Cruciferous vegetables

Chapter 1
Cruciferous vegetables
Botanical classification
From the botanical point of view, the
term vegetable' broadly refers to any
plant, whether edible or not (IARC,
2003). In common language, however,
it applies to one of the main groups of
edible plant foods apart from fruit and
cereals. Specific types of vegetables,
such as tubers, legumes and pulses,
are often considered separately. In epidemiological studies, vegetables are
further classified into subgroups,
mainly on the basis of their content of
nutrients or bioactive compounds.
Cultural and culinary groupings are
often used in household and nutritional
surveys, for reporting food supply and
food consumption, as well as in dietary
assessments.
The botanical classification of vegetables is based on the structure,
organization and physiological characteristics of plants. Cruciferous vegetables belong to the botanical family
Brassicaceae, order Capparales
(National Resources Conservation
Services, 2003). Within this order,
there are 16 families, all of which contain glucosinolates; some of these are
minor vegetable crops (Mithen, 2001).
Brassicaceae is a large family, with
about 3000 species in 350 genera,
including several types of edible
plants. It was formerly known as
Cruciferae or Cruciferaceae, and is
sometimes referred to as 'the cabbage
family' or 'the mustard family', after the
names of some of its components. The
petals of plants of this family have a
distinctive cruciform arrangement,
which is the origin of the terms
'Cruciferae' and 'cruciferous'. These
plants can be annuals, biennials or
perennials. They are well adapted to
average temperatures of 16-18 C
and are thus grown during the cool
season in temperate areas. Crops of
Brassicaceae are distributed mainly in
temperate regions of the Northern
Hemisphere: in areas of Southwest
and Central Asia, China and Japan,
Europe, the Mediterranean region and
North America.
Despite the great diversity among
the Brassicaceae, members of only a
few genera are eaten. The most commonly eaten cruciferous vegetables
belong to the genus Brass/ca, and
many belong to several varieties of the
species B. oleracea, including cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli and
Brussels sprouts. Other edible species
in the genus Brass/ca are B. rapa and
B. napus, which include, respectively,
Chinese cabbage and rape. Other cruciferous vegetables used in the human
diet, such as radish and cress, belong
to other genera of the Brassicaceae
family. A list of the main cruciferous
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 9: Cruciferous vegetables, isothiocyanates and indoles
Table 1. Main cruciferous vegetables in the human diet: Scientific and common names
Genus
Species and variety
Common name
Brass/ca
B. oleracea var. botrytis
B. oleracea var. capitata
B. oleracea var. costata
B. oleracea var. gemmifera
B. oleracea var. gcngyioides
B. oleracea var. italica
B. oleracea var. rubra
B. oleracea var. sabauda
B. oleracea var. sabellica
B. oleracea var. v/rid/s
B. oleracea var. alboglabra
Cauliflower
B. rape var. chinensis
B. rape var. oleifera
B. rape var. pekinensis
B. rape var. rapa
B. rapa var. parachinensis
Chinese cabbage, pak-chol, bok chef
Turnip rape
Chinese cabbage, pe-tsai, Napa cabbage, celery, cabbage
Turnip
Brassica
B. napus var. napobrassica
B. na pus var. oie/fera
Swede, Swedish turnip, rutabaga
Rape, cane la, colza
Brass/ca
B. aibe
B. nigra
White mustard
Indian mustard, brown mustard, spinach mustard
Kai choi
Black mustard
R. sativus
A. rusti cana
N. off/c/nails
L. sativum
E. yes/carla
W. japonica
S. vulgar/s flavesceris
C. abyssin/ca
Radish
Horseradish
Watercress
Cress, garden cress
Arugula, rocket, Italian cress
Wasabi
Swiss chard
Crambe
vegetables with their botanical classification is given in Table 1 (National
Resources Conservation Services,
2003).
