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. the
('
. California
Geographer
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Vo I ume
XV Ill
1978
... .. ..
.
Annual publication of the
CALIFORNIA COUNCIL FOR GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION
the
California
Geographer
Volume
XVIII
1978
Annual puhlil'ation of the
Copy r i gh t
©
1978
by the C a l i fo rn i a Coun c i l f o r
Geographic Educ a t ion
ii
TABLE OF C ONTENTS
NEGAT I VE PERCEP T I ON S OF EARLY
CALI F ORN I A
. . . .
K e nn e t h
Thomp s o n
1
A TOOL FOR TEACHING ABOUT
CAL IFORN IA ' S LANDSCAPES ,
1 9 6 0-1 9 0 0 . . . . . . . .
Da vi d
Hornb e ck
17
Pa g e n h a r t
25
R .
Curtis
35
Bland
43
Q ua s t l e r
55
THE ROLE OF A NAT I ONAL CONSERVAT I ON
CONFERENCE IN CAL IFORN IA ' S
WATER REFORM
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Th oma s
WHATEVER HAP PENED TO P ORT
SAN JOSE? . . . . . .
.
H.
.
.
.
.
.
.
James
URBAN TRAN S I T P LANN I N G IN LOS
ANGELES - A CRIT I CAL
ANALYS I S
. . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
Wa r r e n
THE GEOGRAPHY OF RAI L PASSENGER
SERV I CE S IN CALIFORNIA AND
NEVADA , 1 9 0 0- 1 9 7 0 . . . . .
I.
WINDH I LL S ITES IN HOUNTAINOUS
AREAS . . . .
DEFEN S I BLE S PACE DES I GN IN THE
CAL I FORN I A TOWNHOU SE
E.
Robert
and
.
CONSERV ING HAi-'7AI IAN NATURAL
A GEOGRAPHY
RESOURCES :
F IELD T R I P EXPERIENCE .
.
Denni s
R.
B.
J.
85
D i n gema n s
95
Gary
THE C RAWFI SH INDUS T RY OF
CALI FO RN I A AND T HE
NORTHWEST .
. . . .
.
Ma l c o l m
iii
Howa r d
S h i r o ma
Debra
L.
Kl e e
111
Comeaux
121
A .
CONTENTS
( c on t i nued)
TOU R I SM IN CANADA'S NORTHWE S T
TERRITORIE S :
ASPECTS AND
TRENDS
.
and
G e ra l d
E.
Tyner
J u di t h
A .
Tyner
137
Jo s i f
151
REJECTED LOCAT ION OF I N TE RSTATE
H IGHWAY FORTY , CALI FORN I A .
D o n a ld
TH I RTY-F I RS T ANNUAL MEET ING , CCGE
May 6 and 7 , 1 9 7 7 .
I n d e p en d e n c e
H . S .
San
Jo s e
TH I RTY- S ECOND ANNUAL MEE T ING , CCGE
May 5 and 6 , 1 9 7 8 .
Los
A n ge l e s
Pi erce
C o l l ege
Statements and opinions given i n The Ca l i forn i a
Geographer
are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the California Council
for Geographic
Education.
$6 . 0 0 per year.
Subscription rate:
correspondence to
Geography,
94542.
Please address all
The C a l i forn i a Geographer,
California State University,
Drawings:
Suzanne Shimek
Layout:
Nancu Schl un t z
iv
Department
Hayward,
of
California
175
179
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
1977-1978
Presi dent
THOMAS BEST .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
CALIFORN IA STATE UNIVERS ITY ,
LOS ANGELES
Vice-Pres i den t
DAVID H.
FRESNO CITY COLLEGE ,
HENDRICKSON
FRESNO
Secre tary-Treas urer
LINDA FLEMING .
.
.
.
.
.
OAKLAND , CALIFORNIA
.
Exe c u t i ve Secretary
WILLIAM J. FRAZER .
.
.
.
.
.
.
SONOMA STATE COLLEGE ,
ROHNERT PARK
Pas t Pres i dent
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSIT Y , FULLERTON
GERTRUDE REITH
REG IONAL DIRECTORS
Central Ca l i forni a
GERALD L.
GREENBERG .
.
.
USGS NCIC , MENLO PARK
.
Grea ter San Franci sco
OAK GROVE HIGH SCHOOL ,
ALAN HENN INGER
SAN JOSE
Cen tral Coas t
DAVID R .
HARROW .
.
.
OFF I CE OF ENVIRONMENTAL COORDI NATOR , SAN LUIS OBISPO
Greater Los Angeles
RODERICK C.
McKENZI E
UNIVERSITY O F S OUTHERN CALIFORNIA ,
LOS ANGELES
Grea ter San Di ego
JAME S D .
BLICK
SAN DIEGO STATE UNIVERSITY ,
v
SAN DIEGO
MEMBERS AT LARGE
Class of 1 9 7 8
CALIFORNIA STATE
JUDITH TYNER
DONALD J.
FORTH
GEORGE R.
LAND
PATRICIA D.
UNIVERSITY,
LONG BEACH
WEST HILLS COMMUNITY COLLEGE,
IRVINGTON HIGH
LOS ANGELES
MERRIAM
COALINGA
SCHOOL,
HARBOR COLLEGE,
FREMONT
WILMINGTON
NEWARK HIGH SCHOOL,
LOUIS COMMENDATORE
NEWARK
Cl ass of 1 9 79
JOHN C.
.
ARCHBOLD
CALIFORNIA
FULLERTON COLLEGE,
RICHARD DASTYCK
TOM McKNIGHT
W.
SPRING VALLEY,
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA,
.
JIM SWITZER
SOUTHWESTERN COLLEGE,
FULLERTON
LOS ANGELES
CHULA VISTA
Class of 1 9 8 0
MOLLY DEBYSINGH
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY,
ROBERT BROWN
RIO HONDO COMMUNITY
.
DANIEL EPSTEIN
JERRY WILLIAMS
LONG BEACH
COLLEGE,
WHITTIER
SAN JOSE CITY COLLEGE,
SAN JOSE
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY,
CHICO
APPOINTED BOARD MEMBERS
Na t i on a l Council
ARTHUR S.
RALPH F.
NICHOLS
MEUTER .
for Geographi c Coordi na tors
CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGE,
CALIFORNIA STATE
vi
NORTHRIDGE
UNIVERSITY,
CHICO
CALIFORN IA COUNCIL FOR GEOGRAPH I C EDUCATION
EDITORS
C.C.G . E. Bul l e t i n
RODERICK C . McKENZIE
.
.
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA ,
LOS ANGELES
The Cal i fornia Geographer
DONALD G .
HOLTGRIEVE ,
Ed itor
NANCY SCHLUNTZ , Associate Editor
CALIFORN IA STATE UNIVERSITY ,
HAYWARD
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERS ITY ,
HAYWARD
Pa t t erns on the Land A t l a s
CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGE ,
ROBERT B. JOHNSON
JUDITH A.
DOMINGUEZ HILLS
CALI FORN IA STATE UNI VERS ITY ,
TYNER
LONG BEACH
EDITORIAL POLICY
The Cal i forn i a Geographer w e lcomes manuscripts concerning the
geography of Cal i fornia or geographi c education .
Manuscripts on other
top i c s by authors from Cal i fornia institutions are a l s o wel come .
There
is no firm maximum l ength for papers _s ubmitted , but art i c l e s longer than
twenty pages are -discouraged .
Manuscr ipts
and ,
(plus one copy )
should be typewritten , double- spaced
in the interests of uniformity within the geographic profess ion ,
should generally conform to the guidelines for the Anna l s of the Associ a
tion o f American Geographers a s pre s ented i n its March ,
difference,
however ,
1 9 7 6 i s sue .
One
is that no abstract i s n e c e s s ary .
A l l photographs ,
should be camera ready ,
diagrams and maps are numbered as figures and
no wider than s even inche s .
Editing of manuscripts and the i r review by referees w i l l be
toward clarity and succ inctne s s . Authors w i l l be notified upon r e c e ipt
of manu s c r ipt and w i l l be kept informed on the status o f the i r s ubmi s s ion .
Manuscripts or queptions about The Ca l i forn i a Geograph e r may be
addressed to :
Don Holtgr i eve ,
Editor
The Cal i forn i a Geograph e r
Geography D epartment
California State Univers ity
Hayward , Cal i fornia
vii
9 4 542
viii
1
the
C a l i fo r n i a G e o g r a P.""
h""'"' e:...c
r
______________
Volume XVIII,
1978
NEGAT IVE P E RCEPT I ONS OF EARLY CALI FORN I A
Kenn e th
Th omps on *
S i nce at l e a s t the t ime when E r i c the Red v i s i t e d a
l a r g e l y i c e - c overed l and m a s s and mi s l e ad i n g l y named i t
Greenl and , i t h a s b e en c ommonpl ace t o de s c r i b e areas o f
potential c ol o n i a l s e tt l ement in r o s e at e t erm s t o encourage
migrat i on .
C al i f orni a has shared abund ant ly i n th i s trad i -
t i on ; n o o t herare a h a s rece i ved such a favora b l e pr e s s .
Even
f rom the beginning of out s i d e contac t , C a l i fornia wa s
d e s c r i b ed in the most g lowing t erms a s a land un ique l y
b l e s s ed in r e sou r c e s , c l imate , and beauty .
There were , how-
ever , some d i s s en t e r s who cautioned or d i s couraged intending
s e t t l er s or otherwi s e expr e s s e d r e s ervations about the
r e g io n .
Thi s paper examine s s ome o f the early n e g at ive
per cept i on s of C a l i f or n i a as re lated to geograph i c a l condi
t i on s and the bases on wh i c h they were made .
One of t h e maj or concerns of e ar ly v i s i tors t o
C a l i forn i a was the imp ortant matter o f a g r i c u ltural promi s e .
In an age when mo s t people were e i ther involved in f arming or
on ly s l i gh t l y r emov e d f rom t h i s o c c upat i on , e a r l y vi s i tors
gener a l ly showed both i n t e r e s t and expe r t i s e in the sub j e c t .
Although s truck with the a g r i c u l tur a l l y undeve l oped s tate o f
e a r l y C a l i f or n i a , most obs erve r s reported f avo rably on i t s
pro s pe ct s .
*Dr.
California,
Re s e rvations wer e common , howeve r , e s pe c i a l l y i n
Thompson is Professor o f G eography at the University o f
Davis.
1
2
r egard to the need f o r i r r i ga t i o n .
S ome wer e l e s s sanguine
about the r e g i o n ' s farming f ut ur e and p r ed i c te d that the
C a l i fornia enviro nment p o s ed mor e or l e s s i n superable prob
l ems of agr icu ltur al d ev e lopme n t .
Foremost among the p r ob l ems w a s C a l i f or ni a's un ique
c l imat e .
Nowaday s , the C a l i for n i a c l ima t e is univer s a l l y
r e c o gn i z ed a s a major a g r i c u l tu r a l r e s o ur c e , prov id i ng a long
g r ow i n g s e a s on and p e rmi t t ing the produ c t i on of a wide range
of tempe r a t e and sub - t r o p i c a l crops .
B u t early Ame r i can and
northern European v i s i to r s were mo s t ly u n f ami l ia r wi th the
r e g ime of hot , dry summer s and m i l d , r ainy w i n t er s - - c ondi
t io n s then o ft e n t erme d I ta l i an .
E ar l y ar r i va l s in C a l i f or
n i a were general ly hab i tuated to c o n s tant ly humid c ond i t i on s ,
mar ked by mor e or l e s s severe w i n t e r s and r e l a t iv e ly short
g r ow i n g s e a sons .
Agr i c u l tural s y s t ems adapted t o such
E a s tern or north European e nv i r onme n t s had only l imited
app l i c ab i l i ty to C a l i fo r n i a .
F ur thermo r e , the abor i gi n a l
popu lation prac t i c ed l i t t l e a g r i c u l ture and t h u s prov ided
f ew examp l e s to f o l l ow or s to r e o f knowl edge to appropr i ate .
The d e ve l opme n t of agr i cu lture i n C a l i f or n i a was a
matter o f a d j u s tment and i nv e s tmen t .
Crop s e l e c t i on and
p la n t i n g had to b e f i tted to the b i annua l cyc l e of drought
and r a i n s .
I rr igat ion f ac i l it i e s had to be c onstructed ,
and
1n many a r e a s w e t l and r e c l amat i on was a nece s sary precursor
to i r r i ga t i on d eve lopment .
Ac c o rd i ngly , to tho s e l ac k i n g
t h e f or e s i gh t to a n t i c ipate t h e n e c e s s a r y s te p s , C a l i fornia
2
looked unpromi s in g .
W i l l i am Ke l l y , who arr ived i n C a l i f or
n i a i n 18 49 , was typ i c a l o f newcome r s w i th h i s r emar k that
" th e r e a r e only thr e e months to plough and harrow ,
s ow and
r e ap- - a p e r iod i n f i n i te l y too c i r cums c r ib e d for matur i n g any
grain and mo s t vege t ab l e s . "
favoured l oc a l i t i e s "
Ke l ly excepted a few "h i gh ly
in v a r i ou s parts o f the s t a t e f r om h i s
s tr i c tur e , b u t went o n t o a s s e r t tha t " C a l i f o r n i a mus t eve r
be mainly d ependent on the S ta t e s O regon , Ch i l e , Au s t ra l i a ,
3
and the S andw i c h I s l and s ,
for i ts s upply o f breadstuf f s , and
3
th e o th e r great veget able s tapl e s of exi s te n c e . "
As might b e e xpec ted , the d i s t i n c t i ve Cali fornia
clim ate drew c omment s f ro m the beginning and i nvi ted c ompar i
sons w i th homeland c ond i t i on s .
Many o f the c ommen t s and
compar i s o n s wer e h i ghly f avorable , but the extended s umm e r
per i od o f r ainle s sn e s s was s een a s pos ing problem s .
George
vancouve r , the Engl i s h navigator and e xplor e r who v i s ited
the C a l i for n i a coast i n 1 7 2 9 - 9 3 , concluded that the land
b e tween latitud e s 3 0° and 3 8°N wa s " subje c t to much drought . "
Another e a r l y Anglo v i s i tor was John Work , who vi s ited the
inte r i o r of C al i f or n i a i n 1 8 3 2 .
Work w a s also impr e s s ed by
the inten s i t y of the s ummer drought and t he pauc i ty o f feed
for hor s e s i n t h e Central Valle y , and by the wetn e s s and
flooding of the Valley in w inter .
He compla ined of h i s
ho r s e s bogging i n t h e s ame ground that h ad f a i l e d to provide
5
feed the previous summer .
Newcomer s to Californi a , e sp e c i a lly those a c c u s tomed
to more equably humid climate s , we r e apt t o be p r o f oundly
impr e s sed w i th the s e a s on al contr a s t s in the land s c ape ' s
aspects .
The extr eme d e s s ication and brownn e s s o f the summe r
land s cape f o rmed a s tr iking c on t r a s t with the v e rdure f ollow
ing the winter r a i n s .
Ac cording l y , t ime of arr iva l i n
C ali fornia was o f pr ime importance in d e t e rmining f i rs t
impr e s s i o n s o f t h e a r e a ' s a g r i cu l tural promi s e .
A F o rty-
N iner named Enos Chr i s tman t oo k note of the s e d i f ferent
6
reactions i n an entry made in his journal in 1 85 1 :
The a g r i cu l tur al r e s ou r c e s o f Cali fornia have
been rated too h i gh by s ome and too low by other s .
One who h a s seen it in s pringtime only , repr e sent s
the whole country a s a luxuriant gar de n ; ano ther
who has s e en it only in the s umme r o r j us t b e fore
the rain set in , repr e sents i t a s a barren , d e solate
was t e .
Mo s t e arly overland v i s i to r s and migrants r e ache d
C a l i fornia in l a t e summer when the a r e a pr e s ented i t s mo s t
4
4
parched and uninv i t ing appear anc e , which ac count e d f or a
good d e a l of the nega t i v i s m in the e ar l y l i teratur e .
The
f i rs t United S t a t e s government exp lor ing p ar ty t o r e port to
C a l i forni a , under the l e ad e r s h i p o f Li eutenant Char l e s
W i lk e s ,
inve s t igated the S ac r amento Val le y i n October 1 8 4 1 ,
at the end o f the dry s ea s on .
c ame l a t e r ,
Like many o f the migrants who
the W i l k e s party r e ac ted adve r s e ly to the l at e
s ummer d e s s i c a t i on o f th e a r e a and produced the p e s s imi s t i c
eva luation ,
" A l a rge p a r t o f t h i s i s undoubtedly barren and
7
unproduc tive , an d mus t for ever remain s o . "
W i l ke s ' nega t i v i sm was echoed by ano th e r impo rt ant
e ar ly pub l i c i s t o f C a l i f or n i a , John C . Fremont .
F remont
entered the Centr a l V a l ley in spr ing (March 1 8 4 6 ) , when the
area is at i t s green e s t and mo s t a l l ur ing .
ably impr e s s ed ,
A lthough f avor
and mov e d to c omment on the abundan c e o f
wi l d f l ow e r s a n d animal l i fe , even t h e opt im i s t i c F remont
had m i s givings about the a r e a ' s agr i c u l tu r a l poten t i a l
8
d e s p i t e spring cond i ti on s b e c aus e :
The wea ther , wh ich here , at this s e a son , can
e a s i l y b e changed from the summe r heat of the v a l ley
t o the f r o s ty mornings and b r ight days nearer the
moun t a in s , cont i nued d e l igh t f u l for t rave l l e r s , but
unfavorable to the agr i c u l tura l i s t s , who s e crops o f
whe a t b egan t o b e a r a y e l l ow t i nge f rom want o f r a i n .
Ano ther Uni ted S ta t e s government exp l or e r o f
C a li fornia was Lieutenant Geo rge H . Derby , who l e d two e xpe
d i tions to the s ta t e .
On h i s f i r s t v i s i t ,
in 1 8 4 9 , De rby
entered the S ac r amento V a l ley at the end of the summer
dr ought but , u n l i k e h i s prede c e s sor L ieutenan t W i l ke s , Derby
reported f avorably on t h e agr i c u l tu r a l promi s e of the e a s tern
s i de of the Va l l ey .
Derby d i s mi s s ed the we s t s id e o f the
S ac r amento Val l ey as " for the mo s t part barren p l a i n with
9
l i tt le vegetation or water . "
On h i s s e c ond C a l i fornia t r i p ,
i n the s pr ing o f 1 8 5 0 , D e rby i nv e s t igated the S a n J o aquin
Va l le y .
D e s p i t e s p r i ngt ime cond i t ions he was un impr e s sed
5
with the a r e a s outh of the Mar i po s a River , whi c h was
d e s c r ibed as:
With the e x c e pt ion of a s tr i p of fer t i l e l and
upon the rivers emptying into the l ake s from the
e a s t , i t is l it t l e better than a d e s er t .
The s o i l
i s gener a l ly dry , d ecompo sed and inc apab l e o f
c u l tivation , and the vegetation cons i s ting o f
artemi s i a s a n d w i ld s age , i s extreme l y s p ar s e .
Derby was moved to d e r i s ion in d e s cr i bing the a r e a w e s t of
Tulare Lake , c al l ing i t a " mi se r ab l e , barren s andy d e s e r t
with no vege t a t i on but a f e w s t r aggl ing a r temi s i a s , and n o
10
inhabitan t s but a t tenuated r abbit s and gophe r s . "
C a l ifornia appeared to b e a garden in s pr ing o r a
was t e l and in s ummer , but the gr e a t C e n t r a l V a l ley s t ruck
many early v i s itors a s a dangerous mor a s s in winte r .
In
th e i r pri s t ine condit ion , b e c a u s e of the i r low gradients
and o c c a s ional h i gh vo lume s of runoff , b o th the S a c r amento
and S an J o aquin r iv e r s were prone to almo s t annual over
flowing of thei r bank s .
S in c e the f loodp l a i n s o f both
r iver s a l so h ad extreme ly low gradient s ,
r iver s caused extens ive , if sha l l ow ,
land s .
the overflow of the
inundation of bo ttom
P a t c h e s of water would often linger through the
s u1nmer , and v a s t t r a c t s of aqua t i c vegetation gr ew on t he
11
V a l l ey floo r .
The B r i t i s h s e aman , Captain S i r Edward Be lche r , one
of t h e fir s t non- Spani s h for e igner s to j ourney up the
S a cramento
River
(in 1 8 3 7 ) , was muc h impr e s s e d w i th the
12
evidence of flood ing i n the region and noted tha t :
Dur ing the r a iny s e a son . . . the [ S a c r amento] r i ve r
i s s a i d t o o verflow i t s b ank s , when i t s imp e tuo s i ty i s
such that navigation (for the c raft of t h i s c ountry I
s upp o s e ) is then impo s s i b l e .
The annua l r a i n s do not ,
howeve r , of n e c e s s ity , i nundate t h e s e low l and s , but
in s evere s e a s on s , after heavy fa l l s of s now , they
produce one immen se s e a , leaving only the few s catte red
eminenc es o f wh ich a r t or nature h av e produced , a s s o
many i s le t s o r s po t s o f refuge .
6
The winter f lood ing o f t h e Cent r a l V a l l e y and i t s
conve r s ion into a huge " in l and s e a , " a s i t w a s o f ten
d e s c r ibed ,
impr e s sed e ar l y v i s i t o r s and w a s the sub j e c t of
f requent commen t .
Thus when Lieutenant W i l k e s i n sp e c ted the
pr i s t ine S a c ramento Val l ey , he examined th e ev idence o f
f lood ing and con c luded t h a t the " who l e country was annu a l l y
inundated . "
was Wilkes '
Par t i c u l ar l y d i s couraging t o wou ld -be f arme r s
ob s ervation tha t t h e " part [ o f t h e S ac ramento
Val ley] that is d e emed good so i l ,
i s inundated annua l ly , not
for any great length of t ime , yet s u f f ic i ent l y l ong to make
13
i t un f i t for advantageous s e t t l ement . "
Be s id e s pr e c luding a g r i c u l ture , the s e a s on a l f l ooding
o f the C entr a l Valley g r e a t l y impeded travel an d c ommun i cations .
Of c our s e , only boats were u s a b l e in the f l ooded
a r e a , but whe e l ed vehi c l e s and even hors e s c o u l d not p a s s
t hrough t h e heavy and tenac ious c l ays o f t h e Va l l ey f l oor for
long per i od s of winter and ear l y spr i ng .
R i l e y Roo t , who
14
c ame w e s t i n 1 8 4 8 , c o mmented on the matte r:
The low c ountry o f the gre at v a l l e y o f the S t .
Waukeen and S a c r amento , i s not i n fr e quen t ly inundated
a month or two , during the l atter part o f the winter ,
wh i ch rend e r s pa s sa g e s f r om one par t o f the v a l ley to
another by l a nd , ent i r e l y impr a c t i cab l e . . . .
Whi l e forming an imped iment t o trav e l
(and a h i d i ng
p l a c e for that f e a r f u l predator , the now extinct C a l i fornia
Gri z z ly bear ) , the s wamp land s of the Central Valley were
neve rthe l e s s perce i ve d by many as ho l d i n g great a gr i c u l tura l
poten t i a l wh i c h c o u l d be r e a l i z ed on l y a ft e r sys tems o f
dra inage were i n s t ituted .
Not a l l ear ly ob serve r s were
pre s c i ent in this matter .
Ke l l y d i smi s s e d the S a n Jo aqu i n
Val ley a s " l arge ly c omp o s ed o f
tule
marshes a n d l ow s edgy
swamp s , s o sub j e c t t o over f lowing and l od gement that they
15
c annot we l l be turned to p r o f i t ab le ac count . "
J . L . T y s on ,
wr i t i ng at the s ame peri od ,
inc luded the S ac ramento V a l ley
with that of th e S an J oaquin a s a reg ion w i th no a g r i cu l tural
7
Acc ord ing to Tyson the " mar shy d i s t r i c t s o f the
p ros pects .
val l ey s o f the S ac r amento and S an J oaqu i n a r e value l e s s for
,16
agr i c u 1 tura 1 purpo s e s . . . .
E ar ly obs e rv e r s o f C a l i f or n i a had l i t t l e on which t o
b a s e e s t i�at e s o f the agr icu l tura l prom i s e .
The s o i l
qua l i ty w a s b e l i eved to be e a s i er t o a s se s s t han the
un f am i l i ar and p u z z l ing c l imate .
Howeve r , the a s s e s sment s
wer e uneven and o ften high ly negat ive .
The extensive d e s e r t
a r e a s o f the int e r i or w e r e s c orned f o r t h e i r s andy w a s t e s
and s a l ine tracts ;
indee d , mu ch of C a l i fo r n i a wa s s een a s
hav i ng s t e r i l e so i l s .
A French v i s itor i n 1 8 4 9 , E t i enne
Derbe c , a f te r exempt ing the "p l a in of T u l a re" f rom h i s
s t r i c tu re s , excori ated "the r e s t , whi ch cove r s a n immense
area ,
i s only a d e s er t o f s and and s a l t , w i thout road s , with
17
and whi c h one d a r e s no t c ro s s . "
out wate r , w i thout p l ant s ,
Even the obv i ou s l y more prom i s i ng C e n t r a l V a l ley wa s
a l s o s c o f f ed at b e c a u s e o f the apparent d e f i c i e n c i e s of the
soi l s .
M o s t o f t e n cr i t i c i z e d w a s the h e av ine s s o f the V a l l e y
s o i l s wh i c h c au s ed them t o b ak e and c r a c k in summe r and
become qu agm i re s in wint e r .
Wi l l i am K e l ly , who had toured
C al i forni a in t he l at e 1 8 4 0 ' s , granted that the V a l ley s o i l s
were inher ent l y f e r t i l e but maintained that the c l imate and
. .
18
.
.
f lo od 1ng
reg1me
ren d e re d t h e area u s e 1 e s s f o r crop ra1s1ng :
The s o i l , I admi t , i s of un surpa s s ed qual ity , made
up of c on s t i tuent qua l i t i e s and ingredients capabl e o f
producing any c rop were i t n o t f o r t h e adv e r s e opera
t ion o f t he s e a s on s , wh i c h keeps i t saturated , and in
mo s t p l a c e s submerged in wate r , f r om November unt i l
Apr i l , rendering i t phy s ic a l ly impo s s ib l e t o prepare
the l and , muc h l e s s to s ow the s e e d , dur ing that per i od.
Then b e f ore J u l y it is so baked and c r acked under a hot
and c loud l e s s sun , that not only is a l l further vege t a
t i o n ar r e s ted , b u t everyth ing above ground i s parched ,
and r e ad y to f a l l into powd e r a t the touch . . . .
H oweve r , not a l l e a r l y o b s erver s o f C a l i f or n i a s aw
the repeated cyc l e o f f l ooding in the C entr a l V a l ley a s bad
f r om an agr i cu l tu r a l point of v iew .
D r . J . P r a s low , a German
8
phy s i c i an who v i s i te d C a l i f ornia b e f or e the Gold Ru s h , not
only g ave gener a l l y f avor ab l e reports o f C a l i f ornia s o i l s but
s in g l ed out the Cent r a l V a l l ey for e s p ec i a l pra i s e b e c au s e he
b e l ieved tha t annua l f l ooding maintained the f e r t i l i ty o f the
19
soi1 .
Ano ther Gold Ru s h pe r iod c omment ator on C a l i fo rn ia ,
the Reverend W a l t er Co l t on , d e s cr ibed the state as having
20
.
many 1 oc a 1 1t1es
o f great f e rtl'1'1ty , b ut :
.
. . . t ak e C a l i f or n i a a s a who l e , she i s not the
Her
c ountry wh i c h a g r ic u l tur a l i s t s wou l d s e l e c t .
who l e m i n i n g r e g ion i s b ar r en ; nature r e s ted there
with what she put b e n e a t h the s oi l . . . .
The product ive
f o r c e s of such a s ta t e a s New York , Ohio , or
Pennsylvan i a , swe ep imme a surab l y beyond the utmo s t
c ap ab i l i t i e s o f C a l i f orni a .
S o i l f e r t i l i t y on the p ioneer fr inge o f n i neteenth
c entury Ame r i ca was o f ten apprai sed on the b a s i s o f natu r a l
vegetat i on .
A p r ev a lent v i ew among f arme r s was t h a t tre e s ,
e sp e c i a l ly dec iduou s t r ee s , were ind i ca t o r s o f the agr i cu l
tur a l promi s e o f so i l s .
Thu s , F r an k l i n Tuthi l l c o u l d write
21
o f the s ta t e in 1 8 6 6 that :
When exp l o r e r s come upon a new l and , i f they f ind
it heav i ly t i mbered , or the inte rv a l s r ank w i th w i l d
g r as s , they know t h a t c u l t iv a t i on w i l l make i t y i e l d
r ic h l y o f g r a i n s and f ru i t ; but i f i t b e a r not t r e e s
they condemn i t a s u n f i t f o r a l l f arming purpo s e s .
Accord ing l y , many e a r l y ob serv e r s o f C a l i f o rn i a took
the pau c ity o f t r e e s on mo s t o f lowland C a l if orn i a a s a poor
augury f o r agricu lture .
John B i dwe l l , l eader o f the f ir s t
ove r l and immig r a t i on p ar ty to C a l i fornia in 1 8 4 1 , at f i r s t
wrote o f f the tree l e s s open s e c t ions of t h e S a c r amento Va l l e y
22
a s " pr a i r i e c ountry " unsuited to c u l t iv at i on .
T h e preva
l e n c e of such v iews was l ater attes ted to by C ha r l e s Nordho f f
i n an 1 8 7 3 book on the r e sour c e s of C a l i forn i a , wh ere he
noted that the a lmo s t tree l e s s Cent r a l Val ley was o r i g i n a l ly
h e l d to be a r e g ion o f sma l l a g r i cu ltur a l prom i s e b e c a u s e
9
"i f not a tree w i l l grow , o f c o u r s e , the s o i l mu s t b e
.2 3
b a rr en .
Even more par adoxi ca l ,
for a reg i on so prone to
drought , was t h e f ac t that even the e sp ec i a l ly a r id s ec t ions
beyond the Centr a l Va l l e y were also s ub j e c t to a s i gni f i c ant
f lood h a z ar d .
S ome of his h a z ard h a s been e l imi nated a s a
r e s u l t o f modern f lo od cont ro l measure s , but in ear l i er tim e s
f loo d ing was a topic o f f requent remark by v i s i tors to
C a l i fornia .
Even the m o s t arid reg i ons ,
southea s t , were s ub j e c t to f l a s h f loods .
in the south and
These minor inunda
ti ons often swept t hrough the l o w c o untry sought o u t by
trave l e r s and took a to l l of the unwary ,
s weeping away l iv e
stock , po s s e s s ions , a n d e v e n t h e trave l e r s thems e lv e s in wha t
appe ared to be a n u n l i k e l y f a t e for a n a r e a so evidently
d e f i c ient in water .
S ome o f the h a r s he s t c r i t i c i sms o f t h e pr i s tine
C a l i fornia environment concerned h e a l th c ond i t i on s .
Thi s may
b e surpr i s i ng t o tho s e who a s s oc i a te C a l i f o rn i a with the
pro j e c t ion o f an image of extreme h e a l th f u l ne s s , espec i a l l y
i n the n i n e teenth c entury when numerous hea l t h migr ants were
drawn to the state .
H owever , d e s p i te the impr e s s ive r e puta
tion for h e a l th f u l ne s s that C a l i fornia deve lope d , many e a r l y
repor t s o f t h e a r e a w e r e con c erned with t h e p e r c eption o f
24
hea lth pro b l ems .
F i r s t intimations that a l l C a l i fornia was not a
pathoge n i c v acuum c ame f r om e a r l y and s c anty repo r t s that t h e
I nd i an popu lat i on o f t h e Central V a l l e y h a d been dec imated b y
an epidemi c
( almo s t c e r t a in ly ma l ar i a )
i n the p e r i od 1 8 3 0 - 3 3 .
John Wor k , a fur trapper who p a s s e d through the S acramento
Val ley i n 1 8 3 2 , was one of s ev e r a l o b s e rvers who were struck
by t h e evidence of h igh rates of s i ckne s s and mo rt a l ity .
He
noted that " there appear t o b e s ome s ic kn e s s r e s emb l ing a n
25
ague prevai l ing " among the I n d i an s .
10
Mo s t o f t he e ar ly negative comme n t s o n C a l i forn i a
he a l th cond i t i on s r e f e rred t o the Cent r a l Va l l ey where the
prob lem was m a l ar i a
with i t ) .
( and the d i s e a s e s d i agno s t i c a l ly confused
The pro b l em wa s a r e a l one .
The then-ma r s hy l ow
lands of the Central Val ley were r i ght ly s een a s hotbeds of
mal ar i a .
Even tho s e given t o boo s t i n g C a l i f or n i a o ften f e l t
con s t r a ined t o i s s u e
c a ve a t s
reg arding the unhe a lthfu lne s s o f
the Cent r a l V a l l e y and other l owland are a s .
Dr .
P r a s l ow ,
For ins tanc e ,
the German phy s i c ian who v i s it e d C a l i forni a i n
the 1 8 4 0 ' s , c au t i oned that t h e Cent r a l V a l ley f l ooding pro
duced "s tagnant water s
. . . r e s pon s i b l e for many m i a smat i c
i l lne s se s , a n d intermittent fever s , par t i c u l ar ly ma l i gn ant
26
Even L an s fo rd
d y s enter i e s , d i arrhe a s , etc . endemic here . "
H a s t ing s ,
one of the e ar l i e s t C a l i forn i a boo s te r s ,
f e lt
ob l i g e d to c aut i on that " b i l ious intermittent fever s , prev a i l
27
.
.
.
t o a very s ma 1 1 extent , 1n
some port1ons
o f t h e 1nter1or
.
. .,
Many argued , howeve r , that f ar fr om being minor ,
m i t tent feve r s
( ma l ar i a )
v i ru l ent and w i d e s pr e ad .
the int er
of the C a l if or n i a inte r i o r wer e
A g r oup o f Oregon i an s , r e f e rr ing to
the S acr amento Va l ley in 1 8 4 6 , announced that " The fever and
ague i s very prevalent during the summer and f al l ,
s c ar c e l y
a n y f or e i gner e s caping , and t h e s ymptoms are u s ua l ly
28
s evere . "
Identi f i c at i o n o f a he a l th h a z ard in the l ow l and
s e c ti on s of Ca l i forni a evoked d i f f er ing r e a c t i on s .
T y s on , a
med i c a l doctor , advi s e d poten t i a l s e t t l e r s in 1 8 5 0 to " Above
al l ,
avoid the low , marshy ,
f e br i l e d i s tr i c t s on the shores
29
.
.
o f t h e S acramento an d t h e S an Jo agu1n
r1ve
rs . ,
0 t h e r s were
l e s s c a tegori c a l .
L i eutenant Derby , noting both the lowland s
a g r i c u l t u r a l pr omi s e and i t s unhea lthy charac t e r ,
s p e c u l ated
that emigrants wo u ld be attracted by the f e r t i l e s o i l and
30
" w i l l brave its s i c k ly c l imate . "
Many d i d br ave the " s i c k l y c l imate . "
Leonard K i p ,
writ ing in the s ame year that D r . Tyson inve i ghed a g a i n s t
31
s e tt l eme nt in the C en t r a l V a l ley , noted th at :
11
I n the l ower c ountry , a l s o , t roub l e s began to
thicken .
The S ac r amento and S an Joachin had r i s e n
many f e e t , un t i l th e i r banks wou ld u l t imat e ly b e
S i ckne s s and d i s e a s e b e gan to exhale
submerged .
from the wet s oi l , and , i n C ali f ornia , s ic k n e s s i s
to b e dre aded beyond wi l d beas t s or I n d i an s .
Wh i l e marsh lands were suppo s e d l y the pr i me source o f
t h e "mi a sma t a " that c a u s e d malar i a , t h i s s ame imag i n ary
dis e a s e agent was b e l i eved to be r e l e a s e d into the a i r when
prev i o u s ly und i s t urbed s o i l s were turned over .
A c c ording ly ,
the e x te n s i ve g o l d m i n i ng opera t ions of C a l i f orn i a were s e e n
a s c ontribu t i n g to the malar i a pro b l em .
Tuthi l l ,
in h i s
p i oneer h i s tory o f C a li fornia , wro te i n 1 8 6 6 that " i n the
par t s where the mine r s c o ns tantly turn over new s o i l to the
32
sun , m i a s ma t i c d i s e a s e s prev a i l . "
Wh i l e C a l i f or n i a wa s c orre c t l y b e l i eved to pre sent
s ome serious phy s i o l o g i c a l hea lth h a z a rd s ,
i t wa s a l so sus
pected that s ome f e ature o f the env i ronment c au sed ment a l
hea lth pro b lems .
T h i s s u s p i c ion was b a s ed on the be l i e f
that C a l i f orni a c o n t a i n e d a d i s proportionate number o f
men t a l ly s i c k pers ons .
T h e " r apid inc r e a s e o f i n s a n i t y i n
our mid s t , " wro te a phy s i c i an i n 1 8 7 2 ,
" makes i t o n e o f the
gre a t e s t and mos t i n t er e s t ing que s t i o n s with which the
33
[me d i c al] pro f e s s i on has to d e a l . . . . "
S ome s t at i s t i c a l
support f or t h i s v i e w wa s prov i d ed b y t h e r a t e o f admi s s i o n s
t o the s ta t e i n s an e a sy l um .
I t was c l a imed that " C a l i fo r n i a
furn i shed more c a s e s o f I n s a n i ty , i n proportion to t h e popu
l a t i on , than d o e s any o ther S t at e , whi l e i t is a l s o a s s erted
that the perc entage of recov e r i e s i n her a s y lums is f a r
34
bene a t h tho s e o f t h e o t h e r s . "
Various e l emen t s o f the phy s i c a l envi ronment were
thought to c ontribute to the suppo s e d l y h i gh rate of i n s a n i ty.
The pecul i ar c l imate o f the re gion was e s p e c i a l l y s uspec t .
A S an Franc i s c o med i c a l j ourn a l reported i n 1 8 6 8 that " s ome
prac t i t i oners h ave i ma g i n e d that the c l imate o f the P a c i f i c
35
C o a s t wears o n t h e nervous s y s t em w i t h spe c i a l seve r i ty . "
12
Oxygen e l ec t r i c i t y, a n d w ind s w e r e impl i c a te d a s po s s ib l e
.
to t h e preva 1 ence o f lnsan l. ty . 36
f a c tor s c o n t r l. b u t lng
.
Aided by h i nd s i gh t and other e v idence , a mode rn
observer of C a l i fo r n i a c an r e adily a f f irm that t h i s a t t r a c
t iv e reg i on i s i nd e ed r i c h l y e ndowed by nature .
Many early
observers corr e c t l y antic ipated th e promi s e of C a l i fo r n i a
S ome s e em to have
a n d p r a i s ed t h e are a in e x t r avagant t e rms .
expre s se d mor e or l e s s n e ga t i ve geograp h i c a l a s s e s s me n t s o f
C a l i fo r n i a f o r n o o th e r r e as on tha t l a c k o f v i s io n .
v i e w s were e s s en t i ally r a t i o na l ,
Such
althou gh p e r h a p s too h a s ty ,
and were b a s e d on apparent r e sour c e de f i c i enc i e s , mi s g iv i n g s
o v e r land utili z at i on i n an unte s t ed a n d unf amili a r environ
ment,
or f e ar s concerning h e alth c o nd it i on s .
B e s i d e s n e g a t i ve opinions ba s ed on t h e phys i c a l
environment ,
the r e w a s a plethora o f ant i - C a l i f o r n i a s e n t i
men t b a s ed on a d i s t a s t e for s ome o f t h e soc i a l and e conomi c
a r r an g ement s . 37
Unc l e a r l and t i t l e s, e c onomi c i n s t ab i l i ty,
i n f l a t ion, water and land monopoli e s , r ac i sm ,
c r i me , s o c i a l
unr e s t, t h e sex r a t i o , mor al and r el i gious s t andard s ,
and
even d i s approval of the important gold -mining indu s try ,
r e i nf or c ed or o f f s e t geograph i c a l ly b a s ed j udgement s .
S ome
ob s ervers e ve n s e em to have qua l i f ie d t h e i r o p i n i o n s because
the i r j udgement was c l ouded by a d i s l i k e of the exot i c and
r emote .
De s p i te e l emen t s of c l ear pre j ud i c e in n e g a t ive
p e rc e p t i on s of e a r l y C a l i fo r n i a, many of the adve r s e
g e o g r aph i c al j udgement s were mad e i n good f a i t h and f ormed
part of wha t were beli eved to be b a l anced ,
favorab l e, po s i t i on s .
and e s s en t ially
The n e g a t i ve perceptions were
minor i ty r e po r t s , and we re a lmo s t lost in the super f lu i ty
o f f avor able comment .
l3
NOTES
1
For further d i sc u s s ion of this topic as r e lated to the
sacramento Valley , Ca l i forn i a ,
see K .
Thompson ,
"The Perception of the
Agricultural Environment , " Agr i c ul t ural H is tory , Vo l . XL I X ,
pp .
No .
l
(197 5 ) ,
2 3 0- 2 3 7 .
2
Even observers with c laims to agricultural experti s e ,
Robert Semp l e who contributed an appendix to L .
oregon and Ca l i forni a ,
W.
Hastings'
dismissed 75 percent of Cali fornia as un fit for
agriculture because of its barrenn e s s and s ummer drought .
A New H i s tory of Oregon
1847 ) ' p .
3
l ike
book about
and Cal i fornia
(Cinc innati ,
Ohio :
L.
W.
Hastings ,
G . Con c l in ,
153.
Ke l ly , A Strol l
W.
edition pub l i s hed in 1 8 51
thro ugh
the Di ggi n gs of Ca l i forni a ,
(Oakland , Cali fornia:
Biobooks ,
original
1 9 50 ) , pp .
lO
ll .
4
Vancouver,
G.
and R o und the Worl d ,
A Voyage of Dis covery to
in
Whi ch
ful l y Exami ned a n d Accura tel y S u rveyed , Vo l .
Robinson ,
5
178 7 ) ,
pp .
the North Paci fi c Ocean
the Coa s t of North America Has Been Ca re
2
( London :
.
Work , F u r Br�gade to the Bonaven t u ra ,
J.
( S an Franci sco :
6
E . Chr i s tman ,
Forty-Ni ner ,
p.
&
J.
.
edited by A .
Cali fornia Historical Soci ety ,
One Man ' s Gol d ,
edi.t ed by F .
M.
Chr i s tman
the Let ters
(New York :
B.
194 5 ) .
and Journal of a
Whittlesey Hous e ,
1 9 30 ) ,
2 01 .
7
Li eutenant C .
W i l ke s ,
U . S . N . , Narra t i ve of the Uni ted Sta tes
Exploring Expedi t i on D u r i n g the Years 1 8 3 8 ,
V
S.
John Work ' s Cal�forn i a
Expedi t i on o f 1 8 32-33 for t h e Hudson ' s Bay Company ,
Maloney
G.
489-492 .
(Philadelph i a :
8
Lea and Blanchard ,
1839,
184 5 ) , p .
1 8 41 ,
184 2 ,
Vo l .
Fremont , Report of the Exploring Expedi t i on to the Rocky
J. C.
Moun t a i ns in
the Yea r 1 8 4 2 ,
Year 1 8 4 3- 4 4
(Washington :
and to Oregon and North Ca l i fornia in
Gales and S eaton ,
184 5 ) , p .
the
248 .
9
F . P . Farquha r , ed . , " The Topographi c a l Reports of Lieutenant
Derby , " Ca l i fornia Hi s torical Soci e t y Q u a r t erl y , Vol . 11 ( 19 3 2 ) ,
G.
H.
p.
118 .
10
rb id .
11
I
p.
262 .
Thompson ,
K.
.
.
.
" Hlstorlcal
.
F1oodlng
ln
the S a cramento Val l ey , "
Pacific His tori cal Review
12
.
.
Captaln
Slr
E.
( 1 9 6 0 ) , pp .
349- 360 .
Be 1 c he r , R.N . ,
.
Narra t�ve of a
Worl d , Performed i n Her Majes t y ' s Ship Sulph u r ,
1 842,
1 8 40 ,
19 3 .
Vol .
1
(London :
Henry Colburn ,
18 4 3 ) ,
p.
Voyage Round the
During the Years 1 8 3 6 -
124 .
14
13
c�' t • ,
w·1' lkes , op .
14
R.
Root ,
foo tno te 7 , p .
Journal of Tra vel s from St .
original edition published in 1 8 5 0
15
Ke lly ,
16
J.
L.
op .
c it . ,
17
Pres s ,
A . P . Nasatir ,
1965 ) , p .
19
Accoun t ,
J.
op .
1955) , p .
(New York:
A.
( Georgetown ,
footnote 2 , p .
( S an Francisco:
10 .
J.
the Country ,
23
24
1866) , p.
J.
31
14-16 .
Three Years i n Cal i fornia
1 8 60 ) , p .
371 .
( S an Francisco : H .
H.
88 .
H. Mas h ,
1937) ,
p.
Priestly
31 .
For further discus s ion of this topic s e e K . Thompso n ,
work,
c1' t . ,
op.
op .
HastJ.ngs
.
,
Perception and Reality , " Annals o f t h e Associ
op .
Derby ,
Vol .
59
( 196 9 ) , pp .
foo tno te 5 , p .
cit . ,
. . ,
CJ.t
Oregon Specta tor,
29
Tyson ,
30
trans
c . Nordho f f , Cali fornia for Hea l th , Pleasure and Resi d ence
Harper and Brothers , 1 8 7 3 ) , p . 1 1 9 .
26
Praslow,
28
1857) ,
1 9 3 9 ) , pp .
Bidwe ll , A Journey to Cal i forni a , wi th Observa t i ons About
a t i on of American Geographers ,
27
(Gottingen ,
Newbegin ,
The Hi s tory o f C a l i forn i a
" Insalubrious California :
25
J.
C l i ma t e and the Route to thi s Country , edited by H .
( S an Francisco :
(New York:
J.
The Land o f Gold; o r ,
Barnes and Company ,
21
F . Tuthi l l ,
Bancroft and Company ,
22
Cal i forni a : The Talisman
The Sta t e of Cal i forni a: A Medico-Geograph i ca l
Cordes
S.
original
102 .
e d . , A French Journal i s t in the Ca l i forn i a Gold
cit . ,
20
W . Colton ,
56.
Phy s i c i a n in Cal i fornia ,
174.
Praslow,
C.
119.
165 .
original edition published i n German
lated by F .
p.
a
Jos ephs to Oregon ,
1 95 5 ) , p .
(Oakland : Biobooks ,
The Letters of E t i enne Derbec
18
Ke lly ,
Mines ,
(Oakland ,
footnote 2 , p .
Tyson, Diary of
edition published in 1 8 5 0
Rush ,
193 .
50-64 .
19 .
footnote 1 9 , p .
15.
footnote 3 , p .
85 .
Oregon City , Oregon , June 2 5 ,
op .
cit. ,
footnote 1 6 , p .
op .
cit . ,
footnote 9 ,
p.
18 4 6 .
4.
120.
L . Kip , Ca l i fornia Sketches wi th Recol l ect i ons o f the Gold
original edition published in 1 8 5 0 (Los Angele s : N . A. Kovach ) ,
15
32
33
Tuthi l l ,
E.
op .
c it . ,
footnote 2 1 , p .
T . Wilkins , M . D . ,
628 .
" Ins anity in California , "
the Medica l Soci ety of the Sta te of Cali forni a ,
1873
( 18 7 3 ) , p .
34
Pres s ,
J.
Vol .
35
H.
137.
Murphy ,
III
Transa c t i ons of
durin g the years 1 872-
" Thesis on Insanity , " The San Francisco Medi cal
( 1 8 62 ) , p .
Gibbons , M . S . ,
129 .
" On Some of the Caus es of Insanity in
california , " Pacifi c Medical and Surgical Journ a l , Vol .
36
For further discus s ion of this top ic see K .
XI
( 1868) , p .
Thompson ,
97 .
"Early
California and the Causes of Insanity , ;, Southern Cali forni a Quar terl y ,
Vol .
LVI I I
37
( 1 9 7 6 ) , pp .
4 5- 6 2 .
For an example of this genre of comment ,
Land of Gol d, Rea l i ty Versus Fi ction
(Baltimore:
see H .
R.
H . Taylor ,
Helper ,
1 8 5 5 ) , p.
The
71.
16
17
Volume XVIII,
1978
A TOOL FOR TEAC H I N G ABOUT CALI FORNIA ' S
LANDSCAPES , 176 0- 1 9 0 0
D a vid
Hornbeck*
Te aching the Geogr aphy of C a l i f or n i a to co l l e g e
j un i o r s and s e n i o r s c an b e a f ru s t r a t i ng exper i en c e , e s p e
c ia l l y when s tudent s s e em to have almo s t n o awa r e n e s s o f wh at
has gone into the mak ing of C a l i forni a ' s p r e s en t -day l a nds c ape .
F rom te lev i s i on and mov i e s , mo s t s tud e n t s are awa r e
that C a l i f orn i a i s somehow d i f f e rent f r om othe r s t a t e s ; yet ,
they have a myo p i c v i ew of C a l i for n i a f rom overgene r a l i z e d
textbooks a n d l im i t e d t rave l out s i d e o f the i r immed iate
reg i on .
Few c o l l e g e s tudents have been exposed to the many
and var i ed cultural l and sc ape s of the p a s t tha t together
prov ide C a l i forn i a with its uniquene s s as a pla c e .
Th i s
l im i t ed expe r ience tends to create a c onf ined reg i on a l c on
s c i o u s ne s s , with few s tud ents awar e that they are a c t ive
par t i c ipant s in a larger , more dynamic r e g i on that h a s i t s
f oundat i on in t h e pa s t .
C a l i forn i a ' s contemporary l and s c ape d o e s not r e f l e c t
the cont inued o c c u p an c e o f a s in g l e c u l ture , b u t i n s tead i s a
compos i t e land s cape a f f e c ted by co n f l i c t and eventu a l c ompr o
m i s e o f s evera l cont r a s t i ng s y stems o f spa t i a l organ i z a t i on
and r e s ource evaluat i on .
ize
my s t udents w i t h the se c u l tur e s ,
c<or .
State
I n an ong o i ng attempt to f am i l i ar th e i r l and scapes and the
Hornbeck is Associate Professor of Geography at California
University,
Northridge.
18
chan g e s they i mp o s e d o n the l a nd , I have expe r imented with
s l id e s , handout s , r ead i ng s , movi e s , and l ec tu re s .
A l l have
had moderate succ e s s , but the one that has been most succ e s s
f u l i s a d i agram i l lu strating C a l i forn i a ' s ma j or l and s c apes
and the ir r e l at i on s h i p to each othe r .
I n hope s of a s s i sting
oth e r s who may have s imi l ar d i f f i cu l ti e s w ith the i r C a l i fornia
c l a s s e s , thi s paper pr e s ents the d i a gram a long with a b r i e f
d e s c r i ption o f e a c h o f C a l i f or n i a ' s ma j or cultu r a l l and s c ap e s
b etween 1 7 6 0 and 1 9 0 0 , and a l i st o f s e l ected r e ference s .
C a l i f o rn i a ' s
M a jo r
Cul tural
L an ds c a p e s
The f i r s t c u ltu r a l imp r int on C a l i forn i a ' s l and s c ape
was made by I nd i an s .
Abor i g i n a l occupanc e of C a l i forn i a
dated f rom 40 , 0 0 0 B . C . , yet the i r imprint r e sted l i ghtl y on
the l and .
They l ac k ed the techn i c a l a b i l ity to s i gn i f i c antl y
shape o r a lter t h e i r environment , y e t h a d a popu l ation dens ity
f our time s that o f any other group i n North Amer i c a .
ever , no o n e a bo r i gina l group dom inated t h e l and .
