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INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH AND STUDY
IN
PRISON EDUCATION
IMPROVING
PRACTICAL REASONING
Faculty of Education
University of British Columbia
HV
8875
15
1980
INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH AND STUDY
IN
PRISON EDUCATION
IMPROVING
PRACTICAL REASONING
Copyright of tie document does nol beiong to Me Crown.
Proper authorizagon must be obtained torn the author for
an y intended
use.
nt document dappeennent
present
droits d'auteur du prése
Les
pas à Étal. bute utiliseion du contenu ciu par auteur.
être approuYée préalaptement
document doil
University of British Columbia
f,;«
I 9Y..; (,)
/IMPROVING PRACTICAL REASONING: MORAL EDUCATION
■
IN CORRECTIONS, PHASE 01 1E„,
à
LI
A Report Submitted By
Ian Wright
Jerrold Coombs
Carol LaBar
Anne Lloyd
ASSOCIATION FOR VALUES EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
The University of British Columbia
March, 1980
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Juu 'il; 8 1987
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Mit,..;STÈR' DU
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I
Research Assistants
Glen BonBernard
Roland Case
Linda Douglas
Vrinda Trividic
Thanks are extended to Dr. T.A.A. Parlett, Coordinator: Education and Training, Regional HDQ,
Pacific, Solicitor General of Canada and the staff
and inmates of Matsqui Institution.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Section
1
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
3
11
A.
B.
Studies of Reasoning Abilities
Studies of Factors Affecting Reasoning
11
14
LITERATURE REVIEW ON TEACHING AND
LEARNING IN CORRECTIONAL SETTINGS
18
ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
27
I
Maturity of Judgment
1. The Conceptual Systems Test
2. Moral Judgment Scale
3. The Defining Issues Test: An Objective
Test of Moral Judgment Development
4. The Ethical Reasoning Inventory
5. A Survey of Ethical Attitudes
27
27
31
Critical Thinking Competencies
1. The Cornell Critical Thinking Test
2.
Normative Reasoning Test
3. Fact/Value Test
40
40
43
44
II
4
1
LITERATURE REVIEW ON PRISONERS' THINKING
2
3
INTRODUCTION
33
35
36
THE MATSQUI PROJECT
45
Objectives
Observations
Curriculum Materials
CONCLUSIONS
46
48
52
53
BIBLIOGRAPHY
55
APPENDIX
1
INTRODUCTION
The development of practical reasoning is an integral and vital part
of education. According to Peters (1972),
the educator (1) must teach the
understanding of various conceptual schemes so that a person sees the world
in different ways, (2) must initiate people into various modes of thought, and
(3) must focus on the ability to reason. Peters (ibid., p. 201) states:
The basic task of teaching is not to teach what to think,
but how to think.
Ayers (1979) and Wagner (1978) see prisoners as being deficient in
reasoning skills and recommend educational programs to remedy this deficiency.
Ayers (ibid., p. 3) states that "an alternative [to the medical model] and more
tenable assumption is that most prisoners are deficit in certain analytical problem solving skills... If this alternative assumption is relevant then educational intervention models...are more appropriate for the majority of prisoners."
Wagner (ibid., p. 26) feels that "An acquired proficiency in reasoning is
clearly essential to successful criminal rehabilitation."
He suggests a three
step program to achieve this end. The first should be to demonstrate to the
inmate the unsatisfactory consequences that frequently result from
to think in careless and haphazard ways.
a tendency
The second is to initiate inmates
into philosophical analysis, and the third is to initiate students into a life
style characteristic of one who understands what it means to possess a sense
of justice.
This report describes the first phase of a proposed three year study
to develop materials and procedures for teaching practical reasoning in correctional institutions. In this phase of our study the following tasks were
carried out:
2
1.
Review of the literature on prisoners' thinking and impediments
to rational and responsible thought;
•
2.
Review of the literature on teaching criminal subjects and
establishment of contacts with experts In this area;
3.
Preliminary identification of measures to assess critical thinking and moral maturity;
4.
Field test of a program in practical reasoning using existing
AVER materials.
The sources consulted in our search for literature on prisoners' thinking and prison education were as follows: Education Index, Canadian Education
Index, Current Index to Journals in Education, Social Sciences and Humanities
Index, Reader's Guide to Periodicals, several computer searches (Psychology
abstracts, Comprehensive Dissertation Index, ERIC), Abstracts on Criminology
and Penology, Criminal Justice Abstracts, Crime and Delinquency Abstracts,
National Criminal Justice Reference Service ('Inmate counselling' and 'Offender
attitudes and perceptions'), Simon Fraser University's 'Evaluation of Correc-
tional Institutions.' Approximately 200 sources were reviewed.
3
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
In this phase of our study, we began to develop our conception of
rational practical reasoning. We propose to elaborate this fully in the next
phase of our study. However, we do have a detailed specification of the components of the most important kind of practical reasoning, namely, moral reasoning. Below we outline our general conception of rational practical reasoning
and our more developed conception of the components of rational moral reasoning. These conceptions served as a framework for reviewing the literature
on prisoners' reasoning.
Basically, practical reasoning is that which leads to a decision about
what a person should do or what he should value.
action.
Two sorts of reasons enter into practical thinking:
reasons concerning the person's wants,
and
Its purpose is to guide
(2). empirical
(1) motivational
values, purposes or rules of conduct,
or factual reasons concerning the actions which are likely to
fulfill the wants, values, purposes or rules of conduct.
Practical reasoning can be analyzed initially into six constitutive tasks,
each of which must be done well if one's practical reasoning is to be rational
or sound.
The six tasks are as follows:
1.
Identifying and clarifying the issue of action or value to be
decided.
2.
Assembling purported facts relevant to deciding what to do
or what to value.
3.
Assessing the truth of the purported facts.
4.
Clarifying the relevance of assembled facts.
5.
Synthesizing the factual information to arrive at a
tentative value decision.
6.
Assessing the adequacy of the value principle used in making
the tentative decision and revising the decision if necessary
(Coombs and Meux, 1971).
4
111
Each of these tasks requires, for successful execution, a number of
2
and
3,
g
Tasks
different kinds of knowledge, abilities, sensitivities, and dispositions.
for example, encompass all the various abilities usually described as
•
"critical thinking" skills.
In moral judgment, as distinguished from other kinds of practical
judgment, the motivational reason is some moral ideal or principle.
The various
attainments one must have if he is to be rational in his moral reasoning are
as follows (Coombs,
1980):
111
Attainment #1:
Knowing that moral reasoning is guided by two principles:
a)
It cannot be right for me to do
x
unless it is right for any
person in the same sort of circumstance to do
b)
If the consequences of everyone's doing
x
111
x.
in a given circum-
stance would be unacceptable, then it is not right for anyone
to do
x
in that circumstance.*
This knowledge forms the foundation of one's understanding of moral
reasoning. These two principles of moral reasoning derive from the standard
that a moral principle is acceptable if and only if one can accept all the judgments that logically follow from it.
Principle (a) is akin to the principles of
impartiality, justice, and equality. All are in essence principles enjoining consistency of moral judgment across all similar persons in similar cases.
out any sort of favoritism for any individual.
All rule
Of course, merely having this
knowledge is not sufficient. In addition, one must have both the ability
io
put this knowledge to use in moral reasoning and the disposition to do so.
*This statement of the principles of moral reasoning is a modified version of
that appearing in Marcus Singer, Generalization in Ethics. London: Eyre
& Spottiswoode, 1963.
5
Attainment #2:
•
Being sensitive to morally hazardous actions, that is, actions which
require assessment from the moral point of view.
Basically this requires a person to have the sensitivity that alerts him
to (1) actions that may have consequences for others which he could not
accept if they were to befall him and (2) actions which may have unacceptable consequences were everyone to engage in them.
Clearly a person would not be morally competent if he failed to be
aware of situations calling for moral deliberations and assessment. Without
sensitivity to such situations, moral reasoning would not start. Moral sensitivity is not an all or nothing affair; rather it ca- n be present in varying degrees. Some people see a great many actions as morally hazardous; others
see very few actions as being of this sort. Nor should it be thought that
moral sensitivity is a unitary psychological trait or mechanism. It is more
likely that such sensitivity is aided by a variety of more specific attainments
including the following :
(a) Knowledge of such moral rules as:
Don't kill
Don't deprive of pleasure
Don't cheat
Don't cause pain
Don't deprive of freedom
Don't deceive
Don't disable
Don't break promises
Don't break the law*
Knowing these rules is part of being morally sensitive because they are reliable guides to morally hazardous actions.
If an action contravenes one of
these rules, there is a very strong possibility that it will have consequences
for another that the moral agent could not accept were they to befall him.
*This statement of moral rules is adapted from that found in Bernard Gert,
The Moral Rules, New York: Harper & Row, 1966.
6
Most people could not accept that it is morally acceptable for them to be killed,
hurt, disabled, deprived of freedom, and the like by the actions of others.
1
We want to emphasize the point that these moral rules should be taught as
rules for detecting morally hazardous actions.
They should not be taught
as exceptionless guides to condet which obviate the need for moral reasoning.
In some cases, one can avoid breaking one moral rule only by breaking another.
(b)
Knowledge of what generally harms human beings either physically
or emotionally.
Such knowledge is part of moral sensitivity because it enables a person to
detect actions falling under the moral rule that one should not hurt others.
(c)
Possession of a wide range of moral concepts such as deceiving,
demeaning, indoctrinating, belittling, etc.
The greater the number of moral concepts a person has, the more likely he
is to see an action or situation in moral terms.
Our concepts are very im-
portant in determining how we see a situation or what we see in a situation.
a
The fact is that we tend not to be aware of certain features in a situation unless we have concepts that pick them out.
Attainment #3:
Ability and disposition to seek out all of the morally relevant facts
I»
about actions which are morally hazardous.
Such attainments are necessary because the more relevant facts one
takes into account in making a moral judgment, the better his judgment will be,
other things being equal. Currently an approach to moral reasoning which
focuses on the discussion of moral dilemmas is very popular. One of the limitations of this approach is that it inhibits rather than encourages the inclination to seek out all the relevant facts about the action being judged.
This
inhibition is a product of the fact that the dilemmas are fictional and that
•
7
students are specifically requested to work within the facts presented.
Attainment #4:
Ability and inclination to imagine, when contemplating a morally
hazardous action, the consequences that would ensue if everyone
in your circumstance were to engage in the action.
These attainments are necessary to be able to determine whether or not
a moral judgment is consistent with the second principle of moral reasoning
(principle (b)).
Commitment to the second principle manifests itself as an
inclination to reject the action as wrong if the imagined consequences are unacceptable.
Attainment #5:
Ability and inclination to put oneself imaginatively into the circumstances of another person and thus come to know and appreciate
the consequences of a proposed morally hazardous action for the
other person.
The disposition to reject the action as wrong if the consequences would
be unacceptable is in the same category as Attainment PI.
This set of attain-
ments is desirable for the morally educated person, because the technique of
"putting oneself in the other person's shoes" is one of the best means of
determining whether or not an action fulfills the first principle of moral reasoning (principle (a)).
Attainment #6:
Ability and disposition to seek advice and counsel from others
about moral decisions one is making.
Too often we picture moral decision-making as a solitary pursuit. But
there is much to be gained by discussing moral issues with others. Such
8
discussion may help a person grasp more of the morally relevant facts in à
situation.
It may also help him determine whether or not his reasoning con-
forms to the two principles of moral reasoning. It can do this by helping
him imagine himself in the shoes of someone else or by helping him imagine
the consequences of everyone's doing what he is thinking of doing.
A morally
educated person will make use of all of the best resources available to him,
in this case, the reflections of other persons.
This does not mean, of course,
that he will or should substitute the advice of others for his own moral reasoning in determining how to act.
Attainment #7:
Ability and disposition to check the validity of moral arguments
and to reject invalid arguments.
These attainments are necessary if one is to weight intelligently the
arguments of others and provide others with sensible advice.
Attainment #8:
Disposition to require justifying arguments from others who propose
morally hazardous actions.
Moral agents do not live in isolation; they live in a moral community.
This attainment is necessary for the morally educated person if he is to be
a responsible member of his moral community.
One important step in promoting justice in a community is to establish
the expectation among its members that they will be required to justify their
morally hazardous actions.
Attainment #9:
Resolution to do what one has decided is right and to refrain from
doing what one has decided is wrong.
9
Obviously the payoff of moral reasoning is evident in how a person
acts. It is not enough that he be expert in making rational moral judgments.
He must learn to act on these decisions.
Attainment #10:
A sense of self-worth including the belief that achieving one's plans,
pursuing one's interests, and so on, is important.
What is required here is not the sense of self-esteem that comes from
achieving excellence at something. It is, rather, the sense of worth that is
associated with seeing oneself as an autonomous agent, rather than as a
creature to be used or manipulated by others.
He who has this sense of
self-worth believes that he and his interests count just because he is a person,
a human being.
This attainment is necessary for the morally educated person
because it provides the basis for his appreciating that persons and their interests are significant. Without this belief, the whole institution of morality
is pointless. Morality is, after all, fundamentally a way of settling conflicts
of interest among persons.
Attainment #11:
Knowledge of any way in which a person's perception of things
harmful to himself differs radically from that of people in general.
A masochist, for example, must know that people in general do not
derive pleasure from being hurt.
This attainment is necessary if someone is
to be accurate in his appreciation of the consequences of actions for other
persons.
In addition to those listed above there are a number of attainments
which are significantly related not only to moral competence, but to competence
in practical reasoning in general. We plan to analyze these abilities more
carefully in the next phase of our study.
At present we suppose they
10
include such things as:
#12:
Skill in verbal and non-verbal communication,
#13:
Ability and disposition to assess the reliability of
authorities,
#14:
Ability and disposition to assess the truth of empirical
claims,
#15:
Ability and disposition to be clear in the language we
use in deliberating about issues.
a
11
1.
LITERATURE REVIEW ON PRISONERS' THINKING
One major task of this study was to review current literature about
the practical reasoning of prisoners.
In particular, we wanted to find out
(1) what reasoning abilities and dispositions prisoners are likely to have or
to lack, and (2) what psychological and sociological variables inhibit or
facilitate acquisition of the various abilities and dispositions necessary for
rational practical reasoning. Such information is necessary for the development of sound materials and procedures for teaching practical reasoning to
prisoners.
Despite the broad conception of practical reasoning which guided our
review of the literature, we found little sound research bearing on the question of what deficiencies in practical reasoning are typical of prisoners.
A.
Studies of Reasoning Abilities
One impressive study in the area of prisoners' thinking is that con-
ducted by Yochelson and Samenow (1977). As the result of thousands of
hours of interviews with 240 persons, most of whom had been found not
guilty of criminal charges by reason of insanity, they identified a large number of what they called "thinking errors characteristic of the criminal."
Un-
fortunately, only a few of the characteristics they called thinking errors
count as deficiencies in the abilities and dispositions necessary for rational
practical reasoning. Because of severe methodological limitations, including
lack of a representative sample of prisoners, we cannot take Yochelson and
Samenow's findings at face value.
However, their work suggests the follow-
ing hypotheses concerning possible deficiencies in the practical reasoning of
prisoners.
12
1.
Prisoners will tend to have difficulty deferring gratification.
2.
Prisoners will tend not to be disposed to imagine themselves
in the situation of the other person.
3.
Prisoners will tend not to see the point of the concept of
obligation.
4.
Prisoners will tend not to trust other people.
5.
Prisoners will tend not to gather relevant information and
weigh the pros and cons of a course of action before deciding on it. They think they have all the information
they need.
6.
Prisoners will tend to be unwilling to suspend judgment on
persons and courses of action.
7.
Prisoners will tend to be closed minded. They will not
listen to evidence which contradicts what they already
believe.
It should be noted that these hypotheses mainly concern the dispositions of prisoners. So far as we can tell, Yochelson and Samenbw have
little to say about what sort of thinking prisoners are capable or incapable
of doing.
Many studies of prisoners' practical reasoning in recent years are
based on Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning. These studies suggest that
the majority of prisoners employ Stage 2 reasoning (Parlett et al, 1975;
Kohlberg, 1972). Kohlberg's developmental theory of moral reasoning and
the six stages of such reasoning is outlined in Section 3. Stage 2 reasoning
is characterized by the view that the right thing to do is that which serves
one's own interests. Persons at this stage will think it right to obey
a law,
honor a contract or help another person if and only if it will lead to benefit
for themselves. Even the lives of other people are seen as having only instrumental value (Kohlberg, 1976). In terms of our conception of practical
rationality, a person who is at Kohlberg's Stage 2 will have the following
deficiencies: (1) he will not understand that moral reasoning is based on
13
the two generalization principles; (2) he will not differentiate the
moral point
of view from the prudential point of view; (3) he will not be sensitive to
morally hazardous actions; (4) he will not be disposed to apply the role exchange or the universal consequences test to the principle upon which his
action is based.
Another approach to the study of the thinking of juvenile delinquents
explores the relationship between delinquent behavior and level of conceptual
development, where conceptual development is portrayed as varying along a
dimension of concreteness-abstractness.
The model of conceptual development
most often used in such studies is the Harvey Conceptual Systems model
(1967).*
A person in Sub-System I of this model has not yet assimilated
basic social norms. Thus he exhibits negativism, egocentrism and the disposition to seek immediate gratification.
In System I he assimilates the basic
norms of the culture. A person in this system is characterized by high
positive dependence on authority. System II persons break away from social
norms. Their thinking is characterized by distrust of and rebellion against
authority. System Ill brings the first awareness of others in terms of their
own feelings and values.
Only in System IV does the person adopt standards
which are applicable to both self and others.
Juers and Harvey (1964) found that 80 percent of the delinquents in
their sample were in either System I or System II. In studies reported by
Hunt and Hardt (1965), junior high school boys in Sub-System I were found
to have more police contacts than boys with more abstract systems.
Boys
in Sub-System I also reported greater frequency of delinquent acts than
boys at higher levels. Since these studies deal with juveniles rather than
*This model is more fully described in Section 3 of this study.
14
adults, it is difficult to know how to interpret them for our purposes.
Clearly, practical reasoning that is fully rational requires a System IV level
of conceptual development. If adult prisoners tend to be in System I or
System II, we may have to start at a fairly elementary level in building
practical reasoning skills and dispositions. .There is some evidence that
adult prisoners' thinking tends toward the concreteness end of the abstractconcrete dimension.
Using the Kahn Test of Symbol Arrangement, Kipper
(1971) found that prisoners' thinking is characterized by concreteness
and
conceptual perseveration. They have little cognitive flexibility and difficulties in synthesizing diverse cognitive input.
Following a different line of inquiry, Chandler (1973) found that delinquent boys were deficient in the ability to see other persons' points of
view. It is not certain that adult prisoners will have this same deficiency,
but there is at least a strong possibility that they will. This finding has
particular significance for our work because the ability to see another's point
of view is a very important practical reasoning ability.
B.
Studies of Factors Affecting Reasoning
Research concerning the factors that facilitate or inhibit the develop-
ment of practical reasoning abilities and dispositions in prisoners is also
sparse. Projects using various intervention strategies to raise the level of
prisoners' moral reasoning as described by Kohlberg's theory have had
moderate success. A previously cited study by Parlett, Ayers and Sullivan
(1975) suggests that a course in Humanities offering frequent opportunities
for moral discussion and judgment may be useful in raising the level of
prisoners' moral reasoning. Other investigators have also reported successful interventions (Scharf, Hickey and Moriarty, 1973; Scharf and Hickey,
1976).
