Opening the mind - Wofford College

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Opening the
mind
The 2007 Wofford College
Community of Scholars
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The Community of Scholars was made possible by the vision and
generosity of the Fullerton Foundation, Gaffney, South Carolina
Program Director and Grant Coordinator
Dr. Charles D. Kay
Department of Philosophy
[email protected]
2007 Research Fellows Committee
Dr. C.L. Abercrombie
Dr. Sally A. Hitchmough
Dr. Nancy B. Mandlove
Dr. Angela B. Shiflet
Dr. Bryan G. Splawn
© 2007 Wofford College
Quintessential...A Wofford Education
Wofford College is committed to a quintessential undergraduate education
within the context of values-based inquiry. As a learning community,
we are united by the unfettered pursuit of knowledge and the creative search for truth.
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Table of Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................5
Dr. A. K. Anderson, Department of Religion..............................................................................7
Modernity, Simultaneity, and the Promise and Limitations of the Enestological Theodicy
Dr. Caleb Arrington, Department of Chemistry.........................................................................9
Vibrational Characterization of cis- and trans-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne
Astin Bellamy ’09, History...........................................................................................................11
Japanese-American Relations in the Post-war Period: The Struggle over the Ryukyu Islands
Elise Boos ’08.................................................................................................................................13
Community, Theatre and the South African Indian Experience in KwaZulu-Natal: Ronnie . ........ Govender’s The Lahnee’s Pleasure
Mary Beth Broadwater ’08...........................................................................................................15
An Overview of the Turkish Population in Germany
Lindy Bunch ’09............................................................................................................................17
Comparison of the Portraitures of Mary I and Elizabeth I of England
Dr. Mark S. Byrnes, Department of History..............................................................................19
The Great Debate: American Intervention in World War II, September 1939 to December 1941
Dr. G. R. Davis, Department of Biology....................................................................................21
Rats Diets
Jessie Davis ’08..............................................................................................................................23
Coming to Greenville — The Salvation Army’s History and Continuing Impact in
Greenville, South Carolina
Dr. Christine Sorrell Dinkins, Department of Philosophy.......................................................25
Women Writing Doctoral Dissertations: Shared Stories from Across the Disciplines
Dr. Karen Goodchild, Department of Fine Arts.......................................................................27
Understanding the View: Exploring Attitudes Towards Landscape Painting in the Italian Renaissance
Kishan Govind ’08........................................................................................................................29
Limited intermittent access to a highly palatable food combined with chronic mild stress induces overeating in laboratory rats.
Ryon Hamilton ’08, Chemistry...................................................................................................31
Synthesis and Photochemical Reactivity of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne
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Stephen Harris ’08........................................................................................................................33
The Emerging Church in The American South Research abstracts
Ryan Hill ’08
Nearly Almost Perfect Numbers...................................................................................................35
Dr. Charlotte Knotts-Zides, Department of Mathematics.......................................................37
Discovering, Conjecturing, Proving
Dr. Kirsten A. Krick-Aigner, Department of Foreign Languages...........................................39
Imagination and Identity in the Literature of Austrian and German Exiles to China during WW II
Vanessa Lauber ’08.......................................................................................................................41
Joseph Paxton on Cultivating the English Garden
Robynn Mackechnie ’08...............................................................................................................43
Does scheduled access to a highly palatable carbohydrate-rich food trigger binge eating in
laboratory rats?
Patrick McCain ’08........................................................................................................................45
African-American Soldiers in World War II
Dr. Anne Rodrick, Department of History................................................................................47
“I exist and I suffer, but the law denies my existence” Caroline Norton and Nineteenth Century
Feminist Thought: A Documentary Collection
Geoff Taylor ’09.............................................................................................................................49
Energy in My Pocket
Mariel Willenberg ’09, History...................................................................................................51
The Regicide of Pedro the Cruel: A translation of La Coronica del rey don Pedro
by Pero López de Ayala
Claudia Winkler ’07, German, History......................................................................................53
The German Healthcare System: Past, Present, and Future
Abstracts.........................................................................................................................................55
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2007 Community of Scholars
Instilling a culture of undergraduate research
W
ith the assistance of a grant from the Fullerton Foundation, Wofford has
developed a faculty/student research program: The Community of Scholars.
Committed to the ideal that
scholarly pursuits should be both individual
and communal, the program stresses crossdisciplinary discussion and fertilization of
ideas among researchers focused within
their academic disciplines while remaining
alert for connections and insights from other
fields. Undergraduate fellows undertake
original projects in a variety of disciplines,
including the sciences, the humanities,
and the social sciences, working under the
mentorship of faculty fellows from all parts
of the College. Throughout the summer, Fellows
gather at weekly luncheons, dinners, and coffee
hours, discuss their progress, and share ideas
and suggestions. Results of previous summer
research projects have been presented at local
and national conferences, as well as published
in peer reviewed journals. We look forward to
similar success from this year’s work.
This summer, for the first time, fellows
spent their time together in Wofford’s newlycompleted Village residences. With apartmentstyle living, fellows spent more time together and
had more opportunities to share with faculty over
informal dinners, barbeques, or just Frisbee. In
the spirit of community, and in recognition of the
broader community of which this is a small part,
fellows also worked at a Habitat for Humanity site
in Spartanburg, and developed a fall program on
immigration — including a screening of the awardwinning documentary “Crossing Arizona” and by a
visit from the director, Dan DeVivo — which was
open to the public.
What follows are highlights and abstracts
of the research completed during the 2007
Community of Scholars session, but the program
really has to be experienced to be understood.
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S
cholars at Work and Play
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Modernity, Simultaneity, and the Promise and
Limitations of the Enestological Theodicy
Dr. A. K. Anderson, Department of Religion
My project links academic discussions of two issues of particular concern for Christian thought
in recent years, in hopes of shedding light on both of them. Those two topics are the problem of evil
(theodicy) and the secularization of society.
A key challenge facing any Christian theodicy is to address the question of how and when God acts
against the evil of the world. American theologian Marjorie Suchocki writes that Christian writers have
tended to seek “the reason and resolution of [such] sorrows at the edges [or ends] of history,”
Figures 1 & 2: Michelangelo, Creation of Adam & Jan Provoost, The Last Judgment
namely by turning to God’s activity in creation and the afterlife (or endtime) for answers to the suffering
of this life. While instructive, Suchocki’s statement omits attention to what has been the other major
Christian focus in dealing with the problem of evil over the centuries, the life and death of Jesus. That is
Figure 3: Grünewald, Crucifixion
to say, Christian thinking on the problem of evil has traditionally contained some mixture of protological
(related to creation,) Christological, and eschatological (referring to the end of time) elements.
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However, in the modern period there have been major challenges to these ways of addressing the
problem of evil, in part because of the weakening place the Christian narrative holds in our society’s
imagination. It is here that the recent work on the topic of
secularization by 2007 Templeton Prize winner Charles Taylor is
helpful. (With its $1.5 million award, the Templeton is equivalent to a
Nobel Prize in religion.)
Taylor writes that in the modern world we have a different
sense of time than that of previous eras in the West, namely that of
“simultaneity.” By this he means that in earlier periods the present
moment was primarily viewed through reference to a “higher time,”
i.e., the past and future events of the Christian narrative. However,
because of the vast changes in Western society in the last 200 years,
many no longer have this vertical, transcendent frame of reference.
Rather, our focus is horizontal in
nature, on the present, the here
and now, and on what is happening
simultaneously. In his work on this
topic, Taylor draws upon the thought
of Benedict Anderson, for whom
one of the prime examples of this
modern sense of simultaneity is the
act of masses all reading the same
newspaper on a given day. A striking
image of this phenomenon is found
in Citizen Kane:
Anderson quotes the philosopher Hegel’s observation that reading the morning paper could be seen
as serving for many modern people “as a substitute for morning prayers.”
While for some, this focus on the constant march of the ephemeral here and now results in a turning
away from religious belief, others try to reinterpret their Christian faith within this new context. For
example, some recent theologians have centered their approach to the problem of evil on God’s action
neither in the past (creation or Christ) nor the future (endtime), but rather in the present. I have coined
the word “enestological” for such theodicies to serve as a complement to the well-established terms
protological, Christological, and eschatological. This new sort of theodicy has clear appeal for many,
given its emphasis on a God working in the present to fight against the tragedies and injustices of our
world. However, representatives of this type of theodicy, for a number of reasons, dismiss the afterlife as a
major component of a Christian approach to the problem of evil. This lack of allowance for significantly
transcending the outcomes of the here and now leaves in its train troubling questions for this theodicy
with regard to the existence of so much unredeemed evil throughout the long expanse of human history.
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Vibrational Characterization of cis- and
trans- hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne
Dr. Caleb Arrington, Department of Chemistry
Introduction:
The interaction of light with matter has many fascinating aspects. This interaction allows us to be
warmed by the sun, creates a blue sky, reflects our image from a mirror and causes electrons to flow in
photovoltaic materials.
In this project we are examining the
interaction of low energy infrared light with
small organic molecules. Light of a specific
wavelength can cause molecular vibrations
(the bending and stretching of atoms) as
the molecule absorbs light. The vibrational
motion of molecules caused by infrared light
provides a unique identification for a molecule
similar to the fingerprint of a person. The
two molecules we studied have not been fully characterized vibrationally.
These compounds, known as ene-diynes, decompose at room temperature
and consequently are not commercially available. Ene-diynes prove to be
important because they undergo a cyclization reaction that makes them
reactive towards DNA when they are incorporated into larger molecules.
This project will help to identify the vibrational motions that these two
compounds undergo.
Experimental:
The preparation of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5,-diyne in our
lab was done by Community of Scholars researcher
Ryon Hamilton. This is a multi-part synthesis that takes
about a week to perform. A successful synthesis results
in several hundred micrograms of the compound.
In previous studies, the vibrational spectra of these
compounds were recorded from a thin film of the
compound. Recording the vibrational spectrum in this
way results in significant interactions between molecules,
producing broad absorption bands and often significantly
shifts the frequency of vibration. In this study we sought
to examine the vibrational spectrum of the isolated
molecule. Isolation was accomplished by trapping the
molecules in solid argon (an inert matrix). This technique
results in sharp vibrational structure for the isolated
molecule, observed in the infrared spectrum.
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Vibrational Spectroscopy:
Typical molecules absorb infrared light, storing the energy as vibrational motion. Molecules only
vibrate at discrete frequencies
and so consequently absorb only
certain wavelengths of light. A
vibrational spectrum is obtained
by shining several wavelengths of
light on a molecule and detecting
which wavelengths are absorbed.
At the left is a portion of the
vibrational spectrum of cis-hex-3ene-1,5,-diyne in an argon matrix
at 18 K. The positive going peaks
occur as the molecule absorbs light
energy associated with a particular
vibration of the molecule. The
atomic motions of several of the
vibrations are shown with red
vector arrows. Negative going
bands in the spectrum are due to
an impurity in the synthesis that
has been subtracted away.
Theoretical Modeling:
To determine which motions in the molecule are associated with a particular vibration, quantum
chemical calculations were undertaken as part of this project. Computationally the energy of attraction
between atoms is calculated and the most stable molecular structure (of lowest energy) is found. From
the lowest energy structure the vibrations of the molecule can be determined using a model of simple
harmonic motion (similar to a ball attached to a spring). Specifically for this study the molecular geometry
and vibrational frequencies of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5,-diyne were investigated using a method called density
functional theory. More than a
dozen variations of this theory were
examined to determine the best theory
to fit our experimental frequencies.
The best fit to experiment resulted in
the identification of fifteen vibrational
bands in cis-hex-3-ene-1,5,-diyne.
No experimental vibrations differed
by more than twenty cm-1 from the
calculated energy at the best level of
theory. In some instances the theory
did remarkably well at identifying
minor aspects of the vibrational
spectrum as is seen in the vibrational
spectrum above for the terminal C-H
bending vibrations around 650 cm-1.
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Japanese-American Relations in the Post-war Period:
The Struggle over the Ryukyu Islands
Ashtin Bellamy ’09, History
During the 2007 interim trip to Japan, I was able to visit Hiroshima and
observe how the atomic bombs of World War II have affected the relationship
between the United States and Japan. In my project,
I researched another effect of the war that challenged
the diplomatic efforts of these countries. After the war,
the Ryukyu Island chain, which includes Okinawa, was
removed from Japanese control to the trusteeship of
the United Nations, which granted all administrative
rights of the islands to the United States. The United
States’ military presence in the Ryukyus allowed Japan
to go without any defense forces of its own throughout the 1960s. After much
pressure from Japanese citizens and the islanders themselves, the United States
government negotiated with the Japanese government for the reversion of the
Interim ’07 in Japan
Ryukyus in 1972. The agreement permitted the United States to maintain some
non-nuclear military facilities in the Ryukyus.
