D., Leavy, D., Young, E., & Money, K. (2005). Bibliotherapy: A resource to facilitate emotional healing and growth. School Psychology International, 26(5), 563-580. Honig, A.S., & Wittmer, D.S. (1996). Helping children become more prosocial: Ideas for classrooms, families, schools, and communities. Young Children, 51(2), 62-70. Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA). (2004). Public Law 108-446, 20 U.S.C., Section 1400. Jacobson, L. (2005). NGA Task Force endorses more inclusion for preschool. Education Week, 24(17), 5. Ladd, G.W. (2005). Children’s peer relations and social competence: A century of progress. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Ladd, G.B., & Burgess, K.B. (2001). Do relational risks and protective factors moderate the linkages between childhood aggression and early psychological and school adjustment? Child Development, 72(5), 1579-1601. Ladd, G.W., Kochenderfer, B.J., & Coleman, C.C. (1996). Friendship quality as a predictor of young children's early school adjustment. Child Development, 67, 1103-1118. Lieberman, A.F. (2002). Treatment of attachment disorders in infant psychotherapy. In J.M. Maldonado-Duran (Ed.), Infant and toddler mental health: Models of clinical intervention with infants and their families (pp. 105-128). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing. Lubit, R., & Maldonado-Duran, J.M. (2006). Childhood abuse and neglect: Reactive attachment disorder. Retrieved September 13, 2007, from http://www.emedicine.com/ped/ topic2646.htm.s Lynch, S.A., & Simpson, C.G. (2005). Social stories: Tools to teach positive behaviors. Dimensions of Early Childhood, 33(2), 32-36. McClelland, M.M., & Morrison, F.J. (2003). The emergence of learningrelated social skills in preschool children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18(2), 206-224. McEvoy, M.A. (1990). The organization of caregiving environments: Critical issues and suggestions for future research. Education and Treatment of Children, 13(4), 269-272. DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Miami-Dade County Public Schools. (2007). Prekindergarten program for children with disabilities extended school year (ESY) activities home packet. Retrieved November 21, 2007, from http://prekese.dadeschools.net/docs/esy/ Behavior.pdf. Mize, J., & Ladd, G.W. (1990). A socialcognitive learning approach to social skill training with low-status preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 26, 388-397. Nicholson, J.L., & Pearson, Q.M. (2003). Helping children cope with fears: Using children’s literature in classroom guidance. Professional School Counseling, 7(1), 15-19. Perry, B.D. (2006). Applying principles of neurodevelopment to clinical work with maltreated and traumatized children. In N.B. Webb (Ed.), Working with traumatized youth in child welfare (pp. 27-51). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Pica, R. (2003). Teachable transitions: 190 activities to move from morning circle to the end of the day. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House. Sansosoti, F., Powell-Smith, K.A., & Kinkaid, D. (2004). A research synthesis of social story intervention for children with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 19(4), 194-205. Schweinhart, L.J., & Weikart, D.P. (1999). The advantages of High/Scope: Helping children lead successful lives. Educational Leadership, 57(1), 76-79. Stein, P.T., & Kendall, J.C. (2004). Psychological trauma and the developing brain: Neurologically based interventions for troubled children. New York: Hawthorn Press. Stone, S.J. (1993). Taking time to teach social skills. Childhood Education, 69(4), 194-195. Vaughn, S., Ae-Hwa, C., Morris-Sloan, C.V., Hughes, M.J., Elbaum, B., & Sridhar, D. (2003). Social skills for young children with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 24(1), 2-15. Ward, G., & Dahlmeier, C. (2004). Choices and voices: A developmental view of guided choice. Montessori Life, 16(1), 16-20. Warner, L., & Lynch, S.A. (2004). Preschool classroom management: 150 teacher-tested techniques. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House. Volume 38, Number 2 11 Put These Ideas Into Practice! Social Skills: Laying the Foundation for Success Sharon A. Lynch and Cynthia G. Simpson What are social skills? Social skills are behaviors that promote positive interaction with others and the environment. Some of these skills include showing empathy, participation in group activities, generosity, helpfulness, communicating with others, negotiating, and problem solving. Use Teachable Moments • Recognize that behavior problems indicate a need for children to learn a more effective way of interacting • Model and teach social skills within the context of everyday play • Help children recognize and identify their feelings and the feelings of others • Smooth transition routines with songs, chants, and games Prevent Inappropriate Behaviors • Based on past experience, anticipate when there might be problems • Instruct children in the appropriate behavior before the problem situation occurs • During circle time and structured settings, keep a quick pace, involve children, and change activities every 5 to 10 minutes • Let children know that “they are almost finished” when they become restless Teach Social Skills Directly • Use social scripts to teach turn-taking, sharing, and other needed skills • Pair less mature children with those who have stronger social abilities • Use social stories and story books to teach valued social skills Subjects & Predicates Note: Dimensions of Early Childhood readers are encouraged to copy this material for early childhood students as well as teachers of young children as a professional development tool. 12 Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010 Incorporating several forms of literacies (students’ native languages, drawing, music, and drama) can help to accelerate primary-age children’s acquisition of English literacy. Find out how teachers facilitate the language-learning process. Teaching English Language Learners: Recommendations for Early Childhood Educators Sarah J. Shin “If ESL newcomer students already know how to write in their native language, should they continue to write in that language in the classroom?” Teachers working with young immigrant children frequently ask that question. Some teachers are justifiably concerned that primaryage students who continue to use their native language skills might hamper their acquisition of English literacy. After all, isn’t time spent in writing in the first language time that could have been spent writing in English? Many other teachers agree conceptually with the notion that supporting immigrant children’s home languages and cultures is good practice (Pattnaik, 2003; 2005). However, with increasing pressure to help English language learners quickly acquire academic English skills—so they can be successful on state-mandated high-stakes tests—many teachers wonder whether they can afford to have the “diversion” of students’ native languages in their already full instructional schedules. Newcomer English learners are no longer exempt from taking standardized tests under the No Child Left Behind Act (2002), so there are enormous pressures to teach them as much English as possible as soon as possible. Teachers and schools are required to raise the test scores of their English learners and are increasingly focusing their instruction on the content covered by the tests (Crawford, 2004; Meier & Wood, 2004). In fact, many schools are adopting scripted, one-size-fits-all curricular programs that consume large amounts of instructional time, leaving less time for best practices, including ESL and content area instruction that is tailored to the English proficiency and literacy levels of individual students (Wright, 2005). This article contends that while the testing requirements Spring/Summer 2010 may push teachers to focus only on English, incorporating other forms of literacies—students’ native languages, drawing, music, and drama—can help to accelerate immigrant children’s acquisition of English literacy. English Learner Population Growth In the United States, English learners are a rapidly growing segment of the K-12 student population. According to the U.S. Department of Education, the number of limited-English proficient students in the country’s schools doubled in the last decade, with more than 5 million English learners currently enrolled in K-12 programs. In pre-kindergarten through grade 3 alone, there are more than 2 million English learners (Abedi, Hofstetter, & Lord, 2004). While English learners can be found in every state, some states have particularly high concentrations of immigrant students. In Texas, for example, Latinos accounted for almost half of the P-12 public school population (46.3%) during the 2006-2007 school year, and 16% of the total P-12 population was identified as English language learners (Sheets, 2008). Sarah J. Shin, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Co-Director, M.A. Program in ESOL/Bilingual Education, Department of Education, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland. Her work has appeared in the International Journal of Bilingualism, Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, Multilingua, TESOL Quarterly, and the Heritage Language Journal. She serves on the editorial board of The International Multilingual Research Journal. DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 13 Kathleen A. Martin & L. Kay Emfinger If at all possible, English learners should first be taught to read in the language they know best (i.e., their native language) while learning English. This is because it is difficult for children to read in a language that they don’t already speak. English-speaking children learn to read primarily by applying phonics to arrange sounds to match words in their speaking vocabulary. The English learner student population is a diverse group. Although 80% of this group speaks Spanish, the rest of the group represents speakers of more than 460 languages (Hepburn, 2004). Meeting the needs of this diverse student population is a significant challenge because the majority of classroom teachers have no preparation for teaching linguistically and culturally diverse populations (Daniel & Friedman, 2005; Hawkins, 2004). Reading and Writing in More Than One Language Research evidence strongly suggests that literacy skills transfer from a child’s first language to a second language, and learning to read in the first language facilitates the development of literacy skills in English (Cummins, 1996; Lanauze & Snow, 1989). Evaluations of various 14 Volume 38, Number 2 bilingual education programs show that instructional programs that allow immigrant children to develop their native language to high levels of proficiency while learning English are more effective than English-only programs (Garcia, 2005; Ramirez, 1992; Slavin & Cheung, 2004; Thomas & Collier, 2002). On the whole, reinforcing children’s conceptual base in the native language provides a foundation for long-term growth in English academic skills (August & Hakuta, 1997; August & Shanahan, 2006). If at all possible, English learners should first be taught to read in the language they know best (their native language) while learning English. This is because it is difficult for children to read in a language that they don’t already speak. Literacy skills transfer from a child’s first language to a second language. English-speaking children learn to read primarily by applying phonics to arrange sounds to match words in their speaking vocabulary. For example, an English-speaking child who comes across the word crow may initially read it as /kraw/ by assuming that it is similar to other words with the same spelling pattern (e.g., brow, cow, how, now, wow). However, an English-speaking child knows that the word cannot be pronounced /kraw/ because she sees the accompanying picture of a black bird, which she knows is pronounced /krow/. She then makes the connection that there is another set of words in English with the -ow spelling pattern that is pronounced /ow/ (e.g., low, mow, row, tow, throw). By using her knowledge DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD of the oral language, the Englishspeaking child arrives at the correct pronunciation and meaning of the word. However, a young English language learner who does not know what a crow is called in English may think /kraw/ sounds fine since he does not know what the bird is called in English. This is why phonics and sight-word instruction for English learners should be based on words that students have encountered many times. However, if the child already knows Spanish and sees the word cuervo (crow in Spanish) printed with a picture of a crow, he may recognize and pronounce it correctly as /'kwerβo/. Children who are literate in Spanish have already grasped two key principles: the alphabetic