One such intervention engaged inmates in group discussions of
15
moral issues and in role taking exercises, with the result that roughly onethird of the participants advanced at least one stage in moral reasoning.
A
second intervention combined a democratic community governing process with
counselling based on Kohlberg's theory.
The authors believe that such an
intervention produces greater development ini moral reasoning than does discussion of moral issues by itself.
"
On the basis of his research, Scharf (1973) argues that the moral
atmosphere of the prison inhibits
the development of higher stages of moral
reasoning. To facilitate moral development it is desirable that prisoners live
in a community perceived as just or fair. Duguid (1979) describes a program in which prisoners who take universit'y levél arts courses are at the
same time incorporated into an "alternative community" which, because it is
perceived as just, reinforces more advanced levels of moral thinking and behavior. Although the results of this study are somewhat mixed, the program
overall appears to have had reasonable success in raising the level of
prisoners' moral reasoning.
On the basis of the Kohlberg based studies we have reviewed, there
is reason to be optimistic that the practical reasoning abilities and dispositions of prisoners can be improved. However, such improvement is not likely
to come easily. Rather, it will require a concerted, long-term educational
effort to bring about any appreciable improvement. Moreover, there seems
to be good reason to believe that direct teaching of reasoning abilities will
have to be supplemented by structuring the prisoners' environment in such
a way as to encourage and reward the use of his practical reasoning abilities
and dispositions.
Very little is known about the best means of raising a prisoners's
conceptual level as described in the Harvey et al Conceptual Systems Model.
16
We found no studies in which a significant educational program was carried
out for the purpose of raising persons' conceptual levels.
Hunt and Hardt
(1965) suggest that there is an optimal environment for progressive development at each level. Although they have no research findings to support
their views, their speculations on this point .could prove useful in developing
teaching materials and procedures were we to obtain data on the conceptual
level of prospective students.
The most encouraging findings bearing on the possibility of teaching
practical reasoning to prisoners come from a study conducted by Waksman,
Silverman and Weber (1979).
Using Feuerstein's Learning Potential Assessment
Device, they secured evidence suggesting that even prisoners with low I.Q.'s
and those who have failed in past academic efforts have the potential to learn.
In particular, their findings show that low academic achievers often have the
ability to learn new thinking strategies and skills.
It should be noted that we found only one study which attempted direct
teaching of practical reasoning abilities to prisoners.
This was the limited
teaching of problem solving strategies involved in administering Feuerstein's
L.P.A.D. Kohlbergian studies seem to assume that whatever thinking abilities
and dispositions are needed for rational practical reasoning will be picked up
indirectly through dilemma discussions or through taking part in democratic
decision-making.
logic.
This assumption is supported neither by evidence, nor by
There is little evidence either to support the notion that university
arts courses will significantly improve the practical reasoning abilities of inmates.
Our experience is that such courses may significantly increase the
student's reasoning about the subject matter studied, but is likely to improve
his practical reasoning only marginally if at all.
I
17
Our review of the research in this area reveals that very little is
known about the practical reasoning abilities of prisoners or about the likelihood that these abilities can be directly taught. What is necessary is a
sound framework which integrates our conception of moral reasoning with that
of the attainments of practical reasoning and research into how prisoners
apply the'se conceptions.
18
2.
LITERATURE REVIEW ON TEACHING AND LEARNING
IN CORRECTIONAL SETTINGS
If education in correctional institutions is to receive the attention it
deserves, many factors must be considered.. This section reviews the literature concerning variables affecting the success or failure of education programs.
According to reports it is difficult to secure qualified teachers to
work in corrections (Roberts, 1974; Campbell, 1974; McKee, 1966).
may be due to a number of factors.
This
Correctional institutions are usually 10-
cated outside of large centres and, therefore, are removed from the labour
supply, creating difficulties in securing full or part-time staff (Forster, 1976;
0.I.S.E., 1979, p. 101).
One must also take into account that working in
a prison is not highly regarded by the general population.
In addition,
teaching staff experience "...fragmentation and isolation from each other,
and from the lack of a professional identity as correctional educators" (Griffin,
1978, p. 41).
Lack of public support for corrections education is another factor
affecting success of programs.
Campbell (1974) states that the critical issue
is 'the attitude of the public.' The 0.I.S.E. Reviewers (1979, pp. 1-2) report that "...in the minds of ordinary citizens, the admission of a prisoner's
right to education does not follow with blunt evidence;
on the contrary, re-
sistance runs deep." Wagner (1978) declares that the token support given
by the public sector in the U.S.A. Is not generating the necessary funding
or commitment to rehabilitation. In Canada, only four percent of C.C.S. expenditures is devoted to educational programs.
As it is difficult to prove
that education can be justified in terms of recidivism and 'good citizenship',
19
educational programs are vulnerable to the criticism that they are a waste of
taxpayers' money as they merely produce better educated criminals
1974).
(Roberts,
Unless there is more support at all levels (government, public,
prison administration and staff), it will be difficult to implement more and
better educational programs.
Teaching in a prison is not the same as teaching in other institutions.
Whatever the teaching situation, teachers need special training in order to
understand the background and special problems associated with their particular student population (Campbell, 1974; Horan, 1975). According to Roberts
(1971, p. xiii)
In the United States and Canada, education and corrections have
yet to collaborate to any extensive degree. Very few educators
have been exposed during their education and training to the
internal parts of correctional institutions and the associated educational problem of the individuals who live and work within them.
Higher education programs in state and private universities and
colleges for teachers, counsellors, and educational administrators
have in a few rare instances included involvement in the educational treatment, staff training, and research needs of the field
of corrections.
This training must consist of more than a token orientation to the problems
associated with 'schools behind bars' (Baxter, 1978; 0.I.S.E., 1979, pp. 145148) as the problems are complex.
At the cutting edge of instruction is the teacher.
This person must
be well-trained, must be cognizant of the prison environment, must be committed to education, and must have teaching abilities which are superior.
If Campbell (1974) is correct in his profile of an adult learner, then inmate
students:
(i)
are not under compulsion to learn
(ii)
may be impatient because of high motivation
(iii)
demand to be treated as adults
(iv)
are iritolerant of shoddy instruction
20
(v)
have individualistic styles of thinking
(vi)
are critically analytical of new information
(vii)
have clearly percei ved goals
(viii)
are firmly intent on achieving goals
(ix)
want learning to be useful in the 'immediate or
foreseeable future.'
Teachers, therefore, must have well developed interaction skills and must be
capable of individualizing instruction where desirable and feasible. They
must adapt the level of the instruction so that students can achieve success,
yet at the same time, must maintain high academic standards.
All these are characteristics of any good teacher, at whatever level.
If teachers of this calibre are to be located in correctional institutions, and
are required to,
sustain a high level of motivation and activity when they must
single-handedly face a dozen or more inmates on a daily basis,
none of whom has asked to be in prison, ...(Griffin, 1978, p. 85)
then training specifically designed to equip them to teach in a prison setting
must be provided.
Prison teachers may operate in an atmosphere which is not supportive
of education. Outside instructors may be viewed as threatening by regular
prison staff (Lewis, 1973), who may also be resentful of the opportunities
being given to inmates (McCollum, 1973; Drucker, 1966).
There is the addi-
tional problem of fluctuations in class size due to dropouts and inmate transfers
and absences for various purposes--visits, classification interviews and so on
(Griffin, 1978, p. 69).
It would seem important, therefore, that not only
are the general public informed and educated as mentioned earlier, but that
prison staff and administration be involved, as they may play a large role
in determining the success of any programs (Sackett, 1974; Dillworth, 1973;
0.I.S.E., 1979, p. 48).
21
Administrative factors also affect educational programs. Inmates
arrive and leave at various times and have varying lengths of sentences.
This means that inmates may have to wait to start any particular program,
may leave before the program is completed and, if transferred, may not be
able to complete course requirements in another institution (Feldman, 1977;
Campbell, 1974; Forster, 1976).
Accordingly, education is not usually
feasible unless the courses are short or can be continued in other correctional institutions or in junior or community colleges (Holmesburg Project,
1972).
Also, if programs are to meet the needs of all inmates, corrections
institutions will have to offer an almost universal range of opportunities
(McCollum, 1973).
This creates problems for prison instructors. Either be-
cause of economic restraints or relatively small numbers of students in any
given course, instructors will have to teach several different courses, and/or
they will have to encapsulate their courses into a short time period.
Most in-
structors at the adult level are specialists in a subject area. Usually they
have been trained to teach their subject and not others, and they may find
it difficult to develop a curriculum which has to be implemented in a 'short
course' situation.
Another factor which impinges on the educational setting is the provision of adequate facilities (Laird, 1972; Horan, 1975; Walton, 1978; and
Sackett, 1974).
One of the vital facilities is the library. It can be argued
that library facilities are even more vital in prison education than in 'outside' education. Regular students usually have access to a variety of resources, inmates do not.
The prison environment will also exert an influence upon instructors.
As security is a primary function, this may influence the location of classrooms, the freedom of operation, the amount of flexibility allowed in both
22 •
content and methods, and maybe even the materials used in classroom instruction (Lewis, 1973).
Instructors are in a 'double bind' situation.
They are
there to rehabilitate, but they teach in a custodial setting (Campbell, 1974).
They can choose to identify with the prison staff, or with the inmates, but
it is extremely difficult to occupy a middle rbad (Lewis, 1973; Campbell, 1974;
Horan, 1975; Roberts, 1974).
The student population creates special concerns; problems which do
not usually occur in other educational settings. Many writers
report on the
subculture of the prison; fear and mistrust (Boyd, 1973), cynicism and suspicion (Horan, 1975), anti-rehabilitation (McKee, 1966) and anti-education
sentiments (McCollum, 1973), deleterious peer pressure (Roberts, 1974;
Drucker, 1966), and prison codes that mitigate against educational endeavors
(Sykes, 1960).
Similarly, this climate, according to Boyd (1973), mitigates against personal growth and responsibility, and the development of a mature self-concept
(Lewis, 1973), all of which are major principles of adult education. Inmate
attitudes toward educational endeavors, therefore, may not be positive.
These
attitudes may include (1) suspicion of the teacher (Lewis, 1973), (2) scepticism
that education will improve job chances (Holmesburg Report, 1972), and that
education is relevant to everyday life (McKee, 1966); (3) lack of self-confidence in one's ability to learn (Roberts, 1974); fear of ridicule, competition,
and failure (McKee, 1966; Campbell, 1974; Forster, 1976; Ryan, 1974);
(4) an unwillingness to work toward long range goals (Roberts,
1974) as the
rewards of education seem distant, unreal and meagre (Campbell, 1974; and
(5) a need for immediate gratification (McKee, 1966; Roberts, 1974; Verner,
1967).
23
Against this background is evidence that many inmates were not successful in school (0.I.S.E., 1979, P. 35).
Simons (1966), in his study of
one hundred and fifty delinquents, found that 92 Percent were characterized
as being poorly adjusted to school, and that 72 percent had failed at least
one grade.
Ryan (1974) found that 85 percent of inmates in his study were
school dropouts, and that the average scholastic level was Grade 5-6. Ross
(1978) discovered evidence of an inordinate number of reading problems.
They may be due to poor motivation, expectation of failure, or antipathy toward school rather than lack of ability or aptitude.
In fact, West (1978)
states that failure in school is a large part of the cause of delinquency.
Yet there is evidence that intelligence seems to be distributed amongst
inmates much as it is in the general population (0.I.S.E. Report, 1979); that
inmates can learn (Yochelson and Samenow, 1976 ; Waksman, Silverman and
Weber, 1979); that inmate students may be more energetic than 'regular'
students (Marken, 1974), and more intellectually curious (Laird, 1972).
Prison instructors must be aware of the complex backgrounds of inmate students in order to teach effectively.
An instructor should not regard
a class as homogeneous (McCollum, 1973; Holmesburg Project, 1972), yet the
practicalities of prison education may make it difficult, if not impossible at
times, to individualize instruction, and account for individual needs. Instructors will also have to take into account the motivations which lead inmates
to participate in educational programs. According to researchers these are:
A belief that participation will have a positive influence on parole
(McKee, 1966) or on prison authorities (Cable, 1978); that boredom will be alleviated; and that certain fringe benefits will pertain
(time off work, less noise, the possiblity of female instructors).
According to Forster's (1976, p. 15) study of 53 British inmates
All inmates saw their initial approach to education as something of a revolt against the monotony of prison life, but they
expressed this in different ways.
24
Yet there were also motivations of an educational nature; that
participation would lead to self-improvement and better opportunities on the outside; that pursuing a professional career was
desirable; and that there were opportunities to maintain programs
commenced prior to incarceration.
According to the 0.I.S.E. Report, Phase II (1979, p. 114), two-thirds
of inmates questioned felt that they were hidhly motivated and impressed with
the value of education, yet teachers, in response to the same question, felt
that only 26 percent of inmates were well motivated and saw the value of
education.
These factors impinge on classroom instruction and may lead to a number of problems in teaching.
Forster (1976) identifies several of these.
There may be a high level of stress in the classrbom resulting from prisoners
beirig evaluated by both peers and instructors and perceiving risk of
Forster states (1976, p. 31),
...there are features of the educational scene which, although common to both the imprisoned and the free student, may be perceived
much more clearly in prison because the extreme nature of prison
brings them into sharper relief.
A striking example of this is the
degree of stress felt by an adult when exposed to academic assessment of any sort and the accompanying sense of exposure; a prime
problem with the inmate student, this could be a much greater
problem outside than appears at first.
There may be a feeling of alienation from both peers and instructors.
There may be obsessive study of 'relevant' subjects--for example, law and
deviant behaviour (Forster, 1976).
There may be an increase in feelings of
isolation in that horizons may be broadened, but the inmate is confined both
in terms of physical space and facilities (i.e., library resources).
Teachers have to be cognizant of institutional and student characteristics
not only in their actual instruction but also in the preparation of curriculum
materials (Sackett, 1974).
As most inmates are in the age range of 19-34,
they were in schools when educational practices were in flux.
Students will
have been exposed to a variety of teaching/learning styles (from 'chalk and
25
talk,' to 'open' education) and these approaches will affect the attitudes
students will bring to the learning situation.
Rehabilitating an inmate means dealing with the total person--academic,
vocational, ethical and social and, according to McKee (1966), and Feldman
(1975) should continue even after an inmate has left prison.
Within correc-
tional facilities this will mean that an integrated approach must be taken.
Educational programs are a single, albeit important element in a 'multi-faceted
prison rehabilitation program' (Campbell, 1974).
Many writers stress this
need for integration and the need for provision of counselling services so
that guidance is available (Campbell, 1974; Galley,. 1976).
This review of the literature has revealed a number of significant difficulties that must be overcome in mounting successful educational programs
in correctional institutions.
These difficulties, however, should be kept in
perspective. A number of corrections educational programs have, despite
the difficulties, had considerable success (Forster, 1976; Duguid, 1979;
Parlett et al, 1975).
Many of the inhibiting factors we have identified are
not ones which we or other designers of education programs can remove.
Educators cannot, for example, change the administrative structure of the
prison, the attitudes of prison staff, or the attractiveness of teaching in
prisons.
While our research to date has revealed a number of constraints within which corrections education programs operate, we are not entirely clear
which of these educators can reasonably seek to have changed. We suppose
that, for the most part, educational programs will have to work within the
context presently existing. Even supposing this to be the case, we believe
that it is possible to develop an effective program for teaching practical
reasoning in corrections institutions.
Such a program will have to:
I
26
1.
Maintain continuity despite variable student attendance.
2.
Be flexible enough to be able to be taught in small
segments.
3.
Enable the teacher to take a responsible middle ground
between prison authorities and inmates.
L. Provide opportunities for the in-service education of
instructors.
5.
Be supported by the prison administration.
6.
Use materials which capitalize on the interests of
inmates.
27
3.
ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS
This section identifies some of the measures available for the assessment of maturity of moral judgment and critical thinking competencies. We
describe each test, the theoretical basis for the test development, and subsquent research on reliability and validity.
I MATURITY OF JUDGMENT
1.
The Conceptual Systems Test - Grades 9-12, and adult; 1965;
Harvey, O. J. University of Colorado.
In the development of his theory of conceptual systems Harvey (1967)
examines how certain structural and content differences in the central concepts or self-systems of individuals produce a selectivity and directionality
of functioning.
This selectivity determines the kinds of events persons are
psychologically opened and closed to, the sources and approaches that produce acceptance and rejection of incongruous and adverse events, and the
kinds of reactions individuals are likely to make to conceptual refutation.
Harvey has deduced four patterns of thinking which form the basis
of his test.
System I:
This self system is the most concrete mode of relating to the world.
During his life such a person has been restricted in his exploration
of the world concerned with values, power relations, and social
causality. Such persons exhibit characteristics such as high superstition, high religiosity, high absolutism and closedness of beliefs,
high evaluativeness, high reliance on institutional authority, high
28
identification with social roles and status, high conventionality,
and high ethnocentricism.
System Il:
Somewhat more abstract than I, System II may result from experience
with an authority figure who is capricious in control of reward and
punishments.
This unpredictable behaviour makes the person un-
sure about which actions will secure positive feedback. Such persons
exhibit characteristics such as feelings of uncertainty, distrust of
authority, and rebelliousness. Such persons may seem in a psychological vacuum, guided by rejection of social prescriptions and dependent on authority.
System Ill:
This mode of reasoning is more abstract than Systems I and II.
It may result from over-indulgent parents who inhibited exploration
of the physical world and encouraged the child to become manipulative of his parents and which in turn encouraged inflated notions of
self esteem and social power.
Because Of domination of his parents
such an individual is less oriented to institutional power and authority.
System Ill individuals seek to establish friendships, intragroup consensus and dependency relations in order to avert feelings of isolation and helplessness. Such individuals are highly manipulative,
exploit dependency relations and are highly successful socially.
System IV:
This is the most abstract of the four systems. It results from a
childhood wherein the child is free to explore both social and physical aspects of his experiences and thoughts and to solve
29
problems without fear of deviating from established truths. System
IV individuals have high task orientation, information seeking, exploratory behaviour, risk taking and independence behaviours.
They are guided by intrinsic rather than extrinsic concerns.
Factor Analysis of the Conceptual Systems Test revealed seven factors:
1.
Divine Fate Control (DFC) is assessed by such items as "There are
some things which God will never permit man to know," and "I believe
that to attain my goals it is only necessary for me to live as God would
have me live."
2.
Need for Simplicity-Consistency (NS-C) is assessed by such items
as "I dislike having to change my plans in the middle of a task,"
"It is annoying to listen to a lecturer who cannot seem to make up his
mind as to what he really believes."
3.
Need for Structure-Order (NS-0) is derived from such items as
"I don't like to work on a problem unless there is a possibility of
coming out with a clear-cut definite answer and "I like to have a
place for everything and everything in its place."
Distrust of Social Authority (DSA) is revealed by such items as "Most
public officials are really interested in the poor man's problems," and
"A lot of people in positions of respect don't deserve as much respect
as they receive."
5.
Friendship Absolutism (FA) is assessed by such statements as "I do
not enjoy arguing with my friends," and "Sometimes I don't like any
of my friends."
6.
Moral Absolutism (MA) is revealed by such items as "I think I am
stricter about right and wrong than rnost people," and "It is less important to get along with others than to follow a code of conduct."
30
7.
General Pessimism (GP) is measured by such items as "The world
is run by a few people in power and there isn't much • one can do
about it," and "You sometimes can't help wondering whether anything
is worthwhile anymore."
Research (Bower, 1970) on the construct validity of the Conceptual
Systems Test revealed through an analysis of variance some theoretically consistent systems differences for variables of internal-external control, religious
orientation, naysaying, introversion, and openness to input and ability.