H ow
C a l i f or n i a
was divi ded among twenty l ingu i stic fami l i e s encompa s s in g 1 3 5
dia l e cts ;
at mo st , a thou sand could speak the s ame l anguage .
Agr icu lture w a s unkn own and l a nd w a s h e l d by hunt ing , f i shing ,
and gathering r i ght s .
The env ir onment provided a l l that was
n e ed ed to s u stain the abo r i g i n a l way o f l i fe
( F igure 1) .
Spani sh s o l d i e r s c ame next , hungry f o r w e alth and
anxious to add new lands to tho s e a l r eady h e l d by the S p an i sh
c r own .
Land was e a s i ly tak en f rom the I n d i an s , but the
s o l d i e r s ' vorac ity f o r we a l th wa s not sati s fi e d .
The pr i e s t s
who a c c ompa ni ed the s o l d i e r s were intere sted i n wea lth o f a
d i f f er ent k ind and s aw in the doc i l e natives s ou l s to b e
gathered for th e chur ch .
Und er guidance f r om p r i e st s ,
C a li f ornia b e c ame an e c c l e s i a s t i c a l emp i r e d e s i gned to con
vert the he athen I nd i a n to the more c iv i l i z ed ways o f
S p a n i s h l i f e--to b e a C athol i c and a loyal sub j ect o f the
Spani s h Cr own .
By 1 8 2 3 , the church had e stab l i shed 21
19
�igu r e
1.
S chemat i c of C a l i fornia ' s
c u ltur a l lan d s c ap e s to 1 9 0 0 .
mi s si o n s a l ong the C a lifornia c o a s t and had gather e d over
9 0 , 0 0 0 soul s .
In add ition, the Government e stab l i shed thr e e
pueb l o s and four p re s id i o s , m a i n l y a s s e c ondary i n stitutions
to a s s i st the m i s s ions .
s patial ord er,
Mi s s ion s , however , dominated the
imparting a far d iffer ent character to
C a l i forn i a ' s l an d s c a pe than the I nd i an had previou s ly .
In
effect , Span i s h s ettl ement imp o s ed a r igid method o f organ
i z ing s p a c e as pre s c r ibed i n the L aws of the I n d ie s .
With
th e S p an i sh c ame the f i r s t forma l , s y stemati c attempt to s e e
and organ i z e s p a c e fo r a spec ific go a l .
Mex i c o ' s independ enc e from S pa i n was the beginning of
a new order to the C a l i fornia l a nd s c ape , stimulated more b y
p o l i t i c a l change than c u ltur a l change .
The r ig i d s ettlement
po l i c i e s of the S panish c r own wer e r emoved in favor of a mor e
20
l ib e r a l u s e of l and and r e sour c e s ;
land tenure l aws were
change d , trade barr i e r s wer e removed , and the m i s s i o n s were
s e c u l ar i z e d , thereby open i n g up land for i n d i v i d u a l s e t t l e
ment .
T o encou r ag e s e t t lement of former m i s s i on l and s , the
Mex i can governme n t granted more than s even-hundred rancho s
to p r i vate c i t i z en s , r a n g i n g in s i z e from a f ew hundred· acres
to over 1 3 3 , 0 0 0 a c r e s .
C a t t le b e c ame the primary e c onom i c
b a s e in r e sponse to the growi n g d emand f o r h i d e s a n d t a l low
i n New Engl and .
The h i d e and t a l l ow trade opened new avenue s
of c hange , p ar t i c u l ar ly e c onomi c , but a l s o brought the vanguard of Ame r i ca n s to C a l i f o r n i a .
The i r numb e r s were soon
to i n c r e a s e a nd s t a r t C a l i f or n i a o n a nother s e r i e s o f land
s c ape c h ange s .
The Ame r i c a n s h a d a d i f f erent way o f l i f e than the
h i spanic s e t t l er s , and i n i ti at e d c h ange s d e s igned to b r i n g
t h e l a nd s c ape i n t o a l i gnment w i t h anglo s e t t leme n t i n s t i tu
t i on s .
The number o f a n g l o s was r e l a tive ly sma l l a ft e r
acqui s i t i o n o f C a l i f o r n i a i n 1 8 4 6 , b u t the i r numb e r inc r e a se d
sub s t an t i a l ly w i t h t h e d i s c overy o f g o l d .
I n the f i r s t f our
y ea r s of anglo o c c upanc e the popu l at i on g r ew from 1 5 , 0 0 0 t o
1 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n d by 1 8 6 0 had i n c r e a s e d t o 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 .
The gold r u s h
accounted f or a s i z ea b l e p o r t i o n o f t h e e a r ly mi gration ,
r e s ul t i n g i n a new l an d s c ape i n the i n t er i o r , away from the
e s tab l i sh e d h i s p a n i c s e t t l ement along the c o as t .
S oon , how
ever d i s i l l u s ioned mine r s t urned to other pur su i t s , ma i n l y
f ar mi n g , b u t found to t h e i r d i smay that much o f the b e s t
a gr i c u l tu r a l land i n C a l i fo r n i a wa s he l d i n l ar g e t r a c t s by
Mex i c a n ranchero s .
A f t e r cons i d e rab l e l e g a l maneuve r i n g
b e tw e e n ranchero a n d f armer , t h e large r anchos w e r e f in a l l y
b r o k e n up into sma l l e r mid-we s tern type f arms .
A l o n g w i th
sma l l f arms c arne new town s , r a i lroad s , and many more
s e t t l er s ,
each a d d i n g a d i f f e r en t e l ement to the l an d s c ape .
T he changes i n i t i a t e d by newcome r s were not a c c epted w ithout
d i f f i c u l ty ;
the a n g l o s c o u l d not pu s h a s i d e the h i spanic
21
lands c ape and b e g i n anew but were f or c e d t o c ompromi s e ,
re sulting in a hybr i d l and s c ape cont a i n i n g e leme nts o f both
hi spanic and anglo s e t t l ement trad i t ion s .
B y 1 8 8 0 C a l i fo r n i a
had two d i s t in c t c u l t u r a l l a nd s c ape s , a h i s pan i c - an g l o l a n d
s cape along t h e c o a s t and a n ang l o l an d s c a pe in t h e interior .
The l a s t twenty years o f the nine teenth c entury were
no l e s s tumul tuous th an the f ir s t thi rty y e a r s of anglo
oc cupanc e ; b r i n g in g re sour c e s and s p a c e into a c o o rd i nated
sys tem was c o mp l i c ated by d ivergent intere s t s .
The d i f f i c u l ty
lay in th e unre a l i s t i c interpr e t a t ion o f r e s ource s .
The
search was for the i d e a l , a foundat i on upon wh i c h to build a
western utop i a .
There were many s t a r t s , s ome s uc c e s s ful ,
o th e r s l e s s s o .
By 1 9 0 0 , the C a l i fornia land s c ape was a
compo s it e o f contr a s t i n g and some t imes c on f l i c t i n g cul tural
and s p a t ia l s y s tems , but r epre s en t i n g the a s p i ra t ions , f a i l
ure s ,
and expec tations o f a people about t o enter the twen
tieth c entur y .
C o n c l u s i on
C a l i forni a ' s l an d s cape h a s unde r gone many chan ge s
during the p a s t two c e n tur i e s - - c han g e s that r e f l e c t a suc
c e s s ion o f c u l ture groups e ac h w i th its own ideas of how
spa c e and r e sour c e s shou l d be organ i z ed and used .
The chang e
in t h e shape a n d charac ter o f C a l i fornia ' s l an d s c ape between
1 7 6 0 and 1 9 0 0 c an be d e sc r ib ed as a mov e ment f r om a l and
s c ape wi t hout a set of formal s e t t l ement i n s t i tutions to o ne
in whi c h s p a c e was organ i z ed by many and o f ten c on f l i c t in g
i n s t i tutions .
Cul tur e s interacting through t ime and space
have g i ven C a l i f or n i a a d i ve r s i t y of p r e s en t-day r e g i o n a l
land s c a pe s .
F o r s tud ent s ,
l e arning to i d e n t i fy var i ous
remnants of past l a nd s c ape s and speculating about pro c e ss
o f chan g e s and the i r impa c t on the p re s ent provid e s an aware
n e s s and und e r s tand i n g of C a l i fornia ' s unique land s c ape
her itage and its i mpo r tance in shaping the pr e s ent .
22
SELECTED REFERENCES
Ashmann , Home r .
" The Evolution of a Wild Landscape and its Persistence in
Southern California , " Ann a l s of the Associ a ti on of American Geogra
Supplement , Vol .
phers ,
Bauer , John E .
4 9 , No .
Huntington Library ,
Cal i fornia Quar t erl y , Vo l .
Ruth E .
1
Bolton ,
53
(March 1 9 7 1 ) , pp .
1-40 .
E.
" The M i s s ion a s a Frontier Ins titution i n the Spanish
N.
23
( 1 918 ) , pp .
" The Number of Cal ifornians Baptised During the M i s s ion
1 9 6 0 ) , pp .
4 2 , No .
3
( S eptember
2 7 3- 2 7 7 .
Robert Glas s .
forni a ,
18 ,
87-96.
Period , " Southern Cal i forn i a Quarterl y , Vol .
Cleland,
1 8 7 0 - 1 9 00 .
1959 ) .
American Colonies , " Amer i can His torical Revi e w, Vol .
.
42-61 .
Bowma n , J .
34- 56 .
" S ite of Early Los Angeles , " Economic Geography , Vol .
(January 194 2 ) , pp .
H.
( S eptember 1 9 5 9 ) , pp .
" Cal ifornia ' s Nineteenth-Century Futurists , " Southern
Bauer , John E .
No .
Part 2
The Hearth Seekers of Sou thern Ca l i forn i a ,
( S an Marino , California:
Baugh ,
3,
1 8 5 0- 1 8 7 0
The Ca t t l e on a Thousan d Hi l l s :
Southern Ca l i
( San Marino , Cal ifornia: The Huntington Library ,
194 1 ) .
Dana ,
Richard H . , Jr .
Brothers ,
Dufau l t ,
Two Years Before the Mas t
(New York:
Harper and
1840) .
David .
" The Chinese in the Mining Camps of California:
1 8 7 0 , " Sou thern Cali fornia Quarterl y , Vo l .
41
1848-
(June 194 9 ) , pp .
1 5 5-
170 .
Dumk e ,
Glenn S .
Library ,
Gentilcore ,
The Boom of the Eigh t i es
( S an Marino :
The Huntington
194 4 ) .
R.
Loui s .
" Mi s s ions and M i s s ion Lands and Alta California , "
Annal s of the Associ a t i on of Ameri can Geograph ers , Vol .
(March 1 9 6 1 ) , pp .
5 1 , No .
1
4 6- 7 2 .
Hal e , Dennis and Jonathan Eisen
C o l l i er Books , 1 9 6 8 ) .
(Eds . ) .
The Cal i forn i a Dream
(New York :
Heizer , R. F . and M . A . Whippl e .
The Cal i fornia Indians: A Source Book
(Berkeley :
University of C a l i fornia Pre s s , 1 9 5 1 ) .
Hornbeck ,
David .
"Mexican-American Land Tenure Conflict in California , "
Journal of Geography ,
Vol .
74
(April 1 9 7 6 ) , pp .
2 0 9- 2 2 1.
23
Kelley ,
Robert L .
Gol d vs .
Gra i n ,
Ca l i fornia's Sacramen to Va l l ey
Kroe ber , A . L .
Institute ,
D.C . :
(Glendale:
Landbery ,
Inc . , New York ,
Leif C. U .
Sea Routes
Carey .
Peregrine ,
1 9 59 ) .
Smithsonian
Bulletin 78 ( Washington ,
Reprinted by Dover Publi
( Highland Park:
Southwe st Museum ,
to the Gol d Fields ,
Knop f ,
The Great Except i on
1949 ) .
( S alt Lake City :
197 6 ) .
et aL
"Remnants of the Ranchos
in the Urban Pattern
o f the Los Angeles Area , " The C a l i fornia Geographer, VoL 5
pp. 1-9.
Paul ,
Rodman W .
Wes t
Paul ,
Cal i forn i a Gold: The Begi nn i ng of Mining in
(Cambridge:
Rodman W .
Harvard University Pres s ,
F.
52
Innovation
( Spring
- " Northernmo s t Spanish Frontier in
As Shown by the D i s tribution o f Geographic Names , "
Cal iforn i a Hi s t ori cal Society Quarterl y ,
pp .
the Far
" The Beginnings o f Agriculture in Cali fornia:
and Will iam Pounds , Jr.
Cali fornia:
( 1964 ) ,
1947 ) .
vs . Continuity , " Cal i forn i a Hi s tori cal Quarterl y , Vo l .
1 9 7 3 ) , pp . 16- 2 7 .
Raup , H .
South
196 5 ) .
the Mi gra t i on by Wa ter t o
(New York: Al fred A.
Ca l i forni a :
Inc . ,
Howeard,
192 5 ) .
1976 .
19
Cal i forni a i n 1 8 49-1 8 52
McWi l l iams ,
H . Clark Co . ,
The Chuma sh Indi ans of Southern Cal i forn i a ,
west Mus eum Papers No .
Lewis , Oscar.
A.
Handbook o f the Indians o f Ca l i forni a ,
Bureau of American E thnology ,
Government P r inting O f fice ,
cations ,
Nelson,
the Hydraul i c Mining Con t roversy and
Vo l .
32 , No .
1
(March 1 9 5 3 ) ,
43-48.
Robinson , A l fre d .
Cal i forni ans ,
1846 ) .
Life i n Cal i fornia Before the Conques t ,
Leperos and Indians . . .
Reprinted by Pe regrine Smith ,
Robinson , Will iam U.
Cali fornia Pres s ,
Land in Cal i forn i a
(New York :
Hispano
Thomas C .
Salt Lake City ,
Rus se l l ,
1 9 7 0.
( Berkel ey: University of
1 9 48 ) .
Star r , Kevin .
Ameri cans and the Cal i fornia Drea m , 1 850-1 9 1 5
Oxford University Press , 1 9 7 3 ) .
(New York:
24
�
�
Y!e
25
C a l i fo r n i a
h'"'"
e:.:o
r
G e o g r aR.,..
______________
V o l ume X VII I ,
1978
THE ROLE OF A NATI ONAL CONSERVAT I ON CONFERENCE
IN CAL IFORN IA ' S wATER REFOR�
Th o m a s
H .
Pagenha r t *
The ava i l ab i l ity o f water in a s emi - ar i d area such
a s C a l i f o r n i a is a vital nece s s i ty, but by 1 9 0 0 it was
quite clear that C a l i forn i a wa t e r devel opment wa s b e i ng
hamp e r e d by a c l a s s i c a l ly c o n f u s e d s y s tem o f water r i g ht s .
1
F o r tho s e un f am i l i a r- v'i th the Cal i fo rn i a s ce n e , a
review o f i t s two contrad i c t o ry typ e s of water r i g h t s may
be h e l p fu l .
The e ar ly p l ac e r m i n e r s had devi s e d a workable
s y s t em for taking o r appropr i at i n g wate r f rom the s tr e am s .
I t was, mo s t s imply, a f i r s t - come, f i r s t - s e rved a r r an gement .
After the inten t i on was r e c o rd e d in county o f f i c e s , wate r
could be d i v e r t e d and c a r r ied long d i s tances away from the
s t re am, used a s d e s i red, and abandoned w i thout concern .
only s t ipul a t i on wa s that water be u s e d d i l i gently .
right was f o r f e i te d with non-u s e .
T he
The
The s e were c a l l e d
appropr i a t ive r ig h t s , a u s e f u l s y s tem i n d ry a r e a s wh ere
l and is commonly w i t hout other s o u r c e s o f wate r .
An oppo s i n g s y s tem o f water r i g h t s was c ommon i n
more humid are a s whe re the m a j o r concern w a s m a i n t a i n i n g
t h e f low rate o f wate r i n the s tr e am .
r i p a r i an r i gh t s ,
s ti p u l ated t h a t d iv e r t e d w a t e r b e r e turned
to the s tr e am after u s e .
*Dr .
T h i s s ys t em, c a l l e d
P agenhart
S u c h r i gh t s were a s s igned
( Ph . D . , Unive r s ity o f Cali forni a ,
Berke ley )
A s s o c i ate Pro f e s s o r of Geography a t Cali forn i a State Univ e r s i ty ,
Hayward .
is
26
automati c a l ly with the own e r s h i p o f l and ad j acent to a
s t r e am and we re not l o s t through non-u s e .
Through an unfortunate f luke , when Engl i s h c ommon
l aw was adopted in Cali forn i a at the t ime o f s t atehood the
r iparian sys tem was i n c l uded as part o f the unexamined legal
baggage even though this s y stem of water r i ghts had not
previous ly been u s ed i n C a l i fornia .
A h a s ty ad j u s tment had
to be made to legal i z e f o rmally the appro p r i at ive sys tem ,
a l re ady the qua s i - l eg a l cus tom in mining are a s .
Thus Cal i fo rn i a s t rugg l e d along with two contra
d ictory systems .
C a l i f orni a ,
The r i p a r i an s y s tem was never suited to
and the appropr i at ive s y s t em
( b e f ore 1 9 1 4 )
did
not have an o rderly and e f f ec t ive method of admi n i s tration :
the r i gh t s were too e a s i ly obtained and there wa s no
centra l i z ed s y stem f o r r e g i stration .
E f forts by concerned
c i t i z en s to c le a r up the w a s t e f u l and c o n s t r i c t i n g snarl o f
water r i gh t s l it i gations repeatedly r an a f ou l o f v e s te d
intere s t s on e i ther s ide o f t h e que s t io n .
What w a s
obviou s l y n e e d e d was l e g i s l at ion t o s e t up a f a i r and
e f f i c ient s y s tem of water right s .
In 1 9 0 0 ,
a group of d i s tingui shed c i t i z e n s under the
name Cal i f orni a Water and Fore s t A s s o c i ation prev a i l e d upon
the renowned i r r i g ation expert E lwood Me ad ,
the U . S .
then c h i e f o f
Department o f Agr i c u l ture ' s O f f i c e o f Exper iment
S tation s ,
to i n s t i gate an inve s t i g ation of the water r i gh t s
on s e l e c ted Cal i forn i a s t re am s .
f amous as Bu l le t i n 1 0 0 ,
C a l i forn i a " ,
T h e r e s u l ti n g report ,
" Ir r ig at i on I nve s t i g ations in
was pub l i s hed in 1 9 0 1 .
cond i t i on s we re ,
now
I t revea l e d that
if anythi ng , wor s e than anyone h ad imagined .
Vi rtu a l ly every s t ream was l e g a l l y c hoked with oversub
2
s cr i bed or u s e l e s s water c l aims .
As a r e s ul t ,
1903
a b i l l was dr awn up f o r Cal i f o r n i a ' s
l e g i s l ative s e s s ion ,
embodying recommendations
contained i n Bulletin 1 0 0 to a l l e v i ate the s e l e g a l problems .
27
I t included a general water code t o s y s temat i z e wate r
3
procedur e s .
But too much oppo s i ti on w a s encountered ,
the b i l l f a i led to pa s s .
and
I t was to take ten years and much
more e f fort b e f o re an adequate Wat e r Commi s s ion Act wou l d
be pas s e d .
The publ i c had y e t to be inf ormed o f the s i tu a
As i t happened ,
ti on .
th i s f i r s t t o o k p l ace at the
national level through the famous Confe rence of Governo r s
cal l e d b y P r e s ident Theodore Roo s eve l t in 1 9 0 8 to d i scu s s
.
.
1 c o n s e rvat1on .
n at1ona
4
C a l i forn i a p l ayed a c ru c i a l ro l e in s e t t i ng up t h i s
I t happened in t h i s way :
famous con f e rence .
In 1 9 0 7 ,
the 1 5 th National I r r igation Congre s i was
held in S ac r amento and t o i t c ame three memb e r s o f the newly
5
created U . S . I n land Waterway s Commi s s i on .
T h i s commi s s ion
was the brainchi l d of the Fore s te r o f the United S ta te s ,
G i f ford P i nchot .
In expl aining the conne ction between
fore s try and i rr i g a t i on ,
i t might be u s e f u l t o commen t that
in the e ar l i e r days of r e s e arch on fore s t s and f lood s ,
people working in water shed stud i e s a s s i gned a greater role
to the fore s t in r e gu l a t ing s t r e am- f l ow than we do now .
In
1 9 0 7 pro f e s s ional s in the f i e l d s o f i rr i gation and o f f o r
e s try a lmo s t unanimo u s l y b e l i eved that d e - f o re s ted wat e r
she d s would s p e l l ruin t o down s t r e am i r r i gato r s .
somewhat gu i l e l e s s l y ,
They also ,
tended to b e l i eve the conve r s e ;
that
the pre sence o f fore s t s wou l d e n s ure a water supply downstream .
Thus ,
i t was not surp r i s i n g to f ind the
fores ter , Gui f fo rd P in chot ,
S ac r amento in 1 9 0 7 ,
state governo r s ,
f amou s
at the I rr i gation Congre s s in
as we l l a s o ther commi s s ioners ,
and the ex-governor of C a l i fo rn i a ,
f ive
George
Pardee .
keen .
6
Pardee ' s intere s t in the I rr i g ation Congr e s s was
H e had been p re si dent o f the p revi ou s y e ar ' s
congre s s i n B o i s e ,
I daho ,
and h i s p re s e n c e a s the former
governor of Cal i fo rn i a was important .
Furthermore ,
he was
28
deeply concerned w i t h t h e proper
u s e o f natural re s ource s .
P ardee c ame into p o l i t i c s v i a medic ine ,
now l aw .
A we l l
to-do man , h e l e f t a lucrative p r a c t i c e to enter pub l i c
s ervi c e .
L i ke P in c ho t ,
years in Germany ,
con s e rvat ion .
he had spent s everal p o s t - g r aduate
a t that t ime i n the f ore f ront of fore s t
H e was s trongly again s t the monopoly o f
natural re sour c e s by corpo rations o r ind ividua l s .
Re s ource s ,
he b e l ieved , we re " the capital o f the peop le " and should
7
bene f i t a l l , not merely a few .
George P ardee s e ems to
have been one of those truly publ i c - sp ir i t e d men who c omes
along now and then ,
and mak e s a d i f f e rence .
The I n l and Waterway s Commi s s ioner s ,
for the I r r i gation Congre s s ,
in S ac r amento
had been d i s cu s s ing wha t they
conce ived shou l d be a national con f e rence of exp e r t s on the
re l a t ions of c on s e rvat ion to wate rway s .
inc identa l ly ,
[ At thi s t ime ,
the term wate rways was not n ec e s s ar i l y con
f ined as we use the term today ,
to navigable s tre ams . ]
The
p re s en c e o f f ive s t ate governors in one s pot sugge s t e d that
it might be more e f fe ctive to d i re c t the purpo s e of the
confe rence ,
i n s t e ad o f to a f ew expert s ,
to the nation ' s
governo r s , who we re the men mo s t i n s trument a l in e f f e c t ing
change s within t h e i r s t at e s .
And s o i t c ame about , as a
chance r e s u l t of the I r rigation Congre s s in S ac r amento .
Pre sident Roo s eve l t was ,
of cour s e , mo s t receptive
to the ide a of a c o n s e rv a t i on confere n c e .
the spon s o r ,
He made h ims e l f
and in h i s invitations t o the gove rnors h e made
c l ear h i s conv i c t io n that " the propo s e d conf e rence , whi ch i s
the f ir s t o f i t s kind , w il l b e among the mo s t imp o r t an t
gathe rings i n our h i s tory in i t s e f fe c t upon t h e we l f are o f
8
a l l our people . "
I t was a truly national conference .
T he p l anne r s o f the Conf e rence of the Gove rnors took
great c are in s e l e ct i n g the people invited to par t i c i p ate as
we l l as tho s e invited to obs e rve the confe ren ce .
T h e i r good
29
j ud gment thus ensured both the qua l i ty o f the con f e rence and
th e very wide d i s s eminat ion of i t s me s s age .
First ,
the governors were a sked to bring with them
fr om t h e i r s t at e s
( o r t e r r i tor i e s )
and consult w i t h them .
three c i t i z e n s to adv i s e
Recogn i z ed author i t i e s were a l so
selected and asked to prepare b a s i c spee che s on the ma j or
9
topi c s , with open d i s cu s s ion to f o l low .
The S en a to r s and Repre sentatives were invite d .
T he members of the I n l and Waterways Comm i s s i on were
o f cou r s e invi ted ,
and a s t ime p a s s e d ,
s o were a c o n s i d e r
a b l e number o f o ther eminent c i t i z en s wide ly recogn i z ed a s
autho r i t i e s on n a t i on al a s p e c t s o f t h e country ' s re s ource s .
The conference was deemed s o important that even the
Ju s t i c e s o f the Supreme Court and the member s of the
S e l e c ted government
Cabinet wer e asked to be present .
bureaus were a l s o repre sented .
I n add ition to the p a r t ic i p an t s ,
of observers was a l s o invited .
a c a r e f u l s e l e c t ion
The d a i l y pre s s was
repre s ented by 4 0 s e l e c ted repo r t e r s f rom the nation ' s
The p e r i od i c a l pr e s s was widely repre sented
le ading p aper s .
with men from 21 such diver s e j ou r n a l s as the
of
the
Ame r i c a n
J o u rn a l ,
Soci e t y
Col l i ers
Engi n ee r i n g
N e ws ,
of
We e k l y ,
and
F a rm
Civil
En g i n e ers ,
Amer i c a n
and
Maga z i n e ,
Proce e di n gs
the
F a rm
Con s e r v a t i on ,
F i r es i d e .
Repr e s e n t at ive s f rom every s i gn i f i c an t national
organ i z at ion were a l s o inv i te d to attend the conference .
The s e i n c l uded the Ame r i c an A s s o c i ation f o r the Advancement
of S cience ,
the Ame r i c an Bar A s s o c i at i o n ,
F ederat i on of Labor
inc idental ly ) ,
( represented by S amue l Gompe r s ,
the Amer i c an Med i c a l A s s o c i a tion , Ame ri can
Newspaper s Publ i s he r s '
all .
the Ame r i c an
As s o c i a t i o n ,
and many o ther s ,
4 0 in
Mo s t of these organ i z atio n s had publ i c at i o n s of the i r
own reaching a l together mi l l ion s o f Ame r i c an s .
30
Thus when the Con f erence o f the Governo rs convened
at the White Hou s e on May 13 ,
1908 ,
for a three-day meeting ,
p robably every p art i c i pant who c ou l d have been there was
there .
T h i s mee t ing ,
recogn i z ed as b e i n g of l andmark
importance even in i t s own t ime ,
was observed and reported
by a un i que l y comp l e t e range o f obs e rvers f rom the pre s s ,
both d a i l y and p e r i o d i c a l ,
organ i z at i on s .
and f rom impor t an t n at ional
I t would have been an i so l ated c i t i z e n
i ndeed who wou l d not have known f rom several s ou r c e s the
repo r t s and sub s t ant ive i n f o rmation f rom th i s confe rence .
Not the l e a s t o f tho s e present at the Con ference o f
t h e Gove rnor s wa s t h e Hon .
George C .
speaker at the Fourth S e s s ion
governor of C a l i f o r n i a ,
P ardee , M . D . ,
( on I rr i g at ion ) .
keynote
The ex
an ardent advocate of con s e rvation ,
knew exactly what he wanted to t e l l the con f e rence .
" P robably nowhere in the wor l d ,
c e r t a i n ly nowhere e l s e in
thi s country is the interdependence o f the re source s o f the
10
l and more c l early shown than in C a l i f o r n i a , " P ardee s a i d .
He item i z ed the state ' s re sour c e s and tho s e a c t iv i t i e s
d ependen t o n i t s water supp l y .
Then he turned to the
que st ion o f c are l e s s and prod i g a l unregul ated comme r c i a l
o pe r a t ion s .
I f , as has been done in other S t ate s , the s e Cal i for
n i an we a l t h s o f fore s t and s t r e am s be a l l owed to
fall into the merc i l e s s hands o f p r ivate monopo ly ,
rapid exhau s t ion o f them a l l wi l l soon f o l low . . . .
Be ing the property o f the P eop l e , they s hould be so
admin i s tered that they wi l l be s t s e rve the P e o p l e i
not only in the pre sent but for a l l t ime to come . l
Furthe rmore ,
in support o f the con s e rvat ive notion o f
s u s t a i ned y i e l d , h e s a id of the se national re source s ,
" They
are the People ' s c a p i t a l , which should not be imp a i re d ,
on ly the income be ing u sed for the People ' s bene f i t . "
ag ain the theme o f wate r reform :
production both d e c r e a s e ,
And
" As the c o a l and petrol eum
the absolute need of the
31
p re s e rvat ion ,
con s e rvation ,
and p r o t e c t ion f rom monopo l y o f
the wat e r powe r o f the coun t ry wi l l be come mo r e and more
, 12
appar en t .
Re f le cting on the c o n f e rence ,
e x -S enator f rom Wyoming ,
J o s eph C arey ,
j udge ,
and author of the imme n s e l y
i n f l u e n t i a l " C arey ' Ac t " whi c h re s u l t ed in gove rnme nt
subs idy f o r re c l amation of m i l l ion s of a c re s ,
said :
" The
peop l e o f the c ountry wi l l be astoni shed by the f a c t s which
have been d i s c l o s e d by tho s e p a r t i c ipating in th i s
Con f erence con c e rning the great national r e s o u r ce s ,
and
the pub l i c s e n t iment whi ch w i l l be c reated mu s t bring good
13
resu l t s . "
I t took mor e than two year s f o r the me s s age o f the
Governo r ' s Con f e rence to p e rmeate the l e g i s l at iv e hal l s in
Sacramento .
Neverthe l e s s , when i t f in a l l y d i d in 1 9 1 1 ,
the
C a l i f o r n i a l e g i s l ature e s tabl i s hed the C a l i f orn i a Con s e rv a . n , w 1. t h G eorge P a r d e e as c h a 1 rman . 1 4
.
C omml. S S lo
t 1on
.
The
Con s ervation Comm i s s ion ' s purpo s e was to inve s t i gate and
gather data concern ing :
water powe r ,
e le c t r i c i ty ,
fore s t ry , wate r ,
and mining , mineral and o the r l ands ,
and i r r i g a t ion .
sys temat i z e ,
the u s e of wate r ,
e l e c t r i cal and other powe r , mines
dredging ,
I t s further purpo s e was
re c l amation ,
to revi s e ,
and r e f orm l aws of t h i s s t ate con ce r n i n g tho s e
subj e c t s .
With George Pardee as Chairman ,
the Con s e rvat ion
Comm i s s ion swung into ac tion imme d i at e ly ,
employing a s t a f f
o f con su l t ants l a r g e l y f rom Federal agenc i e s :
the
Geolog i c al Survey and the Departmen t o f Ag r i cu l ture .
Many
had been active in the 1 9 0 3 Cal i fo rn i a Water and Fore s t
A s s o c i a t ion .
Thus the i r recommendations were v i rtually the
same as had been p ropo s e d ten years e a r l i e r .
The repo r t of
the C a l i f o r n i a Cons e rvation Comm i s s ion was submi tted the
15
next ye ar .
32
A s a n imme d i ate con sequenc e ,
a S t ate Wate r Com
mi s s ion was e s tab l i shed in 1 9 1 2 to admin i s t e r water r i g h t s
16
f o r power purpo se s ,
and a comprehen s ive Water Comm i s s ion
Act covering a l l u s e s o f wa t e r wa s enac ted the next year .
Opponents of
the Water Commi s s ion b i l l man aged to de l ay i t s
p a s s age b y demanding a r e f e rendum on i t , but t h i s t ime ,
with pub l i c suppo r t ,
it was
app roved at the next general
e l e c t ion and became e f f e c t ive in Decembe r 19 14 .
B r ie f l y , what the 1 9 1 4 C a l i f o r n i a Water Comm i s s ion
Act accomp l i shed wa s the regu l a r i z ation o f appropr i a t ive
procedu re .
It revi ewed a l l the old wat e r r ig h t s ,
inva l i d one s ,
threw out
and i t e st ab l i shed a perm i t procedure for new
r i g h t s that was fundamenta l l y d i f f e rent from the p rocedure
in that no longer was p r i o r i ty g iven to the f i r s t app l i c ant
on a stream .
P r e f e rence wa s mandated to the mo s t widely
bene f i c i a l o f a l l c l aims f o r wate r u s e ,
and h e a r i n g s were
17
e s tabli shed to as c e r t a in wh i c h they were .
Furthermore ,
f o r the f i r s t time i t b e c ame po s s ib l e
t o determine e x a c t l y how much unapprop r i ated water remained
18
in the S t ate .
Now long- range p l anning could t ake p l ac e .
I n summar i z ing t h i s background to the p a s s age o f
the 1 9 1 4 lva ter Commi s s ion Act we may we l l a s k i f i t could
have succeeded without the tremendous pub l i c i ty o f the
Confe rence of the Governo r s ,
or wi thout the devoted and
per s i stent work o f George P ardee .
The an swe r i s - -p robably not ;
at l e a s t not f o r a long
time .
As an e p i l ogue ,
Wat e r Commi s s ion Ac t ,
i t s hould be noted that wi t hout the
Cal i f o rn i a ' s pre s ent compre he n s ive
water p l anning wou ld have been se r ious ly de l ayed and
g r ave ly impa ired .
33
NOTES
1
For surveys o f water rights deve lopment s e e Wells A .
( Sacramento :
The Ca l i forni a Law of Wa t e r Ri gh ts
195 6 ) ;
also S .
tions ,
1960) .
2
T.
Harding ,
Wa ter i n Ca l i forn i a
Hutchins ,
State Pr inting Office ,
( P alo Alto :
N-P Publ ica
Elwood Mead , et a l . , " I rrigation Investigations :i,n Cali fornia , "
U . S . Department o f Agriculture .
O f fice o f E xpe r iment
Bul l e t i n 1 0 0 ,
Stations
(Washington :
3
Gove rnment P rinting O f f ice , 1 9 0 1 ) .
c a l i fornia Leg i s l ature . A s s emb ly .
Journal of the Assembl y ,
3 5 th
Sessi on of the Legi s l a t u re , Vol .
19 0 3 ) .
Ass embly B i l l 7 3 5 ,
4
I I ( Sacramento : S tate P rinting O f f ice ,
introduced February 10 , 1 9 0 3 .
P r e s ident o f the United States , Proceedings of the Conference
of Governors of the Uni ted Sta tes i n the Whi te House ,
May 1 3-1 5 ,
5
1 90 8
(Washington :
sacramento Bee ,
6
George Parde e ,
7
September 2- 5 ,
sacramento Record-Un i on ,
( B e rkeley ,
W.
J . McGe e ,
D.C. ,
1 9 09 ) .
1907 .
" Impress ions of the I rr i gation Congress , " Trans
January 8 ,
Pardee a n d the Oakland Wa ter Suppl y ,
Cal i fornia
Washin gton ,
Government P r inting Office ,
a c t i ons of the Commonwea l th C l ub , November 1 5 ,
8
1 9 0 7 , pp. 2 5 - 2 9 .
19 0 3 ;
1 889-90 , M . A .
Howard B e l l , George
The s i s , Univ e r s i ty o f
1946) .
" Or i g in and P l an of the Conference , " in : Proceedop . c it . , p .
vii .
i ngs of the Conference of Governors ,
9
Ibid . , p .
10
op.
12
x.
George P a rde e ,
cit. , p .
11
Loc .
14 0 .
cit.
J o s eph Carey ,
cit . , p . 1 4 6 .
14
in:
Proceedings o f the Conference o f Governors ,
c a l i fo rn i a Legi s l ature ,
( S acramento :
15
in Proceedi n gs of t h e Conference of Governors ,
131 .
Ibid . , p .
13
op .
·
Ca l i forn i a St a t u tes ,
State Printing Office ,
cali forn i a Conservation Comm i s s i o n ,
P r inting O ff ice , 1912 ) .
16
1 91 1 , Chapter 4 0 8
1911 ) .
Report
( S acramento :
.
.
.
Ca 1 1" f orn1a
Leg1s 1 atu r e , Ca l 1. forn1a
St a t u tes ,
( Sacramento : State Printing O ffice , 1 912 ) .
1 91 2 ,
S tate
Chapter 41
34
17
california State Water Commi s s ion , Fi rs t Bienn i a l Report of
the S t a t e Wa ter Commi s s i on for 1 9 1 5- 1 9 1 6
Office ,
( S acramento :
State Printing
191 7 ) .
18
George Pardee , " The Water Commission Law , " address to the City
Club of Los Angele s , January 3 1 , 1914 .
In:
Bancroft Library pamphlet
collection , " C a l i fornia Water and Power Act . "
35
C a l i fo r n i a G e o g r aP.""
h""
" e'""'
r
the
_
_______
_____
_
V o l ume XVI I I,
1 97 8
WHATEVER HAPPENED T O PORT SAN JOS E ?
James
R .
Curtis *
The i n s ign i f i cance of S an F ranc i sc o Bay to the
economy of Santa C l a r a Val l ey ,
Cal i f o rn i a was d e s c r ibed by
Jan Broek i n h i s c l as s ic h i s t o r i c a l -geograp h i c s tudy of the
val l ey :
As a tra f f i c medium , the B ay means at p r e s e n t
n o t h i n g to the Va l l ey .
Where onc e s h i p s c ame u p
to the l andings o n e f inds but s h a l l ow , mud f i l l ed
channe l s ; the harbor o f Alv i s o , once the main port
of the Val ley , now only s erve s a s a yachting harbor
At
and for t h i s i t is hardly deep enough . . . .
p re sent the Bay f o rm s a swampy back wa s h , not a
door to the wor l d ' s commerce . l
Broek ' s summation i s as correct today as
it wa s when the
p a s s ag e was penned in 1 9 3 2 .
I t seems rathe r incongruent that such a poten t i a l ly
pro f i t ab l e geog raphi c endowment s hould not have been f u l ly
Certainly prior to the S e c ond Wo r l d War , when
exp l o i t e d .
the product ion of a g r i cu l tural commodi t i e s ,
f rui t s ,
e arned the val ley the t i t l e of
Ame ri c a " ,
e s p e c i a l ly
" f ru i t bowl of
the ben e f i t s of a port on the bay wou ld have been
i n c a l c u l abl e .
Even now ,
the buc o l i c days swept away by the
tide of u rban and indu s t r i a l expan s i on wh i c h has engu l f ed
the v a l l ey ,
the pot e n t i a l econom i c advantage s o f a deep
water port remain great .
* James R. Curti s , Ph . D .
San Di ego State Unive r s i ty .
Lecture r , Department of Geography ,
36
Not surpr i s i ng l y ,
the bene f i t s o f a deep-water port
i n the south bay region have not remained unnot i c e d ,
p l an s to deve lop a port gone unpursued .
chro n i c l e s the h i s tory of an on-again ,
s p anning f ou r de c ade s ,
Harbor
of
T h i s s ho rt paper
o f f - again p ro j e c t
f rom the 1 9 20 ' s t o t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s ,
deve l op a " P ort S an Jo s e ''
Th e
nor have
to
at the harbor of Alvi so .
A l vi s o
The dreams o f a deep-water port in the south bay
h ave focused on Alv i s o harbor ,
s i tuated whe re the meandering
Guadalupe River debouc h e s into the bay via Alv i s o S lough ,
about e ig ht m i l e s northe a s t of
F igure l ) .
the c i ty of S an J o s e
( see
Al though the sma l l town of Alvi s o i s now run
down prov i d ing minimal contemporary anchor age and s h e l ter
only for smal l p l e asure c r af t ,
such h a s not a lways been the
case .
I ndeed ,
f rom the beginning of S p an i sh s e t t l emen t in
the region i n the late e ighteenth century , Alvi s o - - known
p r i o r to 1 8 4 9
as the Emb arcad e ro de S an t a C l a r a - -was a port
of regional s t ature .
Through the port moved the supp l i e s
and pioneers whi c h helped nu rture and populate the puebl o
o f S an J o s e a n d m i s s ions Santa C l ara and S an J o s e .
the Mex i c a n and Ame ri c an perio d s ,
hide s and t a l l ow ,
lumber ,
after 1 8 20 ,
qui c k s i l ve r ,
products funne l e d through the port ,
expo r t s of
and agricultural
increas ing its s ig n i f i
cance a s a tran s - s h i pment point and entrepo t .
Alvi s o ,
During
The town of
f ounded in 1 8 49 and incorporated in 1 8 5 2 ,
langui shed
f o l lowing comp l e t ion of the S an F ranc i s c o - S an Jo s e Ra i l ro ad
in 1 8 6 4 , whi c h byp a s sed Alvi s o ,
i t s three whar f s and s i x
ma j or warehou s e s remained busy and viable throughout the
s e c ond h a l f of the n in e te enth century .
1896 ,
One pub l i c a t ion of
for examp l e , p roc l aimed that " Al v i s o is the c ountry ' s
g re ate s t port ,
and i s d e s t ined to become a shipping cente r . "
Unfortunate ly ,
around the turn of the century a c c e l erated
2
37
0 C 1:: A N
-" \ \
I I� \ .\ ( . I .\ ( ( l
SOUTH SAN FRANCISCO
BAY REGION
�
(EJ
[ill]
:\\ajur lltKh W<lY '\t•twurk
l'o[>ulatt•d .\n•a,
.\ [ar.,h Tidal
Flats
Salt Evapur;Jtiun
F i gure
!'om[,
l.
S o uth San F ranc i s c o Bay Reg ion .
38
s i ltation o f the s l ough , d e c re a s ed out f low f rom the
Guadalupe River ,
and i n c r e a s ing s i z e s of c omme r c i a l ves s e l s
s ignaled a n end t o commer c i a l shipping a t Alvi s o .
In 1907 ,
however ,
Superv i s o r s surmi s e d :
the S an t a C l ara County B o ard o f
" Wi th a few thou s and do l l ar s
approp r i ation , Alvi so harbor
harbor ,
. . .
c a n be made a deep-water
3
Only fou r years
ava i l ab le for the l a rg e s t s h i p s . "
l ater , when the harbor was of l ittle o r n o c omme r c i a l v al ue ,
a promotional pub li c a t i on of the San J o s e Chamber o f
Comme rce f a i l e d t o even ment i on the harbor and characte r i z ed
4
Real i zi n g the poten
Alv i s o a s merely a " pre tty v i l l age " .
tial importance of the harbor ,
i n 1 9 1 3 the c i ty of S an J o s e ,
i n i t s f i r s t maj or annexat i o n ,
annexed an e ight-mi l e s t r i p
o f property a l o n g the h ighway out t o t h e bay .
Port
San
Jose
I n s p i te of the anne x at i on move ,
no de c i s ive acti on
wa s taken to devel op the harbor unti l 1 9 2 8 .
members of the S an J o s e Rea l E st at e Board ,
s h i p o f W i l bur F .
A s s o c i ation .
Henning ,
In that ye ar
under the l e ader
fo rmed t h e S an J o s e Port
T h e i r i ntention was t o e st ab l i sh a deep-water
port at Alv i s o ,
to be c al l ed Port S an Jos e .
The i r f i r s t
move i n thi s d i re c t io n w a s t o r e t a i n a n engineer from S an
F ranc i s co to condu c t a f e a s i b i l i ty s tudy .
The f in d i n g s of
the s tudy e s t imated that the port wou l d c o s t $ 2 , 7 0 8 , 6 5 0 to
bu i ld and $ 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 annu a l l y to operate ,
handl e annual tonnage of 1 , 22 7 , 6 5 1 .
but wou ld be able to
Thus S anta Clara V a l ley
s hippe r s would be s aved an e s t imated $ 1 , 6 7 7 , 5 9 1 i n f r ei ght
5
r ate s e ach year .
The a s s oc i at i o n r e al i z e d that governmental a s s i stance
was needed i n u nd ertaking such a c o s t l y endeavo r .
After
the a s so c i a t i o n exp l ained and promoted the p l an i n i n i t i a l
correspondence w i t h t h e federal gove rnment , t h e gove rnment
exp r e s s e d intere s t in the prop o s e d pro j ec t .
S u b sequently ,
39
a team f r om the Army Corp s of E n g i n e e r s was d i spatched to
Alvi s o to conduct their own f e a s ib i l i ty s tudy .
engineers approved the pro j ec t ,
The Army
and r ecommended govern
me nt al expend i ture s of some $ 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 .
Their recommended
pl an for the dev e l opment o f the harbor c a l l e d f or widening
.
of Alvi s o S lough to 3 0 0 feet and dredging to a depth of
27 f ee t ;
extending from a point about a m i l e southea s t o f
oumbart on Po int to the mouth o f the Guad a lupe River ; w i t h a
turning bas i n 6 0 0 f e e t w i de ,
1 , 2 0 0 f e e t long and 3 0 f e e t
6
I t w a s further
deep at t h e lower end of t h e channe 1 .
sugge s ted that the dredged mate r i a l be used to r e c l a im
mar s hl and on which a h ighway ,
a broad-gauge r a i l ro ad ,
and
commer c i al a c t iv i t i e s could be located .
On Augu s t 3 0 ,
Harbor Act ,
s eptember 1 ,
1935 ,
Congre s s approved the River and
which was s i gned by P r e s ident Roo s eve l t on
1935 .
The Ac t provided $ 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 f or the p ro
j e c t on a j o i n t f e de r a l - l o c a l b as i s .
to meet the f o l lowing s tipu l a t i on s :
for cons truct ion c o s t s ;
(2)
Local inter e s t s had
(1)
contr ibute $ 2 6 0 , 0 0 0
provide pub l i c whar f f a c i l i t ie s
suf f i c ient i n s i z e t o handl e 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 tons annu a l l y ,
and
a l so provide r a i l and truck f a c i l i ti e s to hand l e that
amount o f tonnage
( the e s t imated c o s t f o r the c o n struction
of t h e s e f ac i l i t i e s was about $ 2 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) ;
(3)
provide
suitable d i sp o s a l are as dur ing cons truction and for sub s e
7
quent mainten ance .
The next s t ep for l o c a l autho r i t i e s was to e l e c t a
board of d i r e ctors to ove r s e e the proj e c t .
w a s d i spensed with ,
Once that t a s k
a port d i s tr i c t h a d to be d e l imi ted .
But in the matter of d i s t r i c t boundari e s the problem s b e g an .
At f ir s t a d i s tr i c t was prop o s e d that wou l d extend up the
p e n i n s u l a a s f ar a s P a l o A l to .
The S anta C l a r a County
Board of Superv i so r s summar i ly r e j ected t h i s p ropo s a l and
r e f u s e d to c a l l an e l e ct ion to s e t t l e the m a t t e r .
The S an
J o s e Chamber of Comme rce then took ove r the d i s tr ic t i n g
40
They c hampioned the f ormation o f a much sm.a l l$ r
d i spute .
d i s t r i c t that wou l d f avor the c ity of S an Jo s e ,
but
st1 l l
The r e s u l t s of an $1:�C,tion
b e und e r county j ur i s d i ctio n .
he l d to e s tab l i s h the propo s ed smal l e r d i s t r i ct were 4 � 4 0 �
i n f avo r and 3 , 9 9 2 against .
settled ,
however .
T h e matter w a s f ar f r om being
Subsequent to the e l e ction ,
l egal, ac.t ion
was i n i t i ated to dec l are the e l ection void , and i n J ne·
1 9 3 6 the Superior Court d i s s o lved the d i s t r i c t on te¢bn i c a1
ground s .
the c ity o f S an Jose
I n s p i t e of thi s s etbac k ,
r e f u s e d to let the pro j ec t d i e .
It wa s dec ided tha� the
c i ty s hould sponsor bonds for the pro j ect to t a l ing $ 1 , 2 5 0 , 0 0 0
but there were nume rous d e l ay s and the bond i s sue was never
actu a l l y put before the voter s .
Water f ront l abor d i spute s
8
I t was
in San Fr anc i sco we re b l amed for c au s ing the d e l ay .
a l so felt by many people that the entire pro j ec t was a plot
by real e state inte r e s t s to make money ,
s c andalou s
" New C h i c ago "
remin i s c ent of the
l and speculation promotion s cheme
in Alv i s o whi c h had shocked the communi ty in the e ar l y
9
1890 ' s .
T h e f in a l b l ow c ame when t h e c i ty was not i f i e d b y
t h e federal government that i t wou ld have t o underwr i te the
entire cost o f the pro j ect to guarantee comp l e t i on ,
qu al i f y f or federal funds .
In May o f 1 9 3 9 ,
and thus
the San J o s e
City Counc i l announced t h a t there w a s " in su f f ic ient inte re s t "
10
i n the pro j e c t , and the sub j ect was dropped .
I ntere s t i n the pro j e ct moment a r i l y s u r f aced again
in 1 9 4 2 when the P e rmanente Cement Company of S an Jo s e
began production of m i l l io n s o f pounds o f cement f o r export .
But ,
e sc a l ation of Wor l d War I I s t i f l e d the pro j ect at an
early s tage o f p l anning .
Again ,
in 1 9 5 3 ,
the S an J o s e
Chamber o f Comme rce renewed e f forts to make the i r dream
p ro j e c t a r e a l i ty .
A 1 0 0 - f oot p i e r was bu i l t to import
g a s o l ine for ne arby Mo f fett F i eld ,
p o s ted on the mud f l at s that r e ad ,
and a s i gn was actu a l ly
" We l come to Port S an Jo s e . "
41
T o commemor ate the s e deve lopments ,
a bo ttle o f prune j ui ce
11
the p i er .
After
wa s sma s hed triumphantly at the end of
these not-too-ep i c event s ,
the pro j e c t once again f ai l e d to
mater i a l i z e .
By 1 9 5 9 ,
the never - s ay - d i e S an J o s e Chamber o f
commerce had mar s h a l l e d together a barrage o f s t at i s t i c s
and persuas ive argumen t s t o s how the f e a s i b i l i ty and
prof itabil ity of the e l u s ive pro j e c t .
T h i s time opp o s i t i on
surf aced in the f orm of the Oak l and Port Authority
for obvious re a s on s ,
Action was
opp o sed the p r o j e c t .
F in a l ly ,
delayed for f ive years .
who ,
in 1 9 6 4 ,
the Army Corps
of Eng i n e e r s r e l e a s e d a f o l l ow-up report which conc luded
that construction of the f a c i l i ty woul d c o s t an e stimated
$ 1 9 , 8 7 1 , 0 0 0 and wou l d need pr imary cargoes o f $ 1 mil l ion i n
annual revenue to j u s t i f y s u c h a l ar g e expenditure - -we l l
above the e s t imated annual revenue o f $ 24 0 , 0 0 0 pro j e cted
12
'
.
for sue h a f a c l' 1 lty
At l a s t ,
i t s e emed ,
But such i s not the c as e .
the pro j ec t was put to r es t .
In 1973 ,
sub s equent to the c ity
of Alv i s o ' s c o n s o l idation with S an J o s e in 1 9 6 8 ,
the c i ty
manager of S an J o s e noted that S an J o s e a c c epted the con
s o l idation with Alvi s o ,
i n part ,
for " . . .
the prote c t i on
of the prop o s e d devel opment o f a deep water port f ac i l ity . "
13
The dream o f a Port S an J o s e l ive s o n .
NOTES
1
Jan
0 . M. Broek ,
In Landscape Changes
2
Coun t y ,
ti cal
The Santa
(Utrecht,
Cl ara Va l l ey ,
1932), p .
Cal i fornia : A Study
164 .
San Jo s e Mercury Publ ishing and Printing Company , Santa Cl a ra
Cal i forn i a ,
and Its Resources :
(Alfred C. Eaton,
1 8 9 6) ,
p.
Historica l ,
Descripti ve ,
Statis
280.
3
ca.rrie Steven-Walter , " In California ' s Garden , " Santa Clara
County Board o f Sup ervisors , 1907 , p. 9.
4
1 9 1 1 , p.
Sa_n Jo s e Chamber of Commerce ,
61 .
" Santa Clara County , Cal i fornia , "
.