principle and phonemic awareness. •The alphabetic principle is the knowledge that letters represent sounds. This refers to the knowledge that the “c” in cuervo stands for the sound /k/, the “u” stands for the sound /w/, and so on. •Phonemic awareness is the knowledge that spoken words are composed of a sequence of separable phonemes. Thus, the word /'kwer o/ has six distinct phonemes, /k/, /w/, /e/, /r/, /β /, and /o/. A Spanish-speaking child who has can apply these principles in Spanish might be better prepared to read English than a child who is puzzling over what word is formed out of the sounds /k/, /r/, /o/, and /w/. What can early childhood teachers do to help English learners develop native language literacy? The surest way is for teachers to draw on the Spring/Summer 2010 expertise of those who are already literate in those languages—parents, grandparents, siblings, and other relatives. Teachers can encourage families to read to children in the home language and teach their children to read and write in that language (Hepburn, 2004; Shin, 2005). Teachers can also urge families to enroll their children in weekend heritage language programs in the community. If the school has family/community liaisons who speak students’ native languages, teachers may enlist their help in educating families about the How can early childhood teachers help English learners develop native language literacy? ◆ Encourage family members to read to children in the home language and teach their children to read and write in that language. ◆ Urge families to enroll their children in the community’s weekend heritage language programs. ◆ Enlist the help of family/ community liaisons who speak students’ native languages. ◆ Integrate diverse language materials in the classroom. ◆ Group English learners and English speakers together to investigate topics of mutual interest. ◆ Share children’s books in students’ native languages. English learners can play the role of experts in pronunciation and vocabulary. ◆ Display classroom signs and messages in various languages. ◆ Learn to say and write simple greetings and phrases such as “Hello” and “Thank you” in each language. Spring/Summer 2010 importance of developing first language literacy skills while learning English. In addition, community liaisons may be able to help teachers to secure bilingual children’s books for classroom use. Furthermore, teachers can foster multilingual sensitivity of all students by integrating diverse Kathleen A. Martin & L. Kay Emfinger language materials What can early childhood teachers do to help English learners in their daily teaching develop native language literacy? The surest way is for teachers practices. For example, to draw on the expertise of those who are already literate in English learners and those languages—parents, grandparents, siblings, and English speakers can relatives. Teachers can encourage families to read books in the be grouped together home language and teach their children to read and write in that language. to investigate the writing conventions of English you” in each language. This sends a language learners’ native languages. strong signal to immigrant students Students can find out whether a that their languages and cultures are language is alphabetic (e.g., English, not simply tolerated in school but are Spanish, Korean), syllabic (e.g., actively valued (Shin, 2007). As Japanese), or logographic (e.g., students realize that their teachers are Chinese), and whether it is written language learners, too, and make lots from left to right, from right to left, of errors in learning how to say simple things, children are likely to have or top to bottom (Crystal, 1997). Children’s books in students’ more positive views of their own native languages may also be shared. English language learning efforts. This activity is a great multilingual lesson for all students, and is Developing Oral especially empowering for English learners who play the role of experts Proficiency in English As teachers encourage immigrant on pronunciation and vocabulary, for example. This technique is very children to develop native language appropriate for students in the early literacy skills through home- and elementary grades whose reading community-based efforts, they can also create a classroom environment skills are rapidly developing. In addition, teachers can display in which English learners can best classroom signs and messages in acquire spoken English, which is various languages, and learn to say critical for their acquisition of literacy and write simple greetings and skills. Mainstream teachers and phrases such as “Hello” and “Thank English-speaking peers play a vital role DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 15 in helping immigrant children develop oral proficiency in English by modeling academically and socially appropriate language use in various school contexts. In general, wellinformed teachers provide plenty of opportunities for English learners to hear comprehensible English, and to read, write, and speak English in a meaningful way (Garcia, 2005). Teachers can make their English more comprehensible by •adjusting their speech (slowing down, paraphrasing, giving examples, and asking questions), •using somewhat exaggerated gestures and facial expressions, •pointing to pictures or showing objects when explaining concepts. To promote social interaction, teachers can use a variety of grouping configurations, including whole class, small groups, and pairs to provide students with frequent opportunities to talk with one other and receive help if necessary (Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2004). For non-English speaking newcomers, teachers may arrange group activities that encourage nonverbal participation. For example, if a group is working on a mural, the newcomer might draw or color a picture while other group members may do the bulk of the writing. This way, the English learner contributes actively to the group project while interacting through context-specific oral English. Most English learners go through a period of silence in the classroom (Igoa, 1995). The length of silent period varies from child to child—it may range from a few weeks to several months depending on the language proficiency and personality of the 16 Volume 38, Number 2 child. While there is a great deal of individual variation in how quickly English learners start speaking in English, remember that children are more likely to speak when the talk is meaningful and useful. First, read the poem aloud, modeling not only pronunciation but also dramatic stress and intonation. Then students read the poem chorally and act it out in pairs or groups. A great example of a multilingual variation is including diverse language translations of songs in English that Poetry and songs facilitate are familiar to children. Teachers can oral language development. play a recording or have a bilingual assistant or volunteer sing the song One way to make classroom talk while the children sing along with the meaningful is to encourage informal help of a phonetic transcription. This collaboration in activity centers by enables students to appreciate the offering various games, interactive sounds and rhythm of another learning tools, and props. Activity language sung to a familiar tune. centers enable children to perform hands-on tasks in small groups and Scaffold Reading develop functional language in a lowstress environment, both of which are Instruction for English conducive to language acquisition for Learners learners of all ages (Krashen, 1982). Like English-speaking children, Poetry and songs are a great way to English learners benefit from a printfacilitate oral language development rich environment that provides a large of English learners (Peregoy & Boyle, number of different reading ex2001; Weed & Ford, 1999). Provide periences—reading aloud, shared song lyrics and poems accompanied reading of predictable big books, as by pictures for students to keep in well as guided and independent their personal poetry and song books. reading. Expose English learners of all Figure 1. Sample content web to organize what students are learning DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010 Ways to Scaffold Reading Instruction for English Learners ◆ Establish a print-rich environment with many different reading experiences—reading aloud, shared reading of predictable big books, as well as guided and independent reading. ◆ Provide a wide range of children’s literature including alphabet books, picture books, pattern books, concept books, bilingual books, multicultural books, and fairy tales, as well as teacherand student-written and illustrated books. Read them more than once. ◆ When reading aloud to students, facilitate comprehension by stopping at various points in the book to discuss an illustration or to review the plot. Ask comprehension questions. Ask students to predict what might happen next in the story. Tell stories with puppets. ◆ Pre-teach key vocabulary by selecting words that are critical for understanding the text. Provide a variety of tools such as word walls, personal dictionaries, and mnemonic strategies to help students recognize and use the words. ◆ Teach vocabulary in thematic sets. For example, if the word aunt appears in a text, teach thematically related words such as uncle, cousin, nephew, niece, brother, and sister. ◆ Offer repeated exposure to print during regular learning events such as morning message, circle time, journal time, and writing workshop. ◆ Select books about experiences that are familiar to children. This helps to activate students’ prior knowledge about a given topic before the text is introduced. ◆ Choose bilingual books and books in English that are translated into other languages to boost reading comprehension. ◆ Use graphic organizers before and after reading. Webs help readers organize information when the text contains many details. Spring/Summer 2010 ages to a wide range of children’s literature including alphabet books, picture books, pattern books, concept books, bilingual books, multicultural books, and fairy tales, as well as teacher- and student-written and illustrated books. When reading aloud to students, teachers can facilitate comprehension by stopping at various points in the book to discuss an illustration or to review the plot. Teachers may also ask comprehension questions and ask students to predict what might happen next in the story. Use puppets to encourage children to focus and for dramatic effects. English learners usually need more time to formulate their responses orally in English, so wait longer before prompting them to answer a question. On occasion, English speakers might offer their answers first as a way to model the language and format of acceptable responses for English learners. In addition, repeated exposure to a text is always helpful to English learners, so multiple readings are encouraged. There are several ways to scaffold reading instruction for English learners. One way is to pre-teach key vocabulary by selecting words that are critical for understanding the text. Provide a variety of tools such as word walls, personal dictionaries, and mnemonic strategies to help students to recognize and use the words (Echevarria et al., 2004). English learners particularly benefit from learning vocabulary in thematic sets. For example, if the word aunt appears in a text, teach thematically related words such as uncle, cousin, nephew, niece, brother, and sister because they are often used together. DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD English learners also acquire basic vocabulary through repeated exposure to print during regular learning events such as morning message, circle time, journal time, and writing workshop (Peregoy & Boyle, 2001). These maintain the same predictable structure and provide repetition of familiar language that is conducive to vocabulary learning. To make reading meaningful, select books about experiences that are familiar to children. This helps to activate students’ prior knowledge about a given topic before the text is introduced. Multicultural literature that is written by and about members of specific ethnic groups can offer stories and feelings that are engaging and directly accessible to immigrant children. In addition, bilingual books and books in English that are translated into other languages can boost reading comprehension because they help students transfer their understanding of the content from one language into another. For example, Shel Silverstein’s The Giving Tree has been translated into more than 30 different languages. The different translations can be used in group or whole-class reading so children of different language backgrounds can appreciate their peers’ as well as their own language(s) while learning English. Graphic organizers used before and after reading are useful for introducing specific vocabulary