Volume 01- Issue 04 October 2013

Transcription

ISSN: 2289-3024
The Malaysian Online
Journal of Educational
Science
Volume 1, Issue 4
October 2013
01.10.2013
Editor-in-Chief
Professor Dr. Saedah Siraj
Editors
Dr. Zaharah Hussin
Onur Isbulan
Associate Editors
Professor Dr. Omar Abdull Kareem
Associate Prof. Dr. Ibrahem Narongsakhet Associate
Prof. Dr. Mohd Yahya Mohamed Ariffin, Associate
Prof. Dr. Norani Mohd Salleh Associate Prof. Dr. Wan
Hasmah Wan Mamat
[www.moj-es.net]
The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Science
Volume 1, Issue 4
Copyright © 2013 - THE MALAYSIAN ONLINE JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE
All rights reserved. No part of MOJES’s articles may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
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without permission in writing from the publisher.
Contact Address:
MOJES, Editor in Chief
Published in Malaysia
University of Malaya, Malaysia
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Volume 1, Issue 4
Message from the editor-in-chief
The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Sciences (MOJES) strives to provide a national and international
academic forum to meet the professional interests of individuals in various educational disciplines. It is a professional
refereed journal in the interdisciplinary fields sponsored by the Faculty of Education, University of Malaya. This journal
serves as a platform for presenting and discussing a wide range of topics in Educational Sciences. It is committed to
providing access to quality researches ranging from original research, theoretical articles and concept papers in
educational sciences.
In order to produce a high quality journal, extensive effort has been put into selecting valuable researches that
contributed to the journal. I would like to take this opportunity to express my appreciation to the editorial board,
reviewers and researchers for their valuable contributions to make this journal a reality.
October 2013
Editor in chief
Message from the editors
The Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Sciences (MOJES) seeks to serve as an academic platform to
researchers from the vast domains of Educational Sciences. The journal is published electronically four times a year.
This journal welcomes original and qualified researches on all aspects of Educational Sciences. Topics may
include, but not limited to: pedagogy and educational sciences, adult education, education and curriculum, educational
psychology, special education, sociology of education, Social Science Education, Art Education, Language Education,
educational management, teacher education, distance education, interdisciplinary approaches, and scientific events.
Being the editors of this journal, it is a great pleasure to see the success of the journal. On behalf of the editorial
team of the Malaysian Online Journal of Educational Science (MOJES), we would like to thank to all the authors and
editors for their contribution to the development of this journal.
Dr. Zaharah Hussin
Onur Isbulan
October 2013
Editors
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Volume 1, Issue 4
Editor-in-Chief
Professor Dr. Saedah Siraj, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Editors
Dr. Zaharah Hussin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Onur Isbulan, Sakarya University, Turkey
Associate Editors
Professor Dr. Omar Abdull Kareem, Sultan Idris University of Education, Malaysia
Associate Prof. Dr. Ibrahem Narongsakhet, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand
Associate Prof. Dr. Mohd Yahya Mohamed Ariffin, Islamic Science University of Malaysia
Associate Prof. Dr. Norani Mohd Salleh, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Prof. Dr. Wan Hasmah Wan Mamat, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Advisory Board
Emeritus Professor Dr. Tian Po Oei, University of Queensland, Australia
Professor Dr. Fatimah Hashim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Jinwoong Song, Seoul National University, Korea
Professor Dr. H. Mohammad Ali, M.Pd, M.A., Indonesian University of Education, Indonesia
Professor Dr. Moses Samuel, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Nik Azis Nik Pa, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Richard Kiely, the University College of St. Mark and St. John, United Kingdom
Professor Dr. Sufean Hussin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Zawawi Bin Ismail, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Editorial Board
Emeritus Professor Dr. Rahim Md. Sail, University Putra of Malaysia, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Abdul Rashid Mohamed, University of Science, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Ananda Kumar Palaniappan, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Bakhtiar Shabani Varaki, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
Professor Dr. H. Iskandar Wiryokusumo M.Sc, PGRI ADI Buana University, Surabaya, Indonesia
Professor Dr. Ramlee B. Mustapha, Sultan Idris University of Education, Malaysia
Professor Dr. Tamby Subahan Bin Mohd. Meerah, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Associate Professor Datin Dr. Sharifah Norul Akmar Syed Zamri, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dato’ Dr. Ab Halim Bin Tamuri, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Abdul Jalil Bin Othman, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Ajmain Bin Safar, University of Technology, Malaysia
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Associate Professor Dr. Habib Bin Mat Som, Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Hj. Izaham Shah Bin Ismail, Mara University of Technology, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Jas Laile Suzana Binti Jaafar, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Juliana Othman, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Loh Sau Cheong, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Mariani Binti Md Nor, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Mohamad Bin Bilal Ali, University of Technology, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Norazah Mohd Nordin, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr.Rohaida Mohd Saat, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr. Syed Farid Alatas, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Dato’ Dr. Hussein Hj Ahmad, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Datuk Dr. Abdul Rahman Idris, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Datin Dr. Rahimah Binti Hj Ahmad, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Abu Talib Bin Putih, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Abd Razak Bin Zakaria, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Adelina Binti Asmawi, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Ahmad Zabidi Abdul Razak, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Chew Fong Peng, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Diana Lea Baranovich, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Fatanah Binti Mohamed, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Ghazali Bin Darusalam, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Haslee Sharil Lim Bin Abdullah, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Husaina Banu Binti Kenayathulla, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Kazi Enamul Hoque, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Latifah Binti Ismail, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Lau Poh Li, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Leong Kwan Eu, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Madhyazhagan Ganesan, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Megat Ahmad Kamaluddin Megat Daud, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Melati Binti Sumari, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Mohammed Sani Bin Ibrahim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Mohd Rashid Mohd Saad, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Muhammad Azhar Bin Zailaini, University of Malaya, Malaysia
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Dr. Muhammad Faizal Bin A. Ghani, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Nabeel Abdallah Adedalaziz, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Norlidah Binti Alias, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Pradip Kumar Mishra, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Rafidah Binti Aga Mohd Jaladin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Rahmad Sukor Bin Ab Samad, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Renuka V. Sathasivam, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Rose Amnah Bt Abd Rauf, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Selva Ranee Subramaniam, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Sit Shabeshan Rengasamy, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Shahrir Bin Jamaluddin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Vishalache Balakrishnan, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Wail Muin (Al-Haj Sa’id) Ismail, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Wong Seet Leng, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Zahari Bin Ishak, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Zahra Naimie, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Zanaton Ikhsan, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Cik Umi Kalsum Binti Mohd Salleh, University of Malaya, Malaysia
En. Mohd Faisal Bin Mohamed, University of Malaya, Malaysia
En. Norjoharuddeen Mohd Nor, University of Malaya, Malaysia
En. Rahimi Md Saad, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Alina A. Ranee, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Azni Yati Kamaruddin, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Fatiha Senom, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Fonny Dameaty Hutagalung, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Foziah Binti Mahmood, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Hamidah Binti Sulaiman, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Huzaina Binti Abdul Halim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Ida Hartina Ahmed Tharbe, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Norini Abas, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Roselina Johari Binti Md Khir, University of Malaya, Malaysia
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Pn. Shanina Sharatol Ahmad Shah, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Pn. Zuwati Binti Hashim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
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Table of Contents
AN ALTERNATIVE PERSPECTIVE FOR MALAYSIAN ENGINEERING EDUCATION: A REVIEW FROM
YEAR 2000-2012
1
Kamaleswaran Jayarajah, Rohaida Mohd Saat, Rose Amnah Abdul Rauf
BUSINESS STUDIES TEACHERS AND STUDENT NEEDS
24
Chiew Wye Mei, Saedah Siraj
FAILURE OF ETEMS: THE TEACHING COURSEWARE FACTOR?
30
Mohd Nazri Latiff Azmi, Mahendren Maniam
TEACHERS’ PLANNING AND PREPARATION FOR LESSON PLAN IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF FORM
4 PHYSICAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM FOR THE PHYSICAL FITNESS STRAND
38
Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali
UNDERSTANDING OF PARENTS AND ADULTS ON THE DOWN SYNDROME FEMALE SEXUAL
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
48
Madhya Zhagan
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An Alternative Perspective for Malaysian
Engineering Education:
A Review from Year 2000-2012
Kamaleswaran Jayarajah [1], Rohaida Mohd Saat [2], Rose Amnah Abdul Rauf [3] Volume 1, Issue 4
[1] [email protected]
University of Malaya
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to explore the research base of engineering education
in the Journal of Engineering Education (JEE) through an analysis review of articles
for a 12-year period, from 2000 to 2012. The research base review focuses on
identifying five characteristics of engineering education: (a) temporal
distribution, (b) frequently cited authors in JEE articles, (c) research areas
involved in each article, (d) types of participant, and (e) methodological design
employed. Published journals from web-based sources were selected aligned on
the original author’s discussion of engineering education in the articles. The
findings summarize the core consistencies of engineering education literature
across the globe over the years by identifying the engineering related content
professionals addressed in their respective fields.
Keywords:
JEE, Engineering, Education, Review, Issue
INTRODUCTION
Engineering is a field not understood by many people (“American Perspective on Engineers and Engineering” 2004; “Harris Poll Reveals Public Perceptions of Engineering” 1998). Since engineering involves a broad spectrum of activities and goals, the public is still unable to see engineering’s many aspects and how these aspects interact. The different representations of engineering may continue to cause public misunderstanding (Mean & Diefes‐Dux, 2012). The same goes with the students because though students displayed a broadened awareness of engineering than the existing research suggests, there was limited knowledge of various engineering fields and a strong perception of engineering as large construction (English, Dawes, & Hudson, 2011). At the same time, it is perceived that engineering programs often do not provide enough practical experiences early in the curriculum (Shallcross, 2006). Apart from the misinterpretation and limitations in engineering education, currently the number of engineers produced around the world seems to have decreased in a worrying fashion. In fact the lack of qualified engineers is currently reported to be one of the principal obstacles to economic growth encountered by innovative firms in many industrialized and industrializing countries (UNESCO, 2010). The number of students in the United States (US) who enter engineering programs in college is projected to drop, a trend that many believe will have a negative impact on the US workforce (NAS et al., 2007; NAE & NRC, 2009). In addition, students who do pursue engineering degrees do not reflect the diversity of students in the US, a pattern of enrolment that is likely to have a number of negative consequences, both for the successful practice of engineering and for the resolution of broader societal issues (NAE & NRC, 2009). According to DeJarnette (2012), there is a great need in the US for talented engineers. Parallel with that, Spain also faces a shrinking engineering workforce (Capilla, Hervas, & Soriano, 2008). The percentage of young researchers working in this area has declined, as can be seen when analyzing the results of several research reports (Aceituno, Campanario, & Burgos, 2010; Alemany, Alvarez, Planellas, & Urbano, 2011; INE, 2011; Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion, 2008; OECD, 2009). Converging evidence has shown that some countries have taken early measures to prevent a decrease in producing creative engineers. In line with that, China has already encouraged engineering education among primary school students through a project called Total Engineering Education (TEE) (Tu, 2006). TEE encompasses the entire engineering education and profession preparation system, beginning from primary school programs through to high school graduation, to post‐secondary and graduate education (Tu, 2006). 1
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Malaysia is also experiencing the same problem as other countries across the globe. In Malaysia, the Ministry of Education has estimated the current number of engineers in the country at about 140,000. This is projected to reach over 200,000 by 2017, based on an annual output of 15,000 new graduates here in Malaysia (Kieong, 2012). These engineers should be academically qualified, have the necessary training and experience or wide exposure to the engineering profession. However, it is an alarming target to be accomplished since the students’ enrolment into the science stream has decreased as low as 29% in 2012 (Nordin, 2012). At the present rate, it will be difficult for Malaysia to increase the number of quality engineers in the country. This can result in serious consequence to the country’s innovation and development plan since only students who enrol in Science, or Science and Mathematics are able to pursue further in science education and science related careers. It is inevitable that the sustained competitive advantage of nations depend more and more on the engineering field. Unfortunately, Malaysian primary and secondary schools seem to have a limitation in producing enough students with the interest, motivation and skills required (Ali, 2012). This is an urgent issue since Malaysia needs at least 500,000 workforce from the science stream this coming 2020 to be declared a fully developed country (Hamdan, 2012). Apart from the students’ interest in learing science, the misconceptions and the restrictions in engineering programs could also be the factors holding back Malaysia’s vision to grow into an established nation. Hence, this paper focuses on the research areas in each of the engineering education article that has been researched in the Journal of Engineering Education (JEE) over a period of 12 years. Despite having a high impact factor (1.925), there has been a lack of review research in JEE; this paper reviews published articles in almost the entire journals in JEE. Apart from that, although there are a number of review articles published in JEE, none of them are published for a review of 12 years. Therefore, the search in this paper was limited from the years 2000 until 2012 and a total of 222 published articles were identified. This review is not undertaken to report solely on the collective achievement of a large number of people regarding engineering education research but rather to be used as a means for setting a comprehensive foundation for the future research and development of Malaysian engineering education. Despite almost all the perceived articles in JEE were authors from abroad, this review provides the thoughts and an eye opener for Malaysian researchers especially on the advancement of Malaysian engineering education. Thus, this review not only represents a synthesis in its own right but at the same time offers crucial perspective from a collective of engineering education research across the globe. This paper aims at giving some serious points and beliefs about engineering education apart from moving forward, in line with other nations. The purpose of this paper is to give a general idea of engineering education that has been carried out in countries across the globe as well as to assess it and discuss its possibilities for future development of Malaysia. This paper is also aimed at exploring the type and the regularity of research areas that have been researched in engineering education. Apart from analysing the research areas or issues in each engineering field, the type of participants and the research methodology employed are also analysed. In fact, the authors who have published regularly in JEE articles are also discussed in this paper in order to provide an opportunity to Malaysian researchers who are keen in researching engineering education fields. However, it is perceived that some loopholes do exist where more research could be carried out involving engineering education across the nation. This review answers the ambiguities by reflecting on where Malaysian engineering education could be directed apart from perceiving questions that need to be considered in its on‐going development. METHOD This paper identified published research using Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) as the main scanning bibliographic database. Access to ERIC database has become considerably easier with the emergence of web‐
based service providers such as EBSCO, Educational Journals @ ProQuest, Emerald, Science Direct, Scopus TM, Springer Link, Taylor and Francis Online and Web of Science. However, this paper has solely employed Educational Journals @ ProQuest database where this database is scanned to retrieve the published articles involving engineering education in JEE articles. These articles were screened using key search terms such as “engineering”, “education”, “review”, “issue” and “field”. By analysing the articles’ title, abstract, research areas, samples, methods and findings, this paper managed to provide empirical results involving temporal distribution of engineering education, research at education levels and methodological approaches apart from reviewing the frequently cited authors in JEE. Apart from that, this article has grouped the steps that countries have taken in facing the dwindling force of engineering in their respective nations. The methods utilized by the researchers have been grouped and analysed in a comprehensive fashion. These merged groups have been compressed into categories such as learning style, teaching methods and STEM education where these categories or research areas remain as one of the ways to overcome the shrinking force of engineers both in developed and developing countries. 2
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Meta‐analysis offers several benefits over traditional narrative review as employed in this paper. Although meta‐analysis offers a more objective, disciplined and transparent style to assimilate existing findings, in practice meta‐
analysis still produces inaccurate conclusions (Ellis, 2011). In fact, editorial boards have discovered that findings must be interpreted in a significant way and not just by providing the effect sizes without providing the viewpoint (Humphrey, 2011). Apart from that, a collection of quantitative data is required for an inclusion of meta‐analysis (Ellis, 2011) where this paper has managed to retrieve fewer numbers of published researches which use the quantitative research paradigm. Hence, a narrative review supported by descriptive empirical statistics is employed to interpret the research findings in this paper. RESULTS The findings of this paper provide a descriptive analysis of the engineering education research field. Although there is a research base for engineering education in Malaysia, these findings give an additional appearance of why and how other countries have perceived engineering education for the past 12 years. Parallel to that, these findings have summarized the scope of research being conducted by engineering education scholars, who is being studied and the institutions in which engineering education research is being conducted and published. The findings are organized in five sections; a) Temporal distribution, b) Frequent authors in JEE articles, c) Research areas involved in each article d) Types of participant and e) Methodological design employed. a) Temporal distribution of research studies in engineering education. 40
Distribution of Reviewed Articles from Year 20002012
36
32
28
24
20
Number of articles
16
12
8
4
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Figure 1: Distribution of reviewed articles. Figure 1 presents the distribution of articles during the studied period. The total number of articles analysed is 222 throughout a period of 12 years. The dispersal of engineering education articles published in JEE fluctuated from 2000 until 2012 whereby the maximum number of reviewed articles was 33 in 2008. However, the distribution of articles portrayed a positive outlook when the reviewed articles increased gradually from 2003 until 2006. The total increment was 80%. The following year, the reviewed articles have decreased 33% before increasing a total of 64% in 2008. The distribution pattern continued to fluctuate until 2012. The highest frequency for the reviewed articles is in 2008 where a total of 15% contributed to the overall distribution of the reviewed articles. Since year 2008 has the most number of published articles between 2000 until 2012, it is observed that only year 2008 has articles pertaining to all types of 3
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methodologies employed in engineering education published articles. Apart from published articles, unpublished articles were also sought to help minimise the risk of publication bias (The Joanna Briggs Institute for Evidence Based Nursing & Midwifery, 2001). Fortunately, this paper has also reviewed unpublished articles despite finding unpublished studies are difficult to source, since, by their very nature, there is generally no public record of unpublished articles. Hence, this paper summarizes of all past research on engineering education through both published and unpublished articles. b) Frequent authors in JEE articles Table 1: Frequently quoted authors in JEE from year 2000‐2012 No. JEE Authors
Published Articles 1. Felder, R. M
10
2. Ohland, M. W
7
3. Brent, R
5
4. Besterfield, S. M
5
5. Diefes‐Dux, A. H
4
6. Lackey, J. W
4
7. Lackey, L. W
4
8. Prince, M. J
3
9. Brodersen, A. J
2
10. Follman, D. K
2
11. Hartman, H
2
12. Hartman, M
2
Table 1 shows the authors who have published frequently in JEE. A total of 12 authors have been identified in this paper. Felder was among the authors who have contributed the most number of articles in JEE pertaining to engineering education whereby 5% of the perceived articles in this paper have recognized Felder’s research in engineering education studies. Three of Felder’s articles pertained to motivation in engineering education. However, all the articles were published for undergraduates and the methodology employed was mainly qualitative. The situation for Brent is similar because Brent was the co‐researcher for Felder in all the five published articles. On the other hand, Ohland has written the second highest number of articles in JEE where the articles emphasize on gender and motivation in engineering education. Ohland used a large database of sample among undergraduates to publish the outcome of both qualitative and quantitative based research paradigm. The articles were constructed on samples from 9 universities and a range of 75,000‐100, 179 participants. Meanwhile, Besterfield, published a versatile pattern of articles where the perceived articles were published using undergraduates and middle school students, mainly in the Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) field. The following authors also published a flexible research design although most of them employed higher institution participants in most of their articles. c) Research areas involved in each article There are 15 research areas that have been summarized from the 222 articles. Some articles have more than one research area but most of them have at least one main research area in their write up. A total of 239 research areas have been analysed. Figure 2 illustrates the type of research areas involved in each article of engineering education in the published articles. Each research area is also differentiated based on calculated percentages. 4
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Research Areas Perceived from Year 2000-2012
ABET
3% 3% 1%
Assessment
Attitudes
13%
16%
Developing skills
Ethical values
4%
11%
4%
Gender
Innovation
5%
4%
16%
12%
Interest
Learning style
6%
2%
Inter-disciplinary
2%
Figure 2: Research areas in engineering education from year 2000‐2012 This paper perceives that both learning style and teaching method research areas are given more or less the equal priority by researchers within the 12 year period. A total percentage of 32% is highlighted on teaching and learning in engineering education. Apart from that, attitudes and gender research areas are also emphasised in the published articles. Gender research area has been stressed every year of the JEE publication, mainly researching on the involvement of women in engineering education. Parallel to that, areas such as developing skills and inter‐disciplinary fields are also among the frequent research areas highlighted in engineering education. Subsequently, research areas such as motivation (5%), STEM education (4%), ethical values (4%), Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) (3%) and transformation of engineering education (3%) are also perceived in this paper. Transforming engineering education research area only started at the end of 2008 where issues such as mapping cultural landscape are stressed in a global scenario of engineering education. The transformation also highlighted the practice, policy and industry in 6 different continents. Hence, some articles in JEE were published pertaining to the best practices and recommendations in order to revolutionise engineering education. As years passed by, issues such as sustaining and expanding using professional development and community action research were also observed in transformation of engineering education research area. These areas are also convoyed with research areas such as interest (2%), innovation (2%) and assessment (1%). Both interest and innovation were areas that were given lesser emphasis although in assessment, the system of assessment and formative pattern are revealed in the articles perceived. A total of 2.5% of articles researched on other areas such as students’ misconception, academic trends, demographics, achievement, administration and research on reliability. Among the stated 15 research areas, a sum of 5 research areas are analysed to scrutinise the highlighted issues in each research area. These perceived research areas are learning style, teaching method, attitudes, developing skills and inter‐disciplinary. These areas were stressed since researchers have given high emphasis to them in the 12 years of publication. Apart from that, these perceived areas have also indicated the issues in a clear fashion to expose the importance of these issues in engineering education either globally or based on the respective countries of origin. 5
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Table2: Research areas in engineering education No. Research Areas & Issues Number of Articles 1. Learning style: 38 cooperative 8 teamwork 5 collaborative 4 conceptual 4 inquiry‐based 2 design‐based 2 active learning 2 goal‐oriented 1 distance learning 1 student centred 1 self‐directed 1 contextual 1 online learning 1 affective learning 1 Total issues perceived 2. Teaching method: 37 problem solving 6 web‐based 5 laboratory 5 module 4 hands‐on 2 pedagogical 2 computational 2 using theory 1 inductive 1 simulations 1 Total issues perceived 3. 29 Attitudes: 30 beliefs 3 discipline 3 self‐efficacy 3 decision making 2 leadership 2 risk taking 1 anxiety 1 responsible 1 6
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self‐managed 1 research based (methodologies) 1 Total issues perceived 18 4. Developing skills: 27 cognitive 7 reasoning 5 critical thinking 3 analytical 2 spatial abilities 2 entrepreneurial 2 designing 1 intellectual 1 non‐technical 1 Total issues perceived 24 5. Inter‐disciplinary: 15 nanotechnology 1 science‐engineering 1 economic‐engineering 1 biology & engineering 1 research & scholarship 1 pathway for innovations 1 social science & engineering 1 design, technology & engineering 1 mathematics, science & engineering 1 technology, engineering & computer science 1 chemistry, mathematics, physics & computer science 1 Total issues perceived 11 The total issues perceived and the number of articles in each research area do not match since a handful of articles could not clearly mention the issues involved in the respective research. Thus, this paper discusses the articles which have evidently revealed the main issues of the research areas. However, despite gender research area contributing a total of 12% from the entire articles, it is observed that gender research area mainly discusses the difference between both men and women in engineering education apart from focusing solely on women rather than perceiving the progress and achievement of both genders. Professional development workshops, E‐mentoring, electronic learning and cooperative learning are a few of the approaches that have been aimed at increasing women’s participation in engineering. Researchers of engineering education have highlighted the significance of studying in a group whether at school or university level. In either of the academic institutions, issues such as cooperative, teamwork and collaborative have been stressed in the advancement of learning style in engineering education. Learning in engineering education using cooperative style has dominated other issues of learning style since a total of 8 issues have been assembled in this paper. Subsequently, issues of teamwork and collaboration with each contributing five and four issues in total have been explored. These issues of studying in a group of people are often discussed in learning style research area as compared to issues such as goal‐oriented, distance learning, student‐centred, self‐directed, contextual, online learning and affective learning. This is because all these issues have been explored once in every analysed article. However, 7
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studying the engineering field using concepts, inquiry, design and active learning has been highlighted more than once in engineering education research articles. On the contrary, teaching method is also a crucial research area in engineering education since a total of 29 issues have been perceived in this paper. Teaching the engineering participants using problem solving technique was one of the major issues that have gained attention from the researchers. Apart from that, teaching engineering based on web, laboratory and module has been equally highlighted throughout the years in engineering education. Issues of teaching engineering using web‐based which began in 2000, advanced to a higher stage when issues such as computational methods and simulations began to be stressed in research articles. Yet, conventional teaching issues such as pedagogical, theory and hands‐on have not been neglected. In fact these issues were also highlighted in an undemanding manner in teaching engineering among the research participants in academic institutions. Another vital research area is attitude because research on areas pertaining to attitude has been fluctuating within the 12 years under review. A total of 18 issues were perceived in this research area and issues such as beliefs, discipline, self‐efficacy, decision making and leadership are analysed and assembled under the attitude research area. Most of these issues were grounded on engineering participants whether students or graduates where their intention to graduate in science and engineering has declined. In fact, they are failing to graduate in science and engineering because these participants according to perceived articles are switching to non‐science major. Hence, the issues on decision making are also accentuated on choosing the right career for these research participants. By the same token, developing skills has also attracted major concentration since various issues are identified pertaining to this research area. All the issues in developing skills are involved in the thinking process expected for non‐
technical and entrepreneurial issues. Starting from cognitive issue, followed by reasoning ability and critical thinking, all these issues are given priority in developing skills for engineering education. Likewise, skills such as entrepreneurial, spatial abilities and analytical thinking have also gathered attention from authors in their published articles. Intellectual skills are perceived to be an important element in studying engineering since all these issues are directly or indirectly related to higher order thinking skills. The intersection between two different fields is also crucial in engineering education since the inter‐disciplinary research areas have highlighted a total of eleven issues in this paper. Various intersections of field have been concentrated in the perceived articles. Apart from educational fields, there are also cross discipline among research, scholarship and pathways for innovations. However, there is a lack in combination of science and engineering as the emergence of these researches has yet to be covered especially in the newspapers and debates in common parlance. d) Types of participant There are six major groups of participants that were stressed in the published research articles. These groups of participants vary from middle school level up to university level. Research studies in engineering education have employed them as samples in order to gather feedback on the researched fields. The following Table 3 describes the type of participants involved and the number of samples gathered in each level of engineering participant. Table 3: Type of participants in engineering education No. Participant
Frequency
1. Undergraduate
136
2. Adults
44
3. Students
21
4. Faculty members
15
5. Graduate
12
6. Teachers
4
Total
232
It is observed that engineering education in JEE articles has highlighted the age group between 20‐25 years old since a total of 59% of articles has focused on university undergraduates. Adults in this paper consist of participants between the age group of 19‐60 years old and they comprise researchers, scientists, practitioners, engineers, supervisors, clients, subordinates, outsiders, technicians, engineering educators, engineering school directors, advisory board members, staff members and instructors. This is followed by students with the frequency of high school students being ten and middle school students numbering eight. Middle school students, who are aged between 11‐15 years, were employed in the engineering education research, particularly the 8th graders aged 13‐14 years depending on the country’s education system. However, the sum of both the groups does not match the total frequency since three research articles only mentioned the terms of “students” and “schools”. Thus the samples in the perceived articles could not be analysed in detail. Subsequently, faculty members who also apparently attached to university level are perceived to be employed as engineering participants in this review. Graduate participants also known as post‐graduate students who are furthering their studies to masters, doctorate or post‐doctorate level are also used in obtaining the respective 8
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findings for the engineering education field. Finally the teachers are only used a total of 4 times and all of them are involved in middle school and none at high school level. With respect to both university and school, it is perceived that researchers prefer to employ matured participants as their research samples. This is because 89% of the employed participants are at higher level of education whereas only 11% of them are school based. Surprisingly only a handful of research has used teachers as participants in engineering education studies though these participants are also old and matured enough. This exposes that research on engineering education has underscored the most advanced level of education, leaving students and teachers in schools with much lesser attention. Research trend also discloses the extent of importance given to pre‐elementary children since this group of participant have not been utilized in engineering studies over the years. Conceivably, researchers throughout the years have been directed by the policy makers rather than setting in critical and independent thoughts into their studies. e) Methodological design employed Methodological design trend for the past 12 years shows that six types of research design or method have been employed in engineering education. Although the total articles perceived in this review are 222, the total research design analysed is 204 because this paper could not discover the research design employed for 18 articles. However this paper has revealed the criteria of each research design that has been the reason as to indicate the type of research design employed. Table 4 illustrates the distribution of research design and the number of articles in engineering education. Table 4: Research design in engineering education No. Research design
Articles 1. Qualitative 85 2. Quantitative 42 3. Mixed method
34 4. Design & development research (DDR)
17 5. Review 15 6. Others 11 Total
204 The bulk of the perceived articles employed qualitative research design since a sum of 42% add on to the total number of articles. Qualitative research design has been popular over the years among all the engineering disciplines. In fact despite the sophisticated and advanced software for analysing research findings, engineering fields have still emphasized qualitative research as compared to other research designs. Engineering education studies are keen not only in researching the perceptions of experts but also concentrate on how a process takes place in engineering educational research. Parallel to that, this review also observed that quantitative research design has been the second most common research design employed in this review with a percentage of 21%. Apart from that, mixed method design which employs both the qualitative and quantitative paradigm has been widely used in the engineering field. This is because mixed method design is only lower than qualitative design with a 4% of percentage from the overall research design in engineering education. In fact despite the researchers in engineering field not having employed many articles solely on quantitative design, the appearance of some quantitative design in the mixed method approach has revealed the overall usage of this design. Apparently, quantitative research design is still well utilized in the engineering field despite the dominance of qualitative research design throughout the 12 years of perceived articles in this review. Design and development research (DDR) approach has been given lesser emphasis as compared to other research designs since 17 articles have conducted this practice in their respective research. Unfortunately, after 2001, only one to three articles have focused on DDR design which indicates the concentration on this crucial research design has faded. Contrary to this, 7% of the perceived articles have employed review. It is perceived that 13 articles which involved review in engineering education have concentrated on all the four types of participants who come from graduate, undergraduate, high school students and adults. Meanwhile only two articles have reviewed using meta‐
analysis review in engineering education research. The rest of the designs were based on unpublished articles from conferences, seminars, workshops, programmes and project‐based research which are also equally crucial to be involved in this paper to minimise the risk of publication bias. 9
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Year
Distribution of Research Design from Year 20002012
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
Others
Review
DDR
Mixed method
Quantitative
Qualitative
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Number of Articles
Figure 3: Distribution of research design Figure 3 illustrates the trend of research design in engineering education over the past 12 years. Despite the popularity of qualitative research design among the researchers, as the years passed by, researchers began to employ quantitative, mixed method and DDR designs in their published articles. However the dominance of the qualitative paradigm has been detected over the period of 12 years because every year of publication had at least 2‐4 minimum articles which employed qualitative design. Yet, it is also perceived that both quantitative and mixed method paradigms are also gaining attention although the number of articles using these designs is not as many as those using qualitative design. DDR design has been constantly published in engineering education research almost every year. Meanwhile, the numbers of articles which have employed both review and other research designs have fluctuated from time to time. Since this paper has clearly perceived that qualitative approach has dominated in the methodology of studies, interview, observation, questionnaires and document analysis were among the qualitative research instruments that have been widely employed. Interviews have been held through online discussions, telephone conversations, face to face and focus groups. Meanwhile observations were carried out at site visits, classrooms and fields. Apart from that, questionnaires were associated with research terms such as comprehensive, exploratory and in‐depth. Surveys were also widely held especially when the research involved a huge database of samples. Hence, survey via email was commonly carried out in these researches. Besides interpretation of novel ideas, analyses of both oral and written reports are also perceived in the engineering education articles. Correspondingly, quantitative research design has also involved various research terms in this review. Since authors have employed experimental design, pre‐posttest, control group, treatment group (experimental group), factorial design (2x2 and 3x2), post‐hoc test and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) has been the fundamental terms that have emerged during the review analysis. In fact, some JEE researchers have also utilized longitudinal, ethnographic, phenomenography and case study in their respective research fields. The trend of engineering education studies in JEE expose that researchers have made known their versatility and maturity in employing research approaches to produce their scholarly articles. With respect to the methodological quality of research, this review has found that validity in most qualitative studies has been measured using a) triangulation, b) peer evaluations to reduce researcher bias, c) reference resources, comprising documents and audio tapes that allow analyses and d) confirmation of researchers’ interpretations against the studied subjects. In contrast, validity in quantitative studies has been analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and t‐test to produce inferential statistics. It is inevitable that reliability and validity are bound together in complex ways. Although there are studies using test re‐test to measure reliability, most of the articles employed either quantitative or mixed method research design and used both coefficient alpha (α‐
Cronbach) and Kuder‐Richardson to measure the reliability for their respective engineering education research instruments. DISCUSSION 10
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Providing a foundation for the future of engineering learning is crucial because in recent years, there has been a concern about the need to develop a better understanding of how people learn engineering (Johri & Olds, 2011). This paper has identified that teaching and learning has been an important research issue throughout the 12 years of review. Engineering education has emphasized the necessity of teaching and learning in groups. No one can be sure which teaching approach will be most successful with a particular group of students. Hence, cooperative, team‐work and collaborative learning has been stressed by the researchers in the engineering field. Apart from that, problem solving and hands‐on approach has also been highlighted in the engineering arena. Students do not learn by listening to lecturers but by actively engaging in the practice and processes associated with the lesson (Capobianco, 2011). While incorporating engineering approach into the lessons, Lee (2012) added that students not only worked cooperatively to develop problem solving and decision making skills but, at the same time, students can manage to think in a critical and creative manner to demonstrate a true understanding of concepts during the lessons. Parallel with that, hands‐on activities increase the students’ engagement and improve students’ confidence in their ability to learn in engineering studies (Canfield, Ghafoor, & Abdelrahman, 2012). Interdisciplinary fields have also gained much attention from the researchers pertaining to engineering education. It is inevitable that the advanced interception between science and engineering are perceived through robotic and nuclear energy where both scientific and engineering aspects are tightly interwoven. Johri and Olds (2011) suggested ways in which the learning of science and engineering education research communities might work to their mutual benefit. Johri and Olds (2011) concluded that there are many areas of mutual benefit for engineering education and the learning of science. It is certain that more inter‐disciplinary research should be carried out, especially between science and engineering. However, this inter‐disciplinary field should not be perceived only at higher level of education. This interception should also be concentrating at a younger stage of education to increase the interest and motivation among students in pursuing both science and engineering related careers. In contrast, this paper has revealed that engineering field has been perceived only for matured thinking participants, mainly undergraduates and graduates. This perception is not true and more research has to be carried out to expose the importance of engineering besides revealing the mind of an engineer among elementary and secondary students as well. Apart from students, even the school teachers are not highlighted in engineering‐based education. Teachers should be provided the opportunity in engineering field because teachers can gain new knowledge about teaching subjects such as science through the introduction of engineering apart from simultaneously becoming more effective science teachers (Capobianco, 2011). Moreover, teachers can work with reasonable guesses about student understanding in science‐related concepts and the engineering design process (Capabianco, 2011). In line with that, Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education is a topic of national discussion in countries which highlight education where many teachers have been expressing the need to include engineering concepts or designing activities at the elementary level (Bowman, 2012). During the past decade, there has been a surge of interest in design activities as a means to promote science learning (Beneson, 2001; Fortus et al. 2004; Harel, 1991; Kafai, 1994; Kolodner, 2002; Lehrer & Romberge, 1996; Lewis, 2006; NAE, 2008; Puntambekar & Kolodner, 2005; Roth et al., 2001). Apart from that, the intimidating world of engineering must be presented in a fun and meaningful way such that teachers returned to the classrooms and implemented the concepts with their science students (Evans, 2006). This is also one of the examples of interaction between science and engineering. Likewise, practitioners such as teachers and lecturers should enhance understanding of the nature of engineering education so that it does not become lost in any integration process. This review also exposed that most of the researchers have employed qualitative research design as compared to other research designs. This scenario gives an outlook about the authors who often avoid getting locked into a rigid design that eliminates responsiveness but instead prefer to pursue new paths of discovery as the qualitative data emerge (Fraenkel, Wallen, & Hyun, 2012). While being open in adapting inquiry to deepen understanding, these researchers should also use the merged knowledge to DDR paradigms. DDR covers a wide spectrum of activities and interest apart from having implications on teaching and learning research (Richey & Klein, 2010). In fact understanding the theories involved in DDR provides extra knowledge in helping the researchers to improve the quality of teaching and learning for both students and teachers pertaining to engineering field (Reigeluth & Carr‐Chellman, 2009). This could also lead to new methods and ideas to avoid the shrinking engineering force that is evident in both developed and developing nations across the globe. Apart from the declining engineering force, the misconceptions and the loopholes that exist in certain engineering programmes could also be overcome by employing new solutions. However there is no disrespect for the contribution that the previous and present researchers have made in engineering over a period of 12 years, for all type of research issues and participants. CONCLUSION Through a mixture of both past and recent articles to demonstrate the progress of engineering education, this paper has acknowledged the main concern and endorsements for the forthcoming research and development in Malaysian engineering education. With lesser emphasis provided on quantitative paradigm especially on effect sizes, 11
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this paper has still succeeded to outline the approaches taken by researchers from various countries to overcome the worrying state of engineering force among their science students. STEM education is the latest measure emphasised in order to instil interest for engineering field by nurturing science from a young age. Though this paper has only focused on JEE using ProQuest database, this study has also revealed the emergence of moving forward through a reflection of inter‐disciplinary fields in engineering education. In fact the renaissance of engineering education offer Malaysian researchers mainly youngsters an opportunity to continue defining and embracing more fashionable mechanisms for the future Malaysian engineering education. We must keep in mind, however, that the objective of producing engineers should also highlight quality in terms of creativity and thinking skills apart from the number of engineers required to achieve Malaysia’s Vision 2020 target. REFERENCES Aceituno, P., Campanario.M.L & Burgos,C. (2010). Sixth report innovacef: Good practices in the program Torres Quevedo, Innovacef. Alemany, L., Alvarez,C.,Planellas,M.,&Urbano,D. (2010). Libro blanco de la iniciativa emprendedora en Espana. Fundacion Principle de Girona: Barcelona. Ali, A. T. (2012). Teaching & Learning of Science & Mathematics in Schools: Towards a More "Creative & Innovative Malaysia". Paper presented at the Colloquium Science & Mathematics Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. American perspectives on engineers fromhttp://www.aaes.org/harris_2004_files/frame.htm and engineering (2004). Retrieved Beneson, G. (2001). The unrealized potential of everyday technology as a context for learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38(7), 730–745. Bers, U, M; M. P. (2005). Teaching partnerships: Early childhood and engineering students teaching math and science through robotics. Journal of Science Education and Technology,14(1),59‐73. Brumback, T., Schumacker, R., & Fonseca, D. (2010). A meta analysis of studies of cognition in engineering education. Paper presented at the American Society for Engineering Education Annual Meeting, Louisville, KY. Canfield, S., Ghafoor, S., & Abdelrahman, M. (2012). Enchancing the Programming Experience for First‐Year Engineering Students through Hands‐On Integrated Computer Experiences. Journal of STEM Education, 13(4). Capilla, R., Hervas, A., & Soriano, P. P. (2008). Analisis de va evolucion de la demanda de studios universitarios de primer ciclo relacionados con la informatica y las telecomunicaciones. Paper presented at the VIII Congreso de Technologias Aplicadas a la Ensenanza de la Electronica, Universidada de Valencia, Valencia. Capobianco, B. M. (2011). Exploring a science teacher's uncertainty with integrating engineering design: An action research study. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 22, 645‐660. DeJarnette, N. K. (2012). America's children: Providing early exposure to STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering And Maths) initiatives. Journal of Education, 133(1), 77‐84. Ellis, P. D. (2011). The essential guide to effect sizes: Statistical power, meta‐analysis and the interpretation of research results. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. English, L. D., Hudson, Peter B., & Dawes, Les. A. (2011). Middle school students' perceptions of engineering. Paper presented at the STEM in Education Conference: Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics in Education Conference, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. 12
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Engstrom, D. (2001). Ten components of a good technology education activity. The Technology Teacher, 61(3), 8‐13. Evans, J. (2006). Watkins Elementary is Gearing Up for Success by Integrating Children's Engineering in the Classroom. The Children's Engineering Journal, 4(1), 1‐12. Fortus, D., Dershimer, C., Krajcik, J., Marx, R., & Mamlok‐Naaman, R. (2004). Design‐based science and student learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41(10), 1081–1110. Fraenkel, J. R., Wallen, N. E., & Hyun, H. H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw‐Hill. Hamdan, H. (2012). Jumlah Pelajar Sains Di IPT Makin Kurang, Berita Harian. Retrieved from http://www.bharian.com.my/articles/JumlahpelajarsainsdiIPTmakinkurang/Article/ Harel, L. (1991). Children designers. New York, NY: Ablex. Harris, P reveals public perceptions of engineering. http://www.nae.edu/NAE/naehome.nsf/weblinks/NAEW‐4NHMEX?OpenDocument (1998). Retrieved from Higher Education Ministry (1995). In Making Science Meaningful by Mageswary Karpudewan. (December 2012). STAR. Retrieved from http://www.thestar.com.my/story.aspx?file=%2F2012%2F12%2F9%2Feducation%2F1239824&sec=educ
ation Humphrey, S. E. (2011). What does a great meta‐analysis look like? Organizational Psychology Review, 1(2), 99‐
103. INE. (2011). Personal empleado en I+D por sector de ejecucion, ocupacion y sexos, INE, Madrid. Joanna Briggs Institute for Evidence Based Nursing & Midwifery. (2001). An introduction to systematic reviews. Changing Practice, 1, 1‐6. Johri, A., & Olds, M. B (2011). Situated Engineering Learning: Bridging Engineering Education Research and the Learning Sciences. Journal of Engineering Education, 100(1), 151‐185. Kafai, Y. B. (1994). Minds in play: Computer game design as a context for children’s learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Katehi, L., Pearson, G., & Feder, M. A. (2009). Engineering in K‐12 education: Understanding the status and improving the prospects. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Kieong, C. K. (2012). Vision 100K. The Institution of Engineers, 53rd Presidental Address, Malaysia. Kolodner, J. (2002). Facilitating the learning of design practices: Lessons learned from an inquiry into science education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 39(3), 9–40. Lee, C. S. (2012). What a teacher needs the most. The Children's Engineering Journal, 9, 1‐10. Lehrer, R., & Romberge, T. (1996). Exploring children’s data modeling. Cognition and Instruction, 14, 69–108. 13
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Lewis, T. (2006). Design and inquiry: Bases for an accommodation between science and technology education in the curriculum? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43(3), 255–281. Mena, I. B., & Diefes‐Dux, H. A. (2012). First‐year engineering students' portrayal of engineering in a proposed museum exhibit for middle school students. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 21(2), 304‐316. Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion. (2008). Paper presented at the Memoria de actividades de I+D+I (1996‐
2007), Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion. Mioduser, D., & Levy, S. T. (2010). Making sense by building sense: Kindergarten children's construction and understanding of adaptive robot behaviours. International Journal of Computer & Mathematics Learning, 15, 99‐127. NAE & NRC (National Academy of Engineering & National Research Council). (2009). Engineering in K‐12 Education: Understanding The Status & Improving The Prospects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. NAS (National Academy of Science). (2007). Rising Above The Gathering Storm: Engineering & Employing America For A Brighter Economic Future. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Nordin, K. (2012). Jumlah Pelajar Sains Di IPT Makin Kurang. Berita Harian. Retrieved from http://www.bharian.com.my/articles/JumlahpelajarsainsdiIPTmakinkurang/Article/ NRC. (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. OECD. (2009). The global competition for talent. Paris, France: OECD Publications. Pearson, G. (2004). Collaboration conundrum. Journal of Technology Education, 15(2), 66‐76. Petroski, H. (2003). Early education. American Scientist, 91, 206‐209. Poll, H. (2004). American Perspectives on Engineers and Engineering: Reveals Public Perceptions of Engineering :1998. From American Association of Engineering Societies. Retrieved from http://www.aaes.org/harris_2004_files/frame.htm Puntambekar, S., & Kolodner, J. (2005). Toward implementing distributed scaffolding: Helping students learn science from design. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42(2), 185–217. Reigeluth, C. M., & Carr‐Chellman, A.A. (2009). Instructional‐design theories and models (Vol. 3). New York, NY: Routledge. Richey, R. C., & Klein, J. D. (2010). Design and Development Research (L. Akers, Ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Roth, W. M., Tobin, K., & Ritchie, S. (2001). Re/Constructing elementary science. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Shallcross, L. (2006). Piecing it http://www.prismmagazine.org/nov06/tt_01.cfm all together. ASEE Prism, 16(3). Retrieved from Tu, S. D. (2006). Total Engineering Education: The way to shape our future leadership. Global Journal of Engineering Education, 10(2). Wendell, K. B; H.‐S. L. (2010). Elementary students' learning of materials science practices through instruction based on engineering design tasks. Journal of Science Educational Technology, 19, 580‐601. 14
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Wicklein, R. C. (2006). Five good reasons for engineering as THE focus for technology education. The Technology Teacher, 65(7), 25‐29. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2010). Education for all: Global monitoring report. Paris, France: Author. Appendix 15
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Identification No. Author(s) 1. Randolph, G. B 2. Croissant, J. L; Ogden, K; Ogden, G 3. Friel, T 4. Symams, M. D Haller, C. R; Gallagher, V. J; Weldon, T. L; Felder, R. M Horner, H. P; Royrvik, H. O 5. 6. 7. Rutz, E Fascetti, W.S; Leventman, P.G Gallaher, J; Pearson, F 8. 9. 10. Boehm, R. F; Gallavan, N. P Mehdi, M. R; Rizvi, S. A. I Candra, C; Kumar, S 11. 12. 13. Goulet, J 14. Hyde, R. A; Karney, B. W 15. Haws, D. R 16. Sanad, H. A; Koushki, P. A 17. Mirmiran, A 18. Garris, C. A 19. Rashid, S 20. Farr, J. V; Lee, A. M; Metro, R. A; Sutton, J. P 21. Kulonda, D. J Year Issue(s) April 2000 April 2000 July 2000 July 2000 Learning style
(collaborative) Learning style
(teamwork) Learning style
(conceptual) July 2000 July 2000 July 2000 July 2000 July 2000 Oct 2000 April 2001 April 2001 April 2001 April 2001 April 2001 April 2001 April 2001 April 2001 April 2001 April 2001 July 2001 July 2001 22. Pimmel, R 23. Crown, S. W July 2001 24. Morell, L; Buxeda, R; Orengo, M; Sanchez, A July 2001 25. Landry, J. P; Pardue, J. H; Doran, M. V; Daigle, R. J 26. Nair, I; Jones, S; White, J 27. Baker, S; Tancred, P; Whitesides, S 28. Chesler, N. C; Chesler, M. A 29. Lackey, L. W; Lackey, J. W Jan 2002 Jan 2002 Jan 2002 Jan 2002 Jan 2002 Jan 2002 Jan 30. Wankat, P. C 31. Kuon, T. S; Sample Not stated Not stated Not stated Not stated Middle school students Qualitative Not stated Undergraduate Not stated Motivation 180 Middle school students Qualitative Learning style (cooperative) Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Undergraduate Qualitative Gender 17 colleges Learning style
(distance learning) 150 Gender 250 Undergraduate Qualitative Gender 100 Undergraduate Qualitative Learning style
(cooperative) 16 Undergraduate Not stated Academic trend 24 varsities Graduate Review (1982‐1986) Adults Qualitative Teaching method
(web‐based) Learning style
(goal‐oriented) Learning style
(affective learning) Not stated Not stated DDR 55 Undergraduate DDR Ethical values 42 papers Gender Not stated Interest & teaching method Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Not stated Middle school students High school students & undergraduate Undergraduate & graduate Review Meta‐analysis (1996‐1999) Qualitative Teaching method Not stated Adults Not stated Inter‐disciplinary (economics & engineering) Not stated Adults Not stated Developing skills (non‐
technical) Not stated Undergraduate Review (case studies) Teaching method Not stated Undergraduate DDR Not stated Undergraduate & faculty members DDR Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Not stated Undergraduate & faculty members Qualitative Attitude & motivation Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Teaching method Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Gender Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Gender Not stated Adults & graduate Qualitative Developing skills (cognitive) Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Undergraduate & graduate Undergraduate Mixed method
Learning style
(cooperative) Teaching method
(web‐based) Learning style
(cooperative) & STEM education Teaching method 150 Inter‐disciplinary (science & Not stated
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Rice, M. P Campbell, J. O; Bourne, J. R; Mosterman, P. J; Brodersen, A. J Felder, R. M; Felder, G. N; Dietz, E. J 32. 33. 2002 engineering)
Jan 2002 Teaching method (simulations) 120 Undergraduate Mixed method Attitude 116 Undergraduate Qualitative Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Not stated Undergraduate DDR Ethical values 57 Adults Forum Gender Not stated Adults Project‐based Teaching method Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative ABET Not stated Adults
DDR Teaching method Not stated Adults Qualitative STEM education Not stated Undergraduate Review (literatures) Learning style (student centred) Not stated Faculty members Project‐based Gender Not stated Faculty members Qualitative Attitude Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Inter‐disciplinary (nanotechnology) Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative Developing skills (cognitive) Not stated Adults Quantitative Jan 2002 Jan 2002 Jan 2002 34. Rojas, E. M 35. Marks, B. P 36. Raez, P. C; Groff, B. H Jan 2003 Dym, C.L; Wesner, J. W;Winner, L Laeser, M; Moskal, B. M; Krecht, R; Lasich, D Lackey, L. W; Lackey, J. W; Grady, H. M; Davis, M. T Felder, R. M; Brent, R Alexander, D. G; Smelser, R. E May, G. S; Chubin, D. E Delyser,R. R; Thompson, S. S; Edelstein, J; Lengsfeld, C; Rosa, A. J; Rullkoetter, P; Whitman, R; Whitt, M Chelser, N. C; Single, P. B; Mikic, B Doolen, T. L; Porter, J. D; Hoag, J Hersam, M. C; Luna, M; Light, G Jan 2003 Jan 2003 Jan 2003 Jan 2003 Jan 2003 Jan 2003 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. Ellis,T McKenna, A. F; Agogino, A. M Ressler, S. J; Ressler, E. K Dearholt, D. W; Alt, K. J; Halpin, R. F; Oliver, R. L Johnson, M. J; Sheppard, S. D Bjorklund, S. A; Parente, J. M; Sathianathan, D Sheng, J. H; Hsieh, P. Y Wiesner, T.F; Lan, W Pandy, M. G; Petrosino, A. J; Austin, B. A; Barr, R. E Pappas, E. C; Kampe, S. L; Hendricks, R. W; Kander, R. G Felder, R. M; Brent, R Giesey, J. J; Chen, Y: Hoshower, L. B Zhang,G; Anderson, T. J; Ohland, M. W; Thorndyke, B. R Diefes, D. A. H; Samant, C; Johnson, T. E; O’Connor, D Blair, B. F; Millea, M; Hammer, J Shuman, L. J; Besterfield, S. M; McGourty, J Felder, R. M; Brent, R Smith, K. A; Sheppard, S. D; 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. July 2003 July 2003 July 2003 Jan 2004 Jan 2004 April 2004 April 2004 April 2004 April 2004 April 2004 April 2004 July 2004 Teaching method
(web‐based) Developing skills
(cognitive) Inter‐disciplinary (technology, engineering & computer science) Developing skills (reasoning) Interest
(internet based) Teaching method (web‐based) Not stated 30,000 Quantitative Qualitative Not stated Not stated DDR Gender Not stated Undergraduate & faculty members Not stated Attitude 1,500 Undergraduate Qualitative Teaching method
(web‐based) 128 Undergraduate DDR ABET Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative July 2004 Teaching method (module) Not stated Undergraduate DDR July 2004 Developing skills (critical thinking) Not stated Undergraduate & faculty members Qualitative Oct 2004 Oct 2004 Developing skills
(intellectual) Not stated Undergraduate Review Motivation Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Oct 2004 Demographic & academic characteristics 87,167 Undergraduate Quantitative Oct 2004 Oct 2004 Jan 2005 Jan 2005 Jan Teaching method
(module) Learning style
(cooperative) Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Not stated Not stated Quantitative ABET Not stated Not stated Review Motivation & attitude Not stated Not stated Review Teaching method Not stated
Undergraduate Review 17
Middle & high school students Middle & high school students www.moj-es.net
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Johnson, D. W; Johnson, R. T Dym, C. L; Agogino, A. M; Eris, O; Frey, D. D; Leiter, L. J 65. Feisel, L. D; Rosa, A. J 66. Prados, J. W; Peterson, G. D; Lattuca, L. R Litzinger, T. A; Wise, J. C; Sang, H. L Drake, M. J; Griffin, P. M; Kirkman, R; Swann, J. L Sven, G. B; Kisenwether, E. C; Rzasa, S. E; Wise, J. C 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. Rutar, T; Mason, G Friesen, M; Taylor, K. L; Ron, M. G. B Thompson, N. S; Alford, E. M; Liao, C; Johnson, R; Matthews, M Whitman, L. E; Malzahn, D. E; Chaparro, B. S; Russell, M; et al. 72. 73. 74. 75. Burtner, J 76. Shiavi, R; Brodersen, A. J 77. McLoughlin, L. A Donath, L; Spray, R; Thompson, N. S; Alford, E. M; et al. French, B. F; Immekus, J. C; Oakes, W. C Porter, A. L; Roessner, J. D; Oliver, S; Johnson, D 78. 79. 80. 81. Tonso, K. L 82. Hutchison, M. A; Follman, D. K; Sumpter, M; Bodner, G. M 83. Hartman, H; Hartman, M Stren, F; Xing, T; Yarbrough D. B; Rothmayer, A; et al. Prince, M. J; Felder, R. M Jonassen, D; Strobel, J; Lee, C. B Dabbagh, N; Daniel, A. M Carpenter, D. D; Harding, T. S; Firelli, C. J; Montgomery, S. M; Passow, H. J Senay, Y; Baker, D; Robinson, K. S; Krause,S; Roberts, C Reisslein, J; Reisslein, M; Seeling, P 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. Jarosz, J. P; Busch, V. I. J 92. Fincher, S; Tenenberg, J 2005 (pedagogical)
Jan 2005 Developing skills (designing) Not stated Undergraduate Review (12 years) Jan 2005 Teaching method (laboratory) Not stated Undergraduate Review Jan 2005 ABET Not stated Graduates Not stated April 2005 Learning style (self‐directed) 18 Undergraduate Mixed method April 2005 Ethical values & developing skills (reasoning) Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative April 2005 Developing skills (entrepreneurial) Not stated High school students & undergraduate Mixed method Learning style (teamwork) Each group (3‐4) Undergraduate DDR Teaching method (module) Not stated Undergraduate & faculty members Qualitative July 2005 Developing skills (cognitive) Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative July 2005 Learning style (teamwork) Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Attitude Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Teaching method (computational) Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Gender Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Learning style (inquiry‐
based) Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Gender Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method STEM education Not stated Undergraduate Not stated Learning style (teamwork) Large scale Adults Mixed method Gender, interest & achievement 1387 Undergraduate Qualitative Gender Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Not stated Undergraduate & graduate DDR Not stated Not stated Qualitative Not stated Adults Qualitative 20 Undergraduate Qualitative April 2005 July 2005 July 2005 Oct 2005 Oct 2005 Oct 2005 Oct 2005 Jan 2006 Jan 2006 Jan 2006 Jan 2006 Jan 2006 April 2006 April 2006 April 2006 Teaching method (hands‐
on) Teaching method (inductive) Teaching method (problem solving) Teaching method (pedagogical) July 2006 Attitude 643 Undergraduate Mixed method July 2006 Inter‐disciplinary (design, engineering & technology) Not stated Middle school teachers Mixed method July 2006 July 2006 Oct 2006 Teaching method (problem solving) Not stated High school students Quantitative ABET Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Teaching method (using theory) Not stated Adults Quantitative 93. Cantrell, P: Pekcan, G; Itaini, A; Velasquez, B. N Oct 2006 Teaching method (module) Not stated 94. Roselli, R. J; Oct Assessment
Not stated
18
Undergraduate & middle school students Undergraduate Project‐based Quantitative
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Brophy, S. P 2006 95. Rover, D. T Oct 2006 96. Anonymous 97. Anonymous Nicholas, G. M; Wolfe, H; Besterfield, S. M; Shuman, L. J; Siripen, L Reisslein, J; Sullivan, H; Reisslein, M Bauer, E. H; Moskal, B; Gosink, J; Lucena, J; David. M Steif, P. S; Hansen, M. A Baker, D; Krause, S; Yasar, S; Roberts, C; Robinson, K. S Murphy, T. J; Shehab, R. L; Reed, R. T; Foor, C. E; Harris, B. J; et al. Moskal, B. M; Skokan, C; Kosbar, L; Dean, A; Westland, C; et al. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. Trevelyan, J Atman, C. J; Adams, R. S; Cardella, M. E; Truns, J; Mosborg, S; et al. Kilgore, D; Atman, C. J; Yasuhara, K; Barker, T. J; Morozov, A Taraban, R; DeFinis, A; Brown, A. G; Anderson, E. E; Sharma, M. P Besterfield, S. M; Shuman, L. J; Wolfe, H; Clark, R. M; Yildrim, P Gereffi, G; Wadhwa, V;Rissing, B; Ong, R 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. Vogt, C. M 112. Qualters, D. M; Sheahan, T. C; Mason, E. J; Navick, D. S; Dixon, M 113. 114. 115. 117. 118. 119. 120 121. 122. Not stated Middle school students Qualitative Interest Not stated Adults Not stated ABET Not stated Adults Qualitative Jan 2007 STEM education 12,000 Undergraduate Mixed method Jan 2007 Attitude Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative April 2007 Attitude 112 Undergraduate & faculty members Quantitative July 2007 Administering (web‐based) Not stated Adults Quantitative July 2007 Gender 9 Graduate Qualitative July 2007 Gender 185 Undergraduate Qualitative July 2007 Teaching method (hands‐
on) 11 districts Middle school teachers Mixed method July 2007 Developing skills (coordination) Not stated Adults Qualitative Oct 2007 Attitude 69 Adults DDR Oct 2007 Gender 160 Undergraduate Mixed method Oct 2007 Developing skills (cognitive) 19 Undergraduate Qualitative Oct 2007 Learning style (teamwork) Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Not stated Graduates Not stated 4 varsities Undergraduate Quantitative 191 Undergraduate Quantitative Oct 2006 Oct 2006 Jan 2008 Jan 2008 Jan 2008 Developing skills
(entrepreneurial) Developing skills (critical thinking) Inter‐disciplinary (chemistry, mathematics, physics & computer Science) Li, Q; McCoach, D. B; Swaminathan, H; Tang, J Mendez, G; Buskirk, T. D; Lohr, S; Haag, S Jan 2008 Attitude Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Jan 2008 Attitude Not stated High school students Quantitative Mehalik, M. M; Doppelt, Y; Schuun, C. D Jan 2008 Learning style (design‐based) 1053 (30 classes) Middle school students & teachers Not stated Jan 2008 Reliability (coefficient Alpha) Not stated Adults Mixed method Jan 2008 Attitude Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Allen, K; Reed, R. T; Terry, R. A; Murphy, T. J; Stone, A. D Grimberg, S. J; Langden, T. A; Compeau, L. D; Powers, S. E Borrego, M; Newswander, L. K Leung, M. Y; Lu, X; Chen, D; Lu, M Borrego, M; Streveler, R. A; Miller, R. L; Smith, K. A Koro, L. M; Douglas, E.P Hutchison, G; Mica, A; Follman, D. K; Bodner, G. M 116. Inter‐disciplinary (mathematics, science & engineering) April 2008 April 2008 Inter‐disciplinary Not stated Adults Qualitative Learning style & teaching method Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative April 2008 Learning style (active learning) Not stated Adults Workshops Ethical values Not stated Not stated Meta‐analysis
(2005‐2006) Attitude 12 Undergraduate Qualitative April 2008 April 2008 19
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Walden, S. E; Foor, C Schuurman, M. K; Pangborn, R. N; McClintic, R. D Linsenmeier, R. A; Kanter, O. E; Smith, H. D; Linsenmeier, K. A;McKenna, A. F 123. 124. 125. April 2008 STEM education Large database Undergraduate Qualitative April 2008 Gender Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative April 2008 Teaching method (laboratory) Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method 126. Rover, D. T April 2008 Learning style Not stated Adults Review 127. Streveler, R. A; Litzinger, T. A; Miller, R. L; Steif, P. S July 2008 Learning style (conceptual) Not stated Not stated Not stated 128 Malcom, S. M Gender Not stated Adults Qualitative Motivation Not stated Adults Not stated July 2008 Inter‐disciplinary Not stated Adults Program July 2008 Motivation Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative July 2008 Gender Large database Undergraduate & graduate Qualitative July 2008 Learning style (conceptual) Not stated Not stated Not stated Developing skills (cognitive) Not stated Undergraduate DDR Learning style
(design‐based) Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Ethical values 7 varsities Undergraduate Qualitative 28 Undergraduate Qualitative Not stated Adults Not stated Adams, R. S; Felder, R. M Fouger, X; Almgren, R; Gopalakrishnan, K; Mailkot, P Chubin, D; Donaldson, K; Olds, B; Fleming, L Ohland, M. W; Sheppard, S. D; Lichtenstein, G; Eris, O; Chachra, D; et al. Streveler, R. A; Litzinger, T. A; Miller, R. L; Steif, P. S Redish, E. F; Smith, K. A Atman, C. J; Kilgore, D; McKenna, A 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. Colby,A; Sullivan, W. M Cox, M. F; Cordray, D. S Lucena, J; Downey, G; Jesiek, B; Elber, S Trenor, J. M; Yu, S. L; Waight, C. L; Zerda, K. S; Sha, T. L Veenstra, C. P; Dey, E. L; Herrin, G. D Martin, D. N; Saorin, J. L; Contero, M 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. Natarajan, R 143. Wolfe, J; Powell, E McKenna, A. F;Yalvac, B;
Light, G. L Marra, R. M; Rodgers, K. A; Shen, D; Bogue, B Jesiek, B. K; Newswander, L. K; Borrego, M Borrego, M; Douglas, E. P; Amelink, C. T Vanasura, L; Stolk, J; Herter, R. J Moreno, R; Reisslein, M; Ozogul, G 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. Brown, S; Flick, L; Fiez, T Ingram, S; Brunning, S; Mikawoz, I Charyton, C; Merrill, J. A Onyancha, R. M; Derov, M; Kinsey, B. L Genheimer, S. R; Shehab, R. 151. 152. 153. 154. July 2008 July 2008 July 2008 July 2008 July 2008 Oct 2008 Oct 2008 Inter‐disciplinary
(biology & engineering) Transformation of engineering education Oct 2008 Gender Diverse sample Undergraduate Mixed method Oct 2008 STEM education Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative Oct 2008 Developing skills (spatial abilities) Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative Attitude Not stated Not stated Qualitative Gender 6 Undergraduate Qualitative Learning style (collaborative) Not stated Faculty members Not stated Gender & attitude 5 institutes Undergraduate Qualitative Attitude Not stated Adults Qualitative Inter‐disciplinary (social science & engineering) Not stated Adults Conference Learning style Not stated Adults DDR Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Gender & attitude Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method Innovation 84 Undergraduate Quantitative Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative 90
Adults
Qualitative
Oct 2008 Jan 2009 Jan 2009 Jan 2009 Jan 2009 Jan 2009 Jan 2009 Jan 2009 Jan 2009 April 2009 April 2009 April 2009 April Teaching method
(problem solving) Teaching method
(laboratory) Developing skills (spatial abilities) ABET
20
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L Nembhard, D; Yip, K; Shtub, A 155. 156. Lin, C. C; Tsai, C. C Lichtenstein, G; Loshbaugh, H. G; Claar, B; Chen, H. L; Jackson, K; et al. Jonassen, D. H; Shen, D; Marra, R. M; Cho, Y. H; Lo, J. L; et al. 157. 158 159. Leydens, J. A; Schneider, J 160. Zaftt, C. R; Adams, S. G; Matkin, G. S 161. Abdulwahed, M; Nagy, Z. K 162. Cantrell, P; Ewing, T. J 163. Godfrey, E; Parker, L Mackey, K. R. M; Freyberg, D. L Rosenberg, K; Rinat, B;Plant, E.A; Doerr, C.E;Baylor, A. L 164. 165. 166. Hsuing, C. M Yadaz, A; Shaver, G. M; Meckl, P Carberry, A. R; Lee, H. S; Ohland, M. W Jesiek, B. K; Borrego, M; Beddoes, K Felder, R. M; Brent, R Steif, P. S; Lobue, J. M; Kara, L. B; Fay, A. L Tran, N. A; Nathan, M. J Chen, J. C; Whittinghill, D. C; Kadlowec, J. A Meyers, K. L; Silliman, S. E; Gedde, N. L; Ohland, M. W Borrego, M; Froyd, J. E; Hall, T. S Nichollas, G. M; Wolfe, H; Besterfield, S. M; Shuman, L. J Reisslein, M; Moreno, R; Ozogul, G Koh, C; Tan, H. S; Tan, K. C; Fang, L; Fong, F. M, et al. Heller, R. S; Beil, C; Dam, K; Haerum, B Roger, S. W; Goktas, R. K Matusovich, H. M; Streveler, R. A; Miller, R. L Baile, C; Ko, E; Newletter, W; Radcliffe, D. F Borrego, M; Bernhard, J Adams, R; Evangelou, D; English, L; De, F; Antonio, D; Mousoulides, N; et al Felder, R. M; Brent, R; Prince, M. J Litzinger, T. A; Lattuca, L. R; Hadgraft, R. G; Newsletter, W. C 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 2009 April 2009 April 2009 Learning style
(cooperative) Teaching method
(laboratory) Adults Project‐based 321 Undergraduate Mixed method July 2009 Attitude 2 institutes Undergraduate Mixed method July 2009 Ethical values Not stated Undergraduate & graduate Quantitative Innovation 6 institutes Undergraduate Qualitative Attitude 81 Undergraduate Qualitative Teaching method
(laboratory) Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative STEM education 130 High school students Seminars Transformation of engineering education 1 institute Faculty members Qualitative Developing skills (cognitive) Not stated Graduate Qualitative Gender & attitude 119 Undergraduate Quantitative Learning style (cooperative) 42 Undergraduate Quantitative Developing skills (critical thinking) 73 Undergraduate Quantitative Attitude 202 Adults Quantitative Transformation of engineering education 300 (6 continents) Adults Qualitative Motivation Not stated Faculty members Qualitative April 2010 Teaching method (problem solving) Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method April 2010 April 2010 Developing skills (reasoning) 140 High school students Quantitative Learning style (conceptual) Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative April 2010 Motivation Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative July 2010 Attitude & innovation 197 Adults Quantitative July 2010 STEM education Not stated Middle school students Quantitative Learning style (contextual) Not stated High school students Quantitative Motivation Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Learning style (active learning) Not stated Undergraduate & faculty members Qualitative Motivation Not stated Graduate Qualitative Oct 2010 Motivation 11 Undergraduate Qualitative Jan 2011 Jan 2011 Inter‐disciplinary (research & scholarship) Learning style (inquiry‐
based) Not stated Adults Not stated Not stated Adults Quantitative Jan 2011 Inter‐disciplinary (pathways for innovations) Not stated Adults Qualitative Jan 2011 Transformation of engineering education Not stated Adults DDR Jan 2011 Motivation Not stated Adults DDR July 2009 July 2009 July 2009 July 2009 Jan 2010 Jan 2010 Jan 2010 Jan 2010 Jan 2010 Jan 2010 April 2010 April 2010 July 2010 July 2010 July 2010 July 2010 21
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187. Johri, A; Olds, B. M 188. Case, J. M; Light, G Jan 2011 Jan 2011 Learning style Not stated Adults Qualitative Attitude 7 Not stated Review Not stated Not stated Not stated 189. Anonymous April 2011 Transformation of engineering education 190. Ohland, M. W; Brawner, C. E; Camacho, M. M; Layton, R. A April 2011 Gender 75,000 9 varsities Adults Qualitative 191. Beddoes, K; Borrego, M Gender 88 articles Adults Review (1995‐2008) Attitude & interest 400 Middle school students Mixed method Learning style
(collaborative) Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative April 2011 Gender 100,179 9 varsities Undergraduate Qualitative April 2011 Inter‐disciplinary Not stated Undergraduate & faculty members Qualitative Developing skills
(analytical) Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative STEM education Large database Middle & high school students Qualitative Attitude Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative Attitude 125 Undergraduate Mixed method July 2011 Learning style (collaborative) & gender 663 Undergraduate Quantitative July 2011 July 2011 July 2011 July 2011 Jan 2012 Teaching method (problem solving) Transformation of engineering education Teaching method (problem solving) Not stated Middle school teachers Mixed method 40 Undergraduate Quantitative Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative Attitude Not stated Undergraduate Program Innovation Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative Inter‐disciplinary 112 (34 teams) Undergraduate Mixed method ABET Large database Undergraduate Quantitative Capobianco, B. M; Diefes, D. H. A; Mena, I; Weller, J Dunsmore, K; Turns, J; Vellin, J. M Min, Y; Zhang, G; Long, R. A; Anderson, T. J; Ohland, M. W McNair, L. D; Newswander, C; Boden, D; Borrego, M 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. Taraban, R 197. Stephens, R; Richey, M 198. Leppavirta, J Lathern, S. A; Neumann, M. D; Hayden, N Stump, G. S; Hilpert, J. C; Husman, J; Chung, W. T; Kim, W. Taraban, R;Craig, C; Anderson, E. E Duncan, D; Diefes, D. H; Gentry, M Hundhausen, C; Agarwal, P; Zollar, S. R; Carter, A Fantz, T. D; Siller, T. J; DeMiranda, M. A Genco, N; Holtta, O. K; Seepersad, C. C Schaffer, S. P; Chen, X; Zhu, X; Oakes, W. C 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. Passow, H. J 208. Hsuing, C. M Engelbrecht, J; Bergsten, C; Kagesten, O Holsapple, M. A; Carpenters, D. D; Sutkus, J. A; Finelle, C. J; Harding, T. S Daly, S. R; Adams, R. S; Bodner, G. M Mogana, A. J; Brophy, S. P; Bodner, G. M Lawton, D; Vye, N; Bransford, J; Sanders, E; Richey, M; et al. Brawner, C. E; Camacho, M. M; Lord, S. M; Long, R. A; Ohland, M. W 209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214. 215. Litzler, E; Young, J Harding, T. S; Carpenters, D. D; Finelle, C. J Diefes, D. H. A; Zawojewski, J. S; Hjalmarson, M. A; Cardella, M. E 216. 217. April 2011 April 2011 April 2011 April 2011 July 2011 July 2011 July 2011 Jan 2012 Jan 2012 Jan 2012 Jan 2012 Learning style (cooperative) 42 Undergraduate Quantitative Developing skills (computational) Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative April 2012 Ethical values 18 campuses Undergraduate & faculty members Qualitative April 2012 April 2012 Developing skills (analytical) Teaching method (computational) Not stated Adults Qualitative 14 Undergraduate & faculty members Qualitative April 2012 Learning style (online learning) Not stated Undergraduate DDR April 2012 Gender Large database Undergraduate Mixed method Attitude Not stated Undergraduate Qualitative Ethical value, developing skills (reasoning) & attitude 380 Undergraduate Qualitative Assessment Not stated Adults Quantitative April 2012 April 2012 April 2012 22
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Olds, B. M; Borrego, M; Besterfield, S. M; Cox, M Prince, M. J; Vigeant, M; Nottis,K Trytten, D .A; Lowe, A. W; Walden, S. E Finelli, C. J; Holsapple, M. A; Ra, E; Bielby, B. A; et al Woodcock, A; Graziano, W. G; Branch, S. E; Ngambeki, I; Evangelou, D 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. July 2012 July 2012 July 2012 July 2012 July 2012 Transformation of engineering education Not stated Adults Conference Students’ misconceptions Not stated Undergraduate Quantitative Developing skills (intelligence) Ethical value & developing skills (reasoning) Not stated Undergraduate Mixed method 4,000
(18 institutes) Undergraduate Qualitative STEM education 544 Undergraduate Qualitative 23
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Volume 1, Issue 4
Business Studies Teachers and Student
Needs
Chiew Wye Mei [1], Saedah Siraj [2] [1] [email protected]
Faculty of Education
University Malaya
University Malaya
ABSTRACT
This paper is a report on the findings of a study conducted on the direct users of
the Business Studies curriculum in Malaysia to uncover the perceived gap between
what was experienced with what was wanted. Interviews were used to examine
the needs of the Form Six (equivalent to “A” level) Business Studies teachers and
students. Findings indicate that teachers wanted some form of practical work but
were worried about the time constraint in carrying it out. Certain topics such as
business law, cooperatives and non-profit organisations should be discarded from
the curriculum or revamped. Students clamour for practical work and emphasise
the need to improve their communication, problem solving and leadership skills.
Teachers and students felt values such as honesty, integrity and responsibility
should be inculcated in students. Positive attitude, hardworking and strongly
motivated are attitudes necessary for success in the business world, and these
should be emphasised as well. The Malaysian Examination Council, which is the
developer of the curriculum, needs to take a serious look at the lack in the
curriculum to ensure a comprehensive curriculum is developed..
Keywords:
Business, Teachers, Student
INTRODUCTION
In line with the Malaysian government policies of creating economic growth for the country, there was a need to provide more emphasis on business education (Malaysian Examination Council, 1998). Involvement in business needs knowledge and good business acumen to withstand global competition. Due to the fast development and expansion in businesses, the Business Studies subject was thus suggested to be taught to Form Six Malaysian students beginning in 1998. According to the Malaysian Examination Council (1998), the body involved in designing and developing the Business Studies curriculum, the said curriculum would enable students to continue their education at institutions of higher learning; continue their education to professional level; and enter the field of business, management and entrepreneurship. Students should also be readily equipped with the minimum skills to be an average entrepreneur (Malaysian Examination Council, 1998). In similar tones, Crews and Stitt‐Gohdes (2002) suggested secondary business education programmes should enable students to pursue a programme, graduate, and successfully move into the workforce or postsecondary education. In reality, not all Form Six students were able to get accepted into local varsities (Rao, 2008). Joining the workforce proved difficult as many of the school leavers were found to be lacking in skills. According to the Prime Minister of Malaysia Dato’ Seri Najib Tun Abdul Razak (2012), young people find their qualifications do not match the opportunities available in the job market.The ever increasing requirement for a skilled workforce and able entrepreneurs reflects the need to study the ability of schools to produce skilful small scale entrepreneurs. Dewey’s ideal of “education through occupations” (Dow, 2002) reflected the need for a pragmatic curriculum. Furthermore, the advent of globalisation and increasing international connectivity has resulted in demands for a more global education model. An innovative curriculum is needed to address these challenges and give much attention to local business needs (Association of Asia‐Pacific Business Schools, 2012). 24
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The Study The 1998 Business Studies curriculum is more than a decade old and the users have lamented over the gap between what they wanted from it and what was actually experienced. We need to know whether the 1998 Business Studies curriculum catered to the demands of the direct users of the curriculum. The direct users of the Business Studies curriculum were teachers and Form Six (equivalent to “A” level) students. A needs analysis was carried out on teachers and ex‐students of the Business Studies curriculum to delve deeply into their perceptions of the curriculum and what they wanted from it. The purpose of the study was to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the current Business Studies curriculum and its relevance to the future business environment. Two research questions were posed. RQ1: What are the teachers’ and ex‐students’ perceptions of the present Business Studies curriculum? RQ2: What are the teachers’ and ex‐students’ perceptions of the knowledge, skills and values needed to be acquired by the Form Six Business Studies students for future business needs? This analysis would be able to identify the teachers’ and ex‐students’ perceptions of the present Business Studies curriculum and the knowledge, skills and values to be acquired by the Form Six Business Studies students for future business needs. Other stakeholders were not chosen for this part of the study as this is the needs analysis of teachers and ex‐
students of Business Studies. Further study on other stakeholders, and more importantly the business community, is necessary to ensure the curriculum meets the needs of the future business environment. METHODOLOGY The methodology of this study is qualitative in nature and the interview method was used. A semi‐structured interview protocol was chosen as the tool to conduct needs analysis of the Business Studies curriculum users. The protocol was built based on literature reviews and research question posed. Before the interviews were carried out, the interview protocol was verified by five teachers. Interview participants were chosen from the population of teachers and ex‐students of the Business Studies curriculum. The two samples used were purposive snowball samples. This kind of sample was selected for a few reasons. This study wanted to know teachers’ and teacher trainers’ perceptions of the curriculum as they are its direct users. They could provide a thorough evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum. Next, ex‐students were chosen as sample as they have used the curriculum and hence would be able to provide their perceptions of whether the curriculum catered to their immediate needs (in universities or as entrepreneurs). Ex‐students, upon leaving schools, would not be easy to trace as their personal details such as phone numbers would not be divulged by schools to outsiders such as researchers. Trochim (2006) suggested purposive sampling be used to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for proportionality was not of primary concern. He further described how snowball sampling was useful for the research to reach very small populations. Using Trochim’s (2006) suggestions, teachers, teacher trainers and ex‐students were able to be obtained as samples for the study. Identified participants were formally invited to participate. The first sample consisted of eleven teachers from five different states. Three of them were teacher trainers while the rest were teachers, all of whom have teaching experiences ranging from five to fourteen years. Some of the participants were also examiners marking the Business Studies Malaysia Higher School Certificate (MHSC) answer scripts. In brief, all these participants were well versed with the curriculum and were experts in the field. The second sample had eight ex‐students from public universities in Malaysia who were presently studying various types of sub‐business education courses in the said institutions. The students’ perceptions of the effectiveness and usefulness of the Business Studies curriculum would reflect the achievement of the objectives of the curriculum as feeders to institutes of higher learning (universities). They would also be able to provide information as to the knowledge obtained being helpful to further their studies (Malaysian Examination Council, 1998). Another three ex‐
students in the second sample have been working in the business environment for two years. Their feedback on the curriculum would give readers insights regarding the usefulness—or lack of usefulness—of the content learnt as applied to the actual business environment. After the interviews were conducted, they would be transcribed and coded. Emerging themes were then derived from the codes. FINDINGS The 1998 syllabus of Business Studies has several major topics (i.e., Introduction to Business, Business Environment, Business Entities, Introduction to Management, Planning, Organising, Leadership, Control, Marketing, Production, Finance, Human Resource, Management Skills, Commercial / Business Law, Information Technology, Communication, Entrepreneurship, Cooperatives & Non‐Profit Organisations, International Business, and Ethics and 25
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Social Responsibilities). The majority of the teachers acknowledged the Business Studies curriculum was successful in exposing various components of business to students. The teachers felt the coverage of topics on this subject was too wide and they often had to teach them sketchily so as to ensure the syllabus would be successfully covered in the limited time frame provided. Some of the teachers suggested certain topics be taken out of the syllabus. For example, they proposed that content in business law should be reduced or taken out of the syllabus as students found it hard to digest the information. The teachers also felt the topics on cooperatives and non‐profit organisations were not very important. Economic blocs touched in the topic of international business are deemed unimportant for students at this level. Many of the teachers emphasised the introduction of e‐commerce into the curriculum given the present widespread internet usage and globalisation. Six teachers were dismayed that Business Studies was more theoretical (non‐engagement in practical work) than practical‐based. Questions arose as to the possibility of school leavers, armed with only theoretical knowledge, being able to become entrepreneurs as they were not exposed to any business experiences. Teachers felt practical work should be incorporated because this is an applied subject by nature. An internship could be useful in providing practical work experience but the teachers were sceptical as to the logistics in getting students to go through such a phase in the limited schooling time allocated. A very vague area in the curriculum is that skills and values were not explicitly stated in it but some teachers were proactive about these. They teach the theoretical aspect of skills and values of what students should possess for the business environment based on the teachers’ own interpretation of the syllabus. Some teachers tried to provide some form of practical exposure of the skills or values through their own initiatives, as shown in the following excerpts from the interviews: Participant T3 said: “My students and I, everytime there is a function in school, I will tell them to take part in business (to sell some products to earn money)”. “…early of the year, I asked them (students) to build [sic] a small business, then asked them to develop a product, market it, and write a report on it…” Participant T7 said: “On entrepreneurship day (as held in schools), they (students) know [sic] what to sell and how to advertise”. Seven teachers felt the curriculum was successful in producing students with entrepreneurial skills and values, while the rest of the teachers were sceptical about this. The latter felt students were only equipped with the theoretical aspect and armed with entrepreneurial knowledge; thus they could only work for employers. The entrepreneurial skills could only be obtained if the students have gone through practical work. Kolb’s experiential learning model (Kolb, 1984) stated the importance of experience in the learning process. The teachers further suggested an aptitude for and good attitude toward business and entrepreneurship in students would ensure a higher rate of success in the business environment. Integrity and hard work were also values to inculcate in students entering the business world; the participants felt that students themselves need to have the entrepreneurial drive if they want to succeed in this field.To overcome the problem of time constraint for practical work such as internship, some participants suggested business simulation using business software to overcome the problem. All participants agreed that Marketing is important but the coverage in the curriculum for this level was too wide. The topic on communication did not emphasise communication with clients and fellow workers, and thus should be rectified. Another skill mentioned by some participants was ‘Problem Solving’ skill; only two of them said the students obtained such skills through this subject, while the rest said students do not grasp or were very poor at it. Four teachers perceived the curriculum provided opportunities to inculcate teamwork among students. Such low perception showed teamwork was not clearly stated as one of the skills to be formally taught to students. The needs analysis continued with interviews using the same protocol for teachers on ex‐students of the Business Studies curriculum. All eleven ex‐students (S1‐S11) were in agreement that they gained knowledge of business through this subject, with two of them (S3 and S11) saying that they could apply what they have learned to the real world as well as in everyday life. Four of them (S1, S4, S9, and S11) felt what they have learnt was sufficient and there was no necessity to discard any topics in the curriculum. S4 and S5 stated that they have only skimmed the surface of many topics and would have preferred more emphasis be given to the content of certain topics such as Leadership and Problem solving. S4 preferred a reduction of topics as it would provide more time to concentrate on topics deemed important for examination. Interestingly, three of the students (S1, S2, and S3) who have already started working felt that this subject was too theoretical and should have some elements of practical work. 26
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S1 at S1/C/W/13 said, “The weakness (of Business Studies) is we learnt only (the) theory (aspect). But luckily, (my) teacher did one week of practical.” S3 at S3/C/W/99 said, “For me, I see schools give very little practical for Business Studies…when we work, I see theory we learnt different, actually in companies, different (comparing real situation with what was learnt)….In school less practical.” The most frequent topic mentioned by the students (S2‐S7) was “Leadership”. Three of the students (S2, S6, and S7) complained that more emphasis should be given to this topic as they felt they needed such skills at the institutions of higher learning and work. S7 at S7/C/W/36‐40 said, “(It) is very important (Leadership), ... scope not enough (was not emphasised much while in school)”. Another significant topic was ‘Information Technology’ where they (S1, S5, S6, and S9) felt e‐business should be taught instead of just an exposure of what information technology was all about. This was similar to the opinions of teachers. Three students (S1, S5, and S6) proposed the topic “Cooperative and non‐profit organisations’ be discarded and another (S2) felt it was of not much importance though it can be introduced to students. Only one student (S3) felt this topic was useful as this student had experience working part‐time as a seller at a school cooperative. Some students (S3, S4, and S8) found the topic “ Finance’ useful when they furthered their studies and this can be seen from S10’s opinion that there was insufficient time given to this topic while at school.Three students (S1, S2, and S10) felt the topic on management skill was good and two students (S6 and S7) wished more emphasis had been given to it as they felt the skills learnt in this topic would be useful to them when they joined the workforce. Eight out of the ten participants felt they needed more coaching on the “Communication” skill, with only participant S3 saying he had a good grounding in communication skill. Entrepreneurial skill was found lacking by five participants (S1, and S5‐S8) even though eight students said they have been exposed to this. They hoped more emphasis would be given to improve students’ communication skill. Nine of them suggested ‘Practical work’ should be incorporated into the curriculum, such as in the form of some small business activities for a short duration after school or during school holidays. Four students (S2, S3, S4, and S7) asserted “Personal interest” (attitude) in business as crucial to a student’s success in learning business. Three students (S1, S2, and S3), who had gone through some practical work while in Form Six, said they have been taught skill catering to “Customer satisfaction” and thus found this skill to be useful for the future working world. Two students (S4 and S9) who did not have any practical work experience felt they needed this skill as well to ensure success in business and working life. Another skill highly looked upon is the “Problem solving” skill. Six of the participants, with two advocating ‘Problem Solving’ skill strongly, said that Business Studies had provided them with such a skill. They also felt that they had managed to learn to work as a team to solve problems within a given time frame. As such, they had also learnt time management too. Only one participant (S3) felt he has acquired the “Creative” skill, which according to the literature reviews is important for an entrepreneur. Three other participants (S1, S4, and S5) mentioned they have learnt the technique to be creative but they find it difficult to be creative and hoped more emphasis should be devoted to cultivating this skill.They voiced: S1 at S1/S/Cr/37 said, “…creative thinking skill less, not enough…” S5 at S5/S/Cr/132 said, “…creative and innovative. Difficult to make oneself be so…” Overall, most of the skills were said to have been exposed to students for Business Studies but the students do 27
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not have much confidence with regard to actually putting the skills into practice. Here are some examples of student feedback: S10 at S10/C/W/48 said, “…Need some practical work. Even if it is just role play, it doesn’t matter. Actually, the most difficult is how to do it (put into practice what is learnt in future).” S11 at S11/C/W/51 said, “In terms of business planning, what have done (learnt) in Form Six, (I) still can’t do it.” In terms of values, all participants said they have been exposed to values, though two of them said the values were implicitly inculcated and one participant said it should be introduced formally. Interest, honesty, motivation, responsible, and integrity were some of the most frequent values mentioned as having been inculcated in the students and important to them. Participant S1 asserted that “hardworking, never give up and integrity” were values or attitudes deemed very important to be introduced to students to ensure they will conduct their businesses righteously and virtuously. “Internship” was suggested by four participants (S1, S2, S5, and S6) as a way to overcome the problem of not being skilful by the time students enter institutions of higher learning. However, two students (S4 and S7) felt internship was limited by the time constraint. This could be overcome by having small scale practical work or carrying out some form of business activities after school hours, or as suggested by eight participants, ‘Simulation’ could be used to get students exposed to methods of handling businesses in different situations. Simulations could be done at home or during schooling hours. Six participants (S1, S2, S5, S9‐S11) felt that ‘Leadership’ skill was very important to be taught to equip students to lead their subordinates or teammates when they join the workforce. Another topic which interested the participants was ‘E‐business’. Six of them mentioned that ‘E‐business’ should be taught as nowadays a lot of business is carried out online or virtually. CONCLUSION The needs analysis conducted in this study shows that skills, values (and attitudes) and content need to be looked
at in the design and development of a curriculum. The conceptual framework for the Business Studies curriculum is as
shown in Figure 1.
Skills Values & Attitudes Business Studies Curriculum
A business student or entrepreneur Content Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Business Studies Curriculum.
Many of the needs mentioned by ex‐students were quite similar to the needs of the teachers. Teachers’ and ex‐
students’ perceptions of the present topics in the Business Studies curriculum were relevant but there was a need to revamp certain topics due to lack of substance, and to discard a topic or two considered as not a necessity to learn at Form Six level. The result showed a strong need for some form of practical work to ensure students are able to apply what they have learnt. There were mixed perceptions as to what form of practical work to be carried out as some stated internship did not seem practical for schools given the time constraints and they preferred business simulations. Further study is necessary to look into the values and practicality of internship. The participants found Business Studies 28
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emphasised theory when this subject needs “hands‐on” experiences. Students who have gone through some practical lesson in business conducted by a more “hands‐on” kind of teacher found that they enjoyed and remembered what had been taught. They were able to apply what they had learnt to actual business situations. The topic on “e‐commerce” was regarded by many participants as a necessary topic to be taught. Teachers and ex‐students perceived “Communication”, “Leadership”, and “Problem solving” skills as crucial to students’ success in the business world. The skill on “creativity” was taught in the syllabus but the students felt they had not acquired the skill. As the curriculum does not have black and white documented instructions to teachers on skills and values to be inculcated in students, teachers taught what they felt were necessary, but this could cause dissimilar results between what was intended by the Malaysian Examination Council with what was implemented and what was actually experienced by the students. Marsh and Willis (2003) defined curriculum as all planned “learnings” for which the school is responsible, yet there exist now different teachers planning different skills and values to teach due to the lack in the curriculum. This needs analysis phase demonstrated a strong need to revamp the Business Studies curriculum to ensure the curriculum objectives, namely to prepare students to enter institutions of higher learning and / or produce entrepreneurs, were met. The result of this analysis showed an undeniable reason to modify and revamp the curriculum. Further study on the other stakeholders of this curriculum is very urgently needed to identify their needs and what is needed by the future business environment. The Malaysian Examination Council, as the developer of the curriculum, needs to take a serious look at the lack in the curriculum to ensure a comprehensive curriculum is developed.
REFERENCES Association of Asia-Pacific Business Schools. (2012). Business education in Asia Pacific. Context and
challenges. Queensland, Australia: Custom Publishing, University of Queensland.
Dow, J. L. (2002). The New Vocationalism: A Deweyan Analysis.(PhD, University of Florida).
Retrieved from http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0000525/dow_j.pdf
Dhesi, D., & Lee, K. S. (2011, 15 January 2011). Small businesses need big boost, The Star. Retrieved
from http://biz.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?sec=business&file=/2011/1/15/business/7774936
Keynote speech by YAB Dato' Sri Mohd Najib Tun Haji Abdul Razak, Prime Minister of Malaysia, at
the 8th World Islamic Economic Forum (WIEF). Last Updated : 27 Dec 2012.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Malaysian Examination Council. (1998). Business Studies: Syllabus and sample questions. Kuala
Lumpur: Percetakan Warni.
Marsh, C. J., & Willis, G. (2007). Curriculum: Alternative approches, ongoing issues. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Rao, S. S. (2008). Globalisation, affirmative action and Higher Education reforms in Malaysia: A
Tightrope Walk between Equality and Excellence. The Asian Scholar(5).
Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). Research methods knowledge base. Retrieved from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/ 29
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Volume 1, Issue 4
Failure of ETeMS: The Teaching
Courseware Factor?
Mohd Nazri Latiff Azmi [1], Mahendren Maniam [2] [1] [email protected]
Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin
[3] Universiti Pendidikan Sultan
Idris
ABSTRACT
This study was carried out in response to the announcement of the reversal of the
ETeMS policy (English in the Teaching of Mathematics and Science) which had been
practiced by teachers in Malaysia since 2003. The Ministry of Education took a
drastic approach in gradually halting this controversial policy for several related
reasons, namely the poor performance of students and teachers in applying the
policy and also political pressure by Malay language activists. The main objective
of the study is to investigate whether or not the application of CALL (Computer
Assisted Language Learning), in this case is the application of teaching
courseware, is one of the contributing factors to the failure of ETeMS. This study
also investigated teachers’ perception of the teaching courseware
implementation in ETeMS. Fifty primary school key - personnel teachers of
Mathematics and Science were involved in answering the questionnaire because
they were experienced and fully involved in the policy implementation. The
findings showed that teachers were not committed to use the courseware for
several reasons. However, the teaching courseware is not the major contributing
factor to the failure of ETeMS.
Keywords:
CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning), ETeMS
(English for the Teaching of Mathematics and Science).
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is ETeMS? According to Alwis (2005), the English language has become a basic communication requirement for students and job‐seekers in this increasingly globalized world where it is, for now, the undisputed lingua franca. The issue here is not the importance of English. That is self‐evident and the education system must commit itself to making our students fluent in English. In fact, to become a developed country by 2020, Malaysians should not only become bilingual, but even trilingual. The real issue here is not only how we improve our children’s command of English, but also how we help them get educational benefits in mastering the language compared to that of not mastering the language. Many researchers believe that it most definitely is not through a poorly conceived policy such as ETeMS (the teaching of Mathematics and Science in English) but a better comprehensive policy which enables attraction of greater public acceptance of English (Pandian, 2004) The announcement to teach Science and Mathematics in English hogged the headlines in all the local media in 2002. The idea sparked by our former Prime Minister, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad proposed ETeMS as an urgent provisional action to ensure that teachers of Mathematics and Science will have basic capacity to use English as the medium of instruction. The Ministry of Education introduced several support mechanisms not only to encourage the Mathematics and Science teachers to further develop their English language competence to a level that will engender optimal performance in and outside the classroom but also to enable them be more confident in using the language. The first batch of students involved in this pioneer project were Year 1, Form 1, Lower Six and Matriculation. Since the policy was really new, its implementation generated much debate among the general public, parents, political parties and even teachers on the effectiveness as it is still in the transition stage. According to Alwis (2005), many people are skeptical especially those who named themselves ‘language nationalists’ about its success citing reasons such as poor English language proficiency of teachers in these subjects and the lack of student interest in 30
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learning English. On the contrary, while discussions were being held with various groups, the government went ahead with its preparations to implement the policy. This is because the Ministry of Education presented the necessary infrastructure to enable teacher readiness in implementing the change. As a result, the policy was revised in 2008 (after the 12th General Election); eventually the government decided to reverse this controversial policy to its earlier language (Bahasa Malaysia) starting in January 2011. Beginning 2012, students in Year One and Year Four in primary schools, and Form One and Form Four in secondary schools, will learn Mathematics and Science in Bahasa Malaysia. The replacement of ETeMS is called MBMMBI (Empowering Malay Language, Enhancing English Language). 1.2 The Implementation of Teaching Courseware According to Ong (2004), the aim of using English in the teaching of Mathematics and Science is to enable students to acquire and slowly master the language while learning both subjects, as if “killing two birds with one stone”. However, a lot of educational issues (pertaining to teaching and learning) are important to take into consideration when the learning process takes place, especially when it involves students’ second language acquisition. In Malaysia, English is normally first introduced to students when they start school, either in preschool or Year 1. Since learning in these subjects may be constrained within a complex linguistic classroom; hence, the learning process inadvertently impairs students’ learning abilities. Similarly, according to Pandian (2004), other factors might also cause problems in learning Mathematics and Science through a second language, such as teachers who are not proficient in English and the lack of good Mathematics and Science textbooks in the English Language. From other points of view, learning in a second language is seen as unbecoming when children are in the process of encountering difficulty in interpreting the meaning of Mathematics and Science discourse. At the beginning of the policy implementation, all schools received a specially designed teaching and learning courseware for Mathematics, Science and English including special courseware for computers and LCDs for teaching. To support the policy, especially in acquiring additional reference resources and materials, each school was given a launching grant of RM 5,000 to RM 15,000. And, until 2009, 80% of Mathematics, Science and English teachers have been given laptops. Students received MyCD (Pupil's CD‐ROM) which contained interactive exercises (games, simulations and e‐test) and for teachers the Teachers’ CD‐ROM) which can be considered as text book packages. The main purposes of the teaching courseware are to be a model for pronunciation of scientific terms and act as teaching instruction especially for teachers who lack competency in English. Also, provided are a lot of interactive teaching information related to the topics. Meanwhile, a free internet access with selected vendor (e.g., Dynamic Inc.) was also available to improve teacher’s self‐development. The teaching coursware consists of 3,075 topics, 110 lessons for each subject (Mathematis, Science and English) and 18 special modules for teachers. 1.3 Objectives of the Study Basically, the study focuses on two major objectives; 1.3.1. To investigate teacher’s perception on several issues pertaining to the use of the ETeMS teaching courseware 1.3.2. To know the main reasons for the failure of ETeMS The first objective of this study is to gain an understanding of the teacher’s perception towards the courseware for teaching Mathematics and Science in English which is related to the content and design, the management, learning aspects and most importantly the contribution of the courseware to this policy. Based on the objectives, the researchers came up with two research questions. 1.4 Research Questions 1.4.1 What is teacher’s perception toward the courseware for teaching Mathematics and Science in English, the instructional content and design of the courseware, its ease of use, management of the courseware, motivation aspects of the courseware and learning aspects of the courseware? 1.4.3
1.4.2 What are the main contributing factors of the failure of ETeMS? Is the ETeMS teaching courseware the primary deciding factor in the failure of ETeMS? 31
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1.5 Limitations of Study Terengganu was chosen as the research site due to its superb performance in UPSR since 2000 especially in terms of number of students who score straight ‘As’. Therefore, the researchers would like to share Terengganu teachers’ opinions on the issue. The chosen teachers were directly involved in implementing the policy both in the classroom (teaching) and outside (preparing modules for teachers). However, they were not involved in formulating the syllabus and textbooks because they were not the policy makers. On the other hand, according to Spillane (1999, p. 144) teachers are considered as the final policy makers because they are the key agents when it comes to changing classroom practice. His idea is shared with Little (1999, p. 2) who stressed that reformation in education (classroom teaching and learning environment) totally depends on teachers‐‐ individually and collectively. Evidently, if the teachers are able to meet the challenges, educational reform will be easily and successfully achieved. Nevertheless, the study only concentrates on the implementation of ETeMS at primary school level of Terengganu because ETeMS has completed its cycle at primary level. Furthermore, the main variable which is AKRAM (Terengganu Special Key‐Personnel of Mathematics and Science) is more active at that level in ensuring that the performance of UPSR of Terengganu would be improved year by year. The focus is more on the implementation of the teaching courseware. 1.6 Statement of the problem The crux of the problem in ETeMS has been highlighted in many recent studies such as Norhashimah (2004), Rahimi (2007) and Ishak (2008), stating that the major deciding factors of ETeMS are teachers’ proficiency (it was found that one of the ways for Mathematics and Science teachers to deal with their proficiency problem in the English language was to code switch to their first language when teaching the subjects which has caused problems among students), the availability and roles of teaching courseware and the school management and teacher’s motivational aspects. A RM470,000 research done by 53 linguists from seven universities in December 2008, which involved 15,089 principals and headmasters and also senior assistant teachers found that ETeMS had caused multiple drawbacks among students (estimated 75%) in terms of grabbing the knowledge of Mathematics and Science besides affecting student interest and spirit in learning both subjects. Due to the above research findings, the researchers have decided to choose one of the factors that is the ETeMS teaching courseware, in order to know the validity based on Terengganu scenario with the assistance of the most reliable source‐ AKRAM. AKRAM is an acronym for ‘Angkatan Kerja Rajin dan Mulia’ (A Movement of Hardworking and Noble Teachers). They are the experienced Mathematics and Science teachers who have contributed a lot of effort in preparing educational materials to teachers and students in Terengganu. Furthermore, they are also in charge of planning for the betterment of both subjects. Following the implementation of ETeMS, millions of ringgit has been spent to produce Mathematics and Science teaching courseware. However, did the courseware benefit the teachers to improve their standard of English and their teaching both subjects? It is strongly believed that the teaching of Mathematics and Science would become more meaningful to the teachers and students when the use of technological tools can assist both parties in making the learning process become more relevant, enjoyable and understandable. Effective use of technology encourages a shift from teacher‐centered approaches toward a more flexible student‐centered environment as highlighted by SEAMEO Library (2003) which says that “A technology rich learning environment is characterized by collaborative and investigative approaches to learning, increasing integration of content across the curriculum and a significant emphasis upon concept development and understanding”. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW According to Little (1999), in shaping the education policy and then implementing it, the role of teachers should be clearly stated and evaluated. He explained that progress in educational reform rests in crucial ways on the capacity of teachers. This is to ensure that all important aspects in the planned curriculum would be achieved such as the visions of this policy, major changes in their knowledge and beliefs, as well as their instructional practices are required through the teacher’s professionalism (Putnam & Borko, 1997). Fullan and Hargreaves (1992), based on the empirical investigations of educational change in Canada, England, and the US, concluded that teacher development is central to successful change. In line with the above statement, Putnam and Borko (1997) stress that these transformations (the new teaching and learning approach) that teachers require are unlikely to occur without support (software) and guidance from experts. Therefore, to ensure the successful implementation of educational reform, the Malaysian government provided adequate support for teachers’ 32
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professional development (Ishak, 2008); one example is by providing them with the teaching courseware. To date, the implementation of ETeMS has been widely researched and academically discussed among teachers and academics, leading to a number of research articles on the language problems faced by primary and secondary students in ETeMS implementation. These include students’ language needs (Chan, 2003), lack of vocabulary and confusion with certain words (Hashimah, 2003) and difficulty in understanding non‐scientific terms in the scientific context (Saidi, 2004). Studies conducted on learner English language competencies have also been compared between the two critical subjects. Isahak (2008) who conducted a large scale study involving 3 903 Year 5 pupils in their fifth year of ETeMS revealed the following: 75% do not or barely comprehend teaching in English and find it difficult to learn; 80% of teachers used code switching and the students’ examination results in Science and English was poor with an average score of 4.08/14.0 and 11.87/31.0 respectively. Zarina (2009) in her qualitative study also found code switching occurring during classroom implementation of teaching Science in English. From another point of view, Da Costa (2003) mentioned that the value of educational teaching courseware in teaching and learning can be very helpful and valuable. The courseware can give students interactive activities and immediate feedback, control over their own learning process and access to difficult or impossible experiments. Furthermore, the teaching courseware not only can be used for individual self‐learning but is also able to promote collaborative or cooperative learning among the students. Therefore, various teaching and learning environments could be built and achieved. Eventually, learning would become fun and priceless to both parties. So, we can see that educational courseware is highly recommended in the teaching and learning process especially involving young learners (SEAMEO Library, 2003). According to Pillay (2004), based on the growing emphasis on technology, it is crucial to strengthen pre‐service teacher training and professional development in using ICT for the teaching of Mathematics and Science. By undergoing professional development courses, the Mathematics and Science teachers will upgrade their ICT knowledge and be updated on the trends and techniques of integrating ICT in Mathematics and Science teaching. More importantly, the teaching profession will be upgraded, well‐respected and also become a career for the highly motivated due to well‐
developed strategies in preparing the Mathematics and Science teachers to a very professional level. This will make available teaching and learning resources tailored to teachers’ needs. 3. RESEARCH METHOLOGY The study was conducted using the survey method: Answering a questionnaire (Likert‐scale and open‐ended questions) and studying thoroughly recent researches done pertaining to teaching Science and Mathematics in English. The population for this study comprised a group of teachers called “AKRAM” who have been teaching Mathematics and Science in primary schools, Mathematics and Science teachers and officers from district and state education departments. The study sample consisted of 63 participants (50 teachers (27 AKRAM, 23 non‐AKRAM members) and 13 state and district education officers). The officers only answered related questions in the questionnaire. 3.1 Instruments Apart from a new syllabus with specific modules and text books, in order to facilitate teaching, teachers should be able to apply the content of the teaching to everyday or real situations (Ishak, 2008) to explain steps in solving problems. Therefore, in accomplishing all these objectives, teachers need to have a good command of the language of instruction. In addition, they would need the ability to integrate ICT (teaching courseware) in their teachings and the knowledge to apply, utilize and exploit the teaching aids supplied by the Ministry of Education to make the learning experience of the students as effective as possible. Considering these factors, all Mathematics and Science teachers underwent a series of language and ICT courses. Besides that all of them were given a laptop, teaching courseware and supported by a “buddy support system”. Moreover, all districts were monitored and supervised by English Language District Officers and Course Coaches who visited schools and staged workshops. Therefore, the researchers investigated, collected and analyzed the data pertaining to the teaching and learning approaches using the ICT (courseware) utilizing an established form. The instrument used in this study for data collection is a “Courseware Evaluation Form” modified from the CAI Evaluation Form produced by Peter Desberg from California State University (available at http://www.csudh.edu/soe/ged535/CEF.html). However, the instrument was adapted for the local environment and the objectives of this study in order to ensure it was tailored to the purposes of the research and the suitability of the respondents. The questionnaires were distributed during the annual meeting of AKRAM (December 2009) and also at the Panel of Mathematics and Science Teachers’ Meeting (October 2009). 33
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4. ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS Based on the data analysis, the researchers found that the teachers showed favorable perception toward the courseware with an overall mean of 2.73, and standard deviation of 0.31. The courseware contents were found useful and supported their teaching process with Mean = 3.01, SD = 0.269. Moreover, the teachers perceived that the contents were designed properly and appropriately for the teaching and learning process (M = 3.00, SD = 0.33). Meanwhile, 71.7% of them noted that rubrics of the teaching procedures were included, 79.1% of them felt that they were clearly written, 76.2% of the teachers agreed that the courseware was easy to customize and prepare, 88.1% of them also noticed the use of variety in displays, sound and color in the courseware really help the teachers in teaching the subject; 83.8% of them agreed that users could navigate the courseware content easily and 60.6% of the teachers felt that students were able to understand the learning topics better using the courseware. Furthermore, 98.6% of teachers in the study believed the users would be able to understand the content easily as the lessons were presented in context and related to their prior knowledge; 83.6% of the participating teachers felt that the contents were concise and well‐grouped, while 94.2% of the teachers noted that the main points of the topics were emphasized to enhance student understanding. Based on the opened‐ended‐questions, Figure 1 shows that the respondents revealed that the failure of ETeMS was due to: Interference of political agenda 10 (16%), Teacher’s factors (mastering English 37 (59%), Text books/ICT 8 (12.7%), Student’s factors (weak in English 8 (12.7%)). Next, Figure 2 shows that Science teachers used the courseware more often than the Mathematics teachers; however, a large majority of both groups hardly use the courseware. Opened-ended-Questions
 The failure of ETeMS is due to: Interference of political
40
agenda 10 (16%),Teacher’s factors (mastering English 37
(59%), Text books/ ICT 8 (12.7%), Student’s factors (weak
in English 8 (12.7%)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Political agenda
Teacher’s factors
Text books/ ICT
Student’s factors
Figure 1. Reasons for failure of ETeMS. How often do you and your colleagues use the
teaching courseware in the classroom?
25
Always
20
15
Sometimes
10
5
Seldom
0
Maths
Science
Figure 2. Usage of the ETeMS teaching courseware in the classroom. 34
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The teaching courseware which consists of Mathematics and Science topics (according to textbooks and workbooks) and English topics were used according to the weekly and monthly timetable. The courseware is full of animation and presented in exciting ways incorporating games, sound effects and integrative question‐answer responses. The teachers also give various perceptions on other related matters; in terms of courseware management aspect they found it less impressive with Mean = 2.59, SD = 0.39. Some 72.1% of the teachers believed that users could utilize the courseware independently; it proves that it might be one of the reasons teachers were reluctant to use the teaching courseware; 39.2% of the teachers felt that the courseware cannot be used effectively in groups while 44.1% of teachers commented that the courseware could not hold student attention and keep them on task. Nearly 80% of the teachers admitted that they practiced ‘code switching’ throughout the lessons due to their poor standard of English. Besides that, 73% of the teachers said that the courseware was unsuitable for LEP (Limited English Proficiency) students, as they were unable to understand the language used to deliver the content. Finally, 50% of the teachers expressed concerned over issues of maintenance and security because these, to them, have not yet been adequately addressed by the authorities. They were also worried about equipment malfunctioning. Evidently, the findings show the teachers’ inability to deliver the content effectively due to lack of expertise (in terms of terminology) and proficiency in the language. The lack of skills in using the technology may have negative effects on the students. These may lead to multiple effects, which may include testing the students’ endurance leading to lack of concentration among them. And this might result in lack of interest in the subject which will eventually cause poor performance in the subject. Within the limited time for implementation, the good students will no doubt become better but the low‐motivated and slow or poor learners will face a lot of problems not only in comprehending the subject content but also to score in the examinations. As a result of this, parents’ trust in the teachers or school too may diminish as many parents might conclude that the teaching of Mathematics and Science in English has caused their children’s poor performance in these subjects. In the open‐ended questions, the researchers found that the majority of respondents believed that the change in teaching practice was the consequence of change in the language of instruction. The teachers agreed that in order to compensate for students’ weakness in the English language, they had to take the role of a translator in class. So much so, the teaching environment moved toward bilingual delivery; eventually it defeated the purpose of using English as the medium of instruction for both subjects. They described their teaching in the class as using first the second language (English), and then they have to repeat and give the explanation again in Malay for the benefit of students with limited English proficiency. So, more time will be needed to convey the same concept compared to when Malay language was used as the medium of instruction. The respondents also shared their opinion that they still need more training in preparing themselves to teach Science and Mathematics in English especially in delivering instruction of Mathematics and Science in English and conducting question and answer sessions with students in English or in devising new strategies for teaching the two subjects. The respondents also agreed that teaching time for Science and Mathematics may need to be increased in view of the ETeMS. It is recommended that teachers continue to carry out code switching when conducting their Science and Mathematics lessons. This has to be carried out due to the teacher’s lack of proficiency in English. In addition, teaching strategies may need to be modified so that students will not be denied a quality Science and Mathematics education; at the same time, the interest of learning both subjects can be sustained. In summary, the findings shows that the respondents agreed on the importance of English Language in everyday life as well as career opportunity; however they felt that learning Science and Mathematics was very difficult and demanding due to their lack of ability in understanding the subject matter and the language of instruction. The findings also indicate that learning Science is more difficult than learning Mathematics; there are challenges for the Science and Mathematics teachers to work wisely in order to overcome students’ learning difficulties and to promote effective learning among students. Due to many teachers’ factors such as unable to comprehend the English terminologies and rubrics, refusal to get involved in the Buddy Support System, low language motivation and being reluctant readers (to read English prepared texts), teachers’ factors seem to contribute more to this problem compared to that of the teaching courseware. 5. CONCLUSIONS The respondents agreed that courseware evaluation (upgrading and the use of latest software) is considered a crucial activity in evaluating the use of information technology for educational purposes. Teachers generally exhibited positive reactions towards the instructional content and courseware design. The sophisticated and latest technology which is portrayed in different elements of content and design are able to present stimulating information to motivate and assist the learners for information retention and recall. However, the other arising problems such as code switching and teachers’ perceptions on using their first language when teaching Mathematics and Science should be put into 35
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consideration in the first place during the initial years of ETeMS implementation. Analysis also revealed that most of the teachers involved in this study agreed that the courseware is useful for teaching and learning. However, some of them thought that certain courseware aspects and components need to be improved. Based on the findings from this study, there is room for improvement to fulfill the student needs throughout the ETeMS policy implementation; therefore, it is essential to note that the teaching courseware needed to be revised. Overall, some identified weaknesses of the courseware are the technical problem, late delivery of the courseware to schools and less variety of teaching and learning levels BUT the failure of ETeMS is not due to teaching courseware provided by MOE; it is attributed more to human (teacher) factors. In other words, as shown by this study, the teachers were not competent enough to shoulder the responsibilities and also lacked self‐confidence in carrying out this monumental task. The findings of this study may be useful for policy makers and implementers to continue planning and monitoring the future of critical subjects such as Mathematics and Science. This is to ensure that the Malaysian education system will not be left behind and that Vision 2020 aimed at making Malaysia a developed nation by 2020 will be successfully achieved. REFERENCES Alwis, C. D. (2005). Attitude of Form Two students toward learning Science in English: A case study of schools in Kota Samarahan. Prosiding Seminar Penyelidikan Pendidikan Maktab Perguruan Batu Lintang, 15‐16 September 2005. Clarkson, P. C. (2004). Teaching Mathematics in Multilingual Classrooms: The Global Importance of Contexts. In I. P.Cheong, H. S. Dhindsa, I. J. Kyeleve & O. Chukwu (Eds.), Globalisation trends in Science, Mathematics and Technical education (pp. 9‐23). Brunei Darussalam: Universiti Brunei Darussalam. Da Costa, L. A. (2003). Exploration guides for educational software: Are they helpful? Proceedings of the International Conference on MICTE 2003. [online] Retrieved from http://www.formatex.org /micte2003/ micte2003.htm Little, J. W. (1999). Teachers’ professional development in the context of high school reform: Findings from a three‐year study of restructuring schools. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, 20–22 April. Ministry of Education. (2002). English for teaching mathematics and science (ETeMS): Facilitator’s note. Kuala Lumpur: English Language Teaching Centre, Teacher Education Division. Ong, S. L. (2004). Preparing preservice teachers to teach Science in English. Diges Pendidikan, 4(1), 23–31. Pandian, A., & Ramiah, R. (2004, December). Mathematics and Science in English Teacher Voice. The English Teacher, 33. MELTA [Online] Retrieved from http://www.melta.org.my/ET/2004/2004‐50.pdf Pillay, H., & Thomas, M. (2004). A Nation on the move: From chalk face to laptops. Malaysia: English Language Teaching Centre, Ministry of Education [Online] Retrieved from http:// eltcm.org/eltc/Download/paperbank Putnam, R., & Borko, H. (1997). Teacher learning: Implications of new views of cognition. In B. J. Biddle, T. L. Good & I. F. Goodson (Eds.), The international handbook of teachers and Teaching (pp. 1223–1296). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer. SEAMEO Library. (2003). SEAMEO‐Australia Project on Pre‐Service Teacher Training and Teacher Professional Development in the Use of ICT in the Teaching of Mathematics and Science. Retrieved from http://www.seameo.org/vl/library/dlwelcome/projects/ictmath03/useofict.htm 36
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Spillane, J. P. (1999). External reform initiatives and teachers’ efforts to reconstruct practice: The mediating role of teachers’ zones of enactment. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31, 143–175. Zarina Suriya Ramlan. (2009). Change in the language of instruction in the teaching of Science in English. Ph.D thesis, Faculty of Education, University of Malaya. 37
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Volume 1, Issue 4
Teachers’ Planning and Preparation for
Lesson Plan in the Implementation of
Form 4 Physical Education Curriculum for
the Physical Fitness Strand
Syed Kamaruzaman Syed Ali [1] ABSTRACT
This article is related to the study of lesson planning prepared by secondary school
Physical Education teachers in the Gombak district. Findings of the study show
that Physical Education teachers have prepared lesson plans at satisfactory level
(M = 4.13; SD = 0.79). All elements within the lesson planning components
achieved high mean scores. The elements include topic of lesson (M = 4.50; SD =
.65); sub topics (M = 4.28; SD =.81); lesson objectives (M = 4.36; SD = .69);
preparation of teaching materials (M = 4.08; SD = .88); reflection (M = 4.37; SD
=.70); and teaching activities (M = 4.00; SD = .82). It was also found that teaching
activities planned by teachers consisted of set induction, warming up,
demonstration by teacher and students, class exercises, group exercises, simple
games, stretching or recovery, questioning or discussion, assessment and tasking.
On the whole, the aspects of planning and preparation among Physical Education
teachers towards lesson planning components were more inclined toward the
element of teaching topics.
Keywords:
Lesson Planning and Preparation, Physical Education
INTRODUCTION
Physical Education (PE) has long been a sub part of curriculum implemented at school level (Langford & Carter, 2003). In Malaysia, the curriculum of PE was implemented in secondary schools since the implementation of the Secondary School Integrated Curriculum (SSIC) in 1989. The contents of SSIC were planned and organized based on the syllabus and description of the physical education syllabus (Curriculum Development Centre, 1999, 2001). According to the syllabus and description of physical education syllabus, the contents of PE in secondary schools were systematically organized to be learned by students from Form 1 until Form 5. For the PE curriculum contents designed for Form 4 students, a number of topics must be revealed to students. The topics are related with the physical fitness strand that includes cardiovascular endurance, muscular endurance and muscular strength. PE teachers who teach Form 4 students must properly implement the physical fitness strand so that the determined objectives are achieved. Problem Statement In implementing the Form 4 PE curriculum for the physical fitness strand, PE teachers must execute the teaching and learning process according to the determined learning areas such as the components of cardiovascular endurance, muscular endurance and muscular strength. To ensure that the teaching and learning process can be implemented appropriately, PE teachers must make proper lesson planning beforehand. However, based on a supervision report from the Curriculum Development Centre (2007) about the implementation of PE in several schools in Kelantan and Sabah, it was found that some PE teachers did not accord with the daily planning and existing curriculum as well as did not write proper daily lesson plans. Apart from that, some PE 38
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teachers were found to train the school sports team during PE teaching periods. Also, some teachers were found to be just monitoring students during PE classes, not to mention those who just let other teachers take over their PE periods for other subjects. It is evident from these portrayals that if PE teachers properly devise their lesson plans, it will help them to conduct the teaching and learning process in an organized manner. Therefore, planning and preparation for teaching and learning is vital and must be done by PE teachers before conducting lessons. According to Schemp (2003), reliable teachers are those who always plan and make preparations for their teaching. Based on a study by Hill and Brodin (2004), lesson plan is one of the main aspects in preparation to teach PE. This statement is in accordance with Seman (2005) who stressed that teachers must make preparations in terms of lesson plans. In addition, lesson planning is one of the competencies an educator must possess in order to produce an effective teaching (Yusnita Yusof, 2006). Hence, the researchers intend to conduct a study to find out the extent to which PE teachers in secondary schools within the Gombak district have planned their teaching and learning sessions in line with the implementation of the Form 4 PE curriculum for the physical fitness strand. Planning and Preparation of Teaching and Learning Teaching is a complex process that requires various activities to ensure learning process to be successfully implemented. The process involves combination of activities between teachers and students (Siti Hawa, Mazlen, Norasmah, & Zamri, 2006). For that reason, efficient and thorough planning must be made first before implementing the process of teaching the Form 4 PE for the physical fitness strand. Teachers must plan their lesson before starting their teaching (Zaidatol Akmaliah & Habibah, 2000). This implies that planning is an important matter that must be done by PE teachers before teaching. As what Bailey (2003) explained, planning is a task for teachers that directly stays under their control. According to Johnson (2007), planning can control teaching to ensure that student learning objectives are achieved. Wandberg and Rohwer (2003) stated that the success of teaching is derived from effective planning. Bailey (2003) also stressed that effective planning is a significant factor towards effective teaching performance. This implied that planning is the focal key towards satisfactory construction of teaching. Planning consists of all intellectual functions and vital decisions that will be made during actual teaching. This comprise the selection of contents, aims and objectives, tasks designed for students, students’ needs, appropriate teaching activities, assessment, as well as selection and preparation of teaching materials (Kellough, 2007). Apart from that, teaching techniques also plays an important role for PE teachers when planning and preparing lesson plans. Ysseldyke, Spicuzza, Kosciolek, and Boys (2003) stressed that identifying and implementing effective teaching techniques is the very first step for teachers in increasing student achievement. Therefore, arranging and determining teaching and learning activities including aspects related to teaching techniques is an important task for teachers (Abdul Rahim, 2007). Planning and preparation must be executed properly. According to Abdullah Sani, Abdul Rashid, dan Abdul Ghani (2007), systematic and thorough planning and preparation will enhance the teaching and learning process. According to Lipira, Light, Gillespie, Sims, and Jackson (1999), PE teachers should spend some time to plan their teaching. Planning of teaching will assist teachers to prepare lesson plans which are useful as guidance when implementing the teaching and learning process (Raja Ismail, Salleh, Anuar, & Mohd Yusof, 2008). Without lesson plans, PE teachers will not have a clue what they are supposed to do when facing students (Mohnsen, 2003). Planning includes the preparation in aspects such as class physical environment and selection of materials (Hughes, 2002). Planning will also involve selection of teaching strategies, methods, techniques, activities and teaching materials in accordance with the achievability of objectives (Mohamad Idris, 2002). Hence, in planning, PE teachers must make preparations pertaining to resources and teaching materials as well as adequacy and sufficiency of equipment before implementing Form 4 PE teachings for the fitness strand in schools. Meanwhile, Kauchak and Eggen (2003) identified that resources and materials, allocation of teaching periods, lesson contents and teachers as variables in planning of teaching aspects. According to Olivia (2005), planning for teaching must include specifying the teaching aims and objectives, selecting teaching stretagies, lesson resources and techniques to assess teaching. This shows that in planning of teaching aspects, apart from identifying the resources and teaching materials, planning of teaching periods and lesson contents, PE teachers must also set the lesson aims and objectives, select teaching strategies, and determine the assessment techniques to be used in the teaching and learning process of PE for Form 4 students within the fitness strand. Macfadyen and Bailey (2002) proposed for PE lesson plans to contain specific activities, short term objectives and teaching strategies. Their proposal was in accordance with Mohd Sofian (2005) and Wee (1998), in which the former 39
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recommended that PE lesson plans must include elements such as objectives, students’ readiness, values inculcation, teachers’ preparation, teaching details inclusive of steps and timing of teaching, learning contents teaching and learning activities and notes. To compare, the latter recommended that PE lesson plans must comprise of dates, time, class, number of students, skills, equipment, prior knowledge, objectives and teaching details consisting of elements such as warming‐up class tasks, class group tasks, simple games, closure, class supervision and notes. Cavallini (2006) further stressed that teachers must state the objectives, teaching elements, psychomotor elements and students’ assessment while writing their lesson plans. The written objectives need to possesss direct associations with the planned teaching activities (Mohnsen, 2003). All the elements contained in lesson plans are vitally functional for PE teachers. If those elements were not prepared beforehand, it will be difficult for PE teachers to implement a proper teaching and learning process. Besides that, to plan their lesson, PE teachers must possess appropriate knowledge and skills. According to Cruickshank, Jenkins, and Metcalf (2003), knowledge and skills in planning are required to ensure students are able to think better. Also, Efklides (2008) stressed that planning for teaching is an important aspect in teaching and teachers can plan their teachings according to their preferences. Planning for teaching needs ample time to ensure production of effective lesson plans (Macfadyen & Bailey, 2002). A study by Matanin and Collier (2003) has proven that planning for teaching requires time consumption of between 6 to 8 hours per week and 2 to 3 hours per night. This attests to planning as a vital aspect that must be committed by PE teachers before the implementating teaching and learning. METHODOLOGY Framework This study employs descriptive framework and is intended to research the extent to which PE teachers have prepared their lesson plans before implementing the teaching and learning process in implementing the PE curriculum for Form 4 students within the aspects of physical fitness strand in secondary schools in Gombak district. Descriptive framework was utilized purposely to provide systematic explanations pertaining to the facts and characteristics of a certain population or preferred areas factually and accurately (Sidek, 2002). Population and Research Sample The population for this study consists of PE option teachers who taught PE subject for Form 4 students in secondary schools throughout Gombak district, Selangor. A total of 54 PE teachers were identified as respondents; of these, 50 were from government secondary schools, 2 from technical secondary school and another 2 from integrated boarding school (Educational Planning, Policy and Research Division, 2008). The researchers had gone to all the above mentioned schools and met face to face with all 54 probable respondents. From 54 respondents, 52 were willing to cooperate and agreed to become subjects for this study. Therefore, 52 research instruments were distributed for the purpose of data collection. Some 50 respondents managed to complete all the given instruments while another 2 did not and therefore become outliers for this study. With the sum of completed instruments, the researchers managed to acquire 93% of the whole sample of the district’s PE teachers. This percentage is sufficient to represent the research population in Gombak district. According to Gay (1981), the minimum sample required for a descriptive study is at least 10% of the total number of researched population. According to sampling procedure as mentioned above, it also can be inferred that the researchers had employed the convenience sampling in selecting samples for this study. Convenience sampling was chosen for its easily manageable and administered nature, and because it fulfills the research sampling method (Azizi, Shahrin, Jamaludin, Yusof, & Abdul Rahim, 2007). This method can also be utilized on respondents who voluntarily cooperate as identified by researchers. Generally the convenience sampling also considers homogeneity of respondents that consisted of similar PE option teachers who taught PE to Form 4 students. Research Instrument This study employed a number of instruments to obtain research data. Questionnaires were used to collect demographic data. The instruments for the interview were in the form of a structured checklist used to acquire information related to PE teachers’ preparation in planning their teachings for Form 4 PE lessons for the physical fitness strand. 40
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Interview The interview session conducted for this study was in the form of a structured checklist. This type of method can ensure researchers collect uniform and directed data (Khalid, 2003). Questioning based on a checklist is popular and easy to be utilized as it can prevent interviewers from wasting their time to write or search for contextual contents as uttered by respondents. By having a checklist, researchers only need to tick feedback on a guided answer sheet (or by reviewing) questions from a prepared list (Mohamad Najib, 1999). This type of interview session was introduced by Hesse‐Biber and Leavy (2006) through a quantitative model as portrayed in Figure 1. Based on the model by Hesse‐Biber and Leavy (2006), the researchers asked specific questions for respondents to answer. Researchers must be careful not to touch on other agendas. Siegel (2006) stated that interviewing is one of the best methods to collect research data which is related to teaching strategies in PE. The researchers had used interviewing as one of the techniques to collect research data related to teaching strategies in PE. The instruments for the interview which was designed in the form of structured checklist, was constructed based on related theories, related research, the PE textbook, curriculum specifications for Form 4 PE and information from PE panels in secondary schools. Validity of Instrument In order to verify the validity of the questionnaire and structured checklist interview instruments, the researchers opted to formulate the content validity. The researchers have thoroughly reviewed and rechecked the sentences, wordings and appropriate arrangement of sentences to see whether or not they tally with the components in evaluation. This validity is a must to ensure that the instruments used can accurately evaluate the concepts to be measured (Azizi et al., 2007). For instance, when the study was conducted to observe how PE teachers plan their teachings in implementing the Form 4 PE curriculum for the physical fitness strand, the researchers inserted all topics related with the lesson topic. In measuring the construct of implementation of Form 4 PE curriculum for the physical fitness strand, the dimension of lesson planning was given attention in selecting the items. Thus, the content validity determination was carried out to ensure the statement items were suitable to measure the lesson plan in the implementation of Form 4 PE curriculum for the physical fitness strand. These items were checked in terms of their sentence structures, focus and terminologies. The more items that represent the dimensions for a certain construct or concept, the better its content validity will become (Azizi et al., 2007). 41
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After detailed scrutiny pertaining to the questions and statements in the instruments, the researchers executed 2 process phases to obtain content validity as suggested by Gurvitch, Blankenship, Metzler, and Lund (2008). In the first phase, the researchers sent the instruments to a panel of six members who possessed expertise in PE areas as well as in program assessment and measurement for they can provide reviews and feedback on the instrument items. This is because instrument construction is a complex task and technical in nature therefore expert opinions in related fields are very much required (Stufflebeam et al., 1985). Azizi et al. (2007) also stressed that the findings of content validity are derived from the consideration made by panel members to contemplate how far the instruments have fulfilled the standard. According to Thomas and Nelson (2001), content validity does not require statistical evidence and expert opinions within the related field are enough. After the instruments were repossessed, the researchers reviewed them and made necessary corrections based on critiques and recommendations by the panel. For the second phase of content validity, the researchers distributed the reviewed and corrected instruments to 2 PE teachers for completion. While providing responses, the teachers were also encouraged to note any inconsistency or error regarding the statements and questions that they can detect, as well as informing of any statement or content that they found unclear. The second phase was the final step in the validation process (Gurvitch et al., 2008). Respondents who were involved in the second phase validity process were not included in the actual study. Reliability Reliability is a fundamental point in qualitative research (Armstrong, Gosling, Weinman, & Marteau, 1997). In this study, the reliability of instruments was calculated by using Cronbach’s alpha. According to Sekaran (2000) Cronbach’s alpha is the coefficient or reliability value that shows how research items are related with each other. If a coefficient value or index is nearing 1, it means high reliability (Boyle & Fisher, 2007). The minimum coefficient value or index is .60 (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007). The Cronbach’s alpha analysis was done using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (version 12.0) software. The data collected through the interviewing instrument (structured checklist) in this study were based on the determined research objectives. A pilot study had been done to obtain the reliability of the instruments as evident in Table 1. The pilot study was conducted in schools in Klang district, Selangor from February 2008 until June 2008 involving 30 PE teachers. During the pilot study, some feedback was gathered from some PE teachers. The researchers have improved the interview instrument based on the feedback received. The researchers had improved and adjusted questions in the interview so that respondents can have better comprehension when asked. After the instruments were improved, the researchers conducted a second pilot study and it resulted in a higher coefficient of reliability value. Feedback and responses from the pilot studies resulted in the researchers adapting the improved version of the instruments as the method to collect data for the actual study. Table 1 Coefficient and Reliability Value for Questionnaire and Interview Instruments
Variables /
Techniques
Questionnaire
Demograph
y
Lesson Plan
Structured
Checklist
Analysis
Techniqu
e
R
α
.801
R = Reliability To analyze the interpretations of mean values for the rating scale of 5‐‘Very Satisfied’, 4‐‘Satisfied’, 3‐
‘Somewhat Satisfied’, 2‐‘Not Satisfied’, 1‐‘Very Not Satisfied’, the researchers had divided them into three levels of High, Medium and Low (refer to Table 2). This method has been used by Rudzi (2003), Nik Mohd Rahimi (2004), and Mohamad Aderi and Rohani (2009) in their respective researches. Example of Calculation: 42
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Maximum Score = 5 Minimum Score = 1 Score Difference = 5 ‐ 1 = 4 Score difference divided with 3 levels, where 4 ÷ 3 = 1.33 Table 2 Categories of Implementation Levels Implementation Level
Total Score
Low
1.00 – 2.33
Medium
2.34 – 3.66
High
3.67 – 5.00
RESULTS Teaching and Learning Plan This section is to provide the findings from the interviews (structured checklist) conducted by the researchers about planning and preparation of PE teachers in relation to lesson planning aspects. Table 2 reveals the mean, standard deviation and PE teachers’ level of lesson planning. Table 3 Mean, Standard Deviation and Level of Planning and Preparation of Physical Teachers towards Lesson Plan (N = 50) Education Component of
Source Dimension
Lesson Plan
M
SD
Level
4.13
0.79
High
M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation Based on Table 3, it was found that the mean score value for lesson plan is at high level (M = 4.13; SD = 0.79). This result implied that PE teachers in secondary schools in Gombak district focus towards planning their teaching and learning in implementing the Form 4 PE curriculum for the physical fitness strand. Table 3 shows the mean, standard deviation and level of planning and preparation of PE teachers towards elements in lesson plan to further explain the elements in every lesson plan component made by PE teachers. Table 4 Mean, Standard Deviation and Level of Planning and Preparation of Physical Education towards Elements in Lesson Plan (N = 50) Elements in Lesson Plan
Lesson Topic
Sub-topics
Lesson / teaching objectives
Preparation of teaching
materials
Teaching activities [set
induction, warming-up,
teacher’s demonstration,
students’ demonstrations,
class tasks, group tasks,
simple games, stretching,
questioning/discussion,
assessment and assignment]
Reflection
M
4.50
4.28
4.36
4.08
SD
.65
.81
.69
.88
Level
High
High
High
High
4.00
.82
High
4.37
.70
High
Teachers Note. M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation 43
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Based on Table 4, all the elements in the lesson plan acquired high scores for mean values. The mean values in ranking from highest to lowest can be listed as: lesson topic (M = 4.50; SD = .65), reflection (M = 4.37; SD = .70), lesson / teaching objectives (M = 4.36; SD = .69), sub‐topics (M = 4.28; SD = .81), preparation of teaching materials (M = 4.08; SD = .88) and teaching activities (M = 4.00; SD = .82). On the whole, it was found that most PE teachers were inclined to focus on the lesson topic element in planning their lesson plans. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION It was found that in aspect of implementing Form 4 PE curriculum for physical fitness strand in secondary schools in Gombak district, the level of planning and preparation of PE teachers towards devising lesson plans were high (M = 4.13; SD = .79). The elements contained in the lesson plans were lesson topic, reflection, lesson / teaching objectives, sub‐
topics, preparation of teaching materials and teaching activities. For the teaching activities, related sub‐activities included set induction, warming‐up, teacher’s demonstration, students’ demonstrations, class tasks, group tasks, simple games, stretching, questioning/discussion, assessment and assignment. The findings of this study strengthen the research done by Aidun (1998) who stated that 66% of PE teachers in secondary schools in Kinta district, Perak reported that they know how to devise PE lesson plans. This is in opposition to Norliza’s (2001) study that found lesson planning aspects are still ineffective in terms of the implementation of Principles of Accounts subject. Therefore, the result of this study has shown that PE teachers who teach Form 4 students in Gombak district managed to devise lesson plan components satisfactorily, as proposed by Zaidatol Akmaliah and Habibah (2000) that teachers need to plan their teachings before starting any lesson. Planning for teaching is important and can assist teachers to be more confident to teach (Esah, 2004). In the aspect of planning and preparation, all teachers appointed to teach Form 4 PE especially related with the physical fitness strand must always plan and prepare their lessons appropriately and satisfactorily. School administrators must always supervise and monitor the PE teachers to ensure they have planned and prepared lessons appropriately before implementing the teaching and learning process. Planning and preparation include the aspects of lesson content, lesson objectives, lesson outcomes, teaching resources and materials, facilities and equipment. To enhance the skills of lesson planning and preparation, school administrators must conduct in‐house training in their respective schools. School administrators can utilize the expertise from PE Subject Main Coaches that have been appointed in each state to provide adequate training in the planning and preparation of PE lessons. REFERENCES Abdul Rahim Hamdan. (2007). Pengajian kurikulum. Skudai: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Abdullah Sani Yahya, Abdul Rashid Mohamed, & Abdul Ghani Abdullah. (2007). Guru sebagai pemimpin (Teachers as leaders). Kuala Lumpur: PTS. Armstrong, D., Gosling, A., Weinman, J., & Marteau, T. (1997). The place of inter‐rater reliability in qualitative research: An empirical study. Sociology, 31(3), 597‐606. Azizi Yahya, Shahrin Hashim, Jamaludin Ramli, Yusof Boon, & Abdul Rahim Hamdan. (2007). Menguasai penyelidikan dalam pendidikan: Teori, analisis & interpretasi data. Kuala Lumpur: PTS. Bailey, R. (2003). Teaching Physical Education. A handbook for primary & secondary school teachers. London, UK: Kogan Page. Boyle, J., & Fisher, S. (2007). Educational testing: A Competence‐Based Approach. Australia: BPS Blackwell. Cavallini, M. F. (2006). Who needs philosophy in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation 44
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& Dance, 77(8), 28‐30. Cohen, J. (1992). Quantitative methods in psychology: A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155 – 159. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2005). Research methods in education (5th ed.). London: Routledge/Falmer. Cruickshank, D. R., Jenkins, D. B., & Metcalf, (2003). The act of teaching (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw‐
Hill. Curriculum Development Centre. (1999). Sukatan Pelajaran Rendah dan Menengah: Pendidikan Jasmani. Rawang: Nohaz. Curriculum Development Centre. (2001). Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah: Pendidikan Jasmani. Cheras: Gempita Maju. Curriculum Development Centre. (2007). Laporan Pemantauan Pendidikan Jasmani dan Sains Sukan di sekolah‐
sekolah Negeri Kelantan. Unit Pendidikan Jasmani dan Sains Sukan. Bidang Kesenian dan Kesihatan. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. Educational Planning, Policy and Research Division. (2008). Bilangan guru Pendidikan Jasmani di Negeri Selangor. Putrajaya: Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia. Efklides, A. (2008). Metacognition: Defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self‐regulation and co‐regulation. European Psychologist, 13, 277 – 287. Esah Sulaiman. (2004). Pengenalan pedagogi. Johor: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E, & Airasian, P. (2006). Educational research: Compentencies for analysis and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pearson. Gurvitch, R., Blankenship, B. T., Metzler, M. W., & Lund, J. L. (2008). Student teachers’ implementation of model‐based instruction: Facilitators and inhibitors. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 27, 466‐486. Hesse‐Biber, S. N., & Leavy, P. (2006). The practice of qualitative research. London, UK: SAGE. Hill, G., & Brodin, K. (2004). Physical education teachers’ perceptions of the adequacy of university coursework in preparation for teaching. The Physical Educator, 61(2), 75‐87. Hughes, P. (2002). Principles of primary education study guide (2nd ed.). London: David Fulton. Johnson, D. A., (2007). Teacher planning, instruction and reflection. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 78(5), 11. 45
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Kauchak, D. P., & Eggen, P. D. (2003). Learning and teaching. Research‐based methods (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. Kellough, R. D. (2007). A resource guide for teaching K‐12. Boston, MA: Pearson. Khalid Johari. (2003). Penyelidikan dalam pendidikan. Selangor: Pearson. Langford, G. A., & Carter, L. (2003). Academic excellence must include physical education. Physical Educator, 60(1), 28‐33. Lipira, P., Light, A. M., Gillespie, R. W., Sims, C., Jackson, G. (1999). Should physical educators spend more time planning their lessons and less time planning their coaching? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 70(6), 20‐21. Macfadyen, T., & Bailey, R. (2002). Teaching Physical Education 11‐18. Perspective and Challenges. New York, NY: Continuum. Matanin, M., & Collier, C. (2003). Longitudinal analysis of preservive teachers’ beliefs about teaching physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 22(2), 153 – 168. Mohamad Idris Abdul Hamid. (2002). Kajian keperluan guru‐guru Sains sekolah rendah dalam aspek pengajaran Sains. Tesis Sarjana yang tidak diterbitkan, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Malaya. Mohamad Najib Abdul Ghafar. (1999). Penyelidikan pendidikan. Johor: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Mohd Sofian Omar Fauzee. (2005). Kaedah mengajar Pendidikan Jasmani. Shah Alam: Karisma. Mohnsen, B. S. (2003). Teaching Middle School Physical Education (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Norliza Hamzah. (2001). Kajian keberkesanan pelaksanaan kurikulum Prinsip Akaun di sekolah menengah. Laporan Penyelidikan yang tidak diterbitkan, Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Malaya. Olivia, P. F. (2005). Developing the curriculum (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Raja Ismail Raja Lope Ahmad, Salleh Abd Rashid, Anuar Din, & Mohd Yusof Abdullah. (2008). Pengajaran gaya penyertaan (Mosston) dalam Pendidikan Jasmani. Dalam Mohd Yusof Abdullah, Salleh Rashid, Raja Ismail Raja Lope Ahmad, Zulkifli Mohamed, Abdul Said Ambotang, & Sabariah Sharif (Penyt.). Pengetahuan pedagogi guru. Sabah: Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Schempp, P. G. (2003). Teaching Sport and Physical Activity: Insights on the road to excellence. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Sekaran, U. (2000). Research methods for Business: A skill building approach (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Wiley. Seman Salleh. (2005). Pelaksanaan pengajaran dan pembelajaran Bahasa Melayu: Kajian kes di sebuah sekolah 46
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rendah di Daerah Jerantut, Pahang. Jurnal Institut Perguruan Bahasa‐Bahasa Antarabangsa, 3(2), 27‐ 44. Sidek Baba. (2006). Pendidikan Rabbani: Mengenal Allah melalui ilmu dunia. Shah Alam: Karya Bestari. Siegel, D. (2006). Middle school students’ perspectives on three teaching strategies. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 77(8), 7. Siti Hawa Othman, Mazlen Arepin, Norasmah Othman, & Zamri Mahamod. (2006). Strategi guru novis dalam pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Dalam Norasmah Othman, Zamri Mahamod & Mohammed Sani (Penyt.). Kesediaan profesionalisme guru novis: Cadangan model latihan (hlm. 127‐141). Stufflebeam, D. L., McCormick, C. H., Brinkerhoff, R. O., & Nelson, C. O. (1985). Conducting Educational Needs Assessment. Boston, MA: Kluwer‐Nijhoff. Thomas, J. R., & Nelson, J. K. (2001). Research methods in Physical Activity (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Yusnita Yusof. (2006). Kompetensi pensyarah dalam proses pengajaran: Satu kajian di Politeknik Port Dickson. Koleksi Abstrak Penyelidikan Pengajian Siswazah. Kolej Universiti Teknologi Tun Hussein Onn, 157. Wandberg, R., & Rohwer, J. (2003). Teaching to Standards of Effective Practice. A Guide to Becoming a Successful Teacher. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pearson Education. Wee Eng Hoe. (1998). Pengajaran Pendidikan Jasmani dan Kesihatan. Shah Alam: Fajar Bakti. Ysseldyke, J., Spicuzza, R., Kosciolek, S., & Boys, C. (2003). Effects of learning information system on mathematics achievement and classroom structure. Journal of Educational Research, 96(3), 163 – 173. Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, & Habibah Elias. (2000). Pengajaran dan pembelajaran Perdagangan, Keusahawanan dan Ekonomi Asas. Serdang: UPM. 47
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Understanding of Parents and Adults on
the Down syndrome Female Sexual
Reproductive Health
Madhya Zhagan [1] ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to determine the understanding of reproductive health
among parents and female adolescents with Down syndrome.This cross-sectional
study involved 22 parents and 22 female adolescents with Down syndrome in Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia. The parents were required to fill up the socio-demographic
information in questionnaire forms.Scores of parents and female adolesecents
according to the socio-demographic data, the relationship between the
understanding of reproductive health among parents and female adolescents with
Down syndrome were determined. The result showing that both parents and
adolescents with Down syndrome scored the lowest on sexuality and sexual
reproductive awareness. There was a significant relationship between the
understanding and awareness of reproductive health among parents and female
adolescents where r = 0.480, and p < 0.05. There was no relationship between
time spent with child and understanding of reproductive health among parents
and female adolescents with Down syndrome. Thus Special Education and
Occupational Therapy programme on sexual and reproductive health should be
part of activity of daily life skills for individual with Down syndrome.
Keywords:
Understanding, Parents, Adolescents with Down Syndrome,
Reproductive Health
INTRODUCTION
Disabled people have sexual and reproductive health needs are the same as others. However, these people often face multiple barriers to getting information and services. This requirement is often overlooked or ignored by disabled people themselves and also those responsible for sexual and reproductive health (WHO / UNFPA 2009). Many people have misconceptions that people with disabilities are a sexual and have no sex life (Becker et al., 1997; Anderson & Kitchin, 2000). As humans, Down syndrome individuals have the right to achieve satisfaction in terms of expressing emotion in his sexuality in ways that conform to our culture (Van Dyke, D.C., McBrien, D. & Sherbondy, A., 1995). Basic Education and Social Reproductive Health Nationality, the Institute for Population and Family Development Countries (LPPKN) health education about sexual reproductive states corresponding to the age teenagers should be taught to all levels of society so that consciousness about reproductive health can be increased. This group intends Down syndrome were not excluded adolescents than health reproductive education. This group requires individual education about reproductive health at the appropriate age and time (Van Dyke, D.C., McBrien, D.M. & Mattheis, P.J., 1996). The World Health Organisation (WHO), reproductive health is the well‐being physically, mentally and socially, and not merely absence of disease associated with the process, function and reproductive system. It is the ability to establish a satisfactory sexual life, safe and free to make a responsible choice. Sexual health is an important component of reproductive health. It is the ability of male and female sexual activity in a responsible and safe whether pregnancy is desired or not. According to Winn, S., Roker, D. & Coleman, J. (1998), there are four interest‐related knowledge among adolescent sexuality that is, knowledge is very important for adolescent 48
psychological adjustment; knowledge is a prerequisite for safe behavior in which teenagers should know how to protect yourself from any threat; understand what is known by adolescents about puberty and sexual development is very important to design and evaluate programs of sex education in schools; knowledge is important because it allows teens to know what is happening in the world of sexuality. Overall, knowledge about puberty and sexuality is an important development for peace and development in a positive and healthy youth. The World Health Organisation (WHO), reproductive health is the well‐being physically, mentally and socially, and not merely absence of disease associated with the process, function and reproductive system. It is the ability to establish a satisfactory sexual life, safe and free to make a responsible choice. Sexual health is an important component of reproductive health. It is the ability of male and female sexual activity in a responsible and safe whether pregnancy is desired or not. According to Winn et al. (1998), there are four interest‐related knowledge among adolescent sexuality that is, knowledge is very important for adolescent psychological adjustment; knowledge is a prerequisite for safe behavior in which teenagers should know how to protect yourself from any threat; understand what is known by adolescents about puberty and sexual development is very important to design and evaluate programs of sex education in schools; knowledge is important because it allows teens to know what is happening in the world of sexuality. Overall, knowledge about puberty and sexuality is an important development for peace and development in a positive and healthy youth. The issue of reproductive health including menstruation, pregnancy, contraception, sexually outbreaks of disease, and HIV / AIDS (IFMSA 2008). Reproductive health issues are very focused and reasonable given the primacy of the country's development due to neglect of this issue may involve a very high boarding for care and prevention as the HIV / AIDS (Jariah 2009). With the knowledge of reproductive health, teens will be clear to the reproductive system, knowing their pubic portion, and also able to evade or protect the flogging himself rather than sexual or sexual harassment. Activity of Daily Life (ADL) is a component in one domain under the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework, namely areas of occupation (AOTA, 2008). Sexual activities and menstrual safeguards contained in the "toilet hygiene" is a component in the activity of daily life . This shows the Occupational Therapists play a role in teaching teens about the issue of Down syndrome reproductive health. OBJECTIVES The objective of this study was to determine the understanding of parents and young women with Down syndrome on reproductive health, determine the relationship between parents and the understanding of Down syndrome girls about reproductive health and quality of the relationship between the period spent by parents with the understanding of Down syndrome girl about reproductive health. Quality time refers to time spent together in doing something meaningful activities together, such as teaching about personal hygiene. The study is expected to help in providing a better understanding about reproductive health among young women with Down syndrome. Also to enhance public knowledge, especially the guardian or parent of teenagers with Down syndrome on reproductive health issues of adolescents in positive manner. METHODS
The Research Design and Respondents This study is a cross‐sectional study focusing on young women with Down syndrome and their parents. Sampling method used is purposive sampling. Respondents' parents (n = 22) and the respondent girl with Down syndrome (n = 22) in this study were from various parts of the institution, society, school and centere for adults with learning difficulties. Adolescent respondent selection criteria are: the subject is a girl with Down syndrome, aged 10‐17 years who have reached puberty, and live with their parents or mother / father. Parent respondent selection criteria are: the mother or the father of the subject. Although the WHO defines adolescents as those aged 10‐19 years, this study involved only young women with Down syndrome, aged 10‐17 years. This is because teenagers over the age of 17 years may give consent on his behalf to participate in the study. But for teenagers with Down syndrome, they have a degree of intelligence (IQ) that is different and has an intellectual disability. Although more than 17 years of age, they do not necessarily give consent on his behalf to participate in the study Research Ethics Committee, National University of Malaysia, Medical Centre , HUKM ( 2011). 49
The Research Instrument Demographic data form molded to obtain background of the respondents. Demographic form for parents to include personal data such as age, race, education level, family relationships, and quality time spent with children with Down syndrome in the day. Demographic data for adolescents with Down syndrome also includes data such as age and age at menarche started. This study used two questionnaires developed by the researchers, the Parent Understanding Questionnaire on Reproductive Health which has eight questions and uses Likert Scale and Questionnaire Understanding Female Adolescent Reproductive Health on the Down syndrome who had nine questions and has a dichotomous choice, namely "Yes" or "No". Face validity of both questionnaires was determined by two doctors and a guard at the Centre for Children with Disability Care Megah Park. Then, a total of 10 occupational therapists who have worked more than two years have examined the questionnaire for content validity index (Content Validity Index). 10 occupational therapists who have evaluated each question in both questionnaires based on the relevance, clarity, simplicity and uncertainty (ambiguity). All comments and suggestions from members of occupational therapy were considered and the content validity index was determined. According to Waltz & Bausell (1981), questions have content validity index will be maintained above 0.75, whereas the content validity index of less than 0.75 will not be used. After the content validity index analysis is done, each question in both this questionnaire has content validity index of more than 0.75. Therefore, all questions will be used in this study. Internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) for Parent Understanding Questionnaire on the Reproductive Health Survey 0.794 and the Understanding Adolescent Girl About Reproductive Health Down Syndrome is 0.668. The Research Procedure While waiting for ethical approval from the Research Ethics Committee of National University of Malaysia Medical Centre (HUKM), researchers find that the center has a teenage daughter with Down syndrome who meet the criteria for study inclusion. Upon approval of the Research Ethics Committee, the researchers sent a letter request permission to conduct research to a few centers with Down syndrome girls. After getting permission from the director of the center, respondents were selected based on inclusion criteria. Researchers obtain the phone number of the parent to teenage girls with Down syndrome from the teacher and make an appointment with them to answer a questionnaire study. Questionnaires about the understanding of parents and young women with Down syndrome on reproductive health are used. Parents and young women with Down syndrome who understand the purpose of research and agree to take part in the survey as respondents are given a consent form, demographic form and a questionnaire. Consent and demographic forms are filled in before starting to answer questions in the questionnaire form. If the adolescent has a problem when respondents answer questions in the questionnaire, parents can answer on behalf of children. The time required to answer the questionnaire depending on the respondent and no time limit for the questionnaire session. RESULTS A total of 22 parents and 22 young women with Down syndrome have agreed to participate in this study. Table 1 shows the sociodemographic data of parents and respondents girl with Down syndrome in this study. Based on respondents aged parents, it was found that the mean ± standard deviation age was 50.73 ± 6.29 years. For respondents aged girl with Down syndrome, the mean age was 13.95 ± ± 2.17 years. Of the 22 respondents were young women with Down syndrome, the mean ± standard deviation for age of menarche was 12:14 ± 1:55 those years. In terms of race, respondents in this study a majority of the Chinese nation with a percentage of 59.1%, while the Malays, Indians and others have a percentage of 13.6%, respectively. Based on the level of education, parents found all respondents had received formal education up to either primary, secondary, Diploma, or Bachelor. A total of 59.1% of respondent’s parents pursue their studies up to secondary school, 27.3% diploma, bachelor of 9.1% and 4.5% of primary school. Quality control period spent by parents with children, found that the mean ± standard deviation was 1.86 ± 3:59 hours. 50
Table 1 Features Sociodemographic respondent: parents and adolescent respondents Sosiodemographic n % 22 100 22 100 Age (years) Parents Female Down syndrome Adults 22 100 50.73 13.95 Age Menarche (years) Female Down syndrome Adults 3 13.6
6.29 13 59.1
12.14 2.17 3 13.6
3 13.6
1.55 RACE Chinese Indian Others 1 4.5 13 59.1
6 27.3
2 9.1 Secondary /High School Diploma 22 100 3.59 1.86 Duration & Quality Time Spent with Down syndrome Adults (hours) Sources of Information About Reproductive Health Parents Teachers Siblings Peers Televisyen/ Radio Others Education Leval Of Parents Degree Primary School SD Malay M 20 90.9
9 40.9
8 36.4
0 0 0 0 0 0 51
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Table 2 shows the Understanding Questionnaire score for Parents About Reproductive Health. Scores for each question are generally regarded as ordinal. Score one means 'Do not Know', a score of two means 'Not Sure', a score of three means 'Know little' four score and means 'Very Know'. As a result, it was found that the mean ± standard deviation for the total questionnaire score was 28.82 ± 3.54. Table 2 Descriptive analysis of questionnaire scores of parents understanding about reproductive health n (%)
Level of understanding
1
2
3
4
To what extent……
you understanding about the human reproductive
1 (4.5)
1 (4.5)
4 (18.2)
16 (72.7)
system?
your understanding of the physical changes in adolescence when they reach puberty?
1 (4.5)
0 (0)
8 (36.4)
13 (59.1)
your understanding about sexuality for
teenagers with Down syndrome
1 (4.5)
4 (18.2)
8 (36.4)
9 (40.9)
1 (4.5)
1 (4.5)
7 (31.8)
0 (0)
1 (4.5)
2 (9.1)
19 (86.4)
0 (0)
0 (0)
1 (4.5)
21 (95.5)
1 (4.5)
1 (4.5)
4 (18.2)
16 (72.7)
0 (0)
1 (4.5)
3 (13.6)
18 (81.8)
your understanding of what a sexually
transmitted disease?
your understanding of how HIV/ AIDS occur?
your knowledge on how to avoid unwanted
pregnancy? ( e.g., use of condoms, birth
control pills and others)
your understanding of reproductive health
issues such as menstruation,puberty and
contraception
your understanding of menstruation
13 (59.1)
Overall Score (M ± SD) = 28.82 ± 3.54
Internal Consistency = 0.794
Table 3 shows the scores Questionnaire Understanding Down Syndrome Female Teens About Reproductive Health. Each question has a dichotomous choice of "Yes" or "No". Each answer "Yes" is given a score. The sum of all the questions reflect an understanding of teenage girls about reproductive health of Down syndrome. As a result, it was found that the mean ± standard deviation for the total questionnaire score was 5.82 ± 1.65.
Table 3. Descriptive analysis of questionnaire scores about understanding Down syndrome girls on reproductive health n (%)
Yes
No
Are you ……
8 (36.4)
know the physical changes during puberty? (eg wind expansion virgin, 14 (63.6)
pimples, underarm hair, menstruation ...) know which part of your confidential member?
know what can cause you to get pregnant?
know how to wear sanitary napkins / pads?
know how to properly remove the pads?
washe the blood impression if exposed underwear?
know how to take care of personal hygiene during menstruation?
know how to protect themselves from the unknown man or that other than a family member? Overall score (M ± SD) = 5.82 ± 1.65
Internal Consistency = 0. 681
52
21 (95.5)
3 (13.6)
22 (100)
18 (81.8)
15 (68.2)
18 (81.8)
1 (4.5)
19 (86.4)
0 (0)
4 (18.2)
7 (31.8)
4 (18.2)
17 (77.3)
5 (22.7)
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Volume 1, Issue 4
To determine the relationship between parents with Down syndrome girls understanding of reproductive health, Spearman correlation test was carried out. This test shows that there is the relationship between parents with Down syndrome girls understanding of reproductive health, with effect size r = 0,480, p <0.05 (Table 4). Spearman correlation test was also carried out to determine the relationship between quality period spent by parents with Down syndrome girls understanding of reproductive health and the results are showing that not significant relationship. Table 4 Correlations between scores of parents and quality period of time spent by parents with Down syndrome girls understanding about reproductive health Pembolehubah
rs
p
Scores of parents
.480*
.024
Quality time spent
.078
.731
* p <0.05, statistically Exam ‐ Exam Spearman Correlationp DISCUSSION In this study, only 40.9% of parents who understand about sexuality issues among girls with Down syndrome. According to Siddiqi, S.U., Van Dyke, D.C., Donohoue, P. & McBrien, D.M.. (1999) and Shah, P., Norlin, C., Logsdon, V. & Samson‐Fang, L. (2005), there is a misconception among parents and society towards people with disabilities that they have no sexual needs because of disability, there is no risk of being victims of sexual abuse and does not require sex education and reproductive health. Guardian of the female intellectual disabilities need more information about sexual and reproductive health issues such as pain during menstruation, age of menarche, masturbating, eating at around menopause (perimenopause) and reproductive health services free of charge (Lin, L.P., Lin, P.Y., Hsu, S.W., Loh, C.H., Lin, J.D., Lai, C.I., Chien, W.C. & Lin, F.G., 2011). Parents and teachers need to equip themselves with knowledge of sexuality so that they are more confident and prepared to carry out education. Refer to Table 1, found the main source of information on reproductive health for young women with Down syndrome are the parents (90.9%), followed by teachers (40.9%) and siblings (36.4%). Since parents are the main source of reproductive health information, this study found that the relationship between parents and the understanding of Down syndrome girls on reproductive health (Table 4). This finding is supported by Wurtele, S.K., Kast, L.C. & Melzer, A.M. (1992) in which they brought back the study found that children taught by parents to show progress in skills demand to know the bad touch and personal safety skills compared with children who were taught by the teacher. Their findings also show that children who received sexual abuse prevention education at home and school are more skilled in recognizing a good touch and show the level of personal safety skills higher than children who only receive their education. In contrast, the findings Tegegn, A., Yazachew, M. & Gelaw, Y. (2008) showed that the main source of information on reproductive health is the radio (80.4%), followed by television (73%) and teachers (71.8%). These findings are contrary to their findings because in Malaysia, rarely discussed reproductive health issues through the media. So, parents, teachers and siblings play an important role in disseminating information on reproductive health to adolescents with special needs. From the study, there were 63.6% of girls with Down syndrome who was aware of physical changes during puberty, such as breast augmentation, pimples, hair in the armpits and genitals, and menstruation. According to Edward (2002) and Panda (2009), it is important for teens to raise awareness of themselves and also important to inform adolescents about body changes during puberty so that they can anticipate and be prepared to change before the change occurs. For questions that ask about where the parts of the body difficult, this study found a total of 95.5% of girls with Down syndrome know where the parts of their bodies hard. Adolescents with special needs should be taught at, and the names and functions of parts of the hard part. Parents play an important role in introducing the private parts of the body to the child and tell them that is part of the genitalia and should always be concealed from public view (Utusan Malaysia, 2007). Teens should also be informed that the members of the secret can not be touched by anyone in these parts like the liver and can only be touched in certain circumstances eg for cleaning purposes . Next to the question asking about how to protect themselves from men who are not known or that other than family members found about 77.3% of girls with Down syndrome who know how to protect themselves from men who do not know. This question is more focused on whether young women away from men with Down syndrome who do not know if the man known to approach or avoid contact of the unknown man. This is because most children with Down 53
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syndrome are warm and friendly with others. Many parents of Down syndrome girl respondents in this study said their children will not approach strangers but very close to the man who is a member of the family. Refer to Table 3, there were only 13.6% of girls with Down syndrome who knows how a woman becomes pregnant. This question had the lowest score among the eight questions in the questionnaire about Understanding Female Adolescent Reproductive Health. Most respondents knew girls with Down syndrome babies in the wombs of pregnant women but do not know how a woman becomes pregnant. Qazi study (2003) conducted in Pakistan showed 66% of girls know how a woman becomes pregnant. However, they do not clear the actual process of pregnant women. In the study of Jain & Khanna (2006), most young women do not realize that menstruation will stop during pregnancy. Lack of knowledge about how a woman becomes pregnant is because parents often have difficulty discussing sexuality with their children (Greydanus & Omar 2008). Knowledge about how a woman's pregnancy and what caused the pregnancy is important for young women with Down syndrome to prevent sexual abuse and unwanted pregnancies occur. With the knowledge about sexual and reproductive health issues, youth will be clear and conscious acts of others who do not properly dispose of themselves and will have the skills and strength to say no when faced with this situation. From the study,showed that all respondents of Down syndrome girls know how to wear sanitary napkins (100%). A total of 81.8% of girls with Down syndrome know how to properly dispose of pads, 68.2% wash their clothing if exposed to blood and 81.8% of girls with Down syndrome who know how to take care of personal hygiene during menstruation. Parents tell young women with Down syndrome need a reminder to take care of personal hygiene during menstruation such as changing pads, sanitary napkins with remove the paper and wash the blood stains on clothing with soap. Many young women with Down syndrome just wash the blood stain on clothes without using soap. This is supported by the Social Biology Resource Centre (1990) which states adolescent intellectual disability need a reminder to change the pads. According Scola & Pueschel (1992) and Kaur et al. (1997), with appropriate guidance, a girl with Down syndrome can manage personal hygiene during menstruation. Their findings were supported by Edward (2002)which states most girls with Down syndrome are able to manage menstruation. Teaching about personal hygiene during menstruation is important to people with Down syndrome because they are unaware that personal hygiene is not right will cause self‐smelly, uncomfortable and likely to get bacterial infection in the genital area (Social Biology Resource Centre 1990). CONCLUSION In conclusion, the study found that parents and young women with Down syndrome have the knowledge about reproductive health, but is not comprehensive. Adolescents with disabilities including intellectual disability youth not immune from sexual problems. Personal safety is a key point emphasized by parents and teachers of children with special needs. Therefore, these people should have access to information about sexuality, contraception, sexually transmitted diseases and a variety of topics related to safe behavior. Sexual and reproductive health education as a whole should be part of educational programs for individuals with Down syndrome. Level of individuals with Down syndrome have cognitive and learning styles differ, this learning process should be done on an individual basis based on the understanding and needs profession of occupational therapy intervention emphasizes a holistic and comprehensive form, then in the process of dealing with activities of daily living such as dressing, eating, toileting and social participation, an occupational therapists should focus on care menstruation and sexual activity of a client, especially for teenagers with special needs. In addition, occupational therapists also play a role in disseminating information on sexual and reproductive health to adolescents with special needs. REFERENCES American Occupational Therapy Association. (2008). Occupational therapy practice framework:
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