Japanese citizens were the first to inspire interest in reversion. They claimed that the Ryukyuans were
culturally part of the Japanese nation and should be returned to their home country. The more important
reason for the Japanese to support reversion was their fear of weaponry, especially nuclear weapons. The
United States military had admitted to storing biological and chemical weapons in Okinawa, and had
permitted visits of nuclear-powered submarines into the ports there.
The Ryukyuan locals were responsive to Japanese influence to support reversion; they staged protests
and established the Okinawa Reversion Council. Like many Japanese, they feared the biological and
chemical weapons they knew the United States military had stored so close to their homes. Some islanders
were indifferent or against reversion, because
they had prospered under an economy
improved by the presence of Americans.
While the Ryukyuans felt uneasy about living
under foreign administration, they had never
had a higher standard of living.
The Japanese government also desired to
get back the territory they had lost through
their defeat in the war. To regain the Ryukyus
would give the government the power to ban
or at least regulate any weapons stored on
the bases. At the same time, the conservative
Japanese government had to consider that
regaining the Ryukyus would lessen United
States investment in defense there. By not
having to invest in their own defenses, the
Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Sato on a visit
to the Ryukyus in 1969
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Japanese economy had risen to third among industrialized
nations.
The United States military base at Okinawa
At first, the United States government was completely
opposed to reversion. Having the free use of bases in
the Ryukyus was essential to the security of not only the
United States, but Japan as well, at least as long as the
Vietnam War continued. If Japan could no longer depend
upon United States military protection, the Japanese
would begin to build up their own defense forces. After
Japanese behavior in World War II, Americans were
not ready and trusting of Japan enough to allow this to
happen.
Throughout the 1960s, in an effort to weaken the
protest for reversion, the United States government
provided more aid to the Ryukyuans and increased their civil liberties to enhance their quality of life. This
went so far as to restrict Japanese aid to the Ryukyus in order to convince the islanders that they were
better off living under United States administration.
Eventually, the United States government could
not ignore some of the ways in which reversion could
be favorable. With the right negotiations, the United
States could return the islands but retain some rights
to the military bases. In this case, the United States
government could save some of the money it had
been pouring into the Ryukyus without completely
losing its security position in Asia.
The Japanese conservative party in power had a
strong point in its demands for reversion. If they were
unable to convince the United States to give back the
islands, the Japanese people might turn against them,
and vote the party out of office in favor of leftists,
who had ties to the Soviet Union and Communist
China. Losing the Ryukyus would be far less
unfortunate for the United States government than
losing a relationship with a Japanese government it
The Ryukyus island chain sits southwest of mainland
could trust.
Japan and is closer to Shanghai, China, and Taipei,
Taiwan.
The Ryukyuan stamp in 1970 featured Japanese
characters as well as a line demonstrating the link
between the Ryukyus and Tokyo.
In 1972, the United States formally returned
the Ryukyu Islands to Japanese control. The
previous year, the two nations agreed that the
United States would continue to maintain nonnuclear military facilities as well as 43,000 troops
in Okinawa. The Ryukyuans referred to the event
as “Yuugawai” — a change of era.
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Community, Theatre and the South African
Indian Experience in KwaZulu-Natal:
Ronnie Govender’s The Lahnee’s Pleasure
Elise Boos ’08
On November 16, 1860, the S.S. Truro docked in Durban and 342 Indians
began new lives as indentured servants on the
struggling sugar plantations along the western
coast of the British colony of Natal. Slavery
having been abolished in the British Colonies
and the indigenous Zulu “relatively secure in
their tribal economy”1 , the British colonist,
believing the manual labor below them, sought
cheap labor to resurrect the sugar industry. Such labor came in the
form of indentured servants from India. Between the years 1863
Indians harvest sugar cane, Natal, 1870
and 1864 the export of sugar rose from £26,000 to £1,000,000.
Ships would run the route from
India to Durban for years to come.
As the community of indentured and ex-indentured Indians grew,
a market for new commodities appeared and Muslims from the Indian
state of Gujarat quickly made the voyage to South Africa to fill the
niche. The British colonists’ elation over the flourishing sugar crop
came to a halt as Indian merchants and farmers began underselling
and outgrowing their British counterparts. Pressure applied to the
Natal government over the unwanted competition would result in
the first of many legislative acts meant to preserve white dominance.
Indian rickshaw puller employed by a
Indian movement would be hindered and monitored, their land taken
member of the Legislative Council of
away, their freedom
Natal - 1890.
taxed. They would
be denied representation, education and freedom
of speech. The Indian community was a diverse
community. They spoke Tamil, Hindi, Gujarati, and
Telugu; came from Calcutta, Bombay, Madras; were
Muslim, Christian and Hindu; were indentured, free,
lower and middle class, educated and illiterate. They
would have to present their case as one “Indian”
Passive Resisters and followers march down the main
community, struggle to maintain their unique cultural street of Durban, in protest against the anti-Indian
identities and reach across ethnic boundaries to form
Land Act of 1946.
alliance with other populations. And in the process,
some would claim, set an example of resistance,
especially non-violent resistance, that other oppressed groups in South Africa would build upon.
1 Meer, Fatima. Portrait of South African Indian (Durban: Avon House, 1969) 7.
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Community of Scholars
Initially I planned for my summer research to address the Indian experience in South Africa during
the Apartheid era. I quickly discovered though that the complexities of that era, coupled with the diversity
of the Indian population in South Africa, made that a very difficult and broad task. It was by chance
that in my early research I came across the mention of the
Shah Theatre Academy. A theatre group started in Durban by
several prominent South African Indian dramatists, including
Ronnie Govender, who were frustrated by the Eurocentric
paradigm of South African theatre at the time and with the
lack of theatre relevant to the Indian community, their goal
was “the creation of politically relevant plays with indigenous
settings”2 , and that goal would find realization in Govender’s
The Lahnee’s Pleasure.
I proceeded to use that play as a window into the Indian
community and situation in the 1960’s and 1970’s, preparing
the historical and socio-political context of the play, examining
the political questions that it raised, and the South African
Indian patois and issues of Indian identity that Govender employed.
Scene from Rabinidranath Tagore’s Kings of
the Dark Chamber
While very much a part of the Black Consciousness theatre movement taking form in South
Africa in the 1950’s and 1960’s, Indic theatre has been widely overlooked by scholarly works on Black
Consciousness and alternative theatre, often because of the diversity of the Indic works and the wealth
of stage and township theatre in the 1960’s and 1970’s by African playwrights, which naturally reached
a larger audience. Indic theatre spans many generations, from the early reproduction of classical Hindu
myths to later vernacular production of Indian epics. Very few of the early Indic plays were ever recorded
or published, and unfortunately the same can be said for the reactionary Indic theatre in the 1960s and
1970s. As consequence I was forced to rely on secondary accounts of other Indic productions. Finally,
it has been suggested that the written text and the live performance were read quite differently, or at the
very least, with less intensity. While the written text is powerful and politically charged, it was received by
the audience as “entertainment”. Its subtle message was not lost however and it was The Lahnee’s Pleasure’s
subtle didacticism that allowed Govender to simultaneously entertain and challenge- posing the questions
on the tips of the tongues of the Indians in a public arena and laced with laughter. 2
2
Schauffer, Dennis. “In The Shadow of the Shah: The Indic Contribution to our developing South
African Culture.” Indic Theatre Monograph Series, No 2 (Durban: Asoka Theatre Publications, 1994) 16.
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An Overview of the Turkish Population in Germany
Mary Beth Broadwater ’08, German
My experience studying in Berlin, Germany during the spring of 2007 was
helpful to my research this summer. I lived with a host mother and her two sons
whose father is a Turkish immigrant. Both sons are fluent in German and speak
very little Turkish but to fellow Germans they would appear to be foreigners.
Having already selected my topic for the Community of Scholars, I gained an
interesting perspective on how the capital city with its large Turkish population
promotes integration.
Most of the 2.7 million people of Turkish descent living in Germany
immigrated since 1961 while a large number were born in Germany to those
immigrants. Turkish nationals and Germans of Turkish descent are the largest
minority within Germany, making up 8 % of the population. Turkish immigrants came as guest workers
when West Germany suffered from a labor shortage in the 1950s and 1960s. Through Germany’s labor
recruitment program, men from Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece, Turkey, and elsewhere, worked long hours
in factories or coal mines. Unlike other foreign workers who returned home when the program ended, the
Turks were hesitant to go home because of economic and political instability in Turkey.
In addition to their long work days, Germany’s expectations that they return home allowed the first
generation, male guest workers, no opportunity to
integrate in German society. For example they had
difficulties with tasks such as shopping, practicing
their religion, communicating with the host nation,
and remaining connected to their home countries.
On average, they lived apart from their families for
8-10 years. Their wives and children later immigrated
as the second generation of Turks in Germany.
These families came from rural farming villages
and resettled in industrial cities within Germany.
Integration was challenging as they lived in Germany
with little knowledge of the language or culture.
One aspect of German-Turkish integration
is granting citizenship to those who have lived in
Germany for many years or who were born in Germany
and have no ties to Turkey. On the one hand, many
Germans feel that immigrants should successfully
integrate themselves before being granted citizenship.
Turkish immigrants, however, believe easier access to
citizenship would give them a feeling of acceptance and
allow them to better integrate in German society.
An additional conflict arises with the education of
Turks. Turks believe that Germany’s education system
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does not give fair treatment to all students. Turkish
families for example, cannot pay for their children
to attend preschool. Therefore as they enter the 1st
grade, these children already lag behind the native
students in language ability. This disadvantage
persists throughout their school years, because
despite learning German in the schools, the children
still speak Turkish at home. The language issue
becomes a particular problem when the children
enter 6th grade. By this time, students are placed on
separate tracks. The best students go to grammar
school (Gymnasium) and take “Abitur” tests in their
final year which allow them to attend a university.
Most children from immigrant backgrounds are
put on lower tracks which offer no opportunity for higher education and limit job prospects. This lack of
education leads to a majority of unskilled workers in the Turkish population, who are unable to find work.
Turks cheering for Germany at the 2006 World Cup
A final issue facing, not just Germany, but the entire European Union, is the consideration of Turkey’s
entry into the Union. Membership talks have been delayed and a partnership is now being considered
instead. For the 3.6 million Turks living within the EU, the idea of membership represents being one step
closer to acceptance. Most Turks favor this idea but feel less hopeful as they hear more conflicting political
rhetoric. One Turkish-German voices the common opinion that Germany will be “saddled with the same
problems” for which he left Turkey. Many believe that admitting Turkey would lower the standard of
living in Germany, as the EU would pay $37 billion annually to aid the new member country.
Interesting Facts about Integration for German-Turks
• The term guest worker (Gastarbeiter) is commonly used to describe this immigrant
population although over 75% did not come during the recruitment period.
• Immigrants may join political parties but may not create their own.
• There are public sector jobs available only to German and EU citizens, i.e. teachers,
police officers, and administrators.
• The notion that integration should occur before
citizenship contradicts granting such citizenship to
late settlers from Russia and East Europe who can
claim citizenship when moving to Germany.
• With 93 percent of German-Turks claiming the
Muslim faith, over 2400 mosque communities now
exist.
• The Döner Kebap, a food invented by Turks in
Germany, has become what Germans might call
typical or even traditional German food.
Making A Döner Kebap
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Mary I of England
Lindy Bunch ’09
The insolent joy, the bonfires and banqueting, which were in London, and elsewhere in
England, when that cursed Jezebel was proclaimed queen, did witness to my heart that men
were become more than enraged; for else how could they have so rejoiced at their own confusion
and certain destruction? For what man was there of so base judgment (supposing that he had
any light of God) who did not see the erecting of that monster to be the overthrow of true
religion, and the assured destruction of England, and of the ancient liberties thereof ? And yet,
nevertheless, all men so triumphed, as if God had delivered them from all calamity.
— John Knox, The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women
Mary I of England is better known to many as “Bloody Mary” or Elizabeth I’s
older sister. For Protestant reformers such as John Knox, she was seen as being the
epitome of evil. However, she was a queen in her own right and ruled England for five
years (1553-8).
