Session A - WoodMusICK

Museum versus Mausoleums?
Annalisa Bini Director; Laura Bognetti Assistant Curator.
Musical Instruments Museum of the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia in Rome
Instruments museums are mausoleums, places for the display of the musically dead, with the organologists
acting as morticians, preparing dead instruments bodies for preservation and display
Elio Bates, The Social Life of Musical Instruments, “Ethnomusicology”, vol. 56/3 - Fall 2012, pp. 363-95: 365
Silent instruments museums?
Musical instruments museums are peculiar museums. Like all other functional objects
on display in museums, they should be resting, not “working” and are thus silent to be
preserved for future generations. But visitors’ expectation for a music-related museum are
to be able to listen and see how they are or were used and even researchers sometimes share
the same opinion.
Actual controversies in and about establish a museum’s policy of use
• Can we manage to fulfil both these expectations and duties of preservation?
• Do we have to treat musical instruments differently from other museum’s objects?
• Can we or could be a serious risk for their preservation?
Sounds and video samples, guided tours, concerts are often used to satisfy visitors’ needs,
but still left them with some curiosity, especially about most famous instruments “voices”.
Undoubtedly musicians and researchers are not satisfied by these educational devices, since
they are differently interested in knowing the exact sound of these particular instruments.
A very limited use is allowed in these cases, but there are no scientific researches about or
certain rules.
The players’ point of view: ancient instruments as “live” tools
A musical instrument displayed in a case is a nonsense for most musicians. Ancient bowed
instruments, above all, are still considered to be good as or better than modern ones, not
just nearly as a theory, but in the direct experience of most important performers: museums’
instruments are actual tools for their art, so why should they be taken apart from “live”
experience?
Famous soloists and their instruments: Janine Jansen currently uses the
1727 Stradivari “Barrere” violin; Giovanni Sollima plays on a 1679cello by
Francesco Ruggeri; Leonidas Kavakos plays the “Abergavenny” Stradivarius
of 1724 but from 2010 he also owns three modern violins.
Can research give further help to museums’ policies?
Some scientific project, especially those ran by the University of Florence (DISTAF
- Department of Environmental and Forestry Studies) and presented here by Marco
Fioravanti, are deepening our knowledge of wood instruments reaction to use and this is the
only way to have proper answers and to define certain rules and use policies. More studies
must be conducted on different musical instruments types, especially woodwinds.
About the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia and its Museum
The Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia is one of the most ancient musical institutions
in the world. Founded in 1585, today it is a modern musical foundation producing more
than 250 events per year with its renown Symphonic Orchestra and Choir. It also carries
out educational activities with high-level music courses and the first children’s orchestra in
Italy. It’s cultural heritage is held in the Musical Instruments Museum and Archives which
are accessible to the public on-site from the Multimedia Library and remotely through the
internet.
www.santacecilia.it
http://museo.santacecilia.it
Woodwind Musical Instruments: the Effect of
Restoration on Some Acoustic Properties
Doganis E., Koutsouris A., Pournou A.
Department of Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art,
Technological Educational Institute of Athens
AG. SPYRIDONOS, AEGALEO,12210, ATHENS, GREECE
1. Introduction
In 2011, a small-scale research project started at the Laboratory of
wood conservation, TEI of Athens, which studied whether the repair
of cracks in woodwind instruments could alter their amplitude
or/and frequency. More specifically different types of natural and
synthetic adhesives/fillers were tested in order to examine their
ability to repair and preserve the acoustic properties of bamboo
flutes.
2. Experiment
Samples
Fig. 8 a. Sound spectra of the flute repaired with keromasticho (Φ4), on the 6th fingering position (1st
octave); black: the original; green: after the crack and red after restoration; b, c, d: dual display plots.
For the experimental part, five bamboo flutes were used (fig. 1). Each
flute’s sound spectrum was recorded a) at its undamaged condition
b) after developing an artificial crack between the third and fourth
hole (fig. 2) and c) after repairing the crack.
Fig. 2 The position of the artificial crack
Fig. 3 Flute at the fingering position 3 where 3
holes were closed
2 3
Fig. 4 The mass flow controller
4 5
Fig. 9: Sound spectra of the flute repaired with fish glue (Φ3), on the 6th fingering position (1st
octave); black: the original; green: after the crack and red after restoration; b, c, d: dual display plots.