and activating students’ prior knowledge. Creating content webs (see Figure 1) helps readers organize information when the text contains many details. Teachers stimulate students’ interest and teach new vocabulary as they construct the web with students, using key words and connecting Volume 38, Number 2 17 text into English with the help of a bilingual classmate or an instructional assistant. If a child speaks some English but is not able to write it, suggest that the student dictate the story to an adult or older student. The teacher can share the dictation with the student to help the child make the connection between speech and print. Have the student copy the text (as a Kathleen A. Martin & L. Kay Emfinger way of getting In addition to encouraging children to express their ideas in further practice with their native languages as well as in English, enhance the teaching of writing by incorporating non-textual media writing and spelling) such as drawing or sculpture, music, and drama to facilitate and illustrate the literacy acquisition. story. Then the student can read students’ prior experiences to them. After reading the text, students can the story aloud for classmates. In addition to encouraging children add information to the web and go back to the text to add or clarify to express their ideas in their native important details. Graphic organizers languages as well as in English, such as webs, charts, and personal enhance the teaching of writing by dictionaries can help English language incorporating non-textual media such as drawing or sculpture, music, and learners at all levels. drama to facilitate literacy acquisition. The following steps, suggested by Incorporate Multiple Weed & Ford (1999), enable English Modes of Literacy in learners to respond to literature through multiple modes of literacy Writing If newcomers already know how to including art and oral discussion: •read and/or hear a story read and write in their native •think and draw (or craft or languages, teachers are urged to allow sculpt) them to write in that language first as •discuss drawing in a group (in a way of getting their ideas recorded the native language and Enon paper (Igoa, 1995; Weed & Ford, glish) 1999). After children have had the •draft (in the native language opportunity to write down some and English) of their ideas, they can translate the 18 Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD •conference and revise (in English) •present and publish (in English) What is useful about this process is that it allows English learners to first respond to text by thinking about representing visually what they understood from it before doing any writing. Children then discuss their drawings, puppets, or other 3-D representations in small groups of classmates who speak the same first language so that discussion in both the children’s native language and in English can take place. Children then write one or two sentences about their representational work based on feedback from the group (in the native language and English). They write a first draft (in the native language and English) based on the sentences generated from their group discussion. Students then conference with a peer or the teacher, revise their drafts, and present the final art and writing in English. They might read their materials by alternating readers, act out their ideas in a short play, or present their writing in a newscast script format, for example. These steps help reduce English learners’ anxiety about writing by providing students with ample opportunities to think, create, talk, listen, rewrite, and present. Write interactive dialogue journals. One of the best ways to help English learners to write in English is an interactive dialogue journal, a written conversation between teacher and student (Peyton & Staton, 1993). A sample dialogue journal is shown in Figure 2. Spring/Summer 2010 Usually, a student writes on a topic that is either self-selected or teachergenerated, to which the teacher responds in writing with a comment or question that invites further conversation. In their responses, teachers do not correct language errors explicitly, but model written language conventions by incorporating and expanding on the student’s writing. Done regularly, the dialogue journal encourages English learners to practice writing in English without overly worrying about mistakes, and to learn new vocabulary, grammar, spelling, and idioms that are the basis for further literacy development. August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). Improving schooling for language-minority children: A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. August, D., & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2006). Developing literacy in second language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on language-minority children and youth. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English learners: Language diversity in the classroom (5th edition). Los Angeles, CA: Bilingual Educational Services. Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Cummins, J. (1996). Negotiating identities: Education for empowerment in a diverse society. Ontario, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education. Daniel, J., & Friedman, S. (2005, November). Preparing teachers to work with culturally and linguistically diverse children. Beyond the Journal: Young Children on the Web, 1-7. Echevarria, J.M., Vogt, M.J., & Short, D.J. (2004). Making content comprehensible for English learners: The SIOP Model (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson. * * * In this era of high-stakes testing, teachers are under enormous pressures to ensure that English learners’ make adequate yearly progress in English language proficiency and academic content knowledge. Because English learners are tested in English, many teachers believe that teaching mainly in English is the only way to help them learn English quickly. However, English language learners who are already proficient in another language should not have to leave their language at the door before entering school. Just as art, music, and drama are alternative means of expressing one’s meanings and can contribute to developing literacy skills in English, immigrant children’s native languages are a valuable resource and can facilitate acquisition of English if they are actively validated and used. References Abedi, J., Hofstetter, C.H., & Lord, C. (2004). Assessment accommodations for English-language learners: Implications for policy-based empirical research. Review of Educational Research, 74(1): 1–28. Spring/Summer 2010 Figure 2: Sample dialogue journal showing an exchange between student and teacher DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 19 Garcia, E. (2005). Teaching and learning in two languages: Bilingualism and schooling in the United States. New York: Teachers’ College Press. Hawkins, M. (2004). Researching English language and literacy development in hools. Educational Researcher, 33(3): 14-25. Hepburn, K.S. (2004). Building culturally and linguistically competent services to support young children, their families, and school readiness—A report to Annie E. Casey Foundation. Baltimore, MD: Annie E. Casey Foundation. Igoa, C. (1995). The world of the immigrant child. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. London: Pergamon. Lanauze, M., & Snow, C. (1989). The relation between first- and second-language writing skills: Evidence from Puerto Rican elementary school children in bilingual programs. Linguistics and Education, 1, 323-339. Meier, D., & Wood, G. (Eds.). (2004). Many children left behind: How the No Child Left Behind Act is damaging our children and our schools. Boston: Beacon Press. No Child Left Behind Act. (2002). Public Law No. 107-110. Pattnaik, J. (2003). Multicultural literacy starts at home: Supporting parental involvement in multicultural education. Childhood Education, 80(1), 18-24. Pattnaik, J. (2005). Issues of language maintenance and education of aboriginal children in India: An interview with Ajit K. Mohanty, internationally acclaimed Indian linguist. Childhood Education, 81(6), 360-364. Peregoy, S.F., & Boyle, O.F. (2001). Reading, writing & learning in ESL: A resource book for K-12 teachers (3rd ed.). New York: Longman. Peyton, J.K., & Staton, J. (1993). Dialogue journals in the multilingual classroom: Building language fluency and writing skills through written interaction. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Ramirez, J.D. (1992). Executive summary. Bilingual Research Journal 16(1/2): 1-62. Sheets, R.H. (2008). English language learner population in Texas. Paper presented at the Annual AERA Conference. New York City, March 2008. Shin, S.J. (2005). Developing in two languages: Korean children in America. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Shin, S.J. (2007). For immigrant students, the ESOL glass is half-full. Essential Teacher, 4(4), 17-19. Slavin, R.E., & Cheung, A. (2004). How do English language learners learn to read? Educational Leadership, 61(6): 52-57. Thomas, W.P., & Collier, V.P. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students’ long-term academic achievement. Santa Cruz, CA: Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence. Weed, K.Z., & Ford, M.A. (1999). Achieving literacy through multiple meaning systems. In Reading and writing in more than one language: Lessons for teachers, E. Franklin (Ed.), pp. 65-80. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Wright, W.E. (2005). English language learners left behind in Arizona: The nullification of accommodations in the intersection of federal and state language and assessment policies. Bilingual Research Journal, 29(1), 1-30. For more information on early literacy... Sharing Books Together: Promoting Emergent Literacy Through Reading Aloud and Home-School Partnerships By Kathleen A. Martin and L. Kay Emfinger How can early childhood educators encourage families to read and enjoy books together? Start a classroom lending library! Boost children’s early literacy experiences with the practical ideas offered by two experienced educators. (94 pp) ISBN# 978-0-942388-33-6 $15.95 SECA Member / $17.95 non-member Available at www.SouthernEarlyChildhood.org or by calling 1-800-305-7322. © 2008 by the Southern Early Childhood Association 20 Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010 Put These Ideas Into Practice! Teaching English Language Learners: Recommendations for Early Childhood Educators Sarah J. Shin English Language Learners… • transfer skills from their first language to the second language. • are more comfortable in classrooms that actively celebrate their languages and cultures. • typically go through a period of silence. They are more likely to speak if conversations are meaningful and useful. Help English learners develop literacy • Incorporate diverse language materials: books, signs, messages. • Read children’s books in students’ native languages. • Learn to say and write phrases such as “Hello” and “Thank you” in each language. • Group English learners and English speakers together. • Encourage English learners to read in their native language. Scaffold reading instruction for English learners • Establish a print-rich environment, including morning message, circle time, journal time, and writing workshop. • Select books about familiar experiences. Include teacher- and student-written and illustrated books. • Read bilingual books and books in English that are translated into other languages. • Offer reading aloud, and predictable big books, as well as guided and independent reading. • Tell stories with puppets. Use poetry and music. Incorporate drama and drawing. • When reading aloud, stop to discuss an illustration or the plot. Ask comprehension questions. Ask students to predict what might happen next. Give English learners more time to answer. • Create content webs before and after reading. What What can can families families do? do? • Read to children in their home language. • Teach children to read and write in their home language. • Enroll their children in local heritage language programs. Kathleen A. Martin & L. Kay Emfinger Note: Dimensions of Early Childhood readers are encouraged to copy this material for early childhood students as well as teachers of young children as a professional development tool. Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 21 The South Leads in Pre-K Education Glenda Bean, SECA Executive Director In March 2010, the Southern Education Foundation published an update to a report “Publicly supported, published in 2007, Pre-Kindergarten in the pre-kindergarten of quality is the one area where South: Preserving the Region’s Comparative Southern states are in the vanguard of progressive reform in Advantage in Education. The update notes the nation... All our children deserve to have access to quality that the South continues to lead the pre-kindergarten services and bright futures.” nation in 2010 in only one area of public Southern Education Foundation, education: pre-kindergarten. www.sefatl.org The South has the highest enrollment of 3- and 4-year-old children in early education programs of any region in the country. The report also notes that, during most SECA states meet between 8 and 10 of the quality the last 2 years, despite a severe recession, Southern states standards set by the National Institute for Early Education have maintained enrollment in public pre-K programs. Research, Texas only meets 4 of those standards and Seven SECA states are in the top 10 states for pre-K Mississippi hasn’t yet created a state-funded pre-K program. enrollment of 4-year-old children. In 2009: Our “Southern issues–primarily poverty and lack of • Oklahoma was #1 at 71%. education–will continue to be with us until we can assure • Florida was #2 at 67%. that young children are supported to develop and thrive • Georgia was #3 at 53%. within our region, which has so many positive things to • West Virginia was #5 at 51%. offer. Our commitment to pre-K is one of those things and • Texas was #7 at 45%. we’ve remained steadfast even during severe economic times. • Arkansas was #8 at 44%. Let us all be a Voice for Southern Children. We are • South Carolina was #10 at 38%. proud of where we are, but we’re certainly not at the end The SECA states of Kentucky (#4) and West Virginia (#5) were in the top five states in the percentage of 3-year- of the road to assure that good-quality early childhood programs are available to all children in the South. olds served. These accomplishments are a long way from 1948 when the first Nashville Council for the Education of Children Under Six met in a church in Nashville, Tennessee, and the stage was set for the creation of SACUS/SECA. In 1948, only about 4% of children attended nursery school and today we have a SECA state, Oklahoma, with 71% of its 4-year-olds enrolled in what was once called nursery school. Although we can pat ourselves on our backs about expanding “access” to pre-K for so many children in the South, we’ve still got work to do to ensure that it’s of high quality. While Subjects & Predicates 22 Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010 How can early childhood leaders work for more caring communities? This article outlines the potential of building reciprocal relationships among the young and the young at heart. What Age Gap? Building Intergenerational Relationships Stephanie R. Davidson and Beverly Boals-Gilbert Few people are willing to admit that senior adults and young children share many common characteristics, including • changes in development, • need for companionship, and • the desire to be understood. These two groups are connected mostly through direct interaction with middle-aged adults. Even so, the leading advocacy group for seniors observed that “we tend to segregate our communities by age, which allows each generation to see itself as a separate entity rather than an integral part of a larger community” (American Association of Retired Persons ([AARP], 1996, p. 7). One very practical way to build a greater sense of community—and reach people across the human age span—is to develop and become active in intergenerational programs. Intergenerational programming has been defined as the purposeful bringing together of different generations in ongoing mutually beneficial activities designed to achieve specified program goals (Generations United, 2007). Intergenerational programs can successfully bridge the perceived generation gap between the young and the young at heart. These programs enhance the lives of both young children and senior adults by providing unique opportunities to celebrate diversity and develop more culturally conscious and sensitive citizens. The Foster Grandparent Program, established in 1963, was one of the first systematically planned intergenerational programs in the United States. Older adults were employed to work with children and youth considered to be at risk (Larkin & Newman, 1997). Dr. William Thomas founded the Eden Alternative program, now located in more than 200 long-term care facilities in Alabama, Indiana, Missouri, Nebraska, and Texas. The program is designed to combat what Thomas Spring/Summer 2010 called the three most prevalent problems in nursing homes: feelings of loneliness, helplessness, and boredom. Thomas has described the intergenerational approach as “a holistic approach to care, a creation of a human habit where people thrive, grow, and flourish, rather than wither, decay, and die” (Clark, Allison, & Gilbert, 1995, p. 18). What are intergenerational programs? In intergenerational programs, different generations are purposefully brought together in ongoing mutually beneficial activities designed to achieve specified program goals. These programs can successfully bridge the perceived generation gap between the young and the young at heart. They enhance the lives of both young children and senior adults by providing unique opportunities to celebrate diversity and develop more culturally conscious and sensitive citizens. Settings for Intergenerational Programs Intergenerational relationships can blossom through interactions in a variety of different types of settings. Senior Care Homes. During holidays, for special events, and often on a regular basis, senior care homes welcome young visitors. Some senior care homes provide child care on site for staff. In either type of situation, young children can have regular opportunities to visit senior adults in their residences, individually or in small groups. Stephanie R. Davidson, Ph.D., is Assistant Professor of Elementary and Early Childhood Education at Jackson State University, Jackson, Mississippi. Beverly Boals-Gilbert, Ph.D., is Professor of Early Childhood Education at Arkansas State University, Jonesboro. DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 23 When children visit seniors, they enjoy each other’s companionship and typically entertain each other with shared activities such as singing, playing games, or reading stories. With an adult’s guidance, young children taking part in intergenerational programs can gain a sense of the value of community service. Their presence and actions in the senior care home are welcomed and necessary for the happiness, fulfillment, and care of senior adults. Early Childhood Settings. Another example of an intergenerational setting is where senior adults visit (or volunteer with) young children in an early childhood facility such as a child care center, Head Start program, family care home, or public school classroom. Young children are likely to view the seniors as welcome visitors. Children look forward to the visits daily, weekly, or monthly. When seniors visit early childhood facilities, children might share the process of discovery, such as science experiments with sinking and floating, with seniors. Sometimes children orally or in writing tell seniors about their learning experiences. Cooking together, story-telling, and joint art projects are among the possible exchanges that captivate children and older adults. Children learn how to host guests and help them feel comfortable. For the senior adults, the change of scenery outside of senior care homes, or their own homes, is welcome recreation. The seniors may also gain a sense of community service and continue to feel important in the lives of others. Shared Facilities. In other situations, both the young children and the seniors receive care under the same roof, and in many instances, in the 24 Volume 38, Number 2 Subjects & Predicates Intergenerational programs can successfully bridge the perceived generation gap between the young and the young at heart. These programs enhance the lives of both young children and senior adults by providing unique opportunities to celebrate diversity and develop more culturally conscious and sensitive citizens. same room, such as in community centers. This arrangement offers the same benefits as the other settings. Regardless of the setting, if the interactions are regularly scheduled and planned for the benefit of all involved, two additional benefits can be realized. DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD • When children and seniors are often present in each other’s lives, they may begin to take on the roles of surrogate grandchildren and surrogate grandparents. This is one of the more nurturing benefits. Young children may be experiencing the loss of a Spring/Summer 2010 grandparent through death or distance, and senior adults may be missing frequent contact with their grandchildren. • Through the continual presence of the senior adults, young children (and perhaps their families as well) come to understand and appreciate senior adults as people. Young children’s exposure to senior adults through participation in intergenerational programs can help to minimize any fear that they may have of older people and teach them that aging is a normal part of the life cycle (Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences, 2003). Intergenerational Relationships and Human Development Both young children and senior adults are experiencing a variety of changes in their development. Each Subjects & Predicates Through the continual presence of the senior adults, young children (and perhaps their families as well) come to understand and appreciate senior adults as people. Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD person’s life stages are formed by social influences interacting with a physically and psychologically maturing organism (ReVille, 1989). Positive intergenerational contact may be an especially important facet for supporting mental health, including emotional, social, and spiritual growth. Senior adults and young children share many characteristics. Erikson (1950) identified eight stages of psychosocial development across the age span. The first three stages—trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt—emerge in early childhood. Interestingly, these stages seem to link well with seniors and their changing life stages. • Young children and seniors can become more trusting of each other, and other generations, through regular, satisfying contact. • Children are seeking to establish their own autonomy, and senior adults are seeking to maintain theirs. For young children this is a time to exert and foster their new-found sense of independence. They are learning to maneuver and operate on their own. For the first time, toddlers are experiencing some control over their world and they enjoy the effects of asserting themselves (Graves, Gargiuloa, & Sluder, 1996). • Young children are branching out, taking more initiative, and have lively imaginations. Their energy and curiosity may well delight seniors who Volume 38, Number 2 25 can then feel freer to express their own interests more fully. Autonomy: the quality or state of being self-governing; a self-governing state; self-directing freedom and especially moral independence (Webster, 1983, p. 118). For senior adults who are a part of an intergenerational relationship, spending time with young children is a value-added experience. According to Graves and Larkin (2006), for senior adults, serving in the role of teacher, guide, and caregiver for the younger generation contributes positively toward the feeling of spiritual autonomy and leads into the feeling of integrity (a developmental stage of later adulthood). For senior adults who may be facing the decline of physical and sometimes mental health, interacting with young children can foster a sense of utility, respect, and individual importance. part, regardless of their skills or mobility. By engaging in simple recreation activities, relationships and trust are built. Education. Young children and older adults can informally or formally exchange knowledge and skills. This is one of the most valuable mutually beneficial aspects of intergenerational relationships. Senior adults are able to pass wisdom from their life experiences to the children. They can share nursery rhymes, traditional games, skills such as sewing or carpentry, and vivid memories. At the same time, young children can aid the senior adults by supporting their new skills (technology) and sharing information about what they are learning. This situation is a win-win for everyone. Focus on recreation, education, and personal development. Programming Considerations Personal development. Each group involved in intergenerational experiences shares skills and insights that lead Shared Activities to the development of better people. What types of activities are especially Senior adults can model skills such as suitable in intergenerational programs? sharing, self-control, and friendly Five categories of intergenerational interactions. Senior adults benefit from activities—recreation, education, health social interactions with young children, promotion, public service, and personal through which they often realize greater development—were recommended by self-esteem as well as happiness. Both Ames and Youatt (1994). Foster (1997) children and the adults gain new noted that recreation, education, and perspectives and topics for conversation. personal development are most relevant to preschool intergenerational programs. Arrangements Recreation. Young children and A number of considerations are senior adults can interact in a fun and essential to develop a successful leisurely way, often without any program, including structured goals. Balls, hoops, musical • staff preparation, instruments, scarves, and similar • scheduling, and props can encourage everyone to take • recruitment of volunteers. 