any time trends in intake, only papers
published in 1993 or later were
included; when two or more papers
reported data on the same population
or study, the most recent one was
used. A review based on data that
were originally published before 1993
was therefore also used. The two main
criteria for including a paper were that
intake of cruciferous vegetables was
explicitly reported or could be easily
estimated from the data, and that the
population to which the consumption
applied was clearly identified. Furthermore, the search was restricted to
Brassica
B. juncea
B. juncea var. rugosa
Raphanus
Armera c/a
Nasturtium
Lepidium
Eruca
Wasabia
Beta
Crambe
Estimated intake by
region and country
Methods used
Consumption of cruciferous vegetables in several countries and world
regions was assessed from published
data. To ensure that the information
was up-to-date and took into account
2
Cabbage, white cabbage
Portuguese cabbage
Brussels sprouts
Kohlrabi, turnip cabbage, stem turnip
Broccoli
Red cabbage
Savoy cabbage
Curly kale
Kale, collards
Kai Ian, Chinese kale
Choi sum
adult populations. The results and the
main features of the studies included
are summarized in Table 2.
Various methods are used for estimating food intake, as reviewed in the
Handbooks of Cancer Prevent/on on
fruit and vegetables (IARC, 2003).
Usually, data on dietary intake are
derived from dietary surveys of representative populations. In most of these
studies, however, data on energy and
nutrient intake and on the consumption of main food groups are reported,
while individual food consumption or
the intake of specific subgroups is not.
Cruciferous vegetables
Table 2. Estimated intakes of cruciferous vegetables by control subjects in epidemiological studies
Reference
Country
Sex
Age
(years)
Type of
study and
no. of
controls
Diet infor- Cruciferous
mation
vegetables
method
included
Mean or
median
Intake
(glday)
Proportion of
all vegetable
intake (%)
Asia
Bosetti et al.
(2002)
Japan
M. W
NB
CC. 365
FF0
Broccoli, cabbage,
radish, turnip,
mustard greens
Mean
83.5
21.2
Kuwait
M, W
<70
CC, 311
FF0, 13
items
Broccoli, Brussels
sprouts. cabbage,
cauliflower
Median
59.8
NH
National Institute Japan
01 Health &
Nutrition (2002)
M, W
30-70
Survey, no.
not given
Household Cabbage, Chinese Mean
food intake cabbage, Japanese
radish
59.8
8.1
Scow etal.
(2002a)
Singapore
M, W
45-74
CC, 1194
Seni
quantitative
FF0, 165
items
Chinese white
Mean
cabbage, Chinese
mustard,
Chinese flowering
cabbage, watercress, Chinese
kale, head cabbage,
celery cabbage,
broccoli, cauliflower
W: 43.4
M: 42.1
NB
Shannon etal.
(2002)
Thailand
W
30-60
CC, 509
FF0, 80
items
Cruciferous,
unspecified
Median
46.3
NR
Ci etal.
(2003)
Shanghai,
China
M, W
30-74
CC, 1552
1
86
Bok oho!,
cabbage,
Chinese cabbage,
cauliflower
Median
W: 102.4
M: 101.8
W: 24.4
M: 24.2
Rajkumar et al.
(2003)
Southern
India
M, W
18-80
CC, 582
FF0. 21
items
Cruciferous,
unspecified
Median
17.1
15
Southern
California,
USA
M, W
50-74
CC, 507
Semiquantitative
FF0,
126 items
Broccoli, Brussels
sprouts, cabbage
kale, coleslaw,
cauliflower,
mustard, chard
greens
Mean
40
11.7
Los
Angeles,
USA
M,W
25-75
CC, 1204
FF0, 90
items
Broccoli, cabbage,
coleslaw,
Brussels sprouts,
collard, kale,
mustard, turnip
greens
Median
29.7
NR
Memon etal.
(2002)
North America
Lin et al.
(1998)
Yuan etal.
(1998)
items
3
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 9: Cruciferous vegetables, isothiocyanates and indoles
Table 2 (contd)
Reference
Country Sex
Diet infor- Cruciferous
Age
Type of
(years) study and mation
vegetables
included
no. of
method
controls
Mean or Intake
(giday)
median
Proportion of
all vegetable
intake (%)
Cohen eta).
