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SOCIETY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES PUDUCHERRY PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY (A CENTRAL UNIVERSITY)
PUDUCHERRY, INDIA.
IRJSS International Research Journal of Social Sciences Patron
Volume 3 N.
Prof. J.A.K. TAREEN
Vice-Chancellor
Pondicherry University
Editor-in-Chief : Prof. T. SUBRAMANYAM NAIDU
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
D. Sambandhan
K. Rajan
G. Ramathirtham
A. Chellaperumal
IN,..
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Lucinda Beach (USA)
Robin Oakley (Canada)
M.M. Kapoor (India)
B.M. Sharma (India)
C.G. Hussain Khan (India)
M.S.N. Reddy (India)
K. Srinivas (India)
M. Sethuraman (India)
Hilde K. Link (Germany)
Ulrike Niklas (Germany)
EA. Musthafa (Egypt)
Pradip Prabhu (India)
B.B. Mohanty (India)
M. Ramachandran (India)
K. Chandrasekhara Rao (India)
Fatma Vasant (India)
IRJSS: International Research Journal ofSocial Sciences is a bi-annual Journal of
School of Social Sciences of the Pondicherry University. The editorial committee
would consider for publication any article dealing with significant themes in social
sciences based on original research. Contributors are requested to send their text of
the articles for pUblication. Books and journals for reviews as well as other editorial
correspondences to Prof. T. Subramanyam Naidu, Editor-in-Chief,
International Research Journal of Social Sciences, Society of Social Sciences
Puducherry, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India. Tel: 0091-413
2654373. E-mail: [email protected]/[email protected]. The
text of the article may be computerized in Microsoft Word format following the
style sheet provided in this Volume ofthe journal and sent to the Editor. This can also
be done through E-mail. However, it is requested that a printout with soft copy
may be sent through post.
SOCIB'ft
ISSN - 0974 - 1674
Volume 3 Number 2
July - December 2010
INTERN
ATION
AL RESEAR
CH
INTERNA
TIONAL
RESEARCH
JOURNAL OF
SOCIAL SCIENCES
SOCIETY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES PUDUCHERRY
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
(A CENTRAL UNIVERSITY)
PUDUCHERRY, INDIA.
CONTENTS
S.No.
1.
Articles
Economic Meltdown and its Impact on Global
Economy
– Kanuparthi Ramanaiah
2.
61-75
Deprived among the marginalized - Health
Status of Women in a Tribal Settlement
–
–
–
–
–
7.
49-59
Corporate Social Responsibility: An analysis on
How a Precept becomes a practice
– C. Padmanaba Sivakumar
– P. Govinda Reddy and
– A. Chandrasekaran
6.
33-47
Occupational Locking in and and organisational
Stress among the part time Contract Teachers
working in various degree colleges of Tripura
– Deepa Ghosh
5.
13-32
Problems and Prospects of Tribal Participation
in Development Programmes - A case study of
Jeypore Block in Orissa
– Murali Dhar Majhi
4.
1-12
A Profile of Elderly Women Living in Old Age
Homes - A study in Kerala
– J. Suhara Beevi
3.
Page No.
T.S. Anish
K. Vjayakumar
Diya Rachel George
Rexshmi Ramachandran and
Tony Lawrence
77-84
Sexual morbidity, Treatent seeking behaviour
and Condom use among the Clients of Sex
Workers: Implications for HIV/AIDS
Intervention programmes
– K.E.T. Rajarama and
– R.K. Sinha
85-96
S.No.
8.
Articles
Women Corporetars : A study of Gulbarga City
Corporation
– Nusrat Fatima and
– Malliakrjun Nagashetty
9.
147-155
Universalization of the Elementary Education
for all in India: Assessing the progress of
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan Programme in Union
Territory of Puducherry
- G. Palanisamy
14.
135-145
Food Practices and Food taboos during
Pregnancy and Lactation among Tribals of
Andhra Pradesh
– A. Varadarajan
13.
125-133
Environmentalism in Indian Anthropology
“An Emerging Research Area”
– Anjuli Chandra
12.
109-123
Organic Horticulture: A Micro Study
– Nazeerudin
11.
97-108
Regional Heterogeneity in Food Consumption
and Nutrition intake in India
– Shraddha Srivastava
– Amarnath tripathi and
– A.R. Prasad
10.
Page No.
157-173
Mothers’ Nutritional status and its Impact on
their Children Anemic Condition : A stdy at
Tamilnadu
– A.K. Ravishankar
175-192
S.No.
15.
Articles
ICT Awareness and Teaching Competency
of Prospective B.Ed Teachers
– F.I. Antony Gracious and
– P. Annaraja
16.
205-229
Risk Factors of vertical Transmission among
Children attending the ICTC BHU Varanasi
– T.B. Singh
– Ajay Singh and
– A.K. Gulati
18.
193-203
A Study on the Problem of Eve Teasing in
India (with Rreference to University of
Lucknow)
– Anoop. K. Singh and
– Kirti Vikram Singh
17.
Page No.
231-237
Social Discrimination and Harassment
against the Kothis (Men who have Sex with
Men) in Puducherry - A Qualitative study
– A. Kirubakaran and
– T. Subramanyam Naidu
239-245
© International Research Journal of Social Sciences,
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 1 - 12
ECONOMIC MELTDOWN AND ITS IMPACT ON
GLOBAL ECONOMY
* Kanuparthi Ramanaiah
Abstract
What Started as a financial crisis has become a full blown real economic
crisis that seems to spare no corner of the world. The Sub-prime loan
crisis broke through the surface in the United States and Lehman
Brothers collapsed, there is no sign that the people of the world have
seen the worst of the crisis that now envelops the global economy.
Worldwide, a lot of debates, conferences and seminars have been
organized on Global meltdown. In this context, this paper explores
that the genesis of the Economic Meltdown and the extent of the
spread of the crisis to Global Economy - how it affected the Global
economy and then evaluate the policy responses attempted so far.
“Recent economic numbers have been terrifying, not .Just in the
United States but around the world. Manufacturing, in particular, is
plunging everywhere. Banks· aren’t lending; business and consumers
aren’t spending. This looks an awful lot like the beginning of a second
Great Depression.”
- Paul Krugman (Nobel Laureate, 2008)
Key words: Economic meltdown, Global Economy, Economic Growth,
banking Regulations.
Introduction
Meltdown refers to a situation in which a rapid rise in the power level of a
nuclear reactor, (as from a defect in the cooling system) results in the melting of
the fuel rods and the consequent release of dangerous radiation that may cause
the core to sink into the earth. So, it is a decline or breakdown a disastrous,
rapidly developing condition or situation say economic conditions and status in
the present context.
The world is passing through a difficult time. More so, the developed world.
The industrially advanced countries are now officially in recession. It is not
known at this stage how long will this recession last and how deep will it be. It
is feared that will be perhaps the deepest recession in the post-second world
war period.
*
Faculty of Economics for Civil Services, Srinivasa IAS Study Circle, Hyderabad.
E-mail: [email protected]
1
International Research Journal of Social Sciences - Volume 3, Number 2
July - Dec. 2010
The large domestic demand of the US was met by the rest of the world,
especially China and other East Asian economies, which provided goods and
services at relatively low costs leading to growing surpluses in these countries.
Sustained current account surpluses in some of these EMEs also reflected the
lessons learnt from the Asian financial crisis. Furthermore, the availability of
relatively cheaper goods and services from China and other EMEs also helped
to maintain price stability in the US and elsewhere, which might have not been
possible otherwise. Thus measured inflation in the advanced economies remained
low, contributing to the persistence of accommodative monetary policy.
Apart from creating large global imbalances, accommodative monetary
policy and the existence of very low interest rates for an extended period
encouraged the search for yield, and relaxation of lending standards. Even as
financial imbalances were building up, macroeconomic stability was maintained.
Relatively stable growth and low inflation have been witnessed in the major
advanced economies since the early 1990s and the period has been dubbed as
the Great Moderation.
As inflation started creeping up beginning 2004, the US Federal Reserve
started to withdraw monetary accommodation. With interest rates beginning to
edge up, mortgage payments also started rising. Tight monetary policy contained
aggregate demand and output, depressing housing prices. With low/negligible
margin financing, there were greater incentives to default by the sub-prime
borrowers
Global growth for 2009, which was seen at a healthy 3.8 per cent in April
2008, is now projected to contract by 1.3 per cent (IMF, 2009c). Major advanced
economies are in recession and the EMEs - which in the earlier part of 2008
were widely viewed as being decoupled from the major advanced economies,
-have also been engulfed by the financial crisis-led slowdown. Global trade
volume (goods and services) is also expected to contract by 11 per cent during
2009 as against the robust growth of 8.2 per cent during 2006-2007. Private
capital inflows (net) to the EMEs fell from the peak of US $ 617 billion in 2007
to US$ 109 billion in 2008 and are projected to record net outflows of US $ 190
billion in 2009. The sharp decline in capital flows in 2009 will be mainly on
account of outflows under bank lending and portfolio flows. Thus, both the
slowdown in external demand and the lack of external financing have dampened
growth prospects for the EMEs much more than that was anticipated a year
ago.
Monetary policy developments in the leading economies not only affect
them domestically, but also have a profound impact on the rest of the world
through changes in risk premia and search for yield leading to significant switches
3
July - Dec. 2010
The global search for yield was reflected in record high volume of capital
flows to the EMEs; since such flows were well in excess of their financing
requirements, the excess was recycled back to the advanced economies, leading
to depressed long-term interest rates. The Great Moderation over the preceding
two decades led to under-pricing of risks and the new financial and economic
regime was considered as sustainable. The combined effect of these
developments was excessive indebtedness of households, credit booms, asset
price booms and excessive leverage in the major advanced economies, but also
in emerging market economies. While forces of globalisation were able to keep
goods and services inflation contained for some time, the aggregate demand
pressures of the accommodative monetary started getting reflected initially in
oil and other commodity prices and finally onto headline inflation.
The consequent tightening of monetary policy led to correction in housing
prices, encouraged defaults on sub-prime loans, large losses for banks and
financial institutions, sharp increase in risk aversion, complete lack of confidence
and trust amongst market participants, substantial deleveraging, and large capital
outflows from the EMEs. Financial excesses of the 2002-06 were, thus, reversed
in a disruptive manner and have now led to the severest post-war recession. In
brief, the large volatility in monetary policy in the major reserve currency countries
contributed to the initial excesses and their subsequent painful correction.
Economic Meltdown impact on Global Economy
The United States government has been applying the Colin Powell doctrine
of “shock and awe” to the economy, throwing every conventional and
unconventional policy it can think of at the problem; yet the numbers from the
US economy keep getting worse. GDP contracted in the final quarter of 2008 at
an annualized rate of over 6 per cent. Industrial production in January 2009 was
10 per cent lower than in January 2008. Consumer confidence as measured by
the Conference Board is at its lowest since the series started in 1967. More
than 3 million houses were foreclosed in 2008, meaning that about 10 million
people shifted into rented accommodation, vans or shelters.
The numbers form Japan, the world’s second biggest economy, are even
worse. Toyota has cut car production by half, Sony has put most of its labour
force on part-time work and is probably to close at least four factories overseas.
Exports, which account for almost half of Japan’s manufacturing output, were
more than a third lower in value in December 2008 than in the previous
December. Export orders for core machinery fell by 46 per cent between
September and November 2008, and domestic orders by 20 per cent GDP fell in
the last quarter of 2008 at an annualized rate of 13 per cent.
5
July - Dec. 2010
in export units. This in turn reduced domestic demand in their economies which
resulted in fall in the growth rates of their GDP.
Even the financial sector was not free from such globalized impact. As
soon as the stock markets collapsed in USA and Europe, there was panic in the
Indian stock markets. The foreign institutional investors who had invested in
Mumbai stock market suddenly withdrew their investment. This naturally dipped
the SSE sensex. The value of sensex which reached 17578 on February 2008
declined to 16371 on March 28, 2008. It further declined to 14043 on July 6,
2009 because of the net selling by the (foreign institutional investors Fils). Such
decline was noticed in many other Asian stock markets also. The Table 2 shows
the change in the equity index value of share indices of major Asian countries in
major Asian Stock Markets after the US financial crisis. It may be observed
that downward pressure on the share values was severe in 2008. However, in
2009 share values recovered in some Indian and Chinese stock markets because
of economic stimulus measures announced by their governments.
Table 2: Cumulative Change of Equity Index Over 2003 Level in
Asian Stock Markets (Points)
S.No.
Equity Index
2007
2008
2009
1
BSE Sensex (India)
247.4
65.2
199.1
2
Hang Send Index (Hong Kong)
121.2
1.1
74.2
3
Nikkie 225 (Japan)
43.4
-22.9
-5.3
4
TSEC Weighted Index (Taiwan)
44.4
-25.2
32.3
5
SSE Comosite Index (China)
251.5
43.7
116.9
Source : Economic Survey, 2009-10, GOI
China is the only major economy likely to show significant growth in 2009,
for reasons related to the fact that it breaks every second rule in western
economic textbooks about how to do development- including the government
using its majority control of the banks to keep them lending. But electricity
production fell by more then 6 per cent in 2008, having grown at 15 per cent on
average for the past five years; which suggests that China may have been
growing much more slowly than the published figure of around 9 per cent Even
5 per cent growth is not enough to stop unemployment from rising rapidly, and
the middle class social compact of “ political exclusion in return for rising
prosperity” will be breached. In the rest of the world, crisis-ridden companies
hoping that Chinese cash-rich buyers will come to their rescue are likely to be
disappointed, because most of China’s overseas acquisitions made earlier in the
2000s have turned sour, having been made at peak of the market.
7
July - Dec. 2010
Table 3 Share of banking assets held by foreign banks with majority
ownership, 2006
0% 10%
Country
Country
0% 10%
0% 10%
Country
Country
0% 10%
Country
0% 10%
Algeria
9
Moldova
30
Senegal
48
Rwanda
70
Madagascar
100
Nepal
9
Honduras
29
Congo
47
Côte
d’lvoire
66
Mozambique
100
Guatemala
8
Ukraine
28
Uruguay
44
Tanzania
66
Swaziland
100
Thailand
5
Indonesia
28
Panama
42
Ghana
65
Peru
95
India
5
Cambodia
27
Kenya
41
Burkina
Faso
65
Hungary
94
Ecuador
5
Argentina
25
Benin
40
Serbia and
Montenegro
65
Albania
93
Azerbaijan
5
Brazil
25
Bolivia
38
Cameroon
63
Lithuania
92
Mauritania
5
Kazakhstan
24
Mauritius
37
Romania
60
Croatia
91
Nigeria
5
Pakistan
23
Burundi
36
Niger
59
Boznia –
Herzegovina
90
Turkey
4
Costa Rica
22
Seychelles
36
Mali
57
Mexico
82
Uzbekistan
1
Malawi
22
Lebanon
34
Angola
53
Macedonia
80
Philippines
1
Tunisia
22
Nicaragua
34
Latvia
52
Uganda
80
South Africa
0
Mongolia
22
Chile
32
Jamaia
51
EI Salvador
78
China
0
Sudan
20
Venezuela
32
Zimbabwe
51
Zambia
77
Vietnam
0
Morocco
18
Georgia
32
Namibia
50
Botswana
77
Iran
0
Colombia
18
Armenia
31
Kyrgyzstan
75
Yemen
0
Malaysia
16
Poland
73
Bangaladesh
0
Jordan
14
Bulgaria
72
Sri Lanka
0
Russia
13
Paraguay
71
Ethiopia
0
Egypt
12
Togo
0
Note :
(1) A bank is defined as foreign owned only if 50 per cent or more of its shares in a
given year are held directly by foreign nationals. Once foreign ownership is determined, the
source country is identified as the country of nationality of the largest foreign shareholder(s).
The table does not capture the assets of the foreign banks with minority foreign ownership. (2)
World Bank staff estimates based on Bankscope data.
(2) Source : World bank (2008)
9
July - Dec. 2010
References
G-20 (2009), “Working Group on Enhancing Sound Regulation and Strengthening
Transparency (Co-Chairs: Tiff Macklem and Rakesh Mohan).
Mohan, Rakesh (2006a), Coping With Liquidity Management in India: A
Practitioner’s View, Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, April.
Portes, Richard (2009), “Global Imbalances” in Mathias Dewatripont, Xavier
Freixas and Richard Portes (Ed.), “Macroeconomic Stability and Financial
Regulation: Key Issues for the G20”, Centre for Economic Policy Research,
London.
Taylor, John (2009), “The Financial Crisis and the Policy Responses: An Empirical
Analysis of What Went Wrong”, Working Paper 14631, January, National
Bureau of Economic Research.
World Bank (2008), Global Development Finance 2008: The Role of International
Banking, World Bank.
Avinash D Persaud (2009), Causes, Cures and Myths, Economic & Political
weekly, March 28.
Prabhat Patnaik (2009), The Economic Crisis and Contemporary Capitalism,
Economic & Political weekly, March 28.
Ram Mohan, T T (2009), The Impact of the Crisis on the Indian Economy,
Economic & Political weekly, March 28.
Ram Mohan, T T (2008), From the Sub-prime to the Ridiculous, Economic &
Political weekly, 8, November.
Reinhart, Carmen and Kenneth Rogoff (2008a), “This Time Is Different A
Panoramic View of Eight Centuries of Financial Crises”, Harvard Working
Paper, April!.
Subbarao, D (2009), “Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on India : Collateral
Damage and Response”, Speech delivered in Tokyo, 18 February.
Taylor, John B (2009), “The Financial Crisis and the Policy Responses: An
Empirica! Analysis of What Went Wrong”, NBER Working Paper, January.
Buiter, W (2008), “Lessons from the North Atlantic Financial Crisis” in A Felton
and C Reinhart (ed.), The first Global Financial Crisis of the 21st Century.
(www.voxeu.org/index.php?=node/1352).
EAC (Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister) (2009), Review of the
Economy 2008-09, January.
Elmendorf, D w and J Furman (2008), If, When, How: A Primer on Fiscal
Stimulus, The Hamilton Project (Brookings Institution).
11
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 13 - 32
A PROFILE OF ELDERLY WOMEN LIVING IN OLD
AGE HOMES-A STUDY IN KERALA
* J.Suhara Beevi
Abstract
The UN defines a country as ‘ageing’ where the proportion of people
over 60 years reaches 7 per cent. India exceeded that rate of proportion
with 7.8 per cent in 2001 and India comes under the purview of the UN
definition of ‘ageing country’. The number of elderly is 77 million in
2001 but is expected to cross 100 million in 2013 and 177 million by the
year 2025. Among the Indian States, Kerala has the largest proportion
of elderly population and the growth rate among the aged is increasing
higher and higher. Kerala has the largest number of old age homes in
India. Old age homes are the last resort for the aged.
The study has been conducted in two districts, Alappuzha and
Kottayam of Kerala state. . The sample size is 210 and it is taken from
30 Old Age homes.
Key words :Institution,Old age home, aged women, young old, oldest-old
Introduction
Ageing is a universal phenomenon and natural biological process of life
cycle; it is not a disease which can be cured. The UN defines a country as
‘ageing’ where the proportion of people over 60 years reaches 7 per cent. India
exceeded that rate of proportion with 7.8 per cent in 2001 and India comes
under the purview of the UN definition of ‘ageing country’. The number of
elderly is 77 million in 2001 but is expected to cross 100 million in 2013 and 177
million by the year 2025. (National Census Report 2001 and Projection
report)Another feature of the demographic transition with serious, long-term
implications is the increasing number of elderly females.
Global Ageing
The United Nations designated 1999 as “The year of older persons”,
thereby recognizing and reaffirming our global population is ageing and at an
unprecedented rate. The confluence of lowered fertility and improved health
and longevity has generated growing numbers and proportions of older population
throughout most of the world. After the year 2010, the number and proportions
of elderly, especially the oldest old will rise rapidly in most developed and many
*
Asst. Professor in Medico-Sociology, Dept. of Community Medicine, Medical College,
Kottayam, Kerala, India. E-mail : [email protected]
13
A Profile of Elderly Women Living in old age Homes-a Study in Kerala
developing countries. It is the result of reduced death rates at all ages, decline
in the prevalence of infectious and parasitic disease, decline in infant and maternal
mortality and improved nutrition. Most developed nations are in fact
demographically oldest in the world today and some might have more grand
parents than children before the middle of the 21st century. Elderly population
has grown because of world wide improvements in health services, educational
status and economic development. As the World War II baby-boom cohorts,
common to many countries, begin to reach their elder years, after 2010, there
will be a significant jump by 2030 in the proportion of the world’s elderly
population.1
The United Nations designated 1999 as “The year of older persons”, thereby
recognizing and reaffirming our global population is ageing and ageing at an
unprecedented rate. The world population ageing is 629 million and more than
half of the aged population are in developing countries. The Sex ratio of aged
persons are 100/81(2002).The demographic transition brought about by decline
in birth and death rate has resulted in population ageing in Kerala. As per the
2001 census, 10.5 per cent of the States population were aged 60 and above.
Average life expectancy in Kerala has reached 71.6 years for males and 74.7
years for females (2004) (Economic Review 2005,Govt.of Kerala) and this kind
of longer life span is associated with worsening health condition.
Statement of the problem
Among the Indian States, Kerala has the largest proportion of elderly
population and the growth rate among the aged is increasing higher and higher.
Therefore one of the many challenges facing Kerala is its growing elderly
population. It is growing much faster than the overall population. In the absence
of joint family system and nuclearisation of families with one or two children,
empty nest syndrome, the old parents have no other alternative than joining the
old age homes. Kerala has the largest number of old age homes in India. Old
age homes are the last resort for the aged. Ageing is predominantly a women’s
problem. Not only do women live longer but most of them are widows. Extra
provisions of care and support are required to save them from their miserable
plight. There is a lot of difference between the problems of the aged men and
aged women. The problems that we face in old age may be more severe than
that of we face when we are young or in middle age. However, old age has
certain specific problems especially in the case of aged women due to their
vulnerability.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of the present study has been formulated based
upon the earlier studies on various problems of ageing.
14
July - Dec. 2010
Deva Sahayam (1988) identified that aged female are suffering more
than their male counterparts 2. Amrita Bagga in her study entitled ‘A Study of
Women in Old-age Homes of Pune’ revealed that there are more women in the
old age homes than there are men. The study was conducted on older women
living in three old age homes catering to middle class, with Information relating
to their education, occupation (Pre-retirement) economic status, number and
sex of children, whether living or dead or migrated were collected and analyzed.
It was concluded that majority of women in these homes came from smaller
families. Children, if living, had migrated or otherwise were daughters only.
Depression was more common in the under engaged group contrary to the
others who were more active, alert and contented. Majority of women staying
in oldage homes are widows or barren or both. Some have living children but
either they have migrated to foreign countries or they are daughters and not
sons3. Nag Pal and Chadha (1991) attributed that adjustment, inadequate
accommodation and loneliness as reasons for joining Old Age Homes. The
institutionalized still prefer living in well provided community set up with
recreational activities4. Saraswathi Mishra (1993) revealed that most of the
inmates showed dissatisfaction with their segregated life in old age homes5.
Sreevals and P.S.Nair (2001) in their study on ‘Elderly and Old Age Home in
Kerala’ among one hundred and fifty seven inmates from eight randomly
selected old age homes from Thiruvananthapuram District revealed the relevance
and usefulness old age homes in Kerala, with reference to the socio-demographic
characteristics of the inmates, the factors that led them to join old age homes
and their level of satisfaction about the conditions and life in the homes. Majority
of the inmates were females in the age group of 60-75 years. 60 per cent of
inmates joined the old age homes voluntarily. The majority joined the old age
homes due to family problems, Absence of care givers emerge only as the
second most important reason for moving to old age homes6.
Indira Jai Prakash (2004) described the burden of disease appears
significantly in women compared to men. Women are at a higher risk for
Alzheimer’s compared to men7. Phoebe S. Leibig (2004) suggests that the
National policy on older persons looking to NGOs and village councils to be
primary sources of non familial aged care8
Pushpa Mary Rani (2001) in her paper on ‘Institutional care of the Aged’
noted that the care of the aged traditionally had been the concern and responsibility
of the family. The aged were considered to be a blessing to the family but in the
present scenario, new factors have emerged which have weakened the tradition.
The result of the study revealed that ageing is not just biological but psychological
and sociological too9.
15
With the backdrop of the review of literature, the present study is designed
to analyze the socio-economic characteristics of elderly women, the causes
leading the elderly women seek admission in the OAHs., the problem
Socio,economic,psychological and health confronted by them in institutions, their
living conditions, the provision available in OAHs, and the extent of satisfaction
expressed by the elderly with the available provisions. This has been done based
on primary data in the present study.
3. Present Study
Kerala is the state of India’s most progressed society in terms of education,
literacy and health. Kerala has the highest Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)
in India, and the highest Human Development Index, with the highest literacy
rate in the country, highest life expectancy, least population growth, lowest infant
mortality, Kerala has been adopted by the world bodies as the role model for
developing countries. Among the Indian States, Kerala has the largest proportion
of the elderly population and the growth rate among the aged is becoming higher
and higher. One of the many challenges the state of Kerala faces is its growing
elderly population. It is growing much faster than the overall population itself.
With the possibility of declining birth rate and fewer children in families, there
will be lesser and lesser people taking care of the elderly as the decades roll by.
Traditional life guards of family care are dwindling due to migration, dual career
and growing consumerism of the people. All these make the well being of the
elderly a growing challenge of the 21st century.
The total population of Kerala is only 3,18,38,619 and India’s total population
is 1, 02, 70, 15, 247. (National Census Report 2001) Annual growth rate of
population in India is 1.9 per cent and Kerala is 0.9 per cent, Density of population
in India is 324/sq.k.m and Kerala is 819/sq.km. Sex ratio in India is 933/1000
and Kerala is 1058/1000. Aged Sex Ratio in India is 1017/1000 and Kerala is
1220/1000. (Report of Economics and Statistics department, Govt. of Kerala
2004).
It is a noteworthy feature of Kerala that the percentage of elderly population
is increasing fast. In Kerala an average of 13.5 per cent of the total population
is elderly, which is comprised of 13.8 per cent of elderly women and 13.2 per
cent of elderly men (2004). The proportion of elderly population increased from
5.8 per cent in 1961 to 10.5 per cent in 2001. (Economic review 2005,Govt.of
Kerala) The figure will be 16 per cent in 2021 and about 30 per cent in 2051.
(Projection report) High female life expectancy in Kerala will increase the
elderly women population. The proportion of the elderly females is highest in
Kerala, compared to other states.
Protection and power of the elderly under the joint family system has
declined and the younger generations have migrated to other places for
16
July - Dec. 2010
employment or other purpose and the elderly parents feel empty nest syndrome.
Hence the need for old age homes in the rapidly changing social settings is
recognized today. Elderly widows are much larger in number than elderly
widowers. Under the prevailing social set up, the condition of women is still
worse. In this situation, the old age homes play a great significant role. The
purpose of an institution is not only to be of service to its members but also to
promote the welfare of society at large.
When compared to other districts in the State of Kerala, the proportion of
female elderly living in institutions is the highest in Alappuzha district followed
by Kottayam districts. Hence these two districts of Kerala state are selected
for the present study of elderly women. The study makes an attempt to understand
how elderly women are cared in the institutions.
Institutionalization of the Elderly
The idea of institutionalization of the elderly has been borrowed from the
western societies, whose values and norms are quite different from that of
India. Usually living in old age homes evokes a picture of apathy, dependence
and sadness. The inmates often confront problems due to highly institutionalized,
depersonalized and bureaucratic atmosphere in OAHS. They face problems
of adjustment with tight and rigid schedule, total or near total separation from
the family, anxiety over entrusting oneself to a new environment, diminished
physical capacity and very close and frequent encounters with death and
ailments in the institution.
Old Age Homes in India : A state wise profile
The first old age home in India was supposed to have been started in the
early 18th century but information is available only from 1782. There are over
1000 old age homes in India, the majority of which are run by Non Governmental
Organizations. (Directory of OAHs in India Revised Edn.2006, HelpageIndia,
New Delhi)
India had only 96 old age homes before 1950, another 94 were added in
the next two decades (1951-70) During the next decades, there was a rapid
expansion in the number of OAHs .Kerala State led the rest of the country,
followed by Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. One out of every 5 old age homes in
India is located in Kerala. South India (Kerala,Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Pondicherry and Andhra Pradesh) accounts for 54 per cent of the total. Muslim
agencies maintain only one old age home and It is located in Kozhikode district
of Kerala. The Kerala scenario is different compared to other states. 80 per
cent of the old age homes in Kerala are managed by Christian agencies and the
rest by non-religious organizations.
17
In keeping with the cultural and religious traditions prevailing in India,
there are separate old age homes for males and females while some old age
homes are meant for the poor aged and destitute. Others concentrate on the
sick and handicapped. Three fourths of the old age homes run by Christian
Organizations offer free accommodation as against one-half in the case of secular
organizations. The number of old age homes run on payment basis is much
higher among secular organizations than Christian institutions.
The total number of OAHs in India is over 1000, out of which 20 per cent
is in Kerala and it is 182. (Directory of OAHs in India, Helpage India 2006)
Kerala has the largest number of old age homes in India .The highest number of
such homes is found in Kottayam district (37) followed by Ernakulam and
Thrissur together that account for 62 per cent of old age homes. Most of the
old age homes are run by Christian organization in Kottayam . Currently, at least
5 new old age homes are coming up every year and it is likely to increase to l0
in the years to come. Almost 55 per cent of old age homes accommodates
both elderly men and women. 36 per cent admit only females.
Kottayam has the second highest number of old age homes (37) in the
country, second only to Greater Mumbai district of Maharashtra. Among these
old age homes (87 per cent ) are managed by Christian organizations. Among
the fourteen districts of Kerala, Kottayam has the highest concentration of
Christian population (46 per cent)10.
Old people form a significant part of our population and a considerable
proportion of them live in old age home. The reasons for the admission of these
people to old age homes are different. The present study analyzes the data of
personal profile of respondents, family background, economic condition, housing
condition, health condition, psychosocial aspects, and the reasons which brought
these old women to old age home10
Materials and Methods
1. Objectives
The objectives of the present study are:
1. To find out the socio-economic characteristics of the elderly women
living in old age homes.
2. To examine the circumstances that make the elderly women seek
admission in the old age homes.
3. To study the facilities provided to the elderly women in old age homes.
18
July - Dec. 2010
2. Hypotheses
1. The number of children and marital status are two main factors
to orphaned status in the old age.
leading
3. Study area and selection of respondents
The study has been conducted in two districts, Alappuzha and Kottayam
of Kerala state in India. The elderly population of female 60 years and above
in the area is considered as the subject for the study. The sample size is fixed as
210 elderly females from institutionalized.
Towards the study of institutionalized aged females spread over the said
two districts, 30 old age homes were selected for sampling. In the 30 institutions
selected, there were 4 Government and 26 Non Government institutions (Private
old age homes). In the 26 non Govt. old age homes 5 were paid homes. As
there are only 5 old age homes functioning at present in Alappuzha district all
the five old age homes are included in the sample. There are 37 old age homes
at Kottayam district out of which 25 old age homes from Kottayam district
were selected using simple random sampling by lottery method. From each Old
Age Home seven inmates were selected randomly so that minimum sample size
will be 210.Multistage sampling technique is used for the selection of samples.
4. Sample Size
The sample size in the case of institutionalized elderly women is 210.
The said 210 samples were collected for the study from the above said 30 Old
age homes. i.e., seven samples from each Old age home.
5. Research Design
Design of the present study is descriptive in nature, based on primary
data. The study is designed to examine the problems of the aged women, their
socio-economic profile, family background, environmental degradation, etc.
6. Tools of Data Collection
A structured interview schedules was administered for data collection.
They included both open ended and close-ended questions. Various pamphlets,
booklets, Websites and journals published by governmental and Non governmental
organizations relating to the subject under investigation.
7. Data Analysis
All data were analyzed using a simple statistical technique, namely
percentage analysis, the data have been presented in tabular, diagrammatic and
textual forms.
19
Operational definition
Elderly Women: Women those who are above 60 years of age.
Institutions: Old Age Homes
Institutionalized: institutionalized means elderly women living in old age
homes
Young Old- Elderly persons in the age group of 60-69
Old– Old – Elderly persons in the age group of 70-79.
Oldest – old – Elderly persons between the age group of 80 and above.
Extreme old –Elderly persons above 90 years
Age
Young-old (42.4 per cent) and old-old (45.2 per cent) group respondents
are living more in institution. When age advances the elderly women have some
adjustment problems in the families with their children and in-laws and the young
old age is still a productive age so that their children can utilize the services of
these persons. When age increases their vulnerability also increases. This leads
to various problems like cultural rejection, self rejection, anxiety and panic, psychosocial exhaustion and isolation. Economic dependence is also a cause for
dissatisfaction. The deteriorating health of the aged persons and the medical
cost is also a threat to their children. So, these persons become a burden to their
children, so that they try to discard these elderly persons
Marital status
49.5 per cent of the respondents are widows. Only 2.9 per cent are married
respondents single elderly women (42.9 per cent) are forced to live in institutions.
Education
One third of the respondents are illiterate (27.6 per cent). More number of
respondents is primary educated (61.9 per cent) and 2.4 per cent of the
respondents are well educated.(Post graduates &doctors)
Religion
In the case of religion, majority of the respondents (76.2 per cent) were
Christians in institutions. 22.8 per cent were hindu respondents. Only one percent
of the Muslim respondents was in institutions.
Christian women are more in institutions when compared to other religion.
One reason may be that Christian churches are running more old age homes
compared to Hindus and Muslims and so they admit more Christians.
20
July - Dec. 2010
Map of Kerala : Kerala is the state of
southern end of India. South east
by Tamil Nadu, north Karnataka and west
Arabian sea.
21
Discussion and Analysis
Table No.1 Demographic profile of the Respondents
Respondents
Age
Frequency
Young old
89
42.4
Old-Old
95
45.2
Oldest –Old
26
12.4
210
100.0
Single
90
42.9
Married
6
2.9
Widowed
104
49.5
Divorced
10
4.8
210
100.0
Illiterate
58
27.6
Primary
130
61.9
11
5.2
SSLC& above
6
2.9
Others
5
2.4
Total
210
100.0
Hindu
48
22.8
160
76.2
2
1.0
210
100.0
89
42.4
106
50.5
Govt. –service
5
2.4
Private service
10
4.8
210
100.0
Total
Marital Status
Total
Education
Secondary
Religion
Christian
Muslim
Total
Occupation
Percent
No Occupation
Self Employment
Total
Occupation
Occupation of majority of the respondents in the OAHs (50.5 per cent)
were self employment and more number of respondents had no occupations.2.4
per cent had in Govt.service.
22
July - Dec. 2010
Number of surviving Children of the respondents
Table No. 2 Distribution of Respondents by surviving children
Institution
Number of surviving children
Male
Frequency
Percent
Female
Frequency
Percent
0
157
74.8
138
65.7
1
26
12.4
39
18.6
2
15
7.1
15
7.1
3
9
4.3
10
4.8
4+
3
1.4
8
3.8
Total
210
100.0
210
100.0
The number of surviving children is very less for the inmates of OAH
It is seen from the study that there is relationship between the number of
surviving children and the women who are constrained to stay in the old age
homes. Majority of the respondents in the institutions have no children (65.7 per
cent) followed by single (42.9 per cent). More number of single aged women
have joined the OAH, since they have none to look after them after the demise
of their close relatives. Not having male children can be a factor in making the
respondents seek refuge in institutions. The study reveals that there is a high
proportion of single women in the institutions. Before coming to institution with
whom the respondents were living
Table No. 4 The Table shows with whom respondents were staying
before joining OAH
Category
Frequency
Percent
Spouse
19
9.0
Son/daughter
52
24.8
Brother/Sister
75
35.8
Distant relatives
64
30.4
210
100.0
Total
More number of (35.8 per cent) institutional respondents were staying
with their brothers and sisters, distant relatives (30.4 per cent), and son/daughter
(24.8 per cent), before joining OAH. The study shows that that the death of the
sibling, their children send the respondents to the old age homes. It is found that
more number of the single women respondents who had been living with brothers
and sisters joined the old age home in their later years.
23
Reasons for joining the institution
Table No. 5 Distribution of the respondents by Reasons for joining in
old age home
Reasons for joining old age home
Frequency
No one to take care at home
Percent
101
48.1
1
0.5
Problems with children
22
10.5
Problems with in-law
73
34.8
Other reasons
13
6.2
210
100.0
Children are away
Total
The study reveals that problem with in-laws and no one to take care at
home are the reasons attributed by the respondents for joining the OAH.
Satisfaction of the respondents in OAH
Majority of the respondents are satisfied with the environment of OAH,
since they are able to satisfy their basic needs.
Ownership of property and paying capacity of the respondents in
OAH
It is observed in the OAH that majority of the inmates were destitutes and
they have no one to look after them and they do not possess any property.
Majority of the respondents do not have paying capacity.
Place of residence of children of respondents in OAH
Table No. 6 Distribution of the respondents by place of residence of
the children
Place of residence of the children
Frequency
Percent
Native district within Kerala
47
22.4
Other district within Kerala
71
33.8
1
0.5
Other states of India
Abroad
Not applicable
Total
1
0.5
90
42.8
210
100.0
The study shows that 33.8 per cent of the children of the inmates are live
in other districts within Kerala and 22.4 per cent of their children living in the
same district. Only 0.5 per cent of them are abroad and other states. 42.8 per
cent of them are single persons and they have no children. More number of the
24
July - Dec. 2010
children of the respondents in the institutions were found to be living in nearby
districts.
Reported problem of the respondents in the institutions
Table No.7 Table showing reported problems of the respondents
after joining
Category
Frequency
Per cent
Health problem
152
72.4
Adjustment problem
164
78.1
58
27.6
172
81.9
167
79.5
N=210
*
Problem of spiritual enforcement
Isolation &loneliness
Non availability of medical facilities
The major problems reported by the respondents after joining the OAH is
‘isolation and loneliness’ (81 per cent), ‘non availability of medical facilities (79.5
per cent)’ and ‘adjustment problems (&*.1 per cent)’.
Availability of food
Almost all of the respondents living in institutions are having adequate
food (96.7 per cent)
Adequacy of food
The study reveals that majority of the respondents (96.4 per cent) of
Government and non Government (96.7 per cent) institutions opined that the
food provided to them is adequate. There is not much difference in the adequacy
of food availability for the inmates of Govt. and non Govt. Institutions.
Psychological problems
Figure 1. Distribution of Resp. According to psychological problems
25
Greater number of respondents in the OAH
sleeplessness and feeling of loneliness.
has the problems of
Leisure time activities
For more than half (52.9 per cent)of the institutional respondents are reading
newspapers and sitting idle in their leisure time.
Conditions of health
Figure 2 Frequency
More than half of the institutional respondents stated that their state of
health is bad. Majority of the respondents had not been so much concerned with
their health in their early years. Those who always concerned and most of the
time concerned are very healthy in their later years.
Arrangement of medical care
Table No. 8 Distribution of the respondents by arrangement of
medical care in the institution
Category
Frequency
Drs. visit daily
Drs. visit regularly once in a week
patient is visit to nearby hospital
Dr. on call duty
Total
Percent
5
2.4
45
21.4
153
72.9
7
3.3
210
100.0
Majority of the respondents are taking allopathic medicine as the system
of treatment.
Majority of the respondents (72.9 per cent) stated that they are taken to
nearby hospital for medical treatment followed by ‘doctor visit regularly once in
a week’ (21.4 per cent),
Morbidity status of the respondents
26
July - Dec. 2010
Table No. 9 Distribution of the respondents by their morbidity status
Disease
Institution
Frequency
Percent
Gastro intestinal disease
25
11.9
Chronic Asthma
45
21.4
C/C Constipation / piles
18
8.6
Diabetes
35
16.7
Hyper tension
82
39.0
Urinary problem
9
4.3
Tuberculosis
-
-
Rheumatism
63
30.0
Arthritis
72
34.3
Vision impairments
146
69.5
Hearing impairment
27
12.9
Filariasis
2
1.0
Others*
40
18.9
Source: Computed from primary data
Other disease* include–Breast cancer, CHD, Dementia, Neuro problem,
Skin allergy, Thyroid, Uterus prolepses, Varicose vein c/c head ache,
The major health problems of the respondents are impairment of vision
due to cataract (69.5 per cent), arthritis (34.3 per cent), rheumatism (30 per
cent), hypertension (39 per cent), diabetes (16.7 per cent), gastro intestinal disease
(11.9 per cent), chronic asthma (21.4 per cent) and hearing impairment (12,9
per cent)
They are suffering from loss of vision due to cataract and they are not in
a position to do the cataract surgery because many of them are not physically fit
for a surgery due to hypertension, diabetes and anemia. The percentage of
vision impairment is more in the institution, many of them want to do the surgery
for regaining the eye sight but no one is ready to assist them in hospital as by
standers during the surgery and they can not afford the surgery expense.
Accommodation facility in Govt. and non-Govt. Old Age Homes
27
Table No. 10. Distribution of the respondents according to living
arrangements and type of the institution
Type of the institution
Living Arrangement
Government
Frequency
Non-Government
Percent
Frequency
Percent
Single room
1
3.6
16
8.8
Double room
2
7.1
31
17.0
Family room
0
0
1
0.5
Dormitory
25
89.3
134
73.6
Total
28
100.0
182
100
There are only 4 Govt. Old age homes and 26 Non Govt. Old age homes.
As for family room only in non government institution 0.5 per cent of them
accommodated in family rooms. There is no family room in Government
institution.
The study shows that the Government institution provides more (73.6 per
cent) dormitory facilities than non Government institutions.
Accommodation facility in paid and unpaid Old Age Homes
There are 5 paid old age homes covered in this study, More number of
those who pay the institution is provided with single and double rooms’ facility.
About 60 per cent of the paid homes have single or double rooms. Majority of
the unpaid (88.6 per cent) are staying in dormitories whereas only 40 per cent
are staying in paid institution.
Table No. 11 Distribution of the respondents by Living arrangement
and institutional status
Institutional status
Living arrangement
Paid
Frequency
Unpaid
Percent
Frequency
Percent
Single room
12
34.3
5
2.8
Double room
9
25.7
14
8.0
Family room
0
0
1
0.6
Dormitory
14
40.0
155
88.6
Total
35
100.0
175
100.0
The study reveals that majority of the respondents are accommodated in
dormitories in unpaid homes and the living arrangements of the paid and nonpaid institutions are not homogenous.
28
July - Dec. 2010
The rating of respondents about facilities available in terms of need
Table No. 12 Table showing the rating by respondents on facilities
available in terms of need
Type of institution
Facilities in the OAH
Government
Frequency
Non-Government
Percent
Frequency
Percent
Quite adequate
12
42.9
130
71.4
Just adequate
9
32.1
52
28.6
Not adequate
1
3.6
-
-
Not at all adequate
6
21.4
-
-
28
100.0
182
100.0
Total
Majority of the respondents in non Government institutions rated the facilities
available in the OAH as quite adequate.(71.4 per cent)
It is seen that the facilities in the paid Old age home is better than the
facilities in the unpaid homes.
The inmates who rated the location as hygienic, ventilation as good and
cleanliness as good are more in the case of institutional respondents than
respondents in the families except space rated as spacious in which case
respondents in families are more than the institutional respondents only by 0.4
per cent.
Compared to Govt. institution, majority of the respondents in nonGovernment institutions have better living environment with regard to location,
ventilation, space and cleanliness.
Conclusion
1. Old age is a growing problem in India, as in the past society the old
were looked after by the joint family. Today increasing life expectancy
coupled with the increasing demands of life marginalizes the old from
the family. This study evidences that elder’s family is the main support
system, though many elderly are forced to institutional care giving
system. Comparing the elderly who live in the institutions and non
institutions, the aged who live in the household are healthier and ‘happier
than those in the homes. More single elderly women and barren women
are forced to live in institutions. The number of children and marital
status are two main factors leading to orphaned status in the old age.
2. Christian women are more in institutions when compared to other religion.
For those who stay in the old age homes, though they have more facilities
29
in the Old Age Homes. the company of the peer groups, and good
living environment do not give much satisfaction as they miss their families
very much and feel discarded , they have segregation from social life
also. Though both the groups have deprivations, the elderly who stay
in the old age homes have more deprivations than those who stay in
families.
Notes
1. ‘An Ageing World-2001’, International Population Report, Nov.2001,].
2. Bagga, Amrita, 1991.’Women in Old Age Homes’ in National SeminarO n
Ageing (Dec, 23 – 24, Coimbatore) Souvenir: Coimbatore PSG College Of
Arts and Science.
3. Devasahayam, M. 1988 ‘Aged female’ The Journal of Social Work, Vol.49,
No.3, July. PP – 261 – 69.
4. Nagpal, Nishi and Chadha.N.K, 1991 ‘Institutionalized and non
institutionalized elderly: Problems and their solutions’ in journal of
psychological researches
5. Saraswathy Mishra, 1993, ‘Scenario of Segregated Seniors’, Indian Journal
of Gerontology, Vol.7, 3&4, PP 104 -110.
6. Sreevals, P.S. Nair, 2001, ’Elderly and old age home in Kerala’ Help age
India Research & Development Journal.Vol.7, No.3 June 2001. PP – 11- 21
7. Indira Jai Prakash, 2004,’Health concerns of older women in India’, Help
age India Research & Development Journal Vol.10, No.3 PP 7 – 10.
8. Phoebe S.Liebig (2004) ‘Old age homes and services: Old and New
approaches to Aged care’ Haworth Press. PP – 159-178.
9. Pushpa Mary Rani (2001) ’Elderly and old age home in Kerala’ Help
age India Research & Development Journal.Vol.7, No.3 June 2001.
10.S.Irudayarajan, 2000, ‘Home away from home: A survey of Oldage Homes
and inmates in Kerala’, Working paper No.306,
www.kerala.gov.in
Jacob john Kattakayam, 2009, ‘Dimensions of Ageing in India’, Edited by
M.V.Lakshmidevi,Excel publishers,New Delhi
‘World Population Ageing 1950-2050’, U.N.Publications, Newyork, 2002
Economic Review 2005, P.P.45 planning Board Thiruvananthapuram
Report on “survey of aged in Kerala” by Dept. of Economics &statistics,
Thiruvananthapuram September 2005, Government of Kerala.
Directory of OAHs in India Revised Edn.2006, HelpageIndia, New Delhi 21.
30
July - Dec. 2010
District Handbook of Alappuzha, Department of Information &Public relations,
Govt. of Kerala, p.5-32
District Handbook Kottayam. Department of Information &Public relations,
Govt. of Kerala, p7-64.
Bibliography
An anonymous book
‘An Ageing World-2001’, International Population Report, Nov.2001,].
‘World Population Ageing 1950-2050’, U.N.Publications, Newyork, 2002
Journal article
Devasahayam, M. 1988 ‘Aged female’ The Journal of Social Work, Vol.49,
No.3, July. PP – 261 – 69.
Nagpal, Nishi and Chadha.N.K, 1991 ‘Institutionalized and non
institutionalized elderly: Problems and their solutions’ in journal of
psychological researches.
Saraswathy Mishra, 1993, ‘Scenario of Segregated Seniors’, Indian Journal
of Gerontology, Vol.7, 3&4, PP 104 -110.
Sreevals, P.S. Nair, 2001, ’Elderly and old age home in Kerala’ Help age
India Research & Development Journal.Vol.7, No.3 June 2001. PP – 11- 21
Indira Jai Prakash, 2004,’Health concerns of older women in India’, Help
age India Research & Development Journal Vol.10, No.3 PP 7 – 10.
Pushpa Mary Rani (2001) ’Elderly and old age home in Kerala’ Help age
India Research & Development Journal.Vol.7, No.3 June 2001.
Article in an edited volume
Bagga, Amrita, 1991.’Women in Old Age Homes’ in National Seminar On Ageing
(Dec, 23 – 24, Coimbatore) Souvenir: Coimbatore PSG College Of Arts
and Science.
Book by a single author
Phoebe S.Liebig (2004) ‘Old age homes and services: Old and New
approaches to Aged care’ Haworth Press. PP – 159-178.
S. Irudayarajan, 2000, ‘Home away from home: A survey of Oldage Homes
and inmates in Kerala’, Working paper No.306,
Online Documents
www.kerala.gov.in
31
Jacob john Kattakayam, 2009, ‘Dimensions of Ageing in India’, Edited by
M.V.Lakshmidevi,Excel publishers,New Delhi
A Republished Book
(Economic Review 2005, P.P.45 planning Board Thiruvananthapuram)
Report on “survey of aged in Kerala” by Dept. of Economics &statistics,
Thiruvananthapuram September 2005, Government of Kerala.
Directory of OAHs in India Revised Edn.2006,HelpageIndia,New Delhi 21.
District Handbook of Alappuzha, Department of Information & Public
relations, Govt. of Kerala, p.5-32
District Handbook Kottayam. Department of Information & Public relations,
Govt. of Kerala, p7-64.
32
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 33 - 47
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF TRIBAL
PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES A CASE STUDY OF JEYPORE BLOCK IN ORISSA
* Murali Dhar Majhi
Abstract
The development process is viewed as a mechanism of changing the
socio-economic life in a society. It is argued that people’s participation
makes the development process effective. Higher the degree of
participation higher will be the degree of success on development.
However it is found that participation of tribals in development
programmes has been discouraging. What keeps them alienated has
been the major concern of this research. To a great extent nonparticipation leads to non-development which in turn further nonparticipation. This is because developmental projects as solutions to
their socio-economic problem are imposed from outside and from
above without any appreciable degree of participation from below.
Therefore for genuine and self-reliant development people must
participate in development, take control of the situation and seek
their own original paths of development on the basis of analysis of
own problems, conditions and constraints. The tribals are part of our
society, at the same time they are different. When we plan for tribal
development, we have to regard these differences, take a special note
of their situations and capabilities and provide them facilities to
develop on the line they want to take. The paper examines the problems
and prospects of tribal participation in various development
programmes in Jeypore block of Orissa. The paper also made an attempt
to search out various possibilities of constraints and to enhance
participation of tribal communities in development programmes.
Key words: Problems, Prospects, Development Programmes, Participation,
Tribal Community.
Section – I
Introduction
People’s participation in development process represents a process by
which goals are set and means are chosen in relation to all sorts of developmental
*
Head, Dept. of Economics, Govt. Women’s Junior College, Jeypore, Dist. - Koraput,
Orissa- 764001, E-mail: [email protected]
33
Problems and prospects of tribal ......................... - a case study of jeypore block in orissa
issues.People’s participation makes the development process effective. In this
context, people are treated not as passive respondents or consumers but as
project developers, evaluators and operators. Without participation there can be
no development and if there is no scope for development there will be no
participation Individual’s ability to choose and make use of inputs and produce
output is the crux of participation. Compared to other populations, tribal constitute
a major part in Orissa but their participation in development programmes is not
encouraging. A wide range of factors, many of them deeply embedded in the
nature of culture and society, prevent the tribals from participating in development
programme. In spite of several legal and developmental schemes the rate of
progress and their participation in development are not commensurate with the
expectations. The enhancement of participation has posed big challenges to the
administration. Further, given the social stratification of the society and the
seclusion of tribals and their areas from mainstream there are problems that
inhibit tribals from participating in development activities.
To draw these tribals remarkably into the mainstreams of economic
progress numerous developmental programmes have been introduced. But this
has happened only in a symbolic way. In other words, despite all such efforts
and a massive input, the results have been fallen short of expectation as only a
marginal participation has been noticed in majority of programmes. What is
there that hinders their participation in development process then? What keeps
them alienated from the source of their development? And why they are not
identified with and involved in the schemes made for their cause? These are
some pertinent questions which constitute the essence of this piece of research.
Section- II
Data Base
To study about problems and prospects of tribal participation in development
programmes, Jeypore block of Koraput district in Orissa has been selected.
Further an empirical investigation has been conducted through field survey to
assess the composition, growth and prospect of tribal participation. For this a
sample of 19 villages has been selected out of 19 Gram Panchayats (G.P) of
Jeypore block i.e. one from each G.P. The villages selected were those having
highest percentage of tribal concentration to their total population in the Gram
Panchayat. Techniques like interview, observation and questionnaire are followed.
Information is also gathered through focus group discussion and from the available
records of each block level department. Separate discussions were held with
block officials associated with tribal development and records of each department
were referred to. Further this study has taken development programmes of 11
departments implemented in the block of Jeypore. Among the development
programmes implemented by these 11 departments, only two schemes of each
34
July - Dec. 2010
department were studied as sample schemes. The period for which data are
collected covers from 1980-81 to 2000-01.
Methodology
This study has used semi-log model of econometrics to calculate the growth
rate. It is a non-linear econometric model which is used to obtain the growth
rate of participation of tribals on each development programmes over the time
period. Data relating to participation of tribals on various development
programmes in the block of Jeypore of last 20 years i.e. 1980-81 to 2000-01 has
been taken. To test the significance of growth rate t-statistic in the context of
hypothesis testing has been used.
Section – III
Composition of tribal participation
Table-01 outlines the composition of tribal participation in different
development programmes of Jeypore block from 1980-81 to 2000-01 respectively.
The effectiveness of programmes and the priorities of tribals in participation
and whether they have changed in any way over the twenty years period can be
studied through this table. By and large all the development programmes
implemented so far are quantitative in nature – i.e. exhibits their effectiveness
by the number of projects undertaken, amount of money spent and number
beneficiaries as a whole. On the other hand important factors like the number of
potential and expected participants (both male & female), their actual needs,
programmes in conformity with their locations, programmes as per specific tribe
has not been taken into. This gets manifested in the marginal participation of
tribals in different development programmes. The rate and pattern of participation
of tribals also reveals where their priorities lie. The paper therefore, analyses
the composition and overall growth in tribal participation for highlighting some of
the contemporary disturbing trends.
35
36
TRYSEM
I.T.D.A
I.C.D.S.
P.D.S.
Forest & Env.
Agril.
Horticulture
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
11.
10.
Grand
Total
Total
Soil
Conservation
Animal
Resources
Social
Welfare
I.R.D.P.
Sl.
No
9.
Name of
the dept./
programmes
507
2590
2083
281
-
46
393
-
03
-
02
205
-
10
-
06
F
42
10
208
75
1165
-
109
-
35
M
ST
1980-1981
-
16
14
04
F
598
281
-
-
-
02
01
280
2855
2257
415
34
36
13
218
64
1210
-
93
03
171
M
ST
81 - 82
-
24
08
18
F
660
281
02
-
-
04
04
319
2914
2254
417
45
74
17
210
79
1240
-
96
13
63
M
ST
82 - 83
-
20
11
-
F
678
275
10
-
-
-
02
360
2890
2212
423
62
26
14
198
85
1265
-
106
-
33
M
ST
83 - 84
-
28
-
28
F
712
272
07
-
02
05
-
370
3251
2539
443
49
38
18
216
67
1420
-
88
-
200
M
ST
84 - 85
3510
2578
454
33
42
08
225
78
1504
-
99
-
135
M
ST
-
37
-
12
F
932
270
11
01
-
03
-
598
85 - 86
3613
2615
454
41
31
10
275
94
1522
-
79
04
105
M
ST
-
32
09
36
F
998
270
22
-
08
06
615
-
86 - 87
2665
448
35
45
16
245
91
1560
-
116
25
84
M
3683
ST
282
06
03
02
10
05
643
-
42
16
09
F
1018
87 - 88
3971
2938
473
42
30
14
222
67
1574
-
428
09
79
M
ST
88 - 89
470
292
2
103
3
44
25
12
217
4017
1095
285
-
-
03
07
-
715
161
0
85
-
51
09
25
F
-
362
01
96
M
282
14
03
-
-
07
652
-
38
14
23
F
ST
89 - 90
290
04
06
01
04
02
670
-
74
18
17
F
1086
Contd...
4131
3045
465
-
41
15
214
98
1695
-
356
21
140
M
ST
90 - 91
Table-1. Composition of Tribal Participation in development programmes (Jeypore Block) 1980-81 to 2000-01
37
TRYSEM
I.T.D.A
I.C.D.S.
P.D.S.
Forest & Env.
Agriculture
Horticulture
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Total
Grand
Total
-
288
1058
95
554
3192
4250
-
04
12
06
635
-
86
15
12
F
45
24
220
120
1714
-
332
-
88
M
ST
91 - 92
-
287
36
-
19
F
4615
285
-
04
05
15
05
810
3436
7973
3358
570
21
32
19
218
98
2007
-
106
M
ST
92 - 93
80
16
23
F
4780
285
-
10
06
13
15
765
3567
8157
3377
585
43
51
32
216
108
2013
-
194
42
93
M
ST
93 - 94
Source: Panchayat Samiti, Jeypore and Field Survey
N.B: ST- Scheduled Tribe M:- Male
F:- Female
11.
10.
Soil
Conservation
Animal
Resources
Social
welfare
I.R.D.P.
1.
9.
Name of
the dept./
programmes
Sl.
No
40
46
31
F
5018
283
-
04
02
11
13
805
3781
8407
3389
612
65
37
20
224
145
1978
-
164
38
106
M
ST
94 - 95
44
09
11
F
5097
290
-
09
05
10
25
820
3874
8644
3547
622
82
46
23
245
180
2078
-
113
16
142
M
ST
95 - 96
52
-
32
F
5275
386
24
04
08
21
18
815
3915
8740
3465
534
16
50
51
274
189
2076
-
97
08
170
M
ST
96 - 97
3542
556
29
41
19
269
200
2176
-
106
18
128
M
9070
ST
60
-
66
F
5528
378
07
10
03
16
47
815
4126
97 - 98
3700
625
45
48
37
258
178
2200
-
102
21
186
M
9420
ST
57
07
06
F
5720
370
17
12
-
20
24
828
4379
98 - 99
3620
667
57
59
24
264
194
2180
-
103
47
25
M
9601
ST
F
5989
405
34
20
09
18
28
830
4567
58
13
07
99 - 2000
54
-
-
F
6686
412
12
27
10
27
85
845
5214
10,411
3725
676
-
68
102
289
240
2216
-
134
-
-
M
ST
2000 - 01
July - Dec. 2010
The evaluation from table-01 indicates that the programme of IRDP
(Integrated Rural Development Programme) had several flaws in identification
of beneficiaries, estimating quantum of funding, arranging marketing facilities
etc. The participation of tribals in the programme indicates a disturbing trend.
Even after the introduction of liberalisation regime in 1991-92 the participation
of any year has not crossed over the participation of 1984-85. So far as women
participation is concerned it is almost marginal both in the pre and post-liberalistion
period. In contradiction to the basic objectives of IRDP, it is found that one third
of the beneficiaries did not have the original assets and in no year women section
constitute the 40 per cent of total beneficiaries during survey.
The self employment programme of TRYSEM (Training of Rural Youth
for Self Employment) from table-01 indicate that during pre-liberalisation phase
in the year 1980-81, 1984-85,1985-86 and 1992-93, no training has been imparted
to any youth for self employment. The most noticeable feature that can be
observed is that the composition of women in comparison to their male counterpart
is not encouraging. It is disturbing that, participation of tribal women has an
insignificant share through out the period and nil in the year 1980-81,1984-85,198586,1992-93,1996-97 and 1997-98. It has been observed from the field survey
that Pentia, Gadba and Omanatya tribe are the dominant participant in the above
programmes.
In the various programmes of ITDA (Integrated Tribal Development
Agency), Jeypore an upward trend of participation has been noticed. Again the
women participation in the programme implemented through ITDA, Jeypore is
though encouraging, it is not at par with participation of tribal males.
Viewing the percentage of participation in ICDS (Integrated Children
Development Scheme) programme, it is no doubt showing an upward trend and
the growth of participation is significant. But till now maternal mortality, infant
mortality, malnutrition of children is a common feature among tribals in the block.
Many more people are out of the purview of the scheme. From the survey it has
been noticed that except Khonds tribe the participation of tribals in the schemes
is appreciable, where Bhatra tribe has the dominant participation.
The disaggregated view from the above table shows that the participation
of tribals in PDS (Public Distribution System) during post liberalisation period
(1991-92 to 2000-01) has registered an upward trend in participation than the
previous decade. Women participation is concerned, it exhibits stagnancy from
1980-81 to 1991-92 and a marginal increase has been noticed during post
liberalised era.
From the field survey it is observed that the forest officials have failed to
channelise the tribal mentality or tribal folk in raising their participation.
38
July - Dec. 2010
In the selected sample schemes of agriculture department a very marginal
participation of tribals has been noticed. Simultaneously throughout the period
of study the participation of women in various programmes of agriculture
department is insignificant.
In the sample schemes of horticulture department the participation of tribals
is almost insignificant during pre-liberalisation period (1980-81 to 1990-91). But
after 1991-92 the participation of tribal males has increased due to dissemination
of information and continuous demonstration by department officials. However
participation of tribal women has not exceeded to 10 numbers in any one of the
year. Tribe specific participation is concerned it is Gadba, Holba & Omanatya
tribe are the chief participants found in the scheme during survey.
During the survey it is noticed that tribals are quite ignorant about the
existence of a department called soil conservation. Rarely do they have an idea
about the implementation of various schemes under its banner. As the schemes
of this department do not have a tribe specific approach except to curb “Podu”
cultivation and construction of check dams to stop soil erosion, it can not be
judge as tribe specific or participation of any tribe is dominant.
The twenty years data on cattle farming and poultry of animal resources
department exhibits that no proper attention has been given to the requirements
of the tribal beneficiaries. Table-01 shows that in 1980-81 to 1981-82 and the
year 1991-92 to 1995-96 participation of tribal women is nil. Similarly in the
years of 1990-91 and 2000-01 no participation from tribal males has been
registered.
Under the social welfare head, the percentage of change in participation
from 1980-81 to 1995-96 remained marginal. So far as participation of tribal
women registered, though it is encouraging it requires a devoted effort in bringing
more women under the fold.
Section- IV
Growth of tribal participation
To calculate the growth rate of tribal participation in various development
programmes the “Semi-log Model” of econometrics has been used. Table-02
shows the growth rate of various components undertaken in the study.
39
Table- 02 (Growth rate of tribal participation as per Programme wise)
Heads/ Name of
the Programmes
Sl. No.
b
Growth
rate = r * 100
r = b-1
01
I.R.D.P
02
TRYSEM
03
ITDA
04
ICDS
1.04718
05
PDS
1.040628
06
Forest &Environment
1.0741843
07
Agriculture
08
Horticulture
09
Soil Conservation
1.032199
10
Animal Resources
0.9908946
11
Social Welfare
1.0235857
12
Women Participation
13
Total
N=
Sample size
1.02189
0.02189
2.189
20
1.1169
0.1169
11.69
20
1.02345
0.02345
2.345
21
0.04718
4.718
09
0.040628
4.0628
21
0.0741843
7.41843
21
1.0162573
0.0162573
1.625734
21
1.078559
0.0798559
7.985598
21
0.032199
3.219909
21
? 0.0091054
? 0.91054
21
0.0235857
2.358571
21
1.0479558
0.0479558
4.795583
21
1.0938785
0.0938785
9.387855
21
Table-03 shows the computed values of t-statistics on various development
programmes.
Table- 03. Sample size (N), R² and ‘t’ value on Growth of tribal
participation on development programmes in Orissa.
Name of the Programmes
R²
‘t’ value
20
0.049742
0.97068 (ns)
TRYSEM
20
0.208722
2.17899**
ITDA
21
0.084877
1.32749 (ns)
ICDS
09
0.940528
10.52151*
PDS
21
0.920322
14.81461*
Forest & Environment
21
0.031079
10.255*
Agriculture
21
0.58836
5.211224*
Horticulture
21
0.610542
5.457637*
Soil Conservation
21
0.321811
3.00263*
Animal Resources
21
0.006225
? 0.0345 (ns)
Social Welfare
21
0.941216
17.44186*
Women Participation
21
0.887847
12.26423*
Total Growth
21
0.502189
4.378024*
I.R.D.P
Sample size (N)
* - Significant at 1% level
** - Significant at 5% level
ns – Not significant following‘t’ tests
40
July - Dec. 2010
The following are the tabulated value of ‘t’ statistics at 1 per cent, 5 per
cent level of significance for 18 d.f., 19 d.f. & 7 degree of freedom respectively.
t0.01 for 18 d.f. = 2.88
t0.05 for 18 d.f. = 2.10
t0.01 for 19 d.f. = 2.86
t0.05 for 19 d.f. = 2.09
t0.01 for 7 d.f. = 3.50
t0.05 for 7 d.f. = 2.37
Analysis of Data
The data were scrutinized and analysed variable wise. Table-02 shows
the computed growth rate & table-03 exhibits the‘t’ value of the growth rate of
participation of tribals on different programmes implemented in the block of
Jeypore, Orissa. It is observed that the overall growth of participation in all
programmes taken as sample is increasing at 9.38 per cent per annum and
found statistically significant. The decrease in the growth rate of participation in
programmes of Animal resources dept. is found over the study. So far as
participation in programmes like TRYSEM & programmes of Forest &
Horticulture department is concerned it is highly correlated to the participation
of tribals in Jeypore block of Orissa. The study also reveals that there is a
significant positive relationship between the training achievement and tribal
attitude (Highest growth rate i.e. 11.6 per cent per annum is observed in TRYSEM
Scheme).
On the other hand participation in ICDS & PDS programme is increasing
with a greater consistency. In comparison to programmes of Soil Conservation,
Agriculture, Social Welfare Programme, the participation in programmes of ICDS,
Forest & Environment and Horticulture dept. has experienced a comparatively
higher rate of growth. So far as participation of women in different development
programmes is concerned, it is growing only by 4.79 per cent and found significant
relation with the level of tribal development.
From the study it is observed that two fold reasons are responsible for
marginal participation. Firstly, low participation of tribal women is evident in all
most all development programmes. The main reason which attributes to the
marginal participation of tribal women is the lack of awareness about the
programme, low status of women both in the family and in official procedures
and poor economic condition connected with illiteracy. Secondly, another crucial
phenomenon which has been observed is that the people of those Panchayats
which are nearer to the block office have a better access to the information and
their participation in the programme is significant. Hence it can be judged that
distance from the centre is another problem to the block officials for
implementation of the programme. Finally it can be mentioned that this marginal
participation of tribals in development programmes is not peculiar to Jeypore
41
block alone. In fact, in all most all the blocks of Orissa, experiencing such a low
level of participation in development programmes.
Interpretative Comment
The study has indicated that there are wide variations in tribal participation
in different development programmes. Analysis shows that the growth of tribal
participation in each of the programme has shown a marginal growth from 198081 to 2000-01. Deceleration has been particularly marked in case of the
programmes of animal resources department. Low participation of tribals on
the development programmes of I.T.D.A., Agriculture, and Soil Conservation
departments has been a much debated issue. It shows that there are inherent
weaknesses in development programmes for which the blame cannot always
go to the tribals but to the programme planners who are not down to earth. The
inter-variability of participation of tribals in different programmes is a problem
which needs to be tackled either in otherway or through an agency like ITDA
etc. In addition to this the govt. has to ensure the quality and pattern of
development programmes as well as monitor the need and requirement of the
tribals. More intensive planning on Agriculture, Horticulture, Animal resources
and Forest resources need to be done at state level by resource group in
consultation with national level experts. There is the need of flexibility and
adoptability with regard to implementation of the Social Welfare and ICDS
programme. So also these development programmes must work in coordination
with other supportive institution / community ownership/other agencies. The
poor tribals in the village have shown greater interest in earning their livelihood
and are not available for continuous participation in their own development. This
shows that, an autonomous process of people’s participation can hardly taken
for granted in an ongoing process of development. It is also found that
programmes divorced from regional specificity would tend to less meaningful
for the tribal of their location. So also it is the functional gaps which tend to keep
tribals divorced from productive activities / programmes perpetuate them in
economic backwardness. Inherent weaknesses in the system of development
administration, programme implementation strategy and constraints faced during
programme implementation etc. are the major reasons for slow growth of tribal
participation in the development programmes of Jeypore block. The study also
provides differential trends regarding the level of participation, awareness and
attitude of tribal women of Orissa relating to various development programmes.
The overall participation among the women is not satisfactory and significant
difference is marked among the tribal male & tribal females basing on their
habitations, age groups, and socio-economic background. For this greater
awareness of women’s contribution to development process, changing long held
perceptions that undervalue tribal women’s work and breaking down
discriminatory practices and attitudes are essential in improving tribal women’s
42
July - Dec. 2010
access to and participation in development programmes. Similarly for mobilising
the tribals to participate in the developmental process there is a need to shift
from an exclusive focus on modern mass media to a broader focus on participatory
communication media, as well as the institutional aspects of managing
communication strategies and campaigns. Therefore to sum up, the study reveals
that, programme pattern (i.e. input process of development programme) and
process of implementation of development programmes in tribal areas both need
re-valuation and re-orientation.
Section - V
Findings
1. In Jeypore block of Orissa, development programmes for the Scheduled Tribes
and lower sections of the society are undertaken in various sectors. This has
resulted in remarkable achievements in terms of increased tribal participation
as well as improvement in their quality life. But it could have achieved higher
rate of participation with slightest supervision.
2. The staff of the block offices undertaking development programmes are
unable to pay due attention to supervision and monitoring of these programmes
(especially for tribes) because of their pressing engagement in implementing
other development programmes and complying with several administrative
needs.
3. The field visits of the government official staff to supervise the development
programmes meant for scheduled tribes are very rare, irregular and not down
to village. This act a hindrance in tribal participation in different development
programmes.
4. Some of the guidelines designed for development of scheduled tribes appear
to be faulty, inadequate and not clear and therefore, need a review. (i.e.
agriculture, horticulture schemes etc.)
5. Owing to absence of banks in interior and inaccessible areas, the tribal people
do not get loans and thereby fall prey to indebtedness, land alienation and
bonded labour. This has reduced the tribal participation in most of the schemes.
(i.e. IRDP, ITDA schemes, Agriculture & Animal resources etc).
6. In schemes like Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) the house structure design are
not compatible with the cultural beliefs, values and ritual of tribals. As a
result, the IAY colonies have been deserted or disliked by the tribal people in
certain cases.
7. In the present system of development schemes, participation vis-à-vis
employment generation for women is heavily neglected. The schemes are so
designed as to provide employment mainly to men among the scheduled tribes.
43
8. The directive to avoid over administration and not to overwhelm the people
with a multiplicity of schemes is ignored.
9. Tribals are attached to their own culture, religion and way of life and unless
the development programme is very carefully adjusted it may do as much
harm as good, destroying much that is of value and putting little in its place.
Besides no survey is conducted to know the aspiration and felt needs of
tribal people. Therefore, the annual action plans, which do not properly reflect
peoples aspirations and felt-needs, are not very much people-oriented. Further,
the programmes for vocational training and awareness generation are
neglected and measures for involving people in development programmes
are also not taken in a planned way.
Section- VI
Suggestive Model
 Measures to improve conditions and opportunities for tribals in
development programmes.
 Measures to ensure a non-discriminatory environment for tribals and
 Measures to ensure that all development programmes of government
are attuned to and appropriate to the realities and needs of tribal people
Against this background the following are options given to enhance the
tribal participation in development programmes in Orissa.
I. Firstly there is a need to establish Planning and Action Committees of Tribals
(PACT) at village circle and block levels consisting of spokesmen of tribals
who are enlightened and who possess some necessary organisational skills
and leadership capabilities. The PACT should be provided with some minimum
amount of seed money to meet the cost of their periodic meetings, educational
and training programmes and motivational and promotional campaigns. The
role of PACT will be to understand and solve the socio-economic problems
collectively with or without external, financial, administrative, legal and legal
support for enhancing participation of tribals in development programmes.
II. Secondly there is a need to create and strengthen the organisation of tribals
at the block level which will be concerned with the problem of development
in general. This organisation can be politically more active so as to press for
swift and concrete results as a pressure group.
III. Thirdly there is a need for special appoint at the district level who can
watch and monitor the performance and participation of tribals in development
programmes and development administration.
44
July - Dec. 2010
At last hopefully, it can be said that accessing complete information about
tribal participation will no doubt promote a new system of enhancing tribal
participation in Orissa, India.
Section - VII
Conclusion
By concluding it can be said that anyone thinking of tribal participation in
development programmes can not afford its human dimension: it has social and
cultural components and correlates. The theoretical premise has to be borne in
mind and translated in to action. Tribes today have to be restudied and observed
comparatively, cross culturally and on that basis development policies and plans
should be formulated and pursued vigorously. They have to develop in a way
they feel is suitable for us so that the element they cherish in cultures can be
protected and preserved from threats from outside. The traditional village councils
in tribal areas should be re-activated, their informal labour cooperatives
reinvestigated, traditional social institutions bases tapped, and their natural
resource base and human potential harnessed. This would warrant empowerment
of tribal people and a participatory mode of development.
Acknowledgements
The author expresses his deep sense of gratitude to University Grants
Commission, New Delhi for financial support of Minor Research Project
“Composition, Growth and Prospects of tribal participation in development
programmes – A study of scheduled tribes in Jeypore block of Koraput district
(Orissa) {Letter no. F. PHO – 005/ 06-07 (ERO) Dated. 15-01-2007}. Thanks
are due to ITDA Jeypore and officials of Jeypore block who helped in the
organisation of field work programme in respective tribal villages. The cooperation of all the subjects Paroja, Gadba, Khond, Bhumia, Omanatya, Penthia,
Holba & Bhatra is gratefully acknowledged.
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47
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 49 - 59
OCCUPATIONAL LOCKING-IN AND ORGANISATIONAL
STRESS AMONG THE PART TIME CONTRACT
TEACHERS WORKING IN VARIOUS DEGREE
COLLEGES OF TRIPURA.
* Deepa Ghosh
Abstract
The present study aims at investigating the Occupational Locking-in
and Organisational Stress of the Part time Contract Teachers working
in the government degree colleges of Tripura. A group of 100 college
teachers, among them 49 part time contract teachers (Male-31, Female18) and 51 regular teachers (Male-29, Female-22) were selected as
sample in this study. The age group of the subjects ranged from 35-50
years. The Occupational Locking-in questionnaire, developed by
Ghosh (2002) and Organisational Role Stress scale developed by
Pareek (1983 and 1993) and locally adapted by Deepa Ghosh (2002)
were administered for measuring the locking-in condition and
occupational stress of the part time contract teachers. The obtained
scores were statistically analysed. Results divulge that the part time
contract teachers significantly experiences more locked-in feelings,
in comparison to the regular teachers ( t = 8.14; p < 0.01). They also
experience organisational role stress, especially in terms of role
stagnation, role expectation conflict, role erosion, role overload, role
ambiguity and resource inadequacy. The results suggest that the
feeling of locking-in will surely lead to organizational stress because
there are positive correlations between the two variables.
Key words: Occupational Locking-in, Organisational Role Stress, Part
time Contract Teachers.
Introduction
Stress is an inseparable part of human existence. It affects all individuals
rich and poor, literate and illiterate, both men and women and young and the old
alike across the developed and developing nations. It exists everywhere, whether
it is a family, a government organisation or any other social or economic
organisation. The modern world, which is said to be world of achievement, is
also a world of stress.
*
Assistant Professor (Senior Scale), Netaji Subhas Mahavidyalaya,Udaipur, South Tripura.
49
Occupational locking-in and Organisational Stress ...................... various degree Colleges of Tripura
Organisational Stress means negative environmental factors associated
with a particular job in an organisation. Such negative factors may be in connection
with administrative policies and strategies, organisational structure and design
(Kasl, 1992), organisational process, and working conditions. Organisational stress
may be defined as ‘a condition arising from the interaction of people and their
jobs and characterised by changes within people that force them to deviate
from their normal functioning’ (Beehr and Newman, 1978). Occupational stress
is an individual experience, depending on the traits of individuals, in that not all
people react to events the same way (Manthei and Gilmore, 1996; McKenna
1987).
Occupational locking-in refers to the ongoing feeling when an individual
had almost no opportunity to move from their present job or virtually when there
is no berth available for their promotions (Quinn, 1975). Quinn distinguished
three components of locking-in: (1) low probability of securing another job as
good or better than his present one; (2) little opportunity to modify a presently
disliked employment situation by securing a change in job assignments; and
(3) low likelihood that a worker who was dissatisfied with his job could take
psychological refuge in the performance of other roles not linked to his job.This
feelings of being trapped in a job leads to job dissatisfaction and reduced mental
well-being (Sutherland and Cooper, 1986). Professionals who report being ‘locked
into’ their job endure extreme costs. They have lower feeling of self-worth,
more negative encounter in their marriages and less marital satisfaction, and
report more depression, poorer health and less life satisfaction (Wolpin and Burke,
1986).
In an organisation career development may be a source of stress, if an
individual do not find scope to develop his career. Marshall (1977), and Wolpin
and Burke (1986) identified lack of job security and obsolescence, status
incongruity (under or over promotion and frustration due to non-reaching to the
career ceiling as a result of occupational locking-in condition) as the potential
sources of stress. In addition, poor pay is also a source of potential stress for an
individual in any organisation.
Occupational stress can result in psychological, physical and behavioral
consequences for individuals. Psychological consequences include job
dissatisfaction, reduced job commitment, anxiety, frustration, anger, and of most
concern, burnout (Aluja, Blanch & Garcia, 2005; Angerer, 2003; Hanson &
Sullivan, 2003; Luthans, 2002; Maslach, 1982; Sarros & Sarros, 1992; Troman,
2000). According to a substantial body of literature, teaching can be a very
stressful occupation and teacher stress appear to have increased in recent
decades (Bernard, 1990; Munt, 2004)
50
July - Dec. 2010
Physical consequences of occupational stress involve changes to normal
bodily functioning (Ashcraft, 1992). Research conducted in numerous settings,
including schools, have established links between the following and occupational
stress (and burnout): hypertension, elevated blood pressure, dryness in the throat,
nervous tics, stomach complaints, ulcers, neck or back pain, headache, migraine,
tiredness, chest pain, heart disease and stroke (Angerer, 2003; Ashcraft, 1992;
Brown & Ralph, 1992; Burke & Greenglass, 1994; Caputo, 1991; Dinham, 1993;
Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1977).
Behavioural consequences of occupational stress are the actions by
individuals. These may arise directly from stress or as a result of psychological
or physical reactions as described above. The five major behavioural
consequences identified in the literature are withdrawal, reduced performance,
deteriorating collegial relations, substance abuse and accidents (Aluja et al, 2005;
Angerer, 2003; Hanson & Sullivan, 2003; Kalliath & Beck, 2001; Sarros &
Sarros, 1992; Solman & Field, 1989; Spector, 2000; Troman, 2000).
These outcomes, in their various forms, can prove quite costly to individuals
and organization//to which they belong. For educational institutions student learning
can be disrupted or otherwise affected. For these reasons, the reduction of
occupational stress should be of great importance to colleges and other
organizations because with job dissatisfaction, the pecuniary loss can be
considerable; the cost in terms of disrupted learning for students cannot be
measured. According to Acirrt, 2002, Punch & Tuetlman, 1996) teaching has
been identified as one of the professions associated with high to very high levels
of occupational stress.
The prevailing employment scenario of Tripura is very depressing in
comparison to other states of the Indian union. Here job opportunity is confined to
government jobs only. Since the existence of industry is bare minimum, hence the
opportunity of employment is also restricted to the spheres of government job. So,
the educated youths after completion of higher studies eye for a government job.
Some succeed in securing a government job, others fail to do so.
The Part Time Contract teachers are recruited by the State Higher Education
Department and are given contractual appointment for one academic session
only, subject to review and reappointment. This is done with an objective to
ensure healthy student teacher ratio and guarantee smooth completion of the
teaching-learning process in the existing 15 nos Government degree colleges of
the state. Out of the total teachers working in the colleges to augment the teaching
learning process, 45 per cent among them are part time contract teachers. As
manifested through statistics, the rein of the teaching learning process of the
colleges situated in the various sub-divisions including the state capital virtually
depends upon the part time contract teachers. Statistics reveal that 2 per cent of
51
the part time contract teachers are NET/SET qualified and 14 per cent among
them have completed their Ph.D/M.Phil. But, the astounding fact is that 33 per
cent of the part time contract teachers have surpassed the age limit (37 years)
fixed for any government job i.e. virtually they are ineligible to apply for any
government job.
The Part time Contract Teachers are assigned with the task to perform
duties similar to a regular teacher. But, the difference lies in their designation,
salary and responsibility. This leads them to a feeling of powerlessness and demotivation. While performing the duties for a long period, the Part time Contract
Teachers have developed an expertise at par with the regular teachers working
for a similar period. But since their recruitment is made temporarily for one
academic session only, hence they develop in them a sense of insecurity. They
also bear the fear of being discontinued from service. In addition, the salary
drawn by the Part time Contract Teachers is abysmally low, due to which they
persistently explore possibilities for enhancing their income by engaging
themselves in other Part time jobs. This develops among them ‘role overload’
and ‘role conflict’.
/hough the Part time Contract Teachers and regular teachers work in the
same environment and perform similar duties, but they do not have either job
security or financial stability. Numerous studies found that job stress influences
the employees’ job satisfaction and their overall performance in their work.
Because most of the organizations now are more demanding for the better job
outcomes. In fact, modern times have been called as the “age of anxiety and
stress” (Coleman, 1976).
All these facts related to the Part time Contract Teachers working in
different government degree colleges of Tripura has inspired me to postulate
the following hypothesis:1. Stagnated group of teachers express more intense amount of locked-in
feelings than non locked-in teachers.
2. Locked in group of teachers’ exhibit significantly higher amount of
organisational role stress while comparing with non locked-in teachers.
Method
Aim of the study:- The aim of the present investigation is to collect relevant
information from a representative group of part time college teachers, whether
they experience occupational stress or not.
Sample:- The total sample for the study consisted of 100 teachers working
in the various government degree colleges of Tripura. Out of them, 49 [M-31,
52
July - Dec. 2010
F-18] were part time contract teachers and 51 [M-29, F-22] were regular
teachers. The age range of the sample was 35-50 years. The selected teachers
have at least 7 years of teaching experience.
Tools used
Occupational Locking-in Questionnaire:- It is a Likert-type five point
scale consisting of 9 items, and has been developed by Ghosh (2002) following
the conceptual framework of Wolpin and Burke (1986). This tool was developed
for the assessment of occupational locking-in feelings of the stagnated group of
teachers. The scoring rationale is, the higher the score the greater is the amount
of locked-in feelings. The odd-even reliability co-efficient is 0.86.
Organizational Role Stress Scale (ORS):- Originally this scale was
developed by Pareek (1983 and 1993) [which was based upon industrial settings].
Later on, it was adapted by Ghosh (2002) to suit the measurement of
organizational stress among the teachers. The total number of items in the adapted
version was 78 (originally it was 50). The items were structured in the statement
form. The total possible score on the adapted ORS scale ranges from 0 to 312
using the scoring method 0 to 3. There are ten enquiry areas like:- (i) Inter-Role
distance; (ii) Role stagnation; (iii) Role expectation conflict; (iv) Role erosion;
(v) Role overload; (vi) Role Isolation; (vii) Personal inadequacy; (viii) Self role
distance; (ix) Role ambiguity and (x) Resource Inadequacy. The reliability of
the adapted version of the ORS Scale was 0.71.
Procedure:- At first a list of part time contract teachers, those who have
a working experience of 7 years was collected from the department of higher
education. From them, a group of 49 part time contract teachers (Male-31,
Female-18) and a group of 51 regular teachers (Male-29, Female-22) were
selected through Stratified Random sampling technique from different degree
colleges of Tripura viz, MBB College, Ramthakur College; Women’s College;
NSM, Udaipur, Kabi Nazrul Mahavidyalaya, Belonia College, Khowai College
and Amarpur Government Degree College. Here also, those regular teachers
having seven years of teaching experience were selected. The teachers were
approached individually and were requested to volunteer for the testing schedule
according to the instructions provided at the beginning of the questionnaires.
The two test booklets along with answer sheets were distributed among them
and were collected from them on the dates according to their availability. Each
answer sheets was scrutinised carefully to find out that not a single item remained
unanswered.
Result and Discussion
The Mean, Standard Deviation and Standard Errors of mean of the
occupational locking-in scores for both the Part time Contract Teachers and
Regular teachers (Table-1) largely speak in favour of their clear cut distinguished
53
categories or separate homogeneous group so far as their locked-in feelings are
concerned. From the Table it is clear that the Part time Contract Teachers have
locked-in feelings. As they have no chance to shift from their job due to limited
employment opportunity in the state, they are compelled to continue here as a
Part time Contract Teachers. Irrespective of their high qualification, they are
not in a position to obtain any permanent job, due to lack of suitable employment
alternative. It is noteworthy that 33 per cent of the part time contract teachers
have already surpassed the age limit of 37 years and has virtually become
ineligible for any government job (Source-Department of Higher education, Govt
of Tripura). The statistically significant critical ratio (t=8.14; p<0.01) further
reinforces the above statement i.e. Part time Contract Teachers or stagnated
group of teachers expressed more intense amount of locked-in feelings than
non-locked-in teachers. Such findings provide ample evidence to accept the 1st
hypothesis.
Table-1. Mean, SD and Standard Error of Mean of Occupational
locking - in scores for Part time contract teachers and regular
teachers and comparison between them
Locking-in Score
Regular teacher
t-ratio
31.41
21.75
8.14*
SD
7.57
3.73
S.EMean
1.08
0.52
Mean
Part time Contract Teacher
*p < 0.01
NB – Maximum possible score is 45; High score indicates more intense locked-in feelings.
The findings in the Table-2 unequivocally reveals that the concerned
stagnated Part time Contract Teachers, have reported significantly more amount
of Organizational Role Stress, specially in terms of the following aspects:i) Role Stagnation (ii) Role erosion (iii) Role overload (iv) Role ambiguity and
(v) Resource inadequacy, in comparison to the reported organizational role stress
of the regular teachers concerned. In view of the above evidence, the 2nd
Hypothesis i.e. ‘Locked-in group of teachers’ exhibit significantly higher amount
of organisational role stress while comparing with non locked-in teachers’ can
be retained. The locked-in stagnated teachers have reported about their negative
feelings due to the non-availability of resources needed for effective role
performance and frustrating attitudes caused by uncertainty to avail of career
development opportunities, as expected by them. Corroborative evidences were
found present in the comment of Cooper (1994) as well as Smith and Bourke
(1999), who observed that lack of recognition of good work and ‘lack of
promotional opportunities generate highest level of teachers’ stress’. Ghosh (2002)
found out that lack of promotional opportunity leads the university teachers
(Readers) to experience job dissatisfaction and organizational stress.
54
July - Dec. 2010
From the result it is also seen that the locked-in group of teachers have
significant amount of role overload. Since the salary is not adequate for the
locked-in group of teachers, therefore in order to fulfill the basic necessities of
life, and battle the sky rocketing prices of essential commodities, they are
compelled to work in more than one part time job. But, as the job is not similar to
regular job, therefore they have no liabilities, power, status, recognition,
responsibilities. For this reason, their ego needs is not satisfied in the organizational
context, which also affect their family life or social life. Actually, role overload is
more likely to occur in the absence of a mechanism of role integration, in the
absence of power ceded to role occupants, in situations where there are large
variations in expected output and in instances when delegation does not result in
more time as expected (Pareek, 2008). Moreover locked-in group of teachers
have significant amount of conflict called role ambiguity and role erosion. Due
to their temporary nature of job and having qualification more or less similar to
the regular teachers, they subjectively feel that some functions that he / she
would like to perform are given to some other role. Thus, a conflict develops in
them which lead to depression, stress and dissatisfaction to life.
Table-2. Organisational Role stress levels of Part Time Contract
teachers and regular teachers as well as their comparisons
Organizational Role Stressors
Maximum
Possible score
Regular
teachers
Part time Contract
Teachers
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
t-ratio
Inter Role Distance (IRD)
30
18.11
6.23
20.11
5.99
1.63*
Role Stagnation (RS)
28
17.88
5.11
21.56
6.02
3.29***
Role Expectation Conflict (REC)
20
10.18
4.17
11.13
3.78
1.20*
Role Erosion (RE)
28
18.56
2.71
21.41
4.78
3.68***
Role Overload (RO)
28
16.38
3.39
18.37
3.34
2.96***
Role Isolation (RI)
32
15.81
5.64
17.22
6.28
1.18*
Personal Inadequacy (PI)
28
16.92
2.64
17.79
3.93
1.30*
Self-role Distance (SRD)
60
30.01
10.11
31.22
9.11
0.62*
Role Ambiguity (RA)
12
16.88
2.35
18.58
3.98
2.61**
Resource Inadequacy (Rin)
40
20.11
6.43
22.59
6.39
1.99**
* Difference insignificant; ** p < 0.05;
NB – High score indicates high stress.
*** p < 0.01
The coefficient of correlation between scores of occupational locking-in
and ‘Organisational Role stress’ (Table-3) indicate all positive relationships,
irrespective of the scores of the Part time Contract Teachers and regular teachers.
Such positive correlations have further been observed to be statistically significant
in case of ‘Role stagnation’, ‘Role Erosion’, Role Overload’, ‘Role Ambiguity’
and ‘Resource Inadequacy’ for both part time contract teachers and regular
55
teachers, whereas an additional stressor ‘Self Role distance’ and ‘ Role
expectation conflict’ has also been observed in case of Part time Contract
Teachers and regular teachers respectively. In case of locked-in group of teachers,
it can be said that since they are relatively compelled to join this job after
completion of their higher education, (because of no other job alternative) which
may or may not suit their interest, hence, they may develop in them a conflict
between their self concept and the role they occupy in the organization. This led
them to play the role in a routine way to earn their living. Besides this, in the light
of Equity theory, it is seen that Motivation is the function of perceived equity –
equity of input (effort, loyalty, hard work, commitment, competence, adaptability,
flexibility, tolerance, determination, enthusiasm, trust in superiors, supporting
colleagues, personal sacrifice etc) with output (salary, benefits, perks, recognition,
reputation, responsibility, sense of achievement, praise, sense of growth, Job
security) and equity of one’s output with others’ output of the same input (Pareek,
2008). Therefore, employees assess the fairness of the outcome. If they do not
find fairness (whatever may be the reason) then it will lead to the feeling of
demotivation. This feeling of deprivation will lower their job satisfaction and
quality of performance. Of course there are some among them who occupy
their roles very seriously forgetting their own self concept. But in the long run it
will also affect his / her mental health. Because, there are many studies which
showed that stress produces mental illness. Hence from the above result and
discussion it can be said that there are marked evidence towards the contributory
role of “Occupational locking-in” condition for generating some amount of stress
among the concerned group of teachers.
Table-3. Relationship between Occupational locking-in Scores and
Organisational Role Stress (Component Scale) Scores.
Relation of Occupational Locking-in
scores and ORS Components
*
Coefficients of Correlation
Regular Teachers Part Time contract
(N=51)
Teachers (N=49)
Inter Role Distance (IRD)
0.22*
0.21*
Role Stagnation (RS)
**
0.33
0.40***
Role Expectation Conflict (REC)
0.30**
0.17*
Role Erosion (RE)
0.32**
0.40***
Role Overload (RO)
0.29**
0.42***
Role Isolation (RI)
*
0.18
0.12*
Personal Inadequacy (PI)
0.21*
0.18*
Self-role Distance (SRD)
0.26*
0.29**
Role Ambiguity (RA)
0.39***
0.39***
Resource Inadequacy (RIn)
0.30**
0.38***
Insignificant; ** p < 0.05; *** p < 0.01
56
July - Dec. 2010
Concluding Remarks
On the whole, it can be concluded that the Part time Contract teachers
have significant amount of locked-in feelings which lead them to become
demotivated and feel stressed. There are five major behavioural consequences
of stress, viz, withdrawal, reduced performance, deteriorating relationship among
colleagues, substance abuse and accidents. Since withdrawal or changing the
job is not possible in the context of Tripura, the leftover behavioural consequences
of stress, i.e. reduced performance, deteriorating relationship among colleagues,
substance abuse and accidents will come into effect. Thus the student learning
will be badly disrupted. Finally the dictum of creating human resource for the
nation may remain an unfulfilled dream. In order to take some appropriate
measures the following points should be duly considered:1. The Government should take some effective steps and policy measures so
that scope for permanent employment of the part time teachers is enhanced.
2. Educational policy makers should be sensitized about the problem and the
quantity of regular teachers should be increased from amongst the part time
teachers to facilitate smooth running of the teaching-learning process.
3. To cope with the stressful situation, the locked-in group of teachers should
involve themselves in yoga, meditation etc.
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Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 61 - 75
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY: AN ANALYSIS
ON HOW A PRECEPT BECOMES A PRACTICE
* C. Padmanaba Sivakumar, ** P. Govinda Reddy,
*** A. Chandrasekaran
Abstract
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) though publicised in recent
decades, had been a concept practiced from ancient times. In ancient
and medieval times the merchant organisations and guilds donated a
part of their income for the upliftment of the poor and distressed, for
the growth of social and cultural organisations and for the development
of temples and religious institutions. Such activities continued in
Colonial era also. This leads to an irrefutable belief that CSR practices
had its origin in India. This paper makes an attempt to case study the
CSR initiatives of a few Indian companies and ponders on how the
CSR efforts are translated into rebuilding and for the betterment of
Indian society. Further, this paper also explores on how the precept
becomes a practice to develop the well-being of the members of the
Indian society.
Key words: Corporate Social Responsibility, CSR initiatives, Corporate
institutions.
Introduction - A Brief Historical Perspective
In recent years business leaders, government officials and academicians
are increasingly focussing more and more attention on the concept of Corporate
Social Responsibility (Reinhardt et al. 2008). The concept of Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) has a long and varied history (Carroll, 1999). Corporate
Social Responsibility though publicised in recent decades, had been a concept
practiced from ancient times. The great Indian philosopher Kautilya (4th century
B.C) from India and the pre-Christian era philosophers in the West advocated
ethical principles and advised people to control greed while engaging in business
(Godbole, 2007). The Christian concept of “live and let live,” Thiruvalluvar’s
moral rule “share the wealth with every one,” the Islamic principle “assign a
part of your income to the poor and needy,” and tenets of all religions of the
world reflect the principles of the CSR concept.
*
Management Consultant, **Professor, Department of Anthropology, *** Professor Emeritus,
Department of Indian History, University of Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Corporate Social Responsibility: An Analysis on how a precept becomes a Practice
Further, a deep study of various religions throws light upon various laws
which dictate that a part of one’s earnings was to be donated towards the welfare
of the poor and disadvantaged. The Hindus called it the ‘Dharmada’, the Sikhs
‘Daashaant’ and the Muslims called it as ‘Zakaat’ (Godbole, 2007).
Social responsibility of business has been a subject of discussion in India
since time immemorial. Several references towards this end can be found in
ancient Indian philosophical and spiritual literature. Vedic literature (around 2000
BC) views business as an instrument of wealth for welfare, to attain socially
desirable goals, through ethically worthy means, resulting in a generation of
healthy, wholesome individuals, who carry ethical values and positive impulses
into their community. Kautilya in his political treatise, the Arthashastra, has
enunciated about the principles of fair trade, which were designed to promote
the welfare of the people. In recent times, many business houses believe that
the role of business in society should not be limited to increase of wealth for its
owners and promoters but also for the larger society. The early pioneers of
Indian Industry, such as the TATAs, Birlas and Bajajs, firmly believed in the
concept of social responsibility of business.
In ancient and medieval times, the merchant organisations and guilds such
as Manigramathar, Nagarathar, Valanjiar, and Anjuvannathar donated a
part of their income for the upliftment of the poor and distressed, for the growth
of social and cultural organisations and for the development of temples and
religious institutions. Such activities continued in Colonial era and during the
Post-Independence period also and it is to be noted that CSR activities has
gained greater momentum in recent decades.
It is a general view that the roots of CSR can be traced to the British
Colonial era. There is an irrefutable belief among the social activists that CSR
had its origin in India. However, CSR is not new to Indian companies. When
the industries in the western countries amassed wealth in the booming economies,
the emerging entrepreneurs in India fired by their spirit of nationalism in the
British ruled India and moved by the abysmal poverty of their compatriots wanted
to help the society by and large. One such entrepreneur was the founder of the
Tata Steel Company, Jamshetji Nusserwanji Tata who dedicated his steel factory
to the nation (Fernando, 2007-08), and expressed his view very clearly when he
said “we generate wealth for the nation, what comes from the people must,
to the extent possible, therefore get back to the people.” Gandhiji elaborated
this concept further by emphasising the moral responsibility of business through
his idea of trusteeship. He viewed owners of capital as Trustees holding resources
on behalf of the society, which to produce goods and services, will benefit society,
at large. The founder of Bajaj group, Shri Jamnalal Bajaj said: “Our wealth
should be utilized for improving the quality of the society and the nation.
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We should never fail to spend at least a portion of our income on the
social, economic and educational development of the province where we
live.” Thus, the early pioneers of Indian industry Tatas, Birlas, and Bajajs,
firmly believed in the concept of social responsibility of business. Hence, the
corporations are not only judged by the profits they make for their shareholders
but also by the impact they make on the well-being of the community.
A cursory glance at the Indian corporate scene would show numerous
examples of social initiatives being promoted by various companies. Almost all
the big industrial houses, in public or private sector, either implement social
development project themselves or support NGOs and Government’s initiatives
on this. Even the small and medium industries are not lagging behind. CSR is
being seen as an integral part of corporate world, not only by outsiders but also
by the corporations themselves.
This could be gauged by the fact that in the World Summit on Sustainable
Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg in September 2002, a large number
of Corporate Czars from all over the world were present. This paper makes an
attempt to introduce and provide an overview of the major issues related to
CSR, synthesize ideas of CSR, study CSR initiatives of a few organisations in
India and in the process it is pondering on how CSR efforts are translated into
rebuilding society and are made for the betterment of Indian society. It further
examines as to how effectively the precept becomes a practice to develop the
well-being of the members of the society through the case study format.
Corporate Social Responsibility Defined
Corporate social responsibility is a concept with a growing currency within
India and also around the globe. CSR is a concept that frequently overlaps with
similar approaches such as corporate sustainability and corporate citizenship.
While CSR does not have a single universal definition it is often linked to
sustainability, stakeholders and ethics (Carroll, 1979).
Generally, CSR is viewed as the private sector’s way of integrating the
economic, social, and environmental imperatives of their activities. CSR also
involves in creating innovative and proactive solutions to societal and
environmental challenges, as well as collaborating with both internal and external
stakeholders to improve CSR performance (Alexander, 2008).
Bowen (1953) set forth an initial definition of the social responsibilities of
businessmen as follows: “It refers to the obligations of businessmen to pursue
those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of action which
are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society”
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Further, Bowen argued that “social responsibility is no panacea, but it
contains an important truth that must guide business in the future.” Because of
his early seminal work on CSR, Carroll (1999) opines that Bowen deserves the
appellation to be called as “Father of Corporate Social Responsibility.” Bowen’s
(1953) book and definition represented the most notable contribution to the CSR
literature from the 1950s.
Challenges of examining the concept of CSR among a bewildering range
of concepts and definitions are found in the quantum of literature. But we adopt
a more dynamic and simple definition originally offered by Chauhan and Gupta
(2007-08) and quoted by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development
publication that states “Corporate Social Responsibility is the continuing
commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic
development while improving the quality of life of the work force and their
families as well as of the local community and society at large.”
Corporate Social responsibility can also be defined as the commitment by
organisations to balance financial performance with contributions to the quality
of life of their employees, the local community and society at large. Many of
the concepts and definitions almost concur with this focal point.
Corporate Social Responsibility, its meaning and Relevance
CSR gives many meanings to many people and different people understand
it differently. It should not be confused with corporate philanthropy. CSR ranges
from mere compliance with law to pure philanthropy. The beneficiaries could
range from employees, communities, and suppliers to customers (Godbole, 2007).
The conceptualisation of corporate social responsibility until the 1990’s was
purely in terms of philanthropy or charity. For example, welfare programs or
initiatives were introduced not as a duty or a responsibility but as a form of
charity that was supposed to indicate true virtues of the company to the people
(Mahapatra and Visalaksh, 2008).
The post- liberalisation phase had seen a fundamental shift from the
philanthropy to corporate social responsibility and to stakeholder participation.
This change is evident in the statements about corporate social responsibility by
India’s leading industrial groups like the Tatas over the years. Further, the nature
of the company’s involvement with the community has undergone a change. It
has moved away from charity and dependence to empowerment and partnership.
In the present scenario the idea of social responsibility of business is based upon
the concept that business is something more than a purely economic institution.
Therefore corporate social responsibility is the ability of a business entity to
relate its operations and policies to the social environment in ways that are
mutually beneficial to the company and the society. It also encompasses an
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organisation’s commitment to behave in a economically and environmentally
sustainable manner.
Thus, Corporate Social Responsibility involves a commitment by a company
to manage its various roles in the society, as a producer, employer, customer and
citizen in a responsible manner. The company’s corporate responsibility goals
are governed by company’s history, vision of the founder, organisational culture,
experience, philosophy of the company, business laws of the land and Government
regulations (Godbole, 2007). Further, how organisations demonstrate corporate
social responsibility and the rationale behind such practices may vary according
to the type of industry and kind of sector and country in which organisations
operate.
Also, in an era of information technology revolution, the consumers are
increasingly aware of the issues like human rights, environmental damage, ethical
and moral issues, improper treatment of workers and faulty production that
inconveniences or endangers consumers which are frequently highlighted in the
mass media. Because of this heightened awareness, the consumers have become
increasingly sensitive to the corporate social responsibility activities of the
companies from which they buy their goods and services.
Further, companies are also now under the scanner and under the pressure
of these new developments and trends and so they are increasingly opting to
operate in an economically, socially, and environmentally viable and sustainable
way to create a good corporate image among the public institutions and masses.
Why Companies Engage in CSR Activities?
CSR is an initiative taken by the corporate organisations to show people
that they care for the society. Besides, the CSR initiative also serves as a
powerful image-building tool in creating a brand image for the products and
services of the organisations. Corporate entities engage in CSR activities with
a belief that, beyond compliance behaviour, it will help companies to gain favour
with their current as well as potential future customers and differentiate
themselves from their competitors to ensure brand loyalty.
In addition, CSR activities enable a company to build loyalty and goodwill
among employees. Since most employees prefer to work for an employer who
is highly respected than one who is widely reviled. Further, CSR activities
according to corporate managers reduce costly employee turnover and increase
productivity in the company by developing a sense of pride in them working for
that company. It is also to promote community goodwill as it can engender in
the communities in which companies have their customers, headquarters or
operating facilities.
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According to Portney (2008) CSR activities enable the company to have a
loyal customer who is willing to pay more for the goods and services of companies
whose CSR records are exemplary. Evidence also suggests that some individuals
are willing to pay more for the products and services of companies who are
socially responsible.
Lockwood (2007) opines that corporate social responsibility programs tend
to improve the company’s public image which in turn leads to brand recognition
and consumer confidence. Further, corporate social responsibility practices can
position the company as an employer of choice, improve employee loyalty, promote
recruitment of top talent and even lead to increased workforce productivity.
There is also an opinion that company’s profitability and CSR activities are
related. For example, Margolis, Elfenbein and Walsh (2007) link profitability to
CSR activities, showing that evidence indicates that CSR in general has little
effect on profitability. However, there is a stronger evidence to suggest some
causality in the opposite direction that companies that are profitable are more
likely to engage in CSR activities.
Interestingly, organizations, also like human beings have various needs in
which the CSR activities can be related to Self-actualization needs of an
organization. For example, Tuzzolino and Armandi (1981) had suggested that
organizations, like individuals, also have criteria that needed to be fulfilled or
met, just as people do, as depicted in the Maslow (1954) hierarchy of needs.
The authors illustrated how organizations too have physiological, safety, affiliation,
esteem, and self-actualization needs that parallel those of humans as depicted
by Maslow.
Corporate Social Responsibility: Public and Private Sector Initiatives
The CSR initiatives in the private sector seem to be satisfactory (Mahapatra
and Visalaksh, 2008) and more and more private sector enterprises work for the
betterment of the community at large. India also has a large public sector
companies like Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) Steel Authority of
India Limited (SAIL) and Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL), which are
doing their best for the development of several backward regions of the country.
