final journal 80 papers

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CONFLUENCE
ISSN: 2250-138X
22-23 February 2013
From the Editor
Tulsiramji Gaikwad-Patil College of Engineering and Technology and Abha College of
Engineering, both colleges a part of the Gaikwad-Patil Group, have been organizing
Confluence, the Annual International Conference on ESL/EFL, for the last four years. Based on
the papers presented here, we publish The Confluence Journal every year. The publications in
The Confluence Journal this year are again an effort by the people around the globe. It's a
tremendous joy to bring in the papers and I am glad for the overwhelming response of all the
participants in the Confluence.
This volume of The Confluence Journal contains papers from various countries like Australia,
UK, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, and Sultanate of Oman. Some of them have been
reprinted with permission from The Journal for ESL Teachers and Learners Volume II 2013.
I extend my gratitude to the ESL/EFL community for their support and encouragement. I thank
them for choosing The Confluence Journal as a platform for expressing their worthy views, and
also all those who have been instrumental in the compilation, editing and formatting of this
volume.
I hope that this volume fulfils the expectations of the academic community and I feel certain that
Confluence will continue to receive the invaluable support that we have enjoyed each year since
its inception four years ago.
Anjali Patil-Gaikwad
Chief Editor
CONFLUENCE
ISSN: 2250-138X
22-23 February 2013
The Confluence Journal
Contents
1.
Abhijit R. Aney
Lokmanya Tilak Mahavidyalaya, Wani, India
1
2.
Anil G. Dodewar
SSPM's Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Nagpur, India
3
3.
Anita P Wanjari
Bhandara, India
8
4.
Anjana Khare, Raees Unnisa
Libya; BSSS College Bhopal, India
13
5.
Archana V. Nikam
Dr. Rajendra Gode Polytechnic College, Amravati (M. S.) India
19
6.
Ashish Sharad Gurav
Maharashtra Shikshan Vikas Mandal's New College of Education, Nasik, India
22
7.
Ashwini A. Deshmukh
R. Mokhare Mahavidyalaya, Nagpur, India
27
8.
B. Balaji Reddy1, M.M. Gopi
Sri Venkatesa Perumal College of Engg. & Tech.,Chittoor, A.P. India
31
9.
B.C.Patil
J.D.M.V.P.'S Nutan Maratha Colege, Jalgaon, , India
36
10.
Benny George Samuel , Niraj Kendhe
Datta Meghe Institute of Engineering, Technology & Research,
Yeshwant Mahavidyalaya, Wardha, India
39
11.
Benny M. J.
44
12. Bhakti.S.Natoo
50
Acharya Vinoba Bhave Institute of Technology, Pawnar Wardha, Maharashtra, India
13. Brijesh Kumar
54
Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad (U.P.) , India
14. D.G. Thakare
57
Pulgaon Polytechnic Pulgaon, MS, India
Articles arranged alphabetically by authors’ first names.
I
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15. Datta K. Ramrule, Kanchan S. Kolurwar
61
Saraswati Mahavidyalaya, Kaij, Beed, Yeshwantrao Chavan College, Ambajogai, India
16. Dechen Zangmo Mitchell O'Toole & 3Rachel Burke
64
University of Newcastle, Australia
17. Deepshikha Mehra
70
Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and Management, Nagpur
18. Dharmapal B. Fulzele
77
19. Divya Lakhera
82
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar College, and Centre for Post Graduate studies,
Chandrapur, India
Prificiency in English Academy, Nagpur, India
20. Hanmanthrao Kulkarni
87
Laqshya Institute of Technology & Science Khammam.AndhraPradesh
21. Harish G. Tapadia
95
Vasantrao Naik Govt. Institute of Arts and Social Sciences, India
22. Indira Budhe
99
S. S. Girls' College Gondia, (M.S.) , India
23. Indira S. Patil
103
Nutan Maratha College,Jalgaon, India
24. Jyoti Sadar
107
Datta Meghe College of Education, India
25. K.N. Deshmukh
111
Shri Datta Meghe Polytechnic, Wanadongri, Nagpur, India
26. Kamlakar K. Askar
117
Dhanwate National College, Nagpur, India
27. Lalita Bisen
121
G. H. Raisoni Academy of Engineering and Technology, Nagpur, India
28. Lanka Bhakare (Mrs Geeta Raut)
126
Gayatri College of Education, Ahmednagar, India
29. M. B. Bhaisare
131
N.J.Patel College, Mohadi.Dist. Bhandara, India
30. M. S. Wankhede
136
Dhanwate National College, Nagpur, India
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31. Machhindra Govind Varpe
141
Mula Education Society's Arts, Commerce & Science College, Ahmednagar, India
32. Malvika Sharma
146
Pillai's Institute of Information Technology, Mumbai, India
33. Manjusha Y. Dhoble
154
Indira Gandhi College, Kalmeshwar, India
34. Mariam Thomas
159
Mahatma Jyotiba Fule College,Amravati, India
35. Meenakshi Chaudhary
164
36. Mick King
170
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
Exeter University, UK
37. Mohanraj, Uma Maheshwari
179
The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, India ResearchStudent,
The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, India
38. Natasha Rajabi Eslami
190
Exeter university, UK
39. P.Sateesh Kumar
197
Rajamahendri Institute of Engineering and Technology, A.P. , India
40. Phani Kiran
200
Al-Jouf University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
41. Pramod Salame
206
Nabira College, Katol, India
42.
Prashant Ramchandra Nalwade
Laxmibai Bhaurao Patil Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Solapur, India
43. Pratibha N Mahato
209
215
Kavi Kulguru Insitute of Technology & Science,Nagpur, India
44. Pravin Joshi
220
Sindhu Mahavidyalaya, Nagpur, India
45. Rajendra M Pise
224
Jagat Arts, Comm. & I.H.P. Sc. College, Goregaon, Dist. Gondia, India
46. Ramamurthy G.
230
III
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47. Rasika .V. Bayaskar
234
B.Tech III year VIT, Pune, India
48. Ratanlal.L.Yeul
238
Smt.L.R.T.College of Commerce, Akola , India
49. Raul Mora
243
School of Education and Pedagogy, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana (Colombia)
50. Ravi Kumar Mishra
252
Shri Ram Institute of Information Technology (SRIIT), Banmore, Morena (M.P.) , India
51. S. P. Rajguru
Rayat Shikshan Sanstha's, Laxmibai Bhaurao Patil Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Solapur, India
52. Sachin L. Patki
258
264
Adarsh Education Society's ACS College, Hingoli, India
53. Sadiya Mohammed Asabe
268
Bauchi State University, Nigeria
54. Sandeep K. Thorat
273
S. S. S. K. R. Innani Mahavidyalaya, Karanja Lad. M.S. India
55. Sandip P. Gawate
277
JSPM'S Jayawantrao Sawant Polytechnic, Pune, India
56. Sandip Prabhakar Khedkar
285
Arts, Commerce And Science College Ahmednagar, India
57. Sangita Phulsunge
290
Nagpur Institute of Technology, Nagpur, India
58.
Saroja Rao, Saranga Shirke
Vimaltai Tidke Convent & Junior College, Nagpur, India
59. Seetha Jayaraman
293
297
Dhofar University, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman
60. Shailaja V. Chaudhari, Vinod V. Bayaskar
302
Wahed Khan College of Education, Amravati; Nani Bai College of Education,
Amravati, India
61. Sharad R.Vihirkar
307
R.S.Bidkar Arts, Commerce & Science College, Hinganghat, India
62. Ms. Shashikala Walmiki
312
S.B.College Nasarapur, Pune
IV
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63. Shilpa Agrawal
318
Prerna Convent, Nagpur, India
64. Shirish Shinde
323
Shankarrao Mothite Patil Mahavidyalaya, Akluj, Solapur, India
65. Shitalbabu A. Tayade
330
Ramkrushna Mahavidyalaya, Darapur, India
66. Shraddhanvita Tiwari
336
NMD College, Gondia, India
67. Shubhra Roy
340
68. Sujata R. Tiwale
346
Somalwar High School, Ramdaspeth, Nagpur, India
K. M. Agrawal College of Arts, Commerce & Science, Thane, India
69. Sujoy Kumar Tarafder, Indradip Ghosh, Jaideep Ghosh
350
Sripat Singh College and Nagar College, Murshidabad,West Bengal;
Union Christian Taining College Berhampore,Murshidabad,West Bengal;
Indira Gandhi College of Physical Education,Nagpur, India
70. Sulok B. Raghuwanshi
357
Orange City College of Social Work, Nagpur, India
71. Sunanda Gorkar
365
72. Suresh Ramchandra Dhere
370
Rayat Shikshan Sanstha's, Laxmibai B. Patil Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Soalpur, India
73. Sutapa Dutta
376
Gargi College, New Delhi, India
74. Swaha Roy
383
Dr. Ambedkar Institute of IT & Management Sciences,Odisha
75. Swati A. Sharma
388
Bhopal School of Social Sciences (BSSS), Bhopal, India
76. V. H. Asudani, Monika R. Seth, Akanksha Deshpande
396
Shri Ramdeobaba Kamla Nehru Engineering College, Nagpur, India
77. V Pradeep Raj
402
78. Vandana Pathak
405
L.A.D. & Smt. R.P. College for Women, Nagpur, India
V
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79. Vandana V. Bhagdikar
410
Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Nagpur, India
80. Vijay Baburao Pande
416
Savitribai Phule Mahila Mahavidyalaya Washim, India
81. Vijay M. Khadse
422
English, Arts, Commerce and Science college, Arvi, India
82. Vinita. S. Virgandham, Dr. (Ms) Deepshika Mehra
426
83. Waman G. Jawanjal
432
Bar. R.D.I.K. & N. K.D. College, Badnera (Rly.) Amravati, India
84. Yojana Patil
437
D.T.S.S. College of Commerce and P.D.T. Junior College of Commerce
and Science, Mumbai, India
85. Zohre Hadi
443
School of Paramedical Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Iran
VI
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Teacher Training For English Literature
Abhijit R. Aney
Lokmanya Tilak Mahavidyalaya, Wani
Abstract: Teacher training in English Literature is a need of the hour. For the better comprehension of the literary
text it has become a necessity in the post-modern world. By training the Teachers the stalwarts of the field will do a
great social service as they will produce trained Teachers who will guide the next generation. These trained Teachers
will be able to draw out a different and new meaning of the literary text they come across in their life.
By applying personal wisdom they will give a new dimension to the text and also to the thought procedure of
the literary student. This new technique of giving a new dimension to the text will be beneficial for the world readers
also because with the newly trained teachers & students they will be in a position to set a new & innovative meaning of
the literary texts.
Introduction
In the post modern world where more importance is given to a language than literature, I thought it
better to focus my attention on the subject related to literature. English literature is a vast subject.
According to W.R. Goodman “whatever is written, the best of it is what we call literature.” If we take the
definition of Goodman into consideration it is obvious that literature is not easy for comprehension.
Literatures of the world in various countries have produced infinite number of classics. And these
classics are not easy to understand. For the better understanding of literature, a reader has to train
himself/herself by reading such classics. The part of reading is limited only for the enjoyment of reading.
But when it comes to the matter of teaching such classics to the students the part of training the teachers
assumes great importance.
While teaching literature in the classes, it is necessary that the teacher who teaches that text must get
fully acquainted with all the aspects of the same. And for having a full acquaintance with the subject he
must get certain facilities so that he can focus his/her attention on the subject and can have the better
understanding of the subject by himself. Unless and until he/she gets all the facilities he/she will not be able
to comprehend the subject matter fully and hence will not be in a position to teach that subject matter
properly to his/her students.
Now the question is what kind of facilities does one get for the better comprehension of literature?
And this can be a debatable question. Because for someone comprehension develops naturally as he/she
grows up. But for some others it is a hard & laborious procedure if one wants to achieve mastery over the
skill of comprehension.
The basic point in this is that whether the mind of the teacher, and I am talking about a subconscious
mind, is willingly ready to read and comprehend literature. The second point is whether he is alert enough to
point out or mark the changes which are taking place in the field of literature. Unless a teacher is genuinely
interested in studying the subject and noting the developments he/she will not be able to grasp the whole
meaning of literature.
Now a days it has become a fashion amongst the writers to prefer a realistic mode of representation
or this is probably a concession to the public taste. But the question remains unanswered that whatever we
observe in our surrounding world and we present it as it is does it contain the subconscious mind of the
writer? And if we find that due to the writer's insistence of presenting a realistic scenario before the world,
the post-modern literature is facing the lacuna of the absence of the subconscious mind of the writer in
literature.
Another important point is that whether in the writings of the post modern writers the prudence is
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present or not? Due to their attempt of presenting a realism, they don't have the option of using their sense of
judgment in their writing. Now if the writer does not get the opportunity it is not the matter with the teacher.
Whatever is written by the writer, the teacher can draw out a positive from the writings of the author. If the
teacher is intelligent enough he can draw out the positive meaning.
For the better understanding of ELT the teacher training is necessary. It is a need of the hour. The
metro-Politian cities have the better opportunities to stay connected with the world through internet. But
the teachers living in the rural or coastal areas don't get the electronic media facility. Secondly, all the
training courses are generally organized in the cities since the facilities and resource material are available
there.
In such courses the Teachers should be guided in following ares:
 How to comprehend the meaning of literary texts
 How to use the reference books
 How to draw conclusions about the topic, if there is a difference of opinions amongst the critics on
that topic etc.
One more important point which should be noted here is that for understanding English Literature in a better
manner one should have a thorough acquaintance with English culture and English history.
For the better understanding of literature linguistic barriers has to overcome. In the post modern
world the literature through translation has gained a tremendous popularity amongst the writers of the
world. So every teacher should be at least a bilingual.
Now the time has come that the literary geniuses/stalwarts should guide the young teachers for the
better understating of English Literature. If they do so, this generation of young teachers will be grateful to
them and the future generation of the students will be benefited.
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Role of Modern Technology in Teaching-Learning of English Language
Prof. Anil G. Dodewar
SSPM's Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Nagpur
Abstract: Use of modern technology has become a part and parcel of our daily life not only in language learning
activity but in other fields of knowledge also. The contemporary world has seen a revolution in information and
communication technology. Computerized class-room for language learning is an upcoming academic field that
exposes the role of information and technology involved in teaching-learning English language. Use of computersupported classes is trendy as it facilitates the various forms of material to the learners through the helping hand of
multimedia. The rapid development, not only in the field of academics but also others, has triggered the use of
Multimedia. According to Feldman, “Multimedia is all things to all people. The name can convey a highly specific
meaning less than nothing, depending on your audience. In fact, multimedia is a singular mix of disparate
technologies with overlapping applications in pursuit of a market and an identity.” (49)
Hence, an attempt would be made in this paper to discuss the use computer-based modern technologies in teachinglearning English language. The focus would be laid on some effective audio video teaching aids available in the form
of websites and softwares which play crucial role in making classroom teaching more effective and live.
Introduction:
English language, as a medium of communication, has acquired a global significance in this fast-moving
world of globalization where the survival has become a sweat-rending and back-aching task for every
individual. The social, economic, political, cultural and scientific significance of English language has
made all professionals like engineers, doctors, scientists, teachers, and others rethink about their English
communication skills and find out ways to improve them. More and more multi-national companies are
looking forward to India for world-class business opportunities as a result of which it has become necessary
to learn English language for an international communication. But teaching-learning English as a language
poses many challenges for non-native speakers because English is a European language having some
unique characteristics and these unique characteristics hinder non-native speakers from obtaining a strong
command of it. The modern computer-based technologies have therefore become indispensable in English
language learning. The learners and teachers of English language need to innovate in their methods and
techniques to materialize their objectives. They need to be very innovative, imaginative, and resourceful. In
addition to the traditional concepts and techniques, they need to adopt some modern computer based
techniques to enhance the learner's ability to learn a foreign language effectively. Any method using
computers or modifying the existing conventional chalk-talk method is innovative if it serves the attainment
of core objective of teaching. There are hundreds of effective audio video language teaching aids available
in the electronic world. Various websites and softwares like Telnet, File Transfer Protocol, CD ROM, Tell
Me More, WBTL, PowerPoint Presentation, Windows Media Player, Quick Time Player, etc. proved to be
very beneficial in learning English language more lively and effectively. Learning language through
modern computer based technology is a great experience to acquire the four basic communication skills to
speak, to listen, to read and to write. It offers a spectrum of language learning process. Text, video and voice
tools are certainly affordable and can be used without any problem in class room teaching. Computer-Aided
Language Learning along with interactive multimedia and internet brings the real world environment into
the classroom making learning more relevant and interesting. It adapts real life material with pedagogical
aspects of autonomy, self-spacing, sub-conscious imitation of linguistic elements and individual
instructions.
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Use of Multimedia:
Multimedia provides a new dynamic environment not only for the teachers but also for language learners.
Use of multimedia makes language learning more productive. It has a great potential in facilitating learners
with creative and critical thinking. It improves their cognitive skills.
Multimedia is nothing but the combination of various digital media types such as text, images, audio and
video into an integrated multisensory interactive application or presentation to convey information to an
audience. The teacher uses multimedia to modify the contents of the material. Using different elements like
slide projectors, film-strip projectors, film projectors, videocassette-recorders, DVD players, linguaphones etc. helps the teacher to convey whatever he wants in a more meaningful way. These media elements
can be converted into digital form, modified and customized for the final presentation. By using multimedia
or digital media in teaching English as language, the teachers can help students to learn better and motivate
to pay more attention to the information presented. There are many multimedia technologies that are
available for users to create these innovative and interactive multimedia applications.
Interaction or inter-personal-machine contact plays a crucial role in language acquisition and multimedia
abounds in audio, video and interactivity via keyboard, mouse and microphone. Interactivity in learning is
“a necessary and fundamental mechanism for knowledge acquisition and the development of both cognitive
and physical skills” (Barker, 1994:1). The various features of multimedia like color, graphics, images (still
and animated), audio, video, text, design, cliffs, etc., enhance students' depth of participation, skill
acquisition, comprehension, efficiency, achievement, retention and his ability.
TELNET is a network protocol used on the internet or local area networks to provide a bidirectional
interactive text-oriented communications. It is the internet's remote login application which allows us
sitting at computer and login to any number of computers across the room, the campus, the country, or
around the world. This enables one to control the server and communicate with other servers on the network.
To start a Telnet session, one has to login to a server by entering a valid username and password. Telnet is a
common way to remotely control Web servers. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) allows moving files between
accounts on different computers, wherever they might be, at home and at the office or even in different
cities, as long as both computers have internet addresses. Special Software for Language Learning and
Teaching provides access to dictionaries, encyclopedias, and atlases on a single CD-ROM. Using language
learning software to pick up a foreign language is a unique way to stimulate our mind and broaden our
horizons. Some of the best language software available today is offered by Tell Me More. Online Oral
Training contains a pronunciation section with a corresponding audio followed repetition drills. A Helper
Application is program that is automatically called by the browser when needed to display a File from the
internet. Some common examples include Windows Media Player and Quick Time Player for playing
streaming contents. Acrobat Reader is an example of a helper application for postscript files in which
graphics and formatting are maintained as in the original document. E-mails yield a number of opportunities
for interaction. Databases allow users to store, organize, and query information by keyword. Word
Processing programs allow students to independent publishers of ideas and opinions. Using graphics allow
authors to illustrate their stories. Spreadsheets software packages enable users to organize number in rows
and columns. It thus allows for automatic calculations and creations of charts and graphs. Simulations are
excellent constructive learning tools, since users can negotiate environmental constraints, solve simulated
real-world problems, and witness the effects of changes in variables. The World Wide Web is a computer
network consisting of internet sites collection that offer text, graphics, sound and animation resources
through the hypertext transfer protocol. Information and resources around the world can be accessed, by
anyone, from anywhere in the world, as long as one is connected to the internet.
Web-Based Teaching-Learning:
Web-based animation and simulation techniques make the teaching learning process more dynamic.
Teachers and students can feed the data and make observations on the basis of which they can draw the
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conclusions and confirm the results. The rich multi-sensory nature of the web-based learning makes the
subject to be taught very interesting. One can design and develop his/her project on the internet and compete
with peer groups from different countries and influence the knowledge level of the global society. The
WWW sites offer guidance to online higher education courses and online programs.
Compact Disc Read Only Memory (CD-ROM):
It is a disc on which texts; still visuals, video and sound-cliffs and other such data can be stored for
interactive learning. CD-ROMs are popularly used to distribute computer software including games and
multimedia applications. In addition to it, they can also be used of data transfer. It is dynamic combination of
animation, audio, and voice recordings, something providing more than 100 hours of instruction and
interactive practice. It is perfect for independent study or for teachers who want to combine classroom
instructions with computer based learning in the lab. Students watch a video, read and write. It's an eyeopening experience to watch the enthusiasm of learners. Animated Grammar Presentations inform students
about grammar and usage in lively, accessible and engaging ways. Development of Grammatical
Awareness helps the students to notice how grammar works by highlighting use of forms. Extensive
Grammar Practice provides more than 500 new interactive exercises including the skills listing, speaking,
reading and writing. This devise con be very useful in making language-learning a delightful task.
Power Point Presentation (PPT): is the software (Microsoft) which is used for creating presentations
usually in the form of slide shows. The use of this software in teaching English language can make language
learning process more interesting and productive because of its visibility. It helps student-concentration and
guarantees effective learning. Power Point presentations are easy to obtain, modify and create. They are
versatile and a great asset to any classroom. It can be used to teach new ideas and concepts to the students.
PPTs can be created, saved and re-used, modified and shared with others. Power point presentations are
much more for practice and drills. They are great for reviewing ideas which have already been taught.
Through PPT, a teacher can leave a lasting impression of what he teaches on the minds of students. PPTs also
help language learners memorize some of the unique features of the language through its visual
impressions.
HI CLASS Software: is a newly developed leading product of HI Class series into the field of network
teaching. HI Class Software broadcasts audio and video signals with high efficiency. It can transmit the
Audio Video signals between the Student station and the Teacher station. It provides a two way audio
communications in broadcast - the teacher can enable the student to listen and discuss with interactively. It
establishes quick and healthy interaction between the teacher and the students. The Screen Capture and
Electronic Pointer help teachers and learners to manage the required material immediately. The File
Transfer Function makes file distribution easy and fast. The teachers can send files to students' computers
with a click.
Conclusion:
Computer-based Language Learning brings the effective and delightful environment into the classroom
which makes language-learning more productive, relevant and interesting. It helps in adapting real life
material with pedagogical aspects of autonomy, self-spacing, sub-conscious imitation of linguistic
elements and individual instructions. In the world of information technology, the use of computer based or
multimedia devises can be effectively used for teaching-learning of English language. It provides students
an opportunity to learn everything independently and to cope up with this explosion of knowledge. It is
therefore imperative for the teachers and the language learners to adopt technology in language learning to
make it more effective and productive. With the help of the above mentioned modern techniques, the
process of language- learning can be made easier. The computer based teaching-learning techniques
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discussed and analyzed in the research paper will definitely prove to be fruitful not only for the teachers of
English language who want to improve the linguistic competence of students and materialize languagelearning activity in a very productive way but also for the learners who want to get command over English as
a second language.
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References:
Lakshminarayanan K.R., SCITECH Publications, (2004). English for Technical Communication,
, Dr. Varshney, Student Store, Bareilly, (2005). An Introductory Text Book of Linguistics and Phonetics
, John Bowden, Viva Books Pvt. Ltd., (2005) Speaking in Public.
B. A. Prabhakar Babu, CIEFL, Hydrabad, (1993). Teaching Spoken English in Colleges,
Dale Carnegie, Sulabh Publication Agra, 2007 How to Develop Self-Confidence and Influence People by Public Speaking,
Sheorey Ravi,Saga Publication, New Delhi. Learning and teaching English in India,
Ellis, Rad, Oxford University Press.Understanding Second Language Acquisition,
Gatenby, London Publication.Barker, P. 1994. English Language as a Foreign Language,
in T. de Jong & L. Sarti (Eds “Designing Interactive Learning”,), .
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers Design and Production of Multimedia and Simulation-based Learning Material.
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Importance Socio-Cultural Awareness in Classrooms
Anita P Wanjari
Department of English Bhandara
Abstract: English in India enjoys the rare distinction of being the medium of instruction, second or third language in
various contexts. The English textbooks prescribed today are more interesting than ever before. Since any kind of
communication is a product of cultural traits of the language community and English is a global language, the texts
have anecdotes, events, discoveries, descriptions and information about the people from all over the English speaking
world. Therefore in any kind of language teaching program it is very essential to create the awareness of crosscultural traits presented in the English textbooks so that our children and future generations develop a global outlook
and progress by imbibing good practices and maintaining peaceful relationships with the outside world. No doubt
there is a global need to bring the outside world experiences into our classrooms. Hence any vocabulary item or
event or incident in the text-book related to a particular culture must be handled with great are so that false barriers to
understanding cultures can be brought down. Only then we can hope to nurture 'Vishva Bhartis', i.e. Indians with a
universal outlook who can spread cultural brother hood and communicate in English which is globally understood.
Introduction
There are so many factors that affect the teaching-learning process in India. The students in India can be
categorized into two; the one is having the regional language as medium of sturdy from the primary
level and the other is having English as the medium of study. Hence, the problem of teaching English as
a second language, to the Indian students starts from the pre-schooling. Further environment and family
background play vital role in success of learning process. For example, countries like India, where
majority plays of the people are farmers, have the poor background in education. Moreover, the income
of majority of the families is not adequate. Hence, the parents are not interested in giving good
education background to their children. In contrast, they are willing to engage the children in some jobs
in order to earn money; this is the very basic reason and the affecting factor in teaching.
English in India enjoys the rare distinction of being the medium of instruction, second or third language in
various contexts. The English textbooks prescribed today are more interesting than ever before. Since any
kind of communication is a product of cultural traits of the language community and English is a global
language, the texts have anecdotes, events, discoveries, descriptions and information about the people from
all over the English speaking world. Therefore in any kind of language teaching program it is very essential
to create the awareness of cross-cultural traits presented in the English textbooks so that our children and
future generations develop a global outlook and progress by imbibing good practices and maintaining
peaceful relationships with the outside world.
English has become the vehicle of cross cultural studies since it has itself developed through other
languages and cultures over a long period of time. It has borrowed from European languages like French,
German, Italian and Scandinavian and from the non-Western world Arabian, African, Asian, Indian, etc.
through the British Empire in these regions. It is in this sense that it embodies multiculturalism and also the
layers of these various cultures which find expression in the writings of the various authors and poets.
What Are Cultural Traits?
Cultural traits represent the commonality of religion, beliefs, personality, dress-code, etc. which control the
behavioral traits of people living in a specific geographical area and speaking the same language. Each
speech community has its characteristic norms of what is considered polite, appropriate behavior, etiquette
and has its own characteristic DNA which is distinct from the others. Besides drawing students' attention to
a community's etiquette, dress-code, food- habits, rites and rituals , etc, it is essential to compare and
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contrast them with those of other communities, so that Indian students have a better chance of understanding
the world as it is and how others are different from our own. The outside world-experience when brought
into the classrooms helps to go beyond the text and develops a global outlook with tolerance.
Let us take a few important examples from Course-books that have been prescribed in schools and colleges
and certain features in general which give an insight into the cultural practices prevalent both Indian and
European!
Greetings
Indians when they meet would greet each other with a smile or nodding of the head or say “Namasteji” or
“Ram Ram” and some may say “Good Morning” “Good Afternoon” etc. The English would prefer to shake
hands and say “Hi or hello”. Germans would say “Guten Tag” meaning good day and “Auf Wiedersehen”
good-bye. In European countries, whether you know the person or not, it would be customary to nod one's
head or smile at least whenever there is an eye-contact with the person in front of you who may be waiting
for the lift or just crossing you while walking past. This is irrespective of gender, age or person's status, but in
Indian culture we do so, only if we know the person.
Conversation
Indians would not hesitate to ask questions and force other to talk in order to avoid 'silence' whereas the
English would not talk unless they are introduced to each other and at such times they would limit their talk
to 'conditions of the weather'. Indians would not hesitate to pick at sensitive political issues and even enquire
about the others' personal lives, such as their marital status, their income and business and even volunteer to
give such information about them. They would want to know everything about the other person in their very
first meeting whereas the British would not like to do so until they are sufficiently close to each other.
European value titles like Mr, Mrs, Miss, Prof, Dr. as a means of self-respect, e.g.”Mr. Durer”, “Mr.
Kingstein”, “Miss Brown”, and do not accept being addressed by their first names as a method of
establishing a personal friendly rapport that bonds a person to understand and help the other person feel
better.
Camaraderie
In cosmopolitan cities like Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, as in European countries, people don't
bother about who their neighbours are, but in rural areas here as well as abroad, people come out of their
homes whenever they feel like it, exchange niceties, snacks, recipes, gossip, etc. and sit and talk with their
neighbours, sharing each other's joys and woes.
Punctuality
Europeans are very conscious of time and are punctual. They respect other people's time. They call and
inform of any delays that might take place. Punctuality I not a very strong point with Indians who are often
late in keeping appointments or who make others wait outside their offices for hours. Some even joke about
maintaining “Indian Standard Time”.
Dress Code
In most schools and colleges in India, teachers wear comfortable and informal clothing while students must
wear uniforms. Formal Dresses are reserved for special occasions only. However in Europe, a formal dress
code is accepted as a general rule at workplaces and informal dress at weekends. Even at social functions
like weddings, funerals, concerts, Europeans wear formal dresses, be it summer or winter! In India, wearing
of pyjama-kurta, sarees, chappals or sandals is accepted and worn even with national attire. Not so in
England! Suits and shoes are mandatory. Different types of Indian attire and ornaments from various States
are mentioned in Class IX and class X textbooks and serve the purpose of teaching the concept of unity in
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diversity, because India comprises of various Linguistic states that have their own unique culture and yet are
bound to each other.
Appearances & Manners
Sloppy appearances, unpolished shoes are not to be tolerated in public get-togethers. “Scratching one's
head”, “picking one's nose and teeth”, yawning in public” are all signs of poor grooming in Europe. Indians,
at times, are totally unmindful of such behavior in public places. Therefore, dress-code, appearance and
etiquette have to be taught to students, especially those who study through the vernacular medium and
aspire to go abroad in the future. Certain universal, globally accepted etiquette must be taught in out
schools and colleges. This is being done in English medium schools to a very large extent and grooming of
personality receives attention.
Food Habits & Table Manners
Indians eat with their hands even in formal functions and grand hotels. Not so in Europe. Use of the fork,
knife, spoon and napkin is mandatory. Laying the dining table with plates and cutlery must be taught to the
children right from childhood. Indian foods are very spicy and their smells and odors may not necessarily be
pleasant for the Europeans. Conversely, European foods are rather Bland and only salt and pepper are the
common spices used, so that are not palatable to the Indians. European food items like pastries jam tarts,
puffs, cookies, ham, bacon, pork, and beef do not find favor with Indians. Apple-pies, puddings, jellies and
pizzas are not known to vernacular medium rural children. Vegetables like Brussels sprouts,, asparagus,
and parsley are not known even to students in English medium institutions. But if mentioned in the English
text-books, they have to be drawn attention to or even actually displayed in the class. Chinese dishes like
noodles, Manchurians, sweet and sour dishes are more known to children in the Indian cities than to those in
the rural areas, “Raising a glass of wine to give a toast” is a common cultural practice in the celebrations of
events conducted in Europe but these are unfamiliar in India. Some elite Indians who have visited European
countries do follow such practices in their homes. The Christian community, settled in India also follows
such practices during weddings, birthday parties and other celebrations.
Religious Rites and Rituals
There are different types of religious practices, rites and rituals prevalent in various States of India and
countries abroad. They also find mention in the text-books. These have to be dealt with objectively,
tactfully and with the care without ruffling sentiments. Rites and rituals practiced in India for a good harvest
or displaying of masks at the entrance of homes to ward off the evil-eyes of others are mentioned in the texts.
“Voodoo” is practiced by Africans. Tribal in India and abroad invoke gods for rains, good health and
money. The priest annoys a special status for he protects people from evils spirits, witches and ghosts, etc. by
conducting a variety of rituals and chanting mantras to propitiate various concerned gods and goddesses.
He also plays a lead role in conducting of the festivities and is paid handsomely for his services. In a lot of
work places, Indians like to light incense-sticks or diyas for religious purposes so that the day at work may
pass successfully, but in America this would set off the fire or the smoke alarm!
Gender Bias
In developing countries like India, boys enjoy a special status at home and at workplace. The girl- child is
neglected! Not so in the developed countries. Girls enjoy equal status. In India 'Suvasins, Dhanvaleris, etc'
enjoy a special status and they alone can perform certain rites and rituals for the family. The widows can't
participate in religious ceremonies and festivals or wear colorful clothes or partake of rich foods. The Warli
paintings are made only by women of the village and these depict social and cultural beliefs. So some kind of
socio-cultural status is enjoyed by women. In European countries it is normal for couples to live together
and have children without being married. Some pairs marry after their children are born. Such children are
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legally and socially accepted and are common in Europe. So is the practice of Divorce! The concept of a
single parent (a bachelor or a spinster looking after her child) is also very common'. Such practices were and
are still taboo in India but some rich and the famous and those of the lower social strata in India also follow
such practices through common consent.
'Red roses' offered to girls are indicative of romance whereas 'Yellow Roses' are indicative of friendship.
Fine Arts
European musicians like Mozart and Beethoven and western forms of music like 'symphonies, quartates,
concertos, etc'. are mentioned in the texts. So also the dance forms like waltz and tango. Titles like Sir,
Baronet, Barrister at Law, Knights, etc, have special mention and cultural significance. These need to be
explained and taught to students. Equally so with dance and music of the States in India. The 'Ragas of
music, The Lavani of Maharashtra, Garba of Gujarat, Bihu of Assam, Bhanngra of Punjab and various
dances of Karnataka and Kerala have been mentioned in the texts and must be taught to the students so that
they appreciate the rich cultural heritage of our country.
Conclusion
Students have to learn to value and respect all the cultures of the world, understand their differences and
realize how they are essential for human survival. Bonds of friendship are forged and also depend on the
understanding and tolerance of the other cultures. Hence they should be encouraged to have 'pen friends'
existing in other parts of the world. Cultural exchange programs at school and college level within the
country and where possible, abroad, should also be conducted. But a word of caution: always make them
realize that all are equal, no culture is better or worse.
No doubt there is a global need to bring the outside world experiences into our classrooms. Hence any
vocabulary item or event or incident in the text-book related to a particular culture must be handled with
great are so that false barriers to understanding cultures can be brought down. Only then we can hope to
nurture 'Vishva Bhartis', i.e. Indians with a universal outlook who can spread cultural brother hood and
communicate in English which is globally understood.
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References
Smith Larry E. (ed) 1981; English for Cross-cultural Communication, London: Macmillan
Kachru B.B. Educational Linguistics, Cross-cultural Communication and Global interdependence
Kumar Bharti English Textbook for Class IX, X M.S.T.B. Pune.
Times of India, Nagpur
www.crossculture.com,
www.britishcouncil.org
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Collision of Computer Mediated Communication on English
Language Discourse: Emoticons and Flaming, Abbreviations and
Acronyms
Ms Raees Unnisa Asst. Professor BSSS College Bhopal
Dr Anjana Khare Associate Professor, Libya
Abstract: Over the past twenty years, the Internet has radically transformed the way people communicate, both
locally and globally. This paper examines the linguistic tools we use to make this communication possible. Most
discussion involving the spoken versus written nature of online language revolves not around haste or even around
linguistic ambiguity, but around the paralinguistic cues (including facial expression, bodily stance, tone of voice) that
accompany face-to-face speech. The argument generally goes like this: Online language is a representation of
speech. Because some of the elements that bear meaning in face-to-face communication are missing online, such
media as email, instant messaging, and chat are prone to being misunderstood. Emoticons are an attempt to fill in
some of the paralinguistic gaps. Like a lot of subcultures, online members speak their own vernacular that can sound
utterly impenetrable to outsiders. Since so much of communication is online, vocabulary grew out of internet
vocabulary; there is a lot of use of abbreviations, acronyms, and emoticons. This glossary is supposed to be as
general as possible
Since CMC assumes the tangible form of written communication, recipients of such messages can only rely upon the
text itself to decipher the sender's intent. As a consequence, many CMC users have argued that the written CMC
medium is inadequate for expressing nuances of meaning (e.g., sarcasm, bemusement, tentativeness, irritation) that
facial expressions and/or vocal features typically convey in face-to-face spoken conversation.
Keywords: Digital competence, linguistic tools and communication
Introduction
Two linguistic features of CMC have emerged from these assumptions about the conversational nature
of CMC and the inadequacy of writing to express conversational intent. The first feature is emoticons (also
sometimes known as smiley's). The second is the phenomenon known as flaming. Besides emoticons and
flaming, a quintessentially written feature that has also been prominent in CMC is use of abbreviations or
acronyms. Unlike emoticons, abbreviations (and acronyms) have long been part of the written language
tradition, appearing both in handwritten manuscripts and print.
Language Variations and External Influences
Communication is part of human life since time immemorial. Scherba de Valenzuela (1992) describes
it as “Any act by which one person gives to or receives from person information about that person's needs,
desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states. Communication may be intentional or unintentional,
may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or nonlinguistic forms, and may
occur through spoken or other modes." (Scherba de Valenzuela, 1992:2). Given the fact that communication
is one of the basic necessities to human life, it has been considerably improved and enhanced for ease and
expedience in every era right from the earliest known communication. Apart from face to face (FtF)
communication, other forms of communication can only be made successful by an intermediary. In fact,
Whittaker (2002) captures this very well in his statement that "the natural human communication apparatus
is constrained in several ways". There are limits to the distance at which speech is audible, and visible
behaviors such as gesture, gaze or facial expressions are perceptible. Furthermore, these natural
communication behaviors are transient and do not persist over time. These limitations lead us to rely on
some form of mediation if we are to communicate at a distance and across time. People have therefore
invented media technologies that attempt to circumvent these limits to allow remote forms of
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communication.
This is what is meant by Mediated Communication. It is any kind of communication that uses some
form of intermediary for it to be accomplished. The mobile phone and the Internet are such mediation
technologies that this research focuses on. The emergence of Internet and cell phone communication in the
current age of information has triggered a lot of interest from researchers. In spite of this, most of these
studies have focused on the technological aspect and not much has been done using a linguistic approach
despite the fact that users keep adapting their languages to fit into the technologies while at the same time
manufacturers try to adapt their technologies to fit the users' languages. CMC is a general acronym for
Computer Mediated Communication which refers to the process by which people create, exchange, and
perceive information using technologies like networked telecommunications systems that facilitate or
mediate encoding, transmitting, and decoding messages. The definition of CMC has undergone a
metamorphosis since the term was first coined. Early studies defined CMC as messages exchanged by
networked computers. This definition lacked in the aspect of the contribution of the communicators. In the
late 1990's studies like December (1997) included the humanity component and defined Computer
Mediated Communication as a process of human communication via computers involving people situated
in particular contexts engaging in processes to shape media for a variety of purposes.
This was maintained over the years until the emergence of the mobile telephone and SMS. CMC
researchers then expounded the scope of CMC to include mobile telephony which is operated on digital or
analogue networks and thus broadly considered as mediated communication via networks. Arguably in
mobile telephony, computer networks are involved at some point in the message transmission process, only
that users are not required to interact directly with the computer system via a keyboard or similar computer
interface (Lawley 1994). I therefore concur that mobile telephony is indeed computer mediated albeit not as
directly and in such a directly observable way as the others. To take account of all these more specifically,
Herring (2007) defines CMC as predominantly text-based human-human interaction mediated by
networked computers or mobile telephony.
“I prefer the term graphic to text in order to also capture the use of Smileys, Emoticons and other
graphics in CMC”. This encompasses SMS as a text based format like Instant Messaging (IM), Social
Network Service(SNS), and Email thus covering all of them within the remit of CMC. As Eldridge &
Grinter (2001:219) aptly sum it up, mobile phones are, in effect, 'mini-terminals' (computers) for text-based
communication. This fact then brings me to establish that there are now smart phones which are being
manufactured and work just like a mini or pocket computer. They enable one to access and respond to
Emails and do instant messaging from anywhere in terms of text-based CMC.
The invention and development of these media innovations is very rapid. Höflich & Gebhardt (2005:9-31)
explain that media innovations are bringing about a change in the media ecology. A change in the existing
cultures of mediation can be seen. New media are added to the previous media repertoire leading to a
functional differentiation straight to the point that they overtake functions which earlier media had to take
simply for lack of alternatives. Within these processes, the communicative functions of earlier media can
change even to the point that they will finally lose their relevancy. A good example of this is the telegram
service through the post offices which has been discontinued in many places. Remarkable new forms of
"virtual culture” is now developing in this intensely social domain of human interaction (Danet & Herring
2007). The current most accessible CMC input and output continues to be mainly textual coupled with
graphics and pictures and even sound and video clips. More complex communication technologies like oral
video conferencing, computer-mediated face to face communication including visual images in real time
already exist, but are still expensive and so far not as commonly used although it is envisioned that their
usage will spread owing to the speed with which CMC advances.
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Challenges of CMC
It is not fair to discuss CMC without exposing its limitations. Just like any other technologies, CMC
has its weakness. Bubas (2002) captures these very well and lists the CMC challenges as including: Limited
social presence Anonymity-where the participants are not as clear as in face to face communication
Reduced/delayed message feedback Depersonalized communicational these in a way make CMC different
from face to face communication. It is also worth saying that some of these so called limitations are
advantageous to communicators depending on the reasons for communicating. I will discuss these
limitations in line with the text CMC that I am interested in. Short et al. (1976) define social presence as the
degree of salience of the other person in a mediated communication and the consequent salience of their
interpersonal interactions. It involves the extent to which a medium conveys the actual presence of
participants. CMC is limited in this but it is better than the traditional methods of communication. Users of
CMC are trying to get around this limitation by inventing Emoticons and Smileys to keep the receiver
informed about their feelings. This is a challenge to CMC manufacturers who are designing CMCs like
video-conferencing to increase the degree of social presence.
Anonymity is an important feature embedded in CMC. It can be understood as a condition that frees
individuals from social evaluation or scrutiny (Pinsonneault & Heppel, 1998). Thus, when the individuals
perceive themselves to be anonymous they can contribute without the fear of social repercussions. Visual
anonymity enables users to mask their physical or behavioral cues that are undesirable and strategically
disclose the ideal self of themselves. They present themselves as perfect according to the communication
context. Anonymity also enables users to carefully think and plan on what to say, how to say it and when to
say it and makes receivers to idealize their communication counterpart. Visual anonymity can be
advantageous to users who want to make genuine contributions in an anonymous way. But on the other
hand, it paves the way for fabrications and deception. On the feedback issue, CMC (especially text CMC)
offers reduced or delayed feedback as compared to FtF communication. This can be nerve-racking for those
who need instant feedback. IM is the fastest among the CMC genres in the current study. CMC can lead to
apathetic communication or aloofness and lack of any empathy thus removing any sense of connectedness
or intimacy; a situation that makes it easier for people to communicate cruel or inhumane messages.
As already explained, these limitations are advantageous to those who set out to use them for their
benefits while at the same time they are limitations and disadvantageous to the receivers.
My conclusion is at par with Riva's (2001) prediction that the technological evolution of the media leads us
to believe that CMC could become in the very near future, the predominant medium, or rather, it is possible
that it will become a general communication interface: an interface used for interpersonal relationship and
for the creation and management of information. This prediction is now a reality.
The Effect of Technology on Language and the Trend computer mediated Communication
Techniques such as Emoticons and various acronyms have been devised in an attempt to overcome this
growing problem of misunderstood communication. Emoticons are nothing more than characters that look
like a face when viewed side-ways. They are commonly inserted at the end of a sentence that is meant to be
interpreted as sarcasm or more generally are used when the writer fears that his words will be misconstrued.
A smiley face has the ability to transform a cutting remark into a comical jest. Acronyms also attempt to
diffuse the problem of flaming. Abbreviations such as IMHO (in my humble opinion), PMFJI (pardon me
for jumping in), are used by individuals who wish to express an opinion but wish to avoid being flamed by
others for their comment. These techniques are an ongoing attempt to overcome the lack of visual cues on
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electronic communication systems.
In his papers, Erving Goffman studied the techniques of impression management. He described how
people negotiate and validate identities in face to face encounters, and how people establish "frames" within
which to evaluate the meaning of encounters. He concluded that one of the things that people need to do in
their interactions with others is present themselves as an acceptable person. There are a number of
techniques and resources available to a person to allow them to do this. The most important of these
resources is the distinction between back region and front region in each individual. This distinction
minimizes the chance of presenting an unacceptable self by reducing situations that may be embarrassing.
In face to face interactions, attempts are made to present an "idealized" version of the front, more
consistent with the norms, mores, and laws of society than the behavior of the actor when not before an
audience. Any information dealing with peculiar behavior of the individual is concealed from the audience
while those characteristics which are socially sanctioned are made more prominent. While individuals may
display a "socially acceptable" front stage presentation to their audience, their back stage preparation often
contradicts the impression they have fostered. This indicates that the back stage is the more "truthful" type
of performance. It is within this region, absent from social responsibility, that conflict and indifference
towards societal values and norms are more fully explored. There is, however, pressure to display this
idealized self when interacting with others and so back stage performance is often suppressed. We can see
that those who display their back stage performance to others are stigmatized and discredited by society.
Therefore, in order to achieve full acceptance by society, the actor is forced to assimilate into it.
Electronic communication has established a new range of frames of interaction with developing
etiquette. On systems such as Newsgroups, the problem of establishing and maintaining an acceptable self
becomes less important. Over the Internet, place and distance become largely invisible. The
communications can be one-to-one but they may also be one-to-many, one-to-anyone, or one-to-no one.
Finally, due to the lack of frames of reference over the Internet, individuals are not able to frame their
interactions with others appropriately. These issues combined present restrictions for problem-free
communication on the computer.
In face to face interactions, the performer and the audience normally utilize techniques for "saving the
show" or avoiding likely interruptions. Over electronic communication, the accommodation process
becomes much less defined. Due to the anonymity on the Internet, individuals feel less pressure to follow
societal rules of politeness and decorum. The ambiguous nature of self over electronic communication
decreases the desire to maintain a working consensus between the performer and the audience. The attitude
which the performer would normally express in the absence of the audience begins to emerge. The
distinction between the "back region" preparation and the "front region" presentation become blurred. The
individual feels less need to hide his abnormal or socially unacceptable thinking and behavior. The back
region preparation comes to the forefront and those feelings which are normally suppressed begin to emerge
while the front region's socially sanctioned behavior becomes discarded. This phenomenon accounts for the
preponderance of flaming and flame wars which pervade much of the electronic highways. The individual
feels less constraint to present themselves as "normal" to others. A popular explanation for the
preponderance of flaming on the Internet is that flaming is a by-product of the medium itself- that the
decontextualization and anonymous nature of computer mediated conversation leads to the tendency to
forget that there is an actual human being at the receiving end of one's emotional outbursts. (Chapman, 14)
Computer networks and other various forms of electronic communication are increasingly hyped as a new
medium of democratic and social discourse. Many believe that these new virtual communities promote
fraternity and civic participation and soothe the anomie and coarseness of contemporary life. Electronic
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conversations on the Internet and other computer networks such as America on Line and Compu-Serve are a
new and interesting feature of contemporary social life and manners. The systems are engaging millions of
people in ongoing, semi-organized forums. Topics ranging from politics to gardening to astronomy all find a
niche in the ever increasing public dialogue.
While the new electronic medium is having a liberating effect for many, it is also producing
discouraging and even alarming displays of public virtue among many. The growing phenomenon of
flaming- insulting, argumentative or chastising replies to previous messages- is now developing as a
sociological issue of concern. Flaming is developing as a net tradition complete with its own distinctive
rituals, jargon, custioms and dynamics. Use-Net news groups have become vast libraries of pyrotechnic
insults. (Chapman, 14) In Mark Dery's article entitled "Flame Wars", he provides a few choice examples of a
flame: "You syphilitic bovine harpy", "You heaving purulent mammoth", "You twitching gelatinous yolk of
rancid smegma". It is hard to imagine such exchanges occuring at a cocktail party or in the supermarket.
Conclusion
A review of the literature revealed that the traditional non-verbal theorists failed to predict the future
employment of non-verbal cues in electronic CMC. A variety of emoticons are then described including the
traditional happy face 3 and sad face 3, numerous variations of faces employing keyboard keys, a number of
abbreviations commonly in use, and Flaming. In as much as emoticons are presently in widespread though
informal use, the problem. The conclusion reached is that of a generational recipient determinism. It is
recommended that recipients who are Traditionalists (born before 1946) should not be sent e-mail with
emoticons; those who are Baby Boomers (those born between 1946 and 1964) probably should not be sent
e-mail with emoticons; those who are Generation Xers (those born between 1964 and 1980) may be sent email with some of the more common emoticons; and those who are termed Millenials (born after 1980 and
coming of age after 2000) may be sent e-mail with generous use of emoticons.
CMC is in its infancy. Much of the future of CMC is now in the hands of younger people who must decide for
themselves whether the business communication writing rules and standards of the past now apply. Clearly
they find emoticons useful and meeting their needs. Although college instructors may experience
discomfort with the use of emoticons, they must change with the times or find themselves disregarded as
dinosaurs from another age. GRD seems to be the way to convey the standards of the past with the reality of
the present and future.
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References
Adkins, M., & Brashers, D. E. (1995). The Power of Language in Computer-Mediated Groups. Management Communication
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Adrianson, L., & Hjelmquist, E. (1991). Group Processes in Face-to-Face and Computer-Mediated Communication.
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Practicable Teaching Tools and Techniques for Effective English
Teaching and Learning
Archana V. Nikam
Dr. Rajendra Gode Polytechnic College,
Amravati (M. S.) India
ABSTRACT: English, which is spoken across the globe, has now undoubtedly attended a status of global language
and a medium for communication internationally. Not only in urban areas of any country, but also in the remote rural
areas, is the need and importance to learn English growing. Now, in this modern era of SMS and E-mail, the oldish
methods of superficial learning this language English is not enough to excel in the carrier. Today, the modern world is
fast and running in the E-mail age with n-number of applied applications of this language is necessary. Better and fast
understanding and precise, clear and quick expressing capacity is the need of the hour. In most of the countries
English is not the first language, due to which many of the students face problems in learning English and further to
express themselves, even after possessing the knowledge. Hence, innovative techniques and modern approach of
teaching and learning of this important medium of communication is needed.
Introduction
An international language like English which is spoken across the globe, not only has regional
varieties, i.e. it is spoken differently in different areas within country, but also has national varieties. Due to
globalization the importance of English has reached its zenith today. Salman Rushdie, the renowned
novelist says that, “English language ceased to be the sole possession of Englishmen's sometime ago and it
grows from many roots”. Indians with the knowledge of English with software application are wanted all
over the world is well known.
The word 'Innovation' is derived from the Latin word 'Inovare' which means to change something new.
Various types of innovative materials and strategies will assist for the betterment of the students.
1
Strategies to increase student's self-confidence and interest in English
In spite of the array of factors that ends to reduce motivation in learning English language. Teachers
can use a number of strategies to increase their student's self-confidence and interest in English. Day by day
a man has to march ahead due to ultra modernization. It requires using innovative tools and techniques for
learning better English language. Teaching in 21st century has been completely transformed from test book
learning to modern innovative methods of teaching with the help of innovative teaching techniques. We can
make the teaching interesting for the students and this will lead to the better understanding of the content.
The current teaching methods according to the theory of Multiple, Intelligence of Howard Gardner, there
are eight types of learning styles. They are- 1) Verbal 2) Logical 3) Spatial 4) Rhythmic 5) Kinesthetic 6)
Interpersonal 7) Intrapersonal and 8) Natural. The commonly used teaching techniques are Class
participation, demonstration, recitation, memorization or a combination of these. It is very necessary for the
teacher in this situation to be given adequate time for preparation and good facilities for duplication.” [Peter
Hubbard]. Teachers with no sound knowledge of English make English as a nightmare to the students, they
instigate student to habituate by-heart method which deprives student the communication abilities in
English.
Following are some principles and processes which can make teaching- learning process more effective and
interesting.
Grouping of student of different ability levels is one of the most frequently suggested ways.
It is necessary to have a wide choice of book and visuals, especially readers and it is very necessary
for the teachers in this situation to be given adequate time for preparation and good facilities for duplication.
The classroom should be well equipped with audio-video materials.
Whenever we want to communicate any idea, attention should be given to the clarity. The idea
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should not be confusing or vague.
Message to be communicated should be adequate and complete. Incomplete statements of
communication may create misunderstanding in the mind of the students.
Body language plays a vital role while teaching. It adds more value to ones expression. Appropriate
gesture, postures, facial expressions make teaching more effective.
Getting followed-up feedbacks will help in improving teaching and built confidence in the learner as
well as the teacher. When the student responds with a proper feedback it leads to the speedy progress of the
teaching. The feedbacks can be positive or negative, depending on their understanding.
It is always necessary to put ideas, thought and feelings in a precise manner to save the time of both
teacher and student. Teacher should be conscious enough regarding the selection of words and phraseology
which suits the situation.
Eye contacts have very much significance in the face to face teaching. It shows awareness and
acceptance of the students. The absence of eye contact shows lack of interest and understanding 'Eyes are
called to be windows' of human soul. Therefore teacher should have continuous eye contact with audience
to gain proper Feedback
Vocalic refers to Voice Modulation. In vocalic, teacher gives emphasis on pattern of pronunciation,
volume, pause, etc. The voice is an extra ordinary attribute of human being. Therefore when the teacher
wants to make his teaching effective he should use proper and good voice. The stress on words may change
the meaning on word or sentence. A sad person has very low voice which reflects his emotional state. The
wrong pronunciation leads wrong message to listener. The teacher has to maintain the pitch and tempo
according to the situation.
Students should be motivated by the teachers to come out of their shell and communicate in English.
The teacher should apply the question - answer method in the class. By this method the knowledge
of the teacher and student will be tested and the healthy relationship between teacher and the student will
stand grow and the students will be confident to face the challenge of the modern era.
A teacher should encourage students to update notice board with news, articles and reports. So that
the students are abreast with recent news and happening in English.
Arrangement of guest lecture of popular and experienced luminaries. The personalities who are
devoted to their subject should be invited as a guest speaker. His lifetime experienced can be shared and
implemented.
Dialogue writing helps the students to express their ideas and thoughts easily and naturally. Proper
dialogue writing needs skill and command over the language.
21st century is entirely based on technology learning. Multimedia is one of the most effective,
efficient and useful means for delivering instruction. A type of software, hypertext consists of text material
and call up all explanation interpretation and biographical information of the computer screen. A teacher
must utilize such technology in teaching for getting the best and upmost result of teaching.
The language lab offers an exclusive result oriented and efficient way to enrich the English language
learning process. This lab is beneficial for assessing student's speech.
Conclusion
Considering the opinions of the successful students and my practical experiences, a mix of different
techniques has to be implemented for effective and result oriented teaching method. In the process of
effective teaching-learning, the focus/emphasis on different techniques may vary according to the needs of
the learners and the demands of the situation otherwise the process is going to be bookish.
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References
English language teaching- Meenakshi Raman
Communication Skills- B.V.Pathak
The Story of English in India: Foundation Books, by- D. Krishnaswamy & Lalitha Krishnaswamy.
Challenging But Enjoyable English Language Teaching in Rural Areas: A case study of BPS Women
University, Khanpur Kalan, Haryana, by- Dr. Ravi Bhushan.
Literature & Language Teaching, by- Gilliar Lazar.
Innovations in Teaching- Learning Process, by- S.S.Chauhan, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
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The challenges of Teaching and Learning English as a second
language at B. Ed. Colleges of Nasik city
Prof. Ashish Sharad Gurav
Maharashtra Shikshan Vikas Mandal's New College of Education, Nasik
Abstract: The present reality of teaching and learning of English as a second language in B.Ed. colleges in Nasik city
is very interesting. As a teacher, we can study the reality of the situation. The use of English in common man's life is
increasing day by day. Whichever reasons may be there but the reality is that we are accepting English language as a
part of our life; it may be in the form of the words, phrases, idioms, or proverbs. When we turn our focus on the
teaching and learning of English as a second language we come to know the present and real situation of it. There are
many hurdles in acquiring English language and its skills i.e. listing skill, speaking skill, reading skill, writing skill,
and communication skill. There may be many reasons, such as follows: 1. Incomplete knowledge of English
Language. 2. Lack of opportunities for listening English Language. 3. Lack of speaking English Language. 4. Lack of
reading English Language. 5. Lack of writing English Language. 6. Lack of communicating in English Language. For
knowing the other factors responsible for this situation author has used the survey method to find the reality in B. Ed.
Colleges of Nasik city.
Key words: Language skills, Expressive, LSRWC
Introduction
Author has a keen interest to study and teach English grammar to all the students who want to learn it.
Apart from this he is teaching in college of education from five year. He has met many students in this
tenure. He has observed students who have some hurdles in speaking in English. Those students can write
English properly but can't express themselves to anyone. In short, they are lacking the skill of expression.
Now, author thinks as a teacher of teachers that his pupils (tomorrow's teachers) should use language skills
(LSRWC) effectively.
Assumption
1. English method is the compulsory subject for the pupil teachers who have completed their graduation in
English literature.
2. It is necessary to master in LSRWC for the pupil teachers of B. Ed. Colleges.
Hypothesis
Is teaching and learning of English as a second language the challenge in B. Ed. Colleges of Nasik city?
Research Methodology
Author has applied the survey method.
Population or Limitations
Author has surveyed in two colleges of B. Ed. In Nasik city.
1. OVS's Vishwasattya college of Education, Ozar Mig, Nasik.
2. MSVM's New college of Education, Nasik.
Actual Research
Author has been teaching English method in above mentioned two B. Ed. Colleges of Nasik city. He
has started his study from the very first year of his career as an assistant professor in academic year 2008.
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Author has studied the following deficiencies in pupil-teachers while doing the survey.
Sr. No
Name of
College
Lack of
concentration Lack of
preparation
(100)
Lack of
positivity and
confidence
Exam
oriented
study
Total
1
OVS’S,
Vishwasattya
college
of education
(65) 35
(55) 45
(50) 505
(63) 37
(293) 207
2
MSVM’S,
New
college
of education
(70) 30
(58) 42
(60) 40
(66) 34
(321) 179
(135) 75
(113) 87
(110) 90
(129) 71
(614) 396
Total
There are 100 students in a batch every year in the above mentioned two B. Ed. Colleges in which near
about 20 to 25 students are having English method. Author has observed the 5 important points which
are given in 5 columns. The numbers which are shown out of the brackets are the numbers of students
who are lacking those 5 points.
Objective:
1. To study the challenges of teaching and learning of English as a second language at B. Ed. Colleges of
Nasik city.
2. To know the hurdles in acquiring the English as a second language in B. Ed. Colleges of Nasik city.
3. To know the reasons behind don't getting the skills of English language. (LSRWC).
4. To make the pupil teacher expressive or talkative in using English language.
5. To know the hurdles in using English as a second language.
Research Questions
Q 1. Is teaching and learning English as a second language at B. Ed. Colleges of Nasik city?
Q 2. How do teachers make the students expressive or talkative in using English language?
Q 3. How does a teacher know the hurdles in using English as a second language?
Significance of the study:
This study is very significant as the students who have hurdles in using English language will be tomorrow's
teachers. Hence, author has thought, it is vital to know the reality in the process of learning English. After
knowing the deficiencies in students, teacher can suggest the remedies for making the process of learning
meaningful.
Definition of terms
1. Expressive expert in using language especially in speaking.
2. LSRWC L stands for listening skill, S stands for speaking, R stands for reading skill, W stands for writing
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skill and C stands for communication skill
Data collection
Data collection was done from the two B. Ed. colleges of Nasik city.
1. OVS's Vishwasattya college of Education, Ozar Mig, Nasik.
2. MSVM's new college of Education, Nasik.
Hurdles found in not acquiring the English language:
1. Fee structure
2. Accommodation, boys' hostel, girls' hostel
3. Infrastructural problems and challenges
4. Institutional problems
5. Family problem
6. Pupil's friend circle
7. Parent's mentality and their profession
8. Medium of instruction language problem multi-lingualism
9. Cultural activities
10. Social activities
11. Innovative ideas regarding the process of teaching and learning
12. Lack of communication and co-ordination
13. Gifted students and teachers
14. Slow learners
15. Students from rural and remote areas
16. Reforms
17. Technological challenges in ICT
18. Quality (TQM)
19. Access to internet
20. Cost social and cultural
21. Online education
22. LPG Liberalization, privatization, and globalization
23. Dualist character
24. Tremendous academic pressure
25. Traditional method of education
26. Lack of trained manpower
27. Vocational courses
28. Synergy uniform education for all
29. Multiple intelligence learning
29. Life skill deployment
30. Alternatives to homework
31. Hobbies, talent development program in B. Ed. Course
32. Creative activities
33. Moral values and core element
34. Students' movement towards sex, alcohol, crime and insults
35. Integrated learning
36. Technology (ICT) in B. Ed. Colleges
37. Complaints about little knowledge
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38. Increased violence, competitiveness and stress on material values
39. Over burdened syllabus and writing practical.
Conclusion
In this way, when we as a teacher of teachers can overcome the challenges in teaching and learning of
English as a second language in B. Ed. Colleges that time students can express themselves. 1. Teacher
should use teaching material, audio visual aids, models of teaching. 2. Mudliar and Kothari commission
1952 and 1962-64 minimum 6 years continuously. 3. Three language formula (regional language)
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References
Moharil, M.S. (2007) Methods of English teaching place and Importance of English language (1- 19) place of Audio-visual
aids in teaching learning process (68-76) co-curricular activities in the subject (104-108) diagnostic testing and
remedial teaching
(109-113) Nagpur, Aakar Graphics Nagpur.
Wakankar, K. and tapkeer, D. (2008) methods of teaching English. Principles of learning a language (1-5) approaches and
methods of teaching English (52-83) Pune, chintamani printers near mhatre bridge, Pune-4.
Tiwari, S. R. (2008) teaching of English. English teaching: new methods for second language (105-148) English teaching:
modern language teacher (185-198) English teaching: classroom teaching in 21st century (261-274) Delhi, paragon
computers, balaji offset navin shahdara delhi-32.
Aslam, M. (2008) teaching of English : A practical course for B.Ed. students second edition language teaching methods (2972) Cambridge University press India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi-02.
Pawar, N. G. (2005) theory and practice of teaching English language techniques in teaching English narration, illustrations,
dramatization, questioning and drilling. (55-58) Pune comp print kalpana Prt. Ltd. Tilak road, pune-30.
6. Waje, S.R. and patil, M. (2004) content cum methodology of English unit: 1 content cum methodology in teaching
learning of English language (05-14), Unit: 6 methods, approaches, techniques and audio-visual aids for teaching
learning of English language. Nasik, balwant printing press, Krishna typeset Nasik.
7. Selvam, S.K.P. (2009) Global trends in teacher education. A new approach to 21st century teacher education (1-28)
motivating the unmotivated (39-43) challenges to teacher education in 21st century new directions for the 21st
century teachers and technology (110-125) Delhi, new APCON balaji offset, navin shahdara, Delhi-32.
8. Shankar, P. (2008) teaching of English. Effective language teaching (129-172). Vocabulary learning for teachers (242-257).
Learning words (278-285). Dynamics of writing (286-297). Teaching reading comprehension (298-305). Delhi,
paragon computers, balaji offset, navin shahdara, Delhi-32.
9. Pandit, suryawanshi, kute, (2007) communicative language teaching in English ( A conceptual introduction) chapter No. 4
second language Acquisition (SLA) (33-37) chapter No. 7 A communicative approach (63-65). Pune, Hindustan
mudranalaya, tilak road, Pune-30.
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An Experiment of New Technology in English Teaching
Ms. Ashwini A. Deshmukh
R. Mokhare Mahavidyalaya, Nagpur
Abstract: This paper puts forward the experiments of application of new technology in English Language. With
increased usage of technology the process of English learning will be improved & students' 'Applied English skills'
can be effectively cultivated, meaning that students' communicative competence will be further developed. Most
teachers generally feel that the introduction of technology may result in the loss of control; but we must remember that
the technological tools are not monsters & that a resourceful teacher can never be replaced. Computer cannot replace
even the conventional black board. During the process of optimizing the multimedia English teaching, students are
not too dependent on their mother tongue, but will be motivated and guided to communicate with each other.
Introduction
English is gaining importance day by day and without proficiency in this language. It would be
difficult to progress in the World of globalization and information technology. The educational system
particularly a teacher-developing one, should encourage a critical contemplation of the impact of English
education and the power dynamics hidden in the alien models of education.
“English is the language on which the sun does not set, whose users never sleep.”
- Randolph Quirk& Widdowson
English has become an international commodity; without oil & computers, the world will come to a
halt. The English language has made the world a 'Global Village' by giving it a global language for
communication.
“The English language ceased to be the sole possession of the English sometime ago & grows from many
roots.” - S. Rushdie
No one community can claim sole ownership over English language, it is genuinely global. It is not only use
in one country but also use in whole world.
During second half of the twentieth century, modern technology was used to support English language
teaching & learning. Technological devices are useful to teachers into the classroom language labs, tape
recorders, overhead projector, slide filmstrip projections, video, computer related technologies like
Internet, Email, Blogs & Electronic Dictionary are used for English teaching Technological devices, like
workbooks are good for English language practice.
Nowadays, the computer & the Internet have tremendously increased the learning potential of students.
They can practice the English language not only in class but also at home when they are provided material
on audio-visual media or local area networks. Depending upon the budget position of the educational
institution, the following can be used for language teaching & learning.
Radio: The good old radio is one of the most useful devices for teaching English. One can always
listen to good programmes & get used to listening different accents. Many programmes related to English
teaching, particularly for schools are broadcast by the All-India-Radio; the materials are prepared by the
CIEFL, Hyderabad, RIE, Bangalore & other ELTI's in India. They can be recorded & used for listening
sessions in the class. Transistors & walkmans provide a lot of mobility in the use for listening to
programmes anywhere at any time.
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Language Labs
Language labs first invented in U.S.A. The core of the language labs is a tape recorder, which can present
language sounds & structures with accuracy, and with endless patience. The language lab is also linked with
the programme learning movement in the West. The behaviorist view of how learning can be conditioned
influenced the design of programmed-learning & self-instructional materials that were implemented
through language labs.
Labs offer student recording & playback. Labs are interactive in the sense that the teacher could monitor &
speak with students from the main console & students could reply or record their responses on a separate
track of an audio tape. Students are encouraged to do the lab work as out of class assignments, helped by
teachers & by a lab-assistant. By this technique students enable to use proper pronunciation, stress &
intonation of English language.
Video & Television
Video & Television are also helpful in developing comprehension. Teachers must take the video or the T.V.
text, like text books; they are texts in the sense that they provide an authentic piece of language that could be
presented in the audio-video as well as the written form. The Open University in England, Indira Gandhi
Open University & the U.G.C. in India; telecast programmes for educational purposes. There are some
English Channels like BBC/CNN which play important role in understanding English language.
Overhead Projectors
The Overhead Projectors is another useful tool because it can supplement the black board. The teacher can
prepare transparencies in advance & manipulate the order & arrangement of the presentation. Overhead
projectors can be used for brief periods of time but the activities are to be properly planned to maximize the
effect of the projector. The use of this technological instrument also creates interest in the language students.
The Internet
The rapid growth of the internet, which links computers all over the world into single electronic
communications network, is in the process of making wide spread computer-based instruction a reality. This
owes largely to the advent of the World Wide Web, a system for accessing & viewing information on the
internet. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is growing ground with more & more teachers &
students becoming computer literate. The declining cost of computers, the increasing power of the hardware
& software may encourage the use of computers for English language learning.
Computers can allow learners to carry out tasks more conveniently than in other media-tasks such as editing
a piece of writing, moving sentences or paragraphs, checking spelling & carrying out corrections & thus,
enhance all aspects of writing & listening.
A number of new programs using multimedia, the CD-ROM, & DVD's are coming into the market,
they integrate the audio, video & graphic materials for example, Hypertext, consist of text materials that can
be explored by students in a variety of ways. The English learners can select certain worlds with a mouse or
cursors & get the synonyms, paraphrases, grammatical analysis maps & any other information like
etymology, etc. within a split second, student can read literary texts & call up all explanations on the
computer screen. It is prove that multimedia technology plays a positive role in promoting activities of
student and teaching effect in English class. Technological innovations have gone hand-in-hand with the
growth of English and are changing the way in which we communicate.
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Conclusion
Concerning the development of technology, we believe that in future, the use of multimedia English
teaching will be further developed. The process of English learning will be improved & students' 'Applied
English skills' can be effectively cultivated, meaning that students' communicative competence will be
further developed. Most teachers generally feel that the introduction of technology may result in the loss of
control; but we must remember that the technological tools are not monsters & that a resourceful teacher can
never be replaced. Computer can not replace even the conventional black board. During the process of
optimizing the multimedia English teaching, students are not too dependent on their mother tongue, but will
be motivated and guided to communicate with each other.
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References
Alderson, J.C. and Beretta A (eds) 1992,
'Evaluating Second Language Education', Cambridge University Press.
Bower, R (1995). 'Resources for teachers of English For Science & Technology',
available : http://www.write/est/1.html
Candlin, N.C. 1974. 'Study Skill in English'
Lancaster : University of Lancaster Press.
Heaton, J.B.1975 'Studying in English'. London: Longman
Rice, A., & Stempleski, S. (1988).'Explorations: An interactive approach to reading'. Boston, M.A.: Heinle & Heinle.
Willy A. R. , (2002). 'Methodology in Language Teaching'. Cambridge University Press.
www.enotes.com
www.googlesearch.com
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Challenges in Teaching ESL to Very Young Learners
B. Balaji Reddy and M.M. Gopi
Sri Venkatesa Perumal College of Engg. & Tech.,
Chittoor, A.P. India
Abstract: This paper puts forward the experiments of application of new technology in English Language. With
increased usage of technology the process of English learning will be improved & students' 'Applied English skills'
can be effectively cultivated, meaning that students' communicative competence will be further developed. Most
teachers generally feel that the introduction of technology may result in the loss of control; but we must remember that
the technological tools are not monsters & that a resourceful teacher can never be replaced. Computer cannot replace
even the conventional black board. During the process of optimizing the multimedia English teaching, students are
not too dependent on their mother tongue, but will be motivated and guided to communicate with each other.
Abstract: Teaching English as a Second Language (ESL) can sometimes be challenging, and even more so when
teaching young learners. Toddlers do not have the capability to sit down and give a teacher his/her full attention.
While adults may immediately understand what they have to gain by acquiring a second language, young learners
will often need a strong motivation to understand the 'gist' or purpose of the activity or task of the teacher. It takes a
dedicated and enthusiastic teacher to take on the dual task of educating and providing a healthy safe environment for
young children. We feel it is most important for teachers of young learners to undergo many challenges. To start with,
it is usually very hard to keep these learners active and they may easily feel bored. Classroom management can be
more of a challenge with kids than adults and it is important that a teacher should have clear, fair and consistent rules
to deal with the young learners.
This paper throws light on the various solutions and tips for facing the challenges in teaching ESL to young learners.
Keywords: ESL, toddlers, Challenges, dual task of teacher, solutions
Introduction
Teaching ESL to young learners has numerous significant and unique challenges which are absent in
teaching English to older children and adults. Toddlers do not have the capability to sit down and give a
teacher his/her full attention. Teaching very young learners especially those considered to be between three
and five years old, may be a challenge because of many reasons. To begin with, it is usually very hard to keep
these learners totally concentrated. They may easily feel bored and the teachers will have to find a way to
keep them focused. In addition, an ESL teacher will find it daunting teaching a language to very young
learners in the same way older learners is taught.
A short attention and concentration is a characteristic feature of young learners. Children also tend to have
short attention spans, so it is important for the teacher to realize this. Teacher need to provide many
interesting, challenging materials from a variety of sources. The teacher must support children's language
learning at various level of development.
Different roles of ESL Teachers
While teaching ESL to very young learners the teachers should bear in their mind that they ought to play
different roles as mentioned below:

It is important for the teacher to be a conversational partner of young children since they develop
their language skills through interaction with more accomplished speakers of the language.

Learning is also an individual process and it takes some time. As the young learners are very tender
and delicate by nature, teacher should also discharge his/her duty as a good motivator.
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An ESL teacher should remember to use lots of “pleases” and “thank you” and encourage the
children in classroom relationships.

Young children have a limited attention span, unless activities are extremely engaging, they can
easily get bored, losing interest after ten minutes or so. It is the teacher's responsibility to drag their attention
by entertaining class with perfectly planned activities. Occasionally cracking a joke here and there is also
necessary.

Another very significant role that a teacher should play is not losing patience when a particular
student seems to making little or no progress. A good ESL teacher knows that learning takes place during
quiet times. Chatting to children while they work is also a part of teaching.

The goal of ESL teachers:
Staying awake and interested in class can be difficult. But what is even more difficult is being
responsible for keeping students awake and interested. This is the job of an ESL teacher first and foremost.
In order to be a great ESL teacher, one must not only teach, but inspire and empower. The goal is to excite the
students about learning, speaking, reading, writing and comprehending English. The English that ESL
students are taught is academic English. They often lack the ability to interact in social settings with English
speaking peers. The teachers should model both academic and social language and scaffold its appropriate
use to help the learner acquire it, use it effectively and move to more sophisticated levels of speaking and
writing.
Teaching students who have a limited understanding of the English language can be a daunting task. Since
ESL students speak a different language at home, some of them do not know the meanings of simple English
words and phrases, and it can be difficult for teachers to communicate with them. Nevertheless, teacher can
exercise more patience and try to find the right ways to help to their students become more proficient in the
language. It is important for ESL teachers to establish a more personal relationship with every student and
their family.
Challenges for ESL teachers
As it mentioned earlier in the introduction, teaching young children can be an exhausting and difficult task.
It takes a dedicated and enthusiastic teacher to take on the dual task of educating and providing a healthy safe
environment for young children. There are several challenges that a teacher should face while handling
these young learners. In this section, we explore some of the challenges that are faced by ESL teachers. A
good ESL teacher must be able to recognize these common problems or challenges, and work to find
solutions.

To start with, children tend to have a shorter attention span than adults; therefore the ESL teacher
should plan several short activities rather than long ones.

Young learners may have a very little exposure to English. It is the teacher's job to make sure there is
plenty of variety in the lesson, lots of different interactions.

Young children in particular need more time than adults to mentally translate the question into their
native language, formulate a response, and then mentally translate the response back into English.

The work of teaching kids a totally alien language with which they have no contact outside of the
school can be quite challenging.

Explanation of an activity is considered another challenging factor. In the process of explanation,
the ESL teacher has to keep in his mind that it should be finished quickly or else it affects the energy level of
the classroom. Children need lots of stimulation all the time.
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Naturally very young learners come with a limited amount of knowledge. They are still learning a lot
about their world, which include, learning their native language. This leads to challenges in teaching
speaking and listening skills for ESL teachers.

Respecting children's cultural and linguistic background may be considered one of the challenges
where teachers face the most difficulty.

The lower the students level or ages, the more probable it is that they will speak their native language
most of the time. This will be another challenge for the ESL teachers.

Most children come to school excited and ready to learn. The challenge is to keep them excited and
motivated. Having a proper lesson plan, thorough preparation and gathering lots of teaching materials for
the young learners is also a challenge for ESL teachers.

Tips for teaching ESL to children
Following are some tips teachers can adapt in teaching ESL to very young learners.

By producing an environment in which the children are free to play with each other and with
carefully selected materials, teachers facilitate children's development and learning.

Young learners need to be taught meaningful English.

Using songs, games, fairy tales, stories, short conversations provide good exposure to language.

Learning occurs when students are motivated and feel good about them. While teaching ESL to
children a teacher needs to take this into the consideration and the young learners ought to be encouraged
and motivated.

The teachers of ESL should focus on fluency rather than on accuracy.

Teaching chunks of language in context is preferable to very young learners.

As an ESL teacher, it is incumbent upon him/her to encourage students to use English, and only
English.

ESL classes may include singing, dancing, and jumping, as well as writing, reading, or listening.
The best ESL lessons combine the right mix of teaching strategies.

Lessons should be planned in accordance with learning goals. And vocabulary, grammar, and
language should be taught in context.

It is also important to include age appropriate materials in the classes.

Story telling is another effective technique to teaching ESL to young learners. All children love story
time. Finding a simple fairly tale to tell the children and asking questions by putting the characters in
different situations will make the kids more interested and they come up with their own answers.
Characteristics of effective ESL teachers
In this section, we are providing a few characteristics of effective ESL teachers
Effective ESL teachers teach everything with earnestness and passion.
Effective ESL teachers share their ideas and tools with other teachers as well as learners in order to
reap more benefits.

Effective ESL teachers don't coddle their learners. Instead they show and provide guidelines to
perform different tasks with the help of necessary tools.

Effective ESL teachers do have lot of patience and they go above and beyond their expected tasks.
They recommend materials for extra practice.