(2000)
Seattle,
USA
M
40-64
Geometric 20.5
mean
9.6
Feskanich et al.
(2000)
Boston,
USA
M, W
W: 30-55 Prospective: Semiquantitative
M: 40-75 W: 77 283
M: 47 778
FF0, 116
tens (W),
131 items
(M)
Johnston et al.
(2000)
USA
M, W
25-75
Survey,
4806
Kolonel etal.
(2000)
Canada & M
USA
65-84
Slattery et al.
(2000)
USA,
several
areas
Smith-Warner
et al. (2000)
CC, 602
FF0, 99
items
Broccoli, coleslew, cabbage.
sauerkraut,
Brussels sprouts,
cauliflower
Broccoli, cabbage Median
coleslaw, sauerkraut,cauliflower,
Brussels sprouts,
kale, mustard,
chard greens
32.0
14.3
Two nonconsecutive
24-h recalls
Broccoli, cauliflower, kale
Brussels sprouts
16
5.6
CC, 168
Diet history
Broccoli, Brussels Median
sprouts, green
mustard cabbage,
head cabbage,
mustard greens,
pak-choi, red
cabbage, turnip
greens, watercress,
won bok
20
15.4
>55
CC, 1989
Diet history
Broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
cauliflower,
cabbage, coleslaw, greens,
turnip, rutabaga
30.8
Minnesota, M, W
USA
30-74
Randomized Diet records Cruciferous,
controlled
unspecified
trial, 101
Spitz etal.
(2000)
Texas,
USA
M, W
60.9
(mean)
CC, 465
Lanza eta).
(2001)
USA
M, W
35-89
Intervention, FF0 &
1042
4-day food
records
4
M, W
Semiquantitative
FF0,
135 items
Mean
Mean
26.4
8.9
Mean
Broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels
sprouts, coleslaw,
cabbage,
sauerkraut, mustard greens, turnip
greens, collard
greens, kale
29.1
NR
Cruciterous,
unspecified
23.6
8.9
Mean
Mean
Cruciferous vegetables
Table 2 (contd)
Reference
Country Sex
Age
Type of
Diet infor- Cruciferous
(years) study and mation
vegetables
no. of
method
included
controls
Bosetti at al.
(2002)
Hawaii,
USA
M, W
NP
CC, 441
FF0
Broccoli, cabbage, Mean
Chinese cabbage.
cauliflower,
Brussels sprouts,
turnip, rutabaga,
mustard cabbage,
Swiss chard
33.2
14.8
Connecti
cut, USA
M, W
NR
CC, 184
1
Brussels sprouts, Mean
broccoli, cabbage
28.5
NFl
Semi
quantitative
FF0. 153
items
Broccoli, cabbage, Mean
cauliflower
W: 38.8
M: 27.5
W: 12.6
110.3
Mean or Intake
median
(glday)
Proportion of
all vegetable
intake (%)
Smith-Warner
etal. (2002)
Minnesota, M W
USA
30-74
CC, 1237
Cerhan etal.
(2003)
Iowa, USA W
55-69
Prospective, Semi29 368
quantitative
FIFO, 127
items
Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli
Median
27.5
12.1
Argentina
M. W
18-50
Survey,
449W,
378 M
24-h recall
BroccoI i
Mean
W: 2.43
NH
Chile
M, W
>20
CC, 1066
W, 547 M
FF0, 58
items
Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli,
Brussels sprouts
Median
W: 11.1
M: 14.3
W: 5.0
M: 6.6
Australia
Nagle et al.
(2003)
Australia
W
18-79
CC, 609
cases
Semiquantitative
FPO,
119 items
Broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage
coleslaw,
Brussels sprouts
Median
49.6
13.1
Europe
Bosetti et a].