Table 1 Flutes' fingering positions
Fig. 1 Flutes used in this study
Sound
The flutes' sound spectrum was studied in eight different fingering
positions as it is shown in table 1. However, this poster presents the
results from four fingering positions of the first octave (2, 3, 4, and 6
closed holes) and from one of the second octave (6 closed holes). For
Fig. 6 The area of the sound spectrum that a
human ear perceives
Fig. 5 Placemen of the cardioid microphone
obtaining reliable and repeatable results an air compressor was used,
providing stable airflow of 5 mbar pressure. The compressor was
connected to a mass flow controller (fig. 4), which operated by
monitoring temperature fluctuations via a temperature sensor.
Initially, flutes were tested based on the amount of airflow entering
the pipe (table 1) in each fingering position in order to yield the
correct note.
The sound quality was recorded with a cardioid microphone (fig. 5)
and studied with a "Fast Fourier Analysis" (FFT) system in order to
obtain data on both amplitude and frequency of the instrument. The
experimental setup for the sound recording is shown in figure 7.
Adhesives/fillers
Instrument’s practical manufacturers in Greece are usually repairing
woodwind instruments with natural adhesives/fillers that have not
been chemically processed. These are mainly plant resins and
protein-based adhesives. Therefore, the materials selected in the
current study for repairing flutes’ cracks were fish glue and a mixture
of beeswax and mastic called "keromasticho", a traditional material
used in Greece for repairing woodwind instruments. For comparative
3. Results and discussion
Comparing the initial sound spectrum of each flute before the crack
with the spectrum after the restoration, it can be evaluated the
impact of each adhesive to flutes sound properties. In figures 8, 9 and
10 it is observed that in fingering positions 4, 5 and 6, the sound
spectrum remained altered in both octaves spectra before and after
Fig. 10: Sound spectra of the flute repaired with Paraloid-B72 (Φ5), on the 6th fingering position (1st
octave); black: the original; green: after the crack and red after restoration; b, c, d: dual display plots.
restoration. More specifically with all types of adhesives used,
amplitude picks were increased but never reached their initial level
(before the crack).
In addition it is showed that the sound spectrum after restoration has
been shifted from 2 to 3 Hz right or left from its original position. This
could signify that flutes have eventually lost their tone.
Furthermore, it should be taken into account that the human ear
perceives only a number of notes and harmonics in a specific range of
the sound spectrum. Therefore, the sound differences observed
before and after the restoration can be distinguish by humans if they
are higher than 20dB and between 20 and 19.000 Hz (fig. 6).
4. Conclusions
Based on the results obtained, it appears that the acoustic properties
of flutes are influenced by the adhesives used for their restoration.
The most appropriate adhesive, based on flutes audio properties,
appears to be keromasticho. Fish glue is the second best material
studied, followed by Paraloid B-72. Nevertheless, both natural fillers,
keromasticho and fish glue, do not meet some conservation
requirements
regarding
biodegradability,
durability
and
physicochemical properties over time, unless they get improved with
purposes, three more adhesives were studied: polyvinyl acetate
various additives. Paraloid B-72 could be a candidate material as it
(PVAc, modified homopolymer), the white glue commonly used in
could compromise both physicochemical properties over time and
woodworking; an epoxy resin for its durability; and Paraloid B-72, an
acceptable post-restoration acoustic properties.
ethyl methacrylate and methyl acrylate copolymer (70:30) in acetone
Finally, it is worth mentioning that the shifting of 2 to 3 Hz, observed
(40% w/v), used for its reversibility and stability over time (table 2).
after restoration in picks' position, can be further improved during
playing by the musician, by blowing more or less air into the pipe. In
contrast the 1000 - 3000 Hz shifting, observed before after the
development of the crack, cannot be corrected without restoration.
5. Acknowledgments
FFT
Table 2 The adhesives/fillers used in this study
Fig. 7 The experimental setup for the sound recording
The authors wish to thank Kostas Fotopoulos, musisian-physisist for his
valuable help and support, Professor Maria Founti, School of Mechanical
Engineering, NTUA, for providing the mass flow controller equipment
and Mr. C. Cheramiotis and Mr. I. Mandilara PhD students, School of
Mechanical Engineering, NTUA, for their assistance.