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Conclusion
Teaching children can be immensely rewarding; English teachers who wish to teach children must be aware
of the challenges and difficulties they may encounter, and prepare accordingly. Teaching children demands
a great deal of creativity and energy. As an ESL teacher, one must learn to constantly adapt to the students
needs. By integrating the fundamental yet natural methods that children use to learn into every lesson can
make each lesson enjoyable and beneficial for the child and the teacher. In our opinion, a successful ESL
teacher is one that is able to make a good living doing what he or she enjoys doing or does best: teach English
as a second language. In order to be a great ESL teacher, one must not only teach, but inspire and empower.
The more the teachers give, the more the learners succeed at learning English.
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References
Adger, C. T., Snow, C.E., & Christian, D. (Eds.). (2002).What teachers need to know about language. McHenry, IL: Delta
Systems & Center for Applied Linguistics.
Chen, H.S., & Graves, M.F. (1998). Previewing challenging reading selections for ESL students. Journal of Adolescent &
Adult Literacy, 41, 570-572.
Eskey, D.E. (2002). Reading and the teaching of L2 reading. TESOL Journal, 11(1), 5-9.
Herrell, A.L., & Jordan, M. (2004). Fifty strategies for teaching English Language learners (2nd Ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Merrill.
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford, England: Pergamon.
Law, B., & Eckes, M. (2000). The more-than-just-surviving handbook: ESL for every classroom teacher (2nd Ed.). Winnepeg,
Canada: Portage & Main/Peguis Publishers.
Lucas, T.2000. Facilitating the transitions of secondary English language learners: Priorities for principals. NASSP
Bulletin, 84, 619, 2-16.
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (1998). Approaches and methods in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Schunk, H.A. (1999). The effect of singing paired with singing on receptive vocabulary skills of elementary ESL students.
The Journal of Music Therapy, 36, 110-124.
Williams, J.A. (2001). Classroom conversations: Opportunities to learn for ESL students in mainstream classrooms. The
Reading Teacher, 54, 750-757.
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Impact of Media and IT on the Identity of Language in India:
Adulteration or Evolution
Prof. B.C.Patil,
J.D.M.V.P.'S Nutan Maratha Colege, Jalgaon,
Abstract: The Media and the Information Technology has become the backbone of the society as a whole. The
lifeblood of the education is the information in modern era. The new technologies enhance one's ability in the
production and dissemination of this educational information and its management and control. Media with the help of
information technology plays a vital role in the use of language. The computer for instance, can make positive
contribution to language development. The Scholars, researchers, teachers and the students are taking the advantage
of the available strategies. There is invention, shortening, blending, coinage, derivation of words in the language. The
use of this method is seen in Marathi and Hindi languages also. But evolution is okay in informal talk. There is no any
authenticity of these formed words to use them on paper.
Introduction
Language is only the medium of expression of mankind. At the same time it is the bearer of all kinds of
truth and the imager of every sort of reality. The change is the need of a particular group for the survival
or to maintain the pace with the world of competition.
The use of English language is increased today. It is used for business, educational, historical,
political and economic reasons; but it may also be true that it owes something of its wide appeal to qualities
and characteristic inherent in itself. English, which when the Anglo-Saxon first conquered England in the
fifth and sixth centuries was almost a 'pure' or unmixed language which could make a new words for the
new ideas from its own compounded elements and had hardly any foreign words has become the most
'mixed' of languages, having received throughout its history all kinds of foreign elements with ease and
assimilated them all of its own character.
The countries like India, China, and Indonesia are the striking examples of affected (mixed)
languages. They do not have the native speakers of English. As English has become the international
language of media and IT., it is now essential to mould oneself. The impact of media is great one comparing
to the other fields.
The British ruled over India and life Indian languages affected including Marathi and Hindi. The
words for example glass, table, bus, pant, bye-bye etc. are seem the words of the mother tongue to the
Marathi and Hindi speakers. No doubt the script of both the languages is the same that is 'Devnagari'.
Similarly the words dhoti, namaste, bandh, gherav etc. have got the existence in Oxford dictionary. We can
consider it as the adulteration of English language. Simultaneously, it fills the gap in the communication
among two groups.
The languages are being varied from ages to ages as per the demand of the particular period. The
focus on the place of languages yesterday, present and tomorrow make us to think and accept the fact. The
change is supersonic in 'verbal communication' of the languages.
Media with the help of information technology plays a vital role in the use of language. The
computer for instance, can make positive contribution to language development. The Scholars, researchers,
teachers and the students are taking the advantage of the available strategies. There is invention, shortening,
blending, coinage, derivation of words in the language. The use of this method is seen in Marathi and Hindi
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languages also. But evolution is okay in informal talk. There is no any authenticity of these formed words to
use them on paper.
The culture and outlook of all communities are closely linked to language. The increasing interest in
communication studies will inevitably bring language within the scope of the study of man in his social
setting and as such “it is certainly desirable that we should cultivate an objective and critical awareness of
the linguistic transactions into which we enter day by day, either as initiators or passive recipients.”1
The language used in e-mail, mobile phones, and banners makes people easy and free to fulfill their
purpose. Due to the globalization people came close. New words are formed to save time and space. The
Media is the centre of it. The words are replaced by letters. For example, 'are' is replaced by 'r', 'two' as '2',
'the as'd', 'you' as 'u', etc. although this script is not used in formal language. Tradition is followed by the
individual talent of the initiators. The syntax remains unimportant except the meaning. In the following
example there is excessive use of acronyms (?)
'LOR WGM GM' It means 'London Olympic Returned without Gold Medal! Good Morning! What started
out in English as 'notice' ended up in Marathi 'notisa', 'near court' as 'courta jawal', 'in bank' as 'banket' and so
on, all superficially similar but in practice as different as finches, sparrows and robins.
It is the distortion of the root language. History shows that men have endeavoured, with extraordinary
unevenness and sometimes at great intervals of time, to represent 'trains of words' in a written form for
greater convenience, instruction, or imaginative enjoyment. The ordinary rules of language and virtually
every traditional rule of literary language have been thrown overboard.
One of the important tools of media is the advertisement. In an advertise, getting the message across
is of prime importance. The creativity gives the copywriter almost unlimited scope for violations of the rules
and conventions of language. Brinston Miranda asserts, “The task of modern creativity in advertising is to
find, fresh, interest-provoking ways of conveying meaningful information realistically and on the readers
own terms.”2
Daniel Everett a linguist argues that language is not the product of a “language organ” but an
extension of general intelligence. It means languages are crafted by speakers to meet their needs. The
English language only can adapt as swiftly and easily, unlike other languages. With the advent of fast and
more varied communications channels via social media and technologies, English has adapted incredibly
well.
The adulteration and the evolution can be continued or it can be motivated further. There can not be
the substitutes by any other language. The dawn may rise with a new jargon of crafted and formed language
of media and IT having their own letters and symbols.
To sum up, the combination of modern information technology and communication makes a
formidable force for cultural and educational change. None of us are unaffected by it and we are all changed
not only to adopt new techniques but also to re-think traditional notions of language and learning.
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References
Pandya, Indubala H., English Language in Advertising, Ajanta Publications (India), New Delhi, 1977
Wrenn, C L, The English Language, Vikas Publishing House PVT LTD, New Delhi, 2008
Antony, A., Teaching of English as a Second Language in India, Prakash Book Depot, Bareilly, 2008
Damodar, G. and authors, IT Revolution, Globalization and the Teaching of English, Atlantic Publishers And Distributers, New
Delhi, 2001
Burchfield, Robert, The English Language, Oxford University Press, New York, 1987
Keith, George, and Glover, Malcolm, Primary Language Learning With Computers, Biddles Ltd., Guildford and King's Lynn,
Great Britain
The Indian Express, March 19, 2012, P.13
Sakaal Daily, August 12, 2012, P.7
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Communication Skills in English: A Practical Approach
1
Benny George Samuel1 and Niraj Kendhe2
Datta Meghe Institute of Engineering, Technology & Research, Salod [Hirapur], Wardha
2
Yeshwant Mahavidyalaya, Seloo, Wardha
Abstract: The present paper is based on a 'hands-on' experience of teaching engineering students from rural
Vidarbha. The objective of this paper is to comprehend on purely practical approach to enhance communication skill
and overcoming anxiety or fear of communicating in English. Communication Skills is the buzz word in today's
education and job market, but many undergraduates from rural India like Vidarbha, struggle to communicate in
English. This inability has become a stumbling block to their career progress. According to recent study, the
percentage of rural students applying to engineering course has gone up alarmingly in last four years, but most of
them have not got jobs.
Keywords: practical approach, communication skill, Vidarbha, English, engineering. ( )
Introduction
Globalization in every field has necessitated the learning of a language which is international. Without a
hint of doubt, we can confidently declare that English has become a world language rather than being the
language of only the English speaking countries like UK, USA, Canada & others. The reason being the fact
that the number of the people who use English as a means of communication exceeds much more than the
number of the people who speak it as their mother tongue. As far as English in India is concerned, an ever
developing India has been directly and indirectly influencing the language especially in the fields such as
Education, Medical Science, etc.
The modern engineering students represent the rising middle class of a resurgent India. They know that
in order to survive and succeed they need “communication skills” or in other words communicative
competence in the English language. Especially, “Communication Skills” are required during the most
important part of their engineering career, popularly known among students as “Placements”. The
employers demand it and universities are waking up to provide it. The present context is such that the need
for English has become more manifold than it used to be. It is no more just a library language or language
used for some occupational purposes. With the rapid development of technology, today's engineer has to
communicate with more number of his counterparts across the globe. A large numbers of Indian engineers
have to now travel to many continents and work away from their home country on various projects. Also,
among the scientists, technologists and business experts from culturally and linguistically different
communities, English has become the predominant language for communication. Spoken English therefore
has now gained an unprecedented predominance in the university curriculum.
The objective of this paper is to comprehend on purely practical approach to enhance communication
skill and overcoming anxiety or fear of communicating in English. Communication skills is the buzz word
in today's education and job market, but many undergraduates from rural India like Vidarbha, struggle to
communicate in English. This inability has become a stumbling block to their career progress. According to
recent study, the percentage of rural students applying to engineering course has gone up alarmingly in last
four years, but most of them have not got jobs.
Almost all the teachers teaching in Engineering Institutions will agree that in spite of learning English
from primary level, students from rural areas find it difficult to follow in class, if they are taught only
through English. The reason may be that they do not get proper guidance and atmosphere due to nonavailability of good trained teachers in English in rural areas. In addition to this, the traditional pattern of
examination oriented systems is also a big hurdle. The students learn grammar without knowing rules and
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learn by heart the question-answers in order to pass in their examinations. They fail to understand that
learning a language is something more than that.
First Year Engineering Students
The students who take admission in the first year are approximately 17-18 years of age. Most of these
students complete their higher secondary school certificate at Junior College. After completion of primary
education, they complete matriculation at school. The majority of students taking admission in first year
engineering come from regional language [Marathi] medium schools. Hence, they have had limited
exposure to English at secondary and higher secondary levels. In contrast, those who come from English
medium schools (who are very few in numbers) have had 12 years of exposure to English. In principle,
therefore, they come to first year college with sufficient knowledge of the structure of English and they are
supposed to understand and express themselves in workable English. But in reality, that is not the case.
Majority of the students prepare their subject with the main aim to pass their examinations and they do it
with the help of locally prepared notes and rote-1earning. The teaching is also done with the sole purpose of
preparing the students for the examinations rather than to enable them to learn the language.
Due to such lackadaisical attitude from both the students as well as their teachers, majority of the
students suddenly realise that they need to have good English if they wish to take admission for engineering
or medicine. They are completely lost when they face the lecture-method teaching of English in the college
classrooms. In short, there is always a wide gap in reality between the entry level proficiency (entry
competence) of the first year college students of General English and the take-off point in the teaching of
English at college level which invariably results in cumulative language deficit.
If we consider the condition of overall rural education in Vidarbha, the teachers face a lot of problems
because of lack of basic infrastructural facilities. In addition to this, they are expected to complete the
syllabus within the stipulated time and give good results. The situation becomes grave as teachers have to
handle large classes, and hence, they are not able to devote time for any language activity. Shocking facts
were revealed in a recent study which showed that even a good student from rural India possesses a
vocabulary of a mere 500 to 2000 words. Most of college teachers face the challenge of teaching
communication skills to the students from rural background, and who are weak in grammar and vocabulary.
The challenging task can be transformed to a pleasant teaching-learning experience when the teacher adopts
innovative methodologies and practical approach to cater to the need of the rural students.
The 'Phobia' of communicating in English
Although the students are interested in learning English, they have a 'phobia' when it comes to
communicating in English. One surprising observation is that students, who proudly confess that they do
not know their mother tongue properly, feel shy to admit their lack of English language skills. It is very
important that the students must understand that English is a foreign language and there is a need to take
sincere, conscious effort and interest to learn English. The apprehensions which stop students from making
an effort to speak English are 'Others will laugh at me if I say something incorrect' or 'How will I face my
classmates if the teacher discusses my mistakes and embarrasses me?' or 'Will I ever be able to learn and talk
English at all?' etc. These fears are most common among most of the students from the rural areas. The role
of the English teacher begins here, and he can do so by instilling confidence in the students. The teacher
must make them understand that anyone who attempts to learn a foreign or new language is likely to go
through this phase. The successful learners are the ones who overcome this fear and begin the process of
learning. The students must understand that English is a foreign language and they need to make a sincere,
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conscious effort to learn English.
The students can be motivated and be able to overcome their fear if they are allowed to talk freely. The
teacher must encourage the students to talk and need not interrupt to correct them immediately when they
commit mistakes. This may affect their flow of thought or make them conscious. Initially, it may be just a
few words or combination of words without verbs, but the teacher should allow the students to talk in the
class. The teacher should never forget the power of encouragement. The teacher can practically see it
works like magic, in the classes, when he/she appreciates students for mustering courage to participate in the
class. Once the students break out of their shell of inhibition & fear, learning becomes easy. The teacher can
quote the example of other successful students and famous personalities who emerged from rural areas. The
teacher can also share some of his/her own positive teaching-learning experiences with the students.
The students need not feel intimidated when they face someone speaking English with accent. It is to be
understood that their ability to communicate is more important than speaking with accent. Developing
communication skills is the main objective of an English language teacher. Once the students develop their
language skills, they will come out of the communicative apprehension.
What does a Student want?
Based on the experiences of many English teacher, we can say that most students need a workable
command over English at the end of his/her schooling, so that, when they go to an engineering or a medical
college or in any field, they are not handicapped by lack of English in comprehending various reading texts
and understanding lectures which are most often in English. Since the take-off point in the First Year
Engineering Course is well beyond the actual entry level proficiency of most of the students, they feel left
out throughout the course and what they want at the end of the course is to clear the exam. Most of the
teachers, due to lack of motivation & low quality intake, cater to this 'pseudo-need' of the students by
preparing them only for the examinations.
To find out their immediate needs, the teacher must have an informal chat with the students on the first
day itself and ask them questions like: 'Do you want to pass the exam? Or, do you want to develop your
English?', 'Do you want to come to a stage from where you can self-learn?', 'What do you wish to learn in
English? Speaking? Grammar? Learning to read? Learning to write? etc. The response to these questions
might be always positive in the sense that they are all expected answers. Students do want to learn the
language and soon cross the initial language barrier. They are very fond of Spoken English (because of the
social desire rather than the academic need). Especially rural students have a deep rooted faith in Grammar
and they believe that they cannot learn English without grammar. They think that they will be able to read
and write in English if they know their grammar well.
Apart from this informal chat, the teacher can give them a short diagnostic test to find out their difficult
areas in grammar and to pinpoint what actually is needed to be taught. To overcome from such a situation
teacher might use their own experience and try to perceive the potential needs of the students. It is the duty of
Teachers to motivate the student and pass on the confidence then they can learn English language easily.
Teaching Engineering students is a challenge. They expect English teaching to fall in line with the
teaching of other Engineering subjects. They look forward to the teaching of English to be
scientific/mathematical, logical and comprehensible in nature to suit the grids they have. They are
motivated to learn English to get a good job. This pushes them to make concerted efforts. Their personal
characteristics, like discipline, confidence and experience, also facilitate learning. They want to quickly
develop workable command of English needed for interviews, group discussions and presentations of their
written work.
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Initiative by Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj Nagpur University
The RTM Nagpur University has completely changed the syllabus for First Year Engineering & the
subject 'English' has been replaced with 'Communication Skills'. The new subject is purely based on
practicals & has no written theory examination. There are ten practicals which have been introduced to suit
the needs of the engineering students. This change may be a very successful tool for the beginners to
understand and express their ideas and thoughts from one person to another with the right balance of fluency
and accuracy. It also provides a platform to the students to observe their own usages and gradually improve
themselves on their own. And above all, it enables them to communicate in English in real life situations. A
few changes in the curriculum of Communication Skills may go a long way in instilling the confidence
among the students to speak in English.
Some interesting Practicals in Communication Skills
Listening Skill :
Language begins with the ear and lives on the lips and tongue of the speaker. Listening should precede
speaking, and is the secret of effective beginning in language learning. It is impossible to expect a student to
produce a sound or a natural sentence of the foreign language, which does not exist in mother-tongue, unless
he has listens to a model of the form is produced. Speaking comes in a natural sequence after listening. In
other words, speaking is built upon accurate listening.
Reading Skill :
Reading is one of the most important activities any successful student does in any course of study. It is
important to note that reading is an active process; student needs to apply strategies that will enable him/her
make sense of what he/she reads. A good way of getting started on developing reading skills is to think about
how one reads a text or passage.
Role Plays / Dialogues:
Situations like meeting a classmate at the airport / railway station after 10-15 years can be given and help
students to converse. The teacher can help them to begin and gradually come out allowing the students to
continue. “Fading involves the withdrawal of the teacher stimulus and participation in an activity as student
interest mounts and the activity needs to be sustained by teacher direction.
The students can be prepared for certain expressions required for particular context. To quote Bowen
“If he depends on trains, he'll need expressions about departure, stations, destinations, tickets etc.,
Regardless of where he is, he should learn to count to master directional terms necessary to communicate
with a taxi cab driver such 'right, left, straight ahead, stop here, how much etc.' He should learn to use
gestures, point, finger counting etc. That will support his attempts at oral communication.
What must Teachers do?
The teachers at college level should be quite friendly and must build a healthy learner-teacher
relationship. The teacher should be more of a facilitator rather than a stern traditional type of instructor.
Encouragement is a great tonic for students at all levels. They will be eager to look for some kind of
appreciation from the teacher and the teacher must never disappoint them. Encourage the students focusing
on what they have got right, not what they have got wrong. Praise the students for correct answers, and even
for partly correct answers, in this way, they will feel they are making progress. Avoid humiliating students
or making them feel that making a mistake is bad correct errors quickly; if too much time is spent over
correcting errors, it gives them too much importance and holds up the lesson.
Conclusion
Activity based instructions pave the way for very effective learning. The teacher can build a lot of
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activities into teaching the subject. Teachers should have wide range of imagination, talent and enthusiasm
so that they create more activities and teaching methods with the minimum resources available. It should be
kept in mind that many colleges in rural areas have no proper infrastructure or teaching facilities and the
teachers should be able to compensate for this lack of facilities through their enthusiasm and dedication.
Developing communication skills in English has a special place in the vision of every student from rural
India and the teacher has to nurture and help them to make their dream, a reality. Communication Skills can
be developed in the modern engineering students, all it needs is a practical approach.
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English as a Second Language: Issues and Concerns
Dr. Benny M. J.
Abstract: As with most languages, written language tends to use a more formal register than spoken language.
The acquisition of literacy takes significant effort in English. One of the major components in this regard is
spelling. This may be probably the biggest challenge for non-native speakers since English spelling does not
follow the alphabetical principle consistently. Because of many changes in pronunciation which have occurred,
since a written standard developed, the retention of many historical idiosyncrasies in spelling, and the large
influence of foreign words (like Danish, Norman French, classical Latin and Greek) with different and
overlapping spelling patterns, English spelling is difficult even for native speakers. The generalization that exist
are quite complex and there are many exceptions leading to a considerable amount of rote learning. The spelling
system causes problems in both directs a learner may know a word by sound but not able to write it correctly, or
they may see a word written but do not know how to pronounce it or mis-learn the pronunciation.
Keywords: killer subject, mediums, content-oriented, manipulative.
Introduction
After having taught English to students of rural Maharashtra for about 20 years, I would like to share some
of the difficulties and their probable remedies in teaching and learning English as a second language. The
main aim here is to dispel the illusion of English language learning. At the outset let me emphatically state
that English can be learnt comfortably even by people whose mother tongue is very much different from
English.
The students that I encountered in my classrooms completed their schooling mostly in Marathi or Hindi
mediums. Though they have obtained good marks in core subjects they remain very poor at English. There
has crept in and unknown and unnecessary fear and fever over English in this part of the country, so much so
that English has earned the dubious name as the 'killer subject.' Before I go into the details of this paper, let
me affirm my firm belief that this killer aspect of this subject can be killed and annihilated. Now let us
examine some of the various factors which leave English as a souring grape for rural students.
Socio-cultural and financial background
The first and foremost factor is the socio-cultural and financial background of the stakeholders. As most of
the parents are illiterate, they cannot directly take part in the daily routine of their children. Hence, the
students' performance lacks parental supervision and guidance which is very necessary. The illiterate
parents cannot realize what their children are pursuing neither they do afford time to consult the teacher
about the progress of their wards in studies. They are worried about their livelihood which they can earn
only by sweating each moment of the day. The boy or girl is also sent to work which leaves us to conclude
that they, because of their illiteracy and penury, do not realize the importance of learning.
It has been found that the performance in English of the students whose parents are employees and belong to
higher middle class is better than that of the students whose parents are illiterate and belong to lower middle
class. The probable reason perhaps is that the parents in the first case can spare time to consult the teacher
about the on-going of their children once in a while and can guide them if necessary. Thus there has emerged
an undesirable difference between the two classes. Consequently, it is established in rural areas as a proven
fact that English is a killer subject to study and understands despite the fact that English is the easiest
language in the world to learn.
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The degree of difference that exists between English and native language
Language learning practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of
English are a consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English. A native
speaker of Marathi may face many difficulties than a native speaker of German, as German is closely related
to English, whereas Marathi / Hindi or for that matter any Indian language is not. Language learners often
produce errors of syntax and pronunciation thought to result from the influence of their mother tongue; such
as mapping its grammatical patterns inappropriately on to English, pronouncing certain sound incorrectly
or with difficulty, and confusing items of vocabulary known as false friends. This is known as L1 transfer
(Language one transfer) or language interference. However these transfer effects are typically stronger for
beginners' language production, and second language acquisition research has highlighted many errors
which cannot be attributed to L1, as they are attested in learners of many language background (for example
rd
failure to apply 3 person present singular 's' to verb, as in 'he make')
Wrong cultural perception of the classroom
Another aspect is the cultural perception of classroom as far as learning a second language is concerned.
Cultural differences in communication style and performance are significant. For example let us take two
different classrooms one of our own classroom and one from abroad. Our classrooms with regard to
language learning are more of content-oriented and less of activity and communication oriented. The one
we find in abroad is interactive and discussion oriented where the stakeholders and teachers interact on a
regular basis. Our cultural perception of a classroom as teacher-centered and content-oriented should be
radically changed for the acquisition of second language, here it is English.
Peculiar nature of English
As with most languages, written language tends to use a more formal register than spoken language. The
acquisition of literacy takes significant effort in English. One of the major components in this regard is
spelling. This may be probably the biggest challenge for non-native speakers since English spelling does not
follow the alphabetical principle consistently. Because of many changes in pronunciation which have
occurred, since a written standard developed, the retention of many historical idiosyncrasies in spelling, and
the large influence of foreign words (like Danish, Norman French, classical Latin and Greek) with different
and overlapping spelling patterns, English spelling is difficult even for native speakers. The generalization
that exist are quite complex and there are many exceptions leading to a considerable amount of rote
learning. The spelling system causes problems in both directs a learner may know a word by sound but not
able to write it correctly, or they may see a word written but do not know how to pronounce it or mis-learn the
pronunciation. However, despite the variety of spelling patterns in English, there are a dozens of rules that
are 75% or more reliable.
A second factor in this regard is too many Englishes: the British, the American, the Australian, the Canadian
etc... Which to follow? If a British trained one goes to America, they will first send him to a de-accent course.
Even here there are marked regional differences. English has spread to the whole world and has become the
'lingua franca' of the world, but wherever she went; she was a libertine and accommodated regional tones,
accents and intonations. The thriving communities of English native speakers in countries all over the world
also have some noticeable differences in pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary and grammar. Moreover
English has no organization that determines the most prestigious form of the language just like the French
which has the 'Academie De La Langue Francaise' or the Spanish's 'Real Academia Espanola' or the Italian's
'Academia Della Crusca, or the Hindi's 'Rashtrabhasha Hindi.'
Teaching English, therefore involves not only helping the students to use the form of English most suitable
for his purposes, but also exposure to regional forms and cultural styles so that the students will be able to
discern meaning even when the words, grammar or pronunciation are different to the form of English he /
she is being taught to speak.
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A New PG Programme for English Language Teaching
Most people who teach English are in fact not native speakers. They may have a Post Graduate degree in
English Literature but not in English Language Teaching. An MA in English Literature does not ensure
capabilities in Language Teaching. Before applying for the job he/she has to assess if he/she is capable of
teaching English as a tool to communicate: if not she/he is going to end up into a content-oriented classroom
with a teacher-centered method, and experience has proved beyond doubt that such type of learning will
never equip the learner to use the language as a day-to-day tool to communicate. For language teachers,
especially in lower level (1-12) classes, a Post Graduate degree in English Language Teaching is an
emergency need which should include second language acquisition theories, linguistics, history and
development of English, different shades of English, pedagogy and an internship. This programme also
should include specific classes on skill areas such as reading, writing, pronouncing and grammar. In
addition to these, the course should cover psychology, speech pathology, public speaking, group dynamics.
Without revamping our Post Graduate System we cannot hope to get genuine English Language Teachers.
The search for information on working with English language learners
On the positive side, there are a growing number of professional texts, articles and online resources for
teachers about working with ELLs (English Language Learners). These resources cover topics such as
making content comprehensible, teaching strategies, integrating language, culture and contents, assessment
and language developments, to name just a few. We can encouraged by the growing body of research-based
information.
On the negative side, however, the sheer volume of information is sometimes overwhelming. Consequently,
teachers can succumb to the allure of strategy books. Extracting strategies from books without an
understanding of ELLs unique language and learning needs is like building a house without understanding
the basic principles of construction. Our house may begin to fall apart before we can even move in.
Three Key Issues
To answer the questions of how to begin building the necessary understanding of ELLs' language and
learning, we need to consider three key issues that underlie the education of ELLs. They are:
a)
The amount of time required for second language acquisition,
b) The two jobs that ELLs are doing in the classroom and
c) The use of multi modes of input and output.
An understanding of these issues can help us the best and most current information available on working
with ELLs. They also serve as road-map for designing effective instruction for ELLs.
The amount of time required for second language acquisition
The first, and perhaps most important, issue is the amount of time that it takes to acquire a second language.
Studies show that “While it takes one to three years for ELLs to develop conversational proficiency in
English, they need five to seven years to develop academic English; that is, the English needed for reading,
writing, speaking and listening in the content areas.” (Collier V. P. (1999) Acquiring a Second Language for
School. In I. A. Heath & C. J. Serrano (eds) Annual Editions: Teaching English as a Second Language
Guilford, ct: Dushkin / McGrass Hill)
Most people seriously underestimate how long it takes to fully develop academic language skills; so it is
understandable that many teachers dispute the 5 to 7 year figure. Teachers often hear their ELLs talking to
other students in their hallways, at recess and socially in the classroom in reasonably accurate English. It
seems these students have “learned” English well enough to comprehend all that is happening in their
content classrooms, and to participate fully without any special modifications. However, when we talk
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about the language proficiency needed for our ELLs, we are talking about the level of English required to
comprehend academic content and to participate in activities and assignments.
If we examine our present learning standards and our middle school students, it becomes clear that students
must master new, content-specific vocabulary as well as understand concept they represent. This
vocabulary is very often different from what our students use in their conversation. The conversational
English is conspicuously missing in our curriculum. In addition to this new and higher level vocabulary;
ELLs must learn to use higher level language functions such as analyzing, predicting, explaining and
justifying. For example in a typical unit on population growth, middle school learners learn social studies
vocabulary such as demography, population shifts, growth and trend, as well as math vocabulary such as
percentage, increase, decrease and rate of change. Of course our ELLs need to learn this vocabulary, too, but
they also need to know how to incorporate this new vocabulary in to well-formed sentences to explain and
make predictions. For example: our ELLS must learn how to construct sentences such as “The population in
the rural parts of India shifted when…..” or “Population growth happened because of …” or “If economic
growth happens, it is likely that …. will happen.” Formation of these sentences requires much more than
simply knowing the content-specific vocabulary. The italicized words in the above examples are critical for
the formation of these sentences, but they are not the kind of sentence structures that ELLS usually acquire
in their conversational English. While specialized vocabulary is highlighted in many texts, language
functions and the sentence structures used to accomplish these functions are not necessarily brought to
students' attention as language learning objectives.
With this understanding about the second language acquisition process, we can help our ELLs by providing
extra support in developing not only the content-specific vocabulary, but also the academic structures. We
can analyze our lessons and use Word Walls and Word Sorts, among other techniques, to help ELLs practice
and acquire the vocabulary they need to understand the main points of the lesson. We can also determine the
kind of sentence structures needed to talk and write about concepts in the lesson (Eg: It's likely that…; when
I added ….. I got) We can model these sentence structures, post them in the classroom, and encourage our
students to use them. We can also point out their occurrence in written text to help students recognize them in
their reading and use them in their writing. By adding vocabulary and accompanying sentence structures as
language objectives that support each lesson's content objectives, we ensure that our ELLs develop the
specific academic language they need to participate in content classrooms. When we modify existing
lessons to address our ELLs' specific language needs, we integrate these students into the classroom and
curriculum, instead of having to create a separate and often less rigorous curriculum for them.
The two jobs of ELLs in the classroom
The second key issue is that ELLs are doing two jobs at the same time: learning a new language while
learning new academic content. Our ELL students are moving between the two worlds of their ESL (English
Second Language) classroom and their content classroom and they have to work harder, and need more
support. The focused language instruction that the ELLs receive in their ESL classroom is critical, but it also
reduces the time they spent in their content classroom. For this reason, it is very important that content
teachers become partners with their students' ESL teacher.
The ESL teacher can more effectively support the academic language development of our ELLs if we
provide them with the main ideas, the content specific vocabulary and the sentence structures related to
upcoming classes. This information can be used as a basis for academic language instruction for ELLs in the
ESL classroom. In this content-based approach to ESL instruction, ELLs have opportunities to practice the
new language reading, writing, speaking and listening to it. When content teachers share this information
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with ESL teacher, a link is established for ELLs between what they learn in ESL and what they use in the
content classroom.
The use of multiple modes of input and output
The final key issue is using multiple modes for creating comprehensible input and output. We realize that
our ELLs have not yet developed their English language proficiency to a level where they can understand all
the oral and written information they encounter in the content classroom. Therefore, we have to present
content in ways that are less dependent on language. The good news is that teachers already have a great deal
of experience with the techniques used to make input comprehensible; that is, the use of manipulative,
realia, pictures, videos, demonstrations, movement, gestures, drama, graphic organizers, multimedia, and
activities that are experiential or hands-on. These techniques do not rely heavily on language to convey
information and, thus, are extremely helpful to ELLs.
ELLs need to be fully involved participants in their learning, which includes demonstrating what they know.
In other words ELLs need to produce comprehensible output. We need this output from our ELLs for lesson
planning and for assessment purposes. Often times, ELLs know information but have difficulty expressing
their knowledge in English. The same multiple modes of input we use to present information can be used by
our ELLs to demonstrate their understanding of the information. For example, instead of writing a
composition that requires a high level of language proficiency ELLs can use pictures, graphic organizers,
demonstrations and drawings to show their understanding of academic concepts. Performance based
assessments in which students demonstrate their procedural knowledge are ideal for assessing ELLs
because of the lighter language requirement.
Conclusion
Thus understanding these problems and the key issues will help both content-teachers and ESL teachers to
co-operate each other, there-by the dual job in the classroom i.e., content learning and language learning,
becomes easy and less burdensome. This can provide a starting point for both ESL and content-teachers.
This understanding will assist in the search for more information on effective practices for teaching ELLs in
content classrooms. Such understanding also encourage teachers to examine and integrate their current
knowledge and practice into designing effective instruction for ELLs.
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References:
Adrian Doff (1995): Teach English: A Training Course For Teachers: Teacher's Hand Book. Cambridge: University Press
Bhatia K. K. (1996): New Technique of Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Jalandhar: New Academic Publishing Co.
Chaudhari Dr. Prabhakar (2005): Teaching English. Jalgaon, Vyankatesh Prakashan.
Collier V. P. (1999): Acquiring a Second Language for School. In I. A. Heath @ C. J. Serrano (eds) Annual Editions: Teaching
English as a Second Language Guilford, ct: Dushkin / McGrass Hill
Edward David Allen & Rebecca M. Valette (1977): Classroom Techniques: Foreign Languages and English as Second
Language. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanivich, Inc.
P. Gurrey (1955) ; Teaching English: As a Foreign Language. Bombay: Orient Longman.
Pawar N. G. (1995): Theory and Practice of Teaching English Language. Pune: Nutan Prakashan
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An Approach to English Language Teaching Using Culture as a Substratum
Mrs. Bhakti.S.Natoo,
Acharya Vinoba Bhave Institute of Technology,
Pawnar Wardha, Maharashtra
ABSTRACT: We believe that language is an instrument of power which influences ones position in the world and
that a common need is, “to understand and to be understood”. The mission of English Language Empowerment is to
build bridges through improved Communication, which seems more easy by using culture as a substratum. All the
countries and states where the multilingual and multicultural societies prevail, where the teaching and learning of
English as an international language takes place, a complex socio-economic relationship has developed between
language and empowerment. As English has become global today, to have a competent knowledge of the language is
seen as a useful key for opening many doors. Culturally relevant teaching is pedagogy that recognizes the diverse
cultural characteristics of students from different ethnic backgrounds and adjusts teaching methods to account for
this diversity. The theme of the paper highlights how, basic classroom exchanges at the local level interact with
learner's thinking processes and their capability to learn and how the teaching practices reflect society's views about
knowledge of English language as well as current technologies .By studying the classroom examples we understand
how complex the classroom procedures are, which we consider normal and how consciously unaware of this kind of
complexity we are.
Certain principles/practices which are of prime importance for a culturally relevant pedagogy might be as follows:a) Identity development
b) Developmental appropriateness
c) Teaching the student in totality
The theme presented in this paper will lead to an innovative approach of teaching English Language supported by
culturally relevant teaching.
Key words: Culture, Language, to understand, to be understood, Classroom exchanges, Complexity,
Reprimand.
Introduction
Gay (2000) defines culturally responsive teaching as using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences
and performance styles of diverse students to make learning more appropriate and effective for them; it
teaches to and through the strengths of these students. Further it has certain characteristics as follows:1 .It acknowledges the legitimacy of the cultural heritages of different ethnic groups, both as legacies
that affects student's dispositions, attitudes, and approaches to learning and as worthy content to be
taught in the formal curriculum.
2. It builds bridges of meaningfulness between home and school experiences as well as between
academic abstractions and lived socio-cultural realities.
3. It uses a wide variety of instructional strategies that are connected to different learning styles.
4. It teaches students to know and praise their own and each other's cultural heritages.
5. It incorporates multicultural information, resources and materials in all the subjects and skills
routinely taught in schools.
Further, Culture and Communication are inseparable because culture not only dictates who talks to
whom, about what, and how the communication proceeds. It also helps to determine how people encode
messages, the meanings they have for messages may or may not be send, noticed or
interpreted…so,….Culture,……thus is the foundation of Communication.
English Language Teaching is a widely used term, and looking into the synonyms, acronyms, and
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abbreviations used in the field of English teaching the term may be equally confusing. English is a
language which has great reach and influence; it is taught all over the world under many different
circumstances.
In English speaking countries, English language teaching has essentially evolved in two broad
directions
A) Instruction for people who intend to live in an English speaking country and
B) for those who do not.
Similarly English Language learning also takes its shape based on two important aspects:A) English outside English Speaking countries and
B) English within English-speaking countries.
Therefore looking into these aspects of English Language Teaching, this paper outlines avenues of
English Language Teaching integrated with culture which according to me can best be understood by
observing and studying few classroom examples.
About culture and culturally relevant teaching
Culture is the characteristics of a particular group of people, defined by everything from language,
religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. Today, as seen in India and also many other countries the
culture is influenced by many groups of people.
Culturally relevant teaching is a pedagogy that recognizes the diverse cultural characteristics of students
from different ethnic backgrounds and adjusts teaching methods to account for this diversity.
Culturally relevant teachers display cultural competence, skills at teaching in a cross-cultural or
multicultural setting. They enable each student to relate course students to his/her cultural context as
“culturally relevant pedagogy.”
Examples
Research in comparative education has shown the extent to which the pedagogical culture affects
individuals experience of socialization (Alexander,2001)as well as the prominence of language in the
process.
****For example if You are teaching a unit on “Gender Understanding”, you focus the curriculum by a
story, an example, a video, statistic or whatever gets students to focus on issues of “gender” as real to
them. The key is to engage students with its “generative theme”-something of genuine interest and
import to their lives.
Activity expected: Students respond with spontaneous examples.
Activity suggested: Students can be asked to express themselves, their own and their society's sense of
gender roles.
Result: This obviously increases the understanding of the concept of a very important aspect of language
i.e. gender. The culture to which they belong, the culture which they experience, help them in describing
their own experiences and attitudes, and what “goes on” in society- at least from their perspective about
the word “Gender”.
However, research in comparative education has shown the extent to which the pedagogical culture
affects individuals experience of socialization (Alexander,2001) as well as the prominence of language
in the process. To take one example ,the French are prescriptive about their language as a symbol of
national unity. From the very moment children join primary school, the notion that the French language
is important and that there is a correct way of writing and speaking French which exists outside them,
the norm is systematically conveyed. This is associated with teaching which involves a lot of copying of
models, which increases the symbolic power of the 'correct” language from the start.
**** Practical Example:
Here the practice which I want to highlight concerns teacher's use of specific routines in a typical
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English Language Classroom. The English language teacher having a wristwatch on her wrist asks a
student, “what's the time please? and the student replies “Is your watch broken”?The teacher will feel
justified in reprimanding the student, and all the students in the class are likely to giggle, because the
student will be perceived as insolent. So the student would be punished although the question might
have been genuine(he might have been concentrating upon the teachers fashionable digital watch more,
than on question for example).The practice whereby teachers ask questions to which they have the
answer, to test the students understanding is a professional practice. Outside school/college, questioning
the presuppositions of a request for information when having clear evidence that the person making the
request has the means of doing so, would be a normal behavior.
Result: This example is intended to show the complex classroom procedures, which we consider normal
and how consciously unaware of this kind of complexity we are , where in such a behavior is taken as
offensive and proving thereby the cultural background of the particular student.
Conclusion
To prevent frustrations and failures due to mismatches between the teacher's and learner's expectations it
is very important that the teachers need to consider to what extent the underlying principles of their
chosen methodology will correspond with the set of assumptions that learner's bring into the classroom
.Certain principles/practices which are of importance for a culturally relevant pedagogy with reference
to English Language Teaching, presented in this paper might be as follows:
1) Identity development: This concept highlights the importance of self-acceptance, socioeconomic and
cultural influences in relation to both teacher and student.
2) Developmental Appropriateness .Several concepts collectively define “Developmental
Appropriateness” within the concept of Cultural relevant pedagogy. These concepts include, “learning
styles, teaching styles, and cultural variation in psychological needs”.
3) Teaching the Child: When teaching a child , educators must be cognizant of the social-cultural
influences that have attributed to the learning progress of that child even before they enter the
classroom, these outside influences must naturally be accounted for when designing a culturally relevant
curriculum.
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References
Service for teachers by Lorraine Gillespie.
Understanding intercultural communication by Sam* Professional development ovar L.A, Porter R.E and Jain
www.intime.uni.edu
www.monash.edu
mind tools Essential skills for an excellent career, e-newsletter.
N.C (1981).
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Difficulties of Undergraduate Students in Comprehending Lectures
Brijesh Kumar
Dr. R.M.L. Avadh University, Faizabad (U.P.)
Abstract: This paper makes an attempt to study the difficulties of undergraduate students in comprehending lectures.
For that we will have to understand the nature and features of undergraduate level lectures then study the students'
problems in comprehending them, find out ways of making lectures effective and suggest some measures for effective
comprehension of lectures.
Key words: undergraduate, comprehending, effective, measures.
Introduction
English is increasingly used as a medium of instruction at various levels in our country. Though the use of
English at the secondary level is optional, its use is almost universal in some way or other. It is the medium of
instruction in all discipline including social sciences, humanities and commerce in the leading Universities
of the world as well as India. So English which comes usually after mother tongue has become the second
language for the students.
At University and collage level, lecture is the common mode of instructional activity. Within the
field of academic study apartfrom other activities such as reading assignments, writing assignments,
projects; lectures remain central instructional activity. Benson calls it, “the central ritual of the culture of
learning”. Though it is the important aspects of university instruction, there has been relatively little
research in this field.
In this paper I have made an attempt to study the difficulties of undergraduate students in
comprehending lectures. For that we will have to understand the nature and features of undergraduate level
lectures then study the students' problems in comprehending them, find out ways of making lectures
effective and suggest some measures for effective comprehension of lectures.
A lecture is considered as a setting where the subject matter of a course is explained by the speaker to
the listeners. It can also be defined as the extended piece of discourse that is delivered by one person to a
group of people. There is a minimal amount of interaction between speaker and listeners. They can be
characterized as planned, message oriented discourse delivered by a person to a group of people. Lectures
are syntactically complex and have an academic rather than a colloquial vocabulary.
Dudley-Evans has classified different styles of lectures such as Reading style where the speaker speaks/reads the notes (political leaders do this)
 Conventional style where the speaker speaks informally with or without notes
 Rhetorical style where the speaker presents him or herself as a performer
Most of the academic lectures are delivered either in conventional style or rhetorical style.
 Now let us discuss some important problems of undergraduate students in The lecturer speaks in
clear standard academic English at a normal pace
 The course of lecture is well-organized and well-planned
 Students have some background in the subject matter. Previous study of a subject comprehending
lectures in English language:
 Strong regional or foreign accent of the speaker
 Unfamiliar materials for students
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


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
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Pedantic style of the speaker
Lecturer's manner of speaking: speed delivery, pronunciation and style of discourse
Lecturer's specific cultural references
Excessive use of new terminology and concepts
Students' lack of concentration
Students' unfamiliarity with sentence pattern
Lack of atmosphere for the conversation in the language of instruction
Lack of motivation in students
Lack of audio-visual aids in lectures
Now let us take a look at some features which make the lectures effective. These are the outcomes of the
researches done in this field. Flowerdew states that the researchers have found that effective comprehension
is possible whenOften serves:

Lecture's comprehension depends on how the lecturer approaches and conceptualizes his/her
materials
Another linguist James (1977) sees lecture's comprehension as a process of five activities which
culminates in note-taking activity. These activities are
 Decoding
 Comprehending
 Identifying main points
 Decide when to record them
 Write quickly and clearly
Apart from these measure some other measures should also be taken care of such as
Sentence pattern should be explained to the students
 Students should be motivated to have a look of the course prior to lecture
 Cultural features should be explained clearly
 Audio-visual aids should be used for the better comprehensibility of the subject matter
Thus we can say in the conclusion that lectures should be able to evoke responses and of interactive nature.
Above all, lecture is not just a linguistic act but also a way of establishing relationship with students. If we
take care of these aspects, we will be able to overcome some of the difficulties for the undergraduate
students in comprehending lectures.
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References
Dudlay Evans, A and T.Jones.(1981). A team teaching approach to lecture comprehension for overseas students. The teaching
of listening comprehension. ELT Document special. London :The British Council.
Flowerdew, John.(1994). Academic Listening: Research Perspectives Cambridge: CUP.
James, K.(1977). Note teaching in lectures: Problems and Strategies. English for Academic Purpose. A.P.Cowie and J.B.
Heaten (Eds) Reading:BAAL/SELMOUS.
Jorden, R.R.(1997). English for Academic Purpose. Cambridge: CUP
Kumar, Krishna. (2009). What is Worth Teaching? Delhi. Orient Blackswan.
Richards, J. C.(1983)Listening Comprehension: Approach, Design, Proceduure.TESOL Quarterly 17(2): 219-39.
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Teaching and Learning English as a second Language:
The role of Teacher and Learner
D.G. Thakare
Pulgaon Polytechnic Pulgaon, MS, India
Abstract: For effective communication of one's feeling, thoughts and ideas and transmission of knowledge etc,
Language is a dispensable instrument. In the modern world, English holds the unique place of importance. Being a
living language, widely spoken, written and dynamically growing day to day, a veritable window on the world. One
is required to possess a certain degree of proficiency in English Language to use it effectively to one's own satisfaction
and to the satisfaction for others. Teaching students who have a limited understanding of the English language can be
a daunting task. Since ESL students speak a different language at home, some of them do not know the meanings of
simple English words and phrases, and it can be difficult for teachers to communicate with them. Nevertheless,
teachers can exercise more patience and try to find the right ways to help to their students become more proficient in
the language. Here are a number of effective strategies for teaching ESL.
Key words: Traditional classroom, Use of complicated word, Poor jargon, Prejudice, Ignorance
Introduction
In an ESL classroom, English language proficiency and academic experience among students can vary
greatly. In order to help every student improve, teachers have to understand every individual student's level
of language proficiency and educational history. The best way to make lessons comprehensible to all
students is to replace difficult texts with simpler terms. They should not use oversimplified vocabulary
because some students may find this insulting. It is important for ESL teachers to establish a more personal
relationship with every student and their family. Simple actions such as pronouncing the student's names
correctly and showing interest in their cultures will go a long way in giving students a more pleasant
learning experience.
Make Sure that Students Know What is Going on in Class
Some ESL students do not have sufficient knowledge of the English language to understand the
instructions that are provided by their teachers. As such, they may not know exactly what is going on in their
classes. Teachers have to encourage their students to ask for clarification when they do not understand
certain instructions. During the course of a lesson, they have to let their students know which points are
important and give them more time to ask questions. At the end of the lesson, they should ask the students to
write down all the things that they have learned and aspects of the lesson that they are unsure of. Then, they
can use the information to provide better clarification at the beginning of the next lesson.
Help Students Speak English More Comprehensibly
There is no need for ESL teachers to eliminate accents when they are teaching their students to
pronounce English words. The important thing is to teach them to speak comprehensibly. Teachers should
speak clearly and repeat words that are difficult to pronounce, and they can help their students learn how
individual sounds are produced by showing the right positions and movements of tongue and lips. Students
should be encouraged to speak slowly, so that their pronunciation will be clearer and more accurate
.Effective teaching learning call for an eclectic approach wherein a fine blend of methods by both, life long
learning by teachers and learners etc. are all judiciously used.
Origin of the research problems:
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English is a gateway of the treasure of knowledge and cultures in the world. This language has of global
demand because of its reach in every sector. It plays an utmost important role especially in Education field,
as Education system teaches English. Today it is the big problem of teaching in classroom. Though right
from the first standard to twelfth , every student learn English but when time comes to speak or express
oneself, one can not express himself/herself through English.
Causes for poor performances of teaching and learning English as a second language:
There are several causes for poor performance in English.
 Traditional classroom
 Use of complicated word
 Poor jargon
 Prejudice
 Ignorance
 Lack of proper knowledge
 Lack of skill
 Psychological factors
 Exam centered Teaching Learning
 Lack of Audio Video aids
 Lack of practical knowledge
 Unavailability of teaching material
 Poor motivation of teacher
 Mental attitude of a Learner
 Unskilled Teacher
 Fear about English Language of the students
 Overconfident students
The role of Students and Teachers:
However, the learning process should be Learner centric, but in the process of Teaching and Learning
both parties are of the same importance. Teacher should play his role of teaching through the various ways,
like that student also have to play the role of Learner. First, we will focus on Teacher
Role of Teacher:
Today, Teacher is also responsible for the ineffective teaching of English in somewhat way. We can find
everywhere that, teachers are mere a translator than a genuine a teacher. Number of English teachers is
unskilled; it means they do not update themselves as per the demand of the age. Second thing is Exam
oriented teaching. In several schools and colleges by using traditional methods teacher teaches only examoriented syllabus, they do not think of overall development of students than result. Third one thing is that of
poor motivation to the students. Teacher self is not interested for genuine teaching. They should take interest
and teach as per the need of the students. Then some teachers find floundering themselves about the concept,
so they should first take knowledge of uses of vocabulary and other things related to teaching. They should
plan lesson Students centric. Teachers of English keep themselves updated with latest information and well
equipped with the latest technology. They should change from strict instructor to a counselor and guide to
the student.
Role of Student/ Learner
The role of student is very much important, because the effectiveness of learning process is mostly
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depends upon Learner that is student. Most of the student accomplished their schooling in their mother
tongue so English is like a sour grape for them .Inefficiency in students also one of the barrier of effective
Teaching and Learning English as a second language. Next to it, mental attitude of Learner residing in nonurban area, that they have fear about the English language. Some students have hesitation about English
speaking and learning, so it is a barrier for effective learning. On the other hand, overconfidence in some
student also takes much time to learn the usage of correct language. In the technical college one can find that,
students have unconscious feeling that learning English is not much needed, so they study the language
course, just to pass the exam and not for overall development. Student's all ignorance about the language is
also one of the reason barriers of learning of Effective English. And last but not the least that is respect for
teacher, so that he/she can learn much more thing effectively. Student should create efficiency for learning.
Always use of motivation by the teacher. Student should have respect of learner. They should understand the
importance of English in college level. They should avoid ignorance by concerning teacher. They should
avoid exam-oriented study. They should participate in GD, Debate, Role-plays, etc. They should learn to use
of audio visual aids and other technical gadgets, gramophone, records etc. They should avoid uses of
complicated word, poor jargon lack of trust and prejudice.
Solution to overcome the problem:
As there are several causes for poor performance of effective Teaching and Learning of ESL. We can
overcome it also, if we think and work over it through following remedies. First Teacher should change
himself or herself from translator to genuine English Teacher. All the teachers of ESL should keep
themselves updated with latest information and well equipped with the latest technology. Role of teacher
should have to acquire the knowledge of usage of vocabulary of whatever the teaching topic is. In order to
make effective Teaching Learning process both the parties should play an equal role to overcome the
problem. Following Do's and Don't for teacher and student can help to overcome the problems of ESL
students.
Do's and Don't for Teachers:














They should avoid traditional classroom
They should have good questioning skill
They should focus on Grammar and revision of lesson
They should analyses the Audience(students)
They should arouse interest within student.
They should prepare students centered lesson plan.
They should take active participation of students in teaching learning process, which can provide
motivation to the students.
They should teach through the non-traditional methods like group discussion, Debate competition,
Role-plays, use of audio visual aids etc.
Digital Language Lab must be there in each Technical college, it is convenient and effective
platform to the students.
Learner should encourage listening to spoken English.
Reading, writing, listening, speaking and understanding, this skills are much important, so teacher
should take practice of speaking through listening.
They should take help of parental involvement.
He should be computer Literate and should know the use of technical gadgets.
They should take active participation in personality development conferences, workshop and
should investigate alternative methods of teaching of ESL students.
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Do's and Don't for Students:














They should remove Inefficiency in them
They should change Mental attitude who residing in non-urban area
They should remove fear about the English language
They should not have hesitation about English speaking and learning
They should remove overconfident about Language
They should have respect for teacher.
They should create efficiency for learning
They should always use of motivation by the teacher
They should understand the importance of English in college level
They should avoid ignorance by concerning teacher
They should avoid exam oriented study
They should participate in GD, Debate, Role-plays, etc.
They should learn to use of audio visual aids and other technical gadgets, gramophone, records etc
They should avoid uses of complicated word, poor jargon lack of trust and prejudice.
Conclusion
This paper focuses on not only the role of Learner and the study material but the improvement in
teachers also. It also attempts to explore the above mentioned learner-teacher-modern teaching technique,
which currently dominate the English Language teaching area, and promise more fruitful Language
experience as well as better language production.
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English Language & Indian English Learner
Datta K. Ramrule1 and Miss. Kanchan S. Kolurwar2
Saraswati Mahavidyalaya, Kaij. Dist. Beed1
Yeshwantrao Chavan College, Ambajogai2
Abstract: English is the language of the world. Due to the importance & growing pace of English Language everyone
wishes to learn English language. Now a day, English Language has become matter of need, talent for Indian English
Learner. He who knows English can become free to take knowledge of world & can do the progress. But for Indian
English Learner English Language has always remained crucial task to understand, achieve & use in day today life.
Due to this crucial task Indian English Learner always neglect & comes in tension in relation to English Language.
This paper presents different kinds of reasons of the problems that the Indian English Learner is facing.
Key words: Indian English, Government Commissions, Learner's Psychology
Introduction
“English is the window of the world”- P.T. Nehru 1
As per above quote, English has become language of the world. Due to the importance & growing
pace of English Language everyone wishes to learn English language.
Now a day, English Language has become matter of need, talent for Indian English Learner. He who
knows English can become free to take knowledge of world & can do the progress. But for Indian English
Learner English Language has always remained crucial task to understand, achieve & use in day today life.
Due to this crucial task Indian English Learner always neglect & comes in tension in relation to English
Language.
Indian English Learner is facing problem in English Learning due to different kinds of reasons like-
1.
Impact of Indian Atmosphere on English Learner
English Learners are always going to come in problems to learn English. The main reason behind it
is that English is a foreign language. Not only this but also it's alphabets, words, pronunciation everything is
different from mother tongue. As Dwight Bolinger said, “Language is species specific. It is uniquely human
trait, shared by the cultures so diverse and by individuals physically and mentally so unlike on
2
another……”
In above statement we can easily understand that language is a fruit of particular atmosphere,
culture. It's physical content & it's completely different from another language as well as culture too.
2.
English and Indian English
Everyone wishes to use & learn English. Nearly from last 100 years, especially there is craze for
learning, writing, using English by everyone. Considering its importance, during this whole process English
has gone through many variations & the fruit of these variations are different. One an important result of the
variations is that the birth of Indian English “The increasing use of English for creative expression and the
3
adaptation of the language have given rise to the notion referred as Indian English”
The rise of Indian English has created a kind of confusion to English learner. Not only this but also
American, German, British etc. places English has changed as per atmosphere & become a great problem
for English Learner during learning.
3.
Government Commissions and English Language
English Language has introduced by English People in India. English is the only language which
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gives international knowledge as well as national knowledge to Indian & we can say, we feel India as a
country after studying English. Love, sympathy, patriotism have created by English Language. Our
freedom fighters get knowledge of patriotism through English language. Ultimately, we can say India is a
country which has shape & become free due to English. But after independence English has always treated
as second & third language as “The Kothari Commission recommended the three language formula which
gives rise to two types of English language at the school stage first type is meant for those students who are
interested to learn English they can learn it from class II and the second type is that from class III students
4
who learn”
Result of this becomes English has become secondary & third language. We loose root learning in
English which created weak learners of English.
4. Teachers of English Language As a M.D. Alcorn, J.S. Kinder and J.R. Schunert (1970) write in their book “Better Teaching in
Secondary Schools”, “The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher
demonstrates. The great teacher inspires.”5
As per above opinion every teacher isn't same. In the same way every teacher doesn't have quality to
teach well not only this but also no. of teachers don't have basic knowledge too because English is a foreign
language. They are often weak students in English but become teachers, lecturers. Which results in poor
guidance & teaching to English Learner?
5.
Methods and Approaches to Learn English
Due to research in various techniques in the field of language learning and teaching some classroom
techniques as methods or approaches were adopted to teach English. Every Method and Approach has its
own characteristics as Anthony said, “Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language
6
material, no part of which contradicts and all of which is based upon the selected approach.”
But no one method have particular rules and measurements through which teacher or learner can
select proper Approach or Method to teach or learn language Due to this problem often teacher jumbles and
same way learner too can't learn well.
1.
Learner's Psychology & readiness
To learn a particular subject like English it's important to think about learner. English is always
foreign & difficult language to Indians. Due to these learners capacities are most important as L.H. Clark
and I.S. Starr (1986) write in their book “Secondary and Middle School Teaching Methods”
“Since learning is developmental it follows that one learns better when one is ready to learn. The principle
of readiness has confused both teachers and lay people Psychologically it can have many ramifications but
for our classroom purposes, it can be defined quite simply. Readiness is a combination of maturity, ability,
7
prior instruction and motivation.”
Not only this but also the style of learning at individual level is also a matter of ability which is
important to learn language as M.C. Wittrock and A.A. Lumsdaine Write, “Learning often depends upon the
congruence between task and the learners ability and cengintive style.”8
In this way, English Language & Indian English learner is a concept which isn't hard task to combine
but we have to provide such facilities, atmosphere & create situation through which Indian English Learner
can learn English language successfully.
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References
N.P. Pahuja, Teaching of English, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. Reprint 2009. P. 2.
Bolinger, Dwight, Aspect of Language, New York, Harcourt, Brace and World Inc. 1968 P.3.
Ibid. P.8
Ibid. P.7, 15
Mohammad Sharif Khan, Syed Rashid Akbar, School Teaching, APH Publishing Corportation. New Delhi (2004) ISBN 817024-822-1.P.1.
E.M. Anthony: Approach, Method and Technique, English Language Teaching, 1963, 17, P. 63-67.
Ibid. P.16
M.C. Wittrock and A.A. Lumsdaine, Instructional Psychology, published in Review of Psychology Volume 28, (1977) P.436.
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Alignment and Implementation:
Process Writing Approach in Bhutan
1
Dechen Zangmo, 2Mitchell O'Toole & 3Rachel Burke
1,2,3
University of Newcastle, Australia
Abstract: A 2006 curriculum change mandated the Process Writing Approach (PWA) in Bhutan. It was
anticipated that PWA would address the poor standard of Bhutanese student writing and help teachers to
teach writing in English more effectively. Cultural and classroom factors have made previous introductions
of new teaching practices in Bhutan problematical. Since PWA was originally developed to teach writing to
native speakers of English, it is significantly different from contemporary local approaches to writing
instruction. This paper reports on research into the implementation of PWA in Bhutan, discusses the results
of test analysis of the 2006 English curriculum documents and evaluates the alignment between stated
intentions, suggested activities and assessment practices. The results of semi structured interviews with a
small number of stakeholders integral to the implementation will also be discussed.
Keywords: Cross-cultural curriculum, curriculum alignment, Process Writing Approach, ESL teachers'
challenges, imported approaches and methodologies
Introduction
Transplanting teaching methodologies from one context to another can be problematical (Carney, 2008;
Kirgoz, 2007). Non-native English speakers commonly experience difficulties in implementing unfamiliar
classroom practices when there is inadequate support for teachers to make such cultural and professional
adjustments, particularly those borrowed from a western approach to English language teaching (Dushku,
1998; Wedell, 2003). Mal-adjustment to local contexts can consequently result in a gap between the
intended official curriculum and the curriculum enacted in classrooms. The way that teachers enact an
innovation will depend on how they react to new concepts, new approaches to presenting content and also to
new ways of interacting with students (Vandenberghe, 2002). The degree to which the documents
mandating the change are aligned will influence their reaction.
Biggs (2003) defines constructive alignment as keeping 'what is to be taught, how it will be taught and
assessed' in line (p.18). Such alignment can yield up to four times greater results in student achievement
(Cohen, 1987). Alignment of the stated objectives and the activities for teaching Process writing Approach
within mandated curriculum documents will be critical to successful implementation of PWA in Bhutan.
Bhutan
In 2003, Bhutan was identified as one of the countries with the highest number of secondary repeaters and
school dropouts in South East Asia (UNESCO, 2003). A local study conducted by Educational Research
and Development in the same year also confirmed that the standard of Bhutanese students' writing fell far
below official expectations (Center for Educational Research and Development, 2002). Classroom
observations revealed that Bhutanese secondary school teachers emphasized answering questions from
texts that they had explained to their students. There appeared to be very little direct teaching of writing and
limited opportunity to their students to practice writing. The 2006 English curriculum proposed the fivestage Process Writing Approach in response to this situation (Curriculum and Professional Support
Division, 2006.)
Process Writing Approach, six years on
There has been little work on Bhutanese English teachers' perceptions of PWA as a curriculum innovation
and of how they implement it in their classrooms. Has PWA actually been implemented in Bhutan? If so,
what has affected its implementation? Which problems and factors have influenced how teachers
experienced the supposed danger? Investigating factors affecting curriculum implementation at the
Reprinted with permission from The Journal for ESL Teachers and Learners Volume II 2013
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classroom level may help to bridge the gap between intended and implemented curriculum by formulating
strategies to tackle the problems appropriately.
Observation of student \writing portfolios soon after PWA was implemented in the schools (Buggie et al.,
2009) revealed that students had written only a few drafts related to a single topic, after which there was no
further evidence of teaching the writing process. This suggests that single attempts at teaching Process
Writing in line with the English curriculum did occur but that the innovation was not sustained, perhaps due
to significant differences from contemporary approaches to teaching writing in Bhutan (Dequi, 2005;
Matsuda, 2003).
The part of a wider study reported in this paper seeks answers to the following questions:
 How strongly aligned is the 2006 Bhutan English curriculum, in terms of the Process Writing
Approach?
 How was the implementation perceived by a small representative sample of school principals who
were responsible for that implementation?
Research Methods
This qualitative study began with analysis of locally authoritative documents to examine the links between
the curriculum intentions and the stated activities in the official Guide. Subsequent face to face semistructured interviews were conducted with Bhutanese secondary school principals to uncover salient PWA
implantation issues. The principals were recruited at a government-sponsored, national, annual teacher
conference in Bhutan.
Result and Discussion
Document Analysis
The text analysis of the English curriculum documents (Curriculum and Professional Support Division,
2006) indicate that there is a general misalignment between the writing intentions mentioned in the
introduction and the foreword of the writing section of the Teachers' Guide and the substance of other
sections of the panned curriculum at several points.
The foreword (pp. 132-133) and introduction (135-140) of the writing section of the Teachers' Guide
emphasize writing as a process of planning, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing to discover what a
student wants to communicate, presenting writing as a skill to be taught and practiced using the Process
Writing Approach. However, the specific objectives and set activities for writing (pp. 141-182) mainly
focus on teaching grammar and other writing skills and there is very little emphasis on PWA.
In the introduction to writing (p.137) it is suggested that evaluation of students' writing focus both on the
process and product, proposing evaluation to 'focus on how well [students] learned their roles when teachers
teach writers' workshop'. A sample rubric for writing, suggested as giving credit to both process and
product, was provided as Appendix G, which however deals with memoir writing. Moreover, the
assessment package (pp. 233-240) suggests allocation of only 15% for continuous assessment in which
'process of work' is mentioned as one of five other components. The actual writing process therefore has
minimal emphasis in the overall assessment of student work. Importantly, the final writing product is the
basis for student promotion to the next class level.
The Reading and Literature section of the Teachers' Guide (pp. xix-130) displays 17 writing activities to
follow reading texts. Only 6 of the 17 writing activities (pp. 15, 66, 77, 86, 103, 114) are identified with
PWA. A closer observation of the activities reveal only brief mention of PWA and no detailed instructions
regarding how to carry out PWA in the classroom.
PWA teaching intentions have not been closely aligned with the set activities in the planned curriculum.
Although PWA is briefly mentioned in the Reading and Literature section, there is no detailed information
provided on implementation, allowing teachers to interpret and implement it in their own way. Further,
PWA intentions have little impact on assessment, presenting a strong disincentive for teachers to implement
the approach.
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Semi structured interviews
This documentary analysis was followed by in-depth semi structured interviews with eight principals who
were expected to oversee implementation of the new curriculum in their Lower Secondary Schools in 2006
and 2007. Care was taken to ensure each of Bhutan's four administrative zones was represented and
principals were drawn from both urban and rural schools. Their preparation for the mandated change
varied. Three of the eight received 6-10 days of orientation to the new curriculum, another three principals
also participated in a 45-day writers' workshop. One only participated in the writers' workshop and the final
principal did not receive any form of training.
Eleven major themes emerged from open coding of the interview transcripts. It is noteworthy that most of
the principals were positive about the change (six of the eight). However, the node for 'challenges' in
implementing PWA was the most prevalent with 82 references from all 8 sources. Principal views of
Process Writing also emerged in every interview. This is unsurprising, given the misalignment of the
documents expressing the new curriculum. Each of the principals also discussed teachers' backgrounds,
how they managed the change, training, evaluation and the teachers' guide. There was less frequent
discussion of suggested improvements, the role of other documents and existing teacher beliefs.
Subsequent discussion in this paper will focus on their views of the challenges they faced in implementing
the 2006 English curriculum. Re-examination by breaking the 'challenges' node into smaller nodes
displayed several sub-themes, which are discussed below.
The training process
Opinions of PWA training were divided with most principals expressing negative feelings while the three
principals who received both the orientation to the new curriculum and the Writers' Workshop expressed
positive feelings.
The common negative views on the orientation course were that it was extremely brief, it only provided
some basic ideas on using the Teachers' Guide, lacked focus through trying to broadly cover as many topics
as possible within the limited time and was inadequately facilitated. The principal who only participated in
the writers' workshop suggested that the course was not related to teaching PWA:
No, I didn't go for training but I attended the writers' workshop. It was for class nine and ten.
We were basically selecting texts for essays. So actually I didn't get training in writing process
in the new curriculum. It was just that I went for text collection [Principal 1, p.1].
These principals also noted that not all English teachers had the opportunity to attend the workshops and
orientations. Only a few teachers from each school attended the workshops. These teachers were then
expected to return to their schools and pass on information gained from these workshops to the other
teachers through the School Based In-service Program. However, these sessions only last one or two hours
and the participating principals mentioned that this is very short for passing on all the required information.
And the Ministry takes it for granted that “Oh these teachers are trained.” I think that is not fair.
I think each individual to … I think curriculum to be successful, all the English teachers should
be trained. Then only we can carry out the new English curriculum effectively. If things are
taken for granted people are doing things in their own ways. So I think that's the problem. We
are not trained in process writing not even in our training colleges so we just carry on what we
feel is right. We try to design our own activities and make the children do. That's all [Principal
1, p.7].
However, the principals who received both the orientation to the new curriculum and a writers' workshop
made more positive comments.
I really got experiences and it really did help me because I knew how to use it [PWA & the
Guide]. For instance I knew how to go about writing and writing process … because I already
have the idea about the organogram, organization, structure of the English curriculum, how it is
structured, the standard and the activities and the assessments and all these. So I was confident
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while teaching [Principal 3, p.1].
Use of Guide
Half of the principals used the Teachers' Guide for teaching Process Writing, while the other half said they
did not use it. The principals who only attended the orientation to the new curriculum used the Guide.
These principals referred to the Guide for assistance when they were uncertain about PWA. However, if
participants had no prior training on PWA they found understanding and using the Guide for teaching PWA
difficult.
I have to read through the Guide many times but as I did not attend the workshops, at times it
was difficult for me even to understand the Guide to use the Guide. So I might not have used the
Guide as desired by the writer, I might not have used it that way. I am still doubtful [Principal 8,
p.2].
They also identified other factors such as mismatches of the Guides' expectation and students' level that
made the Teachers' Guide difficult to follow.
On the other hand, the principals who attended the writers' workshop did not use the teachers' Guide for
PWA. Instead they all used handouts from the workshop because they found the handouts easier to
understand. As stated by one of the principals:
I did not use the Guide as I already have enough materials on this writing. Basically they talk
about the same thing but I do not go to the Guide because I have my own materials which are
very simplified and easy to implement [Principal 6, p.4].
Time constraint and syllabus coverage
The eight principals generally agreed that the Process Writing Approach occupied too much of class time as
teachers responsible for large numbers of students are required to provide feedback on multiple drafts.
They indicated significant difficulty in finishing the set syllabus for English, when class time is devoted to
process writing. Students' assessment at the end of the year will be based on the syllabus, which makes
completing the syllabus more important than PWA.
School location and family background
Most of the participants claimed that school location and student family background play significant roles in
implementing the PWA. Most of the students from schools located in the rural areas come from families
with low literacy rates, which affect students' English levels.
My school, the catchment area, is the workshop area and we have children coming from
faraway places. Their parents are apple orchard caretakers and they don't have any exposure
[reading and writing]. So I don't expect much from them. What I do is I just let them do free
writing. So from there I can see the progress in them. I don't refer the Guide because the guide
expects a lot the Teacher curriculum Guide. So I don't go according to it but I have my own
style to implement the writing process [Principal 1, p.1].
Conducting peer conferences
Conducting peer conferences was the most dominant sub node under the node for 'challenges'. Seven out of
eight participants emphasized difficulty in conducting peer conference in Bhutanese classrooms because of
students' culture, particularly in rural schools.
At this stage peer conference is not effective mainly because first of all they are not very
comfortable with English. And secondly they are shy and not able to do and when it is friends
with friends they are not able to give critical comments because they are not trained from the
time they were in schools. So peer conferencing is not effective, it is possible to have peer
conference but it is not effective. They (children) have same level of understanding same level
of knowledge about English about grammatical errors because they are peers and as they are
almost same level of understanding, peer conferencing is not very effective [Principal 3, p.7].
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Conclusion
The misalignment between the intentions and importance given to the PWA in the Foreword and
Introduction and set activities appears to have resulted in teachers choosing to pay more attention to syllabus
coverage than to Process Writing. This should be seen as a rational response to external constraints, rather
than evidence of teacher recalcitrance. A failure to cover the syllabus results in student failure of final
assessment in which the greater weight is placed on writing produced to answer questions from the syllabus.
Failure at final examinations means lace of promotion to the next class. So, teachers gradually stopped
teaching the PWA. This clearly suggests that, if the intention to implement innovation is genuine,
curriculum planners need to work towards consistency of objectives, activities and assessment.
The semi-structured interviews suggested that a single workshop orienting teachers to this innovation had
not been sufficient to change teachers' instructional beliefs and classroom behavior. Although most of the
principals interviewed were keen to implement the approach, longer and more appropriate training
appeared to generate more understanding and confidence.
These preliminary findings indicate that misaligned curriculum plans make teacher implementation
unlikely, or even contrary to the interests of the students in their classes. They also suggest that planned
innovations fail to anticipate cross cultural mismatches between foreign methodology and existing local
context may face intractable implementation difficulties as both teachers and students fail to accommodate
the cultural shift.
The results of the interviews with this small but representative sample of Bhutanese principals suggest that
cultural tensions regarding mutual support and criticism; confidence and humility; hierarchy and
collegiality; and teaching working conditions and practices might all provide useful points of focus in
subsequent classroom observations.
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References
Biggs, J. (2003). Teaching for qualitative learning at university. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Buggie, W., Haley, J., Rai, A., Yangzom, D., Choden, K., & Dolkar, D. (2009). Field visit presentation. Unpublished manuscript.
Thimpu: Ministry of Education
Carney, S. (2008). Learner-centered pedagogy in Tibet: International education reform in a local context. Comparative
Education. Vol. 44, 39-55.
Centre for Educational Research and Development. (2002). The silken knot: Standards for English for schools in Bhutan. Paro:
Department of Education.
Cohen, S. (1987). Instructional alignment: Searching for a magic bullet. Educational Researcher. Vol. 16, 16-20.
Curriculum and Professional Support Division. (2006a). English curriculum guide for teachers: Class VII. Par: Ministry of
Education.
Dequi, Z. (2005). The process approach to ESL/EFT writing instruction and research. Celea. Vol. 28, 66-70.
Kirgoz, Y. (2007). Language planning and implementation in Turkish primary schools. Current Issues in Language Planning.
Vol. 8, 174-191.
Matsuda, P.K. (2003). Changing current in second language research: A colloquium. Journal of second language writing. Vol. 12,
151-179.
Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global language on educational policies and practices in Asia-Pacific region.
TESOL Quarterly. Vol 37, 589-613
Sonaiya, R. (2002). Autonomous language learning in Africa: A mismatch of cultural assumptions. Language, Culture and
Curriculum. Vol. 15, 106-116.
UNESCO (2003). South and East Asia: Regional report. Montreal: Institute for Statistics
Vandenberghe, R. (2002). Teachers' professional development as the core of school improvement. International Journal of
Educational Research. Vol. 37, 653-659.
Wedell, M. (2003). Giving TESOL change a chance: Supporting key players in the curriculum change process. System, Vol. 31,
439-456.
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Communication Skills for Enhanced Employability of Engineers: A
review of literature
Dr. (Ms.) Deepshikha Mehra1
Mrs. Vinita Virgandham2
1
2
Abstract: There is now a growing need world over to enhance employability of engineers by developing their
communication skills. But with students struggling to become employable despite scoring well technically, raises the
question whether there is a clear understanding of the types of communication skills that the industry needs? Has
there been clear identification of the types of communication skills required by engineers for increased
employability? And should the curriculum of Communication Skills be focused on language alone or should it follow
an integrated approach? These questions are dealt with in this paper based on a review of literature on
communication skills and other skills for employability. The paper ascertains the global viewpoint as well as the
Indian perspective on the specific types of communication skills required by engineers in order to become
employable as well as successful at workplace.
Studies point out that engineers lack various important skills which go beyond communication skills, like skills of
decision-making, problem solving, leadership, emotional intelligence, social ethics as well the ability to work with
people from different backgrounds. Various aspects of communication skills such as oral communication skills,
interpersonal skills, written communication skills, effective listening skills, and confidence level in expression of ideas
to an audience have been identified as important skills. An integration of communication and adaptive skills would
help Engineers learn the functional aspects of the English language better.
Keywords: Communication skills, India, Employability skills, engineering, integration, curriculum.
Introduction
There is a growing need world over for developing employability skills of engineers both by the industry as
well as academia (Riemer, 2007). It stems from the fact that over 70 percent of the engineering graduates in
India are unemployable (Sinha, Indiaeducationreview.com). According to McKinsey Global Institute
survey results, “India produces 360,000 engineering graduates, 600,000 graduates in
arts/science/commerce.” And only 25 percent of engineering graduates and 10 percent of other graduates
are employable (Rao, 2010). National Employability Report of 2011 reports that only 17.45 percent of the
engineers are employable in the IT service sector where as only 2.68 percent in the IT product companies.
Blom and Saeki (2011) surveyed employers in 20 sectors such as IT, power and infrastructure in India and
found that a skill shortage has lead to a rise in wages in the IT sector by over 15 percent.
Responsibility of developing these skills has been placed on higher education institutions due to various
reasons. Firstly, while big companies can afford to train the fresh entrants, small and medium industry
sector cannot do so (NER 2012). Secondly, it is also believed that the new generation of professional are less
loyal as compared to their predecessors. As a result companies are not keen to invest in their training
(Jackson, 2009). Thus, the onus of skill development falls on educational institution, bringing in focuses
their curriculum design and methods of assessment. But HEI (Higher Education institutions) blame the
industry for not clearly stating their requirements. Thus a gap continues to exist. It has been largely
attributed to low soft-skills (NER 2012), with a focus on low communication skills. Thus, it is important to
know whether there is a clear identification of the types of communication skills required by engineers for
increased employability. Does it reflect in the curriculum? And should the curriculum of Communication
Skills be focused on language alone or should it follow an integrated approach? This paper seeks answers to
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these questions through a review of literature on employability skills for engineers' world over, based on
secondary data which has been collected from journals and web resources.
Importance of Communication Skills as an Employability Skill
Employability skills have been defined as those “foundational skills on which job-specific skills can be
developed such as communication, personal and interpersonal relationships, problem solving, and
management of organizational processes” (Lankard, 1990 as cited in Padmini, 2012). Communication
skills are set of important employability skill recognized world over that help convey information that it is
well-received and understood clearly. As per the Business Dictionary, communication skills are “the ability
to convey information to another effectively and efficiently”. Communication is not just speaking but
involves various aspects such as writing, listening, as well as visual, intercultural, and interdisciplinary
aspects (Riemer, 2007). Strategic Communication Skills Development Program fostered by the University
du Québec (UQ) has grouped communication skills for engineers under four communication situations
(Beaudry et al., 2007): Reception: This is action or decision making based on recognition, comprehension,
interpretation and appreciation of oral and written productions; Production: This is a situation requiring an
engineer is to produce clear, concise and comprehensible oral and written messages; Mediation: In this
situation an engineer is mediating when he adapts, transmits, reformulates, or translates a message while
considering the context of a situation; Interaction: An engineer is interacting when he/she effectively
participates in an oral or written reciprocal communication.
For engineers communication skills have been considered as at least as important as technical skills for their
success in the corporate environment (Fornaro et al 2001). A survey of 100 engineers working in Australian
manufacturing sector indicates that they spend over 70 percent of their working time in documentation
related activities (McGregor, http://uhl233226rendenvous.wikispaces.com). Infact “the quality of
communication skills can either permit or prevent an engineer's promotion within an organization”
(Beaudry et al., 2007). However, communication skills are required both before and after placement. In
India this has gained importance as globalization has opened the Indian economy. There is now an
increasing demand for Indian engineers in English speaking countries like UK and USA (Ferrari and
Dhingra, 2009). Plus with Multi-National Corporations visiting various engineering colleges for
recruitment, the demand for communication skills training has increased.
English as a language is the most important part of communication skills as English is now the most widely
spoken language in the world (Kitao, 1996, world language.org). It's importance can be ascertained from the
fact that a household survey has estimated that English communication skills increase the hourly wages of
men by 34 percent especially in case of highly educated workers such as engineers (Blom and Saeki 2011).
The Communication Skills Demand and Gap in Engineering
The Demand
Ninety-one percent of the employers in USA and 84 percent in India have found communication as an
important skill among engineers (Blom and Saeki 2011). Alumni of the University of Michigan were asked
to rank the importance of 19 different skills in professional life on a scale of 1 to 5, with 5 as “always useful”
and a rank of 1 as “never used/needed.” Interpersonal skills and technical communication not only were
highest ranked skills but were significantly higher than any technical skill (Khauss and McGee, 2012).
Tenopir and King (2004) reported a survey of faculty and students at Michigan State University that found
that engineering students had trouble communicating. Other concerns included “lack of organizational
skills, unclear expression of ideas, poor verbal skills, difficulty with writing introductions and conclusions,
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and weak logic” (Vest, Long, and Anderson, 1996 as cited in Tenopir and King, 2004). As per Monster.com
(as reported in Baugh et al., 2009) 50 percent of industry need from entry level information technology
students was reading, speaking and team interaction where are more than 60 percent demanded for writing
skills. Alumni from SUNY-Buffalo reported spending on an average 32 percent of their time on some form
of writing and felt that communication skills helped differentiate a young engineer from the rest of the group
(Krauss and McGee, 2012). As per Hart-Rawung and Li (2008) the skill demand in the Thai automotive
sector is for high-level English communication to work with multinational engineering teams and to win
neighboring markets. Specifically, the need was for developing pronunciation, increasing ability to
understand a foreign accent, and express precise and comprehensible messages in English. The skill also
translated into better leadership skills for managing international business. Myra L. Corrello, found that the
engineers in UK rated public speaking, interviewing, communicating for better feedback and conflictresolution as most important which they lacked. As per a survey carried out by P'Rayan (2011) of
engineering graduates of Anna University, 100 percent ex-students identified speaking as an important skill
where as 97 and 80 percent attributed listening and interpersonal skills, respectively, as important skills.
Nearly 70 percent found written skills as important. The Institution of Engineers in Australia identified core
communication competencies for engineers as effective communication in English, “present, report on, and
advocate engineering ideas; and prepare, comprehend, and communicate engineering documents. This
meant not only good oral and written skills but the ability to comprehend and analysis ideas” (McGregor,
2000 as cited in Tenopir and King 2004) which are considered as “one of the best career enhancers and to be
the single biggest factor in determining a student's career success or failure” (Polack-Wahl, 2000)
The Gap and Its Reasons
However, world over a gap between demand for and supply of communication skills exists. The National
Employability Report of India (2011) reports that nearly 78 percent of the graduate engineers lack
communication skills. As a result knowledge process outsourcing industry is able to pick up only 9 out of
100 engineers. Employers in UK, USA and Australia have found skill shortage in areas of Science,
Engineering and mathematics in soft skills (Jackson, 2009). The survey of engineering colleges under the
purview of Anna University found that the existing course in English communication was examination
oriented and contributed little towards skills development. As a result most of the students lacked the skills
that potential employers were looking for (P'Rayan, 2011).
As per the National Skill Development Corporation of India, the lack of skills in the building, construction
and real estate services in India were communication and team building skills such as ability to express
project objectives to team members, coordinate and motivate the team; oral and written communication
skills to communicate effectively with Head Office, contractors, architects, labourers etc.; and strong
networking and liaoning skills. Among Engineers/Supervisors, insufficient writing skills in English and
documentation skills were found. In the field of real estate as land acquisition and land bank creation, the
employed were found to lack aptitude to write good basic investment proposals in English language. Those
in project conceptualisation, design, planning and marketing (including seeking approvals), a lack of ability
to write and work on project proposals was found. Those working in facility Management were found to
have inadequate documentation skills. Those in tendering in infrastructure sector were not very effective
while presenting or liasoning, and had poor oral and written skills. In entry level personnel in tendering,
inadequate tender-writing skills were assessed.
Various reasons have been identified by scholars for the skill gap. There is a large variation in basic English
competencies of students who join engineering colleges in India. Engineers coming from metro cities have
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better communication skills as compared to students from non-metros (Anonymous 2012, P'Rayan and
Shetty, 2008). Furthermore, scholars also feel that students do not find communication skill as a problemsolving skill but as an additional course (Beaudry et al., 2007), thus a burden. Insufficient course content,
deficient or inappropriate teaching methods, and/or lack of opportunity for engineering students to practise
communication skills (Roulston and Black, 1992) can be reason for the gap as research has clearly shown
that for most students communication skills are learnt through practice, but they don't get adequate
opportunities beyond First year (Hendricks and Pappas, 1996). Research carried out by P'Rayan (2011) in
engineering College of Anna University showed that only 50% students passed the English proficiency test
despite scoring more than 70 percent in the University English examination.
The problem is like a double edged sword. On one side the problem in from the system. Teachers' training in
technical communication is considered as inadequate to teach engineering students (P'Rayan, 2011), which
is compounded by mushrooming of engineering colleges and shortage of teachers, as a result. This is
overcome sometimes by employing under qualified teachers. Teacher to students' ratio being high, the
burden on the teacher increases and thus reduces the chances of continuous assessment and continuous
practical intervention to enhance communication skills. On the other hand students in India are not
comfortable with English language and have high Communication Apprehension (CA) (P'Rayan and
Shetty, 2008). This seems to be a problem in other non English speaking nations (Yin, 1988; Gordon, 2002;
Orsi & Orsi, 2002; Riemer, 2002; Cowling, 2007 as cited in Hart-Rawung and Li, 2008) as it was found that
eighty per cent of the managerial problems in Japan arise from insufficient English competency of the
managers.
Strategies to Fill the Gap: An Integrated Approach
Understanding the main reasons for the skill gap, universities world over have adopted an integrated
approach to enhance communication skills (Beaudry et al., 2007) as engineering students benefit more from
discipline-specific or work place implementable communication skills (Tenopir and King, 2004; Hendrick
and Pappas, 1996). They are also able to see its relevance and thus there is more interest generated.
Many foreign universities focus on speaking and writing skill enhancement, integrated with technical and
adaptive context. University of Santa Babara, California has introduced research and writing skills in three
levels in engineering context. Colorado State University implemented the strategy of a single
communication course taught by two professors. One dealing with the technical side and the other with
teaching to write. US Coast Guards course has writing in all the four years of engineering on realistic
assignments letters, journals, lab reports, sales brochures, designing projects and publication of quality
project reports. The University of Texas at San Antonio includes communication throughout the
engineering course with stress on technical writing, oral communication skills, visualization, and graphics.
Georgia Tech's School of Chemical Engineering offers an undergraduate course that includes oral and
written communication in the context of a bioengineering that replicates the workplace. Second-year
electrical engineering students at Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology in Terre Haute, Indiana take a
course that exposes them to team projects and improves oral and written communication skills. A survey of
co-op graduates revealed that they gained experience in writing reports, memos, instructions, e-mail,
letters, specifications, and proposals during the internship or while working on projects that involved
industry clients (as cited in Tenopir and King, 2004). University of Technology in Sydney, Australia stresses
on engineering curriculum that can be used throughout the engineering program and will include team
writing, debating, negotiating, teamwork, writing for publication, writing research reports, and reading and
interpreting trade literature (McGregor, 2000 as cited in Tenopir and King, 2004). Cambridge English for
Engineers stresses on communication effectively with colleagues and customers such as procedures and
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precautions, describing technical problems and suggesting solutions to working with drawings, etc. Similar
integrated approach is carried out by University of Michigan where it has Technical Communication course
meant for specific disciplines. These courses are not only integrated with technical aspects but are also
linked with each other. Thus a lower semester Technical Communication course is a treated as a prerequisite for the next semester course. Speaking and writing are the two skills on which there is a continuous
focus. A similar focus on written and oral communication skills with application to engineering reports and
decision-making is followed in University of Memphis; New South Wales University, UK; Ohio
University; and University of Western Michigan. The Communications Skills program running at the
Robert Morris College as reported by Baugh et al. (2009) is for all four year of Engineering for the Computer
and Information Systems students that includes aspects such as argument and research, public speaking and
persuasion, intercultural communications, and business and professional communications, all looking at
communication focus on workplace and interpersonal scenario.
In India, BITS Pillani has only one technical communication paper on listening, writing, and speaking with
nd
a similar format followed by Vishwakarma Government Engineering College for the 2 semester students.
Communication Skills in English for B.E. Second Year students of Delhi University includes
communicative grammar, oral and written communication, developing comprehension and analytical
skills. IIST Thiruvanthapuram has communications skills lab in which the concentration is on listening and
vocabulary development, and technical writing tips. IITs in Guwahati and Indore lay larger stress on
grammar and pronunciation. IIT Kanpur concentrates on Linguistics and literature with some courses on
professional writing and visual design. Manipal University has Communication skills for First year B.E.
students with stress on grammar with some aspects of GD, presentation and developing critical thinking.
NIT Hamirpur has developed a theory and practical syllabus which takes an integrated approach in
communication skills with understanding interpersonal communication, writing, listening and speaking.
NIT Silchar through its theory course on Communication skills in First year has laid stress on oral, grammar,
and writing. IIT Delhi has introduced theory of technical communication with workshops on creative
writing in the 1 and 2nd semesters. VIT Vellore has a session for English deficient students and two courses
on English for Engineers which concentrates on speaking/presentation, grammar and writing.
Various strategies have been adopted to enhance communication skills such as in-class presentations, peer
review, role-play, video of student presentations with individual feedback, (Keane and Gibson, 1999). In
Virginian Tech in-class presentations, Monday-night workshops, individual or small group tutoring, special
technical topics presentations are the assessment and practise strategies used which not only exposes them
to aspects of speaking and writing but also gives exposure to interpersonal and analytical thinking tools. As
part of this course rigorous exposure is given in the form of three presentations and twenty-four written
assignments, making Technical and User's Reference Guides, a technical paper on data warehousing, a
proposal to buy a software along with a power point presentation; a database project and a presentation to
the end user, a report on quality issues in information technology, to write an analysis paper on ethical issues
in information technology, etc. (Baugh et al. 2009)
P'Rayan and Shetty 2008 carried out various strategies to overcome communication apprehensions among
the students in order to develop their communication skills. This included brain storming sessions on
various reasons that cause communication apprehension and the suggestions to overcome them. The
strategy also included one-to-one interaction with the teacher and individualized training. In individualized
training students who had high communication apprehension were grouped together for GD and public
speaking. NIT Hamirpur has introduced assignments for students to design questionnaires and write a
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review on each assignment. For developing analytical and interpersonal skills students are asked to write a
paper assessing them. It also includes class seminars which could be extempore or pre‐decided as well as
survey or project reports
Lessons Learnt and Recommendations
Communication skills go beyond English learning. That is why “teachers of English at professional colleges
should undergo paradigm shift and cease to be mere teachers of grammar and structure; they are expected to
play the role of diagnostician, counsellor, communication specialist, soft skills trainer” (P'Rayan and
Shetty, 2008). This fact has been stressed in the National Employability report (2011) in India which has
called for a “significant and fundamental shift in college curriculum, methods of instructions as well as the
assessment methods” for skill development rather than learning by rote.
A two pronged approach to skill development can be carried out. One is need assessment and the other is
integration. It is very important to carry out a diagnostic assessment of what the industry needs. Otherwise
technical communication teachers will soon be replaced by trainers from industry who would take up shortterm courses in engineering colleges to deal with skill enhancement. It is also important to carry out a need
assessment of the students to understand their communication skills needs. Although an individual
treatment and intervention have limitations in the Indian scenario, it would none the less help the teacher
understand the average understanding level in a class room. Furthermore, the relevance of communication
skills would increase and would lead to skill development if it is integrated across four areas:

Integration of courses on communication skills across the semesters: This would mean continuous
intervention or exposure to various communication skills. It would help them over their
communication apprehensions much before they face the placement process and are also able to
understand the use of communication in a workplace scenario. We at RCEOM are trying to follow
this intervention where Technical Communication has also been introduced in two branches in the
nd
second year. While the first year course is an introduction to all the four skills of communication, 2
year lays stress on speaking and writing skills in context to that particular branch of engineering.
 Integration of communication skills with adaptive skills: would mean introducing various
communication situations that would help them understand and develop adaptive skills and use
communication skills in such situations. Reviewing themselves in various communication
situations would help students become aware of their skill limitations and would generate a need to
enhance them.
 Integration of communication skills with technical aspects: This would mean bringing engineering
context in communication to make communication skills more relevant to engineers.
 Integrated teaching: this can be carried out at the final year level between the project guide and
communication skills teacher. Such an integrated approach would also involve teaching by industry
(alumni and others) to understand real life communication problem situations.
However, mere need assessment and integration would not achieve the objective as its effective
implementation is also important. It is important to carry out continuous assessment to make students
understand the effective use of communication. However this should involve a sincere intervention from the
teacher in the form of problem solving in various communication situations. Class discussions and
interactions over communication problems and the solutions would enhance the understanding of the
students and thus contribute to skill development.
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References
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be able to communicate, Issues in Information Systems,2009, Vol. X, No. 1, 198-207.
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The Quality Teacher: From Being to Becoming
Prof. Dharmapal B. Fulzele,
Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar College, and Centre for Post Graduate studies,
Brahmapuri. Distt-Chandrapur
ABSTRACT: The contemporary world is changing fast. In this emerging world one finds innovations in every walk
of life. As a result of this, the scenario of contemporary teaching pedagogy is entirely changed. English Language
teacher could not remain unaffected by this changes and development and felt a need of incorporating innovations in
teaching learning process in order to help learners for enhancing various skills. This paper is an attempt to throw a
light on the need of quality teacher in the horizon of English Language teaching. It is an appeal to the English
teaching community for becoming the quality teacher. It also endeavors to highlight the ideology and politics in India
which endorse nativism, lingualism and regionalism pertaining to English Language. Thus, the teacher plays a
decisive role to create genuine learning environment in the class room. Although, the journey of teacher to become a
quality teacher is difficult but through sincere efforts and constant struggle one can reach at the destination.
Key words: The quality teacher, innovations, English teaching community, ideology, politics, nativism, lingualism,
and regionalism
Introduction
The contemporary world is changing fast. In this emerging world one finds innovations in every walk of
life. Due to rapid spread of industrial development, international trade and commerce, science and
technology, the scenario of contemporary teaching pedagogy is entirely changed. English Language teacher
could not remain unaffected by this development and felt a need of incorporating innovations in teaching
learning process in order to help learner for enhancing various skills. The demand of quality language
teacher is progressively increasing, so is the responsiveness among teachers for the need to improve their
own knowledge base, teaching and professional skills. In fact, teaching is a complex and difficult task that
needs extra ordinary abilities. Therefore, it is not only need but product of time for such quality teacher to
overcome every hurdles of English Language Teaching.
This paper is an attempt to throw a light on the need of quality teacher in the horizon of English Language
teaching. It is an appeal to the English teaching community for becoming the quality teacher. It also
endeavors to highlight the ideology and politics in India which endorse nativism, lingualism and
regionalism pertaining to English Language.
English Language Teaching in India: Ideology and Politics:
In India English is a second language for all of us. The process of learning the second language or foreign
language is not exactly the same as the learning of one's native language. Therefore, English language
learners of India have to adopt every possible tools and techniques for the mastery of English language. But
some exponent of regionalism and lingualism try to contaminate the conducive atmosphere of learning
English. This ideology and politics create gulf among English learners. Therefore, English teaching
community should be alert with these prejudices. As pramod K.Nayar says: “As early as the 1930s, the
Indian novelist Raja Rao had mourned the legacy of English, when he wrote in his preface to his novel
“Kanthapura” that he could not capture the emotions and feelings of the heart in a language that was not his
own.” (Abhijit Kundu andPramod Nayar2011:9
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Further Nayar says:
This debate about the linguistic legacy of colonialism has continued in most independent (post
colonial) nations. Most Indian writers in English are asked as to why they write in English. A brand of
criticism called nativism (Balchandra Nemade, for instance) argues that writing English continues
colonial oppression and that we can never be free until we abandon English. However, other writers
like Salman Rushidie argue that the colonial language does not remain an oppressive 'master'
language any more. Post colonial authors indigenize and nativise it - that is, appropriate and make
English their own. A process often called “Chutneyfication” of English. Many diasporas writers
echoing the same. (Abhijit Kundu andPramod Nayar2011:9
In present scenario in India we find some critical notions regarding English language such as grammar is
not necessary for spoken English, there is no need of study the art of pronunciation and there is no need of
good vocabulary for general English. These constructed notions create negative impact on the mind of
English Language learners. The English teacher should not be interpellated by this ideology and politics.
She/he must be aware of the fact that the importance of English as international language and is a passport of
better career, salary and better personality cannot be denied. As Patel says “English however must continue
to be studied. It is a language which is rich in literature, humanistic, scientific and technical. If under the
sentimental urges we give up English, we would cut ourselves off from the living stream of ever growing
knowledge.”(M.F.Patel 2008: 9)
The English teacher must be aware about the fact that substantial mastery of the vocabulary, grammar
and phonetics ensures mastery of the English language although the process is a bit time - consuming. A
good teacher is a good person, a role model who meets the community ideal for a good citizen, good parents
and good employee. English teaching community should inculcate these thoughts among students.
1. Being a quality teacher :
The quality teacher never fears and worries about any hurdles of teaching in particular and life in
general. His personality is replete with many qualities like perseverance, hard work, progress towards
achievement, good thinking, good suggestions, imagination, creativity, originality, neatness, good
behavior, pays attention to others and courtesy. As Tricia Hedge says:
Good teachers have always taken a positively critical approach to appraising and developing their work, using
what insights are available from their own and others' experience, and from the possible implications of
research, especially from studies which are based in the language classroom. It is one of the ways in which we
create our own continuing professional development.(Tricia Hedge 2000: 39).
The quality teacher never interpillates by any ideology and politics which endorses regionalism and
lingualism. He accepts every challenge and tries to conquer it with enthusiasm and positive gestures. He
performs various roles at the same time for effective teaching learning process. E.Karawas - Dukas has
given roles of the teachers as:
1. Source of expertise
Instructor
Presenter
2.Management roles
Manager
Organizer
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Actor
Pedagogist
3. Facilitator of learning
Helper
Guide
Catalyst to group discussion
Prompter
Mediator
5. Sharing Roles
Negotiator
Participant
Student
Co-operator
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Director
Administrator
Public Relations Officer
4. Source of advice
Personal Tutor
Psychologist
Listener
6. Caring Roles
Friend
Sister/Mother
Caretaker
Supporter
7. Create of classroom
8. Evaluator
Atmosphere
Entertainer
Motivator
Source of inspiration
(Tricia Hedge 2000: 28-29)
The quality teacher always employs novel techniques and increases the effectiveness of lecture
presentation through use of audio-visual aids like posters, video clips, films, CDs, DVDs and T.V. programs.
2. Becoming a quality teacher
I earnestly do an appeal to those who belong to English teaching community that she/he must keep a
role model of quality teacher. We have the tradition of quality actor, singer, dancer, musician, orator and
teacher too. T.S.Eliot in his essay entitled “Tradition and Individual talent” says that tradition in the true
sense of the term cannot be inherited; it can only be obtained by hard work. Tradition can be obtained only
by those who have the historical sense. The historical sense involves a perception, “not only of the pastness
of the past, but also of its presence”. It represents the accumulated wisdom and experience of ages, and so it
is essential for really great and noble achievement. In the same manner, the English teacher must follow the
tradition of quality teacher and add something new to it aiming transformation in personality charismatic for
creating new knowledge for the betterment of English teaching community.
In 1987, the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) , was formed to
create “board-compatible” standards that could be reviewed by professional organizations and state
agencies as a basis for licensing beginning teachers. The INTASC standards are written as 10 principles
which are then further explicated in terms of teacher knowledge, dispositions and performances-in other
words, what a beginning teacher should know and be able do.
1. The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry and structures of the disciplines
he/she teaches and creates learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter
meaningful for students.
2. The teacher understands how children learn and develop and can provide learning opportunities
that support their intellectual, social and personal development.
3. The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to learning and creates
instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners.
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4. The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students'
development of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills.
5. The teacher uses an understanding of individual and group motivation and behavior to create a
learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning and
self motivation.
6. The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, non-verbal and media communication techniques
to foster active inquiry, collaboration and supportive interaction in the classroom.
7. The teacher plans instruction based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, and the
community and curriculum goals.
8. The teacher understands and uses formal and informal assessment strategies to evaluate and
ensure the continuous intellectual, social and physical development of the learner.
9. The teacher is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his/her choices and
actions on others (students, parents and other professionals in the learning community) and who
actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally.
10. The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents and agencies in the largest
community to support students' learning and well-being.
(Gary Borich 2012: 28-29)
English teaching community has to gravely follow these principles for becoming the quality
teacher.
3. Conclusion
In a nut shell, I must say that teacher plays a decisive role to create genuine learning environment in
the classroom. Although, the journey of teacher to become a quality teacher is difficult but through
sincere efforts and constant struggle one can reach at the destination charismatic for creating
innovations in the horizon of EL
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References
Borich, Gary, (2012). Effective Teaching Methods: Research based practice. New Delhi: pearson longman.
Hedge, Tricia, (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language classroom. New York: OUP.
Kundu, Abhijit and Pramod K.Nayar, (2011). The Humanities Methodology and Perspective. New Delhi: pearson longman.
Patel, M.F, (2008). English Language Teaching. Jaipur: Sunrise Publishers and Distributors.
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Teacher Training for ELT
Divya Lakhera
Prificiency in English Academy, Nagpur
Abstract: The expanse of English Language teaching has reached unprecedented proportions today as boundaries
have shrunk and the world has come together. English is one language that has made it possible to obliterate cultural
and linguistic borders among countries of the world. Everyone, today, is aware of the fact that English is a language of
global standards and has a universal appeal. Hundreds and thousands of teachers across the globe are tutoring and
mentoring a mammoth number of students throughout their career.
The ongoing need for professional development of teachers is being felt today like never before due to changing
curriculum, students' needs, new assessment techniques, teaching methodologies and shifting knowledge base. It is a
huge challenge for the heads of the institutions and teacher educators to help teachers maintain their inspiration and
interest in the profession. This paper aims to study the need for regular training of English Language Teachers to
facilitate and realize a consistent and planned approach towards their professional development.
Key words: Global, Educators, Professional, Methodologies, Inspiration
Introduction
The field of language teaching is subject to swift changes, both for the professionals who are teaching
as well as for the institutions that have to face new challenges due to modifications in the syllabus,
examination system and student needs. One of the major changes being witnessed nowadays is that the
number of students learning English has grown by leaps and bounds. Students know, that to have successful
professional career, knowledge of English is a must.
Now the question is whether we have that large a number of capable teachers to teach the students. We
know that we deeply flounder when it comes to providing quality education at all times. The reasons could
be many but the main point is that to uplift the standards of English Language Teaching, a lot of emphasis
has to be laid on Teachers Training so that the problem of making students competent in ESL can be dealt
with proficiently.
In our country, a teacher immediately after her post graduation is ready to teach college students. For
school teaching, a bachelor in Education degree is a must but for college teaching, we don't have any such
added qualification.
This paper aims at discussing the problems faced by teachers when handling adult learners, to find solutions
to those problems and why teacher training programs are so important .If we ignore the urgency of
conducting teacher training programmes, we not only risk teachers leaving the profession quickly, but more
importantly we risk the education of entire classes of students.

Why is Teacher Training important for ELT?
 Promotes Chances for Success- Since Teacher Training courses help new teachers learn useful
strategies to successfully manage and run a class, their confidence level helps them sail through any
Situation with ease and promotes their chances of being effective teachers.
 Reduces Stress Factor- Trained teachers are equipped with the latest teaching techniques and
methodologies which can be adopted in classrooms, reducing stress when handling real life
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situations.
 Exposure to World Wide Practices Being Adopted- With training, teachers get exposure to a wide
spectrum of avenues on teaching front, different approaches , techniques and benchmarks in the
field of education which can help them create authentic and valuable lessons for students which
otherwise wouldn't have been possible.
 Platform for Collaborative Learning- Training ground provides a platform to the teachers where
they can share and learn from each other's experiences. Interacting with peer group and listening to
challenges faced by others, creates an excellent platform for collaborative learning where a pool of
teachers can come together and design something concrete for the students.
Training involves understanding fundamental concepts and principles as a precondition before applying
them to teaching and the ability to express these doctrines and practices in the classroom. A few topics
for training can be:
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Using effective strategies to introduce a lesson to make it more interesting
Selecting the appropriate textbook to match the level of the students
Using effective questioning techniques to create curiosity in the minds of learners
Using collaborative activities in class for participation from a larger number of students
Using effective audio visual aids
Techniques for giving learners feedback on performance
Though learning and education can never be confined to limits but for making things simpler, teacher
education is often divided into three stages:

Initial Teacher Training (a pre-service course before entering the classroom as a fully responsible
teacher);
 Induction (the process of providing training and support during the first few years of teaching);
 Teacher Development or Continuous Professional Development (CPD) (an in-service process for
practising teachers).
 Initial Teacher Training- New teachers face many challenges each day. While teacher training won't
completely prepare new teachers for every issue they will experience but it can definitely help them
feel more confident about common problems that arise. Without this background, teachers might
feel like failures and eventually give up.
From the point of view of Initial teacher training for ELT the following topics may be identified;
 Domain Knowledge- Teachers need to be proficient in all the domains of language teaching which
includes English grammar, phonology, curriculum development, discourse analysis and other areas
which define the professional learning base of language teaching.
 Principles of Adult learning- The basic principles of Adult learning should be incorporated and
applied in teaching to facilitate constructive learning
 Understanding the Needs of Learners-Learners have different styles, attitudes, problems and
difficulties towards learning. It is very important for the teacher to understand these to help students
achieve best results.
 Designing Suitable Curriculum- Selecting the best instructional material that would meet the
requirement of the students is the need of the hour to optimize learning and teachers must be well
equipped to achieve this.
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Induction of new teachers
A teacher has to have a good knowledge of the subject that has to be taught and she should also be good at
transferring that knowledge to the different kinds of learners; it therefore requires teachers to undertake a
complex set of tasks every minute.
A number of countries and institutions have put in place all-inclusive systems of support to help beginning
teachers during their first years in the profession. Elements of such a programme include:

An experienced teacher, specifically trained as a mentor looks after a new teacher providing
emotional and professional support and guidance.
 Input from educational experts help the new teacher understand what she learned in college with
classroom reality
 Support for the process of self-reflection that all teachers engage in (e.g. through the keeping of a
journal) is provided.
Some research suggests that such programmes can increase the retention of new teachers in the profession;
improve teaching performance; and promote the teachers' personal and professional well-being.

Continuous Professional Development
Teachers are preparing young people to enter the world which is changing rapidly, due to which the teaching
skills required are also evolving, hence no initial course of teacher education can be sufficient to prepare a
teacher for a career of 30 or 40 years. Continuous Professional Development (CPD) is the process by which
teachers reflect upon their competency and develop them further.
Jack C. Richards and Thomas S.C. Farell in their book on Professional Development for Language Teachers
have given the following examples as goals from the perspective of continuous professional development;

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Understanding how the process of second language development occurs
Understanding how our roles changes according to the kind of learners we are teaching
Understanding the kind of decision making that occurs during lessons
Reviewing our own theories and principles of language teaching
Developing an understanding of different styles of teaching
Determining learners' perceptions of classroom activities
Experience around the world in developing and industrialized countries has shown that teacher training is
the key determining factor for improved student performance in terms of both knowledge acquisition and
skills development.
Traditional one-time teacher training workshops have not been very effective in helping teachers overcome
all barriers; instead, a new paradigm is emerging that replaces training with lifelong professional
preparedness and development of teachers.
Training can promote effective instructional strategy that is more student-centered pertaining to individual
learning styles and closely related to real-life events and processes. Such teaching encourages development
of higher-order thinking skills among students, and collaborative learning, all of which are increasingly
required in today's knowledge-based global economy. Perhaps most importantly, training implies a shift in
the teachers' role from being the sole source of knowledge and instruction to being a facilitator of students'
learning.
Success in ensuring that, teachers acquire the skills and knowledge they need to use effectively, opens the
door to all kinds of new educational opportunities for both teachers and students, and plenty of economic
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opportunities for graduating youth . It is the key to participation in the global knowledge-based economy.
Accordingly, teacher professional development must be given the priority and resources it deserves, while
still maintaining a constructively critical eye on its costs methodologies and impact.
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References
Jack C. Richards, Thomas C. Farrell , Professional Development for Language Teachers, Cambridge University Press,2005
Cecil H. Allen, In-Service Training of Teachers in Review of Educational Research. 1940; 10: 210215.
Richard Ingersoll, Thomas M. Smith: Do Teacher Induction and Mentoring Matter? 2004
Wong H; Induction programs that keep new teachers teaching and improving; NASSP Bulletin Vol. 88 No. 638 March 2004
Ashby, P., Hobson, A., Tracey, L., Malderez, A., Tomlinson, P., Roper, T., Chambers, G. and Healy, J. (2008). Beginner
teachers' experiences of initial teacher preparation, induction and early professional development: a review of
literature. London: DCSF
Garet, Porter, Desmoine, Birman, Kwang, What makes professional development effective? American Education Research
Journal 38(4) 915-946. 2001
General Teaching Council for England, 'Teachers' Professional Learning', London, 2005.
Anderson, Chris. What is Quality in Education?, Bizmanualz, July 15, 2009.
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Imparting English Language & Cultural Communication Skills
through Electronic & Print Media with the Reference of BBC, CNN
IBN, NDTV &the Hindu News Paper
Kulkarni Hanmanthrao
Laqshya Institute of Technology & Science
Khammam.AndhraPradesh.
Abstract: News channels like BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and English Newspapers (The Hindu News paper) are
considered as one of the most powerful sources of sharing information and enriching English Language and Cultural
Communication Skills (EL&CCS) knowledge bank. The basic reason of selecting these tools (BBC, CNNIBN,
NDTV and English newspapers) as a learning or teaching tools is very pragmatic as these tools cover an array of
information and knowledge regarding pronunciation, accent, intonation grammar, vocabulary and that too within the
reach of our learners( Teachers, students & professionals) wallet. These tools can be used as efficacious learning
tools to improve the language skills of the learners and certainly encourage and motivate the learners and help them
to sharpen their LSRW (Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing) skills. The present paper aims to study issues that
are interwoven with learning and teaching English through BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and English newspaper at any
where (where ever you are).
Keywords: News Channels, papers, teaching tools, LSRW skills, role- play, interactive activities etc.
Introduction
BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and The newspapers are regarded one of the most reliable, easily available, less
expensive and effective sources of sharing information and knowledge. These tools offer us a wide range of
knowledge and in-depth analysis of incidents and events. Generally, people prefer to watch BBC, CNNIBN
and NDTV and read out the newspapers along with their morning cup of tea or breakfast. The news
channels and newspapers are broadcasted, published in various languages with a great number of
supplements and editions. In country like India, as per the latest statistics available, the country consumed
around 300 million cable connections and 100 million copies of newspapers that have made it the second
largest market in the world. As India is a country of great diversity and here we have various sects, religions
and languages because of the unity in diversity, majority of people watch English News Channels.
So we have a large pool of International/National/Regional/Local news channels, papers. The reputation of
any news channel or paper largely depends upon its viewers, circulation, number of editions, printed copies,
and number of readers, coverage and scope. Even after the advent of electronic media, importance and
readership of newspapers are stable and it is quite striking to mention here that there is a great increase in the
readership of all the leading newspapers. Watching English news and reading newspapers on regular basis is
considered a good habit. It is observed that the learners those who watch news channels & read newspapers
regularly are more proficient and aware about the happenings that occur near or far away the world and learn
cultural communication skills and good at language.
By watching news & reading newspapers, the learners can gather information on varied subjects
including….




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Social-political-business issues
Sports
Entertainment
Art, culture, music
Education etc.
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Moreover, the practice of watching news and using English newspaper helps the learners in the society and
in the mundane affairs of their life. They can also be encouraged to improve the
Following aspects….
 Vocabulary.
 Grammar and thinking skills.
 Accent.
 Intonation.
 Pronunciation.
As regular watching news and reading of newspapers can provide them the above mentioned opportunity to
express and exchange their ideas on a wide variety of issues.
Aims of learning English:
It becomes clear that English is an all-important language and the ability to use this language has become a
necessity tool to an educated person. The study of a language has four aspects. They are Semantic, Phonetic,
Graphic and Phonetic-cum-Graphic aspects. Semantic aspect deals with 'Comprehension'. It is the
understanding of the meaning. The Phonetic aspect deals with spelling and pronunciation of words. The
Graphic aspect is the written form of a language. The Phonetic-cum-Graphic aspect is the Reading of the
language. All these aspects of the language work in co-ordination with each other. Thus there are four
general aims in learning English. They are:




To enable the learner to understand English when spoken.
To enable them to speak well in English.
To enable them to read well in English.
To enable them to write well in English.
These aims correspond to the four language skills listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Listening and reading are passive or receptive skills and speaking and writing are active or productive skills.
Why do we Use English News Channels & News paper in EL&CCS Learning?
The use of BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and The newspapers at their regular places will inculcate habit of
intensive and extensive reading speaking and listening. In India, News channels like BBC, CNNIBN and
NDTV and
Newspapers like “The Hindu”, "The Times of India" etc are very popular among the
learners of English Language as they have a special programmes column/feature to sharpen the English
Language Skills of the viewers and readers. English news channels and papers are also less expensive and
full of varied information and details. Anybody can afford them easily.
In urban area that too in metro and semi metro cities, viewers, readers prefer to watch English news
channels and read newspapers. The learners those who are living in such places, fond of watching news and
reading English newspapers in comparison to the learners of country side. The power supply for watching
news and the circulation of English newspapers in country side is not regular due to various reasons. It is
also seen that newspapers arrive one or two day late after its publication but in the case of channels, it gives
even live updates also. But still, for the sake of sharing the information and improving English Language, it
can be used as a learning resource.
Following are the main advantages of using BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and The newspapers in the learning of
English and cultural communication skills:
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Provide motivation for watching, reading and discussion in English
Develop affection and interest towards the use of English Language. .
Make the process of learning interesting and innovative.
Flexible and adaptable to all curriculum areas and grade levels.
Promote good listening, reading habits that will help in a better understanding.
Offer a wide variety of knowledge and information -- news, sports, weather, editorials, and
comics.
Contain practical vocabulary and the best models of clear, concise listening, writing.
Develop writing, speaking, reading and listening skills of the learners.
Explore and unfold the world of cultural knowledge and information.
Helpful in learning pronunciation, intonation, grammatical usages, carefully crafted
sentence structures and idioms and phrases besides new words.
BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and The newspapers can be used for ESL learners of all levels. For beginning
learner, the accent and intonation and pronunciation and the large print headlines, recognizable symbols and
numbers, and many color and black-and-white photographs can communicate information that learner
understand. At an intermediate level, BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and The newspaper offers exposure to
understand and print, to graphic devices, and to punctuation. Advanced students can watch only BBC and
read English newspapers much as a native speaker would, skimming some articles, reading others
completely, and ignoring those parts of the newspaper and programmes of small interest to them and speak
as a native speaker.
The English news channels and newspapers report the current international events, new important
technological breakthroughs, the changing world and society. It's clear that the news channels and papers
follow the time closely and the programmes and contents are new and attractive. In this way, they can
always keep learners motivated and up-to-date. English News channels and papers present English learners
a wide variety of pronunciation and writing written and spoken in authentic language.
Different kinds of texts such as narratives, stories, letters, reports, and advertisements, etc, can serve as
examples of writing and be made use of to hone students' writing ability. Further, the English news channels,
papers provide various materials for learners to broaden their English knowledge. Through watching BBC
one can come across with foreign cultures, foreigners' value of life, ways of thinking, belief, behaviors and
life trend better. With the development of the language ability, students' consciousness of social
accountability, cultural backdrop and critical thinking are also developed to a great extent.
How to habituate of watching and reading of BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and The newspapers?
A daily watching news channels and reading of an English newspaper would do a world of good to learners
and bring about a genuine affection for the English language and culture. A learner has to be very innovative
in organizing various interactive exercises based upon English news programmes and papers. In Indian
context, it is very imperative for an English learner to remove their self fear of learning English language
and to guide themselves to use the English channels &newspapers judiciously. Following measures can be
applied as to develop habit of watching and reading English news channels and papers among the learners:
 Motivate the learners to watch and read at least one English news channel and paper on regular basis
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for a month or two.
 Ask the learners to watch/read the most interesting part of the news programme /newspaper that
appeals them. They can watch / read it and discuss /report back to other learners.
 Help the learners to become better learners. Watching and Reading is a great way of acquiring
language. It will be very handy in developing their listening, speaking, reading, writing skills and
vocabulary.
 Talk about reading and comprehension of English texts with your learners as well, and share
strategies that they can use when reading.
 Encourage the learners to watch carefully while watching the news. At the initial stages, the learners
can be asked to understand the meanings of hard/new words with the help of context so that flow and
interest during watching can be maintained.
 Try to encourage the learners to comprehend the story/feature/article as a whole. They should be
made enable to have their focus on getting a complete picture rather than getting stuck with the parts
that they do not understand at ease.
 Encourage the learners to pen down the details/information that are relevant and useful for them as it
will enable them to develop writing notes/précis/essays/paragraphs/summary etc.
What do BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and the Hindu newspapers Contain for learners?
With the recent development of electronic and print media, the programmes and the contents of news
channels and papers have become rich, vivid and the news channel, paper language at the same time has
become more trendy, vivacious and realistic. Some news channels, papers are easy to watch, read, easy to
use. The dedicated learners can plan exercises to build up the following skills…
 Good speaking.
 Listening.
 Reading comprehension.
 Critical thinking skills.
 Writing skills.
 Grammar skills.
 Vocabulary.
 Map/chart reading skills.
 Geography skills.
 Social study skills.
As a matter of fact, the English News channels and papers contain a wide range of information like feature
stories, business news, sports news, special stories, columns, reviews, notices, advertisements, editorials,
entertainment schedules etc. A learner can easily pick up the programme, reading material(s) of his/her
interest.
Following are the main ingredients of the English News channels and papers:
Breaking news
The BBC, CNNIBN and NDTV maintain guidelines for procedures to be taken for breaking news. With
domestic news, the correspondent first records a "generic minute" summary and then priority is to report on
the channels. A globe had shown briefly onscreen to direct a viewer's attention to the breaking news.
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Simulcast BBC One programmes.
Since the launch of Breakfast in 2000, the programme has been simulcast on both BBC One and BBC News,
replacing the individual breakfast news programmes that had been run by both channels.
Business:
An hourly business update is included during the weekday schedule from the Corresponding channels
Business Units. BBC Breakfast business bulletins are presented by Steph McGovern with Penny Haslam
offering relief.
News presenters:
Since December 2007, the main regular presenters on the channel (BBC) have been Simon McCoy, Carrie
Gracie, Matthew Amroliwala, Jane Hill, Jon Sopel, Emily Maitlis, Louise Minchin, Huw Edwards, Ben
Brown, Joanna Gosling and Chris Eakin. The main weekend presenters include Tim Willcox, Maxine
Mawhinney, Nicholas Owen, Clive Myrie and Annita McVeigh. Most of these presenters also regularly
stand in during the week. So learners can imitate them while speaking.
1. News Stories:
The headlines/front page is considered as the mirror of any news channel/paper. It contains all the breaking
or important news in it. The headlines of the news or front page are prepared meticulously with an aim to
draw the attention of the viewer/ readers.
2. Feature Stories:
Feature stories are very helpful in sharing information on the topics of viewer/reader's interest. These stories
may be based upon a trend, event, situation etc.
3. Special Features:
Special features are meant to have a healthy discussion on a specific issue or a special case/event/story.
4. Special programmes / Editorial and Letters to the Editor:
Editor comment (CNNIBN at 9pm)/editorial columns reflect the views of the editor/ editorial team/guest
presenter/writer. Editorial columns are considered very insightful and thought provoking ones. They help
the readers to build up their thoughts and views and promote a high level of thinking skills. The
comments/letters to the Editors represent the opinions of the readers. It is helpful in bringing out the views of
the viewers /readers before other viewers/readers on culture.
5. Advertisements/Classified:
The advertisements/classified items are very helpful for the viewers / readers to know more about an
existing or a newly launched product(s) for good cultural communication.
6. Miscellaneous Items:
In a news channel/paper, the viewers/ readers can easily find time table of Trains/Flights, schedule of events,
television, theatre, movies etc. we can also get useful information on weather, fashion, share-market, trade
and business etc, these all lead us to have a good knowledge on the cultural communication skills.
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LSRW Activities Through the Use of BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and The Hindu Newspapers.
BBC, CNNIBN, NDTV and The newspapers are also a great source for ESL teachers, professionals. They
can be used as teaching materials to develop learners' language skills. They can be used effectively with a
wide range of levels from Elementary to professional place. The learners should be careful to organize a
certain activity using them.
At the Beginners Level:


Ask the learners to speak in English as native speakers speak
Encourage the learners to read aloud a few news items from the page of their interest and ask them
to write them down.

Try to assume that they (news presenters) are presenting you while watching news channel and pay
lot of attention.
At the Intermediate Level:
 Advise the learners' to focus at their (Presenters) pronunciation while watching news and while
reading news paper circle words that they do not comprehend and ask yourself to figure out the meaning
from the situation and explore the definition in the dictionary.
 Try to understand their intonation and while you speak follow such intonation, accent and
pronunciation/ cut out headlines from various articles and match headlines with stories.
 Ask the learners to analyze advertisements. Learners may report their findings by expressing and
writing a paragraph.
At the Advanced Level:
 Form groups for discussion on any topic.
 Ask the learners to follow a news item over a period of time and discuss the events that occur as
native speaker does.
 Encourage the learners to understand (by watching news) / read an article that describes a problem
and discuss the problem's cause and effects.
Miscellaneous activities at any Time & Place
Group Discussion:
Identify an issue discussed in the news channel or paper. Ask the learners research the issue by watching all
relevant programmes and reading all relevant articles, editorials, letters and opinions. Encourage the
learners to discuss on the topic, voicing an opinion that is supported or opposed by detailed facts
Exploring the Meaning:
Remove the headlines from a number of news stories. Display the headline-less stories. Provide learners
with the headlines, and ask them to match each to one of the stories. The learners can be asked to locate
following in an English newspaper:
 A simple present tense verb representing a simple past action e.g. India wins the match.
 Omission of 'and, a 'be' verb or an article e.g. U.S- India sign a historic treaty.
 Omission of the verb in representing Present Continuous Tense
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e.g. India Retail Market blooming.
'to' with verb representing future tense. e.g. The Mongolian Prime Minster to visit India.
Abbreviations .e.g. SEBI cuts down the exchange rate. (Security Exchange Board of India)
A participle form used for passive voice e.g. Man of the Match Trophy given to Dhoni.
Enrich Vocabulary:
Let learner assign a letter of the alphabet. Watch news thoroughly with lot of concentration on new words
accent and intonation/ to look through the newspaper, find five unfamiliar words beginning with the
assigned letter, and look up the definition of each. Ask learners to watch or look in the newspaper for any of
the following:
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
Words with a particular suffix or prefix
Words containing a particular vowel sound or consonant blend
Compound words
Words in the past, present, and future tenses
Possessives
Plurals
Role Play Activity:
Let learner meet his or her co-learner and play themselves role of interested persons. They should
communicate as native speakers do (with that kind of pronunciation, accent, intonation). Distribute the
English Newspapers, one for each group of two or three learners. Tell the learners that they have a time limit
with which to skim through the newspaper. When the scheduled time is over, ask two groups to get together
and report to each other everything they remember that is in the news. They must do this in English and
cannot refer to the newspapers.
Speaking Activities:

Ask the learners to speak on the topic which do hit the headlines of news channels/papers on
the particular day and which are familiar/relevant/of interest to them. Ask them to do the following:

Describe what is happening?

Speculate about what the news could be.
Sharpening Writing Skills:
Ask the learners to read some of the letters and discuss in pairs which ones they find most
interesting/controversial/easy to understand. Letters in the letter to the editor section can ignite discussion.
Afterwards ask the learners to write their own letter to the editor. They must write between 25 and 75 words.
Conclusion
Technology enabled English Language learning tools and cultural communication skills are only available
in some places only. It is quite easy for a learner to use resources which are readily available to them. In
planning learning EL & CCS, news channels and papers, the learner should take into consideration the
time, mode and atmosphere of watching news channels or while reading news paper the complexity of the
language, the density of information, the subject matter and content, the time available and the level of
his/her. (Tafani2009). Hence, the learners are expected to be trained by themselves in such a manner so that
they can be able to learn EL&CCS an organized manner and avail the optimal mileage to their EL&CCS.
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References
Asahi (2003), “How to read Newspapers Headlines.”
Chandler, C. E. (1988). “Use the news: Press to read: Literacy now! Journal of Reading, 31 (8), 746-748.
Harmer, J. Practice of English Language Teaching (ELBS)-Longman, London 1983.
Kenji K. (1995), “Teaching English through Newspapers” English Literary Society of Doshisha University.
Tafani, V. (2009), “Teaching English through Mass Media”, Acta Didactica Napocensia, Vol.2 No.1.84.
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Role of Mother-Tongue in Learner's Acquiring Proficiency in English
Dr. Harish G. Tapadia
Asst. Professor of English
Vasantrao Naik Govt. Institute of Arts and Social Sciences
Abstract: The present paper attempts to study the role of mother-tongue in learner's acquiring proficiency in English
language. English Language is the link that connects the whole world today. In addition to having excellent technical
skills, students are also expected to have good communication skills in English at the completion of their education.
The use of mother-tongue cannot be completely avoided from the English classroom because it is always present
inside the pupil's head. Even when the pupil is taught the sounds of English language in relation to the objects,
pictures or things they represent, his mother-tongue is working in his mind. That is why; the new methods and
approaches of teaching English which aimed at eliminating the use of mother-tongue have not been able to do it. The
pioneers of these new methods had to accept the reasonability of the use of pupil's mother-tongue as an aid in the
teaching of English. As the pupil has learnt words, phrases, idioms, sentence patterns as well as grammar and
composition in his mother-tongue, they assist him in learning these things in English. As language is a skill subject
and needs constant and sustained practice, it is necessary to avoid excessive use of mother-tongue while teaching
English.
Introduction
English Language is the link that connects the whole world today. As most of the political, economic and
cultural exchange among various nations takes place through English, its stature as an international
language is unquestionable. M.F. Patel aptly comments that we would cut ourselves off from the living
stream of ever growing knowledge if we give up English under sentimental urges. (Patel, 2008) English is
our window on the world and we will be isolated without it. English is an immensely rich store-house of
knowledge, humanistic, scientific as well as technical. While expressing his views on the advantages of the
study of English, Pandit Nehru, the late Prime Minister, had said that English has become one of the major
languages of the whole world today and the neglect of its study will be injurious to the cause of education in
India. Nehru was in favour of maintaining the standard of teaching of English at as high a level as possible.
(Jain, 1991) As job-seekers in various fields require command over English, mastering it has become the
need of the time. In addition to having excellent technical skills, students are also expected to have good
communication skills in English at the completion of their education. Thus English has become the passport
for a bright future of its learner. The present paper attempts to study the role of mother-tongue in learner's
acquiring proficiency in English language. A judicious and systematic use of the mother-tongue can help the
learning of English and the teachers of English need to keep this fact in their minds.
Indian Scenario
The study of English in India has a history of almost two centuries. Indian intellectuals like Raja
Rammohan Roy professed for the introduction of English education with a view to gain access to European
literature, philosophy and sciences for the benefit of Indian people. A background for English education in
India was prepared by the Charter of 1813 which authorised the then Governor-General-in-Council to spend
a sum of one lakh rupees every year on the revival and improvement of literature, promotion of scientific
knowledge and improving the skills of the ruler's language. (Jain, 1991) In 1835, Lord Macaulay, the torchbearer of modern education in India, appeared on the scene as Law Member. In the Minutes of 1835,
Macaulay wrote,
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“The intellectual improvement of those classes of people who have the means of pursuing higher studies can
at present be effected only by means of some language not vernacular among them.” (Macaulay, 1835)
By making the study of English compulsory, Macaulay paved an unobstructed path for its development.
Thus the foreign plant of English was sown in Indian soil and English became the official language of the
State.
The Indian educationists recognised the importance of English and therefore, the study of English
was continued even after getting independence. Hindi is the official language of the Republic of India with
English as an additional language for official work. English is one of the twenty-two recognised languages
in the Eighth Schedule of Indian Constitution. The ardent supporters of English go to the extent of calling
English as the only national language as it is used in all parts of India. It is a great integrating force for uniting
the Indians as it is spoken even in the non-Hindi speaking southern states of India. So we have accepted the
Three-Language Formula according to which a child studies three languages in his schooling, English,
Hindi, and the regional language or the mother-tongue.
Four general aims of teaching English
There are four general aims of teaching English. First of all, the learner should be able to understand
English when it is spoken. Secondly, he should be able to speak English correctly and fluently. Thirdly, the
teaching of English should enable the student to understand to understand what he reads in English. Lastly,
the learner should be able to write in English correctly. Thus an English teacher is required to impart training
in hearing, reading, speaking and writing abilities in English to his pupils. He should maintain a proper
proportion while devoting required time to these four aspects of learning English. An over-emphasis on any
of these four aspects will obstruct the harmony of teaching English. As Indian students need to learn English
for its utility, the language learning aspect needs to be emphasised. English should be taught as a language of
comprehension rather than as a literary language. As working knowledge of English is necessary for
everyone, it must be a compulsory subject.
The educationists have varied opinions on the question as to how English should be taught.
Traditionally English was taught through the learner's mother-tongue in India by employing the
Translation-cum-Grammar Method. This method cannot be recommended as it fails to create direct bond
between pupil's thought and expression. But the good habits acquired by the pupil while learning his
mother-tongue can help him in acquiring similar habits in English too. While beginning to learn English, the
pupil begins to pick up its vocabulary. The basic sound patterns which he has learnt in his mother-tongue
start getting affected. He begins to learn the structures of English language. The teacher needs to take care in
formulating habits of thought and of expression. The student should be able to discriminate the sounds of his
mother-tongue from those of English. They help the teacher of English in re-building these habits in English
also. R. K. Jain aptly comments that the onus of language teaching lies with the teachers of mother-tongue
and their responsibility is greater than any other language teacher. (Jain, 1991)
Influence of Mother Tongue on English Language Learning
The use of mother-tongue cannot be completely avoided from the English classroom because it is
always present inside the pupil's head. While learning English, the pupil begins to discover similarities and
differences between the structures of his mother-tongue and English. Even when the pupil is taught the
sounds of English language in relation to the objects, pictures or things they represent, his mother-tongue is
working in the mind. As H. Mahmoud has suggested, something of a great value will be lost if the pupils are
not trained in the art of rendering one language into another and translation involving mother-tongue cannot
be completely shut out from the English classroom. (Mahmoud, 1998) If the word 'book' is taught by
actually showing the pupil a book and giving him its equivalent in English, the sounds in the word 'book' will
be established in his mind by repetition, but the understanding of the meaning of book is grasped by thinking
about it in his mother-tongue. Thus the learner always thinks in his mother-tongue. That is why, the new
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methods and approaches of teaching English which aimed at eliminating the use of mother-tongue have not
been able to do it. The pioneers of these new methods had to accept the reasonability of the use of pupil's
mother-tongue as an aid in the teaching of English.
If we weigh the pros and cons of various methods of teaching English, it is found that the Bilingual
Method is useful for teaching the beginners, whereas, the Direct Method is preferable while teaching the
learners at an advanced stage. The direct method had arisen as a reaction to translation-cum-grammar
method; it tried to do away with the use of mother-tongue completely. It aimed at teaching English through
conversation, discussion and reading in the language itself. However, this method was not found useful for
the majority of average students. The Bilingual Method advocated the use of mother-tongue but limited its
use to the teacher only. In this method, mother-tongue is used to explain the meanings of new words,
phrases, idioms, sentences and grammatical points. After explanation is over, the pupils practice the subject
matter taught without any help of the mother-tongue. The Bilingual Method makes use of the linguistic
habits formed by the pupil while learning his mother-tongue and allows him to have ample opportunities to
use English. Some of the English grammatical structures and idiomatic expressions cannot be properly
explained without translating them into pupil's mother-tongue. The meanings of words that bear an abstract
sense such as 'truth', 'beauty', 'honesty', 'integrity', etc. cannot be explained without giving their equivalents
in the learner's mother-tongue. The Bilingual Method makes a limited use of mother-tongue to make the
teaching and learning of English more effective and the teacher returns to English immediately so that the
mother-tongue does not become an obstacle in the learning of English.
Conclusion
In order to enable the learner to acquire proficiency in English, he needs to be given proper training
and sufficient practice of speaking, listening, reading and writing in his mother-tongue. If the learner
possesses sufficient mastery over his mother-tongue, he can learn English easily after mastering its forms
and structures. The English teacher needs to make his pupil aware of the peculiar sounds in English which
are different from those in his mother-tongue. If the learner receives proper training from his English
teacher, he acquires correct linguistic habits in English. As the pupil has learnt words, phrases, idioms,
sentence patterns as well as grammar and composition in his mother-tongue, they assist him in learning
these things in English. The fact that a child learns his mother-tongue through a natural process should be
kept in his mind by the teacher of English. A child begins by learning to speak his language and
understanding it when spoken. The same process should be adopted in the learning of English. As the speech
habits learnt at an early stage last long, proper emphasis should be given on them. A proper development of
speech habits depends upon giving the learners plenty of conversation practice. As the time devoted to the
teaching of English in classroom is limited, the English teacher needs to be extremely cautious. He should
ensure that his pupil gets ample opportunities of practising English. Thus there needs to be a close
correlation between the teaching of mother-tongue and English. However, the English teacher needs to be
on his guard against the tendency of making mother-tongue the medium of teaching English. As language is
a skill subject and needs constant and sustained practice, it is necessary to avoid excessive use of mothertongue while teaching English. Mother-tongue should only be used as an aid in the teaching of English and
as a last resort. If the mother-tongue is used in the teaching of English sparingly, it will not hinder a direct
bond between the idea in a learner's mind and its English expression.
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References
Jain, R. K. Essentials of English Teaching, Agra: Vinod Pustak Mandir, 1991.
Macaulay, Lord 1835: See at http://www.thecore.nus.edu.sg/../../Victorian/authors/macaulay/chron.html.
Mahmoud, H. Translation and Foreign Language Reading Comprehension: A Neglected Didactic Procedure, English Teaching
Forum, 44(4), 28-33 1998.
Patel, M. F. English Language Teaching, Jaipur: Sunrise Publishers and Distributors, 2008
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English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
Dr. Indira A. Budhe
S. S. Girls' College Gondia, (M.S.)
Abstract: Each language is structured differently, and the different structures offer users different suggestions to
meaning. So when we learn our first language, our brain /mind 'tunes into' the way the particular l1 works, and we
learn to pay attention to particular cues to meaning that are most helpful. When we meet a new language, our brain /
mind automatically tries to apply the first language experience by looking for familiar cues. Part of learning a foreign
language is developing new understandings about the particular cues to meaning that the new language offers, and
that differ from those of our first language. The transferability of knowledge, skills and strategies across languages
depends closely on how the two written languages work.
Keywords: rectifying, method of examinations, global language, inseparable branch
Introduction
This paper aims at identifying and rectifying the errors in the use of English language for the specific
purposes by the students or the teachers. Here, the writing has been focused, because they are the students
for whom English is a second language. So, their first output of learning a language would be in the form of
written answers. And if they are here, the error would be fossilized and transferred to their speech, too. In
order to solve the problem from the grass root level, an extensive remedial programme to correct errors has
been implemented.
Moreover, all over India, there is no single language to unite the whole country. Since, in India, several
languages are spoken and also one set of people are reluctant to learn one common Indian language, we have
to borrow a new non-Indian language. Considering the above facts, learning English, the universal
language, as a Second Language, becomes inseparable branch as also unavoidable in Indian education
system.
Role of Second Language
In Indian context the first language plays a vital role in sharing one's intimate emotions, whereas the second
language helps him to acquire more knowledge as it is the language of higher learning. There is a growing
realization in the present context that communications skills in English are the basis for success in any
corporate assignment.
As a teacher in English, for the students of technical education, discipline the researcher observes that the
students who learn English for a specific purpose are almost poor at receiving and reproducing their domain
subject knowledge through English; though the same process can be done in a brilliant way if they use their
vernacular language. Sometimes their use of English language is so poor that they are not able to fulfil even
the basic purpose of communication. This leads to a complete failure as a professional.
Thus in India, languages are selected for expressions according to situations as the land has the complicated
regional languages. It may be either first language or second language or bilingual or third language. For
example, the South Indian people of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are familiar with three
languages, viz. their mother tongue, Hindi or the language of neighbouring state and English. In Tamil Nadu
Hindi is still resisted and hence English and neighbouring language dominate more. The languages are
primarily meant for communication and there is a possibility of using all of them in both formal and
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informal situations.
In such a situation there is always a conflict among these languages in achieving prominence in usage and
public recognition. Time has come that the first language no longer interferes with English, but gives way
for the dominance of second language. Thus there is a possibility of converging theses languages and better
the English language in an Indian perspective and thereby establish Indianized English
Factors Affecting Teaching Learning Process
There are so many factors that affect the teaching-learning process in India. The students in India can be
categorized into two; the one is having the regional language as medium of study from the primary level and
the other is having English as the medium of study.
Hence, the problem of teaching English as a second language, to the Indian students starts from the preschooling. Further environment and family background play vital role in success of learning process. For
example, countries like India, where majority of the people are farmers, have the poor background in
education. Moreover, the income of majority of the families is not adequate. Hence, the parents are not
interested in giving good education background to their children. In contrast, they are willing to engage the
children in some jobs in order to earn money. This is the very basic reason and the affecting factor in
teaching. Secondly, the infrastructure, viz. school buildings class rooms, labs, etc. is not adequate as
required. The first category of the students is almost compelled to attend their classes under the trees even
after several five year plans.
Majority of the students are coming from village and also their parents are farmers and uneducated. If the
nature fails, the survival of the farmers will be questionable. Hence, the students are mentally discouraged
due to the family conditions. In the second category, the students are having enough background in basic
education since their parents are educated and they do not depend on the nature much. Many of the students
from second category are joining in English medium schools and hence, they do not find much difficulty in
pursuing their higher education.
Moreover majority of the families of second category are dwelling in towns and cities and hence, they have
easy access of quality education. But, the first category of students is scoring good marks the examinations
conducted. It proves that they are having good writing skill in English. The only thing is that they have to be
given training in oral English communication also. Hence, a common programme for English Language
Teaching must be framed in the pre-schooling itself.
Each language is structured differently, and the different structures offer users different suggestions to
meaning. So when we learn our first language, our brain /mind 'tunes into' the way the particular l1 works,
and we learn to pay attention to particular cues to meaning that are most helpful. When we meet a new
language, our brain / mind automatically tries to apply the first language experience by looking for familiar
cues. Part of learning a foreign language is developing new understandings about the particular cues to
meaning that the new language offers, and that differ from those of our first language. The transferability of
knowledge, skills and strategies across languages depends closely on how the two written languages work.
Teacher's Role
A teacher's primary role is not only to enable the students to understand what he is intending to say or teach.
It is also the duty of the teacher to understand what the student wants and says. In teaching-learning process,
two things play the vital roles; one is the delivering capacity of the teacher and the other one is the receiving
capacity of the students. Without the two aspects, the teaching-learning process will not be a successful one.
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Teaching-learning process is just like making sound by clapping. Without two hands we cannot clap. Like
that without a right teacher and the students, the teaching learning process is meaningless. Teaching should
be a worthy of learning a concept deeply and broadly. Teaching should facilitate the students to face the
world which is full of political, social, international as well as personal controversies, without fear. It should
give self-confidence to the students. By the effective teaching, the students should be enabled to go for right
choices, judgments and also decisions individually In the process of teaching-learning, the teacher should
try to understand the students first. Then only, he can enable the students to understand him or his teaching.
Theory with practice on some of the teaching topics, may enable the students to understand the concept
easily. Success of a teacher in his/her attempt in enabling the students to understand what is the concept
taught by the teacher, depends on the methods he/she applies. The teacher may be a good, but the students'
physical problem may lead him to ignore the teaching. Or sometimes, the background of family of the
students may drive him to be dull. Hence, the teacher should take into account everything.
At the school level, the teaching-learning process is checked up the teacher by repeated class tests and
examinations. Based on the result (marks scored by the students), different methods are adopted to improve
teaching in case of negative result. At the college levels also the same traditional (Macaulay) method of
examinations is used. The only difference is the volume of syllabus prescribed for the colleges students will
be more than that of the school level. As Carl Rogers said, the teacher should first forget that she/he is a
teacher. Instead, she/he must possess the skills of a facilitator of learning-genuineness, prizing and empathy.
Exposure due to Learning English
Learning English as a Second Language opens up to the learners a totally new world that is ever evolving
and ever fresh. As the student grows in knowledge of distant parts of the world, learns of the people living
there, shares in their dreams and aspirations, studies the challenges they face and how they cope, so he/she
can develop empathy, understanding and respect. Access to the latest researches in every field, coupled
with the latest dialogue in the areas of collective development of humanity and the challenges ahead; open a
new, exciting and totally unexplored world for the learner.
Perhaps one should mention here a possible change of the existing teaching methodology of the English as
Foreign Language (EFL) course and English as a Second Language (ESL) course to a new English as a
Global Language (EGL) course methodology since the latter term is more neutral. English as a foreign
language may still evoke mixed feelings in the learners, whereas English as a Second language (ESL) too
could pre-prejudice the learner towards the language. EGL is a neutral term and, if the above explanation is
accepted and the change implemented, this might actually motivate the students to learn it well. Besides,
the whole concept of learning a new language and gaining a new world view should be attractive even for
monolingual speakers.
Clearly then, English has emerged as the de facto global language for universal communication in the
closing years of the twentieth century. Whereas languages have traditionally been taught from the view
point of their cultures, we will now have to think of new methodologies and materials so that global
language learners can meet the challenges of the emerging global civilization and use the global language
for their diverse needs.
Conclusion
We have proposed that the English as a second Language should be taught to the students in all the schools in
India. This means all the citizens in India would learn their mother tongue well, but side by side they will
also learn the Second language (English). Therefore, all the citizens of India will grow up as bilingual
speakers, which phenomenon would have a number of obvious advantages such as access to the whole
world of knowledge and the possibility of sharing their ideas with others anywhere in the world.
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References
H. B. (1965). Teaching English as a second language; Book of readings. Bombay: McGraw Hill.
Buch, M. B. (1986). Third survey of educational research. New Delhi: NCERT.
Buch, M. B. ( 1991). Fourth survey of educational research. New Delhi: NCERT
Nazreth, M (1990). Teaching English as a second language to Malayalees. Unpublished Ph. D Thesis. Tri-vandrum:CELT,
University of Kerala.
NCERT. (1992). Fifth all lndia educational survey New Delhi: NCERT.
R.K. and Khanna, A. L. (1994). Second language acquisition: Sociocultural and linguistic aspects of English in India. New
Delhi: Sage Publications.
Verma, S. (1994). Teaching English as a second language in India: A socio-functional view. In R. K . Agnihotri and A L. Khanna.
(1994). Second languaqe acquisition: Sociocultural and linguistic aspects of English in India. New Delhi: Sage
Publications..
H.B, and Cambell, R.N. (Ed.). (1969). Teaching English as a second language; New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Book Co.
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Teacher and Technology
Dr.Indira .S. Patil
Nutan Maratha College,Jalgaon
Abstract: Different techniques in teaching methodology & innovative methods in teaching can turn learning into an
interesting process & classroom into interactive place. Teachers should create a balance in teaching so that their
communication reaches to Hypo-active (below average), Active (average) & Pro-active (above average) students. If
the teachers understand the dynamics of classroom communication, they can create a conducive atmosphere to cater
to the heterogeneous nature of their classes. Audio-visual aid, language laboratories, CD's, DVD's having come to
aid the teachers, but ultimately it is the teacher who with his/her ingenuity & experience makes a difference.
Keywords: communication, technology, pro-active, molds the minds.
Introduction
“Education is not the filling of pail but the lighting of a fire.”(W.B.Yeats)
In order to light a fire in the student the teacher should know how to kindle a fire and keep the flame burning
.The teacher plays a vital role in molding the minds of young generation. A teacher is a lifelong learner.
Teachers have to come out from their comfort zone and from their rigid, old fashion and non-active teaching
practices .Our teaching should be learner centric and should not be teacher dominated or lecture based
pedagogy. An English teacher needs to outfit himself according to the latest trends and methodologies in
teaching. Chalk & talk days are no more as we live in a fast moving , technologically advanced robotic &
digital world. Gone are the days of Wren & Martin grammar where functional grammar has occupied the
scenario.
Teaching is technical, learning is packaged, and teachers are passive recipients of objective research
processes, practices & policies that are at the heart of a more expanded view of teacher development that
encourages teachers to involve themselves as learners. English language teaching involves more laborious
tasks for the language teachers. As English has become more & more accepted as an international language
the teachers are expected to be experts in teaching English. Technology comes for their assistance .Every
teacher has a personal style, specific method and tools to make the students learn English more effectively.
Ideally teachers remain receptive to new ideas & changes in education. Every student expects the teachers to
use innovative methods to make the classroom an enjoyable place of learning. When teaches are self
motivated they start creating wonders in the classroom.
Importance of Teaching English
The National Curriculum Framework 2005 has underlined the importance of teaching English with a sole
objective of developing the ability to communicate through the use of Listening, Speaking, and Reading &
Writing skills. The need of the hour is to enhance the communication skills of the learners. The teacher has to
provide the learners with certain strategies for LSRW well enough to become successful in real life
situations. Communication is the central human activity. We are now witnessing the emergence of an
advanced economy based on information & knowledge. Probably the most important skill for knowledge
workers in the new environment is the ability to communicate. This means to able to listen & to express your
ideas effectively in writing & in speech. In order to achieve desired success, professional needs to assess &
respond to communicate situation that occur constantly. The four main goals of communication are: to
inform, to request, to persuade & to build relationship with others.
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Two Main Aspects of Teaching English
Teaching of English has two aspects. First, it is a language of literature and second it is a language of utility.
For the language of utility it requires skill-based teaching where tedious traditional methods of teaching
can't suffice. In this age of globalization & competition, English from the place of a second language is
gradually coming to take place of the first language of communication. Besides teaching training, new job
opportunities in the fields of call centers, multinationals, medical transcription, translation, interpretation,
shopping malls, trade fairs etc. have brought a revolution in learning English. To cater to the needs of
learners new methods of teaching with technology need to be applied in which software, online learning &
learning can be more interesting, useful & beneficial.
Different Techniques in Teaching Methodology
Different techniques in teaching methodology & innovative methods in teaching can turn learning into an
interesting process & classroom into interactive place. Teachers should create a balance in teaching so that
their communication reaches to Hypo-active (below average), Active (average) & Pro-active (above
average) students. If the teachers understand the dynamics of classroom communication, they can create a
conducive atmosphere to cater to the heterogeneous nature of their classes. Audio-visual aid, language
laboratories, CD's, DVD's having come to aid the teachers, but ultimately it is the teacher who with his/her
ingenuity & experience makes a difference.
Role of Technology
Technology can support teachers in making English language learning faster, easier, less painful & more
engaging, & helps to create an optimal language learning environment. To achieve this teacher should make
constant efforts and have a desire to explore and improve upon by incorporating various methods, latest
resources & new materials. Audio-visual aids namely the Computer Language Laboratory; LCD projectors
make an everlasting impact on the eyes and ears of the learners and create a lasting impression of the lesson
on the pupil's mind.
Computers & technology have become part & parcel of our personal and professional lives. Computer
provides opportunity for teachers to enrich both teaching & learning process. In view of increasing
importance of computers, students can not afford to keep themselves aloof from this potential medium.
Teachers need to impart technical knowledge and positive attitude as well as interest in computers as these
are essential pre-requisites for a job seeker. Computer with access to internet & other educational softwares,
the web and computer assisted language learning into educational institutions has completely changed the
pedagogical application, functioning & style of teaching. Mobile phones have become an integral part of
our life & students' life. Mobile phones will be a powerful learning tool in this present technological world
with the creation of various mobile applications to facilitate students learning, communication &
interaction. But the advent of cell phone poses challenges in learning that need immediate attention. The
short message services in cell phones facilitate the users, the learners in this case to communicate faster and
easier. But it subverts the spelling knowledge of the younger generation.
Technology has changed the methods of teaching & learning English. Much
importance is laid on linguistic competence, communicative proficiency, grammatical precision and
vocabulary building. An important role is being played by the English language laboratory in acquiring
listening, speaking, reading, writing, eloquence in pronunciation, clarity & accuracy in communication,
assessing speech, acquisition of aural comprehension, oral & written proficiency ,cultural awareness ,web
based materials, broadcasting etc. In Engineering college curriculum mock HR interviews case studies &
verbal analysis exercises along with relevant soft skills should be strengthened in the language labs.
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Today though we live in technological world but are we really techno teachers? Of
course not, because 70% teachers are not able to open their E-mail account themselves, they can't impose
their mails & reply them. The majority of teachers do not use technology to accomplish objectives in the
courses they teach, nor do they teach students how to use information technologies for instruction. Every
day there are new apps & techniques with whom the students are familiar but not the teachers. So teachers
shall upgrade themselves with the new innovations & techniques then the teaching with the new techniques
will be pleasure in the English classroom. Teachers can be trained in number of ways: they can be made to
take part in conferences & seminars, refresher courses & orientation programs or they can be told to attend
certain advance computer courses that impart certain methodologies & technologies that can be helpful to
them in order to improve their teaching.
Conclusion
There are other certain technologies used in teaching English. They are as blackboard, flannel board or
flannel graph, magnetic board, models, bulletin board, film strips, flash cards, computerised language
laboratory, OHP, LCD/LED, PPT,mobile,certain games etc. In the opinion of Prof. Rajgopalan, “We can
never hope to improve the standard of English of our students and help them derive full benefits out of
learning a difficult foreign language unless and until this desirable habit is formed among our students
first.”Aural aids include broadcast talks, gramophone, tape-recorded, radio, films, television etc. Modern
innovative techniques will continue to add new potential resources for language teaching. It can also be said
that the greater the range of technical resources available, greater the opportunities of achieving success in
life. Hence at last but not the least today's technology is offering better chances of success than ever in the
past.
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References
Vedanayagam, E. Teaching Technology For College Teachers. 1988,
Sterling Publishers Private Ltd., New Delhi
Gokak, V. English in India:Its present & future,
Asia Publishing House,Bombay 1964
Wilga Rivers: Teaching Foreign-Language skills,
University of Chicago Press,1968
English as a World Language
British Council Report,1968-69
Prabhu, N. Communicational Teaching Project: Theoretical Background
RTE Bangalore Bulletein,1981
Stack, E. The Language laboratory & Modern Language Teaching
New York:O.U.P. 1960
Yardi, V.Teaching English in India Today,Saket Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Aurangabad.
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Challenges in Teaching English Language to New Learners
Dr. Jyoti Sadar
Datta Meghe College of Education
Abstract: Children have a strong instinct from birth to explore their environment. We can see this in the way young
children like to touch and play with things e.g. pressing buttons, switches. Some research suggests that this
exploration through activity provides the basis for cognitive development. In language learning, this means that
children are more likely to pick up language e.g. vocabulary, grammatical pattern, functions from participating in
activities which require their use than being taught formally and deliberately. Children are different from adults who
can learn both analytically and also experiential. Most children tend to rely more heavily on experiential forms of
learning. Children's natural instinct in any situation is to understand and make sense of it. If we observe children
watching a foreign cartoon or film or observe them listening to a story in English, they are trying to work out what is
going on, using physical or visual clues in the situation e.g. expression on people's faces, the place people's gestures,
they also use their knowledge of the world, what happened in a similar situation previously.
Keywords: cognitive maturity, methodology, national integration, national integration.
Introduction
English bridges the gap between two persons, two offices, two industries and two nations in the world
because it is the language which is accepted as a language of internal communication at the global level.
State and central government have their correspondence in English. Communication media such as
telephone, internet, E-mail use English mostly. English also helps for national integration and international
understanding. Thus English is important in functional cultural, literary and scientific aspects.
So it is very good idea to learn English at primary school or early age. The decision to begin English
early is often based on enthusiasm rather than evidence that on early start does provide the expected
benefits. Here are three of the main reasons that people give to justify an early start.
Younger is better
This refers to the hypothesis that there is a special period for learning languages during childhood and that
after that period is over. It is difficult to learn language. This is controversial, especially with regard to
second language learning. There are also evidences that adolescents and adults are much quicker and more
efficient learners than children, especially when it comes to learning grammar. However, it is generally
accepted that children have special sensitivity to pronouncial through they will not be able to make use of
this particular instinct if their teachers lack fluency in the foreign language.
Younger is better in the long term
The second reason is based on the argument that longer is better, that by starting in primary school you
increase the overall time for English and in the long term achieve a higher level of proficiency than those
starting later. There is some evidence to support this position but is comes from second language situation
where children are learning languages naturalistically. In foreign language school learning situations,
exposure may not be sufficient for the benefits to really emerge.
English in an International language
The third reason refers to the global importance of English but this does not really concern children
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in primary school and does not necessarily mean that there is a need to start English early. So none of the
arguments really provide very strong support for an early start in foreign language situations. It is the
availability of suitable conditions rather than early start which are the key to success in children's foreign
language learning.
The higher studies like university education are mainly through English. Therefore, for doing any
kind of reference work perfect knowledge of its medium, that is gaining mastery over English is very
essential. Without the knowledge of English it would be difficult to gain more and more information and
knowledge of the outside world. Considering all these points of observation the need for English is
constantly felt.
What makes teaching youngster different from older learners?
It we are going to argue that teaching English to children requires specially trained teachers, and
then we need to justify this requirement. There are four characteristics in particular, which mark children as
being distinctive.
No reasons for learning English
The younger the children the less likely that they have any reason or need for learning the foreign
language. They may not even understand what means to learn a language is or why they are learning the
language. Many young children, their main reason for liking English in the early stages is based on whether
they like the teacher or the learning activities. Parents and local education authorities take the decision that a
child should learn English. By contrast adults usually have very clear international reasons for learning a
language e.g. to use the internet, for their job and so do most teenagers e.g. to pass an exam, to listen to pop
music. So for the young learner teacher, the most important task will be to motivate and create interest in the
new language so children are willing to try and use the new language.
Children's ability to self regulate
Children's natural instinct in any situation is to understand and make sense of it. If we observe
children watching a foreign cartoon or film or observe them listening to a story in English, they are trying to
work out what is going on, using physical or visual clues in the situation e.g. expression on peoples faces, the
place people's gestures, they also use their knowledge of the world, what happened in a similar situation
previously. They do not pay attention to the words which are being used in the situation as their main
concern is to know what is happening. This is very different from adults and teenagers who are generally
more interested in the language itself, in the form of the language and can use their greater cognitive
maturity to be analytical about the language. Children's instinct to go for meaning needs to be encouraged as
it is very useful for language learning.
Learning through experience and activity
Children have a strong instinct from birth to explore their environment. We can see this in the way
young children like to touch and play with things e.g. pressing buttons, switches. Some research suggests
that this exploration through activity provides the basis for cognitive development. In language learning,
this means that children are more likely to pick up language e.g. vocabulary, grammatical pattern, functions
from participating in activities which require their use than being taught formally and deliberately. Children
are different from adults who can learn both analytically and also experiential. Most children tend to rely
more heavily on experiential forms of learning.
Teaching Children: A different experience
Teaching children is different because they are still developing, cognitively, linguistically,
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physically and emotionally so to teach English to children successfully, we need to take account these and
other characteristics in order to provide some of the conditions which will lead to successful outcomes.
These are far more important than the age of starting.
Suitable conditions not age of starting
How much time and how often?
The overall amount of time given to foreign language learning at primary levels and how often children
receive lessons in a week are seen as critical factors in determining the rate at which children acquire the
language and the levels of languages proficiency which they will finally reach. In many state school systems
around the world, children only receive between 60-80 hours of English a year, viewed by many as far too
low for children to be able to gain anything linguistically; through it may be sufficient for attitude
development and intercultural learning. This lack of exposure may help to explain why achieving high
levels of proficiency can take a long time in a foreign language class room and for many learners may not
lead to a successful outcome. Children's ability to concentrate is also limited which makes frequent sessions
with plenty of revision very important.
Realistic aims and expectations
Governments often lower the starting age for English or introduce English in the first grade, based
on the optimistic desire to raise standards but aims of primary foreign language programmes can be
hopelessly unrealistic, given the time allocated to early foreign language learning. Miraculous results can
not be expected from children. Parents also have very unrealistic expectations of what can be achieved by
children in a school learning context and expect children to become bilingual overnight.
Competent Teachers
Firstly teachers need very good English language skills because they provide the main language
input for children who may have limited exposure outside the classroom. They need good interaction skills
in order to use the kind of activity based and interactive methods which seem most suitable for young
learner. They also need the flexibility to be able to adjust their languages to the children's level, knowledge
of English so they can provide feed back, and a rich knowledge of the culture so as to get children interested.
It is often difficult to find this combination of professional knowledge and linguistic competence
among trained primary teachers.
Age- appropriate methodology and curricula.
Children's early phase of language learning can create positive attitudes and a life long interest in the
language, if it is done appropriately, so curriculums and materials need to provide learning experiences
which are motivating suited to their cognitive and linguistic levels and take account of their special instincts
and referred ways of learning. Many agree that young learners need an experimental approach.
So there are many challenges ahead in introducing English to youngsters but also may benefits if the
programme is successfully implemented.
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References:
British Council Worldwide survey of primary ELT
http://www.britishcouncil.org/English/eyl/intao.htm
Curtain, H. and Pesola, C. (2000) planning for success common pit feeds in the planning of early foreign language programmes.
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A Pedagogical Approach to ICT Integration in English Language Teaching
Mrs. K.N.Deshmukh
Shri Datta Meghe Polytechnic, Wanadongri, Nagpur
Abstract: The future of technology in English Language Teaching and Learning is quite promising. It has given rise
to new era of innovative teaching methods. It would be a waste of valuable resources if pedagogy does not take
advantage of the technologies available. The pedagogical tools provided by technology can enable language
teachers and learners to quickly reach new goals. The ultimate maturity of Information Communication Technology
(ICT) could make English as a Second Language teaching, more effective and spontaneous.
This research paper attempts to examine the pedagogical approaches for English language teaching with ICT. The
teacher's own pedagogical beliefs and values play an important part in shaping technology-mediated learning
opportunities. The use of ICT requires a new approach to pedagogy, lesson planning and the curriculum. Teachers
need to take active roles in exploring how to utilize available technologies to provide optimal help to English
Language learning students to improve their LSRW skills. Teachers' skills to organize and stimulate the ICT-based
activity can be equally effective to both the whole-class and individual work. It is the need of hour that teachers should
modify their pedagogical knowledge for teaching English language in Interactive Multimedia Environments. We
know that 'to teach is to learn again'.
Keywords: Pedagogical tools, ICT, LSRW (Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing), Interactive Multimedia
Environments, ICT-based activity,
Introduction
21st century is the age of globalization and is important to grasp on various foreign languages where
English language comes first. Its significance continues to grow, fuelled, partially by the internet.
Technological innovations have gone hand in hand with the growth of English and are changing the way in
which we communicate. It is fair to assert that the growth of the internet has facilitated the growth of the
English language.
There is growing concern about the level of English proficiency at the workplace. If it is left unchecked,
it could lead to the country losing its competitiveness especially in the industry and technical fields. The
learners from all the disciplines need communicative competence to maintain its competitive edge in all
aspects of our economic environment such as administration, education, trade or finance.
In the last few years there has been an important reform in the syllabus of the education system and in
the educational role of teachers who have had to learn to integrate ICT in their teaching practices. There is no
single most excellent way of teaching ESL (English as a Second Language). ELT (English Language
Teaching) practitioners have put into practice a great deal of diverse activities to keep themselves up-to-date
and enhance their teaching. ICT has proved its potential by providing various techniques to teach and learn
English language. The impact of ICT is observed on both, at pedagogical level and in the structure of the
current educative system.
ELT in Multimedia Environments
The ubiquity of technology cannot be denied. It has infused modifications in the pedagogy of teaching
methodologies. The classroom environment of today is totally different from that of yesteryears'
classrooms. The need of today's classroom is catered by technology. In traditional classrooms, English
language learning was not less than mechanical memorization. None of these traditional manners are bad or
damaging the students. In fact, till date they are proving to be useful also. But the process of developing
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English language as a skill was hampered due to lecturing and rote learning. In addition, exam-oriented
cultures exerted a harmful effect on the learners' overall development including their development of
creative and critical thinking abilities. ICT can be utilized by capable and creative ELT practitioners to make
learning more interesting, motivating, stimulating, and meaningful to the ELL. Use of ICT in ELT can be a
whole-class activity where teacher can use Projector, Smart board, head projectors, interactive boards, ipads, blogs, computers, the internet, video cameras, PA-system (Public Address system), scanners, printers,
video conferencing, E-mails and many more. Whereas it can be an individual activity in which a well
equipped Language Laboratory is necessary. The learners can work at their own pace using electronic tools.
Teacher can assist the weaker students individually. These tools can enhance the effect of teaching and also
support the changes to the way students are learning. ICT can foster the need of ELL by involving them in
reflective learning and equipping them with the tools necessary to develop their oral as well as written
proficiency of the English language. On the other hand, the instrumentality of ICT cannot be denied in
eliminating the drawback of traditional method; that it ignores the development of oral proficiency of the
learners. The institute where the Spoken English is practiced individually in Language Laboratory supports
the viability of ICT as a supportive pedagogical tool across curriculum. Findings have shown that schools
which have very good ICT resources achieved better results in English than schools with poor ICT.1
ICT A Pedagogical Tool
Pedagogy is a generic form of knowledge that is involved in all issues of student learning, classroom
management, lesson plan development and implementation, and student evaluation. It includes knowledge
about techniques or methods to be used in the classroom; the nature of the target audience; and strategies for
evaluating student understanding. A teacher with deep pedagogical knowledge understands how students
construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop habits of mind and positive dispositions toward learning.
It is the fact that technologies are here to stay. Due to rapidity in digital evolution, the technology has
become an inseparable part of knowledge of pedagogy and content. The teachers have to shift their focus to
a very different context from earlier conceptualizations of knowledge, in which technologies were
standardized and relatively stable.
Teaching with technology requires an understanding of the representation of concepts using
technologies; pedagogical techniques that use technologies in constructive ways to teach content;
knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress some of
the problems that students face; knowledge of students' prior knowledge and theories of epistemology; and
knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge and to develop new
epistemologies or strengthen old ones. Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) is knowledge of the
existence, components, and capabilities of various technologies as they are used in teaching and learning
settings, and conversely, knowing how teaching might help to achieve desired effect as the result of using
particular technologies.
There are two main aspects where ICT is used as a tool for teaching English and English is taught via ICT.
Both the aspects demand modification in teacher's pedagogical approach. An effective blend of these two
methodologies can justify the efficacy of using wide range of ICT application. ELT practitioners are
expected to teach content knowledge using pragmatic pedagogical method in indissoluble conjunction with
ICT skills and knowledge. The quality use of ICT and the use with a pedagogical incentive become urgency
where English material should be the only focus and ICT facilities become pedagogical and environmental
agent. Exclusive use of ICT as a tool demand lot of preparation on teacher's part.
Pedagogical Reasoning for ICT integration
1. To cultivate students' interest in Study.
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To promote students' communication capacity.
To widen students' knowledge to gain an insightful understanding to Western culture.
To improve teaching effect.
To improve interaction between teacher and student.
To provide language environment.
To provide flexibility to course content.
Bower, Hedberg and Kuswara (2010) a framework for technology learning design, suggesting four
types of online pedagogies transmissive , dialogic, constructionist and co-constructive. These
pedagogies are categorized according to their degree of production and collaboration.
 The transmissive pedagogical approach ( learning from ICT ) is based on information delivery
approaches with information broadcast and made available to learners.
2
 The dialogic, constructionist and co-constructive pedagogies, (to learn with ICT)
provide opportunities to students for interaction and construction.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
According to Melhuish (2008), the social, collaborative nature of Web 2.0 offers English teachers and
their students' new opportunities to re-examine how the language could be taught and learnt via such online
social platforms. The web effectively helps to develop students' personal voices by providing them with
platforms for digital self-expression. This development is harder to achieve through conventional written
assignments. This approach provides a much wider readership with more valid and authentic writer-reader
3
relationships than that between students and teachers.
Mullamaa (2010) shared the experience in using an e-learning environment for the teaching of English.
The focus was to support student-centered learning to increase student motivation, individualisation and
4
cooperation in creating students' own learning digital materials.
Implications of Pedagogical Motive of ICT on ELL and ELT
1. The use of ICT promotes independent learning which allow students to reinforce their learning
through repeated exercises.
2. It provides the teacher with a quick and accurate overview of the students' understanding
3. Of the basic content knowledge taught. Teachers can also provide instantaneous feedback On
learners' responses.
4. The online quizzes can provide for a more transmissive pedagogical approach.
5. Selected use of the quiz module can reinforce the grammar items taught in class.
6. Lessons can be made interesting and engaging.
7. Stimulate and foster learners' enjoyment to learn a language.
8. Cater for the development of learners' intercultural awareness.
9. Achieve the phased introduction of the four skills.
10. Introduce increased cognitive and linguistic demands on children and cater for the
development of learners' meta-linguistic awareness.
ICT Threats
1. Teachers' attitudes towards ICT integration in English Language Class.
2. Feeling of insecurity for not possessing the necessary training.
3. The rigidness of the educational system.
4. Non availability of software in the market which can adapt to the pedagogical needs.
5. The impediments to completing the objectives of the English syllabus due to the high number of
students per class.
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6. Major means may be replaced by the assisting one.
7. Loss of speaking communication.
8. Students' eagerness, willingness and technological expertise.
9. The restriction of students' thinking potential. Abstract thinking replaced by imaginable thinking.
Suggestions to overcome ICT-threats
The Internet is a valuable tool for English teaching. The use of ICT must always be supported by clear
linguistic and pedagogical goals which teachers must communicate to their learners. It is the responsibility
of the teacher to harness the motivational qualities of the ICT-tools to enhance students' cognitive and
attitudinal outcomes. The instructors have to develop the right ways of using the Internet based on general
goals, teaching style and approach, an analysis of students' needs, and the technological tools at hand. Use of
ICT is for educational benefits. So do not underestimate the complexity of using computers in ESL
classroom. Web materials should be exploited only when they have something to contribute to traditional
teaching methods or when they have considerable advantages over traditional methods.
Few facts to be remembered:
o
The Computer Screen can't substitute the blackboard.
o Power Point cannot take the place of student's thinking and practices.
o Traditional teaching instruments and devices should not be overlooked.
o Multimedia Technology should not be overused.
o Machine can never replace man (teacher) together they can do wonders.
o Teachers' excellence in interpretation and discussion can empower the learners.
o Teachers' instructional beliefs have a strong impact on teaching and learning.
o Instructor should keep ready web-learning material to overcome feeling of insecurity.
An Appeal to All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) and Maharashtra State Board of
Technical Education
The educational theory from an instructivist transmission approach to constructivist and
socio-cultural theories of learning, demands more adapted teacher training programs, both technical and
pedagogical. Hence following is an appeal to AICTE and MSBTE:

To provide training in “Developing Online Teaching Skills” (DOTS).
 Increase AICTE's funding to create specific language classrooms, with loudspeakers, microphones
and appropriate soundproofing at the institute level.
 To provide formal training for developing teachers' cognitive ICT-related capabilities of problem
solving and information processing.
To develop an instructional manual to guide teachers about what to teach and what pedagogical
knowledge and ICT-skills they may need in ESL class.

Recommendation of 'E'-lesson plan

Remembering Recognising, listing, describing, identifying, retrieving, naming, locating, finding, bullet
pointing, highlighting, bookmarking, social networking, social bookmarking, favouriting/local
bookmarking, searching, googling.

Understanding Interpreting, Summarising, inferring, paraphrasing, classifying, comparing,
explaining, exemplifying, advanced searching, blog journaling, twittering, categorising, commenting,
annotating, subscribing

Applying Implementing , carrying out, using, executing, running, loading, playing, operating,
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hacking, uploading, sharing, editing

 nalysing Comparing, organising, deconstructing, Attributing, outlining, finding, structuring,
A
integrating, mashing, linking, tagging, validating, reverse-engineering, cracking

 valuating Checking, hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging, testing, detecting,
E
Monitoring, blog/vlog commenting, reviewing, posting, moderating, collaborating, networking,
Refactoring, alpha/beta testing

 reating designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing, devising, making, programming,
C
filming, animating, blogging, video blogging, mixing, remixing, wiki-ing, publishing, videocasting ,
podcasting, directing/producing.
Conclusion
The use of ICT will lead ELT to be more interactive, flexible and innovative when English teachers
spontaneously develop the link between their pedagogical knowledge and ICT literacy. Use of ICT across
curriculum has constructed new beliefs that change the pedagogical reasoning in ELT. English teachers
need not only possess such basic ICT skills as word processor, Power Point, video editor and access to the
Internet, but also develop pedagogical knowledge to efficiently integrate ICT into English curriculum. ICT
demands the metamorphosis of a teacher from a traditional role to a facilitator. The integration of ICT will
lead diversification not only in English content, contexts and pedagogical methods, but also in teaching
environment. ICT will extend the boundary of English teaching and characterize it as interactive, flexible
and innovative. The efforts from educators, teachers as well as the power of technology will guarantee a
brighter future for ELL students in their academic and professional life.
Recommendation of websites as an authentic learning material
Web 2.0 Community, collaboration, creativity, more socially connected Web in which learners can
contribute as much as they consume. Blogs, video-sharing, podcasting, wikis and social-networking.
Collaboration, contribution etc. Learners are the creators and generators of the content of the course.
 A Wiki is a web page or series of web pages which can be easily edited by anyone with access.

Splendid Speaking Podcast are audio recordings, usually in MP3 format, of talks interviews,
lectures which can be played on a desktop computer or a wide range of handheld MP3 devices .
 MAGAZINES Newsweek- URL http://www.newsweek.com
 People Online-URL http://www.pathfinder.com/people/web/home.html
 National Geographic Online -URL http://www.nationalgeographic.com/
 Newsweek URL- http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3032542/site/newsweek/
 DICTIONARIES Merriam-Webster Online - URL http://www.m-w.com
 Olsen, M.Roget's Thesaurus-URL http://humanities.uchicago.edu/forms_unrest/ROGET.html
 Cambridge Dictionaries Online URL http://dictionary.cambridge.org/
 The CMU Pronouncing Dictionary URL http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/cmudict
 LITERATURE American and English Literature Online Books for Educators URLhttp://falcon.jmu.edu/~ramseyil/online.htm
 An Online Library of Literature URL http://www.literature.org/
 TELEVISION BBC URL http://www.bbc.co.uk
 CNN URL http://cnn.com

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References
Becta Report, (2001), pg-10,Section-A( Statistical Data on Schools)
Matt Bower, John G. Hedberg & Andreas Kuswara (2010): A framework for Web 2.0 learning design, Educational Media
International, 47:3, 177-198
Melhuish, K. (2008). 2.0 be or not 2.0 be: How English teachers are embracing the world wide web. English in Aotearoa, 27(1),
23-30.
Mullamaa, K. (2010). ICT in language learning - benefits and methodological
implications.InternationalEducationStudies,3(1),38-44. http://ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ies/article/download/4965/4131 )
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Addressing the Issue of Spoken English
Kamlakar K. Askar
Dhanwate National College, Nagpur
Abstract: In the age of globalization spoken English is of utmost importance both in social and academic life of a
person all over the world; it is a tough job to acquire the spoken English skill. This paper is a sincere attempt in
this direction to address the issue. Language plays a vital role in human life. It is central to our existence. It is
inconceivable to think of ourselves, our societies, our past, present and future and our ideas, culture and
knowledge without language. Language is a primary means of a child's socialization. It structures out thought
and processes. It is a unique human phenomenon. It is special to humans as all human beings across cultures are
genetically connected to acquiring language. Above all it is the most sophisticated product of human mind. In
fact, language turns out to be constitutive of our identity. And since all people either utilize varieties of a
language or use two or more languages to respond to a whole range of affective and interpersonal demands,
language by definition must be defined as multilingualism.
Keywords: multilingualism, existence, human mind, communication, socialization.
Introduction
Language plays a vital role in human life. It is central to our existence. It is inconceivable to think of
ourselves, our societies, our past, present and future and our ideas, culture and knowledge without language.
Language is a primary means of a child's socialization. It structures out thought and processes. It is a unique
human phenomenon. It is special to humans as all human beings across cultures are genetically connected to
acquiring language. Above all it is the most sophisticated product of human mind. Language is mediator that
helps share our experience, knowledge, information and many more with others. In education language is
the primary medium for the transaction of knowledge and for the articulation of innovative ideas. In fact,
language turns out to be constitutive of our identity. And since all people either utilize varieties of a language
or use two or more languages to respond to a whole range of affective and interpersonal demands, language
by definition must be defined as multilingualism. It interacts with the social, political and economic power
structures.
English is no doubt the world's most widely used languages. People use English in three ways: as a native
language, as a second language or as a foreign language. English is spoken by about 300 million people in
the world. As a second language, English is often inevitable in official business, education, information and
other activities across the world. Be it engineering, arts, commerce, science or civil services or
administration or corporate, English paves way to the success of the aspirants. It is the need of the hour to
hone the spoken English skills. People judge you by the way you speak. Research and studies have testified
to the fact that a strong command of the English language leads to rich jobs, more social recognition and a
great deal of personal success in your competitive tools like interviews. Undoubtedly, our schools and
colleges have failed to build confident youth equipped with effective spoken English skills. Even after
spending fifteen to eighteen years in learning English, our students still face a variety of problems in spoken
English.
A Worldwide Survey
A survey by Worldwide Language Research has shown that incomplete English grammar [40 %]; poor
vocabulary [20%], incorrect pronunciation [10%], and lack of confidence [10%] are the general hurdles
faced by the students. To overcome the hurdle of incomplete English grammar, one has to learn structures of
English tenses, voices, articles, prepositions, narration and other aspects of English grammar. Extensive
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conscious reading of short stories, novels, books, magazines, newspapers in English helps learn better
structures. Many people do suffer from poor word power of the English language for want of reading habit.
Naturally reading habit is the best way to enhance word power. Reading benefits you all the ways; it makes
you knowledge, keeps in touch with the world you live in. Daily writing of 5- 10 new meaningful words with
their daily usage as verb, noun, gerund, adverbs, adjective and transcription can bring about a big difference
to enrich vocabulary. Influence of mother tongue result in incorrect pronunciation. No man is immune from
his mother tongue influence. A south Indian does not speak English like a North Indian or Marathi man
does. Even an English person speaks English differently from the American person. To meet the gap in
pronunciation, standard pronunciation of the words is of great use. A dictionary containing pronunciation in
your language can be used to improve pronunciation. Listening to English news, speeches and songs can
help improve pronunciation. Language laboratory can be of great help in this regard. It is better to utter
aloud the words, than to just think the words. Record your speech and compare it to the correct one.
Hesitation and low confidence emanates from a deficiency. If you are confident that you are correct in your
pronunciation, felicity of words, structures, etc., one can easily gain confidence. Self motivation and
practice is must. One must always be in quest of opportunity to speak English in daily life in school, college,
office or with friends. Be social and open minded and try to think in English. Don't foster any language
phobia.
Even students who have studied for years in schools and colleges are very poor in English speaking skills.
Problem is students are taught English as a subject not as a language. The age old mechanical dead approach
to English is main culprit.
Influence of Mother Tongue
Mother tongue influence (MTI) is an inability of a person to pronounce certain words as a native speaker
does. However, many people misinterpreted this mother tongue influence with inability to speak good
English. These are two different things. Learning English language is easy but at the same time it takes a
lifetime to learn a language, and then another lifetime to master it. When we learn English at schools, some
of us get lucky and very good English teachers which make our base strong but at the same time the teachers
themselves are suffering from the impact MTI. One cannot completely overcome MTI anyhow. However,
one can minimize it up to 98%, if one works hard on communication skills. The basic difference between an
Indian speaking English and Americans and the Britishers is the fact that the latter drops their jaws while
they speak, they open up their mouth more and therefore, the sound is more crispy and clear. Indian tendency
of not opening the mouth hampers the correct mouth formation required for the correct sounds. One can
overcome the barrier of MTI only when we Indians practice reading English loudly in front of a mirror. Once
one sees one's mouth formation, it will help one a lot in mouth formation. Another important aspect is voice
modulation and intonation. That is the speech must not be flat at all. It should be rhythmic. One ought to
know where the stress must be added in a sentence. It adds resonance to the tone that caries emotions and
expressions. An Indian cannot acquire American accent in a two weeks or two months training, just as an
American cannot speak Hindi or Marathi without MTI after same duration training. What we can actually
do is to reduce the MTI from the English pronunciation and make the tone rhythmic and crispy. The first step
that we can take is to prepare the phonology of our mother tongue. The secondly, it is to compare it with the
phonology of English (RP).
Nobody is immune from this kind of problem, and we should not think that we are the only one suffering; of
course out MTI will take precedence over our second language. You would be able to pin point your
mistakes in a period of time and will be able to correct yourself. If we really need to work upon our MTI, we
should be conscious, while speaking. And sometimes the problems arise when we are not aware whether we
are speaking the right/wrong pronunciation.
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Conclusion
A suggestion can be made here: just make it a habit of voice recording of your two minutes article daily.
After recording listen to it again and again, then you would come to know your problem and try speaking
that word again and again. One day you will find a remarkable improvement in your spoken English.
Communication is not a science; it is something we have to get out there and do. There are some natural
communicators, but not many. Most good communicators have learnt new skills along the way. To
communicate better and get ahead, we may need real back to basics of learning such as core aspects of
writing (including grammar, punctuation and spelling). Such a skill course could also include preparation of
documents, making presentation, speaking to small and large groups, plus negotiation skills. Better
relationship and career prospects come from team communication, conflict resolution, inter cultural
communication and interviewing skills.
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References:
Agnihotri, R. K. and Khanna A. L. (Eds.) Problematizing English in India. New Delhi: Sage Publication, 1997.
Candlin, C.N. TESOL Colloquium on Curriculum Design. Toronto, Canada, 1983.
Mishra, A. K. “How to Reduce Mother Tongue Influence in English Pronunciation”,
The Indian Journal of English Studies. Binod Mishra (Ed.), vol. L, 2013, pp. 398-408.
National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education. New Delhi : NCERT, 1988.
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Motivation an Important Factor in Second Language Learning
Ms. Lalita Bisen
G. H. Raisoni Academy of Engineering and Technology, Nagpur-36
Abstract: Second language acquisition process gets affected by many factors such as socio-economic and cultural
background, language learning ability, age, anxiety, motivation, etc. Motivation, one of the prominent factors in
developing personality also affects second language acquisition. As studies on motivation show that motivated
learners are more successful in second language acquisition, so teachers should create motivating learning
environment.
Great deal of work has been done on motivation, first one being of Gardner and Lambert who laid the
foundation in the field of motivation by proposing a model known as 'Socio-educational Model of Language
Learning'. Motivation develops self-esteem, boosts morale, develops positive attitude. This paper is a theoretical
approach to discuss firstly definitions of motivation and general factors affecting motivation, secondly it will study
Marlow's Need Priority Theory and Gardner's socio-educational model to describe various variables that influence
motivation, affecting second language acquisition.
Keywords: Second Language Acquisition, Motivation, socio-educational, need priority theory
Introduction
Many times I have heard teachers questioning the role of motivation in language learning. My opinion as a
second language teacher is that a pull as well as a push is required when we make someone learn any
language in a foreign surrounding. Motivation is both a pull and a push factor. Attaining success depends on
the desire of the person to achieve his goal.
Motivation is a complex factor of language acquisition which cannot be accounted for by one panacea
approach. It is referred as a stimulus, an impetus which is not only beneficial at the beginning of any action
but also to activate ones efforts to complete the action. Keller (1983) states that “motivation refers to the
choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid and the degree of effort
they will exert in this respect.” (389)
Gardner tried to define motivation with the precision of mathematical proportions: motivation is a
combination of effort plus desire to achieve a goal plus favorable attitudes towards the goal to be
accomplished (Gardner, 1985:11)
Maslow's Need Priority Theory
Many educators & psychologists have given high importance to motivation in second language acquisition
& a close connection has been shown between need, achievement & motivation. Maslow suggests that
humans get motivated in achieving anything when their hierarchy of needs beginning with lower level
needs get satisfied. Once lower level needs such as food, water, shelter, security, safety, approval from
society, self esteem are satisfied, humans think about satisfying higher order needs as man is a wanting
animal. The higher order need is the desire to satisfy his own self as per his potential. These higher order
needs are referred as achievement by Murray.
According to the above made discussion teachers who believe motivation as an important factor
should check that the primary or basic level needs of the learners are satisfied as it will help teachers to
predict that a particular student can make progress. Rosenthal and Jacobson argue that motivation in formal
situations play its crucial role on learning called as 'self-fulfilling prophecy'. These authors think that if the
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teacher knows the effect of motivation on the child, his behavior will become predictable in that particular
child's case.
'On the basis of other experiments on interpersonal self-fulfilling prophecies, we can only speculate as to
how teachers brought about intellectual competence simply by expecting it…[W]e may say that by what she
said, by how and when she said it, by her facial expression, postures, and perhaps by her touch, the teacher
may have communicated to the children…that she expected improved intellectual performance. Such
communications….may have helped the child learn by changing his self concept, his expectation of his own
behavior, and his motivation, as well as his cognitive style and skills. It is self-evident that further research is
needed to narrow down the range of possible mechanisms whereby a teacher's expectations become
translated into a pupil's intellectual growth. (Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968, p, 180)
Some educationists however believe that mere efforts of motivating learners taken by the teachers are less
fruitful. For maximum output maximum efforts should be made by the learners also, giving them difficult
task can have great impact on learners learning process. Difficult task/goal achievement means more efforts
from learners & more efforts means more learning. Locke & Latham (1990, pp.21, 26) express:
Extensive research…has established that, within reasonable limits, the more challenging the goal, the better
the resulting performance….People try harder to attain the hard goal…..In short, people become motivated
in proportion to the level of challenge with which they are faced….
Gardner's socio-educational model
The main objective behind studying Gardner's socio-educational model is to find out other factors which
affect language learning, in addition to motivation, as it is one of the factors of language learning which
works best when combined with other factors. An individual is considered as motivated if he/she has a goal
& strives, takes efforts, uses opportunities, takes help, and is persistent in achieving his/ her goal.
A second language.... is a salient characteristic of another culture. As a consequence, the relative degree of
success will be influenced to a certain extent by the individual's attitudes towards the other community or to
other communities in general as well as by the beliefs in the community which are relevant to the language
learning process. (Gardner 1985:146)
Gardner's model focuses on four classes of variables as discussed below:
1.
Cultural or social milieu refers to the environment where an individual lives. The society/
environment fix cultural beliefs of the people living in the society. If the society's outlook towards second
language acquisition is positive, students learn that language easily while if the society considers any
language different it becomes difficult for learners to learn that language. Attitudes plays significant role in
developing SL. If the outlook about any culture is respectful, optimistic then immediately language
acquisition increases. Teachers while providing learning environment in classroom should keep positive
views about other cultures, consider them equal, cite historical evidences & encourage bilingualism,
biculturalism which provides better learning chances. Gardner [1979, cited in skehan1993] suggests that
expectations regarding bilingualism, combined with attitudes towards the target language & its culture,
form the basis of an individual's attitude towards the target language & its culture.
2.
Language acquisition differs with individuals. Gardner has kept individual differences on second
level which are most influential in second language learning. These are intelligence, language aptitude
(cognitive and verbal abilities), motivation (effort & desire), and situational anxiety (inhibitions).
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a) Intelligence - decides efficiency of learning, how quickly the learner acquires things.
b) Language aptitude decides how effectively knowledge and verbal abilities are used
by the learner.
c) Motivation - describes the efforts which a learner can make & whether it's an earnest
or a pale, flabby desire.
d) Situational anxiety - can inhibit the learner's performance.
3. Third level of the model shows language acquisition contexts or settings which are of two types; formal
contents, where learning takes places in formal classroom situation where learner receives training; and
informal content, where instruction is not the primary task but it happens in natural environment. Both
these contents are equally affected by motive & situational anxiety.
4. The last level of the model shows linguistic & non-linguistic outcomes of the learning experience. Ellis
(1997) reasons that individuals who are motivated to integrate both linguistic & non-linguistic
outcomes of the learning experience will attain higher degree of second language proficiency and more
desirable attitudes.
Within the model, motivation is perceived to be composed of three elements. These include effort,
desire and effect. Effort refers to the time spent studying the language & the drive of the language, desire
indicates how much the learner wants to become proficient in the language, effect illustrates learner's
emotional reactions with regard to language study (Gardner 1982).
Gardner's model emphasizes on speaking with target language speakers. But in India and at many other
places it is not possible to provide opportunity for every student to come in close contact with target
language speakers. In this situation teachers can build such atmosphere in the class by showing clips,
documentaries based on the life of target language speakers commonly to all learners. Interesting
documentaries, films on their life style, culture, and history will gain attention of learners to know more
which will ultimately make then read texts written in SL, there by developing their second language.
Gardner (1985) modified his model by introducing the concept of integrative motive which is divided into
two components: A) Attitudes towards the learning situation, which can be referred as classroom situation
where the learner comes in contact with school environment, teachers, course curriculum, and textbooks. B)
Integrativeness It means desire to know more about target language community by integrating with them
and studying their culture.
Gardner and Lambert (1995, 1972) also introduced two factors to make people learn different languages
Integrative motive and Instrumental Orientation. In integrative motivation learners like to become familiar
with the target language community while instrumental motivation helps in gaining something practical
such as more job opportunities. It fulfills utilitarian aspect.
General Findings
1.
2.
3.
4.
Learners' cultural setting influences motivation either towards progression or retrogression.
Integrating oneself with other's culture gives impetus to language learning.
Motivation and achievement are interrelated. Motivation helps in achievement, achievement helps
in getting motivated. Success achievement rate decides the level of getting motivated. Desire for
achievement can be the motive for doing work.
Motivation can never be same all the time. Individuals get affected by different motives at different
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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times. Same motive cannot be used every time as liking, outlook of the individual, environment may
change thereby declaring a need to change the motive.
Behavior of the teacher affects goal acquisition. Behavior decides relationship. If the relationship
between the teacher and the learner is encouraging, chances of language acquisition increase.
Improved teaching and learning techniques enhance motivation.
Proper knowledge of learner's capabilities helps in developing strategies for inducing motivation.
Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect learning process. Intrinsically motivated person, if
motivated further, achieves unbelievable success than the person who is motivated merely by external
factors.
Involving students more and more in various activities encourage them to shoulder responsibility.
Single dominant paradigm of motivation is not applicable in second language acquisition. While learning
second language combination of methods & models can be used as per the standard requirement,
surrounding, interest level, attitude, learning style of the learner. The main focus of the teacher should not be
on preparing students only for exam as is seen in most colleges today but to enhance their language
competency by providing them encouraging learning environment.
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References:
Ellis, R. (1997). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford University Press.
Falk, J. (1978). Linguistics and language: A survey of basic concepts and implications (2nd ed.). John Wiley and Sons.
Finegan, E. (1999). Language: Its structure and use (3rd ed.). Harcourt Brace.
Garcia, Maria Del Carmen. (2007). Motivation, language learning beliefs, self-efficacy and acculturation patterns among two
groups of English Learners. Web.
Gardner, R. C. (1960). Motivational Variables in Second Language Acquisition. McGill University. Web.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social Psychology in Second Language Learning, Edward Arnold Ltd, London, Great Britain.
Gardner, R. C. (2005). Integrative Motivation and Second Language Acquisition. University of Western Ontario. Web.
Gardner, R. C. (2010) Motivation and Second Language Acquisition The Socio-Educational Model. Peter Lang Pub.
Gardner, R. C. Integrative Motivation: Past, Present and Future. University of Western Ontario. Web.
Giles, H., & Coupland, N. (1991).Language: Contexts and consequences. Open University Press.
Hudson, G. (2000). Essential Introductory Linguistics. Blackwell Publishers.
Keblawi F. A review of language learning motivation theories.
Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview
of their current status (
pp.383-434). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Locke, E. and Latham, G. (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Lovato C. Motivation in Second Language Acquisition Gardners Socio-Educational Model.
Maslow, A. (1970) Motivation and Personality (2nd Ed.) New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
Murray, H. (1938) Explorations in Personality. New York: Oxford University Press.
Noels, K. A. (2001). Learning Spanish as a second language: learner's orientations and perceptions of their teacher's
communication style. Language Learning, 51(1), 107-144.
Norris- Holt, Jacqueline. Motivation as a Contributing Factor in Second Language Acquisition, the Internet, TESL Journal,
Web.
Oxford, R. & Shearin, J. (1994). Language learning motivation: Expanding the theoretical framework. The Modern Language
Journal. 78(1), 12-28.
Rosenthal, R. and Jacobson, L. (1968) Pygmalion in the Classroom: Teacher Expectation and Pupil's Intellectual Development.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Veronica A. Motivation in Language Learning, Web.
Taguchi K. (2006), Is motivation a predictor of foreign language learning? International Education Journal, 7(4), 560-569.
Williams, M. (1994). Motivation in foreign and second language learning: An interactive perspective. Educational and Child
Psychology, 11, 77-84.
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Multimedia Techniques to Teach E.S.L. in Classroom
Lanka Bhakare (Mrs. Geeta Raut)
Gayatri College of Education, Ahmednagar
Abstract: The purpose of Education is to add rational thinking, knowledge ability and self-sufficiency. Right
strategies employed at appropriate time help in successfully completing the communication cycle of teaching
learning process and help realization of educational objectives. The ICT that has become very important in our daily
lives is still outside in rural school environment. Accelerating technological changes for rapid accumulation of
knowledge is the only way to survive in global competition. Skills like information and communication, critical
thinking, problem solving, interpersonal and collaborative skills are essential with knowledge of multimedia
learning. Multimedia has the potential to be used extensively throughout rural educational scenario. It also has
potential to improve the quality of education process. English language plays a major role in India's economic
growth. Author in her survey observed that English language skills, a gateway for world knowledge, are very poor in
Indian rural classrooms. The author has surveyed 4000 students and tested the knowledge of English in rural area
schools. For experiment the author used multimedia devices to teach English in the rural area classroom. When
teacher uses this new Multimedia technology in classrooms the learning process accelerates, becomes joyful and
meaningful.
Keywords: Multimedia, Meaningful learning, ICT, Rural schools, ESL.
Introduction
Education is a light that shows mankind the right direction to surge. The purpose of Education is not just
making a student literate but to add rational thinking, knowledge ability and self-sufficiency. For India to get
transformed in to a developed nation, education is an important component. Good teacher could generate
enlightened minds and instill confidence and willpower in students to help them realize their dreams. Today,
English in India has practically become the backbone of the higher education system.
Importance and need of English:Importance of English as a link language or as a global language has been steadily growing. It is increasingly
felt that the need of the hour is communicative competence and the focus of English language teaching in
India is therefore on learning English as a means of effective communication in all the spheres of life.
The strength and efficacy of teaching learning process rely on three factors, teachers, students and mode
through which they interact, i.e. learning strategies. Right strategies employed at appropriate time help in
successfully completing the communication cycle of teaching learning process and help in realization of
educational objectives. If we want to provide best knowledge to our students through education, innovative
learning strategies are to be adopted.
The focus is to develop Child into individual who is confident and enough able to execute his own actions to
face the global challenges. The introduction of new technologies in classroom has offered new insights in to
the roles of teachers in promoting learning.
Changing paradigm in teaching-learning:The teacher's efforts are aimed at developing student's competencies and talents; education is a personal
translation among students and between teacher and students as they work together. The distinction between
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old and new paradigms is given below in Table-1.
Table-1
Comparison of Old and New Paradigms of Teaching
No
Factors
Old Paradigms of
teaching
New Paradigms of
teaching
1
Knowledge
Transformed from
teacher to students.
Jointly constructed by
students and faculty.
2
Students
Passive vessel to be
filled by faculty's
knowledge.
Active constructor,
discoverer, transformer
of own knowledge.
3
Teaching
Teacher centric
Student centric
4
Content
competitive/
individualistic
cooperative learning,
interactive, project based
learning.
st
Developing 21 century skills:As society changes, the skills that students need to be successful in life also changes. Only basic skills
are not sufficient. Our students need to develop 21st century skills like logical thinking, solve complex
problems, managing information. The technology that has become very important in our daily lives is
still outside in rural schools environment. In order to survive in a digital economy, students will need
digital age proficiencies. It is necessary to make the parallel changes to fulfill the objectives, namely the
preparation of students for the world beyond the classroom. Accelerating technological changes for
rapid accumulation of knowledge is the only way to survive in global competition. Skills like
information and communication, critical thinking, problem solving, interpersonal and collaborative
skills are essential with knowledge of multimedia learning.
Use of Multimedia devices in teaching-learning English:The use of multimedia techniques empowers teachers to create interactive and exploratory classroom
experiences. It provides the benefit of blending together the use of text, sound, animation, graphics and
video to provide a multimedia tutoring environment. Multimedia has the potential to be used
extensively throughout society. It also has potential to improve the quality of education process. It has
the capacity to accommodate individuals who have different learning styles. It creates multisensory
learning environment in classroom.
Theory base:According to Ausubel 'The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already
knows. Meaningful learning results when a person consciously and explicitly ties new knowledge to
relevant concepts they already possess.'
Ausubel, the psychologist, suggested that when meaningful learning occurs, it produces a series of
changes within our entire cognitive structure, modifying existing concepts and forming new linkages
between concepts. So teacher must supply a meaningful set of learning material to the students in the
classroom to occur meaningful learning. Use of multimedia devices helps teacher and student in
meaningful learning.
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English today and tomorrow:The demand for English language training, education and services is on an ever increasing rise. Today
English in India has practically become the backbone of middle and higher education system. It is
important to note that India is not only being influenced by the English wave, but also it plays a major
role in the growth of the language. Two factors making India play vital roles are as follows:
The number of English speaking persons is more than rest of the native English-speaking nations of the
world.
India is a major player in the Information technology.
It was before to "think Global and act local" but now it is "think global and act global". So today's
students in classroom should think and act globally.
For example: Today's speaking trend
Speaking English is a Big Trend
For tomorrow, teacher must develop a 21st century skills and develop students to face new challenges.
English is a vehicle of knowledge transmission and also a key for survival in this age of globalization. But
the condition of English in rural classrooms is very poor.
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Author in her survey observed that English language being a gateway for world knowledge is very poor
in Indian rural classrooms. The author has surveyed 4000 students and tested the knowledge of English
in rural area schools.
The objectives, methodology and results are as follows:-
Objectives
1. To find out the difficulties in learning English language.
2. Use of multimedia devices to improve skills of English language.
Methodology
Author used experimental method. Students of Marathi medium schools were selected on the basis of
purposive sampling method. Traditional teaching method is used for one group and experimental
method for another group. The multimedia devices techniques used to teach English in the classroom.
Post test was conducted on both the groups. The results showed satisfactory improvement in students
understanding English.
Conclusion
Today there is an abundance of techno-resources but the applicability of each resource depends on the
teacher. The introduction of new technologies in classrooms has offered new insights in to the roles of
teachers in promoting learning. When teacher will use this new Multimedia technology in classrooms
the learning process will accelerate and will become joyful.
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References
Lele, C.G. (2012). English language, the gateway to global growth. Atlantic Publication, New Delhi. p. 181,182,187.
NIEPA. (2008). Globalization and Challenges for Education, Shipra publication, New Delhi.
Ray, Mohit K. (2010). English language teaching Recent approaches. Atlantic Publication, New Delhi.
X-PDITTE. (2007). (Handbook for Teacher Education) Intel Education. p. 3, 4, 5.
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Teaching English Language: New Approaches
Prof. M. B. Bhaisare
N.J.Patel College, Mohadi.Dist. Bhandara
Abstract: In spite of various remedial ways of teaching English, students don't seem cope with basic
language skills. Some modern approaches have come into existence. Teaching according to the learner's
style has become the changing need of stakeholders. Human differences in learning make us conscious of
individual learning styles and learner diversity. The matching approaches in teaching with their learning
styles will increase the performance. Secondly, the stress should be given to language skills for greater
efficacy. Instead of conventional method in classroom, innovative teaching methods invented by teachers
generate more interest in learning process. Moreover, teacher is the destiny maker of the nation. So, they
should posses quality attributes to be really called good teachers. Lastly, to stimulate the subconscious
mind, brain storming is a useful weapon for creativity.
Key words: Learner's styles, Problem-based learning, Brain Storming, Quality teachers
Introduction
As a foreign language, teaching English has always been a terrific problem before the teaching community.
This is because inspite of being taught English at the school level for nine to twelve years, students are
unable to speak, read, write and understand English fluently. Reasons are many which are discussed in
seminars, conferences and in reputed journals. Remedies and solutions are traced out but in the form of
printed thoughts. Some new approaches, so called modern approaches, towards teaching English have
blossomed now a days. A little effort in this direction to find the way out is as follows in the form of some
new approaches to teaching and learning English.
Approaches
1.
Teaching according to the learner's styles
Teaching English has been changed tremendously over the past two decades. Curricula, teaching
methods and teaching materials have been developed to meet the changing needs of the stakeholders.
However, curricula are still linear or systematic and do not allow much room for individualizing
instruction. Research on learning styles, on the other hand, has provided teachers a different view and
perception of learning and demonstrated how to apply it appropriately to classroom teaching. An
awareness of individual differences in learning has made English teachers and programme designers
more sensitive to their roles in teaching and learning and has permitted them to match teaching and
learning styles so as to develop students' potential in language learning. So, it is the need to be conscious
of individual learning styles and learner diversity.
Teachers should gain a better understanding of the human differences in learning. All learners have
individual attributes relating to their learning processes. Some students may rely heavily on visual
presentation; others may prefer spoken language; others may respond to hands-on activities; there are
biological and psychological differences. Usually, students learn more effectively when they learn
through their own initiatives. When their learning styles are matched with appropriate approaches in
teaching, then their motivation, performance and achievements will increase and be enhanced. So
students should be allowed to learn in accordance with their own preferred styles. The results of several
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investigations indicate that students' performance can be enhanced by adapting the instructional
methods to individual differences in learning styles.
2.
Stress on skills
Language is a skill and the student has to be trained and not taught a subject. If a teacher is speaking
all the time and holding control of the class, how will they ever learn the language? If there is so much
pressure on syllabus completion and exams, are we not as the language teachers defeating ourselves?
The language classes are different from other subjects. The practical orientation should be more for
greater efficacy.
a.
Fostering Listening skillFamiliarity with the English sound system and ability to articulate English sounds prepare the students
for listening to English utterances with understanding. And listening that should precede speaking
paves the way for them to develop oral fluency and accuracy. Listening is often said to be a passive skill
while speaking is described as an active one. This is not wholly true; for listening is also an active skill
as it is concerned with decoding a message and understanding it. The listener has to show whether he
has understood the message from his response.
A teacher should design listening comprehension exercises in such a manner that a student can train
himself to listen for i) a theme ii) identifying structures iii) specific details iv)sounds, stress and
intonation. The teacher should include only one activity at a time to avoid confusion. He should instruct
students to focus on the theme of the speeches. They can be encouraged to take notes while listening.
b.
Developing reading skillsReading like listening is a decoding process. It entails the students' ability to recognize graphic
symbols and their corresponding vocal sounds. It is impossible to learn to read without this ability
which extends to complex groups of sounds called words, phrases sentences, paragraphs and
chapters. In other words, there are three important components in the reading skill: these are the
recognition of the graphic marks, the correlation of these with formal linguistic elements, and the
correlation of these with meaning. Reading becomes meaningful only if the students get at the
meaning behind the graphic symbols through their ability to recognize the semantic content of the
graphic symbols and the sounds they represent.
Reading a lesson in the class should be done by the student and not by the teacher. To begin with, the
teacher should make the whole class read a lesson once silently. While reading the text silently, students
should note down words which they find difficult. They should be motivated to use dictionaries. The
teacher should note down the problems in pronunciation and correct them.
a.
Writing skillsThe main aim of writing course is to train the students in expressing themselves effectively in good
English. The students learn to write English to cope with mechanical problems connected with the
script of the language but also with the problems ease and fluency of expression, of grammatical and
lexical accuracy and of the appropriateness of the style of writing as demanded by the occasion or
situation. The students' written work should be gone through by the teacher. This will enable him to
assess the students' level of achievement and prepare the task ahead.
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b.
Speaking skillAt the phonological level speaking practice is helpful. The student should be able to
recognize a sound before they attain an ability to produce it. While giving practice in speaking, the
teacher may start with dialogues. Dialogues on simple, contextualized situation may be tried between
pair of students. The Teacher should control and guide the students without curbing their freedom of
expression. This will give the students enough opportunities to practice certain phonological,
grammatical and lexical items, debate and group discussions.
1.
Innovative Teaching Methods invented by teachers
The purpose of education is not just making a student literate but also developing rational thinking, and
self-sufficiency. The learning process has to generate interest in the students and motivate them to stay
back in the institution rather than run away from it. Research says that the conventional method in
classroom is less effective in both teaching and learning due to various factors. So, innovative methods
are needed.
i) Problem-based learning- Many institutions are focusing on it as a solution to producing graduates who
are creative and can think critically to solve problems. It is becoming popular in educational institutions
as a parameter to focus the inadequacies of traditional teaching. It is user friendly, comfortable and very
interesting.
ii) Presentations by students- In this, students present themselves as great men contained in the syllabus.
One student is selected and asked to speak a monologue. He speaks about the life, hard work,
determination, hurdles, difficulties, success of that great man. The students love the classes and
everybody remembers without effort the details of that famous person.
iii) Seminar and Group Discussion- In this, some topic is given to students and asked to discuss it in
groups. A group leader is also selected to handle the discussion. Students participate in it with great
interest and interact with each other without fear. Then they are asked to present their outputs before the
students. This method helps students to increase their capacity of thinking, expressing, arguing etc.
iv) Humor in the classroom- The student loves a teacher who has a good sense of humor. It strengthens the
relationship between student and teacher. It reduces stress and makes learning interesting.
v) Testing Methodology It should be applied to measure student's skills, ability or knowledge. Test should
be reliable and valid. It can be subjective or objective. Subjective test contains compositions, reports,
letters, conversation, talks etc. Objective test contains multiple-choice items, true/false items, ordering
items, matching etc.
4. Quality teachers
American Commission on Higher Education remarked that the quality of a nation depends upon the
quality of its citizens. The quality of its citizens depends upon the quality of their education. The quality
of their education depends to a greater extent upon the quality of teachers. Our first Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru stated that the destiny of the nation is shaped in the classrooms and the destiny maker
is the teacher. It is said that an average teacher tells; a good teacher explains; a better teacher
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demonstrate; and the best teacher inspires. So, the teacher has an important role to play.
A good teacher should possess and improve the following attributes to be really called a good
teacher:
A teacher shall have to continue to be always a student and update his knowledge.
A teacher shall have an analytical mind and try to develop the same of his students.
A teacher has to be a friend, mentor, counselor, guide and philosopher to his students and adopt
always a caring attitude.
A teacher has to be always cheerful not carrying home problems to the classroom.
A teacher has to be disciplinarian himself to inculcate discipline among his students.
A teacher should have commitment to his profession.
A teacher has to be a community leader and build team spirit among his students.
A teacher has to be a humane person.
A teacher should be a man of integrity and character.
A teacher has to be innovative.
A teacher has to possess effective oral and written communication skills.
A teacher should never have intellectual arrogance.
A teacher has to be an acceptable behavioral role model following always highest ethical standards.
5. Brain Storming
According to Alex Osborn, the father of brainstorming, “brainstorm” means using the brain to storm a
creative problem and to do so in commando fashion, with each stormer audaciously attacking the same
objective. Likewise, Wilfred Peterson in The Art of Creative Thinking defines brainstorming as a process by
which “individuals strive to stimulate and inspire each other to create ideas. The purpose is to tap the
subconscious mind of each member in a group and create a mutual sharing of mental wealth of those
participating. Through the mechanism of association, one idea will suggest another and another….. creating
a chain reaction”.
Brainstorming activities give students the confidence to believe in themselves and their ability to write
and speak English independently. The teacher can apply the activities like writing about you, enriching
vocabulary, writing about personal experiences, describing a picture etc.
Brainstorming fosters creativity and makes language learning fun for students. It helps create
awareness about their own surroundings and teaches them to gather information at one place. It also assists
in bringing to mind words that are already with them but which they never used. Students enjoy thinking and
finding answers which helps them become autonomous learners. Being student-centered it improves
language skills and practical conversational skills such as taking turns, agreeing and disagreeing and
dealing with interruptions. Overall, brainstorming boosts self confidence and removes mental blocks.
Conclusion
English should be taught as a language and it should be skill oriented. Among some new and modern
approaches, the above cited approaches may be fruitful for effective teaching and learning of English.
Human differences in learning make us conscious of individual learning styles and learner diversity. The
matching approaches in teaching with their learning styles, stress on language skills, innovative teaching
methods invented by teachers, use of brain storming etc. can pave the path to reach the desirous destination.
Moreover, teacher quality is what counts more for fruitful teaching-learning process.
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References
Ansari, M. The English Teacher and His Role, The Journal of Eng. Lang. Teaching, Vol.49/6-2011
Mathuramani K. & Ganesan, S. Modern Trends in Eng. Lang. Teaching, The Journal of Eng. Lang. Teaching, Vol.45/6-2011
Saha M.& Rizwan, A.2008, Teaching Eng. as an Eng. Lang. Skills- www.articlesbase.com
Jha, S. Eng. Lang. Teaching in India, The Journal of Eng. Lang. Teaching, Vol.49/5-2011
Balmohandas, V. & Sharma, M. Quality Teachers, University News, Vol.50. No. 03 Jan 16-22,2012
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Language and Culture Communication: A Sociolinguistic Perspective
M. S. Wankhede
Dhanwate National College, Nagpur
Abstract: Language, as human beings, we know, is not just a means of communication but it has multiple functions to
perform in the human society. We have oral and written communications and non-verbal communication which has
been termed as 'kinesics by the experts as this communication takes place through body movements. Language and
society are closely related. It is this connection that has formed the branch of linguistics as sociolinguistics. The term
'culture' is a very complex one that consists of knowledge, language, rules, customs, rituals, habits, attitudes, beliefs
which give a common identity to a particular group of people living at a place at a particular time. All social units in
collaboration develop a culture. Identity of human beings is possible only through language. India is not only a
multilingual but also a multicultural society; therefore it is more complex than other mono-cultural countries. It is this
multilingual and multicultural aspect of Indian society that does not permit it be a single society of a nation. Hence it
is said that India is a nation without nationalism. The three aspects are required from a communication point of view:
1. connecting individuals with one another, 2. providing the basis for a common identity, and 3. creating a context for
interaction and negotiation among members. So far these perspectives are concerned India does not come within the
ambit of 'a society' or 'a nation'. Language is visible but cultures are invisible. All these issues would be discussed in
the full length text as the focus of the present paper is to find relationship between language and culture
communication.
Keywords: language, culture, intercultural communication, interacting, rela, gotul, kitthe, kitne.
Introduction
Language, a means of communication, and culture, a very complex phenomenon are closely related
and it would not be an exaggeration to call this relationship 'inseparable.' No culture can be exception to this
rule: 'language shapes culture and culture shapes language.' This suggests that language and culture are
mutually interdependent. It is language, ultimately a means of communication, which is the identity of
human beings. Language, 'a species specific' differentiates man from other animal beings. Hence language
is a specific gift to human beings, although there are several languages and dialects spoken all over the
globe. Before entering into the domain of the relationship between language and culture, it would be quite
apt to analyze both the terms: 'language' and 'culture'.
Language as a Means of Human Interactions
Language, as has already been pointed out, is a means of communication, which, in turn, is the
means of 'human interaction.' This is the field of applied linguistics called 'sociolinguistic'. So for
communications, we have 'oral' and 'written' communications. Linguists assert and agree that each language
is unique in itself. Communication also includes body language: gestures, facial expressions, signaling, etc.
oral are written communications are generally regarded easier to learn, adept and deal with rather than
'paralanguage' which is supposed to be difficult one. The distinction between language and paralanguage
may be clarified:
“Language refers to what is said, Paralanguage refers to how it is said. Even though, logically, the same
words should convey the same meaning the volume, rate, and emphasis placed on those words can change
the meaning of the phrase. The example given by Huseman took the sentence “I would like to help you” and
simply by placing the emphases on the words I, Like, Help, You in four different sentences changes the
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meaning of the phrase .
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Another example can be taken for the purpose of clarification between language and paralanguage. “I never
promised you a rose garden” can give seven different meanings if all the seven words are stressed in
different sentences. For example, if the speaker stresses 'I', he means it is not he but someone who might
have promised the 'listener' (probably a lady) a rose garden; in the same way if the determiner 'a' is stressed,
it might means 'not just one rose garden' but 'many more gardens' have been promised by the speaker to the
listener.
Culture is not a concrete as well as a visible thing which human beings might find in any static form.
Hence it is very complex one. Culture is “the complex collection of knowledge, folklore, language, rules,
rituals, habits, lifestyles, attitudes, beliefs, and customs”2. It is this complexity that gives a common identity
to a particular group of people at a specific time. Culture, thus, is an amalgamation of various things within
the reach and experience of human beings. For example, 'eastern' and 'western' cultures, suggests two broad
divisions of world cultures. The common saying and perhaps the most appreciated by Indians is 'East or
West, India is the best' makes specific identity of Indian culture as the best one. Culture is not an abrupt
occurring but a process and all the social units help develop a culture over time. A relationship, a group, an
organization or a society can develop a culture over time.
Any two persons in relationship can develop a culture. Likewise groups, organizations also develop
cultures. But the most complex cultures are those which are related to a society or a nation. If there is a
friendship or romantic relationship between partners can develop a culture. And this culture can have their
history, their shared experiences, their language patterns, and, rituals, habits, and customs they follow. Their
relationship can have a special characteristica characteristic that differentiates it in various ways from other
relationships in human society. Friendship or romantic relationship might include several examples like
special dates, places, songs, or events that can have a unique or important symbolic meaning for the two
individuals involved in friendship or romantic relationship. They may have special dates like their date of
births, their date of first meeting when they had their introduction and then their development in friendship/
romantic relationship. They may have special liking for certain places and songs: 'jisne hamein milaya, usne
juda kiya, uus jagaa ko salaam'. The symbolic meaning for the two individuals can be clarified from this
example, which can explain its culture communication: once a lover went to see his beloved in a garden
where he found her in the company of her friends. He lingered over there for some time. Both were restless
but also helpless. Finally, the lover hinted at her with: 'he closed lotus flower in his hands with certain eye
and head movements.' The beloved got the message: 'we'll meet at evening at the appointed place the next
day.' This suggests that there is close relationship between language and culture communication.
Impact of Groups
Group also develops cultures over time and they are composed of various rules, customs, traditions
and other characteristics that give an identity to that social unit. In such groups, the members discuss certain
issues at certain places by organizing meetings on time or not and they take certain decisions. All these
activities of that particular group socialize different elements of its culture. For example, 'rela' (a tribal
dance, which is a traditional performance in the tribal Madia in India). This 'rela' is performed among the
tribal group as a matter of festivity. 'Gotul' is the meeting place for marriageable youths among the Madia
tribal. It is here all the marriageable youths come together spend a night, exchange their thoughts and views,
understand one another and finally select their life partners. Here they develop their certain elements of
culture through communication.
Organizations also develop their cultures. The cultures of organizations become apparent through
their particular patterns of dress, layout of their workplaces, styles and functions of their organizational
meetings, ways of thinking about and talking about the nature and directions of their organization,
leadership styles, etc. For example, 'Tulashiramji Gaikwad Patil College of Engineering and Technology'.
The dress code of the college, regular organization of International conference through modern means of
communication, development of its own culture, etc. are some of the examples.
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The richest and the most complex cultures are those which have their association with a society or a
nation. India is an indigenous society. As a nation she stands as a multilingual and multicultural nation.
Several languages including various dialects are spoken in India and followers of many cultures are there.
Even then it is a nation without nationalism. So for a culture associated with a society or a nation refers to:
These characteristics, including language and language-usage patterns, rituals, rules, and customs. A
societal or national culture also includes such elements as significant historical events and characters,
philosophies of government, social customs, family practices, religion, economic philosophies and
practices, belief and value systems, and concepts and systems of law3.
The above arguments and analyses make it clear that any social unit a relationship, group, organization, or
society develops a culture over time. But it is quite apparent that each culture is unique in itself.
Aspects of Human Living Condition
In the concept of culture Arnold includes all aspects of human living conditions; it may be religious,
political, aesthetic and so on. Nirod Mukherjee says that “culture stands for the various expressional means
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through which a group, a community or a society comes to be known as a unit in itself” . Culture, it can be
put forward, is a way of life simple or complex, advanced or not-advanced. Anthropologists differentiate
culture from a culture. Leonard Broom and Philip Selzinick say “A culture, like an individual, is more or
less consistent pattern of thought and action”5. Each culture has to share certain common functions. So far
sociolinguistic perspective is concerned, there are three such functions which are important. Sociolinguistic
includes language and society as a matter of study of applied linguistics. Communication perspective
decides: (1) linking individuals to one another, (2) providing the basis for a common identity, and (3)
creating a context for interaction and negation among members6.
As has already been stated, language and culture have intimate relationship. It is said that cultures
are created through communication. In other words, communication is such a means of human interaction
that creates cultures. Cultures, hence, are a natural by-product of social interaction. Communication creates,
shapes, transmits culture. The characteristics of culture customs, roles of people, rules, rituals, laws and
other patterns of culture are created and shared through communication. It is human behavior that is
reflected through communication. Psychological (inner) and physical (outer) figures of human beings are
formed and reflected through communication. Culture has powers of binding generations together. Stefan
Collin says:
It is culture (Bildung) alone which binds together the generations which live one after another as men who
sees but one day, and it is in culture that the solidarity of mankind is to be sought, since it is striving of men
coincide.7
The cultural binding is sought through communication and language is the best means of communication.
For Arnold, culture is “both a process and a state”8. Culture as a process and a state is possible only through
communication. For better understanding the implications of culture-communication relationship, “it is
necessary to think in terms of ongoing communication processes rather than a single communication
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event” . If different persons from different communities come together to form a group and they meet for the
first time, they “bring with them individual thought and behavioral patterns from previous communication
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experiences and from other cultures of which they are, or have been, a part” . These discussions clearly
indicate that cultures are quite complex “structures” having a number of characteristics.
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Cultural Impact
It is said that cultures are subjective in the sense that every one considers his/her own culture as 'logical' or it
makes 'good sense' while s/he considers others' cultures as 'negative, illogical, and sometimes nonsensical'.
Many forces are largely responsible for cultural changes. When various cultures come together they
influence one another and bring about changes in the respective cultures those come in contact with each
other. At such stage 'intercultural communication' takes place. When a philosopher says, 'I am a citizen of
the world', he suggests the theory of “melting pot” where all the cultures of the world merge their relative
cultural boundaries into a single one, although every culture can keep its own identity like dissolution of
sugar in milk. Modern technologies have brought the whole universe so close that it has become a “global
village”. In other words, the universe has become a “world community”. The process of “melting pot” or
“world community” or “global village” is the result of intercultural communication that influences and
brings about change. Like air that we breathe in, cultures are largely invisible, whereas language is visible as
it is depicted through greeting conventions, special symbols, places, or spaces.
Since its inception, India is a multilingual and multicultural country. Many languages and many cultures are
there in India and they influence one another in many ways. For greetings in India we have a variety of ways
such as Namaskar, Ramram, Valekum Salaam, Sasri Akal, Jai Bhim, etc. These show different cultural
conventions. To understand the nature of culture in relationship to communication is very useful and
important nowadays. This understanding makes us know the origin of differences between the practices,
beliefs, values and customs of various cultural groups in Indian society. It also provides us a reminder of the
communication process by which these differences came into being. This also helps us to go for new
relationships which may be individual, group, organizational or societal relationship. It gives importance to
communication as it functions as a bridge between cultures and a force behind cultural change. We find
intercultural and cross-cultural communication in the Indian context. Cross-cultural communication is the
field of anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication. Sociolinguistics is the field of
advanced or applied linguistics. It studies languages in connection with society.
The study of languages other than one's own can not only serve to help us understand what we as human
beings have in common, but also assist us in understanding the diversity which underlies not only our
languages, but also our ways of constructing and organizing knowledge, and the many different realities in
which we all live and interact. Such understanding has profound implications with respect to developing a
critical awareness of social relationships. Understanding social relationships and the way other cultures
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work is the groundwork of successful globalization business efforts .
Conclusion
Intercultural or cross-cultural communication may lead to non-understanding, misunderstanding or wrong
understanding if the interactants are not aware of the interactant's language. For example the word lonach
[pickle] in Marathi is being uttered out before a Telugu speaker who takes it as loncham [corruption] a word
in his/her own language, may create a rift between the interactants. English is a second language in India and
many words are commonly spoken in the regional languages and also understood properly. The word 'good'
gives a meaning as taboo if it is heard by Kolam, a tribe in Yeotmal district as in their dialect 'good' means
'cock', a male organ. 'Kitthe' [where] in Punjabi may be taken as 'kitne' [how many] by Hindi speakers.
Swami Vivekanand's words of address as Brothers and Sisters at Chicago Conference influenced the
citizens of the world and since then they know the meaning of those words as 'ladies and gentlemen'. We can
say that cross-cultural communication provides opportunities to all interacting people to share their ideas,
experiences, different perspectives and perception. Through the cross-cultural communication people build
mutual respect, cultural competence and understanding of each other.
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References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication
http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/articles/pages/6491/Culture-and-Communication.html
http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/articles/pages/6491/Culture-and-Communication. html
Mukherjee, N. (1964). Standing at the Cross-roads. Bombay: Allied, p. 60
Broom, L. and Selzinick, P. (1960). Sociology. London: Harper & Row, p. 402
Collini, S. (1994). Matthew Arnold- A Critical Portrait. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 110
Wankhede, M. S. (2010). Arnold's Culture & Modernity. Jaipur: Prateeksha Publications, Preface p. vi
http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/articles/pages/6491/Culture-and-Communication.html)
Http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication
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English for Specific Purposes: A Learning centred Approach
Dr.Varpe Machhindra Govind
Mula Education Society's Arts, Commerce &Science College Sonai
Tal Newasa ,DistAhmednagar
Abstract: ESP, like any form of language teaching, is primarily concerned with learning. But it is our view that in its
development up to now, ESP has paid scant attention to the question of how people learn, focussing instead on the
question of what people learn. It has, in other words, been language canteredin its approach. It has provided some
very important insights into the nature of specific language needs. ESP is founded in the first instance on sound
principles of learning and it is with this purpose in view that we have proposed learning centred approach to ESP. In
this paper, I have explained and reviewed the origin of ESP, a revolution in Linguistics, developing of ESP, what is
ESP? Various fields of ESP. focus on the learner, a learning-centred approach and its objectives etc.
Keywords: expansion, technical, linguistics, learning- centred communication.
Introduction
ESP involves teaching and learning the specific skills and language needed by particular learners for a
particular purpose.
Let me point out those developments in English for specific purposes. ESP is a useful and interesting
learning-centred approach.
English for specific purposes (ESP), not to be confused with specialized English, is a sphere of teaching
English language including Business English, Technical English, Scientific English, English for medical
professionals, English for tourism English for Art purposes etc. Aviation English as ESP is taught to pilots,
air traffic controllers and civil aviation cadets who are going to use it in radio communication. ESP can be
also considered as an avatar of language for specific purposes.
The Origin of ESP:
The decade of 1950's was an enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic
activity on an international scale. This expansion created a world unified and dominated by two forcestechnology and commerce which generated a demand for an international language.
Learning English became the need of an hour, not for the pleasure or prestige of knowing the language, but
because English was the key to the international currencies of technology and commerce. Previously the
reasons for learning English had not been well defined. But as English became the accepted international
language of technology and commerce, it created a new generation of learners who knew specifically why
they were learning a language businessmen and women who wanted to sell their products, mechanics who
had to read instruction manuals, doctors who needed to keep up with developments in their field and a
whole range of students whose course of study included textbooks and journals only available in English.
This development was accelerated by the oil Crises of the early 1970s, which resulted in a massive
flow of funds and Western expertise into the oil-rich countries. English suddenly became big business and
commercial pressures began to exert an influence. English now became subject to the wishes, needs and
demands of people other than language teachers .
A Revolution in Linguistics:
The demand was growing for English courses tailored to specific needs, influential new ideas began
to emerge in the study language. Traditionally the aim of linguistics had been to describe the rules of English
usage, that is, the grammar. However the new studies shifted attention away from defining the formal
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features for language usage to discovering the ways in which language is actually used in real
communication (Widdowson, 1978). One finding of this research was that the language we speak and write
varies considerably, and in a number of different ways, from one context to another. In English language
teaching this gave rise to the view that there are important differences between, say, the English of
Commerce and that of Engineering, These ideas married up naturally with the development of English
courses for specific groups of learners.
Swales (1985) presents an article by C.L. Barber on the nature of Scientific English which was
published as early as 1962. But it was the late 1960s and early 1970s which saw the greatest expansion of
research into the nature of particular varieties of English- for example, descriptions of written Scientific and
Technical English by Ewer and Latorre (1969), Swales(1971),Selinker and Trimble (1976) and others .
Most of the work at this this time was in the area of English for Science and Technology (EST) and for a time
ESP and EST were regarded as almost synonymous. But there were studies in other fields too, such as the
analysis of doctor-patient communication by Candlin , Bruton and Leather(1976).
In short, the view gained ground that the English needed by a particular group of learners could be
identified by analysing the linguistic characteristics of their specialist area of work of study. 'Tell me what
you need English for and I will tell you the English that you need ' became the guiding principle of ESP.
Development of ESP:
From the early 1960s, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of the most
prominent areas of EFL teaching today .Its development is reflected in the increasing number of universities
offering an M.A .in ESP (e.g The University of Birmingham, and Aston university in the UK) and in the
number of ESP courses offered to overseas students in English speaking countries. There is now a well
established international journal dedicated to ESP discussion,'' English for specific purposes: An
international Journal''. In Japan too, the ESP movement has shown a slow but definite growth over the past
few years,
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) :
This is the tree of ELT (English Language teaching) which appears on page 17 of Tom Hutchinson and Alan
Waters ''English for Specific Purposes,'' 1987. The book describes such fields as English for Medical
Studies, English for Technicians, English for Economics, English for Secretaries, English for Psychology,
and English for Teaching.
What is ESP?
This book explains that ''ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and
method are based on the learner's reason for learning.'' (p.19)
Before discussing for learning what ESP is, it would be appropriate to consider why ESP is needed. The
authors further say that ESP is not a particular language product but ''an approach to language teaching
which is directed by specific and apparent reason for learning ''. (p.19)
This explanation emphasizes the need for learning- centered approach, i.e., what we want to discover is not
competence in a language, but how someone acquires that competence.
Therefore, it would not be very appropriate to think that ESP is a '' Special or Specific English''. Actually,
ESP is English for Specific Purposes. There are always concrete purposes for learning, such as technical,
professional, or academic studies. Emphasis is laid on teaching methodology, not on the contents of ESP
itself.
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ESP textbooks:
Therefore, ESP materials such as texts and exercises are very important .As Mary J. Schleppegrell points out
in her treatise on ESP program design, when selecting texts (spoken or written,) it is necessary to identify the
language skills that are needed by the learner to perform the task , and that are reflected in the text.
Hutchinson and Waters also claim that both the ESP learning situation and the target situation will influence
the nature of the syllabus, material, methodology and evaluation procedures, and that the course design
needs to have built-in feedback channels to enable the course to respond to changes in the students' needs.
There are several kinds of ESP textbooks available to overseas students, such books as English for Careers
(Career English), Instrumental English, Professional English and Special English, published in England
and the United States. They however, do not always meet the need of a particular country's students.
Various fields of ESP:
There are several materials that explain various fields covered by ESP. Here, I'II cite two examples which I
think show the width of ESP coverage.
One is Longman Dictionary of Business English which gives the following 25 fields:
Accounts, Advertising, Agriculture, Banking, Commerce, Commodity exchange, Computers Economics,
Economic history, Economic theory, Finance, Industry, Industrial relations, Industrial safety. Insurance,
Law, Management,, Marine insurance, Public finance, Quality control, Shipping ,Stock exchange, Taxation
Tourism, and Transport.
The other is the Macmillan Career English Series which includes 12 kinds of textbooks, i.e. agriculture,
aviation, businessbanking, general business, international trade, computers, engineering, hotel personnel,
medicine, restaurant employees, secretaries and tourism.
In Japan too, the ESP movement has shown a slow but definite growth over the past few years
As described above, ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would expect the ESP
community to have a clear idea about what ESP means. Some people described ESP as simply being the
teaching or English for any purpose that could be specified. Others, however, were more precise, describing
it as the teaching of English used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocation or profession
purposes. Tony Dudley- Evans, co- editor of the ESP Journal mentioned above .He clarified the meaning of
ESP, giving an extended definition of ESP in terms of 'absolute' and 'variable' characteristics.
Definition of ESP (Dudley- Evans 1997)
Absolute characteristics:
1.
ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners
2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves.
3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar lexis register,
study skills, discourse, and genre.
Variable characteristics
1.
ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines
2.
ESP may use in specific teaching situation a different methodology from that of General
English
3.
ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary kevel institution or in a
professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners of secondary school level
4.
ESP. generally designed for intermediate or advanced students
5.
Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems
The definition Dudley- Evans offers is clearly influenced by that of Strevens (1988),although he has
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improved is substantially by removing the absolute characteristic that ESP is ''in contrast with 'General
English' '' (Johns et al , 1991:298), and has included more variable characteristics. The division of ESP into
absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful in resolving arguments upon what is and is
not ESP. From the definition, we can see that ESP can but is not necessarily concerned with a specific
discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range. ESP should be seen simple as
an 'approach' to teaching, or what Dudley- Evans describes as an 'attitude of mind'. This is similar
conclusion to that made by Hutchinson et al (1987:19) who state,''ESP is an approach to language teaching
in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for learning.''
ESP and General English:
In fact, one may ask 'what is the difference between the ESP and General English approach? Hutchinson et
al. (1987:53) answer this quite simply,'' in theory nothing, in practice a great deal.'' Rather ironically, while
many General English teachers can be described as using any ESP approach, basing their syllabi on a learner
needs analysis and their own specialist knowledge of using English for real communication.
Focus on the learner:
New developments in educational psychology also contributed to the rise of ESP by emphasising the
central importance of the learners and their attitudes to learning ( e. g. Rodgers ,1969). Learners were seen to
have different needs and interests which would have an important influence on their motivation to learn and
therefore on the effectiveness of their learning. This lent support to the development of courses in which
'relevance' to the learners 'needs and interests was paramount.
The growth of ESP, then, was brought about by a combination of three important factors: the
expansion of demand for English to suit particular needs and developments in the Fields of linguistics and
educational psychology.
ESP is known as a learner centered approach to teaching English as a foreign or second language. It
meets the needs of (mostly) adult learners who need to learn a foreign language for use in their specific
fields, such as science, technology, medicine, leisure, and academic learning. This course is recommended
for graduate students and foreign and second language professionals who wish to learn how to design ESP
courses and programmes in an area of specialization such as English for business, for Civil Engineering, for
Academic Purposes, and for health services purposes. In addition, they are introduced to ESP instructional
strategies, materials adaptation, and development, and evaluation.
Its objectives include:
1. To develop an understanding about the factors that led to the emergence of ESP and the forces both
Theoretical and applied that have shaped its subsequent development
2. To assist students develop needs assessments and genre analyses for specific groups of learners
3. To provide guidelines to adapt or create authentic ESP materials in a chosen professional or
occupational area and to critically evaluate currently available materials, including technology
based ones.
4. To become knowledgeable about assessment procedures appropriate for ESP and apply this
knowledge in developing course and lesson evaluation plans in their professional and occupational
area.
5. To sum up, English for Specific Purposes is a new area of study for many scholars. Our concern in
ESP is not with language use. Our concern is with language learning. A truly valid approach to ESP
must be based on an understanding of the processes of language learning
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References
Dudley-Evans, Tony (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach .Cambridge
University Press. Cambridge.
Hutchinson, Tom and Waters Alan (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A Learner-centred approach. Cambridge University
Press. Cambridge.
Johns, Ann M.& Dudley Evans, Tony (1991). English for Specific Purposes: International in Scope,Specific in Purpose.
TESOL Quarterly 20:2,,297-314.
Strevens, P. (1988). ESP after twenty years :A re appraisal .In M.Tickoo (Ed.),ESP : State of the art (1-13). SEAMEO Regional
Language Centre.
Swales, J. (Ed.), Episodes in ESP, Pergamum, 1985
Trimble, L,. EST: A discourse approach. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1985.
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Extensive Reading and Vocabulary Development:
A Learner Centered Approach
Dr. Malavika P. Sharma
Pillai's Institute of Information Technology, Mumbai
Abstract: This paper aims to highlight the importance of extensive reading as a means to improve proficiency in
second language learning. It has been observed that learners have lost an interest in reading and they rarely read.
They were observed to read less in their leisure time. One of the reasons could be the way reading is approached in the
language class. The reading skill is often taught by close study of short passages (intensive reading) followed by
analysis of language. The selection of the reading material is mostly at the hands of the teachers and most of the time it
is graded according to the level that the teacher presume is adequate or necessary for the learners. So a change in
approach is felt. It is believed that if the responsibility of selecting material is handed over to students, it can lead to
effective learning, in terms of acquisition of the reading skill as well as an enhancement of vocabulary. In order to find
out the effectiveness of implementing extensive reading as a tool for vocabulary development, an experiment was
conducted with undergraduate technical students. Results indicated that students gained confidence in using the
target language, actively participated in the tasks designed and developed their analytical skills. With the help of this
method, students were exposed to new words and practiced them with their peers while also involving themselves in
the tasks. This led to an improved self-esteem. In an age of ever-changing technologies it is felt that teachers renew
their efforts to teach traditional reading and analytical skills with the help of new and modern methodology.
Keywords: Extensive reading, vocabulary, newspapers, learner-centred approach, context, guessing, dictionary,
strategy.
Introduction:
Good communication skills are a requisite in all kinds of situations whether at home or at the workplace. In
India students come from varied academic backgrounds with varying knowledge of the English language.
They often find it difficult to express themselves even in basic communication situations. To take the
example of the undergraduate Engineering students pursuing their 4 year degree course from Mumbai
University, these students are supposed to undergo training in order to improve their four basic skills that is,
reading, writing, speaking and listening as part of their requirement in the subject Communication Skills. It
is expected that students, after the completion of this course, would be able to communicate effectively,
become better readers, inculcate the habit of listening, develop confidence in conversation, and produce
clarity of ideas. However, it has been observed that students lack the impetus to learn how to communicate
effectively in English. One of the reasons could be the dominance of the first language in day to day
conversation. The need for communicating in English is not felt and as such it is considered to be a language
only for the elite class or those who have opted to learn this language as part of their mainstream course. This
has resulted in lowering the confidence level of the students to communicate in the required target language.
Another factor which is predominantly evident in most educational institutions is that teachers tend to
impart information through the first language as they want to reach out to a wider group of students.
Students become habituated to such kind of instruction and they make little or no effort to comprehend the
subject in English. The evaluation procedure also does not seem to highlight the need to be proficient in
English and students overcome their communication difficulty with rote learning and memorization.
With the advent of technology and globalization, the demand for communicating in English is sensed
everywhere. The fundamental requirement in all job-related advertisements is 'should have excellent
communication skills', regardless of the level of the vacancy. It is almost a truism that English as a second
language has now become English as a first language.
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In the present scenario it becomes a necessity for all language teachers to develop a teaching methodology
that will be able to fulfill the requirements for employment as well as to enable students to communicate
with ease. The researcher in this paper has designed a teaching methodology for the skill of reading as it is
believed that the development of this skill will enable the students directly or indirectly to acquire the skill of
speaking, writing, listening and also lead to vocabulary expansion. Moreover, the need for the development
of reading skill seemed to be paramount as students view reading as a naturally acquired skill. Therefore, in
the view of this researcher, reading need not be taught in the class.
Another reason for the need to enrich reading skills is because college students are observed to read less in
their leisure time than their earlier generations. Thus they also read less proficiently. Modern means of
instruction can definitely enhance education. The Internet for example can increase access to information.
But the new media cannot replace the thoughtful reading of scholarly texts and their use unavoidably
decreases the customary focus on reading. To compensate for this shift educators should make corrective
adjustments. Such adjustments do not imply avoiding the Internet as a resource and educational tool. They
simply require instructors to renew their efforts to teach traditional reading and analytical skills in our age of
ever-changing technologies. Further it has been observed that students learning to read in English do not
like reading and they rarely read. Keeping all these factors in mind, the aim is to introduce the idea of reading
not from the perspective of solving a given task but to read for pleasure.
The following research questions are addressed in this paper:
1. Can extensive reading help in vocabulary development?
2. What is the impact of allowing learners to select their own reading material?
3. Is it possible to develop vocabulary by using guessing as a strategy?
4. To what extent vocabulary development is possible when students are exposed to different
contexts in which the word is used.
5. Does extensive reading and vocabulary development lead to the development of analytical
skills?
Reading- a receptive skill
Reading is a receptive skill. The ability to read effectively is critical to the success of a student in any subject
area. Reading skills are specific abilities which enable a reader to read the written form as meaningful
language, to read anything written with independence, comprehension and fluency and to mentally interact
with the message. One of the reasons for the downgrading of this skill could be partly due to the way reading
is approached in the language class. The reading skill is most often taught by close study of short passages
(intensive reading) followed by analysis of language. The value of this intensive reading procedure, with its
focus on the teaching of discrete reading skills has been questioned by theorists such as Eskey (1986),
Krashen (1988), who claim that teaching students reading strategies does not necessarily make them better
readers. Besides, getting a comprehension question right does not necessarily mean that the student has
acquired the particular skill. In addition, intensive reading requires the teachers to make most of the
decisions about the teaching content and materials. And in a majority of cases, teaching is based on some
sort of published or pre-determined material.
An alternative approach to reading would require the teacher to hand over the rein of the class to the learners.
This approach makes learner-input central to the learning process. It is the learners themselves who become
the major teaching resource. It shows how, by tapping into the knowledge and experience of the learners, the
quality of the teaching process is enhanced, since it becomes both more relevant and more deeply felt.
The need for a learner-centred approach
The undergraduate Engineering students in Mumbai pursuing their four year degree course from Mumbai
University are generally dissatisfied with the repeated use of the same course books. This has culminated in
lack of interest towards the subject Communication Skills. They complain that the course materials
prescribed in the syllabus do not meet the real needs and interests. So a change in approach is suggested.
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Another reason for the change in approach is felt when students are observed to have potential in them,
which usually happens to go unnoticed, and thus wasted.
Therefore, a learner-centered approach to reading is thought to be the most effective method of developing
reading skills, where the learners themselves are the producers of the material. The idea behind this
approach is that the materials chosen by the learners themselves are more likely to be suitable in terms of
interest and level, whatever the group's size and composition. The learner-centered curriculum is basically
curriculum that gives the learner the opportunity to be involved in the decision-making process regarding
the content of the curriculum and how it is taught.
David Nunan (1988) is of the opinion that it is impossible to teach learners everything they need to know in
class. What little class time there is must therefore be used as effectively as possible to teach those aspects of
the language which the learners themselves deem to be most urgently required, thus increasing surrender
value and consequent student motivation.
Many theorists are of the opinion that people become good readers through reading, and that learning how to
read should mean a focus of attention on the meaning rather than the language of the text. Eskey (1986) says
'Reading…..must be developed, and can only be developed, by means of extensive and continual practice.'
So exposure to a wide range of materials will develop interest in reading and also create a desire for reading.
This method of developing the habit of reading is known as extensive reading.
Extensive reading
Extensive reading is an approach to language learning, including foreign language learning, by the means of
a large amount of reading. The idea behind extensive reading is that a lot of reading of interesting material
will improve language skills. Learners focus on the language rather than the text. In addition to developing
language skills, reading extensively can help in vocabulary gain, can help in increasing knowledge of
previously learnt vocabulary, can enhance skills in speaking and can lead to improvement in writing. The
primary aim of extensive reading, according to Day and Bamford, is “to get students reading in the second
language and liking it”.(1988)
Krashen in his book written in 1982 argues that extensive reading will lead to language acquisition provided
certain preconditions are met. These include adequate exposure to the language, interesting material, and a
relaxed, tension-free learning environment.
Extensive Reading and Vocabulary Development
There is a need to improve vocabulary in second language learners, but very little attention has been paid to
this aspect of learning. What we find in most course books is a sparing reference to the improvement of
vocabulary. Often it is incorporated in the teaching of reading skill. Vocabulary improvement is crucial in
achieving success in life. This has been proven by many theorists. In the 1920s, Johnson O'Connor found
that successful people in all walks of life have powerful vocabularies. He also discovered that vocabulary
growth is not tied to any special trait, and anyone, regardless of their present vocabulary, can enrich it.
The thinking process occurs with the help of words. The limits of our learning are, therefore, related to the
limits of our vocabulary. Students who do well academically are usually found to have better vocabularies
than their academically less successful peers. The challenge is to find a method of teaching and learning
vocabulary that is effective and efficient.
Psychologists, linguists, and language teachers have been interested in vocabulary learning strategies for a
long time (Levenston, 1979). Numerous studies have been conducted comparing the retention effects of
different vocabulary presentation strategies (Carter, 1987; Carter & McCarthy, 1988; McCarthy, 1990;
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Nation, 1990), research (Arnaud & Bejoint, 1992; Gass, 1987; Meara, 1989; Nation & Carter, 1989), and
practical tips (Gairns & Redman, 1986; McCarthy & O'Dell, 1994).
The present study aims to use extensive reading in the framework of context strategy as a means to develop
and increase vocabulary. It is argued that a second language learner will acquire vocabulary in the same way
as a child who adopts strategies to understand words and use them in contexts surrounding him/her. It is
therefore believed that second language learners should also be exposed to similar situations. This can be
made possible only if learners are given the freedom and the responsibility of learning. Theorists Williams
and Burden (1997) in their social constructivist model outline four aspects of the teaching-learning process,
which is, teachers, learners, tasks and contexts. Another theorist, Cohen (2001), focuses on learners and
discusses the intersection of learning style preferences, learner strategies, and language tasks. The context
strategy model outlined here embraces the same concept but goes a step forward in trying to prove that
developing reading skills and vocabulary is easier and faster when learners are provided the opportunity to
learn from peers. This way they are empowered to learn and the environment becomes relaxed and funfilled.
Newspaper as a tool of learning
The researcher feels that an adequate exposure to the language is possible when teachers use newspapers in
the classrooms. The use of newspaper as a tool is not a new concept. It has been used by many theorists such
as Paul Seedhouse (1994) Kenji Kitao (1986) Victoria Muehleisen (1997) Ian Brown (1999) and proved to
be beneficial and useful in the process of learning. Newspapers can be used in the classroom in order to give
independence to the learners in selecting material. If suited to the students' level of English, newspaper
articles can be interesting to read and may trigger some in-class discussion, as well as increase students'
cultural awareness. It can also lead to learners getting exposed to the real world issues and practices. By this
we are allowing the students to become familiar with authentic materials.
Of course, using the computer and the internet in language classroom is faster and more in accordance with
modern times. The problem with most institutions in India is that classrooms are overcrowded with
students. As such it becomes highly impractical for the language teachers to use the computer and the
internet. The cost of having internet access is a challenge in most institutions. Again it has been observed
that in order to provide students the use of computer would mean that the institution would be required to
create a facility of at least one computer per two students which will be expensive. Large-sized classrooms
themselves become a barrier in most cases. Newspapers to some extent can meet the requirement of the
study and so it felt like a practical decision to use newspapers in the classrooms in order to shift the focus
from intensive reading to extensive reading.
There is obviously a lot of advantage in extensive reading especially when we talk of implementing the
learner-centered approach in the class. But a classroom totally dedicated to extensive reading is not possible
in the present teaching context. This is because the time available for the completion of the syllabus for the
Engineering students is very less. Moreover students were found to have inadequate exposure in the target
language. This is reflected in the way they approach any text. Most of the time students are comfortable in
assimilating information in their mother tongue. This prevents them from thinking in the target language.
So, learners are observed to get bogged down at the level of vocabulary comprehension. Therefore, the use
of authentic material such as magazines, newspapers is indeed difficult to use for the purpose of developing
reading comprehension without the aid of a dictionary.
In order to overcome all the above constraints the reading activity was timed and students were allowed to
underline the words that they felt were the most troublesome in terms of understanding the text, and a
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balance was maintained in terms of guessing strategies and dictionary use. The researcher thus used 2 hours
of the allotted tutorial class for this purpose. Introducing newspapers and allowing learners to select their
own material is thought to be a better way of developing reading skills as well as imbibing the habit of
reading.
Research Design
The study aims to check the effectiveness of introducing extensive reading in the curriculum of
undergraduate technical students as a means of developing vocabulary. It is believed that encouraging
students to select their own reading material can function positively in developing their vocabulary as well
as their analytical skills.
In order to find answers to the above questions, it is necessary to look qualitatively at the acquisition of
words and its use in performing tasks that are used in student data. Qualitative data is concerned with aspects
of solving tasks using guessing as well as the dictionary as strategies, specific to a particular group. In this
case, it implies the feedback received from the students through interviews and questionnaires as well as
through classroom observation.
Subjects
Out of the total population of undergraduate Engineering students in different disciplines, students of
Computer and Information Technology were selected as the sample, because the experimenter was the
teacher to them. It was felt that these students would represent the wider population of undergraduate
Engineering students.
Students of Pillai's Institute of Information Technology of second year comprised the sample. Two matched
groups were needed for the study, namely, the Experimental and the Control. The Experimental Group of 25
students was randomly drawn from second year Computer Engineering, and the Control Group of 25
students was randomly drawn from second year Information Technology.
A test was conducted to measure the level of comparability of the two groups. The test indicated that both the
groups were at the same level (t=0.23) indicating that the groups could be considered to be matched.
Experimenter
The present researcher, who was the regular teacher of these students, conducted the experiment.
Materials and Procedures
An Entry Stage test (the same as the test of comparability) was conducted at the beginning of the course for
both the Experimental and Control Groups. A similar, though not entirely identical, Exit Stage test was
conducted at the end of the course for both the groups.
Based on the test, the Experimental Group students were made to explain the background information they
used in guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words at the Entry Stage. This helped the experimenter divide
the students into groups based on their cognitive levels. Accordingly the experimenter designed tasks that
required the students to tap their prior information about a particular word and use the same in the process of
performing the task. The course lasted for three months, with one training session of two hours per week.
Since the time required for the completion of the task during the allotted time of 2 hours was insufficient, the
researcher encouraged the students to complete the tasks after college hours.
The task was designed by the experimenter. The experimenter alone assessed the tests and conducted the
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students' interviews immediately after the tests. On the basis of their response additional tasks would be
assigned to each group.
The experimenter also used the digital media to expose the students to different contexts in which a
particular word is used with the Experimental Group, to the extent the facility was provided by the
Institution. Students of the Control Group were treated as in a regular class, which meant that they were
assigned tasks that did not focus on their interests and needs.
Results
The results were based on the analysis of the interviews and the questionnaires answered by the students.
Some information about students' performance could also be gathered from classroom observation.
Qualitative Analysis
After analyzing the recording of the statements of the Experimental Group it was found that students were at
ease and comfortable performing the tasks with peers. Learning was observed to be joyful and fun for the
students as they were encouraged to select their own reading material from newspapers in the class. So the
question as to the impact of handing the responsibility to the learners to select their reading material is
answered.
Another significant factor worth mentioning is that students learned and acquired information about words
and their use more effectively in groups or with peers rather than doing things individually or with the
guidance of the teacher. The positive impact of encouraging students to bring newspapers in the class and
inculcate the habit of reading was felt when they expressed their interest, responsibility and curiosity in
performing the tasks. This answers the second question of the effectiveness of extensive reading.
To answer the question of using guessing as a strategy in vocabulary development, the experimenter used
the technique of exposing the students to multiple use of the particular word in different contexts and then
gave the opportunity to use the dictionary to verify their understanding of the word. In this way it was
possible for the experimenter to develop their analytical skills that was evident in their performance of the
tasks.
The use of newspapers in the class as a part of the extensive reading programme did help students develop an
interest in overcoming their reading difficulties and enhancing their vocabulary. But it is felt that grouping
the students on the basis of their cognitive levels could sometimes create problem in the acquisition of a
skill. In the sense poor leaners were observed to use the dictionary more often than the good learners. As
such their retention and use of the word was limited. Students therefore, should be encouraged to mingle
with the good learners in order to acquire different strategies. To the extent it is possible the teacher should
change the group members thereby encouraging flexible grouping.
Extensive reading thus
1. Develops an interest in reading
2. Helps in thinking in the target language
3. Helps in vocabulary enrichment
4. Develops reading strategies
5. Develops analytical skills
6. Promotes critical thinking
7. Helps in the development of independent learning strategies
8. Helps in the development of cooperative learning strategies
9. Helps students take responsibility for their own work
10. Helps in improving the writing skills in students especially the skill of summarization
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11. Forces students to infer unknown words from the context
12. Provides motivation for discussion and also gives ideas for doing research for class presentation
13. Bridges the gap between the classroom and the real world. It helps in building good reading habits
that will last a lifetime
14. Gives everyone something to read- news, sports, weather, editorials, and comics
15. Makes learning fun
16. Provides good exposure to write concisely and clearly
17. Enhances cultural awareness
Moreover all this is accomplished keeping in mind the learner-centered classroom. In contrast, intensive
reading learners were definitely exposed to different reading strategies, but lacked the motivation /impetus
to go for further reading.
Conclusion
To conclude, the ability to read effectively is critical to the success of a student in any subject area. Engaging
students in active reading practices can help them become more involved in their reading, thus aiding
comprehension and retention. The objective of an extensive reading programme is to encourage reading
fluency. So students should not be stopped frequently because they do not understand a passage. However,
the material should not be too easy as this may demotivate the students, who feel they are getting nothing out
of it. Often students are put off while reading when it is tied to class assignments. In an extensive reading
programme, the students are reading principally for the content of the texts. Teachers can ask students about
their general reading informally, and encourage occasional mini-presentations, but these should not seem
like obligations to students.
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References:
Brown, I. (1999). Internet Treasure Hunts- a Treasure of an Activity for Students learning English. The Internet TESL
Journal, Vol. V, No. 3. http://iteslj.org/Lessons/Brown-TreasureHunts.html (Mention page numbers where the paper
appears)
Campbell, C., & Kryszewska, H. (1992) Learner-Based Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Day R., & Bamford, J. (1988). Extensive Reading in the Second Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Erben, T., Ban, R., Castaneda, M. (2009). Teaching English language learners through Technology, New York: Routledge.
Kitao Kenji (1996). Teaching the English Newspaper Effectively. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. II, No. 3.
http://iteslj.org/Lessons/Kitao-Newspaper.html
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Prentice Hall.
Muehleisen Victoria (1997). Projects Using the Internet in College English Classes. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol.III,
No.6. http://iteslj.org/
Nunan David (1988). The Learner-Centred Curriculum. Cambridge Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Nunan, D. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. London: Prentice Hall.
Schmidt Ken (1999) Online Extensive Reading Opportunities for Lower-Level Learners of EFL/ESL. TESL-EI, Vol. 4, No. 1.
http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/ej13/int.html
Seedhouse Paul (1994). Using Newspapers on CD-ROM TESL-EI, Vol. 1, No. 2., http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/teslej/ej02/a.3.html
Smith, F. (1992) To think in Language, Learning and Education. New York: Routledge.
Tan, O., (ed) (2000 ). Thinking Skills, Creativity and Problem-Based Learning Singapore: Cengage Learning
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Strengthening You're Sentences
Dr. Manjusha Y. Dhoble,
Indira Gandhi College, Kalmeshwar
Abstract: Make students construct sentences on various topics like, what do you see, what do you think about
your college and such exercises. To familiarize them with words make them talk about success, annoyance,
accidents, dreams, anger… Much can be done here by giving them games like- ask the students to build up a story
or to extend the story line by line. Each student adds a line to it. You could always discuss a picture, talk about
roommates or compare people. Make them guess an object by describing it. Each student can exchange such
puzzles. Words should be used with care. Always keep in mind the context of the subject. Encourage simple words
and small sentences. Correct order of words, phrases and clauses also plays an important part in communicating
your thoughts. The meaning in the sentence should not be lost, it should be clear.
Keywords: ability, deficiencies, practice, wonders, clauses
Introduction
The ability to express a thought is as important as the thought itself. Our expressions fail to bring out the
thought in it. This may be due to the errors in our written and spoken English. These errors may be of
many types. It could be in the punctuation or maybe the subject and the verb do not agree; at times the
pronouns do not correspond to the subject. Or the nouns and the verbs are at a tug of war. These
deficiencies can be overcome with some exercise, some practice and some skill. Practice can do
wonders; it can improve our writing and communication skills.
Let us begin by revising the basic rules of grammar with which you are already familiar. To construct a
proper sentence it should have a subject, a verb and an object. The normal order is first the subject, then
the verb and then the object. First step is to see that the subject and the verb agree.
The Subject-Verb Agreement
If the subject in the sentence is singular, the verb should also be in singular. If the subject is in the
plural, then the verb should also be in the plural.
Ram and Sita goes to the same class everyday. (Incorrect)
Ram and Sita go to the same class everyday. (Correct)
The price of vegetables are falling. (Incorrect)
The price of vegetables is falling. (Correct)
Give the students an exercise to rewrite each sentence with the plural subject.
1. He goes to work by car. They ------------------------------------2. This shop opens at 8 o' clock. These shops--------------------Give them another exercise to rewrite each sentence with the singular subject.
1. The teachers teach us at school. The teacher -------------------2. They come to this park daily. She ------------------------------Again it is to be remembered that nouns like either, neither, one, no one, any, each, everyone,
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everybody, anyone, anybody, someone, and somebody should be used with a singular verb.


Every man and woman in the village was present at the fair. (Incorrect)
Every man and woman in the village was present at the fair. (Correct)
Collective Nouns
Also collective nouns like bunch, flock, herd should be used with a singular verb.


A bunch of flowers are a good gift for girls. (Incorrect)
A bunch of flowers is a good gift for girls. (Correct)
While nouns like few, some, all should be used with a plural verb.


All was making noise. (Incorrect)




Dipak is the one who we saw running. (Incorrect)
All were making noise. (Correct)
Use of the proper case and form of pronouns is also very necessary for proper construction of sentences.
While using I, he, she, who, as subjects you should use the proper case like me, him, her, whom
respectively as object.
Dipak is the one whom we saw running. (Correct)
Radha is a friend of him. (Incorrect)
Radha is a friend of his. (Correct)
To make the students practice this construction we should give them small exercises like-give them a list
of simple sentences. Then ask the students to rewrite each sentence in the plural.


A doll is a toy. (Singular)
Dolls are toys. (Plural)
With these exercises students should be made familiar with the rules of plurals like- nouns ending in -s,
-ss, -ch, -sh, -x take -es to form the plurals.
Example - bus- buses, ass- asses, bench- benches, watch- watches, brush- brushes, fox- foxes.
While, nouns ending in vowels +y take -s to form the plural. Nouns ending in consonant + y take -ies to
form the plural. Example - day = da +y= days, baby= bab +y = babies.
Most nouns ending in -f, fe take -ves to form the plural. Example- leaf- leaves.
Ask the students to write down the nouns with which they are familiar. Ask them to differentiate the
nouns between singular and plural. They shall soon realize that some nouns cannot be counted. These
uncountable nouns cannot be used in the plural. They are always in the singular. So we cannot use a or
an with them. While we can use a or an with the singular countable nouns. For a start we can give them
an exercise and ask them to tick the right one from them. Exercises like1. Ice - ices
2. salt- a salt
3. a milk -a glass of milk
4. This is soup- This is a soup.
5. This is sand- These are sands.
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Ask the students to write down small sentences containing about four words. Let these sentences be
related to some topic; like describe yourself or your friend's good qualities, habits, likes, dislikes….and
so on. Then ask the students to add an adjective or an adverb to every sentence they make. Let us see, if
the students come up with sentences like…." I am a boy." It becomes, "I am a bright boy."
-ing Verbs
Now let the students write some of the -ing verbs like- crying, reading, cooking, dancing, swimming.
Then ask them to make some sentences from these words and the -ing forms. Then add another word to
it, so as to describe it further.
Like1. Jack/ crying
2. The teacher/ teaching
For example
Jack /crying.
Jack is crying.
Jack is crying bitterly.
After this exercise, ask them to form questions from those same words.
Like- Jack / crying.
Is Jack crying? Jack are you crying?
Give them an exercise of similar type.
1. Rama / doing / his homework?
2. What/ eating / Sonu ?
Make them construct sentences on various topics like, what do you see, what do you think about your
college and such exercises. To familiarize them with words make them talk about success, annoyance,
accidents, dreams, anger… Much can be done here by giving them games like- ask the students to build
up a story or to extend the story line by line. Each student adds a line to it. You could always discuss a
picture, talk about roommates or compare people. Make them guess an object by describing it. Each
student can exchange such puzzles.
Words should be used with care. Always keep in mind the context of the subject. Encourage simple
words and small sentences. Correct order of words, phrases and clauses also plays an important part in
communicating your thoughts. The meaning in the sentence should not be lost, it should be clear.
Observe which verb does the clause describe and place the clause near to it. For exampleHe saw a small hole in the shirt which was right in the middle. (Incorrect)
He saw a small hole which was right in the middle of the shirt. (Correct)
Proper order of words brings out the proper meaning of the sentence.
On arriving at Nagpur, his friends met him. (Incorrect)
On arriving at Nagpur, he was met by his friends. (Correct)
While relating any incident it is always safe to use the active voice. Like begin a sentence with a subject
which is doing the action. Like- That man ate the cake. Instead of- The cakes were eaten by that man.
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Phrase:
A phrase must refer to the subject of the sentence. Ask the students to make sentences from various
phrases. This shall give them practice in constructing proper sentences. Clauses expressing parallel ideas
should be constructed in parallel form in a sentence.
As inWe go to the park in summer, monsoon and in winter. (Incorrect)
We go to the park in summer, in monsoon and in winter. (Correct)
We go to the park in summer, monsoon and winter. (Correct)
OR
Conclusion
To do or not to do, is a matter of inspiration. It differs from person to person. If you wish to improve
your sentences, then you shall be ready to perspire for it. If you really wish to write effectively, then you
shall not shy away from practice. Only practice can make a man perfect.
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References
Gupta, N. English for All. Macmillan Publishers India Limited, 1998.(ISBN 10 0333-93477-6);1-13.
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The Significance and Relevance of English for Specific Purposes [ESP]
Dr. Mariam Thomas
Mahatma Jyotiba Fule College,
Amravati
Abstract: ESP has grown to become one of the most prominent areas of EFL teaching today. English for specific
purpose is the most important part of English language teaching. The end of the Second World War in 1945 portended
an age of enormous and unparalleled expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international
level. People wanted to learn English as it was the key to the international currencies of technology and commerce. In
increasing and improving students' learning motivation ESP is more effective as it is directly related to their fields of
study and caters to their needs. The first universal trend in education today is change and therefore globalization and
the ever increasing demands in foreign language markets had enabled ESP to acquire greater significance as a
subject of study in institutions of higher learning.
Keywords: globalization, information explosion, emergence, instrumental, effective.
Introduction
A good command of English is fundamental for the growth and development of a person to an
international personality. In the present era of globalization and information explosion, teaching English is
not just a matter of application that can serve all needs by means of a particular syllabus and methodology.
Instead it has become a regulated application that can handle any situation or discipline. As long as English
dominates the world as the lingua franca of business, media, technology, medicine, education and research,
the demand for English for specific purposes will grow rapidly, especially in countries where English is
mainly used for instrumental purposes. And in these countries they learn English with the intention to fulfill
the requirements of school curriculum, to achieve success in standardized English proficiency tests and for
the sake of promotion or to gain professional development at their workplaces. It is really impossible to
attain national competitiveness without proficiency in interpersonal communication. ESP is an English
curriculum designed to serve the specific needs of the learners and it is noticed that students favour ESP
more than EGP.
Significance of ESP
From the early 1960's ESP has grown to become one of the most prominent areas of EFL teaching today.
English for specific purpose is the most important part of English language teaching. The end of the Second
World War in 1945 portended an age of enormous and unparalleled expansion in scientific, technical and
economic activity on an international level. People wanted to learn English as it was the key to the
international currencies of technology and commerce. In increasing and improving students' learning
motivation ESP is more effective as it is directly related to their fields of study and caters to their needs.
Many people in Taiwan and even educators and administrators there opine that ESP can act as a potential
'panacea' for the poor English performance of students. They firmly believe that students will be more
motivated and will get more benefit from a programme geared to their needs and directly relevant to their
fields of study, thus promoting higher learning efficiency.
The first universal trend in education today is change and therefore globalization and the ever increasing
demands in foreign language markets had enabled ESP to acquire greater significance as a subject of study
in institutions of higher learning. A revolution in linguistics has increased the growing demand for English
courses made to specific needs, and as a result powerful new ideas started to appear in the study of language.
The new ways and techniques of studies require language usage in such a way as to create ways to use
language for communication.
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What is ESP?
ESP or English for Specific Purposes is an approach that has been widely used over the last three decades. It
is need based, covering all the areas of the language learning process. It is not a particular kind of language
methodology nor does it consist of a particular type of teaching material. It is an approach to language
learning which fully caters to the needs of different learners. Therefore it must satisfy the needs of learners
as well as their needs as potential target users of the language.
The aim of ESP is to develop, improve and to increase “confidential capability” of the learner and hence ESP
courses should focus on the training of language skills along with specialized terms and discipline content.
ESP courses make use of vocabulary tasks related to the field such as negotiation skills and effective
techniques for oral presentations. Undoubtedly ESP increases learners' skill in using English.
Definition of ESP
In the opinion of Hutchinson and Waters, [1987], ESP is “an approach to language teaching in which all
decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for learning”. 1 just as the above writers
have mentioned in ESP, the content of the course and the method in which a particular student is going to
learn depends on his reason for learning the same. Because whatever he has selected to learn is for a peculiar
purpose, it is truly need based. Hence according to Strevens [1988] ESP is English language teaching
designed to meet specified needs of the learner.
ESP is really an important specialization or a specialized aspect of the general content of English language
representing the whole gamut. There are many others who specify ESP as the teaching of English for
academic studies or for vocational or professional purposes.
Whatever be the definition most suiting ESP, one thing is clear- in the present scenario, ESP is a term
connoting promise for more effective and more useful English language instruction. To get a more clear and
specific picture, ESP can be likened to the leaves and branches on the tree of language and we can compare
EGP to the roots of this tree of language. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to the activities of a
given discipline.
ESP can be concerned a specific discipline and should be seen simply as an “approach” to teaching or as an
attitude of mind. What is “special” in ESP refers to the purpose for which learners learn it. Therefore an ESP
course is a customized programme, which caters to a certain group of learners with a specific purpose and
enables them to prepare for professional communication at future work places. On account of this an ESP
instructor has to perform different roles such as a teacher, course designer, material provider, collaborator,
researcher and evaluator.
Reasons for the Emergence of ESP
Hutchinson and Waters have identified three key reasons for the emergence of ESP and they are as under:1. The demands of a Brave New World:
On the one hand, the end of the Second World War declared an era of expansion in scientific, technical and
economic activity worldwide. The role of international language fell obviously to English because of the
economic expansion of the US in the post-war world. On the other hand, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970's
resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the oil-rich countries and the language of this
knowledge became English. This led consequently to exerting pressure on the language teaching profession
which boosted in this part of the world, to deliver the required goods. English now became subject to the
wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers.
2. A Revolution in Linguistics:
The second very important reason that had a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP was a revolution
in linguistics. Most of the works of linguists in the 60's and 70's of the past century focused on the ways in
which language is used in real communication contrary to the works of traditional linguists who set out to
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describe the features of language.
3.
Focus on the Learner:
The third reason refers more to psychology than linguists. More attention was given in the 70's of the past
century to the means in which a learner acquires language and ways in which it is learnt. Hence there was a
shift of focus from methods of language learning to the different learning strategies, different skills,
different schemata and different motivating needs and interests that are employed by different learners. This
consequently led to a focus on learners' need designing specific courses to better meet individual needs. The
result of this was a natural extension of “learner-centered” or “learning-centered” perspectives on ESP.
Difference between ESP and EGP
ELT can be divided into two broad categories: English for General Purposes [EGP] and English for Specific
Purposes [ESP]. ESP is simply the opposite of EGP. EGP is essentially the English language education in
junior, senior and high school. There is no particular situation targeted in this kind of language learning
rather it focuses on applications in general situations. EGP is the language that is used every day for ordinary
things in a variety of common situations. In the opinion of Bowker and Pearson ESP is language used to
discuss specialized fields of knowledge”. 2 In any ESP classroom, the students study English for a clear
reason and it is aligned with their future goals.
General skills are not part of an ESP course. The most important benefit of ESP teaching over EGP is that, if
a student has a desired outcome or use for the English he or she is learning, that student is often highly
motivated. They want to become proficient to achieve their accomplishment. Sometimes students of EGP
may lack the focus their ESP counterparts have.
Stevens suggests that ESP “is more cost effective” than General English as ESP often deals with fields such
as science, business or medicine and is often under extreme pressure to complete research or publications in
English very quickly.
ESP differs from EGP as the words and sentences learned and the subject matter discussed are all relevant to
a particular field or discipline. ESP is very useful for progressing in a particular occupation or specializing in
a peculiar academic field. ESP should differ from EGP in its objectives, teaching materials and approaches.
While teaching ESP language teachers should not use the same approach used in teaching EGP as these two
are different in their goals and learning content.
In most ESP classes the core of learning is to improve one's communication ability. The famous film
“English Vinglish” portrays this beautifully.
When ESP concentrates on English for specific occasions, EGP focuses on the applications of English in
general situations. ESP builds on what has earlier been acquired in EGP with a more restricted focus. There
is no fixed methodology of ESP that can be applicable in all situations but rather each situation and
particular needs of learners impose a certain methodology of teaching. ESP is centered on the language
appropriate to the activities of a given discipline.
Characteristics of ESP
The main feature of ESP is that it is the teaching of English for any purpose that could be specified. It is
defined to meet specific needs of the learners. It makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of
the discipline it serves and it is centered on the language appropriate to these activities, in terms of grammar,
lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.
Mackay and Mount Ford explain that the only practical way in which we can understand the notion of
“special language” is as a restricted repertoire of words and expressions selected from the whole language
because that restricted repertoire covers every requirement within a well-defined context, task or vocation.
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Conclusion
In most of the countries, the ESP movement has shown slow but definite growth over the past few years. It is
noticed that since the end of World War Second, ESP has received much attention amongst educational and
applied linguistics. To quote Swales J. M, “one of the most constraining factors to the progress of ESP as a
component of ELT is the lack of “specialized teacher training”. 4 Truly, unless language teachers are trained
enough to handle such situations and realize the idiosyncrasies of ESP, fruitful outcomes would never be
achieved. An effective ESP programme should meet the ever changing needs of the learners.
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References
Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. 1987. English for Specific Purposes: A Learner centered Approach. Cambridge University Press.
Bowker, L. and Pearson, J. 2002. Working with Specialized Language. A Practical Guide to Using Corpora. 25-41. New York.
Rout ledge.
Mackay, R. and Mount Ford, A. [Eds.] 1978. English for Specific Purposes. London. Longman.
Swales, J. M. 1990. Genre Analysis. English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge University Press.
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Derivation of Nouns from Verbs &
Vice versa in English as a Second Language
Meenakshi Chaudhary
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Abstract: This paper reports an experimental study conducted with an aim to find out the common processes
children use to derive nouns from verbs and vice versa in English as a second language. The sample size was
10 (5 males & 5 females) and sample age was 8-10 yrs. A list of nouns and verbs accompanied by pictures of
agentive nouns like beggar, student etc. and verbs like write, teach or swim etc. was given to subjects and
they were asked to derive verbs and nouns respectively. Findings showed that during deriving verbs from
nouns, children over-generalized backformation in almost all words by removing end letters, even in thief.
Since they were not familiar with some words like 'gambler' or 'burglar' most of them removed er or ar,
producing phonotactics not permissible in English language e.g. gambl & burgl. In deriving agentive nouns
from verbs, subjects kept adding r or er depending on word endings even if the actual orthography included
or. Some showed their familiarity with suffixes like ist or al by using them, though their usage was incorrect
there.
Introduction
Deriving agent nouns from verbs and verbs from agent nouns is one of the most common processes children
come across during their acquisition of English as a second language, so I thought it would be interesting to
give them some agent nouns & verbs and see how they derive verbs and agent nouns respectively from them.
This change of class i.e. nouns derived from verbs, and deriving verbs from nouns is studied under a specific
branch of Linguistics known as Morphology. Morphology can be defined as a study of internal structure of
words and their formation. The processes involved in the formation of words are called word formation
processes or morphological processes. Agent nouns are formed by verbs through the process of 'derivation'
in which addition of affixes to the base results in the formation of new words. In English language suffixes
like er, -or, -r , -ent/ant and ar are referred to as agentive suffixes because their affixation to the action verbs
produces agent nouns. On the other hand, verbs are derived from agent nouns usually by the process of
'backformation aka back derivation'.
Text
According to “The Lexical Phonology and Morphology Model”, in our mental lexicon, morphological
and phonological rules are organized in blocks called “strata”. These strata are
_____________________________________
1
Agent noun is a noun that denotes an agent who does the action denoted by the verb from which the noun is derived such
as 'cutter' derived from cut.
2
An affix is a bound morpheme which attaches to a root/ stem to form a new word.
3
Base is the root or stem to which affix word attaches.
4
Backformation can be defined as a morphological process in which real or imagined affix is removed from an existing to
create another .e.g. editor-edit, burglar-burgle etc.
5
Lexicon can be described as a mental dictionary; a list of forms that a speaker has to know because they are arbitrary
signs, unpredictable in some way.
hierarchically arranged. Kiparsky(1982a) model recognizes three strata and proposes that Stratum 1
deals with irregular inflection and irregular derivation; Stratum 2 deals with regular derivation and
compounding; and Stratum 3 deals with regular inflection.
-er is a Germanic suffix which is usually attached to verbs to create agentive nouns (with the meaning
'someone who does whatever is designated by the verb'). It is 'neutral', in the sense that when it is attached to
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a stem, it does not bring any change in the phonological makeup of the stem. Deriving nouns from verbs or
vice versa with using er suffix is a regular derivation process which is a very productive process and
therefore words resulting from these processes i.e. deverbal nouns and denominal verbs will come at
stratum 2. On the other hand, derivation using other affixes which are non-neutral and do bring changes in
the phonological makeup in the bases to which they are attached are found at stratum 1 e.g. ent as in student.
When children are exposed to a language, they analyze the word forms they encounter, identify stems, roots
and affixes. Children also show a general preference for marking added meaning with an affix. This holds
consistent with Greenberg's (1966) observation that added complexity (of meaning) is typically marked in
languages by added morphemes.
Children do not wait until they have learnt the appropriate word. They need words to fill semantic gaps.
Therefore when needed, they themselves construct a form for the meaning they want to convey. In first
language acquisition, children between two and two and a half begin to produce derivational affixes. In
English, for instance, children start to produce agent and instrument -er, though they do not use this suffix
consistently until around age four (Clark and Hecht 1982). They misremember newly encountered agentive
nouns as using -er even when they have -ist or ian or dent endings (Clark and Cohen 1984). These findings
suggest that children do generalize principles and rules while analyzing word forms and then construct new
words themselves.
Data Representation
Deriving Verbs from Agent Nouns
Sub
Shop
lifter
1
-er
+ing
+ er
2
-Lifter
-er
3
-er
+ing
-er
+ing
4
-er
-er
Gambler Burglar
6
+er
+ing
+ing
Loafer
7
+ er
+ing
+ing
Kidna
pper
Baby
sitter
explai
-(p)er ned
meaning
-(P)er
+ing
-(p)er
Student
-ent
+y
Beggar Adminis
trator
+er
+er
-er
+ing
-ent
+y
-(g)ar
-(t)er
-ent
+y
+ing
Thief
explain
ed
stealer
meaning
-or
+e
-er
____________________________________
6
'+' sign refers to the addition of segments to the given word, e.g. +er means adding 'er' to the given word.
'-' sign refers to the deletion of the given segment, e.g. er means deleting 'er' from the given word.
7
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+ing
+ing
5
-er
+ing
-ler
6
-er
-r
7
8
-er
-er
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+ing
-lar
Learn
+ing
-or
+ion
-er
+ing
-(t)er
+s
-(p)er
-er
-ent
+y
-r
-r
-r
-ler
-lar
-r
-(p)er
-er
+ing
-ent
+y
-ar
-er
-ar
+e
-er
-(p)er
-(t)er
-ent
+y
-gar
+ing
-er
explain
ed
meaning
-ent
+y
-gar
-ent
+y
-ar
+s
9
-er
+ing
-er
+ing
10
-lifter
+s
-ler
+ing
-lar
+s
-er
-(p)er
-a
nistrator
+sion
-or
+e
-f
+ves
-f
-ief
+eft
-ief
+eft
-rator
-or
+e
Findings:
The most common processes used by the children were:
-removing the word final letters (1/2/ 3 letters)
-removing 2-3 word final letters and add'+ing' to it.
Empty spaces shows that children were not able to give any answer for those form(s).
Analysis
Children's familiarity with words was of course an influencing factor for derivation. It is evident in 'study'
and 'kidnapper' as they were the easiest to derive. The word structure of 'thief' wasn't in er or r form, due to
which it was problematic for children. In most cases, it was evident that children were trying to identify the
root from the word and adding or removing suffixes from it. But the verbs they derived were mostly not in
root forms but had the present continuous ending ing. The way they derive verbs from agent nouns can be
taken back to their school instruction where they are taught things like...what does a beggar do? Beg! What
does a player do? Play! These kinds of instructions make children realize that usually they are supposed to
use backformation technique which mostly yields correct forms but not always. The difficult area primarily
deals with the number of end letters of the alphabet to be deleted.
A Subject came up with 'thiefer' too, showing his preference to add up er affix though he had to derive a
verb from thief. Children also came up with forms like thieves, theft etc., showing their preference to
use a familiar form even when it was not appropriate there. One student came up with 'stealer'. This was
quite interesting because stealer is indeed a potential noun word but is not in use because it is blocked
by already existing 'thief'. Since English language does not
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____________________________
8
Blocking can be described as a process by which a potential word is prevented from occurring in a language because another
form with the same meaning and function already exists in that language.
permit existence of exact synonyms like most other languages, therefore stealer can't become an actual
word. But construction of “stealer” gives us the opportunity to have a look into child's mind that he knows
that thief “steals” and therefore as an agent the noun should be steal + er. Though he was supposed to derive a
verb from agent noun but he derived another potential agent noun.
Verb form of the noun 'thief' can be 'thieving' too, but its use is very rare therefore students might not have
familiar with the form.
Deriving Agent Nouns from Verbs:
Subject
Teach
Write
Sail
1
+er
+r
+er
2
+er
+er
3
+er
+ter
-e
+r
4
+er
5
+er
6
+er
7
+er
8
+er
9
+er
10
+er
Manage
Drive
Read
compute
travel
+r
Survive
Swim
+r
+er
+r
+r
+r
+r
+er
+r
+er
+er
+r
+r
+er
+r
+er
-e
+mer
+r
+er
+r
+r
+er
+r
+er
+al
+er
t+r
-e
+er
+r
+r
+er
+r
+ls
+r
+ming
+er
+r
+r
+er
+r
+ling
+r
+mer
+r
+er
+r
+r
+er
+r
+ler
+r
+mer
+r
+er
+r
+r
+er
+rist
+ler
-e, +r
+mer
+er
+r
+r
+r
+ler
+r
+mer
+er
+r
+r
+r
+ler
+r
+mer
t+r
-e
+er
+er
Findings:
Addition of '-er' and '-r' were not most used techniques for forming nouns from verbs. Children used 'r' when
a verb ended with '-e' and '-er' elsewhere. For Example, in 'sail', where '-or' needs to be added, all subjects
added 'er' to make it 'sailer'. Some students showed familiarity with words in case of 'swim' or 'travel' where
they formed correct geminates or especially in survive-where one subject added or correctly. Some students
over-generalized germination and produced words like 'writter'. A few students showed their familiarity
with suffixes like 'al' or 'ist' and used them, though they produced incorrect forms.
Analysis
-er is a very productive suffix and therefore has been abundantly used by students. But the decision of which
orthographical form to use proved quite challenging for children. It is noteworthy that the subjects had been
introduced to English in their schools, with very little opportunity to speak the language at home. Thus their
learning medium was instructional only. Their prior interaction or familiarity with these suffixes must have
been solely from their teachers and textbooks.
Where er is selected, it usually takes one of its two complementary meanings. Either it turns the verb into an
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agentive noun referring to a human (e.g. drive-driver) or it turns the verb into an instrumental noun referring
to an object (e.g. cook-cooker or compute-computer). Children did not show this understanding and all
derived 'computer' from 'compute' without realizing that noun took instrumental meaning instead of
agentive meaning.
Conclusion
This experimental study can be concluded by the fact that the most common strategy children use to drive
agent nouns from verbs is to add er ,-r or -or to the verb. This addition of an affix does not come on its own
but needs familiarity with the word and the affix on the part of the learner.
The result of the study reflects the way in which children think about these word categories and their
derivation. It also shows the general pattern of derivation and the effect of the frequency of the word on
derivation process. It also shows that children don't just memorize forms but also use their own hypothesis
to derive one form into another. This result can be implied in the pedagogy of English in the way that
children should be encouraged to recognize the root of the word and should be made to explore the nature
and insertion of affixes in the word.
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References
Katamba, F. (1993). Morphology. London: Macmilan
Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1993). An Introduction to language. USA : Harcourt Brace
Aronoff, M. & Kirsten F. (2005). What is morphology?.UK: Blackwell
Dixon, R. (2010). Basic Linguistic Theory. Vol 1 &2. New York: Oxford University Press.
Geeri,B. (2007). The Grammar of words: An introduction to morphology. New York : Oxford University press
Clark, E. (2001). Morphology in Language Acquisition: The Handbook of Morphology. Spencer, A., & Zwicky, M. (eds).
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Aronoff, M. & Anshen, F. (2001) Morphology and the lexicon: Lexicalization and productivity. TheHandbook of Morphology.
Spencer, A. and Arnold M. (eds). Blackwell Publishing, Blackwell Reference. Retrieved on 28 December 2007.
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Championing Indian TESOL Teachers in the Arabian Gulf
Mick King
Exeter University, UK
Abstract. This critical study problematises the plight of the TESOL teacher of Indian origin in the Arabian Gulf.
Working within a theoretical framework of Kachru's Three Circles Model, secondary research suggests that
these teachers are often marginalised from the more lucrative tertiary TESOL posts in the region in favour of
native speaker teachers even though the former are qualified, experienced and have a suitable English level for
higher education teaching. The study used qualitative open questionnaires to glean rich data from two Indian
teachers who had worked effectively in such posts as well as the deans who had employed them. All respondents
argued that employing teachers of Indian origin proved to be a boon to the institutions involved. On the other
hand, they all also recognised the continuing misconceptions that prevail in the region regarding the suitability
of such teachers for these posts. The findings aim to send a message of hope to TESOL teachers of Indian origin
that such Gulf-based posts are attainable. In addition, the study sends a message to TESOL employers in the Gulf
that preconceptions and prejudices regarding these teachers' suitability mean that institutions may be missing
out on talented, dedicated and skilled practitioners.
Keywords: Non-native, Kachru, world Englishes, EIL, linguistic imperialism, accent
Introduction
The rapid growth of many Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) economies has created a need for a knowledge
economy, which has led many tertiary institutions to use or adapt Western curricula in which English as a
medium of instruction (EMI) becomes the norm. As higher education (HE) students often have insufficient
English (IELTS Researchers, 2011), support courses are offered to help students close this language gap and
cope with the demands of EMI-based study (Moussly, 2010). This has created TESOL employment
opportunities predominantly for native English speaking teachers (NESTs). This critical study, framed
within the parameters of societal inequality, questions the perceived wisdom of employing NESTs over
non-native English speaking teachers (NNESTs) in the GCC by highlighting the particular plight of Indian
TESOL teachers. While research is emerging - albeit slowly - regarding the plight of the Arab TESOL
teacher in the Gulf (Syed, 2003), there is little or no evidence of the same for TESOL teachers of Indian
origin. One might question why such research is needed in the GCC context. My answer is threefold. First,
while Indian professionals find posts successfully in government and international companies (Pradhan,
2009), it is less likely to find Indian TESOL teachers in government and private international institutions.
Second, fluent English usage among Indian professionals is prevalent (Kachru in Lowenburg, 2000), so
qualified and experienced Indian TESOL teachers would appear to be suitable candidates for employment.
Finally, by teaching alongside such teachers I have observed first hand their effectiveness and work ethic as
well as the challenges they face at the recruitment stage and in the early stages of employment.
This study is significant in that it enters new ground by problematising the plight of Gulf-based Indian
TESOL teachers. Their situation is framed within the global context of Kachru's Three Circles model of
World Englishes (Kachru in Rajadurai, 2007), in which both the concept of English as an international
language (EIL) and the debate on linguistic imperialism are analysed, before focusing on the NEST Vs.
NNEST divide in the Gulf context as it applies to Indian TESOL teachers. The findings in this study are from
successful Indian HE TESOL teachers and the deans who chose to employ them. The aim of this study is to
send out three messages. First, these teachers can attain lucrative HE positions. Second, negative
stakeholder perceptions about the suitability of such teachers should be reconsidered. And third, further
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Gulf-based studies are needed in this still very embryonic field.
Indians in the Gulf
The number of Indians working in the Gulf is estimated at between 3 and 4.5 million (Pradhan, 2009; Indian
Diaspora, n.d.) and a growing number of Indian skilled professionals make up this ethnic group (Pradhan,
2009). Entrepreneurship is visible among the Indian communities in the region (Gour, n.d.) including the
establishment of private Indian curriculum schools which primarily serve the needs of the Indian
community (Indian Diaspora, n.d.). Despite the existence of discriminatory practices against unskilled
labour, including that from India (95 pc Indians, 2007), professional Indians are generally sheltered from
this, although company salary scales can be determined according to nationality with locals earning the
most followed by Westerners, Arabs and finally Asians (Salaries in Dubai, n.d.). While the salary gap for
Indian professionals may have closed in recent times due to competitive salaries in the home country
(Booming Indian economy, 2007), this is not reflected in education. Private Indian schools provide
employment opportunities but pay is usually the lowest in the sector (Sankar, 2010; Masudi, 2009). Given
these unfavourable circumstances, the best paid TESOL options for teachers are in international private
schools or in the government or international HE sector. These posts generally go to NESTs. However,
assuming that an Indian TESOL teacher is experienced, qualified and competent, one would need to
question why they might be overlooked.
The Case for Inclusion
Kachru's Three Circles Model of World Englishes (Kachru in Rajadurai, 2007) recognises English varieties
by grouping them thus: Inner Circle countries reflect those with mother tongue English; Outer Circle
countries are those where English holds official status alongside the native tongue; and finally Expanding
Circle countries are those where English is learned as a foreign language and used to interact with other nonnative speakers (Gupta, 2006). Phillipson (1992) refers to the Inner Circle as Core English countries while
the other circles comprise the Periphery. Considering that the ratio of non-native speakers of English to
native speakers is at least 4 to 1 (Kachru & Nelson in Dahan, 2007) it is clear that Periphery English is
dominant in English usage worldwide. India is considered an Outer Circle country and English is used both
inter- and intra-nationally (Dahan, 2007). The 1990s estimate of 60 million fluent users suggests that India
has the third largest population of English users in the world (Kachru in Lowenburg, 2000). English has
been appropriated in India to form a recognised variety known as Indian English (Rubdy & Saraceni, 2006a)
and the English language is perceived by younger generations in Indian society to be the language of
modernity (Crystal, 1997).
Kachru's model has been useful in giving credence to different English varieties, but its sense of national
boundaries may already be an anachronism as Inner Circle English is employed by an increasing number of
Outer Circle users (Rudby & Saraceni, 2006c) and McKay (2006) notes how Expanding Circle
governments, including those of the Gulf, formulate language policy to achieve Outer Circle status. While
moving to the centre may, for example, validate a NNEST's right to be judged alongside a NEST, other
commentators prefer to legitimise Periphery English varieties and question the ownership of English (see,
for example, Widdowson, 1994; Norton, 1997). However, McKay (2006) believes that in the Expanding
Circle a more pragmatic, acceptable approach to English usage, and therefore learning, might be English as
an International Language (EIL).
EIL transcends native varieties by providing a lingua franca for international communication, thereby
sidestepping the need for an Inner Circle English standard. Perhaps its major advantage is its inclusivity and
ability to transcend borders, cultures and ethnicities. The belief that EIL is as monolithic as current Inner
Circle English is a misconception according to Seidlhofer (2006), as it shows awareness of other varieties
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including Inner Circle English (Promodoru, 2006), and allows for non-native speaker accents thereby
liberating all its users from Inner Circle constraints (McKay, 2006). With the HE sector increasingly using
EMI in the Outer and Expanding Circles, McKay (2006) and Crystal (1997) both suggest that EIL would be
a logical way forward in the education sector.
The Case for Exclusion
Following the tenets of World Englishes and EIL it would be acceptable for an Outer Circle Indian TESOL
teacher to give instruction to Expanding Circle users from the Gulf. So why is that not the case? The main
reason is how the global dominance of Inner Circle English is perpetuated in the Gulf. Linguistic
Imperialism (LI) refers to how language is used as an instrument of control by some countries over others
(Phillipson, 1992). Ahmed (2010) alludes to its neo-colonial underpinnings while Rudby and Saraceni
th
(2006b) traces its seamless transition from being the language of the global marketplace in the 20 century
to the language of the information-based economy in the 21st, thereby perpetuating a sense of superiority
that 'others' native cultures in the process (Holliday, 2005). As the status quo is often uncontested, languagebased discrimination prevails (Jenkins, 2007) so despite the appropriation of the 'norm' in the form of World
Englishes, these are often benchmarked unfavourably against the Inner Circle variety (McKay, 2006).
EMI includes an existing framework and materials and can afford its users a language which is still the
international standard for communication (Kirkpatrick, 2006). However, it is also a key area in enforcing
neo-colonial and neo-liberal Inner Circle values as access to HE is often determined by Inner Circle English
assessment (McKay, 2006). Governments fearful of Anglo-American values invading their culture still
desire Western education models (Kirkpatrick, 2006). This desire for Western curricula is a boon for the
Western education industry and TESOL's global role in this is one of complicity. At the level of research,
Jenkins (2007) indicates that professional journals defer to native speaker researchers. Kumaravadivelu
(2006) argues that the Periphery elite in TESOL “surrenders its voice and vision to the centre [and] by their
uncritical acceptance of the native speaker dominance, non-native professionals legitimise their own
marginalisation” (p.22). Kumaravadivelu is particularly damning in his appraisal of this issue of
marginalisation and argues that the industry brings “...to the fore the coloniality, rather than the globality, of
the English language [and casts] a long, hegemonic shadow over the activity of TESOL” (p.22). However,
he senses that the TESOL Core has started to take a critical stance. Central to that stance is the
problematizing of the NEST vs. NNEST debate, which is integral to the context of the Indian TESOL
teacher in the GCC.
It is generally accepted that NESTs hold a privileged position in TESOL (Holliday, 2005), Where learners
have choice, NESTs are good for business, given the perceptions of prestige that learners associate with
them. But how does one define a NEST? Holliday (2005) posits that few teachers, regardless of their NES or
NNES status, will use English perfectly. McKay (2006) accepts that a NEST has the edge in accent and
nuance but it is questionable whether either is essential in HE English teaching. The native speaker fallacy
(Phillipson, 1992) assumes that the goal of language learning is native speaker competence. While
Skutnabb-Kangas (2000) shows evidence from Norway, the Netherlands and Hungary of effective
language policy which ignored the Western-driven tenets of NEST dependency, Canagarajah (1999)
suggests that, in general, Periphery education perpetuates this fallacy. Prejudice against NNESTs is not new.
Meydges (n.d.) believes that though informed debate in the 1980s and 1990s supported NNESTs, in current
times this debate has dissipated. Hence, today NNESTs still find their ability questioned and fall prey to the
native speaker fallacy themselves (Promodoru, 2006); especially regarding accent. Kennetz, van den
Hoven and Parkman (2011) sees accent as a loaded social and economic construct in TESOL which leads
NNESTs to try and adopt a native speaker variety. The irony of this is that any teacher, regardless of their
accent, will probably modify it to be understood by language learners (Gupta, 2006).
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In spite of the negative perceptions of NNESTs, research also extols their virtues. McKennetz et al (2011)
suggests that due to the present-day multicultural make-up of students, cultural identities of teachers are
also recognised and respected, with Braine (2005) positing that students become more tolerant of NNESTs
the longer they are taught by them. McKay (2006) highlights their ability to support students as they were L2
learners themselves and finally, Braine (2005) cites the increased acceptance and legitimacy of their
research in respected journals. Holliday suggests that NNESTs should enhance their image by pursuing
further studies so that the 'them and us' divide is rendered obsolete in favour of a universal standard of what
Rampton (in Hadley, 2006:35) calls the “expert teacher” In a similar vein, Liu (1999) supports basing
quality in TESOL teaching on skills rather than language variety. This appears to be the noble way forward
but would it be accepted in the Gulf context?
English is considered the lingua franca of the Gulf (Zughoul, 2003) due to the large number of expatriates,
who, for example, make up more than 80% of the UAE population. Some regional governments have
championed its use (Syed, 2003) as the link to modernity and progress, with EMI as an integral part of HE
language policy (Ahmed, 2010) and NESTs the preferred option for pre-sessional English access courses
(Hourani, Diallo & Said, 2011). Local students buy into the native speaker fallacy (Findlow, 2006) despite
the likelihood that they will use English predominantly with other non-native speakers (Dahan, 2007). One
reason to support the fallacy is students' aversion to unfamiliar accents (ibid.). However, research suggests
that within professional circles it is difficult to distinguish accents based on audio recordings. A study by
Kennetz et al. (2011) into student preferences on accents provided revealing outcomes. First, students were
asked to give an order of preference on six listed accents taken from a spread of Kachru's Circles. The UK
accents ranked highest with the South Asia accent last. Then students listened to a standard text being read
by professionals from the six regions and were asked to rank them on preference. The UK accent came last
while the South Asian accent came second. A similar study by Jenkins (2007), this time conducted among
NNESTs, also suggested an initial native speaker fallacy that was not borne out once accents had been
listened to and rated.
What the literature indicates is that despite the many challenges faced by Indian TESOL teachers, there are
strong arguments for supporting their employment in HE in GCC countries, given their educational
background, their comfortable use of the language, and the way English is used in the region. There is even
evidence that the issue of accent is based on misconceptions embedded within the native speaker fallacy.
However, the fact that regional linguistic imperialism appears to be sustained calls for the need to
problematise the plight of the TESOL teacher of Indian origin in the Gulf in the context of higher education,
highlighted by the lack of research into the position of NNESTs in the Gulf in general, and specifically the
population in the context of this study.
Methodology
This study is paradigmatically positioned within a critical framework which aims to raise awareness of the
inequalities that exist in society (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007). It assumed that while the population
may have been aware of inequalities within the TESOL profession it may not have been aware that this
inequality had been successfully challenged. The study aimed to investigate the following research
questions:


What are the perspectives of Indian TESOL teachers who secured employment and operated
Effectively in HE Gulf settings?
What are the perspectives of academic deans who chose to recruit and retain such teachers?
The perspectives alluded to comprise coping strategies when faced with discrimination as well as views on
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linguistic imperialism, the native speaker fallacy and the likelihood that perceptions towards Indian TESOL
teachers will change. The research design followed a qualitative approach. Semi-structured open
questionnaires were designed to give respondents the opportunity to answer freely (Dörnyei, 2003). A
potential plus of this method was that respondents could answer at length if they wished. A downside was the
inability to probe answers in real time. This was addressed by returning questionnaires to respondents to
clarify their answers. Working within a critical framework the sample was small, purposive and sought rich,
multi-layered data to highlight the key issues in detail (Wiersma & Jurs, 2005). The sample consisted of two
TESOL teachers and two deans. The deans are referred to as Martin and Charles. Both are from Expanding
Circle countries and had at least 5 years' experience managing in HE. The two teachers are referred to as
Chandni and Trisha. Both had completed post-graduate study and had taught for a minimum of 36 years, at
least 10 years of which were in the GCC HE sector.
Collected data were analysed under a priori categories in line with the research framework. Given the
sensitive nature of the subject, due care was taken to protect the anonymity of respondents and the research
design ensured that the researcher, the respondents or any specific organisation were not compromised in
any way. While this limited the pursuit of a critical agenda, ethical considerations took precedence. While
recognising that semi-structured interviews would have enhanced the richness and depth of data (Richards,
2003), the method chosen was guided principally on pragmatic grounds as respondents were all living
outside the region at the time of the research. All respondents were my former colleagues. The reflexive
nature of the relationship could have potentially affected responses (Holliday, 2002); however, in the
context of the aims of the study I deemed this relationship to be appropriate. Outside of these challenges and
limitations, every effort was made to add rigour and robustness to the research.
Results and Discussion
The synthesised results of this study are grouped according to the theoretical framework; namely, views on
discrimination, linguistic imperialism, the native speaker fallacy and the likelihood of changes in
perceptions. All quotations are produced as written in questionnaire responses.
Discrimination
All respondents mentioned the Indian Diaspora's important contributions to the Gulf States. All indicated
that Indians were hard-working and success-driven. All recognised that there was discrimination against
unskilled Indians with Chandni and Charles suggesting that it was also evident at the skilled level, as
reported by Salama (2005). For example, Charles referred to a business meeting between himself, his Indian
superior and a customs official where the official ignored seniority and conversed only with Charles. Martin
expressed the view that despite less discrimination against professionals, their zone of tolerance would
make them more sensitive to it. Despite this view, the other respondents all felt that skilled Indians were
better treated. Trisha felt this was “because they are able to….quit if not treated decently”; especially as
similar or better employment packages are available in India (Booming Indian economy, 2007).
Respondents held similar views once questions focused on TESOL in HE. Respondents all referred to
stakeholders' preference for native speaker teachers; with Trisha and Martin suggesting that Indian teachers
were acceptable but only if NESTs were not available. Chandni expressed her piqué by citing how she was
rejected for a post in preference to a Core country teacher with just three years' experience. She continued
that she often felt her professionalism was not respected. Both deans showed their determination to ensure
equal conditions for all staff and to recruit based on experience and ability. Charles spoke of how he had to
fight to ensure that an Indian recruit received the same salary as Western staff. Martin held particularly
strong views on this: “I continued in persevering to pay equal wages for all and hiring based on qualities, in
the tough discussions with the board of the university I never gave in”. For Indian TESOL teachers,
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therefore, it appears that discrimination exists. However, there is also evidence that with the right people in
decision-making positions, it is possible for this discrimination to be questioned and challenged.
Linguistic Imperialism
Regarding the current status of English in India both teachers alluded to the use of EMI in education and the
gradual preference for General American English as opposed to a British standard. In accordance with
Kirkpatrick (2006), Chandni was not against EMI in India; on the contrary, she felt “...we definitely have an
edge over many other nationalities when it comes to global communication”. However, following the views
of Widdowson (1994) and others, she was not in favour of Inner Circle dominance: “I personally feel that
any language is no one's monopoly…I strongly believe that for a world language we cannot set a standard
with [Core varieties]”. In line with the beliefs of McKay (2006), she added that a global English variety in
the vein of EIL was the way forward for India. When asked to describe their personal English speaking
status, Trisha considered herself an “English speaker” which she defined as having the vocabulary and
grammar of a native speaker with Indian accent and pronunciation while Chandni described herself as a
'native English speaker' as English was embedded in Indian history. When the deans were asked how they
would define English speaking Indians, Charles answered “non-native speakers” while Martin opted for
“native speakers” though accepted that this was a view that would probably not be shared by others. This
'confusion' of definitions indicates that Kachru's Circles are maybe not as clear-cut as they seem. So,
responses indicate that despite personal views, the dominance of Core English is generally seen as a fait
accompli though confused terminology suggests that distinctions between varieties are becoming blurred.
The NEST Vs NNEST Debate
In considering the native speaker fallacy, Martin agreed with the proposition of McKay (2006) that
employing a NNEST was a better option “...because they have experienced themselves the
hardship/difficulties/ways to be able to speak another language at an acceptable level and as such are 'more'
equipped to help others”. This view was mirrored by Chandni who believed that NNESTs “...can relate to
[students'] situations much better”. The blame for the continued domination of Core English was directed at
both the Core and the Periphery. Chandi noted how English teaching has been monopolized by Core
countries and continued that Core country government agencies were complicit in this. Trisha, following
Kumaravadivelu (2006), accused Expanding Circle language policy-makers of complicity, which Martin
recognised as well, stating they follow “...blindly the traditional approach based upon decision making of
(quite often second ranked) [Core country] educated officials”.
The question of accent provoked quite lengthy reactions. All agreed that Indian teachers are often rejected
for TESOL posts due to perceptions of accent before even being heard. Charles felt that “It does not feel
right. Any non-native English speaker will have some kind of accent. That is only normal. No reason to
reject a person”. Chandni recognised that it was one of the main reasons for rejection while Martin believed
that this negativity towards Periphery accents was fuelled by the widespread access to Inner Circle media
sources. When asked how important accent was to teach English in HE, Charles felt that a native speaker
was preferable, Martin reiterated his preference for NNESTs while both Chandni and Trisha felt there was
no need to differentiate between NESTs and NNESTs at the tertiary level. Trisha opined that “[A native
speaker accent] is required [only] during the formative years of the student”. In addition to this, Chandni
stated that “...the language and communication skills to be taught and learnt [in HE] are necessary for the
world at large and need to be more multicultural and multilingual”. This concurs with the views of Liu
(1999) among others that propose a focus on teaching rather than native speaker status. Despite this Chandni
indicated that in her experience “It really is an uphill task to make students aware of the different
dialects/usages that are prevalent”. Martin felt this was because “In the Gulf nationals/governments/parents
thrive on status/native speakers/US-UK is best”.
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Summing up, the continued preference for NESTs is undeniable in the Gulf although there is recognition
that NNESTs may in fact be more suitable to teach local students. However, presumptions about accents
complicate the position of Indian TESOL teachers despite research evidence that their accent may actually
be more understandable for learners in the region.
Changing Perceptions?
When asked what needed to change to improve the position of Gulf-based Indian TESOL teachers, both
Trisha and Chandni called on regional educational institutions to be open-minded about their skills and
abilities. Martin echoed these views but also suggested that teachers themselves should be more proactive in
pushing for better conditions. When asked when they thought changes were likely to happen, Trisha was
unable to predict, Chandni believed in a slow and steady change while Martin cited affirmative action for
local recruitment, a media-fuelled preference for Inner Circle English and a thirst for status as major longterm obstacles to changing the status quo. This negativity emphasises the fact that despite all the evidence
that promotes the suitability of Indian TESOL teachers, the Inner Circle status quo is so strong that changing
perceptions in the short term are unlikely to happen.
Conclusion
Questionnaire responses show that the possibility of securing employment in the more lucrative HE TESOL
posts in the Gulf region can be a reality for Indian TESOL teachers. However, recruiters are needed who see
the value of employing such teachers and are willing to challenge embedded views on their suitability. The
literature and respondent views give ample evidence that if such teachers are allowed to show their worth,
there is no reason why they will not succeed. Though in the short-term the likelihood of this is small, only by
bringing the debate to the table and problematising the issue, can there be any hope that stakeholders in
TESOL education may start to rethink recruitment policy. This study is a small step in raising the issue but
hopefully has achieved its aims of sending out three messages. First, Indian TESOL teachers can attain
lucrative posts in the Gulf despite the challenges. Second, decision-makers should be aware that prejudging these teachers may mean missing out on excellent employees. Finally, more regional research is
needed in the field of defining effective TESOL teaching in HE, which should aim to move the discussion
away from the NEST vs. NNEST debate and onto abilities and skills. In an ideal world, if the borders of
Kachru's Circles continue to become less demarcated, maybe the acronyms that accompany the native
speaker fallacy will no longer be relevant.
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Exploring L1 mediated Lexical searches:
Emerging Evidence from Beginner level Collaborative Writing
Prof. Sathuvalli Mohanraj 1 and Uma Maheshwari Chimirala2
Professor, The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad
2
Research Student,The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad
1
Abstract: The use of L1 in lexical searches while writing in L2 is often investigated from one of the three perspectives:
the SLA perspective or the Sociocultural perspective or the writing process perspective but, in doing so the processes
through which the L1navigates the access to L2 lexical choices and how it creates opportunities for further learning
are left unexplored. This on-going study explores the nature of L1 mediated lexical searches in L2 collaborative
writing by beginner level writers. 24 class VIII beginner level writers from a Zillah Parishad High School were paired
on the basis of their existing writing capabilities using objective linguistic and semantic parameters and placed in one
of the pairing conventions namely, Good in L1 and L2 (PC1); Good in L1 but satisfactory in L2 (PC2), Good in L2 but
satisfactory in L1 (PC3) and satisfactory in L1 and L2 (PC4). The qualitative analysis of their collaborative dialogue
suggests that dyad draw strategically on their L1 to mitigate the lexical difficulties. The study finds that the use of L1
in collaborative writing created opportunities for strategic learning that include procedural and conditional support.
This paper presents the preliminary findings of the processes through which the dyads accessed L2 lexical items.
Keywords: Beginner level Collaborative writing, L1 in L2 Lexical search episodes, Collaborative dialogue,
cognitive apprenticeship.
Introduction: Situating Word Searches in the L2 Writing Research
Research in Second Language Writing has conscientiously found that writing for a bi/multilingual is a
bi/multilingual activity where the 'other' languages that the learners possesses in their repertoire are
activated and in myriad ways support and contribute to the complex thinking processes involved in 'L2
writing' (Grosjean 1989, Cook 2001; Cummins 2007). Findings report that the use of L1 in L2 writing
occurs across proficiency levels (Qi 1998, Wang and Wen 2003), writing abilities (Schoonen et al., 2003;
Pennington and So 1993), varying extents of prior writing instruction in L1 and/ or L2 (Kobayashi and
Rinnert 2008, 2009), varying periods of 'naturalistic' exposure to L2 in countries where L2 is spoken as the
L1 (Sasaki, 2004, 2009) and varying levels of task complexity (Wang 2002; Qi 1998, Murphy et al., 2010).
Research speculates that this switch to the L1 is the outcome of a nexus of variables that involve writerbased, task-based and the language capability-based variables.
One of the major purposes for which the L1 is invariably drawn is word searches. A word search is any
effort/process to access or retrieve a word or string of words (Sinclair 2004) in order to encapsulate the
intended meaning. Woodall (2002) and Murphy and Roca De Larios (2010) find that their advanced level
writers mitigated lexical searches in the L1. With beginner level writers, lack of automaticity in lexical
access and availability can only exacerbate the difficulties experienced while writing. Our learners come
with a major resource: a heuristic, cognitive, semiotic, linguistic and an experiential tool the L1, a tool that
is relegated as a hindrance or interference, let alone acknowledged and valued in the pedagogic space.
Nevertheless, learners use it “surreptitiously” as a problem solving tool. The next section reviews the use of
L1 from three perspectives.
Reviewing word Searches: L1 use in L2 writing processes
In one of the most widely quoted monographs, Roca de Larios et al., (1996) investigated the lexical
difficulties that beginner and intermediate EFL learners face. They report 4 major types of problems:
accessing the relevant lexical item to represent the intended meaning (P1); access the relevant lexical item
for an idea already generated in the L1(P2); access a lexical item that will upgrade an already generated
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lexical item (P3) and express appropriacy and correctness doubts on lexical options already available (P4).
Given the nature of L2 writing as a slow, laborious and complex activity that involves simultaneous
deployment and dispersion of resources along multiple dimensions (Robinson 2001), word problems exist
at every stage of L2 writing, While planning, access to words is mandatory both as a guiding outline and as
text representing the thought (Hayes and Nash, 1996). Transcription involves the conversion of the ideas
from symbolic forms to linguistic representation and a relative degree of automaticity in word access and its
graphical representation averts cognitive overloading (Berninger 2003) and allows for cognitive
deployment of resources to other demands of writing ( Robinson, 2001). Investigations of revision
behaviour between L1 writing and L2 writing (Whalen and Menard 1995) and L2 revision (Porte 1996,
Stevenson, Schoonen and De Goppler 2006) shows that most revisions are done at the word level and that
these changes are mediated by a 'dissonance' between the intended meaning and the represented meaning
(Hayes 1996) on the lines of word form or semantic value or use (Ferris 2002).
L1 in L2 Collaborative Writing
Studies from this analytical perspective draw on one of the most enigmatic tenets of Sociocultural Theory
namely the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). ZPD is the site where the social and the cognition
interact to augment cognitive processes of higher level thinking (Rogoff 2003). The cognitive engagement
and the microgenetic interactions that ensue in a joint activity have the potential to mediate learning and
transform thought processes. Through this perspective “language is a psychological tool that mediates the
appropriation of the higher mental capacities” (Gutierrez, 2000) and the L1 becomes a prime semiotic tool
and mediational tool. The use of L1 while engaged in task execution serves two immediate functions: task
accomplishment and self regulation for task navigation on the affective and cognitive plane, while at the
same time it goes beyond the existing activity to augment and nurture cognitive capabilities (Rogoff 1990,
2003). However, one finds that the empirical focus of analysis of interactions has been theoretically
substantiated and examined using two perspectives of learning: One, using tenets of Sociocultural Theory
(SCT) where the use of L1 in collaborative interactions is seen as a semiotic tool that mediates cognitive
capabilities and is operationalised as the Private Verbal Thinking (PVT). Two, from a Second Language
Acquisition (SLA) perspective where using L1 in collaborative interactions is analysed as in terms of
specific feature of the syntactic system of the second language being acquired via the use of L1 as Language
Related Episodes (LREs). We briefly review both the analytical modalities.
L1 in L2 writing: the SLA Orientation to Word searches
SLA orientation sees the use of L1 as a means to acquire linguistic features of a language. Correspondingly,
the focus of empirical investigation is either 'how much L1 is used' or the acquisition of specific L2
linguistic features or both through the analytical unit of Language Related Episode which Swain and Lapkin
(1998: 326) “as any part of the dialogue where the students talk about the language they are producing,
questioning their language use, or correct themselves or others”. In that order, empirical enquiry regarding
L1 use and its relationship between proficiency levels, task types and LREs has dominated this analytical
orientation. Empirical studies have investigated whether the use of L1 in collaboration initiates LREs
(Swain and Lapkin 2000); which task types trigger the most LREs (Swain and Lapkin, 1998); impact of task
complexity on the nature of LREs (De Collina and Mayo (2009); Storch and Aldosari 2010) and type of
LREs (Abadikhah, 2011).
Storch and Wigglesworth (2007) contend that the nature of the task decides the type of LREs generated.
Their investigation of the collaborative dialogue generated by their advanced level post graduates writing
on two tasks: an argumentative task and a narrative tasks, has interesting findings. The argumentative task
generated 52.4% of total lexical LREs where as the narrative task generated 41.6% of form based LREs
indicating that task complexity and word searches could be correlated. This finding was reported by Storch
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and Aldosari (2010) who report that up to 46% of L1 use is directed towards lexical searches. Text
reconstruction task rather than text construction task triggers more LREs and this difference is attributed
due to the very nature of the two tasks..
Extensive research in this direction has resulted in a fine-tuned taxonomy of LREs. From this perspective,
word searches have been perceived as a major difficulty and so have received considerable attention from
the learners. However, the narrow focus of analysis with the nature of talk restricted to just LREs
undermines its capability in creating further learning opportunities that aid in augmenting L2 writing
capability. In this analytical orientation, the focus has been on how the L1 augments linguistic and
metalinguistic features. A word search is seen as a a linguistic component or a spelling focuses or as meaning
focus and learning as acquiring that system since the focus is operationalised as LREs.
L1 in L2 Collaborative Writing: the Sociocultural Orientation to Word Searches
This theoretical orientation has engaged with the problem solving Private Speech (PS) in L1 that occurs
during a collaborative task as it is seen as an evidence of the higher psychological processes. Addressing a
fundamental question of what the source of L2 problem solving speech is, Ushakova argues that learning an
L2 is “primarily consisting of incorporating and plugging the newly established structures into the ones
already worked out earlier, as well as in employing already existing verbal skills” and that it is “looking into
the windows cut out by the first language” (1994: 134).
Research finds that through the use of L1 (English) the third-year-high-school learners established a shared
understanding of the task, set task goals and commented on their L2 use (Brooks and Donato, 1994); the
learners as capable of supporting their learning processes De Guerrero and Villamil, 2000); learners can
simultaneously be experts and novices (Dalute and Dalton, 1988); that the problem solving nature of the talk
is bidirectional (Wells 1998) and that the L1 was deployed at the inter-psychological function level to create
scaffolds for successful completion of the task, for metalinguistic evaluation of a word and its meaning in
context (Anton and De Camilla, 1998). Anton and De Camillia (1998) contend that the use of L1 “triggers a
semantic analysis and a related lexical search, a communicative strategy that leads the learners to jointly
access the L2 forms that are available to them and are sufficient for the task” (p. 323) and that “the use of L1
externalises one's inner voice and channelizes one's mental activity and thus realize their levels of potential
development” (320).
Centeno-Cortes and Jimenez Jimenez (2004) question if the nature of L1 use in would vary with task
difficulty and L2 proficiency levels. The qualitative analysis of the talk showed variations across the
proficiency levels and the tasks. The authors conclude that L2 language proficiency along with the nature of
the task influences the production of L1 private speech and that cognitive load experienced by the
participants is managed by a shift to the L1 and that the L1 acts as the tool for thought. This view positions
the use of L1 in interactions as a productive mode of augmenting learning. If learning is the aim of all
transactions then interactions initiated in the L1 becomes a “powerful opportunity” for learning (1998: 349350). We contend that the porosity of social exchanges that are public, also serve private means of arriving at
linguistic and/ or affective and/ or regulatory purposes through the use of a “language of thought to
appropriate the language of the task”.
Across the three sets of reviews the L1 is either seen as a deficiency strategy or as a mediator for acquiring
L2 linguistic features or as a problem solving semiotic tool. What is obviously missing is how the use of L1
navigated and mitigated a word search especially by a beginner level writer. This study is an attempt to
explore the same. We operationalise this gap in the following question:
How does the L1 navigate and mitigate the L2 lexical searches in beginner level writers?
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Method and Procedures
This study is a part of our doctoral research. Therefore the data analysed here forms a part of a larger body of
data collected for our doctoral study. In the wider study, 24 participants wrote 3 tasks in L2 as pairs. Their
talk was recorded and transcribed. The present study draws on the lexical searches that the participants
engaged in while writing.
Design and Participants
24 Class VIII participants from a government-run Zillah Parishad High School participated in the study.
These students have had no writing instruction in the classroom space and all the writing that the
participants do is either copied from the black board or from the guides.
The participants were paired into four pairing conventions based on their existing writing capabilities in
their L1 and L2 as Good in L1 and L2 (PC1); Good in L1 but satisfactory in L2 (PC2), Good in L2 but
satisfactory in L1 (PC3) and satisfactory in L1 and L2 (PC4). To do so the writers individually attempted
two sets of writing assessment tasks in L1 and L2. The written texts were analysed using prior identified
linguistic parameters pertaining to accuracy, fluency and complexity limits pertaining to beginner level
writers. Based on the information generated from the text analysis the participants were paired as mentioned
above. This pairing was triangulated using semantic parameters, the scores on the school test and teachers'
opinions.
Data collection and Analysis Procedures:
The instruments used in this study were three collaborative writing tasks of increasing cognitive
complexity. No modelling of the collaboration was done so that any influence of specific focus of talk could
be ruled out. Similarly instructions to the writers were given in the L1 and no trial run was done. The
participants were given 35 minutes to write each task but many a pair exceeded the time limit. The talk
generated while collaborating on the three tasks was recorded and transcribed. In order to avoid laboratory
and artificial settings of study, all the 12 pairs were recorded at the same time in the classroom.
For the larger study, we adopted a mixed-method approach to examining the data so that both quantitative
and qualitative analysis was possible. Our coding procedures accommodated the cognitive problem solving
nature of the collaborative talk and simultaneously allowed for the effect of the social on the nature of
problem solving to be perceivable. So the entire text production process was seen as one large episode with
smaller and more focused episodes nested in it. Once the coding categories were identified, we adopted the
onion-ring model of analysis where the collaborative dialogue was analysed in three inclusive levels of
complexity. The first level analysed the broader composing episodes: Cognitive Episodes, Transcription
Related Episodes and Socio Affective Episodes. The second level looked for smaller and more focused
episodes nested in each of the broader episodes identified in the first level of analysis. The third level is the
microgenetic moment-by-moment analysis of each of the smaller episodes in order to explore the variances
in the nature of help the L1 provided. All incidents of word searches which include accessing words and
word choice interactions were included in this analysis. Each word search was considered to be a single unit
regardless of the number of internal steps involved. Those word searches that resulted in a 'solution' were
qualitatively analysed. Search attempts abandoned or postponed are not a part of the qualitative analysis of
this study. We use data from the third level of analysis to address the research question in this paper.
Analysis and Discussion:
Our objective is to examine the pedagogic support that L1 lends the lexical search if there could be a
qualitative difference in how the L1 is used across the PCs for problem solving lexical searches, we
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identified critical episodes for each PC in order to glean out how the L1was used in mitigating the problem.
Based on the sequence of how the L1 was drawn upon to mitigate the word search, we identified 4 patterns.
Excerpt 1: L1 Lexical Generation - Translated L2 word generation - Back Translation and Evaluation Sequence:
1. S: … there are (2) .. vankara tinkara ni english lo emiantaroo? (what do we say twisted/
crooked as In
English?)
2. R: up and down aaa? (is it up and down?)
3. S: kindha meeda kaadu. Vankaratinkara (No it is not up and down. Crooked?
4. R: vankaraaaa? (Is it cross?)
5: S: plants are.. grow… crossaaa? (do we say plants grow cross?) Ok. Lets write Plants are
growing crossly…(both of them giggle) …(PC1p11T3L2)
Lally (2000) and Wang and Wen (2003) suggest that one of the primary purposes for using the mother
tongue is to generate idea units or chunk of expressions. These ideas have to be converted into the L2 and
depending on a host of factors the transcription can be a fairly automatic process to a laborious one. Across
the excerpts a common feature is that the learners mediate the processes in their L1. Excerpt 1 begins with S
generating a pre-text. The structure of the idea is already decided but she brings in her L1 to ask what an
equivalent for the word 'vankara-tinkara' could be. S generated a term in L1 and the pair began looking for
equivalents in L2. R proposes 'up and down' which S rejects. Back-translating into L1 for evaluating its
meaning against the intended meaning in the pre-text is a strategy that Murphy et al., (2010) advanced
learners exhibit. R now generates another word 'cross' which S now uses in the pre-text to check for
suitability, accepts the word and frames the text. Notice that both the girls giggle after they have decided to
use the word. It is possible that the girls are aware that the term used may not be completely appropriate but
they nevertheless accept it. As Whalen and Menard (1995) report that the aptness of the term in L1 is not
often reflected in their translated choices.
This pair has used their L1 strategically after generating the term in L1- accessed the assumed L2
equivalents, back-translated to evaluate appropriateness and then make decisions to either use or discard.
Recall that PC1 is considered to be good in both the languages. A term identified in the L1 triggered memory
searches in the L2. It should also be noticed that the semantic equivalency is the focus here and the L2 terms
that were generated did pertain to that condition. Also notice that a solution was arrived at in 5 turns
indicating that the word search was fairly automatic.
Excerpt 2: L1 Word Generation- L1 Synonym Generation corresponding- L2 Synonym Equivalent Generation-Back Translating
Evaluation Sequence.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
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P: There are two suns.
S: two suns are.. nizam gaa untadaa? (can there really be two suns?).
P: rayi raa (please write.. two suns .. (5-10)
S: udayisthunnadu (dawn)…
P; ante? English lo anti? teacher ni adugu..(What? How do we say in English? Let's ask the teacher).
S: No. (voddu..udayisthunnaduuu…ante english lo enti)..Sumitra Dawn…how do we say it in English?
Sumitra (calls another pair close by for help but continues to work on the problem)…. paiki vasthunnadu aa?
(Can it be coming up?)
P: podhu yekkindhi ani (It has dawned).
S: kaani adhi english lo kashtam… sun is coming anochu ( But how will we say that in English? It is
difficult. We can say the Sun is coming.)
P: Sun is climbing….. anochuu…ahaan adi yekkadam. Idi rising raa! (we can say climbing up. No. that is
climbing. It is rising!) There are…. two suns are
S: two suns are…
P; s-u-n-s are … rising aa? Come out aa? to come out ani rayi (Is it rising or to come out? Write to come
out).
S: : aaa? Come out aa? Voddu..rising (What? To come out? No! Let's use rising!)
PC2p23T2L2.
This episode begins after the content has been decided. Through lines 1 to 4, S asks whether there can in
reality ever be two suns, to which P chooses not to answer. He implores S to continue to write. S generates
the L1 term which in L2 would be 'dawn'. In the next set of interactions S and P suggest they seek help from
others but do not do so and continue to work on their own. In lines 6, 7, 8 and 9 P and S come out with
alternative synonymous words in L1 and then look for their semantic equivalents in L2. Terms like dawn,
coming, climbing, rising and coming out (near equivalents of the L1 terms) were evaluated in terms of
difficulty in getting an L2 equivalent and in terms of appropriacy. In line 9, P probably translates 'yekkindhi'
a phrase he retrieved from line 8, back translates, evaluates for appropriacy and rejects the word. He
generates 'rising' which is accepted by S who begins to transcribe. In line 11, P is not sure of his word and
suggests coming but S decides to use 'rising'.
Cognitively this episode can be considered to be complex owing to the fact that alternative synonym
generation of lexicals happened in L1 and against each of them an L2 equivalent was explored. Like PC1,
back translation was used as an evaluatory tool to check for appropriacy in terms of their intended meaning.
This interesting episode shows that a larger repertoire of word knowledge in the L1 can surreptiously and at
times overtly aid in semantically equating L2 words and help in making conceptual links (Ushakova 1990;
Jarvis and Pavlenkov 2007). Additionally, the learners have strategically used their L1 as a cognitive tool for
'solution focus'. Generating alternative synonyms in L1 and trying to access their respective individual
equivalents in L2, juggling with and between languages for lexicals and evaluating the language generated
with the meaning appropriacy in focus are indicative of and tap further the cognitive divergence and
capabilities of a bi/ multilingual. It appears that availability of a richer L1 word knowledge and
correspondingly accessibility can trigger word searches in the long term memory and can link word
knowledge in other languages.
Excerpt 3: L1 Generation - L2 Synonym Generation- Semantic Evaluation Sequence
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1. B: but manam alla pattukommu (we don't hold babies like that) our people….
ethokovadam ni emi antaaru.. amma pillalni emi antaaru? (What do you say 'hold/carry'? ….
Mother child… what do you say that?)
2. N: catch.. pattuko..catch raa (Catch ..it is catch).
3. B: : arey cricket kaadu raa….pillalu..lift aa? aahan… ethukovadam…(This is not cricket…
children…is it lift? No… 'hold') our planet people ethukovadam (hold/carry) their children.
4.
N: carry.. moyyadam raa adhi (it is 'carry').
5. B: ledu anthey (No! that's it). carry children,.. babies.. PC3p32T2L2
In line 1 B generates both a content idea unit and a lexical term. He triggers N's thought processes by
questioning what 'pattukovadam' would be in English. The term triggers a memory search and the word
'catch' is seen as suitable for the context. However, B locates the word in the context of the game cricket and
says that their text is not about cricket. He goes on to transcribe the content unit into a pretext with just that
word in L1. Probably the utterance of the entire pre-text generates the word 'carry'. B rejects it initially,
remains silent for about 5 seconds, decides to go ahead with the word 'carry' and evaluates it using it in the
pre-text.
Notice that there is no obvious back translation but there seems to be conceptual; evaluation in place for
rejecting L2 alternative 'catch' which is a term that supposedly exists in the conceptual domain of cricket and
not in child-care. Again it can be speculated that the periods of silence (indicated by three or more dots) are
periods where there is a lot of sub-vocal thought processing happening which neither the recording
instruments nor our methodology could capture. The “No!” as a decisive evaluation of 'carry' and the period
of silence after which he decides to use 'carry', are suggestive of an internal evaluatory dialogue which is
highly solution focused. L1 is used as a conceptual evaluatory device.
Excerpt 4: Cross Pair Talk- Word to Word Evaluation Sequence.
1. D: K 22 B lo…
2. R: in.. in pettali (You must use IN). . in K 22 B in..
3. D; manam rassaamu two suns akada rendu suryudlu vunntaayi (we have written that
there are two suns here ) there are two suns are there…
4. R: there are two suns that is all.
5. D: and three moons are there…
6. R: it is are.
7. D: ahan idi idi kalipi oke saari.. rendu suryulu vunnayi (no! let us connect these two and
write that two suns and three moons are there.) Aa?
8. R: three moons… okesarri vasthayi … okesari ante.. one time..here aa? Kavitha okesaari
ante ente?(are present/seen at a time …what does 'at a time' mean? Does it mean they
are here at one time? Kavitha what does ' at a time' mean?
9. D: vallu ade raasthunnaru (I think they are also writing the same point.)
10. R: krishnaveni…
11. D: okesaari ante enti? (What does 'at a time mean?)
12. Krishnaveni: sentence cheppu (tell me the sentence first. Sentence).
13. D: sun moon oke saari kanipisthay ani..(we can see the sun and the moon at the same
time.)
14. Kavitha: o one time..
15. Krishna: same time..
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16. D: correct. Same time… oke time lo (at one ) time oke saari vasthayi (..Lets write they
come at the same time sky). At the same time at a time- Come on the same time aa?
17. R:Sun and moon come same time …sky lo vunnay (in the sk). There (vunnaayi) is.. there
are …( PC4p43t2L2)
With respect to PC4, we found quite a considerable number of searches regarding both content and
functional words (especially connectors). The excerpt is an e.g. of what Menard et al (1995) Wang (2003)
and Roca De Larios (1996) call the 'translation strategy' where a word to word generation in L1 is
accompanied by a word to word translation in L2 as a tactic that keeps the 'writing boat' from sinking.
Through Lines 1 to 7 the pair is involved in thematic content generation as Pre-texts in L1, translating it,
connecting two pieces of pre-texts and explaining the connection to the other partner. It is this need to
connect that leads to another content unit and initiates the lexical search in Line 8. R who generates the L1
term, attempts to translate it but when D neither reacts (accept or reject or provide feedback) to it nor
contributes R decides to seek the help of another pair. Cross pair interactions initiated by this PC are
common. The other pair generates two lexical phrases of 'which 'same time' is accepted and included in the
text. Lines 16 and 17 show the inclusion of the lexical phrase. Though D and R have not generated the word,
D breaks the lexical phrase K suggested into their L1 equivalents, evaluates K's suggestion, checks for
appropriacy in terms of the intended phrasal meaning in her pre-text as against the L2 suggestion and then
uses the phrase. It is possible that the mental translation strategy for appropriacy led to the adoption and the
termination of the lexical search. Previous research suggests that it is either “compensation or refinement”
that triggers the use of L1 in lexical searches and that L2 writers use a number of strategies to tackle their
writing and lexical problems.
Roca De Larios' (1996) documentation of the lexical difficulties of low proficiency writers probably
accounts for the difficulty faced by PC4 partially. PC4 could generate the required phrase in the L1 but could
neither access its synonymous equivalents in L1 or L2 nor have they attempted something on the lines of
PC2. Unlike PC2, participants in PC4 could not tap their knowledge base for more L1 synonyms a strategy
noticed only with the writers of PC2. From a deficit perspective this has perpetually been explained as an
outcome of their own “unstable nature of L2 knowledge” (63). However, Kibler (2010) mandates that
learners realise their 'other languages' as cognitive affordances to comprehend and encode meaning rather
than a crutch.
Conclusions
The data presented here supports our theoretical philosophy of viewing the L1 as a pedagogic tool to enable
the cognitive, social and academic use of L2 in order to build language capabilities. Working as a pair meant
that two knowledge bases would dynamically involve the L1 and L2 lexical knowledge to varying extents in
their effort to make meaning. The excerpts show the dyads using their L1 to co-construct their L2 language
capability. Across the excerpts we see the dyads strategically drawing on their L1 knowledge. Different
strategies were used to tap into the word base of both the languages. Excerpt 1 shows the L1 word triggers
L2 word searches. Excerpt 2 shows the L1 word first triggering synonymous words in L1for which L2
equivalents are generated. Excerpt 3 shows the opposite of what we had observed in excerpt 2. The L1
word triggers synonymous L2 words which are then cross checked for appropriacy. However, excerpt 4
shows the word to word translation. Recall that this PC consist of dyads whose L1 and L2 writing is
considered to be satisfactory. It appears that the inclusion of a word in the text has to go through an
assessment of whether the word can be a part the text. Therefore all the PCs used back-translation for an
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assessment of the word's appropriacy at three levels: the semantic, the conceptual and the text level.
The study shows how learners spontaneously and intuitively banked on their resources for their text creation
processes. Through L1 and the use of L1 the dyads arrived at a common understanding of the problem at
hand. The existing language capability mediated the application of other psychological tools in their
problem solving. Several pedagogical implications arise from this problem solving behaviour. Allowing the
learners to bank on the resources they already possess for their learning rather than imposing means and
strategies from outside could be the first step.. As teachers the need to raise awareness of these resources that
the learners already posses by deliberately nurturing them through classroom based collaborative activities.
The need to value, tap, nurture and sharpen the L1 'tool kit' demands immediate attention.
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i
Text construction expects a text to be created around a topic but a text reconstruction tasks is more a grammatically inclined
task since deliberate inclusion of errors along a specific linguistic focus is done and the learners are expected to rectify them.
ii
Translating is as much a complex task as generating and transcribing. Trying to give as near as possible
meanings for the terms that the learners generated with ease in their L1 turned out to be a tough task for the
researcher. We sought help from 2 other plurilinguals and made changes accordingly.
iii
Menard et al. (1995) talk of the simultaneous generation and translation as a strategy low proficient students/
writers adopt as against translation as a strategy for higher proficiency writers. They argue that the difference lies
in the focus on functionality, intentionality and solution-seeking effort of the intended message.
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At the Crossroads of Research Paradigm
Natasha Rajabi Eslami
Exeter university, UK
Abstract: This paper explores philosophical aspects of research. It aims to make readers familiar with the
interrelationship between ontological and epistemological aspects of each research paradigm through a succinct
overview of different schools of thought, various research paradigms, and a plethora of methods to launch an inquiry.
To do so, three paradigms are at avail, namely the positivist, the interpretive, and the critical. Knowing each
paradigm could be a candle that sheds light on to the inquirer path, daring him/her to walk along the journey of
understanding more confidently and vigorously. In addition, it helps them to make a right decision regarding
methodological choices and to expand their horizons- from "what" questions to "why" and "how" type questions. Any
inquisitive English teacher who wishes to address the questions formed in his/her mind would find this paper
concisely helpful.
Key words: positivism, scientific paradigm, interpretive paradigm, critical paradigm, epistemology, ontology
Introduction
Finding out the truth has seemingly been our main concern since Adam bit into an apple to fulfill his
curiosity. Whether a fable or a fact, it depicts human beings' tendency to raise questions and to try to figure
out answers for them. This process, if done in a systematic way, is what we know as "research".
Our view point towards the truth shapes our ways of thinking, living, and, consequently, conducting a
research. Therefore, a good starting point about how one should conduct a research is to think about the
assumptions that he/she holds about the research; simply, by answering the question of "Why is this study
going to be done?" Embedded in this question is a range of ontological(theory of being) and
epistemological(theory of knowledge) stances, each of which implying a profound difference in how one
does the research. These philosophical aspects of research are the initial steps to be taken in that, as Greener
(2011, p.4) puts it, they increase chances of making good methodological choices.
To address the fundamental question "Why is this study going to be done?", three paradigms are at avail,
namely the positivist, the interpretive, and the critical. A positivist aims to discover a real phenomena(a
reality independent of human perception) through a closed system. The interpretivist attempts to find out
real existed phenomena that is complex and open to differing interpretations. In critical paradigm; however
the researcher seeks to examine inter-subjectivity and to raise consciousness of how unfair power
relationships can be created. Although, the above mentioned paradigms are different both in their stated
objectives and their techniques, they may overlap in some areas. What follows is a succinct overview of
these three paradigms in terms of their philosophies, definitions, applications, cons, and pros.
Positivism
Positivism with its deep roots in the land of research deserves properly to be dealt with here as the first
paradigm. Mertens (2005, p.8) sees positivism "based on rationalistic, empiricist philosophy that originated
with Aristotle, Francis Bacon, John Lock, August Comte, and Emmanuel Kant." It has roots in Aristotelian
syllogism; a kind of logical argument defined by Cohn as " one consisting of a major premise based on an a
priori or self-evident proposition, a minor premise providing a particular instance, and a conclusion." In this
line of argumentation, people attempt to understand a phenomenon from the general to a particular valid
conclusion known as "deductive approach." However, in 1600s Francis Bacon added by means of
observation one can make hypothesis which can be proved and generalized through inductive reasoning as
well. For many years, scientists have got advantages of these two logical bases to test their hypotheses
against 'objective reality' in order to reach a generalizable law (absolute truth) in the field of natural science.
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Later on, August Comte was the first thinker who used positivism as a philosophical framework for
sociology. As Crotty (2009, p.23) mentions "certainly it [positivism] had been popular among natural
scientists but what Comte has done was its passing from the hands of working scientists to those of
theoretical scientists and philosophers." Cohen, L. & et al (2006, p.8) point out that "positivism implies a
particular stance concerning the social scientist as an observer of social reality... their analyses must be
expressed in laws or law-like generalizations of the same kind that have been established in relation to
natural phenomena." Accordingly, Mertens (2005) argued that positivism has been applied to the social
world on the assumption that "the social world can be studied in the same way as the natural world, that there
is a method for studying the social world that is value free, and that explanations of a causal nature can be
provided." (qtd. in Mackenzie, N. Knipes, S. 2006, p.16).
To be short, Greener (2011, p.12) views positivism based on the idea that there exists an independent reality
which can accessed and investigated... From this assumption comes the claim that knowledge is good if it
represents that reality... we know something is true if, by investigating it empirically, it seems to be the case.
What follows is a brief run-down of different ways to figure out the possible answers to the research
question known as methodology in the positivist paradigm.
Methodology & Methods in Positivism
After discussing what a researcher thinks about the reality of a phenomenon (ontological view) and what he
knows about it(epistemological view), time comes to clarify the different ways of finding out the answer(s)
to the research question (methodological approach). "The most common definitions suggest that
methodology is the overall approach to research linked to the paradigm or theoretical framework while the
method refers to systematic modes, procedures or tools used for collection and analysis of data" (Gage,
1989, p.4).
Greener (2011, p.5) expresses the same sentiment when he says "methods are the tools and techniques that
are used in social research practice... Methodology, on the other hand, studies methods to work out what we
can usefully say about them, and explores their philosophy, application and usage. So when we are
examining methods, comparing them or thinking about the kinds of knowledge that they produce, then we
are doing methodology." The choice of method has a significant implication for the knowledge that they
produce. So, methodology and epistemology are strongly interrelated.
In the positivistic paradigm, the researcher uses questions and hypotheses to measure the cause and effect
between the variables or the relationship between them in order to test a theory or a hypothesis. To do so, the
researcher tries to gather the data through quantitative and statistical methods such as, observation (close
ended), intervention, and survey. A positivist researcher adopts deductive approach to confirm or reject a
hypothesis in experimental, correlational, and quasi-experimental study. This is not always the case,
however. In order to prove if a hypothesis can be supported or not, a positivist too might conduct a
qualitative study (cf. interpretivism methods and methodology).
Cons and Pros of Positivism
In spite of the clearness of replicable findings, positivism outcome, absolute truth, has been the focus of
criticism. For instance, Sayer (2000, p.11) claims "positivism trends towards empirical realism- i.e. it treats
the world as consisting of observable objects." In addition, it was criticized due to its lack of regard for the
subjective states of individuals.
Early criticism about the absoluteness of positivistic science was made by Werner Heisenberg (1901-76).
He called into question the objectivity of positivist science through the "uncertainty principle." This
principle has the effect of turning the laws of physics into relative statements and to some degree into
subjective perceptions rather than an expression of objective certainties'. (Crotty 2009, p.29).
In order to solve the absoluteness problem Karl Popper suggested that scientists do not need to make a
discovery and then approve it to generalize a law. They can just make a guess and then try to prove a guess
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wrong. He was the one who used falsification instead of verification. He believed " a theory or hypothesis is
not open to refutation by observation and experiment cannot be regarded as scientific. With this goal of
falsification in view, Popper recommends that all scientific theories be presented as clearly as possible so as
to lay them with open to refutation."(Crotty 2009, p. 32).
Besides all the above, the Existentialism movement in the field of philosophy that concerned the
individuals' desire to develop and fulfill themselves was another challenge for positivism.
As House (1991, p. 5) asserts "reality consists not only of what we can see but also of the underlying causal
entities that are not always directly discernible. Reality, then, is stratified." So we shouldn't limit everything
to only what we really experience it. Therefore, the time has come for the antipositivist movement within the
context of the interpretive paradigm. Time was ripe then to take "subjectivity" into consideration and how
"individuals" construct the reality.
Interpretivisim (Naturalism)
The ontological perspective of interpretive paradigm is based on relativism. As Crotty(2009, p. 43)
touches on "what is said to be the way things are is really just the sense we make of them ." In other
words, an individual may interpret the same phenomenon differently.
Interpretivists believe that the reality is not a fact out there, needed to be found but it is constructed in
peoples' mind.
The epistemological view of interpretivisits is constructionism. This is what Crotty defines as "the view that
all knowledge, and therefore all meaningful reality as such, is contingent upon human practices, being
constructed in and out of interaction between human beings and their world, and developed and transmitted
within an essentially social context.
Naturalistic is neither deductive nor inductive in nature. Instead it is an interpretive process of constructing a
worldview regarding a specific issue based on how well he/she can individually interpret it. This is what
Greener (2011, p. 15) terms as "abductive". As it would suggest that although the reality exists independent
of our conceptions of it, our interpretation of it might be different from individual to individual or group to
group. It aims to advance personal knowledge, to understand and make sense of the world or to interpret the
social reality through individuals' perspectives which is inductive in nature. Therefore, epistemologically
speaking, interpretivism bases itself on the "objective knowledge of an individual" rather than an
"absolutism" in positivism. To draw comparative conclusions, Grixs(2004, p. 82) sees the positivists
seeking objectivity while interpretivits believe in subjectivity; the positivists tending to model their
research on the natural sciences while the interpretivists believe there is a clear distinction to be made
between the natural and social world, and therefore we need methodology and methods of gathering data
that are more in tune with the subjects we are studying. In addition, a naturalistic is different from a scientific
one in terms of methodology, where the naturalists make use of qualitative and case studies to respond
sensitivity to individuals and contexts. In the following their methodology is given in brief.
Methodology and Methods in Interpretivism
An interpretivist researcher usually uses verbal description that is representative of a qualitative study. In
contrast to a quantitative research that uses representative sampling to find out a generalizable law,
qualitative research figures out information from samples in order to understand and interpret a
phenomenon. Fred & Perry (2011, p. 80) define a qualitative study as " any study that is done in a real-life
setting, involving intensive holistic data collection through observation at a very close personal level
without the influence of prior theory and contains mostly of verbal analysis." For example, in a case study or
ethnography, an inquirer adopts different methods such as interviews, journals and document etc in an open
way to find out more about the research question.
While quantitative and qualitative approaches seem totally different by nature, they can be combined at
times for practical purposes. However, researchers should take the characteristics of qualitative and
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quantitative research into consideration beforehand. As Burk & Onwuengbuzie (2004, p. 18) states
"Gaining an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research puts a
researcher in a position to mix or combine strategies, approaches, and methods in such a way that the
resulting mixture or combination is likely to result in complementary strengths and no overlapping
weaknesses."
Cons and Pros of Interpretivism
Although the interpretivist philosophy looks more democratic in the sense of caring about the different
participants' perspectives in a society, critics have pointed out what they regarded as a shortcoming of it; a
question that might arise is "Why should one accept a researcher's findings and interpretation?" As Rex
(1974) argues "Whilst patterns of social reactions and institutions may be the product of the actors'
definitions of the situations there is also the possibility that those actors might be falsely conscious and the
sociologists have an obligation to seek an objective perspective which is not necessarily that of any of the
participating actors at all." (qtd. in Cohn, L., Manion, K., & Morrison, K. 2006, p. 26). All this leads
interpretivists to clearly describe the situations of the study and the ways in which the meanings are
negotiated in a particular context in order to improve plausibility of their conclusion.
The second challenge that they face is the need for generalizability. Cziko(1989, p. 17) who is an opponent
of positivistic paradigm argues "the phenomena studied in the social and behavioral sciences are essentially
unpredictable and intermediated." So it can be concluded that the interpretivist seeks to explore how it is not
how universal. In short, as Cohn & et al (2006, p. 27) assert "Just as positivistic theories can be criticized for
their macro-sociological persuasion, so interpretive and qualitative can be criticized for their narrowly
micro-sociological persuasion." What comes between these two ends of the continuum is the critical
paradigm.
Critical Paradigm
This very last paradigm is influenced by the work of Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, and Frankfurt school. The
critical inquiry as Crotty (2009, p. 113) sees "stands in stark contrast to what we have been considering
under the heading of interpretivism... It is a contrast between a research that seeks merely to understand and
a research that challenges... between a research that reads the situation in terms of interaction and
community and a research that reads it in terms of conflict and oppression... between a research that accepts
the status quo and a research that seeks to bring about change." In a critical research, the researcher tries to
challenge the conventional social structures and engage in social action. Ontologically speaking, he/she
views the person in the society and his/her epistemological approach towards knowledge is that knowledge
is constructed on a social basis.
Based on this account, positivism and interpretivism are counted as incomplete in that they heed the
political and ideological context of the research. Here, the research methodologies seek to subsume
positivism and interpretivism but go beyond them both in order to "restore to consciousness those
suppressed, repressed and submerged determinants of unfree behavior with a view to their dissolution"
(Hambermas, 1984, p. 194-5).
In this sense, a critical researcher first interprets the existing situation. Then he/she looks for the causes and
purposes of it. Finally, he/she goes beyond these two and uncovers the problematic situation and inequality
to promote individual freedom.
Cons and Pros of Critical Paradigm
Just like the other two paradigms there are several criticisms against critical approaches. Morrison (1995a)
maintains that "the task of researcher is to be dispassionate, disinterested and objective, not to be an
ideologue or to have an agenda" (cited in Cohn, L., Manion, K., & Morrison, K. 2006, p. 32).
Moreover, it could be argued that whether the espousal of ideology critique is itself as ideological as the
approaches that it prescribes (Roderick, 1986, p. 65).
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It is clear that each paradigm suits a specific inquiry but it does not mean that one paradigm is fully
satisfactory. As it is discussed earlier, all paradigms more or less face similar critics by elements of opposing
approaches. So, what is the solution to this philosophical debate? Such philosophical debates promote
researchers to adopt a pragmatic approach to reach a practical solution.
Pragmatism
The glass is half full or half empty? Either answer would make us fall under one specific paradigm. Yet, to a
pragmatist, the usage of the glass and its both empty and full portions matter. This " logic in use"
(Kaplan,1964) is what that mingles the theory and practice in order to reach a more applicable approach
towards the outside world. Not taken as a paradigm by many, pragmatism, to my understanding, is more of a
mixed-model nature that strives to maintain the balance in theory so as to reach the most effective outcome
practice-wise.
Paradigms are different in terms of their ontological and epistemological bases, which, in turn, lead to
different ways of understanding. To achieve a better understanding of a phenomenon, one would want to
adopt a number of different views rather than only one.
The necessity for a mixed model is also vivid in, Gage's (1989, p. 7) remark that the "philosophical analysis
resulted in a triumph of pragmatic resolutions of paradigm differences over claims of exclusive possession
of one true paradigm." In short, it is understood that nothing about objective-quantitative research precluded
the description and analysis of classroom processes with interpretive-qualitative method. The researchers
realized that they all share the same ideal; that is social or educational development. Hence, no matter
whether a research is done based on positivism, interpretivism, or critical orientation, the importance is to
achieve the goal effectively. As Maxcy (2003) points out " taking a pragmatic and balanced or pluralist
position will help improve communication among researchers from different paradigms as they attempt to
advance knowledge." (qtd. in Burke, J., & Onweuegbuzie, A. 2004, p. 16).
Cons and Pros of Pragmatism
Burke & Onweuegbuzie (2004, p. 17) believe that "if two ontological positions about the mind/body
problem (e.g. monism versus dualism), for example, do not make a difference in how we conduct our
research then the distinction is, for practical purposes, not very meaningful." They believe that some
philosophical differences may lead to important practical consequences while many others may not.
Although mixed model or pragmatism may not put an end to philosophical debates, it could be productive
because it offers an immediate and useful middle position philosophically and methodologically. A major
source of justification for mixed model research is to "mix qualitative and quantitative approaches within or
across the stages of research process" in order to confirm and also to understand the phenomena at the level
of conceptualization.
What still strikes many here about this conceptualization is that how on earth it is possible to mingle two
different entities at their conceptual level.
It is up to researchers to select monomethod, mixed method, or mixed model with respect to their underlying
research questions.
Conclusion
To wrap up, in this paper I have attempted to introduce the different paradigms through clarifying their
ontological, epistemological, and methodological perspectives. Besides, I have brought forward the
debates and remarks regarding each of the paradigms.
To the best of my knowledge, all the paradigms reveal not to be immune from criticism. It is the researchers'
task to understand how these paradigms differ so as to make the right decision about which research
approach shall be adopted in a specific study.
In my opinion, as the new millennium is unfolding, the time of conflict is over. Researcher shall interact
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rather than carp. This would provide them with the opportunity to gain a better understanding of one
another's, which is more constructive. In this way they can figure out how a research question can be
answered properly at a freer atmosphere with less frames to limit their horizon. Now is the time to look at the
societies' problems critically instead of criticizing different perspectives.
Teachers, at the front line of educational also are expected to be wary of the charge of inquiries he/she faces
in the real classroom context. One as an English teacher may need to broaden his/her vision towards the
challenges in his/her working experience. In this way he/she can start the journey of understanding by well
trained eyes to notice the differences and well wired minds to form a question. This paper may help teachers
make a right decision regarding methodological choices to address their questions and to expand their
horizons- from "what" questions to "why" and "how" type questions.
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References:
Burke, J. & Onwuengbuzie, A. (2004). Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose time Has Come. Educational
Researcher. 33, 7.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2006). Research Methods in Education. London: RoutledgeFlamer.
Crotty, M. (2009). The foundations of Social Research. Sage.
Cziko, G. (1989). Unpredictability and indeterminism in human behavior: Arguments and implications for educational research.
Educational Researcher, 18, 3. In Salomon, G. (1991). Transcending the Qualitative- Quantitative Debate: The Analytic
and Systemic Approaches to Educational Research. American Educational Research Association. 20, 6.
Fred, L. & Perry, Jr. (2011). Becoming a Discerning Consumer. NewYork: Routledge. (2nd ed).
Gage, N. (1989). The paradigm wars and their aftermath: A "historical" sketch of research on teaching since 1989. Educational
Researcher, 18, 7.
Greener, I. (2011). Designing social research: A guide for the bewildered. Sage.
Grix, J. (2004). The foundation of research. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action. Vol. 1: Reason and rationalization of society (Trans. T. McCarthy).
Boston: Beacon Press. In Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2006). Research Methods in Education. London:
RoutledgeFlamer.
House, E. (1991). Realism in research. Educational Researcher. 20, 6.
Kaplan, A. (1964). The conduct of inquiry. San Francisco: Chandler. In Salomon, G. (1991). Transcending the QualitativeQuantitative Debate: The Analytic and Systemic Approaches to Educational Research. American Educational
Research Association. 20, 6.
Maxcy, S. (2003). Pragmatic threads in mixed methods research in the social science: The search for multiple modes of inquiry
and the end of philosophy of formalism. In Burke, J. & Onwuengbuzie, A. (2004). Mixed Methods Research: A
Research Paradigm Whose time Has Come. Educational Researcher. 33, 7.
Mertens, D. (2005). Research methods in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative approaches. (2nd ed).
Thousand Oaks: Sage. in Mackenzie, N. & Knipes, S. (2006). Research dilemmas: paradigms, methods, and
methodology, Issues In Educational Research. 16.
Rex, J. (1974). Approaches to Sociology: An introduction to major trends in British Sociology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
In Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2006). Research Methods in Education. London: RoutledgeFlamer.
Roderick, R. (1986). Habermas and the foundations of critical theory. Basingstoke: Macmillan. In Cohen, L., Manion, L., &
Morrison, K. (2006). Research Methods in Education. London: RoutledgeFlamer.
Salomon, G. (1991). Transcending the qualitativequantitative debate: The analytic and systemic approaches to educational
research. American Educational Research Association. 20, 6.
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Teaching English Language in Technical Institutes: An Approach through CALL
P.Sateesh Kumar
Rajamahendri Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Rajahmundry, E.G.Distrit, A.P.
Abstract: This paper highlights the methodology of teaching English language to the Engineering students and the
problems faced by the language teachers. The present day engineering students are not giving enough importance to
English language and they give prior preference to their specialized subjects. So they lack basic language skills, in
particular, vocabulary, spoken skills and usage of grammar. As a result, they are unable to satisfy the interviewers in
job interviews. So, there is a need to develop their language through the most scientific methods of teaching especially
through the newly advanced methods of using the multimedia and the Web.
The English teachers of technical institutions face different and difficult problems either academically or nonacademically. First of all, the time duration for the completion of the given tasks is not sufficient. In a class, few
students completing the given task, before the time set, while the slow learners find it difficult to complete it and so
expect the teacher to provide answers. The slower students spend three times as much time as the faster students. This
is not conducive to learning. Secondly each class has a variety of levels of English proficiency, a variety of interests
and a variety of paces of studying. So, it is impossible to lead the students through varied levels of learning, which
make the students passive. For these reasons, we need to individualize the study of English in order to get more
effective results.
Key words: Individualization, Computer Assisted Language Learning, Language laboratory
Introduction
No change can be brought without a change in the teaching methodology. Presently, our teachers seem to
have exhausted with the methods and techniques of teaching. Today our teachers and students want a totally
novel methodology. They want a methodology that is modern and effective. Considering these demands, the
only way out seems to be the computer. Already, attempts have been made to teach language and literature
through the computer. This new field is called Computer Assisted Language Learning and Computer
Assisted Literature Learning. At this point, language ought to be taught with the help of the computer.
Already a variety of ideas and pictures are represented through the computer for those who use them. The
internet is an effective source of ideas and picture display. Thus the hypothesis that language can be taught
through the computers is put forward here.
This study discusses the nature of interaction and the definition of CALL and its applications. The paper highlights the
method of promoting qualitative interaction amongst students, teachers and computer software. This project
evidences the fact that computer pair work enhances interaction.
“The complexity of teaching and learning is a systematic research .The technical details of the mouse are simple
but the teaching principles are complicated; for that reason we need to consider the effectiveness of learning
through multimedia”
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL):
It is a relatively new and rapidly evolving academic field that explores the role of information and communication
technologies in language learning and teaching. It provides fertile ground for leading edge, innovative and highly
creative thinking and scholarly work. Because of the multiplicities and changeability of the field which include the
emergence of new theoretical, methodological and learning paradigms, special understanding and expertise is
required to assess the quality and the depth of such scholarly activities.
Today, CALL activities exploit improved technology to produce highly interactive learning environments, providing
effective support for the acquisition of listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. High- speed networks allow
access to authentic cultural materials and link learners to speakers around the world. When integrated into
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pedagogical plan, these new technologies enhance learning opportunities beyond anything previously possible. The
number of variables associated with language learning and the difficulty in controlling those variables, in a second
language learning setting is not so tedious, but it is to be designed according to the students attitude.
Individualization
Individualization is not a method or technique, but a philosophy of education. Here, learning is student-centered and
the teacher assists the students in pursuing their goals. As a result, students feel secure and get satisfaction in learning.
In a class with one teacher, it is impossible for the teacher to respond to each student, to give feedback immediately
and to be aware of each student's progress, problems and weaknesses. Here the computer plays a vital role in giving
information and teaching the students.
It is reasonable to say that it is difficult to concentrate on each student in all the three activities in the writing session.
So using e-mail is more advantageous in a writing class. Teachers often find it difficult to correct files, assignments,
answer sheets either in the class, college or at home. This is totally eliminated. Just with the click of a mouse, the
teacher monitors and analyses everything effectively and logically and grading efficiently.
Language laboratory:
It can be used in the class session, if there are adequate work stations and rooms. Since students rarely use the capacity
of media, they feel uneasy about the recorded answers on a cassette and they are forced to listen to these, unaware of
the usage of recording head to delete previous user's voices. The stability of students' tape recorders might be
affected by signal fluctuation. Finally certain mistakes from improper operation of high speed duplicators are
inevitable. Usually these language labs separate the student and teacher and thus encourage teachers and less
motivated students to day-dream in the class time.
So, multimedia computers have to be adopted as a better option, which are configured with the right software,
permitting the students to view websites, to listen to T.V. or Radio programmes, to read the world's great literature to
facilitate person to person communication through e-mail, chat, internet phone, low- end video conferencing and
many more. Voice recognition software allows the students to choose and to practice better idea of their accuracy. If an
institution has electronic classrooms, the instructor with a laptop, demonstrates the orientation features and a good
instruction sheet will take care of the rest. If the students have not finished at the class time, they can continue their
work at home.
Role of the teacher:
A language teacher may not know the definitions and descriptions of technical terms and the processes related to
Technology. But, the teacher is expected to be familiar with those matters, and prepared well before enters into the
class. As the blooming generation is efficient in gathering new ideas on science and facts, they try to approach their
teacher and clarify their doubts. So, the language teacher in technical institution needs to be efficient, well-informed
and confident while responding to the students. At this point, it is concluded that students tend to enjoy using
computers and the teachers need much more work, to identify the factors involved in using software efficiently, for
language teaching. Teachers will continue to refine their techniques with CALL over time and, it is hoped, continue to
contribute to research being done in this area.
Solution through Computers:
It is believed that computers should be used to make classes more effective. There are two ways to use them. One way
is for the teacher to present pictures, videos and written text with or without sound. The presentation can be
programmed in advance or handled manually. The other way to use computers is to have students use the computers
themselves. The second method of using computers which lead the students a better understanding of computers as
well as language learning. In this method, the students work individually on their own interest. The computer provides
materials to study and students can interact with the computer as if they are doing with a tutor or a library. The students
here are encouraged to do the work either in groups or in pairs, so that they can get a spirit of cooperation and
confidence in finding the answers. Interaction among the students is as important as that with a computer in learning.
The research suggests that students work at a computer during the class, can do assignments drills, tutorials, games,
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simulations and even reviewing and preparing for the class. Using computers give way to their knowledge and
promotes the nature of independence. The computer education is a beneficial one for both the slow workers and the
advanced students, as it encourages to work at their own pace. Slower workers can catch up, and advanced students
can do extra assignments.
Conclusion
Presently, many students are tired of traditional English classes and are interested in a new style of learning. Students
think materials are new and fresh, if they are presented on computers, and they are often interested even in routine
tasks such as learning to type. They seem to be willing to spend more hours and do more exercises on a computer
than by hand. Learning can be individualized using computers. Students can study materials related to their
individual goals and interests, with the appropriate difficulty level and at their own pace. Computers can analyze the
problems of each student and the teacher can help individual students with their problems based on the analysis.
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Challenges to an ESP Teacher
Dr. Phani Kiran
Al-Jouf University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Abstract: In recent years, there has been a growing international interest in designing language courses specific to
work-related needs. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is an umbrella term covering a wide range of interests and
approaches to student centered learning. In this context, designing course materials to meet the needs of the learners
is a big challenge to an ESP teacher. As a matter of fact general language teaching should not be ignored. ESP
combines specific field and English language teaching. ESP teachers often face challenge when they relate language
instruction to the learner's respective fields. Most students regard English as a non main subject so that English is
considered less important and they think that they can pass subject very easily. This attitude of course influences the
teacher in teaching ESP at non English Departments. And the condition is even worse where the number of students in
ESP class room is even greater than that at the general English class room. And ESP teachers often feel isolated from
the professionals in their student's specialization as well as their colleagues in other institutions. Where they actually
belong is another issue. The writer wants to share the experiences and the challenges faced as an ESP teacher in
Libya and Saudi Arabia.
Key Words: Challenges, student centered, specific goals, designing course, isolated, colleagues
Introduction
The aim of this paper is to shed light on some of the major aspects of ESP and the challenges faced by an ESP
teacher. Traditionally, the duty of an English language teacher was to describe the rules of English usage, i.e.,
the grammar, vocabulary with the help of some works written by different authors at different points of time
and enable the students to improve their communication. But today teaching English in the global context is
really challenging and for an ESP teacher, it is much more challenging.
What is ESP
ESP derives from the need to use language as a tool in facilitating success in professional life. The learners in
general are expected from intermediate and advanced level students. ESP is designed for adult learners and
it is suitable for those having some basic knowledge of language system. But in some places where there was
no proper screening to get admission into Professional Colleges, teachers can't expect students with good
communication skills. Then it would be very difficult to the teacher to frame the syllabus as well as reaching
the international standards of ESP. Heterogeneous learner group is a very common issue for any teacher in
any class but in the ESP context, designing course and implementing it to that particular group is not an easy
task.
Stages in the development of ESP
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) state that the early beginnings of ESP start in the 1960s and witnessed the
greatest expansion of research into the nature of particular varieties of English. The expansion of demand
for English to suit particular needs and developments in the field of linguistics and educational psychology
contributed to the growth of ESP. Its development is reflected in the increasing number of universities
offering masters degree in ESP. The development of ESP may be perceived as a never-ending story since
new fields of activity and research keep appearing and developing and in a globalized world, knowledge of
English is both a must and a personal advantage.
Types of ESP
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), ESP is sub-divided into three branches: English for Science
and Technology (EST), English for Business and Economics (EBE), and English for Social Studies (ESS).
Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and
English for Occupational Purposes (EOP).
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English for Academic and Occupational Purposes
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP on the
basis of the considerations that (i) people can work and study simultaneously, and that (ii) the language
learnt in a teaching setting for academic purposes can be useful and employed by the learner in the
occupational environment when he/she takes up, or returns to, a job. This may explain why EAP and EOP
have been categorized under the same type of ESP. The end of both types seems to be similar: employment.
Is Teaching ESP different from Teaching General English
Teaching language either ESP or EGP in the global context should be based on a functional aspect and the
purpose of which is to develop communicative competence among the learners. ESP is considered one of
the major innovations in the field of second language teaching. ESP should not be considered separate from
the teaching EGP, as it is part of it and using areas that belong to other fields of ELT.
When asked teaching ESP and EGP are different, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) say, “in theory nothing, in
practice a great deal”. As a matter of fact ESP combines learner's specific field and English language. That's
why ESP concentrates more on context and vocabulary than on grammar and language structures. ESP is an
extension to what has been acquired earlier in EGP by the learner with a more restricted focus. It aims at
acquainting learners with the kind of language needed in a particular domain, vocation, or occupation. In
other words, its main objective is to meet specific needs of the learners. As Eva Donesch, (2012) has rightly
observed, “Nowadays, teachers are aware of the importance of needs analysis, and perhaps it is this that has
been the greatest influence that the ESP approach has had on the teaching of General English.” Many
General English teachers today are using ESP approach and are much more aware of the learner's needs.
Teaching ESP in Libya and Saudi Arabia
In Libya teaching ESP is not uniform in all the universities. In some universities the students undergo some
bridge courses before getting admission into professional colleges. And there is a lot of focus on technical
jargon and in some universities there is not much difference between teaching ESP and EGP. The
departments and faculties are free to design their course according to their student's needs. But in general
majority students don't prefer to communicate in English. Some students are with excellent communicative
skills (almost native like) but their number is very less.
According to Majjid M Al-Humaidi, the situation in the Saudi context is even more complicated as there is
not even a separation between ESP and English for General Purposes (EGP) when it comes to syllabuses
and methodology, and who is better trained to teach what. Needs assessment, which is a major component of
ESP, never exists, and, if does, it is never systematic, but rather based on teachers' intuitions. Moreover, the
methodology adopted in teaching never differs.
However in the professional colleges of Libya and Saudi Arabia the students are aware of the importance of
English for their studies and careers. But they don't have intermediate level of English language. The study
also revealed their need to learn a mixture of general and specific English terminology, language forms and
structures, and to develop satisfactory mastery of the four language skills.
Role of an ESP Teacher
In teaching ESP the role of the teacher is diverse and has several orientations. S/he has to perform many
tasks at a time. An ESP teacher, apart from teaching should provide materials, design a syllabus, collaborate
with subject specialists, conduct research and evaluate the course materials and the students. The teacher's
role is also to organize the class, to be aware of class objectives, to have good understanding of the course
content as well as flexible and willing to cooperate with learners and have at least some interest in the
learner's discipline, so that the teacher can make his/her teaching interesting for the learners.
Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) describe the role of the ESP Teacher as being: 1) Teacher 2) Collaborator
3) Course Designer 4) Researcher and 5) Evaluator. Two more roles should be added to this list. They are the
ESP teacher as a learner and a facilitator.
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Teacher: The first role as teacher is the same as that of the General English teacher. It is the necessity
for performing the other four roles by the ESP teacher that makes the difference between these two types of
teaching. The teacher needs to understand what students expect and are willing to do as well as what they
themselves expect of the students.
2. Practitioner: The ESP teacher is a practitioner. The teaching methodology changes when the teaching
becomes specific. In order to meet the specific needs of the learners and adopt the methodology and
functions of the target discipline, the ESP practitioner has to acquire the knowledge of the particular
scientific discipline with which he or she is dealing, and understand the problems faced by the professions
connected with that discipline.
3. Collaborator: To achieve these goals, collaboration with field specialists who may well be more
familiar with the specialized content of materials than the teacher, may well prove to be helpful.
4. Researcher: An ESP teacher should also be a researcher to fulfill the student's needs. Firstly, the teacher
should decide an objective as to what s/he is going to achieve. Research is necessary to design a course, to
write teaching materials and to find out the ESP students' particular interests.
5. Evaluator: The ESP practitioner's role as evaluator is related to his or her conducting an ongoing
evaluation of the students' progress and the effectiveness of ESP courses. In order for an ESP program to be
successful, it would not be sufficient to identify learners' needs, and create syllabuses and adopt methodologies
that serve these needs; one very important issue in the context of ESP is program assessment. Assessment
involves an evaluation of the learners' ability to communicate effectively.
6. Learner: Fulfilling the functions of a teacher means that the teacher is also actively engaged in learning.
Learning about themselves, the changes in their field, the expectations of the community and society and
most importantly learning about their students and ways of enabling their students to grow and develop.
7. Facilitator: The role of the teacher has many facets but that of facilitating student learning is very
important. The facilitator attempts to provide circumstances that will enable students to engage with the
learning opportunities and construct for themselves their understandings and skills. This role will interact
with those of teacher as learner, colleague and community partner.
1.
Challenges faced by an ESP Teacher
ESP teachers often face challenge when they relate language instruction to the learner's respective fields.
Most students regard English as a non main subject so that English is considered less important and they
think that they can pass subject very easily. This attitude of course influences the teacher in teaching ESP at
non English Departments. And the condition is even worse where the number of students in ESP class room
is even greater than that at the general English class room. And ESP teachers often feel isolated from the
professionals in their student's specialization as well as their colleagues in other institutions. It's like an alien
territory and where they actually belong is another issue. These challenges may vary from place to place and
there are some serious practical difficulties an ESP teacher faces and which are to be solved immediately.
They are:
Lack of ESP tradition and guidelines: In the absence of authentic materials and with self direction
ESP teachers are struggling to move ahead. The mismatch between reality and expectations, like the
level of language competency learners have and lack of quality resources and heavy workload the
ESP teachers have.
Lack of Specialist knowledge: ESP is not just limited to language for one specific discipline or
occupation, such as English in Medicine, English for Law, Technical English, Business English, and
English in Aviation, English in Tourism, English in Hospitality, and English for Engineering etc.
The list is very long and how far is it humanly possible for an ESP teacher to get acquaintance with
these many fields? Some researchers say that it is not necessary for an ESP teacher to learn all these
subjects but unless ESP teachers know what the learner's field of specialization is and what the
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student's needs are, how can they do justice to the learner?
Lack of Course material: Lack of material in the ESP course is a big problem to an ESP teacher.
The more specialized the course the greater the rarity of teaching materials. So one of the most
important roles of an ESP teacher is planning the course and providing materials for it. For example,
general instructions used for students of medicine today focus on medical terminology in the
lessons. These teaching strategies replete with some simple dialogues about visits to the doctor's
office and minor illnesses fail to meet the needs of the profession.
Answers to these challenges can be had by doing the following:
Planning the learning
Following student assessment the teacher is in a better position to plan learning opportunities that will
provide a fit with the student's needs and interests and thus optimize student learning opportunities. A part of
this process is to determine student learning outcomes. The teacher will determine these outcomes as a
result of the interplay between what is contained in the course documentation, the teacher's personal
theories about teaching and learning and the teacher's assessment of student needs. Once the learning
outcomes have been determined the teacher plans the unit outline and individual lessons.
Implementing the plan
This will include the classroom management and the teaching strategies that will cater for the varied
learning styles of the students. It will also include the emotional climate of the classroom and the quality of
the interactions between the students and the teacher.
Evaluating the process
As ESP courses are often tailor-made, their evaluation is crucial. It is possible to create one ESP course that
would satisfy all ESP students. Therefore evaluation of such a course is a must. At the completion of a
classroom session there will be an assessment of the learning that has taken place and this will inform
following teaching.
Course Designing in ESP
Designing a course that can best serve learners' interests and needs is a big challenge to an ESP teacher.
Adjusting the language to meet the needs of learners in specific context is very important and the choice of
suitable methods and techniques is equally important in the ESP context. ESP is centered on the language
appropriate to the activities of a given discipline. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:19), "ESP is an
approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's
reason for learning."
Key factors in designing the course
Many researchers agree that the key factors in designing the ESP course are as follows:
1.
What learners want to achieve - what traditionally has been called "ESP needs".
2. The ability to use the technical jargon which is relevant to the student field of specialization.
3. The ability to use the language of everyday informal talk to communicate effectively regardless of
occupational context
4. The ability to use a more generalized set of academic skills, such as note making, paraphrasing and
conducting research.
The task of ESP developer is to ensure that all the above abilities are integrated in the curriculum, and of
course it is very difficult to strike a balance of theses abilities with that of a group of learners. Except in using
the technical jargon, the remaining three are common in teaching ESP and teaching EGP. It is very
important to start the course-developing process with an analysis of the target group of students. Research in
the field of adult education and the acquisition of a new language identifies that students are much more
motivated to learn when they find value in the material. The student's level of competence in English
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language must be taken into consideration.
Conclusion
The content of the paper was determined by a need identified based on the author's professional experience
as an ESP teacher in designing and delivering the content for students in Medicine and Dentistry in Libya
and with the close watch on what is happening in Saudi in the ESP context. It would not be sufficient to
identify learners' needs, and create syllabuses and adopt a methodology that serves these needs. The
important issue is an assessment which involves an evaluation of the learner's ability to communicate
effectively. Considering the hiatus between the assumptions and the reality about the learner's standards,
general English should be incorporated in the ESP curriculum.
The designing of learning projects, the organization of scientific forums to voice the ESP teacher's concerns,
and finally the production of a specialized literature, based on intensive research activities are highly
recommended. Participation in seminars, conferences and business meetings is highly suggested for an ESP
teacher along with doing some research projects in this area. And unless language teachers are trained
enough to handle such situations and realize the idiosyncrasies of ESP, fruitful outcomes would never be
reached.
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References:
Donesch, E. (2012). English for specific purposes: What does it mean and why is it different from teaching general English?
The Journal for ESL Teachers and Learners. Vol.1 p.11.
Dudley Evans, T. & St. John, M. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Glendinning, E., Holmstorm, B. (2004). English in Medicine. Cambridge Professional English. III Edition.
Lorenzo, F. (2005). How is English for Specific Purposes (ESP) different from English as a Seond Language (ESL), also
known as general English. http://www.usingenglish.com/articles
Gatehouse, K. (2001). Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curriculum development. khoey [at] khaeservice.com
Sysoyev, (2000). Developing an English for specific purposes course using a learner centered approach: A Russian
experience, The internet TESL journal. www.iteslj.org
Jennifer, T. (1992). Teacher as facilitator: one of the face-to face teacher's roles http://montemath.com/teacherasfacilitator
Waters, M., & Waters, A. (1992). Study skills and study competence: Getting the priorities right. ELT Journal, 46(3), 264-73.
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English Language Teaching and Culture Communication
Dr Pramod Salame
Nabira College, Katol
Abstract: Culture is a set of beliefs, attitudes, behavioral conventions, and basic assumptions and values. It is not
easy to teach culture unless the language teacher knows about it. Language teacher can show the way rather than
regulate a particular way of seeing things, which has the inclination of cultural imperialism. He can make his
students aware of the important traits in the target culture, they realize that there are no such things as superior
or inferior and there are differences among the people of distinctive cultures. Comparison between the two
cultures is the best way to understand a foreign culture. But some questions can be raised in English Language
teaching: How should culture be taught? When should language teacher teach culture? Why is it necessary for
students to learn about the culture?
Keywords: cultural teaching, distinctive customs, convictions, transmitter.
Introduction
Language is used as a means of communication and a carrier of culture. It won't be wrong to say
that language is a mirror of culture. Language and culture are inseparable parts. As we know there are
four skills listening, speaking, reading and writing in language learning and teaching. But apart from
these there is one more skill, the fifth skill cultural teaching through language.
Language and culture are two sides of a coin. Both phenomena are unique to humans and have
been the subject of a great deal of sociological, anthropological, and even mimetic study.
Anthropologists believe that language and its culture are entirely dependent on the cultural context.
There are ways in which culture really does determine language. The ancient people did not have words
for television, radio, mobile, or computer because these items were not the parts of their cultural
context, whereas Eskimos have more than ten words for snow, because snow is the part of their cultural
context. Language reveals the culture of that particular species.
Language is not just the medium of culture but also is a part of culture. Edward Sapir, an
American linguist and anthropologist, proposed the power of language to reflect culture and influence
thinking. He stated that the way we think and view the world is determined by our language. A society is
characterized by its distinctive customs, achievements, outlook, products, etc. It is true that there can
hardly be any learning, gaining knowledge, or transmitting knowledge or intellectual development
without language. Nor can a society function without language. Probably the most significant
instrument of socialization that exists in all human societies and cultures is language.
As we know that the understanding of a culture and its people can be enhanced by the
knowledge of their language. This brings us to an important point that even though people are brought
up under similar their world view may be very different. Language is rooted in culture and culture is
reflected by language from one generation to the other. We can say that learning a new language
involves the learning of a new culture. Hence teachers of language are also the teachers of culture.
Language teacher must instruct his students on the cultural background of language usage. If he
does not do so, the students will learn meaningless symbols or they may attach the incorrect meaning to
what is being taught. Language teacher realize that their understanding of something is prone to
interpretation. Meaning of any word is bound in cultural context. So, the teacher should not only explain
the meaning of the language employed, but the cultural context in which it is placed. Language teacher
should consider how the information about the people from other cultures, their countries, their ways of
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life and their civilization can be used to develop students' ability in gaining knowledge or understanding
about other cultures. Teacher should help students to come to know about the differences between other
cultures and the home culture. He should make comparison between cultures. The comparison between
the cultures helps students better understand the target culture of different cultural judgments. Language
teacher should use modern techniques such as films, documentaries, novels, short stories, newspapers,
magazines, etc. for teaching culture while teaching language.
Culture is a set of beliefs, attitudes, behavioral conventions, and basic assumptions and values. It
is not easy to teach culture unless the language teacher knows about it. Language teacher can show the
way rather than regulate a particular way of seeing things, which has the inclination of cultural
imperialism. He can make his students aware of the important traits in the target culture, they realize
that there are no such things as superior or inferior and there are differences among the people of
distinctive cultures. Comparison between the two cultures is the best way to understand a foreign
culture. But some questions can be raised in English Language teaching: How should culture be taught?
When should language teacher teach culture? Why is it necessary for students to learn about the culture?
Hence and so forth. Pragmatic awareness plays a significant role in social interaction. Students need to
be aware of the culturally appropriate ways to address people, make requests, express gratitude, and
agree or disagree with someone. As well as the language teacher need to have the ability to experience
and analyze both own and target culture. He should teach the potential differences between the mother
tongue of the students and the target language in order to make them understand the differences between
the own and target culture.
Through literature students learn different cultures. Literature has a great potential. Literature in
the form of poetry, plays, novels, stories can be used as a tool in English language teaching and target
culture. It gives chance to students to be able to communicate ideas, customs, convictions, etc. of the
target culture. Literature has the inherent capacity to make students human in a deep sense. Students
right from the moment of the process of learning English language are acquainted with literature in the
form of rhymes, stories, poems. From that time if teacher taught them the target culture giving
examples, references, they would learn culture easily.
A language cannot exist in vacuum. It has to express some objective function when utterances
are made or some text is written. So language and literature are not separate parts. And when we learn a
language we definitely learn the culture of it because the cultural aspect comes amalgamated with the
target language. It is true that while learning a second language, the influence of the culture of that
language is inevitable.
Conclusion
Language is a receptacle and a transmitter of habits, traditions, mundane activities, social and
economical context; in a word, it reflects the human soul. Today English is becoming an international
language. One must accommodate the fact that the use of English language in international
communication is increasing, and thus, it is gaining momentum as being an international language.
Many experts believe this to be a positive step towards world unification.
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References:
Byram, Michael & Grundy P.: Context and Culture in Language Teaching & Learning: Multilingual Matters. Google Book,
2008.
Kramsh, C. : Language and culture, Oxford University Press, 1998.
Emmit M. & Pollock J. : Language and Learning: An Introduction for Teaching, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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Effective Strategies & Use of Technology in ELT
Mr. Nalawade Prashant Ramchandra
Laxmibai Bhaurao Patil Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Solapur
Abstract: This paper throws light on the fact that the Internet to support learning and teaching requires a culture
change for both the teaching staff and the students. Both staff and students need to perceive an “added value” to using
the Internet as opposed to other resources for course related work and not simply see the Internet in terms of leisure
activities. E-mail and the ability to communicate with others on a global basis can be a very important and useful aid
to the learning and teaching process.
Key words: Internet, E-learning, Remote Learning, Meta-information
Introduction
When the Internet first introduced to students as a tool to gather data, many learners in India caught
into euphoria by simply throw their printed materials away and switched their learning habit into the new
technology. This phenomenon also gives big impact on the teaching and learning of languages and culture.
This paper tries to look at how to define a standard of learning by using the Internet. What value students
can learn from using and how to create a comprehensive and effective internet based learning system
without abusing it?
A. Internet: a definition
Hill and Slater in Network Technology And Language Learning, mentioned that the Internet, which
is part of network technology have certain characteristics such as the power to stimulate, excite and
motivate learners in ways which are far beyond the reach of a teacher working alone in a traditional
classroom. However it is required for the learners to be creative by designing host of activities that can be
promoted which involve learners in operating creatively and imaginatively. It is sometimes hard yet very
exciting experience for the traditional and conventional knowledge provider.
The Internet also offers a variety of tools to users. First, there is the potential for remote access to
resources, either authentic (e.g. electronic newspapers) or purpose written, to support language study.
Access to these resources is increasingly available via the World Wide Web, which allows users to browse
and search a vast spectrum of hyperlinked materials ranging from text and pictures through to video. Web
resources have varying degrees of built-in interactivity. Some are limited to simple page turning
functionality while others allow students to complete exercises and then obtain feedback. (Hill and Slater,
1998) Another important feature of the Internet is the potential it offers for communication.
This may be asynchronous communication, for example e-mail, newsgroups and computer
conferencing, or synchronous, through such facilities as Internet Relay Chat (IRC), Internet telephony and
video conferencing. Early applications of the Internet for language learning generally exploited single
facilities offered by the Internet. The projects which resulted tended to focus either on accessing Internet
resources or enabling student-to-student communication.
B. E-learning
E - learning can be interpreted in many ways::

Electronic learning
 Effective learning
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Extend the classroom
Exploration is an Extraordinary experience
Extra efforts
Enrich knowledge
Enhance communication
Those definitions above share the same idea: “offering a new way of learning.” It does not say,
however, about the requirement of high cost technology. Instead it suggests that learning can be done
anywhere, anytime without any barrier in space and time which the internet has to offer. In previous
research, Teo and Gay (2006) admitted that e-learning has shown much promise for fostering significant
improvements in accessibility and opportunity to learn. It couples advances in technology of the
information highway to eliminate barriers of time, distance, and socioeconomic status, and thereby creating
a whole new learning experience. The major concern about e-learning is that there are no universal standard
for online learning and teaching. Therefore, many organizations including the higher institutions are
jumping into the arena and proclaiming their systems as “e-learning-compliant.” But actually these
organizations are only automating their services and delivering their courses online. Except for the
elimination of the time and space barrier, the online content provides no additional enhancement to the
educational learning experience.
The mistakes that most Higher Education Institution (HEI) made are mostly because there are no
clear concepts about the e-learning as a means of teaching methodology. Most of the HEI are not focus on
knowledge but rather on showcasing the technology, which means that e -learning should be more than just
a collection of technological solutions. The technology involved in e-learning should be seen only as
vehicles for delivering learning content. For instance: an e-learning solution however sophisticated, using
stylish multimedia delivery, should focus on enhancing the learning and intellectual interaction at the
cognitive, behavioral, and physiological levels. Gardner (1999) said that any technology is pedagogically
neutral and can therefore be applied to different aspects of pedagogy. The educational approach or
philosophy is more important than the selection of the technology itself; pedagogical methods utilizing even
the simplest technologies can be extremely effective. Secondly, even though how sophisticated a machine
was designed it cannot replace human. Therefore, the design of instructionally sound e-learning should be
given more importance as compared to traditional classroom learning. The subject matter expert (SME) has
to be more informative and also intuitive enough, to stand on its own, without the need for further
interpretation (Gardner 1999). It is important to note that information on the web is not really knowledge.
What is done with this information will make it knowledge. Lastly, in e-learning, it is not the information
that has value. Information is abundant, and even excessive, due to current advances in information and
communication technologies. Instead, according to Gay, what is of value is in the metainformation. That
is, knowledge of the type of information, when it is useful, what to do with it, and how to reuse it. Therefore,
the heart of e-learning lies in how the system defines and manages knowledge content. Most importantly,
the future direction of e-learning should be shifting from a content-oriented approach to a knowledge
synthesis approach.
Integrating the Internet in the Teaching - Learning process
Use of the Internet in Educational Institutions
Way of Communication
Undoubtedly, E-mail has changed the way people communicate. In HEI, e-mail could provide
students, regardless of time or place, with a direct channel to their tutor to report on progress, ask questions,
and discuss other course related issues. This has now been successfully utilized in many HE institutions.
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Remote Learning
The high speed internet connection has enabled users to have a “real time” visual communication.
The streaming audio and video can be exploited into a teleconferencing event which enables teacher to
facilitate a 'long distance' class room, which students could interactively communicate with their
counterparts. The authentic picture and sounds from the webcam could provide an exciting learning
experience for learners. If privacy is such an important issue, students could create a virtual chatting room to
discuss about certain topic and share ideas.
Data Terminal
The Internet is also widely used to provide administrative data. Timetables, module content and
assessment information, staff details, links to other (mainly textual) data sources, can be found and more
importantly it can be accessed in learners' anywhere and anytime. HE institutions can also optimize this
capability by creating pointers to various multimedia data resources relevant to subject content as teaching
staff are constructing Web pages to help structure students' data gathering and to provide access to a variety
of other resources. Such pointers may contain links to other sites where lecture notes, research papers,
discussion documents, virtual environments, program code, images, sounds, icons, buttons, etc. are
available, or to other resources such as interactive tutorials.
Shared Workspace
The Internet can also be used to provide shared workspaces for students to allow them to contribute
to each other's learning. Students can publish their work, collaborate using interactive whiteboards and
computer conferencing, and explore and create 3D worlds and multimedia presentations.
Collaborative Learning
Networking capability, which enables collaborative working for users is considered as the greatest
feature in the internet. Various researchers believe that this feature is extremely important for learners'
learning experience. Gokhale quotes that “collaborative working means that students will be capable of
performing at higher intellectual levels.” Bruner (1985) also mentions that co-operative learning methods
improve problem- solving strategies” (Gokhale, 1995). Previous research conducted by Johnson and
Johnson (1997) has shown the positive impact of collaborative learning compared to the individualistic
learning for individual achievement. In these studies, cooperative learning has been shown to promote
higher individual achievement than competitive or individualistic learning. In the same article, they also
said that co-operation among learners promotes greater intrinsic motivation to learn, more frequent use of
cognitive processes such as re-conceptualization, higher-level reasoning, cognitive elaboration, and
networking. The issue is to find a new ways of organizing communities of learners. This can be done by
establishing a virtual discussion forum, mailing list or web Blog.
Learning through Online Learning community and Social Network Service
Online learning community is a term for a place on the Internet that shares the learning needs of its
members through proactive and collaborative partnerships. People work as a community to achieve a
shared learning objective, which may be proposed by an instructor or may arise out of discussions between
participants that reflect personal interests. In an online community, people communicate via text (chat),
audio, video, or other devices. According to Riel and Pollin (2004), the categorization of intentional online
learning communities is divided into: Knowledge-based, Practice-based, and Task-based. They are
uniquely created by users to specifically address their needs and interest. In general, this community
grouped themselves based on the method of communication that they are using such as:
1. Learning community
- Instant messaging
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- Chat
- Yahoo Messenger®
2. Content Management
- WebCT/Blackboard http://www.blackboard.com/us/index.Bb
- Angel http://www.angellearning.com/
- Desire2Learn http://www.desire2learn.com/
- Moodle http://moodle.org
3. Social Networking
- Facebook http://www.facebook.com/
- SecondLife http://secondlife.com/
- Friendster http://www.friendster.com/
- MySpace http://www.myspace.com/
4. Learning Object Storage Area
- Merlot (Multimedia Educational Resources for Learning and Online
Teaching) http://www.merlot.org/merlot/index.htm
- Taking It Global http://www.takingitglobal.org/
5. Blogs
- Blogger https://www.blogger.com/start
Compared to the other learning methods, social networking website such as Friendster®
and Facebook.® offers a very exciting learning tool based on the Circle of Friends (social network) and Web
of Friends techniques for networking individuals in a huge number of virtual communities (Friendster® for
example currently has 50 million users). Students can even interact with someone from another country by
using a social network service in the internet. Students may find this very interesting and it will be very
useful for learning culture from different country.
Independent learning
Internet will be a great companion to support independent learning. The vast amount of data can be
great resources for learners. It can be applied in the Self access language learning center that encourages
students to study independently by choosing from among different resources that are available. But before
starting with learning using this style of learning is that students, especially foreign language students, learn
better if they have the concept in how they learn. The Self-access language learning style is closely related to
learner-centered approach, learner autonomy and self-directed learning as all focus on student
responsibility and active participation for his or her own learning. The application of the internet in self
access language center can be in various ways such as by placing digital centers in many corners of the
center or by uploading materials of self access learning online. What resources are available and how
students are guided to use them depend on the financial resources available and how much learner autonomy
an institution decides to give students. The major advantage is Some of the advantages of combining
internet in the self access learning is that students at the very least set the pace of their work. Students can
also set the level and content of their work and use the self access center to do their assignments. Therefore,
it supports flexibility, with the purpose of giving the students themselves the opportunity to tailor the course
to fit their learning needs and styles than the conventional mode of teaching. Use of multiple technologies
in a more independent setting has been shown to improve motivation and increase students' ability to work
independently by taking more responsibility for their own learning. Students also report feeling more
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“empowered” by such modes of instruction.
Internet use at Binus University
Bina Nusantara University (BINUS University) has applied e-learning since 1998 and regards it as a
way of learning outside the conventional face to face learning. BINUS has developed the MCL (Multi
Channel Learning) that combines many forms of learning to get a more fun and exciting learning
experience. It combines both face to face (F2F) sessions and free activity class or off-class (OFC) sessions.
MCL combines several channels of technology: email, CDROM, mailing list, Web and also includes digital
content: text, graphic, tables, figures, video, animation, audio, presentation, simulation. Although e-mail is
beginning to replace the culture of students trying to actually see tutors in person by knocking on office
doors, students tend to expect tutors to be there and be ready to be contacted. This is probably more of
cultural style of South Korean people who regard personal contact as important value. When students send
an e-mail, they often come and see the teacher and ask if he or she has read the e-mail. To facilitate room for
discussion, BINUS created the Binusmaya, a dedicated virtual space for student and lecturer to interact each
other. Here, the users of Binus Maya created a virtual and digital learning community where lecturers store
their digital course materials on the Learning Management System (LMS). Students, on the other hand
could access the materials, discuss them with their peers and lecturers in the discussion forum provided.
Digital course materials on LMS could take any form of text and multimedia components such as in the form
of text format (.doc, .PDF, .rtf), interactive animation (.flash), movie (DVD, VCD, mp4), and music (mp3,
wma). The philosophy that underlines this practice is the notion that learning should focus on the learner.
The system should develop learner to have a responsible attitude, intrinsic motivation, self-confidence, and
more importantly a positive attitude toward learning. Learners should focus on the process of their learning
and self-evaluate their own progress. Therefore, the learning management system is directed to create a
student centered learning attitudes that have: The syllabus, the exam, and the info are provided to the users
to share. Learners are responsible for their own learning. The systems are to facilitate learning by providing
resources and support. The teacher, on the other hand, trust the learners of their motivation to learn and will
take responsibility for their own learning.
Conclusion
Using the Internet to support learning and teaching requires a culture change for both the teaching
staff and the students. Both staff and students need to perceive an “added value” to using the Internet as
opposed to other resources for course related work and not simply see the Internet in terms of leisure
activities. E-mail and the ability to communicate with others on a global basis can be a very important and
useful aid to the learning and teaching process.
On the other hand, failure in using the internet can be caused by learning anxiety both learners and teacher.
This is due to the change of nature of learning and change of how both sides perceived the technology as part
of the learning process. Overdependence on teachers toward technology can also bring failure. There should
be a sense of balance among the teacher as facilitator in perceiving information technology as source of
knowledge. Creativity of teachers in developing the course material is the key factor before integrating the
internet inside the classroom. Teachers also should build a sense of trust and create a positive attitude
between them. The biggest challenge for the conventional traditional teacher, however, is the willingness to
'update' the old conservative teaching style by diversifying their source of knowledge. The euphoria of
learners while discovering information through the web can be considered as part of learning. This can be
done by suggesting learners to access only the approved website when browsing for information. They are
allowed to open search engine but they should be lead to open the specific web addressees. Our experience is
suggesting users to open a 'safer and much reliable' URL such as those with the extension of: .org, .gov, .edu,
and warn them about the .com (dot com) because of its commercial nature.
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References
Gay.R. (2006) A Knowledge-Driven Model to Personalize E-Learning, ACM Journal of Educational Resources in
Computing, Vol. 6, No.1, March
2006.Article 3. (pp. 1-15)
Gokhale, A.A. (1995), “Collaborative learning enhances critical thinking” at <http//scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/jtev7n1/gokhale.jte-v7n1.html>
referenced to Journal of Technology Education, Vol. 7 No. 1. (retrieved, November 5, 2007. 5:30 PM)
Honey, M., Mc.Millan Culp, K. and Carrigg (1999) Perspectives on technology and education research: Lessons from the
past and present,
http://www.ed.gov/rchstat/eval/tech/techconf99/whitepapers/paper1.html. (retrieved November 2, 2007, 3:45 PM)
Mernit, S. (1996), “Publishing on the WWW: what's happening today and what may happen in the future”,
http://www.ed.gov/Technology/Futures/mernit.html
Riel, M., & Polin, L. (2004). Online learning communities: Common ground and critical differences in designing technical
environments. In Barab, R. Kling & J. Gray H.
(Eds.), Designing for virtual communities in the service of learning (pp. 16-50). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Grattan, Brown, Horgan (1998) Student C&IT skills development and the learning environment: evaluation and module
evolution, Education + Training Volume 40 ·
Number 8 · 1998 · pp. 366373, MCB University Press Hill B, Slater P (1998) Network technology and language learning,
Education + Training, Vol. 40 no.8, pp. 374-379
Vygotsky, L. (1978), Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological
Processes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Bruner, J. (1985), Vygotsky: An Historical and Conceptual Perspective. Culture, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian
Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, London.
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ELT through Popular Culture: An Innovative Approach
Dr. Pratibha N Mahato
Kavi Kulguru Insitute of Technology & Science
Nagpur
Abstract: Realizing the significance of television and its impact on language development of young people, the
author has designed a methodology where undergraduate students are exposed to a wide range of selected
conversational pieces taken from popular Television shows. The material has been designed in such a way, that it
enables the learners to improve their conversational skills. The significance of the study lies in the fact that instead of
relying on the readymade softwares available in the market, the author has made an attempt to develop the material
from indigenous sources. This has enabled the learners to identify with the material thereby enhancing the chances of
learning English. It is to be noted that the impact of popular Television serials is not confined to these aspects only, but
also is felt in other domains such as learning ideas, getting information of new things and culture.
Keywords: Television serials, spoken skills, indigenous material, readymade softwares
Introduction
Speaking is the result of listening carefully. A child picks up words from the environment in which it grows
after a careful listening of the language his parents, and near & dear ones. Earlier, our homes were not
flooded with Televisions, Computers and CD's, and the child thus was exposed only with the language
which his parents, friends, teachers spoke. In last few decades, owing to the electronics revolution, the
child has started picking up language even from electronic media whose presence is all pervasive nowadays.
The child is continually exposed to the language the television shows through the advertisements, popular
serials, real shows etc. to name a few. Informal lifelong learning outside the educational institutions has
often been neglected globally.
But then it is time now that we as cultures of learning must recognize and value the wide range of informal
learning. In popular culture, television serials have both intentionally and unintentionally been sites for
learning the English language and their significance need to be more thoroughly researched. But then, these
challenges the conventional methodologies of teaching English and innovative approaches are needed.
1. Scope
The author of this paper has been working as the teachers of Communication Skills at the undergraduate
level in Engineering College for many years. Realizing the significance of television and its impact on
language development of young people, she has designed a methodology where undergraduate students are
exposed to a wide range of selected conversational pieces taken from popular Television shows. The
material has been designed in such a way that it enables the learners to develop their conversational skills.
The significance of the study lies in the fact that instead of relying on the conversational pieces from alien
cultures, she has made an attempt to use the material from indigenous culture. This has enabled the learners
to identify with the material and thereby enhancing the chances of learning English. It is to be noted that the
impact of Television shows is not confined to these aspects but also is felt in other domains such as learning
ideas, getting information of new things and culture.
2. Context
Television serials in English are an excellent way to pick up idiomatic expressions and casual language
usage, though these expressions often may not be 'proper' English. This is a great place to start to learn
colloquial expressions and accent varieties. It helps to take the language away from the artificial classroom
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norm, which helps students because they get to see/hear the language in a more natural setting.
But then, in the English television serials, the learners cannot identify themselves either with the culture of
the alien country nor can they identify themselves with the characters of the serials. Watching a serial in
one's mother tongue is somehow more entertaining, more captivating, more profound than in English. The
learner requires immersion, complete immersion. In short, the learner can get this extensive immersion
experience only when one can identify oneself with the culture of the country and the character show.
Hence, the choice of the indigenous material.
3. Literature Survey
The use of television in educational broadcasting has been around for a very long time, and is relatively well
researched. According to Fieldhouse (1995), 'it is arguable that broadcasting has been the major adult
education agency of the twentieth century'. Where the literature goes beyond the techniques of using
television as a 'window on the world' in the classroom, or a major teaching strategy in distance education,
into a more cultural analysis of the uses of television, it has largely been researched with children, and in
particular concentrating on the effects of violence in the media (G. Gunn,1977).
The critical insights of William Raymond way back in 1961 had made it clear that there exist 'television
glued class' in the society. This naturally establishes a link between what is said in Television serials and the
real language used by this class. Another study was carried out by Allen at Centre for Contemporary
Cultural Studies (CCCS) Birmingham. Part of the CCCS analysis was to look at the genre of television
serials (soap operas in USA and UK) as cultural studies. As the literature indicates, the analysis of soap
operas is multi-dimensional. There are debates about genre what are the defining characteristics of a soap
opera that set it aside from any other television program? According to Allen, the defining of a program as a
soap depends on “ target audience, interpretive communities, and transnational and transcultural factors”.
The second debating point is if there is any relationship between soaps and everyday life do they accurately
reflect society, or are they unrealistic or distorted fictions?
A content analysis of Indian TV serials over a period of time shows (1) that educational issues are
intentionally raised in only a minority of episodes of a very few serials ( e.g. Balika Badhu aired in Colors
channel) (2) there is considerable evidence of values and attitudes being promoted (Pavitra Rishta aired in
Zee TV, Parichay in Colors) regarding social values and sustained through serials towards a number of
social and political issues and problems, including health, welfare, employment and learning itself.
Sometimes shows are praised for raising delicate issues such as sexual abuse and rape, eating disorders,
infidelities, and drug abuse; at other times, they are criticized for being too serious and failing to entertain
because the issues being dealt with are so sensitive.
Through the worldwide web, there are enhanced and global opportunities to engage in discussion about
these shows. The numbers of chat forums that focus on specific serials in general are vast, and the level of
participation is high.
4. Designing Materials with the help of Popular Culture
Carefully researching, the language aspects of popular Television shows, the authors have successfully
designed ten hours of teaching material with the objective of enhancing spoken skills of learners. This
material can be successfully used in the language classrooms.
4.1 Contents: The said material contents selected extracts from six episodes from the comedy serial
“Sarabhai vs. Sarabhai” which is a 2005 sitcom set in a quintessential upper class family in Mumbai. By
using these episodes it is expected that the learners will develop and improve their spoken skills The show
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revolves around the life of a fictional Gujarati family- the Sarabhai's, who are portrayed as a typical family
belonging to the class of elite socialites of Mumbai. The family consists of Indravardhan Sarabhai and his
wife Maya, who live in an apartment with their younger son Rosesh, and their elder son Sahil and his wife
Manisha live in the opposite flat. The middle class habits of Monisha irritate Maya and thus “Sarabhai VS
Sarabhai”. Much of the humour is derived from the artificiality and shallowness in the interactions of the
city's elite and their perceived notions of the shortcomings of middle class. The contents selected from the
six episodes can be summarized as follows:

Elite class conversation: The first episode familiarizes the students with elite class conversation. By
listening to it, they can pick up the words and terms as well as the tone which is quite characteristic of a
typical elite class mother in law.
Extract two brings into picture the anglicized tone of the protagonist Rosesh, which is finding favour
with young people in India.

Extract number 3 refers to the process of sanskritization where the lower sections of society
deliberately cultivate behaviour, culture and language of the elite class. The learners can easily identify with
the situation and the character of Monisha concerned episode.

Extract number 4 depicts amateur but enthusiast poet , Rosesh who is all set at all the times to recite
his poems to everyone he meets. Besides bringing in some humourous element, the episode aims at
awakening interest in literary language among the learners. Literary aspects of the language are very
significant step in the development of spoken skills.


Extract number 5 introduces a new character whose talk replete with professional jargons. This
episode takes the learners to the rim of technology, computer, I-pods. etc.

Extract number 6 deals with the language of proletariat. This is very important as millions of
students in India do come from this class and learn English as their second language in schools and colleges.
Their socio-cultural background makes them appreciate, understand and assimilate this language with ease.
4.2 Methodology: The designed material can be executed in Language laboratory by using the translation
method of Language Learning. The advocates of direct method may be critical of translation method but, the
designers of this material on the basis of their long term association with Indian students, majority of whom
learn English as a second language, believe that the use of translation method is advantageous in more than
one way. It enables the learners to understand the context clearly. They can identify with the socio-cultural
situation and can also identify themselves with the characters easily. The use of this method eliminates
majority of the barriers which come in the way of relating to character setting and environment.
The real execution of this material requires six episodes which can be shown in audio visual form to the
learners. In optimum conditions students are required to watch every episode for 10 minutes. Then they are
asked to translate the conversation into English and give subtitles of the conversation. Sarabhai vs. Sarabhai
is also available on the internet to watch or download. For these episodes, there are 4-5 paragraph
summaries available for each episode on websites of popular Indian television comedy shows. These
summaries provided the language that they needed to think about, talk about, and write about what
happened in each episode.
The official website of Saravai vs. Saravai includes a fan forum which learners read and also make
comments, another great way to practice. The fan facebook page offers the same opportunity.
One can pause the video periodically and enact what one has just heard or mirror the dialogue aloud in
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English without pausing. Sounds easy, but it's not! To work on tone and accent, the learners can choose a
character whose way of speaking one likes.
4.3 Limitations: The designed material has certain limitations. All the spoken skills cannot be developed
with the help of this material. As the characters are not the native speakers of the language, the accuracy of
tone, accent and pronunciation cannot be expected.
As the study uses translation method there are certain limitations so far the sentence construction is
concerned. The material is not very exhaustive. It can be supplemented depending upon the availability of
time and needs of learners.
Conclusion
In English language, learning is a complex and intricate process for non native speakers. The material
discussed in this paper attempts to smoothen this process by removing some of the barriers of setting,
environment, and cultural milieu. Once students identify with the characters, setting and environment, they
are motivated to learn English. Although this material is not sufficient to teach all the aspects of spoken
English, it has great motivational and inspirational value for the same. Once the learner is motivated, half of
the task of the teacher is over.
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REFERENCES:
Dunn, D. The Box in the corner: Television and the under Fives. London: Macmillan; M.J.A. Hare(ed) Learning from Television:
Psychological and Educational Research. London: Academic Press, 1997.
Fieldhouse, R. Historical perspectives on future developments and diversity in British Adult Education, in Ian Bryant(ed),
Vision,Invention, Intervention- Celebrating Adult Education;Papers from the 25th Annual Standing Conference on
university Teaching and Research in the education of adults, Winchester1995, University of
Southhampton/SCUTERA;p81, 1995.
O'Connor, A. Raymond Williams on Television: Selected Writings. London: Routledge,1989.
Williams, R. The Long Revolution. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.p361, 1961.
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Need for Teachers' Training for ELT
Dr. Pravin Joshi
Sindhu Mahavidyalaya, Nagpur
Abstract: A trained teacher will always be regular and punctual, health conscious, hard on taking leaves, will
have a sense of responsibility and accountability, will ever be ready to take up the challenges whenever they
come. He will always try not only to impart instructions but also to add new dimensions to the personality of his
students, making them globally competitive in this era of globalization. He knows that his duty is not only to
produce successful students but also to create world class citizens who respect and follow human values at all
costs. He is not aware of his legal duties alone but also of his moral duties towards the entire society. He knows
that the raw material that he gets has to be converted into his masterpieces which will stand the test of time and
trust of all. He is kind, considerate, loving, adjusting, accommodative, broad and secular in his outlook and
democratic in his approach, the one that will never fail. He will develop the art of dramatization, knowledge of
the mother tongue knowledge of English grammar, correct pronunciations, stress, intonation and pitch. He will be
aware of the psychology of his students. He must be able to properly use different teaching aids to teach English.
He should be innovative and resourceful in using advance techniques of teaching English.
Keywords: globalization, enthusiasm, communicator, responsibility, personal interaction.
Introduction
Since the whole world has come together in this era of globalization, English as the link language
has to shoulder many more responsibilities. Whatever may be the reasons, English is leading itself as the
world language. Earlier it was called an international language as many more nations used to transact their
business through this language. But now it has got a greater status as the world language as most of the
nations in the world have seriously taken up learning of English as the upper most need of the time. Even
China has started giving lessons of English to the students after realizing the importance of English not only
for the survival as a nation but also in becoming economic power and superpower. It is true that English is
spoken in different ways in different places. It is also true that Australian English is much different from the
English that is spoken in England or from the English which is called American English. At the same time
pronunciations, stress, intonation, which are called supra segmental elements vary from nation to nation, a
fact which makes at times English unintelligible even to the native speakers.
If English has to sustain as a world language and connect the whole world together, the teacher of
English must possess certain qualities which can be acquired through a proper training.
The objective of this paper is to highlight the need of training for teachers of English in this era of
globalization when English has acquired the status of the world language.
The Importance of Teachers' Training
The quality of education depends mostly on the qualities of a teacher apart from the curriculum and
the campus atmosphere. The teachers are mainly responsible for maintaining improving and sustaining the
quality of education. Therefore, if we have quality teachers, we can certainly produce quality students.
Teachers' quality is the most important within school factor having effect on students' performance. What
the qualities of an effective teacher can do for students can be summarized in the following way:
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Love for Teaching
A trained teacher whose imparting instructions become effective after undergoing a proper training
takes greater interest in the act of teaching. He is able to dilute himself to the level of his students in an
effective manner, and he is able to bring smiles to the faces of the students, which is the reflection of the
deeper understanding of the subject taught by him. A trained teacher will always remain energetic,
enthusiastic and resourceful. He enjoys his job and is ever ready to employ newer techniques with a
view to improving the quality of instructions. There is no let up in his enthusiasm as he takes up the work
of teaching like an evangelist with the exemplary missionary zeal.
2)
Caring Attitude
A trained teacher who is highly spirited in the matter of teaching also develops a caring attitude towards
his students. He knows that personal interaction with his students will reveal to him many facts about every
individual student, the knowledge of which will help him a lot in customizing his instructions. Taking the
time to get to know a student on a personal level takes a lot of time and dedication. At the same time there is
also a time that no teacher wants to cross where their relationship becomes too personal. However, trained
teachers know how to balance this without crossing this line. Moreover, once a student begins to believe that
the teacher truly cares for him, there is no limit to what that student can achieve.
3)
Readiness for New Experiments
A trained teacher is ever ready to take unbeaten paths and to make new experiments instead of going a
traditional way. He explores all the avenues in order to make his teaching more effective in such a manner as
to provide more benefits to the students. Adopting new techniques and novel approaches will enrich his own
experience as a teacher and at the same time reaching benefits to the students.
4)
Good at Communication
There are teachers who have a lot of knowledge but since they are not good communicators, the delivery
from them is not that effective. Some teachers are good at communication but they lack the essential extent
and depth of knowledge. The one who has the necessary knowledge and is also a good communicator is a
successful teacher. At the same time a trained teacher will ever strive to rise from being a good
communicator to being a great communicator. He should not only be able to communicate to his students
but also to his colleagues and the parents of the students as well.
5)
Proactive Attitude
A proactive teacher is the one who foresees the problems of the students well in advance and on his own
he tries to solve them. He will initiate the students into fearlessly opening up with him and getting to the
problems that they face while studying. Being proactive does not replace being adaptive. One thing is
certain that a proactive teacher can address the problems of a student on his own to a large extent.
6)
Not to be Complacent
A trained teacher will never be complacent in what he does as he is aware that his performance as a
teacher can be bettered every day as his experience grows and enriches. To him even the best can be bettered.
If a teacher becomes complacent, he leaves no scope for developing newer approaches and techniques.
7)
Effective Planning
A trained teacher will never go about his teaching in a haphazard manner. In fact, he will have a well
planned academic calendar and lesson plans ready with him beforehand. It will help him a lot and he does
not have to hurry over any of the portions that he has to teach. He will materialize his plan at ease without any
hurry. Such planning will certainly make justice with the students as the subject course will be covered in
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proper necessary stages enabling them to plan their studies accordingly.
8) Other Qualities
A trained teacher will always be regular and punctual, health conscious, hard on taking leaves, will have
a sense of responsibility and accountability, will ever be ready to take up the challenges whenever they
come. He will always try not only to impart instructions but also to add new dimensions to the personality of
his students, making them globally competitive in this era of globalization. He knows that his duty is not
only to produce successful students but also to create world class citizens who respect and follow human
values at all costs. He is not aware of his legal duties alone but also of his moral duties towards the entire
society. He knows that the raw material that he gets has to be converted into his masterpieces which will
stand the test of time and trust of all. He is kind, considerate, loving, adjusting, accommodative, broad and
secular in his outlook and democratic in his approach, the one that will never fail. He will develop the art of
dramatization, knowledge of the mother tongue knowledge of English grammar, correct pronunciations,
stress, intonation and pitch. He will be aware of the psychology of his students. He must be able to properly
use different teaching aids to teach English. He should be innovative and resourceful in using advance
techniques of teaching English. Knowledge of computer operation and various internet programmes will
always tell him apart from others. Ultimately the desire to shape the future of his students must be upper
most in his mind, which is possible only through a proper training.
Conclusion
As far as the teacher of English is concerned, the training becomes all the more necessary as he has to
teach a language which enjoys the status of the world language. So his responsibility in this regard is much
more. Therefore, through a proper training he must develop thorough knowledge of English, a genuine
interest in learning and teaching English, passionate love for English and scientific methods of teaching
English.
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References
Birnbaum M., Youth Renewal Fund Launches Israel's First Ever
National Teacher Professional Development Program.
National Forum Of Teacher Education Journal
Volume 16, Number 3, 2006
Malikow M., Are Teachers Born or Made?
The Necessity of Teacher Training Programs
Kelly M. About.com, Importance of Effective Teacher Training
Why Effective Teacher Training is Key to Teaching Success Wikipedia, Free Encyclopedia.
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Creating Internal Bridge System for Better Learning of English in Rural Areas
Rajendra M Pise
Jagat Arts, Comm. & I.H.P. Sc. College,
Goregaon, Dist. Gondia
Abstract: English occupies a place of prestige in our country, even after more than four decades since Britishers left
India. No indigenous language however has come up to replace English, either as a medium of communication or as
an official language. With the Independence in spite of many a movement against the teaching of English in India
under the influence of nationalistic feeling and emotional hostility English began to reassert its position but,
surprisingly, the number of people who can speak and write English as intelligibly and correctly as native speakers of
the language do is receding day by day.
Key words: Influence of nationalistic feeling, emotional hostility, Communicative Competence, Group
Cohesiveness
Introduction
English language teaching in India is one of the largest enterprises in the world. English is taught,
st
practically, from the 1 standard to the masters' level. Since its introduction in the Indian education system,
English has undergone many changes and it is likely to continue with the same. There is realization that
Teacher directed, and dominated class rooms cannot, by their nature be interactive classrooms…..'(Rivers:
1987:9)' leading us to learner-oriented approaches. At the university level the Literary English text books
have been replaced by Practical English framework in many universities. The compulsory courses in
English are aimed at enabling students to se English effectively and skillfully in practical situations. These
changes are certainly welcome and show a changing face of our educational system. However, ironically,
even today a majority of our students in the rural areas don't seem to have benefitted from these changes.
There certainly has been a gap between the objectives, expectations and reality in case of these students.
There are many factors responsible for this state. It is essential to address these problems and find feasible
solutions. This paper first discusses the problems faced in the teaching of English as a compulsory subject
and then makes attempt to explore ways to tackle these problems and temperate the process of learning.
The Problem
In most colleges in rural areas English is taught as a compulsory course as prescribed by the respective
university. The syllabus, textbook, examination pattern and objectives are set by the respective boards of
studies keeping the 'majority' in mind. Hence, the role of the teacher remains restricted to the set pattern.
The following diagram shows the factors that a teacher and a learner do not have control over.
Text-Book Evaluation
Teaching
Syllabus and Learning
No. Of
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English
Students
Objectives
Fig. Factors beyond control
How Does This Affect Teaching And Learning?
The above diagram shows that in most of the teaching and learning situations the objectives, syllabus,
text book, number of students and evaluation are 'invariable' factors from an individual teacher's point. The
course is designed keeping certain assumptions regarding student's knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and
language skills. In many colleges there are more than 100 students in the classroom which contributes to the
loss of 'practical' sense in such classes. The teacher is disappointed to see that the students are not able to
construct even a couple of sentences properly or read and understand 'supposedly' simple passages in
English. This indicates a sure gap between the assumption and the reality. Students with weak linguistic
competence have low communicative competence. Moreover, 'without personal competence the first two
(linguistic and communicative competence) do not yield success.' (Stevick: 1982:18) Some students,
because of rigid formal teaching, have no experience in taking initiative and participating imaginatively in
task oriented, purposeful or cooperative learning.
Therefore, the personal competence also becomes important in the process of learning. The following
diagram is suggestive of the same
Personal Competence
Linguistic Competence
Communicative Competence
Fig. Three Types of Competence
Prevailing Attitudes and Practices about Learning of English among Rural Students
By and large it is found that the standard of English of our students in rural areas is low. In many
observations, the following factors seem responsible:
a) English language is seen as an imposition as the language is a compulsory subject in the school and
college curriculum.
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b) Many learners do not attend English classes as they label these boring.
c) Many, anyhow, memorize the materials in English and reproduce the answers without knowing the
meaning.
d) Many do not know even the very basic grammatical rules because they never have had an opportunity
to use full and complete sentences in English.
Thorat, S.K. (2007) mentions a few 'teacher centered' problems. They are:
1. The teachers of English pursuing a 'side- businesses.
2. A tendency of superiority complex is noticed in some teachers.
3. Unwillingness to improve their teaching skills.
Hence, we need to work towards and internal bridge of strategies which will prepare readiness for the
learning of English among the students in rural areas.
Suggested Strategies
It is here that the creativity, skills and knowledge of a teacher are called for. Even though the teacher is
mainly the 'executer' of the syllabus, he/she does have a certain degree of freedom to approach the problem
in his/her own way. The following diagram shows the factors that are within the control of a teacher.
Classroom
& Time
Analysis
Management
Innovative
Techniques
Present
Situation
Analysis
(Of Students)
Relationship
With Students
Fig. Factors within Teacher's Control
The above diagram implies that though the 'Target Situation' is not in control, the 'Present Situation'
analysis of the students is available to an individual teacher. The teacher by way of observation or a class
assignment/test can find out strengths and weaknesses of his/her students. Secondly, he/she has the
freedom of utilize the time allotted and use the classroom exploiting all the best possibilities.
A lot depends on the student-teacher relationship as well. The teacher can surely understand the
attitude and motivation of his/her student. Knowing this is necessary as attitude and motivation are usually
related to language achievement independent of aptitude and intelligence. (See Rivers, 1983, Dornyei,
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2001) It is needless to say that a good teacher is never short of innovative techniques. His/her understanding
and innovative techniques can help a teacher build a support system within the constraints of a set course to
make it more useful for the students.
Towards An Internal Bridge System in English Classroom
The course in compulsory English for the B.A. and B.Com mainly focus on language skills. The classes often
consist of more than 100 students. It certainly is impractical to teach practical skills just by delivering lectures. At the
same, it is impossible to give practice to each individual. It is, at this point that the teacher needs to use his/her
management skills.
Promoting the Development of Group Cohesiveness
In the large classrooms it is useful to work with groups of 5 to 6 students each. Further, the students with better
English can be made the group leaders. Peer learning is beneficial in this condition. 'Facts we learn about language
are “inner ideas” until they are tossed about, recombined in original ways, and tested for their communicative4
potential in the natural give and take of interaction between individuals in dynamic interchange within groups may
help them to communicate better. These activities include pair-work, role-play, project work, problem-solving
activity, filling in worksheet etc. Dornyei (2001) suggests intra-group competition and group legends can be very
motivating.
Using Local but Authentic Material
From the students' point of view their time in the classroom is devoted to the enforced attempts to meet
externally imposed demands (Brophy 1998, Dorneyi, 2001). This is one of the most de-motivating factors
for the students. Many experts are of the opinion that local and authentic material may bring in some
positive changes. Hence while getting the students to read, the teacher just needs to go a step ahead and
collect the authentic material according to the levels of comprehension, liking and interests, for example,
pocket copies of the abridged versions of classic work, local English newspaper, travel brochures.
Use of Mobile Phone
One of the widest spread revolutions in India is mobile communication. The rural areas are not
untouched of this 21st century phenomenon. A creative teacher can convert this handy tool into a useful
teaching aid. The teacher can record news, ads, discussions or movie clips from T.V. and use them for
listening skill. Moreover, he/she can record the presentation of the students and show them so that they
become aware of their strengths and weaknesses. This can surely be a highly motivating factor.
Publication
A task with a tangible outcome is always motivating. It requires learners to create some kind of
finished product as the outcome. A monthly class bulletin, a poster, or an
Information brochure of the groups of students, along with interesting interviews, adds to the enthusiasm of
the class. Tim Murphy (1998) found in his experiment that printing students 'comment in the class
newsletter was highly inspirational. Even if printing is not possible in rural areas it is possible to have these
newsletters hand written. The finished product can be circulated in the classroom. In this way, writing can be
seen as a means of communicating ones' thoughts freely.
Competition
One of the most motivating factors in group-dynamics is the competitive spirit. A good teacher should
never fail to exploit this factor in a large classroom.. A quiz, debate, staging of a play, project work,
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extempore etc are some completions that enable students use language practically and effectively. Hence,
these should be included whenever and wherever possible.
Conclusion
In spite of several constraints it is quite possible for a teacher to create an internal bridge system that not
only fills the gap between the assumed and the actual proficiency level of the students in rural areas but also
promotes willingness among them to learn English as a second language easily. The strategies that have
been suggested in this paper are only by way of examples. It is ultimately the immediate context of teaching
situation in rural areas that will determine the choice of material and strategies. However, one needs to keep
in mind that this is only a support system and it in no way should overlook the set curse for which this system
is introduced.
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References
Bruphy, J.E. 1998. Motivating students to Learn. Boston: McGraw Hill.l
Dornyei, Zoltan. 2001. Motivation Strategies in the Language Classroom.
CLT Library. Cambridge: CUP.
Patil, Z.N. et al (2000) English for Practical Purposes: Macmillan India Ltd.
Rivers, W. M. (1983) Communicating Naturally in a Second Language. CUP
Thorat, S.K. (2007) 'Teaching English as Second Language to Meet the
Needs of Learners in Rural areas: A Challenge', Language in India, Vol.
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Direct Method
Ramamurthy G.
Abstract: The Direct Method of teaching was developed as a response to the Grammar-Translation method. It sought
to immerse the learner in the same way as when a first language is learnt. All teaching is done in the target language,
grammar is taught inductively, there is a focus on speaking and listening, and only useful 'everyday' language is
taught. The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a second language can be learnt in exactly the same
way as a first, when in fact the conditions under which a second language is learnt are very different.
Key words: The Direct Method, inductive grammar, EFL context.
Introduction
Sauveur and other believers in the Natural Method argued that a foreign language could be taught
without translation or the use of the learner's native tongue if meaning was conveyed directly through
demonstration and action. The German scholar F. Franke wrote on the psychological principles of direct
association between forms and meanings in the target language (1884) and provided a theoretical
justification for a monolingual approach to teaching. According to Franke, a language could best be taught
by using it actively in the classroom. Rather than using analytical procedures that focus on explanation of
grammar rules in classroom teaching, teachers must encourage direct and spontaneous use of the foreign
language in the classroom. Learners would then be able to induce rules of grammar. The teacher replaced the
textbook in the early stages of learning. Speaking began with systematic attention to pronunciation.
Known words could be used to teach new vocabulary, using mime, demonstration, and pictures.
These natural language learning principles provided the foundation for what came to be known
as the Direct Method, which refers to the most widely known of the natural methods. Enthusiastic
supporters of the Direct Method introduced it in France and Germany (it was officially approved in both
countries at the turn of the century), and it became widely known in the United States through its use by
Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz in successful commercial language schools. (Berlitz, in fact, never used the
term; he referred to the method used in his schools as the Berlitz Method.)
Principles:
1.
Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language.
2.
Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught during the initial phase; grammar, reading and
writing are introduced in intermediate phase.
3.
Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around questionand-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
4.
Grammar is taught inductively.
5.
New teaching points are introduced orally.
6.
Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is
taught by association of ideas.
7.
Both speech and listening comprehensions are taught.
8.
Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
9.
Student should be speaking approximately 80% of the time during the lesson.
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Students are taught from inception to ask questions as well as answer them
History
The Direct Method, also called Natural Method, was established in Germany and France around 1900. It
appeared as an answer to the shortcomings of the Grammar Translation Method. It is a method for teaching
foreign languages that uses the target language, discarding any use of mother tongue in the classroom. As
teachers became frustrated with the students inability to communicate orally, they began to experiment with
new techniques. The idea was that foreign language teaching must be carried out in the same way people
learn their mother tongue!
The method

Translation is completely banished from any classroom activity. Classroom activities are carried out
ONLY in the target language.

Oral teaching comes before any other kind of reading and writing activities.

Use of chain activities accompanied by verbal comments like: I go to the door. I open the door. I
close the door. I return to my place. I sit down. (called the Gouin series)

Grammar is taught inductively. (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of
adequate linguistic forms in the target language.)

Use of realia to teach concrete vocabulary. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association if
ideas.

Emphasis is put on correct pronunciation and grammar.

Teaching through modeling and practice.
The teaching techniques rely mostly on
reading aloud,
question answer exercise,
self correction,
conversation practice,
fill-in-the-blank exercise,
dictation
and paragraph writing.







Advantages
Clearly the Direct Method is a shift away from the Grammar Translation Method. One of its positive points
is that it promises to teach the language and Not about the language. More advantages can be listed as
follows:

It is a natural method which teaches language the same way the mother tongue is acquired. Only the
target language is used and the learning is contextulized.

Its emphasis on speech made it more attractive for those who have needs of real communication in
the target language.

It was one of the first methods to introduce the teaching of vocabulary through realia
Criticism
The Direct Method was quite successful in private language schools, such as those of the Berlitz chain,
where paying clients had high motivation and the use of native-speaking teachers was the norm. But despite
pressure from proponents of the method, it was difficult to implement in public secondary school education.
It overemphasized and distorted the similarities between naturalistic first language learning and classroom
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foreign language learning and failed to consider the practical realities of the classroom. In addition, it lacked
a rigorous basis in applied linguistic theory, and for this reason it was often criticized by the more
academically based proponents of the Reform Movement. The Direct Method represented the product of
enlightened amateurism. It was perceived to have several drawbacks. First, it required teachers who were
native speakers or who had native like fluency in the foreign language. It was largely dependent on the
teacher's skill, rather than on a textbook, and not all teachers were proficient enough in the foreign language
to adhere to the principles of the method. Critics pointed out that strict adherence to Direct Method
principles was often counterproductive, since teachers were required to go to great lengths to avoid using
the native tongue, when sometimes a simple brief explanation in the student's native tongue would have
been a more efficient route to comprehension.
The Harvard psychologist Roger Brown has documented similar problems with strict Direct Method
techniques. He described his frustration in observing a teacher performing verbal gymnastics in an attempt
to convey the meaning of Japanese words, when translation would have been a much more efficient
technique to use. By the 1920s, use of the Direct Method in noncommercial schools in Europe had
consequently declined. In France and Germany it was gradually modified into versions that combined some
Direct Method techniques with more controlled grammar-based activities. The European popularity of the
Direct Method in the early part of the twentieth century caused foreign language specialists in the United
States to attempt to have it implemented in American schools and colleges, although they decided to move
with caution. A study begun in 1923 on the state of foreign language teaching concluded that no single
method could guarantee successful results. The goal of trying to teach conversation skills was considered
impractical in view of the restricted time available for foreign language teaching in schools, the limited
skills of teachers, and the perceived irrelevance of conversation skills in a foreign language for the average
American college student. The study - published as the Coleman Report - advocated that a more reasonable
goal for a foreign language course would be a reading knowledge of a foreign language, achieved through
the gradual introduction of words and grammatical structures in simple reading texts. The main result of this
recommendation was that reading became the goal of most foreign language programs in the United States
(Coleman 1929). The emphasis on reading continued to characterize foreign language teaching in the
United States until World War II.
Although the Direct Method enjoyed popularity in Europe, not everyone had embraced it enthusiastically.
The British applied linguist Henry Sweet had recognized its limitations. It offered innovations at the level of
teaching procedures but lacked a thorough methodological basis. Its main focus was on the exclusive use of
the target language in the classroom, but it failed to address many issues that Sweet thought more basic.
Sweet and other applied linguists argued for the development of sound methodological principles that could
serve as the basis for teaching techniques.
In the 1920s and 1930s applied linguists systematized the principles proposed earlier by the Reform
Movement and so laid the foundations for what developed into the British approach to teaching English as a
foreign language.
Subsequent developments led to Audio-lingualism in the United States and the Oral Approach or Situational
Language Teaching in Britain.
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References
Bussmann, Hadumod (1996), Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, London/New York, s.v. direct
method
Krause, C. A. (1916), The Direct Method in Modern Languages, New York.
Societe Internationale des Ecoles Inlingua (1973), Inlingua English First Book, Berne Switzerland.
Societe Internationale des Ecoles Inlingua (1999), Inlingua Teacher Manual (3rd Edition), Berne Switzerland.
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for ESL Teachers and Learners
Importance of Technology in English Language Teaching and Learning
Rasika .V. Bayaskar
B.Tech III year
VIT,Pune
Abstract: As the use of English has increased in popularity so has the need for qualified teachers to instruct students
in the language. It is true that there are teachers who use 'cutting edge' technology, but the majority of teachers still
teach in the traditional manner. None of these traditional manners are bad or damaging the students. In fact, till date
they are proving to be useful also. However, there are many more opportunities for students to gain confidence
practice and extend themselves, especially for ESL students who learn the language for more than just fun. For them
to keep pace with ELT and gain more confidence they have to stride into the world of information and computer
technology.
Key words: mutable processes, electronic networks, podcasting
Introduction
With the spread and development of English around the world, English is used as a second language in a
country like India and for some people the 1st language. It enjoys a high prestige in the country. At present
the role and status of English in India is higher than ever as evidenced by its position as a key subject of
medium of instruction, curriculum. As the number of English learners is increasing different teaching
methods have been implemented to test the effectiveness of the teaching process. Use of authentic materials
in the form of films, radio, TV has been there for a long time. It is true that these technologies have proved
successful in replacing the traditional teaching.
Language teaching in general and English language teaching in particular has tremendously
changed over the centuries. Language learning and teaching are dynamic, fluid, mutable processes, so there
is nothing fixed about them unlike the teaching of other subjects. Language teaching especially throughout
the twentieth century underwent numerous changes and innovations. Approximately, every decade a new
approach or methodology comes into practice. Many major theories, events, trends and technologies which
shaped English language teaching during the past decades suggest methodologies are as much a product of
their times as educational systems, and rooted in the ideas of their time. Ideas may come into and go out of
fashion. Many new approaches are rediscoveries of old methods neglected but re-illuminated.
As the use of English has increased in popularity so has the need for qualified teachers to instruct
students in the language. It is true that there are teachers who use 'cutting edge' technology, but the majority
of teachers still teach in the traditional manner. None of these traditional manners are bad or damaging the
students. In fact, till date they are proving to be useful also. However, there are many more opportunities for
students to gain confidence practice and extend themselves, especially for ESL students who learn the
language for more than just fun. For them to keep pace with ELT and gain more confidence they have to
stride into the world of information and computer technology.
Below are some possible responses one might make to the question of how computers should be
used (see also Dede, 1987; Taylor, 1980). Each is indexed, not simply to features of the technology, but to
assumptions about the enterprise of schooling. Thus, depending upon one's assumptions about education,
computers can be:
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
Tutors-They can individualize instruction provide learning material at a controlled pace, and
record student progress.
 Tools.-They aid in reading, allow students to produce and format texts easily, facilitate revision of
texts, and check for spelling errors. They store in a compact and easily accessible from all sorts of
information that learners need, from style sheets to encyclopaedic data.
 Ways to explore language- They make the regularities, the beauties, and the difficulties of language
something that students can examine and interact within new ways.
 Media- They make possible new modes of communication and "hypertexts, “or "hypermedia,"
which allow the intermixing of tables, charts, graphs, pictures, sounds, video, and text.
 Environments for communication-They are a new social realm that permits new forms of
meaningful communication and reconfigures the relationships among students and teachers.
Designing an intelligent tutoring system for language use is difficult. Little such software exists today, and
the most successful computer tutors have been designed for well-constrained topics within mathematics and
science. One such program for language is Iliad (Bates & Wilson, 1982), which was designed to tutor deaf
children who have difficulties mastering language forms such abnegation and question formation (see
Knapp, 1986, for a discussion of computer use for other special needs). Iliad can generate syntactic
variations of a core sentence.
There are hundreds of word processing program that allow writers to enter and revise text. Some, like Bank
Street Writer (Scholastic), present menus of functions from which the author chooses, thus making it easy to
learn and to use the system, but with some sacrifice of flexibility. More complex programs, such as
Workbench (Addison-Wesley) allow writers to control details of text format, permit access to indexed
notes, and have capabilities for tables of contents, lists, footnotes and endnotes ,bibliographies, and indexes.
Several software programs have been designed to help with the tasks of planning and generating ideas
(see Pea & Kurland, 1986). One program, called CAC, offers students advice on composing persuasive text.
For instance, a student might ask for advice about choosing the next sentence. The computer suggests
actions based on keywords it finds in the preceding text written by the student. Several word processing
programs have an option to turn off the screen when text is being entered, so that the student is not distracted
by the visual image of what is written. This technique is called "invisible writing" (see Marcus & Blau,
1983). It is one way of facilitating "free writing" (Elbow, 1973) and encourages students not to focus on
editing prematurely.
Teachers are also beginning to use electronic networks for communicating. In a project in Alaska
(Bruce & Rubin, in press), teachers developed a community through the use of electronic mail. Their shared
need to learn better ways of teaching for nonmainstream students was partially met through of classroom
ideas and mutual encouragement over an electronic network. The network made exchange of messages
much faster than ordinary mail and greatly eased the task of sending the same message to many people at
once. Moreover, other writing already in electronic form, such as students 'texts or a teacher's text written for
a university course, could also be easily transmitted and shared with other teachers. There is now a
Computers and Composition Digest used primarily in its electronic form. Teachers, researchers, and
software developers interact through issues of the digest, which are constructed out of electronic mail
messages and sent via networks to over 600 sites.
'Podcast' has been declared Word of the Year 2005 by editors of the New Oxford American Dictionary.
The word was chosen for its rising phenomenon in 2005 because anyone with a digital recording device and
an Internet connection could produce a podcast. Podcasting is web service belonging to the Web 2.0 which
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has gained popularity with people all over the world the last years. The word “podcasting” is derived from a
combination of "iPod"6 and "broadcasting". It refers to the concept in which online audio programs (such as
talk shows or hosted music programs) in digital format are downloaded for listening at the user's
convenience [7]. Podcasting also refers to the method of distributing multimedia files, such as audio
programs or music videos, over the Internet. These podcasts are usually automatically downloaded for
playback on mobile devices or personal computers. A podcast can be created with any digital recording
device. They are usually created in the mp3 file format for its compact file size but podcasts presented in
other sound formats (e.g. wave, real-audio format) do exist.
Computers can aid at places where teacher time and attention are insufficient. They can facilitate the
processes of generating ideas and organizing text. Unlike teachers, they can give feedback at any convenient
moment. They can comment upon features of written texts. With the aid of a text editor, revision of text is
more efficient and rewarding. Computers can increase the time-on-task and can help lessen the teaching
load. They can thus create time and opportunity for teacher involvement with essential aspects of writing
processes that are beyond the reach of the computer.
Conclusion
A large number of researches and conference talks are devoted today to exploring current trends in English
language teaching. Nonetheless, English language teachers do not remain reliant on fixed prescribed and
imposed practices. Instead, they put into practice a great deal of diverse activities to keep themselves up-todate and enhance their practices one of which has been dealt above.
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References
Middleton, A., 100 great ideas for educational podcasting Sheffield Hallam University, 2008.
Bates, M., & Wilson, K. (1982). ILIAD: Interactive language instruction assistance for the deaf (BBNReport No. 4771).
Cambridge, M. A.: Bolt, Beranek & Newman.
Batson,T. (1988, February). The ENFI Project: A networked classroom approach to writing instruction.Academic Computing
2(5), 32-33, 55-56.
Blaine F. Peden, Benjamin Z. Domask. Do podcasts engage and educate college students? University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire,
2010.
Sajan Kumar Karn. Current trends in ELT around the globe// Journal of NELTA. 2007. No. 1 & 2.
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Use of ICT in English Language Teaching
Prof Ratanlal.L.Yeul
Smt.L.R.T.College of Commerce, Akola
Abstract: This paper states that the literacy is not only about 'reading the word' but also about 'reading the world'
and not also reading it but also writing it and rewriting it. These concepts were an important part of the critical
th
pedagogy thought to the 20 century. But today, new forms of information and communication technologies provide a
powerful new means of achieving them.
The waves of globalization and the advent of IT have given some impacts to the teaching of English Language
Teaching. ICT equipment has been integrated in English classes since it has been proven to help the students in their
learning process. This study seeks to find out whether the teachers and the students as well are ready for this newer
innovation. It checks on the teachers' attitude towards the use of ICT in English language teaching and the extent to
which teachers use the available ICT equipment
Key words: Digitalization, encoding, word processors, effective practice
Introduction
In today's techno-savy world, use of Information and Communication Technologies in the classroom has
enhanced the teaching learning process. There are endless possibilities with the integration of Information
and Communication Technologies (ICT) in the education system. The teaching community is able to reach
remote areas and learners are able to access qualitative learning environment from anywhere anytime.
Technology is being used as an innovative tool supplementing the teaching-learning process. This
has brought outside world into four walls of the classroom and during this process it has altered the reality.
The emergence of ICT has ushered in the new era. It has influenced every sector of the society i.e; science,
technology, education, trade and industry. ICT includes devices for encoding, storing, organizing,
processing, retrieving, transferring and presenting information with the help of communication, television
and computers.
It is necessary that the learner of the 21st century acquires knowledge independently and uses it to
solve new and emerging problems. The teacher has to guide the learner in the quest to harness the best
expressions of the human race across the globe and organize relevant areas of information into the
knowledge that would influence, in a large measure, the quality of life.
The literacy is not only about 'reading the word' but also about 'reading the world' and not also
reading it but also writing it and rewriting it. These concepts were an important part of the critical pedagogy
th
thought to the 20 century. But today, new forms of information and communication technologies provide a
powerful new means of achieving them.
The waves of globalization and the advent of IT have given some impacts to the teaching of English
Language Teaching. ICT equipment has been integrated in English classes since it has been proven to help
the students in their learning process. This study seeks to find out whether the teachers and the students as
well are ready for this newer innovation. It checks on the teachers' attitude towards the use of ICT in English
language teaching and the extent to which teachers use the available ICT equipment.
A lot of research findings indicate that using computers to teach is better than using books, teachers, films or
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other more traditional methods. The success or failure of the use of ICT in a classroom very much depends
on the implementers. These implanters refer to the institution administrations as well as the teacher.
Administrative support should take the form of practical allocations in terms of infrastructure, hardware,
software and networking required to conduct IT classes.
Teachers have to be properly exposed towards ICT in becoming confident and willing users of the
technology. The duration of exposure of teachers to ICT is crucial in alleviating the skills and anxiety level.
They argued that short term exposure to technology would be inadequate in equipping teachers with the
necessary skills and knowledge for confident and masterful use of ICT in the classroom.
Digitalization of many ICTs has made it possible to design, develop, manage and assess the learning
process. It increases the efficiency of the system and makes it more powerful. The new digital technologies
used under ICT are followingMultimedia PC, Laptop, Notebook
Digital Video/Still Camera
Local area networking(LAN) and other Networks/Mobile Phone
WWW (World Wide Web)
CD-ROM and DVD
E-mail and Chat
Digital Libraries
Computer Mediated Conferencing- Video Audio Conferencing
Virtual Reality
Application of Software like Word Processing, Spreadsheet, PowerPoint and simulation,
speech recognition
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
These new techniques used under ICT help pupils learn English by enabling them to communicate,
edit, annotate and arrange text quickly and flexibly.
Using ICT can help pupils to:
Access, select and interpret information
Recognise patterns, relationships and behaviours
Model, predict and hypothesise
Test reliability and accuracy
Review and modify their work to improve the quality
Communicate with others and present information
Evaluate their work
Improve efficiency
ICT can be used to integrate speaking, listening, reading and writing. It enhances interactive teaching
and learning styles. It also extends pupils' ability to exercise choice, work independently and make
connections between their work in English and in other subjects. For example, ICT can help pupils:
o
use a wide range of strategies to explore contrasts, comparisons and connections dynamically
o
annotate text in innovative ways
o
enrich or broaden the context of literary study
o
see texts in alternative versions
o
use a wide range of analytical and critical techniques
o
sort and process text and data quickly and efficiently
o
o
o
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o
o
o
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order and arrange text and data experimentally, using combinations of word, image, sound and
hypertext
o
save, record, edit and adapt their work quickly and efficiently
o
retain evidence of the editing process so that it can be examined
o
change the organizational structure and qualities of texts to suit different audiences and purposes
o
compose multi-authored texts
ICT has been found highly relevant in developing all the four skills of language learning. Following
studies will support this viewpoint.
o
Reading
Birmingham, P. investigates the ways in which secondary (Year 9 and 10) students and their
teachers use a storyboard tool which provides the user with the capability to create, capture, store,
retrieve and interact with a range of images and texts. Research findings report on two distinct ways this
product made a valuable contribution to students' learning by encouraging them to explore beneath the
surface of the text of Macbeth, in order to gain a deeper understanding of plot, mood, and atmosphere
and character motivation.
Hall, T. evaluates 17 American studies using Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) in reading for
students with learning difficulties. The studies were categorized by type of computer instruction (drill and
practice, strategy and simulation) and type of reading intervention. The findings show that students with
learning difficulties, who use CAI in reading, increase performance in reading decoding and reading
comprehension. Well designed CAI software that is regularly applied in classrooms, has the potential to
reinforce teacher instruction, offers students an increase in practice time and can lead to success in reading.
However, access alone to hardware and software does not automatically result in reading success for
students with learning difficulties.
Speaking and listening
Between October 2001 and March 2002 Becta ran a Digital Video pilot project involving 50 schools
from across the UK. The aim of the project was to gather evidence of the impact of DV technology on pupils'
engagement and behaviors, and to identify models of effective practice. Becta commissioned the British
Film Institute to undertake an evaluation of the Digital Video pilot project. Their report looks at patterns of
use and good practice in Digital Video, and considers how the technology has increased pupils' motivation,
broadened access to the curriculum and has fostered both creativity and moving image literacy. The report
contains key findings, analysis, case studies and recommendations.
A research study was conducted into the development of a child-friendly computer software program
to enhance the early literacy skills of reception-aged children. The ergonomic aspects of designing software
for young students are described, along with two studies of reception aged children using the story and
vocabulary parts of the program. Multimedia activities such as storybook reading, communicative writing
and language games had an impact on students' oral and written language development, with significant
gains in vocabulary development of ethnic minority students.
Writing
Breese conducted a study on the use of ICT in developing writing skill. This study investigates the
effects of unlimited access to word processors on students writing over a period of 20 months. Each of
the 7 students was given a laptop to use for all their writing in English lessons. Samples of their
narrative writing were compared with samples from a parallel class who only used hand writing
methods. Students using word processors showed significant improvement over those using pen and
paper.
Deadman conducted an action research project exploring ways in which reflective writing
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supports pupils' learning. Students were given two writing activities: one group had the
support of the teacher and the other involved students supported by both the teacher and a
hypermedia reflective writing frame work. The writing was then analyzed sentence by
sentence and the results compared. The findings suggest that there were improvements in
students' ability to reason when they were further supported by a hypermedia reflective writing
framework.
Conclusion
These studies suggest that ICT can enable pupils to understand, visualize and interpret difficult texts. ICT
also enables the learners to go beyond the text and relate the text with real life. Thus ICT not only makes
language learning easy and fun but also spices the text with real life experiences which make a learner more
broad minded and humane. ICT when used properly enables a student to go beyond the textbook to have the
feel in real life situations. A lesson on child labor encourages a student to get more information about the
condition of child labor in different parts of the world and also to think and devise the ways to help and
support them. The students may be also asked to carry out small research related with the topic. This
undoubtedly will sharpen their mental abilities and make them more creative.
Thus ICT has become now a need of the modern classroom as it broadens a man's outlook of life by
bringing the whole world at his command. Neglecting it would mean confining oneself within narrow walls
so language teachers should try to use more and more ICT in the classroom.
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References
Birmingham, P., 2001. Storyboarding Shakespeare: learners' Interactions with Storyboard Software in the Process of
Understanding Difficult literacy texts. Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 10 (3), pp. 241-252.
IHall, T., et al., 2000. Computer Assisted Instruction in Reading for Students with Learning Disabilities: a Research Synthesis.
Education and Treatment of Children, 23 (2), pp. 173-193.
Lynch, L., et al., 2000. Computer-assisted Reading Intervention in a Secondary School: an Evaluation study. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 4 (31), pp. 333-348.
Nicolson, R., et al., 2000. Evaluation of a Computer-based Reading Intervention in Infant and Junior schools. Journal of Research
in Reading, 23 (2), pp. 194-209.
Scrase, R., 1997. Using Scanners linked to Talking Computers as Tools for Teaching Children to Read. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 28 (4), pp. 308-310.
Scrase, R., 1998. An Evaluation of Multi-sensory Speaking-computer based System (Starcross-IDL) designed to Teach the
Literacy Skills of Reading and Spelling of Educational Technology, 29 (3), pp. 221-224.
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The Notion of Second Languages:
Responding to Today's Linguistic Ecologies
Dr. Raúl Alberto Mora
School of Education and Pedagogy, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana (Colombia)
Abstract: This paper presents the results of an ongoing reflection for the past two years around the debates on
English and languages within an academic team in charge of a new MA program in Colombia. In this paper, the
author argues that the traditional binary opposition between second and foreign language, while useful in the past,
may no longer be responding to the new language ecologies that technology and social mobility, among others, are
proposing. The paper will first describe the current landscape, problematizing the idea of foreign language as a
matter that transcends linguistic or geographic distinctions and that, when carefully analyzed, has turned into a
source for unequal language practices. Then, the discussion will turn into how the notion of second languages (in
plural) espoused by the MA program has become an alternative that opens new spaces to address issues of learning
and equity, while being mindful of the new social contexts that have emerged for languages today. Some implications
for education and research will bookend the discussion.
Keywords: Second languages, learning, teaching, education, English, world languages
Introduction
English Language Teaching has recently found itself pondering how to respond to new and more complex
demands (Graddol, 1997) as triggered by education itself, technology, and new views of languages. Ideas
such as the postmethod (Kumaravadivelu, 2003, 2008), communicative tasks (Nunan, 2004; Vallejo Gómez
& Martínez Marín, 2011), new links between language teaching and technology (Mora, 2011a; Mora,
Martínez, Alzate-Pérez, Gómez-Yepes, & Zapata-Monsalve, 2012), ideas about diversity (Blommaert,
2012) and cosmopolitanism (Bennett, 1993; Bennett & Bennett, 2004; Golovatina, 2006; GolovátinaMora, 2012a; Golovátina-Mora & Mora, 2011; Mora & Golovátina-Mora, 2011a, b) are an affirmation that
the way we learn and teach English is changing. In addition, emerging concepts such as World Englishes
(Canagarajah, 2003; Rajagopalan, 2004; 2010) and English as a Lingua Franca (Seidlhofer, 2005; Llurda,
2012) are inviting us to rethink the traditional models and find ways to address all these new realities.
Therefore, we must find better ways to prepare our teachers from conceptual and practical standpoints.
As a language, English has the potential to be a tool for cooperation and comprehension, yet we must also be
wary of how it can marginalize people (Luke, 2004; Pennycook, 2001). It ultimately depends on how we
define it and frame it to respond to the new linguistic landscapes and configurations we find today. One key
concern for researchers and educators is to promote definitions that transcend hegemonic (Gramsci, 1971)
and unequal (Bourdieu, 1991) practices. In this regard, there is the growing question about the relevance and
validity of the division between “second” and “foreign” languages (Bhatt, 2010; Nayar, 1997; Mora,
2011b). In recent years, scholars have questioned how this dichotomy addresses societal evolution of the
uses of English (Graddol, 1997; Nayar, 1997). These concerns continue arising and the question of whether
we should continue talking about “EFL” is louder than ever (Graddol, 2006; Mora, 2012c, d, e). This is
especially relevant when technology has provided new forms of mobility (Blommaert & Rampton, 2011),
turning language into a resource (Jørgensen, Karrebæk, Madsen, & Møller, 2011) rather than a monolithic
entity.
This paper is the result of a process of academic reflexivity (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992; Mora, 2011c,
2012a) within a new MA program at Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana in Colombia. In this MA in
“Learning and Teaching Processes in Second Languages” (Mora, 2013), my colleagues and I have taken a
stand to stop defining English in terms of second/foreign and think about second languages (Saville-Troike,
2006; Skutnabb-Kangas& McCarty, 2008). In our recent academic discussions about this notion (Mora,
2012c, d, e), we have argued that the notion of second languages becomes a necessary step to rethink today's
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language ecologies and in the search of more equitable frameworks for language learning and teaching
today. To discuss our argument, I will first introduce a brief overview of the traditional binary and why it has
become increasingly problematic. Then, I will discuss the program's notion of second languages, how we
are framing it, and some potential implications for language research. While brief, the ideas in this paper are
nothing but an invitation to join the conversation, as the matters of language equity are a uniting factor for
language researchers and advocates in every corner of our planet.
Reviewing and Problematizing a Traditional Binary
It may not come as a surprise to most if we think about the framework to describe languages that permeated
our learning process, especially those who became language teachers. We learned that there was a
traditional distinction about languages different from one's mother tongue. We discussed the idea of
“second” languages, meaning languages learned in countries where the language had an “official” status
and people used it outside of schools and in their everyday lives. On the other hand, there was this notion
called “foreign” languages, or those learned where said languages were “not official” and were mostly the
domain of schools (Saville-Troike, 2006; VanPatten & Benati, 2010). In this binary, oftentimes mutually
exclusive, one's competence in the language was always measured against that of “native speakers” (Cook,
1999; Mahboob, 2005; Medgyes, 1992, 2001; Moussu & Llurda, 2008). Thus, the closer one leaned toward
that native ideal, the better and more qualified speaker one would be.
Needless to say, the existence of the binary and the figure of the native speaker as the only source of
validation had some implications. For instance, the binary gave credence to the belief that unless one “lived”
abroad, one would never learn the target language properly and that any other efforts would never yield
optimal results. This also implied that schools would have to make any efforts to bring “real” and
“authentic” language to the classroom, understanding these notions as incorporating materials created for
and by native speakers of a language. Finally, this push for authenticity endorsed the figure of the native
speaker as the legitimate language authority, an image that media and language schools themselves helped
perpetuate (Mora & Muñoz Luna, 2012).
The Problem with the Binary
While the second/foreign language binary remains popular (in many cases, it is dogma), it does not mean
there has not been any scrutiny around it. In fact, different scholars (Bhatt, 2010; Graddol, 1997, 2006;
Mora, 2011a; Nayar, 1997) have raised questions about the limitations of the idea of “foreign” language and
how it is not responding to today's language ecologies. I will discuss some of these points in this section.
The first problem that my colleagues and I have found regarding foreign language is the use of geography as
a source of distinction (Mora, 2012d, e). The notion of second and foreign languages stems from where you
are, assuming that where you are automatically validates the social uses and contexts of language. However,
as recent studies on diversity and language have argued (e.g. Blommaert & Rampton, 2011), technology
mediation has changed the landscape of how people interact with each other and has expanded the
possibilities for communication (Mora, 2012c). The new configurations for language use that are arising
from technology are undeniable (Thorne & Black, 2008) and having frameworks that disregard these
realities would only cause more inequalities.
A second problem in the FL framework is the link between number of users and proficiency. If one only
relied on statistics such as number of native speakers and speakers beyond the B2 level from the Common
European Framework (Council of Europe, 2001), then it may hold true that there are only a handful of places
where a language like English is a second language. However, language is fluid (Otsuji & Pennycook, 2010)
and language users are becoming more creative about how to use to convey meaning in social settings
(Jørgensen, et al., 2011). Today's realities show us that for some people, proficiency is not going to get in the
way of their desire to use a language as a resource to expand the possibilities to express their thoughts and
dreams, as Jørgensen and colleagues (2011) have argued in their discussions of language as a resource.
Then, there is a more literal matter in the idea of “foreign”: Its actual meaning. While preparing some
presentations about this issue (Mora, 2012d, e), I decided to look up the different meanings of “foreign”
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found in the dictionary. The definition of foreign showed me the following words: “alien”, “not connected
or pertinent” (Merriam-Webster), “strange or unfamiliar” (dictionary.com), “not germane; irrelevant”
(thefreedictionary.com), “borrowed, distant, estranged, external, inaccessible, remote, strange, unexplored,
unfamiliar” (thesaurus.com). All these ideas seem to relate to the same notion: that something “foreign” is
something that does not belong to me. In the middle of this discussion with one of my undergraduate classes
in 2012, one of my students started wondering how, if a language is something I use to communicate with
others, a language cannot belong to us.
Some of these questions are not necessarily our creation. In recent years, a growing school of thought has
risen to question the second/foreign binary and whether is it worth sustaining it (Graddol, 2006). Ideas such
as World Englishes (Bruthiaux, 2010; Canagarajah, 2006; Rajagopalan, 2004), English as a lingua franca
(Seidlhofer, 2005; Llurda, 2012), and regional varieties of English (Higgins, 2009; Jordan, 2011) are now
raising questions about what the kind of standards we are using today and how valid they are in light of the
expansion of English in today's world. Questions about some features of language acquisition that transcend
location and are simply germane to learning at large (Ospina Lopera & Montoya Marín, 2012; VanPatten &
Benati, 2010) have also triggered questions about what really constitutes a foreign language. There is also
the influx of technology (Black, 2009; Labbo & Place, 2010) and how online media are providng more ways
to access information and language learning resources that offer other possibilities to practice languages.
We have also witnessed the emergence of ideas such as additional language (Thorne & Black, 2008) and
new language (nueva lengua, Sanz, 2006) that are permeating other languages such as Spanish and
Portuguese as ideas that reflect the new social interactions that languages are triggering today.
Finally, there is a large matter of language equity (Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000) that we must address: The
notions of second and foreign language, while binary, are not mutually exclusive and one can, in fact, find
second language learning frameworks in otherwise called “foreign language” countries. The problem with
this distinction is that is, more often than not, socially stratified (Finn, 2009). As some of my colleagues and
I have observed, there are schools in Colombia (and I am certain this would happen in many other countries)
whose students have access to state-of-the-art learning facilities, with access to computers for every student,
extended hours for English instructions (sometimes taking up between ¼ and ½ of the academic schedule),
including content-based instruction in science, math, and other subjects, the presence of native speaker
teachers, immersion programs on a yearly basis, and other benefits. At the same time, there are schools that
may have the English curriculum in place, yet lack the teachers to teach it. When you have schools with such
copious resources, one cannot talk about “foreign” language anymore and what is happening instead is that
second language instruction becomes a commodity that only a wealthy few can afford. A situation like this,
from a human rights perspective (Mora, 2004) is by all means unacceptable and therefore we need other
frameworks to reframe language learning and teaching.
The Notion of Second Languages: Pluralization toward Plurality
Our reflections and discussions in the MA program have led us to the point where we have chosen to talk
about second languages, as a plural term. Our understanding of second languages begins from the notion of
any languages learned in addition to one's mother tongue (Skutnabb-Kangas & McCarty, 2008). Whether
one learns these languages at the same time or after the L1 is not a deciding factor, as some learning
processes are related and transferable regardless of sequence (VanPatten & Benati, 2010). Equally
important is the idea that the idea of second languages is not sequential (Saville-Troike, 2006). The
pluralization of languages means that in a real-life context, any one language could be the second at a
specific moment. The idea of second languages is then an approximation to concepts such as additional or
new languages, as it acknowledges the diversity in language learning and that speakers may adopt other
languages for a myriad or reasons, while advocating that adopting a second language in one specific
scenario should never come to the detriment of other languages users already possess, even their mother
tongue.
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The notion of second languages becomes then a moment to recognize and even celebrate the diversity of
contexts for language use (Carrió Pastor, 2010) and the emergence of new physical (Otsuji & Pennycook,
2010) and virtual (Black, 2009) spaces to learn and use languages. It also highlights the dynamic character
of languages (Jørgensen, et al., 2011), and how new communities of practice (Lave, 1991; Lave & Wenger,
1991) have arisen because of affinities in interests and hobbies (Black, 2009), where second languages
become a source of unity. Talking about second languages also helps us understand that language learning
today, whether English (Graddol, 2006) or otherwise, operates at a different pace, one that users themselves
may actually dictate, thus providing further relevance to those local varieties of languages (Higgins, 2009;
Jordan, 2011) and inviting us not to disqualify them as “inferior” blends of the so-called “standard” forms.
Our work toward defining second languages also takes into consideration the constant appearance of new
forms of text creation (Cope & Kalantzis,, 2009; Kress, 2003, 2010), including all the new forms of
authorship and language use that Web 2.0, ICTs, and the digital world keep offering (Black, 2009; Mora,
2012c).
The Notion of Second Languages: Implications
Thinking about second languages as a way to break the traditional paradigm of second/foreign language is
an invitation to rethink beliefs and practices, inside and outside the classrooms, and to rethink what it means
to learn and teach languages today. We believe that a notion like this requires revisiting what we understand
as “authentic” or “real” language. It can no longer be something that is the property of native speakers.
Authentic language should be any form of language that one can use outside of class (Bedoya González,
2012), regardless of one's standing as “native” or “non-native” speaker. Language, then, is real if one uses it
to share and discuss things that matter to one's life and communities. It is not geography, but social settings
which should make language real. This also means that we need to rethink what immersion means. As Mora
and colleagues argued,
Immersion, in our view, can also be about using the target language to discover features about our own
culture and communities. This would be, then, the first step before sharing our findings about ourselves
with others around the world (Mora, Martínez, Zapata-Monsalve, Alzate-Pérez, & Gómez-Yepes, 2012,
p. 2097)
This definition of second language is also an invitation for teachers to take risks. Teachers need to play with
language and technology in class (Mora, et al., 2012a, b) and claim ownership of the language because they
can use to communicate with their students. That also means that teachers and language researchers must
learn more about how people are using English and other languages outside of school (Hull & Schultz,
2001) and how those languages help rethink those contexts. It also implies that we have to ask deeper
questions about what it means to learn languages today; especially when those are languages you might later
teach. That latter question needs to be an essential part of professional development programs.
Our notion of second languages is also an invitation toward advocacy. While, as Mora and Muñoz Luna
(2012) argued, this is not about “protectionism for protectionism's sake” (p.0418), it is important to call for
equitable frameworks where teachers are valued for what is truly important. It is not fair that teachers'
accents are more important than their content and pedagogical knowledge (Cook, 1999; Mora & Muñoz
Luna, 2012), and as a community we have to become more active in how policy and curriculum are fostering
or hindering these visions of teachers.
Finally, in this view of second languages and in the pluralizing of languages, there is also an invitation to
revisit how we talk about <bilingualism> (Golovátina-Mora, 2012a, b; Mora, 2012b). We are worried that
bilingualism has become the ultimate goal, when it should actually be the beginning of a much larger
journey in language learning (Mora & Golovátina-Mora, 2011a). We believe that in this second languages
framework, we need to think about how to move toward multilingualism (Pattanayak, 2000), all within the
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promotion of more humane language practices (Caney, 2001) and a more genuine appreciation for local
languages (McCarty, 2009).
Coda: The Challenges Ahead
I have presented in this paper both a manifesto and a blueprint. Talking about second languages at a
conceptual level will not suffice. We need to look very carefully at the realities of our schools and work
toward more equitable practices while raising strong questions about our rationales and agendas to use
English. Our team has proposed the idea of second languages as a way to start maximizing the best resource
available in schools: the people who teach and learn there.
We cannot disregard the reality that English, for instance, can be a tool for either social awareness (Freire,
1979) or inequality (Pennycook, 2001). As teachers and teacher educators, we need to ask ourselves what
kind of language speakers we want to prepare, keeping in mind that high competence should never happen
at the expense of dehumanizing language users. This framework and the reflections of this paper are nothing
but an invitation to work together to meet the new challenges that today's language ecologies are facing. As
the author of these lines, I can only hope that readers will find the same inspiration that my colleagues and I
have found as we prepare, through our academic endeavors, to meet these challenges and start envisioning
solutions toward more equitable language practices.
Acknowledgments
I want to thank all members of the academic team from the MA in Learning and Teaching Processes in
Second Languages at Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana for their efforts in the construction of this
proposal. I am humbled that you all have trusted my judgment in this endeavor. This paper, while my
authorship, is the result of many conversations that we are still holding today, with a firm belief that
advanced education may be an equalizer in the big debates permeating education today.
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Teachers' Perspectives on Teaching English as a Second Language
(ESL)
Dr. Ravi Kumar Mishra
Shri Ram Institute of Information Technology (SRIIT)
Banmore, Morena (M.P.)
Abstract: This paper explores issues relating to the ESL. This study is an attempt to assess the innovation by
considering the availability of resources and teacher education programs roles of teachers and learners and
assessment schemes. The availability of training programs and a wide range of resource books and materials
packages are highly required for the ESL students and task based teaching. Main finding of the study is that there
should be a new communicative approach of ESL teaching because it is essential among the teachers and
students except their traditional approach. Classroom practice should be based on practical approach.
Appreciation should be given for different teaching-learning strategies both teachers and students. It will be basic
for better understanding among them.
Introduction
Education system plays a very important role in the development of a nation. This system is highly
dependent on the qualities of teachers. Teachers encourage students to discover their talents, to realize their
physical and intellectual potentialities. Teaching ESL is basically based on developing motivation, attitude
and improve personality of the learners of a particular nation who learn English as their second language. It
is an attempt to determine the influence of students and their attitude towards learning English. The aim of
this paper is to provide teaching techniques by which a learner may learn ESL properly.
Change of Attitude
First aspect for an ESL teacher is to change the attitude of student toward learning this language properly.
The students, who keep positive attitude to learn English they positively learn the language but those who
has negative perspective learn it with difficulties and may lead to class anxiety, low cognitive achievement
and negative attitude. Kara (2009) states:
Positive attitudes lead to the exhibition of positive behaviors toward courses of study, with
participants absorbing themselves in courses and striving to learn more. Such students are also
observed to be more eager to solve problems, to acquire the information and skills useful for daily
life and to engage themselves emotionally.1
This is possible only by the proper planning and motivation. So teacher should motivate the ESL
students and encourage them and try to generate positive attitude in the learners. For encourage them, there
should be proper method of teaching English effectively. ESL should be taught as a communicative
approach. In this context, the material should be designed as per the requirement of the students and as per
their requirement. By getting all the new sort of practices, they must be encouraged toward learning this
language as their second language requirement.
Teaching Methods
Second, teaching methods is another point which is here to discuss. It plays a vital role in teaching
English. The way, by which the teacher is performing, should be student oriented. Additionally, ESL teacher
should teach ESL as an interesting activity so the students may enjoy and be familiar with it. These main
aspects should be kept in mind first 'WHAT' second 'HOW'; it means what we have to teach and how they
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may learn it properly. Some basic components are essential for teaching ESL as The method and the way of
presentation which plays a very important role in teaching ESL. Number of chapters and portion are there in
the field of English teaching so the details of the topic should be prepared with the aspect of practical
approach for the students and contents which we are going to prepared that should be based native put and
with native example of learners. The chapter should not be based on theories but based on practical
discussion of teachers and students. The modern techniques should be used to provide all relevant details
whatever it may be audio-video presentation or as the form of PPT (power point presentation) etc.
Familiarity of Teacher with the Language
Third aspect is familiarity of teacher with the language. If teacher is not very much familiar with the
language then the command of him will not be well over the language. That will be a negative factor for the
learner. And the way of delivering the lecture should be change; changing by place, changing period systems
and techniques, means the system of teaching should be change to generate new perspectives in studies and
to change students' attitude. The teacher may have a difficult time to finding authentic reading material for
deferent levels of English outside a prescribed text book. Learners must be exposed to vast amount of
comprehensible text so teacher one side should be balanced between comprehensive reading through
structural and de-contextualized material for that the most essential requirement is to read and read. So
reading is generally one of the best ways to increase vocabulary for ESL teaching but in other side the class
wise study, in which we see different levels of students' exposure to authentic reading material outside the
textbook, can make the teacher attitude towards class preparation lacking.
Pronunciation
Fourth aspect pronunciation - skills play a very important role in the process of teaching ESL a language.
For the teachers who are interested to teach ESL should be very much conscious about their pronunciation
while using the particular language it should be kept in mind that the timing of the syllable length, syllable
stress, and pauses should be appropriate when language is used for oral communication.
Segmental refers to the individual vowel and consonant sounds and their distributions, while
suprasegmental refers to the patterns of rhythms and the intonation contours that accompany sound
sequences when language is used for oral communication 2(celce- murcias olshtain, 2000,p.31)
Pronunciation is one aspect and second is phonetics. While teaching a language properly it is fact that
teacher should be familiar with phonetics. Actually phonetics is the study of language in a scientific way.
This is the study by which we may know the study of sound, symbol, pitch and penology in details. After all
the linguistics study is based on all these aspect so who is interested to teach ESL, should be familiar with the
study of linguistics.
It permits a speaker to produce sounds that forms meaningful utterances to recognize a foreign
accent, to make up new word, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past
tenses, to produce aspirated and unaspirated voiceless stops in the appropriate context to know what
is or is not a sound in one's language and to know that different phonetics strings may represent the
3
same morpheme (fromkin & rodman 1998,p.254)
In linguistics, intonation is another factor in English language where pitch rises and falls depends as the
structure and situation of the language's use. Undoubtly being international language, there is no more use
of phonetics and phonology. The reason is that basically it is depends on those who are using it and where
they are using it. By hearing habbit we may be familiar with the language that we want to learn. In respect of
pronunciation and to speak and to understand well whenever students will be free to hear the ESL and
discuss with their fellow friends they will be very comfortable with the second language learning process.
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To Teach ESL Is Motivation
Fifth factor to teach ESL is motivation. By motivating the students for ESL, they will know the importance
of this language and they will try to learn it but the way of motivation should be planed and structured
otherwise they may feel uncomfortable. Actually the motivation here implies will power. It should be raised
during teaching this language. The reason is that whenever learners face difficulties during learning this
language at that state only by their will power they may take step ahead and definitely learn this language
well. Dornyei (1998) states “That motivation is indeed a multifaceted rather than a uniform factor and no
available theory has yet managed it in its total complexity”4 (p.131.)
Finally, teacher can motivate students in many ways to help them overcome the challenge of learning ESL.
Each and every step the teacher should motive the student in a different ways and encourage them in
different ways. Teacher should understand the problem of students and try to short out that in a proper way in
this process teacher should encourage learner at every steps.
Lesson Plan Preparation
Sixth aspect, preparing a lesson plan, Most of teachers prepare lesson plan according to their
requirement they ignore the potentiality of students in that case students feel uncomfortable while learning
ESL. The lesson plan should be based on student's potentiality and on the basis of student requirement. If the
matter of the study material should be based on student's requirement then learners may learn this language
properly. Lesson plan should be based on vocabulary, oral practice and use of authentic materials and
prepare the material as per requirement of students and the material should be based on interest of student.
Teacher should gather relevant details about the students' background and others and motivate the student to
learn as per the requirement. So a systematic study is required; “…systematic study of a phenomenon with
the aim of finding explanations or solutions or understanding and finding patterns among what is studied so
5
that action could be taken to arrest or improve the situation” (Boaduo, 2001:4).
Planning and Delivery of Language
Seventh aspect, there should be frame work for the planning and delivery of language and content in
these stages; Planning - select theme and choose subtopics by which we may explain main aspect of the
theme. Create language unique by modem style full of student oriented and as per the students needs. Next
contents should be taken appropriately based on practical approach. Objectives of the teaching must be clear
in the teacher's mind. The teacher should gather materials with proper planning and systematically.
Classroom environment should be familiar for the students; means there should be no difference at any
levels. Select and pre-teach vocabulary that is very important for language knowledge. Build background
that is also very essential requirement. Knowledge of the topic which we are going to deliver should be
thoroughly studied and well planned. Teacher should provide opportunities to those students who want to
ask question and who would like to discuss the topic. Teacher should use authentic tasks to build ESL skills.
Teacher should use both format of Assessment formative and summative.
Pattern of delivering of a lecture should be based on central theme and text should be based on
supporting materials. There linking is also required .Common problems which are being faced by the
student in ESL is listening, reading writing and speaking. The ESL students mostly talk in their native
language while using English in environment whenever these native speaking try to study in abroad then
they have to appear in TOEFL and IELTS exams for their English ability. Those tests are similar in terms of
testing in that they both require proficiency in reading, writing and listing. The basic factor for the students
is to understand lecture material. Many lectures provide handouts or copies of power points prior to class to
help narrow the students focus in the textbook. The ESL students who have difficulties with speed of
reading, must then correlate the material to the spoken words by the lecture
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Adoption of Written Material
Eighth aspect for the better result, the teacher should adopt written material that is most important
and observe each other (teacher oneself and the students) in order to gain insight into each other's practice.
Teacher should examine content materials together and to select a theme and identify objectives of units for
both language and content and identify the key terms and look forward to appropriate materials.
Routine for Teachers
Ninth aspect Teacher should develop routine and go ahead step by step. Teacher should provide
frequent summaries. Probably the teacher teaching techniques should be student central and
communication oriented. The main objectives of a teacher's teaching material should be based on weak
students. Teacher should adopt the co-operative teaching style. Motivation and building background
knowledge, group discussion, and sharing, listening task are very important for the student. These points,
teachers should be kept in mind. Teacher should provide initial exploration of topics by oral presentation.
Teacher should adopt different methods to build lessons through sentence strips, journals, role playing,
reading, summaries, experiments and a language experience approach.
Professional Development Courses
Tenth aspect for the better result, the professional development courses should be organized for ESL
teachers. The programme should be based on short term duration. teacher who learn a lot from all such
professional development but when he return for his institute so there is no ratio of development their
students' that how much the changes came in the students learning process and in implementation in
students activities such as group work , pair work, role play and interaction between the teacher and
students.
Grammar
Eleventh aspect regarding ESL teacher is Grammar. Where the teachers teach in classrooms using
grammar and translation in this method, teachers translate the passage and vocabularies into students'
mother tongue not using English terms. There should be Teacher's individual assessment strategies to
motivate the student learning. Assessment is the crucial means of identifying what the student knows and
do. Most of students fail to develop good command over ESL. It is because there seems to be a mismatch
between the curriculum guidelines and actual teaching and assessment system. Second thing large classes
wants of modern teaching aids. Teachers' workload and class time act as barriers in practicing and
implementation formative assessment. Teachers are not trained and their competency level in ESL seems
very poor. Formative assessment is a way of identifying the present position of learners and teachers about
learning and teaching, to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go and how best
to go there.
Appropriate Academic Setting
Twelfth aspect the appropriate academic setting is required for the ESL students to achieve social
and global benefits in respect of ESL. There is requirement of more effort of faculty members to establish
strategies that will provide ESL students more success and open learning environment. For this Self access
language learning is about giving opportunities for learners to learn a language independently and actively
with the readily accessible materials for that there should be arrangement of self access centers.
Except it, The instruction and program characteristics that contributes to the academic success of a ESL
teacher first a positive environment, it is very important for the students in the initial stage students feel
hesitation, frustration and weak themselves in the process of learning ESL at its primary stage that will be
very critical to teach such a student so the first basic requirement is positive environment. Second a meaning
full challenging curriculum. That is required for the student if they didn't take it as a challenge then they will
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not feel better third, the material should be based on practical approach with research based and based on
sound principals. Third thing the programme and the methods should be well trained. Fourth the cooperative work style among the students and teachers. Fifth the study material should be divided chapter
based on language strands of listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Conclusion
In this way, the paper explores issues relating to the ESL. This study is an attempt to assess the
innovation by considering the availability of resources and teacher education programs roles of teachers and
learners and assessment schemes. The availability of training programs and a wide range of resource books
and materials packages are highly required for the ESL students and task based teaching. Main finding of the
study is that there should be a new communicative approach of ESL teaching because it is essential among
the teachers and students except their traditional approach. Classroom practice should be based on practical
approach. Appreciation should be given for different teaching-learning strategies both teachers and
students. It will be basic for better understanding among them. The activities of group work, effective
learning and the physical facilities should be well planned.
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References
Celce- Murcia,M., & olshtain, E. (2000), Discourse and context in language teaching, Cambridge, UK:Cambridge
University Press. P.31.
Fromkin, V, Rodman, R. (1998). An introduction to language. (6th ed.), Orlando: Harcourt Brace College P.254.
Dornyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31, 117-131.
Kara, A. (2009). The Effect of a 'Learning Theories' Unit on Students' Attitudes towards Learning. Australian Journal of
Teacher Education, 34(3), 100-113. [Online] Available: http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ajte/vol34/iss3/5 (August10, 2011)
Boaduo NAP (2001:4). Principles of practical research. Unpublished manuscript for clients. Dr. Boaduo Education
Centre. Louis Trichardt Boaduo et al. 15 (Now Makhado. South Africa).
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English Language Teaching and Cultural Communication
Mr. S.P. Rajguru,
Rayat Shikshan Sanstha's, Laxmibai Bhaurao Patil Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Solapur
Abstract: According to the Linguists in every nation and culture Language is used both as a means of communication
as well as a carrier of culture. Language without culture is unthinkable, so is human culture without language.
Moreover, linguistic competence alone is not enough for learners of a language to be competent in that language.
That is, learners need to be aware of the culturally appropriate ways to address people, disagree with someone,
express gratitude or make requests. The present paper looks at this issue by taking a contrastive pragmatic approach
toward comparing and contrasting the specific behaviors those two cultures, namely Iranian and American, select in
their language to express gratitude. Cross-cultural and contrastive pragmatics studies help teachers with enhancing
their students' awareness of the social and cultural differences of the native language and the language they are
learning. The findings of this study are hoped to have implications for teaching and learning culture in English as a
Foreign Language classrooms. Culture has an important place in English language teaching and learning studies. Of
course, there are different kinds of aspects but it is thought that culture and language are used and considered as a
unit. For critical thinking, information is not enough and useful. There should be cultural awareness.
Keywords: language, culture, ELT, Asian, Indian etc.
Introduction
The aim of this study is to give information about cultural aspects in English language teaching.
Culture, cultural awareness and language teaching are some of the keywords of this study. Experts in the
language studies estimate that there are about 6,000-7,000 different languages spoken in the world today.
The imprecision in this estimate is largely due to the fact that some dialects are in the process of diverging
and it is not clear that they have reached the stage of being separate languages. If two people find each other's
speech unintelligible, they are usually thought to be speaking different languages rather than dialects.
There are about 200 languages that have a million or more native speakers. Mandarin Chinese is the
most common, being spoken by around 874,000,000 people as a native language. English is a distant third
with approximately 341,000,000 native speakers.
The Most Common Languages in the World
Language
Sr. No.
Approximate
Number Of
NATIVE Speakers
(in the year 2000)
COUNTRIES WITH
SUBSTANTIAL
NUMBERS OF
NATIVE SPEAKERS
1
Mandarin Chinese
874,000,000
16
2
Hindi (India)
366,000,000
17
3
English
341,000,000
104
4
Spanish
322-358,000,000
43
5
Bengali (India and Bangladesh)
207,000,000
9
6
Portuguese
176,000,000
33
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7
Russian
167,000,000
30
8
Japanese
125,000,000
26
9
German (standard)
100,000,000
40
10
Korean
78,000,000
31
11
French
77,000,000
53
12
Javanese
75,000,000
4
13
Telugu (India)
69,000,000
7
Source: Ethnologue Volume I: Languages of the World, 14th ed. (2000).
English is far more world wide in its distribution than all other spoken languages. It is an official
language in 52 countries as well as many small colonies and territories. In addition, 1/4 to 1/3 of the people
in the world understands and speak English to some degree. It has become the most useful language to learn
for international travel and is now the de facto language of diplomacy. In 2001, the 189 member countries in
the United Nations were asked what language they wish to use for communication with embassies from
other countries. More than 120 chose English, 40 selected French, and 20 wanted to use Spanish. Those
who wanted English to be the common language included all of the former Soviet republics, Viet Nam, and
most of the Arab world. English is also the dominant language in electronic communication, particularly on
the Internet. However, the percentage of Internet users who are not native English speakers is increasing
rapidly, especially in Asia. In fact, China estimated in 2008 that there are now more people who have online
access in their country than in the U.S., which had been the global leader in Internet access.
In reality, the distribution of languages globally is very complex and difficult to easily describe.
Numerous migrations of people over the last several centuries have resulted in most large nations now
having many different languages. There are at least 165 languages spoken in the United States today.
Consequently, it is somewhat misleading to describe the U.S. as being an English speaking country. The
same caution applies to other multicultural nations as well. The majority of the languages in the world are
unwritten and many of them are disappearing. About 1/2 of the world's languages are no longer spoken by
children. This is the first step in the extinction of a language. About 2,000 languages now have less than
1,000 speakers. The most threatened are the indigenous languages of Australia and the Americas. By the
end of the 20th century, about 200 Australian languages survived, but more than 1/2 had less than 10
speakers. Two dozen had a single elderly speaker. Young Aborigines now predominantly speak English,
especially in urban areas. There has been a similar pattern in California where Indian languages disappeared
at the rate of nearly one a year during the late 20th century. Globally, the rate of language loss now is one
every two weeks. The areas where indigenous languages are being lost the most rapidly are central South
America, Oklahoma and the American Southwest, the Northwest coastal region of the U.S. and Canada,
eastern Siberia, and northern Australia.
There are no "primitive" languages. All languages have a system of sounds, words, and sentences
that can adequately communicate the content of culture. The languages of the so-called "primitive" peoples
are often very complex in their grammatical structures. There seems to be no correlation between a
language's grammatical complexity and the technological level of a society or other aspects of culture.
However, cultures that have more complex, diverse economies and advanced technologies have larger
vocabularies. For instance, English has roughly 615,000 non-technical words. If slang and specialized
technical words are added, English has more than 2,000,000 words and is growing at a rate of hundreds to
thousands every year. By comparison, German has about 185,000 non-technical words, French may have
less than 100,000, and Spanish even fewer. The major reason that English has so many more non-technical
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words is the fact that as it evolved from its Germanic roots, it acquired words from more than 240 other
languages. However, it is unlikely that any one individual knows the meaning of all English words. Most
Americans only use 800-1,000 words in everyday conversation. A typical American college student knows
20,000-30,000 words by the time he or she graduates. While this is 20-37 times more than the average
person who has not gone to college, it is still less than 2% of all English words.
Every language can create new words to describe new situations and objects. Therefore, it is not
surprising that all languages change through time. None is static. However, they change at different rates at
different times in response to new social, cultural, and environmental situations. Some nations strongly
resist the acquisition of new words from other languages. This has been the case with the French
government's response to the relentless invasion of English words in recent decades, especially in pop
culture and technology. However, young people in most developed nations eagerly embrace new words
regardless of attempts by their governments to retain "language purity."
Relationship between language and culture
Everybody knows that to understand a language completely it is essential to know not only
knowledge of the grammar, phonology and lexis but also a certain features and characteristics of the culture.
To communicate internationally requires communicating interculturally as well, which probably leads us to
encounter factors of cultural differences and features. These differences and features exist in every
language. We can say that a language is a part of culture and a culture is a part of language. These should be
thought or considered in the same sense. According to Brown (1994) the two are intricately interwoven so
that one can not separate the two without losing the significance of their language or culture. The need for
cultural literacy in ELT arises mainly from the fact that most language learners, not exposed to cultural
elements of the society in question, seem to encounter significant hardship in communicating meaning to
native speakers
Generally, language is connected to social and cultural values and so language is thought to be a
social and cultural phenomenon. Naturally, each culture has its own cultural values and aspects and these
values change from one culture to another. Sometimes, their values might be completely different. So it
leads to communication problems among speakers and learners who are not aware of the values and features
of other culture.
To solve these communication problems;

Learners should learn the target culture,
 Teachers should be sensitive to the learner's fragility so as not to cause them to lose their motivation.
If we turn to the relationship between culture and language, we can mention about some remarkable
comments; for example, (McDewitt, 2004) there is no such a thing as human nature independent of culture.
The Relationship between Culture and Language
There is a strong relationship between culture and language. Language is the soul of country and
people who speak it. Language and culture are inextricably linked. Actually, there is a threat to the native
values when we are learning about the target language. For learners, it is hard to appreciate the importance of
learning the cultural aspects of communication if they do not visit or have a close contact with a foreign
country and experience the difficulties. I think Turkey is one of the most suitable countries for English
language teaching because our country takes place in the centre of many cultures. Learners in ELT
departments in Turkey have chance to get cultural values easily. Turkey is both near to foreign countries and
attractive country for tourists all over the world. It is important for ELT students to get cultural values in a
harmony but while doing this, they should be careful about their own values. That is to say, they should think
cultural values globally and act according to their own language, culture and their values. However, there is
a problem about culture and language. It is miscommunication. It is because of the lack of cross-cultural
awareness. Also, signals, postures, mimics and another ways of behavior can cause miscommunication.
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In ELT classrooms, learners learn automatically culture while they are learning the language.
Gestures, body movements, and distances maintained by speakers or learners should foster cultural
insights. Students' intellectual curiosity is aroused and satisfied when they learn that there exists another
mode of expression to talk about feelings, wants, and needs and when they read the literature of the foreign
country. If language learners are to communicate at a personal level with individuals from other cultural
backgrounds, they will need not only to understand the cultural influences at work in the behavior of others,
but also to recognize the profound influence patterns of their own culture exert over their thoughts, their
activities, and their forms of linguistics expression. Thanks to the teaching of the target culture, crosscultural communication develops. It is possible with the preparation on an organized inventory and this
inventory has linguistics aspects of the culture.
Language is a vital constituent of culture because language is described as a mode of human behavior
and culture as patterned behavior. As I mentioned earlier, each culture has a unique pattern and the behavior
of an individual, linguistics or otherwise, manifested through that is also unique. Therefore language will
mean changing the learners' behavior pattern. So there is a close relationship between the language and the
culture. Also, there is relationship between the form and content of a language and the beliefs, values, and
needs present in the culture of its speakers.
It is important that the students are in need of developing cultural awareness and cultural
sensitiveness. Teachers' task is to make students aware of cultural differences. Therefore the reasons for
familiarizing learners with the cultural components should be to;

has a wide perspective
 be aware of the communicative skills
 develop intercultural understanding
 be aware of potential mistakes
 understand the aspects of both the target and the native culture
Cultural Awareness in ELT Classrooms
It seems that Language can not be separated completely from the culture. As we mentioned, they are
thought as a whole, of course, there are some differences among cultures and so both learners and teachers in
ELT departments but also other departments such as EFL, ESL etc. The ways and attitudes of the social
group help learners/students learn the native language. Learning to understand a foreign culture should help
students of another language to use words and expressions more skillfully. Most learners find positive
benefits in cross-cultural living on learning experiences. However, some have psychological blocks and
other inhibiting effects of the second culture. So teachers are important here because teachers should help
students to turn such an experience into self awareness. In teaching, foreign language teachers need to be
sensitive to the fragility of students by using techniques that promote cultural understanding.
The following statements are important to solve this problem:

The use of role-play in ELT classrooms can help students to overcome cultural fatigue
 Techniques such as reading, films, simulation, games and culture assimilators can be useful for
teachers to assist them.
Books Reviews Used in Asian Countries like India
In this study, the course books extensively used in India checked. Most of the books that were checked
are from foreign sources. So it is quite normal to see their own cultural aspects. For example, in “Oxford
Heroes Student's Book”, “Shrek” is given as an example of movie. Redwood Hall Museum is given as an
example of museum. As for another example, in “Inspiration Student Course Book”, Spaghetti Bolognese is
given as an example of meals. Also, the actors and actress are chosen from different countries. For instance,
in “Oxford Heroes Student's Book”, Cameron Diaz, Keanu Reeves and Brad Pitt are shown as an example of
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this. All in all, these course books include many different aspects from a variety of cultures of all over the
world. However, British and American cultures are more dominant than other cultures. These cultural
aspects can be seen easily in the activities used in these course books.
To sum up, it is clearly seen that most of the course books used in Turkey do not include enough examples to
reflect Turkish culture. Hence, Asian/Indian students may not be familiar with the foreign cultural values.
For example, a student may not know Cameron Diaz.
Conclusion
As far as concern the learners in ELT departments should distinguish the difference between local
and global values. Also it is necessary for them to be conscious about the cultural norms; beliefs of other
cultures. They can make use of their knowledge of the foreign language. In the concept of cultural
awareness, students' ethnic and religious backgrounds should remain the same. That's to say, studying
English should not change students' learn a lot of different things thanks to language and use the things what
they learnt through their lives.
Teachers in ELT departments, especially in Turkey, should know the importance of the relationship
between language and culture. Also they need cultural awareness because to learn a foreign language means
to learn a different culture. So while teaching a language, they should be aware of these differences. All in
all, both language and culture should not be taught separately. Language and culture complete each others.
Teachers and students should be conscious about this fact and have such a philosophy: “think globally, act
locally”.
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References
Fınk, C. (2003). “Culturel awareness”. Hanak, M & Newby, H.,D. (Eds), Second language acquisition: The interface between
theory and practice (p.65-69).
Jiang, W. (2000). The relation between culture and language. Journal Volume 54/4 October. Oxford University Pres.
McDevitt, B. (2004). Negotiating the Syllabus: A win-win Syllabus. ELT Journal Peterson, E. & Coltrane, B. (2003). Culture
in second language teaching.
Quintana , J & Benne R.R (2007). Oxford Heroes. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Garton, J & Prowse, S.P (2007). Inspiration. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers.
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Development of Speaking Skills through Literature
Mr. Sachin L. Patki
Adarsh Education Society's ACS College,
Hingoli.
Abstract: This paper points out these problems which hinder the students in the process of speaking the language
fluently. Solving these problems is not easy but solutions can certainly be worked out through diligent observation
and practice. This research paper emphasises how literature can be an effective tool in developing speaking
skills. The use of literature evokes a personal response in the reader or listener. The material used in literature is
authentic. It provides exposure to real language; it can relate to the learners' need more closely with a more
creative approach and have a positive effect on the learners' motivation. Literature also provides interesting
language practice materials in the form of drama, poetry and prose.
Introduction
Speech is the natural form of a language. In speech, we make use of oral signs that are addressed to the ear. A
child acquires the power of speech by responding to the sounds made by people around him and by imitating
them out of his need for communication. In the teaching of English as a second language, after having given
the learner a chance to listen to the language, the learner must feel the need for communication. We
generally speak more than we write. So, as teachers, it is our responsibility to practice speaking and listening
skills more than the reading and writing skills. Language teaching, especially second language teaching, has
always been a matter of debate and discussion. It has constantly compelled teachers to evolve and adopt
newer strategies and techniques of teaching. This paper has focussed on the premise that the goal of our
language course should be truly to enable our students to communicate in English. They should learn how to
speak the language efficiently.
Nunan (1991) argues, “Success is measured in terms of the ability to carry out a conversation in the (target)
language”.
Hence, it is necessary that the students should become confident enough to speak the language or else they
will be de-motivated. It has always been a daunting task for learners of English to master the language. They
face a lot of difficulties and challenges while acquiring the language. For every complex problem, there is a
solution that is simple and neat. The solution to this problem of developing fluent speaking is Literature.
Literature is the supremely civilizing pursuit. The present paper suggests teaching speaking skills through
literature as a possible and effective solution. Literature always stimulates the emotions of the students.
Literature is also associated with intellectual activity. Through the different tools of literature, the students
comprehend and learn the lexical items, semantics, vocabulary, phrases, idioms, use of tenses and various
parts of speech which, undoubtedly, enhance their speaking skills.
Problems Faced by the Students to Speak English Fluently
It is generally noted that the learners acquiring English as a second language in India are shy about speaking
the language in front of other students. There could be various reasons for such behaviour. Either they are
from such a cultural background where they cannot talk loud in the class, or they lack the confidence in
speaking in front of others. But then they should always remember that the more they practice, the more they
will improve their speaking skills. We need to realize that we learn to speak only by speaking.
It has also been seen that the learners are apprehensive about speaking English because they find the
language difficult to cope with if the way of teaching is above their current skills and their standards and
interest. If the tasks done in the class are too difficult or too easy, they will certainly revert to their first
language either for their comfort or for some emotional support. This is the greatest hindrance in their
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acquiring the language since they translate word for word to check if they have understood the task before
attempting to speak.
Use of Literature to Develop Speaking Skills
We as teachers should assist the students to overcome these difficulties. An effective way to do this is to use
literary tools to develop speaking skills. Literature involves a special or unusual use of language and
provides the students with tools for their own creative activity. These tools are prose, poetry and drama. The
students are able to explore the linguistic and conceptual aspects of the written text and use it to improve
their speaking skills as well as diction.
We see literature assists the students to unravel the many meanings in a text. Furthermore, literary texts have
a powerful function in raising moral and ethical concerns in the classroom and encourage our students to
explore these concerns and connect them with the struggle for a better society. Note what Gillian Lazar
declares:
Literature provides wonderful source material for eliciting strong emotional responses from our students.
Using literature in the classroom is a fruitful way of involving the learner as a whole person, and provides
excellent opportunities for the learners to express their personal opinion, reactions and feelings. (1993, p. 3).
So, when the students share their opinions, reactions, and feelings in the class, subconsciously they are
working on their speaking skills. As they are aware of the fact that they have to speak in front of the entire
class, so they are careful to use the correct pronunciation and appropriate vocabulary. They are also
particular about the use of tense and verb. It is necessary to use literary form like prose, poetry and drama to
develop speaking skills.
Prose
Teaching speaking skills through stories is very effective as it is very interactive. Students have fun; they
enjoy themselves and are enthusiastic. Stories enrich their visual imagination and creativity. Students are
introduced to literature and the beauty of the language. Stories can organize, retain and assist students to
access information. Stories help them store information in the brain. So, when students are taught speaking
skills through story based activities, activities not only enrich their active and passive vocabulary but they
also concentrate on the stress, intonation, pause and articulation of voice.
When students get an opportunity to narrate a story in their own language, they can put the information
stored in their brain into a meaningful text. This helps them to bring out the emotions, which provokes
learning. Once the initial hitch of speaking in front of others is removed, the students become more
comfortable in sharing their thoughts. Furthermore, when they see that their stories are valued, recognized
and heard with interest, it gives them a confident stand. Therefore, stories can help students develop a
positive attitude towards learning process. They become more active, experience things directly and are
able to express themselves in the way that best suits them. Stories not only improve their vocabulary,
sentence formation, the use of tenses and verbs but also work positively on their fluency when they speak.
Stories assist them to build up an overall personality of students as they are connected to the society directly,
improving their communication.
Poetry
Poetry has always been very beneficial to enhance the language, means speaking skills of the students.
When students hear poetry in the class, they compare and contrast different point of views and develop
understanding of significance of figurative language.
In poetry words are chosen for their beauty and sound and then arranged in such a manner that they rhyme.
Poetry is such a sophisticated literacy tool that it works on the moods and emotions of the students. They are
able to express ideas that are meaningful to them without the constraints of grammatical accuracy. When
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they listen to poetry, it facilitates awareness of pronunciation, intonation and sentence flow. They practice
specific language structures such as phrases, idioms, work order and verb tense.
Teachers can have activity-based poetry classes to enrich the speaking skills. They can create an atmosphere
for the students to be wholly involved in the activity by showing pictures to introduce the topic. Instead of
reciting the poetry simply, teachers can have some kind of dramatization of the poetry. When students
dramatize poetry, they will automatically be involved in it completely. Furthermore, they will talk about
their response, share ideas and discuss the theme. This will enrich their confidence in speaking fluently.
Poetry is indeed very effective.
Drama
Drama assists the students to concretely explore the mysteries of human communication. It offers ways for
students to respond to and express their individual and shared understanding of a text. Students develop an
active, interactive and reflective relationship with the text and they can respond to the text socially,
emotionally, morally, physically, spiritually and culturally.
When students work in dramatic contexts, they are offered the opportunity to use language as it is used in
real life. Undoubtedly, drama enriches the spoken language. Through drama, students enhance the speaking
skills and gain confidence as when they act and assume roles and interact in improvisation. They are more
likely to remember the context they are learning because they are able to create and actively express the
deeper meanings of that context through dramatization. They are also able to analyse and explain personal
preference and construct meanings. It has been observed that in acquiring speaking skills through art forms,
like drama, the students are also offered opportunities to learn more about themselves, others and the worlds
in which they live and grow.
Hence, when the students want to acquire proficient speaking skills, drama has always been of great help.
When students enact a drama, they play certain roles, which might be close to what they see in the world
around them or in history. It brings out their inner potential to think deeply and express their ideas. They are
able to express themselves explicitly as they can relate to the characters; they try to give their best
performance. Unconsciously, they are working on their imagination, vocabulary, sentence structure, stress,
intonation and rhythm. The modulation of the tone is extremely important during dramatization. When
students work on this, it automatically enhances their speaking skills.
Conclusion
Thus, my hypothesis in this paper is that literature is indeed a very authentic tool to impart speaking skills. If
we look at every poem, story or drama as a mini-lesson, we as language teachers can use these little jewels to
teach the spoken language to the students effectively so that they can communicate with a variety of
audience and use it for different purposes.
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References
Gosh R. N., Sastri H. N.L, Das B. K. (1977) Introductions to English Language Teaching. Oxford, University Press, Madras.
Yardi V. V. (2009) Teaching English in India Today. Saket Prakashan, Aurangabad.
Simpson, Paul. 2003. Language through Literature: An Introduction. Routledge.
London Nunan, D. (1991) Language Teaching Methodology. (Chapter 2 & 3). Patrice Hall International. U.K.
Baldwin, Patrice and Fleming, Kate. (2003) Teaching Literacy through Drama:
Creative approaches. Routledge Falmer. London.
Holbrook, Sara and Salinger, Michael. (2006) Outspoken: How to Improve Writing and Speaking Skills through Poetry
Performance. Heinemann. Portsmouth. United States of America.
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Upgrading and Maintaining Teachers` Linguistic Performance in
English as a Second Language (ESL) Situation
Asabe Sadiya Mohammed (Ph.D.)
Bauchi State University, Nigeria
Abstract: The paper attempts to direct the attention of practitioners on the need to uplift and maintain the linguistic
performance of English teachers. Despite the fact that English language in Nigeria has been in use as a second
language and as a medium of instruction for decades, the students and even some teachers are yet to attain the much
needed proficiency. This is evident from the mass failure in Secondary School leaving certificate Examinations, which
is attributable to the tool language which is highlighted by many scholars. This problem is already in focus and steps
towards reducing it are in process. The missing link is that often the yardstick for the analysis is the students`
performance. There are seldom researches examining the teachers` Proficiency in the language, to ascertain the
standard the students are being taught. The researcher makes an error analysis on papers presented by English
teachers in the areas of grammar, vocabulary and expressiveness, and discovers that 7o% of them have some
linguistic deficiencies .The writer therefore highlights some of the problems and suggests some ways of remedying
them.
Keywords: ESL, English Teachers, Linguistic Performance, Error Analysis
Introduction:
English language is a second language in Nigeria. It is the official language of instruction (NPE, 1977), the
language of commerce and industry, science and technology. Communication in the language is a key factor
in learners` educational career. The National University Commission (NUC) makes it mandatory that
candidates seeking admission to Nigerian Universities in all courses must possess a credit in it.
In recent years, massive failure in the secondary school leaving certificates examinations in English
language and in all other subjects has been attributed to the low level proficiency in English language
among the students. The problem is in focus and the attention of Educational planners and policy makers is
geared towards looking for its solution. Some of the recommendations and the steps taken include the
improvement of teachers' welfare, provision of better teaching/learning facilities, etc., as presented by
experts such as Aliyu(2004), Egenege(2003),Chikere(2003) Oltunji(2003) and Opara(2oo3). Yet not much
is seen on the ground pertaining to improved performance on the subject. This is due to the fact that most
often the yardstick for assessment is students` performance which is either based on their examination
results or is an analysis of their linguistic performance. There is, however, little research examining
teachers` proficiency to ascertain the standard of the language the students are taught.
Objective of the Study
This paper is written with the objective of directing the attention of pedagogies in developing and
maintaining fluent linguistic skills of the English language teacher. It is motivated by the instances of errors
observed in some of the papers presented by teachers during a conference.
Research Methodology
Ten papers presented by the English teachers are randomly selected .A paragraph from the selected papers is
further chosen for the study. They are then labeled from one to ten. These are subjected to linguistic
analyses, bringing out wrong usage in terms of spelling, wrong choices of vocabulary, ungrammatical
sentences and inexpressiveness.
The paragraphs are broken down into sentences for analytical convenience. The findings are then presented
in tabular forms which are immediately followed by their interpretation. A general table of summary on all
the findings is also drawn and explained.
Presentation and Discussion of Data
All the ten papers selected are subjected to the analysis as described in the methodology section, but only a
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sample of analysis on the first paper is presented here.
Sample of Analysis
Paper 1 Sentence by sentence presentation
There has been a cry in Nigeria about the falling
1.
standard of Education in the country.
2. The article examines challenges faced by readers using English as a medium of instruction.
3. The problem arises from poor approach to teaching through English, which is due to taking English
as a medium of instruction for granted as a second and official language.
4. Some teachers who use English as a medium of instructions sometimes do not have clear
understanding of some English concepts.
5. Thus learners wish they were taught through their mother tongue.
Due to the difficulty of reaching a compromise on which indigenous language ( Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo
etc) should be adopted in the country as a lingua franca, a proposal is made for maintaining the English
as a medium of instruction.
SENTENCES
GRAMMAR
VOCABULARY
EXPRESSIVENESS
1
NIL
NIL
NIL
2
Article
NIL
NIL
3
Article
4
Article
5
NIL
Vague
NIL
NIL
NIL
NIL
NIL
Article
NIL
NIL
TABLE I - Linguistic Analysis of paper 1
The writer exhibits some linguistic problems particularly in the use of article. Sentence number three is
vague and requires restructuring.
The General Findings
The findings of the research are presented in the table below.
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GRAMMAR
VOCABULARY
EXPRESSIVENESS
1
4
NIL
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
2
1
4
3
NIL
NIL
5
2
NIL
NIL
6
3
NIL
7
3
NIL
1
8
NIL
NIL
NIL
9
NIL
NIL
NIL
10
NIL
NIL
NIL
20
4
5
69%
14%
17%
PAPER
TOTAL 29
100%
NIL
TABLE II Errors in the writings of teachers of English
This analysis reveals that out of the 10 papers analyzed only 3, forming 30% are error free. The other 7
that forms 70% contains various types of errors A total of 29 errors are recorded, 20 errors that form
69% are in the grammatical category, 4 errors that form 14% are in the vocabulary category and 5 of the
errors that form 14% are in the area of expressiveness.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The findings reveal that 70% of English teachers in Nigeria have some deficiencies in using the language.
Teachers constitute the core of the school system, they serve as guides and models for the learners; as such
they must be trained and their proficiency must be maintained.
One of the most common ways of upgrading teachers in Nigeria is by sending them for additional training
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through post graduate programs, workshops and seminars. Though this is a good development, often the
standard is hardly maintained. There is also the problem of professionalism in English language teaching
(ELT) unlike in other fields where we find rigorous internal training and trade ethics that protect the
profession and its members and also control its standard.
The following are recommended to upgrade and maintain the English language teachers` proficiency:
1.
To inculcate the ethics of professionalism so that members become proud of their job and guard it
jealously and protect it from ineffective members who are unwilling to perform.
2. To introduce internal training on a regular basis for teachers similar to the weekly updating carried
out by Medical Doctors in Hospitals .This will provide a platform for standard maintenance and
additional training.
These are simple yet cost effective approaches and highly beneficial if experimented.
It is believed that if these are well designed and experimented, the standard of the ESL teacher will be
uplifted and at the same time be maintained.
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References:
Aliyu, K. (2000). A genre analysis of M.A presentations: Six case studies. FAIS Journal of Humanities. Vol. 1, 154 168.
Chikere, A. (2003). The role of language in the world of technology. NATECEP Journal of English and Communication Studies.
Vol. 1, 17 23.
Dauha, J. (2004). Language and communication: The challenges of using English as a medium of communication in a
multilingual society like Nigeria. Unpublished paper presented at the 8th National conference Of the National
Association of Teachers of English in Colleges of Education and polytechnics (NATECEP) on 10th 15th November, 2004
at Federal Polytechnic Bauchi.
Egenneye, C. (2003). The teaching and learning of English language in tertiary institutions: Problems and pros. In NATECEP
Journal of English and communicative studies. Vol. 1, 229 234.
Fema, M. B. & Jarma I. S. (2004). Techniques of teaching extensive reading in secondary schools. Unpublished article, presented
at the National Conference of NATECEP, on 10th November at Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi.
Olatunji, F. (2003). Communicative competence and goals of UBE. NATECEP Journal of English Communication Studies. Vol.
1, 152 158.
Opara, B. (2003). Grammar teaching and communicative competence: Issues in English teaching and learning. NATECEP
Journal of English Communication studies. Vol. 1, 173 181. Plateau: Nigeria
Rhoda, M. (2004). Language for national integration and unity. Unpublished Article, presented at the 8th National conference of
NATECEP 10th 15th November, 2004 at Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi
Shehu, N. & Barnabas, J. (2004). Role of effective communication in institutions and organizations. Presented at the 8th National
Conference of NATECEP, 10th 15th November, 2004 at Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi.
Shehu, N. & Barnabas, J. (2004). The integration of literature in language teaching: A way out of failure in exams in Bauchi
Public Schools. Unpublished article, presented at the 8th National NATECEP 15th November, 2004 at Federal
Polytechnic, Bauchi.
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Teaching English at U. G. Level in India: A Critique on Prominent Methods
Sandeep K. Thorat
S. S. S. K. R. Innani Mahavidyalaya, Karanja Lad. M.S. India
Abstract: Today, teaching English effectively at UG level in India is the urgent need of the time. Effective teaching
firstly depends on the methods and the useful initiatives taken by the teacher. Secondly, the environment of the learner
and the teaching sources contribute effects to teach English. There are several methods of teaching English. The
prominent methods of teaching English are Grammar Translation Method, the Direct Method, West New Method and
Bilingual Method. Though these methods are considered to be traditional, these have their individual significance
even today if think properly. In fact, the paper focuses on the significance of these traditional methods with slight
changes and addition of some techniques like creative thinking, Home assignment, Seminars, etc. The paper also
intents the continuation of the traditional methods like Grammar Translation Method and Bilingual Methods to teach
English in Rural areas. Teaching English through these methods offers freedom to the teacher to translate the whole
text and meaning of words and phrases. It provides opportunities to the learner to peep deep into the problem and
analyze the difficulties regarding the construction of the sentences using his mother tongue. It helps him to learn
English in an easy way. The aim of the paper is to apply these methods in teaching English in order to grow interest
and confidence among the learnerss.
Keywords: Teaching, English, India, Methods.
Introduction
English initiated to spread in India through our oppressors and sought a suitable place in the hearts of
Indians. “In 1817, the Hindu College, which later became Presidency College, the premier educational
institution of Bengal, was founded. More significantly, in 1835, Macaulay in his famous Minute laid the
foundations of the modern Indian educational system, with his decision to promote European science and
literatures among Indians through the medium of English language. The result was that English became in
India, as later in other British colonies, a passport to privilege (Paranjape, 1993)”. Gradually, Indians
became intimate of English studies and began to learn, speak and write in English. It took long period for
Indians to honor English a native identity. Today, English has become the fundamental need of younger
generation of India. They have understood the significance of the language in almost all the walks of life.
Effective teaching has become an issue of importance as the landscape of higher education has been facing
continuous changes. These changes give rise to new challenges before learners in rural parts. Therefore,
teaching and learning English has become of immense important than ever at UG level in rural India.
However, English teachers may play a major role in imparting valuable knowledge of English to make these
learners to compete with the present challenges. In fact, Grammar Translation Method, The Direct method,
West New Method, and Bilingual Method of teaching English can prove more effective than ever.
Need of the Hour
The craze for English has given rise to the emergence of a new learner whose demands and
ambitions are much more based on his interest than those of his counterpart in the past. Use of innovative
Method of Teaching English may certainly meet the needs of learners in India. A textbook should be
designed in respect to meet the needs of the learner. The learner becomes passive participant when the
textbook is against his will and liking. “Even today, in quite a few states even at the intermediate/highersecondary/first year B. A. level, poems by Keats: La Belle Dame Sans Merci (neither the teacher nor the
students can pronounce even the title properly), Wordsworth's Daffodils (which nobody has seen in India) or
poems about the courtly love games of the idle European feudal classes like To His Mistress by Andrew
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Marvell are prescribed (N. and Lalita Krishnaswamy, 2003)”. Thus, a textbook that does not respond to the
liking and interest of a learner can prove a total failure.
The Present Status of Teaching English in India
The present status of teaching does not encourage the learners to improve their English especially in
rural area. The teacher-centered classrooms raise certain questions in the minds of learners. They think that
since they are not the native speaker of English and consequently they may never succeed in mastering it.
Thus, they lack confidence and joy in learning. Many do not attend English classrooms as they label these
boring. Many memorize the materials in English and reproduce the answers without knowing the meaning.
Many do not know even the very basic grammatical rules because they never have had an opportunity to use
full and complete sentences in English. So they can not express their innermost feelings in English. They are
deprived of the opportunities like seminars, group discussions, assignments and many others.
Methods of Teaching English
Meanwhile, with the advent of Globalization, many new theories have been come out in English
education. The certain change in traditional methods of teaching has fallen since the outburst of New
Critical theory based on reader response theories. However, these theories affected the literature teaching to
great extent. But English classes have remained untouched of these theories to some extent.
Many effective methods of teaching English have been moderated and efforts have been made to
enhance the status of English teaching and learning. A method is a way to teach the language appropriately,
suitably and exactly. In this respect Marlow Ediger, B.S. Venkata Dutt and D. Bhaskara Rao remark: “A
method generally includes what to teach and how to teach”. In the words of W.F. Mackey, “A method
determines what and how much is taught, the order in which it is taught and how the meaning and form are
conveyed and what is done to make use of language unconscious”. Therefore, a method should serve the
purpose of teaching English.
Generally, Grammar Translation Method, The Direct method, West New Method, and Bilingual
Method, are famous methods of teaching English as a second language. The Grammar Translation Method
allows the learner to use his mother-tongue and learn English grammar through translation. The Direct and
the West New methods offer him opportunity to learn English through thinking and speaking in English.
The Bilingual Method encourages him to learn English both through the native language and the target
language. There are several models of teaching English. But Indian models are proving more beneficial in
India. “Indian English idiom and indigenous teaching models are found to be much more suitable to these
countries than more sophisticated culture-specific native speaker models (Gupta, 2005)”. As a result, these
traditional methods of teaching and learning English in India can be of a great significance.
Traditional Methods May Prove Beneficial
However, the Grammar Translation and the Bilingual Methods serve different purposes. Firstly, it
offers liberty to the learners to make the use of mother tongue and he can study languages- the target
language and the mother tongue. Secondly, the teacher develops interest in teaching English, as he has to go
through the knowledge of other subjects. Besides, these methods directly help the learners in constructing
new meaning of the text contents through the use of his mother-tongue. The teacher can involve the learners
in critical thinking by asking questions at the end of the lesson. He can stimulate thinking with the help of the
questions focusing on general aspects of human experiences. If these experiences are expressed in learner's
mother-tongue, he can take active part in answering them. Thus, he gets involve unknowingly in the heating
debate and tries to explore his ideas on the subject matter. As a result of it, he thinks on the basis of logic and
reason. Sometimes, the author is obscure and leaves the gap in meaning, this gap between the author's and
the learner's meaning is removed with the help of the heated discussion. During the discussion, the learner
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expresses his innermost feelings and attempts to clear his ideas. Every aspect of the topic comes in the
discussion and the learner can easily find the solution to the problem. This provides him lots of opportunities
to converse and conversation is the basis of improving fluency in English. It grows courage and interest of
the learner which is the striking feature of learning English. Thus the aim of teaching and learning English
can be achieved.
Moreover, the Direct method and the West New Method improve the thinking ability in English
because of compulsion of use of English. These methods improve his speaking, reading and writing skills in
English which makes him to absorb the world knowledge. Thus, he can develop his personality with the help
of English. Indeed, traditional methods are of great importance from the point of view of beginners.
Creative Thinking, Home Assignment, Seminars: Techniques to grow interest among Learners
The learners can be engaged in critical thinking by other ways. Home assignments such as life story
of a renowned person, reviews of great works of writers or poets, essays on various topics are also used to
encourage learners to ponder over, describe, defend and rethink their initial impressions. Seminars and
group discussions play a vital role in inviting critical thinking. Besides, critical thinking can be invited
during the studies of dramas, novels, short stories and poetry. All these forms of literature are the prime
source of engaging learners in critical thinking because these forms reflect the life which creates much
interest and enthusiasm among the learners. Basically, learners take active part in thinking when the topic is
of his personal interest and liking. Then teaching English becomes the point of attraction in order to meet the
needs of learners in rural areas of India. It is a task of a responsible teacher who devotes his life for the
overall development of learners. In fact, the research tries to point out that the Indian models may prove
appropriate and useful techniques in order to meet the needs of the learners of English.
Conclusion
Indeed, the paper highlights the various Methods of teaching English and their relevance to the
present scenario. Though, Grammar Translation Method, the Direct Method, West new Method , and
Bilingual Method considered traditional and out dated, one cannot reject the worth of these methods for
their evergreen contribution to teaching of English. Most of the Indians have been proved their command
and mastery on English language by following and educating through these classical methods. On the other
hand, these methods have been proved successful if accompanied by creative thinking, practice of home
assignment and Seminars. A learner from rural area has to improve himself from easy to difficult way. The
above methods have been opening new horizon today in order to improve English of a weaker as well as an
advance learner. The paper points out that these traditional methods may contribute as a genuine source of
teaching English in India
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References
Aslam, Mohammad. Teaching of English. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Chalmers, D. A review of Australian and international quality systems and indicators of learning and teaching, August. 2007.
Ediger, Marlow, B. S. Venkata Dutt and D. Bhaskara Rao ed. Teaching English Successfully. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing
House, 2003.
Ediger, Marlow, and D. Bhaskara Rao ed. Teaching Language Arts Successfully. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 2003.
Gupta, D. ELT in India: A Brief Historical Current Overview. Asian EFL Journal. 2005; Vol. 7, pp. 12
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Use of PowerPoint Presentation in Teaching Prepositions in the
Non-native Scenario
Sandip P. Gawate
JSPM'S Jayawantrao Sawant Polytechnic,
Hadapsar, Pune - 411028
Abstract: The present research paper is an attempt to exhibit how multimedia instrument PowerPoint
presentation can be used in teaching tricky area like prepositions. The main aim of the present research paper is
to demonstrate the significance of technology in the teaching of English as a second language. One aspect of
technology, i.e., the PowerPoint has been selected. Similarly, only 'prepositions' have been selected for
demonstrating the immense utility of the PowerPoint Presentations. The actual PPTs have been generated by the
researcher. The underlying assumption is that the use of PowerPoint reduces the element of rigidity and boredom
and increases the interest and participation of the learners in teaching-learning process of English in the nonnative scenario. The PowerPoint Presentation can be used as an audio-visual aid in non-native classrooms to
have more effective teaching-learning activities. It is an application of multimedia in teaching prepositions. The
idea of using multimedia arises due to the lacunas found in the traditional methods and techniques of the
teaching-learning processes of English language.
Keywords: multimedia, technology, PowerPoint presentation, second language.
Introduction
English language came in India in the seventeenth century. It came with the British and initially it was
used only by the British people associated with the East India Company. Simultaneously, some English
missionaries used it for the religious and educational purposes. As the British spread their control over the
country, English came to be used as an official language and language of education, judiciary, etc.
After Independence, English continued as an official language. Despite opposition and controversies,
it still continues to enjoy the status of the co-official language along with Hindi. After the reorganization of
Indian states along linguistic lines, the regional languages gained more significance. Nevertheless, the
spread and use of English has been growing at a phenomenal speed all over India.
English is being used in India as a second language. In addition to its widespread use in
administration, judiciary, trade and commerce, English is being used in education almost at all the levels.
With the rise in the number of English medium schools and the expansion of IT (Information Technology)
and ICT (Information and Communications Technology), English has become all-pervasive and a powerful
language normally associated with success and happiness. Though, due to its pervasiveness and wide use,
English has risen to the status of second language in India, the Indian users of English are still considered
non-native users of English. As non-native users of English, the Indians face typical problems like mother
tongue interference and lack of knowledge of the native usage. The English used by the 11% Indians today
is, thus, a non-native variety of English with its typical characteristics and particularities.
Prepositions
Phonology, Morphology, Grammar or Syntax, Semantics and Pragmatics are the different aspects of
every language. Phonology studies the sound patterns of language. Morphology considers how words are
formed, i.e., word-formation processes. Grammar or syntax studies how words should be combined to
create meaningful sentences. It focuses on both types of words- structural and functional. Dictionary or
literal meaning is the subject matter of Semantics. Finally, one must know different pragmatic features of
language. Pragmatics considers socio-cultural aspects of the participants of the communication process to
interpret the utterances in different situations or contexts.
'Prepositions' is a part of English grammar and it is one of the parts of speech. Teaching prepositions in
the non-native context becomes very challenging because the prepositions have many shades of usages. It is
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one of the trickiest areas of teaching because it changes functions according to the context or situation.
Prepositions show various relations in the different contexts. Indians, as non-native users of English,
concentrate on the structures of the language more than the functions or usage of structures. Therefore, to
reduce such problems for teaching English, the teachers of the second language need to modify their
teaching methods and techniques. The prepositions are classified into different kinds. Among them, place or
location prepositions, direction or movement prepositions and time or temporal prepositions are some of the
prominent categories.
In Indian classroom, unfortunately English is taught mechanically. There is a need to concentrate on
functional (descriptive) grammar, which prefers function over the structure of English language. The
functional grammar concentrates on the use of language rather than structural part of language. Indians, as
the non-native learners, have been learning English language since the first standard. Yet, they cannot
achieve proficiency over English language. It has been observed that three years are sufficient for learning
any language. It is well said that language is a vehicle and grammar is a machine. The role of grammar can be
stated as follows:
1) To understand the functions of the structures to manipulate the language
2) To know the abstract and underlying things significant in a language
3) To have logical sequence of ideas one needs to imbibe grammar
4) To understand how it is significant for written communication
5) To increase the confidence for communication
6) To increase ability of learners to speak and write correct and appropriate English
'Prepositions' is one of the essential parts of English grammar. With functional point-of-view,
prepositions are very useful to tell the relationship among the different parts of a sentence. To indicate
proper relationship, a learner has to use an appropriate preposition. Wrong use of preposition may lead to
wrong interpretation of the sentence. The non-native speakers cannot use the prepositions properly because
they are not aware of various shades of usages of the prepositions. Moreover, it is difficult to provide an
exhaustive list of rules and regulations regarding use of prepositions.
In a nutshell, knowing grammar of English language is essential for second language learners. It can
be said that meaningful communication depends on one's ability to connect form and meaning
appropriately, and to express oneself effectively.
Prepositions are the structural words. These words are used to show the relationship among nouns,
pronouns, adjectives, and verbs. Here the word 'Preposition' itself indicates its meaning. 'Pre' means 'before'
and 'position' means 'place'. Various grammarians defined the term 'Preposition' in different ways. Some of
the definitions of 'Preposition' are as under.
1) Wren and Martin define Preposition as “A preposition is a word placed before a noun, or a pronoun to
show in what relation the person or thing denoted by it stands in regard to something else.” The word
'Preposition' means 'that which is placed before'. (1976, pp. 110)
2) In 'Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary' Preposition has been defined as “A word or group of
words, such as in, from, to, out of and on behalf of, used before a noun or pronoun to show place, position,
th
time or method.” (1948 6 Ed. pp. 996)
The following are frequently used prepositions.
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Sr. No.
Preposition
Sr. No.
Preposition
1
On
11
By
21
For
31
Across
41
Off
2
In
12
Above
22
From
32
Through
42
According to
3
At
13
Over
23
About
33
With
43
In addition to
4
To
14
Inside
24
In front of
34
Within
44
Past
5
Under
15
Outside
25
Opposite
35
Without
45
In spite of
6
Below
16
Out
26
Before
36
After
46
During
7
Underneath
17
Behind
27
Near
37
Against
47
On behalf of
8
Beneath
18
Into
28
Next to
38
Instead of
48
In place of
9
Beside
19
Between
29
Since
39
Toward
49
Prior to
10
Besides
20
Among
30
With
40
Towards
50
Regarding
Why to Use Multimedia
If a teacher uses multimedia in a classroom, then learner's sensory memory parts, eyes and ears,
work simultaneously. Both visual component and auditory component help the learner to understand the
concepts in better way. By using graphics, the teacher can refer to a variety of illustrations including still
graphics such as line drawings, charts, photographs, and motion graphics like animation and video. It has
been observed that graphics can improve learning due to its direct appeal to the sensory memory. The use of
relevant graphics to the message or the illustrations helps the learners to understand the idea in better way.
For this purpose, graphics should be congruent to the message. A teacher can use animation, graphics,
printed words, and narration simultaneously in PowerPoint Presentation to increase effectiveness of
teaching learning process.
Following two diagrams show how multimedia works in cognitive way. The multimedia can become
helpful in many ways in the teaching-learning process of prepositions in non-native scenario.
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Sensory Memory
Animation / Graphics
Working Memory
Eyes
Visual
Component
Ears
Auditory
Component
Multimedia
Presentation
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Spoken
Words
Ears
Phonetic
Processing
Pictures
Eyes
Auditory
Component
Printed Words
Narration
IV. Features of Power Point Presentations as A Multimedia Instrument
PowerPoint is software of presentation bundled in MS office and used for creating presentations
usually in the form of slideshows. Over the years Microsoft has been updating the software, each time
making it even better and user friendly. In other words, PowerPoint is a type of presentation software that
allows one to show colored text and images with simple animation and sound for keeping learners indulged
with the classroom activities. PowerPoint 1997, 2003 and 2007 are the different upgradations of this
software. Each time Microsoft is trying to make it more comfortable and easy to operate.
PowerPoint presentation can become a great aid while teaching prepositions in non-native context.
There can be more output of teaching-learning activities if a teacher uses various features of PowerPoint
Presentation. The following are the different features of PowerPoint Presentation, which can be used for
creating presentations for teaching in non-native scenario.
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1) User Friendly
2) Use of Pictures
3) Use of Icons and Color Fonts
4) Use of Symbols
5) Use of Video Clips
6) Audio-Video Integration
7) Visual Collision/Impact
8) Audience Focus
9) Graphic Design
10) On Screen Presentation
11) Move, Copy and Duplicate slides
12) Use of Images and Pictures Relevant to the Content
13) Use of Tables, Graphs and Different Picture Tools
14) Editing Pictures
15) Use of Animation (Custom and Transitions)
16) Voice Narration
17) Music Tracks
18) Animated Templates
19) Hyperlinks
20) Action Buttons and Settings
21) Word Art
22) Easy to Save and Edit Contents of Presentation
23) Use of Background
24) Handouts
25) Use of Clip Art
26) Use of Shadows
27) Link to Various Documents in the Computer
28) Use of Auto Shapes
29) Underline, Italic and Bold
30) Recorded Sounds
31) Use of Comment Box
Advantages of Using Power Point Presentation in the Non-Native Scenario
There are some advantages of using PowerPoint Presentation in teaching-learning activities in the
non-native scenario. These advantages are for both the language teachers and the learners of the second
language. The advantages of using PowerPoint Presentation are listed below:
The instructional material developed by using PowerPoint Presentation can be stored easily on a disk,
floppy and in a pen drive.
The slides made in PowerPoint can last long.
The slides, the speaker's notes, the outline, and the handouts can all be kept in one file.
The presentation supports environment protection. There is no harm in using PowerPoint Presentation in
classroom.
PowerPoint Presentation, once used, can be easily refined and reused in the following years.
PowerPoint Presentation is flexible. Therefore, it is easy to update it at any time.
The slides are easy to modify. The modifications can be made according to the situation as well as learners.
The teacher can print slides in the form of handouts that help him or her to remember points about each slide.
The teacher can print handouts with two, three or six slides on a page. The handouts can be provided to the
students as notes.
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The teacher can print the outline of the presentation to show the main points.
PowerPoint Presentation can be useful to present abstract ideas into concrete form with the help of various
features of Power-Point.
Hyperlinks can be provided to PowerPoint Presentation to the relevant web sites for more clarification.
The teacher can access slides from other presentations on the same disk.
Motion media, sound files, and interactive elements can be inserted to add functionality to the presentation.
PowerPoint has an extensive range of drawing tools and shapes to choose to supplement the presentation.
The teacher can access to visually stimulating tools such as animations and simulations. They are useful in
demonstrating difficult concepts that words and static diagrams cannot easily convey.
The teacher can make use of attractive fonts or different typestyles with a variety of different colors to attract
the students' attention to more important words and sentences or important things. So the attractive fonts,
colors and typestyles can be used as attention grabbers.
Both texts and relevant images can be displayed on the same slide to simplify the concepts.
Some simple drawing tools are given so that the teacher can use the mouse to circle or draw arrows between
texts and images on the slide.
The items shown on the slides can be highlighted with the "pen" function.
PowerPoint Presentations have professional look.
The presentation can be run manually or it can be timed in advance.
The teacher can reveal points one by one on a single slide without having to cover up points with a piece of
paper.
They allow the teacher to face the audience and devote more time for explanation.
The presentation can be made more interesting to listen to with voice over.
PowerPoint presentation is time saving. It provides more time to the teacher to discuss the topic being
taught.
Various charts, graphs, and maps can be used as per the difficulty of the topic and with the consideration of
its significance. Such modes of non-verbal communication can be used to present a lot of information in a
compact way.
The use of PowerPoint Presentation can make the class more interactive in the non-native scenario. There
can be discussion between the teacher and the students.
The use of PowerPoint Presentation can become supportive to the teacher. The teacher itself is the best
example of an audio-visual aid. The use of other supplementary audio-visual aids helps the teacher to make
his or her teaching effective, understandable, and logical.
A variety of materials can be projected by using PowerPoint Presentation.
PowerPoint Presentation can be prepared in advance. The prepared presentations can be changed according
to the situation or learners. Therefore, it is a kind of lesson planning.
The prepared slides can be presented immediately without waiting.
Normal room lighting can be used so that the audience can follow handouts or take notes.
It is easy to go back to look at the previous slides and change the slides. It helps if someone does not
understand the concept or particular point.
PowerPoint Presentations are colorful, attractive, interesting, and clearer than any other things.
PowerPoint Presentations look more professional, efficient and clear.
PowerPoint Presentation is a kind of lesson planning for the teachers because they are created in advance.
They are logical, systematic, and attentive. The teacher can proceed according to the sequence of the slides.
The ideas can be sequenced logically in PowerPoint Presentation. Therefore, both the learners and the
teachers cannot be detracted.
In PowerPoint Presentation, the teacher can display various exercises and ask the students to solve them
instantly.
The teacher need not use chalk, blackboard, as well as paper while teaching.
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PowerPoint Presentation can help the teacher while repeating the same topic for the absent students with
difficulties in learning. The created presentations can take more time to revise the topic again.
With the help of PowerPoint Presentation, the teacher can do the task by quickly displaying the exercises on
PowerPoint slides instead of copying the sheets, distributing, and collecting them.
In this way, the use of PowerPoint Presentation can become advantageous for both the teachers and the
learners of English language.
VI. Equipment Needed For Creating PowerPoint Presentations
To create PowerPoint Presentations for academic purposes the language teachers need to have
following equipment in the classroom:
1) Computer
2) LCD Projector (Liquid Crystal Display)
3) Television Set
4) Related Software
There are some technical points that need to be considered before using PowerPoint for creating
presentation for academic purposes. The teacher must have a computer for his or her presentation, and then
s/he needs to decide the way to display the presentations to the students.
Computer is an electronic device, which can be used for storing data and performing various
activities. The regular Computer Monitor is good for individual work or in small groups of two to four
students for presentation in the non-native classroom. The advantage of this is that the students can also
review instructional material at their own speed.
PowerPoint Presentations can also be viewed on an ordinary Television Set. Using a Television Set
has an advantage - a whole class can view the same presentation at one time. The teacher might be able to
have two or more Television Sets in the classroom to run the same presentation if the class is really big.
The LCD projector is the best tool for PowerPoint Presentation. The Projector gives clearer and
bigger picture than a Television Set and Computer Monitor. The projected images are much clearer in size
and brightness. For the larger classes in the non-native scenario LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) projectors
can be used for better view.
There is a need to have related software for creating effective PowerPoint Presentations. PowerPoint
is software made for presentation. It is bundled in Microsoft Office. There should be Microsoft office
installed in the computer. Software like Photoshop, Paint, etc. can be useful to edit images and to create own
images. Apart from this, voice recorder can be used to record voice over and that voice over can be added to
the presentation.
Conclusion
The use of PowerPoint presentation has many advantages for the teachers as well as for the learners.
With a certain amount of technological skill, any teacher can design effective PowerPoint Presentations.
These presentations can be fruitfully used, particularly, in the non-native scenario. Prepositions can be
effectively taught in the non-native classroom with the help of PowerPoint Presentations.
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References
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Allen, W. S., Living English Structure, Orient Longman Limited, 1962
Augustine, A. E. And Joseph, K. V., Macmillan Gramar: A Handbook, Macmillan India Limited, 1987.
Bakshi, R. N., English Grammar Practice, Elt, Orient Longman, 2005.
Bhatia, H.S., Comprehensive High School Grammar And Composition, Book Palace, Delhi, India. 1995.
Bisht, A.R., Teaching English In India, (6th Ed.) Vinod Pustak Mandir, Agra. 1985.
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Chamuah, M., PowerPoint Presentation In Language Teaching, A Dissertation For The Degree Of MPhil, Under The Guidance
Of Dr. P. F. Patil. Aug. 2006.
Chapman, L.R.H., English Grammar And Exercises, Book Four, Longman. 1967.
Copestake, S., PowerPoint 2003 In Easy Step, Dreamtech Press, New Delhi. 2004.
Cox J. And Preppernau J., Microsoft R Office PowerPoint 2007 Step By Step, Prentice Hall Of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 2007.
Eckersley, C.E. And Swan, D.K., Brighter Grammar 1, 2, 3 And 4, New Edition, Pearson, Longman. 2006.
Eckersley, C.E., A Concise English Grammar For Foreign Students, Orient Longman, Delhi. 1993.
Ellis, R., Second Language Acquisition, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1997.
Fitikids, T. J., Common Mistakes In English, Orient Longman. 1963.
Green, D., Contemporary English Grammar And Composition, Macmillan India Limited. 1971.
Joshi, S. D., English Practice (Grammar, Usage, Vocabulary, Phonetics), Orient Longman. 1997.
Krishnaswamy, N., Modern English A Book Of Grammar, Usage And Composition, Macmillan India Limited. 1975.
Lado, R., Language Teaching- A Scientific Approach, Tata Mcgraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. Bombay, New Delhi. 1964.
Leech, G. And Svatvik, J., A Communicative Grammar Of English, English Language Book Society, Longman. 1975.
Longman's Essential Activator, Longman Corpus Network, Oxford.
Mohan, K. And Raman M., Effective English Communication, Tata Mcgraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd. New Delhi. 2000.
Nagaraj, G., English Language Teaching Approaches. Methods. Techniques, Orient Longman. 1996.
Narayanswamy, K. R., Success With Grammar And Composition, Orient Longman Limited. 1995.
Oxford's Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, New Edition, Pearson, Longman.
Quirk, R. And Green, S., A University Grammar Of English, Pearson Education, Essex And London. 1973.
Rao, A. R., A Handbook Of English Usage, Orient Longman Limited. 1990.
Rutherford, W.E., Second Language Grammar: Learning And Teaching, Longman, London. 1987.
Seely, J., Oxford Guide To Effective Writing And Speaking, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 2000.
Sellen, D., Grammar World, Black Cat Publishers, Genoa, Canterbury. 2000
Swan M., Basic English Usage, (Indian Edition), Oxford University Press, Oxford. 1984.
Thomson, A. J. And Martinet, A. V., A Practical English Grammar, (4th Ed.) Oxford University Press. 1986.
Thorat A.R., Valke B. S., Gokhale S.B., Enriching Your Competence In English, Orient Longman, Mumbai. 2000.
Tickoo, M.L., 'Teaching And Learning English'- A Sourcebook For Teachers And Teacher-Trainers, Orient Longman.
Wren And Martin, High School English Grammar And Composition, S. Chand And Company Ltd. New Delhi. 1936.
Yardi, V. V., Teaching English In India Today, Parimal Prakashan, Aurangabad. 1994.
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Pedagogical Implications of Teaching Stylistics of Poetry
Sandip Prabhakar Khedkar
Arts, Commerce And Science College, Sonai, Tal:
Ahmednagar, India
Abstract: This research paper attempts at finding methods of applying different linguistic tools in the interpretation
of poetry in order to make poetry class interesting. Once the students of poetry ensure regarding their own capabilities
to interpret poems, they can analyze the poems on their own and can yield fresh reactions to poetry. In the beginning of
the paper synoptic history of stylistics is given, just to clarify that stylistics is in fact an age old thing. Stylistics is a
growing field of critical linguistics. Linguistic understanding of the poem takes reader to the very core of the poem.
Though stylistics can be applied to other genres of literature, application of stylistic can become a very useful tool in
the hand of teacher at all levels of learning. Linguistics itself is a very wide term; it takes in its compass almost all
aspects of language beginning from grammar to phonetics, semantics, morphology, syntacs, pragmatics, graphology,
etymology etc. This gives teachers an additional advantage to teach the theories in application with the living
language namely poetry. It makes teaching interesting and gives the learners opportunities to learn the art of
interpretation. The researcher has used a book review method and analysis method of poetry.
Keywords: poetic analysis, deviations, foregrounding, repetitions, parallelism, figures of speech.
Pedagogical Implications of Teaching Stylistics of Poetry
Human interest in one's idiosyncrasies of addressing and its effect on addressee may be as old as the human
communication itself. One of the reasons of the interest may reasonably be supposed to have been
originated in the human urge regarding how to say things, to tell stories and to communicate feelings. It is an
age-old interest of humankind to imitate the impressive qualities of speech of others. Stylistics, as a sub
discipline of linguistics, is concerned with the systematic analysis of style in language. Though 1960, the
year in which the benchmark publication 'Style in Language' appeared, is considered to be authorized
beginning of literary stylistics, interest in manner of saying can be traced back in the writings of Aristotle. In
his book III of Rhetoric, style is observed under the techniques of persuasion. While commenting on the art
of oratory, he prescribes certain vocabulary, syntax, structure and figures of speech to produce given effect
st
on the audience. In the 1 century A.D., Quintilian in his 'Institute of oratory' points out certain uses as the
means of persuasion in political, ceremonial and literary oratory. In 18th century, Comte de Buffon in his
'Discourse on Style' treats style as a means to a means to a rhetorical end. It was he who used much-quoted
proverb 'Style is man'. He believed style is something that springs from the man. If human speech
differentiates man from animal, style differentiates one man from the other.
It derives most of its ideas from the thinking of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913). He
suggested in his 'Course in General Linguistics' that 'langue'(language) is an inbuilt faculty for language an
abstraction which is manifested in reality only as 'parole', the specimens of speech. The parole has
implications for style. Charles Bally (1865-1914) popularized the term stylistics. His main interest was in
psychology. He regarded parole as a deviation because of his linguistic stylistics. His contemporary German
scholar Leo Spitzer (1887-1960) developed stilforschung (literary stylistics). Leo Spitzer did not believe in
professed scientific, measurable truth as linguistic stylistician held it. He published 'Linguistics and
Literary History' in 1948. He strongly urged that criticism should deal with a work without any
preconceived notions, however later felt that after many readings, critic grasps “the spiritual etymon” by an
intuitive click and thus understands the inner order, literary linguistic did not get much popularity. Russian
formalism largely thought about the ideas of literariness not as a quality of text, rather it is a concept
belonging to a specific genre. Some translator-critics used the terms aktualisace literally actualization in
opposition to foregrounding. Automatization refers to over familiarity as users lose the awareness of
aesthetic possibilities. Mukarovsky (1932) and Havranek (1932) believed the function of language of
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literature is to surprise the reader with a fresh and dynamic awareness. Gravin (1964) later translated
actualization and coined the term foregrounding. According to Claude Levi-Strauss literature combines the
features of anthropology, linguistics and the basic principle of human thinking is choice between a pair of
alternatives.
Systematization of literary criticism was the next step. I. A. Richards undertook the task in his 'Principles of
Literary Criticism' and 'Practical Criticism'. He experimented short poems with authors and dates deleted
indicating the uselessness of traditional modes of interpretations. Close reading of the text was the only
method of explication. This close reading was found very useful in stylistic analysis. Stylistics developed in
the twentieth century and its aim is to show the technical linguistic features of a literary work, such as the
grammatical structure of its sentences, contribute to its overall meanings and effects. Stylistic approach to
literary texts does not only involve linguistic or textual analysis but also encourages readers to interact with
textual structure to deduce meaning. Stylistics tries to make use of the new insights in linguistics to study the
language of poetry. poetry is written in language and so linguistics helps us to understand literary texts and
how we manage to understand them in the ways that we do. This causes in giving pleasure, aesthetic as well
as intellectual, which is the primary function of poetry. Stylistic analysis provides a firm foundation to the
edifice of interpretation.
Of course, this method has its own challenges. The learner learning through this method should have
acquired moderate linguistic competence and he should have patience until he reaches the pleasing
interpretation. The teacher should play a role of facilitator in the initial stages to keep the interest of the
learners alive. The teacher himself should analyze the poems at the beginning showing the stylistic
potentials of the poets. The teacher may choose the celebrated poems in order to keep the students interest.
Since the students are already familiar with the poems they would like to know how a particular kind of
interpretation has resulted. So the teacher's job at this stage is to hint at the linguistic evidence present in the
workings of language of poetry itself for particular kind of literary insight and literary interpretations.
Writing on the interpretative abilities of students Widdowson observes, “Analysis can have the effect of
enhancing the mystery by making clear the limits of what is explicable. Analysis is not the same as
dissection: for it always involves a reconstitution of some kind, dismantling something in order to
reassemble it in a different form. In this sense, analysis is always creative, and it is for this reason that its
application to poetry can serve a recreative purpose in education. Everything depends, of course, on how it
is done and who does it. But at all events, if a poem is treated like a sanctified script, there is no way in which
students can actually engage with it as individuals and make it their own as an experience of conditional
(1)
reality.”(Widdowson, 2011)
It is also advisable that the teacher can prescribe some sentences for arousing the interest in the students and
show how interpretation is possible at sentence level. The teacher can ask a question like what is the
difference between the following sentences. The difference shall form a kind of interpretation.
He married her.
He loved her.
As far as the above sentences are considered, there are more similarities namely; both the sentences are in
simple past tense, subject and object are same. Both sentences consists three words each and so on. But
semantically, they are deviant. The meaning of the first sentence 'He married her.' means also 'She married
him.' But it is not true with the second sentence. 'He loved her.' does not mean 'She loved him.' This kind of
practice shall acknowledge the students that sentences have something more to say than its literal content.
Moreover, simple sentence like 'She has become miser.' may yield a number of sentences like, 1. She has
started saving money. 2. She has changed her attitude. 3. She may not lend you.etc. The students could be
given examples from their own context to make them aware regarding the contextual understandings of
different expressions. After this warming up, the teacher can prescribe examples from poems.
“Stylistic analysis helps the student to see how literary and other effects are achieved by the combination of
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the words and structures in texts and reading process. In doing so, the student learns how language in general
works. This is not only because it is necessary to understand some basic linguistics in order to succeed in
stylistic analysis. It is also because poetry, though often inclined to break the rules of text structure and of
language in general, nevertheless is different from other texts, mainly in extent to which the rules are broken
or stretched.”(Jefferies, 2011)(2)
With reference to the above statement by Jefferies, it is possible to stylistically analyze Philip Larkin's 'Next
Please'.
Next, Please
Always too eager for the future, we
Pick up bad habits of expectancy.
Something is always approaching; every day
Till then we say,
Watching from a bluff the tiny, clear,
Sparkling armada of promises draw near.
How slow they are! And how much time they waste,
Refusing to make haste!
Yet still they leave us holding wretched stalks
Of disappointment, for though nothing balks
Each big approach, leaning with brasswork prinked,
Each rope distinct,
Flagged, and the figurehead with golden tits
Arching our way, it never anchors; it's
No sooner present that it turns to past.
Right to the last
We think each one will heave to and unload
All good into our lives, all we are owed
For waiting so devoutly and so long.
But we are wrong:
Only one ship is seeking us, blackSailed unfamiliar, towing at her back
A huge and birdless silence. In her wake
No waters breed or break.
The poem in general speaks of the only certainty of death. The poem ridicules the fact that we have made it a
habit of hope and expectation. We strongly believe that our patience may be rewarded at the end with a cargo
of good things. The stylistic competence of the poem enables the readers to arrive at the interpretation. The
speaker in the poem seems to be watching ships sailing at a distance coming towards the harbor so they may
bring cargo on the harbor. At the end ironically only one ship directs itself in his direction. The lexical
analysis at least some of the words hint at the general interpretation made. If one asks why does the poet uses
'sparkling' in relation to armada of promises and not any other word like 'shinning' 'gleaming' or any other of
its synonym. Metaphorically, the ships are like promises swayed by the wind and so uncertain. In fact this
message also anaphorically exists in the word 'sparkling'. Sparks as we know do yield light but it does not
last long time and comes very close to illusion. This temporariness and illusion are also about ships, they
tempt one temporarily and then change their way and go, so are the promises. This optimism resulting from
the bright side of picture is continued until the second last stanza where the word 'goods' deliberately seems
to have been squeezed in to 'good', as to convince the fact that the goods that we do not possess always
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charms us and we find it as 'good'. Even the word 'golden' in the fourth stanza reminds one the proverb 'Not
all that glitters is gold', which inadvertently hints at the illusory nature of promises. This bright colour
mechanism at once comes to a standstill when the poet uses black colour in the last stanza to mark death. The
sound mechanism of the poem also hints at the ominousness of death. The symbolical interpretation of 'only
one ship' as death, of course is voluntary in the sense that any other reader may find other strong features
with which he may correlate other ideas. Elizabeth Black writes about symbolism, “Indeed it is an essential
part of Eco's (1984) view that readers will vary in their interpretations according to their encyclopaedic
knowledge and, generally, what they are able to bring to the text, in the way of deriving appropriate
(3)
implicatures via the Gricean maxims”. (Black, 2006)
The interpretation of a poem also depends on the large scale on the readers' previous reading experiences.
The intertextuality, in this way creeps in the interpretation. Verdonks observes in the following manner,
“The alternative reality represented in poetry is a function of the interaction between its linguistic features
and the ideas, experiences, and emotions of the individual reader. It therefore stands to reason that the
intellectual and emotional baggage we bring with us when reading a particular text will also contain
remembered and half-remembered snatches or longer passages from other texts we have read. These texts in
(4)
turn will have their own intertextual dimensions, and so it goes on endlessly.” (Verdonk, 2002 ) At the end
of the poem the voiceless plosive consonant /k/ is repeated four times as the last sound of the last lines of the
last stanza in opposition to the first stanza, where the vowel /i/ is repeated four times as the ending sound of
all the four lines. Whereas, in the rest of the stanzas one sound is repeated only twice at the end. In case of
vowel the air stream is not blocked in the mouth while uttering it. In case of consonant the air stream is
blocked. So that effect is that one can move very easily from one line to other in case of the first stanza, but in
the last stanza this process takes much time. The reader has to read every word very distinctly, concentrating
simultaneously on the semantic content of the poem. Seturaman et.al in their edited book, 'Practical
Criticism' writes, “ The last stanza becomes grave and grim when we realize that at last one ship does
approach and seems to intend anchoring at the port. But at this point the description moves from the physical
to the symbolic level. The ship is now described as 'black-sailed' and 'unfamiliar' 'towing at her back' 'A huge
and birdless silence.' These lines negate the earlier description of the approaching ships as an 'armada of
promise', and suggest annihilation and death. The mystery of the final dissolution of our existence is brought
home by the words 'black' 'huge and birdless silence'.”(Seturaman, 1995)(5)
As it is evident from the above analysis that students on their own can discover patterns prevalent in the
lines, serve them for the sheer artistic pleasure. Poetic text is a free entity once it is composed. Students can
be motivated in the initial stages to find the phrases from the poem related to the themes of death and
waiting. For example, 'too eager for the future' or 'habit of expectancy' etc., this shall help them to boost their
confidence and shall enable them for marking the themes of poetry.
Conclusion
Stylistic approach to the teaching of poetry rests solely on the linguistic analysis. Initially, it does need
linguistic competence on the part of learners, but the learner in his effort to explore the relations and the
correlations in the workings of language of poetry also enhances his own linguistic competence,
communicative competence and stylistic competence too.
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References
Widdowson H.G. Practical Stylistics. P. 87. Somerset: Oxford University Press,2011.
Jeffries, Lesley, Dan MacIntyre. Teaching Stylistics. P.128. London: Palgrave Macmillan,
2011.
Black, Elizabeth. Pragmatic Stylistics. P. 124. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006.
Verdonk, Peter. Stylistics. P. 62. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Seturaman,V.S., C.T. Indra, T. Shriraman. Practical Criticism. P. 77.Madras: Macmillan,
1995.
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Teaching of English Language: A Practical Approach
Dr. Sangita Phulsunge.
Nagpur Institute of Technology, Nagpur
Abstract: The present paper is an attempt to attract the students' interest through the media they prefer most. It is also
to make teaching more creative as far as language is concerned. The importance of English as a compulsory language
of day-to-day communication in the present scenario cannot be ruled out. In order to make the SL learning more
interesting it becomes a compulsion for the teachers to create more interest amongst the students. There are many
ways which have been tried and trusted by the teachers and trainers of English language. Teaching of any language
through any medium which enhances the learning/acquiring ability thus becomes more important than the means by
which it is taught. For the purpose a Hindi movie, “Barfi” has been selected to make students practice listening and
speaking. Many new innovative techniques may be applied to create and retain the students' interest to make them
learn and use English from employability point of view.
Keywords: day-to-day communication, traditional, practical, mother tongue.
Introduction
The importance of English as a compulsory language of day-to-day communication in the present scenario
cannot be ruled out. The process of learning language particularly SLL for Indian students or vernacularly
diversified students is very slow; moreover a tedious job. In order to make the SL learning more interesting
it becomes a compulsion for the teachers to create more interest amongst the students. There are many ways
which have been tried and trusted by the teachers and trainers of English language. Teaching of any
language through any medium which enhances the learning/acquiring ability thus becomes more important
than the means by which it is taught.
Looking at the present Indian teaching scenario there is a lot of theoretical emphasis and less of
practical approach. The syllabus thus framed prepares students for their written examination but not its
practical application. If we consider the learning of English in professional courses like Engineering where
practical approach is of more importance than mere theoretical or class room teaching then a great deal of
effort is required on the part of the students as well as teachers too. This practical teaching and practice
comes to the rescue of engineering students during their placement. The command over English language
enables students not only of technical field but of every field to get success in their career. As far as
professional and general courses are concerned the fact cannot be denied that in recent years, the growth of
technological study in India has touched the sky heights and it would not have been possible for any
professional courses to compete without English.
Approaches to Acquire English as a Second Language.
As discussed above there are two common ways that hold importance in learning and teaching of
English in the present scenario i.e. traditional as well as practical. The traditional approach of teaching
English as a second language includes grammar rules, and much more emphasize is given to learn English
through grammar only. A greater fact is often neglected that language can be learnt without knowing much
grammar rules of sentence construction so on and so forth. The fact cannot be denied that a child acquires
his/her mother tongue without knowing its rules but by mere listening that helps the child to develop the
mother tongue without the base of grammar. It is often argued that grammar is the life and soul of language.
But it cannot be denied that as far as spoken aspect of any language is concern its practical application
remains utmost important and not mere knowing the rules. Grammar rather should not be an end in itself but
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only a means to an end. It should be further noted that acquisition of skills is much more important than the
logical constituent behind language, i.e., grammatically correct structure.
The present paper is an attempt to attract the students' interest through the media they prefer most. It
is also to make teaching more creative as far as language is concerned. For the purpose a recent Hindi movie,
“Barfi” is selected. The selection of this particular movie is of great significance as far as the teaching of
language particularly English is concerned as there is hardly any use of language. Another important factor
that comes to the selection of this movie is that the lead characters are hearing and speaking impaired and the
other is autistic; which gives ample of scope to the learners as no fear of translation and accuracy in the
translations are concerned.
Objectives:
The main objective of using the movie is to ensure situational talk to practice spoken English.
1. The students will try hard to listen and then reciprocate with high degree of concentration
2. This concentration will enable the students to read the lip-movements which may also lead to the
usage of English language unknowingly and unguided
3. This practice will ensure analytical, creative as well as perceiving capacity of the students
4. Confidence will be gained through group and active participation
5. Accuracy in selecting words, grammar components, and pronunciation can be ensured from such
activity.
Listening exercise:
Listening and then speaking are the two skills that can be practiced to make the students learn; how to
speak and also what to speak. It will be active listening that makes the listener of any language learn the
language naturally as one learns ones mother tongue. Only active listening is used as the tool for learning
as no other medium is used to ensure learning.
Since the main character of the movie is deaf and dumb, his voice is absent thus this absence can be
utilized to create an atmosphere to make the students speak as to what the main character “Barfi” says
through his actions, facial expressions and body language. All these can be utilized to be put into words.
His style and his attempt to prompt his name which actually sounds, Barfi in an attempt to say “Murphy”.
A scene from the movie, wherein “Barfi” the protagonist explains at the police station how he was a
motherless child and how his only parent his father comes to call him “Barfi”. Nobody in the entire movie
can tell how his name “Barfi” came into existence but Burfi alone.
After showing the scene at the police station to the students, certain questions can be asked to make the
students analyze and speak extemporary and express them in their own words. These questions will also
work as a guide line for the students that will ensure not only their analytical power but also their creative
power to express their thought in English.
1. Express in words Barfi's expressions.
2. What story does Barfi narrate after his name?
3. Narrate in short how and when did Barfi's mother die?
4. Why was Barfi in the police station?
5. Narrate in short Barfi's first love. (5-6 sent)
Speaking Exercise:
Yet in another scene where in the main female lead role “Jhilmil,” an autistic by birth has little
understanding about life but understands her heart very well. She may not be able to speak clearly as to what
she feels about “Barb”, (she calls Barfi as Barb). In almost monosyllabic dialogue she conveys her feelings
well and in the last scene she conveys her strong contention to the other female lead- “Shruti”, that this time
she will not give up Barfi but it was her turn to leave Barfi for her. She goes to the extent of wearing a saree as
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her opponent female does. Here although her intention is not of imitating but of course, her act of wearing a
saree, cooking and serving Barfi speaks a lot about her love for him. She is in no way ready to leave Barfi. All
she can do is ask “Shruti” - the other lady to leave him.
Teaching Language through Literature becomes easy as the components of language can be easily
grasped through the story. Here the students' analytical as well as creative ability come to fore as they may be
able to describe the scene.
1. Whom does Barfi love?
2. Who loves Barfi more?
3. Explain who should win over Barfi?
4. Is Jhilmil, correct in her decision?
5. Explain what Jhilmil does to impress Barfi.
This exercise can ensure two things:
a.
This particular scene can be used to create a story within a story
b. That the students tell the different components of grammar.
Making the learner to speak on a given situation and at the same time create a different story to express
his/her thoughts on the scene in simple words can boost student's confidence in the learning of English
language. Using different vocabulary to express different emotions may be done. Grammar components
like tenses, voices, narration, types of sentences etc. may be checked here.
Any language learning takes place through listening. It therefore becomes imperative to listen and
listen carefully. Also a practice of listening over hearing can be ensured. It is through these scenes where
there is little or at times no dialogue make the student strive hard to make utmost use of language ability and
word power. This particular exercise will thus ensure attentive and active listening over passive listening.
Although there are few exchanges of dialogues but much is conveyed through expressions and body
language which solves the purpose.
Although this innovation may be used to serve the purpose but the other side of the coin cannot be
neglected. This aspect of teaching and learning has certain limitations, which seem to pose a crucial
challenge for the trainers and learners alike. The challenges may be faced by both the teachers and the
students as they may find it difficult to demonstrate their thoughts in accordance to the scene but here
creativity of an individual can be enhanced and also monitored to achieve the set target i.e. Spoken English
along with interpretation of body language. This particular aspect is a must in professional courses where
along with good communication proper presentation is also required. Confirming the students to class-room
teaching and making them learn English as a language may be half hearted approach and the students may
find monotony in their learning, thus this particular exercise may fetch the purpose as the students will take
more interest in this practical as well as interesting drill. Another hindrance in conducting such practical's is
the availability of the resources like Language Lab, projector etc. But almost all the technical institutes are
well equipped with modern equipments and making full use of it.
Another important aspect that can be taken care of in teaching to speak English through this particular
exercise is the dominance or influence of mother tongue. Engineering students come from diverse
background and find it difficult to learn right pronunciation etc. which is time consuming. For them their
technical subjects remain more important so as to clear the examination. Hence many new innovative
techniques may be applied to create and retain the student's interest to make them learn and use English from
employability point of view.
New innovations of this kind as well as ensuring equal and wholehearted participation of the students in
general and Engineering students in particular can definitively help change the position of English.
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Innovative Teaching tools and Techniques in English Languages
Mrs. Saroja Rao
Mrs. Saranga Shirke
Vimaltai Tidke Convent & Junior College, Nagpur
Abstract: F. M. Noel rightly says, “Good instruction is the foundation of any educational programme. Audio-visual
training aids are a component part of that foundation.”
Teacher takes help of some instructional aides to teach more efficiently and successfully, teaching of English. Prof.
C.S. Bhandari opines, “Our aim of teaching English is to impart certain skills without making the process of teaching
and learning monotonous.”
Audio visual aids are effective tool to impart good education. These aids are divided as video, audio and audio-visual
aids-video refers as seeing, audio refers as hearing and audio-visual refers to combination of both.
Keywords: innovation, competitive, computer games, audio- visual
Introduction
The word 'innovation' is derived from the Latin word 'innovate' which means to change something to new. It
can also be said as practical implementation of new ideas.
Why to Be Innovative?
To be competitive, to meet the demands of changing era, and various changing factors like social, cultural
economic and technological developments across the globe.
st
The teacher of 21 century should shade traditional concepts and techniques of class-room teaching and
should adopt the recent and innovative teaching tools and techniques.
Teaching English depends on potential excellence, skills and update knowledge of English teacher.
Innovative English Teaching Tools
The following innovative tools are easily applicable in teaching English they are as follows
1] Computers
2] Mobiles
3] Audio-Visual Aids
4] Blogs
5] Social Networking
6] Language Lab
7] Wikis
8] C0ntext Based Approach
Computer assisted language learning;
Language learning appeared in 1976. Computer games for language learning emerged in 1988, e-mail
project were used by 1988. The internet knowledge resources were first reported Language learning
software was first created in 1960, concordance started in 1969, and the artificial intelligence programme
specifically designed for in 1974.
Computer assisted language learning plays a vital role in teaching English at tertiary level. While computer
has grown more powerful and multimedia has become more integrated, CALL. The major focus of CALL is
on receptive skills. The internet is mainly a reading and listening to audio and video files. Though the limited
access of CALL, it reached its full potential.
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Mobiles
Revolutionary communicative modern gadget, the mobile is the heart; blood and soul of modern times are
considered as miniature computers because of its additional facilities like texting, gaming, email and
recording. You can see its utility in teaching English for e.g.
1.
Teaching grammar points
2.
Quizzes
3.
Downloading vocabulary lessons
4.
Recording lectures
5.
Dictionary
Outcomes:
1.
Social interactivity
2. Context portability
3. Sensitivity
4. Connectivity
5. Individuality
6. Immediacy
Audio-Visual Aids in Teaching English:
F. M. Noel rightly says, “Good instruction is the foundation of any educational programme. Audio-visual
training aids are a component part of that foundation.”
Teacher takes help of some instructional aides to teach more efficiently and successfully, teaching of
English. Prof. C.S. Bhandari opines, “Our aim of teaching English is to impart certain skills without making
the process of teaching and learning monotonous.”
Audio visual aids are effective tool to impart good education. These aids are divided as video, audio and
audio-visual aids-video refers as seeing, audio refers as hearing and audio-visual refers to combination of
both.
These aids are CD, DVD, tape recorder, e-book, graphics, pictures, charts and are used to create the
requisite interest and motivate the students to learn the language.

Bulletin board
 Flannel board/graphs
 Slides film strips
 Epidiascope
 Overhead projector
 Tape recorder/gramophone
 Radio
 T.V. / Video
Language Lab:
This tool can develop all four skills of language. Writing, reading, listening and speaking
1. Writing: students are exposed to writing skills in language lab by writing small poems articles and short
stories with the help of help lines given through technology. Exposure to writing articles, short stories and
poems. Students can write and get responses from peer group on experts for further developments.
2. Listening: by listening recorded talks of experts and native speakers, lectures of eminent persons and
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English sound track movies such as 'pride and prejudice' 'water lilies' 'ghost and plays of Shakespheres can
enhance listening ability and improve their interest in learning which can be easily provided in the lab.
3. Speaking: speaking skills are improved by getting instructions of soft skills and involving oneself in the
talk show chart and many more group activities.
Language laboratory has following facilities to enhance learners skills: online tutorials, teaching materialsaudio recording, video recording, computer, LCD, soft skills teaching software, external web location,
games and quizzes, tests, interactive teaching tips for common errors and pronunciation, functional
grammar, building vocabulary power, group discussion.
Social Networking:
Social networking websites are started in2003, and it is the most popular way to network. In July 2006, for
instance, social networking site MySpace received more hits than Google (Gefter 2006). Other well known
social networking sites includes Face book, Friendsthr, Bebo and Youtube. In instance, myetp allows
English language teacher to network. Most social sites have group creation facilities which teachers can use
to set up outside class discussion environment (Thelwall 2008) and YouTube and Flicter provide
opportunities to improve communication skills as well as language learning. For example, learners can be
encouraged to make a video of their presentation and post it in the public domain on YouTube and learners
can use sharing sites to find and exchange resources with other learners (Godwin-Jones 2005).
Blogs
Its concept of diary or posting regular opinion on the internet where others can read and comment on it the
outcome is the learner can be encouraged to post their blogs.
It helps to write journals and other forms of extensive writing. The most common in language learning is
teacher can write the main blog and learners can comment on them
Teacher can send assignments on the taught topics.
Wikis:
A wiki is a web based platform for collaborative writing. It is used within a private domain as well as public
domain for collaborative. The important feature of wikis is particularly used for language learning which
record of all drafts is. This emphasis and focus on the writing process as well as written products. Which is
in practice in vimaltai tidke convent as we have entered with the Global partnership with UK Schools?
Task Under Taken
1.
Cultural exchange
2. Academic exchange
3. Sky pining
4. Quizzing
Context Based Approach:
Context Based Approach is a substitute to conventional way of teaching grammar in classroom. It is a
bridge between knowledge of English grammar and the use of English language in real life
communication. Instead of memorizing the rules and contextualize them. For e.g.. See the poem given
below can be taught like this
In the given poem , if you read , you will come to know to that the feelings of three generation have been
expressed when the massive banyan tree was being cut .To connect it with real life situation we can divide
the class into three generation groups and try to know their reactions to the felling of the Banyan tree. In the
same way vocabulary can be enhanced through various word fun games, cross word puzzles, mind
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Obstacles In Implementing Innovative Techniques
Teachers upgradation
 Time constrain
 Availability of resources
 Man power
 Financial resource and infrastructure
Case study:
We strongly agree with all the above obstacles but we can positively overcome them by popular saying,
Where there is a will, there is a way”. Applying the same we are proud to say our VTC gives a platform by
rganizing various activities like Spell- bee, spin a yarn, GD, extempore, debate ,elocution competitions ,
o overcome time constrain, we apply one hour teaching techniques. We have been provided with various
acilities like TKT modules, knowledge based workshops, and sanako.
Applying all the techniques an overall development of students can be seen as they are competent enough to
ace the challenges with the CBSE schools.
hanks to the revolution in the thought process that led to innovation in teaching field.
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Challenges in the learnability of
English Personal Pronouns and Possessives
A case of Arabic speaking Undergraduate students
Dr Seetha Jayaraman
Dhofar University, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman
Abstract: Every language has its unique morphological and syntactic rules which we call grammar.
These rules need to be mastered for using appropriate lexical or grammatical items like the pronouns or the
different forms of the possessives in English. Learning a language involves learning not just the vocabulary,
but it includes learning to use the vocabulary appropriately in different contexts. Inappropriate use of
possessives can result in miscommunication and mis-interpretation of the messages transmitted. The study
is based on authentic data and observation of specific grammatical items like Personal Pronouns and
Possessives employed by ten Arabic speaking undergraduate students of Dhofar region. The results of the
investigation show that the students have difficulty in selecting the suitable pronouns with appropriate
forms for the gender and number. They also have a tendency to use the second person forms of personal
pronouns and possessives in every context in English.
Key words: Acquisition, appropriate, context, personal pronouns, usage.
Introduction
In the acquisition of L2, the lexical and grammatical rules of the target language need to be learned from the
level of familiarizing oneself to mastering the selection of the appropriate lexical and grammatical
categories like the adjectives, pronouns or the form of the possessives. It is equally important to ensure that
the intent of the message perceived is the same as the message produced. Hence a need is felt to learn the use
of correct pronouns in learning ESL in order to prevent miscommunication.
Pronouns and possessives are areas of special focus for the learners of English as a Second language by
Arabic undergraduate students. With the increasing emphasis on developing competence in communicating
in English, learners are facing challenges in the acquisition of pronouns and their corresponding
possessives. The problem is more pronounced, both with second and third person singular and plural forms.
Using the right vocabulary of a language effectively is as important as using it appropriately. The common
causes of choice of an incorrect form of the pronoun can be: (i) Mother Tongue influence (ii) incorrect
learning (iii) false analogy (iv) overgeneralization or (v) wrong learning habits. Any or all these factors can
contribute individually or collectively to effective use of language.
Class room is a place in which the teacher can constantly monitor, guide, evaluate and reinforce the
grammar and vocabulary, particularly concentrating on problematic areas like verb tenses, prepositions,
pronouns and possessives. In ESL, knowing the rules of grammar is being able to produce correct sentences
and knowing the rules that enable one to use these sentences appropriately, to perform different speech acts
in particular social situations. As these rules of use are culture-bound and language specific, they need to be
learnt carefully (Munby, 1978).
The overall proficiency attained in a language depends on the learner's judgment of selection and
appropriate use of different elements of a language. It includes both one's grammatical competence and the
sociolinguistic competence. Thus, developing both the grammatical and sociolinguistic skills in language
learning is equally important, along with the rules of grammar.
Nunan (1997) found that opportunities to reflect on the learning led students to a greater sensitivity to the
learning process over time. Students are able to make greater connections and analogies between their
English classes and content courses taught in English. Evidence to this effect was observed in the students'
writing samples from journals and portfolios, which helped develop their productive skills at large and the
use of pronouns in particular.
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i. Pronouns
a. Natural gender Vs Grammatical gender
The present study supports Hymes' (1971) contention that knowledge of a language is not limited to
the knowledge of the rules of grammar alone. Hymes is of the view that if an adequate theory of
language user and language use is to develop, it has to consider the possibility, feasibility,
appropriateness of the learning elements to the context, and above all, what the knowledge use will
entail.
Pronouns are a category of lexical items to be acquired by learners in the early stages of language learning.
Initially, the learner is taught to distinguish between the masculine and feminine forms of pronouns, which
is a common feature in most languages. But this also depends on the fact whether there exists a neuter form
for inanimate nouns, to refer to forms which do not fall under either of the two categories. Where there does
not exist a neuter form, as in the case of French or Hindi, the noun, whether animate or inanimate has to
follow one of the two natural genders. In such a case, the learner is faced with the problem of learning a noun
along with its grammatical gender, rather than trying to associate the noun with its natural gender. In Arabic,
as in the case of English, the nouns follow the natural gender and there is also a neuter gender to refer to
inanimate objects, equivalent to 'it' in English. Despite the clear distinction in natural gender, the choice of
the appropriate pronoun depending on masculine/feminine distinction poses difficulties to some of the
learners. Furthermore, Arabic has a singular/plural distinction for the second person you, unlike in English.
But there exists a distinction between masculine/feminine, and singular/plural in the case of first person and
third person pronouns.
Arabic language has 12 different personal pronouns for singular, dual and plural, and first, second and third
person distinction, as opposed to the 7 forms of subject pronouns in English. This difference is both
advantageous at the same time disadvantageous to Arabic speakers of ESL learners. Let us look at the
following examples drawn from actual speech samples.
Ex: *(1a) After the class, you shall go home and rest. (Actual)
(1b) After the class, I shall go home and rest. (intended)
*(2a) If I not study, you exam will be difficult. (Actual)
(2b) If I do not study, my exam will be difficult. (intended)
Similar is the case with 'we' and 'us'. The distinction between the subject pronoun and object pronoun is
obscure in the speech some of the subjects, like in the sentences (3) and (4):
Ex:*(3a) He gave my the notebook.(Actual)
(3b) He gave me the notebook.(intended)
*(4a) I gave he the mobile phone. (Actual)
(4b) I gave him the mobile phone.(intended)
With the third person, both subject/object pronouns and masculine/feminine distinctions are very unclear.
Some of the common difficulties observed in the use of pronouns are:
(a)
Among the subject pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we and they, the most common confusion occurs with
he, she, it and they. 'You' is often confused with 'they'.
Ex: *(5a) The children are young. You are playing in the garden. (Actual)
(5b) The children are young. They are playing in the garden. (intended)
(b)
The object pronouns me, you, him, her, it, us and them are often mistaken for the subject
pronouns and they are used interchangeably.
Ex: *(6a) Him cannot speak English very well. (Actual)
(6b) He cannot speak English very well. (intended)
(c)
Reflexive pronouns like myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves,
yourselves, and themselves are rarely used and when they are used, they are used as a compounded
form of subject pronoun + self(ves).
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Ex: *(7a) He painted the picture heself. (Actual)
(7b) He painted the picture himself. (intended)
b. Singular Vs Plural
With the introduction of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach, a learner's communicative
abilities are further enriched in second language acquisition, with activity-based teaching techniques and
serve more pragmatic purposes. With all the pronouns, where there is a singular/plural form, the learners are
quite unsure of the exact number form of the pronoun to be used in a given context. For example,
*(8a) Ali and Ahmed are my friends. I like him very much. (Actual)
(8b) Ali and Ahmed are my friends. I like them very much. (intended)
ii. Possessives
Language performs different functions in society. Each function involves a different set of vocabulary
appropriate in use in the given context and suitable for the situation. For clarity of thought and
unambiguity of expression, it is essential to focus on the what, why and how of the grammatical and
lexical items in use.
According to Halliday (1970), there are three basic functions of language:
1.
The interactional function, which enables one to establish, maintain and specify relations
between the members of society.
2. The ideational function, which helps to transmit information between members of society.
3. The textual function, which addresses the organization of discourse as relevant to the
situation.
A sound knowledge of the basic grammar enhances the communicative competence of a learner as an
effective user of language.
1.
Possessive Adjectives
Possessive Adjectives are often replaced by their corresponding subject or the object pronouns,
i.e., my/me, your/you, his/him, her/she, and them/they or vice versa, as in the following sentences:
*(9a) Me sister is a teacher, but me brother is a student. (Actual)
(9b) My sister is a teacher, but my brother is a student. (intended)
*(10a) We told they the truth.(Actual)
(10b) We told them the truth. (intended)
a.
Natural Vs Grammatical gender
In Arabic there is a gender distinction even in the plural form of the possessive adjectives.
Therefore, the subjects are not sure if the same form can be used in English for both masculine and
feminine nouns, unlike with the singular subjects. Hence the sentences of the type below occur very
commonly in their speech.
Among the possessive adjective forms which are frequently found to create confusion among the
leaners, are the third person singular/plural without gender distinction. In other words, they are
used inappropriately with both genders irrespective of the subject in question, as in sentence 8(a).
Interestingly, there is a spelling problem which occurs with both possessive adjectives and possessive
pronoun forms. 'Their' and 'there's' is spelt as 'there' and 'there's' respectively by many of the subjects.
b. Singular Vs Plural
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As in the case of singular, plural form 'their' is often substituted by the singular forms, sometimes even
with inanimate neutral 'its' for masculine or feminine subjects.
Ex: *(11a) The President is very intelligent. Its plans are very successful.(Actual)
(11b) The President is very intelligent. His plans are very successful. (intended)
Possessive Pronouns
With possessive pronouns, the learners tend to use the lexical item which is
morphologically/orthographically or phonetically similar to the intended form. As in the case of first
person singular, which is often found in their speech, like me/mine, myself and so on, other than 'mine',
which is the appropriate form to be used in the context. While, the third person singular
masculine/feminine forms are relatively simpler and easier to use in sentences.
2.
Conclusion
The kind of learning problems discussed above with grammatical items arise largely due to the
morphological structure of the items learnt in English on an analogy with (dis)similar forms in Arabic
language, which is the L1 of the subjects.
A second possible cause is the improper learning of the basic grammar of English with its rules and
structures, specific to the language. Although comparison with the frame of L1 can help understand the
structure of an L2, it is best to learn the grammatical rules and structures independently of the L1 of the
learner.
Another important cause is the relative importance given to the rules of grammar and the attitude towards
learning and applying the rules appropriately.
The observations of the study lead to the conclusion that learning pronouns in English is a complicated area
for the learners of Arabic due to the gender and number differences which is distinct from those which exist
in English language, while Arabic has dual form for the number features, English has only singular and
plural forms, which needs to be understood clearly as a basic difference. The confusions which arise in the
personal pronouns and the possessive forms of adjectives and pronouns with respect to third person, both
singular and plural forms need to be acquired through practice of each of these categories in its usage in
context appropriately. An effective method of overcoming this problem in the use of English pronouns and
possessives is exposing the learners to more and more of oral and written texts with pronouns used
differently in different contexts, preferably using audiovisual techniques. This also helps to improve the
receptivity and retention of the patterns of phrases and sentences, akin to learning L1.
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References
Azar, S. (1996). Basic English Grammar (2nd ed), New York: Pearson education co.
Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition, London: OUP, Oxford
Halliday, M. (1970). Language Structure and Language Function. In Lyons, J. (1970). New horizons in linguistics, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Hymes, D. (1971) On communicative e competence. In Pride, J. and Holmes, J. (Eds.), Sociolinguistics, Hardmondsworth,
Penguin Books.
Kenworthy, J. (1990) Teaching English Pronunciation, Longman: London.
Munby, J. (1978) Communicative Syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. (ed). (1992) Collabrative Language Learning and Teaching, Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. (1993) Challenge in the EFL Classrooms, TESOL Matters. Aug/Sept.7, .
Nunan, D. (2005) Important tasks of English education Asia-wide and beyond (Electronic version) Asian EFL Journal, Vol.
7, Issue 3, 5-8.
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Use of co-operative learning in English Class Room
Prof. Shailaja V. Chaudhari1 and Prof. Vinod V. Bayaskar2
1
Wahed Khan College of Education, Amravati
2
Nani Bai College of Education, Amravati
Abstract: Co-operative learning is of the most wide spread and fruitful area of theory, research and practice in
education.
Co-operative bearing is pedagogical approach that promotes-Student-students interaction via working in
small groups to maximize their learning and reach their shared goal. The present paper addresses the five essential
elements of co-operative learning as positive interdependence, face to face interaction, and Individual
accountability. Positive Social Interaction behaviors and attitudes, Group processing, Basic components of cooperative learning. Various skills developed in students through co-operative learning. English language skills
listening, speaking, Reading, Writing promote in student through co-operative learning activity in class room which
make it different from just group work and traditional teaching methods. Effective co-operative learning goes much
beyond maximizing outcomes such as greater students' achievement and positive attitudes towards English language.
Introduction
In our education system the beliefs about the impact of teacher students and student materials
interaction are as high. The teacher students and student material interaction received extensive attraction in
teacher pre-service and in service training. We educate the students with main objectives in our mind, their
success or to improve their academic achievement. We need to apply new teaching method in place of
traditional methods at school and colleges level.
In present days, how students perceive each other and interact with one other is a neglected aspect of
instruction. There are three basic ways students can interact with each other as they learn individually, cooperatively and competitively. Out of three co-operations among students who celebrate each other's
successes, encourage each other to do home work & learn to work together.
We know teacher centered approaches taking place in traditional class room do not produce active
recipients and result in fossilized language learning. It is not effective, enough to promote language.
Now a day, a new approach called “Co-operative learning” seemed to attract a lot of attention &
become popular. Co-operative learning is considered vital role for students' achievement. Co-operative
learning is of the most wide spread and fruitful area of theory, research and practice in Education. Cooperative learning is pedagogical approach that promotes student-student interaction via working in small
groups to maximize their learning and reach their shared goal.
Definition of Co-operative Learning
Definition of co-operative learning particularly in language learning content:
“Co-operative learning is a with in class grouping of students usually of differing levels of second
language proficiency. Who learn to work together on specific tasks or project such way that all students in
group benefit from the interactive experience” Kessler (1992)
Co-operative Learning is not
i.
Simply student teaching students
ii.
Simply group learning activities.
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Effective Co-operative learning 5 essential element are needed
Positive Interdependence
Individual accountability
Co-operative learning
Group processing
Face to face interaction
1.
2.
3.
Positive Social interaction
behaviours and attitude
Basic Components of Co-operative learning
Group Study
Peer of Student Tutoring
Group rewards
Skills developed in student Through Co-operative learning:
1.
Listening
2.
Writing
3.
Explaining
4.
Paraphrasing
5.
Reading
6.
Using illustrations
7.
Repetition
8.
Interactions
Benefits of Co-operative learning:
Research by Johnson and Johnson (1989) indicates that co-operation, compared with competitive
and individualization efforts, typically in
a.
Higher academic achievement
b.
More caring, supportive and healthy social relationship.
c.
greater psychological, health and self eastern.
Benefits:
1.
Student develops skills in working together.
2.
Students learn more achievement improve
Preconditions:
*
Student must be prepared to work independent
*
Change from competitive to co-operative learning environment.
*
Learning a group process. Like listening, Speaking, intrapersonal speaking skills.
Co-operative Learning in English Class Room:
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Traditionally, classes always consist of good students and weak students the weak students sit in
isolation. They do not participate in class room activity as they loose confidence in their ability to learn
English. Working in group to help to solve this problem. Shy students who don't like to speak in a large class
are more comfortable to speak in small group. Group members help them to strengths and also find out their
weakness in English. Each students has a different back ground and ability in English. Which he can she on
bring to the group for example one of the student have good reading ability that can supply to group mates
various reading skills.
The SIOP model or “Sheltered Immersion observation Protocol” for ELLS, proposes that English
fluency be assessed in four dimension.
Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing
We use co-operative learning activities to promote these skills at all grade levels.
1.
Listening in English
Activity objectives
*
To listen the student of English letter properly.
*
To listen words with meaning expressed by others.
*
To give response to the talk of the other student in group.
*
To recognizes and tells the meaning of the words and sentence expressed
by other student in group.
Activity:
Find a short story that is appropriates for your student 'age' and English skills. Give each
student a slip of paper that has one sentence from the story. Some student read their slip but more
able students must memorize their line. Student must standup arrange themselves in order so story
make sense when they say their lines. In this way completed the story.
2.
i.
Speaking in English:
Activity objectives
To the uses of proper pronunciation in speaking English words.
ii.
To use correct stress and intonation in speaking English.
iii.
To speak English grammatically correct.
iv.
To use proper vocabulary at proper place speaking English.
v.
To speak English fluently.
Activity:
Nearly all co-operative learning activities because they require face to face interaction with
other learners, provide excellent opportunities for student to practice speaking in English.
Give a question on any topic to the class student must think quietly about their own answer
then they must share their answer with their group partner.
iii.
3.
Reading in English :
Activity objectives
i.
To reads words correctly
ii.
To read English with proper stress and intonations.
To read sentence properly
Activity:
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Each group member give some unique material like poem to learn and then to teach to his
group members.
Student must work together to assemble the poem.
4.
i.
Writing in English
Activity objectives
To write English letters serially and correctly
ii.
To write words and sentence correctly
iii.
To write English grammatically correct.
iv.
To expresses the thoughts and ideas in within form
Activity:
Send students and a scavengers hunt. Divide students into groups and make each student
responsible for a specific job.
For example - One student will write down clues, anther deciphers the class and third will read the
map.
Such co-operative activity ideas for ELLS because they require students to use content clues
to choose the correct vocabulary word or concept to complete sentence related to the content area.
The lessons become more interesting with this approach. Co-operative learning increased English
language skills Listening, Reading, Writing and Speaking; Co-operative bearing is a good ways of
aquiring knowledge and discussing ideas. It prepares working skills for future job.
Conclusion
“What the child can do in co-operation today he can do alone tomorrow.” (Vygolsky 1986).
Effective co-operative learning goes much beyond maximizing outcomes such as achievement and positive
attitudes towards English ability language & the elements of co-operative learing as team work,
communication, effective co-ordination and individual account ability are keystone which characterizes
most real life settings in student.
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Reference
Reena Agrawal, Nandita Nagar (2011) : Co-operative learning, New Delhi, Kapaz publication
David W. Johnson, Roger T. Johnson & Mary Beth Stanne (May 2000) : University Minnesota : Co-operative learning methods.
S. Wichadee (2011) : The effective co-operative learning on English Reading Skill and attitudes of the first year students.
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Challenges in Teaching ESL to very Young Learners
Prof Sharad R.Vihirkar
R.S.Bidkar Arts, Commerce & Science College
Hinganghat
Abstract: This paper discusses the challenges in teaching ESL in the context of IT revolution in India. The present era
is marked by astounding developments in knowledge and Information technology. With the world moving towards
Globalization, competent information handling has become vital for survival in a competitive world. Computers are
one of the foremost steps in the constant drive of the human race to master its environment. We are able to interact with
machines for storing and retrieving information not only at home but anywhere in the world with internet facility. The
facilities of transportation and communication have made the world' a global village'. With the pace of change
increasing, almost all countries are becoming heterogeneous, cosmopolitan, and internationally aware, and also are
playing significant roles in the world affairs.
Key words: IT revolution, globalization, Computer Assisted Language Learning
Introduction
English language teaching methodology has been shifting almost every twenty years. These changes
are based on a range of factors such as the motive of the learners, the prevailing psychological theories of
learning, the linguistic theories and advance modern technology.
Numbers of teaching methods have been widely used to enhance learner's ability such as the Grammar
Translation Method, the Direct Method, the Bilingual Method, Linguistic Method and Communicative
Language Teaching etc. Each method is developed to meet the new demands of and emerging challenges
from the young learner's point of view. Every method attempts to attract the prevailing beliefs regarding the
learning process and the nature of the language. With the emergence of new technology, it has led to the
shifting of language teaching/learning out of the traditional class-room. It has facilitated language
acquisition through multimedia which is becoming more interesting and efficient. For instance, audio-video
CD's, Digital Language Laboratories, tape-recorder and television, films etc.The methods mentioned above
are all useful and valid. They are reasonably successful in achieving their specific goals. Literature-oriented
syllabus, overloaded syllabus, lack of innovative teaching methods, teacher-centered methodology, dearth
of resourceful teachers, lack of amenities ,shortage of reading rooms and modern libraries, automatic
promotion system, lack of need based courses ,not having CALL facility and traditional classroom poses
challenges in teaching ESL to very young learners.
The aims of teaching and of learning English language have been changing fast. The emphasis is
shifting from a study of English literature to the acquisition of language skills. Utilitarian considerations
prevail over cultural factors demanding acquisition or improvement of communication skills which include
a whole range of oral and written sub skills. Universities and colleges continue to teach largely literatureoriented courses and the syllabi are repetitive and far from relevant to the changing situation. The expanding
institutes which often have the non availability of good and committed teachers that always hinders the
English teaching and learning process. Most of the English teachers are unacquainted of the recent trends
and technique of English language teaching. They fail to revise their aims in the new setting and also to teach
English most effectively within a short time. T.P.Reddi in his presidential Address said in October1977,
“We, the teachers of English, are keenly alive to the responsibility that rests on us. We have to see that
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English is taught at all levels and taught well and its standards are properly maintained”.
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There is a great demand for need-based courses which are also called English for Specific Purposes.
The current revolution in IT is both a challenge and an opportunity for ELT. It has been mankind's recurring
experience that the more efficient systems prevail over the less efficient ones. So it will be with the
adaptation of Information Technology to English language teaching methodology.
The introduction of computers and other multi-media devices into language classroom is no longer a
passing fad, but an irritable trend. Micro-computers have accelerated the pace of change in ELT
methodology by providing interactive and individualized learning. They can be linked to other media; they
can be utilized for a variety of software such as audio devices, touch screens, etc. The Computer Assisted
Language Learning (CALL) is transforming the concept of the classroom, the ELT methodology, the role of
the teacher and several related matters. For instance, it is no longer necessary for the students to meet in a
traditional classroom at a specified time and listen to a teacher. The students may be scattered over a large
area and sit in front of their computers and press a few leys to learn their lessons. Computers facilitate
distance education by providing it to large numbers of students, and at times and places convient to them.
Computer networks also provide communication among students without the teacher's intervention. The
student using computers can work or learn at their own pace. A course through computers makes the student
more actively involved in the learning process. He will have more fun learning and learning through his own
efforts. Lack of CALL facility is the major challenge in teaching ELT to young learners.
Challenges before the English language teachers in India are enormous and apparent. They should
be able to cater to the practical needs of learners, to make them competent enough to interact with one
another and also to retrieve information all over the world. English has a base in several countries and is
considered as the most suitable and convenient tool for International Communication. The people who have
proficiency in this language could access large number of jobs and also were seen holding high positions in
many National and International Organizations. In English language teaching, training is essential for
teachers. No formal teacher training is given to new recruits or practicing teachers. There are training in
general like Refresher and Orientation courses. But it doesn't focus on the strategy of communication skills.
No course deals with actual classroom English teaching. It is a matter of fact that the majority of our teachers
are not talented in the art of teaching English. English is not taught in the way it should have been taught.
That is why, teaching can only take 'now cook, now selling' way to cope. This is another challenge lies in
teaching and learning English as a second language.
In learning a second language, motivation and presentation is the crucial factors which determine
whether the learner embarks on a task at all, how much energy he devotes to it, and how long he perseveres.
In the age of computer technology, life has become machine like .And since the government has opened its
doors for foreign industries, banks and educational institutions, multinational companies; Indian industries
and companies are forced to fight tooth and nail to survive on the phase of globalization. Only the quality
sector will survive and the rest will be automatically marginalized. Therefore motivation and presentation
of the teachers affect the teaching and learning process. Instead of the traditional methods of teaching, the
teacher can adopt communicative approach.
The designer of syllabus must understand the problem that teachers have to struggle to finish the
syllabus within stipulated time which is overloaded. Sometimes unnecessary things are put in the course
book which the students can't study. They have to study a text full of adjuncts which they won't study at all.
But listening and speaking skills which play a greater role in communication have been ignored. The final
examination does also test mainly on how good their memory is. The examinations are not language
oriented. Consequently result oriented teaching has been adopted in schools. Hence, they neglect the other
two basic skills.
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Teaching English as a second language in India is an ordeal. Limited resources ,frequent use of
mother tongue makes the efforts of English abortive for want of creating congenial environment wherein the
children may participate in general discussion in English other than mother tongue. The teachers of English
in schools or colleges simply translate everything into their mother tongue as per the demand of the students.
Though this method offers them sound knowledge in the content, it prevents them in acquiring
communication abilities in English when they go to university level.Prof.V.K.Gokak in his book “English in
India, its Present and Future” has rightly said:”The foundational years for the teaching of English in school
are in the hands of teachers who neither know enough English nor are familiar with the latest and far2
reaching development in the pedagogy of English”
Now due to the worldwide growing trends in English, teachers have to give more emphasis to
communicative approach rather than the lecture mode. Their main goal must be to make the students
effective communicators in English both inside and outside the classroom. To achieve this, they should
involve the students to participate more in classroom activities so that they will acquire adequate command
over speaking skills. Since English plays a very crucial and important role in India in all walks of life, the
Indian teachers of English should identify situations that are relevant to life in India relating to a variety of
professions where English is ordinarily used. And use these situations to develop communicative
competence in their students is the big challenge. According to A.K.Sharma: “English language teaching in
India, you will agree with me, has suffered a lot so much that our students who pass intermediate or degree
examinations with English either as a compulsory or as an elective subject, can neither speak nor write
correct English. May be, because the emphasis in our schools and colleges has always been on the
3
conceptual content and the stylistic content has been neglected so far”.
The English teacher faces problem that he meets with the faces of those who are anxious and
uninterested students. They remain isolate from full participation. Anxiety is the most crucial factor which
affects the English language learning. They develop an inferiority complex and a negative thinking
regarding their learning. Widespread poverty, poor health conditions, illiteracy etc. affect average students
in his or her language development. It is termed as the 'killer' subject and they fear the English language.
Since interest is not created and inquisitiveness not roused in their minds, they try to avoid the subject as a
prohibited area. As Michael West says,'' A language is not a subject which can be taught, it is a subject which
must be learnt. So it is the job of a teacher to develop interest of their pupils in learning English”.4
Availability of sub-standard material is another factor affects teaching and learning English. At the time
of exams, the students cram the expected questions because they cannot write one original sentence of their
own; they have no vocabulary of English words. Most of them do not read textbook. They depend on the
cheap materials from the book shop to pass the examination. It is more shocking to learn that even having ten
years exposure to English, Indian students fail to acquire the much needed receptive and productive skills.
Conclusion
The teachers must be trained and accountable and facilitators. Secondly, their aim should be broad to
acquire proficiency in expressing their thoughts in English. Thirdly the ideal syllabus for this five years
degree courses should include grammar, phonetics, English linguistics, literature, psychology, and
pedagogy and computer science. English should be treated as an Indian language and it should be learnt for
its value in the changed scenario of the IT revolution and globalization and not because of its prestige or
sentimental value. The teachers of English need to be diamonds and make a competent use of computers for
instructional puroses.They should have freedom to design their own courses and administer them the way
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they like.
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References
Sharma Ram Kumar, Problems and Solutions Of Teaching English, New Delhi: Janaki Prakashan.1999, p16.
Elizabeth, M.E.S.Method of Teaching English, New Delhi: Discovery Publication House, 2004, p41.
Dharmpuriwar Sawan G quoted in his article 'Problems and Prospects of teaching English in Rural areas 'in souvenir entitled
National Seminar on Developing Communicative Competence in English in Rural Areas 3rd Jan 2012, p112.
Sharma Ram Kumar .Problems and Solutions of Teaching English, New Delhi: Janaki Prakashan.1999, p17.
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Multiple Intelligences: An Innovative Technique for Teaching
Language in Technical Institutes
Ms. Shashikala Walmiki
S.B.College Nasarapur, Pune
Abstract: This paper focuses on the choice of the teaching methods to teach Language in technical institutes among
several teaching methods given by the linguists. The observation on the topic is based on the assumption that the
learners in technical institutes are intermediate and advanced learners who are familiar with language tools. So their
intellectual level, maturity, and high motivation demand the instructors or teachers apply the methods that harness
their competency and develop an over-all personality. Among all the methods, “Multiple Intelligences” method and
its techniques suits the demands and needs of the learners in technical institutes.
Keywords: technical, harness, intellectual, assumption, competency, professional front.
Introduction:
Teaching Language in technical institutes/colleges is different from teaching language in traditional arts,
science and commerce colleges. The learners in technical colleges are intermediate and advanced learners
whose competency in English is reasonably tested at the entry level. In this regard, the following
observation is noteworthy for a language teacher. “The students who join the engineering colleges are
usually high intellectuals. They come with different backgrounds and thus, bring along with them different
levels of aptitude. With such existing conditions in a classroom, teaching should be satisfactory to meet the
requirement of all students.”(Sandhya, K., et al. 2011)
So teaching language in technical institutes demands the teacher to be trained to be not only a language
teacher or facilitator of learning but also knowledgeable in the subject matter and well-versed with the
conventional role of a “caregiver.” An English teacher in technical colleges needs to identify each learner's
competency and also need to harness it to achieve employability skills to meet the professional demands that
challenge the learner in the professional front. “In the second semester of the last year of engineering course,
the students have to be well equipped for placement interviews. Hence the study recommends the social
interaction activities including conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role-plays, simulations,
skits, improvisations, and debates. Therefore a learner centered needs analysis of the learner should form
the base for improving communication skills of engineering students.”(Sandhya, K., et al. 2011)
According to Mitch Carey, et al. (2006: 50) communication skill is one of the employability skills and it
involves following abilities: 1) Preparing and presenting written and verbal reports
2) Role plays 3) Simulations 4) Demonstrations 5) Working in groups 6) Communicating with and
responding to internal/external clients and customers.
Therefore language teachers require adopting the teaching method that enables students to perform
efficiently and effectively during the campus interviews and at workplace as well. In order to do so the
language teacher needs to go beyond the traditional methods of language teaching and adopt the method
which prepares the students to face the challenges in the professional market.
The Choice of Method and Technique
American applied linguist Edward Anthony describes method and technique: “Method is an overall plan
for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based
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upon, selected approach.” (Anthony, E.M. 1963) “A technique is implementation- oriented that which
actually takes place in a classroom. It's a particular track, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an
immediate objective. Technique should be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with
approach as well.” (Anthony, E.M. 1963)
“According to Anthony's model, approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and
language learning are specified; method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices
are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content
will be presented; technique is the level at which classroom procedures are described.” (Jack Richards et al
2001)
The graduates from the technical institutes have wider opportunities and they need to inculcate
employability skills in order get those coveted jobs. One of the employability skills is communication skills
which call for multiple sub skills of communication to be ingrained. “Multiple Intelligences” method is an
innovative technique to harness the high intelligence and to enhance the employability skills of learners in
technical institutes.
Multiple Intelligences Method
Multiple Intelligence (MI) method is based on the work of Howard Gardner of the Harvard Graduate School
of Education. MI belongs to a group of instructional perspectives that focus on differences between learners
and the need to recognize learner differences in teaching. Learners are viewed as possessing individual
learning styles, preferences, or intelligences. He believes that all of them can be enhanced through training
and practice.
Pedagogy is most successful when these learner differences are acknowledged, analyzed for particular
groups of learners, and accommodated in teaching. MI theory encourage learning that goes beyond
traditional books, pens, and pencils. Teachers and parents who recognize their learners / children's particular
gifts and talents can provide learning activities that build on those inherent gifts. As a result of strengthening
such differences, individuals are free to be intelligent in their way.
MI theory was originally proposed by Gardiner (1993) as a contribution to cognitive science. Gardiner
(1993) proposed a view of natural human talents that is labeled the “multiple Intelligences model”. Gardiner
claims that his view of intelligences is culture-free and avoids the conceptual narrowness usually associated
with traditional models of intelligence. According to Jack Richards et al (2001: 117), “Other intelligences
enrich the tapestry of communication we call language. In addition, language has its ties to life through the
senses. The senses provide the accompaniment and context for the linguistic message that give it meaning
and purpose. Gardiner points eight native “intelligences”, and are described as follows: (1993)
1) Linguistic: the ability to use language in special and creative ways, which is something lawyers, writers,
editors and interpreters are strong in.
2) Logical/mathematical: the ability to think rationally, often found with doctors, engineers, programmers,
and scientists.
3) Spatial: the ability to form mental models of the world, something architects, decorators, sculptors, and
painters are good at
4) Musical: a good ear for music, as is strong in singers and composers
5) Bodily/kinesthetic: the ability to be able to work well with people, which is in athletes and crafts persons
6) Interpersonal: the ability to understand oneself and apply one's talent successfully, which leads to happy
and well-adjusted people in all areas of life
7) Interpersonal: the ability to be able to work well with people which strong in salesperson, politicians and
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teachers
8) Naturalist: the ability to understand and organize the partners of nature
MI proposals look at language of an individual, including one or more languages, not as an “added-on” and
somewhat peripheral skill but, as central to the whole life of the language learner and user. In this sense,
language is held to be integrated with music, bodily activity, interpersonal relationships, and so on.
Language is not seen as limited to “linguistics” perspectives but encompasses all aspects of
communication. .” (Jack Richards et al 2001: 117)
MI pedagogy focuses on the language class as the setting for a series of educational support systems aimed
at making the language learner a better designer of his/her own learning experiences. Such a learner is both
better empowered and more fulfilled than a learner in traditional classrooms. “A more goal-directed learner
and a happier person is held to be a likely candidate for being a second language learner and user.” (Jack
Richards et al 2001: 117) In respect to MI-based language teaching, there is no syllabus as such, either
prescribed or recommended. MI is richest in proposal for lesson organization, multisensory activity
planning and in using realia, i.e. “authentic” and “from-life” materials. However there is a basic
developmental sequence that has been proposed (Lazear 1991) as an alternative to what is usually
considered as a type of “syllabus” design. The sequence consists of four stages and these four stages can be
used to prepare the learners with their respective intelligences where language learning and use can be at its
best: Stage I: Awaken Intelligence; II: Amplify intelligence; III: Teach with/for the intelligence; IV: Transfer
of the intelligence.
Nicholson Nelson (1998: 73) describes how MI can be used to individualize learning through project work.
She lists five types of projects:
1. “Multiple Intelligence projects: These are based on one or more of the intelligences and are designed to
stimulate particular intelligences.” Here the learner may choose the events and objects in which he/she are
comfortab le and excel at. So it could be from the world of music, movies, sports, political issues or any
other subjects.
2. “Curriculum-based projects: These are based on curriculum content areas but are categorized
according to the particular intelligences they make use of.” These focus on the projects which are
subject related. Such projects will prepare the learner to express his/her subject of the training or course,
both in written and spoken form.
3. “Thematic-based projects: These are based on a theme from the curriculum or classroom but are
derived into different intelligences.” This will help the students to choose from their curriculum but of
their interest.
4. “Resource-based projects: These are designed to provide students with opportunities to research a
topic using multiple intelligences.” Here the teacher should make the students to go out in the real world
and prepare projects from various sources which could enhance the interpersonal relationship as well.
5. “Student-choice projects: These are designed by students and draw on particular intelligences.”
Students are given freedom to choose topics for their projects as per their interest and intelligence they
are gifted with. This gives freedom and opportunity for their linguistic intelligence to exploit it to the
maximum.
In other more fully teacher-fronted classrooms, the students move through a cycle of activities highlighting
use of different intelligences in the activities that the teacher has chosen and orchestrated. Campbell notes
that MI theory “is not prescriptive. Rather it gives teachers a complex mental model from which to construct
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curriculum and improve themselves as educators.” (Campbell 1997: 19) In this view teachers are expected
to understand, master, and be committed to the MI model. Teachers are encouraged to administer an MI
inventory on themselves and thereby be able to “connect your life's experiences to your concept of multiple
intelligences” (Christison 1997: 7). Teachers then become curricular developers, lesson designers and
analysts, activity finders or inventors and, most critically orchestrator of rich array of multisensory
activities within the realistic constraints of time, space, and resources of the class room. Teachers are
encouraged not to think of themselves merely as language teachers. They have a role that is not only to
improve the second language abilities of their students but to become major contributors to overall
development of students' intelligences” (Christison1999: 12)
Like teachers, learners need to see themselves engaged in a process of personality development above and
beyond that of being successful language learners. The MI classroom is one designed to support
development of the “whole person” and the environment and its activities are intended to enable students to
become more successful learner in general. Learners are encouraged to see their own MI profiles based on
the inventory. “The more awareness students have of their own intelligences and how they will know to use
their intelligence and how they work, and the more they will know how to use that intelligence to access the
necessary information and knowledge from a lesson” (Christison 1997: 9). All of this is to enable learners to
benefit from instructional approaches by reflecting on their own learning.
The teachers are expected to make use of all the resources of language teaching. These resource include
lectures, books, group discussions, worksheets, word games, creating class newspapers or collection of
writings for linguistic intelligence involving student speeches, story-telling, debates, journal keeping,
memorizing, and using word processor involving linguistic intelligence. For logical and mathematical
intelligence the resources are scientific demonstrations, logic problems and puzzles, logical-sequential
presentation of subject matter that involve creating codes, solving story problems, and calculations.
Resources for spatial intelligence are charts, maps, diagrams, videos, slides, movies, art and other pictures,
imaginative story-telling, graphic organizers, telescopes, microscopes, visual awareness activities
involving visualization, photography, using mind maps, painting or collage, optical illusions, student
drawings. The bodily/kinesthetic intelligence can be discovered in creative movement, cooking and other
mess activities, role plays involving hands on activities, field trips and mime. Musical intelligence can be
activated through playing recorded music, playing live (piano, guitar etc,) music appreciation, and student
made instruments involving singing, group singing, mood music, and Jazz chants. The interpersonal
intelligence to work with others can be enhanced or explored through cooperative groups, peer teaching,
and group brainstorming involving conflict mediation, board games and pair work. Finally the
interpersonal intelligence to understand self and apply it can be enhanced through independent student
work, individualized projects, options for home work, inventories and check list, personal journal keeping,
self teaching/ programmed instruction involving reflective learning, journal keeping, interest centres, selfesteem journals and goal setting. (Jack Richards et al 2001: 121)
Conclusion:
MI is an approach to characterize the ways in which learners are unique and to develop instruction to
respond to this uniqueness. MI is one of such perspectives dealing with learner differences and borrows
heavily from these in its recommendations and designs for lesson planning. The literature on MI provides a
rich source of classroom ideas regardless of one's theoretical perspective and can help teachers think about
instructions in their classes in unique ways. Some teachers may see the assumptions of identifying and
responding to the variety of ways in which students differ to be unrealistic in their own settings and
antithetical to the expectations of their students and administrators. But what is required is language
program being restructured around the MI perspective. The MI technique has been very successful with soft
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skill development program, and in MBA and MCA classrooms for communication skills. To quote few
examples from personal experience will not be out of place here. A Student from soft skill program in her
oral presentation brought a painting where she placed herself in the chair of the Director of an imaginative
Company on the topic “My Dream” as the topic was left to their choice and the student expressed gratitude
in the valedictory function for inculcating the confidence to express in public and the efforts of the teacher.
In group discussion classes in soft skill development program, when the topics were declared students made
their own groups with common interest and delivered with great ease and comfort reflecting their
interpersonal relationship. They were equally enthused at the analysis of their role in a group after thorough
analysis of the discussion and were unable to believe their latent qualities. In an MBA course for
communication skills, they were asked to prepare a project on “The importance of Kinesics in Interpersonal
Relationship” with their actual experience with others paying minute details to the body language in their
interaction, produced excellent observation from the learners. The students in MCA were asked to choose
subject related topics and the level of comfort in using language reflected in their presentation. The use of
information and communication technology has inspired those students, whose competency in English was
poor, to attain the competency with greater confidence and assertion. The role of the teacher is crucial in MI
technique because the teacher has to identify the best in the learner and design the syllabus to utilize it to
learn language. So the choice of multiple intelligence technique for all those lovers of teaching is quite
challenging and most importantly quite fulfilling as well.
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References:
Anthony, E.M., approach, method, and techniques. English Language Teaching 17 :63-67. 1963. Print
Campbell, L. How teachers interpret MI theory, Educational Leadership 55(1): 15-19 1997. Print
Christison, M. An introduction to multiple intelligences theory and second language learning. Understanding Learning Styles
in the Second language Classroom. Ed. J. Reid Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall/Regent. 1-14. 1997. Print
Carey, Mitch., Rosalie Flynn, and Seth Thomasson, Employability Skills: from Framework to Practice, Developed by
Precision Consultancy: Melbourne. 2006. Web 1 February, 2013
www.tbsconsulting.com.au/pdfs/Employability_Skills.pdf
Gardner, H. 1993. Multiple Intelligences: Theory and Practice. New York: Basic Books.
Lazer, D. Seven Ways of Teaching: The Artistry of Teaching with Multiple Intelligences. Palatine, Ill: IRI Skylight. 1991. Print
Nicholson-Nelson, K. Developing Student's Multiple Intelligences. New York Scholastic. 1998. Print
Richard jack, C., and Theodore S. Rodgers. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. 2001 Print
Sandhya, K., and Afsha Jamal. “Information and Communication Technology: It's Impact on Language learning” English
Language Teaching @ World Wide Web (99-109) Ed. Ashok Saini. Delhi: Tarun Offset. 2011. Print
Verma, S.K., and N. Krishna. Modern Linguistics (9th ed.) OUP: New Delhi. 1999. Print
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Learning English beyond Curriculum
Shilpa Agrawal
Prerna Convent,
Reshimbag, Nagpur.
Abstract: Education is the best weapon to make leaders. Expectations of society from Indian students who learn
English as second language. Common practices in English classrooms. Traditional methods of teaching English in
Indian classrooms which asks the students to mug up the answers and there is no scope for the students to write the
answers using the language own their own. With more effort teachers can enhance the creativity of the children.
Creative and play way methods of learning grammar, , if the teacher is able to give some kind of a story or sequence
about how a word or phrase came into being, the child will be in a better position to retain the word and then use the
word to showcase his extra knowledge, the teacher can differentiate between British English and the American
English.
Keywords: Leaders, winners, expectations, traditional ways, creative ways, play way method for grammar,
storytelling, origin of words, British English and American English)
Introduction
India dreams of becoming a World Leader by 2020. For this to happen it is necessary that we have
leaders amongst our citizens and not followers. While trying to bring this dream into reality, the best
weapon in our hands is EDUCATION. It is only with the help of education that we can make leaders out
of the intelligent students that we have in our hands. It is rightly said that 'Winners don't do different
things; they do things differently.' We would therefore, have to think about the whole process of
Education differently. Since our needs and goals are different, we will have to tackle our students bit
different.
The topic for discussion certainly requires 'out of the box' thinking. If the paper is successful, it would
certainly endeavour to present different ways of teaching the same old necessary things. The job English
teacher is crucial. They teach a language which is considered to be very important both for knowledge as
well as status. However, most of the times, the treatment that it gets is of second language. Teaching is quite
a difficult task and teaching of English is certainly difficult. It is therefore necessary that we first understand
the goals of teaching English. When we teach English to our students for almost 10 to 13 years, we wish that
the child is able to speak English fluently, is able to understand and write in grammatically correct English
using correct spellings for words. We also wish that the child is creative when using English. In other words,
the child is able to give number of grammatically correct constructions using different sets of words for the
same meaning.
To achieve the above mentioned goals, it is necessary that we teachers concentrate on different topics
with which we should deal simultaneously while taking our lessons. In the following paragraphs, I would
like to give my thoughts on what most of the average English teachers in my school do in the classroom and
the ways in which we could change.
Teachers always talk about creativity in students. They try to develop 'n' number of ways to inculcate
creativity in their students. English teachers are more interested in developing the creative writing in various
forms like essays, letters, stories, etc. They try to give wind to their imagination when they are composing
their creative writing pieces. But while doing this they would usually tend to forget one important facet.
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They are surely doing a good job in improving their imagination, but then while doing this they forget to pay
attention to their language. Their thrust should have been on creative use of language.
This is a common scenario that is seen in almost every school. The teacher, whether of Language or
Science or Social Studies, teaches the lesson very effectively, using all kinds of teaching aids. Then comes
the problem of writing questions and answers of the chapter. Then, according to the class of students, the
teacher either writes down on the blackboard or dictates a pre-decided answer (the same being dictated for
ages) or the teacher asks the students to mark the answer in the text book. This is something that is done
every day in schools. Some would call this 'spoon-feeding', some would call this 'guiding the students
properly', others would consider this a better way of reducing the burden of checking books. But the reality
is that everyone is habituated to this style of studying. Neither the teachers nor the parents and students can
imagine the child thinking on their own and writing the answer in their own words. The child is asked both
by parents as well as the teachers to mug up the answers with 'comma and full stop' and vomit the same in the
answer sheet. And the paradox is that only such students get full marks. The one who writes the answer on
his own or in his own words, either gets less mark or sometimes makes some grammatical mistakes and
hence his marks are deducted. Therefore, everyone advices the students to learn the answers as given in the
notebook or the textbook and reproduce the same. Nobody even thinks that if we keep on trying, we would
ultimately be able to write properly and immaculately.
I think, while doing this, for whatever reasons we have adopted this method, we are restricting the
creativity of our students. If the teacher allows the child to think about his answers and then to frame them on
his own, surely the teacher would require more time than usual and certainly exorbitantly more time than
normal for checking of the books. But if the teacher exerts for this purpose, she would certainly earn a lion's
share in encouraging the creativity of the child. Not only the creativity in language but also the creativity in
that particular subject will be encouraged. Similarly, the teacher will understand whether the concept has
been understood and retained by the child.
All English teachers will agree that as the child grows up, his and his parents' concentration on language
decreases. It is only the scoring subjects that they pay attention to. Therefore, it is very necessary that when
the language teacher teaches, she teaches in such a style that the child will not just hear but also retain the
things that he has heard. As far as the language class goes, the class has to deal with words and their different
uses, phraseology, etc. The grammar is a very important and essential part of the study. However, grammar
can be very boring and difficult to remember for the student. Therefore, while teaching grammar, the teacher
will have to resort to various means.
Traditionally, when grammar is taught, first the rules are to be understood and learnt. Secondly, they are
to be used in various sentences. However, this is a very uninteresting way of learning grammar. Similarly, it
is my observation that maximum of the class tends to forget the rules. Therefore, it is necessary that
grammar is taught in a play way method. For example, teaching of nouns can be taught with the help of old
time game 'name-place-animal-thing'. Similarly, grammar can be taught by telling stories. There are a
number of websites, which give as a horde of stories which can be used while teaching grammar. It would be
interesting for the students to learn grammar, if we give them examples of how a small mistake of grammar
can create a huge difference to the sentence and its meaning.
I believe that grammar is like mathematics. In most of the cases, you set yourself a formula as you do in
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maths and then just replace the words. Maybe some English teachers would object to this way of teaching,
but I have found that there is more chance of the students doing their grammar correctly by this method. For
example,
 While teaching 'noun clause', we can ask the students to replace the clause with the word
'something'; if the sentence still makes sense it is a noun clause.
Example The teacher said that the earth is round.
The teacher said something.

Active-Passive Voice: When you change the sentence from active to passive, the
verbs go plus one and visa a versa.
Example I ate an apple.
An apple was eaten by me.

Subject and Object: The first noun or pronoun that comes in the sentence along with
the article and/or adjective will be the subject and the noun and/or adjective immediately after
the verb will be object of the sentence. Example The black cat (Subject) drank the cold milk
(Object).
Many more examples can be given. It is only that the teacher has to be a bit imaginative and remember
the old days when she faced the music while learning grammar rules.
Next, comes the words. Language is a play of words. The person, who is able to come up with different
words and constructions while writing an article, would be said to have better mastery over the language.
While doing this, if the teacher is able to give some kind of a story or sequence about how a word or phrase
came into being, the child will be in a better position to retain the word and then use the word to showcase his
extra knowledge. For example the word 'brother' has come from the original word 'bhrata'; the words 'phono'
(sound), 'photo' (light) or 'hydro' (water) has Greek origin; the words 'consolation, grave, gravity' have their
origin in Latin; French has provided English words like 'colonel, rendezvous, etiquette, soup, restaurant'. If
we attach some kind of interesting fact to the words, there are more chances of the child retaining the word.
The teacher can also give a list of words and phrases that have been coined by great writers. For example,
William Shakespeare has coined a number of words and phrases like 'All that glitters is not gold, The
Merchant of Venice, All's well that ends well, What's done is done (Macbeth), Wild-goose chase (Romeo
and Juliet), and words like “advertising”, “assassination”, “bedazzled”, “dishearten”, “eventful”,
“eyesore”, “lacklustre”, “moonbeam”, “outbreak”, “quarrelsome”, “radiance”, “reclusive”, “submerge”,
“time-honored”, “undervalued”, “unmitigated”, “unreal”, “well-read”, “watchdog”.
Moreover, some words have been derived from the names of places or persons. If these stories are
relegated to the students, they would find it interesting. The 'guinea' was first coined from gold brought from
New Guinea. Canter is an abbreviation for Canterbury, muslin was made at Mosul and bayonet at Bayone.
Utopia and the adjective Utopian are derived from an imaginary island in Sir Thomas More's Utopia.
'Harzard' means risk. The word was derived, when in the late thirteenth century, enemy troops besieged the
castle of Hasrat. While waiting for the castle to surrender, the troops invented a game of chance to while
away the time and called it 'hazard' after the name of the place. In course of time, it came to mean 'risk'. The
th
word Sandwich is named after John Montagu, 4 Earl of Sandwich. The Roman Emperor Augustus has
given us the month of August and Julius Caesar the month of July. Herculean is called from the name of
Hercules, a great hero of Greek legend, while Atlas is from the name of the Titan who bore the heavens on his
shoulders. The list is not at all exhaustive. The number of anecdotes can be told to the students regarding
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different words and their usage.
The English teacher has a textbook or a reader as a book to be completed during the academic session.
She treats the book as a book of science or history. She formulates different types of questions out of the
chapter aka story brief answers, long answers, complete the sentence, etc. Maybe, most of the times, of
course, due to paucity of time and not efforts, the teacher forgets to concentrate on the construction of the
sentence, use of words and placement of words. As an English teacher, it is of utmost necessity that she
concentrate on the above requirements rather than the facts of the chapter. However, in her endeavour to
formulate various types of questions and answers, she unfortunately fails to give equal or rather more
importance to the above facts.
While teaching a story from the text book, the teacher can differentiate the stories written in British
English and the American English. If the teacher is able to give facts regarding the different words used by
the Britishers and Americans for the same thing, she would be able to hold the students' attention. For
example, Americans use 'gas' for 'petrol'; 'elevator' for 'lift'. Americans spell some words differently from
Britishers like 'program-programme', 'check-cheque', 'ax-axe'.
Thus, it is very necessary that the English teacher thinks 'out of the box' and try to come up with creative,
innovative and entertaining ways of teaching English to the students. If the English teacher fails, we will
have students writing and speaking in SMS English, which would certainly be the last nail in the coffin.
Our Strange Lingo
When the English tongue we speak.
Why is break not rhymed with freak?
Will you tell me why it's true
We say sew but likewise few?
And the maker of the verse,
Cannot rhyme his horse with worse?
Beard is not the same as heard
Cord is different from word.
Cow is cow but low is low
Shoe is never rhymed with foe.
Think of hose, dose,and lose
And think of goose and yet with choose
Think of comb, tomb and bomb,
Doll and roll or home and some.
Since pay is rhymed with say
Why not paid with said I pray?
Think of blood, food and good.
Mould is not pronounced like could.
Wherefore done, but gone and lone Is there any reason known?
To sum up all, it seems to me
Sound and letters don't agree.
by Lord Cromer
Published in the Spectator of August 9th, 1902
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References:
Roy R. N. A short history of the English language and English phonetics.
Www.shakepeare-online.com
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English for Specific Purposes
Mr. Shirish Shinde,
Shankarrao Mothite Patil Mahavidyalaya, Akluj, Solapur
Abstract: Special language and language with a specialized aim are two entirely different notions. The only
practical way in which we can understand the notion of special language is as a restricted repertoire of words and
expressions selected repertoire covers every requirement within a well-defined context, task or vocation. On the
other hand, a specialized aim refers to the purpose for which learners learn a language, not the nature of the language
they learn. Consequently, the focus of the word 'special' in ESP ought to be on the purpose for which learners learn
not on the specific jargon or registers they learn.
Keywords: globalization, task, expressions, vocation, discovery.
Introduction
English for Specific Purposes and General English are analyzed in the article. Globalization has become a
reality, a fact that can't be avoided by any nation in the world. As an Eastern country and nation, India now
has to prepare a strategy how to face the Post-Globalization Era. ESP is a sphere of teaching English
Language including technical English, Scientific English, English for medical professionals, English for
waiters and English for tourism etc. Aviation English as ESP is taught to pilots, air traffic controllers and
civil aviation cadets who are going to use it in radio communications. ESP can therefore be considered as a
form of language for specific purposes. A great deal can be written about the origins of ESP. But there are
three notable reasons common to the emergence of all ESP: The demands of a Brave New World, A
Revolution in Linguistics, and Focus on the Learner (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).
One simple clarification will be made here: special language and language with a specialized aim are two
entirely different notions. The only practical way in which we can understand the notion of special
language is as a restricted repertoire of words and expressions selected repertoire covers every requirement
within a well-defined context, task or vocation. On the other hand, a specialized aim refers to the purpose
for which learners learn a language, not the nature of the language they learn. Consequently, the focus of the
word 'special' in ESP ought to be on the purpose for which learners learn not on the specific jargon or
registers they learn.
The basic aims of situational English are
To build up confidence in dealing with everyday situations
To familiarize students with appropriate language in everyday situations
To enable students to understand everyday speech
To practice speaking and listening skills
To improve pronunciation skills
To raise cultural awareness
First the end of the Second World War brought with it a “...age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in
scientific, technical and economic activity on an international Scale. Thus , for various reasons, most
notably the economic power of the United States in the Post War World, the role (of international language)
fell to English”
Second, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the
oil-rich countries. The language of this knowledge became English. The present article consists the origin
of ESP, characteristics, Types, English for Science and Technology, English for Business and Economics,
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and English for Social Studies, English for Academic Purposes, and English for Occupational Purposes.
Hutchinson and Waters, (1987) have explained that there were two key historical periods that gave rise to
ESP.
a)
First, the end of the Second World War brought with it an “ ... age of enormous and unprecedented
expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale. Thus for various reasons,
most notably the economic power of the United States in the Post War World, the role ( of international
language) fell to English.”
b)
Second, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970's resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the
oil-rich countries. The language of this knowledge became English.
The general effect of all these developments was that there was an overt pressure on the language
teaching profession to live up to these developments. Whereas English had previously decided its
own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language
teachers (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).
The second key reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP was a revolution in
linguistics. Whereas traditional linguists set out to describe the features of language, revolutionary pioneers
in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which language is used in real communication. Hutchinson and
Waters point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that spoken and written English vary. In
other words, given the particular context in which English is used, the variant of English will change. This
idea was taken one step farther. If language in different situations varies, then tailoring language in different
situations varies, and then tailoring language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is
also possible.
Hence, in the late 1960's and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for
Science and Technology (EST) Hutchinson and Waters identify Ewer and Latorre, Swales, Selinker and
Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers. The final reason Hutchinson and Waters cite as
having influenced the emergence of ESP has less to do with linguistics and more to do psychology. Rather
than simply focus on the method of language delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which
learners acquire language and the differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners were seen to
employ different learning strategies, use different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and be
motivated by different needs became equally paramount as the methods employed to disseminate linguistic
knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet these individual need was a natural extension of this
thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles is learner-centered or learning-centered.
Different types of ESP
David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP:
A) English as a Restricted Language: The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples
of English as restricted language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between
restricted language and language with this statement :... the language of international air-traffic control
could be regarded as 'special', in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and
can be accurately determined situationally, as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or airhostess. However, such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar.
Knowing a restricted 'language' would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situation,
or in contexts outside the vocational environment.
B) English for Academic and Occupational Purposes: The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is
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English for Academic and Occupational Purposes. In the “Tree of ELT” (Hutchinson and Waters), ESP is
broken down into three branches :
a) English for Science and Technology (EST)
b) English for Business and Economics (EBS), and
c) English for Social Studies (ESS)
Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches:
(i) English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and
(ii) English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)
An example of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for Technicians' whereas an example of EAP for the
EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) note that there is no clear-cut
distinction between EAP and EOP: “People can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many
cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes
up, or returns to a job”.
C) Finally, self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses in that the “... point of including self-direction... is
that ESP is concerned with turning learners into useres” (Carter, 1983) . In order for self-direction to occur,
the leaneres must have a certain degreeof freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. Carter
(1983) also adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the learners how to learn by
teaching them about leaning strategies but this not really a necessity.
Characteristics of ESP
Theorists Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) modified Strevens' original definition of ESP to form their
own. Let us begin with Strevens. He defined ESP by identifying its absolute and variable characteristics.
Strevens' (1988) definition makes a distinction between four absolute and two variable characteristics:
(a)
Absolute Characteristics: ESP consists of English language teaching which is :
(i) Designed to meet specified needs of the learner;
(ii) Related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and activities;
(iii) Centered on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics etc.
and analysis of this discourse;
(iv) In contrast with General English
(b) Variable Characteristics: ESP may be, but it is not necessarily :
(i) Restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only);
(ii) Not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology.
Basic Concepts/Principles of ESP
Five conceptions are considered to be the foundations, essential features or basic principles of ESP. Swale
(1990) uses the term 'enduring conceptions' to refer to them. These five conceptions are: authenticity,
research-base, language/text, need and learning/methodology. These five conceptions originate from both
the 'target situation' of the specific ESP and ESP pedagogy. It is therefore crucial to discuss as each of the
conceptions identify a separate focus-based approach to ESP and serves as a contribution to the concept of
ESP itself.
a)
Authenticity: The earliest concept to emerge from the development of ESP was that of authenticity.
The first generation of ESP materials that appeared in the mid-1960's took skills as their principal means of
selection (Close,1992). The underlying concept is that ESP teachers would need to establish the skills
priorities of students in order to develop appropriate ESP teaching materials. As Close (1992) argues, the
conception of authenticity was central to the approach taken to the reading skill.
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As discussed above, the main objective of ESP is usually developing communicative competence. This
could only be achieved through an adoption of authentic materials that serve the needs of learners in
different fields such as aviation, business technology etc. Some courses prepare learners for various
academic programmes (like courses preparing students for GRE, IIT-JEE etc.). Others prepare learners for
work in the fields such as law, medicine, engineering, etc. The problem that frequently arises with such ESP
courses is the teachers' dependence on published textbooks available. These textbooks rarely include
authentic materials in their design. A trained teacher should therefore, resort to supplementary material that
compensate for the lack of authenticity in textbooks.
Skills-based approaches to ESP have enlarged the conceptions of authenticity in two principal ways. First,
authenticity of text was broadened as to include texts other than the ones that are in textbooks, and at the
same time was narrowed in the sense that in each skill a distinction is made between different types of texts
generated by a given skill. Reading, for example, may be sub-divided into reading reports, reading
technical journals; reading was enlarged to include authenticity of task. In effect, this meant designing tasks
requiring students to process texts as they would in the real world. In other words, ESP learners were
required to use ESP materials which employed the same skills and strategies as would be required in the
target situation. (Morrow, 1980)
Research Base: Halliday, McIntosh and Strevens (1964) were the first scholars who pointed to the
importance of, and the discussions of ESP, set out in one of the earliest discussions of ESP. This was a call
for a programme of research into ESP registers which was taken up by several early ESP materials writers,
such as Herbert (1965) or Ewer and Latorre (1969), who analyzed large corpora of specialist texts in order to
establish the statistical contours of different registers. The principal limitation of this approach was not its
research base but its conception of text as register, restricting the analysis to the word and sentence levels
as register was invariably defined in these terms. The procedure adopted for the analysis was twofold. The
main structural words and not-structural vocabulary were identified by visual scanning. For the main
sentence patterns, a small representative-sample count was made.
a)
a) Language/text
In the 1990's, there has been a number of ESP projects which were triggered by concerns over international
safety and security. The first of these was SEASPEAK. It was a practical project in applied linguistics and
language engineering. According to Strevens and Johnson (1983), SEASPEAK, which was an
Interbational Maritime English? They explain that other ESP projects were published later as a result of the
success of the first project. These projects included AIRSPEAK (1988) and POLICESPEAK (1994), with
RAILSPEAK in preparation. Each of these projects involved a substantial research phase with linguists
shared the large-scale base of the refister-analysis applied but the principal advance was that it was now
applied to a more sophisticated, four-kevek concept of text : purposes of maritime communication,
operational routines, topics of maritime communication, and discourse procedures. Although register
analysis remains small-scale and restricted to native-speaker encounters, later research demonstrated the
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gap between ESP materials designers' intuitions about language an the language actually used in ESP
situations (Williams, 1988; Mason, 1989; Lynch and Anderson, 1991; Jones, 1990).
The reaction against register analysis in the early 1970's concentrated on the communicative values of
discourse rather that the lexiel and grammatical properties of register. The approach was clearly set out by
two of its principal advocates, Allen and Widdowson (1974). They specifically argued that one might
usefully distinguish two kinds of ability which an English course atESP level should aim at developing. The
first is the ability to recognize how sentences are used in the performance of acts of communication, or the
ability to understand the rhetorical functioning of language in use. The second is the ability to recognize and
manipulate the formal devices which are used to combine sentences to create continuous passages of prose.
One might say that the first has to do with rhetorical coherence of discourse, the second with the
grammatical cohesion of text.
In practice, however, the discourse-analysis approach tended to concentrate on `how sentences are used in
the performance of acts of communication' and to generate materials based on functions. The main
shortcoming of the approach was that its treatment remained fragmentary, identifying the functional units of
which discourse was composed at sentence/utterances level but offering limited guidance on how functions
and sentences/utterances fit together to form text .
As an offspring of discourse analysis, the genre-analysis approach seeks to see text as a whole rather than as
a collection of isolated units. According to Jhonson (1995), this is achieved by seeking to identify the
overall pattern of the text through a series of phases of `moves'. The major difference between discourse
analysis and genre analysis that , while discourse analysis enables the materials writer to sequence these
functions into a series to capture the overall structure of such texts. The limitation of genre analysis has
been a disappointing lack of application of research to pedagogy. There are few examples of teaching
materials based on genre-analysis research.
Learning/Methodology
As a result of the attention given to strategy analysis, a new generation of ESP materials was founded. This
new generation of materials is based on conceptions of language or conception of need. The concern was
with language learning rather than language use. It was no longer simply assumed that describing and
exemplifying what people do with language would enable someone to learn it. A truly valid approach to
ESP would be based on an understanding of the processes of language learning. Hutchinson and Waters
(1987) called this approach the learning-centered approach and stressed the importance of a lively,
interesting and relevant teaching/learning style in ESP materials to adopt a conscious model of learning
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were probably those of the Malaysian UMESPP project in the late 1970's, but the approach has received its
widest circulation in the papers and materials of Hutchinson and Waters and, more recently, Waters and
Waters (1992)
In the context of a language programme that emphasizes the needs of the learners, anything but a
learner/learning-centered syllabus and methodology is bound to created contradictions that will negatively
affect student's perceptions of the programme. As advocated in the literature on communicative language
teaching, content and teaching-learning procedures must take into account the interests and concerns of the
learners, as well as the socio-economic and cultural context in which the language programme is to be
implemented.
A syllabus normally refers to “What is to be learnt with some indication of the order in which the items
should be learnt” and “the interpretations that it is put to.” (Hutchinson and Waters).
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References
Alderson et al. 1995; Bachman and Palmer 1996; Douglas 2000; Dudley-Evans and St. John 1998
Hutchinson and Waters (1987)
Esp-world.info, Hewings, M. 2002. A history of ESP through 'English for Specific Purposes'.
Www.wikipeadia.com
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Teaching English in Rural Colleges: Realities & Remedies
Shitalbabu A. Tayade
Ramkrushna Mahavidyalaya, Darapur
Abstract: The aim of the paper is to find out exact reasons of lagging behind o the rural student in English with
possible remedies. Many a questions arises in one's mind while strolling over this issue. What are teachers' beliefs
about and guiding principles for teaching English language? What instructional strategies do teachers use to teach
English, Phonics, Spelling, Comprehension, Vocabulary development? How is assessment conducted and used? Is
the current System of learning and teaching English is full of defects? How to overcome these defects or ailments by
suggesting the possible remedies?
Key words: Vocabulary development, Phonics, Primary Education & Government Polices, social scenario
Introduction
In the present world English Language has truly become the commonest language of communication. Every
activity of our lives revolves primarily now around this communication. It is through speech that we assert
our distinctiveness from other forms of life. David Crystal, world authority on English Language, in English
as a Global Language, presents a lively and factual account of the rise of English as global language and
explores the whys and wherefores of the history, current status and future potential of English as the
international language of communication. English has been lauded as the most 'successful' language.
English symbolizes in modern perspective, better education, better future, better culture and higher
intellect. In present times, English is the most preferred language. A number of studies have shown that an
advanced proficiency and knowledge of English leads one to higher paying jobs, strong mobility, and a great
deal of social success. Whatever career you choose whether it is engineering, medicine, management or
history, powerful command of the English language will greatly help you in success.
There is a saying 'people look beautiful unless you hear them talk' while we may realize it, people will judge
us by the way we talk. It is a hard reality and irony today that even countries like China and Japan which were
initially dithering to accept English language as a privileged language are now opening up language
institutions for training their students in English language as they too have understood its importance.
Therefore, its purposeful learning and goal oriented teaching have gained tremendous importance. On the
one hand, the changing times have witnessed the growing importance of English language in all walks of
life. On the one hand we have majority o speakers who are too fluent I tone and ability due to surrounding
and all sorts of facilities on the other hand, rural students are lagging behind in English. This too shows that
we need to look at how to focus on the deficiencies and immediate remedies in order to turn ourselves
winners in the current competitive world. Why the difficulties come along the way of the students is the
basic question.
Many a questions arises in one's mind while strolling over this issue.
What are teachers' beliefs about and guiding principles for teaching English language? What instructional
strategies do teachers use to teach English, Phonics, Spelling, Comprehension, Vocabulary development?
How is assessment conducted and used? Is the current System of learning and teaching English is full of
defects? How to overcome these defects or ailments by suggesting the possible remedies?
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The aim of the paper is to find out exact reasons of lagging behind o the rural student in English with
possible remedies.
Poverty
Educational outcomes are one of the key areas influenced by family incomes. Children from low-income
families often start college already behind their peers who come from more affluent families, as shown in
measures of college readiness. The incidence, depth, duration and timing of poverty all influence a students'
educational attainment, along with community characteristics and social networks. Instead of learning he
has to focus on earning.
1.
2.
Primary Education & Government Polices
th
Some three years back, education ministry in Maharashtra came to the decision not to fail students up to 8
Std. This policy badly affects teaching and learning process making students and teachers inactive and
lethargic. All students are promoted to upper classes without subject ability. To such students it becomes
difficult to cope up with the syllabus of English at graduation level.
.
3.
Lecture timing
Most of the time lectures of English are in early hours. As the student has to travel a long distance average of
3 to 10 km. it is difficult for them to reach on time which culminates in to discontinuation of the studied part
of the lesson.
4.
Multiple Task of the English Teachers
English teachers are the torch bearer of the college as he has to coordinate the entire task including UGC
interface, NAAC, University committees which dilutes the focus of teaching.
5.
Family Factor
Rural students belong to the poor families of labors, Farmers, household worker diverting from education
and are without any knowledge of English so that these students do not find an atmosphere to learn English
6.
Season factor & Attendance
There are several periods throughout the year when student absenteeism is particularly prevalent. These
periods include June and July when farmers are busy with sowing ,September hay-making and other
farming activities occur; October and November for the festivals of Diwali; Jan end and Feb. collection of
Rabbi crop means in all only I August, Dec and likely in Jan student show regular attendance
7.
Load shedding
Students facing various problems during the hours of load shedding, they can't concentrate on lecture if aids
used by teacher during class in college due to power cut, they can't even study at home, their performance in
studies going down day by day, they even can't do their home assignments due to unbearable hours of load
shedding.
8.
SMS impact-spelling
The motivation for the creation and use of SMS language was to convey a comprehensible message using
the fewest number of characters possible. This was due to the way in which telecommunication companies
limited the number of characters per SMS, and also charged the user per SMS sent. To keep costs down,
users had to find a way of being concise while still getting their message across. Further typing on a phone is
normally slower than with a keyboard, and capitalization is even slower. As a result, punctuation, grammar,
and capitalization are largely ignored. In many countries, people now have access to unlimited text options
in their monthly plan, although this varies widely from country to country, and operator to operator.
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However, screens are still small, which continues to motivate short messages and the input problem persists:
SMS language is still widely used for brevity. But the adverse impact of the SMS language is seen widely
among the students .Following are someexamples shows us how simple spelling are misspelled by the
students
Cyamel - (Camel) , Tiegar - (Tiger) Hors- (Horse) Masin - (Mechine)
Monki- (Monkey) Pepar- (Paper) Bafelo (Buffalo )
9.
Limited Knowledge-words, sentences, places
Rural students are not familiar with the vast area of experiences . Limited experiences resulted in to the
limited knowledge When they are asked to write some words, sentences and places students wrote repeated
words and sentences and the places nearby to their villages . This indicated that they like to go by the
simplest way as far English is concern
Mal practices in schools
It cannot be denied the fact that number of schools and colleges adopt the method of mass-copy in SSC or in
HSSC examination. Naturally, it create negative attitude towards the memorization of the topic which
attitude continuous in the college.
10.
Exam oriented learning
The teaching faulty who teaches English a learning class who studies it is highly motivated by the marking
system of the examination. Naturally, it is taught and learnt as one of subject for examination. The
examination process of universities is related with writing skill. Students' basic concern is to get marks only
to clear the examination and most of the students have only this much of attitude which reduces the interest
of in learning English.
11.
Use of Mother Tongue
According to Elizabeth Grace Winkler 'Native speakers of any language are capable of making grammatical
judgments about their language even if they have never had a linguistic class' ( Grace Winkler 2008:106).
Learning second language means acquiring a system of rules, but just as a very little is known about these
rules, even less is known about how such rule systems are acquired. Students find it very difficult to earn a
competence in those rules and in fact they have no idea of proper sentence structure. They do not even know
proper pronunciation, spellings and grammatical rules. Inwardly, they dislike the English Language and
hence the sole objective of the teacher and the learner remain to clear the exams. Hence, the students never
realize the importance of learning English as a language. Teacher also translates everything in mother
tongue.
12.
Four Skill Analysis
When the survey is made of the rural colleges following are the basic difficulties come in the way of teaching
and understanding English of the rural area students as far as four skills are concerned.
13.
Reading Skill
From the analysis of the percentage of the reading skill it comes out that students feel difficulties in the way
of reading because words are not familiar to them hence difficult to understand the meaning of the word also
they could not grasp meaning and very few student go through full prescribed text for the year hence the
speed of the reading is too slow
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Speaking Skill
English is the language with which many a persons have problem while speaking. In the asked questions on
the speaking skill students can speak only on the given ideas as they are practiced in the school level learning
where as all the other areas of the speaking are left with less performance. .
Listening Skill
Students are at the best in listening only they are not in touch with the watching TV programmes in English
and they are unable to explain themselves what they have heard in English
Writing Skill
While writing most of the students make spelling mistakes and are unable to write properly also unable to
understand the meaning of the words what they have written which leads to the wrong punctuation
14.
Conditions of Classes:
The following conditions of the classes hinder smooth and purposeful teaching of English:
1. Lengthy uninterested literatureoriented Lectures: literature-oriented language books to make students
often feel inconvenient and their attention is distracted from learning
2. No use of video in language teaching: Jack Lonergan says: 'video is a very useful aid for the language
teacher. It is not meant to rival or overshadow the teacher…' Unfortunately, the use of video is not made in
our Language classrooms. Thus, the class appears boring for students.
Poor Infrastructure:
One of the greatest problems which both our teachers and students come across in the educational institutes
while trying to teach and learn English language is the infrastructure. They don't have language laboratories
or trained teachers. Even the teachers who have good accent do not possess a good command over the
language. It is quite unfortunate that whatever our English language teachers gain in the completion of their
course or education as eligibility for seeking a job or unemployment, it stays there and the teaching learning
stagnates. The process of teachings not updated even after years. This turns whole language learning
activity just meaningless.
.
Remedies and Suggestions:

For solving all the above discussed problems, we need to build a systematic approach which should
later be followed seriously. The teachers should be trained on modern lines not knowledge but skill,

Teachers should find some way of helping pupils to enjoy their language activities by spending
sometime inside the language laboratories thereby building their confidence. A teacher who tries to
help his pupils in this way has rightly rejected the image of the teacher who acts as the arbitrary
dispenser of all knowledge.

As children learn by way of imitation, similarly, the students tend to follow the example set by their
teacher. The English teacher should have both wide-ranging enthusiasm and Imagination. Further,
for tackling the lack of vocabulary in the students, Productive and receptive use of words should be
kept in mind. The students should be made to learn simple words and their usage in different. This
Will help in inculcating a habit of learning new words in them.
 Their newly learnt words will become a part of their own vocabulary and they will be in a position to
use hose words very purposefully. This enhancement of vocabulary will result into better
expression. The common errors made by the students in the different usages of the same word can be
cured by this technique.
 English Lecture timings should be convenient to the students due to daily travelling from far and
15.
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remote place

Students should be provided with travel grants, free ship ,on institution base

Diwali vacation could be curtail to sum up the syllabus

Hostel facilities should be given to the students..
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References:
Analysis of the survey made in Ramkrushna Mahavidyalaya, Darapur ,J.D.Patil Sanguladkar Mahavidyalaya, Daryapur,
Saraswati arts college, Dahihanda.
Crystal, David. 2007. English as a Global Language, Cambridge University Press, U K.
Fazili, Mubeena. 2007. Communicative Method in ELT: An Indian Perspective, Atlantic
Publishers, New Delhi.
Grace Winkler, Elizabeth. 2008. Understanding Language, Continuum International
Publishing Group, London.
Lonergan, Jack. 1994. Video in Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press, Great
Britain.
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Innovative Teaching Tools and Techniques
Shraddhanvita Tiwari
Dept. of English (NMD College, Gondia)
Abstract: In India, most of the students are exposed to English Language as a part of their curriculum during school
as a second language. The problem with understanding English is that students do not get enough chance to speak it in
public and so they remain unable to develop interest. This lack of interest leads to the inability to get competency in
English. To get over this dilemma, we need to apply some innovative methods in English Language Teaching that
could make the students learn with interest. “Mnemonics” is one of the techniques which is arising as an interesting
method to teach English in modern times.
Using Mnemonics in English Language Teaching
A Mnemonics are memory aids that help to remember a piece of information. Mnemonics are often verbal
and sometimes in verse form. Basically it is based on creating associations among easy-to-remember
constructs and lists of data. They often involve rhymes and phrases that are easy to remember than the
abstract such as “Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain” as the order in which colors appear in a rainbowRed, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet. This Mnemonic is very widely used to teach English
in UK. In other words Mnemonics link “what you do not know” with “what you already know”. Let's have a
look at how Mnemonics can be used in teaching EnglishLearning Grammar
1)
The form of a structure can itself work as a mnemonic. The difference between 'stop doing
something' and 'stop to do something' can be illustrated as follows- 'doing' is one word and 'to do' is two
words; 'stop doing' means finish one action and 'stop to do' means finish one action to start doing second.
2) Puns can be the basis for mnemonics, and double meanings can be connected in a sentence, for
example: One Sat(urday), red Rose drove through the new court, and took the left road. This reminds
students of (the pronunciation of) the irregular past forms of win, sit, read, rise, drive, throw, know,
catch, take, leave and ride.
3) No/any/some/ every/body takes a third person singular verb, eg. Everybody knows. Knows sounds
like nose, which is part of the body.
4) Mnemonics can be used to remember the sentences exemplifying certain form of structuresHYENAS: Have you ever noticed anything suspicious? (Present perfect question)
ILLNESS: I like living near East Street Station (like + gerund)
CITIES: Could I take it easy, Sir? (Polite request)
MIGHT: May I go home tomorrow? (Polite request)
MISTY JAM: May I speak to you just a minute? (Polite request)
DYES: Do you eat sausage? (Present simple question)
WATCH: Why are they calling him? (Present continuous question)
HIMALAYAS: He is meeting a lecturer at your aunt's school. (Present continuous)
LAYOUTS: Listen, are your officers used to singing? (Be used to question)
HISTORY: He is starting to operate real yachts. (Start + infinitive)
HUTCH: He used to clean houses (used to)
5) In a similar way, linguistic meta-language terms can become acronyms describing their functions
or rules of use.
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STATIVE- Simple Tense Acts, Take ing Very Exceptionally.
GERUND- Goes Everywhere Real, Usual Noun Does.
ARTICLES- 'A' reads 'the' in clearly established situations.
PERFECT- Past Experience Reaches Forward, Effects Continue Today.
PRONOUNS- Pronouns Replace Other Nouns.
TAG questions- Take a Guess questions (since you already have an idea of the answer).
Learning Vocabulary
The mnemonics can be best used in teaching English vocabulary. Let's suppose you just want to remember
the meaning of words concave and convex. Concave means a surface that is curved inwards in the middle
and convex means a surface curved outwards (like the surface of your eye). The words are very similar and
it's easy to confuse them. That's where mnemonics come in handy. Have a look at the picture of convex and
concave mirrors. The hollowed-out interior of a concave mirror is like a cave, isn't it? Now it should be easy
to distinguish the words from each other.
Use your imagination; draw funny cartoons and whatever that makes you remember the meaning of new
words. When it looks difficult to draw mental picture for a specific word, one can split it into other words of
familiar sound. For example, if we want to learn that the meaning of word 'ameliorate' is 'to improve'; we
will first make two words from 'ameliorate'- Amul (butter) and rate. Now imagine that Amul butter's rate is
increasing for its quality is improved. The following are some other examples of this kindAltruistic-(meaning generous)- The kind and generous people TRUST ALL
Asinine-(meaning stupid)- NINE ASSES are doing stupid things.
Bizarre-(meaning very different, unusual)- The BAZZAR is full of unusual and different things.
Carnage-(meaning killing many people)- Many AGE old people got killed in a CAR accident.
Espouse-(meaning support)- SPOUSES are support for each other.
Learning Foreign Words
To learn any new word of foreign language all you need is to actually visualize the images in your mind,
playing them back internally as if you were daydreaming. For instance, to remember that the French word
for bread is spelled "pain" (but pronounced "pan"), you might visualize in your mind's eye a bread roll
screaming with pain as you eat it. Or, if you were more interested in memorising the pronunciation:
visualize that you're cooking using a frying pan made out of bread... which catches fire. Or how about:
imagine that you're cooking bread in a hot pan ... you look on mercilessly as it screams in pain!
Memorizing Spelling of Words
Mnemonics can also be used to make the students remember spelling of the words. For example,
Rhythm- Rhythm has your two hands moving
Necessary-Never eat crisps, eat salad sandwiches and remain young.
One can ignore the grammar rules to make the words by each letter of the word he wants to remember.
Remember that Mnemonics cannot replace doing repetitions. It's not enough to use the mnemonic that can
help you remember the meaning or spelling of the word without repetitions. Mnemonics is only a method to
learn quickly and make the learning interesting.
What makes a Good Mnemonic?
It depends on your particular style and preferences, but most people report that if the mnemonic has some or
all of the following characteristics, then you've got an image that will stick in your memory:
1) Recounts some kind of story. The verbal or rhyming mnemonics work like this. One can also make
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up a mental image story by imagining some of the consequences of mental image.
2) The mental image should be vivid, absurd, unusual, humorous, disgusting, repulsive, and/or
grotesque. Sometimes it is helpful to remember the things permanently.
3) Try to involve as many of the senses as possible. Involve the audible, tactile, and even smell and taste
rather than just visual things in the mental image.
4) Be dynamic rather than static when using Mnemonics. Involve movement and changes of state, and
the items you're visualizing should interact with each other.
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References
Carter, R and McCarthy. Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge University Press.
Roychoudhary, Biswaroop. Vocabulory Mnemonics. Fusion Books.
Cook, G (2000) Language Play, Language Learning. Oxford University Press.
Hobbs, P. Mnemonics www.eudesign.com/mnems/
Mnemonics and Mind Maps, http://www.english.hb.pl/articles/tips/mnemonics/
Humanizing Language Teaching(Dec, 2008), http://www.hltmag.co.uk/dec08/mart03.htm
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Effective Strategies for Vocabulary Building in ESL Learners
Shubhra Roy
Somalwar High School, Ramdaspeth, Nagpur
Abstract: English Language is vast and versatile as far as words are concerned. Moreover, new vocabulary is being
added constantly. This brings forth a greater challenge in the vocabulary development for ESL learners. English
words are new and difficult to learn for the learners of ESL. To help the learners acquire vocabulary in simple and
interactive method the students were divided into groups, pairs, individual, whole group. Various strategies were used
as vocabulary is one of the core components of language proficiency. The present paper deals with the challenges of
vocabulary teaching and effective strategies that can be incorporated in teaching vocabulary to ESL learners. The
paper also highlights the use of activity based, learner centered techniques used with ESL learners in teaching
vocabulary and its satisfactory outcome. It includes activities like word quiz, Affixation, synonym-antonym practice
and usage, reading assignments etc. More new techniques will give the required exposure of English words and
phrases, and their usage and will enable the learner to build a good vocabulary.
Keywords: Versatile: unlimited; Strategies: skilful planning; Affixation: use of prefix and suffix to form new
words; ESL learners: Students learning English as Second Language.
Introduction:
A good and strong vocabulary is not an embellishment but a necessity. Teaching of vocabulary is an
important aspect and has gained a lot of importance with the advent of communicative language learning. In
the case of learners of ESL they find it difficult to gain access to a particular thought in the target language as
most of the time they are following their L1 as their first language. (In this case it is Marathi). Contextual
vocabulary is not enough for them as it makes knowledge of words limited. A learner's maximum level of
reading comprehension is determined by his\her knowledge of words. This knowledge would allow the
learner to comprehend the text. For this, the learner needs to know all the dimensions of vocabulary like
ability to define words, its usage, multiple meanings, ability to decode, to spell etc. Hence, vocabulary
development is especially essential for their ability to read and comprehend. Teachers must not assume that
vocabulary is known rather must provide daily instruction in academic English class. The ESL students face
a greater challenge outside the classroom. (Communication, writing, speaking, reading etc.) While learning
the necessary content they also learn cognitive academic language essential for academic success.
Knowledge of words is considered as the most important factor in language proficiency and success. His
knowledge of words remains limited hence he would falter in all the skills that require vocabulary
knowledge.
Need for vocabulary building:
The four basic skills of ELL are listening, speaking, reading and writing. To master over all these skills
the learner needs to acquire and expand his existing vocabulary. Contextual vocabulary does not prove to be
enough. Hence, vocabulary building and expansion proves to be an intrinsic part for ELL. It is required to
convey one's thoughts, intentions and information to others. Vocabulary is a common hurdle for most of the
ESL learners. However it is importance to give them a regular practice. Vocabulary building is required to
understand a particular word it is important for a learner to know the meaning, usage, independent usage in
other situation. (Realistic situation) Vocabulary building has to be done step by step and in an activity based
way for longer retention. Words, unless learnt and used repeatedly remains elusive. At times the learner
finds it difficult to use a word or understand its meaning in spite of knowing the word. It may happen that the
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learner is not exposed to vocabulary out of the text and contextual vocabulary is limited. Vocabulary can be
learned not by just cramming of words and using them blindly but by understanding the exact meaning and
its proper usage.
Challenges in Teaching of vocabulary building:
The teacher teaching the ESL learners has to face a lot of problem in the class where the children learn
through the medium of their mother tongue. The core curriculum in the class focuses on acquiring the
language for reading, writing as well as speaking. Like most ESL directives the goal was to quickly move
the learner into the mainstream English classes by fast language acquisition and one of the most important
ways to do it is to teach Basic English vocabulary.
When observed in class IX (ESL class) the learners projected a few basic problems.
 Boredom: The students read, write and converse in Marathi (L1) most of the time hence they are far
from those with expertise in language study. When they are asked to learn the contextual words with respect
to word class, meaning, origin, definition they find it very tough. A Handful of intelligent ones do it
sincerely and the rest end up learning words by heart which they forget soon. This method gives rise to
boredom and such drills do not work in a classroom.

Over burden: If the learners need to learn vocabulary out of the context their capacity being
limited too many words cannot be given otherwise the learner feels overburdened and soon loses
interest.

Language detailing: While using the term 'conservation' and 'conversation' the learners
usually get confused as they aren't too familiar with the language. Grouping similar terms while
teaching vocabulary leads only to confusion.

Words with multiple meanings: While writing or conversing the learners come up with one
word with multiple meanings. This adds to their problem of usage in conversation and writing.
E.g. words like decline, notice, excuse etc are quite common but learners are unable to use
them correctly for their multiple meanings.

Contextual appropriateness: It becomes very difficult for the teacher of ESL to teach
as it is for the learners to learn the context of the vocabulary words. On the other hand , the
learners do not understand the meaning within a specific context as a word may have multiple
meanings.

Idioms, Phrases, phrasal verbs and compound words (collocations): All these terms seem to
confuse the learners as the terms are bit difficult for them to understand. Either they avoid the
usage or indulge into improper usage.
Examples of improper usage:
i. My mother makes delicious cakes.( instead of 'bakes')
ii.
Heavy wind blew my shirt away. (instead of 'strong')

Language switch: Sometimes the learners use words in English similar to that in their
mother tongue which has completely different meaning.
E.g. When I was suffering by train, I came across a funny passenger. The learner has used the
word 'suffer' with the meaning to travel. ('suffer' means to travel in Hindi while in English it is 'to
experience pain')
Strategies for teaching vocabulary:
Vocabulary building and expansion form an integral part of any language learning. Learners of ESL
studying in Marathi medium (L1) find it very difficult. The teacher teaching the ESL faces a lot of
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challenges in vocabulary building of the learners. Teaching English as a Second Language requires a lot of
patience, energy, time, strategy and creativity. Few strategies that were used with the students of class IX
with the focus on the three principles of ESL: practice, understanding and inference. The outcome was quite
satisfactory as all the strategies were according to the situational teaching or the learning environment of the
ESL learner.
 Introducing New vocabulary: It was felt necessary to make the learners realise the importance of
vocabulary to improve their reading skills. Many students of L1 were made fun of for trying to read in
English. During a reading session a boy read: 'The Queen sat on the thorn for sixty-five years'. (throne)
He was not conscious about his mistake because he was unable to differentiate between the two words
'thorn' and 'throne'. Introducing the learner with old and new vocabulary with explanation helped him and he
was saved in other social situations.

Practice: A few questions were asked to the learners about their culture, home, family,
friends, and teachers to encourage them to speak more frequently and use their vocabulary as
well as the new words learnt in and out of the context.

Understanding: Then the learners were asked to frame sentences on their own by using the
recently learnt words. Once it was done, they were asked to use the same words in conversation
appropriately. Peers with better hold over the language were sought for help. For the
conversation sessions, the seating arrangement of the class was changed to provide a
comfortable situation. All the learners seemed to be at ease with the language and more
enthusiastic about using the new words in their conversation.

Other Sources: The learners were asked to read newspaper advertisements (education,
home-appliances etc.) or listen to TV ads and bring to class the use of their new words. It was an
exciting experience when they brought new words learning collocations and code-mixing from
TV ads.

Vocabulary Games:
A few games were also tried for the same class for continuous learning process with fun to avoid
boredom. To stimulate long-term retention ideally words were reviewed 5-10 minutes before the English
class began. This continued with alternate day review. Most of the students required the review of same
words as many as 5-15 times in a variety of context before they had learnt and started using them
independently. Repetition and retrieval practice yielded positive results. It was best achieved by organising
fun, competitive and motivating games and activities for vocabulary building and expansion. Innumerable
such activities were drawn from various sources like teacher trainings, resource books and some on the spot
inventions. A few of them are listed below.
 Back to the Board:
Pattern: Whole Group; a class of 52 students divided into 2 groups ( row wise) with 1
representative from one group with alternate chance was asked to sit with his back to the board. 1
representative from the other group wrote a word on the board with the help of the teacher. The
seated student was not allowed to turn to the board. The concerned group was asked to give
relevant verbal clue, definitions or even gestures to the seated boy who had to identify the word
correctly.
Time limit to answer: 1 minute. Whichever team scores maximum wins.
The game was played for 10 minutes before beginning a new comprehension passage and
the words on the board were directly or indirectly related to the passage.
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Outcome: The learners did not find the words new while reading the passage.

Describing Words:
Pattern: Pair Work: 26 pairs bench wise in a class of 52. Each pair was given a particular
alphabet which they were asked to use to find a describing word (adjective) beginning with the
given alphabet. A sentence was written on the board common for all the pairs.
“My pet_______ is _________, __________, __________”.
Each pair was asked to write the sentence in their notebooks, select any pet and use three
words to describe the pet using the given alphabet.
Time limit: 2 minutes; dictionary allowed.
Result: After total time limit of 5-7 minutes;
Pair 1- My pet cat is amazing, awesome, angry.
Pair 2- My pet parrot is bold, brave, bad.
In the limited time all the pairs couldn't give their sentences on the same day so it was
continued in the next session too. Some of the pairs found it very difficult with word like 'q', 'x'
and 'y'. But the enthusiasm in these activities made all the limitations possible and the students
seemed ready for something new every day.

Synonyms Antonyms:
Pattern: Group work. 3 groups prepared flashcards with synonyms and the other 3 for
antonyms of the given words. One captain prepared the flash cards for the words already given.
At random pattern the captains holds a flash card. The group with the synonym of the given
words stood up to display the word and read it aloud. Immediately whichever group has the
antonym of that word stood up and reads the word aloud. When matched appropriately the group
earned a point. If a team is not alert and give a wrong word they lose points.
Result: Learners are alert in this game and learn synonyms-antonyms textual as well as nontextual.

New Word Search:
Pattern: Individual activity. 3 new words were written on the board by the teacher.
ARDUOUS, CONCUR, CONCEDE. The next steps that followed were:
o
The students were asked to choose a word.
o
Find the meaning from the dictionary.
o
Frame a sentence on his own using the word.
o
Frame another sentence using the antonym of that particular word.
e.g. one student selected the word 'arduous'; got the dictionary meaning ' difficult'; framed a
sentence; looked for antonym; with teacher's help got the answer 'easy' or 'light'; again framed a
sentence.
Result: The meaning correctly sinks in his mind and he is able to use it in his daily
conversation.
Exercises like one word for many, word games like word 'antakshari'( beginning a new word using
the last letter of the given word in a continuous chain) , portmanteau word (word blend), code-mixing and
code switching , affixations (prefix and suffix) etc. make vocabulary learning great fun and easy.
Findings:
When variety was brought into development of vocabulary the students were exposed to new words.
They learnt the spellings, pronunciation, word class, meaning and opposite and above all their appropriate
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usage.



The learners learnt to use correct words in proper situation.
They learned to comprehend passages in English using new vocabulary.
The learners started using linkers in their conversation and writing. Common linkers like
'obviously', 'of course', 'well', 'in fact', 'meanwhile' etc.

They made use of better words and phrases like 'rise and oblivion', 'garrulous girls' etc in
their creative writing class.

The learning process using activities was not only fun but it gave way to the learners interest
in the word world.
Conclusion:
English vocabulary is enormous, incorporating words from a multitude of languages. Many words in
English also change in highly irregular way. Both of these characteristic make English vocabulary difficult
to master for the learners learning through L1 medium. Many activities can be conducted for the learners to
help them overcome such obstacles. Quiz, Short stories for reading and comprehension, spelling bee,
memory games, scrambled letters, collocations etc. Conducting activities only for a day or two may not
help. Continuous revision must be envisaged upon which help in the long term memory of the learner. It will
also help the learner to shed all inhibitions while conversing in the language thus enhancing his fluency.
Teaching acquisition of vocabulary is not an easy task but if the approach is changed, then learning becomes
effective and long lasting. The above findings give a satisfactory outcome that the learners enjoyed the
variety in learning vocabulary through activities and learning takes place fast. The effective strategies listed
have enabled the learners to use words in appropriate situation as it does not limit their knowledge to
contextual words. Above all, usage and practice helps learners build and expand strong vocabulary.
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References
August, D. & Shanahan, T. (Eds.) In Developing Literacy in Second Language Learners: Executive Summary, 2006.
August, D., Macmillan.com/The Critical Role of Vocabulary Development for ELL, 2005
Deb, M. (Ed.) All about CMAT, Newspaper article “The Hitavada” dated 29thJan 2013.
Penell, D., Vocabulary Strategies for ESL Learners, 2001
Gairns, R. & Redman, S., Working with Words: a Guide to Teaching and Learning Vocabulary, 1986, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Grayson, L., Anticipated Problems with Teaching ESL Vocabulary, e-how contributor.
Humanities.byu.edu/elc/Teacher/about language 2.html.
Konar, N., How to Teach Vocabulary in ELT Classroom, The Journal of English Language, 2009. Vol. 47/1. p8-12
Koprowski, M., Ten Good Games for Recycling Vocabulary. The Internet TESL Journal.
Swan, M., Language Teaching in Teaching Language, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Werner, L., Strategies for Teaching ESL Vocabulary, www.ehow.com/list7669369.
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English Language Teaching: challenges & new horizons
in contemporary Indian scenario
Ms. Sujata R. Tiwale
K. M. Agrawal College of Arts, Commerce & Science, Thane
Maharashtra
Abstract: The present research paper is an attempt to trace the challenges & new horizons in English Language in
contemporary Indian classrooms. English Language is an open window to the world. The aim of this research paper
is to open this window for the students in Indian classroom.
Objectives:
1.
To create a natural surrounding for teaching & learning process.
2. To acquaint the teacher with various teaching strategies, new methodology & approaches through
training programmes.
3. To inculcate the professional growth in the teachers & teacher educators.
4. To develop listening, speaking, reading & writing skills of the students.
5. To provide innovative & effective audio & video Teaching aids.
English Language Teaching: challenges & new horizons in contemporary Indian
scenario
English Language is an open window to the world. It bestows an opportunity to unite with the universe. It
plays a fundamental role in binding each other under the sky of the new catch phrase of globalisation.
During Indian freedom movement, acquisition of English Language helps the freedom fighters to get aware
with world's various freedom movements like French Revolution, American Revolution, Europe freedom
movements & their various strategies etc.
Freedom fighter, Father of nation & philosopher of education Mahatma Gandhi who fought against
British's & promote principle of education in mother tongue also quote in his book “Young India”“I do not want my house to be called in an all sides & my window to be stuffed. The cultures of all the lands to
be blown about my house as freely as possible. I would have our young men & young women with literary
tastes to learn as much of English & other world Languages as they like & expect them to give the benefits
of their learning to India & the world.”
In multilingualism India where Hindi is a national language, in spite of that people
communicate
with each other in
number of regional languages & hundreds of dialect.
One Individual of
Maharashtra state cannot speak all the languages of all of states of India where English plays a significant
role to get him/her In touch with whole world.
The challenges of teaching English Language in contemporary Indian classrooms
The same status is not given to learn in free India as it is enjoy in India before independence. English has
been included in our curriculum as second language or as a language of practise utility. Every language has
three constituents i.e. Sounds, vocabulary
& structure. The condition under which English is taught & learnt Remain a sours of dissatisfaction. The
natural consequence is the poor standard of learning English in our school. According to Michael West: 'A
language is not a subject which can be taught, it is a subject which must be learnt.'
To quote V.K. Gokak: “teaching of English is in a chaotic state today.” He adds 'pupils are taught English
for six periods a week for six years. But it has been estimated they hardly know 1500 words by the time
they join the university. It means that they have been able to learn English words at the rate of one word per
period. They do not k now how to us the Commonest structure to English. However, this long period of
exposure to English Enables our students to have a certain degree of familiarity with sentence patterns,
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words & phrases in the language which strengthens his ability to write it though not to speak it.
Following are the reasons of the conditions under which English is taught & the consequent low standards of
English in our schools:
Classroom Conditions
These include the overcrowded students in the Class. Individual attention is not possible with the strength of
50 or more than 50 students. The rooms are literary over flowing with students. The teacher can only lecture
in such situation & the student has to a passive listener.
Lack of Audio-Visual aids
There is a dearth of even simple Visual aids like flash-cards, flip-charts, film scripts etc. Are the bare
minimums if one has to learn English worth the name? The availability of right type of teaching materials &
Audio-Visual aids can alone make the teaching of English in India effective.
Lack of Good English teacher
In India the English teacher does not bother to classify the aim & objectives of teaching English. He teaches
this subject only because it is included in the syllabus. Pupils learn it by the way just to pass time. Teaching
English remains purposeless. Clear-cut objectives are not conveyed. Many English teachers in schools
have neither enough knowledge of English nor are familiar with the latest & far reaching developments in
this Language. They lack the technique of language teaching. Their knowledge of English is inadequate &
their pronunciation is faulty. The Language teacher must be trained & have general preparation of a subject
& must know the target Language well enough to be imitated by his students.
Faulty methods of teaching
In Indian schools teachers are still using the old faulty 'translation cum-grammar' method of English
teaching. The new approaches- Structural & situational are not popular with our teachers. How grammar &
composition still occupy an important place in the school curriculum. Teachers do not the real principles of
language teaching. They waste their time by teaching grammar. Undue emphasis on grammar
Cheeks developing four basic skills of language learning- listening, speaking, reading & writing skills.
Unsuitable Text-Books
The Text-Books prescribe for Indian students are not suitable & attractive. The topics in the syllabus do not
give any practical knowledge to the students. Whatever the students learn from their books they do not use it
in their day-to-day affairs. Again oral work is very much neglected.
Lack of Work-Book & language laboratory
Most Text-Books are not accompany with student's Work-Book, teacher's hand-book, supplementary
readers & the necessary Audio-Visual aids like-charts, maps, records, videos, films, cd's, Computers, ,
tapes.
Defective examination system
There is no examination or assignment for spoken English. Much important is given to written English
therefore Indian students are not good at speaking fluently in English.
Incorrect use of translation method
If teacher has scarce knowledge of the subject, he/she can misguide the students. If teacher ask the student to
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translate the Hindi sentence into English, for Example- Mera gala kharab ho gaya hai. There are chances of
that students may translate into English as My neck is setting or my neck is sat. The actual & correct answer
is 'My throat is upset, or I have a sore throat.
Apart from this, there are many other factor includes- teacher's & student's regional dialect affecting
pronunciation, mother-tongue interferes, shortage of time, socio-psychological problems, lack of
motivation & communicative need, cultural related difficulties, inability of teachers to understand the
difficulties between the Teaching of literature & Teaching of language lack of creativity in students, lack
of creativity in teaching, lack of variations in teaching through activity based lessons, Day to day
expression, role play etc.
Human brain is a highly developed neurophysioloical mechanism where speech ability is controlled
through the patterns of numerous nerves impels. Till the age of ten years human brain is living, growing,
changing & most active mechanism, this accentuates language unit. Language units are units of sound &
thought. In learning a new language he lays the language unit of the each of these secondary languages. This
acquisition is faster when the learner is young. We can learn a language primarily through speech. Speech
proceeds reading. He has already learnt sounds & structure unconsciously. Listening & speaking lay the
very foundation of foreign language. Learning to speak a language is the finest way to learn to read it & to
write it. Speaking is an art which can be earned & developed in children by employing different techniques
& methods in a classroom situation. Effective audio-video visuals like Cartoon Films, Indian English
Movies, Indian English drama, cassettes- poems & songs [for children] etc.
Imitation is powerful learning mechanism. Children try to observe, imitate & reproduce communicative
behaviour of others. They imitate gestures & vocal output before they understand the communicative
function of language. Current example of this is “Chotta Bhim” Cartoon in English on Pogo channel.
Various cartoons in English attract the attention of young learners & motivate them to imitate their dialogues
in English. Colourful books with various illustrations are a centre of attraction of young learners. They
prefer to read colourful fairy stories, fables, rather than plain text book
Listening & Speaking are intimately related to each other. .though listening is recognition skills & speaking
skill depends on the learner's knowledge of the pronunciation of words & articulation of sounds in the
language. In teaching of English due emphasis should be laid on the development of skills of listening &
speaking. Listening to broad casts or recordings or films also help students to enrich their vocabulary &
comprehension specially prepared recordings & tape recorders are indispensible. The student should be
trained in listening to connect speech at normal conversational speed for such listening practice, records &
pre-recorded cassettes can be used or the teacher himself/ herself can speak the passage at normal
conversational speed.
Teacher can also make use of certain language games to teach English. Language library & Laboratory
plays a significant role in acquisition of language skills specially listening, speaking & reading.
Various orientation training programmes & workshops will help the teacher to update the knowledge of
innovative techniques, methods, Approaches for effective and active teaching learning process.
To conclude- In the contemporary India scenario there are various challenges in English teaching process
which can be overcome through teaching of four skills listening, speaking, reading & writing by using new
methods [Dr. West's New method, situation method, Bilingual method, alphabetic method, syllabic method,
word method, phrase method, sentence method, story methods, phonic methods etc.] & approaches, with
the help of innovative audio-visual aids.
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References:
1.
2.
3.
Byrne Donn: Teaching Oral English, Logman Group,1976.
Rao D.B., Lingineni Bhagya Laxmi, Reading & Comprehension. Ed. Dr. Diglimarti Bhaskar Rao Discovrey
Publishing House New Delhi- 110002.
Mahatma Gandhi, Young India [1919-22], p.484.
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Ideas and Techniques for Teaching English Language Learners
3
Sujoy Kumar Tarafder1, Dr. Indradip Ghosh2, Dr. Jaideep Ghosh
1
Sripat Singh College and Nagar College
Murshidabad,West Bengal,
2
Union Christian Taining College
Berhampore,Murshidabad,West Bengal.
3
Indira Gandhi College of Physical Education,Nagpur
Abstract: Each teaching method is based on a particular vision of understanding the language or the learning
process, often using specific techniques and materials used in a set sequence. The main methodologies are listed
below in the chronological order of their development: Grammar - the classical method, Direct - discovering the
importance of peaking,Audio-lingualism - the first modern methodology, Humanistic - a range of new holistic
methods applied to language learning, Communicative - the modern standard method, Principled - fitting the
method to the learner, not the learner to the method. Each of the methods above is summarized individually on a
separate page, including an overview of the various methods grouped under the category Humanistic Teaching
Approaches and an explanation of the most common method currently - Communicative Language Teaching. The
final section on Principled Eclecticism includes a useful ten-point guide for teachers and language students on
the best teaching and learning techniques.
Keywords: Chronological order, teaching Approaches, Communicative Language Teaching.
Introduction
Teaching English language learners can be challenging, problems seem to arise from all directions.
However, this challenge doesn't have to rub off on onto your students. The following are ideas and
techniques to spice up your ESL classroom and make lessons more interesting and effective.
Ideas and techniques to enhance ESL classroom:
Repeat and Re-phrase:
The repeat and re-phrase technique is effective in classrooms because a student may know various
vocabulary words and now know the ones that the teacher is using. By using this technique the teacher
exposes the student to new vocabulary that can be associated with the old to acquire a meaning. The student
benefit by both the repetition, as the source of learning new vocabulary, and the use of old vocabulary to
form a re-phrased question in order to acquire a new and better understanding of the English language.
These techniques can be used during oral instruction given to the class or an individual student. It can
also be applied during question and answer time in class, and is optimal for such a use as it provides students
with an opportunity to better understand the question and answer it without help. This promotes a higher
level learning, understanding, and self-confidence in students.
The repeat and re-phrase strategy is used in the classroom to promote, achieve, or ensure,
understanding of a given topic, standard, or question. For example: if a student doesn't understand the
question "what is the meaning of an adjective?" Then the teacher can respond by either repeating, and/or if
understanding is still not reached, re-phrasing the question to promote the student's application of
knowledge. The question could be re-phrased as: "What does an adjective do?" This also helps with future
questions as the student will better understand the meaning of the posed question.
Additionally, the repeat and re-phrase can be used to question for understanding by re-phrasing a
sentence to check if the student properly understood the meaning of a particular word or concept. For
example: "The girl avoided the water." Used to teach the vocabulary term "avoid."
Questioning for understanding could be phrased as: "If she avoided the water, then she isn't wet." The
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teacher can ask whether this is correct or not and the students can better understand what the term means and
its uses.
Music and jazz chant activities:
Music and jazz chant activities are effective in the classroom because it is easy for music to get stuck
in one's head. Think of the things you learned as a child just through song. Additionally, it gives the class a
fun way to remember or recall sometimes tedious information, creating a more engaging and fun
environment for learning topics and concepts that are generally hard.
The music and jazz chant activities can be used during memorization activities. As a means of participation
to learn new words or short concepts one can try to remember lists, rules, and the like. This is a fantastic way
to memorize the alphabet, periodic table, states, countries, etc.
The expected outcome is that students will more easily remember large amounts of important
information. Students will be involved in the introduction of new material in a fun and interesting way. This
is especially beneficial for younger students.
Visual aides, realia, maps, pictures, multimedia:
Visual aids and the like are effective in that they can provide students with a better grasp of the
concept than any other word. "This is the object that matches the word." No matter what level the student is,
they can understand the relationship between the two and easily grasp the new word or concept. In addition,
these sorts of techniques spice up the classroom and keep things interesting. It is easy for a language class to
become dull with repetition and writing. But, by implementing the use of various visual and audio aides the
class can remain focused, but also entertained.
- These strategic examples can be used as an introduction to vocabulary terms, concepts, teaching places
(names/locations), and teaching specific behaviors (cultural). Additionally, teaching parts of speech can be
done using these media as visual aids for actions, colors, etc. Multimedia can also be used to show language
in practical use, dialog, or visual or audio to materials read. Audio samples can also be used in teaching
sounds of letters or words.
- The learning outcome of this is that students will gain a better understanding of materials presented, and it
can provide a second way of learning (visually). Students also have examples of the materials presented and
a visual to put to the word.
4. Cooperative Groups, Peer Coaching:
This technique optimizes personalized student learning time as each student can get personalized
attention even if it is not given by the teacher. This is also helpful when the teacher is not suppose to be the
focus of activities and instead can move from table to table and helps as needed. It creates a community
setting and gets students into helping each other and learning from each other. Cooperative groups work
because there are many ways to break students into groups that allow them personally catered lessons on
their level.
Placing students in cooperative groups or using peer coaching is especially helpful in an ELL
classroom where students are or can be at mixed levels of learning English. When this is the case it is best to
place them in groups that are chosen by the teacher in a manner that places higher level students with lower
level ones. In this way the higher level student is learning, practicing, and perfecting techniques through
teaching; and the lower level student is acquiring new knowledge and receiving help from a peer. This can
also be used to place higher level students together to work on an assignment while the lower level students
stay with the teacher to learn new information. In this way the teacher is able is optimize learning by provide
new information to both levels without actually having to make one or the other sit through information that
is either below or above their learning level.
The learning outcome of this strategy is that students are able to take in more information at one
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time while developing relationships and community amongst themselves. Additionally, by using this
technique students will learn from each other. Many times, youths are more prone to hear out their peers
over adults. Naturally, this caters to those thoughts and allows students to take in the needed knowledge, but
in a way that is more entertaining. Working in groups also provides the teacher with many new lesson
options to keep the classroom engaging and motivating.
5. Pre- Instruction Activities (Semantic Webbing, Graphic Ganizers, and KWL Charts)
Pre-instruction activities are generally effective because they provide an easy break-in to new
information. Additionally, they provide the students with notes, or something to look back on to relate the
new information with the old so that the concept is easier to grasp. For instance, a chart may compare new
materials with old thus drawing a line between to the two that the student can follow. These activities also
draw the student into the new concept to keep them motivated and interested in what is being taught.
The pre-instruction technique could be applied in the introduction of a new concept or idea; or it can
be applied to the planning of a project or paper that will be written by the student. Additionally, the teacher
can use this technique to give instructions or notes on a topic that the student will later research and/or
develop alone.
From this technique, the learning outcome is that the students will acquire important information
that will help during the new unit of study or planning of a project that will require a lot of independent work.
This is optimal to create a means of providing information that the students can later apply to other work in
that lesson or unit.
As English teachers, we're almost always on the lookout for new and interesting ways to stimulate
our language learners. It was ELT author and researcher Stephen D. Krashen who gave us his Affective
Filter hypothesis of Second or Foreign language acquisition. (Krashen Terrell, 1983) His hypothesis states,
that conditions which promote low anxiety levels in class allow improved learning on the part of students.
When learners enjoy class activities their Affective Filter is low and they learn more. New and different
activities “out of the norm” also lower learner affective filters.
New Techniques of teaching:
Here are some not-so-commonly-used techniques for adding that “new twist” to your English or foreign
language classes. Giving learners something new does wonders in relieving boredom, spiking interest and
lowering the Affective Filter of learners on whom you may have “tried everything”.
1. Using an iPod:
Do your learners carry iPods or cellular phones? Don't curse and swear at them for using
technology in their lives. Turn it to your advantage! A number of good websites now exist that can get you
and your learners up and running using this latest new technology for language learning and practice. Here
are useful website for more podcasting information:
2. Let Mr. Bean Help You:
You all know him and love his humorous twists on daily living. So don't just sit there nodding, grab a CD or
VHS full of episodes and try a few out on your learners. Let them do the talking. They can offer suggestions,
write to Mr. Bean and his other characters, express opinions and do comparisons of his world vs. their own.
By the way, is he REALLY an alien?
3. Ask Walt Disney for Advice:
Although I'm old enough to remember his presence and passing, Walt Disney can still make us laugh, smile,
cry and cheer with the antics of scores of his characters and their families. Take some short “clips” from his
animated stories. Change the situation. Alter the characters. Modify an ending or a beginning to cause a
whole different outlook on age-old themes. Are your stories and characters better? As long as they're
different, stimulating and generate interest or discussion, that's all that matters. Everyone, even you, will
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have a great time coming up with new twists on these classic themes.
Turnabout is fair play, or so they say. Take a day to switch roles. Have you ever let your learners write an
exam? How about planning a fun class? Having a “hot” conversation on a topic that THEY want to talk
about music, movies, cute guys / gals, techno-babble? Nothing is taboo well almost nothing, anyway!
What do you think they'll talk about? You'd be surprised!
5. Join the Club:
Let's all go to the Conversation Club. What you don't have one? Okay then, start one every Thursday from
2:00 pm to 2:30 pm or whatever time, day and duration may suit you and your learners. The key is to give
THEM the majority of control, or at least as much as possible. Use props, use realia, use pictures, music or
whatever you and your learners may have on hand to start, stop and sustain the activities. Other “clubs” you
could join include:
Pronunciation clubs
Reading clubs
Movie clubs
Acting Clubs
Use your and your learners' imaginations. The sky's the limit or maybe the Administration's sky is
the limit. But no matter, just try something new for starters.
Try out some of these not-so-commonly-used techniques for adding that “new twist” to your English or
foreign language classes. Give your learners something new to relieve any boredom and spike their interest.
Can't you just hear those Affective Filters falling now?
English Language Teaching
Methods of teaching foreign languages:
There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have had their heyday and have fallen into
relative obscurity; others are widely used now; still others have a small following, but contribute insights
that may be absorbed into the generally accepted mix.
The grammar translation method:
The grammar translation method instructs students in grammar, and provides vocabulary with
direct translations to memorize. It was the predominant method in Europe in the 19th century. Most
instructors now acknowledge that this method is ineffective by itself. It is now most commonly used in the
traditional instruction of the classical languages.
At school, the teaching of grammar consists of a process of training in the rules of a language which must
make it possible to all the students to correctly express their opinion, to understand the remarks which are
addressed to them and to analyze the texts which they read. The objective is that by the time they leave
college, the pupil controls the tools of the language which are the vocabulary, grammar and the orthography,
to be able to read, understand and write texts in various contexts. The teaching of grammar examines the
texts, and develops awareness that language constitutes a system which can be analyzed. This knowledge is
acquired gradually, by traversing the facts of language and the syntactic mechanisms, going from simplest
to the most complex. The exercises according to the program of the course must untiringly be practised to
allow the assimilation of the rules stated in the course. That supposes that the teacher corrects the exercises.
The pupil can follow his progress in practicing the language by comparing his results. Thus can he adapt the
grammatical rules and control little by little the internal logic of the syntactic system. The grammatical
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analysis of sentences constitutes the objective of the teaching of grammar at the school. Its practice makes it
possible to recognize a text as a coherent whole and conditions the training of a foreign language.
Grammatical terminology serves this objective. Grammar makes it possible for each one to understand how
the mother tongue functions, in order to give him the capacity to communicate its thought.
The direct method:
The direct method, sometimes also called natural method, is a method that refrains from using the
learners' native language and just uses the target language. It was established in Germany and France around
1900. The direct method operates on the idea that second language learning must be an imitation of first
language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language - a child never relies on another
language to learn its first language, and thus the mother tongue is not necessary to learn a foreign language.
This method places great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. It advocates
teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of language teaching.
According to this method, printed language and text must be kept away from second language learner for as
long as possible, just as a first language learner does not use printed word until he has good grasp of speech.
Learning of writing and spelling should be delayed until after the printed word has been introduced, and
grammar and translation should also be avoided because this would involve the application of the learner's
first language. All above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition of a good oral
proficiency.
The audio-lingual method:
The audio-lingual method has students listen to or view recordings of language models acting in
situations. Students practice with a variety of drills, and the instructor emphasizes the use of the target
language at all times. The audio-lingual method was used by the United States Army for "crash" instruction
in foreign languages during World War II. Due to weaknesses in performance, audio-lingual methods are
rarely the primary method of instruction today.
Communicative language teaching:
Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of languages that
emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Despite a number of
criticisms, it continues to be popular, particularly in Europe, where constructivist views on language
learning and education in general dominate academic discourse.
In recent years, Task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT)
or task-based instruction (TBI), has grown steadily in popularity. TBLL is a further refinement of the CLT
approach, emphasizing the successful completion of tasks as both the organizing feature and the basis for
assessment of language instruction.
Language immersion:
Language immersion puts students in a situation where they must use a foreign language, whether
or not they know it. This creates fluency, but not accuracy of usage. French-language immersion programs
are common in Canada in the state school system as part of the drive towards bilingualism.
Minimalist/Methodist:
Paul Rowe's minimalist/methodist

final journal 80 papers

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