(2002)
Sweden
M, W
NH
CC, 252
1
Mean
11.5
147
Norway
M, W
NP
CC, 173
FF0
Mean
17.2
23.1
Italy
M, W
NR
00, 617
FF0
Mean
11.5
6.9
Switzerland
Greece
M, W
NP
CC, 412
FF0
Mean
11.5
6.7
M, W
NH
CC, 140
NR
Cabbage,
broccoli,
Brussels sprouts,
cauliflower
Cabbage,
broccoli,
Brussels sprouts,
cauliflower
Cruciferous,
unspecified
Crucifercus,
unspecified
Broccoli, cauliflower
Mean
5.7
78
South America
Pacin at al.
(1999)
Ata I ah at al.
(2001)
5
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 9; Cruciferous vegetables, isothiocyanates and indoles
Table 2 (contd)
Reference
Country Sex
Type of
Diet iriforAge
(years) study and mation
no. of
method
controls
Proportion of
all vegetable
intake (%)
Median
Cabbage,
Chinese cabbage,
broccoli, cauliflower
28.5
NR
Prospective, FF0, 276
27 111
items
Broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage,
Brussels sprouts,
rutabaga
9.7
9.8
Prospective, Semiquanti1497W,
1456 M
tative
FF0, 150
items
Brussels sprouts, Mean
kale, cauliflower
W: 31.6
M: 32.7
M: 17.5
National
FF0, 24-h
food survey, recall
no. not qiver
Brass/ca
15.0
16.5
Sweden
W
50-74
CC, 2887
Michaud etal.
(2002)
Finland
M
50-69
Voorrips et al.
(2000a)
Netherlands
M, W 55-69
Steyn et al.
South
M, W > 10
(2003)
Africa
Terry etal.
Mean or Intake
median
(g/day)
Cruciferous
vegetables
included
FF0
(2002)
Median
W: 16.5
Africa
Mean
M, men; W, women; CC, case—control study; FF0, food frequency questionnaire; NR, not reported
Most of the data in this Handbook
corne from analytical studies of the
effects of intake of cruciferous vegetables on several disease outcomes;
these are mainly case—control studies,
with some intervention studies. From
these studies, data for the controls or
the reference group were used. In
prospective or intervention studies,
estimates are made from information
collected at baseline. It should be
borne in mind that the results are for
specific populations and are not necessarily representative of the country
in which the study was conducted.
In this Handbook, intake of
cruciferous vegetables is always
expressed in grams per day, as the
mean or the median of consumption,
depending on how it was reported in
the original work or on the data available. Intake of cruciferous vegetables
was estimated directly in grams in a
few cases, but usually it was reported
in servings per day or per week.
Except when the authors explicitly
stated the portion size assigned to a
serving, it was assumed that a standard serving of vegetables corresponds to 80 g (Williams, 1995;
Department of Health and Human
Services, 2000). Usually, consumption
of cruciferous vegetables was reported for both sexes together; when the
data were available, separate
estimates are given for men and
women. In addition to the absolute
amount, the consumption of cruciferous vegetables is given as the proportion of total vegetable intake, when the
information was available for such a
calculation.
In order to improve the interpretability of the results, the following
data were reported: place, sex and
age of the population studied, type
and size of study, method used to
assess intake of cruciferous vegetables and the individual foods considered within the group cruciferous
vegetables'.
Various countries and regions
In the studies that were reviewed
(Table 2), the highest intake of cruciferous vegetables was reported to be that
of people in Shanghai, China, who
consumed more than 100 g/day, representing about one-fourth of their total
vegetable intake (Chiu et al., 2003).
Other Asian and some Middle Eastern
populations (in Japan, Singapore and
Thailand and Kuwait) had relatively
high intakes of cruciferous vegetables,
ranging from 40 to 80 g per day
(Bosetti et aI., 2002; Memon et aL,
2002; National Institute of Health and
Nutrition, 2002; Scow et al., 2002a;
Shannon et al., 2002); the only study
Cruciferous vegetables
carried out in India (Rajkumar of al.,
2003) showed a lower daily intake, of
about 17 g. Studies in China (Chiu of
al., 2003) and Singapore (Seow et al.,
2002a) that gave separate estimates
for men and women, showed similar
intake by sex.
Studies of cruciferous vegetable
intake in North America covered a
variety of populations (Table 2).