26 Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Staff preparation. All staff, from both the early childhood program and any senior residences, will benefit from knowledge about developmental stages of children and senior adults, daily routines, and the characteristics of good-quality care for both young children and adults. Individuals who interact with young children and senior adults will come to understand that these populations have unique as well as shared characteristics. The type of care they receive and the interactions in which they take part are pivotal to their lifespan development. Liaisons, preferably one from each age group, can help communicate with young children and senior adults about their differences and similarities. The message for both groups is that differences are to be celebrated. Each has something to share that adds to the other group’s realm of knowledge. Schedules. Routine is essential to the success of intergenerational programs. Change and the unexpected are two elements that have the most potential to disrupt stability and calm of both age groups. Plan schedules, develop smooth transitions, and be prepared to make the most of unexpected situations. Developmentally appropriate practices—for children and older adults—apply to all activities, communications, standards of care, and environments. Volunteers. Intergenerational programs thrive through the work of volunteers—both to become senior participants as well as to assist with transportation, supervision, and other details. The coordinator of one afterschool program stated that the paid staff runs the program but the volunteers provide the magic (Grossman & Furano, 1999). Spring/Summer 2010 Subjects & Predicates Positive intergenerational contact may be an especially important facet for supporting mental health, including emotional, social, and spiritual growth. Both young children and senior adults are experiencing a variety of changes in their development. Intergenerational Books for Young Children Bunting, E. (2000). Can You Do This, Old Badger? New York: Harcourt. Bunting, E. (1994). Sunshine Home. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Buscgalia, L. (1982). The Fall of Freddie the Leaf. New York: Holt. Cannon, J. (1996). Verdi. New York: Harcourt. Combs, A. (1987). How Old Is Old? New York: Penguin. Cooney, B. (1985). Miss Rumphius. New York: Penguin. Creech, S. (2003). Granny Torrelli Makes Soup. New York: Colter. DePaola, T. (1973). Nana Upstairs & Nana Downstairs. New York: Putman. DePaola, T. (1981). Now One Foot, Now the Other. New York: Putnam. Dorros, A. (1997). Abuela. New York: Penguin. Flowndy, V. (1985). The Patchwork Quilt. New York: Dial. Fox, M. (1991). Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge. LaJolla: Kane/Miller. Fox, M. (1994). Tough Boris. New York: Harcourt Brace. Gilman, P. (1993). Something for Nothing. New York: Scholastic. Greenfield, E. (1988). Grandpa’s Face. New York: Putnam & Grosset. Hoffman, M. (1991). Amazing Grace. New York: Dial. Johnston, T. (1996). Grandpa’s Song. New York: Penguin. Miles, M. (1971). Annie and the Old One. Boston: Atlantic-Little, Brown. Polacco, P. (1992). Chicken Sunday. New York: Philomel. Polacco, P. (1994). Mrs. Katz and Tush. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell. Quigley, M. (2007). Granddad’s Fishing Buddy. New York: Dial. Schachner, J. (2003). The Grannyman. New York: Penguin. Say, A. (1995). The Stranger in the Mirror. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Stanley, D. (1997). Rumpelstiltskin’s Daughter. New York: Morrow. Taulbert, C. (1999). Little Cliff and the Porch People. New York: Dial. Viorst, J. (1971). The Tenth Good Thing About Barney. New York: Antheneum. Williams, B. (1991). Kevin’s Grandma. New York: Penguin. Wood, A. (1984). The Napping House. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Zolotow, C. (1974). My Grandson Lew. New York: Harpercollins. Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Before recruiting senior volunteers in the community, either in residences or those living independently, plan how to address topics such as accessibility, transportation, languages, dietary requirements, scheduling, and health issues. Make sure that program and/or state licensing standards are met to assure the health and safety of all involved in the intergenerational program. Recruiting senior volunteers may be a challenge for intergenerational programs that are not based in a senior care home. Good places to recruit senior adults are senior centers, community-service groups such as United Way, faith-based organizations, with newspaper ads, and through personal contacts. * * * Intergenerational programs are a very important resource in the development of cohesive communities. Senior adults and their life experiences are very beneficial to young children and their development into tomorrow’s leaders. Intergenerational programs • expose young children to more diverse people, • help young children to appreciate and respect senior adults, • support children’s social, emotional, cognitive, and physical development, • applaud the contributions of senior adults within their communities, • offer care and opportunities for growth, • validate the importance of all stages of life, and • bridge the gap between the young and the young at heart. Volume 38, Number 2 27 References American Association of Retired Persons (AARP). (1996). Becoming a school partner: A guide for organizing intergenerational partnerships in schools. Washington, DC: Author. Ames, B., & Youatt, J. (1994). Intergenerational education and service programming: A model for selection and evaluation of services. Educational Gerontology, 20(3), 755-762. Clark, M.J., Allison, L., & Gilbert, I. (1995). Young and old together: Intergenerational care comes of age. ECN Journal of Professional Development, 6(3), 16-20. Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton. Foster, K. (1997). Intergenerational programming: The impact on children and elders. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 418806). Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ Generations United. (2008). Generations United fact sheet: The benefits of intergenerational programs. Retrieved from http://www.gu.org/documents/A0/IG_B enefits_2007.pdf Graves, S.B., Garguila, R.M., & Sluder, L.C. (1996). Young children: An introduction to early childhood education. Minneapolis/St. Paul: West. Graves, S.B., & Larkin, E. (2006). Lessons from Erikson. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 4(2), 61-71. Grossman, J., & Furano, K. (1999). Making the most of volunteers. Law and Contemporary Problems, 62(4), 199-218. Larkin, E., & Newman, S. (1997). Intergenerational studies: A multi-disciplinary field. In Brabazon, K., & Disch, R. (Eds.), Intergenerational approaches in aging: Implications for education, policy, and practice (pp. 5-16). Binghamton,NY: Haworth. Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. (2003). Developing an intergenerational program in your early childhood care and education center: A guidebook for early childhood practitioners. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University. Reville, S. (1989). Young adulthood to old age: Looking at intergenerational possi- bilities from a human development perspective. Journal of Children in Contemporary Society, 20(3), 45-53. Webster’s ninth new collegiate dictionary. (1983). Springfield, MA: MerriamWebster. Selected Resource Agencies and Organizations for Intergenerational Programs AARP www.aarp.org Dedicated to enhancing quality of life for all in the aging process. Leads positive social change and provides members with information, advocacy, and service. Center for Intergenerational Learning http://templecil.org Located at Temple University, dedicated to strengthening communities by bringing generations together. Experience Corps www.experiencecorps.org Americans older than 55 years tutor and mentor children in urban public schools across the country. Generations Incorporated www.generationsinc.org Nonprofit organization committed to intergenerational awareness through clubs, afterschool activities, and other programs. Generations Together www.gt.pitt.edu Promotes intergenerational activity as a positive force in society, as a professional field, and as a rewarding area of academic inquiry. A program of the University of Pittsburgh. Generations United www.gu.org Provides resources and networking for organizations promoting intergenerational strategies, programs, and policies. Intergenerational Programs and Aging http://intergenerational.cas.psu.edu Program developed at The Pennsylvania State University aims to increase cooperation, interaction, or exchange between any two generations. Rainbow Bridge www.rainbowb.org Facilitates the matching of volunteers, including youth, adults, and families, who become companions, advocates, and families for nursing home elders who have little or no visitation. Thank You Reviewers! Connie Casha Vicki Folds Stephen Graves Jill O. Hatch Miriam McCaleb Yanhui Pang Christine A. Reddick Mari Riojas-Cortez Jean M. Shaw Marie Sloane SECA expresses its appreciation to these content experts who reviewed the articles that appear in this issue of Dimensions of Early Childhood. Early childhood professionals who are interested in becoming SECA volunteer manuscript reviewers are encouraged to complete the Reviewer Application at SouthernEarlyChildhood.org. 28 Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010 Put These Ideas Into Practice! What Age Gap? Building Intergenerational Relationships Stephanie R. Davidson ? What are intergenerational programs? In intergenerational programs, different generations are purposefully brought together in ongoing mutually beneficial activities designed to achieve specified program goals. These programs can successfully bridge the perceived generation gap between the young and the young at heart. They enhance the lives of both young children and senior adults by providing unique opportunities to celebrate diversity and develop more culturally conscious and sensitive citizens. Settings for intergenerational programs Senior adults and young children share many common characteristics, including Intergenerational relationships can blossom through interactions in • senior care homes • early childhood settings • shared facilities • changes in development, • need for companionship, and • the desire to be understood. Changing life stages link young children and seniors • Young children and seniors can become more trusting of each other, and other generations, through regular, satisfying contact. • Children are seeking to establish their own autonomy, and senior adults are seeking to maintain theirs. For young children this is a time to exert and foster their new-found sense of independence. • Young children are branching out, taking more initiative, and have lively imaginations. Their energy and curiosity may well delight seniors who can then feel freer to express their own interests more fully. Shared activities in intergenerational programs Recreation. Young children and senior adults can interact in a fun and leisurely way, often without any structured goals. Balls, hoops, musical instruments, scarves, and similar props can encourage everyone to take part, regardless of their skills or mobility. Education. Senior adults pass wisdom from their life experiences to children. They can share nursery rhymes, traditional games, hands-on skills, and vivid memories. Young children can aid senior adults by supporting their new skills (technology) and sharing information about what they are learning. This situation is a win-win for everyone. Personal development. Senior adults can model skills such as sharing, self-control, and friendly interactions. Senior adults often realize greater self-esteem as well as happiness. Both children and the adults gain new perspectives and topics for conversation. Note: Dimensions of Early Childhood readers are encouraged to copy this material for early childhood students as well as teachers of young children as a professional development tool. Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 29 What can early childhood teachers plan to do and say to enhance children’s understanding of age-appropriate math concepts? Educators can apply these practical ideas during everyday learning experiences. One, Two, Buckle My Shoe: Using Math-Mediated Language in Preschool Loretta C. Rudd, Macy Satterwhite, and Matthew C. Lambert In typical early childhood programs, several groups of young children and adults are often engaged in daily What is math-mediated language? learning experiences such as these. Mathematical Mediated Language (MML) is a A group of four children is constructing a dinosaur teaching technique designed to enhance children’s habitat with unit blocks while a teacher sits nearby. learning. Teachers who use MML engage in informal, Three children are pouring brightly colored sand intentional dialogues with children about mathematics into and out of different containers in a sand table. concepts that apply to the activity in which they are Two preschoolers are rolling and cutting modeling engaged. clay on trays. At a small table, an adult prepares snack. Four children are cutting paper and gluing their pieces into collages on recycled boxes they had Loretta C. Rudd, Ph.D., is Assistant Professor of Educapainted. Three others are playing with dolls in the tional Psychology, College of Education, Texas Tech University, pretend play area. An observer might notice that most of the talking was among children, although now and then the adults asked a question or made a comment about what the children were doing. While the children were actively engaged in learning opportunities prepared for them by devoted early educators, there seemed to be a missing element— intentional teacher conversations that enable children to think more deeply about the meaning of their learning experiences. This article focuses on ways teachers can increase the use of math-mediated language to enhance learning in early childhood classrooms. What Is Math-Mediated Language? Mathematical Mediated Language (MML) is a teaching technique designed to enhance children’s learning. Teachers who use MML engage in a dialogue with children about mathematics concepts that apply to the activity in which they are engaged. This dialogue links “conceptually related linguistic and mathematical knowledge” (Moseley, 30 Volume 38, Number 2 Lubbock. She taught in early childhood for 12 years before earning a doctorate in Educational Psychology. She has conducted several experimental studies in early childhood centers on the influence of teacher language on children’s understanding of mathematics and other subjects. Macy Satterwhite, M.Ed., is a doctoral student in Curriculum and Instruction in the College of Education at Texas Tech University. She is an elementary school administrator and a former classroom teacher. She frequently presents teacher professional development workshops on interacting with young children. She has been involved in several research studies in early childhood centers investigating the effect of teacher behaviors on children’s understanding of basic concepts. Matthew C. Lambert, M.Ed., is a doctoral student in Educational Psychology in the College of Education at Texas Tech University. He has extensive experience as a behavioral analyst in early childhood settings. He has been involved in several applied research studies in early childhood centers investigating child developmental outcomes as a result of the classroom arrangements and teacher behaviors. DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010 Table 1. Recommendations to improve mathematics education In high-quality mathematics education for 3- to 6-year-old children, teachers and other key professionals should 1. Enhance children’s natural interest in mathematics and their disposition to use it to make sense of their physical and social worlds 2. Build on children’s experience and knowledge, including their family, linguistic, cultural, and community backgrounds; their individual approaches to learning; and their informal knowledge 3. Base mathematics curriculum and teaching practices on knowledge of young children’s cognitive, linguistic, physical, and social-emotional development 4. Use curriculum and teaching practices that strengthen children’s problem-solving and reasoning processes as well as representing, communicating, and connecting mathematical ideas 5. Ensure that the curriculum is coherent and compatible with known relationships and sequences of important mathematical ideas 6. Provide for children’s deep and sustained interaction with key mathematical ideas 7. Integrate mathematics with other activities and other activities with mathematics 8. Provide ample time, materials, and teacher support for children to engage in play, a context in which they explore and manipulate mathematical ideas with keen interest 9. Actively introduce mathematical concepts, methods, and language through a range of appropriate experiences and teaching strategies 10. Support children’s learning by thoughtfully and continually assessing all children’s mathematical knowledge, skills, and strategies (NCTM & NAEYC, 2002, p. 4). 2005, p. 385). In other words, teachers recognize opportunities to use language related to mathematical concepts during children’s play. For example, a teacher might point out the shapes of unit blocks as a child Spring/Summer 2010 conversations using language to help children further their development of mathematical concepts. In addition to recognizing the importance of language as a tool for teaching mathematics, teachers can plan experiences that connect new mathematical terms or phrases to ideas children already know (Rubenstein & Thompson, 2002). When teachers focus on the language of math and present mathematical concepts in fun, engaging ways, children are motivated to learn concepts beyond what has been traditionally expected of their age (Kamii & Anderson, 2003). Introduce more complex counting strategies. A joint position statement from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) points out that “high-quality, challenging, and accessible mathematics education…is a vital foundation for future mathematics learning” (NCTM & NAEYC, 2002, p. 1). The position statement recommendations, summarized in Table 1, are intended to improve classroom practice in order to meet state and program standards, as well as to inform policy makers. This article offers specific examples of using informal, math-mediated language in preschool classrooms. stacks them or discuss the length and Ways to Implement thickness of clay a child is rolling. Math-Mediated Skilled teachers recognize the importance of language as a tool for Language The math concepts focused on here teaching mathematics (Whiten & Whiten, 2003). They shape and guide are based on those described in Young DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 31 Table 2. Mathematics Content Areas, Skills, and Samples of Math-Mediated Language Content Area Examples of Children’s Math Skills Examples of “Teacher Talk” (Math-Mediated Language) Number Count in order Match one number to one object Label how many objects Model counting: “1, 2, 3, …” Skip count “2, 4, 6, …” Ask “How many…?” Spatial Relations Describe object locations with spatial words (prepositions) Create opportunities for children to identify the location of objects or their bodies by using spatial words such as in, on, under, behind. Recognize and label measurable attributes of objects Compare size, length, weight, and other measures. “Three chairs fit at the writing table. Only 2 chairs fit at the computer table. Which table is longer? Let’s measure to see.” Point out “The red car reached the bottom of the ramp first. It is faster than the orange car!” Recognize, name, and/or match 2-D and 3-D shapes Use shapes to create designs Introduce and label a wide variety of shapes. “Look, this puzzle shape has three corners and three sides. It is a triangle.” “Another word for ball is sphere.” Help children construct shapes in art or other play activities. “You cut a paper square (4 equal sides and 4 corners). If you cut it diagonally, what shapes will you have? (2 triangles, each with 3 sides and 3 corners)” Ask “Show me another way to arrange these parquetry blocks in a design.” Measurement Geometry Operations Seriation Patterns Display and Analyze Data Add or subtract using counting-based strategies Order events or objects Provide opportunities for children to count using ordinal numbers (1st, 2nd, 3rd). Order events by time and objects by size. “Today we will go outside first. Second, we will get on the bus. Third we will go to the park to eat lunch.” Notice, name, and copy simple repeating patterns Provide opportunities to identify patterns (color, shape, size, auditory) in nature and in everyday life. “A bee has a pattern. Who can see it? A bee has black, yellow, black, yellow stripes on its body! What other animals do you know that have patterns? How could you paint those patterns?” “Let’s clap, loud, soft, soft, loud. Now let’s clap loud, soft, soft, loud again. We made a sound pattern!” Sort objects, then count and compare the groups formed Help make simple graphs Children and Mathematics (Copley, 2000). They are presented in an order that generally indicates increasingly difficult levels of thinking. Therefore, the categories at the end of the list require more complex thinking than those at the beginning. While Copley 32 Volume 38, Number 2 Ask “How many are left?” or “How many all together?” Demonstrate how to add to or “take away” objects. Say, “You have 2 blocks. If you want 5 blocks, how many more do you need?” OR, “You have 5 blocks. If you give 3 to your friend, how many will you have left?” Provide opportunities for children to sort, count, and then graph their findings. “Here is the bar graph we made to show what we found out when we chose our favorite colors. Let’s count. There are 6 red, 1 purple, 5 black, and 7 blue. Which column has the most votes? Which is our group’s least favorite color?” identified these categories before NCTM and NAEYC published their joint position statement, the categories are a useful tool for implementing many of the recommendations made in the joint statement. DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Examples of how teachers can include these concepts in everyday talk with children are found both in the discussion here and in Table 2. Mastery of each of these skills is important for children to continue to succeed in school and in life. Spring/Summer 2010 Number Early childhood teachers frequently hear children using numbers. Children typically begin by counting out how many fingers represent their ages. Soon, they can count how many beads they placed on strings or how many children are sitting at their table. Young children learn to count objects in order (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), and to match one number with one item only once (oneto-one correspondence). Counting first to 10, and then to 20, is a major accomplishment for young children. As children become skilled with simple counting, teachers are urged to introduce more complex counting strategies. For example, instead of counting objects by one, teachers can model how to count by twos or threes. If children are playing with large cardboard blocks, a teacher might hand one of them two blocks at a time, saying, “2, 4, 6” and so on. These early “skip counting” experiences enable children to more easily understand multiplication activities in later grades. Children can also begin to see that groups of two or three objects can be counted to make sets and then that the sets can be added to find “how many in all.” Spatial Relations Another frequently used math category in early childhood settings is spatial relations. Early childhood teachers frequently ask children to put toys on the shelves, crayons in their boxes, and trays under their science experiments. Other prepositions include over, between, beside, around, and similar higher-level verbal descriptions of spatial relations. Well-informed teachers of young children plan to use these higher-level forms of language to identify spatial relations when children play with blocks, in the dramatic play area, on the playground, and anywhere else that Photo by Subjects & Predicates Skilled teachers recognize the importance of language as a tool for teaching mathematics. They shape and guide conversations using language to help children further their development of mathematical concepts. Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 33 children are learning. This way, children naturally become aware of spatial relations and build their vocabularies. For example, a teacher could intentionally incorporate higher-level spatial relations words by describing what children typically do while playing with blocks. Often children put blocks over each other, between two other shapes, beside each other, or under other blocks or objects. The teacher simply describes the location of the blocks, perhaps pointing out their shapes at the same time. “Elena, I see that you fit four little triangle blocks on top of the long block under them.” By making this natural observation, the teacher employs several of the recommendations in the NCTM and NAEYC joint position statement. Measurement Young children are naturally inquisitive about relative sizes. They often notice, “My tower is taller than yours.” They are proud that “I’m older than you are!” “My truck goes faster than your train.” Children’s desire to measure and compare is facilitated when early childhood teachers plan to include objects of varying sizes, lengths, weights, and speeds in the learning environment and then provide the language associated with measurement. A teacher might sit with a group of children rolling clay into different lengths. First, invite children to comment on the lengths and masses (shorter, heavier) of their clay forms. “Which roll do you think is the longest, Raoul? Which ball is the lightest?” Carry the experience a step further by using measurement tools. Improvised tools such as pieces of yarn 34 Volume 38, Number 2 Photo by Subjects & Predicates Plan to use higher-level language to identify spatial relations when children play with blocks, in the dramatic play area, on the playground, and anywhere else that children are learning. This way, children naturally become aware of spatial relations and build their vocabularies. and even fingers can be used to compare lengths. “Chianna’s roll is as long as three markers.” Introduce standardized tools (in both metric and U.S. measures) such as rulers and DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD scales. Measure, record, and compare the findings. To extend the learning even further, a teacher might join the children in creating rolls and then forming the Spring/Summer 2010 Photo by Subjects & Predicates Good-quality early learning environments have plenty of geometrical objects—both flat (2-dimensional shapes) and solid (3-dimensional forms)—in a variety of aesthetically pleasing textures such as wood, fabric, rubber, and paper, as well as plastic. rolls into balls. Ask children questions about the mass of clay as it changes shape, such as “Which shape do you think has more clay—the long, skinny roll you made first or the small ball when you smushed it together?” Thinking about these changes helps children to begin to understand higher-level developmental tasks such as the conservation of mass and weight (Piaget, 1977). natural propensity for identifying shapes seems to be even greater! Even 2-year-olds start to recognize shapes and can begin to sort by these attributes. Therefore, good-quality early learning environments have plenty of geometrical objects—both flat (2-dimensional shapes) and solid (3-dimensional forms)—in a variety of aesthetically pleasing textures such as wood, fabric, rubber, and paper, as well as plastic. Simply naming shapes—starting Geometry with squares, triangles, and circles— Although most young children are interested in measurement, their is just the beginning of young Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD children’s geometry explorations. Provide young children opportunities to explore more complex ideas about geometric shapes, such as their properties of corners, sides, size, and how two or more shapes are similar or different. When teachers plan opportunities for young children to handle and discuss these properties, children develop skills that form the basis for understanding even more complex mathematical concepts. Children who are cutting paper might be joined by a teacher who plans to comment on the shapes they Volume 38, Number 2 35 make. If children are already familiar with squares and rectangles, for example, a teacher might comment on or show the children what happens when a square is cut in half diagonally (two triangles) or if it is cut horizontally or vertically the result is two rectangles. Another creative way to explore geometric shapes is during snack and lunch times. Children can use plastic knives to cut cheese, fruit, and whole wheat bread into geometric shapes. As children make their shapes, discuss each shape’s corners, sides, curves, and other attributes. Again, by planning to infuse math-mediated language into children’s natural explorations, teachers meet several of the NCTM and NAEYC recommendations. Operations Understanding basic mathematical operations seems to come naturally to most children. They soon grasp the idea that more objects can be added to a group of items (or some taken away from it) to create an even bigger (or smaller) group. When they use concrete objects, such as toy animals, little vehicles, or raisins, young children soon are able to add and subtract—to express the sum or difference by using a mathematical operation. Use concrete objects to add and subtract. Teachers can make the most of naturally occurring opportunities to infuse the language of mathematical operations into children’s everyday play. For example, if children are making paper bag puppets, ask them how many pieces of yarn each of them needs. If KellyAnne asks for five, count 36 Volume 38, Number 2 out two or three. Then ask, “How many more do I need to give you five in all?” This kind of exchange can be adapted to almost every activity in the classroom many times a day. Seriation Placing things in sequence— ordering objects by size or events by time—is a complex task for young children. Those who have opportunities to do so will enhance their mathematical development in significant ways. Young children seem to enjoy comparing objects on the basis of size. Children in one group of 4-year-olds placed their shoes in order by length. They even stacked the shoes that were the same size so there would be no confusion about which ones where bigger than the previous ones. In a multi-age prekindergarten/kindergarten class, small groups of children ordered colored paper squares from lightest to darkest. Their teacher recorded their thinking as they negotiated the placement of the pieces. JeVaughn said “Yellow is like sunshine. It’s bright and you can color on yellow paper. It’s lighter than purple. You can’t draw on purple paper very well.” When children are engaged in ordering, teachers provide the mathmediated language appropriate to the activity. For instance, when children are ordering shoes by size, a teacher might ask “What if I move this shoe over here? Would your shoes still be in order from shortest to longest?” Or a teacher could say, “You are laying your shoes out in a row. I wonder how you decided which shoes would go where?” Questions like these enable children to verbalize their thinking processes. Ordinal numbers (first, second, DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD third) are typically used to describe classroom events. “Jaycee and Orel asked to be first to experiment with weights on the new balance scale. The second children to have a turn are Bryanna and Joseph.” With such personal connections, children soon grasp how seriation affects their everyday lives. Patterns Children experience a wide variety of patterns in their daily lives, including • daily schedules (wake up, get dressed, eat breakfast, brush teeth, pick up school bag…) • auditory patterns (songs, poetry, and stories with repetitive phrases: “Run, run, run as fast as you can; you can’t catch me, I’m the gingerbread man!”) • visual patterns in clothing and nature (zebra stripes) Young children also benefit from opportunities to create, repeat, and extend patterns in a variety of modalities. Teachers can plan activities and the environment to meet these goals. Use examples of patterns, and even demonstrate the patterning process. “Let’s make a pattern with the dishes in the pretend play area. What shall we start with? What comes next?… Let’s review your pattern: Plate, cup, spoon, plate, cup, spoon.” Children who are cutting paper might create visual patterns by using different colored strips to make paper chains. They might paint stripes on a paper-maché tiger. Children can repeat or make auditory patterns by clapping, singing, or drumming a sound pattern. Children might sit at a table by alternating boy, boy, girl, boy, boy, girl. Spring/Summer 2010 Children who can recognize patterns are better able to make generalizations about number combinations, counting, and problem solving (McClain & Cobb, 1999), all skills they will use in algebra and other more advanced learning experiences. Display and Analyze Data bicycles did we see? Why do you think there were so many more cars?” * * * Young children are capable of understanding far more complex mathematical concepts than adults believe them to be (Ginsberg, Inoue, & Seo, 1999). Early childhood teachers can dramatically increase the use of math-mediated language by seeking professional development (such as reading this article) and coaching on these strategies (Rudd, Lambert, Satterwhite, & Smith, 2009). Teachers who explicitly plan for opportunities to infuse mathmediated language into children’s everyday play activities will give them the opportunity to flourish in mathematics! Graphical displays are both fun and informative for young children. Graphical displays are characterized by • sorting objects, • counting objects, and • comparing groups using simple visual representations such as bar graphs (Rudd, Lambert, Satterwhite, & Zaier, 2008). Graphs visually represent data, so they are yet another concrete method to compare things such as frequencies or numbers. Graphs in early childhood classrooms References can be both interactive and engaging. Copley, J.V. (2000). The young child and Graphs can be both interactive and engaging. For example, children might first search for and collect multiple pictures of vehicles (school bus, car, truck, bicycle) that they expect to see on a walk in the neighborhood. Place the pictures in a bag. On the walk, children call out or point to the vehicles they see. As the children name the vehicles, one of them puts a picture of that vehicle into another bag. When the group returns, children count how many of each vehicle that they saw. Then the children place their pictures in parallel rows to construct a bar graph. This graph compares the number of each vehicle the children saw during the walk. “We saw 21 cars. How many Spring/Summer 2010 mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics; Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Ginsburg, H.P., Inoue, N., & Seo, K.H. (1999). Young children doing mathematics: Observations of everyday activities. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Kamii, C., & Anderson, C. (2003). Multiplication games: How we made and used them. Teaching Children Mathematics, 10(3): 135-141. McClain, K., & Cobb, P. (1999). Supporting students’ ways of reasoning about patterns and partitions. In J.V. Copley (Ed.), Mathematics in the early years (pp. 112-18). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics; Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Moseley, B. (2005). Pre-service early childhood educator’s perceptions of math-mediated language. Early Childhood and Development, 16(3): 385-396. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics & National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2002). Early childhood mathematics: Promoting good DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD beginnings. Retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/about/positions/p df/psmath.pdf Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures. New York: Viking Press. Rubenstein., R.N., & Thompson, D.R. (2002). Understanding and supporting children’s mathematical vocabulary development. Teaching Children Mathematics, 9(2): 107-112. Rudd, L.C., Lambert, M.C., Satterwhite, M., & Smith, C.H. (2009). Professional development + coaching = enhanced teaching: Increasing usage of math mediated language in preschool classrooms, Early Childhood Education Journal, 37(1), 63-69. Rudd, L.C., Lambert, M.C., Satterwhite, M., & Zaier, A. (2008). Mathematical language in early childhood settings: What really counts? Early Childhood Education Journal, 36(1): 75-80. Whitin, D. J., & Whitin, P. (2003). Talk counts. Discussing graphs with young children. Teaching Children Mathematics, 10(3): 142-149. In Memoriam Alma May Scarborough, a founding member of the Southern Association on Children Under Six (now SECA) died June 7, 2010, at the age of 97 in Nashville, Tennessee. She served as Vice-President of the organization in 1973-74 under President Betty Pagan (AR) and in 1974-75 under President Jeannette Watson (TX). Alma May was instrumental in producing the SACUS/SECA history, The First Forty Years, by holding two work sessions at her home in Tennessee. In July 1955, Alma May was named Editor of Preschool Materials for the Baptist Sunday School Board, where she worked in editorial positions for 23 years. She also edited several magazines, led many preschool conferences, and wrote numerous preschool songs and articles for parents and teachers. She authored two books—I Help Too and Sing Me a Bible Song. She enjoyed her church, her family, and the many friends she made over her lifetime. She loved to share her time and possessions—always with a joyful smile! Volume 38, Number 2 37 Put These Ideas Into Practice! One, Two, Buckle My Shoe: Using Math-Mediated Language in Preschool Loretta C. Rudd, Macy Satterwhite, and Matthew C. Lambert What is math-mediated language? With Mathematical Mediated Language (MML), teachers use informal, intentional dialogues with children about math concepts. orld W e h t f o e Mak e Sens What to say to highlight math ideas These math concepts, listed by increasing levels of complexity, meet most state and program standards. Math Concepts Examples of “Teacher Talk” (Math-Mediated Language) Number Model counting: “1, 2, 3, …” Skip count “2, 4, 6, …” Ask “How many…?” Spatial Relations Locate objects with spatial words such as in, on, under, behind. Measurement Compare size, length, weight, and other measures. “Which is longer? Your red paper strip or the blue one?” 1. Build on children’s math-related interests, experiences, and knowledge—ATMs and money, cell phones, cost of items, their heights and ages. 2. Provide intriguing math tools and materials: unit and table blocks, puzzles, measuring devices, music, graphs and charts, natural objects to order and sort. 3. Use descriptive words to compare, count, and locate objects. “Ariel is reading inside the tent.” 4. Help children solve everyday problems with math. “How many more spoons do we need so we can eat our applesauce?” Geometry Name and describe 2-D and 3-D shapes. “This puzzle shape has three corners and three sides. It is a triangle.” “Another word for ball is sphere.” Operations Solve problems. Ask “How many are left?” or “How many all together?” Seriation Count using ordinal numbers (1st, 2nd, 3rd). Order events by time. “First, we put on our coats. Then we walk out the door. What happens next?” Sort objects by size or weight. “Which seed is the smallest? Which seed is biggest?” For more information National Council of Teachers of Mathematics & National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2002). Early childhood mathematics: Promoting good beginnings. Retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/about/positions/pdf/psmath.pdf Patterns Identify patterns in nature. “The swirls go round and round on the shell.” Create patterns. “Let’s clap, loud, soft, soft, loud. We made a sound pattern!” Display and Analyze Data Make and record children’s choices. Sort, count, and then graph children’s findings. “Three children have pet fish. Six of you have dogs. Four have cats. Let’s show that information on a bar graph.” With MATH! Photo by Subjects & Predicates Note: Dimensions of Early Childhood readers are encouraged to copy this material for early childhood students as well as teachers of young children as a professional development tool. 38 Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010 Book Reviews Books for Early Childhood Educators by E. Anne Eddowes, Editor Successful Inclusion Strategies for Early Childhood Teachers by Cynthia G. Simpson and Laverne Warner. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press, 2010. 230 pp., $24.95. Cynthia Simpson entered higher education in Early Childhood Education with 16 years of publicand private-sector experience as a preschool teacher, educational diagnostician, and administrator. She is an educational consultant in the areas of assessment and inclusive practices as well as an Associate Professor in the College of Education at Sam Houston State University. Laverne Warner, a teacher, author, consultant, and advocate for young children, is Professor Emerita at Sam Houston University. During her 9 years of teaching in Texas, Indiana, and Vermont, plus 32 years as a teacher educator, she has specialized in children’s growth and the development of appropriate early childhood curricula. Simpson and Warner approach inclusion from the perspective of diagnostic categories rather than functional goals as is more usual in writings about inclusion in early childhood. Their book begins with two clear and succinct chapters that review the laws affecting inclusion and the purpose and function of inclusive classrooms. Best or recommended practices for inclusion are highlighted in bullet points to be elaborated upon in later chapters. The subsequent eight chapters address the most common types of Spring/Summer 2010 disabling conditions that make inclusive practices necessary in order to provide a free and appropriate public education for all children: autism spectrum disorders, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADD/ ADHD), speech and language impairment, hearing impairment, orthopedic impairment, visual impairment, developmental delay, and traumatic brain injury. Each chapter begins with a vignette that highlights characteristics of children with this impairment. For example, the chapter on hearing impairment features Keisha, who appears to ignore verbal advances from others, watches carefully where she is going, smiles but does not respond verbally, and does not seem distracted by the noise of classroom conversations. Following the vignette, each chapter provides an overview of the impairment, a section about what teachers need to know about the disability, inclusive learning strategies that will help the child, how to apply the suggested strategies, a section about safety for children with the disorder, and a list of professional and parentoriented associations with addresses to find more about the disability. The final two chapters address ways to adapt classroom materials to meet the needs of all learners, and collaborating with families of children in inclusive classrooms. Following Chapter 12, there is a reasonably comprehensive Glossary of Terms, which features easily understandable def- DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD initions. After the Reference section there are three appendices: the DEC Position Statement on Developmental Delay, the DEC and NAEYC Joint Position Statement on Inclusion, and Annotated Web Resources. This would be an excellent book to introduce non-special educators to inclusive classrooms. It is extremely well organized and written, and it covers the essence of the content of more than one introductory course in disabilities and how to address them. The only concern is how well teachers are prepared to generalize or transfer knowledge from a chapter on one disability to practice in another disability where similar strategies could be useful. Although the book does a reasonable job of this, its compartmentalization by disability category may cause inclusion novices to miss opportunities to address several disabilities with one type of intervention or inclusive practice. —Carole S. Campbell Higher Ground Educational Consulting Green Valley, AZ Many Languages, One Classroom: Teaching Dual and English Language Learners by Karen N. Nemeth. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House, 2009. 96 pp., $12.95. An increasing number of preschool children in the United States come from homes where English is not the dominant language. These children are learning English as they continue to Volume 38, Number 2 39 learn in their home language. This new book fills a gap for teachers who have children in their classrooms with language differences. Nemeth has been a teacher and teacher educator for 25 years, with a focus on first and secondlanguage development. There are many concrete and highly practical suggestions in the book. It begins with an Introduction, in which there is a comprehensive examination of current language acquisition approaches. It also covers necessary terminology. Both Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language (ESL) are included. A continuum is described from a fully bilingual program with emphasis on the nonEnglish language, to fully English with few supports for the home language. It emphasizes the need for getting the parents involved. The nine chapters cover different aspects of the early childhood program. The first chapter suggests activities to use in large group sessions, such as circle or group times. The remainder of the chapters each include information for a specific learning area: dramatic play, outdoor play, library/reading, manipulatives, writing, science, blocks, and mealtime. Each chapter begins with a list of things to think about related to the topic. Following that is a section of ideas for what to include in the classroom environment. For example, in the chapter about the dramatic play area, there is a list of items to include such as authentic clothing from different countries, empty containers from ethnic food stores in the area, maps, menus, books, and other items to assure cultural authenticity in everyday play. For each classroom learning area there are activities for language enhancement and links to learning standards in math, science, social relationships and self-regulation, language arts and literacy, and visual and performing arts. In the chapter on the block area, there is an activity in which unit blocks can be used to introduce measurement with children who speak different languages. Each chapter has a wealth of ideas for a variety of activities on the chapter topic. The chapters include ways to work with families and classroom technology tips. Each chapter ends with questions for teacher reflection. This book is a wonderful, inexpensive resource filled with information and ideas for a variety of creative activities. It is an excellent resource for any teacher who has children with language differences in the classroom. The activities are equally as good for English-only classrooms. All children should be aware of other cultures in our increasingly global world. —E. Anne Eddowes Tucson, AZ President’s Message continued from page 2 They help children learn: What are all the things I can learn about and do with modeling compound? With blocks? With picture books? Good-quality programs pay as much attention to the social/ emotional development of children as their cognitive development. They explore, discuss, and encourage children to express their emotions in appropriate ways. Early care teachers realize that young children do not have exceptional control of their emotions. Well-prepared adults know that they must teach, model, and mentor young children while they are learning appropriate ways to express and demonstrate their emotions and grow socially. 40 Volume 38, Number 2 The best programs supply as many wonderful outlets for using and developing gross motor skills as they do for developing and using fine motor skills. Good-quality programs realize that recess, outdoor play, and outdoor learning time allow children to learn and grow cognitively and socially/emotionally as well as physically—if children have suitable materials and equipment to use and if children are supervised and mentored (but not directed) every minute. Are we as SECA members helping our neighborhoods, communities, leaders, colleagues, and families provide and promote the high-quality programs our young children should have? DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Contributions to the Division for Development West Virginia Association for Young Children Arkansas Early Childhood Association ◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆◆ Memorials In Honor of: Helen Lawler (mother of Dr. Dianne Lawler-Prince) by Dr. Milly Cowles David Hunter, Rick Staudt, Georgette Davis and Dan Reinstein by Dr. Pam Schiller Spring/Summer 2010 10495 Summer 10 Cover:Layout 1 7/16/10 3:40 PM Page 3 10495 Summer 10 Cover:Layout 1 7/16/10 3:40 PM Page 4 NON-PROFIT ORGANIZATION U.S. POSTAGE PAID Little Rock, AR 72201 Permit No. 2470 P.O. Box 55930 • Little Rock, AR 72215-5930 Toll Free: 800-305-7322 • www.SouthernEarlyChildhood.org .org d o o h d l i h C y l nEar r e h t u o S . w w to w n o o S g n i m o C Beginning in the Fall of 2010, the SECA website will feature an entire section featuring Spanish-language materials. By posting these materials online, we will be providing a convenient source of valuable information that all Spanish-speaking early childhood professionals–whether SECA members or not–can access at will. Materials for this new portion of our website are currently in development and will be published by October 1, 2010. After the initial launch of the program, we will continue to add materials as they are produced. We will announce the availability of new and updated materials as they are added to the site. We hope that by offering these practical tips in a bilingual format, we will be better able to provide support to the South’s ever-growing community of Hispanic early childhood professionals and parents.
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