Also, Indian Airlines and Bharat Heavy Electricals (BHEL) have been widely
hailed for their disaster management efforts. In fact, both public and private
sector organisations had been taking sincere efforts in recent decades for
improving the conditions of the people and society at large. Whether it is for the
cause of clean environment or for balance of ecology, for the amelioration of
the condition of the poor and distressed or for the development of the depressed
and disabled, for the upliftment of the communities or for the benefit or the
social, religious and cultural institutions, both are vying with each other in taking
initiatives to accomplish their task.
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CSR in the Present Scenario
In the present scenario the corporate social responsibility has undergone a
sea change with focus on initiatives of people-centric with active community
participation at all levels. The corporations themselves have moved away from
the charitable initiatives like giving financial grants or sponsorships for providing
products and services in a manner that would make a real difference in the
target communities.
Corporate social responsibility at the conceptual level has been viewed as
a fundamental transformation from charity-oriented approach to the stakeholder
oriented approach where the target group is seen as stakeholder in the community
whose well- being is integral to the long term success of the company. But the
real transformation occurred in the implementation stages where corporate entities
have started accommodating manpower and expertise in addition to financial
resources in order to provide a host of services, programs and schemes that are
flexible enough to accommodate the needs of the target community. For example,
Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) has set up a fully equipped computer-training
laboratory for children, for the welfare of the physically handicapped at Pune in
India for imparting basic computer knowledge. Similarly, NIIT has also launched
a highly popular scheme where the children in the rural areas can learn computer
basics using the play-way method (Mahapatra and Visalaksh, 2008).
India is the country that most extensively reports its CSR. Its community
involvement consists primarily of community development, education and training,
and health and attending to the issues of disability. India was also the country in
which the waves of issues were the largest. All the issues were to be attended
for a good solution. Problems concerning labour production processes which
consist primarily of environmental responsibility, health and safety, and the
employee relations which are mainly concerned with employees’ welfare and
such other issues had been addressed in various CSR assemblies and meetings
of various organizations.
The corporates are hosting innovative programs and schemes in several
areas like education, healthcare, rural development, environment protection,
protection of artistic and cultural heritage, and disaster management that are
customised to meet the specific needs of the target group. Jet Airways, the
largest private sector airlines raises funds through its flight collection programme
for the “Save the Children.” The Citibank gives a percentage of what customers
offer to CRY, an Indian NGO working for the welfare of children as contribution
on customer’s behalf.
Shriram Social Welfare Trust, the CSR arm of the
Shriram group runs a destitute home, called Ashram, for children in the age
group of 2 to 14 years, and primary and secondary schools for poor children and
it provides sponsorships in the form of uniforms, textbooks, school fees, etc. to
poor and needy children.
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Even today, the practice of providing relief and doing charity is quite
common among the Bangladeshi organisations. Activities like offering donations
at the community levels during floods, droughts, cyclones, etc. or helping weaker
sections of the society by patronising social activities or institutions, and providing
food, clothes, etc. during religious festivals are quite common. Besides, the
corporates offer not only financial asistance but also the much-needed expertise,
manpower, products and services that are essential for the successful
implementation of these projects and schemes (Mahapatra and Visalaksh, 2008)
Criticisms on CSR
According to Fernando (2007-08) criticisms are often levelled against CSR
as a proactive strategy questioning the actual motives of a company and claiming
that the entire process is an eye-wash meant to enhance the public relations
values of the company.
The corporate entities that participate in costly CSR activities are often
burdened to raise prices, reduce wages and other costs, accept smaller profits,
or pay smaller dividends and also have to accept the economic consequences.
The earlier models of corporate giving could broadly be classified as ethical
(Gandhian trusteeship model) and statist (public sector enterprise). The earlier
proponents of social responsibility were in public or private sector either sought
to promote these models by designing and implementing community development
projects in the vicinity of their jurisdiction. Along with this, another preferred
way was to donate either in cash or kind, promote sports and games, art and
culture and provide services like health, education, drinking water, etc. While
majority of companies still prefer to operate the concept of CSR this way, the
CSR scene is increasingly becoming more stakeholder oriented than before.
Companies are becoming strategic in their CSR activities, as against majority of
earlier cheque-book type corporate philanthropic efforts.
The process of economic survival of the fittest suggests that companies
that engage in unsustainable CSR may find themselves being pushed out of
business. Therefore the companies should engage in CSR activities based on
sound financial principles governing their CSR objectives.
Case Studies on Corporate Social Responsibility Activities by Indian
Organisations
CSR practices in Aditya Birla Group
Aditya Birla Group’s CSR vision is, “To actively contribute to the social
and economic development of the communities in which we operate. In so doing,
build a better, sustainable way of life for the weaker sections of society and
raise the country’s human development index,” which is quoted by Mrs Rajashree
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Birla, Chairperson, the Aditya Birla Centre for Community Initiatives and Rural
Development. The Aditya Birla group is one of the first promoters of the concept
of social responsibility in the country. As early as 1940 the founder of the group
Shri G D Birla supported the trusteeship concept of management, which entails
that the wealth that one generates, and holds is to be held in a trust for multiple
stakeholders. With regard to CSR, this means investing part of the profits beyond
business, for the larger good of society.
CSR activities at ISHA Foundation (Spiritual institution located at
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India)
The humanitarian efforts of ISHA Foundation have spanned a gamut of
social intervention that have been carried out largely by the resources and
philanthropic efforts of its own dedicated two lakhs volunteers all over the world.
Though what is achieved is something phenomenal it is only a mini scale of what
needs to be done in the world today.
While retaining its primary focus on
spiritual and inner well being of all people, the launching of a commercial enterprise
whose proceeds would be dedicated to fund social action fulfils Sadhguru’s
vision and ideal of expanding the reach and horizons of its humanitarian action.
The proceeds of ISHA Business Private Limited had been meant for
funding the much-needed areas of Rural Education, Health, Child Welfare and
Women Empowerment under the frame work of its project ‘Action for Rural
Rejuvenation, and for sustainability of CSR programs. ISHA Foundation Times
Group, India, jointly carried out community development programmes in rural
areas. It is referred as “Action for Rural Rejuvenation”.
CSR practices in T.V.Sundaram Iyengar Motor Company (TVS)
The concept of Corporate Social Responsibility as indicated earlier is not a
new phenomenon in India. Indian companies like TVS had been practising
CSR from the grass root level way back from 1996 by establishing Srinivasan
Services Trust (SST) by Venu Srinivasan to create self-reliant communities that
could become the models for empowerment and sustainable development in
rural areas (Srinivasan Services Trust Report 2006-2007).
Right from the days of inception over a period of 11 years till 1997 SST
has transformed the lives of over 88, 302 people, and over 8,647 families have
been benefited from income generation projects. Further, the SST activities
expanded to 146 villages across 4 states, Maharashtra and Himachal Pradesh in
the North as well as Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the South. In these states
SST has adopted a holistic plan of community development from human and
economic development to conservation of cultural and natural resources.
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CSR practices in Hyundai Motors Company (HMC)
Hyundai Motors Company is the second largest automaker in India in
terms of market share, also largest auto exporter in India and also become the
largest investor in Tamil Nadu. According to Hyundai Motors Company (HMC)
Corporate Social Responsibility consists of three areas. They are trust-based
management, environmental management and social contribution. For the trustbased management HMC focuses on enhancement of labour relations, mutually
beneficial co-operation with suppliers, ethics management and transport
management. For the environmental management, the HMC proactively
responds to global trends and regulations related to the environment. And for
social contribution, the HMC plans to enlarge their capacity and obtain expertise
to effectively carry out global social welfare projects and to participate in
volunteering programs to contribute to development of communities.
Hyundai Motors Company as a global automobile manufacturer recognises
the importance of alleviating impacts driven by climate change and is doing its
best to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The best way to reduce vehicle
greenhouse gas emissions is to cut down the use of fossil fuel and to use low
carbon energy sources, as an alternative. To increase fuel efficiency HMC has
initiated research in car body design, application of new technologies and
production of lightweight vehicles, in order to cut down on the need of fossil
fuel. Also, HMC has been continuously supplying feel efficient vehicles to
reduce the level of air pollution and carbon-dioxide emissions in order to protect
the environment.
In addition, HMC had initiated social welfare benefits to the disadvantaged
like campaigning for the physically disabled people to improve their mobility and
safe move campaign to promote safer traffic culture in order to contribute to the
society. Besides HMC has also opened the global corporate social responsibility
website and established the Global CSR network in the year 2007 to increase
social contribution and fulfil its social responsibility.
Hyundai Motors India founded the Hyundai Motors India Foundation
(HMIF) in April 10, 2006, and whenever Hyundai Motors India sells a car in
India, they donate 100 rupees to the Hyundai Motors India Foundation. This
donation fund is used for new social contribution projects and activities in India.
Hyundai Motors India through the Hyundai Motors India Foundation provides
scholarships to the traffic safety campaigners who regulate the traffic in the
congested areas in Chennai. Also, it had been helping the Dalits to get education
so that they could be economically independent.
Hyundai Motor Company had taken the initiative to protect the environment
in order to benefit overall general public by promoting a pollution free environment
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through related research and training programs, including awareness and
campaign programs, protection of bio-diversity in national parks, reserve forests,
sanctuaries, and also through schools, colleges, universities and institutions.
Besides it has also taken measures to nurture and develop arts, science and
technology to benefit the overall general public by promoting performing arts
and crafts, architecture, culture, heritage and cuisine, and by conducting
awareness and campaign programs in varuous educational institutions.
Furthering its commitment towards corporate social responsibility, Hyundai
Motors India had also donated 100 Accent cars to Chennai Police in an initiative
to help the Tamil Nadu Government to improve the local traffic, and Law and
Order situation in the city and to improve the response time taken by Chennai
city police in reaching the spot to enhance their crime detection efforts.
In an effort to initiate the preservation of Heritage buildings, Hyundai Motors
India Foundation had contributed Rupees 35,00,000 to the University of Madras
for renovating its Senate House, which is 150-year-old building, as a part of
conservation of heritage of India in general and Tamil Nadu in particular.
CSR practices in Tata Consultancy Services (TCS)
Tata Consultancy Services (TCS) limited is the world leading information
technology consultancy services, business process out-sourcing and engineering
services organisation. TCS has used IT as an instrument for social development
and change. Some of the CSR initiatives by TCS are in the areas addressing
environmental and civic problems, setting up and maintaining infrastructure for
urban beautification, pollution reduction and healthcare, waste management in
the office environment, besides tree plantation and water treatment.
The nature of work in TCS is in Information Technology (IT) consulting
business, which by itself has low impact on the environment. TCS has published
its own environment policy, which encompasses air, water, natural resources,
people and their inter-relation. TCS environment policy aims at improving
environment management by setting higher standards, and optimising the use of
power, water, consumables, and other natural resources. It also aims at reducing
pollution by minimising the waste generation from business operations.
Also, the CSR initiatives start with the employees with their concern for
the environment. For example, the employees are concerned about the wasteful
use of electricity or paper at work place that depletes natural resources and
adds to pollution caused by the generating and manufacturing units. Therefore
TCS initiates energy conservation, waste recycling and paper reduction. Besides,
TCS also provides education to children including the underprivileged and those
living in slums.
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TCS as India’s largest unlisted software and Services Company had also
won the “Asian Corporate Social Responsibility Award” for its community work
to raise the literacy levels in the country. TCS has also set up the “Adult literacy
programme” to help the Indian government to eradicate illiteracy, a major social
concern affecting a third of the Indian population comprising of old and young
adults. TCS has also won the “Golden peacock Global Award” for corporate
social responsibility in Asia for the year 2007. TCS was conferred with the
award based on the corporate functioning, responsiveness to the needs of different
stakeholders and development of innovative partnership models to fulfil social
responsibilities (www.tcs.com).
CSR practices in National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC)
National Thermal Power Corporation limited is the largest thermal power
generating company in India. It is a public sector company and was incorporated
in the year 1975 to accelerate power development in the country as a wholly
owned company of the Government of India. The concept of corporate social
responsibility is deeply ingrained in NTPC’s culture. NTPC since its inception
has been undertaking community welfare activities like improvement of roads,
healthcare, education, vocational training, infrastructure development and sports,
which are the major activities. Besides, various welfare and cultural activities
had also been taken up by the organization (Godbole, 2007).
CSR practices in WIPRO
Wipro was incorporated as Western India Vegetable Products Ltd in the
year 1945. Wipro has grown from producing cooking oil to a global company
and most of its business comes from information technology services (Godbole,
2007). Wipro believes that to have a successful business, the surrounding society
must also be resourceful. Mr. Azim Premji, Chairperson, Wipro state that “we
cannot be an island of excellence. Along with the development of a business
the society around it too has to be developed. Otherwise, there are bound
to be conflicts that will affect every one. It actually makes good business
sense to work with the society in mind, and the focus area of Wipro is
education, and Wipro sees education as being very fundamental to
development. Wipro contributes towards improving quality of education in
government schools in India” (Godbole, 2007).
It is in this way that apart from improving the overall quality of life, corporate
social responsibility, sustainable development and good human resource practices
can help to improve India’s long-term international competitiveness in attracting
‘socially responsible investment’ (Aparna and Kate 2003).
ESG compliance would make Indian stocks stronger and more to issuers
from other emerging markets in the race for long-term, high quality investors.
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There is also a need to involve small and medium enterprises in CSR as they
contribute significantly to employment generation.
India has been ranked second in a global study on CSR, undertaken by the
research company, TNS automotive. With the growth of such measures, an
inclusive and sustainable pattern of economic growth can emerge which will
improve the like of all Indians.
Concluding Remarks
Right from ancient times, through the ages, the tenets and virtuous principles
were advocated by saints, seers and intellectuals to protect the poor, deprived,
disadvantaged and less fortunate from the jaws of poverty, illiteracy,
backwardness and social evils and disabilities. In the past few years, organisations
worldwide have begun to embrace corporate social responsibility both as a social
obligation and also for gaining competitive advantage in the market place. Thus,
CSR activity is being seen as an integral part of corporate world, not only by
outsiders but also by the corporations themselves. Initiating as well as engaging
in CSR activities enable the organisations to achieve a stronger public image as
a positive outcome of their corporate responsibility programs.
Thus, Carroll (1999) rightly opines that in future we will see new realms in
which we think about new business responsibilities to our stakeholder society,
particularly at the global level, and in new and emerging technologies, fields, and
commercial applications. In this context, it appears that the CSR concept has a
bright future because at its core, it addresses and captures the most important
concerns of the public regarding business and society relationships.
Corporate social responsibility has much broader implication for the society
and nation as a whole. CSR activities reduce dependency on the government
for the implementation of social welfare activities. Moreover, when compared
to private and public sector’s CSR activities most governmental social
development programmes become embroiled in political manipulation, corruption,
communal overtones and bitter infighting. Whereas CSR initiatives by the public
and private sectors are devoid of these pitfalls and drawbacks, and they will
bring people together, and mutually benefit the society and the corporate entity
and reinforce peace and harmony.
Thus, these precepts are to be practised to develop an ideal welfare society.
In this task, the business organizations have these precepts in their CSR agenda
and had been striving to bring them to practice. This is quite evident in their
CSR Information Reports. Thus according to Ghosal (2006) CSR has become
a potential tool not only to overcome competition but also to ensure sustainable
growth. Exercising social responsibilities is no doubt a novel mission, but only a
few big business houses are practising it voluntarily, which is a mammoth task
73
and no one government or few business houses are sufficient to accomplish this
mission. Ghosal further suggests that Government should pass a Bill and make
it mandatory for all large-scale business houses to contribute a particular
percentage of profit for social upliftment, if not possible directly, it must be
through some NGOs. With these CSR efforts and initiatives the corporates can
be the good Samaritans of the society.
References
Alexander Dahlsrud (2008). How Corporate Social Responsibility is Defined:
An Analysis of 37 Definitions. Corporate Social Responsibility and
Environmental Management, 15: 1–13.
Aparna Mahajan and Kate Ives (2003). Enhancing Business-Community
Relations: Wipro Case Study, India. Teri, UN Volunteers. New Academy
of Business. www.new-academy.ac.uk.
Bowen, H. R. (1953). Social responsibilities of the businessman. New York:
Harper & Row.
Carroll, Archie B. (1979). A Three-dimensional Conceptual Model of Corporate
Social Performance. Academy of Management Review, 4: 497-505.
Carroll, Archie B. (1999). Corporate Social Responsibility: Evolution of a
Definitional Construct. Business & Society, 38: 268 Retrieved October
21, 2008 from WWW.bas.sagepub.com.
Chauhan, Mukesh and Gupta Shivani (2007-08). Corporate Social Responsibility:
Concept and Rationale (A Case Study of Selected Indian Companies).
Management Matters. 1 (9): 11-26.
Fernando, A.C. (2007-08). The Why and Wherefore of CSR. Management
Matters, 1 (9): 6-10.
Ghosal, Maloya. (2006). Corporate That Care (CSR). International Journal
of Management Sciences. 2 (1): 86-92.
Godbole, Girish (2007). Corporate Social Responsibility and Children Rights
in South Asia. Save the Children. Sweden, Nepal.
Lockwood, Nancy (2007). HR Perspective, 2007 Corporate Social Responsibility:
United States, Australia, India, China, Canada, Mexico and Brazil-A pilot
study. Retrieved October 17, 2008 from WWW.Shrm.org/surveys.
Mahapatra, Sundip and Visalaksh, Kumar (2008). Emerging Trends in Corporate
Social Responsibility: Perspectives and Experiences from Post-Liberalized
India. Retrieved October 17, 2008 from WWW.Google.com/National
Academy of Legal Studies and Research/University of Law/ Hyderabad.
Margolis, Joshua., Hillary Elfenbein., and James Walsh (2007). Does it pay to
be good? A meta-analysis and redirection of research on the relationship
74
July - Dec. 2010
between corporate social and financial performance, working paper, Harvard
Business School. In Reinhardt, Forest L., Robert N. Stavins, and Richard
H.K. Vietor (2008). Corporate Social Responsibility through an Economic
Lens. Review of Environmental Economics and Policy, 2 (2): 219-239
Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper &
Row.
Portney, Paul R. (2008). The (Not So) New Corporate Social Responsibility: An
Empirical Perspective. Review of Environmental Economics and Policy,
2 (2): 261–275.
Reinhardt, Forest L., Robert N. Stavins, and Richard H.K. Vietor (2008).
Corporate Social Responsibility through an Economic Lens. Review of
Environmental Economics and Policy, 2 (2): 219-239.
Srinivasan Services Trust Report (2006-2007), Chennai.
Tuzzolino, F., & Armandi, B. R. (1981). A need-hierarchy framework for assessing
corporate social responsibility. Academy of Management Review, 6:21-28.
www.tcs.com
75
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 77 - 84
DEPRIVED AMONG THE MARGINALIZED – HEALTH
STATUS OF WOMEN IN A TRIBAL SETTLEMENT
* T.S. Anish , ** K. Vijayakumar, ***Diya Rachel George,
****Reshmi Ramachandran, Tony Lawrence
Abstract
Introduction: Indicators related to health of women in Kerala depict
a rosy picture. But there is a lot to be observed in between the social
strata of the population, especially among those communities who
are getting increasingly marginalized, like the tribal community. The
aim of this study is to analysis the status of a tribal community
compared to a non-tribal community sharing the same geographical
location with respect to the gender. Present study is a cross sectional
study conducted in a tribal belt inhabited by both the tribal and nontribal people. Two cross sections were taken for better comparison.
The data regarding all the 52 tribal families were analysed against 95
families who are not tribal. The tribal women enjoy a very low standard
of living and poor living conditions. The health issues of these
deprived should be considered for the all-inclusive development of
the state and the country.
Key words : Health Status, Status of Women, fertility, mortality
Introduction
Gender is one of the most important and sensitive dimensions of equity in
health care. It is thought that women empowerment has largely contributed to
the high public health standards that the state of Kerala is enjoying now. Kerala
has the highest proportion of female literacy in India (88 per cent) with a literacy
gap of only 1.1 per cent compared to the male counter part1. It is the state
having sex ratio favouring females (1058)1, when all other states of India is
experiencing some thing called ‘missing women’2. Life expectancy of women
in Kerala is 76 years3at least three years ahead to that of men. More than 90 per
cent of the deliveries are happening in hospitals4 and the Maternal Mortality
Ratio is lowest in the country5. The mean age at marriage for women in Kerala
is 21.5 years6. Though the indices depict a rosy picture there are a lot to be
observed in between the social strata of the population, especially among those
communities who are getting increasingly marginalized from the overall
development of the state, like the tribal community.
*
Assistant Professor, **Professor, ***MBBS Student, ****MD Student, Department of Community
Medicine, Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram. E-mail: [email protected]
77
Deprived among the marginalized – Health status of women in a tribal settlement
Tribals are indigenous people living in primitive conditions with territorial
affiliation. They have their own social organization, economic systems and
features of self identification. They are socio-economically disadvantaged and
lack contact with other communities at large. They are referred to as backward,
due to their lack of capacity to utilize the opportunities of development offered
to them. The access to health care and health security are severely deprived for
this people even though the constitution of India7 acknowledges the status of
specific indigenous people as “Scheduled Tribes”, (ST).The tribal population
constitutes around 8.2 per cent of the population of India8 and 1.1 per cent of the
population of Kerala state. Most places inhabited by them are geographically
parts of the Western Ghats in the state. More than 90 per cent of backward
tribes bear financial incapability which is higher than that of the forward
community (69 per cent)9. The major health problems among the tribal people
are poverty& under-nutrition, deficiency diseases, lethal epidemics, substance
abuse and alcoholism, child birth at home, specific diseases like sickle cell anemia
and environmental problems like poor environmental sanitation & hygiene and
lack of safe drinking water. The health care delivery system in tribal population
dominated areas is in jeopardy.
Analyzing the empowerment of the tribal community, one can easily observe
a pattern of hierarchy among them. Most often the women folk form the lowest
rung of the ladder may be competing with elderly. The inequality in gender in
case of morbidity, mortality, education, occupation, health care provision and
utilization domains will measure the deprivation. It is well known that female
gender is deprived in all sectors of health cutting across the economic and cultural
variability. Our aim here is to analyse the status of a tribal community compared
to a non-tribal community sharing the same geographical location with respect
to the gender.
Materials and Methods
Study setting
This study was conducted in the tribal belt named Ambathekkar,
Kulathoopuzha of Kollam district, a forest area in Western Ghats. This place is
a small village inside reserve forest and is inhabited by both tribal and non-tribal
people. It is 5 kilometres away from the small town nearby. The nearest primary
care centre is situated 7 kilometres away and the nearest first referral unit is
located at Anchal which is 25 kilometres away. There is an Anganwadi and
primary school in the village. But the children have to walk or depend on the
limited conveyance facilities to go to a high school which is more than 5 kilometres
from this village. The tribal population residing there belong to a tribal group
known as ‘Kani’es. The non-tribal group is a mixed population of Hindus,
Christians and Muslims.
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July - Dec. 2010
Study design
This is a cross sectional study. Two cross sections were taken, one from
the tribal population and the other from the non-tribal population for better
comparison. The data regarding all the 52 tribal families residing in the localities
were collected and analysed against the data of 95 families who are not tribal
but sharing the same geographical setting.
Data collection
Students (6 th semester MBBS) of Government Medical College,
Thiruvananthapuram collected the data during their field visit using a structured
interview schedule. The interview schedule was designed to measure the living
condition and health of the community from different angles including morbidity,
mortality, education, occupation, health care provision and utilization.
Results and Discussion
The population of the 52 tribal households was 208 while the total population
of the 95 non- tribal households was 410. Family size in the tribal and non-tribal
areas was found to be 4 (3.86-4.14) and 4.3 (4.19-4.41) respectively. The family
size here is defined as number of people residing under same roof. This is less
comparable with the family size in Kerala (4.8)8 as per the Census report. This
could be explained on the basis of migration, mortality and setting up of independent
families early in life.
1. General features of the population
General features of the population is described in terms of demographic
pattern including dependency, education, occupation, fertility and mortality.
Demographic pattern
Table 1. Proportion of population in different age categories.
Proportion of population
Age category
Tribal population (%)
Non-tribal population (%)
20.4
22.9
15 to 64 year age group
73
70.7
65 and above
6.7
6.3
Overall dependency
36.9
41.4
Young age dependency
27.7
32.4
9.2
9
Below 15 age group
Dependency ratio
Old age dependency
79
From Table 1, It is evident that only a very small percentage of people are
there in ‘above the age of 65’ category in both the groups, tribal and non-tribal.
This shows the higher overall mortality experience of the community. It could
also be partly due to higher mortality rates in the elderly in this locality cutting
across the social stratification under study.
The old age dependency is almost 9 in both the groups is close to the
National average of 8 and very low compared to the general population of Kerala,
that is 1210, indicating that these populations are young in terms of the median
age than that of the state.
Education and Occupation
Table 2. Education and Occupation of adults (Age > 18 years)
Factor
Adult literacy
Higher education
(More than 12th standard)
Work participation rate
Proportion of people employed
in service sector
Tribal population with
95 % CI
Non-tribal population
with 95 % CI
88.9% (86.5-91.3)
87.8% (86.0-89.6)
11.1% (8.7-13.5)
7.9% (6.4-9.4)
59.9% (56.1-63.7)
44.0% (41.2-46.8)
9.6% (7.3-11.9)
12% (10.2-13.8)
The Table 2 shows that both the strata are not much different in case of
Education and Occupation. It is evident that among both communities proportion
of people who have received education of 12th standard or more (11.1 per cent
in the tribal population and 7.9 per cent in the non-tribal population) are low
compared to that of the state’s average of 27 per cent. In this forest setting
tribal communities are better compared to that of non-tribal in terms of higher
education. This also reflects the utilization of services once it is made available
to them.
The work participation rate is high compared to that of the general
population (32.3 per cent)8. But only 9.6 per cent of the tribal group and 12 per
cent of the non-tribal group are employed in service sector (compared to 52 per
cent in the general population of the state)10 This indicates gross under
employment and it drives more people to lowly paid work for their livelihood.
The higher WPR in this case do not reflect better development rather it indicates
underdevelopment. The nature of jobs once listed, it becomes clear that almost
all jobs listed are lowly paid also.
80
July - Dec. 2010
Fertility and Mortality
In case of fertility the tribal group is slightly more fertile. CBR (Estimated)
in tribal population is 15.4 per 1000 population and in non-tribal population it is
14.1 per 1000 population and it is comparable to the Kerala average of 15 and
very low compared to the Indian average of 2511. These groups are even more
identical in case of mortality. CDR (Estimated) in tribal population is 10.5 per
1000 population and in non-tribal population it is 9.8 per 1000 population. The
crude death rate in both tribal and non-tribal groups is almost equal and is nearer
to the India average of 9 rather than that of Kerala. The general population of
Kerala experiences a death rate of just 6.2 per 10008.This may be due to the
poor quality of living conditions that both the groups are sharing.
2. Gender issues
Sex ratio
The overall sex ratio is 1189 in the tribal area and 1109 in the non-tribal
area. This is higher than the sex ratio in Kerala (1058) and much higher than
that of India (933)8. Thus sex ratio is appearing to be favourable for women.
The sex ratio for the ‘less than 15 age group’ is 1100 among the tribal population
and 843 among the non-tribal population. But the sex ratio ‘above the age of
65’gives a reverse picture (Table No.3). This is just 750 among the tribal population
and 1363 among the non-tribal population. The negative sex ratio among the
tribal people in this age group could be due to a higher female mortality and
indicates poor living conditions for women. It becomes clear that in extremely
hostile living conditions, the life of tribal women is more endangered compared
to that of non-tribal women. This should be again viewed in the back ground of
better education of the tribal community. Obviously we could not capture the
social determinants of this phenomena, but this study brings out the essentiality
of such an academic exercise.
Education and Occupation
If adult literacy can be taken as an indicator of education, the tribal women
are well educated. 92 per cent of women in the tribal group are exposed to
formal education compared to 82.6 per cent of their non-tribal counterparts.
This indicates the positive attitude of the community towards education and
prosperity. The table 3 shows the education status of both the communities in
terms of gender.
81
Table 3. Pattern of Education among adults
Levels of schooling
Tribal population
No. of women No. of men
(%)
(%)
No. of women No. of men
(%)
(%)
No schooling
7 (8.8)
9 (12)
26 (17.4)
10 (6.9)
Primary
24 (30)
21 (28%)
39 (26.1)
49 (33.8)
Secondary
40 (50)
38 (50.7)
71 (47.6)
76 (52.4)
Higher education
9 (11.2)
7 (9.3)
13 (8.7)
10 (6.9)
Total
80 (100)
75 (100)
149 (100)
145 (100)
Most of the women stop their formal education in between 8th standard
and 12th standard (50 per cent of tribal women and 47.6 per cent of non-tribal
women).
The overall work participation Rate (WPR) is 59.9 among the tribal people
and 44 among the non-tribal people as discussed earlier. But the WPR among
women is 56.9 in the tribal population and 15 among the non-tribal population.
The WPR among females in Kerala is 15.3 very much close to the non-tribal
group under study. It should be kept in mind that the percentage of population in
high income jobs in only 9.6 per cent therefore females are forced to work in
order to meet the livelihood.
Unhealthy habits
The habit of pan chewing has some cultural dimensions especially in India.
The table shows the prevalence of pan chewing habit among females. The
prevalence of this bad habit is very low in non-tribal people in spite of lower
levels of education.
Table 4. Prevalence of Pan Chewing
Pan chewing
Tribal population
Yes
26
15
No
65
170
Chi-square value = 20.19 and p value = 0.000
Odd’s ratio = 4.53 (2.15-9.66)
Causes of Mortality and age of dying
We have got the information about only 31 deaths altogether even though
we collected all the mortality experience of the community for the past 5 years.
But even this number is higher compared to the CDR experience of the general
population of Kerala as discussed earlier. Out of this 29 (93.5 per cent) deaths
82
July - Dec. 2010
were due to Non communicable diseases, comparable to that of Kerala average
of 95 per cent (Personal information from Directorate of Health Services, Kerala
state). Interestingly the 2 deaths due to communicable diseases happened in the
tribal settlement and both of them were women. The CDR in the tribal
population(10.5 / 1000) is very high compared to Kerala average (6 / 1000)
even though the number of old age people is meagre compared to the state.
Table 5. Age of dying
Age category
No. of deaths among
tribal people
No. of deaths among
non-tribal people
Below 60
8
5
60 or above
3
15
Chi-square value 4.49 (df=1) pvalue =0.034
Odd’s ratio= 5.87 (0.87-47.49)
From the table it is evident that 8 (72.8 per cent) out of 11 deaths in tribal
population has occurred before ‘old age’, during the past 5 years. The figure is
even more unfavourable for women (4 in 5 deaths). Mortality in younger age
group is less (25 per cent) in the non-tribal population. This difference in the age
pattern of mortality with tribal and non-tribal populations is statistically significant.
Conclusion and recommendations
Family size in the tribal and non-tribal areas was found to be 4 (3.86-4.14)
and 4.3 (4.19-4.41) respectively. The old age dependency is almost 9 in both the
groups is close to the National average of 8 and very low compared to the
general population of Kerala, that is 12. Sex ratio ‘above the age of 65’ is just
750 among the tribal population and 1363 among the non- tribal population. The
Work Participation Rate among females is very high in the tribal community
(56.9 per cent) and the percentage of tribal population in high income jobs in
only 9.6 per cent. The under employment may be the social force in the high
WPR among women. Eight (72.8 per cent) out of 11 deaths in the tribal population
has occurred before ‘old age’. The figure is even more unfavourable for women.
High WPR denotes the existing extreme form of poverty of the tribal
women. Implementation of National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme needs
to have a focus on tribal life. Lower proportion of higher educated women in
the tribal community brings in poor opportunity for high income jobs. This should
be viewed in the context of job reservation in public sector where tribal hands
are noted by its paucity than its abundance. Provision of higher education
especially that of tribal women should be a priority issue for development planners
of the state. Higher mortality among the tribal women compared to that of non-
83
tribal women needs further study bringing out the dynamics of treatment seeking
and other health related practices of tribal community.
References
1. Primary Census Abstract, Census of India 2001 Note: Excludes villages/
UA/Towns with no Male/Female population. Census India 2001, Office of
the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, Ministry of Home
Affairs, Government of India.
2. Sen A.K,1992. “Missing women: social inequality outweighs women’s survival
advantage in Asia and north Africa,” British Medical Journal 304:586-587.
3. www.indiabudget.nic.in/es2001-02/chapt2002/tab95.pdf. Accessed on 30th
June, 2010.
4. International Institute of Population Sciences, India,2006. National Family
Health Survey 3: Key fact sheet 2005-06.
5. Registrar General of India, SRS, 2006.Maternal Mortality in India: 19972003 Trends,Causes and Risk Factors.
Health Survey 2.
7. Article 342, The Constitution of India Ministry Of Law and Justice,
Government of India.
8. Census data, India 2001.
9. Human Development Report of Tribal Communities in Kerala, State Planning
Board-2009, prepared by Cochin University for Science And Technology.
10.Aravindan KP., Keralapadanam [Text book in Malayalam]. Kerala Sastra
Sahitya Parishad, 2006.
Health Survey 3: Key fact sheet 2005-06
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Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 85 - 96
SEXUAL MORBIDITY, TREATMENT SEEKING
BEHAVIOUR AND CONDOM USE AMONG THE CLIENTS
OF SEX WORKERS: IMPLICATIONS FOR HIV/AIDS
INTERVENTION PROGRAMMES
* K.E.T. Rajarama, ** R.K. Sinha
Abstract
In recent years, studies on sexual morbidities are on rise because of
presence of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) in an individual
enhances the chances of acquiring and transmitting HIV infection.
Hence, effective management of sexual diseases among general
population and high risk groups is important in the control of HIV/
AIDS epidemic. In this context, an attempt has been made in this
paper to know the sexual morbidity, treatment seeking behaviour and
safe sex practices among clients of female sex workers who are
considered as bridge group in spreading HIV infection from sex
workers to low risk population.
The present study is based on primary data collected from 307 clients
of sex workers from 8 sex service points of Hubli-Dharwad Municipal
Corporation area (Karnataka) by using Time Location Cluster Sampling
(TLCS) technique. This was done after mapping of high-risk areas in
the city.
Key words: HIV/AIDS, STD, CSW, Condom, Intervention Programme
Introduction
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are a group of diseases that are
predominantly spread by sexual contact. Sexual contact may be contact between
penis and vagina (vaginal sex), contact between penis and anus (anal sex) and
contact between the penis/vagina and the mouth or tongue (oral sex). STD can
also be transmitted by skin to skin contact in the genital area during sexual
activities. There are more than 25 STDs, either caused by bacteria, virus or
fungus, and most of them are curable by proper medication. Presence of STD
in an individual increases the chances of risk of acquiring HIV or transmitting
HIV by 3 to 10 times (Mohammad S, Salil P, 2004). Therefore, prevalence of
HIV is more among STD patients. A study conducted in three STD clinics in
Pune city between 1993-1998 reveals that among the 9300 STD patients
* Research Investigator, Population Research, Dharwad. E-mail: [email protected]
** Professor and Head Extra Mural Studies, International Institute for Population Studies,
Mumbai.
85
Sexual Morbidity, Treatment Seeking............................... for HIV/AIDS intervention programmes
screened for HIV, overall, 22.9 per cent of them were HIV positive and almost
88 percent of them had sex with sex workers some times in their life (IIPS,
2002). Treatment of STD has been reported to reduce the proportion of men
who shedding HIV through genital secretion and also the amount in semen
(Mehandale, 1998). Hence, management of STD is important in the effective
control of HIV epidemic. Realizing this fact, intervention programmers of
government and non-government organizations (NGOs) focused on treatment
and prevention of STD to prevent the sexual transmission of HIV.
There are number of individual and socio-economic factors that contribute
to vulnerability to STD and HIV. Some of these are: extensive out-migration
and in-migration, thriving transport industry, active commercial sex activity,
devadasi system, sex with multiple sex partners, lack of condom use, consumption
of alcohol during sex, staying away from family, low education etc. (IIPS, 2002).
The HIV prevalence among STD clinic attendees was 5.6 per cent in
Karnataka during 2006. The corresponding percent for Dharwad district was
as high as 13.6 per cent during same period (NACO, 2006). The clients of sex
workers who have sex with number of commercial and non commercial partners
are responsible for transmitting HIV/STD from Commercial Sex Workers (CSW)
to general populations. Since population of this group is much more than the
CSWs population or population of any other group they spread the disease more
rapidly than any other group among general population. The studies conducted
at different cities (Bhattacharya 2004, ICHAP 2003) reveal that almost half of
the clients visiting sex workers were currently married men indicating their
spouses were also at the risk of getting HIV infection. In this context, it is
important to know the experience of STD among the clients of sex workers,
their treatment seeking behaviour and sexual activities during STD symptoms.
Objectives
The specific objectives of the paper are:
To study the sexual morbidity among clients of sex workers;
To know treatment seeking behaviour and condom use in sexual activities
during STD symptoms.
Methodology
The present study is based on primary data collected from 307 clients of
sex workers from 8 sex service points of Hubli-Dharwad city (Karnataka) using
semi-structured questionnaires. The Time Location Cluster Sampling (TLCS)
was used to interview clients. In all, 54 high-risk clusters were identified and 8
such clusters were selected purposively where volume of sex worker and clients
were more for the interview of the respondents. The study used both qualitative
86
July - Dec. 2010
and quantitative techniques. For this paper, we have considered the respondents
those who experienced STD symptoms during last 6 months preceding the survey.
Study Area
This study was conducted in Hubli-Dharwad Municipal Corporation
(HDMC) area during January-March 2008. This twine city is the second largest
city in Karnataka in terms of population and it is a key centre for education,
finance and industry in northern region of the state. It is located on MumbaiBangalore railway main line and Poona-Bangalore National High way (NH-4).
The Sentinel Surveillance data show that HIV prevalence among the antenatal
attendees varied very much from year to year in Dharwad district. It was 3 per
cent during 2003 and declined to 1.80 per cent in 2004, but shot up to 6.25 per
cent during 2005 and again declined to 1 per cent in 2006 (NACO 2006). The
prevalence rate of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) is also higher in this
district. HIV among STD patients was 16 per cent during 2003 and declined to
13 per cent in 2006. According to the estimation of India-Canada Collaborative
HIV/AIDS Project (ICHAP, 2004) approximately 631 female sex workers
(FSWs) entertain 2202 clients over 175 hot spots in (Hot spots include brothels,
lodges, parks, bus terminus, market place, cinema halls, railway stations open
places etc.) HDMC
There are no demarcated “red light” areas for sex business in HubliDharwad as in the other places of Karnataka. Some of the areas, where the
sex trade can be noticed, are the places in which they solicit their clients; and
some other can be known by sex work facilitators - auto drivers, pan shop
keepers, brokers, who roam around such areas. Sex trade changes its mode of
operation according to the local situation like police vigilance, police harassments,
media coverage and public protest. However, the pattern of sex work in HDMC
can be understood as usually street-based, lodge-based and home-based. In
recent years, home-based sex work has been increasing due to strict police
vigilance in lodges and public places.
Limitations of the Study
One of the limitations of the time location cluster sampling is selecting the
same respondent for more than once. In order to avoid this problem, only two of
us (principal investigator and one interviewer) conducted all the interviews and
moved in the clusters together and knowing each other respondents. Hence
there was a remote possibility of interviewing the same person for the second
time. It was difficult to collect data on the sexual morbidity, as respondents do
not want to reveal their STDs due to stigma attached to it. Since it is impossible
to take them to clinical test, the only feasible method is to ask the sign and
symptoms they experienced. Chances of underreporting sexually contacted
87
diseases were more. We cannot generalize the study findings as it was based on
few clients who were not selected from general population.
Findings:
Extent of the STD Symptoms
It was separately asked to the respondents whether they ever experienced
the following STD symptoms - discharge from penis, sores, ulcers or blisters on
or around sex organ, swelling in the groin, painful swelling of the genitals/scrotum,
burning pain while urinating etc. A note of caution is in order here. Given the
sensitivity of the questions on sexual morbidity, there is a potential for reporting
bias to an unknown extent. Hence, results in this section should be interpreted
with caution.
Table 1: Experience of STD symptoms by selected background
characteristics
Background characteristics
Yes
No
N
15-24
24.49
75.51
49
25-44
14.87
85.13
195
45 +
7.94
92.06
63
Illiterate
23.21
76.79
56
1-7 years
17.80
82.20
118
8+ years
9.02
90.98
133
Upper caste
13.91
86.09
115
SC/ST/OBC
13.66
86.34
183
17.95
82.05
156
8.33
91.67
84
16.42
83.58
67
Ever married
13.49
86.51
215
Never Married
18.48
81.52
92
Total
14.98
85.02
307
Current age
Number of years of schooling
Caste
Occupation
Labourer, related
service & business related
Other category
Marital status
Table 1 presents percentage distribution of clients of sex workers by
experience of STD symptoms during the last 6 months prior to the survey
according to selected background characteristics. Overall, 15 per cent of
respondents reported experience of one or the other STD symptoms during the
88
July - Dec. 2010
reference period. Incidence rate among the study population varies much
according to the background characteristics. STD was found high among the
clients aged 15-24 (24 per cent), and it decreased as age increased. Similar
pattern was noticed with the number of years of schooling as highest proportion
of clients found among illiterates (23 per cent) and it decreased as years of
schooling increase. No variation was noticed among the clients of upper caste
and SC/ST/OBC groups. More of labourers (18 per cent) than clients working
in service sector (8 per cent) experienced sexual morbidity during the reference
period. It was found more among never married (18 per cent) than ever married
(13 per cent). It is revealed from the table that sexual morbidity was more
common among the study subjects who belonged to the lower socio-economic
conditions.
Figure 1: Experience of STD symptoms during the last 6 months
Type of STD Symptoms
Table 2 shows percentage distribution of clients of sex workers by type of
STD symptoms experienced during the last 6 months. Among the clients who
suffered from STD, most commonly reported symptom was burning on urination
(72 per cent) and it was followed by puss like discharges from penis (26 per
cent) and sores/ulcers on genital parts (22 per cent).
Table 2: Type of STD Symptoms
Type of STD symptoms*
Percent
Discharge from penis
26.08
Sores, ulcers etc
21.74
Swelling in groin
15.22
Burning on urination
71.74
Other symptoms of STD
6.52
N=46
*Multiple response categories
89
Figure 2: Type of STD Symptoms
Burning urination
Discharge from
penis
Sores,
ulcers etc
Swelling in groin
Other STD
Sexual activities during STD symptoms and Type of Sexual Partners
Having sex contact during STD symptoms is risky for sex partners. The
chances of transmitting the infection to the sex partner are almost cent percent
in the absence of correct use of condom. Many people without the knowledge
of this fact had sex with commercial as well as non-commercial sex partners
and spread the infection to them. It is important to know, from the point of view
of intervention programmes, what proportion of clients had sexual contact while
experiencing STD symptoms. Table 3 gives percentage of clients of CSW who
experienced STD during the last 6 months by sexual contact during STD
symptoms and types of sex partners
Table 3: Sexual Activities and Type of sex partners during STD
symptoms
Type of partner*
Sex during STD
Yes
Total
No
Wife
54.84
45.16
100.00
Girl friend
22.58
77.42
100.00
Casual Partner
12.90
87.10
100.00
3.22
96.78
100.00
CSW
61.29
38.71
100.00
Total
67.39
32.61
100.00
Neighbour/relatives
*Multiple response categories
Overall, around 67 per cent of clients who suffered from one or the other
STD during the last 6 months had sex either with commercial partners or non
commercial partners. It indicates their sexual partners were at the risk of getting
STD or HIV. It is revealed from the table that proportion of clients who had sex
with CSW seems to be more than wife or non - commercial sex partners during
experience of STD symptoms. For instance, little more than 61 per cent of the
study subjects had sex with commercial sex partners, whereas 55 per cent of
such patients had sex with wife. Further it is noticed that this kind of behaviour
found considerably low with other non-commercial partners like girl friend, casual
90
July - Dec. 2010
partners and neighbours. The table indicates that the study subjects who suffered
from one or the other STD had sex with different types of sex partners.
Figure 3: Type of sex partners during STd symptoms
Frequency of Condom Use during STD symptoms
Use of condom either regularly or occupationally during sexual intercourse
significantly reduces the risk of acquiring HIV/STD infection. Men who reported
having used condom regularly in the past 3 months were at the 30 per cent
decreased risk, it was 25 per cent in case of occasional user (IIPS, 2003). It is
revealed from the previous table that quite a good proportion of the clients who
experienced STD had sex contact with different types of partners. It is important
know that how many of these had taken precaution to prevent the transmission
of the infection to their partners. Table 4 presents percentage distribution of
clients of CSW who experienced STD during last 6 months by sex during STD
symptoms and frequency of condom use according to type of sex partners. It is
noticed that condom use during the presence of STD symptoms is highly
unsatisfactory; only little less than one-fifth of respondents used condom
regularly, little more than a quarter of patients used irregularly and 55 per cent
never used. Wide variation in use of condom with different partners was noticed.
Condom usage was relatively more common with commercial sex workers than
wife or non commercial partners; only 6 per cent of respondents used condom
with wife. This proportion was slightly better with CSW and non-commercial
partners (26 per cent and 8 per cent with commercial and non- commercial
partners respectively). Further, it is noticed that 71 per cent of study subjects
never used condom with wife, while nearly one-third did so with sex workers. It
is important to note that large majority of clients did not use condom regularly
during the problem which has a large sexual health implications on sex partners.
Innocents sex partners of clients of sex workers like wife, girl friends, and
casual partners are at greater risk of acquiring wide range of STD including
HIV due to this kind of risky behaviour.
91
Table 4: Percentage distribution of clients of CSW who experienced
STD during the last 6 months by sex during the STD symptoms and
frequency of condom use according to type of sex partners#
Type of sex partner**
Every time
Some times
Never
N
Wife
5.88
23.53
70.59
17
CSW
26.32
42.11
31.58
19
8.33
41.67
50.00
12
19.35
25.81
54.84
31
Non-commercial partner
Total
Chi-square significance level ** p<.01
# Multiple response category
Perceived Cause for STD Symptoms
It is common among the patients to perceive reason for their any health
problem. Medication is largely influenced by patient’s perceived cause for it. If
perceived cause is wrong or simple or not serious patient is likely to approach
wrong person or likely to ignore the problem and may not go for medication.
Perceiving the right cause for health problems also facilitates individuals to change
their behaviour or lifestyle by adopting healthy practices. In this context, it is
essential to understand the perceived cause of STD symptoms of the clients of
sex workers. Table 5 gives percentage distribution of clients of CSW who ever
experienced STD symptoms by the perceived cause. It is noticed that 57 per
cent of respondents who had suffered from STD symptoms perceived that heat
was the main cause for their sexual health problem. A little less than one-third of
the study participants (33 per cent) rightly perceived the cause as sexual contact
with sex workers. Eleven percent of clients could not perceive any reason. The
table indicates majority of clients could not identify the correct reason.
Table 5: Perceived cause for the STD symptoms
Perceived cause
Type of STD symptoms
Heat
Sex with CSW
Don’t Know
N
Discharge from penis*
33.33
66.67
00.00
12
Sores, ulcers etc
40.00
40.00
20.00
10
Burning urination
60.61
30.30
09.09
33
Other STD
40.00
60.00
00.00
10
Total
56.52
32.61
10.87
46
Chi-square significance level * p<.01
As for the type of STD symptoms experienced and causes are concerned,
two- thirds of the respondents rightly perceived the cause for discharge from
92
July - Dec. 2010
penis (sex contact with sex workers). The corresponding proportion for swelling
in groin / scrotum and sores/ulcers etc were 60 per cent and 40 per cent
respectively. Further, it is observed that only 30 per cent of clients who had
suffered from burning and painful urination perceived the correct cause for
their problem. It is revealed from the table that identifying the correct cause for
sexual health problem was largely inadequate among the study participants for
some STD symptoms.
Treatment Seeking Behaviour
Lot of stigma and discrimination is attached to sexually transmitted diseases
because these are predominantly transmits through sexual contacts. To conceal
one’s behaviours many patients do not seek treatment or seek treatment from
non-qualified health care providers. In such cases health problem will remain
uncured. If infections are uncured, there is a greater chance of transmission of
infection to their sexual partners. Table 6 presents percentage distribution of
clients of sex worker who suffered from STD symptoms during the last 6 months
by source of treatment. In all, nearly 40 per cent of patients had not taken any
treatment and ignored the problem. Those who had taken treatment 46 per cent
of them sought treatment from allopathic health practitioners. Remaining 15 per
cent of patients approached non-allopathic healers like ayurvedic, homeopathic
etc.
Table 6: STD symptoms by source of treatment
Nature of STD symptoms#
Allopathic
doctor
Non-allopathic
doctor
Treatment
not taken
N
Discharge from penis*
66.67
33.33
00.00
12
Sores, ulcers etc*
60.00
20.00
20.00
10
Burning urination
40.00
10.00
50.00
10
Other STD
39.39
18.18
42.42
33
Total
45.65
15.22
39.13
46
Chi-square significance level ** p<.01# multiple response category
Symptoms wise analysis reveals that 67 per cent of patients who suffered
from discharges from penis had taken treatment from allopathic doctors, while
33 per cent had approached non-allopathic healers. Six in every ten clients had
sought treatment from allopathic health care providers for sores and ulcers but
20 per cent of the patients had not taken treatment. Proportion of clients who
had taken treatment from allopathic doctors was less among the clients who
had experienced swelling in groin and burning on urination (40 per cent). Fifty
percent and 42 per cent of patients not availed treatment from any health care
providers for swelling in groin and burning on urination.
93
Figure 4 : Source of Treatment for the STD Symptoms
It seems that clients who had complaint of swelling in groin and burning on
urination were less inclined to take treatment and the reverse is true with the
respondents who had discharge from penis (all had taken treatment). This might
be because many did not take this problem as serious and perceive cause for
these problems were due to excess of body heat which generated because of
hard work under hot sun or travel etc. Therefore, they might have considered it
as common for everybody and ignored the problem. It is noted from the table
that for all symptoms except for discharge from penis some proportion of patients
did not avail any treatment. This kind of behaviour of clients has larger health
implications. Therefore, stigma related to STD and shy feeling to get treatment
is to be removed from the minds of men in the study area. These issues are to
be properly addressed in intervention programmes.
Current Status of STD
We have tried to know the present status of the STD symptoms among
STD patients who have taken treatment by source of treatment. It is presented
in table 7. It is observed that a little less than two-thirds of respondents reported
that their STD has been cured. The large difference is noticed in proportion
cured by system of medicine is concerned. For instance, among those who
sought treatment from allopathic health practitioners, 71 per cent of the
respondents reported that their STD had been cured. The corresponding
proportion among those who had taken medicine from non-allopathic health
care providers was 43 per cent.
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July - Dec. 2010
Table 7: Source of treatment by current status of the STD
Source of treatment
Cured
Under treatment
N
Allopathic doctor
71.43
28.57
21
Non-allopathic doctor
42.86
57.14
7
Total
64.29
35.71
28
Discussion
Sexual health studies of general population in general and high-risk groups
in particular are gaining importance in recent decades due to the prevention
programme of HIV/AIDS epidemic. Although all types of men are visiting sex
workers but it is more common among the people belonged to lower socioeconomic condition. It is suggested that intervention programmes on sexual
health awareness should be more focused on people belonged to lower socioeconomic condition. Awareness programme and other intervention programmes
can be arranged in slum areas and other such areas where socio-economically
backward people are living. It is noticed that having sex contact during the
problem with wide range of sex partners without condom was quite frequent
among the study subjects. This kind of behaviour has larger sexual health
implications on the sex partners. This kind of attitude might be because of clients’
ignorance about the transmission mechanisms of STD, severity of consequences
of STD, misconception about condom use etc. Education should be given to
clients regarding abstinence from sex during STD, if that is not possible, condom
should be used. Education should also to be given to women folk to insist on
their sex partners to use condom. Large majority of the respondents had failed
to perceive the right cause for their problem. Therefore, it is suggested that
types of STDs and its symptoms, transmission mechanisms of STDs, precaution
to be followed to prevent the contracting the infection to the sex partners’ etc.
to be the essential part of intervention programme. Attitude of respondents for
not taking treatment for sexual morbidity is a serious matter; they not only suffer
but also transmit the infection to their sex partners. The reasons behind for not
taking treatment might be - since it is caused by sexual contacts they feel shy to
share their problems with others. This attitude must be changed because
consequences of ignoring STD are far more serious; some untreated STD leads
to heart attack, arthritis, sterility among women etc. Intervention programmes
should focus on educating people on these issues.
Since the presence of STD in an individual facilitates spreading HIV to a
great extent, educating the target population regarding STD, importance of
medication, partner treatment, and abstinence during STD etc. is of great
importance. Government also provide STD services in its health care centres at
free of cost, but many people are not aware of the availability of this facility.
This point should also be included in the HIV/AIDS intervention programmes.
95
References
Mehandale S (1998), “HIV infection among persons with high risk behaviour in
Pune city: Update on findings from a perspectives cohort study”, AIDS
Research Review, Vol. 1 no. 1, Oct-Dec 1998
Gangakhedkar, R. R. (2002), “Association of STD and HIV and its Public Health
Implications: An Overview”, in CD Reproductive Health Research in India”,
International Institute for population Sciences (IIPS), Data Base March
2002.
Bhattachary, Sumitra .and Senapati. (1994): “Sexual Practices of the Sex Workers
in a Red Light Area of Calcutta”, the Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol.
LV, No.4
http:\\www.nacoonline.org/Quick_Link/HIV-Data/
http:\\www.nacoonline.org/Upload/publications/Annual Report_NACO2008-09/
ICHAP, (2003), “The Urban Vulnerable: A Mapping and Situational Assessment
of Hubli-Dharwad Municipal Corporation, Dharwad district”, ICHAP,
Bangalore publication
96
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 97 - 108
WOMEN CORPORETARS: A STUDY OF GULBARGA
CITY CORPORATION
* Malliakrjun Nagashetty, ** Nusrat Fatima
Abstract
If we look the major objectives of Local Bodies, which are working
since, from number of years in this country, one could ascertain that
there was an attempt to achieve to the development. Therefore, it is
necessary to evaluate the provisions of different acts pertaining to
the working of Local bodies time to time. The recent Constitutional
amendments (73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments) brought about
significant changes in the political scenario of the country with regard
to women’s participation in politics. Indian democracy is 60 years old
now, yet the participation of women in politics has actually declined
since the days of the freedom movement, both in quantity and quality.
The paper will find out socio-economic status of women corporaters,
educational background, position held by the corporaters in
corporation, women participation in urban government i.e., in the
corporation and women corporaters know the corporation act or the
knowledge of the corporations act.
Key words: Women, Corporation, Empowerment, Education,
Introduction
The only institution where there is now an element of popular control are
the Local Boards and Municipalities. These were constituted in 1884 under the
Scheme of local self-government associated with the name of Lord Ripon. In
the resolution of Local Self Government issues in 1882, the Government of
India stated that “it was commonly asserted that the people of India were
themselves entirely indifferent to the principle of self-government, that they
took but little interest in public matters and that they preferred to have such
affairs managed for them by Government officers”. The Governor General in
Council stated “that he did not attach much of the officers. The GovernorGeneral then proceeded to state “that the task of administration is yearly
becoming more one rouse as the country progresses in civilization and material
prosperity. The annual reports of every Government tell of an ever-increasing
burden laid upon the shoulders of the local officers. The cry is everywhere for
*
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Women’s Studies, Gulbarga University, Gulbarga 585106.
** Reader & Chairperson, Dept. of Sociology, Gulbarga University Gulbarga.
97
Women Corporetars: A Study of Gulbarga City Corporation
increased establishments. The universal complaints in all departments are that
of over work. Under these circumstance, it becomes imperatively necessary to
look around for some means of relief; and the Governor-General in council has
no hesitation in stating his conviction that the only reasonable plan open to the
Government is to induce the people themselves to undertake, as far as may be
the management of their own affair; and to develop, or create, if need be, a
capacity for self- help in respect of all matters that have not for imperial reasons,
to be retained in the hands of the representatives of Government”. Not
withstanding this definite statement of the policy of the Government the official
hierarchy is very slow to part with its powers. Out of 965 Municipalities in
existence in 1915, only 273 have either elected on nominated non-official
Chairman and the remaining 422 Municipalities are still under the control of
either elected or nominated officials.
As societies became more complex and technologically advanced, they
began to depend increasingly for their development on individual talent and
initiative. The old system of social stratification, with its rigidly drawn lines
between categories of people was unsuited for the best utilization of the available
human to a new system in which social status is based on personal capabilities
and achievements. The old criteria-age, sex, family membership and so on one
by one lost their weight in determining an individuals place in society. The
movement of progress has been from inherited status to individual freed and
skill.
In political terms, this means that modern societies are becoming more
democratic in the sense that they draw their elite not necessarily from the status
of birth and caste, but from a wider catchments area. The corresponding
sociological process involves the gradual transition from a social organization
based on pre-determined role to those based on achieved roles.
Objectives of the study
1. To identify the socio-economic status of women corporaters
2. To study the educational background of the family in general and
particularly the councilors
3. To study the women participation in urban government i.e., in the
corporation.
4. Identify the position held by the corporaters in corporation
5. To know how for women corporaters know the corporation act or the
knowledge of the corporations act.
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July - Dec. 2010
Methodology
To give greater validity to the study and to make it exhaustive, primary
data were collected using a structured interview schedule as the main tool. The
interview was conducted to 40 women councilors in the corporation from present
and preceding councilors. The present women councilors in Gulbarga Corporation
is of 19 member, all the 19 member were interviewed and even 21 omen councilors
from preceding corporations. Total of 40 women councilors were interviewed.
And with primary data, secondary data’s were also used.
Review
Bhargava and others (1996) writes that it was to improve women’s
representation that the policy of reservation was introduced. According to them,
reserving seats for women in the political institutions will provide them and
opportunity to raise their grievances and other related social and economic
problems in a formal forum, a political process necessary to ensure the
improvement for all women in all spheres of life.
Srinivasan P Malhotra G (1995) Empowerment of women implies that
women have equal opportunities as men in health, employment, decision-making
capacities within the family and outside the family and are able to participate in
equal measures as men in national development. Following the 1994 International
Conference on Population and Development Conference in Cairo, the approach
of the population programs shifted towards reproductive and child health (RCH),
including family planning services. Accordingly, there is a need for sensitizing
and empowering women in Panchayati Raj institutions (rural self-governing bodies)
through training in health and social development issues, including reproductive
health. In response, training programs were organized by the Population
Foundation of India in seven districts of six states during 1997-98. The Foundation
also undertook a large-scale project entitled “Empowerment of Panchayati Raj
Institutions in the State of Haryana” during 1998-2000. Moreover, a project was
conducted in Uttar Pradesh to empowerment Panchayati Raj institutions through
electronic media. Finally, a training of the Panchayat members by master trainers
was implemented. The lessons learned from these training programs are also
cited.
P. Manikyamba, in her study of Andhra Pradesh found that socio-economic
background in general and political backgrounds in particular are important
determinants of shaping the nature and level of participation of members in
political institutions. The study reveals that education and participation are
interrelated. In general, women members having secondary educational
qualification are more participated well in the meetings. Next, economic status
gives a sense of confidence and encouragement to participate. The participation
99
of the poor women members is found mostly insignificant. The middle class and
rich members showed greater degree of participation. Then, age has its impact
on participation. The extent of participation of the young and the middle age is
generally more than that of old age. Next, women members with experience in
politics played active roles in the institution under study.
S.Govinda Gowda and others (1996) in their study of Karnataka women
elected panchayat leader found that the women members of developed taluks
were found to play a better developmental role that their counterparts in the
backward taluks. The study reveals that among the socio-economic attributes
such as age, education, caste, annual household income and land holding of
women leaders, only education and annual household income had a highly
significant and positive relationship with their developmental role performance.
The findings of the study states that women members of the Panchayat Raj
institution could play an effective developmental role if they are given adequate
recognition and encouragement.
Political History of the Gulbarga District
There has been a significantly hectic political activity in the region and had
consequently been affected by the changes that have occurred in at the national
level. There has been a sound political participation of the masses responding to
the urgency of the socio-political circumstances, which exercise influences all
over the region.Gulbarga also played an important role creating political awareness
and joining the movement against the British powers. The Gandhi’s visit to
Gulbarga in the year 1927 shows the attractive impulse of Gulbarga. The famous
leaders of freedom movement are Hardekar Manjappa, who was a staunch
follower of Mahatama Gandhi participated actively in Khadi and various National
Congress programmes and he was mainly the product of Hyderabad-Karnataka
region. Mr. Mantal started the Khadi Bhandar at Gulbarga in the year of 1932.
The President of Hyderabad State Congress, Shri Govindrao Nanal and
Ramanand Teertha, were quite influential in activating people in this area during
the national struggle for independence. There were besides these, Budleppa
Hallikeri, Andanappa Doddameti, Dattatraya Auradi, Prof. Deogaonkar, Kollur
Mallappa, Narayanrao Kenyal, Sardar Sharanagauda Inamdar, Jagananth Rao
Chandraki, Kakeri Hanumath Rao, Anna Rao, Veerabhadrappa Patil, Hakeekat
Rao, Umaji Chitgupkar, and many other leading figures that stood for
independence. They rendered service as major contributing activists representing
the Hyderabad-Karnataka area in the Indian freedom movement.
Gulbarga City Corporation
The Gulbarga district as a headquarter for the district, for the first time
implemented Municipality in the year of 1952, prior to this Municipality, town
development activities were looked after by the District Boards. In the year
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July - Dec. 2010
1952 first elected board was formulated and in the year 1961 Gulbarga had
97,159 populations, which is divided into 31 wards. And 34 elected as members
of the municipality among them 6 were belonging to Scheduled Castes.
The municipality was converted into city Corporation in the year 1981,
after its making into city Corporation, administrative area it expanded and covered
many rural villages. The city Corporation election which held in the year 1996
that contained 55 members of which 27 were general contestants, 14 belongs to
the Other Backward Castes (OBC-A). The 4 contestants belong to the
(OBC B), 9 belonged to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The 19
members were women from all the categories.
Socio-Economic Background of women corporaters of Gulbarga city
Understanding of socio-economic background is indispensable pre-requisite
for perceiving the thought and behavior of any group of respondents. This helps
in understanding of the problems of respondents. In the case of this study, of
women corporaters. In the given social context, the data about respondents
clarifies several aspects which are not always manifesting outwardly. This forms
essential care of the study and its serves as the benchmark for analysis and
evaluation. The behavior of women corporaters can be fully explained by making
a close investigation of the environment in which they grow and develop.
Politicians, after all, are human beings involved in a variety of relationship with
other human beings.
Table-1. Age of the women councilors
Age
Frequency
Percentage
21-30
5
12.50
31-40
13
32.50
41-50
12
30.00
50 and above
10
25.00
Total
40
100.00
From the above table it is evident, that the age group of the respondent’s
majority of the women councilors is in the age between 31-40 years of age
group i.e., (32.30 per cent) between the age group of 41-50 are of 30.00 per
cent represents, 25 per cent of the women councilors were from 50 and above
group. While less representation from the young generation i.e., is 12.5 per
cent. Only from the age group of 21-30 years of age. The data indicates that
majority of the women councilors in Gulbarga Corporation is of from 41-50 age
groups. These signify the younger generation women categories emerging by
overthrowing the old tradition leadership.
101
Table-2. Religion of the member
Caste
Frequency
Percentage
Hindu
26
65.00
Muslims
12
30.00
Christians
02
5.00
-
-
40
100.00
Others
Total
From the above table it is shown that the religion of the women members.
Women corporaters comes from the different religion. Majority of the women
members came from the Hindu religion i.e., 65 per cent, 30 per cent from Muslim
religion, and the 5 per cent from the Christian religion.
Table-3. Caste
Caste
Frequency
Percentage
Brahimin
03
7.50
Lingayat
08
22.00
Minorities
12
30.00
SC/ST
08
20.00
OBC
06
15.00
Other
03
7.50
Total
40
100.00
From the above table it is clear that the caste wise distribution of the
women corporaters in Gulbarga city. The women corporaters represents different
caste, from the data it is clear that the higher caste people are representing
more in the corporation, while SC/ST are representing small number of members
in corporation i.e. 20.00 per cent, meanwhile OBC members also represent less
in corporation and other categories members are just 15 per cent. It shows that
caste plays pivotal role in bring corporaters to Flore of the corporation.
Background of the family
Family is a universal institution that form the point of view structured and
working its appears in different manner in different societies therefore
sociologists do not maintain a unfair view about the definition of family. The
names among celebrated thinker who tried to understand and evaluated the
definition of family are the following Mukharjee and Singh, Bhatnagar, Mishra
I.P Desai, Shah and Dalme Balsara and A.K. Desai. In the content of urban
Indian community including the role of family its economic aspects socialization
102
July - Dec. 2010
and social control in order to fulfill religion and culture aims has been very much
effective. Because, only those who have money time, and may power can afford
to participate in functional politics, therefore, large joint family is also significant
in the context of the women leadership. Hence, family conditions of the leaders
are analysed here.
Table-4 Family type
Type of family
Self
Joint
Nuclear
Total
8 (20.00)
32 (80.00)
40 (100.00)
Father
16 (40.00)
24 (60.00)
40 (100.00)
Husband
18 (45.00)
22 (55.00)
40 (100.00)
From the above table, it is clear that 80 per cent of women corporaters are
from nuclear family while 20 per cent from the joint family. It is why because of
socialization family members are leading the life of nuclear family life and due
to the urbanization. The father of 60 per cent from nuclear family while 40 per
cent from the joint family. However, the husband belongs to the nuclear family
is of 55 per cent and 45 per cent from the joint family.
Table-5. Family size of women corporaters in Gulbarga city
Size of family
Frequency
Percentage
1-3
12
30
4-6
26
65
7-9
02
05
Total
40
100
From the above table it can be understood that the family size of the women
corporater in Gulbarga Municipal Corporation. In these connection only members
leaving with them is considered. In the present study 65 per cent of the families
consist of 4-6 members, while 30 per cent from the 1-3 members leaving in the
family and only 5 per cent of the corporaters have the 7-9 members in their
family.
Educational Background
Education have important place in Indian society. The force of rapid
urbanization, industrialization and expansion of means of communication are
bringing it into the fold of national and even international stream of life. Education
renders mean to annexure higher position in political life now days it is essential
in all walks of life.
103
Table-6. Educational Background of the women corporaters
Education
Frequency
Percentage
Illiterate
04
10
Literate (Primary+Mid)
08
20
Educated (High School+Inter)
06
15
College Education
16
40
University Education
06
15
Total
40
100
According to the above table it is shown that the educational status of the
women corporaters, women members with the college education is of 40 per
cent, and 15 per cent of women member have their education at the university
level. While both primary and high school education is of 35 per cent only 10 per
cent of the women corporaters were uneducated.
Occupational Background
Occupation is not only necessary for an individual’s livelihood, but it also
important for his social status and conditions. This is the reason that most of the
part of mass active movement is spent on some as same occupational activity.
Occupation is the source of the income of people and play an important role in
establishing his/her amount of income. Whereas, in are manner occupation plays
a direct role in means of livelihood. In the some way it affects the socio-economic
condition of the people. On the basic of their studied many sociologists have
tried to show the importance of the occupation in the life of the people.
Table-7. Occupation of the members
Occupation
Frequency
Percentage
Agriculture
09
22.50
Business
12
30.00
Service
09
22.50
Household
10
25.00
Total
40
100
From the above table it is shown that the self-occupation of the women
corporaters, 30 per cent are in the business line 25 per cent of women members
are household activities, 22.50 per cent are in service sector and the 22.50 per
cent of women member occupation is agriculture.
104
July - Dec. 2010
Table-8. Occupation of Husband
Occupation
Frequency
Percentage
Agriculture
10
25.00
Business
26
65.00
Service
04
10.00
Total
40
100
From the above table it is showing that the respondents husband occupation,
women corporaters husbands occupation in different field i.e., 65 per cent their
husband are in the business, with different type of business, 25 per cent of the
women corporaters husband work in agricultural field and 10 per cent of their
husband occupy the service sector. Husband occupies the service sector.
Economic Background
Indian social system is the symbol of status. According to Khan, income is
an important factor in the context of economic condition of women, according
to D.R Singh, they are also quite relevant to standard of living of man. The
economic conditions are more significant in the context of leadership, because,
they determine its capacity to achieve as well as sustain power.
Table-9. Monthly income of the members
Income
Frequency
1000-2000
10
Percentage
25.00
2001-3000
07
17.50
3001-4000
07
17.50
5000 and above
16
40.00
Total
40
100.00
From the above table it is shown that the monthly income of the members
is of 35 per cent of their income is of 5000 and above, 40 per cent of the their
income is of between 1000-2000, 17.50 per cent of their income between
3001-4000 and 2001-3000 only 5 per cent It will directly effect to the women
members political life.
Table-10. Income of the husband
Income
Frequency
Percentage
1000-2000
11
25.00
2001-3000
09
22.50
3001-4000
13
32.50
5000 and above
07
17.50
Total
40
100.00
105
The income of the husband of the members is another indicator to show
the background of the women members. The husband placed in a better income
group can provided better facilities for the women members. From the above
table it is shown that the husbands income. 32.50 per cent of their husband
income group between 3001-4000, 25 per cent of the husband income between
1000-2000, 22.5 per cent of the husband income between 2001-3000 and the
17.50 per cent of the husband income group between 5000 and above.
Position held in the Corporation
One of the indicators that measures equal political opportunity is the
percentage of women holding elected or nominated office. If women have political
opportunities equal to men’s then their percentage should be similar.
Table-11. Position held in the Corporation by Women
Office
No. of Female Respondents
Percentage
Mayor
1
2.5
Deputy mayor
4
10
Chairman of committee
1
2.5
Member of committee
26
65
Others
08
20
Total
40
100
In order to know as to how many women have held and are holding higher
positions within the corporation, the respondents were asked to specify posts
held by them.
Suggestions
1. The role of mass media in building awareness cannot be ignored. There
should be a concerted effort through all mass media about the importance of
a greater role of women in local politics.
2. There is increased awareness of the particular disadvantage women suffer
and efforts are being made on many fronts to increase women’s economic
and decision-making power and to improve the general well-being.
3. Immediately after elections all women members should be trained and made
aware rights and duties so that they are empowered to exercise their authority.
Female trainers can understand better the strengths, fear and aspirations of
their fellow women and can aspire confidence in the trainers.
4. The creation of women’s section wings gives women more opportunity for
experience in organizing list of candidates, adequate representation should
be given to women members.
106
July - Dec. 2010
5. Political parties have a major responsibility in facilitating women’s participation
parties must deliberate efforts to place their women members in both party
organization and outside in position of authority so that there is enough scope
for women to participate in the political process.
Conclusion
Women represent an important sector of human resource that cause national
development and forming almost half the population, it is necessary to know
what percentage of seats are filled by women in the local governmental
organization. Also, only by getting into these seals of power women can bring
about change in the society where “mobilization” and modernity have been
confined only to a chose few and where there is need for political modernization
and political development, these questions are considered even more essential
in the light of the fact that though equal rights for men and women are lindy
proclaimed, it is very clear that women play a very limited part in the local
bodies in terms of proposition to men not only in membership but also a holders
of high offices. An examination of the socio-economic background of the women
members of the corporation revealed that most of the women members were
from belongs to dominate castes (20 per cent) and only (20 per cent) from SC/
STs.
Women members were economically balanced sense that is (38 per cent)
of member 20,000 thousand annual income, while only (4.80 per cent) from
more than one lakh fifty thousand. It has been found that female members were
younger than male members. The most of the women representative between
the age group of 31-40, i.e., is 32.50 per cent while only 25 per cent were from
above 51 age group and even less representation from the 18-30 age groups i.e.,
12 per cent. It shows that the orthodox society curtailing the rights of women.
The study brings certain trends regarding the role of women as local decision
maker. Women assert the policy of reservation as a necessary step to motivate
adequate participation because the more important a political position, the harder
it is for a women to win it.
Reference
Bhargava, b.s. & Bhaskar, manu, 1992, women in grassroots democracy-a study
of kerala,university of jkerala/ icssr, New delhi.
Dharmaraj Singh, p.35.
Gulbarga district gazetteer, government of Karnataka
Gowada,S and Others,1996,Developmental Role of Women members of
Panchayati Raj institutions :A study in Karnataka,Journal of Rural
Development,Vol.15(2),pp,249-259,NIRD,Hyd.
107
Karnataka gazetter, government of Karnataka.
Manikymba, P , P,1989, Women in Panchayati Raj-Promises and Performances,
Teaching Politics,Vol.14(3-4)
Op. Cit., p.45.
Srinivasan P Malhotra G Empowerment of women in Panchayati Raj institutions
through training on health and social development issues including
reproductive and child health. [Unpublished] [1995]. [21] p.
Women political elite search for Identity. “Sushila Pathi”, Printwell Jaipur,
1994,p.32.
108
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 109 - 123
REGIONAL HETEROGENEITY IN FOOD CONSUMPTION
AND NUTRITION INTAKE IN INDIA
* Shraddha Srivastava, ** Amarnath Tripathi
*** A.R. Prasad
Abstract
Per capita income and food consumption both are the indicators of
human development but food consumption is a better indicator of
human welfare. India’s faster economic growth over 1990s has raised
per capita income (expenditure) and has significantly impacted its
food consumption patterns by causing a change in the structure of
food consumption patterns observed earlier during pre-reforms period.
This raises the relevance of looking at the composition of India’s
food consumption basket. Changes in the composition of food
consumption expenditure during the
It is easier to analyze trends of consumption pattern of people at
national level but is really complex to analyze at a state-level. The
analysis is expanded and the inter-state differences in consumption
pattern have been brought out more explicitly. The objective of the
present paper is to examine changing food consumption pattern
across the regions of India and is based on seven NSSO rounds (50th,
55th, 5 th, 59th, 61st 62nd and 63rd) diverging from most of the previous
studies which have considered the shift in consumption pattern (Ray,
R., 2007; Chatterjee, S., Rae, A. & Ray, R., 2007, Chatterjee, S., 2007)
taking two or three NSSO rounds.
The study concludes that the focus should be not only on food
consumption but also on nutrition security so that human being could
consume healthy food which full of energy and nutrients and human
development could improve.
Key words : Food consumption, Nutrition Intake, Heterogeneity
Introduction
Consumption of food items shows the welfare of human being. Good foods
keep a human being fit and sustain a healthy living. After initiation of economic
*
**
***
Research
Scholar,
Department
of
Economics,
Varanasi-221005.
E-mail:[email protected]
Senior Research Assistant, Agricultural Research Unit, Institute of Economic Growth,
University of Delhi Enclave, Delhi-110007. E-mail: [email protected]
Professor, Department of Economics, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005.
109
Regional Heterogeneity in Food consumption...................... intake in India
reforms in 1991, Indian economy is continuously growing and due to increase in
per capita income consumer shifts to high value added food items from low
value added food items. The shift in food preferences away from cereals towards
meat, egg & fish and milk & its products. This leads to a dramatic change in the
structure of food consumption pattern- the shift is towards a more diverse and
expensive diet This type of shifting is also rising the issue of nutritional implications
because cereals are cheap and sources of high calories and meat, egg & fish
and milk & its products are expensive and sources of low calories so due to
increase in purchasing power of consumer are awaking and start to shift towards
high value added food items but these are full of low calorie which are harmful
for their health.
Motivation and Objective of the Study
The main motivation of this study is that much of the discussions about
consumption expenditure of Indian households have centered round the
measurement of poverty and inequality magnitude; less attention has been paid
to observe changes in the pattern of food consumption during post-reforms period.
Though many analyses have been on changing food consumption pattern [for
example, Suryanarayan (1997), Meenakshi and Vishwanathan (2003),
Radhakrishna (2005), Rao (2005) and Ray and Lancaster (2005)]. but all are on
all India level (Sector wise) so the analysis needs to be expanded and the interstate differences have to be brought out more explicitly. Consumption pattern at
the disaggregated level can throw more light since aggregation at the all India
level may have hidden the variation that could explain better shift in consumption
pattern.
The objective of the present paper is to examine changing food consumption
pattern across the states of India and is based on seven NSSO rounds (50th,
55th, 57th, 59th, 61st 62nd and 63rd). The rest of the paper is organized as follows.
Data issue and Periodization scheme are described in Section III. The findings
of observed data are presented in Section IV. Final comment is reported in
Section V. The final section VI raises the issue of the nutritional implications of
changing food pattern.
Data Issues and Period under Study
The present study is based on cross-sectional data set on state wise food
consumption expenditure and specific food items. All are drawn from National
Sample Survey organization, Govt. of India, New Delhi. At the time of finalizing
paper, the 2006-07 (63rd round) dataset was the most up-to-date available data.
Data cover 11 food items (i) cereall (ii) pulses 2 (iii) Milk & Milk products (iv)
Edible Oil (v) Meat, fish & egg (vi) Vegetables3 (vii) Fruits & nuts (viii) Sugar
(ix) Salt (x) Spices (xi) Beverages4.
110
July - Dec. 2010
Period under study is post reform and the rounds have been selected for
data analysis are 50th (1993-94), 55th (1999-00) 5ih (2001-02) 59th (2003) 61st
(2004-05) 62nd (2005-06) 63rd (2006-07) and also the selected states are Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Kerala, Madya Pradesh, Punjab and West
Bengal (these are the most alarming states, according to IFPRI global hunger
report).
Findings of Observed Data State Wise
It is very easy to analyze trend at national level but very complex on state
level yet here many findings have been got about interstate comparison. Hence
the analysis is going to be more broad-based.
1993-94 (50th round) - On analyzing the share of cereal and non-cereal in
total food consumption in both rural and urban areas (see Figure 1 & 2) the
picture is very similar to the above trends. In rural areas, the share of cereal
varies from 18 per cent - 21 per cent (Haryana & Punjab) to 50 per cent - 51
per cent (Bihar & W. Bengal). In the same way within the non-cereal food
group the highest share of milk is in Haryana (42 per cent), Sugar is in Punjab
(9 per cent); Kerala is most famous state for consumption of beverages &
meat, fish and egg (12 per cent - 13 per cent) and in Gujarat (13 per cent) is
edible oil. In urban areas, the share of cereal varies from (16 per cent-19 per
cent) Punjab & Haryana to (33 per cent - 36 per cent) A.P. & Bihar. For noncereal Punjab & Haryana are high in milk (30 per cent - 34 per cent), Gujarat
for edible oil (13 per cent), again Kerala for meat, fish &egg and beverages.
Figure 1: Percentage Share of Food Items in Total Food consumption
(Rural) 1993-94
beverages *4
123
123
123 spices
100%
salt &
(%)
80%
sugar
123
123
123 fruits & nuts
60%
vegetables *3
40%
meat, fish & egg
edible oil
20%
milk & its products
0%
A.
P.
ar
Bih
at
jar
Gu
na
rya
a
H
a
ral
Ke
M
states
111
.P
al
b
ng
e
nja
u
.B
P
W
123
123
123 pulses *2
cereal *1
Figure 2 : Percentage Share of Food Items in total Food Consumption
(Urban) 1993-94
100%
123
123
123
(%)
80%
beverages *4
spices
salt &
60%
123
123
123
40%
sugar
fruits & nuts
vegetables *3
meat, fish & egg
20%
edible oil
0%
P.
A.
ar
Bih
at
jar
u
G
na
ya
r
Ha
a
ral
Ke
M
.P
l
b
ga
en
nja
u
B
.
P
W
123
123
123
milk & its products
pulses *2
cereal *1
states
Source – NSSO Report No.401, 1993-94 (Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation,
Govt. of India
1999-00 (55th round) – Here (see Figure 3 & 4) in the rural sector, the
share in cereal is varies from (19 per cent) (Haryana & Punjab) to (47 per cent
- 48 per cent) W. Bengal & Bihar. Within the non-cereal, in pulses M.P. (7 per
cent), Gujarat for edible oil (10 per cent), in meat, fish & egg W. Bengal (11 per
cent) and (13 per cent) in vegetable also, beverages in Kerala (14 per cent). In
urban sector, the share of cereal varies from (17 per cent - 18 per cent) Punjab
& Haryana to (32 per cent - 37 per cent) A.P. & Bihar. Within non-cereal
Haryana for milk, in meat fish & egg W. Bengal & Kerala (14 per cent - 15 per
cent), (9 per cent) in Kerala for fruits & nuts. There is highest share of beverages
in Kerala & W. Bengal.
(Rural) 1999-00
beverages *4
100%
123
123spices
80%
salt &
sugar
(%)
60%
123
123
123fruits & nuts
40%
vegetables *3
meat, fish & egg
20%
edible oil
0%
A
.
.P
ar
Bih
at
na
jar
rya
Gu
a
H
a
ral
Ke
M
.P
states
112
al
b
ng
nja
e
u
P
.B
W
milk & its products
123
123
pulses *2
July - Dec. 2010
(Urban) 1999-00
beverages *4
100%
123
123spices
123
90%
salt &
80%
sugar
70%
123
123
123
fruits & nuts
(%)
60%
50%
vegetables *3
40%
meat, fish & egg
30%
edible oil
milk & its products
20%
123
123
123
pulses *2
10%
cereal *1
0%
A.
P.
ar
na
rat
ala
Bih Guja
rya Ker
a
H
M
.P
states
b
nja
Pu
al
ng
e
.B
W
Source – NSSO Report No.454 (55/1, 0/2), 1999-00 (Ministry of Statistics & Programme
Implementation, Govt. of India
2001-02 (57th round) – In (see Figure 5 & 6 there is not much change in
the pattern of food consumtpion but shifting from cereal to non-cereal can be
seen in this round. As a result in rural Indian states, the share of cereal varies
from (17 per cent - 19 per cent) in Haryana & Punjab to (40 per cent - 44 per
cent) in W. Bengal & Bihar and in Urban area (16 per cent) in Haryana &
Punjab to (32 per cent - 33 per cent) in A.P. & Bihar. Within non-cereal there
are many differences between rural and urban sector, as it can be seen that in
rural, Meat, Fish & Egg (15 per cent - 20 per cent) in Kerala & W. Bengal but
less consumption of meat, fish & egg in Punjab and Haryana on the other hand
in urban meat, fish and egg is high in W. Bengal & Punjab (14 per cent - 16 per
cent). In vegetables the share is (13 per cent - 14 per cent) in rural Bihar &
Gujarat, same for urban area.
113
(%)
(Rural) 2001-02
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
A.
P.
123
123
beverages *4
spices
salt &
123
123
sugar
fruits & nuts
vegetables *3
meat, fish & egg
edible oil
ar
Bih
at
na
jar
rya
Gu
a
H
a
ral
Ke
M
.P
states
al
b
ng
nja
e
u
P
.B
W
milk & its products
(Urban) 2001-02
beverages *4
100%
123
123 spices
123
80%
salt &
(%)
sugar
123
123 fruits & nuts
60%
vegetables *3
40%
meat, fish & egg
edible oil
20%
milk & its products
123
123
123 pulses *2
0%
P.
A.
ar
Bih
at
na
ala
jar
rya Ker
a
Gu
H
M
.P
states
l
b
nja enga
Pu
.B
W
cereal *1
2003 (59th round) – (see Figure 7 & 8) in rural Bihar the cereal consumption
is (42 per cent) and (17 per cent - 18 per cent) in rural Haryana – Punjab and
this fact is same in urban also. For non – cereal highest share of meat, fish &
egg in both rural and urban Kerala and W. Bengal is same. (10 per cent) share
of fruits and nuts in both rural and urban erala, for beverages the picture of
urban and rural is different because (14 per cent) in rural Kerala and (16 per
cent - 17 per cent) in urban A.P. & Kerala. Consumption of sugar is also high
in rural and urban Punjab (8 per cent)
114
July - Dec. 2010
Figure 7: Percentage Share of Food Items in total Food Consumption
(Rural) 2003
100%
beverages *4
123
123 spices
123
80%
salt &
sugar
(%)
60%
123
123 fruits & nuts
vegetables *3
40%
meat, fish & egg
20%
edible oil
milk & its products
0%
A.
P.
ar
Bih
la
at
na
jar
ya
era
r
u
K
a
G
H
M
.P
states
b
al
ng
nja
e
u
B
P
.
W
123
123
123 pulses *2
cereal *1
(%)
(Urban) 2003
beverages *4
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
123
123 spices
123
salt &
sugar
123
123
123 fruits & nuts
vegetables *3
meat, fish & egg
edible oil
milk & its products
A.
P.
ar
Bih
at
na
jar
ya
r
u
a
G
H
a
ral
Ke
M
states
.P
l
b
ga
nja
en
B
Pu
.
W
123
123
123 pulses *2
cereal *1
Source – NSSO Report No.490 (59/1, 0/1), 2003 (Ministry of Statistics & Programme
2004-05 (61st round) – There is also variation in (see figure 9 & 10).
Cereal conjsumption of rural and urban Bihar is higher that rural and urban
Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat. The consumption of meat, fish and egg is highest
in Rural and Urban Kerala & beverages in important dominant food item in W.
Bengal and Kerala.
115
(%)
(Rural) 2004-05
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
beverages *4
123
123
123
spices
salt &
sugar
123
123
123
fruits & nuts
vegetables *3
meat, fish & egg
edible oil
milk & its products
A.
P.
ar
Bih
at
na
jar
rya
a
Gu
H
a
ral
Ke
M
.P
states
l
b
ga
nja
en
B
Pu
.
W
123
123
123
pulses *2
cereal *1
(%)
(Urban) 2004-05
beverages *4
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
123
123spices
salt &
sugar
123
123fruits & nuts
vegetables *3
meat, fish & egg
edible oil
milk & its products
A.
P.
ar
Bih
at
na
jar
rya
u
a
G
H
a
ral
Ke
M
states
.P
b
al
ng
nja
e
u
P
.B
W
123
123
123
pulses *2
cereal *1
Source – NSSO Report No.508, 2004-05 (Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation,
Govt. of India
2005-06 (62nd round) – (see Figute 11 & 12) the cereal consumption is
(18 per cent - 44 per cent) in rural Punjab and Bihar and (16 per cent - 17 per
cent) in urban Punjab & Haryana, (37 per cent) urban Bihar. The consumption
of meat, fish and egg is high in rural Kerala, A.P. and in urban W. Bengal. Rural
& urban sector of Kerala are highest in fruits and nuts. There is (13 per cent 24) of beverages in rural Kerala. So we have again got the similar picture that
highest non – cereal consumption is in Haryana, Gujarat and Punjab and lowest
in Bihar.
116
July - Dec. 2010
(Rural) 2005-06
beverages *4
100%
123
123
123
spices
salt &
80%
(%)
sugar
123
123
123
fruits & nuts
60%
vegetables *3
40%
meat, fish & egg
edible oil
20%
milk & its products
123
123
123
pulses *2
0%
A
.
.P
ar
Bih
at
na
jar
u
rya
G
a
H
a
ral
Ke
M
.P
states
b
al
nja
ng
u
e
P
.B
W
cereal *1
(Urban) 2005-06
100%
beverages *4
123
123spices
123
80%
salt &
sugar
(%)
60%
123
123
123
fruits & nuts
vegetables *3
40%
meat, fish & egg
edible oil
20%
milk & its products
123
123
123
pulses *2
0%
A.
P.
ar
Bih
at
la
na
jar
era
u
rya
K
a
G
H
M
states
.P
b
al
nja
ng
e
Pu
.B
W
cereal *1
2006-07 (63rd round) – The overall picture is different in (figure 13 & 14)
because now more diversified states are not only Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat but
it is Kerala also. The consumption of cereal is more in rural and urban Bihar &
less in Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat. The consumption of pulses increased in
rural M.P., Punjab and Gujarat. In meat, fish and beverages again most famous
states are again Kerala and W. Bengal.
117
(Rural) 2006-07
beverages *4
123
123spices
123
100%
salt &
80%
sugar
123
123
123
fruits & nuts
(%)
60%
vegetables *3
40%
meat, fish & egg
20%
edible oil
milk & its products
0%
A
.
.P
ar
Bih
at
na
jar
ya
u
r
a
G
H
a
ral
Ke
states
l
ga
jab
.P
en
M Pun
B
.
W
123
123
123pulses *2
cereal *1
(Urban) 2006-07
12
12
12
100%
spices
salt &
80%
(%)
beverages *4
12
12
60%
sugar
fruits & nuts
vegetables *3
40%
meat, fish & egg
edible oil
20%
0%
A
.
.P
ar
Bih
at
na
jar
ya
r
Gu
Ha
a
ral
Ke
M
states
.P
b
al
ng
nja
e
u
P
.B
W
12
12
12
milk & its products
pulses *2
cereal *1
Comments
The main comments are that the diversification from cereal to non-cereal
is happening in the states of India. Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat and Kerala these
four states are most famous for diversification. Cereal consumption is very high
in Bihar during the period of 1993-94 to 2006-07 because of low purchasing
power and high poverty rates. The share of cereal is low in Haryana and Punjab
due to high purchasing power. And in 1993-94 the most diversified states were
Haryana and Punjab but in recent 2006-07 by seeing the change pattern it can
be seen that Kerala and Gujarat also became most diet diversified states in
India. In W. Bengal the share of meat, fish and egg and cereal (especially rice)
are high because rice crop is dominant food item in it and as a complementary
118
July - Dec. 2010
goods there rice and meat, fish and egg are used for consumption. In 50th round
pulse was important food item in M.P. but now Gujarat also became important.
Milk consumption is very high in Haryana and Punjab. Finally the main
determinants of the diet diversification in states of India are: income growth
which leads to major shifts in demand across different types of food; the process
of urbanization, which brings about new dietary needs; and more generally lifestyle
changes.
Nutritional Implications of the Pattern Changing Food
Food provides calories that are very necessary for human being. The shift
in food preferences away from cereals & bread (which are sources of cheap
and high calories) towards meat, egg & fish and milk & its products (which are
sources of expensive and low calories) raises the issue of nutritional implications
of such shift. With the growth, the increasing affluence levels not only prompts
diversity in dietary pattern, the diversity can be at the cost of calories adequacy
if the preference changes in favour of lower-calorie food items. It then becomes
an issue of empirical investigation as to whether food expenditure changed in
tune with the switching of food consumption in favour of the more expensive,
but lower calorie sources. It can be seen from figure 15, 16 and 17.
Koal
Figure 15: per Capita per Diem intake of Calorie (In kcal)
2300
2250
2200
2150
2100
2050
2000
1950
1900
1850
197273
1983
199495
NSS Rounds
199900
200405
rural
urban
Source – NSSO Report No.513, Nutritional intake in India, 2004-05 (Ministry of Statistics &
programme implementation, Govt. of India)
119
Figure 16 Changes in calorie share of Food items in Rural India(%)
Calarie share (%)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
s
s
g
d
il
ts
iry e o eg frui pice foo
ge
a
a
l
r
&
d
e
s
d
&
ib h
c
pu
ve
&
se
g.
ed fis
be
,t
ve gar pes
ea
su p r o
Food items m
a
re
l
e
ls
s
123
123
123
2001-02
1987-88
Source – Chatterjee, S., Rae, A. & Ray, R. (2007)
Figure 17 Changes in calorie share of Food items in Urban India(%)
Calarie share (%)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
c
e
er
al
pu
e
ls
Food items
s
l
g
s
oi
its ces
od
ry
e
eg
i
ge
i
l
fo
fru
a
a
p
b
i
r
&
d
s
&
ed
h
ed
ve
&
g.
is
ss
be
ve gar
e
,t f
op
ea
su
pr
m
1234
1234
1234 2001-02
1887-88
Figure 15 indicates that in 2004-05, it has fallen to 2,047 calories in rural
India (against the norm of 2,400) and to 2,020 calories in urban sector (against
the norm of 2.1 00). Indeed per capita calorie consumption in urban India was
lower than for rural India because rural people consume more calories due to
greater intensity of work in rural sector. In 1999-00 there is the convergence
between rural and urban sector because of urbanization, reduction in physical
work etc. Yet people are diversifying towards more value added but low calorie
food items.
120
July - Dec. 2010
Figure 16 and 17 shows the difference between pre and post reform period.
After reform due to economic growth, people have shifted towards non-cereal
food items. Yet now we can see that cereal continue to supply well over 50 per
cent of the total calorie intake of the household also, it also reveals a high level
of calorie deprivation in India. If one recalls that the poverty lines in India were
originally based on a minimum per capita calorie requirement of 2400 calories
per day in the rural areas, and 2100 calories in the urban, then the median
figures suggest that, right through the reforms decade of the 1990s, a large
number of households were unable to meet their minimal calorie requirements.
The issue is studied in detail in Ray and Lancaster (2005)
Table 1: Modian monthly per Capita Calorie Consumption From
1987/88 to 1999/2000
State
Rural
Urban
1987/88
1993/94
1999/2000
Andhra
Pradesh
1987/88
1993/94
1999/2000
62,777
61,006
61,093
61,098
59,214
61,713
Maharashtra
59,326
56,237
60,631
59,888
59,739
62,208
Punjab
West
Bengal
70,678
69,878
68,453
59,992
63,158
66,247
62,495
64,345
62,379
62,372
64,846
62,798
All India
64,056
63,005
62,917
62,189
62,717
65,060
Source - Chatterjee, S., Rae, A. & Ray, R. (2007
Table I shows the movement in the calorie intake figures in the period
from the late 1980s (1987/88) to the end of the millennium (1999/2000) by
presenting the median monthly per capita calorie consumption in the “thick
samples” from the 43rd, 50th and 55th rounds of the NSS. The table presents the
all-India figures and those for the 4 representative States. Not withstanding the
significant shift in consumer preferences from Cereals to non Cereals, the All
India figures do not reveal any systematic variation in the calorie intake figures.
The decline in the calorie intake in rural areas over the whole period, 1987/88 1999/2000, contrasts sharply with the increase in the urban areas. The all-India
figures mask some significant regional differences. The rural Southern region,
represented by Andhra Pradesh, records a sharply lower calorie intake than the
rural North, represented by Punjab. This picture holds throughout the period of
this study.
The per capita food consumption for cereals (rice, wheat and other cereals)
and non cereals (pulses, dairy products, oil and fats, vegetables, meat/fish/egg,
etc) were analyzed. Result revealed that in spite of India’s rapid economic growth
there are differences among states of India particularly for consumption of food
121
items (cereals and non cereals). State-wise trends are more mixed with wide
divergence in dietary pattern in states. The states that have higher expenditure
on food items (Bihar, A.P. and W. Bengal) are ones that spend higher on cereals
crops. Therefore, the rise in food and cereal crop prices is likely to hurt these
states compared to states like Punjab, Haryana etc as in the latter expenditure
on both food and cereals is lower.
Overall, the basic conclusion that can be drawn is that the current state of
nutritional intake in the country is quite appalling and its main reason is that food
calorie intake has been found to have a strong empirical linkage with both human
health and productivity. The human body needs energy to maintain normal body
function (basic metabolic rate), engage in required minimal activity related to
good health and hygiene (standard minimum requirement), and carry out
productive activities to sustain the supply of energy and other required nutrients
to the body. So this issue needs immediate policy attention to ensure adequate
access to food by people across the country.
References
Ali, J. (2007). Structural changes in food consumption and nutritional intake
from livestock products in India. Sage Publication, 27(2), 137-151, Retrieved
June 21, 200S, from http:/www.sar.sagepub.com
Basu, K. & Meartns, A. (2007). The pattern and causes of economic growth in
India. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 23 (2), 143-167.
Chatterjee, S., Rae, A. & Ray, R. (2007). Food consumption and calorie intake
in contemporary India. Research Paper, Massy University, New Zealand
Chatterjee, S. (2007). Growing affluence, declining nutrition: a contemporary
Indian quandary? Retrieved April 12, 200S, from http:/www.tcd.ie
International food policy research institute (200S). Global Hunger Index
Kumar, P., Mruthyunjaya & Dey, M. M. (2007). Long-term- term changes in
Indian food basket and nutrition. Economic & Political Weekly, September
1. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http:/www.epw.org.in.
National Sample Survey Organization (Govt. of India) (200S) Household
consumption expenditure in India, 2006-07 Report No.527 (63/1.0/1).
National Sample Survey Organization (Govt. of India) (200S) Household
consumption expenditure in India, 2005-06 Report No.523 (62/1.0/1)
National Sample Survey Organization (Govt. of India) (2007) Level and Pattern
of consumption expenditure, 2004-05 Report No.50S.
122
July - Dec. 2010
National Sample Survey Organization (Govt. of India) (2005) Household
consumption expenditure in India, 2003 Report No.490 (59/1.0/1)
consumption expenditure in India, 2001-02 Report No.4S1 (57/1.0/1)
consumption expenditure in India, 1999-00 Report No.454 (55/1.0/2)
consumption expenditure in India, 1993-94 Report No.401
Ray, R. (2008). Diversity in Calorie Sources and Undernourishment during
Economic Growth. Economic & Political Weekly, February 23. Retrieved
Feb. 26, 200S, from http:/www.epw.org.in
Ray, R. (2007). Changes in Food Consumption and the Implications for Food
Security and Undernourishment: India in the 1990s. Development &
Change, 38(2):321-343.
Ray, R. (2007), Dietary changes, calorie intake & undernourishment: a
comparative study of India & Vietnam. Paper presented in the
International Seminar on Revisiting the Poverty Issue: Measurement,
Identification & Eradication” held at Patna, India, July 20-22).
I Includes cereals substitutes
2 Includes gram
3 Includes sweet potato
4 Includes refreshments & processed food
123
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 125 - 133
ORGANIC HORTICULTURE: A MICRO STUDY
* Nazeerudin
Abstract
India has a wide variety of climate and soil on which a large range of
horticulture crops such as fruits, vegetables, potatoes etc.
Development of high yielding varieties and green technology and
their adoption in areas of assured irrigation paved the way towards
food security in the 60’s. It however gradually became clear that
horticultural crops for which the Indian topography and agro climates
are well suited is an ideal method of achieving sustainability of small
holdings, increasing employments, improving environment, providing
an enormous export potential and above all achieving security as a
result, due emphasis on diversification to horticultural crop was given
only during the last one decade.
While the need for a paradigmatic shift in the growth strategy, organic
farming received a special emphasis under suitable policy approach.
The post Globalization scenario opened new markets as well as
challenge for the developing countries like India. Now there is a
trend for scope for export value products in India. In this backdrop,
an attempt is made in this paper to explore the importance of organic
farming in cultivating horticultural crops. It further offers an incisive
analysis of estimate cost of cultivation of horticultural crops finally
to asses the organic horticultural crops have more export value and
eco friendly.
Key words: Green revolution, sustainability, organic farming, Globalization,
Horticultural crops
Section I
Introduction
The horticulture sector in India has an important role in economic
development of rural poor. Livelihood options and cultural development are key
factors related to horticultural development. India has a variety of horticultural
crops including fruits, vegetable, roots, tubers, flowers, ornamental plants,
medicinal, aromatic plant species and other plantation crops. India is the second
largest producer of fruits after China and contributes 11 per cent of all vegetables
*
Faculty member, center for Rural development and Management Studies, Bangalore University,
Bangalore 560056 Karnataka, India. E-mail: [email protected]
125
Organic Horticulture: A micro study
and 15 per cent of all fruit production in the world. Majority 65-70 per cent of
fruits and vegetables produced in India are consumed domestically. Two percent
of fruits and vegetables are being processed. Out of the total production only
1 per cent is being exported Post harvest losses account to 20-30 per cent of the
stored fruits.
India has a wide variety of climate and soil on which a large range of
horticultural crops such as, fruits; vegetables, potato and other tropical tuber
crops; ornamental, medicinal and aromatic plants; plantation crops ; spices, cashew
and cocoa are grown. After attaining independence in 1947, major emphasis
was laid on achieving self sufficiency in food production. Development of high
yielding wheat varieties and high production technologies and their adoption in
areas of assured irrigation paved the way towards food security ushering in
green revolution in the sixties. It, however, gradually became clear that
horticultural crops for which the Indian topography and agro climates are well
suited is an ideal method of achieving sustainability of small holdings, increasing
employment, improving environment, providing an enormous export potential
and above all achieving nutritional security (Bansil PC 2008)As a result, due
emphasis on diversification to horticultural crops was given only during the last
one decade.
Dry lands, in fact are the only hope of the future for feeding the fast
increasing population. To improve the economic conditions of the people in the
dry tracts and their nutrition and health standards, it is necessary to encourage
dry land horticulture through extension support for dry land orchards and support
for development of new technologies for dry land horticulture through R&D.
The state has given the highest priority for watershed management of farm
areas and also tank development.
Karnataka
Karnataka occupies a prominent place in the Horticulture map of the
country. Horticultural crops occupy an area of 17.25 lakh ha. with an production
130.26 lakh tones. Although the area comprises only 14.44 per cent of the net
cultivated area in the state, the total income generated from the horticulture
sector accounts to over 40 per cent of the total income derived from the combined
agriculture sector. This accounts for 17 per cent of the GDP of the state.
Horticulture provides excellent opportunities in raising the income of the
farmers even in the dry tracts. A significant shift towards horticulture is evident
in the state with an increase in area and production. For instance about 58,000
ha. area has been brought under horticultural crops through the watershed
programmes. Horticulture provides higher unit productivity and offers great scope
for value addition and this sector is taking inroads throughout the length and
126
July - Dec. 2010
breadth of the state. Karnataka having the highest acreage under dry farming
in the country next only to Rajasthan has a great potential to grow high value but
less water demanding horticultural crops.
Major Horticultural crops
Karnataka is a progressive state in the field of modern horticulture in the
country. The diverse agro-ecological conditions prevailing in Karnataka has
made it possible to grow different types of horticultural crops such as fruits,
vegetables, flowers, spices, plantation crops, root and tuber crops, medicinal
and aromatic crops etc. Karnataka is the 3rd largest producer of fruits and
stands 5th position in area and production of vegetable crops. State stands 1st in
area and 3rd in production of flower crops. It occupies 2nd and 3rd position with
respect to area and production of plantation crops. Karnataka is the largest
producer of Spices, Aromatic and Medicinal crops.
There have been various studies of organic farming on food and horticultural
crops. Now there is a trend for scope for export value products in India. In the
light of the above, organic farming in horticultural crops gaining momentum as a
eco friendly approach for sustainability is under operation
An attempt has been made in this paper to discuss the potential of organic
agriculture through horticultural crops from a case study
Organic farming in Horticulture
In their quest for higher yields, farmers are using heavy doses of fertilizers,
herbicides, fungicides, pesticides, growth regulators. This results in not only
increased cost of production but also drastically changes our environment. In
recent years, there has been emphasis on organic farming to obtain pesticide
residue-free fruits, vegetables, spices and other horticultural commodities.
However, scientific technology with sound alternatives is not available. Keeping
in view the benefits, which this technology offers along with higher returns in
international markets for such products, systematic programmes need to be
taken up. To ascertain and guarantee the consumer/importer that the produce
has been genuinely raised Organically, the production has to follow standards
National scenario
The national situation gives a hopeful scope for the higher production of
coconut and arecanut.
Coconut
In coconut, area has increased from 1 million hectares in 1980 to 1.793
million hectares in 1996-97. India has become one of the largest coconut
producing country of the world. Production of coconut has gone up from 5677
127
million nuts to 13968 million nuts. The productivity in coconut has increased
from 5249 nuts/ha to 7808 nuts/ha. Coconut contributes 700 billion rupees to the
GDP of the country. This contributes 700 billion rupees to the GDP of the country.
The contribution of the crop to the total edible oil pool in India is around 6 per
cent. India also exports coir and coir products derived from coconut husk to the
tune of 2260 million Rupees.
Arecanut
India continues to dominate the world in area, production and productivity
of areca nut and has achieved self sufficiency in areca nut production (0.27
million tones). Most of the production is domestically consumed.