Overall, the daily estimated consumption was about 25-30 g, with a range
of 16-40 g, representing 5-15% of
total vegetable intake. Although most
of the studies included both men and
women, only one gave separate
results, showing higher consumption
by women (38.8 g per day) than by
men (27.5 g per day). Two studies in
South America showed low consumption of cruciferous vegetables, with 2.4
g per day for women in Argentina
(Pacin et al., 1999) and 14 g per day
for men and 11 g per day for women in
Chile (Atalah et al., 2001).
The only study with data for
Australia was a case—control study of
women with ovarian cancer (Nagle et
al., 2003), who were reported to have
a consumption of 49.6 g per day, comparable to the intake observed in most
Asian countries.
In Europe, the lowest intake of cruciferous vegetables was reported for
Greece, at 5.7 g per day (Bosetti of al.,
2002), whereas the estimates for
Finland, Italy, Norway, Sweden and
Switzerland were between 10 and 30
g per day (Bosetti et al., 2002; Terry et
aL, 2002). The results of two prospective studies in which information on
diet was based on answers to extensive, detailed questionnaires showed
an estimated intake of 9,7 g per day in
Finland (Michaud et al., 2002) and a
daily consumption of 32.7 g by men
and 31.6 g by women in The
Netherlands (Voorrips of al., 2000a).
In one study performed in South
Africa, the combined results of several
surveys among adults showed a mean
consumption of Brass/ca vegetables of
15g per day (Steyn et al., 2003).
European countries
The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (the
EPIC study) is a multicentre prospective study being carried out in 27 centres in 10 countries of Europe (Riboli
et al., 2002). Information on intake of
cruciferous vegetables, obtained from
a 24-h dietary recall interview, is available for a subset of 35 644 persons,
about one-third of whom were men
(36%) and two-thirds women (64%)
with mean ages of 57 and 55 years,
respectively. The participants were
interviewed during 1 year between
1995 and 2000, on any day of the
week. The quality of the instrument
and the logistics of the study resulted
in valid, reliable and comparable data
on dietary consumption across countries. Further details about the study
and the participants have been given
elsewhere (Slimani of al., 2002). The
results presented below were derived
from an extension of analyses previously reported for all vegetables
(Agudo of al., 2002). Although most of
the participants represented the general population, the estimates given
below cannot be considered to reflect
intake in a particular country.
Geographical pattern
The average daily consumption of cruciferous vegetables by the participants
in each country is shown in Table 3.
Overall, intake was about 21 g per day.
Consumption by country varied
markedly: intake in the United Kingdom was reported to be about three
times that in Spain, which had the lowest intake. Three groups of countries
can be distinguished: participants in
Germany, Norway and the United
Kingdom ate more than 30 g per day;
those in France and The Netherlands
ate between 20 and 30 g daily; and
those in Denmark, Greece, Italy, Spain
and Sweden ate between 10 and 20g
per day. The pattern was consistent for
individual centres and countries as a
whole (results not shown).
This geographical pattern is quite
different from that of consumption of all
vegetables, which shows a clear
south—north gradient (Agudo of al.,
2002): consumption of cruciferous vegetables is high in countries of central
Europe and Great Britain, while the
lowest intake is seen in countries of
southern Europe, with intermediate
intake in France. The Scandinavian
countries show differences in consumption, with a high intake in Norway
and an intake in Sweden similar to that
in southern countries. The discrepancy
between intake of cruciferous and of all
vegetables is even clearer when
expressed as a proportion: about 13%
of all vegetables eaten are of the
cruciferous type, but cruciferous vegetables constitute more than 20% of total
vegetable intake in countries with high
consumption and account for only
5-10% in countries with low consumption.
Overall, about 80% of all cruciferous vegetables are eaten cooked by
both men and women. Raw preparations represent 30-40% of cruciferous
vegetable intake in Greece, Norway
and Sweden and less than 10% in
other countries (Figure 1). This pattern
does not, however, appear to be
related to the amount consumed but to
the way all vegetables are eaten, and
thus to the eating habits in each country.
