cockpit country biodiversity manual

COCKPIT COUNTRY
BIODIVERSITY MANUAL
Produced by: Southern Trelawny Environmental Agency
Funded by: Canada Jamaica Green Fund / World Bank
Small Grants Programme
CONTENTS
Pages
I.
BIODIVERSITY
What is biodiversity
2
II.
JAMAICA’S GEOLOGIC HISTORY
2
III.
GEOLOGY OF THE COCKPIT COUNTRY
Maroon
3
4
IV.
EVOLUTION OF SPECIES IN JAMAICA
4-6
V.
COCKPIT COUNTRY FLORA
Food Web
6
7
VI.
COCKPIT COUNTRY FAUNA
Anthropods
Jamaica’s Endemic Snails and their Adaptations To
Wet Environments
Bird
Invertebrates
Mammals
8-14
Echolocation and Doppler Techniques of Bats for
Hunting
VII.
COCKPIT COUNTRY RESOURCES WITH COMMERCIAL VALUE
Medicinal Plants
Common names scientific names and their uses
13-14
VIII.
THREATS TO THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE COCKPIT COUNTRY
Bauxite Mining and Limestone Quarry
Deforestation
Yam Stick Harvesting
Fire
Non- Native Species
Disruption of Cave Ecosystems
The Puzzles Antillean Primates
Hunting, over-collecting, poaching and fear based persecution
14-19
IX.
BEST PRACTICES TO ENABLE CONSERVATION
Practice low Impact behaviours
Limit Forest clearing
Engage in alternative income generation
19-20
Acknowledgement
Appendices
21
`BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is a collective term embracing all plants, animals and micro-organisms. These
living creatures interact with non-living (abiotic) environmental features such as rock, air and
water to make up a particular environment. Jamaica is blessed with a rich natural resource base,
which makes it one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, ranking fifth among island
nations. The word from which Jamaica is derived, “Xaymaca”, means “land of wood and
water”.
JAMAICA’S GEOLOGIC HISTORY
Jamaica originated in a chain of submerged or emergent islands over 100 million years ago. At
that time Jamaica and the other islands of the Greater Antilles were further west, in the region of
what is now Central America. Movement of the Caribbean Plate over the earth’s crust has since
brought the Greater Antilles eastward to their present location. In the middle Tertiary Period
(65-25 million years ago), during this slow easterly progression, Jamaica became fully
submerged under the ocean once it was no longer subjected to uplift from the widespread
volcanic eruptions that had taken place roughly where Central America is today.
During this long period when Jamaica was at least 1-2 kilometers under the ocean, limestone
rocks formed as sediments from corals, shells, algae and other marine organisms accumulated
and compressed. The island became uplifted by plate tectonics and has remained above water
ever since. Jamaica is mostly a limestone platform, which is composed of calcium carbonate, the
skeletal remains of marine plants and animals that hardened after becoming debris on the
seafloor. Jamaica is composed of both white and yellow limestone. White limestone is pure and
indicates complete marine inundation, while yellow limestone is impure and reflects times of
uplift. Evidence of fossilized marine organisms in the limestone is common. Shark teeth, for
example, are embedded in the limestone in Litchfield and Lowe River, Trelawny.
2
Limestone bed featuring coral fossils in Freeman’s Hall, Trelawny
GEOLOGY OF THE COCKPIT COUNTRY
Flying in a plane across Jamaica toward the west, passengers see rolling hills of agriculture and
rural communities, where valleys dominate the landscape. As they reach central Jamaica, the
hills get more tightly clustered until they dominate the landscape, resembling an inverted egg
carton covered in forest. This geographic region is called the Cockpit Country, which is the
largest contiguous wet limestone forest remaining in Jamaica, which once covered all of central
Jamaica.
The calcium carbonate that primarily makes up limestone is an element easily eroded by the
carbonic acid naturally found in rain and surface water. During limestone formation,
inconsistencies in the sedimentation process cause horizontal fissures, which are spaces in or
weak sections of rock. Through the process of erosion, horizontal fissures become channels and
tunnels. Vertical fissures are caused by faults and shifting in the earth’s crust. Erosion causes
them to become shafts, which are vertical spaces in the rock connecting horizontal channels.
Rain and surface water working its way through the vertical and horizontal fissures in limestone
erode away the rock surface. Although the external surface of a rock dries quickly after a rain
shower, the water inside may circulate for a long time. Internally, a body of limestone is often
full of caverns and passages, while the outside is a hill.