Marc Ecochard
Tuning of baroque and
classical oboes (hautboys)
Original baroque and classical oboes, before 1850 and the Boehm-Triebert system, have a
specific tuning, far from the balance of modern instruments and modern copies of
authentic instruments.
Bore and tone holes
Bore – Concavity of general profile and
concavity of the profile of each
joint
- Long bell, wide flare, rim at the
opening
- Steps between each joint
Tone holes – Small diameter
- Drilled at angle
- undercutting
Tuning of 3 authentic instruments
Pierre Naust
Carlo Palanca
Prudent
Diversion in cents in relation to the 0 of equal temperament for 3 hautboys stamped Pierre Naust,
Carlo Palanca and Prudent
Tuning methods
Early sources : none
Late source : a letter by K. F.
Golde (ca 1850) published in
Zeitschrift für Instrumentenbau, 52,
1932, Leipzig by F. Drechsel.
- Action on the bore by
« chambering ».
-Action on the tone holes by
undercutting.
Shrinkage, warping
deformation
Source : Cary Karp, Woodwind
instrument bore Measurement,
Galpin Society Journal, XXXI, may
1978.
Effects of shrinkage upon the
tuning of an original
instrument.
Tuning adaptation to
modern hautboy
Influence of reed setup
Tuning corrections in order
to bring the intervals of the
natural scale closer to equal
temperament.
Musical instrument making
at the School of Arts
Hogent University College
Manu Frederickx, Jan Boon, Francis Ponseele, Wim Raymaekers, Geerten Verberkmoes,
Andreas Korczak, Jolien Paeshuys, Maarten Quanten, Kersten Cottyn, Claudia Ibarra
3 year Bachelor and 2 year Master programme
Studies the morphology of musical instruments in view of their:
construction
reconstruction
preservation
Studying a Peeter Borbon viola da gamba at the
MIM, Brussels
Study and documentation of instruments from private and public collections
Exploration of historical sources and treatises, iconography and specialist literature
Make a contribution to the performance practice of music
CT x-ray scan of a Cornetto at the Department of Physics and Astrnomy​ of Ghent University.
Digital endoscope image of the neck joint
of a Boussu violin, MIM, Brussels
Original Allemanische violins and reconstruction
by Andreas Korczak at Muzikinstrumenten
Museum Berlin
Current and past PhD's and research projects:
Wooden organ pipes for the reconstruction
of an “Organo Di Legno” by Jan Boon
Conception and realization of an 'organo di legno' (PhD)
Boon, Jan
Pipe organ tuning by means of physical modelling (PhD)
Steenbrugge, Dirk
Research about the building methods of the North-Alpin violin making tradition from the 17th century
Korczak, Andreas
School Of Arts Campus Hoogpoort, Nederpolder 26, 9000 Gent, Belgium, [email protected]
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Revisiting historical sources
Multidisciplinary research on old bowed instruments
Correct dating, geographical location and attribution are huge problems in the study of historical stringed
instruments.
Were historical bowed instruments in our collections originally the instruments we see today?
Examples:
-
Were 16th century viols always really viols, or can we find indications that parts came from
different instruments?
-
Did instruments with a special design and characteristics always have the appearance they have
today, or is it possible that they have been made from mangled instruments with a less
spectacular shape?
Did old violins, viola’s
and violoncello’s have
the dimensions they
have today, or are they
often made from larger
instruments, such as
“haute-contre de
violon”, “taille de
violon” or “basse de
violon” ?
-
Are signatures or labels reliable?
Do the most important parts
originally belong together?
Need for an profound and systematic multidisciplinary collaboration between
curators, conservators, musicologist, wood scientist, chemist, …
Karel Moens - Music museum Vleeshuis Antwerp
[email protected]
Oriol Rossinyol – Conservator [email protected]
Manel Barcons – Curator [email protected]
2.000 instruments
500 chordophones
PLAYING ON
HISTORICAL INSTRUMENTS
MUSICAL USE OF STRING INSTRUMENTS
The study of an historical instrument tells us whether we will be able or not to use it musically and if we
will start or not a restoration. The analysis of the materials that make up the instrument and its possible
wear will determine the limits of its use: a single recording or a frequency of use under some controls.