Description of the Test:
The CST has been used by grades 9-12, 13 and over. The CST is
an objective measure of conceptual level derived from actual subject responses
to the TIB (This I Believe Test, Harvey [1964, 1965]). The test consists of
49 items, which were rateci on a 6-point scale from "completely disagree"
(score +1) to "completely agree" (score 6).
Means are calculated for six sub-
tests (Divine Fate Control, Interpersonal Aggression, General Pessimism,
Need for People, Need for Structure-Order, and Need to Help People) which
are then used to classify subjects into the four conceptual systems on the
basis of certain profiles among the means.
For example, a person with a mean
greater than or equal to 4.19 on the Divine Fate Control Subtest is classified
as System I. Further, a subject with a mean less than 4.19 on the Divine
Fate Control Subtest but greater than 3.75 on the Interpersonal Aggression
Subtest and greater than 3.39 on the General Pessimism Subtest was classified as System II. Cutting points for analysis of the score profiles are:
place in System I those who score above 4.19 on Divine Fate Control; in
System II those who score below 4.19 on Divine Fate Control, above 3.75 on
Interpersonal Aggression, and above 3.39 on Anomie; in System Ill those who
score below 4.19 on Divine Fate Control, below 3.75 on Interpersonal
31
Aggression, and above 4.10 on Need for People; and in System IV those
who score below 4.19 on Divine Fate Control, below 3.75 on Interpersonal
Aggression, below 4.10 on Need for People, and below 4.10 on Need for Struc-.
ture.
2.
Moral Judgment Scale - Grades 9-12, and adult;
Harvard University.
1959; Lawrence Kohlberg,
For Kohlberg the development of moral judgment passes through an invariant sequence of stages both within and between cultures. He defines six
distinct stages of moral development each characterized by separate types of
reasoning. Ideally, an individual continues to develop until he has reached
the highest level. Kohlberg viewed each stage as qualitatively different
from the previous one.
Levels and Stages of Moral Development
Stage
Level
premoral level
Il
morality of conventional
role conformity
Ill morality of self-accepted
moral principles
1.
punishment and obedience orientation
2.
naive instrumental hedonism
3.
good-boy morality of maintaining
good relations, approval of others
4.
authority-maintaining morality
5.
morality of contract and of democratically accepted law
6.
morality of individual principles
of conscience
The method available for assessing the stages is the Moral Judgment
Scale.
This scale determines individual moral development by examining moral
judgments and reasoning.
individual's level
The hierarchical nature of the stages defines the
of moral maturity.
The Moral Judgment Scale is a structured
projective test consisting of nine hypothetical dilemmas.
32
Kurtines and Grief (1974) have criticized Kohlberg for not providing
(1) a relationship between the global and detailing scoring schemes; (2) reasons for using five different schemes; and (3) genéral norms.
As of 1974
(after 15 years of use of the MJS) there were no reported reliability estimates for the scale itself. Evidence from experimental studies indicates
that scores fluctuate greatly over short periods of time. A problem concerns
predictive validity--there is no clear demonstrated connection between moral
judgment and moral action.
Furthermore, no clear evidence emerges to
support the assumption of invariance of stages and their hierarchical nature.
Subsequent research (Wilmoth and McFarland, 1977) obtained good reliabilities
but the time and effort required confirmed the need for seeking good, objective measures of mature moral thought.
Description of Test:
The Moral Judgment Scale was developed for use by grade 9 through
adult; two forms, two hours approximately.
The MJS consists of a series
of dilemmas and their [respective] probing questions. An interviewer
presents a subject with one dilemma at a time and the person must make a
judgment about the situation and justify his choice.
The Heinz dilemma is
the frequently used example:
In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. One drug
might save her, a form of radium that a druggist in the same
town had recently discovered.
The druggist was charging
$2,000, ten times what the drug cost him to make. The sick
woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow
the money, but he could only get together about half of what
it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and
asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, "No." The husband got desperate and broke into the
man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband
have done that? Why?
The interviewer encourages the subject to respond freely and asks
questions to elicit additional responses. Since the probing questions are
33 .
dependent on the person's initial response, each person receives a different
set of questions. Administration of nine dilemmas requires almost two hours
so most researchers use about six dilemmas. Scoring on the MJS is based
on the reasoning which each person gives to support his judgment.
scale is complex and difficult to score.
The
The . MJS may be scored by either
a global or detailed system.
3.
The Defining Issues Test: An Objective Test of Moral Judgment
Development - Grades 7-12 and adult; James Rest, University of
Minnesota, 1974.
Rest (1974) views moral judgment scores as an attempt to tap the basic
conceptual frameworks by which a subject analyzes a social-moral problem
and judges the proper course of action. Moral judgment assessment is an
assessment of sophistication and adequacy of thinking; it is not a measure
of a subject's worth, loyalty, kindness or sociability.
The Defining Issues Test research is based on Kohlberg's stage theory.
The characterization of the stages assumed in the DIT is basically KohlbergIan. However, the assessment strategies differ. Kohlberg's assessment asks
a subject to spontaneously generate a solution to a problem and the DIT asks
a subject to evaluate various considerations provided to the
subject. The
DIT is more of a recognition task rather than a production task so subjects
may appear more advanced on the DIT.
Rest views a moral judgment stage
as a conceptual framework for interpreting social interrelationships and mutual
responsibilities.
Kohlberg's research and assessment focus on a subject's thinking de
novo about a moral dilemma. While Rest views this as an important kind of
moral judgment he also believes other forms of moral judgment are important
(1974).
For example, when a person faces a moral dilemma, he often seeks
34
•
the advice of others rather than acting upon his own immediate solution to
the dilemma. In accepting or not another's advice, we make judgments about
his judgments. In public debate over political issués we are hardly ever
aware of a dilemma without also hearing someone's moral judgment of it.
People are influenced by the way another person defines the problem
as well as the conclusion. For example, in issues of public policy, attention
centers on defining the issue.
With a major social-moral issue such as racial
prejudice, the particular definition of the issue is a very important moral
judgment.
Subsequent research by Rest (1974) found that the importance attributed to principled (stages 5 and 6) moral statements (the P score) evidenced
developmental trends. The P score is an index that interprets the relative
importance a subject gives to principled moral considerations in making a decision about moral dilemmas.
varied advancement.
The P score differentiates student groups of
For junior high through graduate students P correlated
in the .60's with age, comprehension of social-moral concepts, and Kohlberg's
scale, and less so, but significantly, with I.Q.
The way a subject chooses
important issues was both intellectual and value related. Rest also found
that the DIT had a negative correlation with a Law and Order Scale (-.60)
but had a positive correlation with a Libertarianism scale (.63).
Using
several sets of students, the DIT P index had a test-retest Pearson correlation of .81.
Description of the Test
The test was developed for students, grades 7-13.
The test consists
of a series of six moral dilemmas with 12 issues or considerations affecting
each dilemma.
For example, for the moral dilemma of whether a husband,
Heinz, should steal an exorbitantly priced drug for his dying wife, the subject
35
was asked to consider such issues as "whether or not a community's laws are
going to be upheld," "What values are going to be the basis for governing
human interaction," "Is Heinz willing to risk getting shot as a burglar or
going to jail for a chance that stealing the drug might help?"
story the subject was asked to evaluate how important
ciding what ought to be done.
For each
12 issues were in de-
The subjects rated each issue on a Likert
scale of importance. Each issue was designed to exemplify some distinctive
characteristics of a stage.
Based on Rest's research the DIT demonstrated good test-retest reliability, produced comparable information with each testing, minimized variance due to differences in verbal ability, and is scored objectively.
The
basic unit is a ranking of a standardized issue statement. Every subject
gives the same information, and each unit can be analyzed separately. Different tasks represent somewhat different stages of moral judgment.
The test
indexes development by a continuous variable rather than stage typing each
subject.
4.
The Ethical Reasoning Inventory - Grades 9-college; James Bode
and Roger Page, 1978.
The Ethical Reasoning Inventory derives its theoretical basis
and some
of its content from the work of Kohlberg. Like Kohlberg and Rest, Bode and
Page conceptualize moral and ethical development in six stages.
Their in-
ventory correlates with both the Defining Issues Test and Moral Judgment
Scale. Similar to the DIT and MJS, the ERI has a high correlation with age.
The primary objective of the authors is to produce a quicker, more standardized, cheaper, and less subjective method of measuring moral development
than Kohlberg's Scale allows. Because the inventory is so recent little research and discussion has been published about the test.
36
The test was developed for grades 9-college, single form; 50 minutes.
The test consists of six stories (standard Kohlberg' dilemmas) and accompany-
ing questions followed by several reasons for an answer to each question.
For each story the subject is asked to evaluate five conditional
questions,
with each conditional question followed by six conjunctive statements.
For
example, the first question uses the Heinz dilemma developed by Kohlberg and
used in the DIT. The dilemma asks whether a husband, Heinz, should steal
an exorbitantly priced drug for his dying wife.
The subject is first asked
whether Heinz should steal the drug; depending on the answer chosen, a
subject moves to a set of six justifications for his answer and is asked to
choose one. Justifications include "because the universal nature of life far
outweighs any consideration of man made laws..."
The subject then proceeds
through four additional questions with different sets of justifications.
5.
A Survey of Ethical Attitudes - Grades 6-12, and adult; 1970, Robert Hogan,
Johns Hopkins University.
Hogan's perspective on moral character emerges from a trend toward
rule oriented explanations of social behaviour which assumes that humans are
by nature rule following and manufacture rule systems to structure their
lives. Their moralities are informal rule systems.
Hogan (1973) hypothesizes that moral character and behaviour can be
described using five social and psychological dimensions: moral knowledge,
socialization, empathy, autonomy, and moral judgments-ethical attitudes.
However, unlike many cognitive and moral development theories which assume
progression through pre-set stages and successful mastery of each stage before moving to the next, Hogan's model defines socialization, empathy,
and
37
autonomy as occurring in progressively later points in time. .When these
points are reached, Hogan assumes qualitative changes in the underlying
structure of moral behaviour of the individual.
In his model, however, at-
tainment of the later points is not dependent on a successful transition
through earlier levels.
The five dimensions of moral character structure are operationalized
by Hogan (1973, 1975) as follows:
1.
Moral knowledge. This, the most difficult of his dimensions to measure
(Nardi, 1979), has been assessed using both SAT scores and I.Q. scores.
Hogan defines it as the 'number and kind of rules a person can state, but
not how he feels about, reasons with, or evaluates them.'
A typical item
would be "Does the penalty for shop-lifting vary with the value of the item
taken?"
2.
Socialization. For Hogan, socialization refers to the degree to which one
sees the rules of his society as personally binding.
A well-socialized person
obeys a rule because it is a rule. Hogan uses the 54-item Socialization Scale
of the California Psychological Inventory (CPI).
1
This highly reliable and
valid scale measures how well a person has internalized the values, conventions, and rules of his society and sees them as personally binding. Items
include: "I keep out of trouble at all costs."
3.
Empathy. Hogan (1969) developed a 64-item scale to measure empathy
using questions chosen from the CPI, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI), and the Institute of Personality Assessment and Research
(IPAR).
Empathy is defined as the ability to put oneself in another's place
thereby increasing one's sensitivity to the expectations of others, resulting
in social compliance.
Test items include "I always try to consider the other
fellow's feelings before I do something."
38
4.
Autonomy. Hogan uses Kurtines' (1973) 48-item autonomy scale de-
veloped from the CPI, MMPI, and IPAR tests.
The test measures the degree
to which an individual's moral actions are governed by his own personal moral
code and the implications of that code for others, and not by peer group
pressure or the dictates of authority. Typical items include "I think I am
usually a leader in my group."
5.
Ethical attitudes. Hogan (1970) developed a 35-item Survey of Ethical
Attitudes (SEA) to measure a person's ethical position. A low score
reflects
a personal conscience or moral intuition orientation while a high score represents a social responsibility or moral positivist orientation. The morally
mature person would be in the middle of this continuum.
Items include
"A soldier's only moral obligation is to obey orders."
Combinations of these personality dimensions defines types of moral
character. Taking only empathy and socialization, Hogan speculates on four
ideal types.
"Morally mature" persons (high socialization, high empathy)
are typified by respect for the rules of society and sensitivity to the needs
and expectations of others. "Sociopathic" types (high empathy, low socialization) are sensitive to the expectations of others but careless about conventional rules.
"Moral realists" (high socialization, low empathy) perceive
social and moral rules as personally binding but they are insensitive to points
of view or feelings different from their own. Finally, "delinquent" types
(low socialization, low empathy) typically have little regard for either the
rules of society or the rights of others.
While the dimensions are conceptually independent, the relationships
among the scales used to define them can be determined empirically. Hogan
(1973) estimated the following relationships:
39
Estimated Relationships Among Five Dimensions
of Character Structure
SO
EM
SEA**
Moral knowledge
.00
.30
.00
.30
Socialization (So)
---
' .00
.26
.09
Empathy (Em)
---
---
-.20
.41
Ethics of Responsibility (SEA)
---
---
--
-.33
Dimension
Autonomy
**SEA=Survey of Ethical Attitudes.
Research by Haier (1977) examines the relationship of Kohlberg's theory
of moral reasoning and Hogan's idea of moral character.
pirically significant relationship between the two.
Haier found no em-
Moral reasoning as mea-
sured by Kohlberg is a domain independent of moral character.
Research by Nardi (1979) analyzes the moral character of 320 college
students and finds that of the five dimensions the strongest dimension explaining rule-breaking behaviour was socialization. Socialization, empathy,
and
ethical attitudes take into account 20 percent of the variance in the rule breaking behaviour.
The Survey of Ethical Attitudes was developed for grades 6-12, and
adult.
There are two forms, each containing 35 items. The following state-
ments are representative of one form: (a) all civil laws should be judged
against a higher moral law; (b) right and wrong can be meaningfully defined
only by the law; (c) an unjust law should not be obeyed;
the life of man would be nasty, brutish and short.
(d) without law
These items are an-
swered by checking one of five response options which range from 'agree
strongly' to 'disagree strongly.'
was .88.
The parallel form reliability of the test
The measure is uncorrelated with intelligence.
In two separate
40
samples the test discriminated very strongly between persons whose choice
of vocations reflected a belief in law and established procedures and persons
who believed in civil disobedience as a means for pi-omoting social change.
The other included 15 weighted continuum attitude items and also included
14 forced-choice questions ('An unjust law:
• should be obeyed/should be dis-
obeyed'), and two moral dilemmas (one about a choice between maintaining
discipline and respecting cultural traditions, the other about the ethics of
conveying to police information heard by a psychiatrist during therapy).
ll
1.
CRITICAL THINKING COMPETENCIES
The Cornell Critical Thinking Test - Grades 7-12, adult; 1961, 71;
Robert H. Ennis and Jason Millman; Critical Thinking Project,
University of Illinois.
In his analysis of the concept of thinking Ennis (1962) identifies
twelve aspects of critical thinking along three dimensions which form the
basis for the development of the test:
1.
Grasping the meaning of a statement.
2.
Judging whether there is ambiguity in a line of
reasoning.
3.
Judging whether certain statements contradict each
other.
4 • Judging whether a conclusion follows necessarily.
5.
Judging whether a statement is specific enough.
6.
Judging whether a statement is actually the application of a certain principle.
7.
Judging whether an observation statement is reliable.
8.
Judging whether an inductive conclusion is warranted.
9.
Judging whether the problem has been identified.
10.
Judging whether something is an assumption.
41
11.
Judging whether a definition is adequate.
12.
Judging whether a statement made by an alleged
authority is acceptable.
The three dimensions of critical thinking are a logical dimension, a
criteria' dimension, and a pragmatic dimension. The logical dimension includes the judging of alleged relationships between meanings of words and
statements.
The criterial dimension covers knowledge of the criteria for
judging statements which are covered by the logical dimension. The pragmatic dimension covers the impression of the background purpose of the
judgment, and the decision
as to whether the statement is good enough for
the purpose.
When Ennis developed this test he raised the issues of weighting decisions of levels and decisions about the levels at which different abilities
are possible, and the agreement between dimension analysis and empirical
factor analysis.
level.
He expected a sizeable correlation by I.Q. at a given age
He also expected the logical dimension to have the highest correlation
with I.Q. followed by the criterial and pragmatic dimensions.
Instruction in
critical thinking should increase all correlations on the assumption that I.Q.
tests measure potential to learn. Experience was expected to strengthen
one's pragmatic and criteria' dimensions more than one's logical dimension
after 16 years of age because logical ability appears early in life.
He further
suggested a negative relationship between the degree to which a personality
is authoritarian and the logical dimension.
Ennis expected a negative re-
lationship between the authoritarian dimension and the pragmatic dimension.
Research since the development of the Critical Thinking Test reveals
the following:
42
1.
On a sample of disadvantaged black and white 9th grade students
the Cornell Critical Thinking Test had correlations of .39 and .49
with the Total Test of I.Q., and •49 and .59 with the California
Test of Mental Maturity. It appears that the researchers did not
analyze the relationship of I.Q. and the three dimensions of
critical thinking (Fallman, 1969).
2.
Using three critical thinking tests, a logical reasoning test and an
English test on the same sample, researchers performed a factor
analysis and found the . following factors of critical thinking; recognition of assumptions, judgments of conclusions follow from evidence given; relevance of evidence; fine discriminations about truth
or falsity with which inferences follow (Fal!man, 1970).
Description of Test:
The test was developed for grades 7-12, and adult; one form, two
levels; 1961, 1971; 50 minutes.
We examined level X for grades 7-12. The
test, Exploring in Nicoma, asks students to imagine that they are a group
from the United States on the newly discovered planet, Nicoma. Nothing
has been heard from the first group, which landed on Nicoma two years
earlier.
to earth.
The second group is going to investigate and bring a report back
The test evaluates student ability to evaluate facts and evidence,
reliability of sources, inductive and deductive reasoning.
43
2.
Normative Reasoning Test - Grade 9-12, and adult;
The Association for Values Education and Research,
University of British Columbia; 1974, modified 1975.
.
The Normative Reasoning Test comprises twenty-seven items in
which relationships between premises and conclusions in normative arguments are sound or unsound.
Subtest A comprises seventeen multiple choice
items for which subjects are required to select the soundest conclusion following from a value premise and a factual premise.
Subtest B comprises
ten multiple choice items for which students are required to select the reason or premise that best completes a normative argument.
Hoyt (1941) estimates of reliability for samples of senior secondary
school students in a 1978 study ranged from .72 (N=167) to .75 (N=151) on
subtest A and .63 (N=167) to .70 (N=151) on subtest B.
Cronbach's Alpha
for the composite for this test is 0.70 for the first administration and 0.78
for the second administration.
Example of test item
Suppose you know that:
Depriving a person of the chance to live a decent life is unjust.
Russians are unjust in their treatment of Jewish people wishing
to leave Russia.
Which of the following would be a sound conclusion?
(1)
Russia deprives Jewish people who want to leave Russia of
the chance to lead a decent life.
(2)
Some Jewish people are treated unjustly.
(3)
Few Jewish people are deprived of the chance to lead
a decent life.
(4)
None of the above.
44
3.
Fact/Value Test - Grade 9 - adult; Association for
Values Education and Research, University of British
Columbia; 1974, modified 1975.
The Fact/Value Test comprises 30 items.
Subjects are required to
decide if each statement is a factual claim or a value claim. Hoyt estimates
of reliability for samples of senior secondary school students in a 1978
study ranged from 0.82 (N=174) to 0.79 (N =154) .
Here are two of the statements--one factual and one value claim.