Due to the brevity of her reign and a few
very unpopular choices, Mary’s reign has been
denigrated and largely ignored by historians.
Her religious fervor and attempts to bring
England back to Catholicism after Henry VIII’s break with
Rome have caused her to be seen as nothing more than a failure.
However, in recent years a reevaluation of Mary has begun to
occur, with most now viewing her as one of England’s most tragic
figures.
It was this point of view that inspired me to focus my
summer research on her. Not only was she the first regent queen
of England, she was also
said by many who knew
her to be a kind albeit
religiously intense woman.
Her difficult life intrigued
me. As a young woman, she
was declared illegitimate by her father and stripped of her title. As a
queen, she so desperately wanted to have a child that she had several
phantom pregnancies, the last of which turned out to be a type of
stomach cancer which led to her death. With such a hard life, it is no
small wonder that her reign was also fraught with problems.
As both an art history and history major, I decided to focus
on the art historical part of her reign as well as the historical.
Portraiture, especially of leaders, has always been just as much
propaganda as veristic representation; for this reason, I chose to
work on the largely unstudied area of Marian portraiture. Because
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of the problems of her youth, few portraits of Mary as a young
girl exist. Also, due to the brevity of her time on the throne, her
portraiture does not even approach the scale of her sister.
The portraits, portrait medals, and manuscript illustrations
that are available depict a woman motivated by an intense desire to
restore the “true faith.” She does not attempt to engage in the kind
of metaphorical works that will later be picked up by Elizabeth,
instead choosing to use simple symbols to represent her faith, her
marriage, and her Tudor lineage.
In the portrait on the right by Anthonis Mor, Mary is depicted
with a red rose, a symbol of the Tudors and also of her Christian
name. The large jewel she is shown wearing, which appears in most
of her other portraits, was given to her by her husband in honor of
their marriage.
Upon her death in 1558, Elizabeth ascended the throne and
largely undid Mary’s actions. In later works, especially one titled
Allegory of the Tudor Succession by Lucas de Heere, the Elizabethan propaganda machine clearly attempts
to depict the reign of Mary as turbulent, unsuccessful, and papist. In this work, Mary and her husband,
Philip II of Spain, are shown on the viewer’s left with Mars, Roman god of war, at their heels. While there
is some debate, it appears that the background shows a view of Rome.
On the right side of the work, Elizabeth I is portrayed quite differently. Followed by an allegorical
representation of peace, the juxtaposition of the two sisters deliberately portrays Mary poorly in order to
bolster the image of Elizabeth. This sort of work shows how, over time, Mary was slowly denigrated to
being nothing more than “Bloody Mary.”
19
The Great Debate:
American Intervention in World War II,
September 1939 to December 1941
Dr. Mark S. Byrnes, Department of History
In the twenty-seven months between Hitler’s invasion of Poland and the
Japanese attack on American forces at Pearl Harbor, the United States engaged
in perhaps the most extensive and wide-ranging debate in its history over the
appropriate role for the U.S. in world affairs. My project has been to collect the
many speeches and articles in this “great debate.” My goal is to edit and publish
excerpts from these works in book form for use in undergraduate history classes.
During the first few months of the war, the focus of the debate was revision
of the Neutrality legislation passed by Congress earlier in the 1930s. The
purpose of this legislation was to prevent the involvement of the U.S. in any
future war, a direct reaction to the consensus view
that American involvement in the First World
War had been a mistake. But the unprovoked aggression of Nazi Germany
led many Americans to fear that the law treated both aggressor and victim
the same. While President Franklin D. Roosevelt stated at the start of the
war, “This nation will remain a neutral nation,” he added: “Even a neutral
cannot be asked to close his mind or his conscience.” The debate thus came
down to this: should the U.S. assist those resisting aggression, and if so, how
much?
While the sides in the debate traditionally have been divided into interventionists and isolationists, the
reality is much more complex. The debate obliterated party lines and ideological divides. Democrats and
Republicans supported aid to Britain (including both presidential candidates in 1940, FDR and Wendell
Willkie), while many Americans on both the left and the right opposed any American involvement.
The fundamental divide was between those
who argued for an expansive, even global, definition
of American interests, and those who saw the U.S.
as a hemispheric power with hemispheric interests
in the tradition of the Monroe Doctrine. The
former argued that Americans could no longer
act as if world events did not matter to them;
technology and a global economy had created a
smaller world, in which it mattered very much to
Americans what happened in Europe and Asia. The
latter maintained that a policy of “America First”
could effectively protect the U.S. from any military
threat, and that it was unjustifiable intervention in
the world’s affairs that presented the true danger to
American interests.
20
Interestingly, all participants in the debate seemed to agree upon the important issues that were at stake:
the need for national unity, the preservation (and spread) of democracy, the economic well-being of the
country. But they disagreed vehemently over which course of action would best serve those interests.
Interventionists argued that an Axis-dominated world would of necessity turn the U.S. into an armed
camp and thus destroy individual liberty and democratic
government in the U.S., and plunge the U.S. into an
“Fellow Americans, there is no
even deeper depression than that of the previous decade.
compromise — the world will be
Isolationists countered that the demands of fighting a global,
dominated by free men or it will be
total war would inevitably destroy democracy and prosperity
dominated by enslaved men. We
at home. While most Americans agreed that spreading
throughout the world what FDR called “the four freedoms”
cannot appease the forces of evil.”
was an admirable goal, isolationists argued it could not be
— Wendell Willkie, May 7, 1940
done by war, but only by example.
This foremost spokesman of the anti-intervention group
was the famous aviator, Charles Lindbergh. Consistently throughout this period, Lindbergh opposed
active American involvement in the European war. Other outspoken opponents of intervention included
former president Herbert Hoover, Republican Senators Robert Taft and Gerald Nye, and socialist leader
Norman Thomas. Ultimately, the most important interventionist was President Roosevelt himself. But he
also had support from prominent Republicans like Frank Knox and Henry Stimson (who in 1940 joined
FDR’s administration as Secretary of the
Navy and Secretary of War, respectively).
“We have always been ready to fight against the
interference of foreign powers in our affairs... It is
only when we are asked to take part in the quarrels
of foreign countries that we divide.”
— Charles Lindbergh, Oct. 13, 1940
As Britain’s plight grew increasingly
dire in 1940 and 1941, the willingness of
the American public to assist the British
increased, with even the most outspoken
opponents of active involvement conceding
that aid to Britain was justifiable.
Eventually, in March 1941, Congress
passed the Lend-Lease Act, which gave
FDR the power to give military assistance
to those opposing Axis aggression. Critics
charged that the law virtually made
the U.S. a belligerent, but the country
remained seriously divided over the
question of whether or not the U.S. should
actively participate in the European war.
Ironically, although the war in Asia had
received scant attention in the Great
Debate, it was only the shock of the attack
on Pearl Harbor by Japan that ended the
debate and put the U.S. decisively on the
path to world power.
21
Rats Diets
Dr. G. R. Davis, Department of Biology
In humans, dieting is a form of limiting one’s access to food, especially to
highly palatable foods which tend to be high in carbohydrates and fats. Often
dieters develop cravings for the very foods that they avoid, and when they “break
their diet” they overeat (binge eat) on the highly palatable food. Likewise, stress
may alter the eating patterns
of humans, and dieters may be
more likely to break their diet
in response to stress. Because
these factors are difficult to
study under tightly controlled
conditions in humans, there is a
great need for an animal model
in which feeding behaviors can be studied while carefully
manipulating the availability and palatability of foods
and controlling the degree to which animals are stressed.
Like several other labs around the country, we are interested in identifying conditions that trigger
episodes of binge eating in laboratory rats and examining how stress affects food intake in laboratory
rats. Specifically, in our 2007 Community of Scholars research, we asked: How is the intake of a highly
palatable sweet food (Froot Loops®; FL) affected by limiting the access to that food, and combining that
limited access with stress?
We conducted experiments on 80 laboratory rats, 40 under non-stressed conditions (Robynn’s rats) and
40 which were subjected to a variety of stressors (Kishan’s rats.) Robynn and Kishan investigated how food
intake was affected by restricting access to a highly palatable high carbohydrate food (Froot Loops®) and
whether stress altered their intake of this food.
We patterned our experiments very closely upon
the research described by R.L. Corwin of Penn State
University for the non-stressed rats. Like Dr. Corwin and
her colleagues, we divided our non-stressed rats in to four
groups of 10 rats each. The control group was provided
free access to an unlimited amount of rat chow every
day. For 28 consecutive days, Robynn measured the daily
intake of chow for these rats. A second group, in addition
to all the chow they could eat, was offered Froot Loops
for 2 hours every day. This group was designated R7
because they had regular access to Froot Loops for two
hours each day 7 days a week. For R7, Robynn measured
the daily chow intake and also the amount of Froot Loops consumed daily. A third group called R3, received
Froot Loops 3 days each week for two hours on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. Corwin has shown that
this schedule causes binge eating in rats given 100 % fat (Crisco.) We want to know if this schedule triggers
binge eating on Froot Loops. The fourth group of rats received Froot Loops on an irregular schedule and
were designated as the I group.
22
The major findings from Robynn’s non-stressed rats are: 1) Rats exhibit
excellent daily caloric intake regulation (unlike humans.) 2) We found no
evidence of binge eating. 3) Rats given Froot Loops every day did not weigh
more than control rats maintained exclusively on rodent chow. 4) Surprisingly,
rats given intermittent access to Froot Loops on an irregular schedule or three
days per week cumulatively consumed fewer calories and gained less weight
than other groups of rats. Essentially, Robynn
found that unstressed rats do not binge eat on
Froot Loops. Her results sharply contrast with
the findings of Corwin (2003) who described
binge eating on Crisco in non-stressed rats.
This suggests that the tendency to binge eat
depends at least in part on the nature of the
palatable food provided. Robynn’s results also reveal the limitations of using
an animal model to make predictions about human eating behaviors. For
example, it is well documented that easy access to highly palatable foods leads
to overconsumption and weight gain in humans. Thus, rather than attempt
to use rats to predict human behaviors, maybe we should ask how it is that
rats are able to minimize overeating and weight gain when tempted with
highly palatable foods. With this knowledge, it may be possible to develop means by which humans might
emulate the eating patterns of rats!
The major finding from Kishan’s stressed rats are: 1) Stressed rats consumed fewer calories and gained
weight less rapidly than non-stressed rats. (This observation confirmed that the stressors we used were
effective.) 2) Stressed rats over-eat only if access to Froot Loops is intermittent, that is on MWF. This may
be binge eating and seems to coincide with the tendency of humans to overeat on highly palatable foods
that are not always available. 3) Stressed rats with daily access to FL do not over-eat. When projected to
humans, many of whom live in some degree of stress, Kishan’s results suggest that regularly eating small
amounts of highly appealing foods is preferable to avoiding them most of the time and then succumbing
to the temptation periodically which could result in bouts of extreme overconsumption.
Kishan’s and Robynn’s experiments have been summarized in research posters that will be presented
in April 2008 at the annual meeting of the Association of Southeastern Biologists, and in July 2008 in
Paris, France at the international meeting of the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behaviors. Of course,
over the summer additional questions emerged. For example, it may be that how quickly an animal or
person eats may influence how much they can eat before “getting full.” We’ve designed an experiment
to be conducted during the fall of 2007 to get an answer to this question. Thus the research conducted
with the support of the Fullerton Foundation for the Community of Scholars will extend into the next
semester with the involvement of another student who has
demonstrated a strong interest in this area of research.
The health consequences of excessive weight are well
known and provide strong justification for basis research such
as we report here. Much remains to be learned about the
mechanisms that contribute to overeating in humans. Although
there are obvious limitations to using rats as model organisms,
these animals may provide insights that may lead to treatment
strategies for humans who tend to overeat and thus become
overweight or obese.
23
Coming to Greenville — The Salvation Army’s History and
Continuing Impact in Greenville, South Carolina
Jessie Davis ’09
The Salvation Army has a long history in Greenville, SC, starting with a failed
establishment in 1888, and then its permanent foundation in late fall of 1904.
This research paper investigates the history of the Salvation Army in Greenville
and the current social impact of the Army. I also investigated the racial climate
of Greenville at the time in order to understand the racial tensions that are not
focused on in Salvationist history. Although the Salvation Army has many national
programs such as the Kettle Campaign and Angel Tree, this research concentrates
on the Army specifically in Greenville and the programs and progressions that
make it unique. Some of these programs are highlighted here.