Cruciferous vegetables eaten
Table 4 shows the contributions of individual cruciferous vegetables to total
consumption. Of the 21 items reported,
cauliflower was the most commonly
consumed variety, accounting for 250%
of the total; cabbage', comprising
white cabbage, the commonest variety,
plus unspecified cabbage, accounted
for another 25%, and broccoli
accounted for 18%. These three
7
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 9: Cruciferous vegetables, isothiocyanates and indoles
Table 3. Consumption of cruciferous vegetables by participants in the
EPIC study
Country
Denmark
Francea
Germany
Greece
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Spain
Sweden
United Kingdom
No. of
participants
Intake (giday)
Mean
Standard
error
Proportion of total
vegetable intake (%)
3918
18.9
0.9
13
4639
23.5
0.8
11
4418
30.2
0.9
18
2686
13.4
1.1
6
3956
18.4
0.9
9
3984
26.8
0.9
20
1798
32.2
1.4
26
3220
12.0
1.0
6
6050
15.8
0.8
13
975
34.4
1.9
21
Means and standard errors adjusted by age, day of the week, season and sex when
the two were combined
Only women
Table 4. Consumption of cruciferous vegetables by participants in the
EPIC study, as a proportion of total vegetable intake
Cruciterous vegetable
Proportion of all vegetables
Cumulative %
Cauliflower (including romanesco)
Broccoli
White cabbage
Cabbage, unspecified
Radish
Brussels sprouts
Red cabbage
Swede, Swedish turnip, rutabaga
Turnip
Other (12 items)
25
25
18
43
13
56
12
68
6
6
74
80
5
84
4
88
3
9
91
100
Two or three commonly eaten cruciferous vegetables accounted for onehalf of total intake, and six or fewer
accounted for about 90%. In countries
with the lowest absolute intake, there
was also less variety in the vegetables
eaten: only eight items were reported
to be eaten in Greece and Spain, and
only four accounted for more than 900%
of total consumption. France was the
only country where a frequently eaten
cruciferous vegetable did not belong to
the genus Brass/ca: radish (Raphanus
sativus) accounted for 190/. and ranked
second. In Norway, the most commonly eaten cruciferous vegetable was
rutabaga (B. napus var. napobrass/ca), which accounted for 27% of total
intake, and this the only country where
the most commonly consumed cruciferous vegetable was not a variety of B.
oleracea.
Intake by sex, age and smoking habit
Table 5 shows the intake of cruciferous
vegetables according to sex, age and
smoking habits in the EPIC study. All
the means were adjusted by day of the
week, season and centre. No difference in cruciferous vegetable intake
was found between men and women.
Differences in consumption were seen
by age but might reflect differences in
recruitment among countries. Current
smokers ate an average of 20 g per
day of cruciferous vegetables, while
former smokers and lifelong nonsmokers ate 21 g per day. Nevertheless, the overall differences by
smoking status did not reach statistical
significance.
Only cruciferous vegetables accounting for at least 900/. of total consumption are listed.
Production
represented more than two-thirds of all
cruciferous vegetables eaten.
Most of the cruciferous vegetables
(90%) eaten by participants in the
EPIC study belonged to the genus
Brass/ca;
cruciferous vegetables
belonging to other genera accounted
8
for more than 10% (22.3%) of intake
only in France (Figure 2). Within the
genus Brass/ca, several varieties and
subspecies of the species B. c/era cea
(including cauliflower, cabbage and
broccoli) predominated in most
European countries.