He deserves a promotion more than anyone else
in our department.
Twice as many people subscribe to the afternoon newspaper as to the morning newspaper.
45
4 • THE MATSQUI PROJECT
As originally proposed, phase one of our study did not include actual
classroom trial of our materials and methods for teaching practical reasoning.
We supposed that the materials we had previously developed for use with
public school secondary students would not be appropriate for adult inmate
classes.
However, discussions with Dr. T.A.A. Par lett convinced us that
there was indeed important information and experience to be gained from
trying out our existing materials with a class of inmates, before proceeding
to develop completely new materials and expanding or altering methods.
Over a period of six weeks, seven students in the GED program at
Matsqui participated in twice weekly, two hour sessions of a course entitled
'Critical Thinking'.
The course instructors were Dr. Jerrold Coombs, Pro-
fessor of Educational Foundations, Dr. Ian Wright, Assistant Professor,
Social Studies Department, and Carol LaBar, Research Associate.
The purposes of the course Were:
1.
To determine the ways in which our existing materials and methods
for teaching practical reasoning are appropriate or inappropriate
for use with adult inmates.
2.
To generate hypotheses concerning the most efficient techniques to
use in teaching practical reasoning to adult inmates.
3.
To gain first hand experience of the context within which teaching
and learning takes place in correctional institutions.
4.
To ascertain if adult inmates felt that practical reasoning was useful
in their studies and in their everyday lives.
46
In order to achieve these objectives the course outline was as follows:
Objectives
Session 1 (January 8)
1.
The student will be able to distinguish factual claims from value
claims (see appendix, pp. 1 and 1).
2.
The student will learn how to assess the truth or falsity of factual
claims (observation, experimentation, analysis [definition], expert
knowledge and/or testimony).
3.
The student will learn the three types of value claims (simple,
prescriptive, comparative).
I.
The student will learn how to analyze factual claims.
a)
Judging evidence (see appendix, p. 3).
b)
Judging observations
i)
ii)
John Savage (see appendix, p. 4)
Judging whether or not an observation statement
is reliable (see appendix, pp. 5 and 6)
c)
Judging authorities (see appendix, pp. 7 and 8).
1.
The student will learn the form of an argument.
2.
The student will be able to distinguish between valid and invalid
arguments.
a)
class reasoning (see appendix, p. 9)
b)
conditional reasoning (see appendix, p. 10).
47
1.
Review of class and conditional reasoning (see appendix, pp.
11
and 12).
2.
The student will understand the form of a value argument (practical
syllogism) (see appendix, pp. 13 and 14).
•
1.
The student will be able to pick out and identify various informal
fallacies (see appendix, pp.
2.
15 and 15)
a)
in selected advertisements
b)
in the daily newspaper.
The student will be able to analyze factual claims (see appendix,
p. 17) that appear in the daily newspaper.
3.
The student will critically discuss the fallacy of hasty generalization
(see appendix, p. 18).
1.
The student will understand the concept of point of view and will
be able to identify the point of view from which a value judgment
is made (se.e appendix, p. 19).
2.
The student will be able to use principle tests (Role Exchange,
New
Cases, Universal Consequences, Subsumption) to determine the
acceptability of a value judgment (see appendix, p. 20).
The student will be able to use principle tests to determine the acceptability of a value judgment (see appendix, pp. 21 and 22).
48
Sessions 7-10 (January 29-February 7)
All of the following objectives and activities are taken from War
(AVER, 1979):
1.
The student will understand what constitutes a war and why (see
appendix, p. 23).
2.
The student will be able to clarify the value object "war"
appendix, pp. 23 and 24).
3.
The student will be able to appreciate different people's views of
war (see appendix, pp. 28-30).
Li.
The student will be able to distinguish between factual statements
and value statements (see appendix, p. 31).
5.
The student will understand the concept of point of view, especially
the moral point of view (see appendix, p. 32).
6.
The student will become aware of some reasons why people sometimes
behave immorally during war (see appendix, pp. 33-40) .
7.
The student will become aware of some considerations in the nature
of heroism (see appendix, pp. 41-43).
8.
The student will recognize and critically evaluate arguments for going
to war (see appendix, pp. 43-46).
9.
The student will have some understanding of the issue of compulsory«
service (see appendix, p. 47).
miltary
(see
10.
The student will understand the form of the practical syllogism
(see appendix, pp. 48 and 49).
11.
The student will understand that it is the value premise which makes
the factual premise relevant to a value judgment (see appendix, p. 50).
Observations
As no formal tests of achievement were given to students in the course,
the observations contained in this section are largely impressionistic.
1.
There were no serious complaints about the materials used.
The
activity sheets used to teach class and conditional reasoning, formal
and informal fallacies, and values reasoning apparently were suitable.
The readings appeared appropriate but some of the questions related
to the readings were deemed inappropriate and unsophisticated for
1
49
adult students.
The major problem concerning materials was raised during
the final classroom session. Students were intensely concerned about our
purposes in teaching this course. This resulted frOm a 'mistake' on our
part whereby we used the topic of war as a vehicle for applying critical
thinking skills to value issues. Our reasons . for choosing this topic were:
(a) it contained significant moral issues; (b) it was controversial; (c) there
was student interest in the topic (Duguid, S., 1979, pp. 81-92);
(d) we
had materials already published on the topic; and (e) it did not involve discussion on topics which might be regarded as an invasion of privacy on
the part of students.
However, war involves violence and the breaking of moral rules.
The
suspicion was present that we were attempting to ascertain student reasoning
concerning violence and crimes of violence.
Whether or not we completely
alleviated this concern is unknown. What is significant is that,
session after the initial 'confrontation',
in the final
the class continued and hotly debated
the issue of women's rights. It seems clear that topics
must be chosen very
carefully so that any suspicions are allayed.
2.
During the course certain skills and concepts were taught and certain
answers were right or wrong. However, much of the course was
spent on debating value issues.
Whereas we believe that there are
rational ways which lead to the justifiable and correct resolution of
certain moral issues, the objective of the course was not to indoctrinate these views. We attempted to adopt a Socratic approach which
involves the use of questioning procedures designed to help people
reflect upon the claims that are made to support or reject a particular position. This is not easy to operationalize as by tone of voice
or by gesture the value stance of an instructor can be inferred.
50
Yet we believe that the approach was successful on the grounds that
discussion ensued throughout the six weeks. Initially students addressed their statements to and through an instructor.
As classes
progressed there was far more student to student interaction:
at
times it was not necessary for us to be present as debate flourished
among students; we were merely observers.
Of note, also, is that as the classes continued we were joined
by students from other programs.
At times there were up to six
non-GED students in the room. Many of them participated in the
discussion and, at times, dominated it . Although students were willing to argue with each other, they did not" appear to be willing to
work together on more structured activities.
As in most classes at whatever level, some people participated more
than others. Although most students completed the class assignments and
appeared to be able to apply the various skills taught, there were some students who were more prepared than others to engage in discussion and
debate.
Whereas full-time instructors can become acquainted with all students,
and can therefore attempt, where desirable and feasible, to engage students
in discussion, we were 'outsiders'.
We did not know the experiential back-
grounds of students and had few insights into their world views. Likewise,
students did not know of our backgrounds.
3.
The instructors found teaching at Matsqui to be both challenging
and exciting.
On the basis of nnany years of teaching in schools
and universities, we found that most students were willing to learn;
willing to take a position; and willing to debate and argue. This
is not always the case in other classrooms.
51
4.
The success in attaining our objectives can only be assessed subjectively. It would appear that students could understand and apply
the various skills and concepts taught.
In the final session one
student challenged another with, "Where's your evidence?" Another
comment was, "If a guy got good at this stuff he'd realize he'd been
doing things wrong his whole life." These statements suggest that
some of our objectives were realized.
The evaluation of the course by students was generally positive.
Although only five students reacted in writing, all but one stated that the
course was useful. Students responded to the following questions:
Was the course useful? Why or why not?
What did you like best?
Least?
What did you think of the materials?
How could the course be improved?
Should the course be part of the GED program?
52
CURRICULUM MATERIALS
AVER's existing curriculum materials, published and unpublished,
focus on such social issues as prejudice, the elderly, the handicapped,
women's and children's rights, war, population, and prisons and punishment.
It would seem advisable that inmates and prison instructors be contacted to
find out what issues are of greatest interest to inmate students.
As men-
tioned in the description of our Matsqui experience, a concentration on
11
the moral issues raised in wartime situations, caused considerable apprehension in some students and, presumably, mitigated against full participation.
It is felt that existing materials, with some
suitable for a prison population.
modification, would be
Some of the reading selections and ques-
tions, however, may be inappropriate for this group and would need to be
changed.
For example, the Prejudice unit (AVER, 1978) contains excerpts
from 'The Diary of Anne Frank', and these excerpts may be viewed as too
unsophisticated for adult audiences.
In addition, units do not encompass all
the social perspective taking and analytic and critical thinking skills (informal
fallacies, analysis of factual claims, judging the reliability of authorities
and so on) which we would want to encourage.
Additional resources for
teaching these skills would need to be developed. However,
the sequence of
activities (fact/value distinction, identification of point of view, developing
and analyzing practical syllogisms,
and principle testing) seems to provide
a logical framework within which to devise new materials.
111
53
CONCLUSION
This pilot project has given us many insights into the kinds of issues
involved in corrections education.
I
The literature review on prisoneW think-
ing demonstrated the need for more research in this area before even tentative conclusions can be drawn. From our analysis of the literature to this
point we believe that the next step should be to explore such personality
factors as locus of control, closed mindedness, role-taking, self-concept,
and
motivation for education. All of these may be crucial to an understanding
of prisoners' thinking .
As outlined in our major proposal we must also review the literature
on competencies of analytic, relational, evaluative, and ethical reasoning,
and compile a list of reasohing competencies and dispositions required to develop thinking and problem-solving skills.
The review of existing assessment instruments was necessarily brief
due to time constraints. Further search is essential before decisions can
be made about selection and development of instruments to measure practical
reasoning competencies. There are many tests that measure psychological
and sociological variables that affect the acquisition of abilities and dispositions needed for rational moral agency. These must be investigated. In
addition, many existing tests have rarely been used in prison settings and
the validity and reliability of these tests will have to be established.
Review of the literature on teaching and learning in correctional
settings, combined with our practical experience at Matsqui Institution,
gave
us an indication of the possibilities and problems involved in teaching prisoners.
I
This initial contact with staff and inmates has given us some under-
standing of the prison environment and the direction to follow in the second
54
phase of our research.
We see the next phase of our research (approximately one year) proceeding as follows:
1.
Continue to review literature on personality factors that
may be related to inmates' practical reasoning.
2.
Continue the search for appropriate assessment instruments.
3.
Begin to review the literature on practical reasonirag cornpetencies.
4.
Question staff and inmates in several institutions about
suitable topics which would provide vehicles for the development of practical reasoning competencies.
5.
Begin to design curriculum materials.
I
55
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Scharf, P., Hickey, J., & Moriarty, T. Moral conflict and change in correctional settings. Personnel & Guidance Journal, 1973, 51(9),
660-663.
Schmid, A. C. Susceptibility to social influence and retention of opinion
change in two types of delinquents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,
1970, 76(1), 123-129.
Simons, A., & Burke, N. The probable syndrome in terms of educational
experience which precipitates dropouts, delinquency and eventual
incarceration. The Journal of Negro Education. 1966, 35, 27.
Stewin, L., & Anderson, C. Cognitive complexity as a determinant of
information processing.
Alberta Journal of Education Research,
1974, 20(3), 233-243.
Sykes, G. & Messinger, S. The inmate social system. In Clowad, R.,
et al. Theoretical Studies in Social Organization of the Prison.
Social Science Research Council, 1960.
Verner, C. Cultural values and correctional education.
tional Education. 1967, 19(2), 6-7, 13.
Journal of Correc-
Walton, R. Educational institutions in correctional education: New Jersey's
model. In Proceedings of the 107th Annual Congress of the American
Correctional Association. Milwaukee, 1977:1978.
Wagner, P.
Adult education and the prison.
Adult Leadership, 1976,
24(8), 263-4.
Wagner, P. Punishment and reason in rehabilitating the offender.
Prison Journal, 1978, 58(1), 37-46.
Wagner, Paul A. The notion of justice in rehabilitating the criminal offender.
International Review of History and Political Science. 1978, 13,
22-38.
60
Waksman, M., Silverman, H., & Weber, K. Assessing the learning potential
of penitentiary inmates: An application of Feuerstein's Learning
Potential Assessment device. Ottawa: Education and Training Division of the Correctional Service of Canada, .1975.
West, W. Educational reforms and delinquency.
1978, 6(1), 41-43.
Crime and Justice.
Wilmoth, G., & McFarland, S. A comparison' of four measures of moral
reasoning. Journal of Personality Assessment. 1977, 41, 397-401.
Wyman, B. Certain strategies for prison classes sponsored by community
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Yochelson, S., & Saminow, S. The Criminal Personality. New York: James
Aronson, 1976.
APPENDIX
t
Which of the following statements are factual claims, and which are value judgments?
li
11
1.
The sun is shining.
2.
John is a good center in basketball.
3.
He deserves a promotion more than anyone else in our department.
4.
Twice as many people subscribe to the afternoon newspaper as to the
morning newspaper.
5.
The afternoon newspaper has more advertising in it than the morning
newspaper.
6.
The morning newspaper is a better newspaper than the afternoon paper.
•
7.
Cadillacs get fewer miles per gallon than Volkswagon bugs.
8.
There are five kinds of flowers in Mrs. Jackson's garden: roses, peonies,
tulips, daffodils and irises.
9.
I enjoy gardening.
10.
Tom is dishonest.
11.
This policy should not be adopted by the school.
II
12.
Almost everyone has read a comic book in his life.
13.
Smoking pot is a waste of time.
I
I
14.
Renting a house is better than buying a house.
15.
Rents have gone up in the Vancouver region.
16.
Mr. Smith was wearing brown shoes and a dark-blue suit this morning.
II
17.
Mr. Smith was probably going to a meeting with the manager.
18.
Ice cream is my favorite dessert.
I
19.
Listening to good music is worth it.
20.
This is a beautiful painting.
21.
It will likely rain on Sunday.
22.
Dogs make better pets than cats.
23.
It is wise to count to ten before you lose your temper.
24.
It can be shown that crises often bring out the best in people.
25.
Contact lenses are preferable to glasses.
II
26.
Tigers are fierce animals.
27.
My favorite hockey player is Phil Esposito.
1/
28.
Blue is the most pleasing color for a car to be.
II
29.
One ought not to break one's promise without a good reason.
30.
This hotel is not a very sturdy structure.
I/
II
1
11
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11
.
.
,
IMMIGRATION
Whenever a social issue is debated, people make claims to support a particular
position. The following claims have been made on the issue of immigration.
1. More immigration to Canada will cause unemployment.
2.
Significant increases in immigration from Asian and Caribbean countries
will cause racial tension in Canada.
3. Immigrants should be encouraged to move to less settled areas of Canada.
4. Canada does not have enought land or resources to accept any more immigrants.
5. It is better to encourage European immigrants than Asian immigrants.
6. Canadas immigration laws»ane too_liberal.
7. Non-English speaking immigrant children increase the workload of their
school teachers.
8. We should not allow people to immigrate to Canada unless they speak English
or French.
9. Canada should permit all races equal opportunity to come to Canada.
10. Most immigrants tend to settle in urban areas.
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The only car parked in front of 1543 Windsor Street is a black
one. The words,
"John D. Savage, M.D., " appear in small gold
letters across the front left door of the car.
The Statement About the Story
1.
The color of the car in front of 1543 Windsor Street
is black.
Z.
TF?
There is no lettering on the left front door of the car
parked in front of 1543 Windsor Street.
TF?
3.
Someone is ill at 1543 Windsor Street.
TF?
4.
The black car parked in front of 1543 Windsor' Street
belongs to John D. Savage.
5.
TF?
REMEMBER: Answer ONLY on the basis of the information
presented in the story. Refrain from answering as you think
it MIGHT have happened. Answer each statement in numerical
order.
Do not go back to fill in or to change answers.
•
#
JUDGING WHETHER AN OBSERVATION STATEMENT IS RELIABLE
An observation statement is a specific description. Over the years,
those fields most concerned with accuracy of observation have built up a
set of rules for judging the reliability of observation statements. These
rules give a criterial dimension to this aspect of critical thinking. In
addition, application of them to a particular situation, like the application
of principles discussed previously, gives this critical thinking ability
logical and pragmatic dimensions.
Here is a combined list of principles from the fields of law, history,
and science:
Observation statements tend to be more reliable if the observer:
-Was unemotional, alert and disinterested.
-Was skilled at observing the sort of thing observed.
-Had sensory equipment that was in good condition.
-Had a reputation for veracity.
-Used precise techniques.
-Had no preconception about the way the observation would turn out.
Observation statements tend to be more reliable if the observation
conditions:
-Were such that the observer had good access.
-Provided a satisfactory medium of observation.
Observation statements tend to be more reliable to the extent that the
statement:
-Is close to being a statement of direct observation.
-Is corroborated.
-Is corroboratable.
-Comes from a disinterested source with a reputation for veracity.
Observation statements, if based on a record, tend to be more reliable
if the record:
-Was made at the time of observation.
-Was made by the person making the statement.
-Is believed by the person making the statement to be correct - either
because he so believed at the time the record was made, or because he
believes it was the record-maker's habit to make correct records.
Observation statments tend to be more reliable than inferences made
from them.
)11
RECOGNIZING RELIABLE OBSERVATIONS
Which one of the three statements in each group do you think is the most
accurate or in which statement would you have the most confidence?
1.
a) At the Little League baseball game, Tom's mother said he was safe.
b) At the Little League baseball game, the umpire said Tom was out.
c) At the Little League baseball game, Tom's coach said he was safe.
2.
a) Because the child's head felt hot, his mother said he had a fever.
b) Because the child acted cranky and looked flushed, his mother said
he had a fever.
c) Because the child's temperature read 103 on a thermometer, his mother
said he had a fever.
3.
a) A boy watching the first diving competition he had ever seen said it
was a good dive.
b) A fellow who had been to many diving competitions said it was a good
dive.
c) The judge of the diving competition said it was a good dive.
4.
a) The woman who was waiting on the corner where the accident occurred
said the red car did not stop at the stop sign.
b) A drunk lying on the bus stop bench said he thought the red car did
stop.
c) The now hysterical driver of the blue car said the driver of the red
car did not stop at the stop sign.
5.
a) The jockey said the horse he was riding won the race.
b) The owner of horse 8 said horse 8 won the race.
c) The judge who studied the photo-finish pictures said horse 8 won
the race:
6.
a) The experienced guide said the lions came this way.
b) The visitor on his first lion hunt said there was no sign of the lions.
c) The man who had spent much of his life caring for lions at the zoo
said the lions had not come this way.
7.
a) The principal said that each child was always in hia seat in the
classroom.
b) The teacher said that each child was always in his seat in the classroom.
c) The parent said that each child was always in his seat in the classroom.
8.
a) John measured the width of the road with a string and then measured
the string.
b) Joe measured the width of the road with a 25-foot tape rule.
c) Jay measured the width of the road with a yardstick.
9.
a) Joan said she saw a car accident at the corner.
b) John said he heard there was a car accident at the corner of Main and
Maple.
c) Joe said his mother said she saw a car accident at the corner of Main
and Maple.
10.
a) Mary timed the race with her watch.
b) Meg timed the race with her watch with a sweep second hand.
c) Martha timed the race with a stop watch.
L
-7
You have been given an assignment to write a term paper. You have been told that
to a large degree it will be valuable according to the extent to which the references you use are accurate and are unbiased, impartial, and unprejudiced.
Below are a number of possible subjects. Under each one are listed three
references which mighi" give information about the subject. If the material were
available, which would you consider as most reliable for giving a true picture
of events as they actually happened? Rate them according to your preference
within each group of three.
1. The condition of the peasants in Russia under the Tsarist rule
a) An official note to the French ambassador by the Russian Prime Minister
b) A poem about the bravery of the Russian peasant soldier
c) A letter from a peasant farmer to his brother in America
2. Conditions under which labourers worked in English factories and mines in
the early nineteenth century
a) A contemporary newspaper interview of a typical factory owner on factory
conditions
b) A contemporary news account by a reporter who had visited a factory and
a coal mine
c) The report of a committee appointed by Parliament to investigate conditions
of the working classes.
3. The discovery of gold in California
a) A news item in the San Francisco Chronicle in September 1948
b) The account of the gold rush as told by Zane Grey, Western novelist
c) An account written by the San Francisco Chronicle in September 1939, on
the ninety-first anniversary of the discovery, including an exact reprint
of the original 1848 account
4. The Battle of the Marne, September 1914
a) An account which contrasted the spirit of the heroic boys of the Allies
and the ponderous foolhardiness of the enemy
•
b) An account compiled from material taken from the reports of opposing
commanders
c) An account appearing in a journal printed in a neutral country
5. Potsdam Conference promises
a) State papers by President Harry S. Truman
h) Contemporary articles in Harper's Magazine by a prominent historian and
a political scientist
c) An account by one of the members of President Truman's official party
6. Atomic bomb destruction of Hiroshima
a) News item in the New York Times published the following day
b) Army Signal Corps photographs
c) Memoirs of the bombing-plane's pilot written on the 10th anniversary
after the event
7. What Quebec looked like shortly after its settlement
a) See slides a friend took in Quebec last summer
b) Study some paintings of Quebec by an artist who went there in the 1650's
c) Listen to an historian lecture about early Quebec and what he thinks it
probably looked like
88
Follow the same directions in regard to the following excerpts from newspaper
accounts. All of them contain some kind of reference to the source for the
news item.
8.
9.
The reported disagreement between Marshal Tito of Yugoslavia and the Russians
a) Judging from the attitude taken today by communist leaders it is believed
in Trieste that they have decided to await Marshal Tito's expected
statement.
b) The genesis of the Soviet-Yugoslav quarrel, accôrding to the report of
the United Nations' Commission, is the three-sided dispute between Russia,
Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria over Greece.
c) Paris, June 30 - Government circles were reluctant today to make anything
like an official comment on the breach between Premier Stalin and Marshal
Tito....
Reports on the flying saucers
a) British scientists and airmen, after examining the wreckage of one
mysterious mysterious flying ship, are convined that these strange
aerial objects are not optical illusions
b) The general in charge of the planning division of the U.S. Air Force
stated that all so-called flying saucers are being thoroughly investigated.
c) A British cabinet official quoted scientists as saying a flying ship of
the type observed could not possibly have been constructed on earth
The following are excerpts from news accounts, spoken and printed. They are often
used to indicate the source of the news. Some of them are more reliable than
others. Rate them according to your preference.
10.
a) The President's secretary told reporters today that the President is
worried about the outcome of his interview.
h) A source close to the President, who declined to be quoted, seemed optimistic' about the chances for an early cease-fire.
c) Mr. Laird, the Secretary of Defense, in a prepared statement, said that
measures were under consideration for further coordination of the armed
services.
11.
a) Paris is understood to have prepared new plans.
b) Official circles in the French government have been quoted as stating
that the President of France will soon have a new plan to propose.
c) Official circles have stated that a surprising new development in
negotiations occurred yesterday.
12.
a) It is rumored that...
b) The Secretary stated in a news release that...
c) A spokesman for the State Department said that...
13.
a) It is reported reliably that...
b) An informed source close to the President said today that...
c) Officials here were reported to have said that...
11
11
11
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1.
Given:
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N
All of George's friends are Jim's friends.
None of John's friends are George's friends.
.6.
Given:
All teachers are educators.
No simpletons are educators.
Then, would this conclusion be valid?
None of John's friends are Jim's friends.
No simpletons are teachers.
2. Given:
All bullies are mean people.
.
7.
Given:
•
All squares are rectangles.
All mean people are bullies.
All rectangles are squares.
3. Given:
All of the pictures are photographs.
None of the posters are photographs.
None of the posters are pictures.
Given:
All legislators are politicians. .
No criminals are legislators.
No criminals are politicians.
4.
Given:
All racists are segregationists.
No segregationists are moderates.
No racists are moderates.
pl. Given:
None of the pies are green.
None of the pumpkins are green.
At least some of the pies are pumpkin.
5.
Given:
All the green pencils are sharp.
All the sharp pencils have erasers.
All the green pencils have erasers.
Q. Given:
All conscientious objectors are draft dodgers.
All draft dodgers are cowards.
Then, would this conclusion be valid.
All conscientious objectors are cowards.
%I. Given:
All dictionaries are books.
No novels are dictionaries.
No novels are books.
1. Given:
6.
If the book on the desk is red, then it belongs to
John.
The book on the desk is red.
If a company is dumping waste material into the
river, then the company is polluting the river.
If a company is polluting the river, then it should
be fined.
The book on the desk belongs to John.
If a company is dumping waste material into the
river, then it should be fined.
2. Given:
If the food is hot and spicy, then it is Mexican food.
The food is not Mexican.
7.
Given:
The car is in the garage only if the family is home.
The family is not home.
The food is not hot and spicy.
3.
Given:
The car is not in the garage.
Given:
If the dog is a bulldog, then it lives in the white
house.
8.
Given:
John has many friends only if he is generous.
John is generous.
If the dog lives in a white house, then it is a bulldog.
John has many friends.
4.
Given:
Mary is prejudiced, if and only if she is stupid.
Mary is not prejudiced.
9.
Given:
If Mary misees the bus, then she walks to school.
Mary walks to school.
Then, would this conclusion be va]-id?
Mary is not stupid.
Mary missed the bus.
5.
Given:
If the chair is small, then it belongs to a child.
The chair is not small.
10.
If Regina is religious, then she goes to church often.
The chair does not belong to a child.
If Regina does not go to church often, then she is
not religious.
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1.
Given:
If Jim does everything his parents tell him to do,
then he has no personality of his own.
Jim does not do everything his parents tell him to
do.
Jim has a personality of his own.
2.
Given:
•
If Mary is a student, then she is a radical.
If Mary is a radical, then she is a student.
3.
Given:
If the rabbit is white, then it has red eyes.
The rabbit does not have red eyes.
The rabbit is not white.
4.
Given:
If Joseph is on welfare, then he is lazy.
Joseph does receive welfare.
Joseph is lazy.
5.
Given:
If William is a communist, then he is intelligent.
William is intelligent.
William is a communist.
6.
Given:
All surgeons are doctors.
No nurSes are doctors.
No nurses are surgeons.
. 7.
Given:
All suburbanites are materialists.
No materialists are humanitarians.
No suburbanites are humanitarians.
8. '
Given:
All of the books on the desk are dictionaries.
All of the dictionaries on the desk are large:
All of the books are large.
9.
Given:
No buildings are worthless.
No sculptures are worthless.
At least some buildings are sculptures.
10. Given:
All musicians are artists.
No conformists are artists.
No conformists are musicians.
13
The following statements are factual claims. Write a value premise and a
conclusion to make each a valid argument.
1. B.C.'s Social Credit government distributed 5 free shares of the the B.C.
Resources Investment Corporation to all British Columbians.
Value Premise:
Conclusion:
a
•
2. The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan recently.
Value Premise:
Conclusion:
3. The B.C. Land Commission was set up to preserve agricultural land.
Value Premise:
Conclusion:
4. Maureen McTeer is campaigning on behalf of her husband, Joe Clark.
Value Premise:
Conclusion:
5. Some Iranian students are holding 50 Americans hostage.
Value Premise:
Conclusion:
6. A Vancouver factory was shut down last week for discharging chemicals into
the Fraser River.
Value Premise:
Conclusion:
7. There was a 10% rate of inflation in Canada in 1979.
Value Premise:
Conclusion:
8. The R.C.M.P. are investigating the 'dirty tricks' affair.
Value Premise:
Conclusion:
Fill in the missing premise in each of the following arguments.
1.
Major premise: Any government which imprisons people just for disagreeing
with it is tyrannical.
Minor premise:
Conclusion:
2.
Therefore, the government of the Shah was tyrannical.
Major premise:
A fair government should give every elderly person, married or
single r an equal pension.
Minor premise:
Conclusion:
3.
Major premise:
Minor premise:
Conclusion:
4.
•
The P.L.O. fighters jeopardized their lives during the
Mid-East conflicts.
Therefore, the P.L.O. veterans deserve recognition.
Major premise: Any newspaper that publishes articles favorable to the
enemy ought to be outlawed.
Minor premise:
Conclusion:
5.
Therefore, the Canadian government is unfair to married elderly
people.
Therefore, the Free Voice ought to be outlawed.
Major premise:
Minor premise: Immigration will increase unemployment.
Conclusion: Therefore, immigration ought to be discouraged.
6.
Major premise: Any practice which encourages the having of children ought
to be discontinued.
Minor premise:
Conclusion:
7.
Therefore, we ought to discontinue the practice of issuing
family allowance checks.
Major premise:
Minor premise:
Conclusion:
The waste from the weapons program is a threat to future
generations.
We ought to stop the waste from the weapons program.
I
1
15
ANALYSING 'AUTHORITY' STATEMENTS
At one time or another we have all been taught to obey and respect authority.
The fallacies introduced here take advantage of this fact. All of these fallacies
are informal - they may be committed without making any formal mistake. For
example, it may be that a product endorsed by a popular movie star is a good
product; however, it is not a good product just because it is endorsed by a movie
star. One should make up one's own mind with regard to the goodness or otherwise
of the product by using evidence and good reasons.
1. Popular sentiments
Here, the feelings or attitudes of a group of people are appealed to in order
to gain acceptance.
•
Thrifty Canadians insulate their homes.
The conclusion is that you should too.
Anyone who cares enough for the handicapped will give to the United Way.
This appeal is based on the idea that if you don't give to the United Way, you
don't care about the handicapped.
Both of these cases use popular sentiments - good Canadians insulate their
homes, and people who care about the handicapped give to the United Way.
2. Confident manner
This fallacy is committed when, in the absence of a legitimate argument or
answer, someone behaves as if he had a conclusive demonstration of his view.
Often this is done by shouting or by bluffing.
•
3. Jargon
When a claim is made to appear stronger by using technical sounding language,
the fallacy of appealing to the authority of jargon is used. For example, an
advertisement for 'A Sanitary Engineer II' is offering someone a job as a garbage
collector. Advertisements often use jargon to make a product sound better, eg.
sterno-life polyfiberboard number six = cardboard.
4. Popular people
This fallacy consists of arguing that something must be true if some wellknown person believes it. This is a fallacy because a claim to be true must be
based on evidence, not on the name of a person. This ploy is often used in advertisements where a 'famous' person is used to endorse a particular product. The
argument used is that if a 'star' uses product X, then it must be good and you
ought to buy it.
5. Titles
This fallacy is not based on the popularity of particular people, but rather
on their titles.
I
If doctors recommend product X, then it must be good; if econo-
mists say that Y is true, then it must be true. Once again, the claims are not
based on evidence, but on an appeal to a title.
6. Tradition
.
This fallacy is committed when an appeal is made that something is true be-
cause it has been traditionally supported. What is old is good.
For example, it
is often argued that because women in the past were housewives, therefore today they
should remain in that role, and not get involved in politics or have full-time
careers.
7. Large numbers
.
One of the most widely used appeals is that of large numbers.
People who
wish to limit immigration to Canada will often use as their argument that 'the
majority of Canadians wish to limit immigration' .. Advertisers will claim that
'more people smoke Brand X than any other cigarette'. These claims may be true,
but one cannot jump to the conclusions that we ought therefore to limit immigration
or smoke Brand X.
If these arguments were acceptable we should have to grant that,
I
for a while, the earth was flat because large numbers of people believed that to
be true.
8. Irrelevant authority
This fallacy is committed when an authority in one area is used to support a
claim in an entirely different area. For example, a hockey star is likely to be
an authority on hockey, but not on politics. Whereas we might accept the hockey
star's views on hockey, because, in the past, he has demonstrated expertise in
this area, we may not accept his views . on politics because his competence in that
1
area has not been demonstrated.
1
1
1
,
17
ANALYSIS OF FACTUAL CLAIMS
HOW CAN FACTUAL CLAIMS BE ASSE'SSED?
1. WHERE was the evidence found?
2. WHAT kind of sampling was used?
3. WHEN was the evidence found?
4. WHO reported the evidence? An expert on the subject? An official of
some kind? Other? Reputation of the source?
5. WHY was the evidence reported? To further some cause?
6. HOW was the evidence found? First hand observation?
7. IS it evidence of the predictive type?
• 8.
What cause?
Other?
How was it arrived at?
IS there any way(s) to check on the reliability of the evidence?
Do different sources agree on the evidence? Disagree?
9. IS the evidence compelling, coercive?
10. CAN the evidence be accepted with confidence?
Why or why not?
1.
Door-to-door salesmen are all crooked. I read in the newspaper last week
about a salesman who conned an elderly woman out of all her savings.
2.
What do you mean "Not all blacks carry knives"? I saw one carrying a
knife the other day.
3.
Did you see that woman go through the red light?
really pathetic.
4.
I was so sick after I ate those green apples that I swore I would never
eat another apple again,
5.
Plymouths are really defective cars. My uncle had a Plymouth and everything went wrong with it.
6.
I've known only one union official and he was a louse. I wouldn't trust
any of them.
•
7.
During the year I taught there, I taught four classes, one of which was
mostly Jewish kids. Let me tell you, on the basis of that experience, I
know that Jewish students are the best in the world.
8.
People on welfare are lazy.
never gets up till noon.
Boy, women drivers are
1
The man next door collects welfare and he
11
let
Point of View
(
Form pi
)
Tn the space provided, indicate from which point of view the
following statements are made. Choose from this list: health
and safety, Prudential (practical), aesthetic, moral, economic,
lecra].
1.
2.
nenying emp7oyment to a Negro because he is a Negro is
a2,-ainst the law.
If you are kind to other ethnic groups, you will be
rewprdei with their friendship.
1 • Ttts unhygienic for severn1 families to be crowded into
ore bcylse.
Li.
.
(111
.e native costumes of West Indians are very beautiful.
childrer should not be deprived of educational
opportunity.
6.
Ttbd for the economy when East Indians are on
welf3re.
7.
You car be fined for refusinu a hotel room to a person
because he beJoncs to a minority ethnic group.
8.
'Resides, it would be wrong to refuse him.
9.
Tt is danFerons for Jasvinder Singh to remain in Surrey
row that hi s life has been threatened.
10.
ferade will bemefit by not letting foreigners into
the country.
2.o
The Flamingo Motel*
A young school teacher, Fred Hardwick, was teaching
in a school in northern Saskatchewan. He and his wife
went into the city of Prince Albert for the weekend.
They stopped in front of the Flamingo Motel, and
F red went in to book a room. The manager of the
motel said there was no vacancy. Fred thought this
was a bit unusual because it was 10 o'clock in the
morning and his "No Vacancy" sign was not turned on.
Fred asked, "How come your 'no vacancy' sign is
not on?" The manager replied, "I just haven't got
around to turning it on yet." "Well, turn it on, then,"
said Fred, somewhat irritated that he had stopped
unnecessarily. The manager refused to turn on the
sign. It was at this point that Fred thought there
might be something else bothering the manager. He
thought the manager had decided he wasn't married
because he looked so young. He o ff ered to show the
manager both their driver's licences, but the manager
said that was not the problem. Fred became angry
and phoned the police.
F red: "My name is Fred Hardwick and I am at
the Flamingo Motel. The manager refused to give
me a room."
Policeman: "Well, if he doesn't want to give you a
room I guess he doesn't have to. It's his motel."
Fred: "I am quite sure he has to give me a room
unless I have done something wrong."
Policeman: "I will send a police car up."
Fred turned away from the phone, and the motel
manager asked him what the police had said. Fred
told him they were sending up a police car. The
manager became very ne rv ous and said he was having
a lot of problems with white people bringing Indians
to his motel and having wild parties. Fred then
realized that the manager thought Fred's wife, who
was sitting in the car, was Indian. That was the reason
he didn't want to rent the room.
•Adapted with permission of J. Kehoe, Faculty of Education,
University of British Columbia.
The New Cases Test. Suppose the principle is
suggested that "Everyone has a right to do what
he wants with his own property," then the
following new case could be presented:
Let us say that a couple with two small children enter a motel and are told that there is a
vacancy. The father signs his name in the motel
register as M. Levin. The manager asks him if
he is a Jew, and the father replies that he is. The
manager says he does not accept Jews in his
motel and asks the family to leave.
In this case, should the motel manager have
the right to deny access?
If the response is still affirmative, a further
analogy could be presented in the form of a
question such as, should the motel manager have
the right to deny access to people in wheelchairs?
If it is argued in principle that the motel
manager should not have the right to deny
access, then the following example could be
used:
Mrs. Webster, who depends upon her
boarding house as a source of income, has four
female boarders. A male boarder applies for
the fifth advertised position. Mrs. Webster will
accept him, but her four female boarders say
they will leave if she accepts the male boarder.
In this case, should Mrs. Webster have the
right to deny a room to the male boarder?
As a further analogy, should the motel
manager have a right to refuse rooms to a
motorcycle gang?
The Role Exchange Test. Students are asked
to put themselves in the role of Fred Hardwick
and to consider how he would feel and
whether or not he had any rights in the
situation. The same procedure should be used
for the role of the motel manager. Having
"imagined" what it would be like to be in
either role, the students are asked to evaluate
the original principle and to consider whether
or not it is still justifiable.
The Universal Consequences Test. To respond
to a question such as "What would the consequences be if every motel manager denied
Fred and his wife a room, thinking lier to be
Indian?" the student has to imagine the
consequences if everyone behaved in this way.
Students then have to judge the acceptability
of such consequences. If students deem it right
that the motel manager accept anyone who
wishes a room, including a motorcycle gang
known to cause trouble, then the question can
be posed as to whether the universal consequences of this principle would be acceptable.
Does the principle need modifying on the basis
of relevant differences?
The Subsumption Test. This asks the student to
show that the value principle is a case of some
more general value principle. It would seem to
be useful to discern the general value principles
on both sides of the conflict and then ask the
student to make a choice. For example, in the
Flamingo Motel story the principles in conflict
seem to be: (1) People who own property should
be able to do as they wish with that property, and
(2) No business should be allowed to discriminate
against people. A student can be asked to decide
which general principle he accepts and then to
indicate what facts make the general principle
relevant to his position on the present case.
7. Arrive at your own conclusion on the issue,
basing it on the factual claims whose relevance
you accept.
1
ACTIVITY XVI: MORALITY VS. "DUTY"
THE "VVASTING" OF A VILLAGE
During wartime, questions about the value of life are often seen in a different light. For example, most people would not accuse a combat soldier of murder if he shot an enemy soldier
in combat. Many people feel wa rt ime killing is justified because it involves self-defense of
individuals or a nation.
Questions about the value of life during a state of war seared the public conscience when
news of a massacre of Vietnamese civilians at My Lai was reported in 1969. The subsequent
court-martial of Lieutenant William Calley brought up difficult moral issues.