The Salvation Army building on East Broad Street was the first Salvation Army specific building in
the state of South Carolina. From this beginning, the other Salvation Army programs were started such as
the Citadel church, shelters, etc.
Gathering of Salvation Army workers meeting
in the early 1900s on East Court Street
Salvation Army Citadel Church in 1952
The Bruner Children’s Home
The Bruner Children’s Home, named after financial contributor and
long time volunteer Nell Bruner, was started in 1906 by Miss Sarah
Davis. However, as she aged she became unable to continue the work
and asked the Salvation Army to take over the home, which they did
in June 1917. Brigadier Mary E. Bebout took command of the home
and many children, mostly orphans in the beginning, were raised in
the home under staff members that served more as “godparents.”
The home strived to make lives normal for all of its children and had
many success stories such as the famous Justice triplets. In 1949, the
Bruner Home was closed and the children transferred to the care of
the Children’s Center in Greenville.
24
Emma Moss Booth Memorial Hospital
The Emma Moss Booth Memorial Hospital was established
in May 1908 by Captain Mary Milton and A. Palmer. It was
originally started to aid troubled mill workers (textile mills
were the main industry in Greenville) and girls who were “in
trouble”. The hospital was a vital resource for the Greenville
community because of its state of the art infant wards, lights,
infant elevators, and even a school of nursing. However, the
Great Depression put a tremendous strain on Salvation Army
funding and the hospital had to be sold, but continues to
Nurses at the Emma Moss Booth Memorial
operate as the St. Francis Hospital in Vandry Heights.
Hospital in 1925
The Salvation Army Boys and Girls Club
In 1938, Mr. P.D. Meadors, a Greenville candy
manufacturer decided to start the Red Shield Boys Club
because he caught some boys breaking into his candy store
and felt that they needed positive reinforcement rather
than punishment. Meetings were started in the back of the
Broad St. location of the Salvation Army and Lieutenant
Robert Burchett was the first officer assigned to help run the
Boys Club. The club continued to be focused on “building
citizens” and in 1948 officially became called the Salvation
Army Boys and Girls Club. By 1950 the Club occupied the
The current Salvation Army facility and bus on
whole Army building and so in 1969 the Club was able to
Owens Street
move to its present location on Owens Street. It continues
to provide after school and summer tutoring and recreation of all sorts to area Greenville children,
transporting them on their buses.
The Kroc Community Center
Joan Kroc, the widow of the McDonald’s founder Ray Kroc,
died in 2003 and left $1.6 billion to the national Salvation Army.
This money is being used to build and sustain Ray and Joan Kroc
Community Centers across the country. Greenville was one of the
first nine cities to be approved to receive one of these community
centers. All locations are required to raise $15 million to prove
community commitment to the project, and then they will get
Joan Kroc
the $50 million grant to build the facility and sustain programs.
Greenville currently lacks $600,000 to complete its $15 million, and
thus leads the nation in fundraising, making it probable that Greenville will have the first Ray and Joan
Kroc Community Center in the country. The facility is to be the new home of the Salvation Army
Boys and Girls Club as well as contain a 16-court tennis complex, golf training academy, swimming
center, computer center, tutoring, day care, fine arts, adult education services, etc. It will also be built
in conjunction with a new elementary school, A.J. Wittenberg Elementary School. The Center is
projected to open in the spring of 2008 off of Academy Street in West Greenville.
25
Women Writing Doctoral Dissertations:
Shared Stories from Across the Disciplines
Dr. Christine Sorrell Dinkins, Department of Philosophy
Saying to a fellow student, I’m feeling like I really can’t cope,
and hearing “I feel the same way,” it sort of relieves a lot
and makes you realize maybe you’re not as abnormal as you
perceive yourself to be.
~ “Callie”
This book-in-progress focuses on the experiences of women writing doctoral dissertations. The
study is designed to help faculty and students better understand how to facilitate the process of writing
a dissertation. There has been little research undertaken to understand the factors that act as aids and
barriers to the process of writing a dissertation. While the primary goal of the study is to help students
who are currently preparing for or writing a dissertation, the issues have significance for administration of
doctoral programs and for doctoral faculty, since considerable costs are reflected in students extending the
dissertation process past the usual timeframe.
The quotation from “Callie” above
indicates that dissertators are likely to
benefit from hearing stories of others who
have struggled on similar paths. In fact,
a feeling that “nobody understands me”
was expressed by participants in nearly all
the interviews. It is therefore hoped that
this book, by sharing stories from women
across the globe and in diverse disciplines,
will help each reader understand that she is
not so unlike others and that the territory
she treads does not have to be entirely new
and strange. In addition, it is hoped that
each reader will gain insight, inspiration,
and guidance from detailed stories of the
struggles and successes of other women.
Damian, Woman Writing
The researchers originally included men as well as women in the study, but early interviews
suggested that women experience the dissertation in unique ways.
26
Anschutz, Woman Writing at a Table
In addition, a critical incident
storytelling approach was used to engage
participants in describing an incident
that stood out in their minds about the
dissertation process. Transcripts of the
interviews were read and analyzed with a
hermeneutic analytic approach framed by
the German philosophers Heidegger and
Gadamer.
Participants who were currently dissertating or who
had completed a dissertation within the last four years were
interviewed. Each interview employed Socratic questioning
and dialogue, which consisted of asking participants to
define key concepts, i.e. “What, to you, is a dissertation?”
and then asking follow-up questions based on the response.
The goal was to reach the participant’s deepest and richest
beliefs on the issues, including beliefs of which she may not
have been explicitly aware.
W
hen you start you think, oh, I’m going to
answer an enormous question and make such a
difference. But that’s just not true. You’re going to answer
maybe a part of a question, or you’re going to add to the
body of knowledge about a question that others are working
on. But that kept me up at night, you know?
~ “Mary”
Themes that emerged will serve as the focus for
chapters in the finished book. These include: Mystery
of the Dissertation Process; Isolation of the Student
Role; and Transformation of Personal Relationships.
Mystery for many participants was caused by a lack of
guidance from faculty and a lack of helpful literature
to assist students in preparing and planning for such
a lengthy written work. Isolation was often caused by
uncommunicative advisors and by family and friends
who meant well but simply failed to understand how to
be supportive, or lost patience when the process went
on for multiple years. Relationships were transformed
Vermeer, Woman Writing a Letter
in positive and negative ways. Participants reached
new understandings and sympathies with partners and
children, but also lost friends who resented how much the dissertation took away from what
would otherwise have been time spent together.
Despite many negative experiences, every participant emphasized the hope they had managed to find
during the writing process; also, those who had completed the dissertation expressed immense pride and a
great sense of accomplishment.
This study is co-authored by Dr. Jeanne Sorrell of George Mason University.
27
Understanding the View: Exploring Attitudes Towards
Landscape in the Italian Renaissance.
Dr. Karen Goodchild, Department of Fine Arts
The Project:
Over the next 24 months, I will consolidate my work on the topic of Renaissance
landscape painting into a book-length manuscript, with the preliminary title
Understanding the View: Exploring Attitudes Towards Landscape in the Italian Renaissance. This
summer, with the support of
the Fullerton Foundation, I
was able to bring myself upto-date with recent research
in the field of landscape
studies. I will present some of my summer research
in a paper titled “Take thyself to Venus’ Realm:
Landscape and Medicine in Renaissance Italy,”
to be delivered in Chicago in March 2008 at the
Renaissance Society of America Conference.
Giorgione, The Tempest, c1501
With its large foreground figures, this work might
not look to modern eyes like a landscape painting,
but in 1521 it was described simply as “the little
landscape… with a tempest, a gypsy woman and
a soldier.” Descriptions like this show us that we
cannot use our own genre categories to understand
what a Renaissance viewer would have classified
as a landscape.
Polidoro da Caravaggio, Landscape,
San Silvestro at Quirinale, 1525’
The most renowned art theorist of the 16th Century,
Giorgio Vasari, wrote of Polidor’s landscapes that they
were “executed with supreme grace and judgment. For
Polidoro… executed landscapes and groups of rocks and
trees better than any other painter.” Polidor was extremely
interested in ancient art, and in his paintings at S. Silvestro,
one sees a new interest in “classicizing” landscape, evident
in both the heroic scale and the likeness to ancient Roman
wall painting.
*Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Painters, Sculptors and
Architects, Two Volumes, translated by Gaston du C. de
Vere (1927, reprinted 1996), I.893.
28
Description of the Proposed Book
Landscape was not acknowledged as a
distinct genre of art until the late fifteenth
Proposed table of contents:
century and, even after it was recognized,
Chapter One: Contemporary vs. Renaissance Theories of
discussions of the genre in artistic theory
Landscape Painting and the Material Reality of Landscape
are brief. Because of this, it is difficult to
in the Renaissance
understand what audiences and theorists
Chapter Two: The Salutary Doctrine and the Sensual
thought about the new genre. To reconstruct
Justification for Landscape Painting
their views I look closely at a variety of
texts from antiquity, the late Middle Ages
Chapter Three: Parerga to Paragone, Ancient to Early
and the Renaissance, including artistic
Modern: The Renaissance Reading of Ancient Texts on
treatises and descriptions, love poetry,
Landscape Painting
and treatises on medicine and feminine
Chapter Four: The Feminine Language of Landscape
beauty. Proceeding chronologically, the
Painting
first chapter of my text will demonstrate
Chapter Five: A Concluding Case Study: Giorgio
how medieval and renaissance medicine
Vasari’s Theory of Landscape: Giorgio Vasari’s Theory of
shaped the understanding of landscapes as
Landscape
objects providing sensual pleasure. Then I
will consider how the eager assimilation of
ancient texts in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries molded attitudes towards the genre
of landscape painting. Next, I will demonstrate how, having been defined in antiquity and the Middle
Ages as sensual, colorful, irrational, foreign and pleasurable, landscape begin to be discussed as a feminine
genre. Finally, I will examine the writings of the most prolific mid-sixteenth century writer on art,
Giorgio Vasari, in order to show how my analysis is borne out in actual Renaissance descriptions of art.
Ultimately, through consultation of a wide variety of sources, a coherent notion of landscape will emerge.
Renaissance writers value landscape for its colorful, mimetic details and skillful spatial illusions, yet,
paradoxically, they denigrate it for these same things. Thus landscape is categorized as a “feminine” genre,
ornamental and allowing great artistic virtuosity to be displayed, but potentially deceptive in its sensual
allure.
Marc Antonio Raimondi, The Dream of
Raphael c. 1507-10
This print brings together many elements
that delighted 16th Century viewers: night
scenes, reflected light, fantastic monsters and
nude women. As such, it should be compared
to Giorgione’s The Tempest (figure 1). Both
are works that bring together elemental and
atmospheric effects (lightening, fire), with
human flesh in a natural setting.
29
Stress Induces Overeating in Laboratory Rats
Kishan Govind ’08
This summer I spent 10 weeks working on a Community of Scholars
research project using rats as an animal model to explore the effects of stress
and limited access to a highly palatable food on binge-eating. I wanted to know
whether rats will binge-eat (overeat when satiated) on a food they really like
(Froot Loops®) and when they are under stress.
To determine whether rats were binging, we had to measure their food
intake daily for 28 consecutive days. It was essential to know exactly how much
chow and Froot Loops they ate during each 24 hour period. Placing Froot Loops
on top of the cage with the chow pellets would not work because they would fall
through and get lost in the bedding. We spent a considerable amount of time
developing the method of giving the rats Froot Loops. We needed a method
of Froot Loops distribution that made it easy to take measurements of Froot Loops and was easy for the
rats to access. After 3 weeks of pilot
studies, we found that Froot Loops
threaded on an acrylic rod was the best
way to satisfy our criteria. We spent a
considerable amount of time each day,
during our experiment, making “Froot
Loops kabobs” for the next day—this
was a tedious and time-consuming
method.
A major aspect of my experiment
that took much effort to develop and
Above, me ardently making Froot Loops shish kabobs for our rats, one of
which is seen in the picture on the right.
Above, some completed Froot Loops®
shish-kabobs
refine was the stresses we were imposing upon the rats. The stresses
used were tilted cage, wet bedding (similar to sleeping in a wet
sleeping bag), continuous light for 36 hours, and water deprivation
followed by an empty bottle. The biggest problem we encountered was
with the cage tilt. We brainstormed many ways of doing this: tilting
every cage with individual cardboard boxes or PVC pipes, etc. Finally
Dr. Davis came up with the idea of tilting the racks upon which
the rat cages sat. When we tried it, the tilted racks worked perfectly,
because the walls the racks leaned against and the clamps eliminated
instability.