3
MAROONS
The original Maroons were the freed or runaway Spanish Negro slaves. Maroons
have been recognized as an indigenous people by entities such as the World Bank.
The name Maroon probably derived from the Spanish Cimarron meaning “wild” or
“untamed”. The Cockpit Country has a rich historical background, as the Maroons
used the caves and rugged terrain while waging a guerilla war on the British in the
Eighteenth Century. After the arrival of the British in Jamaica (1655) there was a long
period of sporadic warfare between the British and the Maroons, culminating in the
First Maroon War. British soldiers called the area “The Land of Look Behind”
because they had to ride horseback back-to-back to watch for Maroon attacks. The
war was terminated by a 1738 treaty between the British and the Maroons led by
Cudjoe, which was signed at Accompong. This event is celebrated by the Accompong
Maroons every January 6. Accompong continues to function as a sovereign Maroon
community in the Cockpit Country.
In limestone environments, water drains vertically, so the orderly above-ground stream and river
drainage pattern of non-limestone environments such as the Blue Mountains is absent in karst
areas such as the Cockpit Country. Although the Cockpit Country receives abundant rain (75150 inches per year), most of that water is not available to plants and animals for long because of
the drainage properties of limestone, so species have evolved many unique features to survive in
a “dry” environment.
EVOLUTION OF SPECIES IN JAMAICA
As Jamaica emerged from the ocean, biotic colonization began. The Caribbean Sea has been a
strong barrier to organisms with poor dispersal capabilities over water, which explains the
absence of large animals but the abundance of bats, for example. Jamaica’s size, diverse
physical features and climate created a wide range of microhabitats suitable to the ancestors of
all present-day species. An unknown number of these colonizers went extinct. The offspring of
the species that survived were all slightly different from each other (as siblings as all slightly
different) and may therefore have chosen slightly different habitats from each other. Their
offspring also vary, again likely to choose (or be forced into) slightly different environments.
Over time, natural selection ensures that those individuals with the most appropriate features for
the local environment survive to breed. Successive generations spread out and are selectively
adapted to their habitats. Without the wide range of microhabitats found in Jamaica, species
would either survive or go extinct where they landed (i.e. the beach), but spreading out would be
very limited if the neighboring habitat was very different. Speciation would also not be likely
because small differences in the environment are what allow natural selection to “select”.
The following features of limestone surfaces result in particularly extreme and diverse
environments:
• High concentrations of calcium and magnesium
4
•
•
Extreme climatic conditions because of exposure to strong tropical sun and heavy rains
followed by near-drought conditions due to the underground drainage system
Geological discontinuities such as acidic hilltops surrounded by alkaline cockpit bottoms,
which serve as barriers to plants adapted to the hilltop. Hilltops tend to be covered with a
permanent layer of rotting vegetation, called humus, which is always acidic. Hilltops are
only gently rounded, so the humus doesn’t get washed downhill, unlike the slopes, which
are subject to erosion. In the cockpit bottoms, mechanical weathering of the limestone
results in the accumulation of alkaline soils.
Soil formation also affects patterns of human clearing and settlement, because people stick to
low-lying areas where soil formation is better.
Aerial photo showing denuded cockpit bottoms, the result of human activity contrasted by lush
green hilltops or "hillocks" resembling an inverted egg carton.
5
The plants and animals which comprise the biotic aspect of the Cockpit Country have an
interesting relationship to the landscape. Strong selective pressures are exerted by the
environment, so early colonizers either adapted or went extinct. Evolution in the Cockpit
Country was thus accelerated, resulting in the high levels of endemism found here. Endemic
species are those found only in a particular area. Many plants adapt so thoroughly to the local
limestone conditions that they can never again shift to non-limestone habitats. All of these
things explain the high levels of endemism and also the fact that species exist within very
restricted ranges, both situations being typical of karst landscapes. In the Cockpit Country, no
two hills have the same plant species composition, each is unique. Because of its large area, the
Cockpit Country contains an extraordinary amount of Jamaica's native and endemic biological
diversity.
COCKPIT COUNTRY FLORA
Over 150 plant species have been identified in the Cockpit Country, of which 101 are endemic to
the area. The forest structure features small, scraggly trees on hilltops with sparse crowns, while
taller trees are found in the cockpit bottoms. This occurs because the valleys have better soils,
higher humidity, and protection from wind dessication. Some plant adaptations to limestone
include:
• Small, thick leathery leaves (just like many desert plants) to reduce moisture loss during
photosynthesis.