Information on the production of cruciferous vegetables between 1961 and
2000 in selected regions of the world is
shown in Figure 3. Total production
(13a) and production per capita (3b)
show similar trends. The highest
Cruciferous vegetables
35
Cooked
30
Raw
25
o
20
E
15
o
o
a
10
a,
5
0-
UK
iii IIi
NO
GE
NL
FR
DK
FT
jI
SW
GR
SP
Figure 1 Mean consumption of cruciferous vegetables, cooked and raw, by participants
in 10 countries in the EPIC study
UK, United Kingdom; NO, Norway; GE, Germany; NL, Netherlands; FR, France; DK, Denmark; IT
Italy; SW, Sweden; GR, Greece; SP, Spain
production voJume was in eastern
Europe, with little variation over time. A
decreasing trend in production was
seen in some regions over time, from
18% to 9c/ in western Europe and
from 22% to 9% in Australia and New
Zealand. The production volume in
South and South-East Asia increased
from about 10% in 1961 to 15% in
1980 and then fell to 10% in 2000. In
Canada and the USA, cruciferous veg
etables accounted for about 7% of all
vegetable production. Per capita production changed little over time, except
in western Europe, where it decreased
from 20 to 13 kg per person per year,
and in East and South-East Asia,
where it increased from 7 to 19 kg per
person per year.
Table 5. Consumption of cruciferous vegetables by participants in the
EPIC study, by sex, age and smoking habit
No. of
participants
Mean consumption (g/day)
Sex
Men
Women
12 917
22727
20.8
21.4
Age (years)
35-44
45-54
55-64
65-74
3 302
12431
14 799
5 102
18.7
20.3
22.5
21.2
Smoking status
Never
Former
Current
17160
10138
7 668
21.3
21.5
20.3
Intake adjusted by centre, day of the week and season and by age and sex for smoking
status
J'
9
IARC Handbooks of Cancer Prevention Volume 9; Cruciferous vegetables, isothiocyanates and indoles
France
Italy
dh
.t u
I,
pe
Greece
Cabaoe,
Spain
Germany
United Kindom
Or,e
.-. ----
We CBb
Rwab
WBie
Cuo
Cuhfle.er
Denmark
The Netherlands
Norway
-
Cabbar
ris.
Red
Red
Wtute
q
fl
Sweden
Chinese
cabbage
Rutabaga
White
cabbage
Figure 2 Consumption of cruciferous vegetables by participants in the EPIC study, as a proportion of consumption of all vegetables
Only women in France and Norway. Proportions for the United Kingdom exclude vegetarians. n.s., not specified
10
Crucfterous vegetables
(a)
—*----Western Europe
Eastern Europe
O
-
Latin America &
Caribbean
25
CL
USA & Canada
20
I
_
4.
.10
5
-
1961
1966
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
Australia & New
Zealand
East & SouthEast Asia
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Near East
(Africa & Asia)
2000
-
—.----Western Europe
35
Eastern Europe
s
r
Latin America &
Caribbean
USAS Canada
Australia & New
Zealand
_.East& South-East
Asia
.
Sub-Saharan
Africa
—Near East
CL
o
15
'
s—
L)
--*
•
1961
1
1965 1970
r
1975 1980
1985
1990
1995 2000
(Africa
& Asia)
Figure 3 Production of cruciferous vegetables in selected regions worldwide: (a) relative to all vegetables and (b) per capita
production
Sources: a) FAOSTAT (2000); b) FAOSTAT (2000), United Nations (2002)
The regions defined by FAO do not correspond exactly to those defined by the United Nations; furthermore, there are discrepancies in the countries
included in western Europe, the near East and sub-Saharan Africa by the two bodies.
'Sub-Saharan Africa' comprises: all countries south of the Sahara Desert except South Africa, West Sahara and Sudan, which are included in the FAD
data but not those from the United Nations.
East and South-East Asia comprise: Brunei Darussalarn, Cambodia, China, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Indonesia, Japan, Democratic
Lao People's Republic. Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor Leste and Viet Nam. Note that the data for China are
not reliable.
'Near East' comprises: Algeria, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, Palestine, Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan,
Kuwait, Lebanon, Lybian Arab Jamabirya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates and
Yemen. Azerbaijan, Georgia, Israel and Palestine are included in the United Nations data but not in those from FAO.
Eastern Europe: comprises: Albania, Bosnia Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Macedonia, Poland, Romania, SerbiaMontenegro. Slovakia and the former Yugoslavia.
Western Europe includes: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland: Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands:
Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom.