"Heat Release Rates of Burning Items in Fires." AIAA

(c)2000 American
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of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.
A004 6576
AIAA 2000-0722
HEAT RELEASE RATES OF
BURNING ITEMS IN FIRES
HYEONG-JIN KIM
and
DAVID G. LILLEY
Lilley & Associates
Route 1 Box 151
Stillwater, OK 74074
38th Aerospace Sciences
Meeting & Exhibit
lo-13 January 2000 / Reno, NV
For permission
1801 Alexander
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Bell Drive, Suite 500, Reston, VA 20191
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(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.
HEATRELEASERATESOF
BURNING ITEMS IN FIRES
HyeongJin
Kim* and David G. Lilley**
Lilley & Associates
Route 1 Box 151
Stillwater, OK 74074
ABSTRACT
Heat release rates of typical items in fires are needed
as a prerequisite for estimating fire growth and
temperatures in structural fires. That is, these burning
rates are required to be specified by the user as input to
single-room and multi-room structural fire computer codes
like FPETool, FASTLite and HAZARD. Data are given
here that permit burning items to be specified in a useful
modeled way, taking a t*-fire for the growth and decay
periods, with a constant maximum heat release rate
between these two periods.
release rate between these two periods. A vast range of
many items are considered. Detailed tabulation and
graphic display of the parameters (for each item during
experimental bums) permits fire modelers to initiate
calculations. Further knowledge enables the deduction of
when second and subsequent items may become involved,
whether flashover may occur, and when conditions may
become untenable. Thus, it is clear that many important
phenomena that are calculated in fires depend on the
quality and accuracy of the initial bum specification.
FUNDAMENTALS
INTRODUCTION
Computer codes are available that permit calculations
to be made of the effect of a given specified fire on the
subsequent environment in a structural fire. Things like
temperature of the smoke layer, its depth from the ceiling
downwards, its optical density, ceiling, wall and floor
temperatures, floor surface heat flux rate, etc are
calculated a a function of time in all the rooms of a typical
multi-room structural fire. However, the accuracy of these
calculations is strongly dependent upon the correctness of
the initial fire specifications.
Heat release rates of typical items in tires are needed
as a prerequisite for estimating fire growth and
temperatures in structural tires. That is, these burning rates
are required to be specified by the user as input to singleroom and multi-room structural tire computer codes like
FPETool, FASTLite and HAZARD, see Bukowski et al
(1989), Peacock et al (1994), and Portier et al (1996).
Data are given here that permit burning items to be
specified in a useful modeled way, taking a t2-fire for the
growth and decay periods, with a constant maximum heat
* Member AIAA
** Professor, Fellow AIAA
Copyright 1999 by D. G. Lilley. All rights reserved
Published by AIAA with permission.
Typically, the heat release rate (heat energy evolving
on a per unit time basis) of a fire 0 (kW) changes as the
size of the fire changes, as a function of time t (seconds)
after fire ignition. That is, the variation of ” G ” versus “t”
is extremely important in characterizing the rate of growth
of a fire.
Data are available for heat release rate vs. time for
many items, see for example Babrauskas and Grayson
(1992), SFPE (1995) and the data base in Bukowski et al.
Furniture calorimeter and cone calorimeter
(1989).
measurements are available, with data specifically for:
Pools, liquid or plastic
Cribs (regular array of sticks)
Wood pallets
Upholstered furniture
Mattresses
Pillows
Wardrobes (closets)
Television sets
Christmas trees
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
Notice that although data may well be available from
careful laboratory experiments, the data may not apply
directly to real-world fire situations. The laboratory data
does not usually take into account the enhancement of
burning rates because of radiation feedback.
at 260 s
at 230 s
at 215 s
Useful information about the rate of burning of pool
fires is readily available in Tables, see SFPE (1995) for
example, via the mass consumed per unit area per unit
time. From the energy per unit mass values also given,
one can readily compute the heat release rate 0 in kW, or
in Btu per hour since 100,000 Btuihr = 29.3 1 kW. It may
be nored that for pool diameters less than 1 meter, the
burning rate expression is reduced because of a reduction
in radiation feedback.
The F number used here corresponds to the particular
experiment performed, see Bukowski (1989). Other useful
peak heat release rates:
Mattress and boxspring
Curtain, cotton, 1.87 kg
Wastepaper basket, 0.93 kg
Television, 39.8 kg
Cooking oil, corn, cottonseed,
etc. 12-inch pan
Christmas tree, spruce, 7 kg
organization.