On the 16th of March 1968, in the Vietnamese village of My Lai, more than 100 women,
children, and old men were killed by American soldiers of Charley Company. Lieutenant
Caney was in command of the company on that day. It was charged that these victims were
innocent civilians, that they did not put up a fight, and that many of them were lined up in
a ditch and brutally murdered.
Lieutenant Calley was accused of ordering the killing of these people and of personally
committing many of the killings. The Army ordered a court-martial to try Calley for these
crimes.
There was no doubt that a massacre had occurred. The Army's own investigation described
it as ". . . a tragedy of major proportions." The question was who was to blame. Lieutenant
Calley said his immediate superior, Captain Ernest Medina, had ordered him to kilt everyone
in the village. Calley said that Medina told him the people in the area had been warned that
troops would be coming through; therefore anyone remaining in the area would be considered a supporter of the enemy.
Soldiers who have fought in Vietnam have said that you can't tell enemies from friends
simply by looking at them, and that women and children may carry grenades.
In addition to claiming that he was ordered to "waste" the village, Calley also reported on
his state of mind and how his experiences in Vietnam had affected his thinking about the
value of life. He said he was idealistic and eager to get to Vietnam and fight for his country.
Soon after he got there, he found the reality of war was horrible. Just before My Lai many
of Calley's men had been killed in an incident. Many of the bodies had been mutilated by
exploding mines, and Calley spoke of six pairs of boots with feet still in them. Calley said
these events and his Army training made him feel the enemy vvere not individual human
beings.
Calley also gave his views about what a soldier who is fighting for his country must do:
"Superiors tell me, 'Lieutenant, go and kill 1,000 enemies,' I'll go and kill 1,000 enemies.
But I won't advocate it. I won't preach for it. I won't be a hypocrite."
Many Americans were sympathetic to Calley. Some felt he should not be tried. Herbert
Rainvvater, national commander of the Veterans of Foreign Wars, said: "There have been
My Lais in every war. Now for the first time in our history we have tried a soldier for performing his duty." The White House received more than 100,000 telegrams, roughly 100 to
1 supporting Lieutenant Calley in some way.
26
'2 I
Many people felt Lieutenant Ca Iley was being made a scapegoat; that he was being singled
out for punishment while many higher-ranking officers escaped their share of blame. Although two generals were demoted, no high ,ranking officer was prosecuted. Many of those
who felt these officers should have been prosecuted cited the case of Yamashita, a Japanese
general hanged by U.S. authorities for atrocities committed by his men. It was ruled that he
was responsible for knowing what his men were doing and for prosecuting those committing war crimes. The essence of this ruling also applies to American personnel as stated in
the U.S. Army's Field Manual. But it was felt the Yamashita case should not apply in the
Ca Iley trial because U.S. officers were following through with prosecution.
The jury found Calley guilty of committing premeditated murder of 22 Vietnamese
civilians. They said even if Captain Medina had given the order, Calley should not have
followed it because it was clearly an illegal order. Ca Iley was given a life sentence at hard
labor. Later his sentence was reduced. ...
— From Moral Reasoning (Middletown, Conn.: Xerox Education Publications,
1972)
1. If Lieutenant Calley had been ordered to shoot any persons in My Lai because they
should be considered enemies, should he have disobeyed? Why or why not?
Are there any circumstances in which a soldier should disobey a superior officer?
If so, what circumstances would they be? Why would they justify disobedience?
2. Do you believe that Lieutenant Calley should have been tried in the first place? Why or
why not? Some have even suggested that the President, because he is Commander in Chief
of the Armies, should be tried. Do you agree or disa2ree? Why or why not?
3. Imagine yourself in the situation of Lieutenant Calley just before My Lai. Would it make
a difference to your ability to resist such an order if you had just arrived in Vietnam and
had not been experiencing horror and death for some months? Would it make a difference
if you knew that your own men would agree that the order must not be obeyed? In
general, what kinds of circumstances do you think would make it either easier or more
difficult to hold to your convictions of right and wrong?
■
27
23
ACTIVITY I
For each of the following situations decide which would count as war. If you decide it is a
war, what characteristics make it a war? If you decide it is not,.what characteristics are
lacking?
1. The Canadian troops landed in German-occupied France and were assaulted by a hail of
bombs, shells, and bullets from the German forces.
•
•
2. A group of senior army officers rushed the palace, imprisoned the president, and •
established a new government.
3. The entire nation had- one purpose. It was to defeat the enemy and to defend the land. All
able-bodied men and women were conscripted to fight against the enemy.
4. In 1917, a group of revolutionaries, the Bolsheviks, overthrew the government of Russia.
For two years, an armed struggle took place between those who supported the
Bolsheviks (the Red Army) and those who wished to restore the former government
(the White Army).
5. The police came to break up a boisterous group of university protesters. A violent
confrontation occurred, and three people were killed and fifty-seven injured in the
ensuing riot.
6. Two hostile countries had periodic violent border clashes. Both sides patrolled the border
with troops.
7. A group of terrorists arrived in Washington demanding release of one of their members.
When release was refused, they set off a number of bombs in government building s .
the city.
throug
8. As a result of treaties negotiated in Europe, extensive territories of one major African
ethnic group were added to the country of a group with a different language and
culture, who dominated the government. The first group decided to fight for a
politically independent nation.
ACTIVITY II
Compare the definitions of war that you have arrived at with those in the following article.
Meanings of VVar
War is generally international, involving the use of deadly force in pursuit of what the combatants believe to be a just cause. War may be either a rule-bound, eme-like activity, or an
all-out attempt by one country to control another. The way it is perceived will be important
to the moral judgment Made of that war.
The first characteristic of war is that it generally takes place between countries, rather
than smaller groups or individuals. VVars against poverty and disease are not wars in the literal sense.
Secondly, wars almost surely involve the use of violence — violence exercised under a
claim of right. In any other situation, the same actions would be thought of as inhumane
and immoral.
3
211
The third and final characteristic of war is not really one feature but rather a choice between two different ones. For there are two distinct ideas of war:
1. War as a limited instrument of foreign policy
2. War as an unlimited fight between countries
Expanding the first of these ideas, war can be considered as nothing but a duel — only on
a larger scale. It is hard to imagine a more rule-governed, stylized way of fighting than a duel.
If war is a duel on a large scale, then war is a sort of game. War is one means to decide which
of two or more countries shall win a particular dispute. When one side wins, this settles the
dispute in the winner's favor and the war is over. This idea of war directly involves only
armies. Further, it is carried on according to fairly well defined and generally accepted rules
that determine when it is appropriate to engage in war and how the "game" of war is to be
played.
Examples of rules that relate to conditions under which war can be started can easily be
found. One example is found in article I of the Hague Convention Number 3 of 1907. It
provides: "The Contracting Powers recognize that hostilities between them must not commence without a previous and explicit warning, in the form of either a reasoned declaration
of war or of an ultimatum with a conditional declaration of war."
Illustrations of the formal rules relating to how a war is to be fought are plentiful. Two of
the most famous are the Hague Convention Number 4 of 1907 and the Geneva Convention
of 1929. These prohibit such things as inhumane treatment of prisoners of war, the employment of poisoned weapons, and the improper use of flags *of truce.
According to this view, then, war is a carefully defined and limited kind of combative
activity that one country can carry on with one or more other countries. The circumstances
under which war can properly be engaged and the ways in which it may be carried on are
both subject to identifiable rules, standards and agreements of various sorts.
Alternatively, it has been suggested that war can be an act of force — and there is no limit
to the use of that force. One example is, no doubt, Nazi Germany. The Nazi leaders rejected
the idea of "chivalrous warfare" and accepted the idea of "total war", in which the customs
which try to make war more humane are not considered to be important. Rules, regulations
and treaties, all alike, do not matter, and so, freed from the restraint of international law,
the aggressive war was carried on by the Nazi leaders in the most barbaric way. War crimes
were committed when and where Hitler and his men thought them to be beneficial.
Though the Nazis were the model case, the behavior of all of the countries involved in the
Second World War appears to have come very close to accepting the idea of total war. Even
the United States apparently chose to ignore many, if not all, of the laws of war. On the
grounds that they were involved iii a fight to the finish with the Axis powers, there was no
behavior that could properly be ruled out except on strategic grounds.
Even if the moral difference that separates these two notions of war and the attitudes
that go with them is by no means certain, it is clear that if a war were actually to be fought
according to all of the rules and standards of the "game" of war, the task of moral judgment
would have to be different from that presented by a relatively ruleless war like World War
Il. It is important, therefore, that whenever relevant, we keep these two ideas of war distinct.
— Adapted from "On the Morality of War: A Preliminary Inquiry" by Richard
Wasserstrom (Stanford Law Revievv, 21, 1969, pp. 1627-56)
4
11
ACTIVITY III
What rules would you propose regarding the treatment of prisoners of war? Compare your
rules with those below, taken from The Geneva Convention on Treatment of Prisoners
(United Nations Treaty Series).
ARTICLE 2.
Prisoners of war are in the power of the hostile Government but not of the individuals or
formation which captured them.
They shall at all times be humanely treated and protected, particularly against acts of
violence, from insults and from public curiosity.
Measures of reprisal against them are forbidden.
ARTICLE 3.
Prisoners-of-war are entitled to respect for their persons and honour. Women shall be
treated with all consideration due to their sex.
ARTICLE 4.
The detaining Power is required to provide for the maintenance of prisoners of war in its
charge.
Differences of treatment between prisoners are permissible only if such differences are
based on the military rank, the state of physical or mental health, the professional abilities,
or the sex of those who benefit from them.
ARTICLE 5.
Every prisoner of war is required to declare, if he is interrogated on the subject, his true
names and rank, or his regimental number.
If he infringes this rule, he exposes himself to a restriction of the privileges accorded to
prisoners of his category.
No pressure shall be exerted on prisoners to obtain information regarding the situation in
their armed forces or their country. Prisoners who refuse to reply may not be threatened, insulted, or exposed to unpleasantness or disadvantage of any kind whatsoever.
ARTICLE 6.
All personal effects and articles in personal use — except arms, horses, military equipment
and military papers — shall remain in the possession of prisoners of war, as well as their
metal helmets and gas-masks.
ARTICLE 7.
As soon as possible after their capture, prisoners of war shall be evacuated to depots sufficiently removed from the fighting zone for them to be out of danger.
Only prisoners who, by reason of their wounds or maladies, would run greater risks by
being evacuated than by remaining may be kept temporarily in a dangerous zone.
Prisoners shall not be unnecessarily exposed to danger while awaiting evacuation from a
fighting zone.
The evacuation of prisoners on foot shall in normal circumstances be effected by stages
of not more than 20 kilometres per day, unless the necessity for reaching water and food
depots requires longer stages.
5
ARTICLE 9.
Prisoners of war may be interned in a town, fortress, or other place, and may be required
not to go beyond certain fixed limits. They may also be interned in fenced camps; they
shall not be confined or imprisoned except as a measure indispensable for safety or health,
and only so long as circumstances exist which necessitate such a measure.
Belligerents shall as far as possible avoid bringing together in the same camp prisoners of
different races or nationalities.
No prisoner may at any time be sent to an area where he would be exposed to the fire of
the fighting zone, or be employed to render by his presence certain points or areas immune
from bombardment.
ARTICLE 10.
Prisoners of war shall be lodged in buildings or huts which afford all possible safeguards as
regards hygiene and salubrity.
The premises must be entirely free from damp, and adequately heated and lighted. All
precautions shall be taken against the danger of fire.
As regards dormitories, their total area, minimum cubic air space, fittings and bedding
material, the conditions shall be the same as for the depot troops of the detaining Power.
ARTICLE 11.
-
The food ration of prisoners of war shall be equivalent in quantity and quality to that of
the depot troops.
Prisoners shall also be afforded the means of preparing for themselves such additional
articles of food as they may possess.
Sufficient drinking water shall be supplied to them. The use of tobacco shall be authorised.
Prisoners may be employed in the kitchens.
All collective disciplinary measures affecting food are prohibited.
ARTICLE 12.
Clothing, underwear and footwear shall be supplied to prisoners of war by the detaining
Power. The regular replacement and repair of such articles shall be assured.
ARTICLE 13.
Belligerents shall be required to take all necessary hygienic measures to ensure the cleanliness and salubrity of camps and to prevent epidemics.
Prisoners of war shall have for their use, day and night, conveniences which conform to
the rules of hygiene and are maintained in a constant state of cleanliness.
ARTICLE 14.
Each camp shall possess an infirmary, where prisoners of war shall receive attention of
any kind of which they may be in need.
ARTICLE 15.
Medical inspections of prisoners of war shall be arranged at least once a month. Their object shall be the supervision of the general state of health and cleanliness, and the detection
of infectious and contagious diseases, particularly tuberculosis and venereal complaints.
6
2_7
ARTICLE 16.
Prisoners of war shall be permitted complete freedom in the performance of their religious
duties, including attendance at the services of their faith, on the sole condition that they
comply with the routine and police regulations prescribed by the military authorities.
Ministers of religion, who are prisoners of war, whatever may be their denomination, shall
be allowed freely to minister to their co-religionists.
ARTICLE 17.
Belligerents shall encourage as much as possible the organisation of intellectual and sporting pursuits by the prisoners of. war.
ACTIVITY IV
The following is a true account by a German soldier imprisoned by the Russians during and
after World War II, a "total" war.
I was captured on the first of May in 1945 by the Americans. I spent the next six weeks as
their prisoner. The Americans treated me fairly, at least in comparison to the Russians.
After the six weeks I, with my fellow prisoners, was turned over to the Russians. We immediately started on a march that was to last nine days. During this march we were given no
food. Each day the Russians promised us food for the evening but each day they would sell
our food to buy alcohol and women for themselves. If any food was found on the prisoners
it was confiscated and sold. I was one of the lucky ones, I had some buns that I crumbled
into a powder, they couldn't sell that so I was allowed to keep it. If any of the prisoners
weakened and could no longer march, they were shot. We were so used to this happening we
didn't even look when we heard a gunshot.
On October 28, 1945, we arrived in a forest somewhere in Russia, we were never told
where. We had to build all the lodgings ourselves. The winter of this year was very severe.
Sometimes it went to 53 degrees below zero fahrenheit. We were only given food once a day.
Our meal was a soup made from green flour, water, and little fish that cut the inside of your
mouth with their sharp gills.
There were 390 prisoners when we arrived in October; by Easter of 1946 only 96 of us
were still alive. Those of us still alive had to bury the dead in the snow because the ground
was so frozen we could not dig it up. When the ground did thaw in the spring, we reburied
the dead.
In the summer of 1946 a Russian veterinarian came to inspect the conditions of our camp.
He was very upset at how poorly we were being treated. This veteriharian had the camp
commander discharged and a new one was appointed. After this, conditions improved somewhat; at least we were occasionally given days to rest.
In 1947 we were told that we were to be sent home. We were loaded onto trains again. Instead of sending us home we were sent to a rock quarry. This place was full of bedbugs and
lice, which made it very uncomfortable for us. The lice also carried a fever which killed
many men.
Late in the winter of 1947 we were given Red Cross post cards to send to our families. VVe
were allowed to write nineteen words. This was the first time since I had been captured that
my family knew where I was, or even that I was alive.
7
Early in 1948 I got pneumonia. This was not surprising as I only weighed 92 lbs., and was
very weak. Of the 1200 men at the quarry usually only 35 to 40 could work at one time,
the others were too weak and sick. There were quite a few suicides at this camp, I think because many thought they would be there for the rest of their lives.
My release was very sudden. In the spring of 1948 they told 70 of us we were to go home.
We were the sickest men in the camp and of little use to the Russians. Shortly a ft er that I
was sent home. I don't know what happened to the rest of the prisoners there, but some
people say there are many, many thousands of German soldiers captured by the Russians
still unaccounted for.
1. List several rules of the Geneva Convention that_were broken by the Russians in charge
of these prisoners.
2. In retrospect, are ther e. any actions that our government should have taken during/after
World War II to ensure fair treatment of prisoners? You may be interested in researching
the topic to find out what measures governments actually did take and how effective
they were.
1
•
3. Conditions in the Soviet Union after the war were extremely harsh for Soviet citizens,
and the standards set forth under the Geneva Convention would be luxurious by
comparison. In view of this, what rules do you think should still have been absolutely
kept regarding treatment of prisoners?
4. In a "total" war, in which you have every reason to be li eve the other side is ignoring the
rules in theix treatment of your soldiers who have been taken prisoner, what is the basis
for abiding by the rules in your treatment of prisoners from their side?
ACTIVITY V
In Flanders Fields
In Flanders fields the poppies blow
Between the crosses, row on row,
That mark our place; and in the sky
The larks, still bravely singing, fly
Scarce heard amid the guns below.
We are the Dead. Short days ago
We lived, felt dawn, saw àmset glow,
Loved and were loved, and now we lie
In Flanders fields.
Take up our quarrel with the foe:
To you from failing hands we throw
The torch; be yours to hold it high.
If ye break faith with us who die
We shall not sleep, though poppies grow
In Flanders fields.
*-- John McCrae
1. Who is the speaker?
2. What is his message?
8
I
2
Dulce Et Decorum Est
Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,
Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge,
Till on the haunting flares we turned our backs
And towards our distant rest began to trudge.
Men marched asleep. Many had lost their boots
But limped on, blood-shod. All went lame; all blind;
Drunk with fatigue; deaf even to the hoots
Of tired, oustripped Five-Nines that dropped behind.
Gas! Gas! Quick, boys! — An ecstasy of fumbling,
Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time;
But someone still was yelling out and stumbling .
And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime...
Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light,
As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.
In all my dreams, before my helpless sight, .
He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.
If in some smothering dreams you too could pace
Behind the wagon that we flung him in,
And watch the white eyes writhing in his face,
His hanging face, like a devil's sick of sin;
If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood
Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs,
Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud
Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues, —
My friend, you would not tell with such high zest
To children ardent for some desperate glory,
•
The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est
Pro patria mon.
—
Wilfred Owen
I. "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mon" means "It is sweet and seemly to die for one's
country." Does the poet really believe this?
2. What emotion do you sense in the poet? Horror? Anger? Something else?
Draft Dodger
I am writing this short story
And every word is true
Don't look away draft dodger
For it's addressed to you.
.
You feel at ease in the dangers
Back in the old home town
You cooked up some pitiful story
So the draft board would turn you down.
You never think of real men
Who leave home day by day
You think only of their girl friends
That you take while they're away.
You sit at home and read the paper
You jump and yell "We'll win!"
Just where do you get that "we" stu ff ?
This war will be won by men.
Just what do you think, draft doger,
That this free nation would do
If all the men were slackers
And scared to fight, like you?
So I'm closing this, draft dodger.
Just remember what I say —
Keep away from my girl, you dirty bum
For I'm coming home some day.
—
Jerry Falter, P.O.W. From A Terrible Beauty: The Art of Canada at War
by Heather Robertson (Toronto: James Lorimer & Company, 1977)
1. Why does the speaker think that men avoid the draft?
2. Notice that the speaker is a prisoner of war. How might this affect his attitude toward
draft dodgers?
3. What does he consider "manliness"? To what extent would you agree with him? Do
"real men" have no fears?
11
31
ACTIVITY VII: FACT/VALUE DISTINCTION
Some of the following sentences are factual claims, while others are value judgments. Write
only the number of each statement, and beside it write V (value) or F (factual). Remember,
a claim may be factual without necessarily being true.
1. Hitler was an evil man.
2. "Smart" missiles will never replace conventional bombs.