• Leaves that roll up during drought to expose thick, silvery hairs on the underside, which
reflect light and insulate the leaf from high temperatures.
• Diverse epiphytic communities. Epiphytes are terrestrial or arboreal but use another plant or
the ground merely as an anchor, though they are not parasitic. Nutrients are acquired from
dust, vegetation, insects, etc. falling or breeding among the leaf axil.
Many of the species in the area are of horticultural, agricultural, pharmaceutical or cosmetic
value. The most abundant endemic flowering plants are orchids and bromeliads. There are over
500 species of ferns in the Cockpit Country, more than any other rainforest in the tropics.
Dangerous plants in the Cockpit Country include scratch bush, maiden plum, cow itch, and burn
wood.
The abundance of different plants in the Cockpit Country serve as the source of food and/or
habitat for many of the animals, which makes the flora critical to the health of the overall system.
A food web is a diagrammatic flow chart that traces the inter-relationships between the various
flora and fauna of a specific ecosystem. Such visual representations of the complexity of the
natural world help showcase the fact that maintaining the biodiversity of an area is critical
because species are so interdependent.
6
7
COCKPIT COUNTRY FAUNA
Arthropods represent the bulk of biodiversity and are a fundamental part of many food webs.
These include insects, spiders, mulloscs, crabs, shrimps, centipedes and millipedes ("dog
worms").
Land snails are shell-bearing mulloscs, and Jamaica is one of the premier locations for mullosc
diversity. All shell-bearing mulloscs need calcium carbonate to build their shells, consequently
limestone environments host large numbers and diverse asemblages. A site near Achtembeddie
holds pride-of-place of the world's most diverse assemblage of land mulloscs per unit area, with
90 species found in a one hectare plot. Approximately 550 species have been identified in
Jamaica thus far, with most occurring in the Cockpit Country. Their ecological role is complex,
as they are herbivores, omnivores or carnivores, feeding on live vegetation, detritus, algae (they
clean the leaves), fungi and other snails. Snails are also a food source for other animals,
including birds.
JAMAICA'S ENDEMIC SNAILS AND THEIR ADAPTATIONS TO
WET LIMESTONE ENVIRONMENTS
Eurycratera jamaicensis is one of the largest of Jamaica's endemic land snails. Its
foot (the exposed body part) is so large that it can't fully retract into its shell and is
therefore vulnerable to drying out. It only lives in wet limestone forest, where it
can attach itself to the underside of damp rocks during the day to maintain body
moisture. Deforestation causes sun to penetrate the soil, which leads to the death
of this species.
Poteria deals with the problem of body moisture loss during the dry season by
creating a "sealed door" at the end of its shell and aestivates (like hibernation in
mammals). When the rainy season comes, these snails re-emerge and resume
normal activities.
Birds, with their beautiful colors, melodious songs and magnificent flight, are Jamaica's most
glamorous animals. Excluding introductions, about 100 bird species breed in Jamaica, and about
70 are regular visitors from North America during the winter months. Thirty birds are endemic
to Jamaica, including two species that may have become extinct since the introduction of the
mongoose in 1876. The Cockpit Country features 27 of the 28 known remaining endemic bird
species, and 79 of the 100 total species identified on the island.
The Cockpit Country is the stronghold for the Black-billed Parrot and the only region where both
the Black- and Yellow-billed Parrot occur in significant numbers. The Jamaican Parrot Project
recently investigated the ecology of the two animals in the Cockpit Country. It was estimated
that about 10,000 pairs of each species breed in the area. Adults are very interesting in that they
form monogamous pairs that stay together for life. These are large birds which appear to require
8
vast territories and native trees for feeding and nesting. Deforestation is therefore a particular
problem for these species.
Many of Jamaica's breeding birds depend on well-preserved forests for their survival. In
particular, most of the endemic species suffer greatly from habitat loss and degradation. Today
in Jamaica, large areas of undisturbed rainforest remain only in the Blue and John Crow
Mountains and the Cockpit Country. These forests are therefore the most important habitats for
Jamaica's forest-dependent land birds including all threatened and near-threatened endemics: the
Yellow-billed and Black-billed Parrot, Crested Quail-Dove, Ring-tailed Pigeon, Blue Mountain
Vireo and Jamaican Blackbird (Wildpine Sargeant). Providing breeding sites for almost all of
Jamaica's breeding land birds, the Cockpit Country has one of the highest bird diversities in
habitats of the West Indies.