Initial state of the MDMB 438 guitar:
a study of the instrument
Restoration
Restored guitar. © Rafael Vargas
Musical use
THE PRESERVATION OF THE HISTORICAL
INSTRUMENT IN USE
The continued use of a historical instrument involves a certain impairment of some parts that will become
unrecoverable. To build a partial facsimile means keeping the sound of the instrument and preserving
the original piece.
The whole reconstruction of an instrument based on an historical model may have two goals: meeting its
constructive and sound essence or building an exact whole facsimile.
Harpsichord. Christian Zell.
MDMB 418. © Rafael Vargas
Jacks. Wear of mechanisms.
© Rafael Vargas
Registers. Wear of mechanisms
Musical use of the instrument.
© May/Circus
STUDY OF THE SOUNDBOARD OF THE GUITAR
TO BUILD FACSIMILES
One of the projects that the Museum has launched this year is a daily concert with historic guitars.
Understanding how the soundboard of a guitar works provides us information for the construction of
facsimiles that will replace the original instrument without losing sound quality and preserving the museum
piece at the same time.
Study of the Antonio de Torres
guitar MDMB 626
Inside detail of the guitar
Study of the vibration of the
soundboard
Graphic of frequencies
Museu de la Música · L’Auditori C/ Lepant, 150. 08013 Barcelona · Tel. 93 256 36 50 · www.museumusica.bcn.cat
A0_woodmusic.indd 1
18/03/2014 10:13:04
Royal College of Music – Museum of Music
Galleria dell’Accademia – Musical Instrument Dept.
COMBINED APPROACHES TO THE ATTRIBUTION AND
IDENTIFICATION OF BOWED INSTRUMENTS
Gabriele Rossi Rognoni ([email protected])
Introduction
The Galleria dell’Accademia in Florence hosts
since 2001 the Collection of Musical
Instruments of the Conservatory of Music,
particularly famous for ca 40 instruments from
the collections of the Medici and Lorraine,
grandukes of Tuscany, including the only
instrument by Stradivary surviving in entirely
original conditions and the earliest instrument
made by the inventor of the piano.
The Museum also own the largest public
collection of bowed instruments attributed to
makers of the Tuscan School.
Documentary research
The current knowledge of several making
schools is still very sketchy, often limited to
information about the main makers gathered
from the labels of the surviving instruments.
Documentary research was carried out by
Gabriele Rossi Rognoni and Gloria Leitao
Venceslau leading to the identification of
chronological boundaries, foreign influences
and external and internal connections of the
makers with other schools or among families,
sometimes leading to evident stylistic
relationships.
The research also increased considerably the
number of known makers, therefore leading to
a reconsideration of several attributions
previously formulated “for lack of a better
choice”.
Wood identification
The study was carried out by Marco Fioravanti
(Univ. of Florence, Dept. of Environmental
Forestry) and Giovanni Signorini (Univ. of
Perugia, Dept. Human Sciences and Education),
with the aim of defining with certainty the
wood species selected by Tuscan makers for
their instruments, and also to lay the
fundations for the further studies on materials.
The very shape and construction of bowed
instruments poses difficulties such as the
impossibility to take samples, varnish and
preparation interfering with observation and
worn down surfaces due to use.
These were the main subject of a campaign of studies
carried out between 2006 and 2009 that included:
- Documentary research
- Material studies
- Identification of wood species
- Dendrochronology
- Dendroprovenance
- CT scan
- Stylistic analysis
The project laid the fundations for a comparative study
into the shared elements of this school, leading to a
different methodological approach to the identification
and attribution of bowed instruments.
Dendrochronology and
provenance
The study was carried out by Mauro Bernabei
and Jarno Bontadi (CNR/IVALSA) measuring 52
instruments using Video Time Table, a device
that combines a portable dendrochronograph
with a high resolution digital video camera.
Results later led to the publication of a new
‘master chronology’ 558 year long (spanning
1396-1953) and eventually to a study of the
provenance of the wood used for the
soundboard, highlighting the preponderant
use of spruce from the Appennine region,
rather than the more famous Alpine wood.
CT scan
The possibility to compare peculiarities in
model and assembling technique is at the basis
of any attribution and identification of bowed
instruments. For this reason all instruments
were scanned, thanks to the support of the
Andrea Cesalpino Institute in Terontola, using
a General Electric HiSpeed CT scanner. A ‘set’
of slices was then selected for each instrument,
in order to compare vaults, thicknesses and
construction details such as the shape of
blocks, etc.
Conclusions
The project allowed to radically increase
current knowledge on the makers, interactions
and instruments related to the Tuscan School,
and is now leading to new attributions and a
reconsideration of many of the previous ones.
This is the result of the combination of
competences and approaches that range from
human sciences to hard science in a
collaborative effort.
Analytical study of instruments from the Ruckers family
Steven Saverwyns, Marina Van Bos and Ina Vanden Berghe
Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage (KIK/IRPA) ● Laboratories Department ● Jubelpark 1 ● 1000 Brussels ● Belgium
[email protected] ● [email protected] ● [email protected] ● www.kikirpa.be
1. Introduction
The laboratory department of the Royal Institute of Cultural Heritage (KIK/IRPA) is involved in a research project
coordinated by the Musical Instruments Museum (MIM, Brussels), focussing on the study of 18 instruments
made by the Ruckers dynasty. The analytical techniques applied during the study and the first results obtained
on the composition of the painting palette and decorative papers, are presented.
The Ruckers family were Flemish harpsichord and virginal makers based in Antwerp in the 16th and 17th century:
Hans Ruckers (1540s–1598) ● Ioannes Ruckers (1578 – 1642) ● Andreas Ruckers I (1579 – after 1645) ● Andreas Ruckers II (1607- before 1667)
2. Non-invasive analyses
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is a technique producing
information on the elemental composition of
pigments. Besides being non-invasive, the technique
is fast and the instrument transportable, making insitu analysis feasible.
Micro-Raman spectroscopy (MRS) is applied
complimentary to XRF, providing detailed molecular
information on the composition of both inorganic and
organic pigments.
Pigments non-invasively identified on a virginal (MIM-1971.027) by Andreas Ruckers I (1633):
Original pigments: vermillion, massicot, orpiment, lead-tin yellow type I, yellow ochre, brochantite, malachite and azurite
Overpaint: vermillion, yellow ochre, ultramarine, pigment green 7 (PG7), lithopone and/or zinc white and/or barium sulphate
3. Sample analyses
Using cross-sections, the stratigraphy of the paint
layers is studied. Pigments are identified by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM-EDX) and MRS.
©MIM
The original porphyry
stone imitation
becomes visible after
removing the
overpaint (Virginal
MIM-2930 by
Ioannes Ruckers,
1614)
The characterisation of the pulp composition of the
decorative paper is executed by transmitted light
microscopy using a colouring agent. Together with the
applied pigments, it can give additional information to
evaluate the authenticity of the decorative papers on
the instrument.
Cross-section from the original porphyry stone imitation (with
overpaint) under white light (left) and UV light (right); original
magnification 500x (Virginal MIM-2930 by Ioannes Ruckers, 1614)
Other studies include the identification of green
glazes (found on the original porphyry stone imitation
of the exterior decoration) by FTIR, and the
identification of binding media with (ATR-)FTIR (on
cross-sections) and GC/MS.
Comparative study of Ruckers instruments
WHICH?
The Antwerp Ruckers family is to the harpsichord as Stradivarius is to the violin. From the end of the 16th century, its influence is
predominant and its reputation considerable. About one hundred Ruckers instruments are preserved in the world. 18 are in the mim.
4’ - Andreas - 1613
4’ - Andreas -1632
4’ - Andreas - 1613
Andreas - 1639
Hans – 17th cent.
Ioannes - 1619
5’ – Ioannes & Andreas - 1604
4 ½’ - Ioannes - 1629
Hans ? – c1590
Mother & child – Ioannes - 1610
6’ - Ioannes - 1614
Hans - c1580
6’ - Andreas - 1620
Mother - Ioannes - 1628
6’ – Andreas - 1633
Ioannes Couchet - 1646
6’ – Ioannes - 1638
Hans/Taskin – 1612/1774
Dr. VANDERVELLEN Pascale - Keyboard instruments curator  Project manager
• DE VALCK Joris - Head of the conservation workshop  Conservators coordination
• EGAN Simon - Paintings conservator & photograph  Photos
• ESQUIROL Agnès - Paintings conservator  Study of decoration
FREDERICKX Manu - Harpsichords maker & conservator  Technical drawings, organological study
• HUART Livine - Paintings conservator  Study of decoration
• TERLINCK Michel - Instrument maker, draughtsman  Technical drawings
• Dr. VEKEMANS Marcel - Musicologist  Iconographical research
•
mim
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
AKKERMANS Emily - Antwerp University, student in Conservation-Restoration  Study of the metal roses
Pr. Dr. BALÉRIAUX Danielle - Erasme Hospital, neurologist  CAT scannings
Dr. CURRIE Christina & FONDAIRE Catherine - Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage, scientists  Scientific imagery, X-radiographs
Dr. SAVERWYNS Steven & Dr. VAN BOS Marina - Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage, scientists  Pigment and medium analysis
VANDEN BERGHE Ina - Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage, scientist  Paper analysis
VERSTEEG Arjan - Instrument maker & dendrochronologist  Dendrochronology of the soundboards
S
t
u
d
y
Repertory of soundboard decoration motifs
o
f
Ultra-violet photo
Macrophoto of the
paint layers
Infra-red photo
d
e
c
o
r
a
t
i
o
n
X—ray fluorescence analysis
Study of the metal
roses
Moldings
O
r
g
a
n
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
external
CAT scanning or X-radiographs
s
t
u
d
y
Dendrochronology of the soundboards
-research
on
Nikolaus Warneke
[email protected]
African
France xylophones
-making
-restoration
-itinerant
language
exhibition
African
xylo phones
form
shapes
shapes
form
language
bwamou
lobi
balante
cerma
and...
sara
Sara xylophone orchestra, N'Djamena, Chad, photo Marcel Filleton, 1962
bamanan
malinke
senoufo
subjects for discussion:
wooden key: the resonator:
-analysis of
-analysis of
sound
wood species
makes
production
a sound
-treatment
similar to a -shape and
-problems of
voice?
harmonics
conservation
the buzz
membrane
the tuning:
scale and
sonorous
sound
meets
language
Digitising Musical Instruments
Collections in Africa
Sa sk i a W ill a e r t - s. w ill a e r t@ m i m . b e
Music al In strumen ts M useum MI M , B russels
Musée de la Musique, Avenue d’Oubitrenga, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso: digitisation campaign, 10 – 22 November 2014
Musical bow, (inv. MMO-PRIMA-020) Musée de la musique de Ouagadougou. Left: July 2005; right: November 2013
Storage of the collection of musical instruments of the Musée Panafricain de la musique in Brazzaville (Congo)
Kundi, Nzakara, RDC, mim inv. 1929
Lukombe, Kuba, RDC, mim inv. 1983.051
WHY?
1 Online access to musical instruments conserved in African museums is limited (exclusively through Western museums)
2 Musical heritage under threat
3 Relatively unknown but rich part
of world music heritage
- Diversity
- Uniqueness - Reference value (historical; acoustical; sociological)
HOW?
PRIMA Projet Réseau International
des Instruments de Musique Africains
Project Partners
- Musée de la musique de Ouagadougou
- Musée Panafricain de la Musique, Brazzaville
- Muziekinstrumentenmuseum mim, Brussels
Workshops and inventory
& photographic digitisation campaigns
- Brussels, June 2013
- Ouagadougou, November 2013
- Brazzaville, July 2014
Tasks:
- Cleaning, conserving
and restoring the instruments
- Measuring the instruments
and determining the materials
- Photographing the instruments in conformity
with the MIMO digitsation standard
- Encoding the metadata
(MuseumPlus – Zetcom) in conformity
with the MIMO standards
musical instruments museum
BRUSSELS
RESULTS
1 Global access
2 Integration into international db:
www.mimo-international.com
3 Research tool:
- Contextual information : recording local names, identifying materials used (wood species), makers names (African informants)
- Diversity of data
- Expansion of existing thesauri
- Addition to international reference works on ethnomusicology and organology
4 Growing involvement of African decision
makers → more governmental resources at
disposal of African museums?
5 Growing involvement of African public?
6 Better conservation of cultural world
heritage; added protection against theft
and losses (photographs establish proof
of ownership and help with tracing an
instrument & recuperation after theft)
7 Digital archive