3. Dropping the atom bomb on Hiroshima saved lives in the long run.
4. J•lapoleon ought not to have tried to capture Moscow.
5. John's favorite war poet is Wilfred Owen.
6. Hannibal was a greater general than Julius Caesar.
7. In Lebanon, many civilians have been killed.
8. The Turks were able to control all shipping to and from the Black Sea.
9. The Bismarck was a better German battleship than the Scharnhorst.
10. "Mata Hari" was a spy whose real name was Gertrud Zelle.
11. It is wrong to force pacifists to risk their lives in a war.
12. Anyone who disobeys orders ought to be court-martialled.
13. The Spanish fleet was called the Invincible Armada.
14. War veterans deserve respect.
ACTIVITY IX: POINTS OF VIEW
When we talk about "points of view" in analysing value judgments, we will not be referring
to any particular person's viewpoint. What we will be trying to identify are the general areas
of conce rn to people; that is to say, the basis on which they decide.that things are good or
bad or ought to be done or not done.
The economic point of view, for example, governs many Of our judgments: "Strawberries
out of season are too expensive"; "You ought to look for a betieraying job."
The prudential point of view is operating when we judge an action in terms of the
consequences to ourselves: "I should get the car fixed today so that I can use it. Saturday";
"You shouldn't take on more work than you can handle."
Health or safety is a point of view that considers the well-being of ourselves and others:
"Third World people should have more protein-rich foods"; "A truck with worn tires should
not be allowed on the road:" •
A value judgment about the pleasure-giving quality of something is described as being from
the aesthetic point of view: "That building is an eyesore"; "We ought to stop and look at the
sunset more often." Sometimes "pleasure" seems a weak word for what we feel about something that has a great deal of meaning for us — for example, a film or a piece of music that
moves us deeply. But we have a problem finding one word that is.adequate to describe this
kind of meaning, and so we use aesthetic to cover that wide territory.
The most important reason for identifying points of view is to allow us to be clear .as to
when we are using the moral point of view, in which the value statement must be judged on
its implications not for just ourselves or particular other people but for people in general.
1
State from which point of view each of the following statements is made: healthIsafety,
economic, aesthetic, prudential, or moral.
1. So ni e of the finest literature has been written about war.
2. It is cruel and unnecessary to cause civi li ans to suffer in war.
3.
Telling the enemy everything you know will best save your skin if you are caught.
4.
It was dangerous to walk the streets of London in 1941.
5. The American economy soared during World War H.
6. It is expensive to use nuclear wea.pons in war.
7. :The once picturesque city of Dresden lay in Lally ruins.
8. The I.R.A. uprisings in Ireland are bad for the Belfast business community.
9. The Armenian refugees often had to live in squalid surroundings and eat unnourishing
food.
10. Mao helped the Chinese people to defeat the decadent old order.
11.
You should obey military orders so that you can avoid being court-martialled.
12. You will benefit most from obeying all orders even if you think they are wrong.
13. To take another person's life is to violate the laws of humanity.
14. We ought to treat everyone with respect whether or not the person is a enemy.
17
1
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111
ACTIVITY XII: PROPAGANDA
the spreading of ideas, information, or rumor for the purpose of helping or
injuring an institution, a cause, or a person; ideas, facts or allegations spread deliberately to
further one's cause or to damage an opposing cause. — Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary
The propaganda that accompanies war teaches people stereotypes about their enemies. In
some cases it may take generations to overcome the mutual distrust and hatred the stereotypes promote. Propagandistic literature is explicitly designed to incite hatred, to make the
enemy appear to be less than human. It is easy to break moral rules in the treatment of the
enemy when we have been conditioned not to think of them as persons.
Propaganda
—
19
This excerpt purpo rt s to inform people how to tell if someone is Jewish. What appears to be
factual information about what a Jew looks like is really loaded with negative value terms.
Look at the descriptions for each of the nine diagrams. Which ones are factual claims and
which ones value claims? Pick out the negative value terms. '
How would you prove or disprove any of these claims?
The term "flat feet" is undoubtedly true of some Jews, as it is true of some members of
any population. What is the impact of surrounding such a factual claim with negative value
claims?
What is the purpose of publishing an article such as this?
How We May Know Him
I Pe
"
F
-7'•
-
•
_
„„
x\v`\,
%,,A •
•
e5.4-•
•
Fig. 1. Restless suspicious eyes.
Fig. 2. Curved nose and nostrils.
Fig. 3. Ill-shaped ears of great size like those of a bat.
Fig. 4. Thick lips and sharp rat's teeth.
•
Fig. 5. Round knees.
•
Fig. 6. Low brow.
;;;-Fig. 7. Long clammy fingers.
Fig. 8. Flat feet.
Fig. 9. Repulsive rear view.
A diagram from a nineteenth-century anti-Semitic tract.
—
20
This 1941 article from Time Magazine is slightly more subtle than the previous one. However,
if you were to make a list of the value terms describing the Chinese, and compare it with a
list of the terms used to describe the Japanese, you would probably detect a bias.
Should a magazine be completely objective in times of war? Should it publish articles that .
make the enemy appear less than human? Should it publish articles that suggesi its own
country is in the wrong?
HOW TO TELL YOUR FRIENDS FROM THE JAPS
I--
Of these four faces of young men and middle-aged men
[photographs] the two on the left are Chinese, the
two on the right Japanese. There is no infallible way of
telling them apart, because the same racial strains are
mbced in both. Even an anthropologist, with calipers and
plenty of time to measure heads, noses, shoulders, hips, is
sometimes stumped. A few rules of thumb — not always
.
reliable.
O Some Chinese are tall (average: 5ft. 5 in.). Virtually
all Japanese are short (average: 5 ft. 2% in.).
O Japanese are likely to be stockier and broader-hipped
th an short Chinese.
O Japanese — except for wrestlers — • are seldom fat;
they often dry up and grow lean as they age. The Chinese
often put on weight, particularly if they are prosperous
(in China, with its frequent famines, being fat is esteemed as a sign of being a solid citizen).
0 Chinese, not as hairy as Japanese, seldom grow an
-=
mpressive mustache.
iL
O Most Chinese avoid horn-rimmed spectacles.
O Although both have the typical epicanthic fold of the 1
upper eyelid (which makes them look almond-eyed),
Japanese eyes are usually set closer together.
O Those who know the m. best often rely on facial expression to tell them apart: the Chinese expression is
likely to be more placid, ICindly, open; the Japanese
more positive, dogmatic, arrogant.
In Washington, last week, Correspondent Joseph
Chiang made things much easier by pinning on his lapel
a large badge reading "Chinese Reporter — NOT Japanese
— Please."
O Some aristocratic Japanese have thin, aquiline noses,
narrow faces and, except for their eyes, look like Caucasians.
O Japanese are hesitant, nervous in conversation, laugh
loudly at the wrong time.
0 Japanese walk stiffly erect, hard-heeled. Chinese more
relaxed, have an easy gait, sometimes shuffle.
following is an excerpt from one . of Winston Churchill's speeches. Should the leader of a
country at war try to incite his people to a hatred of the enemy?
The
Hitler is a monster of wickedness, insatiable in his lust
for blood and plunder. Not content with having all
Europe under his heel, or else terrorized into various
forms of abject submission, he must now carry his work
of butchery and desolation among the vast multitudes
of Russia and of Asia. The terrible military machine,
which we and the rest of the civilized world so foolishly,
so supinely, so insensately allowed the Nazi gangsters to
build up year by year from almost nothing, canna
stand idle lest it rust or fall to pieces. It must be in contbural motion, grinding up human lives and trampling
down the homes and the rights of hundreds of millions
of men. Moreover it must be fed, not only with flesh but
with oil. So now this bloodthirsty guttersnipe must
launch his mechanized armies upon new fields of slaughter, pillage and devastation.
— Radio broadcast on the German
invasion of Russia, June 22, 1941
21
3(08
ACTIVITY XIII: WHO IS THE ENEMY?
THE SNIPER
11
111
The long June twilight faded into night. Dublin lay enveloped in darkness, but for the dim
light of the moon, that shone through fleecy clouds, casting a pale light as of approaching
dawn over the streets and the dark waters of the Liffey. Around the beleaguered Four Courts
the heavy guns roared. Here and there through the city machine guns and rifles broke the
silence of the night, spasmodically, like dogs barking on lone farms. Republicans and Free
Staters were waging civil war.
On a roof-top near O'Connel Bridge, a Republican sniper lay watching. Beside him lay
his rifle and over his shoulders wer. e slung a pair of field-glasses. His face was the face of a
student — thin and ascetic, but his eyes had the cold gleam of the fanatic. They were deep
and thoughtful, the eyes of a man who is used to look at death.
He was eating a sandwich hungrily. He had eaten nothing since morning. He had been too
excited to eat. He finished the sandwich, and taking a flask of whiskey from his pocket, he
took a short draught. Then he returned the flask to his pocket. He paused for a moment,
considering whether he should risk a smoke. It was dangerous. The flash might be seen in
the darkness and there might be enemies watching. He decided to take the risk. Placing a
cigarette between his lips, he struck a match, inhaled the .smoke hurriedly and put out the
light. Almost immediately, a bullet flattened itself against the parapet of the roof. The sniper
took another whiff and put out the cigarette. Then he swore softly and crawled away to the
left.
Cautiously he raised himself and peered over the parapet. There was a flash and a bullet
whizzed over his head. He dropped immediately. He had seen the flash. It came from the
opposite side of the street.
He rolled over the roof to a chimney stack in the rear, and slowly drew himself up behind
it, until his eyes were level with the top of the parapet. There was nothing to be seen — just
the dim outline of the opposite housetop against the blue sky. His enemy was under cover.
Just then an armoured car came across the bridge and advanced slowly up the street. It
stopped on the opposite side of the street fifty yards ahead. The sniper could hear the dull
panting of the motor. His heart beat faster. It was an enemy car. He wanted to fire, but he
knew it was useless. His bullets would never pierce the steel that covered the grey monster.
Then round the corner of a side street came an old woman, her head covered by a tattered
shawl. She began to talk to the man in the turret of the car. She was pointing to the roof
where the sniper lay. An informer.
The turret opened. A man's head and shoulders appeared, looking towards the sniper. The
sniper raised his rifle and fired. The head fell heavily on the turret wall. The woman darted
toward the side street. The sniper fired again. The woman whirled round and fell with a
shriek into the gutter.
Suddenly from the opposite roof a shot rang out and the sniper dropped his rifle with a
curse. The rifle clattered to the roof. The sniper thought the noise would wake the dead.
He stopped to pick the rifle up. He couldn't lift it. His fore-arm was dead. "Christ," he
muttered, "I'm hit."
Dropping flat on to the roof, he crawled back to the parapet. With his left hand he felt
the injured right fore-arm. The blood was oozing through the skieve of his coat. There was
no pain — just a deadened sensation, as if the arm had been cut off.
Quickly he drew his knife from his pocket, opened it on the breastwork of the parapet
and ripped open the sleeve. There was a small hole where the bullet had entered. On the
other side there was no hole. The bullet had lodged in the bone. It must have fractured it.
He bent the arm below the vvound. The arm bent back easily. He ground his teeth to overcome the pain.
22
11
1
37
Then, taking out his field dressing, he ripped open the packet with his knife. He broke
the neck of the iodine bottle and let the bitter fluid drip into the wound. A paroxysm of
pain swept through him. He placed the cotton wadding over the wound and wrapped the
dressing over it. He tied the end with his teeth.
Then he lay still against the parapet, and closing his eyes, he Made an effort of will to
overcome the pain.
In the street beneath all was still. The armoured car had retired speedily over the bridge,
with the machine gunner's head hanging lifeless over the ttirret. The woman's corpse lay
still in the gutter.
The sniper lay for a long time nursing his wounded arm and planning escape. Morning
must not find him wounded On the roof. The enemy on the opposite roof covered his escape. He must kill that enemy and he could not use his rifle. He had only a revolver to do
it. Then he thought of a plan.
Taking off his cap, he placed it over the muzzle of his rifle. Then he pushed the rifle
slowly upwards over the parapet, until the cap was visible from the opposite side of the
street. Almost immediately there was a report, and a bullet pierced the centre of the cap.
The sniper slanted the rifle forward. The cap slipped down into the street. Then, catching
the rifle in the middle, the sniper dropped his left hand over the roof and let it hang,
lifelessly. After a few moments he let the rifle drop to the street. Then he sank to the roof,
dragging his hand with him.
Crawling quickly to the left, he peered up at the corner of the roof. His ruse had succeeded. The other sniper, seeing the cap and rifle fall, thought that he had killed his man. He
was now standing before a row of chimney pots, looking across with his head clearly silhouetted against the western sky.
The Republican sniper smiled and lifted his revolver above the edge of the parapet. The
distance was about fifty yards — a hard shot in the dim light, and his right arm was paining
him like a thousand devils. He took a steady aim. His hand trembled with eagerness. Pressing his lips together, he took a deep breath through his nostrils and fired. He was almost
deafened with the report and his arm shook with the recoil.
Then, when the smoke cleared, he peered across and uttered a cry of joy. His enemy had
been hit. He was reeling over the parapet in his death agony. He struggled to keep his feet,
but he was slowly falling forward, as if in a dream. The rifle fell from his grasp, hit the parapet, fell over, bounded off the pole of a barber's shop beneath and then cluttered on to the
pavement.
Then the dying man on the roof crumpled up and fell forward. The body turned over and
over in space and hit the ground with a dull thud. Then it lay still.
The sniper looked at his enemy falling and he shuddered. The lust of battle died in him.
He became bitten by remorse. The sweat stood out in beads on his forehead. Weakened by
his wound and the long summer day of fasting and watching on the roof, he revolted from
the sight of the shattered mass of his dead enemy. His teeth chattered. He began to gibber
to himself, cursing the war, cursing himself, cursing everybody.
He looked at the smoking revolver in his hand and with an oath he hurled it to the roof
at his feet. The revolver went off with the concussion, and the bullet whizzed past the
sniper's head. He was frightened back to his senses by the shock. His nerves steadied. The
cloud of fear scattered from his mind and he laughed.
Taking the whiskey flask from his pocket, he emptied it at a draught. He felt reckless
under the influence of the spirits. He decided to leave the roof and look for his company
commander to report. Everywhere around was quiet. There was not much danger in going
through the streets. He picked up his revolver and put it in his pocket. Then he crawled
down through the skylight to the house underneath.
When the sniper reached the laneway on the street level, he felt a sudden curiosity as to
the identity of the enemy sniper whom he had killed. He decided that he was a good shot
whoever he was. He wondered if he knew him. Perhaps he had been in his own company
23
before the Split in the ranks. He decided to risk going over to have a look at him. He peered
around the corner into O'Connel Street. In the upper part of the street there was heavy
firing, but around here all was quiet.
The sniper darted across the street. A machine gun tore up the ground around him with a
hail of bullets, but he escaped. He threw himself face dowhwards beside thé corpse. The
machine gun stopped.
Then the sniper turned over the dead body and looked into his brother's face.
— Liam O'Flaherty
ACTIVITY XIV: WHO IS THE ENEMY?
Soldiers are often able to kill and wound the enemy only insofar as they are able-to not think
of him as a human being. What happens when a soldier comes to the shocking realization that
"the enemy" is someone very like himself?
Holding Fire
Suddenly I see this German running at us. I didn't know whether he was trying a singlehanded charge or if he had anyone with him. So I was going to take a bang at him but my
tommy gun jammed. So he put his hands up and looked at me and looked at the tommy gun
and saw that it was jammed and gave a little smile and shrugged his shoulders and I gave a
little smile back. They're only people. It comes as a shock, really.
—
Bud Street. From A Terrible Beauty: The Art of Canada at War
Prisoner
We now saw our first PW (prisoner of war) but could not believe what we saw. Not after
what we had heard and read. He was not a square-head with a double chin on the back of his
neck, a spiked helmet low on his head and a big pipe in his mouth. He was just an average
young man, who could have been one of us, was neither arrogant nor cringing, showed us
snap shots of what we took to be his wife and child and gave us a subject for discussion until
we saw something else.
—
24
Unknown soldier. From A Terrible Beauty: The Art of Canada at War
33
ACTIVITY XV: WHO IS THE ENEMY?
War can be an excuse for people to act on their prejudice against a certain group. This
happened in British Columbia during World War II, when thousands of Japanese-Canadian
people were deprived of their property and sent to live in interriment camps. The justification
given was that there might be enemy sympathizers among them. Furthermore, since
Canadian feeling against the Japanese was very strong, it was suggested that it was partly for
their own protection that they were being interned. In this passage, war and prejudice are
being discussed by members of a Japanese-Canadian family.
I ask father, "Why are we fighting?" "For land and other things," father replies. "This is
why we are here." "But I'm not Japanese, like you. I was born here. So were you." I look at
Yuki. She says, "That's nothing — a Jap is a Jap, whether you're born here or notl" "Even
• if I change my name?" "Yes, you look oriental, you're a threat." "A threat? Why?" "God
only knows!" Yuki replies. "It's mostly racial prejudice, and jealousy. Remember we had
cleared the best land all along the Fraser Valley. Good fishermen. This causes envy, so better
to kick us out. The damn war is just an excuse. Dad knows. The West Coast people never
liked theorientals. 'Yellow Peril' is what they call us."
— From A Child in Prison Camp by Shizuye Takashima (Montreal: Tundra
Books, 1971)
Unquestionably, panic and prejudice played a large part in the treatment of the JapaneseCanadians. But might there be a genuine dilemma too in a situation where there are
established immigrants who come from a country now at war with their new country?
While good citizens of the new country, they do not necessarily share its hostility to the
country of their birth. They often have close relatives — parents, brothers and sisters —
in their homeland, for whom they are anxious. They may even on that account be subject
to pressure from enemy agents. Some few may be active sympathizers with the enemy.
How does the government of their new country protect the national interest without
arbitarily denying rights to the immigiants?
1
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l
25
4o
ACTIVITY XVII
Dilemma: Concentration Camp
In the last months of the war, when your side is clearly going to lose, you have been put in
charge of a concentration camp for political dissidents. You have been ordered to kill all the
prisoners and destroy all evidence of the executions. You have stalled, hoping that armies
of the other side will overrun the camp and liberate the priioners. Now you are out of time.
Either you order the prisoners killed or you face execution yourself. What do you do?
1. Would it make a difference to your decision if your own execution would save the
prisoners? If after your execution someone else would give the order for their death?
2. Suppose that if you are executed, you will be replaced by your assistant, who is in agreement with your idea of stalling. She will then be given the same order, and will be placed
in the same dilemma. Do you have a moral obligation to her?
ACTIVITY. XVIII •
Dilemma: Hon and the INar
Day and night, for six weeks now, the city has been bombed by the enemy. So each ablebodied person in the city is given a post to go to right after the bombing to help put out the
fires the bombs started and to rescue people in the burning buildings. A man named Hon is
made the chief in charge of one fire engine post. The post is near where he works and so he
can get there quickly during the day, but it is a long way from his home. Late one day there
is a heavy bombing, and Hon leaves the shelter in the place he works and goes toward his
fire station. But when he sees how much of the city is burning he gets worried about his
family. So he decides he has to go ,home first to see if his family is safe, even though his
home is a long way off and the station is nearby and there is someone else assigned to pro-
tect his family's area.
1. Is it right or wrong for Hon to leave his station to protect his family? Why?
2. Suppose Hon is just a volunteer and isn't paid. Would that make a difference? Why?
3. Suppose other fire wardens are leaving for their families. Would that make a difference?
Why?
4. Suppose it is against the law to leave one's post, and only .a few men and women besides
Hon do it. Should Hon be punished? Why?