Black- billed Parrot sitting at entrance to nest
9
Jamaican Tody, Todus todus. Todies are found only in the Greater Antilles (1 on Cuba, 2 on
Jamaica, 3 on Hispaniola). They excavate their nests in cliff banks of soil, digging out a small
cylinder with a 90 degree bend at the end so predators won't see the nestlings from the entrance.
Todies are relatively common in forested areas but considered threatened globally.
Recent studies have shown that the birds most sensitive to forest degradation are on the decline
in the disturbed sections of the Cockpit Country forest. In order to conserve Jamaica's birds, it is
therefore essential not only to maintain forest cover, but also to prevent further decline of forest
quality.
INVERTEBRATES
Many insect larvae and other invertebrates, such as the endemic bromeliad crab, depend on the
water that collects in bromeliads to carry out their life cycle. The Peripatus is an example of
international interest. Resembling a legged slug, the invertebrate belongs to a group of animals
believed to be the "missing link" between annelids and arthropods. The Peripatus has a peculiar
geographic distribution, which, coupled with their geological antiquity, has resulted in the
Peripatus being used as evidence to support the theory that the land masses of the Americas and
Africa were once linked.
Butterflies are Jamaica's most conspicuous arboreal invertebrate species, although most of their
lives are spend as terrestrial caterpillars. At least 94 of Jamaica's 125 butterflies are found in the
Cockpit Country, including all endemics. There are two butterfly species endemic to the Cockpit
10
Country, which also serves as the critical habitat for the Giant Swallowtail Butterfly, the largest
swallowtail butterfly in the world, and the Blue Kite, the latter of which is recorded to breed in
only one other location in Jamaica.
Herpetofauna is the term for amphibians and reptiles. Nearly two-thirds of Jamaica's 16 known
amphibians and 22 known reptiles occur in the Cockpit Country, including four species that are
endemic to the Cockpit Country and nine with over 50% of their populations found in the area.
All of these animals are endemic to the island, and many are threatened. The area represents the
last refuge for the 18 species of native frogs on the island. New speices of herpetofauna are still
being discovered.
Amphibians and reptiles of the Cockpit Country have evolved some very remarkable ecological
and behavioral strategies. Frogs of the species Eleutherodactylus cundalli use the Windsor Great
Cave for breeding. Sitting in complete darkness, males call to attract females. After copulation,
females deposit a clutch in the cave and guard it until the young hatch, when the tiny froglets
climb onto the back of the mother who carries them out of the cave. Foregoing the freeswimming tadpole stage by undergoing direct metamorphosis in the egg, this species has adapted
in a manner which helps protect the vulnerable young from predators.
Three lizards of the Cockpit Country, including two local endemics, are highly specialized and
found rarely anywhere other than in bromeliads. Two of the species belong to the genus of the
polly lizards (Sphaerodactylus). The third cockpit bromeliad lizard is a galliwasp of about 10 cm
snout-vent length, Celestus fowleri, which appears to be very rare. It was described in 1971 from
a single specimen captured at Windsor, and has since been seen only once, close to the original
site. Very recently, signs of a much larger bromeliad galliwasp, which might occupy bromeliads
high in the canopy, have turned up in the Cockpit country. Next to nothing is known about the
life history of these species. It is truly remarkable that Jamaica's three or possibly four bromeliad
lizards are concentrated in the Cockpit Country, an area that probably has the highest diversity of
such lizard species anywhere in the world.
Lizards are a natural form of pest control, and farmers would have even more trouble with insect
damage if their populations decreased. Lizards eat all kinds of things, including beetles, wasps,
ants, termites, crickets, ticks, caterpillars, spiders, moths, flies, thrips, grasshoppers, cockroaches,
other smaller lizards, and loads of mosquitoes. When lizards defecate in the field they supply
excellent fertilizer. At the other end of the food chain, lizards represent important food for birds,
such as the endemic Chestnut-bellied and Lizard Cuckoos.
Bromeliads also serve as a critical habitat for some of Jamaica's frogs. Four species, all
occurring in the Cockpit Country, use the bromeliad for reproduction. The females deposit their
eggs into the water pools enclosed by the large, elongated leaves. Later, they feed their tadpole
babies with unfertilized eggs.
All 7 species of snake in Jamaica are found in the Cockpit Country, which include 6 endemic and
2 threatened, the Black Racer and Jamaican Boa. Growing up to 7 feet in length and maybe
more, the Jamaican Boa (Yellow Snake) represents Jamaica's largest land predator.