A systematic study of liquid hydrocarbon pool fires
over the widest range of pool diameters was conducted by
Blinov and Khudiakov. Gasoline, tractor kerosene, diesel
oil, and solar oil (and, to a limited extent, household
kerosene and transformer oil) were burned in cylindrical
pans (depth not indicated) of diameters 0.37 cm to 22.9
meters. Liquid burning rates and flame heights were
measured, and visual and photographic observations of the
flames were recorded. Hottel plotted these data and the
results are shown in the Figure. The lower curve of this
figure shows the variation of burning velocity (in
meters/second of depth burning) as a function of the pan
diameter. The upper curves give the ratio of flame height
to flame diameter as a function of the pan diameter. The
diagonal lines on the lower curves represent lines of
constant Reynolds numbers, based on pan diameter.
Full-scale timiture calorimeter tests give useful
information on the burning rates of many typical
household items. Peak heating values are particularly
useful to know, since in some cases a triangular heat
release rate vs. time representation can be utilized for
simplicity. Upholstered furniture - wood frame, with fireretardant polyurethane padding and olefin cover fabric show peak heat release rates as follows:
2100 kW
2886 kW
3120 kW
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
experimental data from small- and medium-scale tests.
Needless to day, such semiempirical methods are always
subject to uncertainties when experimental data from
small-scale fires are extrapolated to predict the thermal
properties of very large-scale fires.
Curtains (drapes)
Electric cable trays
Trash bags and containers
Industrial rack-stored commodities
F21 Chair
F3 1 Loveseat
F32 Sofa
of author(s)
660 kW
240 kW
15kW
290 kW
at 910 s
at 175 s
at 350 s
at 670 s
116kW
650 kW
constant
at 350 s
THE t2-FIRE GROWTH
and the values help to visualize the differences between
the items under burning conditions.
MODEL
Emphasis is often placed on the growth phase of the
fire. Slow, medium, fast and ultra-fast fire growths may be
specified by the t2-fire growth model, where, after an
initial incubation period,
Of special concern in fire investigation and computer
reconstruction of building fires is the use of accelerants.
Liquid fuels are often preferred.
They are used to
accelerate the development of the fire, as indicated by
temperature and spreading rates.
On the practical
investigative side, features often include: low bums, high
temperatures at low hidden locations, rapid house fire
development, and particular flame and smoke colors seen
by witnesses. Burning rates of liquid pool fires are
available in SFPE (1995):
Q = af(t - to)2
where af is a fire-growth coefficient (kW/s2) and to is the
length of the incubation period (s). The coeficient af
appears to lie in the range 10s3 kW/s2 for ,very slowly
developing tires to I kW/s2 for very fast fire growth. The
incubation period (to) will depend on the nature of the
ignition’source and its location, but data are now becoming
aiailable (see Babrauskas) on fire growth rates on single
items of fiuniture (upholstered chairs, beds, etc.) which
may be quantified in these terms. Suggested values for the
coefficient gf are also given in the formula section of
Makefre - a subset of the FPETool Computer Program.
The specification there for the fire-growth coefficient af
(kW/s’) is:
’
POOL FIRES
The thermal radiation hazards from hydrocarbon spill
fires depend on a number of parameters, including the
composition of the hydrocarbon, the size and shape of the
fire, the duration of the fire, its proximity to the object at
risk, and the thermal characteristics of the object exposed
to the fire. The state of the art of predicting the thermal
environment of hydrocarbon spill fires consists essentially
of semiempirical methods, some of which are based on
Slow
Medium
2
0.002778 kW/s’
0.011111 kW/s’
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
and these correspond to growth times of the tire 6om zero
size to 1 MW total heat output in
BURNING
1.
RATES OF TYPICAL
tl MW
t Qo
td
3.
time to the onset of ignition
time to reach 1 MW
level-off time
time at which 0 decay begins
time at which Q equals zero
growth time = t, MW- t,
t end
G
release rate), tp, (time to reach 0 ,,) and td (time
to start decay). Adjustments are made in order to
ensure that the modeled total heat release during
the time interval of from t, to td seconds matches
the experiment to within 0.1 percent.
Then, the time to onset of ignition t,, with
associated value of fire-growth parameter as is
chosen so as to match the total heat release during
the growth phase of from t, to tao seconds. The
correspondence of tO, tp, and ag is automatic since
a t*-fire growth is being assumed.