28
ACTIVITY XX
The following are incidents from World War II that are examples of daring, self-sacrifice, and
bravery. Read each one and consider these questions:
1. Do you consider this person's actions to be heroic? Why?
2. What seems to have been the motivation for the actions?
3. What alternatives did the person have?
4. What would have been the consequences of each alternative?
5. What action would you have chosen? Why?
A.
Answer the above questions considering the perspective of the pastor and of the ten Booms.
I asked the pastor, "Would you be willing to take a Jewish mother and her baby into your
home? They will almost certainly be arrested otherwise."
Color drained from the man's face. He took a step back from me. "Miss ten Boom! I do
hope you're not involved with any of this illegal concealment and undercover business. It's
just not safe! Think of your father! And your sister — she's never been strong!"
On impulse I told the pastor to wait and ran upstairs. Betsie had put the nevvcomers in
Willem's old room, the farthest from windows on the street. I asked the mother's permission
to borrow the infant: the little thing weighed hardly anything in my arms.
Back in the dining room I pulled back the coverlet from the baby's face.
There was a long silence. The man bent forward, his hand in spite of himself reaching for
the tiny fist curled round the blanket. For a moment I saw compassion and fear struggle in
his face. Then he straightened. "No. Definitely not. We could lose our lives for that Jewish
child!"
Unseen by either of us, Father had appeared in the doorway. "Give the child to me,
Corne," he said.
.
Father held the baby close, his white beard brushing its cheek, looking into the little face
with eyes as blue and innocent as the baby's own. At last he looked up at the pastor. "You
say we could lose our lives for this child. I would consider that the, greatest honor that could
come to my family."
This excerpt is taken from The Hiding Place, the autobiography of a Dutch woman, Corne
Boom. When the German Army occupied Holland during the World War II, their treat- ten
ment of the Jews became so intolerable that the ten Boom family determined to do what it
could to assist the Jews. Besides helping many of them to escape, the ten Booms built a false
wall in their top bedroom behind which several Jews could hide.
When the ten Boom home was raided by the Gestapo, the Jews' hiding place was so well
concealed that it was never discovered. Even though the Gestapo never found any real evidence, the ten Booms were sent to concentration camps where they suffered unspeakable
horrors. Corrie's sister and father both died. Upon her release, Corne ten Boom opened
several camps and homes to help out needy war victims.
30
B.
Lance-Corporal Harry Nicholls of the 3rd Bn. Grenadier Guards won his Victoria Cross at
the River Scheldt in Belgium on May 21st in another of the many river rearguard actions
which the B.E.F. had to fight in their retreat to Dunkirk.
On the 21st Lance-Corporal Nicholls was commanding a section in a forward platoon of
his company which was ordered to counter-attack. At the very start of the advance he was
wounded in the arm but continued to lead his section forward: When they came under heavy
machine-gun fire he seized a Bren gun and dashed forward, firing from the hip. He silenced
three machine guns in spite of being again severely wounded. He then went up to a higher
piece of ground and engaged the German infantry massed behind, causing many casualties.
He was wounded at least four times in all but refused to give in. His gallant action was instrumental in enabling his company to reach its objective and in causing the enemy to fall back
across the River Scheldt.
— From The Victoria Cross by Sir John Smyth (London: Frederick Muller
Ltd., 1965)
C.
The King has been graciously pleased to award the George Cross to: Odette Marie Celine,
Mrs. Sansom, M.B.E., Women's Transport Service (First Aid Nursing Yeomanry.)
Mrs. Sansom was infiltrated into enemy-occupied France and worked with great courage
and distinction until April 1943, when she was arrested with her Commanding Officer. Between Marseilles and Paris on the way to the prison at Fresnes, she succeeded in speaking to
her Commanding Officer and for mutual protection they agreed to maintain that they were
married. She adhered to this story and even succeeded in convincing her captors in spite of
considerable contrary evidence and through at least fourteen interrogations. She also drew
Gestapo attention from her Commanding Officer onto herself saying that he had only come
to France on her insistence. She took full responsibility and agreed that it should be herself
and not her Commanding Officer who should be shot. By this action she caused the Gestapo
to cease paying attention to her Commanding Officer after only two interrogations. In
addition the Gestapo were most determined to discover the whereabouts of a vvireless operator and of another British officer whose lives were of the greatest value to the Resistance
Organization. Mrs. Sansom was the only person who knew of their whereabouts. The Gestapo
tortured her most brutally to try to make her give away this information. They seared her
back with a red hot iron and, when that failed, they pulled out all her toe-nails. Mrs. Sansom,
however, pontinually refused to speak and by her bravery and determination, she not only
saved the lives of the two officers but also enabled them to carry on their most valuable work.
During the period of over two years in which she was in enemy hands, she displayed
courage, endurance and self-sacrifice of the highest possible order.
— From Odette: The Story of a British Agent by, Jerrard Tickell (London:
Chapman & Hall, 1949)
31
D.
Pilot Officer Mynarski was the mid-upper gunner of a Lancaster aircraft, detailed to attack
a target at Cambrai in France on the night of 12th June 1944. The aircraft was attacked from
below and astern by an enemy fighter and ultimately came down in flames.
As an immediate result of the attack, both port engines failed. Fire broke out between
the mid-upper turret and the rear turret, as well as in the port wing. The flames soon became
•
fierce and the captain ordered the crew to abandon the aircraft.
Pilot Officer Mynarski left his turret and went towards the escape hatch. He then saw that
the rear gunner was still in his turret and apparently unable to leave it. The turret was, in
fact, immovable, since the hydraulic gear had been put out of action when the port engines
failed, and the manual gear had been broken by the gunner in his attempts to escape.
Without hesitation, Pilot Officer Mynarski made his way through the flames in an endeavour to reach the rear turret and release the gunner. Whilst so doing, his parachute and his
clothing, up to the waist, were set on fire. All his efforts to move the turret and free the
gunner were in vain. Eventually the rear gunner clearly indicated to him that there was
nothing more he could do and that he should try to save his own life. Pilot Officer Mynarski
reluctantly went back through the flames to the escape hatch. There, as a last gesture to the
trapped gunner, he turned towards him, stood to attention in his flaming clothing and
saluted, before he jumped out of the aircraft. Pilot"Officer Mynarksi's descent was seen by
French people on the ground.rBoth his parachute and his clothing were on fire. He was
found eventually by the French, but was so severely burnt that he died from his injuries.
The rear gunner had a miraculous escape when the aircraft crashed. He subsequently
testified that, had Pilot Officer Mynarski not attempted to save his connrade's life, he could
have left the aircraft in safety and would, doubtless, have escaped death.
Pilot Officer Mynarski must have been fully aware that in trying to free the rear gunner
he was almost certain to lose his own life. Despite this, with outstanding courage and complete disregard for his own safety, he went to the rescue. Willingly accepting the danger,
Pilot Officer Mynarski lost his life by a most conspicuous act of heroism which called for
valour of the highest order.
— From Canada's VC's by George C. Machum (Toronto: McClelland and
Stewart, 1956)
ACTIVITY XXI: THE "JUST" WAR
When we justify an action, we try to give reasons to show that the action is one that we may
do (i.e., it is not forbidden) or that we ought to do. This section deals with possible arguments
for justifying war.
Why does war need justifying? General speaking, because it involves a g,reat deal of
suffering, destruction, and grief, and therefore involves the systematic breaking of moral rules.
Looked at from another viewpoint, it puts a stop to the benefits of peace, when people can
go about the business of living in reasonable confidence that the rules hold.
Although it may be considered advantageous to go to war for economic gain, some moral
reason is usiially offered, since it is very difficult to gain support at home or abroad for
warfare for purely economic reasons. A truly "just" war — if there is one — would have to be
waged for reasons that are themselves moral.
32
Imagine that you are the foreign minister of the country Krypton. Should you support a
declaration of war in any of the following situations? (All means of peaceful negotiations have
been fruitless.) Is war ever justified? Be prepared to defend your stand.
1. In a war that took place almost sixty years ago, started by the Krypton king (who was
widely thought to be insane), Krypton was defeated, and a province in the mountains was
ceded to neighboring Zenon in the peace settlement. That province has since been found
to contain oil. Krypton has no other oil of its own, and Zenon charges a punitive rate for
the oil it sells to Krypton. Would war to recover the province be justified?
2. Another province, lost in the same war, is now part of Teflon, but its people are Kryptic,
belong to the Kryptic church, and speak the Kryptic language. The Teflonians give no
special recognition to Kryptic customs and language, and Kryp tics are expected to
assimilate to Teflonian ways if they want any but menial jobs in business or the public
service. Would war to return the province to Krypton be justified?
3. Both Krypton and Zenon were once ruled by Argon. After the Argonian revolution, when
that state was weakened, outside powers created the two new nations — two rather than
one, lest a new international power should emerge. However, 80% of the best agricultural
land is in the Kryptic sector. Zenon wishes to reunite the two countries into one, by force
if necessary, so that the resources will be shared. Should Krypton go to war if Zenon
attacks?
4. Hapland has attacked Juniper. Hapland calls upon Krypton to stand by their five-year
alliance and come to Hapland's aid. Would Krypton be justified in going to war?
5. Dementia has long practised slavery. A secret Dementian deleQation lias arrived urging
Krypton to rise up, invade, and free the oppressed masses of Dementia. Would war be
justified?
ACTIVITY XXII
What are the circumstances in which war may be considered just? Christian theologians,
especially Saint Augustine and Saint Thomas Aquinas, have put forth a theory of the "just
war." According to this theory, a just war meets the following. conditions:
• War must be declared by the legitimate authority of the nation concerned.
2. It must be an act of defence against an enemy's attack.
3. The harm caused by the war must not outweigh the good hoped for.
4. The military tactics and objectives of the war must discriminate between soldiers and
civilian populations.
5. A good chance of victory must be possible, to account for the sacrifice involved.
How do these compare with the conditions you would propose?
33
145
ACTIVITY XXIII
Read through the quotations and answer the questions following each section.
A. When Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C., he was only 33 years old and had.reigned
for just 14 years. During this time he led his Macedonian army from Athens to India.
Plutarch writes about this "world conqueror":
For he did not overrun Asia like a robber nor was he minded to tear and rend it, as if it were
boot,/ and plunder bestowed by unexpected good fortune, after the manner in which
Hannibal later deScended upon Italy ... But Alexander desired to render all upon earth subject to one law of reason and one form of government and reveal all men as one people. But
if the deity that sent down Alexander's soul into this world of ours had not recalled him quickly, one law would govern all mankind, and they all would look toward one rule of
justice as though toward a common source of light. But as it is, that part of the world which
has not looked upon Alexander has remained without sunlight.
— From Plutarch's Moral/a, translated by Frank Cole Babbitt (Loeb Classical
Library, Harvard University Press, 1936).
1. What was Alexander's reason (justification) for conquering most of the known world of
the time?
2. Do you think it is a good reason for conquest?
•
B. Hitler believed that he had the right to use all possible means to obtain additional
land for the "Aryan" race. The following is a justification for the invasion of the countries
surrounding Germany.
Nature has not reserved this soil for the future possession of any particular nation or race —
on the contrary, this soil exists for the people which possess the force to take it.... What is
refused to amicable methods, it is up to the fist to take.. .. We must hold unflinchingly to
our aim . . . to secure for our people the land and soil to which they are entitled. Mankind
has grown great in eternal struggle, and only in eternal peace does it perish.
— Quoted in The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich by William Shirer (New
York: Simon & Shuster, 1960).
1. Hitler claims: "this soil exists for the people which possess the force to take it." Do you
agree with this claim? Give reasons to support your answer.
2. Do you agree with the final sentence? Why or why not?
C. Some.people thihk that pacifism is the only reasonable stand to take. Pacifists believe
that war and violence are never justifiable ways of settling disputes. As one author, Adin
Ballou, states:
Imagine that in past wars those who were at-tacked were the most passive (non-resisters)
imaginable, and the offenders had unlimited scope to commit all the robberies, cruelties
34
and murders they pleased; would as many lives have been sacrificed, or as much real misery
have been experienced by the human race, as have actually resulted from the general method
of self-preservation; by personal conflict and resistance of injury with injury? .
— From "Christian Non-Resistance" by Adin Ballou, in Nonviolence in
America: A Documentary History, edited by Staughton Lynd (Indianapolis:
Bobbs-Merrill, 1966).
1. Do you agree that pacifism is the only reasonable stand to take?
2. Do you think you would act passively under attack? Give your reasons.
35
11-7
ACTIVITY XXIV: CONSCRIPTION
War inevitably involves suspension of the normal liberties and freedoms of the individual. One
of the most common forms of imposed duty in many countries is conscription. In Canada
military service has always been voluntary except on two occasions: in 1917 during World War
I, and in 1944 during World War II.
Conscription represents a serious interference with the life of those subject to it. It strikes
particularly hard at those who, for moral or religious reasons, believe that war cannot be
justified. On the one hand, such people usually love their country and ‘vay of life and want it
to survive; but on the other hand, their moral or religious scruples prohibit their bearing a'rms
in its defence.
There are several cases of conscientious objection that we could consider.
First of all, there are some religious groups whose members believe all military service in
itself to be wrong.
In another case, the individual may not object to military service as such but considers the
war in which his country is engaged to be morally wrong. Such was the situation of many
American war resisters during the Vietnam conflict.
In a third case, the individual may have 'arrived at the moral position that nothing can justify
using arms against other human beings.
In Canada, when conscription was in force, the laws acknowledged that some people should
be exempt as "conscientious objectors" — that is to say, society does feel that there is a point
at which a person should not be compelled to act against his conscience. But by conscription,
society is also saying a person has a duty to his country.
Let us take the example of someone who refuses military service because he believes it wrong
to use armed force against others.
I. Do you think he is justified in refusing to bear arms? Why or why not?
2. Would it make a difference if he was refusing service in a war in Asia or in a war that directly
threatened Canada? Why or why not?
3. Would it be a fair solution to draft him for non-combat service — for example, in a military
hospital?
4. In order to qualify as a conscientious objector, should he be required to present his case to
a court? If so, what should his case consist of?
5. If he could show that his civilian job was important to the country, is that relevant to his
case?
6. What reasons might someone have for not wanting to go to war? Which of these reasons
do you think have at least some merit? Which would you consider strong enough to be
grounds for exemption? Why?
36
ACTIVITY XXV: COMPLETING THE SYLLOGISM
In each of the arguments below, one part of the argument is missing. Supply the statement
that would make the argument a valid one.
1. Value premise: Anyone who does not do his or her duty ought to be punished.
Factual premise: Conscientious objectors are not doing their duty to fight for their
country.
Conclusion:
2. Value premise:
A nation is justified in waging war only when attacked.
Factual premise: ?
Conclusion:
Therefore, China was not justified in waging war on Vietnam in 1979.
3. Value premise:
?
Factual premise: Food rationing interferes with the operation of a free market economy.
Therefore, food rationing is immoral.
Conclusion:
4. Value premise: To treat people unequally is to treat them wrongly.
Factual premise: The Canadian government treated Japanese-Canadians unequally
during World War II.
Conclusion:
5. Value premise: Any newspaper that publishes articles favorable to the enemy ought
to be outlawed.
Factual premise: ?
Conclusion:
Therefore, the Free Voice ought to be outlawed.
6. Value premise
?
Factual premise: The government of the Shah imprisoned many people just for
disagreeing with it.
Therefore, the government of the Shah was tyrannical.
Conclusion:
7. Value premise: Anyone who purposely causes suffering to others is degenerate.
Factual premise: Idi Amin purposely caused suffering to many of his people.
Conclusion:
A person is justified in criticizing a war if he or she does not believe in
the reasons for which the war is being fought.
Factual premise: ?
Therefore, John is justified in criticizing the Middle East war.
Conclusion:
8. Value premise:
9. Value premise: Killing children for any reason is immoral.
Factual premise: The officer and his troops killed children caught taking food to the
guerrillas.
Conclusion
10. Value premise
?
Factual premise: The Americans destroyed productive land during the Vietnam war.
Therefore, the Americans caused unnecessary suffering.
Conclusion:
37
ACTIVITY XXVI: THE PRACTICAL SYLLOGISM — VALIDITY
Are the following arguments valid or invalid?
1. We ought not to deprive people of freedom.
Conscription deprives people of freedom.
Therefore, we ought not to conscript people.
2. It is right to retaliate if the other side attacks first.
Poland attacked Germany first in World War II.
Therefore, it was right for Germany to retaliate.
3. Guerrilla tactics cause unnecessary suffering.
Surprise attacks and sabotage are guerrilla tactics.
Therefore, we ought not to employ surprise attacks and sabotage.
4.
People ought not to obey orders they believe to be wrong.
Calley obeyed orders to kill ‘vomen and children in Vietnam.
Therefore, Calley ought not to have obeyed orders to kill women and children in Vietnam.
5. It is wrong to harm innocent civilians.
War harms many people.
Therefore, war is senseless.
6. We ought to do that which saves more people.
War saves more people.
Therefore, we.ought to fight wars.
7. It is wrong to kill masses of people intentionally.
War kills masses of people intentionally.
Therefore, war is wrong.
8. Causing prisoners of war to suffer unnecessarily is inhumane.
The conditions in many Siberian prison camps caused the prisoners of war to suffer
unnecessarily.
Therefore, many Siberian prison camps were inhumane.
9. Wars fought solely for religious reasons are hypocritical.
Killing other people is against the codes of many religions.
Therefore, people ought not fight in religious wars.
10. Those who jeopardize their lives in a war deserve recognition for it.
The P.L.O. fighters jeopardized their lives during the Mid-East conflicts.
Therefore, the P.L.O. veterans deserve recognition.
.•
38
sOLGEN
II I I
CANADA
LI11311
0000024516
AC'TIVITY XXVII
For each of the following arguments, supply the underlying value statement (value premise)
that will make the factual claim or reason (factual premise) relevant tp the conclusion.
•
1. Conclusion:
We ought to stop the waste from the weapons program.
Factual premise: Such waste is a serious threat to future generations.
Value premise:
Punji sticks ought to be banned.
2. Conclusion:
Factual premise: They cause unnecessary suffering.
Value premise:
We ought to spend 10 percent of the world's military budget on
purifying water.
Factual premise: Spending that money would ensure that the world's people would all
have clean water.
Value premise:
3. Conclusion:
We ought to stop atomic arms development.
4. Conclusion:
Factual premise: Atomic arms development may lead to.human destruction.
Value premise:
Chemical warfare should be stopped.
5. Conclusion:
Factual premise: Chemical warfare is a cruel ‘,vay in which to kill people.
Value premise:
6. Conclusion:
Brainwashing should be stopped.
Factual premise: Brainwashing is a form of torture.
Value premise:
7.
Conclusion:
The Irish terrorists should be treated as murderers.
Factual premise: Irish terrorists have been responsible for the deaths of many civilians.
Value premise:
8.
Conclusion:
Countries ought not torture their prisoners of war.
Factual premise: Torture is against the Geneva Convention.
Value premise:
War is immoral.
Factual premise: War causes many people to stiffer.
Value premise:
9. Conclusion:
10.
A country should only wound its enemy.
Conclusion:
Factual premise: Wounding the enemy is more of an inconvenience to them than
ki 1 I i n ca them.
•
?
Value .rem ise
t. 5vt
.
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\
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—
-
39
DATE DUE
_
OCT 1 8 1 990
st
1
tee
r .-
HV
8875
15
1980
Improving practical
reasoning : moral education
in corrections, phase one.
i

1 - Sécurité publique Canada

Transcription

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