Section II
Objectives of the study
1. To explore the importance of organic farming in cultivating horticultural crops.
2. To estimate the cost of cultivation of horticultural crops in study area
3. To asses the organic horticultural crops that have more export value and eco
friendly
Methodology
The present work is based on both primary and secondary data. It profiles
the organic farming activity for 2 chosen plantation crops such as coconut and
areca nut in selected areas of Tumkur District in Karnataka. The sampling
method is purposive rather than being random, since the objective is to get
insight into the scenario. The needed information was obtained in three ways;
1) Direct observation of the farming conditions and approach.
2) Personal interview and in depth discussion with practicing organic farmers.
3) Reference to secondary data for background information on 0rganic farming
Tools of Analysis
A few basic tools are used for data coding, presentation and analysis.
These are briefly as follows;
1) One-way and two-way tables to present information compactly.
2) Averages (mean, median and mode) and ratios as summaries. The latter
often have the advantage of being free from unit of measurement; also as a
consequence these are unaffected by monetary inflation.
128
July - Dec. 2010
Section III
Cropping Pattern across size of holding in the study area
The cropping pattern is an integrated component of the farming system.
The allocation of area for crops depends on the capacity of farmers to take
risks of using new practices, soil characteristics, irrigation facilities, climatic
condition, availability of labour etc,. Table 1 indicates that the farmers follow
different patterns in the study area. They primarily cultivate food crops (Ragi
and Paddy) and horticultural crops of areca nut and coconut. In addition, Bengal
gram, horse gram, and cowpea are cultivated as mixed crops. Among the various
crops Ragi, Arecanut and Coconut dominate the area, with a total share of
nearly 80 per cent. Overall, food and horticulture crops had more or less equal
share. A mixed trend across size of landholdings is also found to exist.
Table 1: Cropping Pattern versus Size of holdings in the study area
(Percentages in parentheses)
Size of holding
Total Area
(Acres)
Paddy
Ragi
Cropping Pattern
Coconut
Areca nut
Small Farmers
(N=11)
3.91
(100)
0.46
(11.9)
0.65
(16.3)
1.27
(32.5)
1.32
(33.6)
0.23
(5.7)
Medium Farmers
(N=9)
7.61
(100)
0.82
(10.7)
1.28
(16.7)
1.83
(24.0)
2.27
(29.7)
1.43
(18.8)
Large Farmers
(N=5)
14.30
(100)
1.60
(11.2)
6.60
(46.2)
2.70
(18.9)
2.10
(14.7)
1.30
(9.1)
Total (N=25)
7.32
(100)
0.84
(11.5)
1.96
(26.9)
1.86
(25.7)
1.78
(24.4)
0.84
(11.5)
Mixed crop
Source : computed from field study
In the small farmers category, cultivation of areca nut has a major share
(33.6 per cent) with an average household area of 3.91 acres, followed by
coconut, ragi, paddy and mixed crops in that order having a share of 32.5, 16.3,
11.9 and 5.7 per cent, respectively. Around 66 per cent of the total area is
occupied by horticultural crops and the rest by food crops. This shows that
small farmers have given priority to horticulture crops.
The average holding size for medium farmers was 7.61 acres and food
and horticultural crops accounted for 53.7 and 46.3 per cent, respectively, in
terms of total area. The operational average area of mixed crops was 1.43
acres (18.8 per cent) which is higher than the cultivation of paddy (0.82 acres)
or ragi (1.28 acres). A possible reason is that this category has more livestock
than the others. Mixed crops generate by-products
129
Section IV
Results
Costs and Returns in Horticultural Crops
Coconut and areca nut were the horticultural crops grown under irrigated
conditions by the respondents. The costs and returns are presented in Table- 2
Case of Coconut
There is a waiting period of 5 to 6 years to get yield. Meanwhile mixed are
grown. The average yield per acre is about 4000 nuts from 50 trees. It is a
perennial crop and a tree yields for more than 40 years. The average cost of
cultivation of coconut was Rs. 27,572 per acre. Among the components, the
shares of farmyard Manure (FYM), compost and human labour account for
nearly 75 per cent of the total. About 90 per cent of the income comes from the
sale of coconuts and the balance from sale of coconut scalp needed by coir
industry. The return per acre was about Rs. 33,000 and net income was about
Rs. 5,428 per acre. The BRC is about 20 %.
Table: 2 Costs and Returns of Coconut and Areca nut Cultivation
(Rs/per acre/Per crop)
Returns
Particulars
Coconut
%
Areca nut
%
1
Farm Yard manure
7500.55
27.20
15000.45
31.51
2
Compost (green and dry leaves
mulching)
6545.25
23.74
8000.00
16.80
3
Bullock labour
1450.25
5.26
4650.66
9.77
4
Human labour
6500.00
23.57
10720.00
22.52
5
Water charges
1500.60
5.44
2460.00
5.17
6
Others
3500.00
12.69
6000.00
12.60
Interest on fixed investment
Fixed
Cost
Variable Costs
Sl No
Total Cost :
C
575.35
2.09
775.25
1.63
27572.00
100.00
47606.36
100.00
1
From main products
30000.98
90.91
120000.00
98.77
2
From by products
3000.00
9.09
1500.00
1.23
33000.98
100.00
121500.00
100.00
Total Returns :
Returns
R
=(R-C)
5428.98
73893.64
Source : computed from field study
Case of Areca nut
The minimum waiting period to yield is three years from the date of planting.
It yields annually 10 - 12 quintals per acre from about five hundred plants.
130
July - Dec. 2010
The operational cost of FYM, human labour, compost, water charges and
others (pest control and other miscellaneous expenses) were around Rs.15,000,
Rs.10,720, Rs.8,000, Rs.4,650, Rs.2,460 and Rs.6,000, respectively. The
expenditure on FYM, compost and human labour accounted for nearly 81 per
cent of the total. All most all of the income came from the sale of arecanut. The
average cost of per acre for arecanut was around Rs. 47,606 and gross income
was Rs. 121,500 leading to a net returns per acre of about Rs. 73,894, benefit cost ratio being 1.55 implying benefit substantially exceeding cost.
Averages and dispersion
When quantitative responses are obtained from several individuals it is
natural to examine the average response, as well as the variation in the
responses. In this regard the per acre costs for (i) human labour and (ii) FYM
plus green manure was put under the scanner for the 4 chosen crops. The
responses were in money terms. The arithmetic mean and median were
computed for the role of averages while range and relative range were used in
measures of dispersion. The table 3 provides a summary of these computations.
Table 3. Cost (Rs.) average and dispersion for horticultural crops
Crop
Arecanut
Coconut
Component
Mean
Median
Range
Relative range %
Labour
10606
10600
750
7.07
Manure
22720
23750
3500
15.40
Labour
6615
6700
750
11.33
Manure
14117
14050
1300
9.21
Note: Relative range/Mean) 100
The general closeness of mean and median and the relative range being
not excessive indicate that the responses are consistent in the sense of fair
agreement in the cost aspect reported by the respondents. Also the variation
noted was often attributed to transport costs rather than the per acre input
costs.
Section V
Challenges
As a result, the productivity per unit area is low resulting in high cost of
production. Further, the quality of produce in many cases is far from satisfactory.
The post harvest losses continue to be high. Full advantage has yet to be taken
of several frontier areas eg., biotechnology, protected cultivation management
of inputs, integrated nutrient management, leaf nutrient standards, biofertilizers,
integrated pest management and mycorrhiza., The future growth of horticulture
industry will largely depend on new and globally competitive technologies.
131
Crop production
 To develop horticultural crop based cropping systems for different agroecological regions.
 To develop integrated nutrient management system i.e. efficient utilization
of chemical fertilizers, use of bio-fertilizers and addition of organic
material using leaf nutrient standards.
 Standardize water management practices in major crops including microirrigation and fertigation.
 Develop techniques of organic farming for export oriented horticultural
crop.
Crop protection
 Develop IPM strategies for important pests of commercial crops.
 Develop biological control for important diseases and insects affecting
commercial crop product
Conclusion
India has a good natural resource base an adequate R&D infrastructure
and excellence in several areas. As a result, the horticultural scenario of the
country has been changing fast. Both production and productivity of several
crops has increased manifold and India can boast itself as a leading horticultural
country of the world. Many new crops have been country of the world. Many
new crops have been introduced and many others have adapted to non introduced
conventional areas. Some other crops are under adaptive trials.. Export of fresh
as well as processed fruits has been increasing. The demand of horticulture
produce is on the rise due to increasing population, changing food habits,
realization of high nutritional value of horticultural crops and greater emphasis
on value addition and export. However, several challenges are yet to be met.
These are, fast eroding gene pool, fast population build up, shrinking land and
other natural resources, serious production constraints, biotic and abiotic
constraints and huge post harvest losses. Further, in the era of globalization, our
produce has to be of international quality and globally competitive. Our future
expansion of horticulture has also to be in arid and semi arid areas and on under
utilized horticultural crops.
While the impact of green revolution in India was felt mainly in assured
irrigation areas, horticultural crop production has brought prosperity even in arid
and semi arid areas. In the light of the above, the promotion of cultivation of
organic horticultural farming ensures quality of produce which ultimately increase
the economic value at the international market and at the same time sustains the
regional environment safety.
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July - Dec. 2010
References
Bansal P C 2008 Horticulture in India
Save Bhaskar H and sanghovi Ashok. v 1991 Economic Viability of sustainable
Agriculture spice India October 4.
Veeresh G K 1990 Organic farming Ecologically sound and Economically
Sustainable plant Horti Tech 1(3).
World conference on horticultural research 17-20 June 1998 in Rome Italy.
Horticulture Research in India infrastructure achievements impact, needs and
Expectation – K.L.Chadha 2000.
Eco Agriculture: A review of its history and philosophy in Biological Agriculture
and Horticulture (1983) Vol.1 - 3, Page 181 - 210.
133
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 135 - 145
ENVIRONMENTALISM IN INDIAN ANTHROPOLOGY
“AN EMERGING RESEARCH AREA”
* Anjuli Chandra
Abstract
Anthropology, ever since its inception as a discipline, was concerned
with man and his culture, accordingly anthropological studies revolves
round culture, an attribute exclusively belonging to man. But gradually,
with the march of time, the shape of anthropological researches
changed a lot as now a shift had taken place from traditional to applied
aspect, but still the method, technique and the central theme of the
subject remained the same. The present paper is an effort in this
direction by defining environmentalism with special reference to its
development in India, stating significance and development of
environmental researches and studies in anthropology, and by
providing an overview of books and empirical works on environmental
researches done so far in different disciplines of social sciences,
including anthropology, which shows both the gap and the need of
environmental researches in Indian Anthropology. At the same time
the present paper also attempts to focus on the distinctiveness of
anthropology from other social science disciplines during handling
any of the research problems, be it traditional or applied. The paper
concludes by showing the future prospects of environmental
researches in anthropology in India.
Key words: Culture. Environmental Anthropology. Environmentalism.
Environmental Management. Holistic Approach. Human Ecology.
Introduction
Current anthropological researches mainly fall into two broad categories:
traditional and applied. Traditionally, an anthropologist is believe to do an
ethnographic research of a tribe, caste or any small isolated group of people
with certain characteristics of their own, following participant observation method
and living with the natives. But now- a- days conceptions have changed. An
anthropologist is now not a mere spectator of a phenomenon, instead with the
help of his exclusive tools (participant observation, comparative method, cultural
relativism, holistic approach) he can definitely play a vital role in the task of
nation building, just like an economist or a political scientist. So, there is an
*
Member, Guest Faculty, Department of Anthropology, University of Allahabad,
Allahabad- 211002, Uttar Pradesh, India. E-mail: [email protected] /
[email protected]
135
urgent need to explore such areas of researches, which are mainly constrained
to some specific disciplines. “Environment” is one such areas of research, upon
which the present paper try to focus by providing an analytical review of works
done so far in the field of environment and by giving the significance of
environmental researches in Anthropology also try to explore a new area of
research of the discipline, still not properly explored. In the end, the authoress
makes a plea to all anthropologists not to under estimate or marginalized
anthropological researches to any particular group or area of research, in fact to
promote new field of researches and to utilize anthropological tools and techniques
to a number of new areas of researches, which are in the domain of certain
restricted social science disciplines even in this present era of interdisciplinary
researches.
Environmentalism
In its every day use, the term ‘environmentalism’ typically refers to a
concern that the environment should be protected, particularly from the harmful
effects of human activities. Environmentalism is expressed in many ways: through
public support for organizations dedicated to environmental protection, through
government policies aimed at decreasing pollution or conserving wild life, through
demands for changes in land use, through the purchase of goods whose producers
claim to be sensitive to environmental needs. It appears to have grown, over the
last forty years, out of a longstanding but relatively low- key minority interest, to
become a significant, but far from dominant political influence at national and
international level. With in this context, because it is seen as a relatively new
and growing phenomenon, it is often described by analysts as a social movement.
And because it has become an important and distinctive component of political
discourse, it is often characterized as an ideology (Milton, 1996).
There has been a widespread and organized concern for environmental
issues all over the world particularly after 1960s. “Environmentalism” has now
occupied a central place of discourse world over. Man’s concern for protection
and preservation of his environment i.e. ‘environmentalism’ today is the outcome
of the bio-physical, social and economic impact of technological innovation and
20th century industrial revolution in the west. Social science theories look at
environmental issues in the context as how society works and how people and
groups take decision in this regard. From the traditional point of view, philosophical
explanation put environmental factors under the control of human beings, where
as the modern version of philosophy maintain that man is the part of nature and
subordinate to its laws. In Indian ecological thought, the degradation of nature is
viewed as the death of nature or feminine principles. On the whole, these
theoretical explanations are not mutually exclusive. Global environmentalism
today, however, reflects overlapping of elements of more than one theoretical
perspective (S. Radha & Sankhyan, eds. 2004).
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July - Dec. 2010
Environmentalism in India
India’s environmental concern with regard to pollution can be traced back
to 1853 when the Shore Nuisance (Bombay and Calcutta) Act was passed.
Since then a number of Acts were passed to control and regulate different types
of pollution but there was lack of a special institution to monitor such legislations
and prevent adverse impact on the environment, (Kuik et al, 1997). During the
1960s India was consolidating the pattern and direction of its development and
Indian professionals had just begun to turn their attention to the problems of
rural development. At that time many of the relevant disciplines were very youngecology was a minor branch of biology, and Indian Sociology and Social
Anthropology had barely taken root. It is against this background that
environmental concerns and advocacy emerged in India in 1970s, (Krishna,
1996). A break through came in 1972 in the wake of the Stockholm Conference
with the establishment of National Committee on Environmental Planning and
Coordination (NCEPC) in 1972. It had the responsibility of reviewing policies
and programmes for the environment. Another milestone in environmental action
occurs with the enactment of the Water (Prevention and Control) of Pollution
Act of 1974. Under this law, Boards for Prevention and Control of Pollution of
water were established both at the central and state levels with the necessary
technical competence and legal power to monitor the implementation of law and
to meet the expenses of the Boards, the Water Cess Act, 1977 was passed
requiring industries to pay a cess on their water consumption, (Kuik et al, 1997).
Indian environmentalism was given an impetus in the latter part of 1970s also by
a number of movements directed to specific ends, notably the Chipko Movement
because it gave environmentalists a human face, because this was a struggle
involving poor rural people, not just scientists and educated city- dwellers,
(Krishna, 1996). The next important step was the setting of the Department of
Environment (DOE) in the Central Government in 1980. Following
recommendations of Tiwari Committee (GOI, 1980), NCEPC was replaced by
NCEP (National Committee on Environmental Planning), in April1981. In the
same year, steps were taken to control air pollution with the enactment of the
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.The Bhopal Gas Tragedy
which took place after the midnight of 3rd December, 1984, proved to be a
turning point in the evolution of environmentalism in India. One of the first steps
was to reconstitute and upgrade the DOE and transforms it into a full fledged
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) in 1985. Its status improved
significantly compared to the earlier backbench position of the DOE, (Kuik et
al, 1997). This lead to increased government action in the planning, coordination
and promotion of environmental programmes, and such action itself became a
focus of environmental activism. Increasing academic research on the one hand,
and media attention on the other, helped to extend the environmental debates,
(Krishna, 1996). An ‘Umbrella’ Act was also enacted by the National Parliament
137
entitled, the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Unlike the earlier Acts, the
scope of this act is broad, covering water, air, land and the inter relationship that
exist among water, air, land and human beings and other living creatures. That is
how the MOEF came to be given a key role as nodal agency, for environmental
protection and conservation, (Kuik et al, 1997). By the time of the 1992, Earth
Summit (UN Conference on Environment and Development) at Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, global environmental concerns- climate change and biological diversityhad been acknowledged up front and the idea of sustainable development became
the central theme of the debate (Krishna, 1996). Sustainable Development is
however, considered as a process of economic development such that natural
capital stock stays constant over time [The World Commission of Environment
and Development (1987)]. Development then is defined as a vector of social
goals or objectives like increase in real per capita incomes, improvements in
income distribution, in health and nutrition, in educational status and so on. And
constancy of natural capital stock can be interpreted to mean that natural
resources should be protected and the environmental quality should be maintained
as the quest for economic development continues. The Eighth Five year Plan
(1992) captures quite well the essence of sustainable development. It seems to
suggest that environmental objectives are synonymous with development and
that environment, ecology and development are to be balanced to meet the
needs of the society, (Chatterji. et al, 1998).
For expeditious disposal of cases arising out of such accidents as Bhopal
Gas Tragedy (BGT) and to provide early relief and compensation to persons,
properties and environment, the National Environment Tribunals Bill, 1992 has
been introduced in Parliament, which results in the formation of NET (National
Environment Tribunal) in 1995. Thus, the evolution of environmentalism in Indian
federal republic has traveled a long way, particularly, after 1970s, (Kuik et al,
1997).
Significance of Environmental reseraches in Anthropology
The logical question to be asked here is, why, should the environment be a
matter of concern for an anthropologist? Aren’t we talking about issues that are
in the province of scientists, biologists, zoologists, etc? The answers to these
questions are quite immediate. Even though the environment is physical yet
man’s interaction with the environment has its social dimension, implications
and consequences that deserve the attention of anthropologists. In addition,
presently environmental issues are quite sensitive and taking significant place in
the contemporary social science researches. Geographer, economist, political
scientist, psychologist, sociologist, and philosopher everyone has to offer
something to environment, so being one of the disciplines of social sciences, the
one concerned most with the man and his surroundings, why not anthropology
can take up researches directly concerned with the environment, (Aluko, 2003,
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July - Dec. 2010
pp: 263-269, J. Human Ecology, 14(4). Anyone who has just a casual
acquaintance with anthropology may be surprised to learn that it can contribute
to environmental discourse. Its popular image fostered by television
documentaries, is of a subject concerned with esoteric rituals and exotic forms
of marriage, or with the reconstruction of unrecorded histories. Anthropology, it
appears looks back or sideways, but not forwards. Environmental researches in
anthropology, in this context become categorically important, as in the final
analysis it would have something to offer about the future of peaceful and healthy
life on earth. From the viewpoint of social sciences, the most significant shifts in
the perception of environmental issues have taken place since the early 1980s.
Anthropologists have found the ecological approach a useful means of analyzing
human cultural arrangements because subsistence strategy that a society uses
to exploit its environment viz; hunting and gathering, pastoralism, horticulture,
agriculture, or industrialism, has important effects on the social structure and
culture, (Milton, 1996).
Thus to a large extent, the environmental studies would help to provide an
understanding and awareness of various issues and challenges of environment:
the problems, the tasks of development and the management. Environmental
studies would thus play a constructive role in the national tasks of planned
transformation, regulation and protection of environment, development and
society, (Kayastha and Kumra, 1986). Therefore, the problem of preserving
the environment for optimal productivity and development and at the same time
maintaining a healthy quality of human life is being a matter of deep concerned
for the environmental researches in India.
Development of Environmental Studies in Anthropology
Environmental research in anthropology has been the part of the discipline
from its very beginnings. It is often referred to as the ecological approach in
anthropology, but ‘environmental anthropology’ is a more inclusive term than
‘cultural ecology’. Franz Boas led the way in the United States with his original
study of Central Eskimos (1888), adaptations to life in the Arctic, which stresses
the interrelationship between geographical and cultural factors. Significant
progress came from the development of what came to be known as ‘cultural
ecology’, an approach proposed by Julian H. Steward, became the most robust
in the study of environmental anthropology (Steward 1955; Netting, 1977).
Whereas cultural ecology seemed to be concerned with cultural areas as a unit
of analysis, the approach proposed by A.P. Vayda and R. Rappaport (1976),
‘ecosystem ecology’ emphasizes that human are but a compartment in much
larger ecological systems. In the later part of the 1970s and a good part of the
1980s one of the most notable approaches was to focus on bio-cultural processes
using concepts from ‘evolutionary ecology’. Evolutionary ecology refers to
139
the study of evolution and adaptive design in ecological context to explain the
diversity of behavior that is encountered in human systems (Smith and
Winterhalder, 1992). Another direction taken by researchers was to focus on
‘ethno ecology or ethno science’ the study of how people categorize their
environment. This has now become a fairly standard set of techniques available
to all environmental anthropologists and is highly recommended in the early
stage of any study (Berlin, 1992). An even more recent development is the
variety of forms of what is coming to be known as ‘historical ecology’
(Crumley, 1994). Contemporary historical ecologists focus on the role of
individuals and communities in constructing not only their history but also their
environments. Landscape ecology is however, concerned with what behaviors
lead to degradational patterns, to increase or decreased forest cover and biodiversity, etc. Global ecology is closely linked to what may very well become
the environmental anthropology of 21st century- one concerned with our history
and evolution and with the consequences of these experience to our present and
future prospects on this and other planets, (Encyclopedia of Cultural
Anthropology, Vol-1, 1996).
In this way we come to know that how environmental studies at world
level, took different forms in different time periods, starting right form Franz
Boas study of Central Eskimos to the Global Ecology i.e. environmental
anthropology of 21st century.
Overview of Literature Concerning Environmentalism
Environmental studies create new vistas for researches in number of social
science disciplines. Different domains of social sciences define environment
differently. Although geographers claim whole sole authority on environmental
studies yet political scientists, economists, philosophers, psychologists, etc also
look to environment from their own perspectives. Political scientists concentrate
more on developing environmental policies, economists wanted to coordinate
environment with economy, of which sustainable development is a result. On
the other hand, philosophers are mainly concerned with environmental ethics,
where as psychologists looked for people’s perception and behavior towards
their environment. Apart from all these social science disciplines, Anthropology
moves a step forward by adopting an integrated and holistic approach, merging
and borrowing ideas from different disciplines and applying it to its own studies
(exclusively) related to man. Accordingly, following a systematic and analytical
approach, an overview of literature concerning researches done so far in the
field of environmental anthropology by eminent Indian as well as International
anthropologists will be presented, which will ultimately shows both the gap and
the need for environmental researches in Anthropology in India.
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July - Dec. 2010
Srivastava (2001), in his Ph. D dissertation titled “Wild life vis-à-vis
Human Life: A Study in Ecological Anthropology”, submitted to the
Department of Anthropology, University of Allahabad, attempted to focus on
the problems of preservation of wild life and the importance of tribal life for a
comprehensive understanding of this problem, which can be best solved,
according to scholar, by understanding the equation of Teak- Tribal and Tiger
complex.
In the paper named “Environmental Problems in Urban Environments
and Human Biology”, published in the Annual Review of Anthropology; vol32, Schell and Denham (2003), followed the bio-cultural approach of
anthropology to understand the relationship of urbanism and human biology.
Using three different types of pollution as examples: air, lead and noise, the
study shows the impact of pollution on human biology (morbidity, mortality,
reproduction, growth and development). The review ends with ecological
footprints of cities, which includes the impact of pollution.
The study named “Sustainable Development, Environmental
Degradation and the Entrenchment of Poverty in the Niger Delta of
Nigeria”, published in Journal of Human Ecology; 15(1), by Aluko (2004),
sought to investigate how environmental degradation had impoverished the
peoples of the Niger Delta and how this at the same time hindered sustainable
development. The findings of the study showed that environmental degradation
destroyed the ecosystems and subsequently lead to the loss of farmlands, fishing
sites and equipments. In addition unemployment, diseases, inadequate reparation
and deterioration in the quality of life of the people are the obvious outcomes.
The study concluded by making several recommendations to redeem the
situations.
In the succeeding paragraphs an account of research works done by
eminent Indian anthropologists in the field of environmental anthropology, is
presented which were all taken from an edited book called Culture, Ecology
And Sustainable Development by Chaudhary,2006.
Mrs. Channa, in her work called “Cognitive Environment and
Ecological Relationship- A Study of Jads of Utter Kashi”, discuss the
importance of cognitive aspects in ecological analysis, supporting it with the
detailed ethnographic account of the Jads, a pastoral community of the upper
Gharwal region of U.P. Starting with the location and habitat, the researcher
continued the chapter by stating the economy, religion and the perceptions or
the cognitive aspects to the environment of the Jads. In the concluding part she
discussed about the multiculturalism of the Jads, relating it with the location,
economy, trade, modernization, historical and other similar forces acting upon
them.
141
In the study named “Dynamics of Health and Ecology – A Study of
Indigenous Medicine among the Karang Fisherman of Manipur”, Joshi.
Et al by giving comprehensive ethno medical accounts of an indigenous population
of the fishermen of Karang Island, of Manipur, concluded that different indigenous
methods of treatment by man were largely associated with their immediate
ecological surroundings. Starting with the brief introduction of the island and the
fishermen, they describe the concept, causes and treatment of disease and illness
as perceived by the natives. In the end they supported the study empirically by
giving number of cases, narratives and the indigenous terminologies which the
natives use for different medical terms and diseases.
The next study called “People and Culture – Himalayan Ecosystem
and its Future”; by Joshi revolves round the Himalayan ecosystem particularly
the forest resource base. Through giving number of examples from different
cultural groups living in the Himalayan region he concluded that traditions,
customs, rituals and people’s perception of their forest and wild life, plays a
significant role in the conservation of forest and management of the bio sphere
reserves of the fast deteriorating Himalayan ecosystem.
Patnaik & Mehrotra in their study named “The Politics of Water –
Lake, People and the State” makes us aware of the alarming situations of
over exploitation of natural resources, by taking Chilika Lake of Orissa as a
case study. In the light of historical documents and the changing nature of state
policies regarding lake management, they try to reveal how the ecological balance
of the lake got badly affected showing all the symptoms of environmental
degradation. In addition the politics also raised number of disastrous conditions
like prawn mafia, cases of frequent firing, violence and murder, which affects
the socio- cultural life of the traditional fishermen community resulting in a protest,
ultimately taking shape of a mass movement.
Man, be him ancient or modern is devotedly concerned with the
environment and habitat of his own and through his religious attitudes i.e. the
awe and reverence which he pays towards the mother- nature he make all
efforts including sacrifice of his own life to save his mother. Taking this as a
basic theme, V. K. Srivastava, a renowned Indian anthropologist in his study
entitled “Religion and Environment – A Perspective from the Community of
Bishnois” makes an excellent effort to show the association of 29 religious
principles with the efforts to conserve the environment including the wild life
and greenery, of the Bishnois, a community of N. India. The love, passion, and
respect of the Bishnois towards their ecological settings are nicely documented
in detail by him, increasing the significance of the study manifold.
Following the lines of the previous study this time also, Hasnain, in his
study called, “Religion- Environment Interface – Islamic Environmentalism”
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July - Dec. 2010
associate the act of environmental conservation with the belief of Islamic religion.
The study starts with the international dialogues associating religion and
environment. The second part deals with the Islamic principles symbolizing
towards the sustainable utilization, development and conservation of natural
resources, supported by quotations from Quran, the most auspicious book of
Islam.
In this way the present overview shows that research work in the field of
environmental anthropology at world and national level has been done, but the
number is so insufficient and few that it shows both a clear gap and a need for
further environmental researches in the field of anthropology in India, as
environment and ecology have now come to occupy the centre stage of both
national and international policy discourses.
How is anthropology different
The most obvious and well known distinguishing feature is anthropology’s
interest in non-industrial indigenous and ‘traditional’ societies, the study of which
was initially fostered by colonial expansion. It is this heritage that has given
anthropology its exotic public image. This image is not unfounded, but it is
misleading because it conceals the fact that an increasing number of
anthropologists are studying various aspects and consequences of industrialism,
writing about major issues of public concern, and commenting on the implications
of contemporary technological change. Thus, anthropologists often share the
concerns of sociologists and political scientists but have come to them through a
different route. Anthropology’s traditional interest in the full range of human
societies is important in shaping its contribution to environmental discourse.
Equally important but less accessible to public gaze, is the distinctiveness of
anthropological theory, where the most enduring and consistent presence has
been the concept of culture. This is not to say that culture has been the exclusive
territory of anthropologists, far from it, especially in recent decades as ‘cultural
studies’ has acquired an identity as a discipline. But there is no doubt that culture
has had a more central position in anthropological thought than in any other
social science, at least until the emergence of cultural studies, and that
anthropologists have accorded it a great deal of analytical significance (Milton,
1996).
In addition, anthropology through its four major and distinctive techniques
of data collection, i.e. participant observation, comparative method, cultural
relativism and holistic approach, maintain its exclusiveness from other social
science disciplines while looking on any of the research areas be it traditional or
applied.
143
Future prospects of environmental researches in anthropology
Anthropology’s contribution to environmental discourse might take two
main forms. First, the knowledge generated by anthropologists about the diversity
of human culture might be important in addressing environmental problems.
This means treating anthropology as the study of human ecology, and applying
its findings in much the same way as the work of other ecologists is applied.
Second, anthropologists might use their distinctive approach to study
environmentalism itself as a cultural phenomenon and contribute to the
development of environmentalist thought. In this way, environmentalism is both
a project to which anthropologists might contribute and an object which they
might analyze (Milton, 1996).
In addition, anthropology could also contribute in the field of Environmental
Management, which is currently very popular topic in contemporary
environmental researches. The central theme of environmental management is
the reduction or minimization of the impact of human activities on the physical
and ecological environment. It is an endeavor to avoid the overuse, misuse and
abuse of the resources in the environment. When there is a talk of environmental
management, activities like mining, fishing, grazing and manufacturing, or
environmental system such as water bodies, atmosphere and forest, what is
implied is that in the former case, discretion must be exercised to avoid over
exploitation of resources and in the latter case, conservation should be practiced
to preserve their sanctity. The cornerstones of environmental management are:
 Environmental Planning.
 Environmental Status Evaluation.
 Environmental Impact Assessment.
 Environmental Legislation and Administration. (Khoshoo, 1984).
So, in this new millennium, the time has come to undertake researches that
are interdisciplinary and follow holistic approach, which encompass the analysis,
understanding and defining the environment and environment related issues at
micro level. So that the gap between policy implications in theory and policy
implications in practice could be filled up and we could make the world a better
place to live in.
However, in the end I must want to say that anthropology still has a long
way to go in establishing its role in environmental discourse, and in convincing
other participants of the value of that role. This paper is however, intended as a
step along the way, showing future research aspirants a path and providing
them a new research area to explore anthropologically.
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July - Dec. 2010
References
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the Entrenchment of Poverty in the Niger Delta of Nigeria, (pp- 63-68) in
J. Human Ecology, 15(1), India: Delhi, KRE Publishers.
Chatterji, M. et al. eds. 1998. Environment and Health in Developing Countries.
New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing Corporation.
Chaudhary, Sukant. K. 2006. Culture, Ecology and Sustainable Development.
New Delhi: Mittal Publications.
Kayastha, S.L. and V.K. Kumra, 1986, Environmental Studies- Fundamentals,
Problems and Management, 1st edition, Varanasi: Tara Book Agency.
Krishna, Sumi. 1996. Environmental Politics: People’s Lives and Development
Choices. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Kuik, J.O, M.V. Nadkarni, G.S.Sastry, and A.E. Akkerman, 1997, Pollution
Control in The South and North- A comparative Assessment of
Environmental Policy Approaches in India and Netherlands, New Delhi:
Sage Publications.
Levinson, D and Ember, M. 1996. Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology.
Vol - 1. New York: Henry Holt and Company.
Milton, Kay. 1996. Environmentalism and Cultural Theory- Exploring the Role
of Anthropology in Environmental Discourse. London: Rout ledge.
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1987, Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Radha, S. and Amar. Singh Sankhyan. eds. 2004. Environmental Challenges of
the 21st Century. New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publication.
Schell, Lawrence. M. and Melinda. Denham, 2003. Environmental Pollution in
Urban Environments and Human Biology. (pp-111-134) in Durham, Jean.
Comaroff and Jane. Hill, eds. Annual Review of Anthropology, vol-32,
USA: California, Palo Alto.
Srivastava, Ram Pujan. 2001 Ph. D dissertation (Unpublished) titled Wild life
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Department of Anthropology, University of Allahabad.
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Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 147 - 155
FOOD PRACTICES AND FOOD TABOOS DURING
PREGNANCY AND LACTATION AMONG TRIBALS OF
ANDHRA PRADESH
* A. Varadarajan
Abstract
Food habits of tribals in different region are quite different from the
other parts of the country as foods habits of many tribal groups are
mostly monotonous and local based. On many occasion the nutritive
values of the locally available foods are either ignored or undervalued.
The present study was conducted in three different regions of Andhra
Pradesh with 225 sampled eligible mothers. It was found that existence
of widespread food taboos among tribal communities during
pregnancy and lactation. Further food taboos during pregnancy and
lactation was discussed and analyzed. The study also suggests that
there is an urgent need to clearly define and streamline the nutritive
value of the tribal foods with regional specifications and dissemination.
Key words: Food Practices, Food Taboos, Pregnancy and Lactation.
Introduction
Food is the basic and prime requirement of all living organisms including
human beings. Food intake and malnutrition is inextricably linked with overall
health status of an individual, family and society. Survival of any living being is
determined by the quality and quantity of the food stuff that one consumes in
the day to day life. It helps in maintaining of body tissues with balanced physical
equilibrium. Food observance has been maintained according to the seasonal
changes as it has deeper impact on health. Indeed, food is sign of security and
prosperity among tribals. Food habits are closely associated not only with
traditional concept of health and illness but also reflect the cultural marker of
social status, taste, and cultivation (Duarah: 2004; Sunita Reddy: 2003; Bhushna
Reddy and Papa Rao: 2000). Malnutrition is the direct result of the low and
imperfect food intake and it has direct effect on the human development index.
Less food intake is vicious circle and has deep relationship with overall physical,
mental and social well being. Problems due to unhealthy food habits exacerbated
in the midst of wrong personal practices, cooking practices food taboos and
choice of food as well.
*
Deputy Director (North East Unit) IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi – 68.
147
Food Practices and Food Taboos during Pregnancy and Lactation among Tribals of Andhra Pradesh
Food choices are much diversified among various communities depend on
geographical location and flora – fauna. Food habits and food culture are also
varies from one region to another. Apart from the geographical and regional
differences, it is mainly the food habits of an individual or community that suited
to that particular region determines disease from body constitution. Food habits
are also very closely associated with health and morbid conditions. Outbreak of
food borne morbidity cases are occurring increasingly in the tribal areas due to
incompatible food habits and frequent movement of individuals and their changing
food habits. Moreover the severity of such morbid cases are high in the isolated
areas like hills and homogeneous settlement groups as they tend to spread fast
and transmit through environment. It usually warrants an emergency like situation
that they pose to life threat to the whole community. Therefore, it has become
essential to look into the food habits of tribals in a comprehensive manner in the
light of overall health and development (Basu: 1993). Personnel working in the
food supply agencies such as ICDS officials, village health volunteers and public
distribution personnel and anganwadi workers etc are adequately sensitized with
tribal food habits and trained in the detection and treatment of malnutrition among
children and detection of high risk cases among pregnant women. However,
this knowledge can be documented through grass root level workers such as
anganwadi workers working very closely with the tribal population. The potential
of the anganwadi worker could have been positively influenced the health and
food practices of the tribal women folk and consequently to improve their health
There has been a persistent effort from the Government agencies through
various means and strategies to bring desirable food behavior among the primitive
tribal groups in the region. Yet, food habits modification is a complex and long
term-task, as there is immense cultural values on food behavior and it is assumed
that they are particularly difficult to modify all of a sudden. Often this has been
accomplished through self realization that changes in the food habits of an
individual but not out of compulsion or force. In the case of the tribal societies,
it is due to socio-cultural conservation on traditionally accepted food habits that
any changes and modification of the food habits take place in very slow transition.
Concept
Food taboos exist almost in every societies, communities and tribes. Food
habits are regulated by different phases of life cycle such as childhood, adult,
elderly, pregnancy, childbirth and lactation and so on and it is not uniform in all
societies and it may vary from one to another. Traditionally accepted food habits,
food taboos during illness and pregnancy are part of the wisdom developed over
many generations. Besides, the fresh cooked food items for day to day
consumption, natural preservation methods such as sun drying, dehydration are
very common and consuming them in the lean period or during the starvation
period, besides the less known food items and its consumption such as forest
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July - Dec. 2010
fruits, roots and grasses during lean period of the year (Jain: 1963; Roy and Rao:
1957). At the same time some of beliefs and practices elude them from accessing
and consuming rich natural foods which are abundantly available in and around.
However, some of their knowledge is valid and currently relevant with wider
applications for human benefit and survival. It can be traced through their arts
and crafts, rituals, legends and folklore, beliefs and social customs (Myrdal:
1968). It is generally passed through word of mouth from generation after
generation. Further, there are variations in the food consumption within various
tribal groups and regions that are expected and consumed, in terms of content,
quantity, and quality. Therefore, an attempt has been made to study the pattern
of food habits and taboos practiced by tribals in the context of pregnancy and
lactation.
Main Objectives
The study is basically a descriptive in nature with empirical evidences.
The main objective of the paper is to study the food habits of tribals of Andhra
Pradesh. Besides, to analyze the practice of food avoidance during pregnancy
and lactation period among tribal groups in the three regions are examined and
compared.
Methods and Materials
The selection of the study area is purely on the basis of concentration of
tribal population. The Government of India, working group on scheduled tribals
has divided the tribal areas into three major categories, viz., (a) tribal residing in
areas with traditional concentration, (b) primitive tribes’ concentration and (c)
dispersed tribal population. Accordingly, one district from each region, namely
Visakhapatnam (Region I), Adilabad (Region II) and Medak (Region III) districts
are selected. From each district one notified tribal PHC was randomly selected.
The selection of villages was based on distance from the PHC. Accordingly, it
has been decided to take one PHC village, one sub centre village and one village
where no health centre was present. From each village 25 eligible mothers1
were randomly interviewed. A total of 225 mothers were covered in all nine
villages covering three regions. A structured schedule was used to collect data
related to food habits besides, focus group discussion with elderly mothers and
dais was also used to collect the required information to substantiate from the
sampled villages. The data collection for this study was conducted during March
– June 2004.
Discussion
Improper food habit is a problematic one and it has direct effect on overall
health and development. Wrong food practices including cooking procedures
and incompatible choice of food combinations contribute to an unhealthy individual
149
and society. Un-time eating habits, and frequency of eating etc are too contribute
to sick individual which cause unknown morbid symptoms. However, in case of
tribal communities, having three meals in a day is considered to be a prestigious
position in their community and out of hunger. Food besides fulfilling the prime
natural call of hunger, it also fulfills the physiological, psychological and social
needs of human being. But, unfortunately food is not equally distributed among
all and hence there is uneven distribution and malnutrition. The table below
present the number of meal tribal eats in a day in the three regions.
Table – 1. Distribution of Region wise Respondents by No. of Eating
Sl.No
No. of Eating
Region I
Region II
Region III
Total
1
Once in a day
6 (8.0)
-
-
6 (2.6)
2
Twice in a day
57 (76.0)
66 (88.0)
54 (72.0)
177 (78.6)
3
Thrice in a day
12 (16.0)
9 (12.0)
21 (28.0)
42 (18.6)
75 (100.0)
75 (100.0)
75 (100.0)
225 (100.0)
Total
(Figures within brackets denote percentages)
It is clear from the above table that 78.6 per cent of the respondents are
having only two meals in a day, and 18.6 per cent of them thrice in a day. It is
observed that 8.0 per cent of the respondents (all from the region I, i.e. from the
hilly tract of the agency area in Vishakapatnam district) have only one meal a
day. These respondents are mostly belongs to Gonda Doara tribe, which is one
of the notified Primitive Tribal Group (PTG)2 of Andhra Pradesh. It was observed
that Gonda Doaras are still practicing podu cultivation in the hilly tracts of
northern Andhra Pradesh. It reflects their absolute poverty condition. Despite,
the presence of Public Distribution System (PDS) in the sampled villages, a
significant proportion of tribals remain incapable to buying enough food grains
due to their low income and poverty stricken conditions. It is worth to mention
here that according to Government reports there are 41, 172 fair price shops
functioning in the state, out of which, 34, 598 are in rural and tribal areas. On an
average each shop is having 525 card holders. The State Government supplies
rice at the rate of Rs. 5.25 per Kg. to the below poverty line families (White
family card holders) to alleviate hunger. Though the public distribution system is
in the state list, vast subsidies have been granted in almost in every Central
Union budget of the Government of India. But still the incidence of starvation
deaths due to severe malnutrition is the common plight in many backward areas
of India.
Food Taboos
Food taboos during pregnancy and lactation affect maternal nutritional
status and reproductive outcomes. Bartholomew and Poston (1970) estimated
in their study that the diets of 10.0 per cent of the respondents that they have
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July - Dec. 2010
surveyed are subject to folklore and cultural beliefs. It is the common practice in
the tribal society that knowledge of food habits stored in the form of culturally
specific beliefs and practices. These knowledge were transferred from one
generation to next. However certain specific food habits and food related practices
were inextricably woven into their local dialects, rituals, myths, symbolism and
history of tribals. Since the knowledge about food taboos and the reason behind
it is compactly integrated into their rituals such knowledge is much less likely to
the transferred to cross-cultural societies (Patel: 2002). Hence, an attempt is
made to identify certain food taboos during pregnancy and lactation among these
tribal groups are tabulated below.
Table – 2. Food Taboos Practiced during Pregnancy in the Study Area
Sl.No
Food Items
Region I
Region II
Region III
Total
12 (16.0)
12 (16.0)
22 (29.4)
46 (20.4)
1
Papaya
2
Egg
7 (9.3)
3 (4.0)
7 (9.3)
17 (7.6)
3
Gongura
6 (8.0)
9 (12.0)
13 (17.3)
28 (12.4)
4
Pineapple
9 (12.0)
6 (8.0)
11 (14.7)
26 (11.6)
5
Gingili with Sugar
3 (4.0)
6 (8.0)
3 (4.0)
12 (5.3)
6
Palm Sugar
9 (12.0)
6 (8.0)
-
15 (6.7)
7
Dumba Kuralu
(Root vegetable)
4 (5.3)
-
-
4 (1.8)
8
Bamboo Shoots
5 (6.7)
-
-
5 (2.2)
9
No idea
20 (26.7)
33 (44.0)
19 (25.3)
72 (32.0)
75 (100.0)
75 (100.0)
75 (100.0)
225 (100.0)
Total
It is evident from the above table that 20.4 per cent of the respondents
stated that papaya frits should be avoided during pregnancy and this food taboo
is followed by gongura, a leafy vegetable. Pineapple is another item to be
avoided as reported by 11.5 per cent of the respondents. Egg is another
predominant item that as many as 7.5 per cent of the respondents reported to be
avoided. Further, it was observed that the practice of food avoidance is more in
region I and II compared to region III. However, young mothers are not much
aware of such food taboos and these were mostly reported by the elderly mothers.
It was reported by the Gond tribes that they would not consume buffalo milk as
they describe that it is inauspicious and harmful to health. Food avoidance during
pregnancy shows that the main reason for abstaining from certain foods during
pregnancy was fear of abortion. They believe that these specific foods can
produce heat in the body and there-by induce uterine hemorrhage and
spontaneous abortion to anemic women during early pregnancy. Pregnancy is
151
felt to be a hot state and therefore necessitating restriction of hot foods. It was
also observed that avoiding animal protein during pregnancy is very common
among all tribal groups.
Similarly, there are strong beliefs on food avoidance during lactation period
too. It is also their belief that food nutrients and essence are passing through
breast milk to the child. The table below explains the taboo practices during
lactation period.
Table No. 03. Food Taboo Practices during Lactation
Sl.No.
Food Items
1
Mango
2
Jackfruit
3
Region I
Region II
Region III
Total
6 (8.0)
15 (20.0)
4 (5.3)
25 (11.1)
12 (16.0)
15 (20.0)
6 (8.0)
33 (14.6)
Coriander leaves
-
6 (8.0)
5 (6.6)
11 (4.8)
4
Thondakkai
-
-
5 (6.6)
5 (2.2)
5
Fresh ground nut and
root vegetables
7 (9.4)
3 (4.0)
2 (.7)
12 (5.4)
50 (66.6)
36 (58.0)
53 (70.8)
139 (61.8)
75 (100.0)
75 (100.0)
75 (100.0)
225 (100.0)
6
No idea
Total
The above table explicitly shows that 14.6 per cent of the respondents
reported that jackfruits should be avoided during lactation. Mango is another
food item that has to be avoided during lactation as reported by 11.1 per cent of
the respondents. Interestingly, coriander was reported as a taboo item by 8.0
per cent of the respondents from region II. The reason given by the lactating
mother was that it has the capacity to reduce the breast milk. Similarly, jackfruit,
fresh ground nut and mango may cause loose motion and root vegetables such
as tapioca, yam etc may cause digestive disorder for infants. Besides, hot foods
like brinjals, drumsticks, fish, dried fish, greens, bottle guards and certain dals
were felt to be good for lactation, whole cold foods were thought to produce
diarrhea and indigestion for infant. All the food restrictions were primarily
conceived in the interest of breastfeeding infant, to whom harmful effect would
be transmitted through the breast milk.
Food restrictions for just delivered mothers are also observed seriously.
For the first day rice water, pepper, garlic, ginger and salt has to be drunk to get
started on good milk production. Till three days boiled rice water with some
ground chilies and ginger is used as a drink as it would ‘clean up the inside’. No
cold items are consumed as long as the baby breast – fed. Women from Sugali
tribes used to prepare a mixture of dill oil and jaggery masala and it would be
kept in a clay pot to be consumed two to three times in a day for 10-12 days to
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July - Dec. 2010
get speedy recovery from delivery. Dill oil is considered tobe increases breast
milk production and also cleans it off toxins in the stomach. Women from Yerukula
tribes drink the decoction of neem leaves for three days and neem paste is
swallowed with rice water to clean the stomach. Despite all these shortcomings,
there has been a major shift in food habits of tribes in all regions in the recent
past. Now tribals rarely dig for wild tubers. For all purposes, they given-up
eating wild roots, caryota pith and mango kernlas. However, it was reported
from region I, that Konda Dora, one of the primitive tribal group still consumes
sorghum millet brought under podu cultivation. Certain traditional foods3 are
slowly disappearing from the tribal areas where its proximity is closer to urban
centres.
Food during Scarcity Season
Nuts and seeds are one of the best sources of protein. They are rich in
fiber and antioxidants with omega 3 fats which have effect of lowering cholesterol
level. One of the common seasons of nuts consumption among tribal groups is
scarcity period. They generally store nuts and seeds for lean season and consume
it when nothing is available to eat afresh one. They consider eating seeds and
nuts during harsh climatic conditions where no livelihood is available would be
as it is possess more protein and calories. For instance pumpkin seeds, tamarind
seeds and dry vegetables (brinjals, country beans, and raw mangoes) are
commonly storing commodities among tribal groups for lean period. It is worth
to mention here that both roots and tubers possess large quantity of starch, fat
and some amount of minerals. They can also easily identify the rotten roots and
tubers through its bitter taste and change of color on the outer portion. Generally
they avoid eating raw as it causes diarrhea and vomiting. Similarly, they also
monotonously eat the jack fruits and its seeds during the harvesting season.
After eating the juicy pulp of jack fruit the seeds were dried in the sunlight and
stored for future use. During the scarcity seasons, they boil it in hot water and
consume it with salt.
Further they also consume locally available cheap food items after cooking
or sometimes raw. Some of the food items are sweet potato, tapioca, jack fruit
seeds and ragi porridge etc. While sweet potato and tapioca contains more
carbohydrate which gives approximately 125-150 kilo calories per kilo, ragi and
jack fruits contains good source of protein. Ragi also contains good amount of
calcium, phosphorus, iron and minerals. Palmyra nut is another traditional food
item that used to consume after germination.
Minor forest produce and gathering from forests continue to supplement
by agriculture produces for consumption. The hilly forest also provides many
varieties of fruits, mushrooms, bamboo shoots, tender leaves, wild nuts, wild
grass, honey, resin, arrow-root, and bark etc. They bartered those products
153
with the local traders or to middlemen for salt, dry fish, clothes and other daily
needs. Domestic animals were a form of wealth for the tribal. The small
landholders devote much of their time to agriculture work, and subsistence during
the unproductive period as well as dependent on collection of forest produce.
However, the reserve forest cover in the tribal areas has increased to 46 million
hectares out of total 67million hectares (Sexena: 1999). The tribal rights of
collecting forest produces have been curtailed. With the depleted forest resources
tribals survival is threatened and has also increased the pace of migration to
nearby towns, where by become underpaid wage labourers.
Conclusion
It can be summarized from the above analysis that food habit of tribal
group is mostly monotonous. Tribals are vulnerable to malnutrition because of
their certain traditional belief and cultural practices. Food avoidance during
pregnancy and lactation and post-partum periods widely prevails in the study
areas and it is also region specific. They also still believe of Hot-Cold food
syndrome during pregnancy and lactation. As knowledge of healthy food practices
and its nutritive values is very poor among tribal communities, general thrust on
nutritive values of the locally available food materials must be brought to the
notice of the tribal groups especially among self help groups, anganwadi workers
and local health staff for further dissemination. While enforcing appropriate
food habits and its nutritive values, the local eating habits, availability of food
grains and vegetables as well as cultural practices of the tribals are to be kept in
mind. Further, health education based focus group discussion among pregnant,
lactating mothers and adolescent girls will help not only to adopt appropriate
food practices but also to improve their health by improving healthier reproductive
life.
Acknowledgement
I wish to thank Prof. (Ms) Sheela Prasad, Head, Centre for Regional
Studies, University of Hyderabad, for her continuous support and valuable
guidance during study period.
FootNote
1
2
3
Eligible Mothers refers to married women who have experienced at least
one delivery at the time of survey.
Primitive Tribal Groups (PTG): There are 8 primitive tribes in Andhra Pradesh
namely Chenchus, Kolam, Kondareddy, Konda Doaras, Gadabas, Gonds,
Porjas and Thotis.
Notes: 1. Tallu chettu (Grewia Tilaefolia): Young leaves are eaten as vegetable
and it is used to curdle milk. 2. Niakhenda (Hibiscus Rugosus). It is a root
and inner portion of the roots are eaten after boiling. 3. Kandichettu (Indigofera
154
July - Dec. 2010
Pulchella). Its flowers are cooked and eaten as vegetable. 4. Ippa (Madhuca
Indica). It is a tree, its flowers are used as vegetable and extracts oil from its
seeds. Liquor is largely made from the flowers during the season. Its flower
is stored for future use. 5. Yam: It is a tuber eaten after processing. It is also
cultivated in the backwards. 6. Cenegadda (Dioscorea Hispida). It is kind of
tuber largely eaten after processing. These tubers are boiled in hot water
after removing the skin. They are soaked into water during nighttimes so as
to remove the acrid content. Later it will be sliced and dried up in the sun
light. They prepare like a chip and sell in the markets. 7. Young Bamboo
Shoots: It is one of the delicious tribal foods in the agency tracts of Andhra
Pradesh. It is a common sight in the roadside that tribals are selling the shorts
to outsiders. Chutney made out of bamboo shoots is also widely available
during the season.
References
Basu. S.K. (1993) Health Status of Tribal Women in India Paper presented
in the CSD workshop during 22-23 December, 1993. (unpublished)
Bhushna Reddy and Papa Rao (2000) Dietary Habits, food consumption and
Nutrient intake among Sugali Tribes of Andhra Pradesh Asia Specific
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 9(1) P.12-17
Barthdomew, M.J. and Poston, F.E. (1970) Effect of Food taboos on Prenatal
Nutrition Journal of Nutritional Education, Vol. 2. P. 15-17.
Sunita Reddy (2004) Ecosystems Approach to Human Health: A case of
Konda Reddi Tribes and Women Health Journal of Human Ecology,
Vol. 16 (4) P.271-282.
Duarah. D.K. (2004) Indigenous food habits of tribes of Arunachal Pradesh
in Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, Edited by Bibhash Dhar and Palash Chandra
Coomar, Vedam Books, New Delhi – 88.
Jain s.K. (1963) Observations on Ethno-botany of the tribals of Madhya
Pradesh Journal of Vanyajati, Vol.11. P. 177-83
Myrdal, G (1968) The Asian Drama: An inquiry into Poverty Nation Penguin
publication, London.
Roy J.K. and Rao. P.K. (1957) Investigations on the Diet of the Muria of
Bastar District Bulletin, Dept. of Anthropology, Govt. of India, No. 6.
P.33-45.
Patel. M.L. (2002) Whole day meals position of Baiga Tribe of Madhya
Pradesh in Global Perception of Tribal Research by Patel M. L (Edited). P.
111-118, Atlantic Publications and Distributors, New Delhi.
Sexena, N. C. (1999) Planning Commission Report on Forest in Tribal Lives
GOI, P. 3. (unpublished).
155
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 157 - 173
UNIVERSALIZATION OF THE ELEMENTARY
EDUCATION FOR ALL IN INDIA: ASSESSING THE
PROGRESS OF SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN
PROGRAMME IN UNION TERRITORY OF
PUDUCHERRY
* G. Palanisamy
Abstract
The government of India had taken initiative to universalize the
elementary education by community-ownership in the name of Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) by providing elementary education for all
children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010. The present study had made
an attempt to evaluate the progress of the implementation of SSA
programme in the four regions of Puducherry Union Territory. Direct
participant observation method was adopted for collection of data
with the help of scientific questionnaire from 18 per cent of the schools
out of 575 schools were the programme is implemented. The study
highlights on the infrastructure facilities provided to the schools,
with good drinking water, class room, toilet facilities etc. to the
students. The utilization of grants like school grants, maintenance
grants, to school, TLM grants to teachers, training programme for
teachers and functioning of village education committee, student’s
beneficiary under children special needs, vocational skill, night school,
bridge course for the slow learners, mid day meal etc. were evaluated
and suggestions were imparted for its success.
Key words: Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, elementary education, night school,
universalized education
Introduction
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is an effort by the government of India to
universalize the elementary education by community-ownership of the school
system. The demand for quality basic education all over the country is its major
goal. It attempts to provide an opportunity for improving human capabilities to
all children, through provision of community-owned quality education in a mission
mode.
*
Research Associate, Centre for Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy, Pondicherry
University. E-mail: [email protected]
157
Universalization of the Elementary .................. Abhiyan Programme in Union Territory of Puducherry
Location of the District
The present evaluation study was conducted in Pondicherry, a Union
Territory of India. It is a former French colony, consisting of four non-contiguous
enclaves, or regions, and named after the largest region, Puducherry. The territory
was officially known as Pondicherry until 2006 then it was renamed as
Puducherry. Of late, Puducherry is also considered an educational hub of Southern
India.
Puducherry, the capital of the Union Territory, also a port city, which is
located 162 kms south of Chennai, the capital of Tamilnadu and 22 kms north of
Cuddalore, the head quarter town of South Arcot district in Tamilnadu.
Puducherry is surrounded by Bay of Bengal in the east and by South Arcot
district of Tamilnadu from other three sides. Puducherry consists of four noncontiguous regions: Puducherry, Karaikal, and Yanam on the Bay of Bengal and
Mahé on the Arabian Sea. Puducherry and Karaikal are by far the larger ones,
and are both enclaves of Tamilnadu, Karaikal region is embedded in the
Nagappattinam and Tiruvarur District of Tamilnadu, Yanam and Mahé are
enclaves of Andhra Pradesh and west cost of Kerala, respectively.
District Profile
The District of Puducherry consists of two municipalities namely
Puducherry Municipality and Oulgarate Municipality. There are five Commune
Panchayats in the District of Puducherry they are: Ariyankuppam Commune,
Bahoor Commune, Mannadipet Commune, Nettapakkum Commune, and
Villianoor Commune.
Karaikal is located on the shore of Bay of Bengal, 135 kms from
Pondicherry. It is surrounded by the Nagai District of Tamilnadu. Some 10 kms
north of Karaikal, the historically famous Dutch settlement of Tranquebar is
situated. The total area of Karaikal is 160 sq km. The District of Karaikal consists
of one Karaikal municipality and five Commune Panchayats namely Thirunallar
Commune, Neravy Commune, Nedungadu Commune, Kottucherry Commune
and T.R. Pattinam Commune
Mahé is, by far, the largest island, and it is home to the capital, Victoria, the
international airport, the fishing and commercial ports, most of the population
and many resorts and hotels, plus four casinos. It covers a distance of 848 kms
from Puducherry by train. Its powdery white, idyllic beaches, lush vegetation,
plantations of coconut palms and cinnamon rise to forested peaks with unequalled
views of the neighboring islands. Surrounded by coral reefs the clear, calm
waters invite relaxation and many water sports. Although it is the nation’s
economic hub, it has retained all of its natural beauty and charm. The District of
Mahé consists of only one Mahé municipality
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July - Dec. 2010
Yanam is one of the regions in the Union Territory of Puducherry, which is
870 kms. away from it. It is situated on the East Coast of the Indian Peninsula
at 16 degrees 42' northern latitude, and between 82 degree 11' Eastern longitude
bounded on all sides by the East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh State.
The entire Yanam region consisting of Yanam town and eight villages is treated
as Municipality for purposes of local administration. The region, which covers
an area of 30.0 Sq. Kms, The region is bounded on the east and south by rivers
Gauthami and Godavari which discharges itself into Bay of bengal after flowing
almost 14 Kms towards east from Yanam.
What is Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)?
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a programme with a clear time frame for
universal elementary education, and it response to the demand for quality basic
education all over the country. It provides an opportunity for promoting social
justice through basic education. The scheme put an effort at effectively involving
the Panchayati Raj Institutions, School Management Committees, Village and
Urban Slum level Education Committees, Parents’ Teachers’ Associations,
Mother Teacher Associations, Tribal Autonomous Councils and other grass root
level structures in the management of elementary schools. An expression of
political will for universal elementary education across the country. It has a
partnership between the Central, State and the local government to implement
and achieve the mission towards providing the basis elementary education to all
in India, This also gives an opportunity for States to develop their own vision of
elementary education
The goal of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
A new scheme viz., Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan has been introduced by the
government of India to universalize elementary education by making the
community the owner of the education system.
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is to provide useful and relevant elementary
education for all children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010. There is also another
goal to bridge social, regional and gender gaps, with the active participation of
the community in the management of schools.
Useful and relevant education signifies a quest for an education system
that is not alienating and that draws on community solidarity. Its aim is to allow
children to learn about and master their natural environment in a manner that
allows the fullest harnessing of their human potential both spiritually and materially.
This quest must also be a process of value based learning that allows children
an opportunity to work for each other’s well being rather than to permit mere
selfish pursuits.
159
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan realizes the importance of Early Childhood Care
and Education and looks at the 0-14 age as a continuum. All efforts to support
pre-school learning in ICDS centres or special pre-school centres in non ICDS
areas will be made to supplement the efforts being made by the Ministry of
Women and Child Development.
The scheme will provide useful and relevant elementary education for all
children in the 6-14 age group by 2010 and bridge social, regional and gender
gaps.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan has the following objectives:
 All children in school, education guarantee centre, alternative school,
‘back to school’ camp by 2003.
 All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
 All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.
 Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on
education for life.
 Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007
and at elementary education level by 2010.
 Universal retention by 2010.
The implementation of SSA will make the Union Territory of Puducherry
realize the promulgation found in the Article 45 of the Indian Constitution, which
has been beyond our reach so far.
Methodology
The direct participant observation method was adopted for collection of
required data. Scientific questionnaire was prepared to study various indicators
based on the monitoring format developed by the NCERT was adopted to collected
scientific data from the schools were the SSA programme was implemented.
The study was conducted on almost 18 percentage of schools as sample in all
the four regions of Puducherry Union Territory where the programme in
implemted. Immense care was taken to select the sample school in rural and
urban areas of all the four regions The study was conducted during the academic
year 2008-10.
Population and Sample
In Pondicherry district the SSA scheme was implemented in 378 schools
out of which 36 (09.42 per cent) schools were taken for sample survey.
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July - Dec. 2010
In Karaikal district the SSA scheme was implemented in 147 schools out
of which 16 (10.88 per cent) schools were taken for sample survey.
In Yanam district the SSA scheme was implemented in 20 schools and the
monitoring team had undergone a census study covering all the 20 (cent per
cent) schools taken for study.
In Mahé district the SSA scheme was implemented in 30 schools and all
the 30 (cent per cent) schools were taken for Monitoring by adopting census
survey method.
Table 1.The population and sample SSA schools in Puducherry Union
Territory
Sl.No.
Region
Total No. of schools
with SSA
programme
Sample Schools
for evaluation
study
Percentage
to the total
population
1
Puducherry
378
36
09.52
2
Karaikal
147
16
10.88
3
Mahé
30
30
100.00
4
Yanam
20
20
100.00
575
102
17.74
Puducherry UT
Analysis of the Data
The data collected partially through from the relevant official records of
the State Project Office, District Project Office and the corresponding schools.
Further more information was collected by observation and through sutured
questionnaire and also discussion with the school administrators, students and
parents and analyzed with qualitative technique too. The data collected through
questionnaire were scored, tabulated and analysed. These formed an important
part of the analysis, as they constituted the reactions and suggestions of the
people in the field. Percentages were used to quantify the responses given by
the concerned. Interpretation was done in a descriptive way giving due weightage
to all sources of data.
Interpretation of Data
Based on the data collected from the four regions of Puducherry Union
Territory schools in the different blocks and District Project Office (DPO),
State Project Office (SPO), the interpretation of data is presented bellow:
161
Table: 2 Category of sample Schools studied in Puducherry UT
Region
Primary
Upper
Primary
with
Primary
1
Pondicherry
12
(33.33)
8
(22.22)
7
(19.44)
9
(25.00)
36
(100.00)
2
Karaikal
9
(56.25)
2
(12.50)
3
(18.75)
2
(12.50)
16
(100.00)
3
Mahé
12
(40.00)
3
(10.00)
8
(26.67)
7
(23.33)
30
(100.00)
4
Yanam
12
(60.00)
2
(10.00)
6
(30.00)
0
(0.00)
20
(100.00)
Puducherry UT
45
(42.45)
17
(16.04)
26
(24.53)
18
(16.98)
102
(100.00)
Sl.
No.
High School
with
Primary &
Upper Primary
Higher
Sec. School
with Upper
Primary
Total
Note: The figure in the parenthesis denotes the percentage to the total.
The above table 2 shows that in all the four regions of Puducherry, out of
102 schools taken for study 42.45 per cent of the schools are independent primary
schools, 16.04 per cent of the schools are with primary and upper primary, 24.53
per cent of the primary and upper primary schools are attached with High school
and the rest 16.98 per cent of the higher secondary schools are running with
upper primary school level. It shows that preferences are given to the primary
and upper primary schools where the SSA programme is intended to be
implemented in all the four regions. So, the study had selected more than fifty
per cent of the schools from primary and upper primary level than that of the
other category of schools.
The above table 3 reveals the type and management status of the schools
where the SSA programme is in progress. In the all the four regions of the
Puducherry Union Territory out of the sample schools the highest of 90.18 per
cent of them of co-education schools followed by 8.93 per cent school for only
girls and one school is boys’ school. With respect to the Puducherry region out
of 36 sample schools visited only one (2.78 per cent) school is boys’ school, nine
(25.00 per cent) schools are girls’ school and the rest 26 (72.22 per cent) schools
are co-educational schools. In Karaikal region except one girls’ schools rest all
other schools are co- education schools. As such in Mahé and Yanam cent per
cent of the schools are co-education schools.
162
July - Dec. 2010
Table: 3 Types and Management status of the SSA Schools in
Puducherry UT
Sl.No.
Type of School
Region
Boys
Girls
Management status
Coeducation
Total
Govt.
Private
Total
1
Pondicherry
1
(2.78)
9
(25.00)
26
(72.22)
36
(100.00)
35
(97.22)
1
(2.78)
2
Karaikal
0
(0.00)
1
(6.25)
15
(93.75)
16
(100.00)
14
(87.50)
2
16
(12.50) (100.00)
3
Mahé
0
(0.00)
0
0(0.00)
30
30
(100.00) (100.00)
18
(60.00)
12
30
(40.00) (100.00)
4
Yanam
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
20
20
(100.00) (100.00)
18
(60.00)
2
20
(40.00) (100.00)
Puducherry UT
1
10
31
102
85
(0.89)
(8.93)
(90.18)
(100.00)
(75.89)
27
36
(100.00)
102
(24.11) (100.00)
Regarding the management type of the sample schools, in all the four
regions 75.89 per cent of the schools are government owned schools and the
rest 24.11 per cent of the schools were private management schools. It was
noticed from the study that majority of the private schools falls in the Mahé
region and only one or two schools each in rest of the regions of Puducherry
were private schools and the rest are government schools.
Table: 4 Type of School Buildings
Sl. No.
Region
Pucca RCC
roofed Building
Tiled roofing
building
Total
1
Pondicherry
36
(100.00)
0
0(0.00)
36
(100.00)
2
Karaikal
15
(93.75)
1
(6.25)
16
(100.00)
3
Mahé
30
(100.00)
0
(0.00)
30
(100.00)
4
Yanam
20
(100.00)
0
(0.00)
20
(100.00)
Puducherry UT
101
(99.11)
1
(0.89)
102
(100.00)
The table 4 shows structure of the building under which the students are
studying. Among the sample schools in all the four regions except one school
163
(0.89 per cent) in Karaikal rest 99.11 per cent of the schools are functioning
under the RCC roofed buildings. It was noted from the government authority
that necessary legal proceedings are taken for constructing the single titled school
in Karaikal as RCC roofed building.
Display of SSA sign Boards
As per the norms of the SSA scheme, it is mandatory that the schools
need to put up the sign board of the SSA, which means that the particular school
is functioning with SSA programme. On observation during the visit, it was
found that except two schools all other 100 schools had displayed the sign board
with the logo and slogan of the SSA. Apart from this the materials that are
purchased/constructed under the SSA fund were also named on the product as
“purchased/constructed under SSA scheme”.
The fund which is allocated by SSA under the head civil work, the amount
was spent to construct toilet and providing drinking water to the students. The
above table 5 reveals about the civil work provision under SSA scheme. Out of
the 36 schools in Pondicherry 17 (47.22 per cent), in Karaikal out of the 16
sample schools 11 (68.75 per cent) of schools were provided with toilet facilities,
in Mahé out of the 30 sample schools 27 (90 per cent) schools were construct
toilet to the students. With regard Yanam 20 schools were funded to construct
toilet and the amount was released, but it was notices that only one school had
constructed toilet yet remaining schools they had not utilized the fund stating
that the fund in inadequate. Under the SSA scheme the government releases an
amount of Rs.20,000/- per school to provide toilet facilities to the students.
Table: 5 Availability of Drinking water and Toilet facilities to the
students
Sl. No.
Region
Toilet
Yes
No
Drinking Water
Total
Yes
No
Total
1
Pondicherry
17
(47.22)
19
(52.78)
36
(100.00)
19
(52.78)
17
(47.22)
36
(100.00)
2
Karaikal
11
(68.75)
5
(31.25)
16
(100.00)
12
(75.00)
4
(25.00)
16
(100.00)
3
Mahé
27
(90.00)
3
(10.00)
30
(100.00)
28
(93.33)
2
(6.67)
30
(100.00)
4
Yanam
1
(5.00)
19
(95.00)
20
(100.00)
20
(100.00)
0
(0.00)
20
(100.00)
Puducherry UT
56
(54.90)
46
(45.10)
102
(100.00)
79
(77.45)
23
(22.55)
102
(100.00)
164
July - Dec. 2010
As such, so has to provide hygienic drinking water to the students
Rs.15,000/- was sanctioned and released to each school were the SSA
programme are implemented, under which 19 (52.78 per cent) schools in
Pondicherry, 12 (75 per cent) schools in Karaikal, 28 (93.33 per cent) schools in
Mahé and 20 schools in Yanam were provided ozonenized filter water drinking
water to the students. These civil works are carried out after the convergence
of Village Education Committee (VEC) meeting and then the work is executed
under the supervision of the School Management Committee.
School Grants and Maintenance Grants
The government schools were this SSA programme is implemented are
eligible for Rs.2,000/- as school grants and Rs.4,000/- as maintenance grants
per school for every year. In Puducherry union territory except the aided schools
all the government sample schools were released with these amounts. It was
also explored from the study that all the schools that were provided with these
grants had used to purchase the school needs and maintaining the school. Before
using these funds the approval is taken from the VEC and separate account
was maintained. The DPO or the SPO do not follow any centralized purchase
and supply of materials. Regarding the utilization of these grants almost all school
use these amount properly for the benefit of the students in time.
Text Books
The free text books and note books to the students were provided by the
Puducherry Union Territory government through the state education fund. So,
the SSA, fund was not used for providing free text books to the students.
Teachers and Teachers Training
The study found that there are no additional or new teachers sanctioned in
the sample schools of all the four regions, there is proposal to recruit new teachers
under SSA scheme. The study also found that a total of 352 teachers were
trained under various SSA training programmes held during the academic year
2006-07. The teacher’s opinion regarding the training programme is found
satisfactory. At the same time the teachers welcome these kinds of knowledge
refreshing training programmes which would enable them to update their teaching
skill. If a teacher attends one programme his next turn come after 2-3 years so
they need periodical training which will helps to update their knowledge for
better implementation of the programme, it will also enhance the academic
progress by establishing a training cell.
Under SSA scheme, the school runs “Evening Schools” and coaching for
“Slow Learners”. Educated unemployed youth in that particular village is
identified and selected as the evening school teacher .The selection was done
165
by the VEC and approval was taken from the State Project Office (SPO). This
evening and slow learners classes functions after school hours from 6 to 8 pm
of every school working days .So has to motivate the functioning of the school.
Frequent visit was made by the BRC officer and check the attendance registers
and inspect the students performance. From the sample of 36 schools the in
Pondicherry it was found that about 19 schools were running these two night
schools and evening school for the slow learners. There were 86 night schools
and 40 evening schools are functioning in Karaikal District. In Mahé it was
found that from the total of 30 schools about 18 schools are conducting evening
for the slow learners, and 12 private schools have been funded to conduct night
schools for week students. It was found from the study that there were 42 night
schools and evening schools for slow learners are functioning in Yanam District
Teacher Learning Materials (TLM)
The grants under the Teaching Learning Materials (TLM) provided to the
schools at Rs.500/- per teacher, in which 3393 teachers were benefited during
the current academic year. The TLM grant was used in procuring teaching aids
and it was reported that the teachers are more comfortable in their teaching by
having these teaching aids .The study found that in the sample schools about
474 teachers in these 36 schools from Pondicherry, in Karaikal about 147 teachers
from 20 schools, 75 teachers in 30 schools from Mahé and 105 teachers in from
20 schools of Yanam were provided with TLM grants. The TLM includes, hand
made chart, maps, thermocoal cutting models, models of scientific equipments,
models of science objects and other instruments used in laboratory. The SPO
had directed the school to display all the TLM together once in year as an
science exhibition period the students can also exhibit their own hand models,
which helps the students to learn much more from other class teachers.
The Status of the out of School Children and Drop-out
The status of the out of school children is concern, during the last academic
year there is not even single case was found reported in all the four regions
where the sample study was conducted. In Karaikal during the last academic
year one student was detained he is suppose to drop the course but he was put
into alternate school and special care was taken to educate the student and then
he was put into regular stream of schooling from the next consecutive year.
166
July - Dec. 2010
Table: 6 Children with Special Need (CWSN)
Sl.No.
Sanctioned aid
Pondicherry
Karaikal
Mahé
Yanam
Puducherry UT
No. Student Benefited
1
Spectacles
236
(95.16)
41
(83.67)
58
(71.60)
28
(32.18)
363
(78.06)
2
Hearing aid
5
(2.02)
6
(12.24)
12
(14.81)
5
(5.75)
28
(6.02)
3
Escort allowance
and equipment
7
(2.82)
2
(4.08)
11
(13.58)
2
(2.30)
22
(4.73)
4
Speech Therapy
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
52
(59.77)
52
(11.18)
248
(100.00)
49
(100.00)
81
(100.00)
87
(100.00)
465
(100.00)
Total
With regard to children special needs, the Puducherry District had 1984
students, in Karaikal District had 342 students, in Mahé 81 students and in Yanam
87 students are suspected to have deficits and were taken for medical examination
to the nearby hospital and the students who were found in need of aids and
appliances were provided with hearing aids, spectacles etc. Among the sample
schools surveyed in Pondicherry region 236 students had provided with spectacles
five had provided with hearing aid and seven with escort allowance of Rs.2000/
- each. In Karaikal 41 students had provided with spectacles six had provided
with hearing aid and two with escort allowance of Rs.2000/- each. In Mahé 58
students had provided with spectacles, 12 students had been provided with hearing
aid and 11 students with escort allowance of Rs.2,000/- each. In Yanam 28
students had provided with spectacles five had provided with hearing aid, two
provided with physically challenged clippers. The benefited students said that
within a week time after medical examination they got their aids and appliances
from the SPO. Ramps were constructed in all the schools were the team visited.
Table: 7 District Information systems for Education (DISE)
Sl.No.
DISE
submitted
Pondicherry
Karaikal
Mahé
Yanam
Puducherry
UT
1
Yes
36
(100.00)
16
(100.00)
30
(100.00)
20
(100.00)
102
(100.00)
2
No
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
36
(100.00)
16
(100.00)
30
(100.00)
20
(100.00)
102
(100.00)
Total
167
Figure : 1 Students beneficiary under Children with Special Need
(CWSN)
The DISE Information scheduled was issued to all the schools by the
State Project office and collected back, this helps to study the progress of the
programme. The collected data were computed in state project office. So, has
to avoid mistake while filling up the DIES schedule, information manual and
training is given to the school authorities. The study found that in all the four
regions of Puducherry Union Territory the schools school authorities had prepared
their school DISE report with care and submitted in time. The school authorities
are of the opinion that training regarding the DISE schedule briefed by the
concern BRC coordinators level helps to provide correct information. The BRC
coordinators will verify 5 percent of the total schedules collected from each
BRC and forward it to the SPO for data compilation and analysis.
Functioning of the VEC
As an objective of the SSA programme to involve the community-ownership
of the school system an village level “Village Education Committee” (VEC)
was constituted by the school administration and villagers after taking the approval
of the SPO, JDWO, CEO and DPO.
The study found that all the sample schools visited had constituted VEC
and the frequency of meetings held was almost in quarterly, whenever the VEC
meeting is held, they will discuss about the issue /problem of the schools and
decisions will be made to utilize the allotted fund. So as to document the meeting
resolutions a separate Register is maintained .The school Headmasters were
168
July - Dec. 2010
trained how to maintain a register and when the VEC meeting has to be
constituted. The study found that in Pondicherry among the 36 sample schools 2
(5.56 per cent) schools doesn’t maintain the VEC Record properly; as per the
guideline of the SSA. The rest all other 34 schools (94.44 per cent) are following
as per the Guidelines framed by the SSA. In Karaikal among the 16 sample
schools 2 (12.5 per cent) schools doesn’t maintain the VEC Record properly,
rest all other 14 schools (87.5 per cent) are following as per the Guidelines
framed by the SSA. In Mahé among the 30 sample schools all schools are
maintaining the VEC Record properly. In Yanam among the 20 sample schools
2 (10.00 per cent) schools doesn’t maintain the VEC Record properly rest 18
schools (90.00 per cent) maintain the VEC records properly.
In general the study examined that among all the sample schools in
Puducherry Union Territory on an average about 90 per cent of the VEC members
attend the meeting regularly.
Table: 8 Number of schools functioning with Village Education
Committee (VEC)
Sl. No.
Particulars
Pondicherry
Karaikal
Mahé
Yanam
Puducherry UT
1
School with VEC
36
(100.00)
16
(100.00)
30
(100.00)
20
(100.00)
102
(100.00)
2
Schools without
VEC
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
0
(0.00)
36
(100.00)
16
(100.00)
30
(100.00)
20
(100.00)
102
(100.00)
Total
Staffing at State and District Level
In Puducherry Union Territory the SSA office was functioning with the
following staff, during the study period it was notices that Puducherry the SSA
State Project Office is functioning with a total number of six staff out of 11
sanctioned posts. With respect to Karaikal the office is functioning with a total
number of eight staff with the help of school teacher on office order. In Mahé it
was found that only 5 positions were filled out of 11 sanctioned positions. In
Yanam the office is functioning with four sanctioned posts and with the help of
school teachers. In the all the three regions the ADPC is empowered to take
care of the programme activities.
169
Table: 9 Staffing pattern in SSA at Puducherry by region wise
In Position
Sanctioned
In Position
Sanctioned
In Position
Yanam
Sanctioned
Mahé
In Position
Karaikal
Sanctioned
Pondicherry
1
State Project Director
1
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
Stenographer – Gr.III
1
1
-
-
1
-
-
-
3
Asst. Dist. Project Director
-
-
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
Academic co-ordinator
3
1
-
-
3
1
1
1
5
Data Entry Operator
1
Nil
-
-
1
1
1
1
6
Junior Accounts Officer
1
1
-
-
1
-
-
-
7
Upper Division Clerk
1
Nil
-
-
1
-
-
-
8
Lower Division Clerk
1
1
1
1
1
-
1
1
9
Peon
2
1
-
-
2
1
-
-
11
6
2
2
11
4
4
4
Sl.No.
Designation
TOTAL
Mid-Day Meal Scheme
The Mid-Day Meal (MDM) scheme is fully taken care by the state
government of Puducherry Union Territory. The Puducherry State Government
pool the SSA fund for mid day meals with the state fund and implementing it
with separate wing deputing an officer incharge to execute and monitor the
activities . The state government provides best food to the students, every day
morning they start with providing milk with biscuits, noon lunch with rice, curry
and fried vegetables, weekly twice they use to provide egg with lunch and in the
evening when the students leave home they were provided with a cup of milk.
In town limit i.e. urban area food were supplied from central kitchen, in rural
areas food were cooked within the school in few schools 2-3 schools share the
kitchen. About, the students and parents opinion regarding the quality and quantity
of food, they found highly satisfied. The school teachers were deployed to monitor
while the students are taking their food, washing of hands and their plates. The
visited schools have very good, hygienic and clean kitchen.90 per cent of the
schools cook the food by using fire wood and the rest 10 per cent by using
kerosene stove. In short MDM scheme operated by the state government is
functioning well.
170
July - Dec. 2010
Additional provisions and for successful implementation of the
scheme
In Puducherry District the schools were functioned for 195 days during
the last academic year. It was observed from the study that the School have
neat and clean environment, with minimum required good ventilations, all schools
were provided with required numbers of desks and tables. The schools visited
have cent per cent electrification, and cement flooring was laid. The class room
consists of black board, TLM materials displayed. Almost all the schools were
used the school grant for black board maintenance. The state government
provided the schools with required amount of play materials. On an average of
95 to 98 per cent of the attendance are present from all the 36 schools. Private
schools they follow penalty system if the students are irregular to class. The
government schools Headmaster warn their parents of the students if they are
irregular to class.
With the help of the special assistance programmes the slow learning
students were given additional care by imparting night school and evening schools.
Apart from this the female students were given vocational skill development
courses like embroidery, stitching, paper mold dolls etc. In the middle school
level the students were provided with basic computer facilities. In the primary
school level the students were give ability learning skill course career. The
below table shows the special assistance programme to improve the quality of
education among the students in Puducherry district:
Table: 10 Special Assistance Programme to Improve the Quality of
Education
Sl.No.
Particulars
Pondicherry
Karaikal
Mahe
Yanam
Puducherry UT
No. of Schools
1.
Night School
215
(13.21)
86
(50.59)
18
(26.87)
12
(1.05)
331
(10.99)
2.
Evening school
for slow learners
207
(12.71)
40
(23.53)
12
(17.91)
16
(1.39)
275
(9.13)
3.
Computer Lab
24
(1.47)
14
(8.24)
30
(44.78)
7
(0.61)
75
(2.49)
4.
Vocational Skill
Development
1182
(72.60)
30
(17.65)
7
(10.45)
1113
(96.95)
2332
(77.40)
Total
1628
(100.00)
170
(100.00)
67
(100.00)
1148
(100.00)
3013
(100.00)
171
Figure: 2 Special Assistance Programme to Improve the Quality of
Education
Conclusion and Suggestions
It is encouraging to note that the overall implementation and performance
of the SSA scheme in Puducherry Union Territory is good. It has been noticed
from the visit that the school authorities have realizing the goals of universalization
of elementary education. However, a few lacunas have to be bridged for the
successful implementation of the programme they are:
 Few schools are in needs new class rooms and compound walls.
 The Education Inspector should be empowered to monitor the
implementation of SSA schemes frequently.
 One Junior Account Officer who is appointed in the SPO level is fully
engaged in looking after the accounts position in state level, so he does
not find time to check the account procedure in schools which leads to
complication in maintaining a standard accounts procedure as per the
SSA norms. So, an additional JAO should be appointed so has to visit all
the schools and monitor and guide them the expenditure of SSA in a
right direction. Ever since the date of implementation of the SSA
programme no one had inspected and assessed the school accounts,
this may give chance for misuse of funds.
172
July - Dec. 2010
 Apart from the school authorities the teachers should also trained to
know about the aims and objectives of SSA programme, so the training
programme should be made compulsory to all the teachers. They should
attend atleast one training progrmme in two years.
 Atleast one computer lab has to be established at primary school level
depending upon the student strength. This will increase the quality of
education.
 A sum of Rs.25/- per girl student under Vocation Skill Development
(VSD) is given this has to be revised to Rs.100/- per student, so that the
drop-out rate of female children can be reduced at the same time an
self confidence can be created among them.
 In some schools it was found that the fund allocated to the schools for
maintenance/school grants were not used in time, i.e, during the particular
academic year for which the amount is sanctioned. In many schools
account balance was too high. So, proper guideline/notification has to
be issued to the schools about how the balance fund should be used.
 The Headmasters are not attending the VEC or SSA meeting conducted
by the DPO. They will send their representative to attend the meeting,
so there is a communication gap. During the visit to schools many
Headmasters were not aware how to use the fund and what is the
purchase procedure and guideline, so as to rectify this regular refresher
course for Headmasters has to be conducted.
 Those who are appointed as Headmaster by promotion/incharge, should
undergo compulsory training programme to know about the objective
and goal of the SSA programme before taking charge as Headmaster
which would enable in smooth functioning of the progamme.
It is hoped that the SSA scheme will bring a qualitative education if the
above said suggestions are looked into seriously, it is sure that SSA scheme will
bring an laurel towards the universalisation of elementary education in Puducherry
Union Territory.
173
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 175 - 192
MOTHERS’ NUTRITIONAL STATUS AND ITS IMPACT
ON THEIR CHILDREN ANEMIC CONDITION: A STUDY
AT TAMILNADU
* A.K. Ravishankar
Abstract
Tamilnadu is one among of the demographically advanced States in
India and it has established a framework of programmes with the
potential to combat malnutrition including an ICDS programme, a
NMMP and a PDS (Public Distribution System) and other some
employment schemes providing food for work. Despite these
programmes, the state continues to bear a burden of malnutrition –
high prevalence of CED and anemia among mothers and more number
of severely undernourished children. These situation calls for an
exploration of the relationship between CED and children’s nutritional
status in Tamilnadu.
The main objectives of the study are to study nutritional status of
women in the age group of 15-49 years and to present a nutritional
profile of children less than five years of age in Tamilnadu. Finally, to
explore impact of ‘chronic energy deficiency’ of women on nutritional
status of their children
The data for the present study were drawn from National Family Health
Survey, 2005-06. The structure of the survey is similar to that of the
DHS conducted in various Asian and African countries.
In Tamilnadu, one-quarter of women have chronic energy deficiency,
which is lower than national average. At the other end of the spectrum,
women with obesity percentage were higher than country’s average.
Overall picture indicates that overweight problem overshadowed
underweight problem. Finally, underweight is largely a result of poor
diets and infection during childhood. The causes of obesity epidemic
are sedentary lifestyles with a fall in spontaneous and work related
physical activity and high-fat, energy-dense diets.
Key words: Chronic energy deficiency, Obesity, malnutrition, nutritional
status, anemia
*
Senior Lecturer, Department of Population Studies, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar,
Tamilnadu. E-mail: [email protected]
175
Mothers’ Nutritional status and its impact on their Children Anemic condition: A study at Tamilnadu
Introduction
Women are more likely to suffer from nutritional deficiencies than men
are, for reasons including women’s reproductive biology, low social status, poverty,
and lack of education. Socio-cultural traditions and disparities in household work
patterns can also increase women’s chances of being malnourished. Several
reviews have emphasized the vulnerability of women throughout their life cycle
[Leslie, 1991]. In some countries, like India, girls are treated differently in terms
of access to health care, food, and education. Malnutrition poses a variety of
threats to women. It weakens women’s ability to survive childbirth, makes them
more susceptible to infections, and leaves them with fewer reserves to recover
from illness. In addition, malnutrition in women undermines their productivity,
capacity to generate income, and ability to care for their families.
Adequate nutrition, a fundamental cornerstone of any individual’s health,
is especially critical for women because inadequate nutrition wreaks havoc not
only on women’s own health but also on the health of their children. Above all,
the malnutrition leads to economic losses for families, communities, and countries.
It is difficult to determine exactly what proportion of those losses are due
to maternal malnutrition, but recent research indicates that 60 percent of deaths
of children under age 5 are associated with malnutrition - and children’s
malnutrition is strongly correlated with mothers’ poor nutritional status (David
L. Pelletier and Edward A. Frongillo, 2003).
In recent year, dramatic progress has been made globally in tackling
malnutrition, especially in reducing vitamin A deficiency and iodine disorders.
However, around 800 million people are chronically malnourished, and more
than a billion are sick or disabled because of nutrient deficiencies in the world.
Each year, chronic malnutrition is a key factor in the deaths of at least 13 million
children under five years of age in the developing world. Maternal nutritional
status is important for a host of reasons-for the woman herself, for her capacity
to reproduce, and for the development of her children, with implications for the
health and reproductive capacity of the next generation’s mothers. However,
for decades, issues in women’s nutrition have centered on nutrition during
pregnancy and lactation and much of the concern has thus been for the newborn’s
health and well-being [Shepard et al. 1996]. The nutritional issues of women
themselves have rarely been investigated and not many nutritional data are
available from non-pregnant women.
In India, malnutrition remains a silent emergency, though the government
of India has made significant progress in the past several decades in improving
the health and well-being of its people.
176
July - Dec. 2010
According to the World Bank Report, in the last 40 years in India the
mortality has declined by half and fertility by two-fifths, but malnutrition has
only come down by about one-fifth. It is obvious that the further progress in
human development in India will be difficult to achieve unless malnutrition is
tackled with greater vigor and more rapid improvement in the future than in the
past.
In recent decades, India has established a framework of programs with
the potential to combat malnutrition, including a Public Distribution System (PDS),
an Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) program, a National Midday Meals Program (NMMP), and several employment schemes providing food
for work. In India, volumes have been written about the nature and cause of
adult and child malnutrition and the means of reducing it. But the role of women’s
‘chronic energy deficiency’ in children’s nutritional status has gone largely
unnoticed until recently.
In Guatemala, in 1987, the term ‘chronic energy deficiency’ (CED) was
being used as a term to indicate an inadequate household food supply. Since
then, attempts to define, measure and assess CED have evolved, using the body
mass index (BMI or weight/height2) of individuals as the index of CED.
Therefore, in this study BMI can be used to assess the nutritional status of
women. Among children, anthropometry is usually used to track growth or failure
to grow (wasting and stunting). Anthropometry is the single most non-invasive
method of assessing body composition. It reflects both health and nutrition and
predicts performance, health and survival.
Tamilnadu is one among of the demographically advanced States in India
and it has established a framework of programmes with the potential to combat
malnutrition including an ICDS (Integrated Child Development Services)
programme, a NMMP (National Mid-day Meals Programme), and a PDS (Public
Distribution System) and other some employment schemes providing food for
work. Despite these programmes, the state continues to bear a burden of
malnutrition – high prevalence of CED and anaemia among mothers and more
number of severely undernourished children. These situation calls for an
exploration of the relationship between CED and children’s nutritional status in
Tamilnadu.
The main objectives of the study are :
 to explore the nutritional status of married women in Tamilnadu
 to investigate nutritional status of the children less than five years of
age
 to study the degree of ‘chronic energy deficiency’ and anemia (severe,
mild and moderate) among married women by selected background
characteristics
177
 to examine the impact of mothers’ chronic energy deficiency (BMI) on
their children’s nutritional status in the study area
Subjects and methods
Subjects: The data for the present study were drawn from National Family
Health Survey, a nationally represented large-scale sample survey conducted in
Tamilnadu, India during 2005-06. The structure of the survey is similar to that of
the DHS conducted in various Asian and African countries. In Tamilnadu the
survey was based on a sample of 6344 households in all 32 districts of Tamilnadu
that is representative at the state level, within the state at the urban and rural
levels. HFHS-III interviewed 5919 women age 15-49 from all the selected
households to obtain information on population, health and nutrition.
A total of 5730 women alone were considered for this study. Women who
are all currently pregnant and those who have given birth in the month of interview
were excluded. In addition, out of 1416 children born to eligible women in the
five years preceding the survey, this survey was considered only 1234 for
assessing the nutritional status of children who born in the previous year of the
survey.
Methods: Anthropometry is the single most portable, easily applied,
inexpensive and non-invasive method of assessing body composition. It reflects
both health and nutrition and predicts performance, health and survival.
Women were classified as chronically energy deficient or obese as described
by James et al. (1998) and the World Health Organization (1995). The use of
body mass index (BMI) as a measure of obesity has been widespread and has
recently been promoted for assessment of chronic energy deficiency (CED) in
adults. The Body Mass Index (BMI) is defined as the weight in kilograms divided
by the height in meters squared (kg/m2). A BMI of less than 18.5 indicates
chronic energy deficiency (CED). Chronic energy deficiency grades I, II, and
III correspond to body mass index (BMI) 17.0-18.4, 16.0-16.9, and < 16.0,
respectively. Women with BMI 18.5-24.9 were classified as normal. Finally,
obesity grades I, and II correspond to BMI 25.0-29.9, and >30.0 respectively.
The weight of children and women was measured using a solar-powered digital
scale, which gives results with an accuracy of +100 grams. Height/length was
measured using an adjustable wooden measuring board that provides accurate
measurement to the nearest 0.1 cm.
Three indices of nutritional status were calculated for children: height-forage, weight-for-height, and weight-for-age. The height-for-age index examines
linear growth retardation and is an indicator of chronic under-nutrition. The
weight-for height index compares body mass to body length. This index reflects
acute under-nutrition. Weight-for-age is a composite measure of both chronic
178
July - Dec. 2010
and acute under-nutrition. Under nourished children on the weight-for-age index
are referred to as “underweight” on the height-for-age index as “stunted” and
on the weight-for-height index as “wasted”. The measurements on these three
indices are compared with the international reference population as recommended
by WHO (Dibley et al 1987).
Results and Discussion
Women’s Nutritional Status in the study area: BMI are most effectively
used as indicators to describe the nutritional status of population and as an
expression of the magnitude and distribution of under nutrition and over nutrition.
Even though there is a progress in the nutritional status of adults, the incidence
of CED remains high in India over the past two decades, according to the
National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau Survey (2000-01) 37.4 per cent of adult
males and 39.4 per cent of adult females suffered from CED in rural areas of
nine sample states. The adult malnutrition is largely a result of poor diets and
infection during childhood (Gillespie and Mc Neill 1994).
CED: In Tamilnadu, among the 5730 women surveyed, one-quarter of
women (25.3 per cent) had Chronic Energy Deficiency (CED), which is lower
than the national average (36 per cent). Further the CED grade-III (severe
thinness), grade-II (moderate thinness) and grade-I (mild thinness) degree were
found among 5.8 per cent, 6.2 per cent and 13.3 per cent of women respectively.
Table No.1. Percentage distribution of Ever-married women in
Tamilnadu by their Nutritional Grade (BMI)
Nutritional Grade
No. of
Women*
Percent
Nutritional
Grade
No. of
Women
CED
(< 18.5)
1450
25.3
35.6
Normal
(18.5 – 25.0)
2795
48.8
51.8
Percent
Severe Thinness
(<16.0)
331
5.8
Moderate Thinness
(16.0 – 17.0)
357
6.2
Mild Thinness
(17.0 – 18.5)
762
13.3
Low Normal
(18.5 – 20.0)
789
13.8
Well-Nourished
(20.0 – 25.0)
2006
35.0
I degree obesity
(25.0 – 30.0)
981
17.1
Over weight
(25.0 – 30.0)
981
17.1
II degree obesity
(> 30.0)
504
8.8
Obese
(>30.0)
504
8.8
5730
100.0
Total
India
12.6
*Excludes the women who are all currently pregnant and those who given birth in the month
interview
179
At the other end of the spectrum, the women with obesity percentage was
higher (25.9 per cent) than the country’s average (12.6 per cent) and the obesity
I and II degree were found among 17.1 per cent and 8.8 per cent of women
respectively. On the whole, only 35 per cent of the women in the 15-49 age
groups were well nourished in Tamilnadu. The overall picture indicates that
overweight (obese) problem surpassed the underweight (CED) problem in
Tamilnadu. Finally, It may concluded that the underweight is largely a result of
poor diets and infection during childhood. The causes of obesity epidemic are
sedentary lifestyles with a fall in spontaneous and work related physical activity
and high-fat, energy-dense diets.
Anaemia: Anaemia is characterized by a low level of hemoglobin in the
blood. Anaemia usually results from a nutritional deficiency of iron, foliate,
vitamin B12, or some other nutrients. This type of anaemia is commonly referred
to as iron-deficiency anaemia. Iron deficiency is the most widespread form of
malnutrition in the world, affecting more than two billion people. In India, anaemia
affects morethan fifty percent of the population. Anaemia may have detrimental
effects on the health of women and children and may become an underlying
cause of maternal mortality and perinatal mortality. Anaemia results in an
increased risk of premature delivery and low birth weight.
Table No.2. Percentage distribution of Ever married women in
Tamilnadu by their Hemoglobin level (G/DL)
Anemic Nature
Number of
women
Percentage of
women
Percentage of
women
India
Severe Anemic
114
2.0
Any kind of
anemia
1.8
Moderate Anemic
725
12.7
52.6
15.0
Mild Anemic
2069
36.1
Non-Anemic
2625
45.8
47.4
44.6
Total
5533
96.6
100.0
100.0
197
3.4
-
5730
100.0
Missing
Grant Total
38.6
5533
100.0
The prevalence of 53 per cent of anaemia among the ever-married women
indicates anaemia as a major nutritional problem in Tamilnadu. Further, more
than one-third of the women had mild anaemia (36.1 per cent) and 12.7 per cent
had moderate anaemia. The only state in India with a prevalence of severe
anaemia of nearly 2 per cent among the non-pregnant women is Tamilnadu. It is
comprehensible that these high levels are attributed to diets that are low in iron
content, clear absorption of iron due to inhibitors and increased demand due to
the physiological requirements of menstruation, pregnancy and lactation.
180
July - Dec. 2010
Children’s Nutritional Status in the study area: Adequate nutrition
and health during the first several years of life is fundamental to the attainment
of the Millennium Development Goals for child survival and the prevention of
malnutrition. Poor nutrition during these critical formative years has both immediate
and long-term consequences. A recent authoritative paper on child survival ranked
nutrition interventions among the most effective preventive actions for reducing
under-five mortality (Jones 2003). Throughout the world children fail to grow in
length and weight in a remarkable similar age-specific pattern, despite vastly
different prevalences of low weight-for-age, length-for-age, and weight-forlength between and among regions (Shrimpton 2001). Recent estimates show
that about 40 per cent of the undernourished children in the world are in India
although India accounts for less than 20 per cent of the children in the world.
Table No.3. Percentage distribution of Children less than five years of
age classified by their Nutritional Status in Tamilnadu
Anaemia
Anthropometrics Indices
Stunting
Under
weight
Wasting
Total No.
of
Children
35.3
22.4
14.9
39.7
174
25.4
29.5
34.4
19.1
47.8
157
47.5
22.5
25.8
54.2
24.5
42.2
249
6.0
38.0
26.9
29.1
56.1
31.0
50.2
255
36-47
2.2
29.2
29.7
38.9
57.3
32.2
46.7
199
48-59
1.1
21.5
25.8
48.4
52.0
30.0
54.5
200
Tamilnadu
3.2
36.2
26.1
65.5
47.7
25.9
46.9
1234
All India
2.9
40.2
26.3
69.4
48.0
19.8
42.5
Age groups
(in months)
Severe
Moderate
<6
0.0
6-11
Mild
Not
anemic
29.4
35.3
1.4
43.7
12-23
4.2
24-35
In terms of nutritional status of children, about one-fourth of children (25.9
per cent) were underweight and more or less equal proportions of children were
suffered by stunted (47.7 per cent) and wasting (46.9 per cent) in Tamilnadu.
Further, the above table shows that the underweight and stunting are relatively
low for children less than 6 months old (14.9 per cent and 22.4 per cent
respectively). On other hand the incidence of stunting and wasting were increases
after 6 months and highest of all among children who were 48-59 months (52
per cent and 54.5 per cent). In Tamilnadu about one in two children were too
thin (wasting) and too short (wasting). The overall picture discloses the fact that
both the acute and chronic under nutrition were a serious concern in Tamilnadu.
The prevalence of anaemia is higher during infancy and early childhood
than at any other time in the life cycle (Yip 2002). The state representative data
from NFHS-3 shows 65.5 per cent of children below 5 years with any kind of
181
anaemia (26.1 per cent had mild, 36.2 per cent had moderate and 3.2 per cent
had severe anaemia). The prevalence of anaemia varied from 64.7 per cent in
the age group of less than 6 months to 51.6 per cent in the age group of 48-59
months (table 3) and severe anaemia is highest (6.0 per cent) in the age group
24-35 months. Nevertheless, even though the state performing better child health
care programmes, the anaemic levels were still high.
Relationship between Women’s Nutritional Status and background
factors
Undoubtedly, the socio-cultural and economic characteristics play a
significant role in shaping the women’s nutritional status. The table 4 furthermore
supports this fact that the disparities in background conditions increase women’s
chances of being malnourished.
CED: Chronic energy deficiency is more prevalent among the adolescent
women (15-19: 44.1 per cent) followed by young women (20-24: 33.3 per cent).
Further, CED is particularly pronounced for rural women (33 percent) and women
who are illiterate (31.2 per cent), ST (53.9 per cent) and women living in poorest
wealth index (46.8 per cent). However, chronic energy deficiency was less
likely among women who fall in the richest wealth index (9.7 per cent) and
women who had higher education (15.7 per cent) and OBC women (23.2 per
cent). The other important findings drawn from this table was that CED grade
III (severe thinness) was doubled among adolescent mothers, (11.8 per cent)
rural women (7.3 per cent), illiterate women (7.5 per cent) and it was more
widespread among ST women (21.2 per cent), and women living in households
having a poorest wealth index (13.6 per cent).
Obesity: According to NFHS-III 25.9 per cent of ever married nonpregnant women in Tamilnadu were overweight/ obese. But this percentage is
considerably higher for some sub-groups of women (richest wealth index women:
49.2 per cent; Muslim Community women: 42.2 per cent; and old age women
(40-44): 40.0 per cent). Further, the problem of overweight and obesity were
also higher among higher educated women (36.3 per cent) urban women
(35.7 per cent) and OBC women (28.1 per cent)). Richest wealth index mothers,
Muslim mothers, Old age mothers, and higher educational attainment were
significant risk factor for extreme obesity (grade II). In contrast the obesity is
less common in the early ages of ever-married women and women living in
poorest wealth index.
182
July - Dec. 2010
Table No.4. Percentage distribution of ever married women by their
Nutritional Grade (BMI) with their Background Characteristics
Severe
Thinness
(<16.0)
Mother’s age** 525.914
15-19
11.8
20-24
7.7
25-29
4.5
30-34
4.1
35-39
4.4
40-44
3.6
45-49
3.6
Residence** 421.489
Urban
4.5
Rural
7.3
Religion** 99.256
Hindu
5.9
Muslim
2.9
Christian
5.5
Other
0.0
Caste** 97.071
SC
5.7
ST
21.2
OBC
5.6
Literacy level** 136.768
Illiterate
7.5
Primary
5.8
Secondary
5.8
Higher
2.8
Wealth Index** 896.548
Poorest
13.6
Poorer
8.6
Middle
7.5
Richer
4.1
Richest
1.7
Total NFSH III
5.8
Total NFSH II
5.1
Background
Characteristics
Moderate
Thinness
(16.0–17.0)
Mild
Thinness
(17.0–18.5)
CED
<18.5
Low
Normal
(18.5–20.0)
WellNourished
(20.0–25.0)
I degree
obesity
(25.0–30.0)
II degree
obesity
(>30.0)
Total
Women
12.0
9.0
5.1
5.7
3.9
2.8
3.8
20.3
16.6
13.8
12.6
9.2
9.1
9.4
44.1
33.3
23.4
22.4
17.5
15.5
16.8
20.4
15.7
16.1
12.3
10.3
9.9
9.4
26.7
34.1
35.7
34.7
40.2
35.1
40.3
5.1
10.2
17.4
21.0
21.6
24.6
23.0
3.7
6.7
7.3
9.5
10.4
14.9
10.5
808
966
935
894
818
756
553
4.3
8.5
10.0
17.2
18.8
33.0
10.9
17.2
34.6
35.5
22.6
10.7
13.1
3.7
3104
2626
6.6
3.3
3.3
0.0
13.7
11.7
9.8
20.0
26.2
17.9
16.0
20.0
14.2
10.0
11.2
0.0
35.0
29.7
39.1
0.0
16.5
21.3
21.5
40.0
8.1
20.9
9.5
40.0
5062
239
419
10
8.4
13.5
5.4
16.3
19.2
12.2
30.4
53.9
23.2
14.9
9.6
13.5
35.0
19.2
35.2
12.9
7.7
18.7
6.7
9.6
9.4
1469
52
4193
7.0
5.7
6.8
3.6
16.7
13.9
12.6
9.3
31.2
25.4
25.2
15.7
15.3
15.3
13.2
10.7
36.6
36.3
33.2
37.1
11.2
15.4
18.6
24.4
5.8
7.6
9.8
12.1
1165
1191
2698
676
10.9
10.2
7.5
5.5
2.1
6.2
7.2
22.3
20.0
16.8
10.8
5.9
13.3
14.5
46.8
38.8
31.8
20.4
9.7
25.3
26.7
16.6
18.8
16.4
12.7
8.6
13.8
17.0
30.0
30.9
36.3
39.2
32.4
35.0
38.6
3.6
8.2
11.0
19.7
29.9
17.1
13.2
3.0
3.3
4.4
8.0
19.3
8.8
3.4
440
719
1577
1593
1401
5730
The interesting observation is that the change in food habits and largely
sedentary lifestyle may contribute to the current trend of overweight.
The logistic regression results are given in table 5. The odd ratios (Exp
(B)) indicate the effect of each of the predictor variables on the prevalence of
CED, controlling for other variables included in the model. Almost in each of
the variables the odds decrease with the categories of a variable when compared
to the respective variable’s first category, indicating a decreasing chance for
experiencing CED when improving the background conditions of women. The
most significant variables were mothers’ age, and their wealth index.
183
Table No.5. Odds Ratios from Logistic regression examining the
effect of selected SED variables on CED condition of women in Tamil
Nadu
SED variables
Coefficients
(odds)
Significance
Odds
Ratios
.000
1.000
Current Age**
15-19 (Ref)
20-24
-.468
.000
0.626
25-29
-1.039
.000
0.354
30-34
-1.141
.000
0.320
35-39
-1.587
.000
0.205
40-44
-1.667
.000
0.189
45-49
-1.557
.000
0.211
.193
.010
1.213
.124
1.000
Residence*
Urban (Ref)
Rural
1.000
Religion
Hindu (Ref)
Muslim
.011
.950
1.012
Christian
-.290
.036
0.748
Others
.932
.265
2.540
CASTE*
SC (Ref)
.012
1.000
ST
.894
.004
2.444
OBC
-.029
.695
0.971
.008
1.000
Primary Education
-.250
.012
0.779
Secondary Education
-.328
.001
0.720
Higher Education
-.353
.024
0.703
.000
1.000
Educational Level*
No Education (Ref)
Wealth Index**
Poorest (Ref)
Poorer
-.365
.004
0.694
Middle
-.637
.000
0.529
Richer
-1.139
.000
0.320
Richest
-1.897
.000
0.150
.945
.000
2.572
Constant
-2 Log Likelihood
5730,786
No. of cases: 5730
184
July - Dec. 2010
Table No.6. Odds Ratios from Logistic regression examining the
effect of selected SED variables on Obesity condition of women in
Tamil Nadu
SED variables
Coefficients
(odds)
Significance
Odds
Ratios
Current Age**
15-19 (Ref)
.000
1.000
20-24
.759
.000
2.136
25-29
1.307
.000
3.696
30-34
1.677
.000
5.352
35-39
1.893
.000
6.637
40-44
2.171
.000
8.771
45-49
1.880
.000
6.555
-.618
.000
0.539
Residence**
Urban(Ref)
Rural
1.000
Religion
Hindu (Ref)
.023
1.000
Muslim
.366
.014
1.442
Christian
.124
.312
1.133
1.450
.083
4.263
.973
1.000
Others
Caste
SC (Ref)
ST
.053
.901
1.054
OBC
.018
.829
1.018
Educational Level**
No Education (Ref)
.000
1.000
Primary Education
.177
.119
1.193
Secondary Education
.422
.000
1.524
Higher Education
.257
.080
1.293
.000
1.000
Wealth index**
Poorest (Ref)
Poorer
.579
.011
1.784
Middle
.816
.000
2.261
Richer
1.317
.000
3.730
Richest
2.104
.000
8.201
Constant
-3.863
.000
0.021
-2 Log Likelihood
5472.389
No. of cases: 5714
185
The above logistic regression results (table 6) undoubtedly confirms that in
general the probability of obesity enhances with improving their positions in
each of the socio-economic variables. The most significant variables were age,
residence, educational level, and mother’s wealth index.
Anaemia: More than half of the women in age 15-49 in Tamilnadu had
some degree of anaemia (37.4 per cent have mild anaemia, 13.1 per cent have
moderate anaemia and 2 per cent have severe anaemia). The prevalence of
incidence of anaemia is highly prominent among women living in poorest wealth
index (63 per cent), Muslim women (58.2 per cent), SC category (56 per cent)
and illiterates (57.7 per cent). Poorest mothers, ST mothers, and old age mothers
were significant risk factor for prevalence of extreme anaemia (severe) in
Tamilnadu (Table 7). On the whole, the incidence of anaemia among the ever
married women in Tamilnadu by their background condition also shows the similar
pattern as what observed in CED and obesity condition.
Table No.7. Percentage of ever married women by their Anemic level
with their Background Characteristics
Background
Characteristics
Severe
Anaemia
Moderate
Anaemia
Mild
Anaemia
Not
Anaemia
Age
15-19
1.0
12.0
37.5
49.4
20-24
1.7
14.5
38.4
45.4
25-29
1.5
10.1
38.8
49.6
30-34
1.7
11.2
36.4
50.7
35-39
2.6
14.2
35.6
47.6
40-44
2.8
16.3
37.7
43.2
45-49
3.8
14.6
37.0
44.6
Urban
1.7
12.7
36.7
48.8
Rural
2.5
13.5
38.2
45.8
Residence
Educational Level
Illiterate
2.9
15.8
39.0
42.3
Primary
2.8
13.8
39.0
44.5
Secondary
1.6
13.3
37.0
48.1
Higher
1.3
6.3
33.1
59.3
Hindu
2.0
12.9
38.1
47.0
Muslim
2.2
19.1
36.9
41.8
Christian
2.3
13.1
29.4
55.3
Other
0.0
.0
25.0
75.0
Religion
186
July - Dec. 2010
Caste
SC
3.0
14.5
38.3
44.2
ST
4.3
14.9
25.5
55.3
OBC
1.7
12.6
37.2
48.5
4.4
16.0
42.6
37.0
Poorer
2.6
14.8
37.3
45.3
Middle
2.9
13.9
37.8
45.5
Richer
1.5
13.6
37.7
47.2
Richest
0.7
9.8
34.9
54.6
TOTAL III
2.1
13.1
37.4
47.4
NFHS II
2.6
14.4
38.5
44.5
Wealth Index
Poorest
The importance of nutrition as a foundation for healthy development is
often underestimated. Poor nutrition leads to high prevalence of CED and it
contributes to further deterioration in their nutritional status. The table 8 clearly
shows that women with BMI less than 18.5 have higher incidence of anaemia
(59.0 per cent) and this percentage declines when their BMI level increases.
Severe and moderate thinness was more pronounced among women who are
suffered from severe anaemia. The non-anaemic women were found to have
high degree of obesity. Hence, it is well clear that the body mass index seems to
be highly correlated factor with anaemia.
Table No.8. Percentage distribution of women by their BMI with their
anemic condition
BMI
Severe Moderate
Mild
Low
Well
I
II
Total
condition /
Thinness Thinness Thinness Normal Nourished Obesity Obesity
Anemic
Severe
13.2
14.0
18.4
14.0
28.9
7.9
3.5
114
Moderate
8.3
10.1
17.4
16.3
31.6
12.0
4.4
725
Mild
5.5
6.0
14.4
14.5
36.2
16.5
6.9
2069
Non Anemic
5.3
5.4
11.7
13.4
36.9
20.0
7.3
2625
Total
5.9
6.4
13.6
14.2
35.8
17.4
6.7
5533
187
Table No.9. Percentage distribution of Children’s Nutritional Status
with the their Mother’s Nutritional Grade (BMI)
Mothers’ Nutritional Status
Children’s Nutritional Status
CED
<18.5
Normal
20.0–25.0
obesity
>25.0
No. of
Children
Severe
46.9
40.6
12.5
32
Moderate
30.7
51.7
17.7
362
Mild
23.4
49.8
26.8
261
Non Anemic
22.6
52.2
25.2
345
Severe underweight
39.4
45.5
15.2
66
Moderate underweight
33.5
49.6
16.9
254
Well nourished
21.3
Severe Stunted
39.3
52.8
45.3
25.8
15.4
914
117
Moderate stunted
33.8
49.3
16.9
219
Mild Stunted
26.1
55.7
18.2
253
Well- nourished
18.6
52.2
29.1
645
Severe wasting
28.7
57.4
13.9
101
Moderate wasting
29.8
51.1
19.1
141
Mild wasting
25.2
53.1
21.7
337
Well- nourished
22.9
50.4
26.7
655
Low Weight > 2000
30.6
48.4
21.0
62
Normal 2000 - 2500
27.5
49.6
22.9
284
Above Normal 2501 - 3500
22.9
51.5
25.6
719
Over weight < 3500
10.8
53.0
36.1
83
Anemic level**
€ 19.645
Wt/A **
€ 27.471
Ht/A**
€ 48.433
Wt/Ht*
€12.569
Baby Weight at
Birth**
€ 14.193
The table 9 highlights the close correlation between mother’s BMI with
incidence of anaemia among children. The women with BMI less than 18.5
(CED) had 46.9 per cent of severe anaemic children; it includes 12.5 per cent
of severe anaemic children among women with severe thinness (BMI <16.0).
Further, the table shows that the moderate and mild anaemic children were
closely associated with CED. Where as, the severe anaemic nature among
children were less common women with obesity (12.5 per cent) in Tamilnadu. It
is note that the normal women had about 52 per cent of non-anaemic children.
Environmental and socio-economic factors influence childhood growth in
height and weight more than genetic factors [Habicht et al. 1974]. The table 9
shows linkage between women’s BMI and children’s anthropometric indices.
As expected, women with poorer nutritional status, as indicated by the CED
condition, had registered higher risk of severe stunted and severe underweight
188
July - Dec. 2010
children (39 per cent each). Further, the severe stunted children were also
associated with women’s BMI. A similar relationship (which witnessed CED
with anaemic condition) was also observed in anthropometric indices and, among
the well-nourished (and obesity) women who had less significant risk of
underweight, stunting and wasting children.
So it is clear that the severe underweight children were predominant among
low BMI women in Tamilnadu (around 44 per cent), and a significant percentage
was also noticed among severe wasting, of around 40 per cent.
Birth Weight: It is well accepted that the mother’s nutritional status can
significantly influence the course and outcome of pregnancy. Low birth weight
can result from inadequate body reserves and deficient dietary intake (Prema
1978, Prentice, 1987), have shown that prenatal dietary supplementation is
correlated with birth weight and have concluded that such a programme could
decrease the infant mortality rates in many poor countries around the world.
Ghosh’s (1979) study on the low birth weight infants for 18 years reveals
that the growth performance of these infants was poor compared with other
infants and children of the same socio economic groups born with normal birth
weight. Apparently children suffering from intra-uterine growth retardation are
programmed to grow and develop in a substandard growth trajectory, thus swelling
the numbers of stunted and under weight children with low learning capacity
and adults with low body mass index with low productivity, Women with CED in
the reproductive age will in all probability deliver low birth weight infants.
The percentage distribution of Children’s weight at birth with their mother’s
Nutritional Grade (BMI) is given in table 9. Women with low BMI (<18.5) had
just little less than one-third of low weight infants (>2000). On the other hand,
the over weight infants (3000+g) were born to women in I degree and II degree
obesity condition (36.2 per cent). Therefore, it is very clear from the above
table that the severe thinness nature of mother had more probability of giving
low weight babies. Hence, it is well documented from this analysis that the
mother’s nutritional status certainly has exercised its influence on the outcome
of pregnancies.
Conclusions
The study’s overall goal is to understand the links between women’s
nutritional status specifically chronic energy deficiency and child’s nutrition status
in Tamilnadu. The prevalence of CED rate was less in Tamilnadu (25.3 per
cent) as compared to national average.
Although the incidence of this CED was higher among ST women (53.9
per cent), poorest women (46.8 per cent), uneducated women (31.2 per cent),
189
and rural women (33.0 per cent), a contrast trend was observed in the high
standard of wealth index (49.2 per cent), Muslim women (42.2 per cent), highly
educated women (36.5 per cent), old age women (39.5 per cent) and urban
women (35.7 per cent), had high degree of obesity (I degree and II degree). It
is therefore concluded that the Tamilnadu state facing the burden of both the
nutritional disorders. On the one side, it has the high incidence of CED among
the poor people and on the other side the people who have the new changing
lifestyles and dietary habits suffer from obesity. Therefore the state should take
appropriate steps to tackle these two extreme crises.
It is also evident that the mother’s BMI has a positive association with
children’s anaemic condition. This risk of anemic among children is more, among
women with BMI less than 18.5. In addition, the well nourished and obesity
women have non-anaemic children. Similarly, the women with poorer nutritional
status have infants of severe chronic and acute under nutrition.
The study strongly supports that the mother’s nutritional status can
significantly influence the weight of the baby at birth. Low birth weight infant
(>2000g) was more likely to occur (30.6 per cent) among the women with low
BMI (<18.5) and over weight baby was more common among I and II degree
obesity women. Therefore, it is well established that the mother’s nutritional
status had bearing on the weight of the baby.
In general, under and malnutrition starts in the womb and may extend
throughout the life cycle. Malnutrition remains a silent emergency in Tamilnadu,
though the state government had made significant progress in the past several
decades in improving the health and well-being of its people particularly women
and children.
The overall nutritional status in Tamilnadu is at reasonable level through
the various nutritional intervention programmes, though the most vulnerable groups
- women and children suffer from various form of malnutrition.
The risk of malnutrition is higher among the children whose mothers suffer
from chronic energy deficiency. Mother’s present nutritional status in turn
depends on her childhood nutritional status. Concerted efforts are needed to
break the vicious circle (mother-child-mother) of malnutrition among poor. It is
emphasized that reduction of child malnutrition would greatly depend on delivery
of effective and sustainable interventions to children and their mothers.
References
Anderson MA, Krasovec K. 1991. ‘Maternal nutrition and pregnancy outcome’,
Scientific Publication No. 529. Washington, DC: Pan American Health
Organization.
190
July - Dec. 2010
Cogswell ME, Yip R. 1995. ‘The influence of fetal and maternal factors on the
distribution of birthweight’, Semin Perinatol.
David L. Pelletier and Edward A. Frongillo. 2003. ‘Changes in Child Survival
Are Strongly Associated With Changes In Malnutrition in Developing
Countries’, Journal of Nutrition 133, no. 1.
Dibley, M J, N W Staehling, P Neiburg, and F L Trowbridge. 1987.‘Interpretation
of Z-Score Anthropometric Indicators Derived from the International Growth
Reference’, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 46 (5).
Gillespie, S and G McNeil. l 1994. Food Health and Survival in India and
developing Countries, Oxford University Press.
Ghosh, Shanthi. 1979. ‘Longitudinal Study of the Survival and Outcome of a
Birth Cohort’, National Centre for Health Statistics, Maryland.
Habicht JP, Martorell R, Yarbrough C, Malina RM, Klein RE. 1974. ‘Height and
weight standards for preschool children. How relevant are ethnic differences
in growth potential?’, Lancet.
James WPT, Ferro-Luzzi A, Waterlow JC. 1988. ‘Definition of chronic energy
deficiency in adults’, European Journel of Clinical Nutrition.
Jones G, et al. 2003. ‘How many child deaths can we prevent this year?’ Lancet.
Kramer MS, McLean FH, Eason EL, Usher RH. 1992. ‘Maternal nutrition and
spontaneous preterm birth’, American Journal of Epidemiology.
Leslie J. 1991. ‘Women’s nutrition: the key to improving family health in developing
countries?’, Health Policy Plan.
Popkin BM, Bisgrove EZ. 1988. ‘Urbanization and nutrition in low-income
countries’, Food and Nutrition Bulletin.
Prema K. 1978. ‘Pregnancy and lactation; some nutritional aspects’, Indian
Journal of Medical Research; 68 (Suppl).
Prentice AM, Cole TJ, Foord FA, et al. 1987. ‘Increased birthweight after prenatal dietary supplementation of rural African women’, American Journal
of Clinical Nutrition.
Rae Galloway et al. 2000. ‘Women’s Perceptions of Iron Deficiency and Anemia
Prevention and Control in Eight Developing Countries’, Social Science &
Medicine 55, no. 4.
Seckler, D. 1982. ‘Small but Health: A base Hypothesis in the Theory,
Management and Policy in Nutrition’ in P.V. Sukhatme (eds), Newer
Concepts and Their Implication for Policy, Pune, Maharshtra, Association
for Cultivation of Science.
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Shepard MJ, Bakketeig LS, Jacobsen G, O’Connor T, Bracken MB. 1996.
‘Maternal body mass, proportional weight gain, and fetal growth in parous
women’, Paediatr Peri-natal Epidemiol.
Siega-Riz AM, Adair LS, Hobel CJ. 1994. ‘Institute of Medicine maternal weight
gain recommendations and pregnancy outcome in predominantly Hispanic
population’ Obstet Gynecol.
Snyder J, Gray-Donald K, Koski KG. 1994. ‘Predictors of infant birth weight in
gestational diabetes’, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
Third World Report on the World Nutrition Situation 1996, forthcoming.
World Health Organization. 1995. ‘Maternal anthropometry and pregnancy
outcomes’, A WHO collaborative study. Bull WHO, Geneva: WHO.
World Health Organization. 1995. ‘Physical status: The use and interpretation
of anthropometry’, WHO Technical Report Series No. 854. Geneva: WHO.
192
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 193 - 203
ICT AWARENESS AND TEACHING COMPETENCY OF
PROSPECTIVE B.ED TEACHERS
* F.L. Antony Gracious, ** P. Annaraja
Abstract
The present study ICT Awareness and Teaching Competency of
prospective B.Ed teachers was probed to find the relationship between
ICT Awareness and Teaching Competency of Prospective B.Ed
Teachers. Data for the study were collected using self made Teaching
Competency Scale and ICT Awareness Scale. The investigator used
stratified random sampling technique for selecting the sample. The
sample consists of 242 Prospective B.Ed Teachers. For analyzing data;
‘t’ test and Pearson’s product moment co-efficient were the statistical
techniques used. Finding shows there was no significant relationship
between ICT Awareness and Teaching Competency of prospective
B.Ed teachers.
Key Words: Teaching Competency, ICT Awareness, Prospective B.Ed
teachers
Introduction
The prime function of education is to draw out the potentialities of the
child and develop them to meet the challenging situation in life. Proper education
will keep the child to understand the society and to adjust with the social
environment. For the development of the child we are providing education to
adjust this world. Where as the school education can be better through proper
teacher education; it can be nurtured through teacher education. Teacher
education is providing quality education to their prospective teachers in educational
philosophy, educational psychology and educational technology apart from the
techniques of teaching.
Significance of the study
Today we are living in a world of science and technology, where an
explosion of knowledge is taking place and stepping into the modern technocratic
age. For a meaningful life of an individual needs academic excellence to adjust
to his environment. Education is the process of helping the child to adjust to the
changing world. Therefore, we can say “education as the reconstruction or
*
Research Scholar, ** Research Supervisor, St. Xavier’s College of Education (Autonomous)
Palayamkottai. E-mail: [email protected]
193
ICT Awareness and Teaching Competency of Prospective B.Ed Teachers
reorganization of experience, which adds to the meaning of experience and
which increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent experiences”. In
the technologically sophisticated modern work fields, one should aware of to
equip the ICT technologies.
ICT include electronic networks embodying complex hardware and
software linked by a vast array of technical protocols. ICT can be defined as
“anything which allows us to get information, to communicate with each other,
or to have an effect on the environment using electronic or digital equipment”.
Some authors use the term learning technologies, while others simply describe it
as technology. ICT is becoming a ubiquitous component of the physical and
social world occupied by young children. For a better teaching, teaching
competency is important to handle better learning of an individual. Teaching
competencies are applicable to express aims and behavioural objectives of
teaching; to specify assessment appropriate to the objectives of teaching; to
select and prepare appropriate equipment and materials for teaching; to consider
individual differences between students in planning of teaching; to organize
teaching-learning activities to achieve the objectives and also plan activities to
contribute personality development of students. It is an important part of the
private and life of the people as well as their teachers. Since the teacher can
interact with students of different ages from infants to adults, students with
different abilities and students with learning disabilities. If a student is to be
prepared for their future, then it’s an essential attribute of effective teacher is
awareness of the realities of the world in psychology and technology. Then only
the prospective B.Ed teachers can mould future generation. So the investigator
wants to study the variables ICT Awareness and Teaching Competency of
prospective B.Ed teachers.
Statement of the problem
Statement of the problem is entitled as “ICT Awareness and Teaching
Competency of prospective B.Ed teachers”. The investigator adopted the
following definitions for the terms used in this title.
Ict awareness
ICT stands for Information Communication Technology; ICT refers to
usage of electronic devices. ICT Awareness are technical and technological,
Browsing or Surfing, Designing or Authoring, Communicating or Teaching and
Maintenance or Hardware / Software skills; which are needed for an effective
teacher to teach effectively.
194
July - Dec. 2010
Teaching Competency
Teaching Competency is the comptency of the teacher and their planning
and preparation of lessons for teaching, class room management, knowledge of
subject, interpersonal relationship, attitude towards the children, usage of teaching
aids and time management during their teaching – learning.
Prospective B.Ed Teachers
Prospective B.Ed Teachers are the student-teachers who undergo a preservice training on teaching learning process that provides experiences for
development towards good teaching. B.Ed is skill process, undergoing training
in teaching skills at the colleges of Education.
Objectives
1. To find the relationship between ICT Awareness and Teaching
Competency of Prospective B.Ed Teachers.
Null Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference between age above 22 and age below
22 Prospective B.Ed Teachers in their ICT Awareness.
2. There is no significant difference between married and unmarried
Prospective B.Ed Teachers in their ICT Awareness.
3. There is no significant difference between UG and PG Prospective
B.Ed Teachers in their in their ICT Awareness.
4. There is no significant difference between age above 22 and age below
22 Prospective B.Ed Teachers in their Teaching Competency.
5. There is no significant difference between married and unmarried
Prospective B.Ed Teachers in their Teaching Competency.
6. There is no significant difference between UG and PG Prospective
B.Ed Teachers in their in their Teaching Competency.
7. There is no significant relationship between ICT Awareness and Teaching
Competency of Prospective B.Ed Teachers.
Method
Teaching Competency Scale and ICT Awareness Scale developed by the
investigators were used for the data collection. Content Validity was found through
educational experts and reliability of the tools was found through test-retest
method. The reliability of Teaching Competency Scale and ICT Awareness
Scale were 0.76 and 0.88 respectively. The investigator has adopted survey
195
method for this study. Population for this study were Prospective B.Ed Teachers
studying in colleges of Education affiliated to the Tamilnadu Teachers Education
University, Chennai at Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi and Kanyakumari districts. The
investigator used stratified random sampling technique for selecting the sample.
The sample consists of 242 Prospective B.Ed Teachers. For analyzing data; ‘t’
test and Pearson’s product moment co-efficient were the statistical techniques
used.
Data Analysis
Table -1: Difference between ICT Awareness of Prospective B.Ed
Teachers by their age
Dimensions
Network
Internet
Protocol
Communication
Basic
ICT in Education
Hardware
Software
ICT Awareness
Age
N
Mean
S.D
Above 22
96
2.38
1.431
Below 22
146
2.36
1.480
Above 22
96
3.60
2.003
Below 22
146
3.78
1.764
Above 22
96
3.64
1.958
Below 22
146
3.58
2.013
Above 22
96
2.99
1.310
Below 22
146
3.14
1.286
Above 22
96
2.72
2.025
Below 22
146
2.78
1.874
Above 22
96
1.83
1.185
Below 22
146
1.75
1.094
Above 22
96
2.56
1.238
Below 22
146
2.82
1.378
Above 22
96
2.03
1.325
Below 22
146
1.99
1.339
Above 22
96
21.77
5.592
Below 22
146
22.25
4.967
(Table value of ‘t’ at 5% level of significance is 1.96)
196
‘t’ value
Remarks
0.062
Not Significant
0.722
Not Significant
0.203
Not Significant
0.906
Not Significant
0.244
Not Significant
0.584
Not Significant
1.491
Not Significant
0.256
Not Significant
0.693
Not Significant
July - Dec. 2010
Teachers by their Marital Status
Dimensions
Network
Marital Status
N
Married
41
2.20
1.400
201
2.40
1.470
41
3.73
1.924
201
3.71
1.852
41
3.66
1.905
201
3.59
2.008
41
2.90
1.375
201
3.12
1.279
41
2.63
2.107
201
2.78
1.898
41
1.63
1.067
201
1.81
1.142
41
2.59
1.245
201
2.75
1.345
41
1.95
1.161
201
2.01
1.366
41
21.29
4.921
201
22.21
5.274
Un Married
Internet
Married
Un Married
Protocol
Married
Un Married
Communication
Married
Un Married
Basic
Married
Un Married
ICT in Education
Married
Un Married
Hardware
Married
Un Married
Software
Married
Un Married
ICT Awareness
Married
Un Married
Mean
197
S.D
‘t’ value
Remarks
0.831
Not Significant
0.079
Not Significant
0.195
Not Significant
0.977
Not Significant
0.443
Not Significant
0.913
Not Significant
0.706
Not Significant
0.279
Not Significant
1.030
Not Significant
Teachers by their Levels of study
Dimensions
Network
Internet
Protocol
Communication
Basic
ICT in Education
Hardware
Software
ICT Awareness
Levels of Study
N
Mean
S.D
‘t’ value
Remarks
UG
196
2.36
1.466
0.121
Not Significant
PG
46
2.39
1.437
UG
196
3.79
1.844
1.296
Not Significant
PG
46
3.39
1.915
UG
196
3.64
2.001
0.638
Not Significant
PG
46
3.43
1.940
UG
196
3.10
1.315
0.354
Not Significant
PG
46
3.02
1.220
UG
196
2.78
1.938
0.321
Not Significant
PG
46
2.67
1.921
UG
196
1.77
1.108
0.445
Not Significant
PG
46
1.85
1.229
UG
196
2.73
1.332
0.379
Not Significant
PG
46
2.65
1.320
UG
196
1.98
1.318
0.468
Not Significant
PG
46
2.09
1.396
UG
196
22.18
5.108
0.742
Not Significant
PG
46
21.54
5.691
198
July - Dec. 2010
Table -4: Difference between Teaching Competency of Prospective
B.Ed Teachers by their age
Dimensions
Age
N
Mean
S.D
‘t’ value
Remarks
Classroom
Above 22
96
12.69
5.147
4.458
Significant
Management
Below 22
146
15.59
4.822
Teaching Aids
Above 22
96
16.30
6.000
4.629
Significant
Below 22
146
19.70
5.295
Extra Curricular
Above 22
96
6.58
2.904
4.279
Significant
Activities
Below 22
146
7.94
2.021
Curricular Activities
Above 22
96
12.23
4.787
4.682
Significant
Below 22
146
15.33
5.196
Above 22
96
16.33
6.558
4.487
Significant
Below 22
146
20.01
6.028
Teaching
Above 22
96
14.71
6.649
4.839
Significant
Methodology
Below 22
146
18.56
5.642
Ethics of Teaching
Above 22
96
9.40
4.318
3.963
Significant
Below 22
146
11.69
4.468
Rapport with
Above 22
96
3.19
1.531
4.066
Significant
Students
Below 22
146
3.99
1.472
Teaching
Above 22
96
89.81
35.159
4.854
Significant
Competency
Below 22
146
111.18
32.359
Communication
199
B.Ed Teachers by their Marital Status
Dimensions
Classroom Management
Marital
Married
Un Married
Teaching Aids
Married
Un Married
Extra Curricular Activities Married
Un Married
Married
Un Married
Communication
Married
Un Married
Teaching Methodology
Married
Un Married
Ethics of Teaching
Married
Un Married
Rapport with Students
Married
Un Married
Teaching Competency
Married
Un Married
N
Mean
S.D
41
14.85
6.031
201
14.35
4.956
41
17.66
6.122
201
18.49
5.758
41
7.73
2.941
201
7.33
2.397
41
13.68
5.497
201
14.18
5.211
41
18.22
7.627
201
18.62
6.247
41
16.88
7.356
201
17.06
6.128
41
10.59
5.445
201
10.82
4.349
41
3.66
1.892
201
3.67
1.467
41
102.39
40.299
201
102.77
33.966
200
‘t’ value
Remarks
0.567
Not Significant
0.836
Not Significant
0.932
Not Significant
0.556
Not Significant
0.361
Not Significant
0.172
Not Significant
0.302
Not Significant
0.049
Not Significant
0.062
Not Significant
July - Dec. 2010
B.Ed Teachers by their Levels of Study
Dimensions
Classroom Management
Teaching Aids
Extra Curricular Activities
Communication
Teaching Methodology
Ethics of Teaching
Rapport with Students
Teaching Competency
Levels of Study
N
Mean
S.D
‘t’ value
Remarks
UG
196
15.37
4.733
6.282
Significant
PG
46
10.46
4.961
UG
196
19.52
5.056
7.083
Significant
PG
46
13.37
6.252
UG
196
7.84
2.187
6.005
Significant
PG
46
5.54
2.873
UG
196
15.19
4.865
7.403
Significant
PG
46
9.43
4.209
UG
196
19.83
5.985
6.881
Significant
PG
46
13.13
5.741
UG
196
18.24
5.705
6.673
Significant
PG
46
11.87
6.351
UG
196
11.67
4.316
6.892
Significant
PG
46
6.98
3.389
UG
196
3.93
1.478
5.870
Significant
PG
46
2.54
1.295
UG
196
109.98
31.722
7.373
Significant
PG
46
71.70
31.575
Table -7: Relationship between ICT awareness and Teaching
Competency of Prospective B.Ed Teachers
Sample
Calculated ‘g’ value
Table ‘g’ value
Remarks
Total (242)
0.078
0.113
Not Significant
Findings
Findings based on the hypotheses and followed by data analysis are given
as follows;
1. Table -1 shows that; there is no significant difference between age above 22
and age below 22 Prospective B.Ed Teachers in their ICT Awareness.
2. Table -2 shows that; there is no significant difference between married and
unmarried Prospective B.Ed Teachers in their ICT Awareness.
3. Table -3 shows that; there is no significant difference between UG and PG
Prospective B.Ed Teachers in their in their ICT Awareness.
201
4. Table -4 shows that; there is a significant difference between age above 22
and age below 22 Prospective B.Ed Teachers in their Classroom Management,
Teaching Aids, Extra Curricular Activities, Curricular Activities,
Communication, Teaching Methodology, Ethics of Teaching, Rapport with
Students and Teaching Competency.
5. Table -5 shows that; there is no significant difference between married and
unmarried Prospective B.Ed Teachers in their Teaching Competency.
6. Table -6 shows that; there is a significant difference between UG and PG
Prospective B.Ed Teachers in their in their Classroom Management, Teaching
Aids, Extra Curricular Activities, Curricular Activities, Communication,
Teaching Methodology, Ethics of Teaching, Rapport with Students and
Teaching Competency.
7. Table -7 shows that; there is no significant relationship between Teaching
Competency and ICT Awareness of Prospective B.Ed Teachers.
Conclusions
Based on findings; study shows that there is no significant difference
between the ICT Awareness of Prospective B.Ed Teachers by their age, levels
of study and marital status. In teaching competency; Age below 22 Prospective
B.Ed Teachers are better than age above 22 in their Classroom Management,
Teaching Aids, Extra Curricular Activities, Curricular Activities, Communication,
Teaching Methodology, Ethics of Teaching, Rapport with Students and Teaching
Competency. There is no significant difference between the Teaching
Competency of Prospective B.Ed Teachers by their marital status. UG
Prospective B.Ed Teachers are better than PG in their Classroom Management,
Teaching Aids, Extra Curricular Activities, Curricular Activities, Communication,
Teaching Methodology, Ethics of Teaching, Rapport with Students and Teaching
Competency. But there is no significant relationship between Teaching
Competency and ICT Awareness of Prospective B.Ed Teachers. So the findings
conclude that ICT awareness have to be improved; where as younger prospective
B.Ed teachers are good in their Teaching Competency; shows better future of
education.
Reference
Aggrawal Y.P. (1996) Educational Research, Arya Book Depot New Delhi.
Aggarwal. Y. P. (2000) Statistical methods, Sterling publishers Pvt. Ltd, New
Delhi.
Anderson, G. & Arsenault, N. (1998) Fundamental of Educational Research.
Taylor & Francis, London and New York.
Babbie, E. (1990) Survey Research Methods (2nd Ed.). Wadsworth, Belmont,
CA.
202
July - Dec. 2010
Bain, J.D., Ballantyne, R., Mills, C., Lester, N.C. (2002) Reflecting on Practice:
Student Teachers’ Perspectives. Post Presses, Flaxton.
Bryman, A. (2001) Social Research Methods. Oxford University Press, London.
Bryman, A. (2008) Social Research Method (3rd Ed.). Oxford University Press,
New York.
John W. Best (1977) Research in education, Prentice Hall of India, Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi.
Kochhar, S.K. (1991) Secondary school administration, Sterling Publishers, New
Delhi.
Kothari, C.R. (2000) Research methodology, Wishwa Pirakasha Pvt. Ltd.
Mangal, S.K. (1985) Advanced Educational Psychology, Prakash Brothers
Luthiana
Sharma, R.A. (2007) Psychology of Teaching-learning Process, R. Lall Book
Depot, Meerut.
203
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 205 - 229
A STUDY ON THE PROBLEM OF EVE TEASING
IN INDIA
(WITH REFERENCE TO UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW)
* Anoop.K.Singh, ** Kirti Vikram Singh
Abstract
Eve-teasing is a euphemism used in India and Bangladesh for public
sexual harassment or molestation of women by men with eve being a
reference to the biblical eve. Considered a problem related to
delinquency in the youth a form of sexual aggression, and growing
menace throughout the Indian subcontinent, eve-teasing ranges to
severity from sexually suggestive remarks, inadvertent brushing in
public places, catcalls, to outright groping and sometimes with a coy
suggestation of ‘innocent fun’, just as euphemism used to describe it
in the region, making it appear innocuous and hence warrant no liability
on the part of the perpetrator, that is why, many feminist and voluntary
organizations have suggested that the expression ‘eve teasing’ be
replaced by a more appropriate expression. According to them,
considering the semantic roots of the term in India eve teasing refers
to the temptress nature of eves, making teasing a norm rather than an
aberration. (Gangoli, 2007:63)
In fact it is a crime easy to commit, but difficult to prove as eveteasers often devise indigenous ways to attack women, even though
many feminist writers term it as ‘little rapes’.(Dobash,1998:58)Though
the problem received public and media attention in 1960,s ,it was in
the coming decades ,when more and more women started going out
to colleges and work independently which means no longer
accompanied by a male escort which had been a norm in traditional
society that the problem grew to an alarming proportion.
(Natrajan,2008).
Key words: Eveteasing, Sexual harrasement, Harasement, human rights.
Eve-teasing is a euphemism used in India and Bangladesh for public sexual
harassment or molestation of women by men with eve being a reference to the
biblical eve. Considered a problem related to delinquency in the youth a form of
sexual aggression, and growing menace throughout the Indian subcontinent,
*
Sr. Lecturer, Dept. of Sociology, DAV (P.G) College, Kanpur.
E-mail : [email protected]
** Guest Faculty, Dept. of Social Work, University of Lucknow, Lucknow.
205
A Study on the Problem of Eve Teasing in India
eve-teasing ranges to severity from sexually suggestive remarks, inadvertent
brushing in public places, catcalls, to outright groping and sometimes with a coy
suggestation of ‘innocent fun’, just as euphemism used to describe it in the
region, making it appear innocuous and hence warrant no liability on the part of
the perpetrator, that is why, many feminist and voluntary organizations have
suggested that the expression ‘eve teasing’ be replaced by a more appropriate
expression. According to them, considering the semantic roots of the term in
India eve teasing refers to the temptress nature of eves, making teasing a norm
rather than an aberration. (Gangoli, 2007:63)
In fact it is a crime easy to commit, but difficult to prove as eve-teasers
often devise indigenous ways to attack women, even though many feminist
writers term it as ‘little rapes’. (Dobash,1998:58)Though the problem received
public and media attention in 1960,s ,it was in the coming decades ,when more
and more women started going out to colleges and work independently which
means no longer accompanied by a male escort which had been a norm in
traditional society that the problem grew to an alarming proportion.
(Natrajan,2008). To curb this menace govt. intended to take remedial measures
by judicial and law enforcement .also seen during this period was a marked rise
of not just number women coming forward to report incidence of eve-teasing
like cases of sexual harassment due to changing public opinion against eveteasers. What also grew in this period was the severity of eve-teasing incidence,
which in some cases lead to acid –throwing an. The very foundation of India
as a nation is based on non-violence. However, it is indeed a matter of shame
that Indian Women are not only considered infrahuman but also have to face
violence, harassment and teasing constantly. As a matter of fact, barring a few
legally recognized crimes against women, such as dowry and sati, most of the
atrocities against them are not counted as crimes even. Unfortunately, even
women have recognized violence against them as fait accompli, statistically
speaking, globally crime against women have been increasing. In India, crimes
against women have been increasing at the rate of 20 per cent per annum. Of,
all the crimes taking place in the country, 7 per cent crimes are held against
women. Rape, molestation, teasing, sexual misbehavior, abduction, prostitution,
dowry related crimes, feticide, infanticides etc. are some of the crimes committed
against the women. Of these, eve teasing is the most common anti-social act
that the woman has to face in her day-to-day life.
Eve teasing is not a myth but a reality. It exists and exists everywhere. It
has been a serious menace in our society. The commission of this crime is an
indicator of how far the women folk are in secured in our society. Eve teasing
which involves the verbal and physical harassment of women is the scourge of
the urban society. Eve teasing and its aggravated form, sexual harassment of
women are crimes, which are almost a recognized male sport. It is the response
206
July - Dec. 2010
that women get for staying within the Lakshman Rekha of the home. It is probably
the result of the deep-rooted male psyche to put down women who do not fit the
notions of propriety. A woman cannot go out in the street without the fear of
being harassed by strange men. In busy crowded areas the women get pawed
and pressed, jostled, rubbed and squeezed, the miscreant taking advantage of
the press of the crowed and indulging in what physical intimacy the situation
permits. The miscreants hurl indecent remarks. All women suffer from the fear
of being teased, irrespective of her age, health, appearance, mental state etc.
This has affected the peace of mind of women and they are not able to move
freely and participate in the public life of the community. Sexual harassment
crosses all professions, social strata and the level of income. It can be found in
private organizations as well as in a government office, through some professions
seen more prone to it than others. This situation poses real problems, especially
for working women. Women are subjected to various forms of molestation,
physical and mental torture and eve teasing at home, in street and public place,
places of entertainment, campus of educational institutions, prisons, rescue homes,
crowded places like markets, mela, festivals, railway platforms and bus stands,
running trains and buses, workplace etc. This is a challenge to our constitution,
which ensures all citizens the right ‘to move freely throughout the territory of
India’.
Definitions of Eve Teasing
 According to Indian Law ‘ Whenever a person utters any word makes
any sound or gesture or exhibits an object or intrudes upon the privacy
of a women with intent to insult the modesty of such women the offence
under section 509 IPC is committed.’
 Opentopia Directory Encyclopedia on eve teasing describes it, “is a
euphemism used in India for sexual harassment of molestation of women
by men. Considered a growing problem through out the country, eve
teasing in severity from sexually colored remarks to out right groping.”
 State Government (N.Delhi, 1984) on eve teasing describes it as “when
a man by either by speaking or by signs or by visible representation or
by gestures does any act in public place, signs, recites or utters any
indecent word or song or ballad in any public place to the annoyance of
any women.”
 Ashraf, Nehal (1997) in his work ‘ Crime Against Women’ included
following deeds under eve teasing.
207
Crime against Women - Molestation, Eve Teasing and Sexual
Harassment
State / India
Molestation
Eve-Teasing & Sexual Harassment
I
P
R
I
P
R
34175
100
3.1
9984
100.0
0.9
3595
10.5
4.5
2508
25.1
3.1
67
0.2
5.8
0
0.0
0.0
Assam
899
2.6
3.1
19
0.2
0.1
Bihar
451
1.3
0.5
13
0.1
0.0
1450
4.2
6.4
132
1.3
0.6
Delhi
762
2.2
4.8
225
2.3
1.4
Goa
30
0.1
2.0
8
0.5
0.1
Gujarat
802
2.3
1.5
104
0.1
0.2
Haryana
380
1.1
1.7
597
6.0
2.6
Himachal Pradesh
286
0.8
4.5
29
0.3
0.5
Jammu-Kashmir
830
2.4
7.3
371
3.7
3.3
Jharkhand
293
0.9
1.0
36
0.4
0.1
Karnataka
185
4.6
2.8
71
0.7
0.1
Kerala
2339
7.0
6.8
175
0.5
1.8
Madhya pradesh
6426
18.8
9.7
792
7.9
1.2
Maharashtra
3228
9.4
3.1
919
9.2
0.9
Manipur
25
0.1
1.0
0
0.0
0.0
Meghalaya
44
0.1
1.8
0
0.0
0.0
Mizoram
49
0.1
5.2
4
0.0
0.4
Nagaland
7
0.0
0.3
0
0.0
0.0
Orissa
2238
6.5
5.8
14
1.8
0.5
Punjab
308
0.9
1.2
43
0.4
0.2
2503
4.1
7.3
28
0.3
0.0
38
0.1
6.6
0
0.0
0.0
1764
5.2
2.7
665
6.7
1.0
161
0.5
4.7
1
0.0
0.0
1835
5.4
1.0
2881
28.9
1.6
100
0.3
1.1
89
0.9
1.0
1572
4.6
1.8
54
0.5
0.1
India
Andra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Chattisgarh
Rajasthan
Sikkam
Tamilnadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttrakhand
West Bengal
Notes: I- Incidence P- Percentage R-Rate (Number of Crimes per 1,00,000 inhabitants)
208
July - Dec. 2010
Source: India, Ministry of Home affairs, National Crime Records Bureau. (2006).
Crime in India 2005. New Delhi. P.249, 251, 253.
 Indulging in cat-calls, waiving wolf whistling, winking and uttering
indecent remarks about female anatomy or singing obscene songs in
such a way so as to be heard by women. Songs are deliberately chosen
from popular film so that these could appear innocuous if it came to an
argument.
 Nudging past hurriedly, pressing against women, trying to pinch the
bottoms or breasts and disappearing in the crowd. If caught they pretend
that rubbing was all-accidental. They get a free hand during the
breakdown of power. In the process some times the aged women are
not spared from this kind of menace.
 Eve- teasers get up in crowded buses and trains, prefer to stand or sit
next to ladies and depending on the situation, the teaser some times get
himself sand witched with her in the crowded and leans on her.
 In recent years, in some universities these forms of eve teasing have
replaced with brazen acts as dupatta snatching, back patting and in
some cases even forced kissing.
 Eve teasing has also taken the form of telephoning a girl and uttering
obscene and suggestive words.
 Mailing anonymous love letters in the filthiest languages.
 Exhibiting male genital in front of women and thereby deriving strange
prevented sexual pleasure of it.
This definition has been made operational definition for the present study.
Law and Eve-teasing
Eve teasing by itself is not an offence under any law at present in India.
But the other countries of the world have recognized it as the most heinous
violence. Till recently, it came under human right violation and sex-based
differentiation in India. In Vishaka case the Supreme Court forwarded certain
guidelines in this respect holding employees of the concerned organization
responsible fro harassment of working -women. According to the Supreme Court
guidelines forcefully establishing physical relationship, requesting or demanding
sexual favour, using lewd language, exhibiting vulgar picture or film using verbal
or non- verbal vulgar language will come under the category of sexual
harassment. A close reading of the following sections of the Indian Penal Code
would clearly indicate that they would cover the substance of the act.
209
Section 294,IPC- It states that ‘ whoever to the annoyance of others (a)
does any obscene act in any place, or (b) sings, recites or utters any obscene act
in any public place, or (b) sings, recites or utters any obscene song, ballads or
words in or near any public place’ is liable to be punished with imprisonment or
with fine. (Cognizable, Bailable and Trialable offence).
Section 354,IPC- Assault or criminal force to a women with the intend to
outrage her modesty- whoever assaults or uses criminal force to any women,
intending to outrage or knowing it to be likely that thereby outrage her modesty,
shall be punished with imprisonment of either description of term which may
extend to two years, or with fine both.
The Indecent Representation of Women (Probation) Act (1987)Although it is not known to have been used I cases of sexual harassment, the
provisions of this act have the potential to be used if an individual harasses
another with books, photographs, paintings, films, pamphlets packages etc.
containing ‘ indecent representation of women’, they are liable for a minimum
sentence of two years.
Constitutional Safeguards
Article 14: The state shall not deny any person’s equality before law, and
equal protection of Laws with in the territory of India.
Article 15: The state shall not discriminate against any citizen on the grounds
of religion, race, caste, sex, and place of birth or any of them.
Article 15(3): It permits special provisions in favour of women.
Article 16: Equality of opportunity in the matter of public employment or
appointment under the state irrespective of sex.
Article 42: The state shall make just provision for securing just and humane
conditions of work and maternity relief.
Statement of the Problem
There has been a huge change in the life style, values, cultural norms and
attitudes of the people with time. Although modernization has made life of the
people comfortable on hand but it has also increased the rates of crime and
atrocities against the women. The people on a large scale are practicing not
only the old methods of violence but also the new and the more barbaric ones.
One such forms of violence have been the increasing attacks often very fatal
ones on young girls by their so-called jilted lovers.
Amongst the most serious problems faced by the women, especially in the
resent times, are sexual harassments and eve teasing. Both these problems
210
July - Dec. 2010
have put a blot on the Indian society. In recent years the rate of these crimes
have gone on the higher side and the women are forced to accept some forms
of sexual harassments as a part of their life, for which they cannot do anything
but to remain silent. Verbal eve teasing has become habitual in the society, so
the reaction of the women over it is usually spontaneous and the most obvious
ones, but not many women are ever able to display their reactions over physical
eve teasing, due to fearfulness and embarrassment. Very less research and
documentation has been done on this specific evil and its impact on the personality
of the women. So this study shall not only bridge the gap in our knowledge, but
will also provide a better understanding on the eve teasing mechanism and reaction
of girls towards this social evil.
There is no other way to win back the social equality and respect of the
females, other than fighting against these social evils, which has crept in the
society. Thus the first step, which must be taken in this direction, should be
spreading awareness about the legal rights of the women so that they may no
longer be the victim of in just and irrational society. So this work aims to find out
level of legal awareness among the respondents regarding this social violence.
It is the most common allegation made on the part of the women, when a
sexual harassment takes place; that, it was her fault. It is one of the most
horrifying common crimes where the victim is treated as the offender, her sexual
history, manners of dressing is highlighted to decide whether or not she ‘ asked
for it’. The task of the authorities and the general public is made easy as they
shrug off their responsibilities by shifting the blame to the women it self.
Now a days not only the women but also the adolescence girls are also
becoming the victims of this social violence. A conventional and an unduly fixed
mental image of how an ideal’ Indian women should behave, dress or wear are
constructed which makes a huge impact over any discussion on sexual
harassment topic.
Women in Indian society are not new to the violence, humiliation, atrocities
and exploitation, which are being practiced against them by the members of the
society. Though, the changing times have made people to accept that the violence
against the women is increasing at a rapid rate and now it would be better to
adopt the ‘sooner and the better theory’ if any changes are intended to be brought
in the society and in the position of women.
Objectives of the Present Study
 To find out the nature and extent of eve- teasing.
 To explore the views of the girl students on eve teasing.
 To find out the causes of eve teasing.
211
 To find out the awareness regarding the laws on eve teasing.
 To suggest measures to remove the problem.
Context of Study
The study was done in the context of University of Lucknow with sample
size of 400 respondents (girl students) to explore their views regarding eveteasing.
Universe of Study
The universe of the study under taken was Lucknow, Lucknow University
Campus area.
Sampling, Tools & Techniques of Data Collection.
The method of data collection in present study was Focused Group
Discussion & Structured Interviews and Quasi- Participant Observation. Focused
Group Discussion and Interviews were undertaken in order to understand the
general views of the girl students about eve teasing, as it brings together different
people and gives the opportunity to verify some facts about the problem. Focused
group participants were drawn from the Sociology & Social Work Department
of University of Lucknow. Simple Random Sampling was done and out of 1200
girl students (approx.) studying in Under graduate, Post graduate, and Diploma
Courses, 400 were selected and interviewed. Few dedicated students of
Sociology and Social Work department facilitated them. The researcher along
with the facilitators contacted the participants for focus group discussions and
interviews, explained the purpose of the study to the, arranged venues for the
discussions & interviews. Both primary and secondary sources of data collection
were used. The main issues discussed and checked in focused group discussions
and interviews were:
 Experiences regarding eve teasing.
 Places used for eve teasing.
 Methods of eve teasing.
 Probable age groups of accuse.
 Reasons behind the increase of the problem.
 Major causes of eve teasing.
 Feelings in such situations.
 Steps taken against the teasers.
 With whom the incidents were shared and their reactions.
 Reasons for not approaching the university authorities or the police.
 Problems faced while lodging complains against the act.
212
July - Dec. 2010
 Respondent’s reaction on seeing teasing with the other girls.
 Awareness regarding the laws related to eve teasing.
 Punishment to the accuse.
I-Nature and Extent of Eve teasing
Marital status of the Respondents
Marital Status
Married
No. Respondents
Percentage
60
15.00
Unmarried
340
85.00
Total
400
100.00
The table above gives us an idea about the respondent’s marital status. In
this study the researcher discovered that 15 per cent of the respondents were
married, while 855 of the respondents were unmarried. So the researcher found
that most of the victims of eve teasing were unmarried.
Religion
Religion
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Hindu
232
58.00
Muslim
112
28.00
Sikh
20
5.00
Christian
30
7.50
Other
6
1.50
Total
400
100.00
The table above gives the distribution of the respondents according to the
religion. In this study the researcher came to know that 28 per cent of the
respondents were Muslims, where as 58 per cent of them were Hindus, 5 per
cent of them were Sikhs and approximately 9 per cent of them belonged to
other communities. So the researcher discovered that most of the victims belonged
to the Hindu community who generally are found in the bulk in our society.
Caste
Caste
No. of Respondents
Percentage
SC
40
10.00
ST
32
8.00
OBC
24
6.00
General
304
76.00
Total
400
100.00
213
The table above indicates the distribution of the respondents according to
the caste. In the present study the researcher found that approximately 76 per
cent of the respondents belonged to the General caste and 10 per cent of them
belonged to the Scheduled Caste groups, while 8 per cent of them were Scheduled
Tribes and 6 per cent of them were OBC’s.
Education
Education
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Under Graduate
48
12
Graduate
180
45
Post-Graduate
132
33
Other
40
10
Total
400
100.00
The table above gives us an idea about the distribution of the respondents
according to their educational qualifications. In the present study most of the
respondents were (45per cent) Graduates. While 33 per cent respondents were
Post- Graduates and about 12 per cent of them were Under Graduates. In
conclusion it can be said that women of all the educational levels were victims
of eve teasing.
Socio-Economic Status
Socio-Economic Status
Middle
No. of Respondents
320
80.00
80
20.00
400
100.00
Upper Middle
Total
Percentage
The table above gives us an idea about the socio-economic status of the
respondents. In the present study the investigator found out that a large number
of the respondents i.e. 80 per cent belonged to middle class, while 20 per cent of
them belonged to the upper middle class. So it can be concluded that majority of
the victims were from the middle class.
Occupation
Occupation
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Employed
160
40
Unemployed
240
60
Total
400
100.00
214
July - Dec. 2010
The table above gives the distribution of the respondents on the basis their
occupational status. Researcher discovered that 60 per cent of the respondents
were unemployment where as only 40 per cent of them were employment.
Family Structure
Family
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Joint
108
27.00
Nuclear
292
73.00
Total
400
100.00
The above table clearly indicates the family structure of the respondents.
Here the researcher found that 27 per cent of the respondents were living in the
joint families and the rest 75 per cent in the nuclear families.
Experience of Eve Teasing
Experience
Yes
No
Total
No. of Respondents
380
Percentage
95.00
20
5.00
400
100.00
The table above shows that 95 per cent of the respondents had experienced
eve teasing in their day-to-day life. Only 5 per cent told that they have no such
experience.
Number of Experience
Number
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Once
38
10.00
Often
266
70.00
Daily
50
13.16
Any other
Total
26
6.84
380
100.00
A question regarding number of experiences of eve teasing was asked.
About 70 per cent of the respondents told that very often they have to face such
an incident, were as 10 per cent of them felt that such an incident happened only
once. About 13.16 per cent of the respondents had to face eve teasing daily.
Thus data highlights that a large number of the respondents faced eve teasing
very often.