Finally, the end time tendwith associated value of
fire-decay parameter ad is chosen so as to match
the total heat release during the decay phase of
from td to tend seconds.
Again, the
correspondence of td, tend and ad is automatic
since a t*-fire decay is being assumed.
2.
ITEMS
Experimental data are available for a variety of items,
giving heat release rate Q (kW) vs time (seconds). Each
of these graphs is in conformity with several parameters
that comnletely characterize the situation, as given in
Figure 1: ’
to
Modeled data are given for heat release rate 0 (kW)
vs. tune (seconds) in Tables A, B, C and D respectively as
follows:
Notice that both the ascent and decent are characterized by
t*-tire activity:
1.
($ =a,t*wheret=t-t,
Furniture calorimeter data from FASTLite (see
Pot-tier et al, 1996).
Furniture calorimeter data from HAZARD (see
Peacock et al, 1994).
Furniture calorimeter data from Building and Fire
Research Laboratory (see BFRL Website, 1999).
Cone calorimeter data from HAZARD (see
Peacock et al, 1994).
2.
0 = adt2 where t = tend- t
3.
where ag and ad are the fire-growth
coefficients (kW/s*), respectively.
and fire-decay
4.
These heat release rates G (in kW) vs time t (in
seconds) are active only in the growth (to I t I t tQ,) and
heat
decay (td 5 t I tend), respectively. The rfIaXimUm
release rate o,,
(kW) occurs when tp,, I t I td. The
growth time to reach 1 MW = 1,000 kW of heat release
rate G is t, MW- t, seconds, and this is related to the firegrowth parameter ag (kW/s*) via
The data are also given in Figures as follows:
1. Table A, see Figures
2. Table B, see Figures
3. Table C, see Figures
4. Table D, see Fgiures
Simularly the tire-decay parameter ad (kW/s’) is found via
=
Q m&end
-
td)*.
Also note that the maximum heat release rate 0 max(kW)
is related to other parameters via:
Q nlax= 1000[(tk, - t,)/(t,
MW
-
A 1 through
B 1 through
Cl through
Dl through
A34.
B2 1.
ClO.
D25.
Careful perusal and interpretation of the figures will
enable the discerning reader to deduce what the values of
the defining parameters are. However, for completeness,
the data are given directly in the extensive Tables A, B, C,
and D in numerical form. Finally 0 vs. t is given by
ag = 1000 / (tl MW - to)*.
ad
organization.
First, one decides the values to be taken for the
three key parameters Q,,,= (maximum heat
600 seconds
300 seconds
150 seconds
75 seconds
Slow
Medium
Fast
Ultra-fast
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
In order to characterize in the above fashion the actual
experimental data of heat release rate versus tune, one
proceeds as follows:
0.044444 kW/Z
0.177778 kW/s=
Fast
Ultra-fast
of author(s)
6 =o
ostst,
Q =a,(t-L)*
&, 2
i2
t,)l*.
=
ag
Q
= ad
Q
=o
(tb
(tend
-
to>*
-
t)*
tQ,
t <
2
t <
tQ,
t,,
td 5 t 5 ten,,
tend
2 t 5 Infinity
with the parameters taken directly from the Tables for the
particular item under consideration.
3
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.
uninvolved items. The ignition principles suggestthat, for
thermally thick materials,the inverse of the squareroot of
time to ignition is expectedto be a linear function of the
difference between the external heat flux and the CHF
value
WHAT HAPPENS NEXT?
During the course of the burning of the first item of
furniture in a room, as specifiedfrom data such as that just
presentedin the Table, one of severalthings might occur.
The abovehas provided informationabout the burning rate
(heat releaserate vs. time) of a single specified item in the
bum room. What happensnext? Either the item bums out
without further damage to the surroundings, or one or
more nearby items ignite and add fuel to the fire. This can
be by direct flame contact (if the seconditem is judged to
be sufficiently close) or, more usually, by radiant heat
energy becoming sufficiently large on the surface of the
second item. Direct flame contact requires time to
pyrolyze the fuel and time to heat the gasesproduced to
their ignition temperature. The radiant flux ignition
problem is a very complicatedissue,and dependson many
factors. The radiant energy comes from the flame above
the first item, the upper layer and room surfaces, but
simplifying assumptions are sometimes used. As the
radiant energy flux rate increasesfrom the first item to the
second,often a simple criterion for ignition of the latter is
used. A good approximationis that the radiant heat flux
(arriving on the surface of the second item) necessaryto
ignite the seconditem is:
fi(i,
- CHF)
TRP
where tis is time to ignition set, qz is the externalheat
flux kWlm*, and CHF is in kW/m*. Most commonlyused
materials behave as thermally thick materials and satisfy
this equation.
10 kW/m*
easily ignitable items, such as thin
curtainsor loosenewsprint
20 kW/m*
normal items, such as upholstered
furniture
40 kW/m*
difficult to ignite.items, such as wood of
0.5 inch or greaterthickness
The Critical Heat Flux and the Thermal Response
Parametervalues for materials derived from the ignition
data measured in the Flammability Apparatus and the
Cone Calorimeter,by Scudamoreet al (1991, are given in
Lilley (1998). He also shows in Tables and Figureshow
the ignition time tis may be determinedfrom the heat flux
q” and the Critical Heat Flux CHF and Thermal Response
ParameterTRP. Completedata are given in Lilley (1998)
so as to enablethe ignitability question to be determined
quickly. Readersare directed to that study to see fully
how the size and material of a pool fire determinesthe
total heat release0, the heat flux q” on a target fuel, and
the time requiredfor ignition to occur.
FLASHOVER
Whether or not “flashover” occurs during the course
of a fire is one of the most important outcomesof a fire
calculation. Flashover is characterized by the rapid
transition in fire behavior from localized burning of fuel to
the involvementof all combustiblesin the enclosure.High
radiation heat transfer levels from the original burning
item, the flame and plume directly above it, and the hot
smoke layer spreadingacrossthe ceiling are all considered
to be responsiblefor the heating of the other items in the
room, leading to their ignition. Warning signs are heat
build-up and “rollover” (small, sporadic flashes of flame
that appear near ceiling level or at the top of open
doorways or windows of smoke-filled rooms). Factors
affecting flashover include room size, ceiling and wall
conductivity and flammability, and heat- and smokeproducing quality of room contents. Further research
studiesrelating to this topic include Kim and Lilley (1997
and 1999),and Lilley (1995, 1997and 1998).
In actuality, ignition is not immediate when the
particular level of incident radiant heat flux reaches10, 20
or 40 kWlm* respectivelyfor easy,normal and difficult to
ignite items. These values are used as simple rules of
thumb in applied calculations, see Lilley (1995).
Fundamentalignition principles, outlined for example in
SFPE (1995),. suggestthat, for tire initiation, a material
has to be heated above its critical heat flux CHF value
(CHF value is relatedto the fire point). It was found that,
as the surface is exposedto heat flux, initially most of the
heat is transferred to the interior of the material. The
ignition principles suggestthat the rate with which heat is
transferred depends on the ignition temperature Tip,
ambient temperatureT,, material thermal conductivity k,
material specific heat c,,, and the material density p. The
combinedeffects are expressedby a parameterdefined at
the Thermal ResponseParameter(TRP) of the material
TRP = ATi, d kpcr,
CLOSURE
The ability to determinefire growth in terms of when
the second and subsequentobjects may ignite (and their
burning rates) and whether or not “flashover” occurs
depends strongly on the initial fire specification. The
focus of this entire documentwas to characterizethe initial
where ATi&= Tis - T,) is the ignition temperatureabove
ambient in degreesK, k is in kW/m-K, p is in. kg/m3,cp is
in kJ/kg-K, and TRP is in kW-s”*/m*. The TRP is a very
useful parameterfor the engineering.calculations,toassess
resistance of ignition and fire propagation in as-yet
4
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.
Conf./Design Conf. Paper DETC 97/CIE-4428,
Sacramento, CA, Sept. 14- 17, 1997.
item on fire (in terms of burning rate versus time) so as to
more accurately be able to calculate fire growth and the
possible occurrence of flashover.
Lilley, D. G. (1998), “Radiant Ignition of Flammable
Materials.” Proc. of Int. Joint Power Generation
Conf., Baltimore, MD, Aug. 23-26, 1998.
Heat release rates of typical items in fires were needed
as a prerequisite for estimating fire growth and
temperatures in structural tires. That is, these burning
rates were required to be specified by the user as input to
single-room and multi-room structural fire computer codes
like FPETool, FASTLife and HAZARD. Data was given
here that permit burning items to be specified in a permit
burning items to be specified in a useful modeled way,
taking a t*-fire for the growth and decay periods, with a
constant maximum heat release rate between these two
periods.
NFPA (1997). “Fire Protection Handbook.” 18th
Edition (Cote, A. E. and Linville, J. L. eds.),
NFPA, Quincy, MA, 1997.
Peacock, R. D. et al (1994). “An Update Guide for
HAZARD 1 Version 1.2.” NIST Report NISTIR
5410, May 1994.
Portier, R. W., Peacock, R. D. and Reneke, P. A.
Engineering Tools for
(1996). “FASTLite:
Estimating Fire Growth and Smopke Transport.”
NIST Special Publication 899, Gaithersburg,
MD, April 1996. See also: Update to Version
1.Ob, Feb., 1997.
REFERENCES
Babrauskas, V. and Grayson, S. J. eds. (1992). “Heat
Release in Fires.” Elsevier Applied Science,
1992.
“Handbook of Fire Protection
SFPE (1995).
Engineering.” NFPA, Quincy and SFPE, Boston,
MA, 1995.
“The HAZARD- 1
Bukowski, R., et al (1989).
Computer Code Package for Fire Hazard
Assessment.” NBS(NIST), Gaithersburg, MD.
Scudamore, M.J., Briggs, P.J. and Prager, F.H.
(1991). “Cone Calorimetry - A Review of Tests
Carried Out on Plastics for the Association of
Plastics Manufacturers in Europe.” Fire and
Materials, Vol. 15, 199 1, pp. 65-84.
Cooper, L. Y. (1984). “Smoke Movement in Rooms
of Fire Involvement and Adjacent Spaces.” Fire
Safety Journal, Vol. 7, 1984, pp. 33-46.
Drysdale, D. (1985)
“An Introduction to Fire
Dynamics.” Wiley, Chichester, England, 1985.
Thomas, P. H. (1974). “Fires in Enclosures.” Paper
in Heat Transfer in Fires (P. L. Blackshear, ed.),
Halsted-Wiley, New York, 1974, pp. 73-94.
Emmons, H. W. (1985). “The Needed Fire Science.”
Paper in Fire Safety Science (C. E. Grant and P.
J. Pagni, eds.), Hemisphere, New York, 1985, pp.
33-53.
IFSTA (1992). “Essentials of Fire Fighting.”
Edition, IFSTA, Stillwater, OK, 1992.
of author(s)
Zukoski, E. E. (1985). “Fluid Dynamic Aspects of
Room Fires.” Paper in Fire Safety Science (C. E.
Grant and P. J. Pagni, eds.), Hemisphere, New
York, 1985, pp. l-30.
3rd
Karlsson, B. and Quintiere, J. G. (2000). “Enclosure
Fire Dynamics,” CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Kim, H.-J. and Lilley, D. G. (1997). “Flashover: A
Study of Parametric Effects on the Time to Reach
Flashover Conditions.” Proc. Of ASME 17* Int.
Computers in Engng. Conf./Design Conf. Paper
DETC97/CIE-4427, Sacramento, CA, Sept. 1417, 1997.
Kim, H.-J. and Lilley, D. G. (1999). “Comparison of
Theories for Room Flashover.” Paper AlAA 990343, Reno, NV, Jan. 1 l-14, 1999.
Lilley,
D. G. (1995).
Course,
“Fire
TIME (second)
Dynamics.” Short
1995.
Figure 1.
Lilley, D. G. (1997). “Structural Fire Calculations.”
Proc. Of ASME 17* Int. Computers in Engng.
5
Heat Release Rate vs. Time in ?-fire
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(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.
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Chair, urethane foam frame, urethane
foam, polyolefin fabric
11
Chair, wood frame, FR cotton stuffing,
Haitian cotton fabric
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
6000 ,
A
0
with permission
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
I
500
1000
2000
1500
TIME (second)
TIME (second)
Chair, wood frame, FR cotton stuffing,
polyolefin fabric
Fig. A13.
organization.
Fig. A16.
Chair, wood frame, urethane foam,
cotton fabric, polyester batting
r
d
4000 ..
ii
4
J
2000
z
i
j
1000
1500
s
l-
2000
0 h
0
500
Fig. A14.
1000
1500
2000
TIME (second)
TIME (second)
Fig. Al 7.