30
We saw that the stressed rats ate less than the
non-stressed rats, but the only rats that binge ate
were the ones that were stressed and received
Froot Loops three days a week (they ate much
more on days that they received Froot Loops than
on days that they did not get Froot Loops). This
suggests that neither stress nor limited access,
by themselves, cause over-eating, but instead
both are
necessary
for bingeeating to
Above, me giving our rats these shish-kabobs during an
take place.
experiment
This is
pertinent because it indicates that if humans who are worried about
over-eating simply eat either a little bit of what they like each day or
try to reduce their stress levels they will be able to keep from bingeeating.
This has been a valuable experience for me, because before this
summer I had not had an opportunity to do research. The research
method of learning is different from conventional lecturing, and
I knew this. I was not sure if this was a method of learning I was
interested in for the sake of future projects. I have learned that I do
enjoy this aspect of science, and will hopefully be able to venture
into this realm in
the near future, in
or after medical
school. I have
picked up useful
skills such as
conquering small
obstacles in the
development of
an experiment
using the materials
you have around
you, the care and
use of laboratory
animals, and using
statistical and dataplotting software.
Tilted cages
31
Synthesis and Photochemical Reactivity
of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne
Ryon Hamilton ’08, Chemistry
Introduction:
The importance of photochemistry to life cannot be overstated. The
photosynthetic process that harvests energy from the sun is necessary to support
advanced life on our planet. The process of human vision is initiated by a
photochemical event: the absorption of light by cis-retinal to form trans-retinal. This
photochemical isomerization is a model we can use to investigate the photochemistry
of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne. The planar structure of this compound is important as a
component of a class of antitumor-antibiotic molecules capable of cleaving DNA.
From this work we have observed the photoisomerization of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne to trans-hex-3ene-1,5-diyne at room temperature, however we observe photoreactivity that indicates a non-reversible
change in cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne occurring in
the solid at low temperatures (20 K).
Synthesis:
cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne is not a
commercially available compound and must
be synthesized by a two step mechanism
involving the palladium-catalyzed coupling of
trimethylsily acetylene to cis-dichloroethylene
followed by a deprotecting step using
tertiary butyl ammonium fluoride. The
reaction progress is followed by thin layer
chromatography, NMR spectroscopy and GC/
MS spectroscopy.
Spectroscopic Identification:
After synthetic preparation of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne the compound was characterized using
two types of molecular spectroscopy. First the compound was investigated using a combination of
gas chromatography and mass
spectroscopy (below). This analysis
showed the reaction solution to be a
mixture of two compounds in similar
concentrations with mass 74 amu
and 147 amu respectively. The mass
spectroscopy is extremely useful for
determining the atoms present in a
molecule, but is limited in identifying
the molecular geometry.
32
Every molecule vibrates in a unique way, through the stretching and bending of chemical bonds. The
vibrational spectrum of a molecule is a molecular fingerprint that can uniquely identify a molecule. The
vibrational spectrum of cis-hex-3ene-1,5-diyne was recorded for the
first time as a low temperature solid
during this project (spectrum left).
The identification of the molecular
vibrations of this molecule was
aided by a match to a theoretically
calculated spectrum. The
downward bands are due to the
impurity hexamethyl disiloxane.
Photochemistry:
The photochemical reactivity of
cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was studied
by irradiating the low-temperature
solid sample and the room
temperature gas sample with the
UV radiation (250 nm, 100 W) mercury
arc lamp. The photochemical changes
were monitored by observing the changes
in the vibrational spectrum. Frame (a)
below shows the decrease of vibrational
band intensity of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne
as it is reacted away upon exposure to UV
radiation. The growth of photoproducts
is observed as the growth of new
vibrational bands (Frame (b) below). A
continued increase in band intensity is
observed with a longer exposure to UV
radiation. Interestingly the gas phase
photoirradiation produces exclusively
the trans isomer while
photoirradiation of
the low temperature
solid produces the
trans isomer along
with other, yet to
be determined
photoproducts.
33
The Emerging Church in the American South
Stephen Harris ’08
I used to consider myself a hip, “with-it” person. With an ear to the
underground, I thought I knew what trends were coming and going. But when I
worked at the Jammin’ Java coffee shop in Columbia, SC, last summer, I was late to
the game in catching onto the religious lives of my co-workers. When they said they
were Christians, and that they loved their church, I naively assumed they went to the
typical Southern Baptist, mainline, or non-denominational church.
But they soon corrected me, and (without offending my religious traditions) they
explained that their church was one where dialogue and questioning of Christian
doctrine was not only accepted, but encouraged in order to grow in the journey of a transforming faith.
They said that their church was focused more on community than services, and that their focus was
to create authentic, intimate friendships, based not just on religious similarities, but based on Christ’s
command to love everyone. They spoke of a special focus on social justice, and the need to realize and be
part of the present Kingdom of God. This, and many of the other things they said was very different from
the religious climate I was used to, and this got me interested. After doing some preliminary research, I
found that the type of church they were describing falls under the Emerging Church movement.
I quickly learned that the Emerging Church is disputed and controversial. Some say that it is the
second coming of the Early Church, while others say it will cause the destruction of “true” Christianity.
One of the main causes of this problem is that there are as many definitions of the Emerging Church as
there are Emergents. My first goal was to create a comprehensive definition of the Emerging Church that
would provide an accurate portrayal of this movement.
I also quickly learned that the Emerging Church was a new breed of churches. Having lived in the
“Bible Belt” my whole life, I quickly realized that for better or for worse, Southerners are typically not
open to new ways of religious expression. The collision of the old way of Christianity and a new way
created the second goal of my research: to examine how the Emerging Church deals with and fares in the
South.
To facilitate my research, I read numerous books ranging in subject from the Emerging Church to
Postmodernity to religious conditions in
the South. I visited Emerging Churches
in my area, which included The Quest
in Augusta, SC, Warehouse 242 and
Threshold Church in Charlotte, The
Shack in Columbia, and Emmaus
Way in Durham, NC. While at these
churches, I interviewed pastors and
leading figures in the Emerging Church
Movement.
From all of this, I was able to create
my definition, which says that because
of Postmodernism’s recent influences, a
new stream of church has been created,
34
which is popular among mainly 18-30
year olds in large cities. These Emerging
Churches have a focus on knocking
down barriers which create non-essential
differences and unnecessary conflict, they
create authentic, intimate communities
of Christians, and they strive to make
their lives holistically spiritual. Emergent
leaders typically come from Evangelical
backgrounds, which traditionally are
not open to new expressions of faith.
Emergents take issue with this resistance
to new things, and create their own
churches that are less suspicious of
change. Emerging Churches are typically
autonomous, with no hierarchical links
to other churches, although there are some exceptions. The closest thing to a para-Emerging Church
organization is a loose confederation of church leaders called Emergent Village, which has been described
as a conversation, not a governing body.
As for my second goal, I found that the biggest difference in the Southern Emerging Church is
that Southerners will typically have a conservative religious background, which creates a unique set of
challenges for Emerging Churches.
The Emerging Church, by
definition, conflicts with Southern
Evangelical culture, which has
become the civil religion of the
South. Southern religious culture
is often stifling and too focused
on tradition and lifeless rituals
for many young people. Because
of the collision of Postmodern
religion and Evangelical culture,
the Emerging Church has faced a
myriad of challenges in the South,
including: the nature of salvation,
the definition of the Gospel, and
the need for progressive social
justice.
The Community of Scholars program has been a great opportunity for me. It was my first chance to
do real, independent, and in-depth research. By looking at the Emerging Church and South, I was able to
learn many things about our religious past, the present condition of faith, and the future of the nature of
Church.
35
Nearly Almost Perfect Numbers
Ryan Hill ’08, Mathematics
Is there such a thing as perfection?
In ancient Greek numerology, certain
numbers were called perfect because
of a property of the sum of their
divisors. Many famous mathematicians,
including Euclid, Euler, Mersenne, and
Fermat, have studied perfect numbers.
Mathematicians use a special
function that determines the perfection
of a number. The divisor function,
σM), gives the sum of all the divisors of
a positive integer M. If σ(M) = 2M, then M is perfect. What if
σ(M) ≠ 2M? This summer I looked at integers that produced an
error term from this equality.
In March 1973, R.P. Jerrard and Nicholas Temperley of
the University of Illinois published an article in Mathematics
Magazine titled “Almost Perfect Numbers.” They defined F(M) =
2M – σ(M). If F(M) = 0, then M is perfect. When F(M) > 0, M is
called perfect-plus and when F(M) < 0, M is called perfect-minus. Jerrard and Temperely investigated the
properties of perfect-minus-one (PM1) and perfect-plus-one (PP1) numbers.
They showed that PM1 numbers are odd squares greater than 1,382,511,906,801,025 with at least
seven distinct odd prime factors, and that no multiple of a PM1 number is PM1. For PP1 numbers, they
showed that every power of 2 is PP1, but did not find any other examples.
Four years later in The American Mathematical Monthly, Sidney Kravitz proposed a discussion on
perfect-plus-two (PP2) numbers. K. Inkeri
from the University of Turku, Finland,
provided the discussion, noting that “All
the pp2 numbers, which have at most two
distinct prime factors, are given by n =
2k-1(2k + 1) where 2k + 1 is prime (k ≥ 1).”
He also pointed out that if a PP2 number is
given by 2apk then k = 1.
My research this summer corroborated
Inkeri’s findings, giving more detailed
analysis of the results. While Inkeri showed
all PP2 numbers of at most two distinct
primes must be given by n = 2k-1(2k + 1),
I refined his results to show that k must be
36
power of 2. I also noted that 2k + 1 is called a Fermat Number. Recall that in the case of PP2 numbers,
2k + 1 must be a prime number, and thus is actually a Fermat Prime. As of January 2007 there are only
five known Fermat Primes; therefore only five PP2 numbers of at most two distinct primes have been
identified.
I also elaborated on Inkeri’s results. Using a contradiction argument, I showed a number of the form
M = 2npk is PP2 if and only if k = 1 and p is a Fermat Prime. Furthermore, if p and q are odd primes
such that q ≥ p2 + 1, then no PP2 number can be of the form 2npq. The figure to the right shows the first
few lines of this proof. Partial results have been found for the case when p < q < p2 + 1.
While the majority of my work focused on PP2 numbers, I also discovered a pattern of F(M) when M
is of a particular form. If M = 2a-1(2a + b), where 2a + b is prime, then F(M) equals b + 1. In order for
2a + b to be prime, b must be odd, thus, F(M) will be even, with one exception. When b = 0, F(M) = 1.
I’ve had an amazing time this summer. This was my first experience in serious mathematical research,
and I feel that I have a better understanding of full time research. Since Wofford does not offer classes
in Number Theory, this project gave me a taste of a completely different field of mathematics. I feel this
summer has helped to prepare me for whatever schooling or career I choose.
The Community of Scholars has also given me new and stronger friendships with my fellow students
and professors. I am filled with pride whenever I hear my friends who are doing research at other
institutions say how jealous they are of Wofford’s Community of Scholars. The chance to experience and
learn about areas outside of my field while at the same time conducting my own research has been as
rewarding as it has been fascinating.
37
Discovering, Conjecturing, Proving
Dr. Charlotte Knotts-Zides, Mathematics
Virtually every incoming college student is familiar with the Pythagorean
Theorem from their high-school geometry class; this theorem states that, given a
right-angled triangle, the sum of the squares of the two shorter sides (called legs)
of the triangle is equal to the square of the longer side (called the hypotenuse) of
the triangle. A few years ago I incorporated into my freshmen-level liberal arts
mathematics course a three-week module of activities based on the Pythagorean
Theorem; my goal of this section was to enable students to become aware of
“what mathematicians do”. The students are led through a series of activities
stressing three key concepts: discovering, conjecturing and proving.
In the first activity, pairs of students are asked to identify triangles in the
classroom building and to measure the lengths of each side of the triangle. Students present their
examples along with their measurements and we look at the pattern that we observe: if a triangle appears
to have a right angle, the sum of the squares of the two shorter sides of the triangle is approximately equal
to the square of the longer side; conversely, if the triangle does not have a right angle, this property does
not seem to hold.