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Jamaican Boa, Epicrates subflavus,
The largest of Jamaica's seven native snakes, the Yellow Boa is not venomous, but kills its prey
by squeezing it. Rats are now its main food source.
MAMMALS
The vulnerable Jamaican Hutia "Coney" may exist in the Cockpit Country, but their status here
has not been determined, as none have been seen for over thirty years.
Bats are definitely the most prolific mammals of Jamaica, and are usually the most conspicuous
component of cave ecosystems. 3 of Jamaica's 21 bat species are endemic, including the
endangered Jamaican Flower Bat. Bats live on the brink of starvation in order to maximize their
flying efficiency, and serve as natural pest control because they are thus forced to eat nearly
their entire body weight each night, an average of 30,000 mosquitoes!
The subterranean world represents 50% of karst limestone environments. About 300 caves,
overhangs and chimney shafts have been documented in the Cockpit Country, creating critical
habitats for species that spend all or part of their life cycles in caves. Unique adaptations to
caves include pigment loss, elongated sensory appendages and reduction of eyes, characteristics
which do not allow these species to survive aboveground or under bright light.
12
ECHOLOCATION AND DOPPLER TECHNIQUES OF BATS FOR HUNTING
Almost all bats use sonar for locating obstacles and prey. This means that they
send out a short, loud burst of sound and measure the time it takes for the echo to
return. They use the time and direction of the echo to tell where the obstacle or
prey is located, and the technique is called echolocation.
Pteronotus parnellii is a mustached bat further adapted to cave environments due
to evolved improvements on basic sonar using the Doppler Effect, which works
as follows:
When sound waves hit an object moving towards them, the waves get "smalled
up" or compressed, making the sound have a higher pitch. When sound waves hit
an object going away from them, the echo is stretched out a little, thus making a
lower pitch.
Remember that the Cockpit Country is humid and water droplets or dew are often
in the air. A bat using echolocation could waste a lot of time and energy chasing
these droplets because they "look like" insects. Parnelliis, on the other hand, only
chase real insects because the Doppler Effect in the echo allows them to "see" the
beating wings of their prey.
COCKPIT COUNTRY RESOURCES WITH COMMERCIAL VALUE
The economic value of the resources of the Cockpit Country rests in realized or potential
economic returns from the biodiversity or water of the area. The harvest of renewable and nonrenewable resources, tourism and recreation, and opportunities for research and education are the
primary means of deriving an income from the resources of the Cockpit Country.
The Cockpit Country provides water for the major population centers and resort areas in western
Jamaica. 28% of Jamaica’s safe water is from the Cockpit Country and 31% of unused water
resources are also from this area, according to the Water Resources Authority. The rivers
originating in the Cockpit Country are critical not only for domestic purposes, but also for
tourism (rafting) and the production of electricity.
Plants of the Cockpit Country are the source of information for scientific research into medicine
and other natural products. Locals use many herbs and plants to treat and cure ailments from
13
olds to high blood pressure and diabetes. The following table highlights some of the medicinal
plants commonly used by the Accompong Maroons.1
Medicinal Plant
Common name
Aloe
Scientific name
Aloe vera
Annatto
Arrowroot
Bixa orellana
Maranta arundinacea
Castor oil
Cerasee
Ricinus communis
Momordica charantia
Cocao
Theobroma cacao
Coconut (water)
Cocos nucifera
Periwinkle
Catharanthus rosea
Physic nut
Jatropha gossypiifolia
Pimento
Pimento diocia
Redhead
Asclepias curassavica
Sarsaparilla
Smilax ornate
Search me heart
Rytidophyllum tomentosum
Uses
Laxative; treats burns and
insect bites
Laxative
Treats diarrhea;
recuperative properties
Purgative; laxative
Tonic; blood purifier; treats
stomach pain; cold and
fever
Cures belly ache; cleans
liver
Replaces minerals; aids
bladder
Treats diabetes and certain
cancers
Purgative; treats stomach
ailments; diuretic
Treats gas and stomach
aches; the oil keeps ticks
away and relieves arthritis
pain when mixed with rum
and coconut milk
Emetic properties; treats
warts
Treats syphilis, purifies
blood; tonic
Treats heart palpitations;
treats stomach aches and
colds when mixed with
other plants
THREATS TO THE BIODIVERSITY OF THE COCKPIT COUNTRY
A healthy karst limestone system depends on preserving the interactions of water, air, rock, life,
energy and time. The Cockpit Country is an extraordinarily fragile limestone ecosystem, where
recovery from disturbance may take decades or even centuries. It is clear by the diminishing
1
“Occasional paper #15” in History of Medicine. Edited by J.K. Crellin. 1998. St. Johns, Newfoundland, Canada.
(written in collaboration w/ the citizens of Accompong and the Faculty of Medicine at Memorial University of
Newfoundland)
14
numbers of threatened and also of many common species that the ecosystems are being stressed,
and species such as the Yellow Boa and Giant Swallowtail Butterfly may never recover.
BAUXITE MINING AND LIMESTONE QUARRY
There is potential for future mining in sections of the Cockpit Country. These activities
permanently alter the landscape and affect hydrology, as well as forcing the extinction of siteendemic species. Restoration is complicated, because once the soil is removed, the hydrology of
the area is altered, and we don't really understand the relationship among soil dwelling microbes,
fungi and all other plant and animal species, such as pollinating roles, seed dispersal and
chemical relationships.
DEFORESTATION
Trees are removed by community members for yam sticks, charcoal, firewood and land clearing
at rates which have yet to be agreed upon. Deforestation causes the following:
• Localized extinction of species
• Alteration of microclimate (temperature, relative humidity, light)
• Changes in species composition, particularly when non-native plant species invade and
prevent natural regeneration, creating sterile monocultures
• Soil erosion and blockage of sinkholes
• Siltation of cave passages.
Remember that moisture/humidity is one of the limiting factors in a karst environment, and
deforestation causes significant drying of habitats.
Another situation associated with deforestation is the expansion of the Shiny Cowbird brood
parasite, a non-native invasive species which uses trails and open areas to locate nests of host
species. The Shiny Cowbird can't penetrate far into forests but establishes new territory where
the forest is disrupted. None of Jamaica's birds have developed adaptations to combat the brood
parasite because the species is new to the island.
Deforestation is frequently associated with encroachment, which is squatting or illegal tenure of
forested lands by citizens of communities in the adjoining forest or buffer zone of the Cockpit
Country.
YAM STICK HARVESTING
Preferential removal of certain saplings removes the early stage class necessary for forest
maturation, reducing the number of young trees available to replace older trees when they die.
Trails created by farmers going into the Cockpit Country to collect yam sticks facilitate the
spread of non-native species. Harvesting affects the overall forest structure, fundamentally
15
altering predator/prey interactions. The annual production of yams in Jamaica is estimated to
utilize upwards of 15 million saplings, according to the Forestry Department. The southern
border of the Cockpit Country in the parish of Trelawny is the primary yam producing area of
the country, making the Cockpit forest the primary source of saplings.
FIRE
Often used to clear a small patch for farming, fires often spread quickly out of control and
destroy vegetation on entire hillsides. Non-native species are the first to re-colonize an area that
has been cleared by fire.
NON-NATIVE SPECIES
While many plants and animals found their way to Jamaica naturally, humans have also carried
many with them. Some species are brought deliberately, for food, biological pest control,
forestry, or ornamental plants. Others arrived unintentionally in association with humans, such
as rats. Some of these plants and animals never spread beyond the point of introduction, while
others were able to spread, multiply, and ultimately harm native species. One example of an
insidious plant is a fern that is native to Asia called Nethrolepis multiflora. It was carried to
Jamaica as an ornamental plant and by 1948 was documented as a species which had become
established in the wild. It is now the most common roadside fern, displacing other native species
in the same Nethrolepis genus. When the forest is cleared, the spores of this non-native fern are
often the first to become established in the exposed soil. This fern grows quickly and establishes
a dense root mass and thick layer of leaves. Other plant species can't compete for space in the
soil or tolerate the shade of the fern leaves. The fern offers no nectar or fruit to attract wildlife
that pollinate flowers and disperse seeds, such as birds and bats. The result is a landscape
dominated by a single fern species, a biologically sterile environment, and an area in which
natural forest regeneration fails to occur.
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Non-native species of ferns growing in areas cleared for agricultural production and
abandoned.
DISRUPTION OF CAVE ECOSYSTEMS
Caves are classified as passages leading into the ground or rock large enough for a person and
deep enough so that person can completely escape the sunlight. Casual discoveries and careful
excavations in caves have been critical to documenting the pre-Columbian and modern history of
Jamaica. Sediment deposits within a cave frequently contain the remains of ancient animals,
some of which still exist in Jamaica and some of which went extinct long before the arrival of
humans. Cave environments are conducive to preservation of materials from past human
communities, particularly tools and food containers. By careful excavation of the layers of a
cave, archaeologists and paleontologists can piece together the sequence of events in an area.
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THE PUZZLE OF ANTILLEAN PRIMATES
Endemic monkeys lived in Jamaica, Cuba and Hispaniola only a few thousand years
ago. All of them disappeared well before the arrival of Christopher Columbus, and
it wasn't until the early 20th Century that their existence was even known. In 1920,
Harold E. Anthony, Associate Curator of Mammals at the American Museum of
Natural History, found himself in an overhung rock shelter he called "Long Mile
Cave" a few miles from Windsor Great House, Trelawny. So as not to offend the
gentleman who took the time to show him this small cave, Anthony proceeded to dig
into the sediments. In the top layer of sediments, he made the discovery of a lifetime
when he came across a small kitchen midden containing bits of pottery, fish and bird
bones, abundant Coney bones, and a conch shell. Coneys haven't been seen in the
Cockpit Country for more than 30 years. Beside the midden, he found a few human
bones. As Anthony dug deeper, he found several bones of a primate-type animal.
This was the first time that primate bones were found anywhere in the Greater and
Lesser Antilles.
This discovery raised several important questions. Was this a native Jamaican
species that went extinct or had an individual animal been carried from Central
America by an Arawak and kept as a pet? If it was native to Jamaica, when did it go
extinct and did humans play a role in its demise? From Anthony's excavation, it was
safe to say that the little primate existed in Jamaica naturally. Anthony found the
bones deeper in the cave sediment than any sign of the humans, located at least 1012 inches below the midden layer. In 1996, bones of this same unique primate
species, which is distinct from any New World primate that exists today and known
as Xenothrix mcgregori, were found in a cave in Jackson Bay, Clarendon. Isotopic
dating of the bones confirms that they pre-date the arrival of the Arawaks.
Regarding whether humans contributed to its extinction, the fossil evidence indicates
that Xenothrix mcgregori and two other species of native monkeys disappeared well
before the arrival of Columbus. In undisturbed cave sediment layers, no primate
bones have ever been found mixed with recent human artifacts (i.e. those created
within the past 500 years) or with animals that humans unintentionally or
deliberately brought to Jamaica. It isn't clear, however, whether the primates existed
when the Arawaks first arrived. Unfortunately, the cave floor in Jackson Bay had
been disturbed by visitors before the paleontologists surveyed it. The layers of
sediment had been mixed, making it impossible to confirm whether the primates coexisted with humans. Unlike biodiversity, archaeological and paleontological
remains are non-renewable resources. Once they have been disturbed, restoration is
impossible.
Caves and the life forms therein are very vulnerable to human disturbance. Inadequate sewage
treatment rapidly leads to pollution of the ground water, directly threatening aquatic fauna, but
ultimately affecting all cave fauna. Deforestation can affect water flow patterns and limit natural
buffering tendencies, often causing flooding events to increase in frequency. At cave entrances,
removal of vegetation and physical changes in rock structure change airflow patterns, oxygen
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concentrations, temperature, humidity and light regimes. Cave species are often very sensitive to
even the smallest changes. As a result, they are often unable to adapt, resulting in extinction if
they are unable to abandon the cave.
Some cave ecosystems have considerable capacity to sustain visitation, such a those with large
rivers passing through underground caves. High-energy caves with guano deposits should be
exploited only if measures are taken to ensure the survival of the guano fauna and not disturb the
bat colonies. Low-energy caves with numerous pockets of stagnant air are extremely vulnerable
and the first group of visitors, if they are not deterred by the heat, dampness, and poor air quality,
may do considerable damage.
Specific risks related to the exploitation of cave resources or development of caves for tourism
include the following:
• Soil-dwelling cave inhabitants may be trampled to extinction.
• Compaction of soil often reduces aeration and diminishes the abilities of organisms to
penetrate the substrate.
• Compaction of sediments may also cause more water to channel through the cave, eroding
sediment, infilling cave pools, and potentially smothering cave biota because of poor
aeration.
• Disturbance of water pools increases turbidity and particle suspension.
• Bats are sensitive to light and noise. Species that pollinate commercially important plants or
are important pest control agents may abandon a disturbed cave and leave the area in the
absence of suitable alternative sites, causing significant potential financial and ecological
loss.
• Cave invertebrates show high levels of endemism and small populations within a cave
system, and disruption or specimen collection may render them vulnerable to extinction.
• Quasi-permanent lighting stimulates the growth of algae, moss, ferns and other terrestrial
fauna.
HUNTING, OVER-COLLECTING, POACHING AND FEAR BASED PERSECUTION
These practices, in the removal of specific species, exacerbate threats to ecosystem balance and
are particularly threatening to endangered species. Orchids, birds and butterflies are the most
frequently removed flora and fauna from the Cockpit Country. The Giant Swallowtail Butterfly
is captured for the illegal collector's trade, and parrots for the illegal pet trade. Pigeons are
illegally hunted. Lizards and snakes are commonly killed although they are harmless and play
important roles in the ecosystem.
BEST PRACTICES TO ENABLE CONSERVATION
Practice Low Impact Behaviors
Respect that the ecosystems of the Cockpit Country feature innumerable resources, have evolved
for more than 10 million years, and continue to evolve. Many activities can result in the
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extinction of a plant or animal which is restricted to a small area, and extinction is forever. The
plants and animals, no matter how unpleasant they may appear to you, have evolved to perform
specific functions in this extraordinary ecosystem. The system as it functions may be
permanently and irreversibly altered if they disappear. Most animals are totally harmless and
would rather get away from you if possible.
Although the rock stone is hard and rubbly underneath your feet, limestone environments are
extremely fragile and natural regeneration is very slow because of poor soils and difficulties in
accessing aquifers. When visiting the Cockpit Country, stay on established trails and roads.
A recent study by the Pan-American Health Organization revealed that Jamaica generates 10,000
tons of garbage weekly. Only 45% of this garbage is collected, and the rest ends up getting
buried or in gullies, rivers, sinkholes, streets or the ocean. Garbage facilitates the spread of nonnative species, especially rats and American cockroaches. Plastics take hundreds of years to
degrade, and trash can choke sinkholes and later hydrology. Any pollutants entering the Cockpit
Country will move very quickly into the groundwater because of the high rates of infiltration in
Cockpit karst, which is predominantly white limestone. The result is a very widespread effect,
and the nature of groundwater flow makes it very difficult to clean up polluted systems.
Whenever possible, reduce the amount of garbage you generate, reuse containers, and recycle
plastic bottles and other things after use. When visiting the Cockpit Country, don't leave garbage
here, take it away along with your experience of a clean forest. Never burn garbage, because the
fumes cause cancer and asthma.
There is currently an initiative by STEA and Recycle for Life to produce yam sticks from
recycled plastic bottles. You can support this effort by placing your bottles in a receptacle for
recycling. Let your behaviors be dictated by careful thought into the most practical manner to
deal with solid waste and sewage in the long term. Remember that these things rarely just
disappear when they leave your sight.
Limit Forest Clearing
Given the state and importance of Jamaica's forests, encourage and support efforts to restore
natural forests, which continue to be slowly encroached upon. There are alternatives to using
saplings for yam sticks, including bamboo, plastic and live yam sticks, or switching to alternative
production methods which don't require sticks, such as mini-sett technology.
Engage in Alternative Income Generation
There are many ways of sustainably using natural resources in ways that earn an income without
diminishing the quality of these resources for future generations. The Southern Trelawny
Environmental Agency, for example, offers eco-tourism opportunities to facilitate the enjoyment
of the Cockpit Country by visitors. Eco-tourism is defined as responsible travel to natural areas
which conserves the environment and improves the welfare of local people, according to the
Eco-tourism Society. Production of value-added agricultural products, such as yam chips and
fruit preserves, maximizes the economic benefits from agricultural production. Growing or
sustainably harvesting indigenous and endemic plants can be commercially viable if they are of
horticultural or medicinal value or if chemicals such as essential oils can be derived.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This manual was made possible by funding from the Canada Jamaica Green Fund and World
Bank Small Projects Fund and the information and data contributed by Keron Campbell of
Institute of Jamaica, Susan Koenig of Windsor Research Centre and Peter Vogel of Bird Life
Jamaica. Hyacinth Record of Southern Trelawny Environmental Agency contributed greatly to
the formatting and publishing effort.
Additional information related to the Cockpit Country and its biodiversity is available at the
Windsor Research Centre website www.cockpitcountry.com, and queries can be directed to the
office of the Southern Trelawny Environmental Agency 610-0818.
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