Chair, wood frame, urethane foam,
cotton fabric
6000
Chair, wood frame, urethane foam,
polyolefin fabric
6000
P
2
4000
ii
a
E
;5
-I 2000
2
is
-I-
!I
k!
2000
O
0
500
1000
1500
0
2000
Fig. Al!%
500
1000
1500
2000
TIME (second)
TIME (second)
Fig. A18.
Chair, wood frame, urethane foam,
cotton fabric
12
Chair, wood frame, urethane foam,
quilted cotton/polyolefin, polyester
batting
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
6000
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
6000
1
Lounge Chair 3
W
:
9d
2000
II
LT
2
!A!
I
s Ini
Y O.
0
0
500
1500
1000
2000
1
2000
1500
TIME (second)
Innerspring mattress and boxspring,
cotton felt/urethane/sisal spring cover
Fig. Al 9.
1000
500
TIME (second)
F25
organization.
Fig. A22.
one-piece
Lounge
chair,
thermoplastic
molded
6000
Lounge Chair 1
F
d
4000 . "
/
.I
I
.
1500
2000
ki
/
l-2
ij 2000 -
;
IY
Is
I
o-'
-0
500
1000
TIME (second)
TIME (second)
Lounge chair, metal frame, urethane
foam, plastic-coated fabric
Fig. A20.
Fig. A23.
Lounge chair, wood frame, latex
foam/cotton stuffing, plastic-coated
fabric
6000
Lounge Chair 2
0
500
!
!
1000
1500
6000
T
I
i
2000
0
TIME (second)
500
1000
1500
TIME (second)
Fig. A21.
Lounge chair, one-piece molded glass
fiber, metal legs
Fig. A24.
13
Loveseat, mixed foam and cotton
batting stuffing, cotton fabric
2000
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
0
500
& Astronautics
1000
1500
or published
with permission
of author(s)
2000
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
500
0
TIME (second)
Fig. A25
Loveseat, wood frame, California foam,
poiyolefin fabric
2000
Fig. A28.
Metal wardrobe, clothing on 8 hangers
6000 r
4000 .
'....
I
j
/
i
E
d
,,
Patient Lounge Chair
I
4000
.. ...I...
.
/
.I.
%
iz t
/
/
%
iz
-1
w
a
is
L
2000 .
2000 -
,j, I
!
c
II
r/\,
0
0
500
1000
1500
Y
2000
O.
500
Fig. A26
500
1000
'.
.I
I
1500
1
2000
1500
Patient lounge chair, metal frame,
urethane foam cushion
Fig. A29.
Loveseat, wood frame, urethane foam,
plastic-coated fabric
-0
1000
i
TIME (second)
TIME (second)
I
2000
0
500
1000
1500
2000
TIME (second)
TIME (second)
Fig. A27.
1500
TIME (second)
6000
=
1000
organization.
Fig. A30.
Metal wardrobe, clothing on 16 hangers
14
Sofa, metal frame, urethane foam,
plastic-coated fabric
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
0
500
& Astronautics
or published
1500
1000
with permission
of author(s)
500
2000
Sofa, wood frame, California foam,
polyolefin fabric
6000
e.
d
4000
I
-0
Fig. A33.
1500
2000
F31 Loveseat, wood frame,
polyurethane foam, olefin fabric
’pii&q
.
500
1000
1500
2000
TIME (second)
TIME (second)
Fig. A32.
1000
organization.
TIME (second)
TIME (second)
Fig. A31.
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
F21 Chair, wood frame, polyurethane
foam, olefin fabric
Fig. A34.
15
F32 Sofa, wood frame, polyurethane
foam, olefin fabric
(c)2000
American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with
permission
of author(s)
z256000
ifs
and/or
sponsoring
organization.
6000
if
4000
$
ii
4000
c!
4
i.j
2000
i
0
0
L500
4
(j
2000
,
;z
1000
1500
2000
0
500
TIME (SEC)
Fig. Bl.
x
Double bed, bedding, night table; gyp
bd walls; test RI (85-2998)
-0
500
1000
Fig. 82.
1500
Fig. B4.
2000
0
500
1000
1500
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. B5.
Upholstered chair, F25, wood frame, pu
foam, olefin, test 29
pi@ iq.
.
.
.
4000
0
500
1000
1500
I
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. 83.
1500
Chair, F23, wood frame, fr cotton
batting, olefin test 24(82-2604)
I
2000
Double bed, bedding, night table;
plywood walls; test R5 (85-2998)
6000
1000
TIME (SEC)
TIME (SEC)
F25
2
d
author(s)’
-0
500
1000
1500
2000
TIME (SEC)
Upholstered chair, F21, wood frame, pu
foam-fr, olefin
Fig. B6.
16
Uphols.chair, F28, wood frame,
pulpektn bedding, cotton test 28
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
f
6000
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.
6000
55
F
$
4000
ii
4d
2000
oz
0
1000
500
$
2000
1500
0
TIME (SEC)
TIME (SEC)
l3A
0
0
500
1000
1500
Easy chair, molded ps foam frame, pu
pad & cover, ~07, test 48
Fig. BlO.
Uphols.chair, F30,pu frame, pu foam,
olefin, test 30 (82-2604)
Fig. 87.
r$ o1
2000
0
TIME (SEC)
j-y
500
1
1000
j
1500
1
2000
TIME (SEC)
Bean bag chair, vinyl/ps foam beads,
~05 nbs tn 1103
Fig. 88.
Fig. Bll.
Christmas tree, spruce, dry, vtt 285,
no.17
6000
g
F
d
/
4000
j
2000
I
.
I
/
ii
4
d
6000
,,,
_
.I "' "'
IY
I4
=
u
Oo
500
,
1000
1500
1
2000
TIME (SEC)
TIME (SEC)
Fig. B9.
Chair, molded flexible pu frame, pu
cover test 64 (83-2787)
Fig. 812.
17
Cooking Oil, Corn; Cottonseed;
12in.Pan
Etc In
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.
z.
6000
r
d
4000 .
/
t
3d
2000
tc
$
.
.
.i
1I
1
.
0
TIME (SEC)
TIME (SEC)
Fig. 813.
Mattress + boxspring (west chase
hilton) test 67 (83-2787)
Fig. B16.
Curtain, Cotton, 0.31 kg/M2, Item 9
.._.
- .
I
0
500
1000
1500
2000
TIME (SEC)
TIME (SEC)
Loveseat, F31, wood frame, pu foam
(fr), olefin test 37 (82-2604)
Fig. 814.
Upholstered\sofa, F32, wood\frame, pu
foam-fr, olefin test 38
Fig. B17.
6oob
if
s
F 6000
25
P
d 4000
4000
ii
4
d
2000
f
0
!
0
500
1000
1500
z
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. B15.
2ooo
g
0
0
500
1000
TIME (SEC)
Mattress, m05, pu foam, rayon ticking,
bedding
Fig. 818.
18
Trash bags (3), paper
1500
2000
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.
6000
I
0
500
1000
1500
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig, B19.
TIME (SEC)
Television set, b/w, wood cabinet, exp.3
0
500
1000
1500
Fig. 821.
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. 820.
Wardrobe closet, plywood, fr paint nbsir
83-2787 test 42
19
Wastepaper basket, polyethylene, milk
cartons, exp.7
(c)2000 American
F
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with peimission
z
6000
25
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
6000
Mattress (Center)
25
W
5
4000
%
4
d
organization.
!
!
1...
2000 I
.
Rz
I
1000
2000
TIME (SEC)
TIME (SEC)
Fig. Cl.
1500
Bunk Bed, BFRL in February 1996
Mattress (Center), BFRL in February
1996
Fig. C4.
Mattress (Corner)
I;:I ,., ,,-__i
%
z!i
d 2000
Q
I
0
500
1000
1500
5
00
I
2000
500
TIME (SEC)
Fig. C2.
1000
1500
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. C5.
Koisk, Western Fire Center in the
summer of 1995
Mattress (cbrner), BFRL in February
1996
F25 6000
I
i!
ii9d
/jioI/\
I
2000
0
500
1000
1500
0
2000
1000
1500
2000
TIME (SEC)
TIME (SEC)
Fig. C3.
500
Fig. C6.
Loveseat
20
Small Dresser, BFRL in February 1996
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
0
F55
500
1000
1500
organization.
2000
TIME (SEC)
TIME (SEC)
Fig. C7.
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
Fig. C9.
Sofa
Workstation (2 panels), Sponsored by
GSA and performed at BFRL in 1991
6000
Wooden Pallet
I
b!i
~200~~~
0
/
500
1000
1500
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. C8.
TIME (SEC)
Wooden Pallet, BFRL in February 1996
Fig. ClO.
21
Workstation (3 panels), Sponsored by
GSA and performed at BFRL in 1991
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
2
!i!
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
500
1500
1000
2000
0
TIME (SEC)
Fig. Dl.
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
1 ‘.c--I
I
00
of author(s)
500
organization.
““‘[’1
1000
1500
2000
TIME (SEC)
Cotton fabric, fr (test 803a), Fabric
-!/
I
Fig. D4.
Douglas fir plywood, l/2 in. thick (446),
Board
-r
Gypsum Board 1
!
_!..
/
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D2.
TIME (SEC)
Douglas fir (828), Board
Fig. D5.
cc3
25
z I,E
-I
pvood f
I
0
ard 1 1
1000
-
227
\
-L
500
1000
1500
-I
2000
5
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D3.
Gypsum board, l/2 in. thick (434)
O
500
1000
1500
2000
TIME (SEC)
Douglas fir plywood, l/2 in. thick (439,
Board
Fig. D6.
22
Gypsum board, l/2 in. thick (448)
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
[]
--I
Mattress Composite
1000
1500
I
-
,9 “:
2000
L
500
1000
1500
2000
TIMEJSEC)
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D7.
organization.
36?1000
28i55oo
iit
Red oak, 7/8 in. thick (1468), Board
Fig. 010.
Mattress a&y m05, pu foam, rayon
ticking (test 296), Composite
w,E
i5 aL
0
I
c 500
g Oo
I
500
1000
1500
1000
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D8.
1500
1J,, 1 ,;..s.s 1
I
0
2000
500
1000
TIME (SEC)
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D9.
2000
Pine (838), Board
Fig. Dll.
Red oak, 7/8 in. thick (1454)
1
1500
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D12.
Red oak, 718 in. thick (1456), Board
23
Pine (842), Board
1500
2000
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.
PMMA Sheet 2
I
0
500
1000
1500
1000
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D13.
1500
2000
TIME (SEC)
White pine (wood), 0.75 in (test 487)
Board
Fig. D16.
PMMA 1” black (cb) w/frame (test
1470) Sheet
N$
Pine Board 4 1
~ olr
I
0
.
500
1 i
(
1500
2000
1000
iOO0
$
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D14.
White pine (wood), 0.75 in (test 493)
Board
'r
Polyisocy anurate Foam 1 1
c5
Fig. D17.
o,b
’
/
’ :
500
1000
TIME (SEC)
1500
2000
Rigid polyisocyanurate foam, 2 in (test
438) Foam
A
leet 1
L
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D15.
TIME (SEC)
PMMA 1” black (cb) w/frame (test
1461) Sheet
Fig. D18.
24
Rigid polyisocyanurate foam, 2 in (test
449) Foam
,
(c)2000 American
Institute
of Aeronautics
& Astronautics
or published
with permission
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.
c-7
~looo-
3
Polystyrene Foam
Y
if
2
g
500 -
i5
iii
IY
i
/
I
i
0
1
J
0
A
/
500
1000
1500
2000
i
0
500
TIME (SEC)
.
L-L:
Polyurethane Foam 1
1 Oo
li 500
1
1500
$ O! ’
2000
\
500
1000
1500
I
2000
TIME (SEC)
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D20.
2000
Rigid polyurethane foam, fr, gm-31 (test
258) Foam
Fig. D22.
L
1000
1500
TIME (SEC)
Polystyrene foam, 2 in (test 437) Foam
Fig. D19.
1000
Flexible polyurethane foam, fr, 2 in (test
725) Foam
Polyvinyl chloride, 0.5 in thick (test
333) Sheet
Fig. D23.
t-44
,E
3
1000
s
?
s
ii4
5oo
/
/I
/
I
I
//
Polyurethane Foam 2
/
Rayon Fabric
,/
I
/
0
0
500
1000
1500
z
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D21
0
500
1000
1500
TIME (SEC)
Fig. 024.
Rigid polyurethane foam, gm-29/gm-30
(test 257) Foam
25
Rayon fabric (test 804a), Fabric
2000
(c)2000 American
Institute
0
of Aeronautics
500
& Astronautics
1000
1500
or published
with permission
2000
TIME (SEC)
Fig. D25.
Wool fabric/neoprene padding (test
722), Composite
26
of author(s)
and/or author(s)’ sponsoring
organization.