215
Places Used for Eve Teasing
Places
No. of Respondents
Percentage
In Dark
23
06.01
In bus
145
38.16
Road side
187
49.21
Any other
25
06.58
380
100.00
Total
The table above highlights the places used in eve teasing. This indecent
act mostly happens either in very crowded places or in the places were it is
difficult for the victim to get help. The table above reveals that majority of the
respondents were teased on the road-side (49.21 per cent), where as 38.16 per
cent of the incidents took place in the crowed buses. Only 5 per cent of the
incident took place in dark. It can be concluded that about 49.21 per cent cases
of eve teasing took place on the roadsides because there the victims cannot
easily approach for help.
Methods Used in Eve Teasing
Methods
No. of respondents
Percentage
Indecent Remarks
100
26.32
Obscene calls and E-mails
22
5.79
Pinched/Pocked
30
7.89
114
30.00
Try to out rage modesty
7
1.84
Touch any part of Body
79
20.79
All Above
28
7.37
380
100.00
Sang obscene songs
Total
The eve teasing most commonly took the form of indecent remarks, touch
any part of body, try to out rage modesty, pinched/ pocked, sang obscene songs
or in the form of obscene calls and e-mails.
The table above shows the methods used in eve teasing. It is evident from
the table that in 26.32 per cent of the cases indecent remarks were passed,
while in 30.00 per cent of the cases obscene songs were sung, in 20.79 per cent
of the cases the culprit tried to touch the body parts of the respondent, while in
7.89 per cent of the cases they were pinched or pocked. About 5.79 per cent of
the respondents had to receive obscene calls and e-mails from the culprits.
While 7.37 per cent had to face all the above. Even 1.84 per cent of the
respondents were tried to be raped. Thus the data suggests that singing obscene
songs is the most common method of eve teasing.
216
July - Dec. 2010
Probable Age Group of Accused
Age group
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Adolescent
65
17.11
Middle age
224
58.95
Old Age
87
22.89
Any other
4
1.05
380
100.00
Total
Age of the accuse plays an important role in this kind of study. It is generally
believed that adolescents are more prone in all these kinds of activities. The
table above indicates that only 17.11 per cent accused were adolescent were
involved in the act of eve teasing. About 58.95 per cent of them were middle
aged, and 22.89 per cent were in old age and 1.05 per cent belonged to any
other.
To conclude, it can be said that 58.95 per cent accused were middle-aged
men. Thus, the assumption that the adolescent were the more involved in such
activities is wrong.
Eve Teasing in College Premises
Teasing in College
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Yes
122
32.11
No
258
67.89
Total
380
100.00
The table above clearly indicates that only 32.11 per cent of the respondents
had faced the incident of eve teasing in the colleges. About, 67.89 per cent
respondents did not face it in the college premises. Thus, it can be concluded
that even the college premises are not safe place for the girl.
II-Views of the Respondents and Measures taken by the Authorities
Feeling in Such Situation
Feelings
Revengeful
Guilty
Irritated
Helpless
Any other
Total
No. of Respondents
Percentage
11
38.95
148
1.84
7
50.79
193
2.89
21
5.53
380
100.00
217
The table above gives us an indication about the feelings of the victims in
such situations. The table above shows that in 50.79 per cent of cases victims
felt irritated, in 38.95 per cent of the cases, they felt revengeful, in 2.89 per cent
of the cases they felt helpless and in 1.84 per cent cases they felt revengeful.
Thus, it can be safely concluded that more than half of the victims (50.79
per cent) felt irritated in such situations.
Steps Taken Against the Teaser
Steps Taken
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Yes
171
45.00
No
209
55.00
Total
380
100.00
Both eve teasing and sexual harassment calls for embarrassment for the
victim. In order to know their action against the teaser, the researcher asked the
questions regarding the steps taken by them against the teasers.
The table above clearly indicates that more than half of the respondents
(55.00 per cent) did not take any step against the accused. While, 45.00 per
cent victims took the step against the accused persons.
Share Such Incidence
Incidence Shared
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Yes
345
90.79
No
35
09.21
380
100.00
Total
The table above highlights that only 09.21 per cent of the victims shared
such incidents with others, while 90.79 per cent of them remained silent, as they
felt that people might say that they themselves are responsible for the incident,
because girls provoke boys.
Person with Whom Problem was Shared
Shared With
Parents
No. of Respondents
Percentage
131
37.97
Relative
6
01.74
Friends
182
52.75
26
07.54
345
100.00
Any other
Total
Out of 380 respondents, about 92.46 per cent of them shared the incident
with their nearest person. In this more half (52.75 per cent) shared the incident
with their friends, while 37.97 per cent of them shared it with their parents,
218
July - Dec. 2010
about 01.74 per cent of them shared it with their relatives and 07.54 per cent of
them with others.
Reaction on Sharing
Reaction
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Shocked
48
13.91
Indifferent
124
35.94
Sympathetic
82
23.76
Angry
13
0.77
Any other
78
22.61
345
100.00
Total
The table above highlights the reaction of the people after listening about
the incident. About, 13.91 per cent of them felt shocked, while 35.94 per cent
acted indifferently, about 23.76 per cent showed sympathy towards the victim,
while 0.77 per cent got angry with them. Approximately 22.61 per cent gave
any other reaction.
Informed College Authorities
Informed
No. of Respondents
Percentage
21
05.52
No
101
26.58
Not Applicable
258
67.89
Total
380
100.00
Yes
When the respondents were asked that whether they informed their college
authorities about such acts, only 05.52 per cent of the victims answered in
affirmative, while 26.58 per cent of the respondents did not informed their college
or university authorities regarding the matter. While, 67.89 per cent of the
respondents told that they were never teased in the university campus.
Action Taken
Action Taken
Yes
No. of Respondents
11
Percentage
52.38
No
10
47.62
Total
21
100.00
The table above shows that out of 380 applicable respondents, 122 were
teased in the university campus, and out of them only 21 (05.52 per cent) lodged
complains to the authorities and only for 52.38 per cent of 21, steps were taken
and for 47.62 per cent, steps were not taken and 94.47 per cent were not applicable,
who were not teased in the university.
219
Approached Police For Help
Approached
Yes
No. of Respondents
30
Percentage
07.89
No
350
92.11
Total
380
100.00
The table above highlights that only 07.89 per cent victims have ever
approached police for help while 92.11 per cent did not inform the police about
the incidents. So, it can be safely concluded 92.11 per cent of the cases were
unreported in the police station because the victims do not approached the police
due to fear.
Reaction of Police
Reaction
No. of Respondents Percentage
Lodged Complain
10
33.33
Did not Lodge
20
66.67
Total
30
100.00
Out of 380 respondents having the experience of eve teasing, only 30
(07.89 per cent) of them asked the police to intervene, out of them only 33.33
per cent of the victim were able to get their complain registered in the police
station. While police did not accepted the complains of 66.67 per cent of the
victims, even after being approached by the victims.
Source who Guided Respondent to Police Station
Source
No. of Respondents
Friends
7
70.00
Any other
3
30.00
10
100.00
Total
Percentage
The tables above reveals that 70.00 per cent cases approached to the
police were guided by the friends and about 30.00 per cent by any other &
97.37 per cent cases were not applicable.
Thus we can conclude that parents are generally reluctant to guide their
daughters or the victims to lodge the police complaint due to fear of being insult
in the society.
Person who Accompanied The Respondents to Police Station
Person
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Friend
7
70.00
Any other
3
30.00
10
100.00
Total
220
July - Dec. 2010
The study reveals that friends of the victim reported eve teasing to the
police. While 97.37 per cent are not applicable, as they did not lodge any report
s against the culprits.
Problem Faced While Lodging Complain
Problem Faced
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Yes
5
50.00
No
5
50.00
Total
10
100.00
In the table above we see that out of 10 cases (33.33 per cent) who went
to register complain in the police station, only 50.00 per cent victims were able
to lodge a complain against the accuse. Thus, we can conclude that often police
person takes the cases of eve teasing lightly.
Respondents Reaction on seeing Teasing with other girls
Reactions
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Leave the Situation
38
10.00
Try to catch accused
26
06.84
244
64.21
Help the girls
None
92
24.21
Total
380
100.00
When the respondents were asked what would they do or how they will
react if they see other girls being harassed in the same manner in which they
were teased. About 64.21 per cent of the respondents said that they will help
the victim, 10.00 per cent of them said that they will leave the place, while 06.84
per cent respondents said that they will try and catch the accuse and 24.21 per
cent said that they shall do nothing.
Reason for Teasing Girls
Reasons
No. of Respondents
Percentage
To satisfy sexual Desires
174
45.79
To make girls Inferior
76
20.00
Jealous of Women’s Progress
53
13.94
Peer pressure
15
03.94
All Above
11
02.89
Any other
51
13.42
380
100.00
Total
In the present study the respondent’s opinion regarding the causes of eve
teasing was also taken. The data revealed that about 45.79 per cent of the
221
respondents believed that people tease the girls in order to satisfy their sexual
desires, 20.00 per cent of the respondents felt that girls were teased in order to
make them feel inferior. While 13.94 per cent of the respondents felt the people
who are jealous of women’s progress generally does such acts. About 03.94 per
cent of the respondents felt that peer pressure compels them to act in such a
way. While 02.11 per cent of the respondents felt that all of the above reasons
are responsible and 13.42 per cent gave other reasons.
Thus it can be concluded that the major reason why people involve
themselves in the acts of eve teasing is that they want to satisfy their sexual
desires, as revealed in the study by 45.79 per cent of the respondents.
Reasons of Increasing the Problem
Reasons
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Dresses of Girls
171
45.00
Electronic Media
152
40.00
Print Media
19
5.00
Any other
38
10.00
380
100.00
Total
The act of eve teasing cannot be explained on the basis of a single factor.
Several reasons of eve teasing came in the light after the victims were asked
questions regarding the reasons behind the increasing of this problem.
About 45.00 per cent of the respondents felt that some times the dressing
sense of the girls make them the victims of eve teasing. While 40.00 per cent of
the respondents felt that electronic media and 5.00 per cent felt that print media
is responsible, as it has profound influence on the society and it defiles the minds
of the people. About 10.00 per cent gave other reasons.
Awareness of laws Related to Eve Teasing
Awareness
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Yes
171
45.00
No
209
55.00
Total
380
100.00
From the table above it is evident that women are still unaware about the
existing legislations regarding sexual harassment and eve teasing. As the data
reveals that only 45.00 per cent of the respondents were aware of the laws
related to eve teasing and more than half, that is 55.00 per cent were not aware.
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July - Dec. 2010
Means of Awareness
Means
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Print Media
150
39.47
Electronic media
160
42.10
Both
39
10.26
Awareness campaign
by NGOs
31
08.16
380
100.00
Total
As 55.00 per cent of the respondents were unaware about the laws related
to eve teasing so they were asked about the means of awareness, because all of
the respondents were educated. The table above indicates that 39.47 per cent
of the respondents believed that through print media and electronic media (42.10
per cent), awareness could be increased. About 10.26 per cent believed that
both the print and electronic media are effective tools to educate the people.
While 08.16 per cent of them felt that NGO’s should launch an awareness
campaign for making the people aware about the laws related to eve teasing.
Punishment Recommended
Punishment
No. of Respondents
Percentage
Fine
41
10.79
Imprisonment
72
18.94
Both
247
65.00
Other
20
05.26
Total
380
100.00
The table above indicates that the majority of victims i.e. 65.00 per cent
recommended both fine and imprisonment as the punishment for the accuse,
about 10.00 per cent of them believed that only fine should be imposed, while
18.94 per cent said that only imprisonment is the remedy. About 05.00 per cent
recommended other types of punishments for the accuse.
Analysis of the Findings
Here an analysis of the findings has been done. This analysis is based on
the data collected on the basis of the interviews with the respondents. The
conclusions, which are drawn here, are not speculations but the existing realities.
 Women of all the age groups are the victims of this increasing problem.
 Mostly the unmarried women are targeted. The data collected reveals
that about 85.00 per cent of the respondents were unmarried. This
problem also happens with the married women but it is comparatively
low.
223
 Consciously or unconsciously general caste girls face this problem the
most i.e. 76.00 per cent, which is more than one third of the cases.
 One major finding of the study is that, the problem of eve teasing is so
deeply rooted in our society that about 95.00 per cent of the respondents
had to face it.
 The data suggests that a large number of respondents experience teasing
often, that is 70.00 per cent and it mostly takes place on the roadsides
that is 49.21 per cent.
 The most common methods used for teasing is passing indecent remarks
and singing of obscene songs (30.00 per cent).
 In the study it was proved that middle-aged people are mostly involved
in teasing girls (58.00 per cent) in comparison to the adolescents and
the older people.
 More than half of the victims felt irritated whenever they are teased by
anyone, while 38.95 per cent of them felt revengeful.
 Family and peer group plays important role in decision-making f the
girls.
 It was discovered that that girls felt more comfortable in sharing such
incidents with their friends instead of parents.
 On listening the problem people gave indifferent reaction (35.94 per
cent), it may be because the problem is becoming very common in the
metros. But an eve teasing, if not properly tackled can have adverse
effect on the personality of the victim.
 Even the college premises are not a safe place for the girls as 32.11
per cent of the girls were teased in the college or university premises.
Most of the girls who were teased in the campus itself did not inform
their college authorities due to the fear of being insult, and those who
informed the authorities were not satisfied with their actions. They felt
that the authorities were very slow to react.
 Very few victims took the help of the police as 92.11 per cent of the
cases went unreported. In half of the cases, which were reported to the
police, FIR was not launched.
 It was discovered that boys tease girls in order to satisfy their sexual
desire and in encouraging this problem electronic media played an
important role.
224
July - Dec. 2010
 About 45.00 per cent of the girls were aware of the laws related to the
problem of eve teasing, and majority of them felt that media is the most
effective tool of spreading the legal awareness.
Causes of Eve Teasing
On the basis of in-depth interviews & discussions with the respondents
and review of literature on eve teasing, the following emerged as the main
causes of eve teasing.
 First and the foremost is the abandonment of the traditional moral values,
the lack of religious education and absence of the sobering effect of the
family and the teacher.
 Secondly, those people who are the victims of violence, neglect and
stressful family situations in childhood become rowdy in their young
age.
 Thirdly, there is the pernicious influence of cinema and cheap literature
on the minds of the people. The current advertisements trying to promote
the sale of various commodities often indecently expose the female
anatomy, which defiles the mind of man, which ultimately leads to eve
teasing, and sexual harassment of women.
 Fourthly, there is a rush to the metropolis from the neighboring states in
search of employment or otherwise on sudden exposure from a
conservative set up to a modern out look experience a cultural dichotomy
and in an attempt to be upwardly mobile indulge in criminal activities.
This further influenced by the stressful working conditions. This has
largely attributed to the increase in crime against women.
 Fifthly, there is lack of of fear of punishment or adverse publicity or
social disgrace. The attitude of police is casual towards these offences
and they refrain from registering cases falling under this category, the
victimized women themselves shy away from getting such cases
registered for the fear of their future and public humiliation. Even if
some of the cases get registered, they do not reach their final stages
due to legal delay and the perpetrators of such crime go Scot- free,
which is really unfortunate and increase to the problem.
 Sixthly, people who suffer from personality disorders and are frequent
users of alcohol, often indulge in sexual harassment of women and eve
teasing.
 Lastly, the provocation coming from the opposite sex like the style of
dressing, talking, walking etc, consciously or unconsciously invite such
hazards.
225
Suggestion from Respondents
Following are some suggestions given by the respondents for the prevention
of eve teasing:
 There should be strict reinforcement of legislation.
 Women should be made aware about their rights.
 Healthy interaction between boys and girls is necessary.
 Women should learn the techniques of self-defence. They should keep
with them the devices like chilly powder, sprays that can be used as an
agent of self-defense.
 Accuse should be punished as soon as possible. Fine and punishments
are the devices, which can be used for teaching them a lesson.
 The university or the educational institutions should publicize their policy
regarding the harassment of the women in Hindi and English widely,
especially through prospectuses, notice boards etc. Names and phone
numbers of appropriate authority should also be publicized.
 The mechanism for registering complaints should me made safe,
accessible and sensitive both in police departments and in higher
educational institutions.
 Arrangements should be made for appropriate psychological, emotional
and physical support (in the form of counseling, security and assistance)
to the victims, if she desires so.
 Attitudinal change among masses for giving respect to the females can
prevent the problem to some extent.
Suggestions from the Police Department
Investigators had a talk to the officials in the police station/post out side
the University in order to find out the solutions to the increasing problem of eve
teasing in the Lucknow University campus area. They gave following suggestions.
 University should appoint few persons from the proctoral board as
mobile security persons for keeping a watch and check on the harassment
of any women in the campus area.
 Complain boxes should be installed in the University where every one
should be allowed to drop any incident/case ete. relating to harassment.
 The university in co-ordination with the police department should organize
self-defense training programmes, and girl students must be motivated
to participate in such programme.
226
July - Dec. 2010
 Girls should avoid wearing provocative dresses in the university area as
it calls for their harassment.
 There is need to spread awareness among the girls on the laws and
steps they can take in such situations.
Remedial Measures
 There is a need to create awareness in the society so that the attitude
of general public and police may become more sympathetic towards
the victim.
 The girls should be made bold so that they can deal with the ruffians on
their own. The bully is generally a coward. If he gets even a slap from
the opponent, he takes to his heels. Training in ‘Judo’ and ‘Karate’ to
girls is very helpful and for this the government must open training centers.
 Incase, the girls feel that she is likely to be overpowered while she has
been cornered in a lonely area, she can be slightly tactful in her seemingly
sweet behavior till she is able to sight others who can come to her
rescue o.
 Whatever the incident, the victim girls should not shirk reporting the
incident to the police though she might involve inconvenience and even
controversy in some quarters. An eve teaser who remains un-reported
gets encouraged in his exploits and encourages other also.
 The public has to also play an important role in curbing the evil. It has to
show its indignation in making the parliament pass stringent laws for the
police to enforcing them vigorously.
 The public has also to help damsels in distress and not behave in an
unconcerned and impersonal way. It must encourage the victims to
report the incidents to police and help the police and the courts in punishing
the offenders by disposing truthfully and by being not won over by the
threats or lures of the culprits.
 Public opinion also has to build up, against the eve teasers. Community
action like having a morcha or dharna out side the house of eve easer
will go a long way in acting as deterrent to eve teasing.
 The parents should also be watchful about their children. They must
ensure that they dress properly without an effort to expose the anatomy
unnecessarily, which invites the attention of the evil minded.
 It is also worthwhile for parents to discuss sex with the children and
remove from their mind the unhealthy curiosity about it. Failing this they
227
gather dangerous knowledge from footpath publications, which are worse
than anything else. Talk about sex taboo in Indian society. Society needs
to change its attitude towards sex education. In fact, eve teasing is only
a superficial manifestation of the imbalance in the relationship between
man and women.
 There is also a need to strengthening the women’s voluntary organizations,
since the voice of an individual woman carries no weight. In fact, a
woman is accused of being outspoken if she expresses her radical views.
However, if a group of women of like-minded views join together form
an organization to articulate their resentment about women’s oppression
and harassment, they can easily make appropriate impact. It is, therefore,
necessary to activate vigorously a large number of women’s
organizations.
 There should be comprehensive and complete ban on indecent
representation of women in television, advertisement, literature, magazine,
films and other media.
 The NGOs should play an important role to help women who are victims
of any form of harassment. The number of such NGOs should be
increased and their power strengthened who can communicate about
the personal problems of women with their family members, police and
the courts.
 It is necessary to promote and advertise the agencies and voluntary
bodies that offer legal- aide free of cost.
 It s of prime importance to sensitize the men towards women.
 Employment of women police person in large number is also necessary
and they must be entrusted to deal with the cases involving the women.
In ultimate analysis it is to be understood that more than pious wishes,
legal amendments and lofty pronouncement, it requires will and dogged
perseverance on the part of both government and women to ensure for the
latter a place of pride and respectability in the society.
References
Ahuja, Ram (2001): Social Problems in India; New Delhi; Rawat Publications.
Ahuja, Ram (2002): Criminology, New Delhi; Rawat Publications.Pg-239, 240.
Ashraf, Nehal (1997): Crime Against Women; N.Delhi, Common Wealth
Publications Pg-86-96.
228
July - Dec. 2010
Atray, J.P (1988): Crime Against Women, N.Delhi; Vikas Publications. Pg-3338.
Civil Services Chronicle (2007): Social Problems in India, N.Delhi, Chronicle
Books.
India, Ministry of Home affairs, National Crime Records Bureau. (2006).
Crime in India 2005. New Delhi. P.249, 251, 253.
Laldas,D.K (2000) : Practice of Social Research ; N.Delhi : Rawat Publications.
Paranjape,N.V ( 2003) : Criminology and Penology , Allahabad , Central Law
Publications.
Shah, Giri Raj (1995): Encyclopedia of Women Studies, N. Delhi, Gyan
Publications. Pg-141-150.
Vishaka and Anrs Vs Union of India, AIR 1997 SC3011.
www.hindustantimes.com.
www.opentopiadirectory.com.
www.india-seminar.com.
229
Puducherry
2009, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 231 - 237
RISK FACTORS OF VERTICAL TRANSMISSION AMONG
CHILDREN ATTENDING THE ICTC BHU VARANASI
* T.B. Singh, ** Ajay Singh, ***A.K. Gulati
Abstract
Background and Objectives : HIV infection was detected in our
country in 1986 in a sex worker in Chennai (Tamil Nadu), a southern
state of India whereas the virus was originated in Africa during 19591960. The first AIDS case was detected in 1981 in U.S.A. It has now
become a global epidemic. Presence of a HIV infection everywhere
highlight the spread from urban to rural areas, from the high risk to
the general population and from the permissive to conservative
societies. The major contributors to the spread of disease are migrants
with low literacy status. About 85 per cent transmission of disease is
horizontal. The estimate of HIV infected population in 2007 was 2.4
million in India.
Globally the epidemic is fastly increasing from highest risk group to
bridge population and then general population. Antenatal clinic data
indicate a rising HIV prevalence among women, which contributes to
increasing HIV infection in children. The prevalence of HIV infection
in India was 0.60 per cent among women attending antenatal clinics
(ANC).
The objectives of this study are to find out the prevalence and risk
factors with 95 per cent CI and status of presenting various morbidities.
Key words: HIV, weakness, loose motion, tuberculosis, anorexia, comorbidities, nuclear family and joint family.
Introduction
Across the globe, AIDS is responsible for an increasing number of deaths
each year. UNAIDS/WHO of the estimated 2.1 million killed in 2007 around
half a million were children aged below 15 years. At the end of 2007, an estimated
2.5 million children globally were living with HIV (1).
According to NACO (2007), 2.5 million people are currently living with
HIV/AIDS in India with adult prevalence of 0.3 per cent . It is estimated that
70,000 children below the age of 15 are infected with HIV and 21,000 children
* Reader, Division of Biostatistics, E-mail: [email protected]
** Research Scholar, Dept. of Pediatrics,
*** Prof. and Head, Dept. of Microbiology. Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi 221005
231
Risk Factors of Vertical Transmission among.................. ICTC Bhu Varanasi
are infected every year through mother-to-child transmission (Updated NACO
estimates 2007) (2). The country has an increasing population of children living
with HIV and those who have lost either one or both parents to an AIDSrelated illness. However, there are no official estimates available on children
affected and orphaned by HIV and AIDS in India. Some of the HIV high
prevalence state in India such as Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Manipur and Nagaland are grappling with increased numbers of
children infected and affected by HIV and AIDS.
Most children living with HIV - around 9 out of 10 - live in Sub-Saharan
Africa, the region of the world where AIDS has taken its greatest toll. Large
numbers of children with HIV also live in the Caribbean, Latin America and
South / South East Asia. Around 90 per cent of all children living with
HIV acquired the infection from their mothers during pregnancy / birth /
breastfeeding (3).
Paediatric HIV infection is a growing health challenge worldwide, with an
estimated 1500 new infections every day. In developed countries, well established
prevention programmes keep mother-to-child transmission rates at less than
2 per cent. However, in developing countries, where transmission rates are
25 - 40 per cent, interventions are available to only 5 - 10 per cent of women.
Children with untreated natural infection progress rapidly to disease, especially
in resource-poor settings where mortality is greater than 50 per cent by 2 years
of age. As in adult infection, antiretroviral therapy has the potential to rewrite
the natural history of HIV, but is accessible only to a small number of children
needing therapy (4).
An estimated 50 000 HIV-infected children are born every year in South
Africa, compared with around 25 per year and 190 per year in the UK and
USA, respectively (5).
Objectives
1. To assess the extent of HIV infections among study subjects.
2. To assess the differentials of positivity rates for various sociodemographic characteristics and
3. To find out the odds ratio and 95% CI for various co-morbidities.
Material & Method
The present study is based on Prospective data, which were collected
from VCTC (now renamed as ICTC), Department of Microbiology, I.M.S.,
B.H.U., Varanasi, during the period September-2006 to August-2007. The cases
were either referred from different OPD’s of the Sir Sunderlal Hospital of B.H.U.
232
July - Dec. 2009
or called for screening if their parent was HIV positive. Nearly all the cases
were from eastern Uttar Pradesh, Western Bihar, Western Madhya Pradesh
and Jharkhand. About 2-3 ml. of blood samples was collected in a plain vial. All
the samples either symptomatic or asymptomatic cases were tested for HIV
positivity using strategy II/III as per WHO/NACO guidelines. This study is
based on all 436 children (aged 0-14 years) out of total 5400 screened cases.
The data for this study was collected from (Voluntary Counseling and
Testing Centre (VCTC) (now renamed as ICTC), IMS, BHU, Varanasi from
September, 2006 to August, 2007. Out of 5400 screened cases, 436 were children
in the age group 0-14 years who visited the S.S. Hospital, for their treatment or
called for screening if their parent was HIV positive. 2-3 ml blood sample was
taken in a plain vial. HIV testing was done by following strategy-II/III guidelines
of WHO-NACO. c2 test was used to determine significant association if any
between the study variables and HIV positivity. Multinomial logistic regression
method was used to compute the Odds ratio and adjusted odd ratio (95 per cent
CI) for the risk factors of HIV.
Statistical Analysis
To find out the association between different risk behavior factors and
sero-positivity status Chi-square test has been used and data were analyzed by
using SPSS package 15.0. Multinomial logistic regression method was used to
compute the Odds ratio and 95 per cent CI for the risk factors of HIV.
Results
The percentage distribution of HIV positivity status according to age,
gender, residential status, educational status, occupation, family type and history
of hospitalization of the children is represented in table1. The distribution of
children in the age groups 0-4, 5-9 and 10-14 were 24.8 per cent, 48.2 per cent
and 27.1 per cent along with positivity 20.4 per cent, 26.7 per cent and 0 per
cent respectively. This positivity is not related to age exposure infection, this
HIV infection among children is due to vertical transmission. The gender wise
positivity status of this infection was not found significant (P= 0.36). The positivity
percentage was found 16.9 per cent and 23.2 per cent in rural and urban habitant
children respectively but there is statistically insignificant association (P= 0.141).
Among illiterate children the positivity was 23.5 per cent in compared to 15.3
per cent among having up to primary education and 0 per cent among the children
with higher education than primary level. Among studying children, the positivity
percentage was 0 per cent as compared to 25.2 per cent among non studying
children. Approximately double positivity percentage was observed in joint family
as compared to nuclear family. The children having the history of hospitalization
had one and half times higher positivity as compared to non-hospitalized children.
233
According to per capita income (PCI) of the family, 276 (63.3 per cent) children
belong up to Rs.600/= per month with a positivity percentage of 20.3 per cent
and 13.8 per cent in the PCI group of above Rs.600/= pm. This shows that
positivity rate is approximately one and half times higher in low per capita income
group as compared to high PCI group. Although the difference is not observed
statistically significant (P=0.09).
The HIV positivity rate according to various co-morbidities is presented in
table 2. The data shows that approximately fifty percent children had their HIV
positive status suffering with weakness, loose motion, anorexia and tubercular
infections.
Out of 73 (16.7 per cent) study subjects suffering with fever, 12 (16.4 per
cent) were seropositive (OR=0.885, 95 per cent CI; 0.451-1.737). 58(13.3 per
cent) children were suffering from weakness and 28 (48.3 per cent) of them
were seropositive (OR= 6.123, 95 per cent CI; 3.378-11.098). Approximately
50 per cent seropositivity was observed in children suffering from loose motion,
anorexia and tuberculosis with OR=4.889(95 per cent CI; 1.533-15.590),
OR=4.432(95 per cent CI; 1.653-11.883) and OR=5.002 (95 per cent CI; 2.30310.865) respectively. 16.9 per cent seropositivity was observed in children
suffering from other co-morbidities (OR=0.909, 95 per cent CI; 0.529-1.564). It
is very significant to see that 44 (16.7 per cent) children were seropositive and
were apparently healthy. All the positive study subjects had their father and
mother both seropositive. Out of 110 (27.7 per cent) children who had lost their
parents 22 (20 per cent) of them were seropositive.
Discussion
In spite of large number of seropositive children around the world, AIDS is
often assumed to be disease that kills only young and adults indulge in risky
sexual behavior and drug addiction. In Africa more than 1 in 3 new born infected
with HIV die before the age of one, over half die before reaching their second
birthday and most are dead before they are 5 years old(6). Sex and HIV education
must be provided to children at school level to reduce the infection and also
mitigate the stigma and discrimination of HIV/AIDS.
Table 1 illustrates that seropositivity reduces as the educational status is
increased. So, all children and young people should receive primary education
along with effective health and HIV education to mitigate the epidemic. As
majority of Indian population reside in rural areas, majority of the study subjects
also belong to rural areas and 62(16.9 per cent) were seropositive out of all (78)
seropositive. It is also found that joint family trend is usually followed in our
country. The percentage of children residing in joint family were 229(52.5 per
cent) with seropositivity of 22.7 per cent as compared to 12.6 per cent in nuclear
family.
234
July - Dec. 2009
Conclusion
The prevalence of HIV was 17.9 per cent among children in the age
group 0-14 years ranging from 16.9 per cent in rural to 23.2 per cent in urban.
Odds ratio was 1.49 with 95 per cent CI (0.80 - 2.77). The positivity rate was
observed 20.4 per cent and 26.7 per cent in the age group 0-4 and 5-9 years
with zero positivity in the age group 10 - 14 years. The prevalence was
approximately double in the joint family (22.7 per cent ) as compared to nuclear
family (12.6 per cent ). About 50 per cent prevalence was observed among the
children suffering with weakness, loose motion, tuberculosis & anorexia. Both
father and mother of positive children had the positive status. 82.1 per cent
father and 76.1 per cent mother of all study subjects were HIV positive. More
than one fourth children had loosed their father / mother or both. These children
are innocent but facing the problem of acceptance in society, care by the parents,
co-morbidities, quality of life etc. due to activities performed by the parents.
Counseling and support for children and their families can considerably
improve their quality of life; relieve suffering and assistance in the practical
management of illness. Along with the primary education sex and HIV education
must be provided at different stages to reduce the pandemic.
In order to develop appropriate means of enabling and protecting people,
either as children or adults, against the epidemic, adequate and judicious attention
need to be imparted to the rights and realities of childhood.
References
UNAIDS/WHO 2008 report on the global Aids epidemic.
NACO (2007) ‘HIV sentinel surveillance and HIV estimation, 2006’.
UNAIDS (2008), “Report on the Global AIDS epidemic”.
Andrew Prendergast, Gareth Tudor-Williams, Prakash Jeena, Sandra Burchett
and Philip Goulder: International perspectives, progress, and future challenges
of paediatric HIV infection; Lancet 2007; 370: 68–80.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Achievements in Public Health:
Reduction in Perinatal Transmission of HIV Infection. United States,
1985.2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2006; 55: 592-97.
Newell M-L, Coovadia H et al,”Mortality of infected and uninfected infants
born to HIV-infected mothers in Africa: a pooled analysis”, The Lancet
364(9441), 2004.
235
Table 1 HIV positivity status accordingly to socio-demographic
variable among the study subject
No. of study
subject
HIV +ve
cases in (%)
2-value/
P-value
Age group (year):
0-4
5-9
10-14
108(24.8)
210(48.2)
118(27.1)
22(20.4)
56(26.7)
0(0.0)
37.17
P<0.001
Gender :
Male
Female
248(56.9)
188(43.1)
481(19.4)
30(16.0)
0.84
P=0.36
Residential status:
Rural
Urban
367(84.2)
69(15.8)
62(16.9)
16(23.2)
1.57
P=0.141
Educations :
Uneducated
Upto primary
Above Primary
213(48.9)
183(42.0)
40(9.2)
50(23.5)
28(15.3)
0(0.0)
14.07
P<0.001
Occupation:
Not student
Student
310(71.1)
126(28.9)
78(25.2)
0(0.0)
38.61
P<0.001
Family type:
Nuclear
Joint
207(47.5)
229(52.5)
26(12.6)
52(22.7)
7.62
P=0.006
Hospitalised:
Yes
No
85(19.5)
351(80.5)
24(28.2)
54(15.4)
7.69
P=0.006
Per Capita Income:
1-600
601 and above
276(63.3)
160(36.7)
56(20.3)
22(13.8)
2.95
P=0.09
Variable
236
July - Dec. 2009
Table – 2 Distribution of seropositivity percentage among the study
subjects according to the co-morbidities
Variable
No. of study
subject
HIV +ve
cases in (%)
2-value/
P-value
Old
ratio
95% CI
Fever:
Yes
No
73(16.7)
363(83.3)
12(16.4)
66(18.2)
0.126
NS
0.885
0.451-1.737
weighloss:
Yes
No
19(4.4)
417(95.6)
0(0.0)
78(18.7)
4.33
p=0.022
1.230
1.175-1.288
weakness:
Yes
No
58(13.3)
378(86.7)
28(48.3)
50(13.2)
42.05
p<0.001
6.123
3.378-11.098
Loose motion:
Yes
No
12(2.8)
424(97.2)
6(50.0)
72(17.0)
8.66
p=0.010
4.889
1.533-15.590
Cough:
Yes
No
24(5.5)
412(94.5)
0(0.0)
78(18.9)
5.53
p=0.008
1.234
1.177-1.292
Anorexia:
Yes
No
17(3.9)
419(96.1)
8(47.1)
70(16.7)
10.25
p=0.005
4.432
1.653-11.883
tuberculosis:
Yes
No
29(6.7)
407(93.3)
14(48.3)
64(15.7)
19.53
p<0.001
5.002
2.303-10.865
others:
Yes
No
130(29.8)
306(70.2)
22(16.9)
56(18.3)
0.118
p=0.423
0.909
0.529-1.564
Apparently Healthy:
Yes
No
264(60.6)
172(39.4)
44(16.7)
34(19.8)
0.682
p=0.242
0.812
0.495-1.332
Father +ve:
Yes
No
326(82.1)
71(17.9)
78(23.9)
0(0.0)
21.14
p<0.001
0.761
0.716-0.808
Mother +ve:
Yes
No
302(76.1)
95(23.9)
78(25.8)
0(0.0)
30.54
p<0.001
0.742
0.694-0.793
Parents expired:
Yes
No
110(27.7)
287(72.3)
22(20.0)
56(19.5)
0.012
p=0.507
1.031
0.594-1.789
237
Puducherry
2010, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 239 - 245
SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION AND HARASSMENT
AGAINST THE KOTHIS (MEN WHO HAVE SEX WITH
MEN) IN PUDUCHERRY - A QUALITATIVE STUDY
*A. Kirubakaran, **T. Subramanyam Naidu
Abstract
Men who have sex with men (MSM) community are a highly complex,
diverse and multi gendered population. Normally there are two clear
distinctions to this population, one that is clearly visible and the
other which is invisible as they exist as a part of the normative male
population. MSM in India have faced hostility and social
discrimination. The socio political environment of the country is not
favored for MSM. Even the legal system with regressive laws like
section 377 of the IPC violates the rights of MSM. MSM are the
target due to their perceived abnormal identities and sexualities.
Stigma and discrimination often results in lack of access to health
care and other social resources, increasing the susceptibility of MSM
to health risks such a HIV and STI’s. This qualitative investigation
explores the experience and context of stigma, harassment and
discrimination among Kothi (MSM) in Puducherry region. In this
study 25 kothi were interviewed and collected the information about
their social discrimination and harassment faced by them.
Key words: Discrimination, harassment, Kothi (MSM), social stigma
Introduction
Discrimination is sociological term referring to the treatment towered or
against a person of a certain group in consideration based solely a class or
category. Discrimination is the actual behavior towards another group. It is
often based on ignorance, prejudices and negative stereotypes, because many
people fear what seems strange or unknown they react with suspicion or even
violence to anyone whose appearance, culture or behavior is unfamiliar.
From the Kama Sutra to numerous ancient temple carvings, it is evident
that men who have sex with men (MSM) and Hijras or Kothi/Aravanis
(transgender women or male–to–female transgender persons) have existed in
India for thousands of years (Venkatesan Chakrapani et.al.2007). Strong
condemnations of same-sex behavior or attractions are also notably absent from
*
Ph.D. Research Scholar, ** Professor and Director, Centre for Study of Social Exclusion
and Inclusive Policy, Pondicherry University. E-mail: [email protected]
239
Social Discrimination and Harassment against .............. Puducherry - A Qualitative Study
Hindu religious doctrine. Despite Indian society’s general climate of acceptance
and tolerance, however, there appears to be limited public knowledge and
understanding of men who have sex with men (MSM) or same–sexual orientation.
Discriminatory practices, which may occur outside of the conscious awareness
of persons, who constitute the key institutions of society, may emerge from
family, community, medical, and legal systems. Indirect forms of oppression,
such as stigmatization and discrimination, are engaged by individuals or groups
as methods of social control to prioritize and enforce their particular beliefs,
worldviews, and their power within a society (Galtung, 1969; Link&Phelan,
2001). Forces may be complicit, if not actively engaged in stigmatizing and
discriminating Practices against MSM. Overall, stigma and discrimination against
MSM may need to be explored as a product of structural societal forces, as
opposed to traditional models that focus on stigma as an individual–level
phenomenon (Galtung, 1969; Parker Aggleton, 2003).
Study area
The qualitative study was conducted in Puducherry. Puducherry is a former
French colony. It is situated 160 km South of Chennai on the coramandal coast.
It has an area of 492 square km and total population is around 12 lacks.
Puducherry is known for its cosmopolitan culture.
Methodology
In this study non probability sampling methods is used, this can be also
called convenient sampling. It depends upon the convenient availability of the
samples, whenever the kothi (MSM) are seen in cursing point and drop in center
of NGO. The techniques used for conducting in the study are; case study
methods and focus group discussion. 25 individual have been interviewed for
case study and around 50 kothi has been used for focus group discussion. The
study was conducted with the help of community based organization (Sahodaran).
This NGO’s primarily serve for MSM community including those who are HIV
positive and those who engage in sex work.
Discussion
Kothis (Kothi is a male who show obvious famine mannerism and who
involve mainly, if not only in receptive anal / receptive oral intercourse
with men and also the persons who cross-dress and penetrate their male
partners) are socially excluded and also they were discriminated to attain their
human rights.
The study had made an attempt and explored the ways in which they have
been exploited of discriminated had been listed below under different heads.
240
July - Dec. 2010
Social Exclusion and
Discrimination of Kothis
(MSM)
Family and
Community
Isolation
Self Stigmatization
Depression and
Mental Abuse
Suicidal Thinking
Working
Environment
Health
Physical and Sexual
Harassment
Job insecurity
Unemployment
Differential Wage
Discrimination by Family and community
A proverb says that “every ass loves his bray” which means that even
the five sensed animals has love and affection towards his kid, but in case of
Kothis life it fails, after knowing that his son is an Kothi/Arvani they start ignoring
them and even exclude them from the family and they were also used to ill-treat
them by abusing wards and at the outmost they were also send out of their
family. The present study had observed that among 25 Kothis case study sample
about 45 per cent of them were forcible sent out of their house and even their
parents feel shame to tell that they are their son.
The rest of 55 per cent of them were allowed to stay at their house but at
the same time they were made to stay isolated. They were not allowed to mingle
with their relatives and family ceremonial gathering too. This people were avoided
to seek any support either by financial and or moral support from their own
family members. Some time they were not even provided with their basic needs
for a human being like food, cloth etc, and these pathetic situation made them to
come out from family to hunt for their financial need.
The following two case studies explain their bitter experiences faced by
them being a Kothi (MSM) behavior.
A 24 years old Kothi, respondent respected stigmatization as well as leave
from their own family member and relatives, which made him to lose his invaluable
source of support from his family. Knowing that he was a Kothi by some means.
The family members in response to explore his sexual orientation they had started
to abuse and had a violence of attempt on him, which made him mentally
depressed and had made a suicide attempt. He was rescued by his fellow Kothi’s
and he was taken for counseling by the NGO counselors.
Another Kothi presently aged 28 responded that he is the only son of his
family. When he was 14 years old he found that he was very much attracted by
241
male and fell shy and working with male. “I was more attracted to wear female
costume in absences of my family. I used to decorate my self with female
costume, and even I had started to have sex with a Panthi (Male sexual partner)
secretly. Some how my parents had come to know the activities and they
started scolding and using abused words, physical punishment to stop such
activities. Even though my mind says that I am physically a man and I should not
have sex with man. My sexual urge attracts towards man, even after valuable
advice I was made to send out from family. Now I am residing along with my
fellow Kothis”.
Discrimination and violence in working Place
Another dimension of discrimination to the Kothi community occurs in
their work place. If they were identified that he is a Kothi, no one come forward
to offer a job. Even if they got employed after great struggle, majority of them
were employed as daily wages labourer (painting labour, construction labour
etc.) and salesmen in the shops. The study inferred from the respondent that
Kothi cannot able to sustain the job in a single place not more than six month
permanently, because of the reason that the employee pay them with very meager
salary/wage or the sexual assault by their fellow colleagues.
Among 25 Kothi respondent the study had inferred that only 11 Kothis are
employed and the rest 14 Kothis are unemployed. Even among these 11 employed
Kothis seven of them employed as daily wage labourer and four of them are
working as salesmen/helper in the shop. A daily wages Kothi is paid less salary
when compared to other co labourers.
A 32 year old Kothi respondent says that, he was working in a building
construction site as helper, he got very less wages then other co labourer by the
contractor, because the contractor knew him that he is a Kothi, when the Kothi
person asked about his reduction of wage, the contractor denied his service. So
in this way the Kothis are discriminated and abused in the work place.
Health care Oppression
The Kothis were discriminated and stigmatized by the health care providers
and by the hospital staffs by outright insults and refusal of service which directs
them to approach substandard medical practitioners. It has been observed from
the study many Kothis feels very much uncomfortable to report their health
ailments and symptoms which will disclose their MSM sexual behavior, which
will create a distress by the service providers. The study inferred that among 25
Kothis 17 Kothis used to consult for treatment from the NGO’s clinical physician,
eight Kothis used to take treatment to their aliments from private physicians.
They avoid visiting the Government Hospitals, because of many reasons, like
they had to disclose their personal problems at public.
242
July - Dec. 2010
A 33 years Kothi respondent said that, once he went to a government
hospital, for some illness to consult the doctor, but in the receptionist refused to
registrar out patient card on his name, when he pronounced a female name and
finally he entered his name by knowing his gender. The problem starts when he
joined in the female Q, the female patients did not permit him to stand in their Q
and insist him to stand in male Q, but he had refused to do so. There he was
abused by the filthy words by both the gender patients, among the one of the
patient ill-treated and scolded that you people use to play sex with all type of
people and act as an carrier of contagious diseases and come over for spreading,
which made him not to take treatment in the government hospitals even at the
time of death bed. At last the medical ward attendant came to resolve the problem
to allowing him take treatment as a last patient. This ill-treatment from the
people in the hospital made him not to take treatment in the public hospitals.
Physical and Sexual Harassment
Consequences of stigma and discrimination of the Kothis by Physical and
sexual harassment by the social elements are more frequent incident. Among
25 case study sample with the Kothi, it was observed that 13 Kothis shares their
bitter experiences tortured by the rowdies and social elements one among the
Kothi, said that rowdies used to keep on eyes on us, and when they get chance,
grab the money and abused and sexually assault us. Due to their future survival,
they can not complain against rowdies. Once the Kothi approached to police
station for their justice and protection, but they were completely rejected and
the same time orally and physically abused by the Police in the Police station.
Apart from that, some time the Panthi forced us to have anal sex with them.
A 31 years old Kothi responded said that, two year back, when he was
employed as security in a private company, one day he was, returning from his
duty, the labour from the same company who is friend of me invited for a party
in his house with five more friend of him and they had forced me to have liquor
with him. When I was completely in an unconscious stage, one by one had
started to have anal sex with me which I could able to recognize only in the
morning and left me alone and run away form the room. After sexually abused,
I was severely injured in anal with continuous bleeding and I could not able to
convey this to any one due to shame, at the same time I am in urgent need
treatment for it, so I had taken medicine from medical shop to heal the wound.
This incident made him to quit his job from the company.
Summary and Conclusion
The present study inferred that the Kothi identified (MSM) in Puducherry
are facing social discrimination stigma and harassment. They are discriminated
and harassed from family, society and community, sexual partner, rowdies,
243
Policeman and health care providers. The study had observed that out of 25
case studies sample about 45 per cent of the Kothis are forcibly sent out of their
house, even their parents fell shame to inform they are their sons. They were
not allowed to mingle with their relatives and social gatherings. Kothis were not
provided with basic needs and support from him own family. This situation made
them to come out from the family to hunt for their financial need and also involve
in sexual activities. Discrimination to the Kothi community occurs in their work
place too. Kothis are denied to offer job by the employee. Among 25 Kothis
respondent 11 Kothis are employed in daily wages and as salesman job, rest of
them unemployed. Even wages also paid for Kothis are very less than that of
their co-workers. The Kothis were discriminated and stigmatized by the health
care providers and hospitals staff by outright insult and refusal of service which
direct them to approach substandard medical practitioners. Among 25 Kothis
17 Kothis used to consult for treatment from NGOs clinical physician and eight
Kothis used to take treatment from private physician. They neglect to visit the
government hospitals. They had to disclose their personal problems at public.
The study inferred that among 25 Kothis respondent 13 Kothis were tortured by
the rowdies. Rowdies were extorting money from the Kothis. Some time the
Panthis forced them, to have anal sex without wearing condom it was also
noted that even sometime the Panthi with his friends use to have group sex with
Kothi and they do not pay for his service. This kind of incident may have higher
risk of HIV infection to the Kothi.
Suggestion
 As like in the Western countries, the Kothis should also be recognized
and their legal rights should be amended as a bill in India.
 The basic human rights should be made available for the destitute Kothis.
 Knowing that a boy has been notified as Kothi, their parent should not
exclude them from their family. Necessary awareness and counseling
should be given to their parents to be affectionate with them, which will
help the Kothis not to indulge in immoral activities.
 Awareness programmes through media should be hosted to treat the
Kothis has fellow human being and they should be treated a one among
them.
 Legal laws should be strengthened to stop the sexual and physical torture
by the local rowdies and gangsters.
 Police should accept the complaints by the Kothis to assure equal justices
without delay.
244
July - Dec. 2010
 A separate wing should be operated in the government hospital for the
Kothis medical welfare.
 Minimum rights of reservation should be provided in the education and
in employment.
 Initiative has to be taken by the NGOs / Government organization to
create awareness about SHG and eligible Kothis should be provided
with government bank loan with subsidiary.
 Through small scale industry promotion wing the Kothis should be given
industrial training to get more employment opportunities or to start their
own business.
References
Galtung,J. (1969). Vioence, peace and peace research. Journal of peace
research, 6, 167-191
Link, B.G. & Phelan, J.C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of
Sociology, 27,363-385
Parker, R, & Aggleston, P. (2003). HIV and AIDS – related stigma and
discrimination: A conceptual framework and implication for action. Social
Science & Medicine, 57, 13-24.
Venkatesan Chakrapani, Peter A. Newman, Murali Shunmugam, Alan
McLuuckie, and Fredrick Melwin. (2007). Structural violence against Kothiidentified men who have sex with men in Chennai, India: AIDS Education
and Prevention, 19(4), 346-364. The Guilford press.
245
Puducherry
2008, Vol.3, No.2. pp. 247 - 249
PROCEDURES AND REFERENCES MODEL
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For publishing the articles in the January issue the article should
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Book by a single author:
T.S.Naidu, Futurology-Forecasting and Assessment: Theory and Practice,
Madras: New Century Book House, 1996, pp. 12-14.
Edited volume:
T. S . N a i d u ( e d . ) , Tr i b a l H e a l t h i n I n d i a – P ro b l e m s a n d F u t u re
Prospectives,Puducherry: Pondicherry University, 2007, p.101.
Books of two or more Authors
K.S.Mathew and Afzal Ahmed, Indo-Portuguese Relations, New Delhi: Manohar,
1992, pp.27-28.
K.S.Mathew et al, Indo-Portuguese Trade during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries, New Delhi: Mittal, 1999, p.225.
Journal Articles
T.S.Naidu, “Gynic and Obstetric Practices of Four Primitive Tribal Women in
Tamilnadu”, Man in India, Vol.86 Nos.3&4, July-Dec. 2006, pp. 229-240, Serials
Publications.
Indira Gandhi, “India and the World”, Foreign Affairs, vol.51, no.1, October
1972, p.69.
Sisir Gupta, “National Interest and World Reform”, in P.F.Power, ed., India’s
Non-alignment Policy: Strength and Weakness, Boston, 1967, p.90.
M.S.Rajan, “Non-alignment without Myth”, in Power, op.cit., pp.90-92.
247
Subsequent references
Ibid.
Mathew, Ibid., pp.101-2.
Mathew, op.cit., pp.101-2.
Mathew, n.1, p.21.
More than one book by the same author
Mathew, n.1, p.23.
Mathew, n.3, p.34.
Nehru, Speeches,
Nehru, Selected Works,
Corporate author
American Medical Association, The American Medical Association
Encyclopedia of Medicine, New York: Random, 1989.
International Monetary Fund, 1997, Surveys of African Economy, Washigton
D.C.: International Monetary Fund
Translated and Edited Book
Homer, The Odyssey. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Viking, 1996.
Isabel Allende, “Toad’s Mouth.” Trans. Margeret Sayers Peden. A Hammock
beneath the Mangoes: Stories from Latin America. Ed. Thomas colchie, New
York: Plume, 1992, pp.83-88.
An Anonymous Book
Encyclopedia of Virginia, New York: Somerset, 1993.
A Guide to Our Federal Lands, Washington: National Geographic Society,
1984.
Book Published in a Second or Subsequent Edition
Geoffrey Chaucer, The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Ed.F.W.Robinson, 2nd ed.
Boston: Houghton, 1957.
Rev. ed. – “Revised Edition”
Abr. Ed. - “Abridged edition”
A Multivolume Work
Arthur M. Schlesinger, gen. ed. History of U.S. Political Parties. 4 vols. New
York: Chelsea, 1973.
In case of using one volume only –
René Wellek , History of Modern Criticism, vol.5, New Haven: Yale UP, 1986.
Winston S. Churchill, The Age of Revolution, New York, Dodd, 1957.
Winston S. Churchill, The Age of Revolution, New York, Dodd, 1957. Vol.3 of A
History of the English Speaking Peoples. 4 vols. 1956-58.
248
A Republished Book
Margeret Atwood, Surfacing. 1972. New York: Doubleday, 1998.
Kazuo Ishiguro, The Remains of the Day, London: Faber, 1989. New York: Knopf,
1990.
Online Documents
Abdelwahab El-Affendi, “Terrorism and the Democratic Imperative: Reflections
on Contemporary Muslim Politics”, December 2000, (http://www.islam21.net/
pages/keyissues/key3.htm), (14/12/2006)
Alvaro Vargas Llosa, “Human Rights, Revisited”, October 20, 2005, http://
www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1590, (11/2/2007)
Online Scholarly Project, Database etc.
Britannica Online, vers.98.2, April 1998, Encyclopaedia Britannica, May 8, 1998
http://www.eb.com/
Romance Languages and Literatures Home Page, January 1, 1997. Dept. of
Romance Langs. And Lits., U of Chicago, July 8, 1998 <http://
humanities.uchicago.edu/romance/>
Online Book
Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice, ed. Henry Churchyard, 1996, September 10,
1998 <http://www.pemberley.com/janeinfo/pridprej.html>
249
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