42
5
charles Goodman ,
'' San Francisco Bay Port for San Jose Once A
Dr em--Now A Goal , " San Jose Mercury News , November 2 ,
6
charles Goodma n ,
Hera l d , June 1 5 ,
7
8
1963 ,
p.
9
1947,
p.
33.
" Ri s e and Fall o f a Port , " San Jose Mercury
5.
Goodma n , op .
cit.
Lynn Ludlow ,
53.
" New Drive for Bay Port , " San Jose Mercury ,
James R.
Curti s ,
" Alviso ,
Historical Geography , " Ph . D .
University of Cal i fornia ,
10
Goodman ,
11
1958 , p .
Lud low,
op .
op .
June 1 2 ,
Cal ifornia: A Study in Cultural-
d i s s ertation ,
Los Angeles ,
Department o f Geography ,
1978 ,
Chapter I I .
cit.
c i t.
12
Lynn Ludlow, " Engineer Pessimistic About Possibility of Port
San Jos e , " San Jose Mercury News , March 8 , 1964 , p . 4 7 .
13
Ted Tedes c o ,
San Jose City Manager ,
" A lviso :
Background and
Recommendations , " A Report Presented to the San Jo s e City Counc i l ,
August 1 9 7 3 , p .
16.
43
V o l ume X V I I I ,
1 978
URBAN TRANS I T PLANN ING I N L O S ANGELE S
A C R I T I CAL ANALYS I S
Wa r r e n
R .
Bl and*
Los Ange l e s County r e s idents re ly ove rwh e lmingly on
the private automo b i l e and the i r f ine s tr e e t and h i g hway
1
Thi s auto dependence contribu t e s
sys tem for mob i l i ty .
heav i l y t o a number of s e r ious r e g ional prob l ems ,
r i s ing fue l consumpt ion ,
severe a i r p o l l u tion ,
wor sening tra f f i c conge s t i on .
i n c lud i n g
and
Al though there e x i s t s
con s iderable poten t i a l t o ame l iorate the s e problems v i a
expan s ion of publ i c tran s i t and i n c r e a s ing ave r age o c cupancy
of p r ivate automob i l e s ,
the pre s e n t s i tuation and short- te rm
pro s p e c t s of publ i c tran s i t and c arpoo l ing in L o s Ang e l e s
appear d i sma l .
sys tem
2
The met ropo l i t an area l ac k s a mode rn rapid tran s i t
and bal lot me a s u r e s au tho r i z ing s a l e s tax incre a s e s
to fund con s t ruct ion and ope ration o f such s y s tems were
defeated in 1 9 6 8 ,
1 9 7 4 and 1 9 7 6 .
Me anwh i l e ,
pub l i c
re s i s t an c e t o t h e mo s t powe r ful h igh o c cupancy veh i c l e
( HOV)
incentive , t h e HOV p r e f e r e n t i a l f re eway lane , h a s
caused both t h e C a l i f or n i a Department o f Transportat ion
( Cal tran s )
Governmen t s
and the S outhern Cal i f o rn i a A s s o c i at ion o f
( S �AG )
to back o f f con s ide rably f r om the i r 1 9 7 4
e spou s a l o f HOV lanes on nume rou s L o s Ang e l e s area f reeway s .
* Warren R. B l and is Prof e s sor of Geography at C a l i f orn i a S tate
Un iversity , Northridge .
44
Continued inadequate l o c a l and s t ate gove rnment funding o f
t h e S ou thern Cal i f ornia Rap id Tran s i t D i s tr i c t
region ' s p r i n c i p a l bus company ,
( S CRTD ) ,
the
nece s s i t ated f are increas e s ,
a cutback in a l r e ady in adequate s e rvice ,
and a subs t an t i al
3
1977 .
l ayo f f of S C RT D emp l o ye e s beginning July l ,
Al though much t ime and money have been s pent over
the past decade by state and l o c a l p l anning agen c i e s such
as S C RTD , C a lt r an s ,
tation s y s tem"
l acking .
and S CAG to p l an a " ba l anced transpor
for Los Ange l e s ,
prac t i c a l r e su l t s have been
Thi s p aper s e e k s to exp l a in thi s f a i lure and
re commends an urban tran sportation deve lopment s tr ategy
with greater pote n t i a l for succe s s .
Pas t
F a i l u re s
A variety o f c u l tural f actors contr ibuted t o d e f e at
of rapid tran s i t b a l l o t propo s i tions by Lo s Ang e l e s County
voters i n 1 9 6 8 ,
driv ing hab i t ,
1 9 7 4 and 1 9 7 6 ,
inc lud ing add ic tion to the
l ack of exp e r i en c e with modern rap id t r an s i t ,
s o c i a l s t i gma att ached to t r an s i t ridership ,
and general
pre f e rence to spend income on private con sumption rathe r
than on pub l i c pro j e ct s .
But the under lying f a c tor in the
de f e a t s was the inherent d e f e c tivene s s of the t r an s i t
4
propo s al s .
In 1 9 6 8
mile ,
the S C RTD propo s e d c o n s truction of an 8 9 -
double - tr ack ,
he avy m a s s t r an s i t sy s t em f o cu s e d on
downtown Los Ange l e s .
Thi s f ive-cor ridor sys tem was to be
fed by e x i s t ing bus l ine s augmen ted by 8 5 0 add i t i on a l bu s e s
operating ove r 3 0 0 m i l e s o f new bus route s .
P arking l o t s
and " k i s s and r ide ''
f a c i l i t i e s p l anned a t suburban s tations
5
In its
wou ld increase the acce s s i b i l i t y of the s y stem .
promotional l i terature ,
the S C RTD stre s s e d e a s y acce s s to
the s y s tem , noting that
. . . more than two - th i r d s o f the entire popu l ation of
Lo s Ange l e s County l ive wi thin ten minut e s travel
t ime o f the re commended r a i l route s ;
45
42 % o f the e s t imated 1 9 8 0 employment in Lo s Ange l e s
county w i l l be emp loyed within o n e m i l e o f the Rap id
Tran s it S y s tem ;
k i s s and ride f ac i l it ie s , expan s ive s tation parking
are a s and the new feeder bus s y stem c oup l e d with the
D i s t r i c t ' s ex i s t ing bu s f l eet wi l l make publ i c
tran sportation r e ad i l y acce s s ib l e t o v i rtua l l y a l l
r e s idents o f the D i s t r ic t . 6
I nc ongruously ,
S C RTD ' s travel pro j e c t io n s ind i c ated that the
rap id tran s i t sys tem would d ivert only about 6 percent of
the daily medium and long haul auto t r i p s along the f ive
corrido r s ,
7
periods .
and 2 0 percent of such t r i p s i n pe ak trav e l
C l e arly ,
the re s u l t s o f t h e mod a l s p l i t an alys i s ,
based c h i e f l y on comparative t r av e l time s and c o s t s o f
a l te rnate mode s ,
d i f fered con s iderably f rom what one wou ld
have expected f rom S CRTD ' s impre s s io n i s t i c and propagand i s
t i c d i s cu s s ion o f acce s s ib i l i t y .
The pub l i c was not s educed by the med i a c ampaign ,
and sound l y d e feated the Tran s i t D i s tr i c t ' s bal lot propo s i
tion .
Al though i t wa s supported s trong l y b y l ow inc ome
tran s i t -dependent individu a l s and by many h i g h income
voter s ,
it was unpopu l ar among the large s t s e gment of the
popu l a t ion ,
the middle inc ome group .
A p l au s ib l e interpre
tation o f th i s voting pattern i s that the poore s t e l ements
o f the popu l a t i on regard any improvement i n pub l i c t r a n s
portation as vital to the i r we l f ar e ;
high income groups
tend to support such pub l i c pro j e c t s a ltrui s t i c a l l y ;
and
the maj o r i ty middle income grou p , whi c h i s not t r an s i t
dependent and doe s n o t expect t o u s e pub l i c tran s i t unl e s s
i t o f f e r s c le a r c o s t and t ime s av ing s , wi l l not support tax
8
The
incr e a s e s to fund f a c i l i t i e s to be used by othe r s .
gene r a l pub l i c c l e arly s aw the c o s t s o f the propo sed r ap i d
tran s i t system a s exceeding the bene f it s .
S pe c i f i ca l l y ,
they could not j us t i f y expending 2 . 5 bi l l io n d o l l a r s to
bui ld an 8 9 -m i l e m a s s tran s i t sys tem that wou l d be
46
underut i l i z ed becau s e i t s h i g h c apac i ty l in e s were too f a r
f rom the i r res iden c e s and/or trip d e s t ination s ,
inconvenient to u ti l i z e .
and/or
I t i s d i f f i c u l t to f au l t the
negat i ve con s e n s u s of the e l e c torate when one con s iders that
mo s t r apid tran s i t u s e r s wou l d have h ad to use a car or
feeder bus s e rvice to c onne c t to the rap i d t r an s i t s y s tem
at one or both ends of the trip , with ac companying i n con
ven ience and t ime l o s se s ,
and that mo s t Los Ange l e s
r e s ident s have o n e or mo re c ar s ava i l ab l e for doo r - to -door
trave l .
The propo s a l s impl y d i d not o f f e r improved pub l i c
tran s i t t o enough people to win maj o r i ty suppo rt .
Re co g n i z ing that pub l i c pe rception o f rapid tran s i t
as l acking per sonal u t i l i ty in are as d i s t an t f rom the sys tem
was a factor in the e l ectoral d e f e at ,
develop a tran s i t propo s a l
the S C RTD s ought to
for the 1 9 7 4 e l e c t ion that would
meet the needs o f a larger con s t ituency .
con s idered three al ternate appro ache s :
t r an s i t s y s tem ,
Its con s u l tant s
an a l l - bu s rapid
an a l l - f ixed-guideway s y s tem ,
and a bus and
f ixed-guideway sys tem .
An a l l -bus rapid tran s i t sys tem with bu s e s r e c e iving
p r i o r i ty acce s s to f reeways and use of exclus ive bus or
bu s/c arpo o l lanes on f re eway s and s u r f a c e s tree t s o f fered
a number o f advan t age s ,
including wide and intens ive
9
cover age of service are a , energy e f f ic ie n cy ,
low c a p i t a l
cost s ,
and poten t i a l l y quick imp l ementation ,
construction wou ld have b e e n requi red .
as very l it t l e
It was r e j e cted
u l t imate ly because
l arge are as of Lo s Ange l e s l i e too far f r om f re eway s
to bene f i t f rom the k ind of h i g h - speed s e rv i c e which
only a grade - s ep arated f ac i l i ty such as a f reeway
can provide
[ and becau s e ] many of the are a s that
are too far f rom f reeways to make bu s rapid tran s i t
attract ive , exh i b i t high tran s i t-dependency rate s . l 0
A l s o o f concern we re f requent " t ie -ups at maj o r f re eway
47
i n te r chang e s " wh i c h wou l d s e r i ou s ly i n c r e a s e ave rage t rave l
11
ti me s .
An a l l - f ixed-gui deway rapid t r an s i t s y s tem was
re j e cted b e c au s e
. . .
" in order to ful f i l l anywhere near a l l
o f the rap id tran s i t requi remen t s o f t h e L o s Ange l e s are a ,
any f ixed-gui deway s y s tem wou ld be inordi n a t e l y exp e n s ive , "
12
and the h i gh c a p i t a l c o s t s per mi l e o f t rack wou ld have
nece s s i t ated wi d e s p ac ing o f l in e s r e s u l t ing in poor service
to l arge areas o f the sprawl ing Lo s Ange l e s reg i on .
S C RTD c o n s u l t an t s u l t imate ly re commended and the
D i s t r i c t adopted a comprom i s e propo s a l for a " ba l an c ed
rap id t r an s i t s y s t em . "
I t s key e l ement s we re a " ne ar - t e rm
bus improvement pro g r am , "
and a long-term p l an f o r con
s truct ion o f f ixed-gui deway rapid t r an s i t along s e l e cted
13
heav i l y tr ave l l ed corridor s .
The bus improvement program
fe atured add i t ion of 1 , 0 0 0 bus e s to the D i s tr i c t ' s 1 , 9 0 0
bus f le e t over a three -year period ,
and expan s ion o f
expre s s b u s service w i t h preferent i a l tre atment o n f reeway s
14
The l o n g - t e rm p l an was more
and sur f a c e s t re e t s .
ambiguou s .
It env i s aged u l t imate deve lopment of a 2 4 0 -m i l e
rap id tran s i t corr idor ne twork , b u t noted that n o t a l l o f
it n e e d be s e rved b y a s in g l e
( f ixed-gu i deway )
techn o l og y .
The i n i t i a l imp l ementat ion p l an f o r guideway cons truct ion
fore s aw a 1 4 5 -mi l e s y s tem , but hedged as to the " proper
phasing of
[ co n s truction o f ] the s y s tem . . . [ and i t s ]
15
prec i se conf iguration . "
F inanc i a l a s p e c t s o f the p l an
were l ikewi s e n e bu l ou s .
The c ap it a l c o s t o f the ini t i a l
imp l emen t a t i on program w a s 4 . 7 b i l l ion in 1 9 7 4 do l l ar s ,
and
it appeared l ik e l y that ant i c ipated s a l e s tax revenue and
matching f e d e r a l funds wou ld prove i n adequate a f t e r y e a r two
of
the program .
T hu s the D i s t r i c t found i t s e l f in the
unenvi a b l e po s ition of p l anning " to proceed with the ne ar
t e rm program as adopted ,
r e l y i n g on pro spe c t ive F e de r a l
48
pro g r ams and/or other publ i c fund sour c e s wh i c h may become
16
ava i l ab l e . . . . "
I n vi ew o f the gene r a l i ty o f the p l an ,
t a g o f 4 . 7 b i l l ion do l l ar s ,
f o r s t age one ,
the p r i c e
and t h e f ac t
that mo s t m i d d l e income vote r s d i d n o t s e e them s e l ve s a s
poten t i a l tran s i t r i d e r s under any c i rcums tan c e s ,
t h e sound
d e f e at of the 1 9 7 4 S C RTD b a l l o t propo s i t i on was not
surpr i s ing .
In the a f t e rmath of the 1 9 7 4 e l e ctoral de f e at ,
the
S CRTD was n e i t h e r t e c hn i c a l l y nor emot iona l ly prepared to
o f f e r a new p l an to the voters in 1 9 7 6 .
County S uperv i s o r Ward B axte r ,
amateur trans i t p l anner ,
tion s .
But Lo s Ang e l e s
a n abl e po l it i c i an and
did not s u f f e r f rom such l im i t a
Harking back to P a c i f i c E l e c t r i c ' s B i g Red C a r s
( e l e c tr i c al ly powe red l ight rai l vehic l e s ) , wh i c h provided
outs tanding intraurban t r ans i t in Los Ange l e s be fore the
tr iumph of the automobi l e , Ward deve loped a p l an f o r a
mass ive 2 3 2 -m i l e ,
5 . 8 b i l l ion dol l ar l ight r a i l s y s t em to
17
Howeve r , the Line wou l d
be c a l l e d the S u n s e t Coast Line .
not d i r e c t ly s e rv e many a r e a s of den s e popu l at ion .
capital costs as low as po s s i bl e ,
To keep
its rout e ne twork was
de l iberately a l i gned a long cheap r i gh t s - o f -way such a s
publ i c l y owned r iver channe l s ,
storm d r a i n s ,
e x i s ting or abandoned r a i l road track s .
d e s p i t e l a s t -minute S CRTD s pon so r s hi p ,
f re eway s ,
and
As expe cted ,
the b a l l o t propo s i
t ion t o fund con s truction o f the S u n s e t Coa s t Line v i a a
s al e s tax inc r e a s e was de f e ated in the 1 9 7 6 e le ction .
S CRTD e f f o r t s to provide an a l ternat ive to a lmo s t
e x c l u s i ve dependence o n the pr ivate automo b i l e i n Lo s
Ang e l e s were par a l le led in the 1 9 7 0 ' s by C a l trans and S CAG .
C a l t ran s reori ented s t ate t r an sportation p l anning f rom
expan s i on o f the e x i s t ing transportation s y s tem to i n c r e a s 18
.
.
.
lng
lts e f f l' C l ency .
T o t h l' S en d , Ca l trans work s c l ose l y
wi th SCAG , wh i c h has been d e s i gnated by t he Governor o f
49
c a l i f o rn i a a s the " Me tropo l i tan P l ann ing O r g an i z at i o n "
re spon s ib l e for mee t ing t h e T r anspo r t a t ion S y s tem Man agement
( TSM)
and Transport a t i on Improvement P r og r am
(TIP)
requ i r e
ments o f the Urban M a s s T r an s i t Act in t h e g re ater Los
Ange les r e g ion .
Unfortun ate l y ,
S CAG ' s pol i t i c i ans have
found i t impo s s i b le t o implemen t ,
o r in some c a s e s even
support , v i t a l e lement s o f a TSM p r o g r am recommended by
caltrans ,
even though many o f i t s e l emen t s we re included
in the 1 9 7 4 s h o r t - r ange transpo r t at i o n p l an deve l oped by
SCAG p l anne r s .
S CAG ' s 1 9 7 4
s h o r t - r ange t r a n s p o r t a t i on p l an was a
s trong a f f i rmat ion o f the need to reduce ene rgy con sumpt ion ,
tr a f f i c conge s t i on ,
and smog in the reg i on by reducing
ave r age veh i c l e mi l e s travel led .
It inc luded pre f e ren t i a l
tre atment o n f reeways and maj o r a r te r i a l s f o r h i gh o c cupancy
veh i c l e s ,
c arpoo l a c t i on p r o g r ams ,
. s,
strateg1e
b 1. cy c l e p r o g r ams ,
trans i t deve l opmen t
.
.
an d commuter r a 1 l serv1 c e .
19
P re fe re nt i a l t r e a tmen t f o r h i gh o ccupancy vehi c l e s
w a s the k e y e l ement in the 1 9 7 4 p l an ;
i t a lone cou l d pro
vide the incentives ne ce s s ary t o encourage c arpoo l ing and
dive r s ion of mo tori s t s t o a l te rnate mode s .
tex t ,
In thi s con-
a review of the D r a f t 1 9 7 7 Re g i o n a l T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
P l an o f S CAG a n d r e c e n t S CAG urban t r an sp o r t a t i on po l i c i e s
i s d i s q u i e t ing .
Pub l i c re s i s tance t o the mo s t powe r f u l
high o c cupancy v e h i c l e
t i al f r e eway l ane ,
1 9 7 4 p o s i t i on .
( HOV )
incentive , t h e HOV p r e f e r e n
c au s ed S CAG to r e t r e a t markedly f rom i t s
The S an t a Mon i c a and H o l l ywood f reeway HOV
l an e s we re d e l e t e d f rom the 1 9 7 7 p l an ,
and a r e s o lution o f
the S CAG executive comm i t tee urging imme d i ate ope n i n g o f a
comp leted but unopened n i n e -m i l e s e c t ion of the S an D i ego
f reeway HOV l ane as a gene r a l use l ane was impl emented by
20
Governor Brown .
S CAG ' s comm i tment to HOV l an e s on the
Long Beach and Arte s i a f r eeway s ,
and to the remainder of the
pre f e ren t i a l l ane p ro j e c t on the S an D i e g o f reeway ,
is now
50
only lukewarm .
The 1 9 7 7 p l an d e f e r s j udgment on whe ther the
new med i an l an e s being con s tructed on the s e freeways s hould
be p r e f e re n t i a l o r general u s e l an e s ,
or s a f e ty s houlde r s ,
un t i l p r e l iminary engineering data on pote n t i a l t ra f f i c
21
f l ow become ava i l abl e .
I n the f a c e o f s u c h uncerta i n ty ,
C a l trans announced that HOV l a n e s w i l l not be opened on
Los Ange l e s are a f re eways unt i l they have the suppor t of the
pub l i c and l o c a l pol i t i c i an s .
L i kewi s e ,
l it t l e has been
done to e s t ab l i s h HOV l an e s on heav i ly tr ave l l ed bou l evard s ,
to improve bus service ,
to develop c ommuter r a i l s e rv i c e ,
to en courage u s e o f b i cyc l e s for transportat ion .
or
Thi s
f a i lure to impl emen t program g o a l s h a s l e f t the C a l t r a n s
S CAG tran s portation s y s tem management program i n shamble s .
S u mma r y
and
R e commen d a t i on s
A f i l e o f expens ive t e c hn i c a l repo r t s i s the only
t ang i b l e evidence of e f fo r t s over the l a s t d e c ade to prov ide
a v i ab l e a l te rn a t ive to the pr ivate automobi l e for urban
tran s i t in Lo s Ange l e s .
The metrop o l i t an area s t i l l lacks
a modern rapid tran s i t s y s tem ,
its bu s s y s tem h a s been
improved only mode s t l y , and the regional TSM prog ram has
not been imp l emented because o f c i t i z e n and me d i a oppo s i t ion
to the HOV l ane ,
i t s mo s t powe rful inducement to use o f
c arpool s and publ i c t r an s i t .
T h i s paper h a s contended that poor t r an s i t p l anning
has been the b a s i c f a c tor in the paraly s i s of transporta
t i on improvemen t programs in Los Ange le s .
Cul tur a l factors ,
e s p e c i a l l y the s trong pre ference of Lo s Ang e l e s r e s i d e n t s
t o dr ive a lone , have a l s o contr ibuted .
The de f e ated 1 9 6 8
prop o s a l was for a h e avy mas s t r an s i t s y s tem w i t h a h i g h
c arrying capa c i ty in appropr iate i n t h e sprawl ing ,
popu l ation d en s i ty Lo s Ang e l e s region .
low
Such a sys t em wou ld
have met the transportation needs of few Los Ange l e s r e s i
dents because o f the wide spacing o f i t s route s ,
and wou l d
51
have been very expen s ive r e l at ive to expe cted r i d e r ship .
Th e 1 9 7 4 tran s i t propos i t ion o f fered e s s e n t i a l ly mor e o f the
same and was l ikewi s e not approved by the e l e cto rate .
War d ' s
defeated 1 9 7 6 propo s a l was a l s o techn i c a l l y d e f i c ient .
It
recommended a l i ght r a i l sy s t em more approp r i a t e t o the
carrying c apa c i t i e s required i n Lo s Ange l e s ,
but wou l d have
been bu i l t along e x i s ting ri ght s -o f -way in indu s t r i a l or
low den s i ty r e s ident i a l are a s .
Poor phy s ic a l p l anning d o e s not explain the
s tymying of the TSM program deve l oped in 1 9 7 4 by C a ltrans
and S CAG .
I ndeed , phy s ic a l p l anning to i n c r e a s e ave rage
vehi c l e occupancy and t r an s i t u s e ,
the reby reducing con
g e s t i on and air po l lution and con s e rving e ne rgy , was sound
and e n t i re ly co n s i s tent with federal guide l i n e s for TSM
22
The f ai lure was behav i o r a l and p o l i t i c a l , and
prog rams .
pe rhap s inherent in the nature of the two o r g an i z at i on s .
C a l t r an s ,
who s e pr imary fun c t i on i s p l anning and construc
t i on o f tran sportation f a c i l i t ie s , was unprepared to p l an
and wage the k i nd of pub l i c r e l at io n s c ampaign requi red to
convi nce the pub l i c and po l i t i ca l l e ade r s that the T S M
program made s en s e and w a s v i t a l to the we l l -be ing o f t h e
community .
As a r e su l t ,
early e l ement s o f t h e TSM program ,
e sp e c i a l ly the Santa Mon i c a and S an D i e go f r eeway HOV lane s ,
appe ared to many c i t i z e n s as an unn e ce s s ary and inc onve n i en t
i n f r ingement o f
" the ir r i g ht s '' t o unre s t r i cted u s e o f
" their f reeway s '' .
T h e ensuing storm o f prote s t engendered
a s ympathet i c re spon s e from local po l i t i c i an s who we re more
23
confortable '' ro l l ing with pub l i c o p i n i o n •
than with
r i sking e l e ctoral repercu s s io n s .
As a r e s u l t ,
S CAG f a i l e d
t o p u r s u e imp l emen t a t i on o f i t s transportation p l an s .
Thi s
put an unsuppor table burden on C al t r an s , whi c h has had to
be ar the brunt of c r i t i c i sm of
coop e r a t ively with S CAG .
the TSM po l i c ie s
it deve loped
52
Under s tand ing p a s t f a i lu r e s prov i d e s a bas i s f o r
a n urban t ran sportation developmen t s t rategy with greater
potent i a l f o r succe s s .
Such a s trategy s hould inc lude a
c l e a r s t atement of goal s , me asures required to attain the s e
g o al s , a n d a powe r f u l pub l i c r e lations c ampaign to educate
the publ i c o f the c o s t s and bene f i t s o f the propo s ed pro
g r am ,
and of a l te rnat ive s .
Three lon g - t e rm goa l s o f a Los Ang e l e s r e g i o n a l
transport ation p l an s hould inc lude :
Z ero i n c r e a s e i n veh i c l e m i l e s trave l l e d
(1)
between 1 9 7 7 and 1 9 9 5 ( S CAG ' s regional t ransporta
t i on p l an pro j ec t s an increase o f 1 5 p e r c en t ) .
(2)
A mod a l s h i f t f rom 9 7 . 5 percent of pe r s on
t r i p s b y pr ivate auto i n 19 7 7 to 8 5 percent in 1 9 9 5
( S CAG p ro j e c t s a s h i f t f rom 9 7 . 5 to 9 4 percent .
( 3 ) Gre a t ly increa s ed u s e of publ i c t r an s i t ,
c arpoo l s , bicyc l e s , e tc .
S ome progre s s toward the se g o a l s w i l l occur in
r e spon s e to free market mechani sms such a s increa s ed co s t
o f auto own e r s h i p and operation .
requi re add i t io n a l measure s ,
But t h e i r attainment w i l l
some of whic h may b e po l i t i c
a l l y unapp e a l i n g i n t h e s hor t - te rm but v i t a l t o the longt e rm e conomic h e a l th of the r e g i on .
(1)
s y s tem ;
Such me asures i n c l ude :
A ma s s ive expan s i on o f the regional bus
(2)
Vigorous prov i s ion of p r i o r i ty treatmen t
f o r bu s e s and c arpoo l s to g ive them a compe t i tive
P r io r i ty
advantage over s in g l e -occupant cars .
t r e atment t e c hn i que s wou l d inc lude :
(a)
F r e eway ramp mete ring to promote
f ree f l ow ;
(b)
Ramp meter by-pas s l a n e s f o r high
o ccupancy vehi c l e s ;
(c)
E x c l u s ive HOV lanes for high
oc cupancy veh i c l e s on conge sted s e gments o f
t h e reg ional f re eway network , e . g . o n t h e S anta
Mon ic a , S an D i e g o , Ventura -Ho l l ywood , and Harbor
f reeway s ;
53
(d)
HOV l ane s on c o ng e s ted boul evards such
a s W i l s h i re , O l ymp i c , S anta Mon i c a , Van Nuys , and
Ventura .
Deve lopment o f a l i ght r a i l rapid tran s i t
(3)
sy stem o r iented t o ma j or arte r i a l s o f the den s e ly
p opul ated parts o f the reg i on by 1 9 9 5 .
T he pub l i c r e l at i o n s c ampa i gn should empha s i z e that
the recommended me asures are v i t a l to envi ronme nt a l health ,
to retention o f a h i gh l eve l o f mob i l i ty ,
and to the future
e conomic v i ab i l i ty o f the re g i on in an era o f r i s ing
energy c o s t s and p oten t i a l s c arcity .
I t s hould emph a s i z e
that the total program i s not expen sive compared t o the
mounting c o s ts o f c ontinuing our pr e s ent ways ,
and that the
sooner a start is made on imp lementing the p l an ,
u l t imate c o s t s w i l l be .
the l ower
In the pre s ent i n f l ation ary c l imate ,
the f in a l point s hould be an argument the voter c an under
stand .
NOTES
1
southern Cali fornia As sociation of Governments ,
Regional Transporta t i on P l an , November 1 9 7 6 ,
2
Abraham J . Fal ick ,
Trans it System Today ? "
of Engineers
3
&
Ray Hebert ,
4
Draft 1977
4-9.
" Why Does n ' t Los Ange les Have a Mass Rapid
Transpo LA ,
Proceedings of Los Angeles Council
4th Annual Sympos ium , November 1 2 ,
Sci en ti s t s ,
Los Angeles Times ,
pp .
197 5 ,
n.p.
" Sharp Increase in RTD Fare s , More Layo ffs Forecas t , "
May 2 1 ,
Brian Stipak ,
1 9 7 7 , Part 1 , pp .
l,
24 .
" Explaining the 1 968 Transit Vote in Los Ange l e s , "
unpubl ished research pap e r ,
n . d . , pp .
l- 2 0 .
ence o f partisanship , population density ,
from the propo sed sys tem ,
Stipak assessed the influ
age ,
turnout rate , distance
income , and ethni city ,
and found that distance
from the propo sed system was the most important s ingle variabl e .
5
southern Cali fornia Rap i d Transit District , A Final Report t o
t h e Peopl e of the L os Angeles Metropo l i tan Are a Regardi n g a Fi rs t '-Stage
System of Rap i d Tran si t ,
6
7
Ibid.
rbid. ,
p.
CC- 4 .
Los Angeles , May 1 9 6 8 , pp .
RTD-1 1 .
54
8
Stipak ,
This interpretation i s consistent with Stipak ' s data .
op .
c i t . , pp .
9
Neal F .
Brian
1 8- 2 0 .
Lansing and Howard R .
Ros s , Energy Consumption by
Transi t Mode , prepared for Southern C a l i forn i a Association o f Governments ,
March 1 0 ,
1974 , p .
10
32.
southern Cal ifornia Rap i d Transit District , A Pub l i c Transpor
pp . 2 1- 2 3 .
ta t i on Improvement Program , March 19 7 4 ,
11
12
13
.
Ib1 d . , p .
23 .
rbid. , p.
24 .
southern Cali fornia Rapid Transit D i strict ,
July 1 9 7 4 , pp . 7- 13 .
Trans i t for Los
Ange l es C o un t y ,
14
.
Ib1d. , p .
15
Ibid . , pp .
16
17
9.
. . , p.
Ib1d
1 3- 1 6 .
23.
Ray Heber t ,
" RTD Gives Initial OK t o Put Transit Proposal on
Ballot , " Los Angeles Times , March 2 7 ,
1 97 6 ,
Part 1 , pp .
1,
18 .
18
An
warren R. Bland , " U rban Transportation Planning i n Cal i fornia :
Evaluation , " paper del ivered at Association of P a c i f i c Coast Geog
raphers Annual Mee ting,
19
H i lo ,
Hawai i , June 2 2 ,
1 9 7 7 , pp .
l- 4 .
southern C a l i fornia Association of Governments ,
Transport a t i on
Frameworks for the Cri tical Deci s i ons Transporta t i on Pl a n ,
p.
Spring 1 97 4 ,
45.
20
w.
o.
Ackermann , Jr . , Memorandum t o SCAG Execu t i ve Conmli t tee
March 8 , 19 7 7 ,
on Hi gh Occupancy Veh i cl e Program and Preferen t i a l Lanes ,
pp .
l l- 1 2 .
21
22
'
Ib1 d . , p .
u. s . ,
4 2 9 7 5- 4 2 9 8 4 .
23
9.
Federal Regi s te r , Vo l .
E r i c Haley ,
40
( S eptember 1 7 ,
1 9 7 6 ) , pp .
Counci lman of City of Riverside and Vice Chairman ,
SCAG Transportation and Utilities Committee , statement to SCAG General
Assembl y ,
Pasadena ,
C a l i forni a , March 1 1 ,
1977.
55
t he C a I i fo r n i a G e o g raP._,_
r
h""
e:..!.
______________
V o l ume X V I I I , 1 9 7 8
T H E GEOGRAPHY OF RAI L PAS SENGER SERVICES
IN CAL IFORN IA AND NEVADA , 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 7 0
I .
E .
Quas t l er *
The hi s tory o f the Ame r i c an p a s senger train can be
traced to the beginnings of common carr i e r service by r a i l
in 18 3 0 .
T h e ra i l ro ad proved to be gene r a l l y t h e mo s t
e f f i c i ent way t o move peop le between c it i e s .
role grew rapidl y ,
I t s p a s s enger
and by the last decades of the n ineteenth
century i t a lmo s t monopo l i z ed long d i s t ance pas s enger move
men t s .
T h i s important role f or the p as s enger train
continued we l l into the twentieth century .
However ,
even
as rider s h ip wa s i n c r e a s ing during the f i r s t two decad e s ,
techno l o g i c a l d eve lopme n t s were taking p l ac e that wou ld
we aken the demand f or t r ave l by rai l .
In f a c t , t o t a l
1
Thereafter ,
r ider s h ip r eached i t s a l l - t ime p e a k in 1 9 2 0 .
except dur ing Wor ld War I I ,
the number of r id e r s d e c l ined
e ach ye ar f o r over h a l f a century .
the p a s s enger t r a i n
By 1 9 7 0
it appeared that
( except in commut e r service s )
verge of d i s appe a r i n g f r om the Ame r i can s cene .
inte rven t i on ,
was on the
Only federal
through the e s t ab l i shment of the National
Rai lroad P a s s enger Corpor at i on
( Amtrak )
in 1 9 7 1 ,
prevented
th i s f r om h appen in g .
*Dr .
I.
State Univers ity .
E.
Quastler is P rofes sor of Ge ography at San D i ego
56
The purp o s e o f th i s s tudy i s to d e f i ne and explain
the chang ing geography o f r a i l pas senger s e rvi c e i n
C a l i fornia and Nevada f rom 1 9 0 0 unt i l 1 9 7 0 , o n e y e ar b e f o re
2
During the s e s even d e c ad e s the
the advent of Amtrak .
nature and locat i on o f rail pas s enger service changed
substant i a l l y in re spo n s e to a v a r i e ty of f o r c e s both
within and outs ide of the indu s try .
The spe c i f i c approach
t aken here is to map the locat ion o f such service at
regu l ar interv a l s through t ime ,
to de f ine change s in the
geography o f p a s senger t r a i n s between t h e s e d a te s ,
and to
exp l a i n the s e change s in t e rm s o f the ma j o r variabl e s that
a f fected the demand and supply o f r a i l t r an s po rtatio n .
The p r imary data s ource on C a l i f orn i a and Nevada
p a s s enger operations was the O f f i c i a l Guide o f the Railways
( OG R ) . 3
This monthly pub l i cation , wh i c h f ir s t appeared in
1 8 6 8 , l i s t ed e s s e nt i a l l y a l l rail pa s s enger s ervi c e s i n the
Un i ted S ta t e s during the s tudy years .
Ther e f ore ,
it was
po s s ib l e to map the d i s tr i bution o f p a s senger t r a i n s on
common carrier r ai l roads in the s tudy are a ,
t h e change s i n s e rvice o v e r t ime .
and to d e f i n e
The bas i c measure o f
s e rv i c e which c an b e de rived f r om the O G R i s t h e train-mi l e ,
for only the number of
l i sted .
s chedu led t r a i n s on each route was
The r e s u l t i n g map s of the f re quency o f train
s e rvice are the mo s t accurate repre sentation o f s e rv i c e by
rout e s for the s tudy y e a r s whi c h c an be produced today ,
no h i s t o r i c a l data on ridership are ava i l able .
for
I nte rurban
r a i l road s and s e rv i c e s are exc luded from con s ideration ,
for
the interurban o f fered a d i ff e rent type o f s e rv i ce and u s e d
a d i f ferent t e chno l ogy than the " s te am rai l ro ad s "
4
here .
cons idered
Al l r a i l l in e s in C a l i f o r n i a and Nevada we re
c l a s s i f ie d as e i ther main or branch l ine s .
the ana l y s i s ,
T h i s f ac i l i tated
for p a s senger train h i s to r i e s for these type s
o f l ine s tended to d i f fe r radi c a l ly .
Because no pre c i s e
57
de f initions o f the s e terms are ava i l ab l e ,
route s c l a s s i f i e d
a s main l in e s a r e tho s e l i s t e d as o f f e r i n g " through s e rv i ce "
i n the 1 9 4 4 e d i t i on of the Rand McN a l l y H andy Ra i l road
�
( except the S an D i e go and Ar i z ona E a s te rn Rai l road ) .
5
Al l other s e gmen t s we re d e s i gnated as b r an c he s .
s e rvi c e
in
1900
I n 1 9 0 0 r a i l pas s enger s e rv i c e had been o f fe re d for
6
about 4 5 years in the s tudy are a .
I n the i n t e r im the
rai l road network had expanded to the point where re l at i v e ly
few s e t t l e d parts o f C a l i forn i a or Nevada we re without at
l e a s t min ima l s e rv i c e .
Although f re i ght was undoubtedly
the dominan t source o f income for the indu s t ry , the s t ate s '
compani e s put muc h energy into the i r p a s s enger operation s .
At thi s t ime mo s t p a s s enger t r a i n s s e em to have been
pro f i table ,
and they were con s idered to be both an e x c e l lent
7
source of pub l i c i ty and important to the c orporate imag e .
On a f ew l ight tr a f f i c d e n s i t y l ine s , p a s senger t r a i n s may
have been operated because they were requ ired by the
corporate f r an ch i s e .
P erhaps the outst anding geograp h i c characte r i s t i c
of r a i l p a s senger s e rv i c e in C a l i fornia and N evada in 1 9 0 0
was i t s wide spread avai l ab i l ity within the ne twork
In that year ,
the s e s tate s
s e rv i c e
hand l e d ,
( F i gu re 1 ) .
6 , 6 2 4 out o f a total o f 6 , 6 0 0 route -mi l e s i n
( 9 9 . 4 percen t )
( Table I ) .
Of
h a d some k ind o f p a s s enger
the 3 6 m i l e s where on l y f r e i ght was
the longest was a 1 6 -mi l e s e gment between E lwood
and S an t a B arbara on the new c o a s t a l main l ine between
S an Franc i s c o and Lo s Ang e l e s then und e r c o n s t ru c t ion by the
S outhern P ac i f i c Rai l ro ad
( SP ) .
I n mid- 1 9 0 0 t h i s s e gment
had appare n t l y been comple ted recently and fre ight s e r v i c e
wa s o f fered ;
however ,
i t apparently was no t yet in proper
cond i t ion for p a s senger ope r a t ion s .
Even t h i s exception
s erve s to i l lu s tr ate the near unive r s a l i ty of p a s senger
58
F R E Q U E N CY O F PAS S E N G E R TRAIN SERVI CE, 1 900
C A L I FO RN I A AND N E V A D A
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AFPROXUIAH NUM!f R O I THINS
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UNSCHHIUl!D UAINS INIUU�aAN tiNES AND OP'I:RATIONS.
AND NON-to,.PON tAARIU UILRIJIOS NOT I!ItLUOEO
BOTH D I RECTIONS
TRAINS PER DAY'
1-11
1 2- 1 3
14-21
22-35
36-49
50-63
64-77
78-91
92-105
7
106-119
8
- 1 20-133
- 134+
10 +
PASSENGER SERVICE PROVIDED, IIUT
FREQUENCY NOT SPECIFIED
•THESE FIGURES ONLY APPROXIMATE
THE LEVEL OF DAJLY SEII:VICE
"- ,
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FREQUENCY OF SERVICE
T R A I N S P E R WEEK
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>,
59
Table
1
Changes in C a l i forn ia and Nevada P a s s enger
S e rvic e , 19 0 0 - 19 7 0
1900
1915
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
Tota l Mileage
6 , 660
1 0 , 309
10, 349
9 , 888
9 , 1 88
9 , 27 7
9 , 00 6
Main Line M i l eage
2 , 853
4 , 668
4 , 668
4 , 668
4 , 668
4 , 668
4 , 6 68
Mil eage with
Passenger Service
6 , 624
1 0 , 07 7
9 , 53 0
6 , 931
5 , 145
5 , 06 1
3 , 98 2
99 . 4
97 . 7
92 . 1
70.1
56 . 0
54 . 5
44 . 2
1 68
459
419
350
283
191
75
Weekly Main Line
TM ' s ( 1 , 00 0 )
98
3 2 5.
336
317
269
179
72
Weekly Branch Line
TM ' s ( 1 , 0 0 0 )
70
134
83
33
15
11
3
Percent o f M i l eage
with P a s s enger
Service
Total Weekly TM ' s l
( 1 , 000)
Percentage Change in
Weekly TM ' s
+1 7 2 . 6
-0 . 9
+231. 5
+3 . 4
+ 90 . 2
-37 . 8
Weekly Main Line TM ' s
-16 . 5
-19 . 1
-32 . 7
- 60 . 4
5.7
-15 . 3
- 33 . 3
- 60 . 0
-60. 2
-55. 7
- 21 . 6
-70 . 9
-
Weekly Branch Line
TM ' s
Average Number of Trains
Daily in Each Direction ,
1 . 81
3 . 18
2 . 89
2 . 53
2 . 20
1 . 47
0 . 60
2 . 46
4 . 98
5 . 15
4 . 85
4 . 11
2 . 74
1 . 10
l . 32
l . 69
l. 04
0.45
0 . 23
0 . 18
0 . 06
All Lines
Daily in Each Direction , Main Lines
Daily in Each Direction, Branch Lines
1
Sourc e :
TM
=
train-mi les
Calc ulated from data i n t h e Offi cial Gui de of the Rai l ways .
60
s e rv ic e s o n the e x i s ting l ine s .
On mo s t rou t e s at l e a s t one
train was operated in each d i rection d a i l y ,
but only t r i
weekly s e rv i c e w a s o f f e red o n some l in e s to smal l communi
ties in Nevada and e a s tern Cal i f o rn i a .
Although p a s s enger trains were wid e spread ,
average f requency of s e rv i c e wa s r ather l ow .
the
In 1 9 0 0 ,
the
typ i c a l s e gment s aw only 1 . 8 1 t r a i n s d a i l y i n each d i r e c tion .
T h i s r e l a t ively sma l l f i gure s eems to re f l ect a low leve l o f
demand i n many rura l are a s o f the two s t a te s .
T h i s was
e sp e c i a l l y the c a s e for branch l i ne s , where the ave r age
d a i ly den s i ty was only 1 . 3 2 trains e ach way .
Furthe r ,
it
r e f l e c t s the sma l l popul ation s o f Cal i f orn i a and Nevada ,
for
the s t ate s had onl y about 1 . 5 mi l l ion and 4 2 , 0 0 0 r e s ident s ,
8
r e s p e c t ive ly .
Even main l in e s ave r aged only 2 . 4 6 t r a i n s
daily ,
a f igure l owe r t h a n f o r a n y subs equent s tudy year
except 1 9 7 0 .
On the main l in e s ,
cons iderab l y b y location .
the Atchison ,
f requency o f service d i f f e r e d
At one extreme , both the
Topeka and S anta Fe
( AT & SF )
SP
and
rou t e s into Los
Ange l e s f rom the east supported only one train daily i n e ach
d i r e c t ion .
Thi s probably re f l e cted the early s tate of the
e conomic deve l opment o f southern Cal i forn i a ;
at thi s t ime
9
even Los Ange l e s had only 1 0 2 , 0 0 0 i n habitant s .
The S P ' s
transcontinental rou te into the S an Franc i s c o B ay Area and
i t s Los Ange l e s -Bay Area l in e s supported three t r a i n s d a i ly
in each direction .
Of the o th e r important main l i ne s , both
the S P route f rom Oakl and to Port l and and the AT & S F l ine
f rom Los Ange l e s to S an Diego s upported two trains p e r day .
The g re ate s t dens i ty of
longer and intermediate d i s t an c e
( 5 0 - 1 5 0 mi l e s ) m a i n l ine trains was i n t h e t r i angu l ar area
between O ak l and ,
S ac r amento and S tockton , which was s erved by
a total o f 1 5 S P and 3 AT & S F t r a i n s p e r d ay .
The h i ghe s t l e ve l s o f s e rvice on both main l i n e s
and branch l in e s w e r e found in t h e two l a rge s t metropo l i tan
61
areas o f C a l i f o rn i a .
In the S an F r an c i s co B ay Area ,
there
wa s already a we l l e stabli shed rail commuter s e rv i c e
b e tween S an F r an c i s c o and S an J o s e by 1 9 0 0 .
In Marin
county a l arge commute r traf f i c had also deve loped in
con j unction with f erry s e rv i c e f rom S au s a l ito and T i buron
to San F r anc i sc o .
On the E a s t B ay ,
s i z ab l e s e rv i c e was
provided between Oakl and and Avon , with f e rry conn e c t i on s
to S an F r an c i s c o .
The Los Ange l e s are a a l s o had a we l l -developed
network of commuter l ine s l inking the various parts of thi s
In 1 9 0 0 the e l e c t r i c inte rurban s y s tem
polynu c l e a r reg ion .
was j u s t beg inning to be formed, and s te am trains p l ayed a
con s iderable role in short-haul p a s senger trave l .
S P routes
radiated f rom downtown Los Ange l e s to such p l ac e s as
P a s aden a ,
S an B e rnardino ,
Redondo Beach and S an t a An a .
An
e sp e c i a l l y dens e pattern o f s e rvi c e s was provided by a
number of r a i lroads to c i t i e s south and southwe s t of down
town .
Judg ing from the i r s chedu le s ,
the s e trains p r i n
c i p a l l y provided gene ral mob i l ity between t h e wide spread
growth cente r s o f the metropo l i tan areas .
In 1 9 0 0 even the San D i e go are a , w i th only 1 7 , 7 0 0
people i n i t s central c i ty , had local s t e am p a s seng e r
10
s e rv i ce s .
Here a number o f short l ine compan i e s p rovided
o c c a s ional trains to ne arby commun i t i e s such as F o s te r ,
El C a j on ,
La Mes a ,
Sweetwater and La Jo l l a .
S ome route s
were bui l t in con j un c t ion w i th real e st ate deve lopments ,
patte rn repe ated in many p a r t s o f the nat ion .
Ange l e s ,
Peri od
in Los
f ew of the s e trains s e rved as commuter l ine s .
II ,
1 9 01 -1 9 1 5
B e tween 1 9 0 1 and 1 9 1 5 ,
and its
As
a
the f ar we s t e rn r a i l n e twork
level of p a s s enger s e rv i c e grew exten s iv e l y .
C a l i fornia and Nevada ' s route-m i l e ag e expanded by
approximate ly 5 5 percent ,
inc r e a s ing from 6 , 6 6 0 to 1 0 , 3 0 9
62
m i le s ,
11
and mo s t are a s previous l y without rai l r o ad s
southern Nevada ,
(e . g . ,
the Imp e r i a l Val l e y and the zone between
Uk i ah and Humboldt B a y )
acqu i r ed them .
Much of thi s
expan s ion was
in main l ine s , which incre a s e d f rom 2 , 8 5 3 to
4 , 6 6 8 m i le s .
F rom north to s outh ,
the mo s t s i gn i f i c ant
add i t i o n s we re a new We s te rn P a c i f i c Ra i l road
f rom S al t Lake City to Oakl and ,
( WP )
route
the comp l e tion of the S P ' s
c o a s tal main l ine between the S an F r an c i s co B ay Are a and
Lo s Ang e l e s ,
Rai l road
and the S an P edro ,
( SL & S ,
Lo s Ang e l e s and S al t Lake
l a t e r the Union P ac i f i c )
f r om Lo s Ange l e s to
Las Veg a s and S a l t Lake C i ty .
During thi s p e r i od the f r equency o f r a i l p a s senger
s e rv i c e s increased over three time s as fast as the m i l e a ge -
the 1 9 1 5 total o f 4 5 9 , 0 0 0 weekly train-m i l e s w a s 1 7 2 . 6
percent above the f igure f o r 1 9 0 0 .
I n 1 9 1 5 the ave rage l in e
i n Cal i fo r n i a a n d Nevada r a n o v e r three t r a i n s d a i l y i n each
d i r e c t i on ,
e a r l i er .
compared with l e s s than two trains 1 5 y e a r s
T h i s expan s i on was concentrated on m a i n l ine s ,
where the average s e gment h ad almo s t f ive t r a i n s d a i l y each
way ,
or over twi c e the leve l i n 1 9 0 0 .
As a r e s ul t ,
the
percentage of a l l train-mi l e s generated on the main l ine s
i n c r e a s ed f rom 5 8 . 3 to about 7 1 percen t .
Rai l p a s s e n g e r
s e rv i ce s con t i nued to be wide spre ad w i t h i n the n e twork ; with
at l e a s t some
s e rv i c e on 9 7 . 7 p ercent o f the rou t e -m i l e s in
1915 .
P erhap s the outstanding trend o f the 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 1 5
p e r iod was the great increase i n the number o f long d i s tance
pas senger trains ,
particul arly on the transcontinental
rou t e s into Lo s Ange l e s .
By 1 9 1 5 the S L & S route into that
c i ty was served by three t r a i n s d a i l y i n each d i r e c t io n .
The AT & SF had i n c r e a s ed from one to f ive t r a i n s d a i l y
( plus
one f rom Ari z ona to L o s Ange l e s via the P arker bran c h ) ,
whi l e the S P had i n c r e a sed f rom one to four
add i tional s ho rte r d i s tance trains ) .
( wi t h s ome
Such dramati c increases
63
FREQ U E N CY O F PASS E N G E R T RA I N S E R V I CE, 1 91 5
C A L I FO R N IA A N D N E V A D A
-
,
- - - - -- ----- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
1
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- -
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FREQUENCY Of SERVICE
TRAINS PER WEEK
BOTH D I RECTIONS
.,.......
TRAINS PER DAY•
EACH DI REC TI O N
(, ,
••
"'
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l
osou-..s
1-11
12-13
1<-21
22-35
36-49
"
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50-63
.
"
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tl'llT
"'
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64-77
78-91
92-105
106-119
- 1 20-133
- 1 3 .4 +
..
10 +
PASSENGER SERVICE PROVIDED, IUT
FREQUENCY NOT SPECIFIED
"THESE fiGUlES ONLY APPIOXIMATE
THE lEVEl OF DAILY SEIVICE
..
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64
n o doubt were a re f l e c t ion o f the cons iderable g rowth o f
southern Cal i f orn i a .
In addi t ion ,
they imp ly a l arge
increase in d i scre t i on ary income s in c e 1 9 0 0 .
F inal ly ,
the
opening of two ma j o r expo s itions in Cali f o rn i a in 1 9 1 5
( in S an D i e g o and S an F r an c i s co )
12
led t o the operation o f a
few additional train s .
Service a l s o i nc re ase d imp re s s ively o n s everal other
main l in e s to Lo s Ang e l e s .
The number o f train s operating
to S an Diego g rew f rom two to f ive in e ac h direction d a i ly .
The total f r equency o f se rv i ce between the S an F r an c i sco
B ay Area and L o s Ange l e s a l so g rew sub stan t i ally .
S in c e
1 9 0 0 the S P ' s c o a s t a l m a i n l in e between thes e p l a c e s h a d
b e e n comp l eted , a n d t h r e e t r a i n s per d a y operated ove r i t s
entire length .
With f ou r trains v i a the Central Va l l ey ,
thi s meant that s even t r a i n s now connec t e d the two m a j o r
Cali forn i a me tropol itan are as v e r s u s o n l y three in 1 9 0 0 .
Service on the o r i g i n a l transcontinental route to
Oakl and a l s o experienced large inc r e a s e s .
comp leted WP oper ated three trains dai l y ,
The newly
and the p a r a l l e l
SP l i ne had four , more than dou b l i n g total s e rvice on t h i s
route s i n c e 1 9 0 0 .
On t h e SP l ine north to Oregon ,
the
frequency in 1 9 1 5 was double that 15 years earl i e r .
One o f
the s e t r a i n s operated over a new main l in e north o f Weed
into Oregon via K l amath F al l s .
The AT & S F ' s trans continenta l
s ervice between B a r stow and the Bay Area a l s o g r ew f rom one
to four t r a i n s a day i n each d i rection .
Both the S P and
AT & S F a l so ope rated s everal addi tional t r a i n s on the main
lines f rom the East B ay to ma j o r c i t i e s in the San Joaquin
Valley .
By 1 9 1 5 there were some maj o r changes in the 1 9 0 0
patte rn s o f s ho r t d i s tance " st e am rai l ro ad " p a s s enger
s e rv i c e s within C a l i forn i a ' s two l arge s t me tropo l i s e s .
Such s e rv i c e s had decl ined s harply around L o s Ang e l e s as
the P ac i f i c E le ct r i c
(PE )
interurban l ine s , better suited
65
to ser ving s hort d i s tance p a s s enger trips ,
in cre a s i n g t ransportation r o l e .
a s sumed an
In i t s expan s i on the PE had
even absorbed a numb e r o f forme r steam r a i l ro ad s .
other h and ,
On the
the numb e r of intermedi ate d i s tance t r a i n s from
Lo s Ange l e s to such po i n t s as Rive r s ide ,
S anta B arbara and
san Bernardino had i n c r e a s ed .
In c ontra s t to the s i tuation around Los Ange l e s ,
between 1 9 0 1 and 1 9 1 5 the number o f s hort-d i s tance trains
i ncreas e d in the S an F r an c i s c o B ay Are a .
A ma j o r new
suburban s e rv i c e had developed betwee n S an Franc i s co
f e rry) ,
Oak l and .
train s ,
Oakland ,
( vi a
and S tonehu r s t s ta t io n south o f downtown
In 1 9 1 5 t h i s route was s e rved by three d a i ly
f ive trains that operated d a i ly except Sunday s ,
f ive more trains on S unday-only s chedu l e s .
and
During thi s
per iod commuter s e rv ic e a l s o i n c r e a s ed con s i derably between
San Fran c i s co and S an J o s e
( add itional t r a i n s r an only a s
f a r a s May f i e l d and Redwood C i t y ) ,
we st to Port Co s t a .
and f rom Oak l and north-
On the other hand ,
s t e am-powered
commuter operation s decl ined in Mar in County ;
as i n Lo s
Ange l e s ,
the main cause of thi s decl ine was the introduction
13
o f e l e ctri f ie d interurban train s .
Over interme d i ate d i s tance s ,
the f requ ency o f
s e rv i c e between the Bay Area and S acramento i n c r e a s e d
sharp ly .
route s ,
p e r day .
T h e S P Rai l ro ad connected the s e c i t i e s o v e r three
the mo s t d i re c t o f wh i c h
( v i a Davi s )
t o u s l ine s through T racy v i a A l t amont P a s s
or Avon .
r an ten t r a i n s
Addi tional trains were operated ove r more c i rc u i
On the Altamont P a s s route ,
( N i l e s Canyon )
the SP s ervi c e s we re
supplemented by WP train s .
Two o th e r areas had h i g h - f requency ,
trains at t h i s t ime .
short d i s t an c e
I n and around E l y , Nevada ,
a commuter
s e rv i c e for miners was operated by the Nevada Northe rn
Rai l road
( NN ) .
There were al s o two l in e s wi t h s ho r t
d i stance s te am t r a i n s around S an Diego ,
extending from the
66
central c i ty to F o s t e r and Sweetwater over the S an D i ego
and S ou th e a s te r n Rai lway
( SD & SE ) .
As in 1 9 0 0 ,
r e l a t ively
few SD&SE t r a i n s had s c hedu l e s that suggested they we re u s e d
for the j ourney t o work .
Peri od
III ,
1916-1930
Between 1 9 1 6 and 1 9 3 0 the two - state r a i l ne twork
rema ined rel ative ly s t ab l e ,
with both new cons truction
( north o f We l l s , Nevada and northwe s t of Alturas ,
and s ome track abandonment
C a l i f o rn i a)
( no t ab ly in t he mining z o n e s o f
southern Nevada a n d e a s te rn C a l i f o rn i a ) .
The total route
m i l e age the r e fore i n c r e a s ed by only 4 0 m i l e s .
During thi s period a number o f important new f o r c e s
eme rged t h a t decre as ed t h e demand for trave l b y r a i l .
Mo s t
prominent was the rapid r i s e i n travel b y bus and p r ivate
automobi l e , part i cu l ar l y the l a tte r .
income s ,
low c ar p r i c e s ,
With i n c r e a s e d ave rage
and e conomic pro s p e r i ty ,
i n the
1 9 2 0 ' s the Uni ted S t ate s moved rapidly toward be coming a
moto r i z e d n ation .
At the s ame t ime the network o f p aved
rural roads was expand ing .
The imp a c t of the s e c hang e s was
a decl ine in patronage o f p a s senger t r a i n s a f t e r 1 9 2 0 .
I n i t i a l l y the greate st imp act o f the r i s ing u s e o f
c a r s and bu s e s w a s o n branch l ine p a s s enger train s .
I t was
here that r a i l s e r v i c e was s l owe s t and mos t i n f requen t , and
the refore mo st s u s c e p t i b l e to new compet i t io n .
B u s e s could
o f fe r a f a r greater f requency of service over the s ame
route ,
for the e qu ipment u n i t was better sui ted to the leve l
of demand .
The pr ivate automobi l e o f fered the po s s ib i l i ty
of an inf inite frequency ,
some thing that no f o rm o f pub l i c
t r an sportation cou l d hope t o match .
As a r e s ul t , many
former branch l in e c u s tome r s began to u s e h i g hway t r an spor
tation ,
apparent ly some t ime s as a more conven ient way to
gain acce s s to long d i s t ance p a s s enger train s .
branch s e rv i c e s
Furthe r ,
( and s hort d i s tance t r a i n s in gene ral )
were
67
FR EQ U EN CY O F PASS E N G E R T RA I N S E R V I CE, 1 9 30
C A L I F O R N I A A N D N EV A D A
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64-77
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92-105
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PASSENGU SEIVICE PROVIDED, IUT
FREQUENCY NOT SPECifiED
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68
r e l a t i vely exp e n s i v e to operate ,
and r a i l man agers s ometime s
took the opportun i t y e i th e r to reduce the leve l of b ran ch
l ine ope r a t i o n s o r to abandon them altoge ther .
The reduc-
t i on of s e rv i c e tended further to we aken the demand for such
t r a in s .
As a r e sul t ,
total branch l ine t r a i n -mi l e s
d e c l ined by 3 7 . 8 p e r c e n t between 1 9 1 6 and 1 9 3 0 .
The chang e s in branch l ine s e rvi ce wer e unevenly
d i s t r ibuted .
On a numbe r o f s egmen t s
we s t e rn P ac i f i c
( NWP )
i n c r e a s ed a f t e r 1 9 1 5 .
to Eure k a )
(e. g . ,
the North
f requency actu a l l y
Typ i c a l ly ,
howev e r ,
the numbe r o f
t r a i n s o n s e condary l i n e s d e c l ined f rom two or t h r e e to only
one t r a i n daily e ach way ,
On the ave rage ,
or even to le s s than d a i l y s e rv i c e .
the l ev e l of branch l ine s e rv i c e d e c l ined
f rom 1 . 6 9 t r a i n s d a i l y i n e ach d i r e c ti o n in 1 9 1 5 to 1 . 0 4
f i f teen y e a r s l a t e r .
The d e c r e a s e of branch l ine s e r v i c e was not
dup l i cated on the main l in e s ,
for the car and bus were no t
yet se rious comp e t i to r s f o r long-di s t an c e movement s .
fact ,
In
total t r a i n -mi l e s o n s u c h l i n e s i n c r e a s e d b y 3 . 4
p e r ce n t .
Th i s sma l l incre a s e was not enough to o f f s e t the
rapid d e c l i n e i n branch l i ne s e rv i ce s ,
so that total t r a i n -
mi l e s de c l i ned b y n ine percent .
B e c a u s e o f the s e_ change s ,
the i n c re a s ing concentration of
s e r v i c e s on the main l ine s
of the 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 1 5 p e r iod cont inued .
By 1 9 3 0 f u l l y 8 0 p e r
c e n t o f t h e total t r a in-mi l e s w e r e gene rated o n m a i n l ine s .
Cl early ,
the branch l ine p a s s en g e r t rain was p l ay i n g a
rap i d l y d e c r e a s ing r o l e in interc i ty t rave l .
The average l e v e l of
s e r v i c e on the main l in e s
i n c r e a s ed f rom almo s t f ive to 5 . 1 5 t r a i n s d a i l y i n e ach
d i r e c t ion during t h i s p e r i od .
pccurred o n two S P route s :
The l a rge s t incre a s e s
on t h e c o a s t a l main l ine f rom
San F r anc i s c o to L o s Ange l e s the f requency chang ed f rom
three to s ix t r a i n s p e r day ,
and on the southern tran s
continental route i t r o s e f rom four t o s ix .
O n the AT & S F ,
69
the number o f t r a i n s on the Need l e s -Lo s Ange l e s route
i n c r e a s e d f rom f ive to s even t r a i n s dai l y .
In contras t ,
s er vi ce between Oak l and and B a r s tow was only hal f as high
in 1 9 3 0 a s i t h ad been in 1 9 1 5 ;
i t i s quite po s s ib l e that
the c i rcu i ty o f thi s rai l ro ad ' s l ine f rom Chi c ago to the
Bay Are a
( v i a B a r s tow )
compared with SP ' s d ir e c t route may
have been a f a c t o r i n thi s d e c l ine .
The ba s i c s trengths and weakne s s e s o f comp e t i t ive
route s may a l s o help account f o r change s in main l ine
On the central
servi c e s i n no r thern C a l i f o rn i a and Nevada .
trans continental route i n to the B ay Are a , the numbe r of
train s operating remained stable at seven .
Howeve r ,
the
locat ion o f the s e servi c e s c hanged a s the SP ' s longer route
gained at the expen s e o f the WP .
By 1 9 3 0 s ervice between
the Bay Area and Oregon had i n c r e a s ed by one train d a i l y ;
now mo s t t r a i n s took the interior route to Port l and v i a
K l amath F al l s .
In addition to f our Los Ange l e s - S an Fran c i s co
trains v i a the Central Va l l ey ,
f rom t h e Bay A r e a to F r e sno
F ina l l y ,
the SP ope r ated f our t r a i n s
( v i a Lo s Bano s o r Mod e s to ) .
the e a r l i e r d e n s e c o r r idor s e rvic e s between
Sacramento and Oakl and remain e d ,
both on the d i r e c t l in e to
the northe ast and on the two longer rou t e s v i a Tracy .
With the excep t ion of the S an Fran c i s co - S an J o s e
commuter c o r r idor ,
s hort d i s t ance s t e am s e rvi c e s c ontinued
to d e c l ine d r a s t i c al ly in the f a c e o f automobi l e ,
interurban c ompe t i tion .
appeared comp l e t e l y around S an D i ego ,
and they had d e c l ine d
almo s t as sharply around Lo s Ange l e s and E l y .
In Los
Ange l e s , many l in e s now only had f re i ght s e rvi c e s ,
almo st al l local
bus and
By 1 9 3 0 s u c h s e rv i c e s had d i s
and
trains on the main l ine s had d i s appe ared .
Even the E a s t Bay c ommuter t r a i n s h ad l a r g e l y been abandoned
by 1 9 3 0 ,
1915 ,
to some degree replaced by interurban s .
As in
some s ho r t e r d i s tance t r a i n s remained out s i de the
areas s e rved by the inte rurban s .
I n contra s t ,
the S an
70
Franc i sc o - S an J o s e commut e r s e rv i c e o f the S P continued to
increas e ,
re f l ec t ing both that area ' s g rowth as a p r e s t i g ious
suburb of S an F r anc i s c o and the lack o f e f fe c tive in terurban
compe ti t ion .
Period
IV,
1 9 31 - 1 9 4 0
B ecau s e the rai lroad i s a high f i xe d c o s t form o f
transportat ion ,
r a i l managers have a d i f f i cu l t t ime ad j u s t i n g
c o s t s to f a l l ing demand .
As a resu l t ,
the Great Depres s ion
a f f e cted thi s mode with particular force ,
soon went b ankrup t .
and many comp an i e s
During thi s dec ade the r a i lroads
c ame incre a s in g ly under p re s sure to e l iminate uneconomic
activitie s .
Among the f ir s t operations to come under care
ful s crutiny were branch and short-di s t ance pas s enger train s .
Such t r a i n s had continued to expe rience s harp drop s i n
r i der s h i p a f t e r 1 9 3 0 , not only b e c a u s e o f the divers ion o f
p a s s engers t o bus e s and c a r s b u t a l so because o f t h e lower
demand that c ame with decre a s ed in come s .
The great e c � nomic
pre s su r e s o f the t ime led to abandment o f both money-lo s ing
p a s senger t r a i n s and more than 4 5 0 mi l e s o f track .
when a ma j o r e conom i c upturn was beginnin g ,
By 1 9 4 0 ,
the s e Great
Depre s s ion pre s su r e s had exerted a con s iderable in f l uence
on the geog raphy o f r a i l p a s senger s e rv i c e s in C a l i f o rn i a
and Nevada .
B e tween 1 9 3 0 and 1 9 4 0
s e rv i c e o f the s tudy are a
by 1 7 percent .
the total r a i l ro ad p a s s enger
( in t r a i n -mi l e s p e r wee k )
P re d i c t ably ,
d e c l i ned
the d e c l i ne was more pro
noun ced on branch than on main l ine s , whe re total s e r v i c e
d e c r e a s ed b y only 5 . 7 pe rcent .
Because o f t h e severe
e c onomic pre s su r e s on branch l ine t r a i n s , many s e c ondary
routes l o s t a l l p a s s enger s ervic e s .
By 1 9 4 0 ,
f r e i ght-only
t r ackage in C a l i f o r n i a and Nevad a totaled c l o s e to 3 , 0 0 0
mile s ,
ve rsus l e s s than a t h i rd that f i gure ten y e a r s
earl ier .
Further ,
thi s c hange doe s not cons ider the
71
FREQ U E N CY O F PASSE N G E R TRA I N S E R V I CE, 1 940
C A LIFO RN I A A N D N E V A D A
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BOTH O I RECTIONS
TRAINS P E R DAY'
HCH D I RECTION
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22-35
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64-77
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92-105
106-119
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72
add i tional s ervice that was l o s t when s e gmen t s we re tot a l l y
abandoned .
train s ,
Because of
the m a s s ive withdrawal of p a s senger
s everal parts o f the s tudy area
( part i c u l ar l y the
Central Val ley and northe a s tern Cal i f orn i a )
had concentra
tions of fre ight-only l i ne s .
On t he o th e r hand ,
the
long-di s t an c e p a s s e n g e r train
we athered the Great Depr e s s ion rathe r we l l .
This s tabi l i ty
was probably due prima r i l y to the l ack o f e f f e c t ive long
d i s tance inte rmod a l comp e t i t ion ,
al though the s trength o f
e s tabl i s hed hab i t s and maj or marketing e f forts b y r a i l roads
may a l so have been invo lved .
During the d e c ade ,
s e rv i c e on
the AT & S F ' s transcontinental l ine to Los Ange l e s actual ly
i n c r e a s ed by one train d a i l y i n e a c h d i r e c t io n ,
a s did i t s
s e rv i c e o n the l i ne between the B ay Are a and the Central
14
Va l ley .
I n general , s tabi l i ty a l so c haract e r i z e d the
S P ' s main l ine s ;
the bigge s t c hange was the l o s s of two
i n t e r s tate t r a i n s on the southe rn tran scontinental route .
On the other hand ,
further a f te r 1 9 3 0 ,
the WP ' s long d i s tance s e rvice d e c l ined
so that only one train per day was being
operated over the main l ine to Salt Lake C i ty .
The WP a l s o
operated a d a i ly round t r i p between Oak l and and Reno .
S in c e 1 9 3 0 thi s r a i l road and the Gre at Northern
j o in t l y had cons tructed the " in s ide gateway"
( GN )
route f rom
the WP main l in e in e a s tern Cal i f or n i a northward into Oregon
v i a B iebe r .
S ig n i f i c antl y ,
thi s late addi tion to the net
work never s aw more than temporary and mixed
f r e ight )
train service ,
( p a s s enger
and even t h i s was only o f fered
sporadi c a l l y .
Except between San F r an c i s c o and S an Jose ,
by 1 9 4 0
intrametropo l i tan p a s s enger operations had d i s appeared .
The
S an Jose commuter s e rvice was maintained at approximate l y a
ste ady l ev e l during this dec ade .
In 1 9 4 0 ,
the den s ity o f
p a s senger trains o n thi s route con s iderably exceeded that of
any other l ine i n the s tudy are a .
73
period
V,
1 9 4 1 -1 95 0
The demand for rai l p a s senger s e rv i c e varied gre atly
During Wo r l d War I I p a s s e n g e r t rave l
be tween 1 9 4 1 and 1 9 5 0 .
in c reased rap i d ly ,
both becau s e of g r e a t numb e r s o f mi l i t ary
trave l e r s and becau s e of decreased u s e o f cars and bu s e s
bec ause o f g a sol ine and t i re rationing .
Riders hip peaked
in 1 9 4 4 ,
the l a s t fu l l year o f the war , and d e c l ined rapidly
15
The pr imary cau s e o f the d e c l ine was the
th e r e a f te r .
revival of h ighway t ransportatio n ,
but the r i s e of a i r
tran sportation a l so began t o e f f e c t the p a s senger train .
By 1 9 5 0 ,
the s e deve lopme n t s had l e d to a substan t i a l
de c l i ne in r a i l p a s senger s e rv i c e s in C a l i forn i a and Nevada .
During the de c ade total train-mi l e s d e c re a s e d by 1 9 . 1
p ercent and , b e c a u s e o f the inc re ase d e f f e ct ivene s s o f long
di s t ance comp e t i t ion by a i r and highway , main l in e s e rv i c e
decl ined almo s t as rapidly
( 1 5 . 3 percent ) .
T h e s lower
relat ive d e c l ine of main l ine t r a i n s meant that the concen
tration of p a s senger s e rv i c e s on the s e route s c on t i nue d .
In 1 9 5 0 ,
9 4 . 8 pe rcent of
the t r ai n -m i l e s in the two s ta t e s
wa s generated on main l in e s ,
t r a i n s o f any kind .
In f ac t ,
and f ew b ranche s s aw p a s senger
branch l ine service was
r e s t r i cted largely to tho s e rout e s that we re mo s t l i ke main
l i ne s ,
such a s the S an D iego and Ar i z ona E a s tern
between S an D iego and El Centro ,
Fresno v i a Lo s B an o s ,
Eureka .
( S D &AE )
the SP betwee n Tracy and
and the NWP be tween San Ra f a e l and
By 1 9 5 0 over 4 , D O O mi l e s of track in the two s ta t e s
( 4 4 percent o f t h e tot a l )
s aw o n l y f r e i g h t s e r v i ce .
As had been true e a r l i e r ,
s e rv i c e s wa s unevenly d i s tr ibute d .
Franc i s co-Los Ange l e s route s ,
the d e c l ine in main l ine
On the S P ' s two S an
for examp l e ,
s e rv i c e v i a the
Central Val ley remained con s t ant , wh i l e on the c o a s t a l
route
( with f ewe r l arge i n terme d i ate c i ti e s )
two t r a i n s per d ay .
i t d e c l ined b y
On t h e S P a n d AT & S F between the Bay
74
�,�
�
FREQUENCY OF PASS E N G E R TRA I N S E R V I CE, 1 9 50
--
CALIFO R N I A A N D N E V A D A
c: �J
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- - - - - ----- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -
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-
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TRAINS PER WEEK
BOll! O I H C T I OHS
TRAINS PER DAY'
EACH DIRECTION
0
1-11
12-13
14-21
22-35
36-49
50-63
64-77
5
78-91
6
92-105
7
- 1 06-1 19
- 1 20-133
- 1 34+
..
10 +
FIEQUENC'f NOT SPECIFIED
THE lEVEl Of DA.IlY SUVICE
Cl'lll
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Sll& [
'ASSENGU SUVICE PROVIDED, IUT
.,-HESE FIGURES ONLY APPROXIMATE
.
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F igure
5.
'
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"-,
75
Area and ma j o r San Joaquin Va l l e y c i t i e s the level o f
service gen e r a l ly d e c l ined b y o n e t r a i n p e r day .
T h e s ame
rate o f d e � l ine a l s o app l i e d to the route from Oakl and to
In contr a s t ,
oreg on .
i n cre ased with the
long d i s t an c e s e rvice on the WP
inauguration in 1 9 4 9 of
the
c a l i forn i a Z ephyr between C h i c ago and Oakl and .
f amou s
The S an J o s e
co mmute r l i ne a n d t h e SP route f rom Oakl and t o Dav i s
continued t o have t h e h i ghe s t p a s senger t r a i n den s i t i e s in
the study are a ;
a l though in both c a s e s thi s s e rvice had
de cl i ned somewhat s in c e 1 9 4 0 .
Of the main routes into Los Ang e l e s f rom the south
and e a s t ,
the f requency on the AT & S F ' s trans continental
l ine via Need l e s decreased mo s t s harply
( f rom e i ght to s ix
trains p e r day ) , wh i l e serv i c e on the Union P ac i f i c
SP route s remained the
trend ,
s ame .
( UP )
and
I n a s l ight rever s a l o f thi s
the number of t r a i n s between Lo s Ange l e s and S an
Diego i n c r e a s ed f rom four to f ive per day ,
as both c i t i e s
experienced con s ide rab l e popu l a t io n growt h .
Ove ral l ,
the
average main l ine in 1 9 5 0 s t i l l had a rel at ive ly high l e ve l
o f pas senger s e rv i ce
Pe r i o d
VI ,
( 4 . 1 1 t r a i n s per day e ach way ) .
1 9 51 - 1 9 6 0
I n general ,
continued to 1 9 6 0 ,
the trends evident be tween 1 9 4 0 and 1 9 5 0
but at an a c c e l e rated pace .
period national in come ,
c ar owne rship ,
During th i s
and the m i l e age o f
l im i t e d a c c e s s i n t er c i ty road s i n c r e a s e d g re a tl y , with a
paral l e l decre a s e in the demand
In add it ion ,
for rai l p a s senger s e rv i c e s .
the a i r l ine indu s try began to p l ay a large role
in interc i ty common carrier t rave l .
T r a f f i c divers ion to
a i r was reinforced by the i ntroduc tion of turbo j et a i r c r a f t
l ate in the period ,
f o r t h i s innovati on provided both
greater speed and lower uni t operating c o s t s .
in the number of p a s sengers ,
o f operation s ,
The dec l i ne
c oupled wi th increas ing c o s t s
led to a p e ak l o s s o f about $ 7 2 3 mi l l ion o n
76
F R EQ U EN CY OF PASSE N G E R T R A I N SERV I CE, 1 960
C A L I FO RN I A A N D N EV A D A
.\-----;--,------- ----- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -!--- ---,
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100
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m
w
- =-
TRAINS PER WEEK
BOT� D I R E C T I ONS
TRAINS PER DAY•
EACH DIRECTION
1-11
12-13
1 4-21
22-35
36-49
"
tl'lo�T
�
50-63
64-77
78-91
92-105
"�·
·�·
106-1 1 9
- 1 20-133
- 1 3 .4 +
10 +
PASSENGER SEIVICE PltOVIDED, IUT
flfQUENCY NOT SPECIFIED
..
.
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.
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•THESE FIGURES ONlY A"lOltiMATf
THE LEVEL Of DAILY SUVICE
F i gure
6.
"
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,,
,,
,,
,,
77
pas s enger trains by the indus t ry in 1 9 5 7 .
16
Faced with
eno rmo u s operating l o s s e s and a r ap i d decl ine in patronage ,
in the s econd h a l f o f the d e c ade the indu s t ry moved to
e l iminate many mone y - l o s ing s e r v ic e s .
Thi s trend was
ac cele rated in 1 9 5 8 when the Inter st ate Comme rce Commi s s ion
libera l i z ed i t s p o l i c i e s on a l l owing the wi thdrawal o f
. s . 17
pas s enger traln
G iven the s e un f avorab l e trends ,
the total number o f
train-mi l e s d e c l i ned b y about 3 3 percent .
The rate o f
dec l ine w a s somewhat l arger f o r main l ine s than branche s .
The decre a s e s in service we re remarkably evenly d i s t ributed
over the main l ine s ;
on mo st ,
the re was one l e s s
1 9 6 0 than there had been i n 1 9 5 0 .
train in
The two prominent
exceptions were on the AT & S F main l ine between Need l e s and
Los Ange l e s ,
pe r d ay ,
where s e rv i c e d e c l ined f rom s i x to four trains
and be tween Lo s Ang e l e s and S an D iego , where service
inc r e a s ed again .
E l s ewhere in 1 9 6 0 , mo s t main l in e s s aw two
or three trains d a i l y e a c h way .
The average total number o f
train s d a i l y o n C a l i forn ia and Nevada main l ine s decl ined
from 4 . 1 1 in 1 9 5 0 to 2 . 7 4 ten years l a te r .
On branch l i ne s ,
by 1 9 6 0 p a s s enger s e rv i c e e x i s ted
only on a few l ine s that con s t i tuted unu sual c a s e s .
important Tracy-Lo s Bano s -Fre sno route ,
On the NWP ,
The
retained one train .
the I nt e r s tate Comme rce Commi s s i o n had been
reluctant to approve abandonment because the trains s e rved
some r e l at i v e l y i so l ated commun i t ie s .
The heav i e s t branch
l ine s e r v i c e actu a l l y wa s found o n the s ho r t Cal i fo rn i a
We ste rn Raidroad
( CW )
between Wi l l i t s and F t .
B r agg ,
thi s was l ar g e l y oper ate� as a tour i s t attract i on .
but
In 1 9 6 0 ,
4 , 2 1 6 m i l e s of track in the s tudy area had no p a s senger
service .
As
in e ar l i e r years ,
the h i ghe s t p a s s enger train
frequency was on the commuter route between S an Franc i s c o
and San J o s e .
Thi s l ine averaged 2 8 t r a i n s in each
78
d i r e c t ion per day ,
on weekday s .
but mo s t service wa s actu a l l y concentrated
D e s p i te the high p a s senger coun t s ,
the SP l o s t
money on thi s operat ion .
Peri o d
VII ,
1 961-1 9 70
During the 1 9 6 0 ' s r a i l p a s senger s e rv i c e in the
United S t a t e s exp e r i enced another sharp d e c l ine .
1960 ,
As be fore
the main cau s e s o f the d e c l ine on the demand s ide we re
increas ing comp e t i t i on f r om h ighways
( p ar t i c u l a r l y w i th the
growth of the Inte r s t ate H ighway S y s tem )
of air service s .
and great expan s ion
I n C a l i fo rn i a a i r comp e t i t i o n was inten s i
f i ed by the eme rgence o f a n e f f i c ie n t and inexpe n s ive
18
.
'
1ntras
tate a1. r 1 1ne
.
On t h e supp l y S l. d e , r a 1. 1 p a s s e n g e r
s ervice continued to become more expe n s ive to o p e r a t e v i s - a
v i s i t s m a i n compe t itor s , particularly becau s e i t i s s o
19
l a bor- inte n s ive .
As a re sul t , t h e l e v e l o f rai l p a s s enge r
s e rv i c e d e c l ined by over 6 0 percent on both the main and
branch l in e s .
Thi s d e c l ine was so dra s t i c tha t by 1 9 7 0 the
service on many main l ine s amounted to l i tt l e mo re than
tokeni sm .
During the 1 9 6 0 ' s the S P management hel d a s trongly
ant i -pas senger train p h i l o sophy ;
its goal was to con s o l idate
a l l main l ine t ra f f i c into a s in g l e train wheneve r
20
.
l 1' n e s
p o s s 1. bl e .
There f ore , by 1 9 7 0 almo s t a l 1 SP ma1n
h a d only one or f ewer t r a i n s d a i ly in e ach d i r e c t i o n .
t r i -weekly s e rv i c e was provided o n two maj o r route s
P o r t l and and Oakl and-Chicago ) �
the
stanti a l l y .
( Oakl and
the s ame woul d s oon app ly to
southern transcontinental route .
pas senger-ori ented S an t a F e ,
Even on the more
service had d e c l ined sub
In 1 9 7 0 only one train was operated d a i ly
between Richmond and B a r stow ,
and only two t r a i n s ran
between Los Ang e l e s and Need l e s on the l in e to Chicago .
hi ghe s t f requency o f AT & S F s e rvi c e ,
S an D i ego ,
Only
The
betwe en Los Ang e l e s and
was only ha l f as many trains
( thre e )
in 1 9 7 0 a s
79
F REQ U EN CY O F PASSEN G E R T R A I N SERVI CE, 1 970
C A L I FO R N I A A N D N E V A D A
........ ....�...
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-
411
GO
80
lllll
-===
MitES
Of
NUM!ER! AlONG liNES RHU TO
A,.,Kfi�IMAU N
U
TRAINS
OAilY IN EACH OiftECTION
UII!I
TRAINS P E R WEEK
BOTH O I RECTIONS
TRAINS PER DAY'
EACH D IRECTION
1-11
1 2-13
U-21
22-35
36-�9
50-63
6�-77
78-91
92-105
7
106-1 1 9
••>IE, IO!OWfO! tC'""' U">Ol "UilU I! I' 111•11•
U
.!
ll
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l.
!
!
!.
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- 1 20-133
- 134+
.
. •
..
10 +
PASSENGU SERVICE PROVIDED, IUT
FIEQUENCY NOT SPECIFIED
•THESE FIGURES ONlY APPROXIMATE
THE LEVEL Of DAilY SERVICE
F igure
7.
"'
fU"OI!CO
'"0
80
a d e c ad e earl i e r .
During t h i s dec ade ,
the WP became the
f i r s t maj o r c a r r i e r in the study are a to e l iminate a l l
p a s senger train s .
Over a l l ,
in 1 9 7 0 the ave rage main l ine
had only 1 . 1 trains daily in e ach dire c tion .
On the branch e s ,
a f ew unusual c a se s continued to
account for some ope r ation s .
The greate s t den s i ty again was
found on the CW between Wi l l i t s and F t .
train s were oper ated d a i l y .
Bragg , where four
Between Wi l l i t s and Eurek a ,
the NWP continued to operate a tri -weekly s e l f -conta ined
d i e s e l r a i l c ar .
The S P a l s o operated a d ai ly service f rom
S an Franc i sc o to Monte rey ,
only for a f ew m i le s .
but t h i s train ran on a branch
In 1 9 7 0 ,
but 4 4 p ercent o f the m i l e age
in the two s t at e s had p a s s enger s e rv i c e of any k ind ;
over
5 , 0 0 0 route-m i l e s were f r e i ght-on l y .
S u mma r y
and
C o n c l u s i on s
Between 1 9 0 0 and 1 9 7 0 the geography o f p a s s e n g e r
train s e rvic e s in Cal i f ornia a n d Nevada c hanged gre atly i n
response to f o r c e s b o t h inte rnal a n d e x t e r n a l to the indus try.
B e c a u s e of the d i f ferential impact of the s e force s ,
the
change s were d i s tr ibuted unevenly both through time and
space .
With f ew exceptions , s e rv i c e s on branch l ine s
d e c l ined e a r l i er and at a f as te r rate than on main l ine s .
As early as the 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 3 0 p er i od ,
d e c l ined b y 3 7 . 8 p e r c en t .
bran c h l in e train-mi l e s
By 1 9 7 0 the branch l ine p a s s enger
train had almo s t d i s appeare d .
The s ame rapid d e c l ine
character i z ed intrame tropol itan s ervi c e s
( except between
S an Franc i s c o and S an Jo s e ) , whi c h were d i s p l aced by inter
urban s ,
bus e s and private automobi l e s .
T he ma in l i n e train encountered s e rious intermodal
competition much l at e r than i t s branch l ine counterpart .
Main l ine train-m i l e s continued to incre a s e unt i l 1 9 3 0 ,
on one l ine there was an increase as l ate a s 1 9 6 0 .
and
Higher
f requenc i e s wer e particul arly common on the main l in e s to
81
Lo s An g e le s ,
a s that metropo l i tan area g rew rapid l y .
l i n e s e rv i c e s began to d e c r e a s e rapidly a f te r 1 9 5 0 ,
onl Y one period
( 1 9 5 1 -1 9 6 0 )
Main
but in
did they d e c l ine at a greater
r ate than bran c h l ine operation s .
Ove ra l l ,
between 1 9 0 0 and
1 9 7 0 there was an almo s t continuous tendency toward
c onc entrat i on on the main l ine for rai l p a s senger s e rvi c e s .
By 1 9 7 0 main l ine t r a i n s ac counted for almo s t 9 6 percent o f
t otal train-m i l e s gener ated in C a l i fornia and Nevad a .
W i th a long h i s tory of d e c l i n e , by 1 9 7 0
\.
1t h ad
become c l e ar that the non-c ommuter p a s s e n g e r train was
danger of becoming extinct
On some ma j or route s ,
oper ations ) .
in
( except for some touri s t
even the nominal s e r
vice s ti l l be ing provided w a s threatened with imminent
I t had become c l e ar that wi thout government
abandonme n t .
intervention , the interc ity p a s senger train wou l d di s appear .
Thi s f a c t was soon tran s l ated into pol i t i c a l a c t ion by a
sma l l number of vocal advoc a t e s of p a s s e n g e r train s .
May 1 ,
1971 ,
a government- sponsored c o rp o r a t io n
began to operate most i n t e r c i ty service s ,
On
( Amtr ak )
and a new e r a for
the Amer i can p as s e n g e r train had be gun .
NOTES
1
U.S. ,
Uni ted States ,
Bureau of the Census , Historical Sta t i s t i cs of the
Colonial Times t o 1 9 70 ,
ment Printing Offic e ,
1975 ) , p .
729.
Part 2
(Washin gton :
U.S.
Govern
Hereafter referred to a s Histori
cal Sta tis tics .
2
Most studies of the growth and decline of the American
pass enger train have been done by historians and economi sts .
See John
F . Stove r , The Life and Decl ine of the American Railroad (New York :
Oxford Univer s i ty Press ,
porta tion Act of 1 9 5 8 ;
University P r es s ,
3
1 9 69 ) , pp .
Hilton ,
( Bloomington :
The Trans
Indiana
1 1 - 1 3 and 9 7 - 1 5 4 .
offi cial Gui de of the Rai lways
Pub l ication Company ,
4
1 9 7 0 ) , passim and George W .
A Decade of Experience
(New York :
National Rai lway
date varies ) .
rn California th.e functions of the interurbans did not d i ffer
as greatly from their steam railroad counterparts . as was the case in
most of the rest
of
the country .
1\
82
5
S t a t es
Rand McNally & Company , Handy Rai l road A t l a s of the Uni te d
(Chicago :
Rand McNally & Company ,
1 9 44 ) , p .
2.
The exc lus ion of
the San D i ego and Arizona Eastern was based on the j udgment that it was
considerably l e s s important than the other main l in e s .
map inc luded the fol lowing l ines :
Utah border to Oakland ;
(2)
(l)
The Rand McNally
The WPand SP railroads from the
the SP from the Oregon border to Oakl and ,
both v i a Sacramento and via Wil lows ; ( 3 ) the SP Central Valley route
from Oakland (via Antioch or N i l e s Canyon) and Sac ramento to Los Angeles
via Modesto ,
and the coastal line from San Fran c i s c o and Oakland to Los
Angele s ;
(4)
the AT&SF lines from Needles to Los Angeles and Oakland via
Barstow;
(5)
the AT&SF l in e from Los Angeles to San Diego , and
( 6)
the
Union P a c i f i c route from the Nevada-Utah border to Los Ange l e s .
6
ward McA fee ,
Golden West Books ,
7
Ca l i forni a ' s Rai l road Era ,
197 3 ) , p .
1 8 50- 1 91 1
( San Marino :
35.
Although p a s s enger operations usually showed a favorable ratio
of costs to revenue in this era
( s ee various i s sues o f the Commerci a l
and Fi nanci a l Chron i c l e for the year 1 9 0 0 ) ,
others have argued that
thes e trains were mo re expens ive than has been admitted and that they
were usually unprof itable .
For such a view,
Passenger Termin a l s a n d Trains
8
31.
u . s . , Bureau of the Census , Hi s t ori ca l Sta t i s t i cs , Part 1 , pp .
9
1 8 5 0- 1 9 3 0
s e e John A . Droege ,
Kalmbach Publishing Co . ,
1- 6 .
1 9 69 ) ' pp .
25,
(Mi lwaukee :
Robert M .
Fogel son ,
( Cambridge , Mas s . :
The Fragmen ted Metropo l i s :
Harvard University Pre s s ,
Los Angel es ,
1967 ) , p .
67 .
A winter schedul e at th i s time would perhaps have s hown more s ervice ,
for southern Cali fornia was s t i l l primar i ly a winter resort area .
10
Ernst C.
Pryde ,
Ed . ,
Gr i f f in ,
" San Diego ' s Popul ation Pattern s , " i n Philip R .
San Di ego : A n In t ro d u c t i on t o the Region
Hunt Publishing Company ,
19 7 6 ) ,
p.
( Dubuque :
Kendall/
64 .
11
wa y s .
Data from 1 9 1 5 cal culated from the Offi ci a l Gui de of the Rai l
Data for 1900 and mo st other years are from A Chronology of
American Ra i l roads
n . d. ) ,
p.
(Washington ,
D.C. :
Association of Ame rican Railroads ,
5.
12
Tra ins ,
David P . Morgan, " Southern Pacific at the Panama-P a c i f i c , "
Vo l . 3 7 , No . l l ( S eptember 1 9 7 7 ) , p . 4 9 .
13
rn Marin County , the former steam lines were electr i f i ed on
sections o f the No rthwestern Pac i f i c Ra ilroad .
14
Th i s increas e may have been attributable to the AT&SF ' s intro
duction in the l ate 1 9 3 0 ' s o f San Fran c i s co-Los Angeles pass enger
s ervice , where the Los Angeles to Baker s field link was on a bus .
83
15
p.
U. S. ,
16
p.
Bur eau o f the Censu s ,
Hi s tori c a l S t a t i s t i cs ,
729.
H i l ton ,
Th e Transport a t i on Act of 1 9 5 8 :
A Decade of Experience ,
12 .
17
rbi d . ,
pp .
18
w i l l iam A .
Imperfe c t i on s
19
97- 1 S 4 .
Jordan , A i rl i ne Regu l a t i on in America : Effects a n d
( B a l t imore : T h e J o h n s Hopk ins P r es s ,
20
124 .
1 97 0 ) .
This problem is exacerbated by union regulations that require
cr ew changes at regular d i s tanc e interval s ,
of s e rvi c e .
p.
Part 2 ,
H i lton ,
rather than based o n hours
The Transport a t i on Act of 1 9 5 8 :
A Decade of Experi ence ,
84
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SYSTE M AT I C-CONC E PT U A L- F L E X I B L E U N ITS
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C a l i fo r n i a G e o g r a p
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1 978
Vol ume XV I I I ,
W I NDMI LL S ITES I N MOUNTAINOUS AREAS
1
OF THE UN I TE D S TATE S
Robe r t
B .
H o wa r d
an d
Debra
Shi roma *
Rap id ly i n c r e a s i n g demand s f or energy and r i s i n g
energy p r i c e s a r e r e s u l t ing i n a re newed s e a r c h for a l t e rn ate
me tho d s of power generation .
One promi s i n g avenue i s
harn e s s i n g t h e wi nd and c onve r t i n g i t s k i n e t i c energy into
mechan i c a l a nd thence into e le c t r i c a l energy .
The wind mi l l ,
which was long a fun c t i o n a l e l ement in the l and s c ape o f
Europe and N orth Amer i c a , may re turn as a c ompe t i t ive
supp l i e r of energy i f i t s d e s i gn c an be made mo re e f f i c i ent
and if i t is appropr i a t e l y s i ted .
The v e ry large windmi l l s n e ce s s ary for power genera
tion would requ i r e s trong and r e l a t i ve l y c o n s tant wind s for
optimal oper a t i on ,
such a s e x i s t in h i gh moun t a i n areas .
A
ma j o r c o n s t ra i n t on w ind power ge nerat ion i s the avai l a b i l ity
o f moun t a i n peaks on wh i c h to s i te w i ndmi l l s .
Thi s s tudy ,
through t e r r a i n s amp l i n g , e s t ima te s the f requency of occur
rence o f peaks i n various mount a i n regions o f the c o terminous
Uni t e d S t a te s .
Although there e x i s t s a cons i d e r a b l e l i t e r a
ture on quan t i t a t i ve t e r r a i n analys i s , t h e ma j o r i ty o f i t
per t a i n s to n e g a t i ve e le me n t s o f topogr aphy .
In t h i s s tudy
attention is focused o n the quant i f icat ion o f po s i t ive
*Dr .
Howard
( Ph . D . ,
Univers i t y o f Cal i f o rni a ,
Lo s Ange l e s )
A s s i s tant P rofessor of Geography at California S tate Univers ity ,
ridge .
Ms .
Northr i d ge .
S h i roma has a B . S .
is
North
degree from Cal i fo r n i a S tate Univer s i ty ,
86
e l ements of the terrain ,
a re s e arch area on ly mode s t ly
deve loped s i nce Horton ' s pioneer ana ly s i s of drainage net2
work s .
S p e c i f i c d a t a on frequency of o ccurrence of mountain
summi t s was unobtainab l e from pub l i s hed sourc e s ;
therefore
s el ected map s he et s from various mountain regions were
s amp l ed .
Mountain a r e a s o f the United S ta t e s we re d e f ined
in terms of Hammond ' s map of c l a s s e s o f l and surface form .
3
S e l e c t i o n of
s ampl e s i te s was conf ined to tho s e a r e a s mapped
4
a s low mounta i n ( D S ) and h i gh mountain ( D 6 ) .
Add i t iona l l y ,
w i thin H ammond ' s mountain areas the s e l e c ted map s h e e t s were
cho s e n to repr e s ent various phy s iograph i c provinc e s as
5
In thi s way the s ampl ing p l a n might
d e f ined by Fenneman .
reve a l anything g e omorph ic a l ly s i gni f ic ant in the s umm i t
e xpe c t anc i e s of phy s io graph i c a l l y d i s s imi lar mountain r e g i on s .
T h e phy s i ographic prov i n c e s r e pre s ented were the C a s c ade
Range ,
S i erra Nevad a ,
Mounta ins ,
northern ,
K l amath Mount ains ,
cent r a l and southern Rocky
and the B lue Ridge Mounta ins .
F i fteen-minute quadran g l e maps were chosen for
samp l ing to maximi z e the area of cove rage and yet maintain a
s u f f i c i ent leve l of de t ai l .
In pract i c a l ly a l l c a s e s only
one map was ava i l a b l e from e ach of the s e lected r e g i on s - - a
func t i on o f t h e U . S .
Geolog i c a l Survey ' s 1 5 -minute quadrangle
mapp ing prog r am in spar s e ly s ettled mount ain region s ,
w i th the add i t i onal r e s tr i c t i on of
8 0 - foot
c oupled
( 2 4 . 4 me te r )
contour interv a l s nec e s s itated by the d e s i gn c r i t e r i a for
wind power gener ators
tion ) .
s tudy
( Dr .
Arn old Court ,
personal c ommun i c a
The e i g h t quadrangle maps eventua l l y s e l e cted f or
( F igure 1 and Table 1 )
were typ i c a l of the regions
they were cho s e n to repre s ent .
The c h o i c e of maps was b a s ed
on a v i su a l examina t ion of the s e l e c ted area in comp a r i son to
i t s surround ings on l a r ger - sc a l e maps .
In e a ch c a s e the
s e l ected quadr angle showed no apparent d i sparity in r e l i e f
or i n pattern from t h e surrounding areas .
Add i t i ona l ly ,
87
.(;)
,
.-I
Table
Names ,
ro
ro
1
Locations , E l evations and Areas of 15-minute USGS Quadrangles
and Numbers of Closed Contours at 80- foot
·
USGS Quadrangle
Sheet; Map Des ignation ;
Physiographic Province
MOUNT S I ,
Year
Mapped
WA
Southeast Corner
( 2 4 . 4 meter )
Maximum
W
Elev. Ft .
Spacing
Area
Sq.
Mi .
No . of
P eaks
Peaks per
Sq .
Mile
Lat . N
Lon g .
1960
4 7 ° 30 '
1 2 1 ° 30 '
5 , 576
200 . 4
366
1.8
1955
4 1 ° 00 '
122° 4 5 '
7 , 85 3
2 24 . 5
318
1.4
1953
37°15 '
119° 1 5 '
9 , 165
236 . 5
642
2.7
1962
35°30'
82°00'
5 , 160
241 . 7
869
3.6
1960
45° 3 0 '
11 4 ° 1 5 '
7 , 822
2 08 . 1
383
1.8
1957
44° 0 0 '
109° 15 '
1 2 , 319
213 . 3
563
2.6
1952
39°45 '
111° 30 '
10 , 6 8 5
228 . 8
473
2.1
1955
37°45 '
1 07 ° 4 5 '
14 , 246
2 3"4 . 8
519
2.2
Cas cade/Cascade Mtns .
COFFEE CREEK,
CA
Trinity Alps/Klamath Mtns .
SHUTEYE PEAK ,
CA
S i erra Nevada/S i erra Nevada
MARION ,
NC
Great Smoky/Blue Ridge Mtns .
PAINTED ROCKS LAKE,
MT/ ID
Bitteroot/Northern Rocky Mtns .
IRISH ROCK,
WY
Absaroka/Central Rocky Mtns .
SANTAQUIN PEAK,
UT
Wasatch/Central Rocky Mtns .
TELLURIDE ,
CO
San Juan/Southern Rocky Mtns .
89
each wa s loc ated we l l within i t s phy s iographic provinc e .
should a l s o be kept in mind that ,
regions ,
It
a s with mos t geomorph i c
there i s o n l y gro s s topograph ic s im i l a r i ty from
p lace to p l a c e .
Any part i c u l ar s e c t ion of a r e g ion w i l l be
unique and thus s omewha t d i f ferent f rom i t s surroundi ngs .
U s i n g a one-mi l e - square grid s y s tem ,
summits i n e a c h square mi l e wa s t a l l ied .
the number o f
Mountain summi t s ,
def ined as a topograp h i c h i gh having at l e a s t one
contour ,
were counted only o nc e
(i.e. ,
8 0 0 - f oot
a s umm i t f a l l ing on a
gr id l ine was a s s i gned to the square in whic h i t s greate s t
propor tion lay ) .
der ived ,
T h e p.l anime t r i c are a f or e ach nap sheet was
the total number of s umm i t s for each sheet wa s
tabulated ,
and t h e me an number o f s ummits per s quare mi le
was c a l c u l ated
( Table 1 ) .
The numb e r o f grid s quares having
the s ame number o f summi t s per square was coun ted ,
and the
percentage o f occurrence for each integer numb er o f summi t s
was computed .
T h e r e s u lt ing data were then plotted as
cumulative f requency curve s
( F i gure 2 ) .
2
The to t a l ar e a of the s e lec ted maps is 4 , 5 7 7 km
2
( 1 , 7 8 8 mi ) ( T able 1 ) .
P lanime try of s h e e t s 8 3 - 8 4 o f ·the
Nationa l At l a s of the Un ited S t a t e s reve a l s that h i l l s and
moun t a i n s in the c o t e rminous Un ited S t at e s comp r i s e
2
approximate ly 8 3 9 , 6 8 0 km
T h e e i gh t topograph i c map s
emp l oyed in t h i s p r e l iminary inve s t i ga t i on c o n s t i tute a
s e l e c t i on o f about 0 . 5 percent of
the D 5 and D6
classes of
land s u r f ace f orm i n t h e coterminous United S t at e s .
The cumu l ative f r equency curve s f o r each of
the e i ght
1 5 -minute quadr a n g l e s ind icate the cumu l at ive probab i l i ty o f
f inding a g iven number o f f ewer peak s per s quar e m i l e .
S in c e
t h e cho s e n quadrang l e s w e r e s e l e c ted f r om a l a r g e r mapped
area the cumu lative probabi l i t i e s s hown in F i gure 2 c ou ld be
taken as an i n d i c a t i on of the spec i f i c phy s io graphic
prov i n c e s s ampl ed .
The s t ro n g s imi l a r i ty in cumu l a t ive probab i l i t i e s
f o r tho s e quadran g l e s i n t h e Laramide Roc k i e s
( B i t te rroot ,
\.0
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l tt e r r o o t 1
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W a s a tc h --+-/Y.• ,c
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T r i n i ty A l p s -
I if
1
Cascade
% 50 I
2 5 -1
r1
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I
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I• I ! S i e r r a N e v a d a
II I
I
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2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4
s u m m it s p e r s q u a re m i l e
I
5
I
6
I
7
I
8
I
9
F igure
2.
Fr equency of number o f square m i l e s having no more than
( l e f t s c ale ) or more than ( right s c a l e ) ind i c ated number o f
s ummits ( 2 5 mete r re l i e f ) i n various mount a in areas
of
c onterminous Uni ted S tates .
I 1 1 00
10 11
91
wasatch ,
San Juan ,
i s very not ic e a b l e i n F i gure 2 in s p i t e o f
dis s imi lar geo logi c s truc ture s repre sented by each sampl e .
The probab i l ity o f f ind i n g one or fewer p e aks per square mi l e
i n t h e Rocky Moun t a i n s ranges f rom 4 0 perc ent i n t h e Was atch
The med i a n n umber of peaks
to 50 percent i n the S an Juan .
per square mi l e i n t he Rocky Mount a i n s range s from 1 to 1 . 5
and the mean number o f p e ak s var i e s from 1 . 8 to 2 . 6 per
square m i l e .
A l s o shown in F i gure 2 i s th e greater r ange of
probab i l i t i e s for th e s e c ond group o f curve s whi c h include s
th e T r i n i ty A l p s ,
Mountains .
S ierra Nevada ,
C a s cade s ,
and Great Smoky
The pr obab i l i ty of f in d i n g one or fewer peak s
per square m i l e i n t h i s group range s f rom 2 0 percent i n the
Great Smoky Moun t a i n s to 5 6 percent in the T r i n i ty Alps .
The
frequency of s quare mi l e s w i th no s umm i t s range s from 6 . 5
pe r cent i n the Great Smoky Moun t a i n s to 3 3 percent in t he
Trinity Alps .
In t h i s s e c ond graph ,
the curve s for the
Tr i n i ty Alps and C a s c ade Moun t a i n s are s im i l ar t o tho s e of
the pre c e d i n g group of curve s .
The m e an number of peaks per
square mile i n th e T r i n i ty Alps
is
the value i s 1 . 8 .
Alps )
to 1 . 0
1 . 4 wh i l e for the C a s c ad e s
The medi an values range f r om 0 . 8
( C a s c ad e s ) .
( Tr i n i ty
The C a sc a d e s and T r i n i ty Alps have
s imi lar peak expe c tanc i e s to the f i r s t group curve s
( Laramide
Ro ck i e s ) .
The curve s for the S ie r r a Nevada and Great Smoky
Moun t a in s ,
on th e o ther hand ,
appe ar to i nd i c a t e s omewhat
d i f f e rent summ i t probab i l it i e s .
The value s f or mean and
med ian number of peak s per square m i l e are greater than ,
above the range of ,
the previous s i x .
or
In t he S i erra Nevada ,
the mean and med i an are 2 . 7 and 1 . 7 5 re s pe c tive ly , whi l e i n
t h e Great Smoky Mount a i n s t h e y a r e 3 . 6 a n d 2 . 7 5 re s pe c t ive ly .
The graphs for the S i erra Nevada and Gre at Smoky Mounta i n s ,
when c ompa red with the previou s s i x graph s ,
indicate a
greater number of pe ak s per square mi l e and a sma l le r
probab i l ity o f f inding a s quare mi l e i n whi ch there wou l d be
no peak s
( 7 - 1 5 percent v e r s u s 2 0 - 3 4 percent ) .
92
B a s e d upon t h i s s e l ection o f maps and the derived
c umu l a tive pr obab i l i t i e s ,
i t app ear s that the ar e a s o f
greate s t s ummi t den s i t i e s are f ound in the S ierra Nevada
and Great Smoky Mounta i n s .
A l ower frequency o f occurrence
is found i n t h e L ar amide Rockie s ,
Mounta i n s .
C a s cade s ,
and K l amath
S in c e c ontemporary geomorphic theor i e s d e a l i n g
with landscape deve l opment ar e bui lt o n o p e n s y s tem mode l s ,
the s im i l ar summit f reque nc i e s i n the geologic a l ly - dive r s e
Laramide Rock i e s may be a n i n d i c a t ion o f appro aching equ i
f i na l i ty i n an open s y s tem land s c ape
(i.e. ,
r e s u l t s from di f f erent i n i t i a l c ondit ions ) .
s im i l ar end
The diverse
l i tho l o g i e s and eros i on a l h i s to r i e s in the s e a r e a s have
produced lands c ap e s po s s e s s i n g s imi l ar degre e s of d i s s e c t ion .
The geomorphic rea sons for the d i sparity in the va l u e s o f
p e a k expec tanc i e s for t h e Great Smoky Mountains a n d S ierra
Nevada when compared to the other s i x mountain r e g i ons are
uncertain at t h i s time ,
duration of eros i o n ,
as s p e c i a l e r o s i o n a l h i s tor i e s ,
or s pe c i f i c l i tho l o g i e s are not e x c l u
s i ve t o e i ther group o f curve s .
The e ight quadr angle map s form a s e l e c t ion 0 . 5 per
cent of the h i l l s and moun tain s o f the coterminous United
S t ate s .
The f a i r ly c l o s e agr eement in cumu lat ive f requency
curve s permit s s ome gener a l c onc lus i ons to be dr awn .
examp le ,
on the aver age ,
As an
the probab i l ity is about one chance
in f our that a s quare mi l e c ho s en at random i n the mountain
areas o f the Un ited S t ate s w i l l h ave no s ummit .
oth er hand ,
On the
the probab i l ity i s one chance in two that a
randomly s e le c ted s quare mi l e wi l l have at l ea s t one s ummi t .
The pe�cent s ur face are a o f mountainous terrain for
the c o terminous United S tate s can be used to arr ive at an
e s t imate o f the tot a l number o f mountain s ummi t s to be
expec ted i n Hammond ' s c l a s s DS and D 6 .
The s e s ummi t
expectancy f i gures c an provide i n i t i a l ,
tentative p l ann i n g
e s t imate s for pote n t i a l numbers o f wind power generators i n
mountainous areas .
For f in a l p l anning purpo s e s , however ,
93
thi s data genera t i ng technique would need to be gre atly
expanded and i ts r e s u l t s mod i f i ed to r e f l e c t actual wind
c ond i t i on s in areas o f ava i lab l e and acc e s s ib l e generating
s i te s .
Thes e data s hou l d u l t imately p rove u s e ful to e l ec t r i
ca l uti l i ti e s s e e k i ng s c a l e economi e s in the harne s s ing and
di str ibution o f w ind energy .
NOTES
1
This problem was inve stigated at the suggestion of Professor
Arnol d Court , and was s upported i n part by Contract AT ( 0 4- 3 ) - 1 0 7 5 between
the Energy Research and Development Administration and the Lockheed Air
craft Corpo ration .
Critical reading of this paper by Dr . Warren Bland is
greatly apprec iated .
2
Robert E .
Horto n ,
" Erosional deve lopment of streams and their
drainage basins :
HydJ;ophys ical approach to quantitative morphology , "
Geol ogical Soci e t y of Ameri ca Bul l e tin , Vol . 5 6 ( 1 94 5 ) , pp . 2 7 5- 3 7 0 .
3
Map Sheets 8 2 - 8 3 ,
Government Printing Office ) ,
National A tlas of the Uni te d S t a t es
derived from :
Edwin H . Hammond ,
(U.
S.
"Classes o f
Land Surface Form o f the United States , " Map Supplement 4 , Annal s o f the
Vo l . 5 4 ( 1 96 4 ) .
Associ a t i on of Ameri can Geographers ,
4
.
.
The D5 category app l l es to low mountalns whose local relief is
between 3 0 0 and 9 0 0 meters with less than 2 0 percent o f the area in
gentle s lope
( l e s s than 8 percent) .
Category D6 defines high mountains
with local relief greater than 900 meters having l e s s than 2 0 percent of
the area in gentle slope .
5
Nevin M.
Fenneman ,
" Phys iographic Divisions of the United
States , " Anna l s of the Associ a t i on of American Geographers , Vol .
( 1 9 2 8 ) , pp .
2 6 1- 3 5 3 .
18
94
S PE C I A L O F F E R
C . C.G. E. M A P S E R I ES N O. I
CALI FORN I A - 1 970
POPULAT I O N
D I STR I BUT I ON
S ca l e I ' 1 ,0 0 0,000
S ize
T h ree
3 ft. x 4 ft.
u r ba n
major
i nsets
c i ti e s
I : I : 250 , 0 0 0
S p e ci a l M i d - De c a d e
Prices
$
1 .00
Fo l d e d .
$
3.00 Tu b
M a ke c h e c ks p a y a b l e
to C. C . G. E .
Ma i l to :
D e p a r t m e nt
Ca l i fo r n i a
of
State
G e o g r a phy
U n i ve r s i ty
6 1 0 1 East 7th Street
Long Bea c h , Ca. 9 0 8 40
at
of
95
the
C a l i fo rn · a G e o g r aP.�
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r
_
_
_
_
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_
_
_
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DEFENS I BLE S PACE DES I GN I
CALIFORN I A TOWNHOUSE
Denn i s
J.
V o l ume X V I I I ,
�
1 978
THE
D i n geman s *
An incre a s in g pre sence o f townhou s e s i s o n e o f
severa l important c ha n ge s taking place i n c o ntemporary
Ame r i c an suburb s .
F ew attached ,
owner-occupied hou s ing uni t s
wer e bui lt in t h e suburbs dur ing t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s , b u t s in c e then
townhous e s have appeared i n the suburbs o f mos t metropo l itan
area s .
B e tween 10 and 30 percent o f all new hou s e s bui lt in
the 1 9 7 0 ' s have b een townhou s e s ,
c l u s te r hou s ing subdivi s io n s .
usually i n the f o rm of
S ome o f f ic i a l s even have
pre di cted that new townhouse uni t s w i l l outnumber new
detached hou s e s bui l t during the r e s t o f t h i s century .
I r o n i c a l ly ,
2
it was in C a l i fornia suburbs that townhous e s
3
The widespread image o f
f i r s t began t o pro l i f er a te .
C a l i fornia s uburbs a s the s e tting f o r s prawl ing ranch home s
has been modi f i ed to inc lude a sprink l in g of
4
style Townhome s . "
" C al i fornia
The purpo s e of t h i s paper i s to review the i s s ue o f
s uburban townhous e deve lopme n t s i n v i ew o f recent findings
about hous ing d e s i gn and cr ime .
Providing i t s inha b itant s
w i th a s e n s e o f s e c u r i ty from c rime i s one o f the mos t
impo rtant func ti on s o f any hou s ing environment .
Rainwater ,
Cooper and
for example ,
r ank the ne ed for s ecurity s e cond
5
only to the need for s he l t e r .
The degree t o which thi s
*Dr .
o f Cal i forni a ,
Di ngemans i s Assis tan t Professor of Geograph y ,
Davi s .
Uni vers i t y
96
important s e cur ity func tion i s prov ided by homes can vary
w i th the type of hou s ing and with the phys i c a l de s i gn of the
area around the home s .
K e i th H a rr i e s ,
a geographer at the
Univer s ity of Oklahoma ,
h a s a s s erted that " burglary and
robbery may be r e l atively s us c ep t i b l e to contro l via urban
6
and s tructural de s ign . "
O s c ar Newman and other architects
have explored s ome s pec i f i c interre l a tionshi p s between the
phy s i c a l d e s i gn s o f hou s i n g env i r onments and the security
7
from c r i me a f forded to the ir inhabitant s .
The pioneering work by O s c ar Newman s erves as the
start i n g point for t h i s eva luation of C al i f ornia townhous e s .
In h i s book , D e f e n s i b l e Space :
Urban D e s ign ,
C r ime Prevention Through
and in h i s o th e r pub l i sh e d r e s e a r c h , Newman h a s
iden t i f i ed a set o f characte r i s t i c s th at should be p r e s e n t i n
8
According to Newman ,
o rd er to protec t r e s �' d ents f rom c r �me .
.
the two b a s i c components that compr i s e
" de fe n s i b l e s p ac e "
d e s i gn to minimi z e the opportu n i ty f o r c r ime a r e s urve i l l an c e
a n d terr itor i a l i ty .
S urve i l lanc e r e f e r s to the ab i l i t y o f r e s i de n t s to
survey the open s p a c e around the ir homes f rom w i t h i n the
house .
The proper j uxtapo s i t i on o f windows w i th home
entranc e s ,
garage s ,
greenbel t s ,
and recreation f a c i l i t ie s
permit s t h e re s id e n t s to ob s erve a nd become f amil i a r w i th
the i r n e i ghbors .
S u s p i c ious intruder s and improper b ehavior
should be more e a s i ly noti c e ab l e by r e s id e n t s who a r e kept
i n c l o s e c on tact with their sur r ound i n gs whi le going about
the i r normal hous ehold ac tivit i e s .
T e r r i to r i a l i ty r e f e r s to the e x i s tance o f e a s i l y
p e rc e i ved z o n e s of t e r r i t o r i a l i n f luence around private
r e s id e n c e s .
pr iva te ,
A c lear d iv i s i o n o f surrounding areas i nto
s e mi -pr ivate ,
and pub l ic open space should be made .
The adop t i on of prop r i etary att i tude s toward the surrounding
a r e a s wi l l be encour aged by the c lear d e f i n i t io n of zones of
r e s pons ib i l i ty .
B a r r i e r s s hould mar k the points of
97
t r an s i t i on through the h ierarchy o f i nc r e a s i ngly pr ivate
s p a ce - -bar r i e r s that may be e ither r e al or symbo l i c , but
whi ch mus t effec tively commu n i c a t e that the open space around
th e home s
is not avai lab l e to anonymous and ambiguo u s u s a ge s .
The d e s i r ed r e s u l t of t e r r i tor i a l i ty and s urve i l l an c e
features wor king in concert i s t o l i nk together t h e open
spac e around home s with the private space w i th in home s .
Newman argues that Ame r i c an s t end to r e tr e a t into the i r
purely private home s and f a i l to t a k e r e s pon s i b i l i ty f o r wha t
go es o n in thei r n e i ghborhood s .
By inc rea s i ng t h e opportun i
ties for noti c i n g and f e e l ing r es po n s i b l e for n e i ghborhood
spa c e s , Newman hope s that good hou s i n g d e s i gn can reduce the
th reat of c rime .
Newman ' s princ i p l e s of d e fens ible s p a c e d e s i gn apply
ma i nly und er cond i t i on s wher e pub l i c open space i s an
important par t o f hou s i n g environme n t s .
N e i ghborhoods o f
detached s i n g l e fami ly home s contain f e w areas o f pub l i c open
space .
N e i ghborhoods of pub l i c hou s in g ,
centrated his attent i o n on ,
shared open spac e .
s uch as Newman con
provide sub s tanti a l amounts o f
Almo s t a l l of the townhouse s being bui l t
i n Ame ri can suburbs today a r e surrounded b y shared open space
rather than pure ly private yard s ,
a result of us ing c lu s t e r
hous ing d e s i gn s r ather t h a n t h e more trad it ional urban row
hou s e p l an .
C lu s ter hou s ing has been pra i s ed for b r inging
to the suburbs a more e f f i c ient u s e o f valuab l e l and ,
lower
c o s t housing ,
and a e s thet i c improveme nt s over low dens i ty
9
home subd i v i s ions .
C l u ster hou s in g i s a l s o a new hou s i n g
fo rm that departs subs tant i a l l y from t h e privacy features o f
the detached hou se .
C ommunally owned terri tory sub s t i tu t e s
f o r t h e individua l ly owned front and rear yard s .
and walkways ,
swimming poo l s a n d tenn i s c ourts ,
Greenbe l t s
parking l o t s
a n d tot lots are owned i n common by r e s i de n t s o f today ' s
s uburban townhous e s .
T h i s r e l i an c e on communal open space
has par ti c u l ar imp l i cat ions for the s ecur ity o f townhouse
98
r e s idents ,
and the s e c ur ity d e s i gn pr i n c i p l e s articulated by
Os car Newman may be app l ied to s uburban private hous ing a s
10
w e l l a s t o u rb a n pu bl l. C h o u s ln g .
0
The f i r s t s tep involved in a s se s s ing the d e f e n s ible
space qua l i t i e s of contempo rary townhou s e s was the develop
ment of an environmental s urvey form that wou l d mea sure the
de fensible space d e s i gn present in hou s ing environments .
The
3 6 survey e l ements pre sented in Table l wer e der ived f rom a
careful s tudy o f Newman ' s l e s s - s tructured obs e rvation methods .
S ever al mod i f i c a t i on s and tr i a l e f forts r e s u l t e d in a survey
form that provide s a me a sure of terri tor i al ity and surve i l
lance a s O s c ar Newman h a s defined them .
T h e s urvey form i s
spe c i f i c a l ly o r i ented to the spec i a l conditions o f townhou s e s
w i t h c l u s te r hous ing open spac e ,
but th e same f o rm could b e
u s e d with a f ew mod i f i cations to evaluate t h e d e f e n s ible
space characte r i s t i c s of low rise apartment hou s e s o r publ ic
hou s in g .
The survey evaluation was executed for a s ampl e of 7 5
North ern C a l i f orni a townhou se c lus ter hou s in g deve lopments .
Most were l oc ated in th e c e ntral por tion o f suburban Contra
C o s t a C ounty ,
part of the San F ranc i s c o-Oakland metropo l itan
area where many of the f i r s t townhous e s were bui l t in
11
The Contra C o s t a C ounty townhous e s i n c l ud e a
Ca l i forni a .
f u l l range of the townhouse d e s i gn s being bui l t in Ame r i c an
suburb s today .
The author ' s vi s i t s to townhouse developments
in many metropol itan areas of the E a s t , Midwes t ,
S outh ,
and
We s t have resu lted i n the d i s covery o f few townhous e des i gns
that a re not in e x i s tance in Contra C o s t a .
of
In f ac t ,
s evera l
the d e s i gn s th at were f i r s t u s e d in Contra C o s ta County
have been copied by d e s i gn and deve lopment f i rms e l s ewhere .
12
The strati f i ed samp l e i n c l uded townhouse s that were priced i n
the h i g h
( $ 5 5 , 0 0 0 or more in 1 9 7 6 p r i c es ) , medium
55 , 000) ,
and lower
( l e s s than $ 3 5 , 0 0 0 )
($ 3 5-
range of p r i c e s .
Because C ontra C o s t a County d id not h.ave very many o f the
99
1 0 wer c o s t home s ,
and because i t was e spec ia l ly important to
s tud y the s e cu r ity char a c ter i s t i c s of lower c o s t townhou s e s ,
an additional 1 0 lower c o s t townhous e deve lopm�nts wer e
selected i n Alame d a and Sacramento Countie s .
E ac h o f the 7 5 townhou s e devel o pmen t s was evaluated
by the author
in th e f a l l of 1 9 7 6 .
then tabulated and ,
The survey r e s u l t s were
b a s e d upon the s urve y ,
each townhouse
deve l o pment was given a score to re f l e c t its provi s ion of
ter r i to r i a l ity ,
d e s i gn .
s urve i l l ance ,
and ove r a l l d e f e n s i b l e s pace
A s c ore w a s given to each o f the 3 6 s urvey e lement s :
one for goo d ,
two for moderate ,
space characteri s t ic s .
and three for poor d e f e n s i b l e
A low t o t a l score thus r e f l e c t s good
def en s ib l e spac e , whi l e a h i gh s core i n d i c a t e s poor de s i gn
char acte r i s t i c s
( Tabl e 1 ) .
The s urvey r e s u l t s revea l e d that there are a wide
range of d e f e n s i b l e space d e s i gn qua l it i e s .
Numerous depar
ture s from the d e f e n s i b l e s pace ideal were r e corded i n a l l
but a very few deve lopments .
Twe nty- thr e e o f t h e 3 6 survey
e lement s wer e used for the subs equent a n a l y s i s .
The tota l
scor e s ranged from 3 0
( compar e d to 2 3 , whi c h wa s the b e s t
pos s ib l e s c o r e )
( c ompared t o 7 3 , whi c h wa s the wor s t
score pos s ib le ) .
to 60
T h e mean score was 4 4 . 9 ,
the s t andard deviation 5 . 9 ,
the median 4 5 ,
and
ind i c a t i n g that s c o r e s were
approximately norma l l y d i s tribute d .
The f o l l ow i n g exampl e s i l l u s trate the kind of spe
cific d es i gn feature s examined in the envir onmental inventory .
One i s s ue o f terr itor i a l i ty i s whe ther
e n t r an c e s
to the
deve lopment are l imited i n numbe r and c learly defined :
only
22 of the 75 deve lopments had two or le s s automobi l e
entranc e s p e r 1 0 0 uni t s ;
i n 3 5 o f the 7 5 ,
the pede s t r i an
acce s s po i n t s were not surveyed at a l l from home s .
i s sue is whether a l l of the
from home s :
c l u s t er
open
spaces
Another
can be s e en
good surve i l lance was pos s ib l e in 4 5 of the 7 5 ,
but in 3 2 of the 7 5 there was incomp l e t e s urve i l l ance , with
100
many s e c ti o n s o f the open space not vi s ib l e f rom within home s ;
one particularly f r equent prob l em was a f a i lure to provide
s urve i l lance of
o f providing
garage
k i t ch e n
and
p a rk i n g
l ot
area s .
The importance
windows that overl ook open s p a c e s h a s
been emph a s i z e d b y Newman a n d oth er s , b u t in 6 4 development s
i t wa s completely impo s s ib l e t o s ee any o f t h e open space
area s around the horne f rom t h e k i t c he n ;
only 11 had good
s urve i l l an c e opportun i t ie s from most townhou s e kitchen s .
Surve i l lance o f
ch i l d r e n ' s
play
areas
would be important i f
townhouse r e s iden t s inc luded young children ,
but i n only - 7
o f the 7 5 wa s there a tot lot that was within view o f home s ;
i n 2 0 deve lopment s ther e wa s no play s pace spe c i f i c a l ly
d e s igned f o r c h ildren .
The d e f e n s i b l e space s core s f or the 7 5 s ampl e town
hous e developmen t s wer e examined to s e e if there were d i f
f er e n c e s in t h e de s ign characte r i s t ic s among t h e c ost
spec i f ic group s .
I f need for re s ident i a l security were the
c ruc i a l d e s i gn c r i te r io n ,
then t h e lower c o s t townhous e s
s hould have better d e fe n s ib l e space char a c te r i s t i c s .
Res i
dents in t h e s e home s o ften c annot a f f ord t o pay f o r supp l e
mentary pr ivate s e cu r i ty per sonnel or s e curi ty devic e s ,
and
they are o ften loc a ted in ne ighborhood s wi th h i gh e r cr ime
r a te s .
For h i gh e r inc ome hou s e ho lds l iving in more e xp e n s i ve
townhou s e deve l o pmen t s ,
good d e f e n s i b l e s p a c e d e s i gn i s l e s s
c r i t ic a l and mer e ly o n e a l ternative aga i n s t t h e thre a t o f
c r i me .
The d e f e n s ib l e s p ac e d e s i g n s core s for each o f the
three subgroups of t ownhous e s were c ompared ,
and b a s ed on the
t - t e s t there was no s i gni f ic ant d i f f er enc e s in mean s c o r e s
( 0 . 0 5 l evel ) .
in 1 9 7 6
(n
=
For tho s e townhous e s c o s ting $ 3 5 , 0 0 0 or l e s s
30) ,
deviation of 4 . 9 .
(n
=
34) ,
of 6 . 4 .
the me an s core wa s 4 5 . 6 with a s t andard
F or tho s e townhou s e s c o sting $ 3 5 - 5 5 , 0 0 0
the me an s c o r e w a s 4 4 . 6 with a s tandard deviation
For tho s e townho u s e s c o sting $ 5 5 , 0 0 0 or more
(n
=
11
101
s core was 4 4 . 2 with a s tandard devi at ion o f 7 . 0 .
th e mean
Th e l ow c o s t townhous e s , thos e suppo sedly needing more care
fu l pr ovi s ion of good d e fen s ib l e
space , were not de s i gned
w i th a ny s pe c i a l provi s ion o f Newman ' s s ecur ity f e a ture s .
When the t e r r i tor i a l i ty and s urve i l lance componen t s
of th e t o t a l d e f e n s i b l e s pa c e s c o r e s w e r e examined s eparately ,
si gni f i c ant d i f ference s
( 0 . 0 5 leve l )
we re found to e x i s t
be twee n the terr i tor i a l i ty s c'o r e s o f each o f the three sub
sample s .
These d i ff e r e n c e s were ,
howeve r ,
di r e c t i on f rom t h e i n i t i a l hypothe s i s .
The
i n the oppo s i t e
low c o s t homes
pos s e s s e d poorer terr i to r i a l i ty d � s i gn qua l i ti e s than the
expen s ive home s .
D e s i gn e r s of the lower c o s t townho u s e s
either never intended or f a i led in attempt ing t o protect
future generations of r e s idents from unne c e s s ary threats .
some examp l e s o f inexpen s ive de s i gn s that exh ib i t good
defens ib l e space qua l i t i e s exi s t ,
mod e l s were s e ldom f o l lowed .
but the admi r ab l e d e s i gn
I nte rviews wi th bu i l d e r s o f
s ever a l o f the l o w c o s t townhous e d evel opment s reve a l ed that
de s i gn de c i s ions were o ften made w ithout a s y s t ematic s e arch
12
for t h e b e s t po s s ib l e d e s i gn .
The superior territorial ity
feature s of expens ive townhous e s may be a r e s u l t of the lowe r
13
net den s i t i e s pre sent there and an empha s i s on privac y .
S ince the d e f e n s i b l e s p a c e d e s i gn c r i t e r i a are
abs traction s that are not b a s ed upon a s ingle mode l townhou s e
des ign ,
t h e d e s ir e d terr i tor i a l i ty an d surve i l l ance f e atur e s
might be mutua lly incompatib l e .
T h e s u b s c o r e s for terr itori
ality and surve i l l ance wer e not c or r e lated
(r
=
-0 . 05 ) ,
and
thi s l a c k of a s trong re l at i on s h i p i nd i cate s that there may
be no inherent contrad ic t ion betwe en good t e r r i t o r i a l i ty and
s urve i l l ance f ea ture s .
The lack of a p o s itive c orre l at ion
also indicates th at the de s i gn deci s ions that produced good
surve i l lanc e
( or territor i a l ity )
may not be the r e s u l t of a
s e l f- co n s c i ou s s e arch for improved re s identi a l s e curity .
How e ff e c tive are we l l de s i gned ,
hous e deve lopment s in c r ime prevention?
" de f e n s ib l e , " town
Thi s c ruc i a l
102
que s t ion was not s ati s f a c tor i ly answered f o r h igh- r i s e hous
ing ,
a nd the pre s ent r e s earch d e s ign c a n give only partial
14
S ix townhou s e c lu s ter developments
answe r s f o r tbwnhou s e s .
in S a cramento , C ali fornia ,
were s e l e c te d for an examination
o f t h e ir a c tu a l c r ime rate s .
The S ac r amento P o l ic e Depart
ment ' s r e s idential burgl ary logs were revi ewed and each
r e s i d e n t i a l burg lary in one o f the s ix d evelopmen t s was
15
noted .
The burglary r a t e s ( burg l a r i e s p e r 1 0 0 hous in g
between January 1 9 7 5 and March 1 9 7 7 wer e c orre lated
uni t s )
with the d e f en s ible space s core s for the s ix d evelopments .
mode r a t e negative correlation r e s u l ted
(r
=
A
- 0 . 4 5 ) - - a sur
pr i s i n g contr a s t to our expe c t a t i on s that good defen s ib l e
s p a c e would r e s u l t in low c rime rate s .
B oth territori a l i ty
and s u rve i l l an c e s u b s c o r e s were c orre l a ted negatively
(r
=
-0 . 71 ,
r
=
-0 . 61)
with bur glary rate s .
From the s e data
it would appe ar that the townhous e s with the best d e f ens ib l e
s pa c e de s i gn s core s are tho s e w i t h th e h i ghe s t c r ime rate s .
F ur ther r e s earch wou ld be nec e s s ary to e s tab l i s h t h i s ob s e r
vation ,
s ince there were o n l y s ix S ac r amento townhous e s
s tudied
( due t o the s ma l l number o f townhou s e deve l o pments
with i n the c i ty ) ,
and the nei ghborhood s urround ings o f the
s ix varied cons id erably
( two were i n h i gh income nei ghbor
hoods and four wer e in the l ow income and minority areas ) .
E ither de s i gn make s l i t t l e d i f f e r ence in crime prevention , or
bur g l e r s are s e l e c ting the more expens ive home s ,
or both ,
or
oth er f a c to r s may be important .
The po s s ib l e r o l e of defens ible s pace d e s i gn in
improving " pe r c e ive d "
c rime )
s ecurity ( th e f e e l i n g of s a f e ty f rom
16
was a l s o examined .
Res idents in ten lar ge ( 1 0 0
uni t s or mo re )
apartment deve lopments i n Davi s ,
C a l i fornia ,
were a s ked to rate the s e curity o f the i r hou s i n g environment .
T he s e perceptions o f s e curity were then corre la te d w i th the
d e f e n s i b l e space de s i gn s c o r e s for tho s e hou s i ng environment s .
The r e s u l t ing po s i tive correlation
(r
s
=
0 . 71)
ind i c at e s tha t
103
t h e re s idents i n apartment home s w i th better defe n s i b l e space
de s i gn f e l t more s e cure .
The s e r e s u l t s give pre l iminary evidence on the
potential e f f e c tivene s s of the d e f e n s ib l e space d e s i gn
feature s - - o r the ir me a sur e s .
Good d e f e n s i b l e space de s i gn
may be e f f e c t ive in minimi z ing only the fear
ab out c r ime )
( or c oncern
and not the ac tual inc idence of c r ime .
r e sea rch pro j e c t ,
A larger
w i th more and d i fferent developments , with
de ve lopment s i n s imi l a r n e i ghborhood s ,
and w i th mea sure s of
both the perc e ived and actual c rime threat , would be a
logi c a l next step in t h e inve s t i gation .
W i th better data on
actual c rime r a t e s in a numb e r of townhouse deve l opments i t
would be po s s ible to r e f in e a n d improve t h e environment a l
survey que s t ionna i r e - - c er ta i n d e s i gn f e atur e s may be more
important than o the r s as pre d i c tor s of perce ived or actual
cr ime rate s .
The p r e s e n t s tudy h a s e s tab l i shed methods of
meas urement that o th e r geographers may w i s h to adopt and
adapt .
Space ,
When u s e d in conj unct ion w i th a re ad i ng of D e f e n s i b l e
a s tudy of the micro-geography of local hou s ing
environments can be incorporated i n to f i eldwork exerc i s e s for
17
As an area of geograph i c a l
urban geography c l a s s e s .
re s e ar ch t h e topi c of cr ime prevention through environment a l
de s i gn can make an important contribution t o a ma j o r s oc i al
i s s ue .
I n conc lu s i on ,
thi s r e s ea r c h attempts to focus
attention on the potenti a l probl ems a s so c i a t ed w i th c l u s t e r
hous ing forms i n C a l i fo r n i a suburb s .
I nc r e a s ingly ,
suburban
ites are b e i n g a s ked to s hare the u s e and r e s pon s i b i l i ty for
the ir s u rround i n g yards and open spac e .
Thi s s haring pro
vides many benef i t s in terms of add i t ional recreational
featur e s o r l e s s personal attention to yard work , but i t i s
also an unusual requ i rement i n subur b s that are dominated by
18
a perva s i ve ethos of priva t i sm .
The importance of t h i s
turn to a fundamen t a l l y n e w hou s ing type i s summa r i zed b y
104
P e ir c e Lewi s ,
who argued that " wh e n the vernacular architec
ture o f a r eg ion change s ,
the cu lture i t s e l f is undergo ing
19
wren c h i n g and enduring c hange . "
NOTES
1
A s abbatical leave from the University of California at Davis
during the fall of 1 9 7 6 made this research possible .
The work was
s upported by the Beatrix Farrand Fund in Landscape Architecture at U . C .
Berke ley ,
a Regents Summer Faculty Research Grant award ,
and a faculty
Research Grant at U . C . Davis .
2
Hil l s ,
197 6 ) .
This c laim was contained in Congress ional tes timony by Carla
former HUD Secretary , reported in the Sacramento Bee
A similar ass ertion by E l i Broad,
builders of suburban townhouses ,
(August 2 0 ,
3
(July 1 1 ,
one of the first and largest
is reported in the Sacramento Union
197 7 ) .
Reasons for the early emergence of s uburban townhouses in
California are s ummarized i n :
Suburbs :
Dennis Dingemans ,
The Townhouse in
the
Changi ng Urban Morphology and Soci a l Space in American Sub urbs ,
1 9 60- 1 9 7 4 , unpub lished diss ertation in geography , Univers ity of Cal ifor
nia ,
Berkeley ,
4
1975.
carl Norcros s ,
and Disli kes
Dingemans ,
1975) ;
Resi dents '
The Urban Land Institute ,
197 3 ) ;
Likes
Dennis
" The Urbanization of Suburbia : A Renaissance for the Row
Hous e , " Landscape 2 0
5
Townhouses and Condomini ums :
(Washington , D . C . :
(Fall 1 9 7 5 ) , pp .
2 0- 3 1 .
Clare Coop e r , Easter Hi l l Vi ll age
Lee Rainwate r ,
(New York : The Free Press ,
" F ear and the Hous e - as-Haven in the Lower Class , "
Journal of the Ameri can Ins t i t ute of Planners
32
(January 1 96 6 ) , pp .
2 3-
31.
6
Kieth Harries ,
McGraw- H il l ,
Des i gn
1974) , p .
The Geography o f Crime and Jus t i ce
(New York :
78.
7
oscar Newman , Defensible Space : Crime Preven tion Thro u gh Urban
(New York : Macmillan , 1 9 7 2 ) ;
Robert Gold, " Urban Violence and
Contemporary Defensive Cities , " Journal of the American Ins t i t u te of
36 (May 1 9 7 0 ) , pp . 1 4 6- 160 ;
C . Ray Jeffery , Crime Preven tion
Planners
Through Envi ronment a l Des i gn
(Beverly Hil l s :
Sage ,
1971) .
8
Newman cites four aspects of defensible space ,
( " image " and " mil ieu" )
two of which
will not be discussed in this paper because they
pertain mostly to public hous ing .
See als o :
Oscar Newman , Desi gn
Guidelines for Creat i n g Defensible Space (Washington , D . C . : HUD , 1 9 7 6 ) .
105
9
wi ll iam Whyte ,
,
Foundation
1964) ;
C l u s t e r Development
Dennis Dingemans ,
op .
(New York :
cit . ,
The Conservation
footnote 3 , Chapter Two .
10
Geographers have appl ied the ideas of Newman in :
Robert Tata ,
Horn and David Lee , " De fensible Space in a Housing Proj ect :
sharyn Van
A cast Study from a South Florida Ghetto , " Professi onal Geographer 2 7
Two additional attempts t o evaluate and use
(August 1 9 7 5 ) , pp . 2 9 8- 3 0 3 .
Newman ' s ideas are : R . I . Mawby , " Defensible Spac e : A Theoretical and
Empirical Appraisal , " Urban S t u di es
( 1 9 7 7 ) , pp .
1 6 9- 1 7 9 ;
"The Effects of Phys ical and Social Factors on Res i dents '
Franklin Becker ,
Sense of Secur
ity in Multi-Family Housing Developments , " Journal of Arch i tect ural
Research 4 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , pp . 18- 2 4 .
For a discuss ion of the di fferences between
the traditional urban row house design and the new townhouse cluster hous
ing design,
11
see Dingemans , op . c i t . ,
footnote 4 .
.
.
.
. h �n
.
Contra Costa County 1 �es
w�t
th e terr�tory
o f The Assoc �ated
Homebuilders of the Greater Eastbay ,
a builders organization that has
been among the most active of the NAHB branches in advocating suburban
townhouse s .
Early experimentation there in townhouse building was a
direct result of enco uragement by the National Association of Homebuild
ers .
See Dingemans ,
12
op .
c it . ,
footnote 3 , Chapter Three .
At least two of the architectural des ign firms in Contra Costa
County have repeated their locally-built townhouse designs for cl ients
Magazines l ike House and Home , Profes s i on a l
in many other state s .
Bui lder,
and Cal i forn i a Bui l der have pub l icized t h e s e Contra Costa
mode ls .
13
The defensible space des ign s cores for low-cost townhouses did
not improve between 1 9 6 2 , when the first were built ,
and 1 9 7 7 .
The mean
score dropped s l ightly when 1 9 6 2 - 1 9 7 2 townhouses are compared with 1 9 7 21977 designs .
14
houses
For exampl e ,
George McKeon des igned his first fourplex town
in 1 9 6 5 and refused to modify his original des ign during the
twelve-year period when his fourplexes were being bui lt by the thousands
in
dozens of cities around the United State s .
No archi teet was con
sulted and McKeon hims e l f had no formal design training .
Only after his
death did his firm modify some often- critici zed aspects of the des ign .
Larry Free l s ,
designer of the first s uburban townhouses in Cal i fornia ,
was an undergraduate student when he did the des ign and had l ittle famil
iarity with urban row house forms .
15
The average dens ity for low-co st townhouses is 1 5 units per
acr e , while moderate- co s t units average 1 2 per acre and high-cost units
average only 8 per acre .
The 1 9 7 6 cost of townhouses is computed by
determining the original s al e price of the least-cost two-bedroom unit ,
then adding an inflation factor of 5 percent peryear before 1 9 7 2 and 10
percent per year after 1 9 7 2 .
16
Hillier ,
criticism o f N ewman ' s empirical research i s summarized in B i l l
" In Defense o f Space , " R o y a l Ins t i t ute o f Bri t i s h Archi tects 2 7
106
(November 1 9 7 3 ) , pp .
5 3 8- 5 4 4 .
P roblems in testing the relationship
between crime rates and environmental design are given in Becker and
Mawby ,
op .
cit. ,
footnote 1 0 .
A general criticism of Newman and others
( s uch as Christopher Al exander ) who hope to influence social behavior
through architectural design is given i n :
Environmentali sm , " Antipode 8
17
J.
This work was done by Jeffry D .
res earch assi stant,
car theft ,
H.
Bradbury ,
( S eptember 1 9 7 6 ) , pp .
Edgar , U . C .
in the spring of 19 7 7 .
" The New
17-28 .
Davis undergraduate
Other crime s ,
such as rape or
were not used because so few occurred or because their inci
dence was not clo sely linked to environmental des ign concepts .
18
This work was done by Scott B. Ode l l , U . C . Davis undergraduate
res earch assi stant, in the winter of 1 9 7 7 .
A s l ight modification of the
townhous e evaluation form was required to enable its use in evaluating
apartment units .
19
Durihg the past two years undergraduate students in the upper
division urban geography classes at U . C .
Davis have been ass igned the
exercise requiring a defensible space asses sment of open space in an
apartment complex .
Additional readings might include two discuss ions of
defensible space aspects of the micro-geography of residential environ
ments :
Dennis Dingemans ,
Susanne Garfiel d ,
Space in Suburban Townhouse Design :
Developments
(U . C .
Report Number 3 3 ,
Davis :
197 6 ) ;
and Tonya Olson , Defensible
A Cast St udy of Six Cal i fornia
Institute of Governmental Affairs Research
Dennis Dingemans and Robert Schinzel ,
"Defens
ible Space Design of Housing for Crime Prevention , " Pol i ce Chief 4 4
(November 1 9 7 7 ) , pp .
34-38 .
20
Newman emphasized the important differences between private
single family home s ,
mult ifamily hous ing ,
which are the housing norm in the United States , an d
in which many low income res idents were being
By providing cluster housing designs instead of the purely
placed.
private space of the traditional .urban row house des ign , suburban hous
ing developers are departing from the mainstream of American housing
tradition .
The urban or suburban apartment hous e ,
of cours e ,
departs
even further from the tradition of privacy .
21
Peirce Lewi s ,
( 1 9 7 5 ) ' pp .
l- 2 8 , p .
3.
" Common Houses , Cultural Spoor , " Landscape 19
107
F i gure
surve i l lance
1*
yes
yes
[8]
[21]
[26]
yes
[31]
yes
no
[23]
(b)
s ome\vhat
[ 32 ]
( c ) no
[25]
(b)
s orne
(c)
[10 l
f ew [ 4 4 ]
(b)
s omewha t [ 1 8 ]
( c ) no
[31]
(b)
(c)
s omewha t [ 3 4 ]
no
[10]
( b ) somewha t [ 2 ]
( d ) d o n o t exi s t
[48]
[41]
(b)
s omewh a t
[22]
(c)
no
[12]
D o e s each hou s e have s urvei l lance o f i t s s urrounding
c lu s t e r o f open space?
( a ) yes
9*
(c)
Are c lu s t e r open spac e s w e l l s urveyed f rom homes i n
the c lu s t e r ?
(a)
8*
[26]
Are tot- l o t s or c h i ldren ' s non- c lu s t e r play a r e a s
we l l s urveyed?
( a ) yes [ 7 ]
( c ) no [ 1 9 ]
7*
somewha t
Are non- c l u s t e r open space s w e l l s urveyed from
h ou s e windows ?
(a)
6
(b)
Are maj or r e c r e at i on f a c i l i t i e s w e l l s urveyed from
hou s e windows?
( a ) yes
5*
[26]
Are ho u s e entran c e s vi s ib l e t o p a t ro l l in g p o l i c e
on through s t r e e t s ?
( a ) mo s t
4*
( s c o r e component s i nd i c a t ed w i th * )
D o hou s e w indows over look pede s tr i an entranc e s t o
t h e devel opment?
(a)
3*
Townho u s e Eva lua t i on Form .
D o hou s e windows over look automobi le entrances to
the deve lopment?
(a)
2*
l.
[44]
(b)
s ome
[20]
(c)
few [ 1 1 ]
C a n chi ldren playing i n the c lu s t e r open space b e
s een f r om the i r hom e s ?
( a ) yes
[19]
(b)
somewh a t
[40]
(c)
no
[16]
108
F i gure
10
no
yes
yes
yes
(c)
no
[4]
[59]
(b)
s omewh a t [ 1 2 ]
(c)
[4]
yes
[5]
(b)
s ome
[6]
(c)
no
[64]
[ 31]
(b)
s om e
[22]
(c)
no
[22]
[33]
(b)
s ome
[31]
(c)
no
[11]
[14]
(b)
s omewha t [ 1 5 ]
(c)
no
[46]
no
[5]
Does each hou s e have s urveil lance o f i t s own
entranc e area?
( a ) yes
17
[11]
Ar e p arking areas o r g arage entranc e s s urveyed by
homes in the c lu s ter?
(a)
16*
s omewha t
Do bedroom wi ndows o ve rlook c lu s ter open spac e s ?
(a)
15*
(b)
Do l i v ing room windows overlook c l u s ter open spa c e s ?
( a ) yes
14
[59]
D o k i tchen w indows overl ook c lu s t e r open s p a c e ?
(a)
13
yes
I s s urve i l l an c e s o intense that c lu ster open s p a c e s
w i l l not b e u s ed ?
(a)
12
( cont inued )
Are c lu s t e r open space areas interesting enough to
encourage open curta i n s ?
(a)
11
1
[46]
(b)
somewh a t [ 2 4 ]
(c)
What means provide s urvei l l ance o f entrance areas ?
( a ) window in or next to the door [ 3 1 ]
( b ) a maj or down s t a i r s window overlooks the
front entrance a r e a [ 6 3 ]
( 9 ) a ma j or up s t a i r s w indow over looks the front
entrance area [ 5 2 ]
18*
Do neighboring homes i n the c lu s ter overlook the
front entrance area?
(a)
yes
[24]
(b)
somewhat [ 1 5 ]
(c)
no
[ 36]
109
F i gure
1
( cont inue d )
T errit o ri a l i ty ( s core c omponents indi c ated w i th * )
19*
Are entran c e s and interna l s treets d i f f erent i a te d
from pub l i c s treets ?
( a ) yes
20*
yes
yes
yes
yes
[26]
[ 34 ]
( b ) no
[41]
[22]
(b) no [ 5 3 ]
[24]
(b)
s omewh a t [ 1 1 ]
(c)
no
[40]
[38]
(b)
s omewha t [ 3 0 ]
(c)
no
[7]
[22]
(b)
s omewh a t [ 1 9 ]
(c)
no
[34]
D o garages and p ark i ng areas b e long to one c lu s t e r
on ly?
( a ) yes
26
no
Are greenb e l t open spac e s a s soc i a te d with one o f the
c lu s t e r s ?
(a)
25*
(c)
Are home s and open spaces grouped into sma l le r
c l usters ?
(a)
24*
[9]
Do homes have p a rking on o r a c c e s s t o regular pub l i c
s treets ?
(a)
23*
s omewhat
Are pedestrian entranc e s l i m i ted t o one o r two per
1 0 0 uni t s ?
( a ) yes
22
(b)
Are entrances l imi ted to one or two per 1 0 0 uni t s ?
(a)
21*
[40]
[40l
(b)
somewh a t
[4]
(c)
no
[31]
How many hom e s s hare each c luster?
[16]
( a ) b e tween 4 and 8
[52]
( b ) b e tween 8 and 2 4
[7]
( c ) more than 2 4
27*
Are terr i to r i a l subdivi s ions and c lu s t e r borders
legib l e t o s t r angers?
(a)
28*
yes
[40]
(b)
no
[ 35 ]
Are street name s and house numbers e a sy f o r v i s i to r s
to f ind?
(a)
yes
[42]
(b)
no
[33]
llO
F i gure
29
yes
[68]
[4]
(b)
s omewhat [ 1 ]
(c)
no
[6]
(b)
s omewhat , b y paint o r t r im
d e ta i l [ 1 8 ]
I s a private or s emi-private front yard area
demarked f r om c l u s ter space?
( a)
33
some o r unfenced
Are hou s ing uni t s d i f ferentiated from others in the
s ame s truc t ure?
( a ) yes [ 37 ]
( c ) no [ 2 0 ]
32*
(b)
I s the front door approach d e f in ed b y a porch ,
s t ep s , or p l a t form?
(a)
31
( cont inued )
I s there private open space w i th e a c h hous e ?
( a ) yes [ 4 7 ]
( c ) no [ 4 ]
30*
1
yes
[ ll ]
(b)
s omewhat [ 1 9 ]
( c)
no
[45]
I s the g a ra g e o r parking area reached through the
front or rear doo r?
( a ) y e s , g a ra g e is a t t ac h ed to house [ 3 3 ]
( b ) garage or p ark ing i s at rear [ 2 0 ]
( c ) garage o r p arking i s in f ront [ 2 2 ]
34*
Can c h i ldren p l ay in c lus ter w i thout i n truding on
s emi-pr ivate s p a c e ?
(a)
35*
[38]
(b)
somewhat [ 2 7 ]
( c ) no [ 2 0 ]
I s the r e c r eation c omplex c le a r ly p a rt o f the
deve lopmen t ' s open space?
(a)
36
yes
yes
[ 37 ]
(b)
s omewh a t [ 2 9 ]
(c)
no
[2]
Does a greenb e l t network l i n k home c l u s te r s and
recreation a r e a s ?
( a ) yes
[37]
(b)
s omewhat [ 1 9 ]
( c ) no
[19]
111
the
C al i fo r n i a G e o g r aP.�
h�
e�
r
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
V o l ume X V I I I , 1 9 78
CONSERVING HAWA I IAN NATURAL RESOURCES :
A GEOGRAPHY FIELD TRI P EXPERIENCE
Gary
A .
Kl e e *
F o r s eve r a l years S an D i ego S tate Univers ity ' s
Geography Departmen t h a s o f f e red a thre e - un i t f ie l d c o ur s e to
the i s l an d of K aua i , Hawa i i
( F i gu r e 1 ) .
The course s urveys
the nature and extent o f min eral , s o i l , water , gra s s l and ,
forest , wi ld l i f e , and marine res ourc e s on the i s l an d , a s w e l l
as Kauai ' s cons ervation management prac t i ce s .
A s ide from
studying i sl and e c o s y s tems , wha t is s tr ik i ng ly d i f f e rent about
this trip is its s trong r e l i an c e upon l o c a l t a lent for the
actua l f i e ld teaching and i ts a l l i an c e with an on- c ampus
a s s o c i ation for the non- a c ademic portion of the f ie ld
expe r i en c e .
Local
Speci a l i s ts
as
In s t r u c t o r s
D ur i ng t h e two-week s e s s i on ,
s tudent s swim a n d ana l y z e
the c o r a l r e e f e c o s y s t em w i t h l o c a l marine b io lo gi s ts ;
s tudy
soil and water c o n servati on p r a c t i c e s in the sugar c an e f i e lds
and taro swamps w i th lo c a l s o i l c on se rvat ion i s t s ; and experi
ence and record types o f b irdl i fe a t K i l au e a C l i f f s , the
distant guano-covered i s l ands , and the taro f i e l d s of Hanal e i
Valley , wi th l o c a l w i ld l i fe s p ec i a l i s t s .
S ever a l s im i l a r
activ i t i e s are c r ammed i nto this two-week s e s s ion to c la r i fy
and amp l i fy the general p r i n c i p l e s o f res ource appra i s a l and
*Dr . Klee developed this course while teaching at San Diego State
H e is now an Assistant Professor a t San Jose State
Univers ity ,
1 9 7 4- 7 6 .
University ,
San Jose , California 9 5 1 9 2 .
112
L OCATION O F F I E LD C A M P A N D A C T I V I T I ES
( K a u ai)
N
1
'I
c
0
'
,'
' '
,. ,
l(lpu
Hamutndt *
Woiluo H omututh *
B
A C A D E M I C
MARINE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
A C T I V I T I E S
0
GRASSLAND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
•
WILDLIFE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
0
WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
•
SOIL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
o
FOREST RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
PLANNED DEVELOPMENT
*
g. k.
F i gu r e
1.
L o c a t ion o f f i e l d c amp
and a c t i vi t i e s ( Kaua i ) .
113
c on s e rvation management ( T a b l e 1 ) .
The advantage s o f s uch an approach to instruction are
three f o l d :
F irs t ,
s tudents get f i rs�t hand i n formation and
differing v i ewpoints o n the problems Hawai i f a ce s .
Contact
with l o c al i nformants i s made through meetings w i th l o c a l
c i t i z en s ' group s , deve lopers , natura l i s t s , a n d government
offic i a l s .
S e c ond ,
s tudents are exp o s e d to the individua l s ,
office s , and operation s that actually hand le the management
of natur a l r e s o u rc e s on the i s l and .
The " develop e r " i s no
longer seen as that unknown force that l ie s behind the ruina
ti on o f every n atur a l l ands c ap e , but rather a s a l i ving ,
br eathing human being with a ro l e i n s o c iety
( even i f it i s a
role that c a n dominate i f it i s not c ar e f u l l y guarded and
bal anced by environmen t a l watc hdogs ) .
The w i l d l i f e b io lo g i s t
is n o longer seen a s a " bi rdwatching f reak , " b u t rather a s a
highly s k i l l e d individual th at c an read a landsc ape and
exp l a i n the e c o l o g i c a l intr i c a c i e s among p lants , anima l s , and
man
( F i gu r e 2 ) .
F i gu r e 2 .
Fred
Z e i l lemaker ( le f t ) ,
w i ld l i f e b i o log i s t
a n d a s s i s tant r e fuge
manage r for Kaua i ,
instructs geog raphy
s tuden ts about w ild
l i fe habitats at
K i l au e a P o in t .
The
author is at r i ght .
114
Tab l e
1
TWO-WEEK FIELD COURSE SCHEDULE
I . Preliminary Activities
A.
Submission of a "Proposal for Extension Course" to the college or u n i versity Extension office.
B.
E stablish ing writlen con tacts and confirming field tour dates and times with the field area's local officials, developers,
natu ralists, and governmental represen tatives . (A telephone book of the field area is a very helpful aid in establishing
initial contacts- especially the section for county, state and federal orfices.)
C.
The creation of a course outline and syllabus based on the above COt!/irmed contacts.
D.
Advertising and course recruitment through ( l ) local and regional newspaper ads; (2) distribution of colorful airline
brochures containing course description to the staff and faculty lounges of local elementary and high schools;
( ) ) distribution of the same brochu res to the u n iversity department offices of geography, geology, biology, recreation, and
physical education; (4) strategically placed sandwich board advertisements o n t he primary campus; and (5) the showi ng
w i t h i n the Geography Department of an hour-long Super 8 m m film that illustrates the field trip experience of past groups
on K auai.
E.
Personal i n ·office i n terviews with each student signed up for the geography course. Screen out studenLS that planned on
going solely for "fun and games in Hawaii." Make sure that each student is well aware that they are required to u ndertake
local interviews and a field project while on the island.
F.
I n formation packet (airline flight schedule, suggested clot h i ng and camping gear, required gear such as binoculars for
observing wildlife and mask, snorkel, fins and u nderwater nash light for observing marine life, course syllabus and outline,
and preliminary reading list) is prepared and mailed several weeks prior to takeoff.
G.
Class get-together for dinner, drinks and last min u te questions prior to departure.
II. Dai l y Acti vities
DAY :>10. I
Fli�ht to Kauai
DAY NO. 2
8 : 00- 9:00
9:00- 1 2:00
1 2: 00- 1 :00
I :00- 5 : 00
5:00- 6 : 00
6 00- 7:00
7 : 00-?
DAY NO. 3
8 : 00- 9 : 00
9 00 -
1 : 00
I : 0 0 - 2 00
2 QQ. J:OO
Breakfast a t field camp.
General Orientation/ Poipu Beach
( I I Relaxation after long nigh t
(2) Discussion of the afternoon 's activities
and objectives.
Lunch at Poipu Beach
3:00- 5:00
Marine Resource Mana{!.emei/1/Anini Reef
(I)
Meet with Kauai's marine advisory
specialist
(2) Students set Hawaiian gill nets and
lobster ne lS on the reef with the marine
biologist.
Return to field camp.
Dinner at field camp.
Free ti m e.
Breakfast a t field camp.
Marine Resource 1Hana{!.ement!Anini Reef
( \ ) Return to A n i n i Reef to work with
Kauai's marine advisory specialist.
(21 Students help pull i n the nets.
(J) On c e ashore, students help the marine
biologist separate the fish from the nets.
(4) While so doing, the marine b iologist dis·
cusses the catch and explains each
spec i e s role w i t h i n the coral reef
ecosystem.
L u n c h with the marine biologist at A n i n i
13c<Jch Park.
,Harifle Rl'Snurce Maflagemenr!Anini Ree.f
( I ) Students listen to the marine biologist as
he dis!.: ussesa. Various theories on the origin of is
lands
b. The fmgility of coral reef ecosystems.
( 2 ) Analysis of a Coral Head
a. The marine biologist picks u p a dead
Coral Head off the reef and brings it
ashore.
b. With an axe, he breaks i t apart to il·
lustrate the various animals living
wi thin the system .
5:00- 6:00
6 : 00- 7:00
7 : 00- '
c. The marine biologist points out that
c e r t a i n u n d e s i r a b l e s p e c ies a re
multiplying thus indicating that the
area is receiving man·made poilu·
tants.
(31 Reef Walking
a. Students walk the reef with the
marine biologist.
b. Students are asked to inquire about
the various things they see on the
reef.
c. Students w itness the transition zones
of a coral reef.
( I ) The marine biologist and his family are
invited to dinner.
(2) Student team studying marine resources
and their management has a chance to
interview the marine biologist.
Free time for students not working with the
marine biologist.
DAV NO. 4
8 :00 - 9:00
9:00- 1 1 : 30
1 1 :30- 1 2:00
1 2 : 00 - 2 : 00
Breakfast at field camp.
Wi/d!U'e Resource Managemem/Kilauea Point
(II
Tour of National Wildlife Refuges with
K<tuai's Asst. Refuge M anager.
( 2 ) W i t h topo sheets in hand, the wildlife
biologist traces the history of p l a n t and
animal i n troductions on the island.
(3) Using binoculars, students analyze the
d ifferen t types of birdlife on the K ilauea
cliffs as well as the distant but visible
quano covered Makuaeae Island.
(4) Using a tape recording of wedge·lail
shearwaters, the wildlife biologist coaxes
the birds out of their cliff ha bitats .
Lunch with the wildlife biologist at his
house.
Wildl!le Resource Mana:.:emeor/Hanalei Taro
Fields
( I ) Students listen to the wildlife biologist
on the subject of artificial ecosystems as
wildlife habitats.
(2) With binoculars and cameras in hand
we peer i n to the taro fields from Hanalei
Poin t
( 3 ) Having discussed t h e role of artificial
ecosystems and man's manageme n t
(National Wildlife Refuge), students ac
tually walk through the taro fields with
the wildlife biologist.
(4) Students meet the H awaiians in the field
and observe the plan t i n g and harvesting
of taro.
(5) Students have an opport u n ity to observe
the working relationship between the
local Hawaiian farmer a n d a National
Wildlife Re fuge Mgn.
2:00- 5:00
1 2:00- I :00
I :00- 5:00
5 : 00- 6:00
6:00- 7:00
7:00-?
DAY NO. 6
8:00- 9:00
9:00- 1 1 :00
Non -A cademic Activily/Siippery Slides
Sou/11 Paci/h·.
6:00- 7 : 00
7:00- 8:00
8:00-''
1 1 :00- I :00
I :00- 2:00
2:00- 5 : 00
I 0:00-1 1 :00
Soil Rl•source Management/McBryde Sugar
Mill
( I ) S tudents studying under Kauai's District
Soil Conservationist.
{2) Students have a n opportunity to see how
McBryde Mill recycles its wastes to
rec laim land for new sugar cane fields.
( 3 ) The total process of planting, burning,
harvesting, and milling of sugar cane is
reviewed by the soil conservation ist.
5 : 00- 6:00
6:00- 8:00
I I :00-1 2:00
8 : 00-?
Soil Resource J\1anagement/Kaumakani Sugar
Cane Fields
( 1 ) We travel from the lookout point to one
o f t h e sugar plantations in the southeast
section of the island.
(2) The students w i t n ess the bu rn i ng.
m e c h a n i zed
harvesting, and
mechanized plantin g of the sugar cane.
Grassland Resource Managemem/Poipu Ranch
( I ) S t u d e n ts meet o n e of t h e orig i n al
ranchers on the island.
(2) The rancher gives the students a tour of
Poipu Ranch an d discusses the prob
lems of grassland management.
Lunch a t a local restaurant.
Non-Academic Activities/Poipu Re!!,ion
Body surnng/sun bathing.
(2) Sightseeing/spouting horn.
D i n ner a t field camp.
( I ) The soil conservationist and the rancher
are i n vited to d i n ner.
(2) S t ud e n t te a m s t u d y i n g g r a ss l a n d
resources a n d their management has a n
opportunity to i n terview these two men.
Free time.
DAY N0. 7
8:00- 9:00
9:00- 5:00
Soil Resource Mano!!,emem!Kalaheo Lookout
( 1 ) Students work with the soil conserva
tionist in an open-air clubhouse building
on K alaheo Golf Course.
(2) First, the soil conservationist distributes
colorful maps and pamphlets that are
printed by the Soil Conservation Service.
The students get to keep all the material.
(3) Secondly, the soil conservationist dis
c usses the relationships between "soil
<!SSOC iations'' and "land use" on the is
land while the students analyze the soil
maps and land use maps that he pro
vided.
(4) We walk from the clu bhouse to a nearby
l o o k o u t poi n t w h i c h oversees t h e
Kalaheo sugar c a n e fields. T h e s o i l c o n
servationist points o u t t h e various con
servation measures such as contour
plowing, terracing, the use o f selling pits
and drip irrigation that th e plantations
are practicing.
Grassland Resource Managemenr/Kipu Ranch
(1)
(I)
DAY '<0. 5
X:OO- 9:00
9 : 00 - 1 0 00
Students meet with the soil conservationist at Kipu Cattle Ranch.
(2) While gazing over the pasture land, the
soil conservationist discussesa. Types and distribution of pasture
grasslands.
b. The s h r i n k age of existing grasslands
by urban expansion and the invasion
of noxious plan ts.
c. Conservation m e as u res already i n
practice a n d needed at K i p u Ranch.
( 1 ) Free time for students to slide the falls
and swim i n the pool created for the film
( 2 ) Student team studying wild life resources
and their management has an oppor
t u nity to talk to the wildlife biologist in a
relaxed i n formal setting.
Din ner at field camp
( I ) The wildlife biologist a n d his family are
invited to dinner.
( 2 ) A slide/tape presentation on Kauai's
birdlife sums up the main concepts of
the day's activities.
(3) S t u d e n t team researc h i n g w i l d l ife
resources a n d their management has a
fu rther opportunity to interview this
wildlife biologist. Free time for studenlS
that are research i n g aspects other than
Kauai's wildlife resources.
115
Lunch with the soil conservationist.
Non-Academic Activity/Poli Hale Beach
Students are exposed to the dry side of
the island.
( 2 ) Free time for sun a n d surf.
D i n ne r a t field camp.
Free time.
(I)
5 :00- 6:00
6:00- 7:00
7:00-?
Field Trip/W aimea Canyon.
( I ) Group #I H i kers
a. Those students that do not w a n t to
backpack and stay overnight in the
canyon.
b. Hike down canyon for two miles, eat
lunch, then hike back.
c. I :00 p.m.- free time.
( 2 ) Group #2 Backpackers
a. Those students that do want to back
pack and stay overnight in the c a n
yon.
b . Walk down · W a i m e a River and are
picked up the following day ut t h e
t o w n of Waimea.
Group #I returns to field camp.
Din ner at field camp.
Free time.
DAY NO.
No Class.
Free time for waterskiing, sailing. surllrig,
biking, surf kayaking, etc.
DAY NO. 9
7 : 00- 8:00
8:00- 1 2:00
Forest Resource Management
( I ) Students meet with Kauai's District
Forester in the state building i n Lihue.
(2) The district forester gives a slide presen
tation on forest resources and their
management on Kauai.
116
1 2 : 00- 1 :00
1 :00- 6:00
6 : 00- 8:00
8 : 00-?
(3) The district forester then gives the stu
dents a tour of Keahua Forestry Ar
boretum.
Lunch and swimming w i thi n the natural
streams of the arboretum.
Non-Academic Aclivilies/Kahili Mr. Park.
( I ) Horseback riding up M t. Kah ili.
(2) Volleyball tournament
(3) Japanese hot bath
( I ) The d istric t forester is invited to dinner.
(2) Student team studying forest resources
and their management has an oppor
tunity to interview this man.
Free time.
5 : 00- 6:00
6:00- 8 : 00
8 : 00-'
DAY NO. 12
7:00- 8:00
8 : 00-10:00
B reakfast at field camp.
Water Resource Manaf:emenr
1 0 : 00- 1 2:00
( 1 ) Studen ts meet w i t h Kaua i's county
water specialist in Lihue.
(2) With maps and handout materials, the
engineer takes the students through a
general discussion of Kauai's water
problems.
1 0:00- 1 2 :00
1 2: 00- I :00
I :00- 5:00
5 : 00- 6:00
6 : 00- 8:00
8 : 00-?
Wildhfe Resource Monaxement.
(I)
I n addition to birds, the foc us of the first
wildlife discussions, students are ex
posed to the other types of wildlife on
the island.
(2) By means of a slide presentation, the
state's wildlife biologist discusses the
types, dist ri b ution and problems in
volved i n wildlife management.
Lunch in Lihue
DAY NO. I I
8:00- 9 : 00
9:00- 1 1 :00
1 : 00- 2:00
2 : 00- 5 : 00
5:00- 6:00
6 : 00- 8:00
The Developer's Point of View.
The Developer's Poifll of View (cont.)
(I)
Tour o f Poipu Resort Region.
(2) Tour of Wailua and Kapaa Homesteads.
Lunch in local restaura n t.
Non-Academic Activities.
( I ) Sma i l plane air ride around island.
(2) Water skiing, sailing, surfing, biking,
surf kayaking, etc.
The Citizen 's Response
8 : 00-'
1J1e Profession al 's Response
( 1 ) Students meet with Kauai Com m u n i ty
R e s e a r c h G ro u p - a n o n p a r t i s a n
research organization made up o f doc
tors, lawyers, scientists, teachers, etc.,
that keep the public up to date on the
pros and cons of various changes i n land
use.
(2) Ti me is allowed for students to in terview
anyone he/she so chooses.
Lunch in Lihue.
(water skiing, sailing, surfing, biking, surf
kayaking, etc. )
Dinner a t field camp.
( I ) M embers of the c itizen ' s groups and
professional group are in vited to dinner.
(2) Student i n terviews are possible.
Free time.
DAY NO. 13
8 : 00- 9 : 00
9:00- 1 2:00
Interviews with Representatives of the Dept. of
Natural Resources/Slate Buildin�.
1 2:00- 1 : 00
1 : 00- 5:00
( 1 ) Students meet with a local developer in
his office in Poipu. On hand is a county
p l a n n e r , w h o h ap p e n s to be a
geographer by training.
(2) Students are briefed on the local areas
planned for development.
1 1 :00- 1 :00
1 2:00- 1 : 00
1 : 00- 5:00
( I ) Waterskiiing on the Wailua R i ver.
(2) Hobi cat sailing, surfing, surf kayaking
at Nawiliwili Bay.
(3) Biking at Poipu Resort Region.
Dinner a t field camp.
( I ) The state's wildli fe biologist is invited
for dinner.
( 2 ) S t u d e n t t e a m researc h i n g w i l d l i fe
resources and th eir management has a n
opportunity t o i n terview t h i s man.
Free time.
( I ) Students meet with local citizen groups
that are i n volved in conserving Kauai's
natural resources.
(2) R e p resentatives from t h e following
groups are on hand for comment.
a. Ohana' o Maha'ule pu
b. Niumau Tenants Association
c . Kilauea Agriculture Association
DAY NO. 10
7:00- 8 : 00
8 : 00- 9 : 3 0
( 1 ) Developer and cou n ty planner are in
vited to din ner.
(2) Student interviews are possible.
Free time.
5:00- 6:00
6:00- 7:00
7:00-'
( 1 ) Students conduct in terviews of their
choice.
(2) Return to Lihue Public L ibrary for writeup.
Lunch at local restaurant.
Non-A cademic Aclivities
(water skiing, sailing, surfing, biking, surf
kayaking, etc.)
Return to field camp .
Free time.
DAY N O. 14
8 : 00- 9:00
9 : 00- I :00
I :00- 2:00
2:00- 5:00
6 : 00- 8:00
Lunch at local restaurant.
Coco Palms/Dinner and Torch
Ceremony.
Free t i me .
8:00-?
DAY NO. IS
Free Time.for Library Research or Further Inter
views.
Flight Home
Lighting
117
Third , and mo s t important i n terms o f boo s t ing s tudent
enrol lme n t in geography ,
s tuden t s a r e turned-on to the need
and value of the geographic appro ac h .
Mi d-t.-l ay i n the cour s e ,
th e s tu dents us ua l ly r e al i z e t h a t e a ch spec i a l i s t on the
i s l an d knows a great d e a l about h i s o r her own p a r t i c u l a r
s phe r e o f knowl edge , but i s rather i gnorant o r apathetic about
For examp l e , whi l e s tudy ing s o i l and water
oth er spec i a l t i e s .
cons ervation prac t i c e s at McBryde S ugar Mi l l , the s o i l con s er
vat ion i s t made the s t atement ,
" I don ' t know what happe n s to
the mi l l ' s was te water when i t g e t s to the s e a , that ' s not my
ar ea o f c onc e rn .
or iented . "
My area o f expert i se i s s tr i c t l y l and
P r ior to th i s o uting , the s tudents had been p r imed
on the interplay o f c o r a l o rg an i sm s , the format ion of ree f s ,
and the impo rtance to marine r e s ources o f maintaining a h e a l thy
reef e c o s y s tem .
that ,
I t b e c ame immediately obviou s to the s tudents
together w i th the n eed for s p e c i a l i st s , genera l i s t s are
also n eeded to synthe s i z e the materia l .
E n t e r the geographer ,
for who e l se s t ud i e s p l a c e s i n the i r enti rety !
A l l i an c e
wi t h
O n - C a mp u s
A s s o c i a t i on s
Altho ugh the geogr aphy f i e l d c o u r s e on Kauai s e l l s
itse lf , the program i s made even more attractive b y i t s a l l i
ance with S an D i ego S t ate Unive r s i t y ' s C ampus YHCA/YWCA .
The
Campus Y o f fers i ns t ru c t i on in such a c t i vi t i e s as water s k i
ing , H o b i e Cat s a i l ing ,
skin di ving , body s u r fing , s u r f
kayak ing , b i c yc ling , a n d backpac king .
There fore , i n addit ion
to the f i e ld c o u r s e in geogr aphy , s t udents get free in struc
tion and u s e of recreational eq uipment on the i s l and .
Th i s i s how l. t work s :
To meet the Un ivers ity ' s
standard s f o r a thre e - un i t f i e l d c ours e , the geography program
mu s t run at l e a s t four hours per day for twe lve days .
Operat
ing on a phi lo sophy of bus ines s b e f o re p l e a s ur e , the geography
course norma l l y takes p l ac e in the morn ing .
A f t e r l unc h ,
118
emph a s i s s h i f t s to max imi z ing the in take o f s ight s ,
sun an d s ur f .
s ce ne s ,
E a c h s tudent s e l ec t s the recreational activity
of h i s or her c h o i c e ,
f r om s a i l i ng a Hobie Cat on N awi l iw i l i
B a y to backp a c k i ng the rugged Napa l i C o a s t .
Ins t r uc t i on i s
provi ded by r e c r e a t i o n a l s p ec i a l i s t s .
S tud ents enro l l i ng i n t h e program have t h e o p t i o n o f
taking Re creat i on X- 9 9 ,
X- 4 9 9 ,
C o n s e r vi n g
Recre a t i on
H a wa i i a n
Nat ural
in
H a wa i i
,
o r Geography
R e s o u r ce s .
What m i gh t be
heartening to geogr aphe r s in p a r t i c u l a r and ac ademic types in
gene ra l i s that more s tudents s ign up for geog r aphy than they
do f o r r e c r e a t i on .
enro l l ed f o r Re c .
I n fac t ,
a numb e r o f s tudents that are
X- 9 9 o ften opt to s ki p the i r own morning
a c t i v i t i e s to j o i n the geogr aphy f i e l d excur s ions .
que s t i on ,
W i th o ut
both c ou r s e s ben e f i t from the other ' s p r e s en c e i n
t h e program .
C o n c l u s i on
D e s p i te the fact t h a t Geogr aphy X- 4 9 9 s tudents are
faced with such p r e s su r e s as
s e l ec t i ng a r e s earch top i c ,
carry ing out l o c a l interv i ews ,
and e x e c uting a f inal r eport ,
that o f f e r s
c onduct i ng l ib rary r e s earch ,
the attractivene s s o f a cour s e
l o c a l s p ec i a l i s t s a s i n s tructor s a n d a n a l l iance
with an on-campus a s s o c iat i on warrants all the b a t t l e s and
headac h e s that go a long with wr i ting a f ie ld report .
There
are times when the geography s tudents f i nd i t hard to j u s t i fy
the i r work load whi l e l y i n g on the beac h .
But ,
the f o l l owing
a c t i v i t i e s s eem to keep them interested in the geogr aphy
program :
Swimming the c ora l r e e f e c o s ystem , ree f -wa l k i n g ,
and to r c h l ight f i s hing at n i ght w i th the marine
b i o l og is t ;
P hotogr aph i ng the burn i ng o f s ug a r c an e f i e l d s ;
An aly z i ng s o i l and wat e r cons ervation p r a c t i c e s
i n t h e s ug a r c an e f ie lds w i t h a l o c a l s o i l
c on s e rvationi s t ;
119
S haring e vening mea l s wi th the s ame l o c a l repre
sentatives that p rovided us the tours ;
Hik ing in Kauai ' s Fores try Arboretum with the
d i s t r i c t forester ;
S trugg l ing t hrough w a i s t - high mud o f Alkalai
Swamp ;
B a c kpacking into Waimea C anyon , the s o - c a l led
" G rand C anyon of the P a c i f ic " ;
L i s tening to S ierra C lub repres entatives and l o c a l
c i t i z en s ' group s conc erned w i th envi ronment a l
a f f ai r s ;
S tudying K auai ' s water resources w i th a county
enginee r ;
Conduc ting inte rv i ews w i t h representatives o f the
Department of N a tur a l Re sourc e s ;
Que s t i oning the s tatements o f a l o c a l deve l op er ;
Mee ting w i t h a l o c a l urban p lanner who r e c e i ved
hi s trai ning i n geogr aphy at the Unive r s i ty o f
Hawa i i ;
Gathering res earch data in the p ub l i c l ibrary in
Lihue ;
Horseback rid i ng on the s lopes of Mt . K a h i l i ;
S ai l ing Hobie Cats on the swe l l s o f N awi l iw i l i B a y ;
Water s ki ing on the Wa i lue Rive r ;
B iking in the P o ipu Re s or t reg i on ;
Body surf ing at P o ipu B e ach , surf kayaking at
Nawi l iw i l i Bay , and surfing a t Han a l e i Bay ;
S l i ding and swimming at S l ippery S li de ,
the f i lming of S o u t h P a c i f i c ;
s c ene o f
Danc ing at the Club Jetty ; and
Bathing in an outdoor Japane s e hot bath .
All the above ac tiviti e s , plus three un i ts credi t , a i r fare ,
mea l s ,
lodging , g round t r an sportation and recre ation equip
ment renta l , are inc luded in a p r i ce tag of approxima t e ly
s i x hundred do l l ars .
A further i nd i c a t ion o f the succ e s s o f t h i s cour s e in
po inting out the value of the geographic approach is the high
ra tio of s tudents tha t come back f o r more g eography .
E ven
120
though the ma j or i ty o f s tuden t s that take the f i e l d t r i p to
Kauai are nongeog raphe r s , a t l e a s t one-third of each c l a s s
h a s re turned f o r mor e environmental c o ur s e s i n the departmen t .
To be a C a l i fornia geographe r and not take advantage
of n earby i s l ands i s t o neg l e c t a va luabl e teaching re s ourc e .
Mo s t C a l i fornia s t uden t s are o c e an - o r i en ted and h ave a natur a l
i n t e r e s t in o c e an phenomena .
I n s tructors who may want to
cons ider s uch a cours e should keep an ear open for on- c ampu s
a s s o c i ations l eading exi s t ing program s o u t i n O c e an i a ,
and
s e l l the benef i t s o f runn ing a geography c o u r s e a long w i th
the i r pro gram .
Then attractive l o c a l t a lent c a n be s o ught out
for the ac tua l f i e l d t eaching .
I f the threads o f i n f o rmat ion
f r om l o c a l spec i a l i s ts are t i gh t l y wo�en , and the c o u r s e is
highly organi z e d , a l l w i l l go smooth ly .
- -- -------.
121
t h e C a l i fo r n i a G e o g r a p'"""h""'e""'r'--Vo l ume XVI I I,
1 978
T H E CRAWF I S H INDUSTRY OF CAL I FORN I A
AND T H E NORTHWE S T l
Mal colm
L .
Come a u x *
The c r aw f i s h i ndu s try i n the P a c i f i c N o rthwe s t h a s
had a v e r y e r r a t i c h i s tory , w i th the comme r c i a l c at ch
f lu c t u a t l. n g g re a t l y f rom year to y e a r . 2
D u r lng th e l ate
.
1 9 5 0 ' s and early 1 9 6 0 ' s the harve s t d roppe d to i n s i gn i f i
cance , but s in c e the l ate 1 9 6 0 ' s l a rge q u an t i t i e s h ave been
S u c c e s s o f the c omme r c i a l c rawf i s h e ry
shipped to S weden .
in Cal i f o rn i a and the N o r thwe s t i s now t i e d to thi s fore ign
marke t .
Two o th e r r e g i on s o f the Un i t e d S t a t e s h ave al so
had l ar g e c r aw f i s h indu s t r i e s .
The s e two a r e a s - -W i s c on s in
and Lou i s i an a - - i l lu s tr ate how one c rawf i s h i ndu s tr y has
s u c c e ed e d and one h a s f a i led , and they may o f f e r c lu e s to
the future of the c r aw f i s h indus try that is now s o dyn am i c
in C a l i f o r n i a .
D e v e l op m e n t
In d u 3 t r y
of
i n
the
the
C r a wf i s h
Uni t e d
Sta tes
Few peop l e i n the Uni ted S tate s r e a l i z e that c r awf i s h are good to e a t .
C r aw f i sh e a t ing i s an o l d c u s tom l n
F r anc e , Sweden , a n d many o t h e r p a r t s o f Eu rope , b u t
apparen t l y was n e v e r a c c epted b y t h e Eng l i sh .
* Ma l c olm
S t ate
Unive r s i ty ,
L.
Comeaux ,
Tempe .
Ph . D . ,
Department
of
T h e Eng l i sh
G e o g r aphy ,
A r i zona
122
brought the i r ave r s ion f o r c r awf i s h to thi s country , and
the t r a i t has been acc epted b y most Ame r i c an s .
Crawf i s h have been taken comme r c i a l l y f o r purpo s e s
other than f o r food .
I n e a r l y s p r i ng , young c r aw f i s h are
a valued bait f o r sport and commer c i al f i s h ing i n i n l and
wate r s .
C rawf i s h a re a l s o sold to h i g h s choo l s and
c o l l eg e s for u s e in cour s e s in zoo logy .
The v a s t m a j o r i ty
o f c r awf i s h l anded in the United S tate s , howeve r , a r e
d e s t ined f o r human con sumpt ion .
Crawf i s h have been f ound in Ame r i c an m a r k e t s more o r
l e s s regu l a r l y s in c e the e a r l y 1 8 0 0 's . I n 1 8 1 7 there w e r e
i n d i v i du a l s a l ong t h e E a s te rn S e aboard w h o ate c r awf i sh ,
3
a l though c rawf i s h were ' ' n o t mu c h s ought a f t e r . "
These
c on sume r s we re probably urban dwe l l e r s r e c e n t l y arr ived f r om
part s o f Europe that had a c rawf i s h - e a t ing t r a d i tion .
The c omme r c i a l s a l e o f c rawf i s h was f i r s t reported
4
in 1 8 8 0 ,
with New York C i t y the ma j or marke t .
The i r
p r imary u s e was a s a g a rn i s h f o r f i s h d i nn e r s i n r e s tau r an t s .
New Or l e a n s and S an F r anc i s co we r e a l s o reported to have
sma l l c rawf i sh m a r k e t s at thi s time .
By the e a r l y 1 9 0 0 ' s a
c o n s i d e r a b l e c r aw f i s h indu s t ry had deve loped in W i s c o n s i n ,
Lou i s i ana , and the P a c i f i c No r thwe s t .
W i s co n s i n w a s the m a j o r Ame r i c an produ c e r o f c r aw
f i s h ln 1 9 0 8 , with 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 pound s l anded that y e ar .
main u s e wa s a s f ree lunche s i n s a loon s .
S
The i r
They we r e probably
b e i n g con sume d by pe r s on s o f S we d i s h d e s cent , a s the e a t ing
o f c r aw f i sh whi l e con suming al cohol is an old Swed i s h
t ra d i t i on .
A l l s a loon s were c l o se d du r i n g proh i b i t i o n ,
and
th i s apparent l y d e a l t a de ath b l ow to the indu s tr y , f o r i t
never recove re d .
Howev e r , c rawf i s h we r e s t i l l b e i n g s o l d i n
6
Swe d i sh r e s taurants i n 1 9 5 8 .
The m a j o r produc ing a re a o f the United S t ate s i n
r e cent years has been south Lou i s i ana .
The f i r s t E uropean
s e t tl e r s into thi s r e g i on were the F r enc h , who c o n s idered
123
7
Crawf i sh are now regarded a s
cr aw f i sh an impor t ant food .
a d el i c acy in t h i s reg ion , and are the b a s i s o f a mu l t i
m i l l i on do l l a r indu s t ry .
P rodu ct ion f lu ctuates g r e at ly ,
d epend ing e nt i re l y on envi ronmental cond i t i on s .
F igures
for to tal yearly c atches are greatly und e re s t imate d , but a
knowl edge able re s e a rcher has e s t imated that s i nce 1 9 6 5 the
cat ch has averaged about 1 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 pounds per year , w i th
8
abou t hal f p rodu ced on c rawf i s h f arm s .
Th e c r a wfi s h I n d u s t r y
i n t h e N o r t h we s t
The s tate o f W a s h ington has had a sma l l craw f i sh
indu s try , al though no f igures e x i s t f o r e a r l y ye ars .
P rior
t o 1 9 6 1 the s tate d i d n o t tabu l ate land i ng s , b u t e s t imated
about 1 , 0 0 0 pound s annua l l y , taken mo s t l y by s choo l c h i ldren
9
for s a le to l o c a l r e s tauran t s .
In 1 9 6 1 a sma l l comme r c i al
f i shery b e g an on a t r i butary o f the Columb i a River .
It
i n i t i a l l y he ld prom i s e o f deve loping into a bon a - f i d e
indu s t ry , but the f i s he rman involved died , ending the
indu s try i n 1 9 6 3 .
The opening o f the Swedi s h market
re s t imu l ated the c r aw f i s h indus try i n 1 9 6 9 , and i n 1 9 7 0 the
s tate produced over 3 0 , 0 0 0 pound s .
Howeve r ,
the indu s t ry
ended a s q u i c k l y a s i t began , with l e s s than 1 , 0 0 0 pounds
taken in 1 9 7 4
( Table
l) .
It i s e s t imated that Washing ton
could produce up to 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 pounds annu a l l y , but s t ate
regu l a t i on s , combined w i th lack o f a local mark� t and the
inab i l i ty of entrepreneu r s and d e a l e r s to pro c e s s c r awf i sh
to f i t the Swe d i s h marke t , has reduc e d the indu s t ry to
10
almo s t z e ro .
Oregon t r ad i t ional ly has had the l a rge s t c r awf i s h
produ c t i on in the Nor thwe s t , with much of the catch being
con sumed l o c a l l y .
A P o r t l and r e s t aurant spe c i a l i z i n g in
c rawf i s h , J ake ' s F amou s C r aw f i s h , h a s been in ope rat ion
11
s ince 1 8 9 2 .
In 1 8 9 9 P ortl and was the center of the
124
Table
1
C r aw f i s h P roduc t i on in the N o rthwe s t ,
1 9 7 0- 7 6
Year
Wa s h i n g ton
Oregon
1970
31, 198
3 9 , 019
106 , 000
1971
19, 374
39, 537
138, 000
C a l i forn i a
1972
6 , 508
8, 730
73 , 000
1973
4 , 59 5
9 , 942
103 , 000
1974
984
12, 094
247, 000
1975
2 , 753
26, 559
533 , 0 00
1976
5 , 172
1 1 , 9 16
550 , 000
Note :
T h i s t ab l e i l l u s t r a t e s t r en d s i n the c r aw f i s h indus try
in the No rthwe s t .
P a r t i c ularly no tewor thy h a s been the t r e
mendous growth o f thi s indus try in C a l i forn i a in the p a s t few
year s .
The i n c r e a s e in pro duc t i on in Oregon in 1 9 7 5 was
l a rg e l y a r e s u l t of C a l i fornia d e a l e r s buy ing crawf i s h for
export t o Sweden .
T h e s e b uy e r s were unhappy w i th the s ma l l
average s i z e o f the Oregon c r awf i s h , and h ave s topped buy ing
them .
Source :
Washington - F i sheries Statistical Report ,
of F i sher i e s ,
communi cation ,
various y e ar s ;
W.D.
Ward ,
Washington Department
S tatistical Supervi sor , p e rsonal
197 7 .
Oregon - Comme rcial Food F i s h Landings i n Pounds Round W e i ght by
State of Oregon , various y ears ;
personal commun i cation , 1 9 7 7 .
Cal i forn i a - D .
communi cation ,
1977 .
E. Case , A s s i stant Bus i n e s s Manager ,
Osborne ,
Junior Aquati c B i olog i s t , per sonal
125
A s tudy o f the O re gon indu s try the s ame
c r awfi s h trade .
yea r s howed that c r awf i s h were being con sumed in home s ,
12
c
.
.
w l. S cons l. n , .
ln t avern s .
raw f l S h
r e sta uran t s and , as ln
were a l s o being shipped l ong d i s t anc e s to con sume r s in
se att le , T ac oma , S an Franci s c o , and a s far e a s t as
s a l t L ake C i ty and S t . Lou i s .
The m a j o r p rodu c ing area
in 1 8 9 9 a s i n re cent time s , wa s a long the lower Co lumbi a ,
the Wi l l amette , and the i r t r ibutarie s .
E a r l i e s t Oregon s t at i s t i c s on t h i s i ndustry we re
for the e a r ly 1 8 9 0 ' s
( F igure l ) .
Great annu al f lu c t u at ions
we re not a r e s u l t of loc a l c r awf i s h p opu l at i o n s a s was the
case in Loui s i ana , but r ather e conom i c c ondit ions such a s
price paid f o r c rawf i s h , other ava i l ab l e j obs , and the
13
l i ke .
The S t a t e of Ore gon kept no f i g u r e s a f t e r 1 9 5 6 ,
but c r awf i s h produ c t i on apparen t ly began a s te ady d e c l ine .
By 1 9 6 9 only 5 , 2 6 6 pound s were r e c orded a s l anded .
As in
Washing t on , the indu s try grew rapidly a f t e r 1 9 7 0 w i t h the
opening of the Swed i s h market .
I n both 1 9 7 0 and 1 9 7 1 almost
4 0 , 0 0 0 pounds were landed , but in 1 9 7 2 the f i gure was only
14
8 , 7 3 0 pound s .
S in c e then , Oregon h a s gathered on ly a few
c r awf i sh annu a l l y , and i t i s not d i r e c t l y involved in the
expor t of c rawf i s h to S weden .
C a l i f orni a h a s t r ad i t iona l l y had a sma l l c r awf i s h
ind u s try .
S ome c r awf i s h have b e en c on s umed in S an F r an c i s c o
15
s in ce t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s ;
howev er , mo s t c r aw f i s h i n t h e e ar ly
ye ar s had to be impor ted .
There a r e no c r awf i s h nat ive to
C a l i fornia south of the K lamath Rive r , with the po s s ib l e
16
except i on o f the E e l Rive r .
T h e two c r awf i sh spe c i e s
native to C a l i fornia a r e t h e sma l l P a c i f a s tacus n i gr e s c en s
( S timp s on ) , and P a c i f a s t a c u s l en i u s cu l u s
P.
( D ana ) .
leniu s c u l u s was introduced to many s t r e ams and h a s been
very s u c ce s s f u l in northern C a l i f orni a .
The m a j or cr awf i sh
in north central C a l i fo rn i a i s O r c onec te s v i r i l i s
( Hagan ) ,
introduced f r om the Midd l e we s t , and in s outhern C a l i forn ia
126
170
160
150
140
13 0
"'
0
z
;:::)
0
�
.....
0
"'
0
z
�
"'
;:::)
0
::t:
...
1 20
1 10
10 0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
190 0
F i gure
l.
192 0
1910
1930
19 4 0
Crawf i s h produc t io n i n Oregon ,
1950
1 8 9 3-19 5 6 .
T h i s graph i l l ustrates the great f l uctuations in crawf i s h production from
one y e a r to the next in Oregon .
The catch is not based on ava i l ab i l ity
o f craw f i s h , but rather on economic conditions
abi l ity o f j obs ,
etc . ) .
Source :
( the price o f f i s h ,
Miller and Van Hyning
( 1970) , p .
avail
83.
127
th e ma j or s p e c i e s i s P r o c ambarus c l ar k i
17
f r om the Ame r i c an S outh .
( G i rard ) , i ntroduced
T here was l i t t l e comme r c i a l c r awf i s hing i n C a l i for
n i a unti l 1 9 7 0 when over 8 3 , 0 0 0 pounds o f P . l e n i u s c u lu s ,
18
d e s t i ned f o r the Swed i s h marke t , were landed .
The export
of c r aw f i s h to Sweden grew rapidl y , and was s oon b i g
bu s ine s s ; over h a l f a m i l l i on pounds were s hipped t o Sweden
for both 1 9 7 5 and 1 9 7 6
The
to
Expor t a t i on
of
( Table
l) .
C r a wf i s h
sweden
Sweden began importing l arge numb e r s o f c rawf i sh
in the 1 9 7 0 ' s
( F igure 2 ) .
The peop l e o f Sweden h ave a
trad i t ion o f c rawf i sh c on sump t i on .
Un f ortunate ly , the
craw f i s h p l ague fungu s , Aphanomy c e s a s t ac i , native only to
North Ame r i c a , was introduced i nto northern I t a l y in the
19
The fungu s soon swept acro s s Europe and
mid l 8 0 0 ' s .
dec imated c rawf i sh popu l a t io n s .
T h i s p l ague is s ti l l
spread i ng i n E u rope , and even with mo dern methods i t i s
20
The c rawf i s h
p roving ex t reme l y d i f f i c u l t t o contro 1 .
p l ague re ached Sweden in 1 9 0 7 , exterminating l o c a l c rawf i s h ,
21
including the '' noble c rawf i s h " , Astacus a s tacu s .
W i th
the d e c l ine o f l o c a l c r aw f i s h popu l at i o n s the peop l e o f
Sweden beg an importing crawf i s h , mo s t l y f rom E a s tern Europe .
The c r aw f i sh nat ive to the P ac i f i c Nor thwe s t
( P ac i f a s t acu s )
c l o s e l y r e s embl e s the c rawf i s h nat ive to
northern Europe .
S ince they b r ing good p r i c e s in Sweden
( between $ 1 . 8 0 and $ 2 . 4 0 per pound p ro c e s s ed ) , No rthwe s t
c rawf i s h p rodu c e r s could s tand the transport co s t .
entrepreneu r s entered the promi s ing bu s ine s s .
S everal
Expor ters
f rom Oregon and Washington were import ant in deve loping th i s
trade , but had backed out b y 1 9 7 2 .
S ince then only C a l i fo r
n i a h a s exported c r aw f i s h t o Sweden , and i t h a s deve loped
into a maj or indu s t ry .
128
3000 �........................�
2500
2000
�
z
0
H
1500
u
H
�
H
�
1000
F igure
2.
Importation o f craw f i sh to Sweden i n
metr i c ton s , 1 9 6 5- 1 9 7 6 .
Magnus F u rs t , " F 1odkr a ftan och s igna1kra ftan i
Source :
Sverige 1 9 7 6 , " Information fr�n s o tvattens - Laborato riet ,
Report No . 1 0 (Drottningho 1m , Sweden , 1 9 7 7 ) , p . 3 .
129
p robl ems
of
Exp o r t
There are s e v e r a l p r ob l ems f ac i n g the export o f
c r aw f i s h t o Swede n .
One i s that a l l c r aw f i s h in Sweden are
con sume d b e tween Augu s t 8th and Augu s t 2 3 rd , the annual
summer f e s t ival p e r i o d .
C r aw f i sh are con sumed in con j un c -
tion w i th , o r a s a n excuse f o r con sump t i o n o f , aquav i t .
When the two -we e k f e s t i v a l i s o ve r , the S we d e s n o l on g e r
e a t c r aw f i sh .
Ame r i c an s t r i e d t o convince Swed i s h markets
to hand l e c r aw f i s h for a l onge r p e r i o d of t ime t o b r o aden
the con suming s e ason , but the S we d e s were o f f en d e d by th i s
ide a .
T o the S we d e s , c r aw f i s h remain an i tem t o b e eaten
on l y at a c r aw f i s h party , known a s a kr a f t s k iv a , i n l at e
summe r .
Anothe r ma j or p r o b lem i s that c r awf i s h f rom the
Northwe s t r e a c h a p r ime cond i t i o n i n m i d -June ,
l e av ing o n l y
f ive o r s i x we e k s o f f i s h ing p r i o r t o t h e Augu s t 8 t h
beg i nning o f the summe r f e s t i va l .
The f i s h i n g s e a s o n then
continues i nt o Octobe r , l ong a f t e r the Swedes h av e s topped
eating c r aw f i s h .
I n the e a r l y 1 9 7 0 ' s c rawf i sh we r e a i r
fre ighted l i ve t o Sweden , but p ro duc e r s f ac e d many phy s i c a l
and f i s c a l p r ob l em s i n pond ing c r aw f i s h t o ac cumu l at e
tonnage f o r e a r l y Aug u s t s h i pmen t .
I n add i t i on , the S we d e s
attempted t o p r o t e c t the i r l o c a l i ndu s t ry b y p r o h i b i t i ng
entry o f l ive c r awf i s h p r i o r to Augu s t 8 th
( s o a f ew m i nu t e s
p r i o r t o midni ght o n Augu s t 7 th there wou l d b e s eve r a l
a i rp l an e s c i r c l ing a i rp o r t s waiting f o r m i d n i ght s o they
could l an d - - the e a r l i e s t c r awf i s h o n the market a lways bring
the be s t p r i c e ) .
Live c r awf i sh , howeve r , are h i gh l y
p e r i shab l e , and mo r t a l i ty r ate s re ached 8 0 p e r c e n t o n e ar l y
s h i pment s .
W i t h expe rience , t h i s f i gure was b rought down
b e l o w 1 0 p e r c en t .
Today o n l y a few c r aw f i sh a r e a i r f r e i ghted t o
Sweden .
Almo s t a l l P ac i f i c northwe s t c r aw f i sh d e s t i n e d f o r
130
the Swed i s h market are now cooked , v acuum p acked in one k i lo
p l a s t i c b a g s w i t h a b r i ne made f rom d i l l and s a l t ,
p a s tu e r i z ed and q u i c k f r o z e n ,
by c ontainer - s hi p .
and then s h ipped to Sweden
S i n c e t he c r awf i s h produ c ing s e a s o n i n
the Nor thwe s t and the con suming s e a s on in S weden d o not
me s h , e i the r the Ame r i c an s upp l i e r s o r the S we d i s h d i s t r i
buto r s mu s t have enough wo rking c ap i t a l t o c a rry l ar g e
invento r ie s o f f ro z en cooked c r awf i sh f o r 1 0 t o 1 2 month s ,
add ing g re at l y to the c o s t .
A f i n a l problem was comp e t i t i o n f rom E a s t E u r opeans
\ Table
2) .
The Swede s we re not e s pe c i a l l y happy w i t h c r aw
f i s h f rom the Nor thwe s t and p r e f e r re d the l o c a l v a r i ety .
E a s t European v a r i e t i e s
e tc . )
( f r om Turkey , Rus s i a , Yugos l av i a ,
more c l o s e l y r e s emb l e the Swed i s h c r awf i s h and we r e
be t t e r ac cepted .
Expo r t e r s f rom t he N o rthwe s t we r e try ing
to break into a l on g - e s t a b l i shed bu s i ne s s , and E a s t
Eu rope an s prov e d t o be e f f e c t ive comp e t i to r s .
Turk s , who
con s i d e r c r awf i s h i n e d i b l e , have aggre s s ive l y moved into
the market and now a lmo s t c omp l e t e l y dominate the indu s t ry .
Other r e g ions have t ried to enter thi s bu s i n e s s with l i t t l e
s u c ce s s .
B u s i ne s smen f rom Lou i s i ana at tempted to s e l l c r aw
f i sh to S weden but the i r c r awf i sh
( P ro c amba r u s )
t a s t e s and
l o o k s d i f ferent when comp ared w i th S we d i s h v a r i e t i e s , s o
wer e unacceptabl e o n the S wed i s h marke t .
A f r i c a n s a l so
t r ied to e n t e r the t rade , but h ad p ro b l em s due to a l ac k o f
i n f r a s tructure and h e a l t h s tandard s .
Au s t r a l i an s a r e the
mo s t recent g r oup to e n t e r the bu s ine s s , but l i ke Loui s i ana ,
the i r c rawf i s h are " d i f fe rent "
( f o r e x amp l e , they have too
hard a she l l and are d i f f i c u l t to c rack open ) .
Probl ems
of
P r o d u c t i on
P r o b l ems d e a l ing with r e g u l a t i o n s a l so a f f e c t the
indu s try in the N o r thwe s t .
A min imum l e g a l s i z e of 3 1 / 2
inches f r om the t i p o f the n o s e
( ac ume n )
t o t h e t i p o f the
131
Tabl e
2
Swed i s h Crawf i s h Imports i n Metr i c Tons ,
1967-76
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
28
27
24
18
16
2
3
3
2
2
Denmark
3
6
7
3
Finland
ll
8
16
31
l3
7
9
4
25
9
44
17
Norway
U. S . S . R.
l
w . Germany
l
43
10
5
3
7
5
5
2
3
2
2
9
2
19
Pol and
ll
8
7
ll
6
l
France
Spain
9
Switzerland
l
2
Czechos lovakia
Yugo s l av i a
l
Rumania
15
Turkey
2
l
l
5
2
5
4
6
39
46
34
32
57
59
16
12
83
183
94
282
856
1056
1859
1 8 04
2 4 04
4
33
14
Greece
l
Canada
48
U . S . A.
Aus tralia
Sourc e :
131
43
2
25
49
36
64
73
260
24
72
61
43
O f f i c i al Stati s t i c s o f Sweden - F oreign Trade ,
various dates .
132
tail
( t e l s on )
i s i n e f f e c t i n Oregon and Was h i n g ton , whi l e
C a l i f orn i a h a s a m i n imum l e g a l s i z e o f 3 5 / 8 i n c h e s
( to
comp l y w i th the S we d i s h regu lat ion that no c r aw f i s h s h o r t e r
t h a n 9 0 mm .
be s o l d ) .
The s e regu l a t i o n s are comp a t i b l e
w i t h t h e growth r a t e o f c r aw f i s h i n t h i s reg i on whi c h t ake
f rom two to three years to r e ac h this s i z e and be s e xu a l ly
mature .
A sma l l me s h trap i s u s e d i n the Northwe s t and
many und e r s i z e d c r awf i s h mu s t be s o rted manu a l l y , or by a
r e c e n t l y deve l oped d e v i c e attached to the f i sh ing boat .
In
mo s t o t h e r p a r t s o f t he wo r l d , a s in Lou i s i ana a n d Ru s s i a ,
a l arge me sh t r ap i s u s ed , and unde r s i z ed c r aw f i s h a r e s e l dom
22
t aken .
There are a l so r e s tr i c t i on s in C a l i f o r n i a l im i t i n g
t h e a r e a s t h a t c an b e comme r c i a l l y c r aw f i shed , a n d a c raw
f i s h p e rm i t i s requ i r e d .
A s e r i o u s p r o b l em e x i s ted in the s t a te o f W a s h i ngton ,
whe r e mu ch o f the c r aw f i s he r y wa s l n l ak e s .
Lake f ront
p rope r ty owne r s r e sented this c omme r c i a l c rawf i s h i ng , and
the problem threatened to b r e ak i n to armed v i o l en c e .
A
b i l l was propo s e d i n the W a s h i ngton S t ate L e g i s l ature wh i c h
wou l d h ave ou t l awed a l l c omme r c i a l c r aw f i sh ing , b u t i t was
f in a l l y amended to a l l ow a cont r o l l e d f i sh e ry .
Thi s b i l l ,
pa s sed in 1 9 7 1 , a l l owed comme r c i a l c rawf i sh i ng on a p e rm i t
b a s i s on l y .
Lar g e - s c a l e c r aw f i s h i n g ended i n W a s h i ngton
s oon a f t e r the b i l l was pa s s ed , s o whether o r not t h i s b i l l
wou l d have s o lved the problem s between f i she rmen and land
own e r s is now academ i c .
Sweden a t one t ime expo rted a s u b s tant i a l amount o f
c r aw f i s h , and t h e S we d e s h ave a d e s i r e t o a t l e a s t supp l y
the i r own need s .
P ac i f a s ta c u s l e n i u s cu l u s , a nat ive to the
No r t hwe s t , has been i n trodu ced t o Swed i sh wate r s .
Thi s
c r awf i s h i s gene r a l l y p l ag u e - re s i s tant and h a s s u c c e s s fu l ly
23
There i s a l s o the
c o l on i z e d a r e a s whe r e i n t roduced .
po s s i b i l i ty that the l o c a l Swed i sh c r aw f i s h , A s t a c u s a s tacu s
L i nn e , may s omeday deve lop a r e s i s tance to the p l ague and
133
One way or anothe r , the Swe d e s
r epo pu l at e Swed i s h water s .
p l an to be a b l e t o eventu al l y supply the ir dome s t i c need s
I f and when t h i s happen s the Swed i s h ma rket
f o r c rawf i s h .
wi l l be l o s t to the Northwe s t .
con c l u s i on s
The one g r e a t hope for th i s i ndu s t ry i s the c re at ion
o f a l a rge l o c a l marke t .
At p r e s e n t the Northwe s t ha s only
a sma l l l o c a l trade in c raw f i s h , and to be a he al thy grow i n g
indu s t ry i t s hould n o t b e dependent on a d i s t an t marke t .
Crawf i s h now exported to Sweden are a l ow pr o f i t i t em in a
very c omp e t i t ive b u s i n e s s .
I t i s h i gh l y improbable that
Ame r i c a n s in the Nor thwe s t wi l l ever be able to dominate
thi s trade and e f f e c t ive l y c ompe te w i t h Turks and othe r s ,
such a s Af r i c an s , who may enter th i s t r ade .
I t may be a
bu s ine s s to be l o s t in the d i s tant future anyway ;
someday
Swed i s h c r aw f i s h popu l a t io n s may inc r e a s e to the po i n t whe re
they can s upp l y the i r own need s .
I t wou l d be be s t i f
Ame r i c an s a c c epted c r awf i sh a s a d e l i c ac y , and deve loped a
l arge l o c a l marke t in C a l i f o rn i a and the Northwe s t .
It i s ,
howeve r , very d i f f i c u l t to g e t peop l e to c hange the i r
d i etary habi t s .
The only p l ace Ang l o-Ame r i c an s have accepted cr awf i s h
a s food i s i n French Lou i s i ana .
French c u l ture rema i n s
s trong there , and many o f the thou s an d s o f out s id e r s who
have move d into the area have adop ted f ac e t s of French
cul ture , inc l ud ing the e at ing of c r awf i s h .
As a r e s u l t
there i s a l arge and g rowing market i n s o u t h Lou i s i ana .
The
exact oppo s i te app e a r s to have h appened i n W i s cons i n , whe re
c r awf i s h con sume r s s eem to h ave ac cepted Ang l o atti tude s
toward c r awf i s h .
we s t .
The s ame c ou l d happen in the P ac i f i c North-
T he c o n s ume r s are not one s t rong g roup - - some a re of
Ru s s ian , Swed i s h , o r French d e s c e n t , and o th e r s are
" Ame r i c an s " who have deve loped a t a s t e f o r t h i s food .
S in c e
134
the 1 9 0 0 ' s ,
fewer c r awf i s h have been con sumed , and the
in d u s t ry is in danger of s im p l y f ad i n g away i f and when the
Swe d i s h market i s l o s t .
NOTES
1
The writer i s indebted to many
individua l s in the Nor thwest who
con t r i buted in formation on the s h ipment o f c raw f i s h to Sweden .
larly helpful were Mr .
E lmer C ase ,
F i s h Commi s s ion of Oregon ;
Wash ington Department o f F i s h e r i e s ; M s . Darlene Osborne ,
Da l e Ward ,
C a l i fo rnia Department of F i sh and Game .
Esve l d t ,
S e afoods broker o f S ea tt l e ,
expo r t e r s Mr .
2
Par t i cu
Mr . W .
Mats Engs trom a n d Mr .
George C .
A l so h e l p f u l were Mr .
Washington ,
George
and C a l i fo rn ia craw f i s h
M i k e Turnac l i f f .
M i l l e r and Jack M .
Van Hyn i ng ,
" Th e Commercial
F i shery fo r F r e s h- Wa t e r Craw f is h , Pa c i fa s t a cu s l eni us c u l us ( A s t a c i dae ) ,
in Oregon , 1 8 9 3 - 1 9 5 6 , " Resea rch Reports of the Fish Commi s s i on of Oregon ,
Vo l .
2,
No .
3
l
( 1970) ,
Thomas
p.
83 .
" An Acco un t o f the Crustacea o f t h e Uni ted S tates , "
Say ,
Journal of the A c a demy of Na t u ra l Scien ces of Phi l a de l ph i a ,
(181 7 ) ,
p.
4
in :
Vol .
Richard Rathbun ,
" Crustaceans ,
Worms ,
Radiates ,
and Sponges , "
The Fi sheri es and Fi shi n g Indus tri es o f the Uni ted Sta tes ,
( Wa s h i ngto n :
5
Government P r inting O f f ice ,
c l a rence L .
Survey Bu l l e t i n ,
6
l
168 .
c.
W.
Turner ,
Vo l .
3
" Th e Cray f ish o f Oh io , "
(1926) ,
Threi n e n ,
"A
1 8 8 9 ) , pp .
p.
S e c t ion l
7 5 9- 8 5 0 .
Ohi o Bi o l ogi c a l
158 .
Summary of Observations on the Commer c i a l
Harve s t o f Cray f i s h in Northwe s t e rn Wis cons i n w i th N o t e s on the L i f e
H i s tory o f Orconectes vi r i l i s , " Wisconsin Conservat ion Departmen t , F ish
Management Divis ion , Mi sce l l aneous Report No . 2 ( 1 9 5 8 ) , p . 5 .
7
Malcolm
Comeau x ,
L .
S er i es , No . 2 ( Baton Rouge :
ve r s i t y , 1 9 7 2 ) , pp . 6 3 - 64 .
8
Donald L .
Gary ,
A t cha fa l a y a Swa mp Li fe ,
S chool o f Geoscienc e ,
G e o s c i e n c e and �lan
Lou i s i ana S tate U n i
A Geographi c Sys tems Ana l ys i s of t h e Commerci a l
S e a Grant Pub l i cation 7 4 - 01 ( Baton
Lo uisi ana S t a t e Un ive r s ity P r ess , 1 9 7 4 ) ; James N . Gowanloch ,
" Report of the C h i e f B iologi s t , " Fourth Bi enn i a l Repor t , Depa rtmen t of
Crawf i s h Ind u s t r y i n So u t h Loui si ana ,
Rouge :
Wi l d Li fe and Fi sheri es ,
F i s h er i e s ,
1952 ) ,
p.
384 ;
1 9 50- .1 9 5 1
( N ew O r l e an s : Lo u i s iana W i l d L i f e and
and P e rcy Viosca , J r . , " S e a food S e ction , "
Ei ghth Bi enni a l Report of the Loui si ana Wi l d Li fe a n d F i s heri es Commis
s i on , 1 9 5 8- 5 9 (New O r l eans : Lou i s iana Wi l d Life and F i s h e r i e s Commis s io'
1960) , p .
137.
135
9
w.
Dale Ward ,
S up ervisor F isheri e s Statis t i c s , Washington
Depa rtme n t of F i sheri e s , P ersonal commun i c ation
10
11
ward ,
C L' t . ,
op .
Richard H .
( 1971 ,
197 3 ) .
fo o tnote 8 .
P h i l ips ,
" Cr ay f i sh or Crawdad ,
Mean and Loved by the Swedes , " Na t i ona l Fisherman
16- A .
I t ' s All One- - Small ,
( November 197 0 ) , p .
12
'
'
WL' 11 Lam
A . WLl
cox , I I Notes on t h e F L, sher1es
o f the Pac i f i c Coast
'
in 1 8 9 9 , " Report o f the Comm i s s ioner for the Year Ending June 3 0 , 1 9 0 1 ,
Part 2 7 ( Washington : Government P r inting O f f i c e , 1 90 2 ) , pp . 501- 5 7 4 .
13
M i l l e r and Van Hyn ing , op .
14
Elmer c .
Rathbun ,
footnote 1 ,
p.
84 .
Cas e , As s i s tant Bus iness Manager , F i s h Commi ss ion o f
oregon , personal c ommun ication
15
cit . ,
op .
cit. ,
( 19 7 0 ,
197 3 ) .
footnote 3 , p .
813.
16
J . A . Riege l , " The Sys tematics and D i s tribution o f Cray fi shes
in Cal i fo rn i a , " Cal i forn i a Fi sh and Game , Vo l . 45 ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p . 48 .
17
charles R.
Goldman ,
" E cology and P hy s i ology o f the C a l i fornia
Cray f ish Pacifa s tacu s l en i uscu l us
( Dana)
i n Re lation to its Suitab i l i t y
f o r Introduction i n t o European Waters , " i n S ture Abrahams son ( Ed . ) ,
Freshwa t e r Cra yfish ( Lund , Sweden : Studentl itte ratur , 1 9 7 3 ) , p . 1 0 6 .
18
Stephen J .
N ic o l a ,
" Report on a N ew Cra y f i s h F i s hery i n the
Sacramento River D e l ta , " The Research Agency of C a l i f o rn i a , Department o f
F i sh a n d Game ,
p.
I n l an d F i sh e r i e s Adm i n i s trative Report No .
19
fish , "
Torgny Unestam,
20
( Ed . ) ,
197 3 ) , p .
·
Cra yfish
( Baton Rouge :
21
22
Avau l t ,
Unes tam ,
op .
G ladhaug ,
in James W.
11
The P r e s ent Status of the
Avau l t ,
Jr .
Lo uisiana State Unive rs i ty ,
cit. ,
( Lund , Swede n :
footnote 1 9 ,
p.
( Ed . ) ,
Freshwa ter
1 9 7 5 ) , pp . 2 7 3- 2 7 6 .
140 .
s . Y a . Brodsky , " Th e Cray f i s h S i tuation in Ukraine , " in James
J r . ( E d . ) , Freshwa ter Cra yfi sh ( Baton Rouge : Louisiana State
Un ivers ity ,
197 5 ) ,
p.
28;
and P ercy V i osca , J r . ,
from P i er r e P a rt , " T i me s - P i c ay un e ,
" The Super Cray fish
Di xie Rota Maga z i ne
(May 7,
1950) ,
15.
23
P e r Brinc k ,
Freshwa t e r Cra yfi s h
77.
Freshwa t er Crayfish
141.
0 1 av
Tore Hoste1n and
Cray f i s h P lague in Norway , "
p.
( 19 7 1 ) ,
" S ign i f i cance o f D i s e a s e s on F r e shwat er Cray-
in Sture Abrahamsson
Student l i t tera tur ,
W.
71-7
2.
" C ray f i s h i n Sweden , " i n James W . Avau l t , Jr .
( Baton Rouge :
Lo uisiana State Univer s i ty ,
(Ed . ) ,
1975) , p .
136
CLOUDY
N O W AVA I LA B LE
The com pletely revised
5th edition of the atlas
CALIFORNIA:
PATTERNS OM THE LAND
by Robert W. D u rre n berge r, Robert
and J ud i th A . Ty n e r
B.
J o h n son
C A L I FO R N IA: PATT E R N S O N T H E LAN D i s a concise, instructive atlas
of geograph ical, h i storica l , and land use maps of Cal ifornia.
Completely rewritten, this fifth edition gives the user a systematic
overview of C a l i fo rn i a's varied landscape and relates this view to the
state's past, its present, and its prospects for the future.
P a rt I develops an appreciation of the several aspects of the natural
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the d i stribution of water, soi l types, and plant and a n i m a l reso urces.
Part II presents the conti n u i n g story of the h u m a n presence in
Cal iforn ia from pre-Col u m b i a n days to the present and describes the
demographic composition and d i stribution. Part I l l explores the
economic uti l ization of the land by C a l i fornians of today and
tomorrow.
The atlas has been expanded in a n u m ber of i m portant areas. For
example, new tear-out maps and county base c h a rts have been
i nc l u ded, and the h i story and economics sections have been
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e n l a rged and more detailed maps show i n g d i stribution of crops and
l ivestock prod uction. I n addition, the tecto n i c plate theory is applied
for the first time in the d i sc ussion of Cal ifornia's geologic formation.
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the
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Vol u me XV I I I ,
1 978
T O U R I S M I N CANADA ' S NORTHWES T TERRITORI E S :
ASPECTS AND T RENDS
G e ra l d
E .
Tyner
and
J u d i th
A .
Tyner*
More than one-third o f t h e t o t a l a r e a o f C an ad a i s
covered b y the Northwe s t T e rr i tor i e s
remote portions of North Amer i c a .
( NWT ) , one o f the more
In s p i t e o f , or p e rhaps
b ecau s e o f t h i s r emo tene s s , a growing number of tour i s t s have
The
made thi s r e gion t h e i r v a c a t i on go a l in the p a s t dec ad e .
Terr i t or i a l governme n t h a s encouraged deve lopme n t o f the
tour i s t indu s try by e s t ab l i sh i ng an o f f i c i a l agency , Tr ave l
Arc t i c , to s t imu l ate and promote inte r e s t i n the Northwe s t
Ter r i tor ie s .
One o f the charge s o f t h i s a g e ncy i s t o c o l l e c t
in f ormat ion o n the tour i s t i ndu stry a n d pub l i s h an annu a l
repor t , The Trave l I nd u s t ry in the Northwe s t T e r r i to r i e s .
1
S t at i s t i c a l i n f orma t i on f o r ten y e a r s i s ava i l ab l e thr ough
this pub l i c a t i on .
T h i s paper wi l l i dent i fy the var ious a sp e c t s o f the
Northwe s t T e r r i t or i e s '
tour i s t indus try and examine s ome o f
the d ev e l o p i ng trend s .
Pre s ent l y , travel and t our i sm i n the Nor thwe s t T e r r i
tor i e s a r e c entered i n the Ma9ken z i e D i s t r i c t , pr imar i l y i n
t h e area sur round ing Great S l ave Lake .
I n th i s area
s ever a l c ommun i t i e s , notab ly Ye l l owkn i f e and H ay River
*Dr.
Gerald E .
Tyn er is A s s i s tant P rofe s sor o f Geography at
C a l i f o rn i a S t at e Univer s i ty ,
Dominguez H i l l s .
Dr .
Judith A .
Tyne r i s
As soc i a te P r ofe s sor o f Geography a t C a l i forn i a S t ate Un ivers ity ,
Beac h .
( the
Long
138
two l arge s t town s i n the Terr i t or i e s ) , o f fer accommod at i o n s ,
boat and air charter s ,
and guided hunt i ng , f i s hing , a nd s i ght
s e e i ng t r i p s .
The great e s t propo r t i o n o f tour i s t s
( 5 6 percent )
c om e s
to the Terr i t o r i e s b y p r i v ate aut omob i l e ; t h e r emainder a r r i v e
by air .
There i s no p a s senger r a i l s er v i c e i n to the area .
T our i s m ha s shown a s t eady i nc r e a s e from l e s s than
4 , 0 0 0 i n 1 9 6 3 to over 2 0 , 0 0 0 in 1 9 7 0 .
Based upon the growth
t r e nd , approxima t e l y 2 6 , 0 0 0 t our i s t s were a n t i c ipated i n the
Nor thwe s t Terr i tor i e s by 1 9 7 5 .
In 1 9 7 5 , an e s t imated 2 1 , 0 0 0
tour i s t s v i s i t e d the Terr i t or i e s ,
a s l ight i n c r e a s e ov er 1 9 7 4
but not the expe c ted , or hoped for , number .
S i n ce 1 9 7 0 the
number h a s f lu c tuated somewh a t , but gener a l l y remained b e tween
2 0 , 0 0 0 and 2 2 , 0 0 0 annu a l l y
( F igure 1 ) .
Whe ther t h i s i s a
temporary l u l l or a topp ing-out of tour i sm c annot be e s tab
l i s he d y e t , a l though several r a i n y summe r s , the energy cr i s i s
TO U R ISTS
IN
N O R T H W E ST
20, 000
TH E
T E R R I TO R I E S
1 9 63 - 1 97 5
1 5, 0 0 0
1 0, 0 0 0
5 , 000
1963
64
F i gure
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
1.
Tour i s t s i n the N o rthwe s t
Terr i tor i es 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 7 5 .
74
75
139
in
the ear ly 1 9 7 0 ' s , a nd a c o nt i nued gen era l c onc ern about the
economy
( in bo t h Canada and the U n i ted S t ate s ) may i nd i c a t e
the former .
[l. o a d
T r a ve l e r s
P r i o r t o 1 9 6 0 few roads e x i s ted north o f the 6 0 th
p ar a l le l , and even now on ly one road l e a d s from the s outhern
pro vinc e s into the Northw e s t Terr i t or i e s .
T h i s i s the
Ma c k enz i e H ig hway , an a l l -weather grave l road s y s t em t o t a l ing
ne ar ly 1 , 5 0 0 m i l e s w h i c h is concentrated i n the a r e a of the
Gre at S l ave Lake an d t he upper Macken z ie River V a l l e y
2)
( F i gu re
•
"'- .
· -
-
-
·
-
MAC K EN Z I E
SYSTEM
F igur e
2.
The Macken z i e H i ghway S y s tem .
( D ashed l in e repre s en t s uncomp l eted s e c t ions . )
· .__ .
140
The c omp l e t io u o f t he road t o Y e l l owkn i fe i n 1 9 6 0 l e d
to exp an s i on o f tou r i s t f ac i l i t ie s .
F i e ld inve s t i g a t i on by
the authors i n the s umme r s of 1 9 7 4 and 1 9 7 5 s howed a c o n s id
e r ab l e incr e a s e o f and imp r ovement in r e s tauran t s , hote l s ,
mote l s ,
and c amp ing a re a s .
An i n f orma t ion s t a t i o n i s maint a i ne d at the Alberta
and Northwe s t T e r r i t o r i es border to service trave l er s .
The
s ta f f there prov i d e s road and weather info rmat ion ; hunt i n g ,
f i s h i ng ,
and c amp ing permi t s ;
and a l s o c o l l e c t d a ta on road
trave ler s. Al though v i s i to r s are no t r e qu i re d to s top and
r e g i s ter , mo s t do b e c au s e of the s e r v i c e s ava i l ab l e and thus
a f a i r ly c omp l ete r ec o r d o f numb e r s , d e s t i n a t i on s , poi nt s o f
o r i g in , a nd r e a s o n s for trave l i s prov ided to t h e D ivi s i o n o f
Touri sm in the Terr i t o r i e s .
The 1 9 7 5 r ecord s i n d i c ated that 7 2 percent
( 3 , 16 6 )
t he r e g i s te r ed r o a d trave l er s wer e Canad i an
( F i gure 3 )
p e r c e nt
( F i gure 4 )
( 1 , 0 3 8 ) were f r om the United S t at e s
of
and 2 3
Over
s e a s road trave l e r s nearly d o ub l ed f rom the pr e v i ou s year to
almo s t 5 per cent
( 2 12 ) .
They were p r i n c i pa l ly f r om W e s tern
Europe , w i th West Germany a l one prov i d i n g h a l f o f the t o ta l .
2
S eventy- s i x pe r c ent o f the r e g i s t r a n t s we r e vacation
ing;
s i gh t s e e i n g , f i sh i n g , and c amp ing we r e the l e a d i ng
a c t i v i t i e s l i s t ed by th i s group .
About 1 3 pe r c e n t wer e v i s i t
i n g f r i e n d s or r e l a t ive s , and the r ema inder wer e on comb i n a
t i on b u s i n e s s a n d p l e a s ur e tr ip s .
The d e s t in a t ion for near ly
h a l f o f the r oad t r ave l e r s wa s Y e l lokn i f e , f o l l owed by H ay
Ri Ver , P i ne P o i nt , Fort Smith ,
Ai r
and F o r t S imp son
( F i gure 5 ) .
T r a ve l e r s
N e ar ly 9 0 per c e n t o f a l l a i r t r af f ic i s centered on
the G r e at S l av e L ak e -Macken z ie V a l l e y r e g i on s .
pa s s enger s in 1 9 7 5 ,
O f t he 7 4 , 5 0 C
the maj o r i ty wer e trave l ing f or bu s i n e s s
r ea so n s or were r eturn ing r e s ident s ; howeve r ,
( 9 , 2 3 8 ) were c l a s s ed a s touri s t s .
1 2 . 4 percent
A l though t h e r e h a s been a
141
ORIGIN OF
ROAD
gradual
F i gu r e
3.
decl ine
in
CAN ADIAN
T R AV E L E R S
O r i g in o f Canad ian Ro ad T r av e l e r s .
t o t a l number o f a i r pas s e n g e r s into the
s i nc e a peak o f 7 7 , 9 0 0 i n 1 9 7 3 ,
the
N or t hw e s t
T e r r i to r i e s
numbe r
tour i s t s has s hown a s t e ady i nc r e a s e in both a b s o
of
l u t e numbers a n d a s a percentage o f t o t a l air t r a f f ic .
dec l i n e
i n total
and
exp lor at ion
gas
and i n t h e H ig h
p a s s engers i s attr ibuted to r educed
air
and
Artie
The
oil
d ev e lopment i n the Macken z i e D e l t a
3
I s land s .
Two g e n e r a l l eve l s o f commer c i a l a i r s ervi c e operate
in the
N o r thwe s t
T e r r i tor i e s .
c ar r i e r s :
N o rdair ,
Mon t r e a l ;
Tran sair ,
which
One inc ludes three r e g ional
s erves
s e rv i n g
the e a s t e rn Arc t i c through
the c e n t r a l Ar c t i c f r om Winn i p e g
and Churc h i l l ; a n d P a c i f i c W e s t e rn A i r l i n e , whi c h s e rv e s the
142
ORIGIN
U . S.
OF
ROAD
T R AV E L E R S
F i gu r e
4.
O r i g in o f U . S . Road T rave l e r s .
w e s t e rn Ar c t i c throug h E dmon t on and C a l g ar y .
These carriers
provide s er v i c e p r imari l y t o Y e l l owkn i fe a n d Hay R i ver ,
wh i c h have mod e rn a i rport f ac i l i t i e s d e s igned to a c commodate
4
comm e rc i a l j e t a i r c r a f t .
The s econd l ev e l o f s er v i c e c o n s i s t s o f s ome two
do z en i n t r a- T e r r i t or i a l a i r l in e s .
Mo s t a r e c h a r t e r c ompan i e s
wh i c h v a r y i n t y p e a n d n umb er o f a i r c r a f t , a l though o n e
company o f f e r s s c hedu l ed s ervi c e s to l o c a t i on s o u t s i de t h e
5
Northw e s t T e r r i t or i e s .
The charter s e r v ic e s a r e par ti c u l ar ly important to
tour i sm s in c e they o f f er the only qui c k , e a s y a c c e s s to many
143
H I G H WAY
D E S T I N AT I O N S
Ye l l ow k n i f e
-
Not
F i gu r e
5.
H i ghway D e s t inations .
remote lakes and moun t a i n hunting reg ions ,
s e t t l ement s ,
Crui s e
i so l ated
and h i s to r i c a l ly f amou s Arct i c a r e a s .
Ships
A l though the N o r t hwe s t T e r r i tor i e s i s not the
stereotyped s e tting for a c ru i s e ,
c r u i s e s h i p s are becoming
inc r e a s ingly pop u l a r in the Great S lave L ak e -Ma c k en z i e V a l l ey
area .
Four c omp ani e s c urrent l y provide s chedul ed s er v i ce s .
Arc t i c C r u i s e Lines of Hay R i ver operates the
Norwe t a
on the
Macken z i e River b e tween Fort P ro v i dence and Tuktoyaktuk on
the d e l ta .
Thes e e ig h t- d ay crui s e s a l l ow the tour i s t to
144
penetrate deeper i n to the Arc t i c than i s po s s ib l e b y road ,
and i n c lude s tops at s ev e r a l i s o l ated s e t t l ement s .
The other
three c ompa n i e s o p e r a te f rom Y e l l owkni f e and o f f e r shorter
c r u i s e s - - averag i ng about three hours - - on the G r e a t S l ave Lake .
I n 1 9 7 5 over 6 0 0 p a s s en ge r s took c r u i s e s .
number ,
Of t h i s
1 4 per c e n t wer e U n i ted S tate s r e s i den t s , wh i c h repre
s ented a drop from the 7 8 per c en t
( 450 )
in 1 9 7 4 .
I nd ic at i on s
a r e tha t whi l e the m ar k e t pote n t i a l i s promi s i n g for c ru i s e s ,
i t i s s omewhat s l ow i n deve loping .
H owever , an e xpec ted
i n c r e a s e i n s erv i c e s a t various l o c a t i o n s in t h e Nor thwe s t
6
T e r r i t or i e s may s t imu l a t e add i t ion a l i n ter e s t .
Organi zed
T o u rs
Organ i z ed t ou r s o f f e r group transpor t a t i on rate s plus
lodgin g , me a l s ,
spor t s equipmen t , and other ente r ta inmen t .
Adve r t i s ing b r o c hur e s f o r the s e tou r s e x to l l th e region ' s
s c enery , h i gh - qu a l i ty acc ommod a t i on s , and th e advant age s o f
comb i n ing a v i s i t to the Nor t hwe s t Terr itor i e s wi th one t o
t h e Yukon T e r r i tory .
In 1975 ,
tour s in the T e r r i t or ie s were pr ovided by 1 8
compani e s , the ma j o r i ty o f wh i c h wer e c o nc en t r a ted i n the
Mac k en z i e D i s t ri c t .
The i t inerar i e s norma l l y inc l ude town s
and v i l l a g e s a l ong the Macken z i e H i ghway a s we l l as I nuvik
and Tuktoyak tuk on the Macken z i e River de l t a .
Tou r s o f t e n
i n c l ude v i s i t s to gold ,
Organ i z ed tours
l ead , a n d z in c m i n e s .
ave r a ge about f i ve days i n the Mac ke n z i e D i s tr i c t and two days
i n the e a s t e rn Arc ti c .
There h a s been an i n c r ea s e in the number o f tour s even
though the number of p ar t i c ipating tour i s t s in the l a s t thre e
year s h a s d e c l i ne d .
H oweve r , b e c au s e th e ove r a l l numb e r o f
tour i s t s i s sma l l , the d a t a c an b e mi s l ea d i n g .
peo p l e par t i c i pated in 5 4 tours ;
in 1 9 7 4 o n l y 3 8 tour s a c c om
modated 1 , 3 8 6 per s on s ; wh i l e i n 1 9 7 5 ,
pated in 1 0 6 tour s .
In 1 9 7 3 , 1 , 8 0 0
1 , 5 1 2 peop l e par t i c i
O f the 1 9 7 5 touri s t s ,
3 2 per c e n t were
145
un i t ed S ta t e s r e s i d e nt s , a d e c r e a s e from 5 5 percent in 1 9 7 4 ,
an d 5 9 percen t were Canadian ,
19 7 4 .
an i n c r e a s e f rom 4 5 percent i n
The N or thwe s t T e r r i t o r i e s Re s earch and Tour i s t D i v i -
s ion ha s pred i c te d that t h i s s ec tor o f t h e tour i s t industry
wi l l continue to expand and wi l l b e a tt r a c t i ve to tho se
per s on s " . . . w i th mod e s t to med i um f i nanc i a l r e s ourc e s .
.
. "7
This may be somewhat opt imi s t i c s ince the c o s t of a typ i c a l
package tour i s $ 8 0 0 t o $ 1 , 2 0 0 pe r p e r s on p e r week .
Howeve r ,
organi z e d tour s should c ont inue to incre a s e , e sp e c i a l l y i n
tho s e areas whe re acc ommod ations and tour i s t attrac t ions are
added or deve l oped .
O u t f i t t e rs
I n 1 9 7 5 , approximate l y 2 2 ma j o r sport f i s h i ng and
nine big game out f i tter s were oper ating i n the No rthwe s t Ter
ritories .
A l l nine big game out f i tt e r s were loc ated i n the
Macken z ie Moun t a in s ,
and a l l but three sport f i s h i n g out
f i tters we r e l oc ated i n the Great S l ave L ak e area or t he
Mack en z i e V a l ley and i t s t r i butarie s .
I n add i t ion to the se , many f u l l - and pa r t - t ime hun t
ing a n d f i s h i n g guides not a f f i l i a ted w i th the ma j o r out
f i tter s oper ate in the region .
S t at i s t ic a l data are gener
a l ly l imited for t h i s pha s e of the tour i s t indus try .
Only
1 4 out f itter s r eturned survey in formation to t h e Re s e arch and
Tour i s m D i v i s ion i n 1 9 7 5 , repor ting 2 3 0 gue s t s
( c ompared to
8 1 4 repor t e d gue s t s in 1 9 7 4 ) .
The ma j or i ty of tour i s t s are C an ad i a n
( 5 6 percent ) ,
inc lud i n g a h i gh per c entage o f Northwe s t Terri t o r i e s re s i
den t s .
I n 1 9 7 5 , about 4 3 percent wer e U n i ted S ta t e s c i t i z en s .
Th i s wa s an i nc r e a s e from the 2 5 percent o f the 1 9 7 4 reported
tota l .
However , this p er c en tage d i f ference may s imply r e f l e c t
the sma l l e r reported numb er o f gue s t s i n 1 9 7 5 .
T h e ma j or i ty
of gue s t s rent outfi tter serv i c e s for one to two d ay s ;
4 0 percent use the s e r v i c e s for a week o r l onge r .
about
146
H o te l s ,
M o tel s ,
and
L od g e s
B as ed upon repor t s f rom 26 o f 4 5 hot e l s and mote l s
contacted , whi ch c o l le c t iv e ly repre s e nt e d 7 0 p e r c e n t o f the
Nor thwe s t T e r r i to r i e s bed c apac ity , an e s t ima ted 2 2 5 , 0 0 0
gue s t s we r e s e rved in 1 9 7 5 - - an i n c r e a s e o f 7 p e r c en t over the
previous y ear .
Wh i l e the s e s e rv i c e s a c c ount f o r a c o n s i d e r
a b l e r evenue , mo s t u s a g e i s concentrated i n the summer month s ,
w i t h many hote l s and mot e l s c lo s in g d ur i n g the w i n t e r pe r i od .
Over 8 3 p e r c e n t of the bed capac i t y i s i n the D i s t r i c t o f
Ma c k e n z i e .
I n the G r e a t S l ave Lake a re a , whi l e mos t gue s t s were
on government o r other b u s i ne s s a c t i v i t i e s ,
(26, 751)
1 7 percent
i n d i c a t ed some tou r i s t - r e l ated i n t e re s t s .
r e p r e s ented a n 8 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e over 1 9 7 4 .
Th i s
The g r e at
ma j or i ty of hote l a nd mote l u s e r s wer e Canadi an c i t i z en s , of
wh i c n about one- th i r d we r e l i s t ed as N o r thwe s t T e r r i to r i e s
r e s id e nt s .
S in c e the open i n g of t he Macken z i e H i ghway to Y e l l ow
kni f e
( 19 6 0 )
and its e s tab l i s hment a s the T e r r i tor i a l c a p i t a l
in 1 9 6 7 , t h e number o f hote l s a n d mot e l s t h e r e h a s i n c r e a sed
s i gn i f i c ant ly .
I n 1 9 7 5 , Y e l l owkn i f e alone a c c ounted f o r 3 1
p e r c e n t o f the tot a l b e d capac i ty in th e N o r t hwe s t T e r r i to r
ies .
T h e qua l i ty o f a c c ommoda t i on has a l so improved .
The
o ld e r , one room , c ab i n- type mot e l is being r e p l ac e d r ap id ly
w i t h mo dern mu l t i - s t o r i e d f ac i l i t ie s .
Th i s t rend h a s
exte nded t o many o f th e s ma l l e r , mo r e i s o l a ted c ommuni t i e s
a s we l l .
S u c h i mprov emen t s w i l l undoubt e d l y a c t to spur
tour i sm among those who want to v i s i t Canada ' s Ar c t i c but
pre f er not to c a mp .
Lodge s , outp o s t s , and tent c a mp s p rov ide a mor e
ru s t i c a n d p r im i t ive type o f acc ommod a t ion .
I n 1 9 7 5 report s
from 2 6 o f 4 2 ope r at o r s contacted c a te r e d t o 3 , 4 7 9 gue s t s .
A s i d e f rom o f f er in g f ewer amen i t i e s than the hote l s and
mo te l s ,
th e l od ge s ,
outpo s t s , and tent c amp s a r e gene r a l ly
147
loc ated i n mo re remote are a s ,
during the summer per i od .
frequent l y a c c e s s ib l e only
A h i gh percentage o f United S ta t e s
c i t i z en s appear to pre f er the s e accommod a t i o n s , repr e s enting
79
per c ent of the 1 9 7 5 gue s t s .
Thi s number contra s ted
sh ar p l y with t h e 7 . 5 per cent o f U . S .
c i t i z en s s taying in
hotel s and mote l s .
Perhaps t h e g r e a t e s t d rawb a c k to th i s pha s e o f the
i nd ustry is i t s s hort s ea son , aver a g i ng b e tween two and four
mon ths dur ing the summer .
campgr o u n d s
I n 1 9 7 5 a to t a l o f 3 1 park , campground , and p i cn i c
are a s were oper a ted by t h e Terr i tor i a l government w i th mo s t
located on the Macke n z i e H i ghway s y s tem .
Annua l perm i t s are
requi r ed f o r non - r e s ident u s e r s of the c ampgr ound s and are
ava i l ab l e for a nom i n a l fee .
In 1 9 7 5 ,
6 7 0 permi t s were s o l d .
The goVernment c ampgrounds are genera l ly new and we l l
equ i pped wi th b a s i c n ec e s s i ti e s .
The c amp s i t e s are s u i t a b l e
f o r recreationa l vehi c l e s , tent s , o r t r a i l er s .
screened c ommun ity cooking f a c i l i t ie s ,
and water .
Mo s t provide
fire pits ,
f i r ewood ,
I n genera l , the s e c ampground s c an ac commodate 1 0
to 2 5 par t i e s each .
I n the Nor thwe s t Ter r i tor ie s , a s o f 1 9 7 5 ,
only two p r i vate c ampground s :
ther e were
one at P a r ad i s e Gardens near
Hay River , and one on B ro ughton I s l and near B a f f in I s l and
N at i on a l P ar k .
No data are avai lab l e for the se operation s .
I t se ems l i k e l y , i f tou r i s m continues to i n c rea s e , that
add i t iona l priva te l y-ope r a ted c ampground s wi l l be b u i l t ,
e s pe c i a l ly i f they c a n o f fer s ome pa�ticu lar advantage or
point of i n ter e s t not avai l a b l e at the gove rnment f a c i l i t i e s .
C o n c l u s i on
C ont i nued growth of the tou r i s t indu s tr y i s thought by
the government to be d ependent upon two b a s i c requi remen t s :
148
a gre ater number o f modern accommod at i ons , and i n c r e a sed
8
In t h i s way t h e T e r r i to r i e s could
promo tion o f tour i sm .
a tt r a c t a greater s h a r e of the North Ame r i c an and ove r s ea s
trave l mark e t s .
Much of the r e s po n s i b i l ity for promotion i s th e
m i s s io n o f T rave lArc t i c .
The pub l i c i ty e f fo r t s o f the agency
are beginning to s how r e s u l t s .
In 1 9 7 4 , Trave lAr c t i c
an swe r e d over 2 7 , 0 0 0 i nqu i r i e s , a n i n c re a s e o f more than 1 5
pe r c ent over 1 9 7 3 ,
in 1 9 6 9 .
In 1 9 7 5 ,
and a doub l in g o f t h e inqu i r i e s r e c e i ved
even though only one promo t i o n a l e f fort
was made and no adver ti s in g was p l ac e d i n the med i a ,
24 , 000
inqu i r i e s we r e r e c e ived .
A ma j or pro b l em a f f e c t ing t h e g r owth o f the tour i s t
indus try concerns a n i d ent i ty prob l em :
many peop l e c on fu s e
the N or thwe s t Terr i t or i e s w i t h the Yukon ; the r e i s a l a ck o f
awar ene s s o f t h e h i ghway s y s tem- - i t i s n o t a s w e l l known a s
t h e A l a s kan H i ghway ; and t h e r a n g e of s e r v i c e s a n d fac i l it i e s
ava i l ab l e i s not gener a l ly known .
Over a l l , however ,
there are a sma l l but growing
i n t er e s t s i n t h e N or thwe s t Terr i tor i e s wh i ch can b e a t t r i buted
to n a t i ona l a nd i n te r n a t i o n a l attention f o c u s ed on northern
devel opmen t , nat i ve c u l ture s , open s pac e s , c l e a n envi ronment ,
and s c e n i c attrac t io n s .
Mo s t i n d i c a t i o n s a r e tha t the tour i s t indu s t ry w i l l
c ont inue t o grow .
A l though 1 9 7 4 s howed a s l i gh t d ec l i ne
b e c a u s e o f wo rld-wide e conomi c rec e s s i on , a f e a red fuel
shortage , and adve r s e s umme r w e a the r ,
1 9 7 5 r e c orded a mode s t
i n c r e a s e o f abou t 3 percen t .
Add i t i o n a l i nducement to tour i sm w i l l be the e ventual
e x t e n s i o n of the Mac ken z i e H i ghway sys tem nor thward from
F or t S impson to the i'1acken z i e River d e l ta , and the comp l e t i o n
o f a conn e c t ing r o ad b e tween t h e Yukon Terr i tory a n d the
Macken z i e River v a l ley .
The latter w i l l provide e a s y a c c e s s
t o t h e Y ukon a n d A l a s k a and s ho u l d draw a number o f v i s i tors
from among t ho s e norma l ly u s i n g the A l a skan H i ghway .
149
P ro j e c t ing the g r owth pattern ,
another decade may
we l l f ind 3 5 , 0 0 0 to 4 0 , 0 0 0 tour i s t s v i s i ti n g the Nor thwe s t
T e r r i t or i e s annua l ly .
Whi l e chan g e s mu s t a nd w i l l o c c ur ,
it
i s hoped that t h e attraction and appe a l o f thi s exte n s ive ,
fragi l e r e g i o n w i l l r e ma i n r e l a t i v e l y u n s po i l e d to provide
tour i s t s th e oppor tun i ty to v i s i t and appr e c i ate Ame r i ca ' s
far northern f r o n t i e r .
NOTES
1
The Travel
In dustry in
the Northwest Terri tori e s 1 9 75 ,
Depart-
ment of Economic Development , Divis ion of Tour ism , Government of the
Northwest Terr i tor i e s , Y e l l owkn i fe , N . W . T . , May 1 9 7 6 .
Thi s is the
eighth annual report pub l i shed by the Divis ion o f Tourism and unl e s s
otherwi s e noted i s the sourc e o f all statistical data for th i s paper .
2
vi s i tor Books 1 9 7 4 ,
Department of Economic Development ,
Divi s ion of Touri sm , Government of the Northwest Territori e s ,
N.W.T. ,
197 5 .
Yel lowkn i fe
The s e are regis tration books maintained at the border
information station .
3
Data provided during intervi ews with personnel at the Department
of Economic Development ,
4
Y e l lowkn i fe , Northwe s t Territor i e s ,
Explorers G u i de :
Canada ' s Arc t i c 1 9 7 5 ,
sioner o f the Northwest Territori es ,
p.
TravelArct i c ,
August 1 9 7 5 .
Commis
Y e l l owkn i fe , N . W . T . , March 1 9 7 5 ,
30.
5
6
7
rb1·d . , pp .
3 2- 3 3 .
see footnote 3 .
The Travel Indus try in
ment of Economic Deve lopment ,
Northwest Territori e s ,
8
the Northwest Terri tori es 1 9 7 4 ,
Y e l lowkn i fe , N . W . T . , June 1 9 7 5 , p .
s e e footnote 3 .
Depart-
Divis ion of Tourism , Government of the
5.
150
151
. the
C a l i fo r n i a G e o g raP._.
r
h..,.
. e:..:.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Vo l ume XVI I I ,
1 978
REJECTED LOCAT I ON O F INTERS TATE
H I GHWAY FORTY , CAL I FORN IA
Dona l d
Josi f*
D e s p i t e conv incing " geographi c " reasons f o r routing
Inters tate h i ghway 4 0
( I-4 0 )
through Twentynine P a lm s , a
propo s a l to do so was abandoned by the Cal i fornia D i v i s ion
of H i g hway s .
de c i s ion .
Thi s p aper explores the r e a soning behind the
It is intended as a s tudy of the suc c e s s e s and
f a i l ings in route l o c at ion d e c i s ion making .
Southern C a l i f orn i a ' s popu l a tion s p i l l s toward
Twentyn ine P a lm s and natural open i n g s through the Mo j ave
De sert ' s rough terrain whi c h l e ad s t r a i ght to the p r i n c i pal
e a s tward h ighway .
( F igures 1 ,
2,
Y e t t h i s o bv i ous route has gone unu sed
and 3 ) .
I f I - 4 0 p a s sed through the popu
l ated area t o Twentynine P a lm s and on to Topock it wou l d
s e rve more peo p l e than i f routed f r om I - 1 5 t o Topock .
wou l d a l so provide the s ho r t e s t conn e c t ion
It
( F igure s 1 and 3 ) .
The open terrain that o f f e r s a d i re c t route v i a
Twentynine P alms i s c ompo sed e s sent i a l l y o f broad al l uv i a l
bas i n s a n d bro ad p a s s e s between l ow mountains
( F i gure 2 ) .
Al though the topographic trend of th i s part of the d e s e r t i s
gene r a l ly north o r northwe s t and the hi ghway wou l d have run
s outhwe s t and we s t , the arrangement of gap s be tween
*Dr .
Jos i f i s As soci ate Pro f e s sor of Geog raphy at Western
Caro l i na Unive r s i ty in Cullowhee , NC
2872 3 .
152
K i nt: t l l a t l
Bars tow
. ·�:'; ® · : · ..' . .
�:.'·
·.
·.
Twc n t y n J n c Pal 111s
•' : ::'-Y?,· ® ·.- : .
F i gure
1.
P o p u l a t i on d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
southern C a l i forn i a and part o f
the Mo j ave D e s er t .
Source :
U.S.
Di s tr i b u t i on ,
1 960
Bureau o f the Census
Urban and R u ra l ,
( Washington :
in
(map )
Pop u l a t i on
the Uni ted St a tes :
Government P rinting O f f i c e ,
mount a i n s a l l ows s u c h a highway a l ignmen t .
1963 ) .
South o f Morongo
V a l l ey the natural rou te change s in that the only openings
are narrow c anyons a c ro s s the s outhwe s t ern extremity o f the
L i t t l e San Bernardino Moun t a i n s .
Beyond thi s thr e e -m i l e
i n terrup t i on t h e n atu r a l route o f broad , open p a s s e s and
b a s i n s . continu e s to Los Ange l e s .
With the except i on of the
8 3 mi l e s in whi ch the h i g hway wou l d have run acro s s the
g r a i n of the country , h i ghways d i d run through the s e natural
open i n g s f rom the Ar i z on a -C a l i forn i a s tate l in e t o L o s
Ange l e s .
From Mo rongo V a l l e y to Lo s Ange l e s the s e o l d road s
had been prop o s e d as f reeway rou t e s
A d v a n t a ges
P a l ms
of
the
( F i gure 3 ) . 1
T we n t y n i n e
Route
U . S . H i ghway 6 6 , the p r i n c i pa l pre d e c e s s o r t o I - 4 0 ,
conn e c te d the l a rge popu l at ions in southern C a l i forn i a and
e a s tern North Ameri c a .
I t a l s o s erved a s a l in k between the
mo re l i ghtly popu l at e d northern C a l i f o r n i a and the s outhern
F igure
2.
The propo s e d route b e tween Topock , Ar i zon a ,
and a point 1 7 m i l e s e a s t o f Twentyn ine P a lms , and
i t s r e l ationship to l andforms .
Source :
U.S.
1 : 2 5 0 , 000 .
Geological Survey , N e edles contour map , or iginal scale
1-'
l11
w
154
l
BA RSTOW
/
/
/ ._ov"'"'
/ / ,.�
/ \o'f
/
TWENT Y N I N E
PALMS
------�----- ---- /
//
/
�
miles
25
0
40
kilometers
0
/
50
80
F i gure
3.
The options , 1 9 5 6 . The propo s ed Twentyning
P a lms route is s hown by d ashed l in e . The road f r om
U . S . 7 0 to Twen tynine P a lms h ad no s i gn numb e r .
Even tual l o c at i ons o f I nters tate h ighways
are s hown by dotted l in e s .
t i e r o f s t a te s .
I n s p i t e o f the se l o c a t i on a l and demo-
g r ap h i c f ac t s , the Ca l i f o r n i a D i v i s ion o f H i ghways conc l uded
that U . S .
6 6 p r i nc i p a l l y s e rved northern C a l i fo rn ia .
Old U . S .
6 6 w a s c i rc u i tou s .
1 5 , and 1 0 , are a l so c i rc u i to u s .
I t s s uc c e s s or s ,
S i n c e there i s u s u a l l y no
need to go north to Need l e s , we s t to B a r s tow ,
S an Bernard ino ,
I-4 0 ,
and south to
it s ho u ld b e po s s i b l e t o g o d i re c t l y f rom
Topock to Lo s Ange l e s
( F i gu r e s l and 3 ) .
Ac cording to
C a l i forni a h ighway o f f i c i al s , the saving o f f e red by the
Twentyn ine P alms route wou l d have been 57 m i l e s when the
routing de c i s ion was made in 1 9 5 6 , and 4 9 m i l e s in c ompari son
w i th U . S .
6 6 a s mod i f i e d by p l an s that a l r e ady had been
adopte d ; the saving wou l d have been 2 2 m i l e s in comp a r i s on
2
w i th comp l e ted I - 4 0 - 1 5 - 1 0 .
The d ec i s ion was made i n the
context of the 4 9 -m i l e d i f ference .
155
T h e p ropo sed route wo u l d h ave provided a freeway for
10cal
traf f i c in t he corr idor b e tween U . S .
70
( I- 1 0 )
and
Twentyn ine P a lms , a volume equal to the through - t r a f f i c
c ar r ied by U . S . 6 6 between B a r s tow and Need l e s ( F i gure 3 ) .
The Twentynine Palms route wou l d have prov i ded- a
3
F rom F l ag s t a f f ,
sho rte r and coo l e r route to S an D ie g o .
where
t
he
rout
e
s
d
i
ve
rg
e
,
to
S
an
D iego v i a Phoenix ,
Ar i z ona ,
wa s 4 9 5 m i l e s - - a l l to be I nt e r s t ate f re eway except the 3 7
m i l e s o f U . S . 8 0 southwe s t o f Phoen i x .
Taking into a ccount
the eventual 1 7 -m i l e s aving on I - 4 0 betwe e n Kingman and
s e l i gman , Ar i z ona , the propo s e d route wou l d have been 4 6 7
mi le s v i a four-l ane rout e s 6 0 and 3 9 5 w e s t o f Beaumon t , o r
4 5 1 mi l e s v i a two - l an e roads b e tween B e aumont and Teme c u l a
( F i gure 4 ) .
The contr a s t in m i l e ag e for v a r i o u s e l evation
r ange s , on the C o l or ado P l a t e au and in the d e s e r t are s hown
in
Tabl e 1 .
T ab l e 1
C o l o r ado P l ateau and De s e r t M i l e a g e s
f o r Twentyn ine P a lm s and Phoenix
Route s , by E l evation
E l evation
Twentyn ine
Palms
Phoenix
7 , 0 0 0-7 , 3 3 4
6 , 000-7 , 0 00
5 , 000-6 , 000
4 , 000-5 , 000
3 , 0 0 0- 4 , 00 0
19
23
61
20
32
0
28
6
17
36
2 , 0 0 0- 3 , 0 0 0
1 , 000-2 , 000
5 0 0-1 , 0 0 0
0-5 0 0
-30-0
49
126
32
0
0
19
53
78
137
23
156
F i gure
Sourc e :
4.
The Tra f f i c S tudy ' s zone map .
C a l i forn i a Divis ion o f H i ghway s ,
footnote 3 ,
plate B
No mo d i f i c a t ions in zone boundar ies or letters were made .
( 1 956 ) .
Other
information was s i mp l i f i e d .
The Twen tyn i n e P a lm s route woul d have a v e r a g e d 1 , 5 0 0
feet h i gher o r , app lying the " norma l " l ap s e rate a s a rough
mea sure , about � o F c o o l e r than the P h o e n i x rout e acro s s tho se
are as .
I - 4 0 ave rage s a few hundred f e e t h i gher in i t s d e s e rt
cro s s i n g than the Twentyn ine P a lms rout e , but is in the
I - 4 0 and conn e c t i n g rou t e s
de s e r t for a greater d i s t an c e .
t o S an D i e go t o t a l 5 2 2 mi l e s ,
5 5 a n d 7 1 m i l e s mo re than th e
alternative s provi de d by the Twentyn ine P a lm s route and 2 7
mi l e s mo re than the P ho e n i x route .
The Inter s t a te h i ghway s y s tem i s suppo s ed to be
located " to s e rve t he national d e f e n s e and e conomi c we l f are
4
o f the nation . "
The s e o b j e c t iv e s would b e b e t t e r s e rved
by
a
h i ghway provi d ing a 4 9 -m i l e s horter conn e c t i on to the
pr inc ipal popu l a t ion t o be d e f ended than by a h i ghwa y pro
viding no redu c t i on i n d i s tance .
157
The p ropo s e d route wou l d have been 2 5 m i l e s s h o r t e r
f ro m A s h Fork , Ar i z ona , to Lo s Ang e l e s t han U . S . 8 9 and
6 0 / 7 0 v i a P r e s c o t t and B l ythe ( F igure 5 ) .
The l at t e r
u.s.
ro u te wa s 2 8 m i l e s s ho r t e r t h a n U . S .
cur vy ,
66 .
D e s p i t e having
s l ow , moun t a i n o u s s e c t i o n s south o f P r e s co t t ,
tak ing a s i gn i f i cant mino r i ty o f U . S .
5
.
t ra f f l c .
it was
6 6 ' s long-d i s t an c e
The Twen tyn ine P a lms route wou l d have reduced road
d i s t an c e b e tween pub l i c h o s p i t a l s i n N e e d l e s and Twentyn ine
p a l ms to 1 0 9 m i l e s , comp ared with 1 5 4 m i l e s on U . S .
66 i n
1 9 5 6 a n d the p r e s e n t 1 4 4 -m i l e d i s tance o n I - 4 0 be tween the
Need l e s and B a r s tow ho s p i t a l s .
serv i c e s
The d i s tance b e tween maj o r
( e . g . , banking and automobi l e r e p ai r i ng ) wo u l d
have b e e n s im i l a r l y reduced .
The propo s e d route wou l d have b rought the Topock
Need l e s and H ava s u Lake portions o f the Col orado River a s
c l o s e to s o u t h e rn C a l i f o rn i a a s P a r k e r r e a ch , t h e p r i n c i p a l
recreation
Di s t r i c t
a re a
E i gh t ' s
o n t h e riv e r .
E va l u a t i on
D i s tr i c t E ig h t , Ca l i fo rn i a D i v i s ion o f H i ghway s ,
repre s e n t a t i v e s con s i d e r e d the Twen tyn ine P a lms rout e .
D i s t r i c t ' s Re l o c a t io n Repo r t ,
T he
in wh i c h i t re commended
again s t the p ropo s e d route , and the T ra f f i c S tudy f rom
which i t d e r ived data , were approved by the D i v i s ion and the
6
United S t a t e s Bureau o f Publ i c Road s .
All the pros and
con s s tated i n the two r e po r t s are s ummar i z e d h e r e .
D i s t r i c t E i ght c l e a r l y r e cogn i z ed that l an d f o rms
7
a l l ow f o r a marked redu c t i o n in d i s tance :
Re l oc a t i on of U . S . 6 6 as sugge s ted i s phy s i c a l l y
f e a s i b l e and wou l d e f f e c t a d e s i r a b l e s av ing o f 5 7
mi l e s f o r t r av e l between Topock and the L o s Ange l e s
Con s tr u c t i o n o f the adopted re l o c at i on on
area .
pre s e nt U . S . 6 6 w i l l reduce t h i s s av i n g s to 4 9 m i l e s .
158
-
r--------
---- ----
I
-- - -- ,
.
I
(
,.,...-- .... .. )'
X
'
j
-
F igure
Sourc e :
5.
......
-----
--
I
I
'-......
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
The B ly the s urvey ' s Ar i z ona z one map .
C a l i fornia Divi s i on o f Highway s ,
traf f i c s u rvey report
( 1950) .
untitled Blythe
j
159
D i s t r i c t E ig h t under s c o re d the f e a s i b i l i ty in De c ember 1 9 5 5
by
recommending " f u l l f re eway devel opment " b e tween U . S .
70
and Morongo Va l l ey , and by s ta t i n g that " S e venty-mph d e s ign
s tandards can be obtained wi thout d i f f i c u l ty e a s te r l y o f
8
The D i s tr i c t e s t imated t h e Twentynine
Morongo Val l ey . "
Palms route wou l d provide ,
in compa r i s on with a fre eway
along the ex i s t in g route , a $ 1 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 s aving in u s e r s '
9
co s t s between 1 9 5 6 and 1 9 7 6 .
Al though not s t ated i n the Re l o c at i on Repo r t o r the
Traf f i c S tudy ,
it was c on s i dered important to keep the route
through N ee d l e s b e c a u s e of the need for s e rv i c e s i n the
2 1 4 -mi l e g ap between K ingman and B a r s t o w ( F igure s 1 and 3 ) .
S e r v i c e s supp l i ed to the trave l ing pub l i c by Need l e s
" repre sented a r e a l need i n view o f the d i s tan c e s b e tween
10
K i ngman , Ar i z ona and C a l i fo rn i a c i t i e s to the we s t . "
D i s t r i c t E ig h t fur the r s ta te s :
The Twen tyn ine P a l m s rout ing wou l d have improved
t r a f f i c s e rv i c e to the Twentynine P a lms Mar ine B a s e ,
whe r e a s the c o n s truc t e d rout ing s e rve s the B a r s tow
Marine S upp l y Cente r , George Air Force B a s e , Edwards
Air Force B a s e and I nyoke rn N av a l Ordinance T e s t
S t a t i on .
T h e c o n s t ructed route prov i d e s d u a l t r a f f i c
s e rvi c e f o r t r a f f i c d e s i r ing to g o t o t h e indu s t r i a l
areas o f northern C a l i fornia as we l l a s s outhern
C a l i forn i a . l l
The s ame s o u r c e a l so s ta t e d that " S p e c i a l l e g i s l at i ve
act i on wou l d have been requi red to take FAI - 4 0 away f rom the
c i t i e s o f B a r s tow and N e e d l e s .
S t atutory provi s i on s requ i re
12
that Rou t e 4 0 g o through B a r s tow and N e e d l e s . "
The p ropo s e d route " would f a c i l i tate travel be twe en
13
As
the Lo s Ange l e s a r e a and the Twentynine P a lm s area . "
noted e a r l i e r ,
betwe e n U . S .
the D i s t r i ct had re commended a f reeway
7 0 and Mo rongo Val l e y .
I t was recogn i z e d that " Re d e s ign ation o f the I n t e r
s t ate S y s tem wou l d a f ford a reduc t i on o f I nt e r s ta t e mi l e ag e
14
of 18 m i l e s . "
160
D i s tr i c t 8 concluded that o n l y 2 2 percent o f the
tra f f i c ente r i n g C a l i f or n i a on U . S .
6 6 wou l d use the pro
p o s e d route .
The need to improve U . S .
6 6 we ighed again s t the
Twentyn i ne P a lms route , e sp e c i a l l y a s it w a s un l i k e l y that
fund s for the new h i ghway and for improvement o f the o l d
wou l d b e ava i l ab l e a t the s ame t ime ,
and con s truction o f
the Twentyn ine P a lm s route wou l d have requ i re d spend ing
15
pub l i c fund s to maintain dup l i c ate f ac i l i t i e s .
The f in a l recommend a t i o n re a f f i rmed p l an s to improve
16
the e x i s t i n g route to adequate s t andard s .
That p l an s
17
a l re ady we re e s tabl i s he d i s s pe c i f i e d :
U . S . 6 6 i s r ap i d l y b e i n g d eve loped by s t age
c o n s tru c t i on to f reeway s t andards between San
B e rnardino and Daggett [ F i gu r e 4 ] .
P l an s are we l l
advan c e d on uncon s tructed s e gments which w i l l
permit e a r l y c o n s t ruc t i o n , s ub j e c t t o ava i l ab i l i ty
Right o f way i s s u b s t ant i a l ly
o f hi ghway fund s . . . .
acqu i r ed and c on s truction i s budgeted for f reeway
deve l o pment be twee n N e ed l e s and 3 m i l e s we s t of the
Co lorado Rive r .
E x a mi n a t i o n
for
of
R e a s on s
R ej e c t i on
B e c a u s e d i s tance , t e rr a i n , u s e r s '
c o s t ben e f i t s ,
and reduction in I n t e r s t ate mi l e age were a l l f av or ab le ,
they p r e s umably were not r e a s o n s f o r re j e c t i on o f the
Twentyn i n e P a lm s route .
D i s t r i c t E ight thought s e r v i c e woul d be better i f
the route were kept i n N e e d l e s .
However , k e e p i n g southe rn
C a l i f o r n i a t r a f f i c w a s mo re impo rtant to Ne e d l e s than
N e ed l e s was to the h i g hway .
and Twentyni n e P a l m s
The d i s t an c e b e tween K ingman
( 1 5 6 m i le s )
wou l d have been p r a c t i c a l ly
the s ame a s b e tween N e e d l e s and B a r s tow ( 1 5 4 m i le s ) .
The
d i s tance between N e e d l e s and Twentyn i ne P alms wou l d have
been 1 0 9 m i l e s , a l though a s i de trip o f 16 m i l e s wou l d be
n e c e s s a ry f o r me d i c a l o r other ma j o r s e rv i c e s in N e e d l e s .
161
The midpoint wou l d h ave been 5 5 m i le s by road f r om the two
town s and about the s ame d i s tance by a i r to the B l ythe and
Twe ntynine P a lms Ma r i n e Corps B a s e ho s p i t al s .
The middle
s t r e t c h wou l d h ave been a s c lo s e a s 32 air m i l e s to the
clinic a t the Ka i s e r S te e l Company mine n o r t h o f De s e r t
cen t e r
( F i gure 4 ) .
18
emergency c a s e s .
A l l o f t h e s e f ac i l i t i e s accept gener a l
The advantage s and d i s advant age s t o d e f e n s e and
econom i c we l f ar e l i e i n the acce s s i b i l i ty of the popu l at i on
to be d e f ended and to d e f e n s e e s ta b l i s hme n t s and mi l i ta ry
bas e s .
T he l at t e r a l re ady wer e s e rved by U . S .
6 6 , and an
Inte r s t a t e route s imi l a r l y p l ac e d would have provided only
the advantage o f a fou r - l ane f re eway over a two - l an e h i ghway .
In contra s t , t he Twentynine P a lms route wou l d have c reated
a d i re c t , 4 9 -m i le s ho r te r , conn e c t i o n to o v e r h a l f the
state ' s popu l at i on and to the de f e n s e indu s t r i e s and
mi l i tary b a s e s a s so c i ated w i t h i t .
The ex i s t in g route wou ld
prov i d e the m i l i tary and c i v i l bene f i t s c l a imed f o r i t ,
and
have the adv antage of carrying l e s s than h a l f i t s f orme r
traf f i c .
Indee d , the d e f e n s e and economi c we l f a r e ar gumen t
i s t h e r ationa l e f o r the Twentyn ine P a l m s route i n c o nt r a s t
with t h e adopted rou te .
S eparate h i ghways to two d i f f e re n t
are as wou ld provide b e t t e r s e rv i c e than o n e r ou te s e rving
both , but at a cost of 4 9 m i l e s to the l a r g e r t r a f f i c f l ow .
The contention that l eg i s l at ive a c tion wou l d have
been requ i red to take I - 4 0 away f r om Need l e s and B a r s tow may
or may not be a r e a l i s t i c r e f l e c t ion o f po l i t i c s .
At the
time , the Need l e s - B a r stow h i g hway w a s s t ate l eg i s l at ive
rou te 5 8 , not 4 0 .
The fo rme r de s i g n a t i on wa s u s e d i n the
19
The
T r a f f i c S tudy , and was in e f f e c t un t i l J u l y l , 1 9 6 4 .
le g i s l a ture could a s we l l have e s t a b l i s he d an e n t i r e l y new
rou te throu g h Twen tyn i n e P a lms a s it did f rom S ac r amento to
sou t h of B a ke r s f i e l d
(I-5) .
A s e a r c h o f a l l fede r a l h i ghway
162
laws s ince the o r i g i n a l one in 1 9 1 6 reve a l s no aut ho r i z a t ion
o f state l e g i s l a t i ve a c t i on in l o c at i n g fede r a l - a i d highway s .
T he d e c i s ion l i e s with the s t ate h i g hway depa rtme n t s and the
.
20
f e d e r a 1 h l. g h way aut h o r l ty .
T r a f f i c in the c o r r i d o r between U . S .
7 0 and Twenty
n i ne P a lms averaged 1 , 8 0 0 veh i c l e s p e r d ay i n 1 9 5 5 , a
v o l ume equal to that c ar r i e d by U . S . 6 6 between B a r s tow and
21
Needles .
Whe r e a s the l a t t e r was a lmo s t e n t i r e l y t hrough
t r a f f i c , very l i t t l e of the f o rme r was and thus c o n s t ituted
an addit ional t r a f f i c f l ow to bene f i t f rom a f reeway .
If
the f re eway we r e not bu i l t a s p a r t o f the I n t e r s tate s y s tem ,
it eventua l l y wou l d require funding that wa s l e s s advantage
o u s to the state than the 9 0 percen t - f e d e r a l funding o f the
I n te r s tate sys tem .
F ive r e a s o n s f avoring a s i n g l e f reeway a long the
e x i s t ing route we r e i n t e r r e l ated :
of U . S .
T he need f o r imp rovement
6 6 , the l a c k of funds to imp rove i t and a t the s ame
t ime bu i l d a new h i g hway ,
the l i g h t t r a f f i c invo l v e d , the
c o s t of maintaining two road s , and the ex i s tence o r p r i o r
p l an s .
Grouped togethe r ,
they add up to a p r a c t i c a l r e a son
f o r l oc ating I - 4 0 a long the route o f U . S .
66.
Combi n e d w i th
the i d e a tha t o n l y 2 2 percent of the t r a f f i c wou l d u s e the
Twen tyn ine P a lms rout e , they make a r a t i o n a l c a s e .
But the
t r a f f i c f l ow i n f o rmat i on used by D i s t r i c t E i g h t was woe f u l l y
de f i c i ent and poo r l y ana l y z ed .
The
T r a ffi c S t u d y
F o r t ra f f ic e n t e r in g C a l i f o r n i a on U . S .
6 6 , the 1 9 5 3
Need l e s t ra f f i c survey repor t e d l y showed a 7 8 : 2 2 u s e r a t i o
between t h e e x i s t i ng a n d propo s e d route s .
The su rvey was
conducted by D i s t r i c t E i ght pe rsonnel f rom 7 a . m .
De cember 1 , 1 9 5 3 ,
22
( Ta b l e 2 ) .
to 5 p . m . ,
and y i e l ded i n terviews w i t h 1 , 3 2 6 d r ivers
163
2
T ab l e
I n t e r v i ew Re s ul t s f rom C a l i f o r n i a D i v i s ion o f
H i ghways T ra f f i c S tudy , 1 9 5 6 *
zone
A
B
c
D
F
E
H
G
J
K
L
M
N
15
83
26
Total
Interview Sta tion # l - We s tbound
10
A
B
10
10
111
6
7
53
3
28
l
2
7
2
285
89
c
161
66
55
29
l
3
3
l
22
l
342
TOTAL
171
129
68
168
8
12
10
16
107
27
716
3
4
l3
51
18
448
2
2
110
I n t e rv i ew Station # 3 - Eas tbound
146
30
62
115
6
B
33
41
10
21
l
c
51
A
230
TOTAL
*Actual intervi ews ,
1
71
73
7 : 00 a . m .
52
136
7
4
3
52
l3
20
610
to 5 : 00 p . m .
I t w a s inadequate i n s ev e r a l ways ,
and e ach inade
quacy c au s e d an e r r o r in f av o r of the e x i s t ing route .
H ad
none of the e r r o r s o c c u r re d , the r e s u l t s wo u l d have been
l e s s counter to tho s e o f the three l a r ge s t , be s t - executed
surve y s o f U . S .
6 6 t r a f f i c ( Table 3 ) .
23
The l at t e r surveys
s howed a 2 : 1 ratio be tween t r a f f i c f o r the p ropo sed and
ex i s t i ng route s ,
i n t r a f f i c entering C a l i f orn i a on U . S .
66 .
Ove r ha l f the t r a f f i c on the N ee d l e s-Ba r s tow s tr e t c h wou l d
have f ound the prop o s e d route s h o r te r .
24
One day in D e c emb e r w a s not repre s e n t a t i v e o f an
e n t i r e year ' s h i ghway u s e .
The r a t i o between the t r a f f i c
f l ows i s c lo se r to 1 : 1 i n winter
( 2 . 5 : l)
.
25
(1. 6 :1)
than i n summe r
164
T ab l e
3
Veh i c l e T r ip D i s tr ib u t i on
N umber o f Veh i c l e T r i p s
That Wo uld Have Been
Shorter V i a :
S urvey
Twenty nine
P a lm s
N e e d l e s and
B a r s tow
December 1 ,
1 9 5 3 , N e ed l e s S ur v ey
161
166
December 2 ,
1 9 5 3 , N e e d l e s S urvey
187
151
1, 829
933
91
66
70
340
521
85
164
267
1 , 508
4 , 543
855
2 , 164
1 9 5 7 - 1 9 5 8 Ar i z ona S u rv e y
May ,
1 9 6 8 , T r uc k S urvey
June ,
1 9 7 0 , S urvey
T ru c k s
Cal ifornia Cars
Other C a r s
Ag r i c u l tu r a l I n te rc ep t i on S urvey
C a l i fo rn i a Vehi c l e s
O t h e r Veh i c l e s
L o c a l t r a f f i c w i t h i n N e e d l e s c on s i s ted o f 2 1 2 o f the
1 , 3 2 6 vehic l e t r i p s
( F igure 5 ) .
I t wa s c ounted a s p a r t o f
the 7 8 percent tha t " would have t o c ont inue t o u s e the
26
ex i s t i ng route b e tween Topock and B a r s tow . "
The 2 0 0 veh i c l e s t r ave l i ng on U . S .
9 5 t o and f r om
z one D should have noth i n g to do with the l oc a t i on o f a
route connecting C a l i forn i a wi th the E a s t
( F igures 4 and 6 ) .
O f the 14 6 ve h i c l e s l i s t ed as o r i g i na t i ng i n
Needles
( z one C )
and headed for z one A , 2 8 a lmo s t c e rt a i n l y
27
o r i ginated e l s ewhe r e ( F igure 5 ) .
T h e y h a d d e s tinat i on s
e a s t o f A r i z ona ,
and we r e reported on t h e f i e ld inte rv i ew
s hee t s w i t h s u c h e nt r i e s a s " Ne ed l e s - -1'·7 e s t End S e rv i c e
S t a t i on - - K an s a s C i ty , Mo . "
E ighty - e i ght o f t h e rema ind e r
165
had d e s t in a t i on s no f arther than Topock .
I n contr a s t ,
zone C i s l i s ted a s the d e s t i nat i on f o r on ly 1 0 ve h i c l e s
f r om z one
A.
S im i l a r l y , the 6 2 t r i p s l i sted a s o r i ginating in
z one E and he aded f or z one A c annot be u s e d b e c a u s e the
reve r s e f l ow is on ly 1 0 .
C l e ar ly , t h e 2 8 t r i p s f rom z one C and the 6 2 f r om
z one E mus t h ave repre s ented l on g -d i s tance t ra f f i c with
var i ed or i g i n s .
Yet the t r a f f i c f rom t h e s e unknown o r i g i n s
wa s c ounted a s hav i n g to u s e t h e e x i s t i n g route even though
a s u b s t an t i a l part of i t probab l y o r i g inated i n s outhern
C a l i f o r n i a and wou ld h ave been better s erved by the pro
p o s ed route .
The inte rv ie w s ta t i o n s mi s s ed s ome o f the t r a f f i c
that turned s ou t h o n U . S .
95 .
The om i s s i on of t ra f f i c to
southern C a l i f o rn i a via V id a l Junct ion and I n d i o , a lt hough
nume r i c a l ly smal l , wou ld h ave contr i buted to the poor s how
ing of poten t i a l t r a f f i c for the p ropo s e d r ou t e .
The area between R iver side and U . S .
d e s i gnated a z one
( F igur e 4 ) .
9 5 was not
The s even v e h i c l e s that were
headed to or f r om it s hou ld have been counted und e r the
p r op o s ed route , but were a s s i gned to other z one s .
Even cur s o ry r ev i ew of the T r a f f i c S tudy by s t a t e
or f e d e r a l h i ghway au thor i t i e s s h o u l d h ave r e v e a l e d seve r a l
o f the we akne s s e s .
The pub l i s hed 7 8 : 2 2 r a t i o w a s incorre c t ;
a l e s s -mi s l e ading impre s s i on could have been gained f rom
d e s t in a t i on data a lon e ,
l e av i n g out the obv i ou s l y
28
inc ongruou s o r i gin data .
The on l y c e r t a i n i n f ormation
wa s f or t r a f f i c with d e s t i nat i on s i n z o ne F
f o r the e x i s t i n g rou te ,
veh i c le s ) ,
( 1 6 8 vehi c l e s ) ,
and in z on e s H through M
f or t h e prop o s ed route
( 17 2
( F igur e s 4 and 5 ) .
� i th
n e a r l y equal f l ows b a s ed on on ly 3 4 0 u s ab l e r e spon s e s , a
need for more survey work w a s ind i ca t ed .
166
C o mp a r i s o n
Wi t h
Other
S u r ve y s
Seven o t I1 e r surveys were exrun l ne d .
.
o f t h e two sma l l e s t , t h e D e c ember 2 ,
s urvey s ,
contrad i c t each other
m o s t i n t r i g u ing .
29
The r e s u l t s
1 9 5 3 , a n d May ,
( Table 2 ) .
1968
T h e f ormer i s
In the T r a f f i c S tudy i t i s s tated that
" d ata f r om two i n t e rv i ew s t at i on s of t he Need l e s 0 and D
Survey wh i ch wa s made on Dec ember 1 and 2 ,
1 9 5 3 was u s ed . "
30
Only d a t a f rom the f i rs t survey ' s two s t at ion s were u sed ;
the De cember 2 d a t a were not u s ed .
An a ly s i s o f we s tbound
d e s t inat i on s on the De cember 2 interv i ew sheet s s hows
r e s u l t s oppo s i t e to t h o s e of the previous d ay ' s s urvey
( 151
veh i c l e s for t h e e x i s t ing route and 1 8 7 f or t he p ropo s ed )
A l though not s ubmi t t ed t o the D iv i s i on of H ighways , the
i n f o rm at i on on the i n t e r v i ew sheets was pa r t l y rev i ewed by
D i s t r i c t E i gh t .
In March ,
r e l o c at i ng U . S .
1956 ,
in connect ion w i th the s tudy on
6 6 , the D i v i s ion reque s t ed that a su rvey
be c onducted at B lythe to d e t e rmine how mu ch t r a f f i c was
d iverg ing f rom U . S .
and U . S .
6 0/ 7 0
66 i n n or thern Ar i z ona to take U . S . 8 9
31
D e t a i led in s t ruc t i on s f o r
( F i gure 5 ) .
a s c er t a i n i n g o r ig i n a n d d e s t ination i n f o rmati on were
i s sued for the s u rvey conduc t ed l ate that mon t h .
The
r e s u l t s s how none of the e r roneou s i n f o rma t i on e x h i b i ted
by the Needles survey , but r ather a corre spondence in zone
t o - z one t r a f f i c f lows w i th t h o s e of the Ar i z on a survey ' s
32
1 0 , 4 6 4 -v e h i c l e s amp le t aken oppo s i t e B lythe .
Had the
d i verted volume s
t hrough M )
( 1 2 veh i c le s for z one F ,
1 7 0 for z on e s H
been add ed to t h e f l ows i nd ica ted by d e s t i na t ion
d at a i n the Need l e s s urvey , a c l e a r ma j or i ty o f t ra f f ic f o r
33
t h e p r op o s ed route would have been s hown .
The a r e a
b e tween U . S .
9 5 a n d R i ver s id e w a s given d e s ignation ,
s how
i ng that D i s t r i c t E i ght w a s awar e of it about the s ame t ime
34
the Need l e s survey w a s subm i tted w i thou t d at a about i t .
167
T he Amboy-Topock s tudy o f Aug u s t ,
1 9 5 6 , w a s made
for a propos e d r oute that would have run d ir e c t ly f rom
Amboy to Topock and thus wid e l y mi s $ ed Need l e s
It u s ed the d a t a c o l l e c t e d in the De cember 1 ,
s urvey .
( F igure 4 ) .
1 9 5 3 , t ra f f i c
In the r e su l t i ng repor t i t i s s ta t ed that l oc al
traf f i c " i s not per t i nent to t h i s s tudy " and that l o c a l
t r i p s " were d i s c arded s in c e t h e y wou l d h a v e no e f f e c t o n
35
t h i s s tudy . "
F iv e mont h s e a r l ie r , D i s t r i c t E ight h ad
i nc luded Need l e s t r a f f i c in i t s t o t a l for northerri C a l i f or nia .
c on c l u s i o n
D i s t r i c t E ight r e cogn i z ed that d i s t an ce , t e r ra i n ,
and redu c t i on in I n t e r s t ate m i l e age were favorab l e to the
Twentyn i n e P a lms r oute .
It e s t imated that the prop o s ed
rout e wou l d c o s t $ 3 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 and t ha t , even w i t h o n l y a
2 2 percent s hare o f the t r af f i c , it wou l d s ave u s e r s
36
$ 1 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 over 2 0 year s .
T h e D i s t r i ct made no point
w it h the s e f i gure s , made no e s t imate o f the t ime needed for
the s av ing t o equal the c o s t , and did not point out that
the ad opted route wou l d p rov i d e no u s er - s av i n g b a s e d on
redu ced m i l eage .
I t d i d not p la c e the two e s t imat e s ln
j uxtapo s i t i on , on e appe ar ing in the Re loc a t ion Report and
the other in the Traf f i c S tudy , and made no add i t i on al
comment i n e i ther .
Med i c a l and other maj or s e rv i c e s have been s hown t o
be c lo s er together o n the pr opo sed route .
The l o c at i on of I - 4 0 so as to b e t t er s erve f our
m i li tary b a s e s rather than one d o e s not j u s t i fy poorer
servi c e to over h a l f of C a l i fornia ' s popu l a t i on w i th i t s
a s so c i ated mi l i t ary and d ef e n s e e s ta b l i s hmen t s .
T h e f i n a l a l i g nment of I - 4 0 l e f t 1 3 4 mi l e s o f
f ormer U . S .
6 6 between B a r s tow a n d Topock a s a dup l i c a te
168
f ac i l ity t o be m a i n t ai ned a t pub l i c expe n s e , and improve
men t s h ad to be made on it before fund i ng a l l owed comp l e
37
t ion o f I - 4 0 i n 1 9 7 3 .
T ra f f i c i n the d e s e r t h a s grown
substant i al ly , but i s s t i l l s l i g ht f or j u s t i f i c at io n of a
f re eway .
Neverthe l e s s , a f reeway wa s mand ated as part o f
t h e I n t e r s tate sy s tem .
T h e l i ght traf f i c remai n i n g o n U . S .
6 6 wou l d h ave f ound t hat two- l ane h i ghway , with i t s l a c k o f
s i d e - and c r o s s - t ra f f i c , near ly a s s e r v i c e ab l e a s a f reeway .
A by-pa s s had been pr opo s ed f o r the Amboy ar e a ,
one o f the
f ew s hort s t retche s with s i gn i f i cant s id e - tra f f i c , and
38
s imi lar p l an s cou l d have been made f or the other s .
The main conf l i c t i s found i n tr a f f i c f lows .
He re ,
c l e a r l y , the r e s pon s i b l e h ighway depar tment h ad wrong
i n f o rmat ion-- informat ion that w a s i nterpr eted a s s howing
t he overwhe lming maj or i ty o f t r a f f i c g o ing t o n orthern
C a l i f orn i a .
A f reeway bu i lt to s erve such traf f i c c ou ld
se rve southern C al i f orni a tra f f i c , too ,
h ad .
as U . S .
6 6 a lway s
H owever , a d i s t i n c t m a j o r i t y wa s headed f or s outhern
C a l i fornia and would have been better s e rved by the Twenty
nine P a lm s route .
The m i n o r i ty for nothern C a l i fornia could
h ave c on t i nued to be s e rved , but w i th the advantage o f
c ontend ing w i th l e s s tra f f i c .
Toda y ,
I - 4 0 a f fords a 1 0 -
mi l e s aving t o 5 , 9 0 0 v eh i c l e s per day ; the Twentynine
P a lms r oute wou l d have a f f or ded a 2 2 -mi l e s av i ng f or ove r
h a l f that t r a f f i c , a gre ater s av i ng ove ra l l ,
and one that
c o u ld only increa s e with southern Ca l i fornia ' s share o f the
traf f i c gener ated in N e e d le s and i t s Ar i z on a hinter39
l and .
A s e c ondary c o n f l i ct i s i n regard to t r af f i c in
the corr i d or between I - 1 0 and Twentyn ine P a lms .
On
present C a l i f or n i a h i ghway 6 2 , e s s e n t ia l l y l o c a l t r a f f i c ,
6 , 1 0 0 veh i c l e s per day in the l e a s t- trave led s e c t ion
between town s , and 1 6 , 9 0 0 i n Yucca V a l l e y )
is greater
than through- traf f i c on I - 4 0 i n the Need l e s - B a r s tow
169
s tretch
( 5 , 9 0 0 vehic l e s )
( F i gure 4 )
40
I t wou ld have been
s erved at f ar l e s s cost to t he state than i f the fr eeway ,
s t i l l unp l anne d , were b u i l t y e a r s l ater under a d i f ferent
fund ing arrangement .
Two l e s s er opportun i t i e s were l o s t :
Traffic
between t h e E a s t and S an D i e g o would h ave had a shorter
and c o o l er route ; and the Havasu L ake and Needles reaches
o f the C o lorado River might have b e c ome comp e t i t ive with
the P arker are a for r iver recreat i on b u s i ne s s .
W i thout the 7 8 : 2 2 r a t i o that f ormed the r a t i on a l e ,
the entire l oc ation d ec i s io n would h ave been open t o
q u e s t i o n and to the k i nd o f revi ew pres ented here .
Without
the knowl edge that a d i s t i n c t ma j or i t y of tra f f i c would u s e
t h e Twe ntynine P alms route , i t w a s unl ikely that p r i or
p l an s to c o n s truct f r e eway a long the e x i s t i n g route wou l d
be r e j ec ted .
Today h ighway planners are requi red t o c o n s ider mor e
a s p e c t s o f h i ghway l o c at i on i n making r ou t e d e c i s ions t h a n
was t he c a s e two d ec a d e s ago .
T h e que s t io n rema i n s a s t o
whether or n o t a geographic v iewpo int r e s u l t s in t h e
even t u a l d e te rminat i on o f where the c o n c r e t e r i bb o n w i l l
go .
NOTES
1
californ i a , D ivision of H ighways , District Eight ,
Suggested Relocation
' US 66 '
Palms , " March 1 9 5 6 , p .
2.
" Report on
between Colton and Topock via Twentynine
Hereafter referred to as the Relocation
Repo rt .
2 Ca l 1' f orn1a
. , op . c 1t
. . , footnote 1 , p . 3 .
Calculat1on
o f the
.
saving compared with the successor routes is the writer ' s .
3
cal ifornia ,
Division o f Highways , District Eight ,
of the Feasibility of Relocating U.
S.
" Traffic Study
Sign Route 66 between Topock and
San Bernardino via Twentynine Palms , " March 1 , 1 9 5 6 , Plate A
Flow D i agram) .
Hereafter referred to as the Traffic Study .
(Traffic
170
4
californi a , D epartment o f Transportation , District Eight ,
internal memo randum , November 2 8 ,
5
19 7 3 , p .
of 3 , 9 2 6 vehicles per day on U . S .
starting or ending trips in it ,
ern border on U . S .
6 0/ 7 0
(Fig.
s t a te Travel Characteri s t i cs
Department ,
Travel
593
5) .
2.
6 6 pass ing through zone X or
( 1 5 percent )
( F ebruary 1 9 65 ) , p .
Characteri s t i cs
crossed Arizona ' s west
Arizon a , Highway Departmen t , Inter
( 19 67 ) , pp .
25,
and Arizon a , Highway
7 0 and 7 4 .
The data are
1961 average daily traffic volume s , expanded from data of the 1 0 9 , 000interview Arizona s urvey of 1 9 5 7 and 19 5 8 .
may have used a route other than U . S .
Phoenix ,
ically ,
89,
Although some of the drivers
such as a connection through
at least a substantial minority likely took U . S .
89.
in District Eight ' s survey at Blythe in March 1 9 5 6 ,
Specif
61 of 1 8 2
drivers who had made t h e shift from U . S . 66 t o U . S . 6 0 / 7 0 gave shortness
or quickne s s as their reason .
The remainder gave reasons that could
Untitled
apply to other routes or to U . S . 8 9 , · and 8 4 specified scenery .
Blythe traffic survey report , p . 3 , transmitted with California , Division
of Highway s , . District Eight , letter to the Division , April 1 8 , 1 9 5 6 .
6
The Division submitted District Eight ' s reports t o the Bureau on
1 9 5 6 , and the latter appro-ed the Topock-Barstow route on July
June 1 4 ,
9,
1956.
U.S. ,
Department of Tran sportation ,
tion , Region Seve n , California Division ,
Federal Highway Administra
letter to the writer , July l ,
1971 , p . 2 .
The Federal Highway Administration is the successor to the
Bureau of Public Roads .
7
california,
op .
cit . ,
footnote l , p .
4.
8
' ,
Ca l �' forn�a
op .
cit . ,
footnote l , p .
2.
9
Ca l �' forn�. a ,
op .
cit . ,
footnote 3 , p .
15 .
10
california ,
op .
cit. ,
footnote 4 , p .
2.
op .
cit . ,
footnote 1 , p .
4.
op .
. t . , footnote l , p .
c�
5.
11
rbi d .
]2
])
14
15
Ibi d ,
Californi a ,
rbid .
. ,
Ca l �' f orn�a
Recommendat ions ,
Th e statemen t ,
is quoted in full :
" Inasmuch as the suggested new route would provide improved
service to only 22 percent of the interstate traffic ,
the outstanding maj o rity
( 7 8 percent)
served along the existing rout e ,
and since
o f the traffic must be
coupled with the necessity for
expenditure of publ ic funds to maintain duplicate facilities ,
171
it i s r ecommended that pres ent p l ans to improve the existin g
route t o adequate s t andards b e reaffirmed and that there be no
further reconside ration of the suggested additional h i ghway . "
16
c a l i forni a ,
op .
c it . ,
footnote 1 , p .
5.
17
. ,
C a l l' f ornla
op .
. . ,
Clt
f ootnote 1 , p .
1.
18
E . L . Smith , letter to the write r , Apr i l 2 2 , 1 9 7 2 , p . 1 , i s the
source in regard to the B a s e ho spita l .
Dr . Smith practiced medici�e in
Twentynine P a lms .
company ,
Robert D al e , Adminis trative Manager , Kai s e r S t e e l
Eagle Mountain ,
writer , 'December 1 0 ,
19
C a l i forni a ,
1976,
c a l iforn i a ,
t e l ephone conversation w i t h the
i s the source in regard to the c lini c .
H i ghway Transportation Agency ,
vehi cl e Census on Cal i forn i a S t a t e Highways
1 9 6 3 Classi fi ed
(June 1 9 64 ) ,
unnumbered
s econd p ag e .
20
The l aw in e f fe c t at the time said :
" Th e routes of the National System of Interstate H i ghways shall
be s e lected by j o int action o f the State highway departments o f each
State and the adj o ining State s ,
Act o f November 9 ,
1921,
as provided by the Federal H ighway
for the s e le c tion of the Federal-Aid
system . "
Federal-Aid Highwa y Act ,
Sta t u tes at Large ,
The 1 9 2 1 a c t autho rized federal approval .
at Large , XLI I , s ec . 5 , 2 1 3 ( 1 9 2 1 ) .
21
22
LVI I I ,
sec .
op .
c it . ,
footnote 3 , P late A .
C a 1 l' f ornla
. , op .
. . ,
c lt
footnote 3 , p .
c a l i fornia ,
7,
842
Federal Highway A c t ,
( 1944 ) .
Sta t u t es
6.
23
The Ari z ona s u rvey ; the June 1 9 7 0 survey ; and the survey o f
agricultural quarantine interceptions .
The Arizona survey inc luded a
10 , 1 7 3-veh i c l e s ampl e on U . S . 66 southwes t of Kingman .
The source o f
that datum i s Jn ters t a te Travel Characteri s t i c s ,
footnote 5 ,
p.
65.
cited in full in
The June 1 9 7 0 survey was conducted by D i strict E i ght
at the C a l i fornia Agri c ultural Inspection Station on I - 4 0 south o f
Needl es .
It yielded interviews with 1 , 4 4 7 drivers for who s e destinations
either the propo s ed or adopted route would be more direct .
The volumes
are derived from data accompanying Californi a ,
Urban P l anne r ,
l etter to the writer ,
June 2 4 ,
Divis ion of Highways ,
1971.
The survey of agri
cultural interceptions was conducted by the writer at the s ame inspection
station between March and July 1 97 1 .
months between 1968 and 1 9 7 1 .
I t inc luded the data from seven
Each interception entry l i sted the state
of registration of the vehicle and its de s tination .
The survey yielded
9 , 0 7 0 vehicle-des tinations to which either the propo s ed or adopted route
would be shorte r .
172
24
Tra f f i c i s added between the j unctions with U . S . 9 5 south and
north of N e edles ( F i g . 4 ) .
As a r e s ult , the 2 : 1 ratio at the s tate line
is reduced for traff i c between the l atter j unction and Bars tow .
the traffic i s gained from U . S .
is headed for northern C a l i fornia ;
and
some is gained from N e edles or the
Arizona s ide of the Co lorado River Valley north of N e edl e s .
provided by U . S .
Some of
9 5 and connecting routes in Arizona ,
The shares
9 5 and by N eedles and its Arizona hinterl and have not
been determined by any survey .
Neither i s it known how much of the
traf fic from N e edles and neighboring parts of Arizona would take advan
tage of the s even-mi l e reduction to Los Ange l e s that the propo s ed route
would have afforded .
The volumes involved c an only reduce that route ' s
shar e o f through- traffic to l e s s than two- thirds , but not to as l ittle
as hal f .
25
As shown i n the agricultural interception survey .
26
27
28
C a 1l" f ornl. a ,
op .
. . ,
Clt
f ootnote 1 , p .
4.
Data derived from the field interview s he et s .
.
.
.
. f ormatlon
.
d;
D e s tlnatlon
ln
a 1 so was poor 1y a s c e rtalne
zone E ' s
total of 68 vehicle-destinations is too l arge in contrast with its 14 in
the well- executed 1 , 4 4 7 -veh i c l e June 1 9 7 0 survey and thus cannot be
The eight veh i c l e s headed for zone G
counted for the existing route .
would have been about equally well served by either U . S .
proposed route and connecting roads ;
29
30
31
The thr e e largest s u rveys were remarked i n footnote 2 3 .
california ,
op .
C a 1 l" f ornl. a ,
op .
cit . ,
footnote 3 , p .
. . ,
c lt
footnote 5 ,
connection with the U . S .
66 s tudy .
S urvey Ins tructions , " p.
1,
32
t i cs ,
p.
Ar izon a ,
65.
33
op .
cali forni a ,
survey report , p.
34
66 or the
they are excluded .
cit. ,
op .
3.
1 etter , p .
1,
states the
The accompanying "O & D Traffic
s tates the purpos e .
footnote 5 ,
c it . ,
Inters t a t e Travel Characteris
footnote 5 ,
untitled Blythe traffic
1.
The zones are " the same a s tho s e for the N e edles Survey , with
the addition of Zones P and Q , " C a l iforni a , op .
untitled Blythe s u rvey repo rt , p .
cit . ,
footnote 5 ,
1.
35
.
. a , DlVlSlOn
. . .
Ca 1 l" forn l
o f Hlghway
s , D i s trict E ight , " Traffic
S tudy o f the F e as ibi lity of Relo cating u . s . S ign Route 66 between Amboy
and Topo c k , " August 1 0 , 1 9 5 6 , pp . 1 and 4 .
36
c a l i forni a ,
co"st .
savin g .
C a l i fornia , op .
op .
footnote 1 , p . 4 , is the sour c e for the
footnote 3 , p . 1 5 , i s the source for the
c it . ,
c it . ,
173
37
c a l i forni a ,
Department of Transportation ,
l et t e r to the write r , March 1 ,
D i strict Eight ,
1976.
38
c a l i fornia , Division o f Highwa y s , D i s trict E ight , " Pro j ect
Repo rt on State H ighway 58 in San Bernardino County through Amboy , "
January 1 4 , 1 9 5 5 .
39
on
"f
.
C a l l ornla ,
.
Department of Transportat lon ,
Ca l i fo rni a S t a te Hi ghways
40
. ,
Ca l l" fornla
op .
( Sac ramento ) ,
c it . ,
p.
63 .
footnote 4 3 , p .
79.
1 9 76
Traffi c Vol umes
174
175
TH I RTY-FI RST ANNUAL MEET ING , CCGE
Indepe n d e n ce
H i gh
School ,
May 6 and 7 ,
San
Jose
1977
The S an J o s e meeting w a s c onduc ted at E a s t S id e
Educ a ti o n a l P a rk , a unique s et t i ng f o r an extraord inary
The theme ,
meeting .
A
H U MA N
PLACE ,
w a s evident in p r e s enta-
tions , workhso p s , pane l s , exhib i t s and s pe c i a l events .
The
ho s t c ommi ttee of Donn Jewe l l , A l an Henninger , E l l en O i c l e s ,
Alan D i e rk s , George Mic i k and Lou i s Commendat.ore b eg an the
f ir s t d ay of the program w i t h two work s ho p s for geography
teacher s , a n Executive Board mee t i ng , and the traditional
late a f te rnoon p i c ni c .
Lant i s '
T he opening s e s s ion featured Davi d
f a s c i na t i ng l e c ture ,
the Lands o f Nyet . "
" Wande r i n g s o f a B l i n d Man in
The S aturday s e s s i ons featured r e g i ona l ,
s y s temat i c a nd educational papers o n topi c s a s varied a s the
f i e l d of geogr aphy i ts el f .
The l uncheon s peaker w a s F rank F i s c a l in i , who
exp l a i ned h i s i d e a s on " Th e S choo l P l an :
Approac h . "
An Envi ronme n t a l
T h e b a nkquet s p e a k e r w a s J o h n J a ro l imek f rom the
Unive r s i ty of Wa s hington , who d i s c us s ed " S ome Imp l i c a t i o n s o f
the Changing S o c i a l Cond i t i o n s for Geogr aphi c E d uc at i o n . "
PAPERS
G.
A ND
P R E S E N TA T I O N S
S i dn ey L e s t e r , S a n M a t e o U n i f i e d S c h o o l
Rus hdoony , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
" T eaching Populat ion Geogr aphy . "
Larry S teven s ,
Work s hop :
C o mm u n i t y
S e r vi c e
Hi gh
Di s t r i c t ,
,
T u rl o ck ,
Schoo l ,
and Haig
Work s hop :
S t oc k t on ,
" Th e Envi ronment - Focus on C a l i f o rn i a . "
Davi d Lanti s , C a l i fo rn i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
o f a B l i n d Man i n t h e L a n d s o f N y e t . "
James B l i ck , S a n D i e g o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
Examp l e o f a C h an g i ng Routeway . "
Chi co ,
" Wander i n g s
" In t e r s tate 8 - An
176
James T r evors , C a l i f o rn i a S t a t e U n i ve rs i t y , H a y wa r d , " The
Ro l e of the P hy s i c a l Envi ronment in the D i s tribution o f
the C a li forn i a Grape I ndus try :
A Cartograph i c Ana ly s i s . "
Helen I s s e l , U n i v e rs i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a
Impr ints of Sonoma County . "
George Land , I r v i n g t o n
Work in HSGP . "
Hi gh
School ,
Robert Gr aham , P i o n e e r H i g h S c h o o l ,
P e r c eption of the Envi ronment . "
Mi chae l S i l an ,
Ai r . "
Woodl a n d
H i gh
,
Fremo n t ,
San
School ,
" Ru s s ian
D a vi s ,
" P u t S l ides to
" A Teenage
Jos e ,
Wo o d l a n d ,
" G eo g raphy By
David Laws on , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , C h i c o , " The S tudent
Who L i ve s in Th i s Dump ? "
N e ighborhoods of Chico :
Ralph Z ac kheim , C a l i fo rn i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
H o u s i ng F i nance and the Urban Land s c ape :
P e r s p e c t i ve . "
Eugene C o l ema n , S o u t h w e s t e rn
1978:
A Human P l a c e ? "
Col l ege ,
" Re d l ining
A Geographers
Ch i co ,
" S o uth of the T ehachapi s ,
B ernard Kravi t z , C a l i f o rn i a S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y , F u l l e r t o n , and
H a i g Ru s hdoony , R e s ponde r , C a l i f o rn i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
" Urban Geogr aphy in E a r ly
T u r l o c k , Spec i a l S e s s i on :
Chi ldhood Education . "
Robert F reeman ,
Orinda
Den o y e r
School
Donn J ewe l l , O a k G r o v e H i g h
Whi te , A n d e rs o n S ch o o l ,
Jose
Sta t e
Un i v e r s i t y ,
Un iver s ity . "
C o m p a n y , and W i l l i am F i s cher ,
Spe c i a l S e s s i on :
" Geocepts . "
G ep p e r t
D i s t ri ct ,
J o s e , Cha i rman ; Larry
and B i l l T ak i z awa , S a n
" Env i ronmen t a l P erc eption
K thru
School ,
San
San
Jose ,
-
Margaret Trus s e l l , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e Un i v e r s i t y , C h i c o ,
" Al lo ttment Garden s :
Leeds E n g l and , as an E x ampl e . "
Dan i e l E p s t ei n , S a n
E i g h t Sea s on s . "
Jose
Ci ty
C o l l eg e ,
" The Lapp s :
P eo p l e o f
B a rbara F redr i c h , S a n D i e g o S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y , " A H uman P la c e :
A S tudy o f P l ant and An imal O r i g in s and E t hn i c it y in
R e c i p i e s by I n troduc tory C u l tural Geography S tudents . "
John P a s s er e l l o , C a l i f o rn i a C o n s e r v a t i o n C o rp s , " The C a l i for
Geogr aphy i n A c t ion . "
n i a Con s ervationCorp s :
177
Rob ert John s o n , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e C o l l e g e ,
" Geography a s Human E c og r aphy . "
Raymond S ta n l e y , S a n J o s e
than a Dead Duck . "
w.
Sta te
Domi n g u e z
U n i ve rs i t y ,
Hi l l s ,
" Be t t e r a Phoenix
J ames S wi t z e r , S o u t h w e s t e r n C o l l e g e , C h a i rman ; Spec i a l
S e s s i on :
" Commun i ty C o l l eg e F i e ld Cours e Workshop . "
Larry S tevens , C om m u n i t y S e r v i ce H i g h S c h o o l , S t o c k t o n ;
S p e c i a l S e s s io n :
" Th e Environment - Focus o n C a l i fo r n i a . "
Frank F i s c a l in i , E a s t S i d e
J o s e ; Lun c heon S pe e c h :
mental Appr o ac h . "
Un i o n
H i gh
School
" Th e S c hoo l P lan :
D i s t ri c t ,
San
An Environ-
Thoma s B e s t , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y , L o s A n g e l e s , " P la c e ,
P o s ition , Pol icy :
F r om F a c e t i ous I ntroduc t i o n to S e r ious
App l i c at i o n :
H awa i i . "
Joseph F r a s c a , C a l i fo rn i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , S o n o m a , " Th e Ro l e
o f C a rtogr aphy I n t e r n s h i p s i n t h e C o l l eg e Geogr aphy
C u r r i c ulum . "
C lement P ad i c k , C a l i f o rn i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
" Th e Los Ang e l e s Are a - Then and N ow . "
Los
Angel es ,
James S wi t z e r , S o u t h w e s t e r n C o l l e g e , " N e ls o n N ew Z ea l and :
Reg i onal Center f o r t he G l a s s h o u s e Tomato I n d u s t ry . "
Anna Lang , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i fo r n i a , L o s A n g e l e s , " Th e Moa
Bone - K ey to !1an ' s P l ace in N ew Z e a l an d P r e - H i story . "
Harold E l l i o tt , U n i v e r s i t y o f O k l a h o m a , " Chan g i n g C e n t r a l
P l ace P a tterns i n the U n i te d S t at e s . "
H a i g Rushdoony , C a l i fo r n i a S t a t e C o l l e g e , T u r l o c k , and
W i l l i am Wake , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e C o l l e g e , B a k e r s f i e l d ;
S p ec i a l S e s s i on :
" Te a c hing About P hy s ic a l a nd P opulat i on
Geogr aphy o f C a l i forn i a . "
W i l l i am F r a z e r , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y , S o n o m a , C h a i rman ;
" Ar t i c u l at i on M e e t i n g Between F o u r Y e a r
C o l l eg e s a n d C ommu n i ty C o l l e g e s . "
Larry S teven s , C o m m u n i t y S e r v i c e H i g h S c h o o l , S t o c k t on ;
" Th e Envi ronment - Focus on C a l i f orn i a . "
James Calbert , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n ,
" E a r ly C h i l dhood Education I mp l i ca t i on s f o r t he S o c i a l
A Mu l t i
S c i e n c e s with P a r t i c ul a r R e f e r e n c e to Geography :
Ethn i c App r o ach . "
178
Arthur N i c hol s , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y , N o r t h r i d g e ,
" S c hool Arch i tec ture a s a T e a c h i ng R e s ource . "
Gonne l l a , Hadby , H id ah l , L e s l i e , Ludovi s e , Rus s e l l and
S p anne r , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y , S o n o m a , " Human and
Phys i c a l Ad j u s tment t o Hurr i c an t F i F i i n Cho l oma , Hondura s . "
Rog e r Kent , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e C o l l e g e , D o m i n g u e z H i l l s ,
" Dom ingue z H i l l s Geogr aph i c S o c i e ty - N o t e s on the Value
of a S tudent Ad j un c t . "
Lary D i l s ave r , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , H a y w a r d , " Th e
C u l tur a l Impac t s o f I n ternational Tour i s m :
A Social
S c ience P e r s p e c t i ve . "
John J aro l ime k , Un i v e r s i t y o f Wa s h i n g t o n ; Banquet S p e ec h :
" S ome Imp l i c a t io n s o f the Changing S o c i a l Cond i ti o n s for
Geog raph i c E d uc a t i on . "
179
T H I RTY- S ECOND ANNUAL MEET I NG , CCGE
Los
A n ge l e s
Pi erce
May 5 a n d 6 ,
Co l l e ge
1978
The Lo s Ange l e s m e e t i ng was f o c u s e d o n
D I ME N S IO N S
IN
GEOGRAPHIC
The ho s t c omm i ttee spared no e f f o r t
E D U CA T I O N .
i n f u l f i l l ing t he theme w i th a v a r i e ty o f a c t i v i t i e s for
geographers from a l l p a rts of t h e s t a te .
F r i day h i g h l i g h t s
inc luded a f i e l d t r i p through the S anta Mon i c a Moun t a i n s and
Ma l ib u C o a s t ,
organ i z ed by Ri chard Loga n ;
a s t eak d inne r ,
and an ope n i n g s e s s i o n s l id e p re s en ta ti on on C h i n a by
Chr i s topher S a l te r .
S aturday ' s a c t i v i t i e s i n c luded over
four do z en papers and panel s e s s ion s , a spec i a l s e s s i on on
Mong o l i a by David Lant i s ,
by J o hn Weaver .
and a b anquet s l i de pres enta t i on
Jo hn C a r thew , J o hn D ewe y , C e l e s t e K o s t a n i c k
a n d M a r k P owe l l a r e thanked by a l l o f t h e C CGE membe r s h ip
f o r t h e i r e f fo r t s i n organ i z i n g an exc i t i n g program .
PA P ER S
A ND
PRES ENTA TIONS
Chr i s topher S a lt e r , U n i ve r s i t y o f C a l i fo r n i a
" Ch i n a :
A G eographer ' s Image s . "
J im Swi t z e r ,
,
Los
A n ge l es ,
C h a i rp e r s on ; Robe r t B rown ,
Dona l d Forth , We s t H i l l s
C o mm u n i t y C o l l e g e ; P h i l T in c he r , S h a s t a C o l l e g e ; and Gene
C o l ema n , S o u t h w e s t e r n C o l l e g e ; P a n e l D i s c us s ion : " C ommun
P r a c t i c a l P l ann ing and L e g a l
i ty C o l l eg e F i e l d T r ip s :
R e s t r i c t i ons . "
Rio
Hondo
So u t h we s t e r n
C o mm u n i t y
Col l ege ,
Col l ege ;
Rog e r K en t , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y , D o m i n g u e z H i l l s ,
" CSUC De s e r t R e s earch Center , Soda S p r i n g s - I t s P o s s ib l e
Future . "
S tephen G l as s , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , D o m i n g u e z H i
" S equen t i a l Land U s e at Soda S p r in g s , Ca l i forn i a . "
lls,
Char l es A . Spagn o l a , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y , D o m i n g u e z
H i l l s , " Th e App l i c at ion o f a Mu l t ivar i a b l e Analy t i c a l
Mode l t o a S o c i a l N e ed s As s e s sment i n the C i ty o f Redondo
B e ac h . "
180
Shane C l ary , C a l i f o rn i a S t a t e Un i ve r s i t y , D o m i n g u e z
" Mun i c ip a l Bus L in e s in S o uthern C a li fornia . "
I rmgard Chap s ky , C a l i f o r n i a
" Mun s t e r Rev i s ited . "
State
Un i ve rs i t y ,
Hi l l s ,
Domi n g u e z
Hi lls ,
Rich ard E l l e f s en , S a n J o s e S t a t e Un i v e r s i t y , " Ap p l ied Remote
S e n s ing in a D eve loping N a t i on - A C o s t a R i c an E xamp l e . "
John P a s s e r e l l o , C a l i f o rn i a C o n s e r v a t i on C o r p s , " Te ac h in g
Geography o n t he Job :
Wo rk - L e a rn C red i t . "
Gregory Wh i t t in gham , S o n o m a
Compu ter G r aphi c s . "
State
Col l e ge ,
J ames Vernon , L o s A n g e l e s P i e r c e C o l l e g e ,
S ta t i on and t he Winter of 1 9 7 8 . "
" App l i c ations o f
" A C o l lege Weather
George N a s s e , C a l i fo rn i a S t a t e Un i v e r s i t y , F r e s n o , " Po l i t i c a l
Exp l o i t a t ion o f Ethn i c Minor i t i es - the Arbe r e sh i . "
G a i l Hobb s , L o s A n ge l e s
in Lands c ape . "
Dui l io P er u z z i ,
T u s c any . "
San
Ci t y
Jose
Col l ege ,
State
" Yugo s l av i a - V a r iety
U n i ve r s i t y ,
" Ch i a n t i in
Gordon Lewthwa ite , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e Un i v e rs i t y , N o r t h r i d g e ,
" B etween t he D e s e r t and the S e a , Aus t r al i a ' s S outhwe s t
Corner . "
Robe r t N ewc omb , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e
" D i s c overing D a n i s h V i l l a ge s :
tak ing . "
N o r t h ri dge ,
A S t a f f - S tudent Under
B a rbar a F redr i c h , S a n D i e g o S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y , " T i j uana F ie l d
T r ip s :
Exemp l ary Methodo l o g i e s and R e s u l t s . "
Gary K l e e , S a n J o s e S t a t e
C u ltural E c o l og y . "
Un i vers i t y ,
" F ie l d Techniques i n
Gerald Tyner , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , D o m i n g u e z H i l l s ,
and Donald J o s i f , We s t e r n C a r o l i n a Un i v e r s i t y , " Moun t a i n
Agr ic u l ture in N o r t h Caro l in a .·"
Thoma s P agenhart , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i ve rs i t y , H a y w a r d ,
" Ra t i o n a l I s ohye t s f o r S nowy Mo un t a in Ar e a s . "
C lement P a d i c k , C a l i fo r n i a S t a t e
" Mo n i to r in g Land U s e Changes
U s i ng Aer i a l P ho togr aphy . "
in
Los
A n ge l e s ,
the Lo s Ange l e s Area
181
Chr i s topher S a l ter , U n i ve r s i t y o f C a l i f o rn i a ,
" The U n s e e s C ity :
Downtown L o s Ang e l e s . "
Los
A n ge l e s ,
Rona l d Lockmann , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i fo r n i a , " The C i ty
a s W i ld l i fe Habitat :
A l l i g ators a n d Man i n C ommens a l i sm
in Metropo l itan N ew O r le an s . "
D on a ld H o l t g r i eve , C a l i fo r n i a S t a t e Un i v e r s i t y , H a y w a r d ,
" Mi s s ion to Earth , P art 3 - Urban Geogr aphy . "
Joseph Beaton , Un i ve r s i t y o f C a l i fo rn i a , L o s A n g e l e s
P r op o s e d Urban Cu l tural Geography F i e l d C o ur s e . "
Dav i d J enn ing s ,
Los
A n ge l e s
Dona ld F e l lows , L o s A n g e l e s
the Community C o l l e ge s :
Ger a l d O i c l e s ,
C o l l eg e . "
Cabr i l l o
Ci t y
,
"A
" Te s t T o Teach . "
Col l eg e ,
C o l l e ge , " G eogr aphy in
Traditional or Innov a t i ve? "
Mi s s i on
Co l l e ge ,
Wi l l i am Rus s el l , L o s A n g e l e s C i t y
in the Commun i ty C o l leges . "
" C artography at Cabr i l lo
C o l l ege ,
Wi l l i am F i s her , O r i n d a S c h o o l D i s t r i c t
C o m p a n y , " Geo- C ep t s P art I I . "
" Urb an Geogr aphy
Denoyer
&
Gepp e r t
Dona ld H o l t g r i eve , C a l i f �� a S t a t e Un i v e r s i t y , H a y w a r d ,
" Mi s s ion to E a rth , P a r � I - P hy s i c a l Geography , " and
" Mi s s ion t o E a r th , Part I I - L i f e F o rm s a nd Re sources . "
Mo l ly Deby s ingh , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e Un i v e r s i t y , L o n g B e a c h
" N orth- S o uth Con tr a s t s on t he I nd i a n Landscape . "
Cathy Rigg s , .A u d u b o n
on Foo t . "
Junior
Hi gh
Schoo l ,
Los
A n ge l e s ,
,
" Ne p a l
Bruce D av i s , Un i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , L o s A n ge l e s , " Cultural
Remote S en s ing I nterpre
Land s c ap e s o f t he Kenya Coa s t :
t a t i on C o n s id e rations . "
Mar i a Jo Ogden , Un i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a
D av i s , U n i ve r s i t y o f C a l i f o rn i a , L o s
S ey che l l e s - T roub le i n P a radi s e ? "
Wayne Harmo n ,
,
I r vi n e ,
A n ge l e s ,
and Bruce
" The
Cha i rper s on ; E lmer Keen ,
Mark P owe l l , L o s A n ge l e s
P i e r c e C o l l e g e ; Richard Thoman , C a l i fo r n i a S t a t e Un i v e r
s i t y , H a y w a r d ; a nd B e n j ami n Thoma s , Un i ve r s i t y o f C a l i
f o r n i a , L o s A n g e l e s ; P an e l D i s c u s s ion :
" Ec onom i c
Geography i n H igher E d u c at i o n . "
San
D i e go
G r o s smon t
State
Col l ege ,
U n i ve r s i t y ;
182
Rand a l l S c hu t z , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e U n i ve r s i t y , N o r t h r i d g e ,
" Li te r ar y Images o f S o uthern C a l i forn i a :
L i terature o f
the S o uthern P ac i fi c R a i l r oad - 1 8 7 0 to 1 9 2 0 . "
John P a s s ere l lo , C a l i f o rn i a C o n s e r v a t i o n
Cons ervancy P r e s erves in C a l i f o rn ia :
Laborator i e s . "
" The Nature
Geograph i c
C o rp s ,
Virg in i a O l iver , C a l i f o r n i a S t a t e V n i ve r s i t y , C h i c o , " H i span ic
C a l i forn i a P o rtraye d :
An E s s ay on L i ter ary Land s c ape s . "
Gregory K e r foo t , C a l i fo rn i a
Do I P ark My Mer cedes . "
State
U n i ve rs i t y ,
Chico ,
Carolyn H ardma n , C a l i fo r n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , L o n g
" P roto - Mapp ing of the C a l i fornia I nd ia n s . "
R i chard E l l e f s en ,
W i l l i am Wake ,
S c hwar z , S a n
of
S e c t i on
San
Jose
State
C a l i f o rn i a
Jose
State
A c t i v i t i es ,
C o l l e ge ,
Un i ve rs i t y ;
Ameri can
B e a ch ,
Cha i rperson ;
Un i v e r s i t y ,
Sta te
" Where
B a k e rs f i e l d ;
Dona ld S t one ,
In s t i t u t e
of
Dave
Di rector
A erona u t i cs
P an e l D i sc u s s ion :
" Report on the CCGE
P a r t i c ip at ion i n the Land s a t 3 Launch Wo rkshop . "
and
A s t r on a u t i c s ;
T im B e l l ,
Cha i rpe r s o n ; Jerry Wi l l iams ,
Jerry P r e s s ler , O h l o n e C o mm u n i t y
C o l l e g e ; Thomas McDanno l d , V e n t u r a C o l l e g e ; J im Swi t z e r ,
S o u t h w e s t e r n C o l l e g e ; P an e l D i s cus s ion :
" P roblems o f
Teaching Co l l ege Geogr aphy . "
C h i co
Son oma
State
David Lan t i s ,
S e s s ion :
John Weave r ,
S peec h :
Sta te
C o l l e ge ,
Un i ve r s i t y ;
C a l i f o rn i a
State
Chico ;
" Mongol i a . "
Un i ve r s i t y
of
S o u t h e rn
C a l i fo r n i a ;
" Geogr apher and a C amera . "
S pec i a l
Banquet

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