This activity may seem simple but, in
fact, it represents “what mathematicians
do”: they observe the world around
them and discover patterns which lead
to conjectures about the nature of
mathematical reality. In my students’ case,
the pattern they observed led them to form
the conjecture: the sum of the squares of the
two shorter sides of the right-angled triangle
is equal to the square of the longer side of
the triangle.
Notice that our observation of the
pattern we discovered in the triangles and the
conjecture we formed differ slightly! Most
students correctly observe that one reason for
the difference is that our measurements may be
inaccurate. However, here is an uncomfortable
possibility that mathematicians must face when
creating conjectures: what if the conjecture itself is
incorrect? In our case, even if one could accurately
measure the sides of one right-angled triangle and
demonstrate the conjecture is correct, that provides
no guarantee that all right-angled triangles have
this same property. We need an argument that
38
demonstrates the correctness of the conjecture, regardless of which triangle we’re observing. This final
step, creating an argument that convinces the audience of the correctness of the conjecture, is the essence
of mathematics, a process known as a proof.
How did we prove our conjecture? With a geometric argument! We first discuss how the squares of
the two shorter sides of the triangle actually represent the area of the two smaller squares formed from the
shorter sides of the triangle (see the figure) and the square of the hypotenuse is represented by the area of
the largest square. Now, proving the Pythagorean Theorem geometrically means showing that the sum of
the areas of the two smaller squares is exactly the same as the area of the largest square; one way to show
this is to cover both areas with identical shapes. For example, the same four triangles and a small square
will cover both the large square and the two smaller squares simultaneously.
The students are then asked to demonstrate this proof to two individuals who are not in the class (for
example, roommates or parents) and to write a two-page response on this activity. The response should
include a detailed explanation of how the proof was demonstrated to the individuals, their reactions to the
explanation, the student’s thoughts on teaching this idea, and how this activity helped them to understand
more fully the Pythagorean Theorem itself, the mathematical concept of “proving” an idea, and the
concept of “what mathematicians do”. The students have one week to turn in the assignment; during this
week, we complete more activities on applying the Pythagorean Theorem to real-world problems and on
discovering extensions of the theorem (such as Fermat’s Last Theorem, a conjecture stated hundreds of
years ago but only proved within the last decade!) After the students have completed the assignment, Most of the students felt that they understood the theorem better by using a hands-on approach to the
proof and by presenting the material to another person. The increase in their self-confidence as a result
of explaining a mathematical idea to another person was clearly apparent! Each of semester assessments
show that the majority of students express a greater appreciation for mathematicians as a result of these
activities.
39
Imagination and Identity in the Literature of Austrian
and German Exiles to China during WWII
Dr. Kirsten A. Krick-Aigner, Department of Foreign Languages
While completing research for a project on literature by Austrian and German
women writing about their lives during WWII, I came across recent memoirs
by women and men detailing their experiences as Austrian and German exiles
to Shanghai, China during WWII. While most of the world closed its doors to
Jews fleeing Nazi persecution, Shanghai, occupied by the Japanese, was letting in
refugees without visas or passports. Most of the nearly 20, 000 who fled to China
between 1938 and 1941 spent their last savings for transport to China and many
lived there in extreme poverty. Their first months or years were spent in refugee
housing, set up by Western Europeans and
Russians already working and living in
Shanghai. While many individuals, such as
doctors, lawyers, teachers, business people, hairstylists, musicians,
builders, and cooks could find employment within this community,
some had to reinvent themselves in order to survive. Most lived in
the area of Hongkew, or the Ghetto, which was controlled by the
Japanese. In 1945, after the war ended, most survivors had no place
to which to return, and emigrated instead to countries which had
loosened their emigration laws, such as Australia, Canada, and
the United States. For most, their difficult journey to China, their
losses at home and during exile, the consequences of the Holocaust Above: Jetlagged, at the Wiener Library.
for themselves and for their extended families, the murder of most
of their family members and friends back home, and the years of
starvation and poverty, took its toll on their mental and physical health.
The memoirs I discuss in my project are by those who physically survived their time in exile, and by
those who had the opportunity and courage to recall and share their personal experiences with readers
today, often fifty years after leaving China. Since there is little or no current comprehensive work on this
body of literary work, I decided to focus my research this summer on the social history of this Germanspeaking Jewish exile community; more specifically, on the common experiences shared by men and
women displaced by war.
My current research took me to the Wiener Library in London, England, which houses a substantial
collection of materials on Austrian and German Jews, especially on those in exile. I was able to find some
documents, personal accounts by survivors, and more secondary literature on this topic. With the help of
these materials, and other books ordered through the Wofford Library, I attempt to reconstruct the history
of events concerning this large exile movement to China, thereby giving a context to recurrent themes
expressed in this collection of memoirs.
Some of the themes common to this collection of memoirs include basic shared experiences such as
the sense of loss, alienation, loneliness, and mourning in exile, illness, starvation, and often, a reassessment
of individual and communal moral conduct in light of pure physical survival. More complex themes
40
emerge, such as how romantic and idyllic notions of China in the authors’ imagination and early
childhood memory differ greatly from the reality of living in abject poverty as foreigners in Japaneseoccupied China, men’s, but especially women’s, reproductive health and choices during this difficult time
in exile, and community formation through a shared traumatic experience rather than through traditional
social networks based on employment and social status. Most tragic to me was the expression of mourning
for the loss of childhood written in memoirs as experienced by children and teenagers coming of age
during this time. It gave me hope, however, to learn from numerous sources that the exile community
found joy and hope in the creation of numerous theater groups, bands, classical music groups, choirs,
cabarets, and literary circles. The authors of these memoirs have a story to tell about the terrible and
long-lasting consequences of war, the human condition under extreme conditions, and the power of
literature to enable readers to experience this unique time in history.
Selected Related Works in English:
•
Ursula Bacon. Shanghai Diary. A Young Girl’s Journey from Hitler’s Hate to War-Torn
China. Milwaukee Press, 2002.
•
Ernest G. Heppner. Shanghai Refuge.: A Memoir of the World War II Jewish Ghetto.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993.
•
Ingrid, Jacoby. My Darling Diary. A wartime journal – Vienna 1937-39, Falmouth
1939-44. Cornwall: United Writers1998.
•
Rena Krasno. Strangers Always: A Jewish Family in Wartime Shanghai. Berkeley, CA:
Pacific View Press, 1992.
•
Vivian Jeanette Kaplan. Ten Green Bottles. The True Story of One Family’s Journey from
War-Torn Austria to the Ghettos of Shanghai. New York: St. Martin’s Press. 2002.
•
Sigmund Tobias. Strange Haven: A Jewish Childhood in Wartime Shanghai. Urbana and
Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1999.
•
Film Documentary: Dana Janklowics-Mann and Amir Mann. Shanghai Ghetto.
2002. (Available through Netflix)
•
Film Documentary: Paul Rosdy and Joan Grossman. The Port of Last Resort.
Zuflucht in Shanghai. 1998. (Available through Netflix)
41
Joseph Paxton on Cultivating the English Garden
Vanessa Lauber ’08
Arriving in the early morning hours at the Duke
of Devonshire’s estate, Chatsworth, as the new head
gardener, the young Joseph Paxton climbed the gate,
walked the grounds, set the landscapers to work, and
met his future wife — all before breakfast. A largely
self-educated man, Paxton, during both his time as head
gardener and as a publisher of horticultural periodicals,
pioneered the nineteenth Gardenesque style of landscape
design that emphasized gardening with a mind to the
scientific principles of the cultivation of plants. For Paxton, landscape design
became both a science and art, in which the beauty of plants cultivated after studying their environmental
and climatic needs would come together in
a unified presentation of the natural world’s
grandeur. Though Paxton’s notoriety arose
largely from his work on the Chatsworth estate
and his later achievements in architecture, the
contribution of Paxton to gardening that I have
been studying involves his work in promoting
its expansion beyond the realm of the wealthy
aristocrat to that of the average working and
middle class individual, who could cultivate his
garden and in turn himself.
It was in fact only in the nineteenth century that the garden truly became accessible to those outside
of the land-owning aristocrats. Public gardens offered a retreat for the working public, an oasis of nature
in the midst of bustling cities and industrialized filth. With burgeoning
industrialism came for many, particularly in the newly expanding middle
classes, an increase in disposable income and leisure time. As a result,
people were also able to cultivate their own gardens — a growth in interest
representative of their own expanding power. In response to the interest
in botany and horticulture, experienced
professional gardeners began offering
horticultural guides outlining the fine points of
cultivation.
Unique in his contribution to the
horticultural periodicals that proliferated in the
mid-nineteenth century, Paxton stated in his
introduction to Paxton’s Magazine of Botany
and Register of Flowering Plants, published
from 1834-1849, that he wished to surmount
the “formidable barrier facing those who have had little practical experience
or opportunity for observation” by providing intelligible and practical
42
reference offered at an affordable price. In addition to articles on principles of horticulture and calendars
of operations, his periodical included in every issue four colored plates introducing exotic plants collected
around the world and instructions for cultivating them in England. In the wealth of information that
Paxton was able to make accessible, he in many respects succeeded in his
goals for the periodical, converting his extensive experience into accessible
instruction.
Among his ambitions for the magazine, Paxton implied hopes that in
improving the quality of British gardens, he could in fact help to improve
the quality of the British person. Indeed, in a series of articles published
in the periodical’s sixth volume, entitled “Familiar Hints to Young
Gardeners on Mental Improvement,” Paxton draws a direct correlation
between the activities of a properly instructed gardener and the aspects
of self-improvement so prized by Victorian culture. As typified by his
early morning gate-climbing, Paxton’s rise from humble beginnings and
enthusiastic subsequent ambition in the fields of gardening, architecture,
politics, investment, and
public service through
self-improvement mark him as what can be considered
the epitome of the Victorian — seeking ways through
application to improve himself and those around him.
My research as part of the Community of Scholars
has been comprised of examining Paxton’s periodical,
using his work as a lens to examine the role of gardening
in defining a new identity for the middle classes in the
shifting social structure and burgeoning industrialism.
The results of this summer’s work will lead into research
I will be conducting as a senior capstone project,
examining the activities of nineteenth-century plant hunters, whose exploration brought back to Britain—
to professional gardeners such as Paxton and to his readers — exotic plants that even in serving as a
distraction and relief from urban industrialism, were constant reminders of the expansive reach of British
influence.
43
Does the Effect of Scheduled Intermittent Access to a
Highly Palatable Carbohydrate Rich Food Trigger
Binge Eating in Laboratory Rats?
Robynn Mackechnie ’08, Biology
As a junior biology major at Wofford College, I became interested in research
during a semester course, Introduction to Research (Bio 250). In this course the
class and professor choose a topic to explore through an experiment as well as
reading and presenting scientific publications. Community of Scholars provided
an opportunity for research that is rare to undergraduates. I was involved in
the research process from beginning to end. I chose the topic and designed the
experiment, as well as analyzing the data and presenting the findings of my
research. Community of Scholars also provided me the opportunity to build a
relationship with my advising professor. I met with him daily throughout the 10
week program. This program promoted individual attention with a professor that
is knowledgeable in the research topic and also allowed time to build a personal relationship. Not only
did he provide guidance on the project, we also discussed the best hiking trails, politics, and my future
endeavors. My future plans are to pursue a career in the field of nutrition either in private practice as a
nutritionist or to work towards a Ph.D. in nutrition. The topic I chose incorporates my interest in this field
so that it also functions to provide experience in the field of nutrition research.
Dieting is common in our society and much attention is focused on diet and nutrition in the consumer
market. Fundamentally, dieting is limiting access to food, especially that which is highly pleasurable since
that food tends to be high in carbohydrates and fats (i.e. cake, cookies, etc.). Often dieters develop cravings
In the picture on the right, I can be seen
weighing one of the 40 rodent chow
meals that were provided daily to the
laboratory rats. The Froot Loops® were
also weighed daily so that the 24 hour
intake could be monitored.
for the very foods that they avoid, and when they allow themselves to eat the food that they are restricting
themselves from, they overindulge. This overeating, if out of control, can constitute binge eating. The
factors associated with binge eating are difficult to study under tightly controlled conditions in humans,
so there is a great need for an animal model in which feeding behaviors can be studied. This project will
use laboratory rats to further develop an animal model of binge eating. The protocol was followed from
another publication Corwin et al. 2003.
44
The experiment spanned over the course of 28 days, in which laboratory rats were given Froot Loops®
on various feeding schedules. There were four groups: the control group never received them, the regular
daily access group received Froot Loops® 7 days per week, the
regular access 3 group got them on Monday, Wednesday, and
Fridays, and the irregular access groups received Froot Loops® on
a varying schedule such that there were 0 to 4 days between their
Froot Loops® exposure. In the picture on the left the test food,
Froot Loops®, is in the front of the picture and I am working on
one of the statistical programs that interpret the data.
Based on the results rats do not binge eat on Froot Loops®.
Rather, on the days which they do not receive the highly palatable
food, they consume fewer calories. Since humans typically
regulate their food intake based on volume instead of caloric
intake, the rats are not a good model for binge eating.
Here a rat is eating a meal of Froot Loops®
from a rod that is placed on top of his cage.
Robynn Mackechnie explaining the rat
experiment to Dr. A.K. Anderson.
45
The importance of African-American soldiers
in World War II
Patrick McCain ’08
My summer research focused on the importance of African-American soldiers in World War II. Black
Americans fought and died in every war the United States have waged and, until 1948, they did so in
segregated units. In order to get first-hand accounts of serving in a segregated military, I interviewed white
and black veterans, seeking to record their feelings about ‘separate-but-equal’ service to America, as well
as some of their memories of the war.
Unfortunately, I initially had a difficult time locating prospective interviewees. Then there were
problems with scheduling to meet with some veterans. And though my focus is on African-Americans in
the war, most of those I interviewed this summer were white veterans who could provide some insight into
segregation, but who could not speak to the opinions and feelings of black veterans.
While only one-third of the veterans I contacted arranged to speak with me, I have discovered others
who are willing to meet with me over the next few months. I have scheduled interviews into the Fall
semester to bring my project to completion. My hope is that these veterans’ experiences are not simply
recorded… and forgotten. Perhaps we can find some parallel between the overt racial discrimination of
our past and the less obvious sexual prejudice of our day. During World War II, the government sent
the message that racial inequalities are justifiable. Black and white citizens were kept from serving their
country together in fully integrated units; racism effectively trumps patriotism was the message. Today, the
military’s “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy insinuates that homophobia trumps patriotism.
In the interviews, I had a few standard questions that varied, depending on the veteran’s ethnicity. I
asked white veterans to describe their
unit cohesion and how the integration
of blacks would have affected it. Not
surprisingly, most were reluctant to
speculate. Since some of the veterans
stayed in the military after World
War II had ended, I asked about
integration. Phil Piazza told me that
blacks “were good soldiers” and the
process of integration “was a smooth
transition.” The majority of white
veterans did not see black soldiers,
but Ralph Wieneke did: “I was born
and raised in Winnipeg, [Manitoba]. I
didn’t see a black man until I was
twelve [years old]. I saw a black man
in Europe; he was in the Armored
Infantry.” White veterans agreed that their units— some of them composed of Jews, Italian-Americans,
German-Americans, and even Japanese-Americans from all areas of the country— bonded. As Wieneke told
me, “You depend on each other [when in battle].”
46
When interviewing African-American veterans, I am more interested in learning what segregated units
were like. How did blacks bond in their units? What, if any, were the positives of segregated units? What
were the negatives? Given the overwhelming racism of the
day, was service easier with segregation? What, if anything,
was lost through integration? Did you prefer segregation
or integration? Are you aware that there was an integrated
crew commanded by an African-American during World
War II (it was the USS Booker T Washington commanded
by Captain Hugh Mulzac)? Until I interview more AfricanAmerica veterans, I do not feel comfortable generalizing
the answers to these questions. The black veterans I
have interviewed so far currently have different opinions
regarding segregation than they did during the war. Today,
it seems, only a racist would prefer segregation. I must
acknowledge that was not necessarily the case in World
War II.
I consider all those I interviewed to be true patriots. I
do not place one veteran’s service above another’s because
of race or any other reason. However, I would be remiss
if I did not extol the service of African-Americans in our military, especially during a war in which enemy
combatants were better cared for. I believe black patriots have best expressed their love for and devotion to
America through military service, and through service in World War II they made a connection between
oppression and racism at home and war abroad. I also believe that military service inspired many AfricanAmericans to seek and eventually claim a place in their country.
These veterans have told us much about ourselves. We can use power to destroy, control, terrorize, and
subjugate those who are thought to be less than ourselves. America did this to her wartime foes, both soldiers
and civilians. American society did the same to ethnic minorities before, during, and after World War II.
Fortunately, times have changed. Even so, we must neither forget nor ignore America’s darker days. Let us
recall the words of Winston Churchill: “Remember that we are on the stage of history, and that whatever
our station may be, and whatever part we have to play, great or small, our conduct is liable to be scrutinized
not only by history but by our own descendents.”
47
Caroline Norton and Nineteenth Century Feminist
Thought: A Documentary Collection
Dr. Anne Rodrick, Department of History
“I exist and I suffer, but the law denies my existence.”
Caroline Norton, a woman of the English upper
classes, married her husband George in 1827. The
stormy and unhappy marriage produced three sons and
continuous acrimony, mostly over lack of money. After a
failed attempt to convince a jury that leading politician
Lord Melbourne had engaged in adultery with Caroline,
George shut the doors against his wife and moved the
children out of her reach.
Rodrick
After the adultery trial was over, I learnt the law as to my children — that the right was with the father;
that neither my innocence nor his guilt could alter it; that not even his giving them into the hands of a
mistress, would give me any claim to their custody. The eldest was but six years old, the second four, the
youngest two and a half, when we were parted. I wrote, therefore, and petitioned the father and husband
in whose power I was, for leave to see them - for leave to keep them, till they were a little older. Mr.
Norton’s answer was, that I should not have them; that if I wanted to see them, I might have an interview
with them at the chambers of his attorney. What I suffered on my children’s account, none will ever know
or measure. Mr. Norton held my children as hostages, he felt that while he had them, he still had power
over me that nothing could control.
Norton, faced with the reality that under English law she “did not exist” as an autonomous individual
and therefore had no legal rights to her children or even to her own earnings as a writer, began a lifelong
pursuit of changes in the legal code. In 1839 her efforts helped frame the law that allowed wives to
petition for custody of their young children in the case of marital separation, and in 1857 England passed
laws making it possible under limited circumstances for women to sue for divorce in civil court. Caroline’s
decision to make her own personal life a catalyst for legal reform was a painful one, coming as it did in the
midst of a failed marriage and in the context of women as private rather than public individuals.
Well I know how many hundreds infinitely better than I, more pious, more patient, and less rash under
injury, have watered their bread with tears. ... My plea to attention is that, in pleading for myself I am
able to plead for all these others. For this, I believe, God gave me the power of writing. To this I devote
that power. I abjure all other writing, till I see these laws altered.
This project take selections from Caroline Norton’s writings on marriage, infant custody, and
divorce and places them in the context of a wide variety of other primary documents, including
her correspondence with Lord Melbourne, debates within Parliament over proposed reforms, and
48
commentary from contemporaries, both supporters and detractors of Norton’s efforts. Although she
adamantly denied any connection to 19th century feminist movements — which ranged from more
radical arguments about sexual equality to the increasingly popular conception of separate but equally
important spheres for men and women — much of her writing focuses on the call for basic human rights
that characterizes many strands of feminist thought.
This project will result in a volume of primary source materials to be used as a teaching tool for a
variety of courses to introduce students to issues of gender, law, justice, and politics.
My husband has a legal copyright of my works. Let him claim this!
Caroline Norton, English Laws for Women in the Nineteenth Century
(1854)
49
Energy in My Pocket
Geoff Taylor ’09
In my particular case, the research for the Community of Scholars (COS) began in the weeks of
summer before the actual dates of the COS. I had chosen to do a project comparing the French and
American Nuclear Programs, but while undertaking the research, much to my chagrin, I was not fluent
enough to read the technical and political writings necessary.
Soon the project became focused
on a local event. In Aiken, SC, the US
government is building a facility called
the Mixed Oxide (MOX) Fuel Fabrication
Facility (MFFF). This facility was spawned
from a 2000 agreement between Russia and
the United States to reduce the stockpile of
weapons-grade plutonium in both countries.
This facility converts this plutonium into
fuel that can be used in commercial nuclear
reactors to make electricity.
One could say that my research chose a
project for me rather than being able to
choose my own project for research. For my
research I had two major sources of data:
governmental release on the internet and
Thinking hard while doing research
personal interviews. I quickly found that
there was a huge amount of material available, and I would have to go through what I found to ascertain
what would actually be of use. As a French/Math double major, I hoped to work both of my majors in to the research I would
be doing this summer. In essence I succeeded. I found a good deal out about nuclear reactor physics
which includes some math, and my French was helpful as the French themselves are very involved in this
particular project.
The overall feel of the community is important too: it is a fairly tight-knit group of people. The guys
in the apartment all got along well together, and almost every day for the first few weeks, there were
discussions on politics, religion, and any other important (and unimportant) subject. There were several
cookouts throughout the summer, and everyone had a good time when they came.
The professors and the students had a good rapport also. Each student is kind of mentored by a
professor. The professor will help the student with the research or with the presentation of the research,
and sometimes the professor and the student will be conducting experiments together.
The community meals were also a time when everyone came together to share his or her struggles and
successes. Each week, at least once, the entire community would sit down for a lunch or dinner and talk
with people in the community with whom they did not often interact. Students would commonly talk to
other professors (I quickly found that it is very important to have a thorough understanding of one’s own
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project as certain professors have a tendency to grill you about your project) and other students who also
shared their research.
For me the summer was a good chance to perform
undergraduate research in a relaxed but still serious and
academically rigorous setting. I particularly benefited
from the mentoring that was set up. I found my own
project and many other projects to be fascinating,
and I certainly would choose to be a member of the
Community of Scholars in the future.
Grilling out at the Apartment
51
The Regicide of Pedro the Cruel:
A translation of La Coronica del rey don Pedro
by Pero López de Ayala
Mariel Willenberg ’09, History
My research this summer focused
on a translation of the document La
Coronica del rey don Pedro by Pero López
de Ayala. Ayala’s work remains a first
hand historical account of the years
of Pedro the Cruel’s reign of Castile
and Leon from 1334 to 1369. Ayala’s
history remains a key to the nature
of Pedro the Cruel’s kingship and
the justifications behind his eventual
overthrow and murder.
Pedro the Cruel’s history held within this document
is full of intrigue and murder. At the beginning of his
reign, plagues, church schisms, and constant unification
warfare were just a few of the problems Pedro faced.
Another problem was Pedro’s family. Pedro had numerous
half brothers who felt a blood right to high government
positions. The first half of Pedro’s reign was consumed
with regional warfare. Yet, the remainder of Pedro’s
reign was dominated by warfare with his half brother Enrrique. As Ayala documents, at the beginning of
this three year battle Pedro was victorious at the battle at Najera and maintained a strong alliance with
England. However, Pedro’s greed, numerous murders, and international debts led to his ultimate downfall.
After being captured in Montiel castle, King Pedro attempted to negotiate with a knight named Mossen
Beltran to help in his escape. Beltran, however, revealed
the king’s plan to Enrrique. Upon his arrival to the
inn where he was meant to meet the knight, Pedro was
stabbed by Enrrique in the face until his death.
Pedro’s reign, as Ayala reveals, was at a stressful
point in history. Plagues, church schisms, and economic
tensions wore down on the kings of Europe. However,
Pedro the Cruel’s constant want for gold and control of
Spain and his indebtedness to his previous and current
allies only served to increase the tension between the
nobles and their king. With numerous outside problems,
subjects turned to blame the man who was meant to
be a vessel of God. As a result, regardless of medieval
52
traditions in absolute divine monarchs, his subjects found hope in a new king, his half brother Enrrique.
As a result, the King Don Pedro was murdered in the hope of a kingship to alleviate these outside issues
rather then worsening them with constant war, greed, and murder.
This experience with a 700 year old medieval Spanish document was incredible. Out of this 200
page piece, I chose to translate in to English the last 100 pages of Ayala’s history. The hardest part
of this process was the differences between medieval Spanish and the modern Spanish language. As
a result, I purchased the Tentative Dictionary of Medieval Spanish 2nd edition compiled by Lloyd
A. Kasten and Florian J. Cody (The Hispanic Seminar of Medieval Studies: New York, 2001).
Overall, to compile a usable English portion of this primary history was a rewarding experience.
Although a worthwhile experience, I have discovered that my project is very rough and needs a much
longer session than ten weeks (possibly years). However, a complete 200 page translation with
proper Spanish archive aid, numerous translators, etc. is something that in a few years I hope to
further develop for publication. Below is a portion of my translation to give an idea of the overall
style this medieval document has given to the story of Don Pedro the Cruel.
Chapter v. What the king don Pedro did to kill Pero Aluarez of Osorio and the sons of Ferrand
Sanchez of Valladolid, and the capture of the archdeacon don Diego Arias Maldonado, and it that
he endured then.
After that the king being some days in Leon saw that he did not want to return to don Pero
Nunnez of Guzman, who was in his castle in Auiados, the king departed of Leon for Valladolid
where he found out how the Count don Enrrique and those that came with him had entered in
Castilla, and they killed the Jews of Nejara and of other places. And the king being in Valladolid
departed of Medina of the River Seco, and he went to a village that is two leagues from Valladolid
to eat, that they call Villa Nubla. And Pero Aluarez of Osorio ate that day with Diego Garcia,
master of Calatraua, in his inn, and it was Lent. And having eaten they arrived and the king
ordered two crossbowmen of arms, the said Iohan Diente, and the other Garci Diaz of Aluarrezin,
and another man of the house of the king that they call Rey Goncalez d’Atienca. And at the table
where the said Pero Aluarez was, they killed him, and later they cut off his head. And don Diego
Garcia of Padilla, master of Calatraua, didn’t know any of this, before he had great fear. And also
as soon as Pero Aluarez of Osorio was dead the king gave the governorship of Leon to Suer Perez
of Quinnones, who was the rival of Pero Nunnez of Guzman. And that day he made to arrest the
two sons of don Ferrandez Sanchez of Valladolid that came there, one they called Garci Ferrandez,
and the other Iohan Sanchez. And then the king departed from there, and went for Valladolid, and
the next day he made them to kill the king in Valladolid which he suspected from a conversation
with don Pero Nunnez by some letters that he found that they had sent to him, but they apologized
to him. And the king left Valladolid, and went to a place and city that they call Duennas, and did
seize in arriving there the archdeacon don Diego Arias Maldonado, saying that he received letters
from the Count don Enrrique, and he killed him in Burgos after eight days.
53
The German Healthcare System:
Past, Present, and Future
Claudia Winkler ’08, German, History, Economics
While I was studying abroad in Germany in the fall of 2006, I took an
Economics course that required me to research a particular aspect of the
German social market economy. I chose the healthcare system by chance
and became fascinated with the topic as I realized that the insurance scheme
that I had always regarded as an ideal system was laden with problems. I
decided to extend the research I had started in Germany by proposing it as
a Community of Scholars project and developing it into a comprehensive
overview of the German healthcare system, its present challenges, and its
outlook for the future.
I began my project with the origins of the German health insurance
scheme, focusing on the social and political environment in which Germany’s revolutionary system was
engineered. I then surveyed the insurance scheme’s structure, as an understanding of its financing and
its beneficiaries is essential to comprehending the difficulties facing Germany’s healthcare today. Last, I
put special emphasis on the current challenges to the system, as these issues will determine the long-term
success of Germany’s healthcare plan. I have compiled this information in a paper which I hope will
facilitate future cross-comparisons of countries’ healthcare systems. This inquiry should lead to a better
conception of a system that can provide basic healthcare to all people while simultaneously remaining
efficient.
Points of Interest
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
Photo Courtesy of Encyclopedia
Britannica Online
History
To understand the German healthcare system fully, I
intended to discover how it originated. Little did I know
when I began this part of my research that I would soon
stumble upon a historiographical debate. As it turns out,
historians have been in conflict for years over why Otto von
Bismarck, unifier and first chancellor of Germany, decided
to push for the Social Insurance Laws of 1881, including the
compulsory health insurance law. Some biographers claim
that it had always been Bismarck’s long-term goal to provide
social assistance to the poor, sighting as proof his sympathy
towards Silesian weavers suffering under a free market system
in the mid-1860s. Others downplay the Chancellor’s social
consciousness and instead attribute his social insurance
policy to an intricate plot devised to defeat socialism. After
researching both the social and political environment of
the mid to late 19th century, it seems that both Bismarck’s
genuine concern for social problems and his distrust of
socialism factored into his reasoning behind the proposal
54
of the Social Insurance Laws. At the time, Germany was in such a poor social and political state that
Bismarck had no choice but to take action. It is in this context that Germany’s healthcare system was born
and has been virtually unchanged since.
Current Challenges
How long the German healthcare system
can continue to go unchanged is a legitimate
question. In the last several decades, problems
have arisen that have put the system in jeopardy.
While controllable issues like mismanaged funds
are part of the problem, uncontainable issues
such as changing demographics are also creating
challenges. Birthrates in Germany have been on
a steady decline for years, but the biggest shock
regarding these statistics came after Reunification
in 1990. While women in West Germany already
had a relatively low birthrate, Eastern German
women were having nearly double the amount
of children per woman. After Reunification,
East German women were faced with economic
uncertainties, greater personal freedoms, and less
government support for women with children, and
therefore many opted not to have children at all.
As a result, Germany has the lowest birthrate of all
European Union nations.
Germany: Age Structure 2006
Graph Courtesy of the Statistisches Bundesamt
Germany’s low birthrate, however, is not the sole problem. It is this fact in conjunction with the
aging population that is threatening the vitality of the German healthcare system. Life expectancies keep
climbing in Germany, as they are all over the world, and the percentage of the population that is 65
years and older (20%) is already equal to the percentage of those 19 and younger. Population projections
for the year 2050 suggest that the percentage of the over 65 population (33%) will be more than double
that of the under 19 population (15%). Because health insurance premiums are paid by employees (1/2)
and employers (1/2), these projections imply that the healthcare system is headed toward disaster. The
low birthrates will cause a reduction in the number of individuals in the workforce while the over-aging
population will cause healthcare costs to continue climbing, thereby creating a huge gap between the
amount of money paid into the system and the amount paid out in benefits.
55
Abstracts
Modernity, Simultaneity, and the Promise and
Limitations of the Enestological Theodicy
Dr. A. K. Anderson, Department of Religion
A key challenge for any Christian theodicy is the question of how and when God acts against the evil
of the world. Theologians have tended to focus on one or more of three parts of the Christian narrative
when discussing this, i.e., creation, the life of Jesus, and the “end” of time. Put another way, these works
have contained some mixture of protological, Christological, and eschatological elements. However,
major challenges have emerged in the modern world for each of these approaches, in part because of the
weakening place of the Christian narrative in our society’s imagination.
Various writers have responded by emphasizing God’s primary activity vis-à-vis evil as being located in
the present. That is to say, recent years have seen the emergence of theodicies with a strong enestological
focus. Despite the appeal of this sort of theodicy, there are major concerns in its eschewing of any
eschatological reckoning of evil. Through this theodicy’s deep linkage to the notion of “simultaneity,”
there is no allowance for significantly transcending the outcomes of the here and now. This leaves in its
train troubling questions about the existence of so much unredeemed evil throughout the long expanse of
human history.
Vibrational Characterization of cis- and trans-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne
Dr. Caleb Arrington, Department of Chemistry
Cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne is a straight chain unsaturated hydrocarbon, notably associated with the
Bergman Cyclization reaction. The vibrational spectroscopy of both cis and trans isomers were recorded
as thin films in a 1967 study by Okamura and Sonheimer (JACS 89, 5991.) In this earlier study five
vibrational bands in the cis isomer and four vibrations in the trans isomer were identified. In our current
study cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was synthesized and its vibrational spectrum recorded in a low temperature
rare gas matrix. This isolated environment, along with density functional quantum chemical calculations,
has resulted in a more complete vibrational description of the molecule. Vibrational frequencies for fifteen
molecular vibrations in the cis isomer have been identified along with two combination/overtone bands.
Some significant differences between the thin film vibrations and the matrix-isolated vibrations are noted.
Density functional calculations show the best agreement with experiment using the three-parameter
hybrid functional of Becke, Lee Yang and Par (B3LYP) with a 6-311G++(3df,3pd) basis set. Synthesis of
the trans-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was only accomplished by photoisomerization of the cis isomer. This resulted
in a vibrational spectrum that was overlaid with the more abundant cis isomer. Only one significant
vibration in the trans isomer was identified. Work to purify the trans isomer is underway.
56
Japanese-American Relations in the Post-war Period:
The Struggle over the Ryukyu Islands
Ashtin Bellamy ’09, History
After any major war, the nations involved face many challenges in rebuilding their relationship,
one such challenge being territorial disputes. My project analyzes one example of this involving the
United States and Japan after World War II. Using New York Times articles from 1955-1972 as well as
government documents from the Foreign Relations of the United States series covering this same time period,
I have researched how the United States and Japan contended for control of the Ryukyu islands, where
Okinawa is located. After defeat in World War II, Japan forfeited the islands to the trusteeship of the
United Nations, which granted the United States sole administrative power over the Ryukyus. It was not
until 1972 that the United States and Japan were able to agree upon the terms of reversion of the islands
to Japanese governance. My paper examines how each party involved in the fight for and resistance
to reversion played a significant role in the process. This includes the citizens of mainland Japan, the
Ryukyuans, the Japanese government, and the United States government. This paper analyzes an often
overlooked chapter in postwar United States-Japanese relations.
Community, Theatre and the South African Indian Experience in
KwaZulu-Natal: Ronnie Govender’s The Lahnee’s Pleasure
Elise Boos ’08
Indians first arrived in the British Colony of Natal in 1860 to work the sugar plantations as indentured
servants. As the Indian population proceeded to grow, competition arose between Indian and colonial
merchants and farmers. This prompted the colonial government to enact legislation ensuring white
dominance, legislation which would intensify under the apartheid regime and consistently deny South
African Indians of their basic rights. If theatre is an art which holds a mirror to society, the Indic theatre
of South Africa was no exception. The objective of this research was to document ways in which Ronnie
Govender, a South African Indian playwright, integrated the sociopolitical and cultural atmosphere
of the Indian community in the 1960’s and 1970’s into his 1972 satire The Lahnee’s Pleasure. Govender’s
use of Indian patois, nostalgic references to tattered cultural traditions, class frictions within the Indian
community and the delicate issue of individual resistance against white dominance classifies The Lahnee’s
Pleasure as indigenous, socio-politically conscious theatre, despite its stage presentation as a comedy.
Govender’s subtle diadactism allowed him to simultaneously entertain and challenge by posing in a public
arena the questions that were on the tips of the tongues of the Indians, doing so in a humorous manner.
Through further research, I hope to be able to demonstrate the correlation between the intensification of
the didactic nature of Indic theatre and the intensification of anti-apartheid efforts.
57
An Overview of the Turkish Population in Germany
Mary Beth Broadwater ’08, German
This paper identifies the challenges and solutions of integration for German-Turks in Germany.
Since 1961 Turkish nationals and Germans of Turkish descent have become the largest minority within
Germany. Turkish immigrants came as guest workers during West Germany’s labor shortage. The guest
worker program brought men from countries with high unemployment in the 1950s. Unlike other foreign
workers who returned home when the program ended, the Turks were hesitant to return because of
Turkey’s economic and political instability. For families who chose to reunify in Germany, integration was
challenging as they lived in Germany with little knowledge of the language or culture. My paper explores
some forms of integration considered for German-Turks such as recent updates to citizenship laws, a
highly criticized education system, and Turkey’s hope of entry into the European Union.
“Comparison of the Portraitures of Mary I and Elizabeth I of England”
Lindy Bunch ’09
This summer I attempted to gain a greater understanding of the portraiture of Mary I of England.
Much of her historical record lies in the shadow of Elizabethan propaganda and therefore has been
widely unstudied. In recent years a reevaluation of Mary’s life and reign has begun; however, the study
of her portraiture unfortunately still consists primarily of brief mentions in relation to her father, Henry
VIII, or her sister, Elizabeth I. Because of this, much of my research this summer has been an attempt to
compile and study all of the information currently available regarding her portraiture. I focused primarily
on her painted portraits, although I one day hope to pursue a more complete study of her manuscript
illustrations as well. While I was able to make some meaningful discoveries this summer, this is a project I
hope to pursue as a thesis in graduate school.
The Great Debate: American Intervention in World War II,
September 1939 to December 1941
Dr. Mark S. Byrnes, Department of History
My project was to gather and organize documents related to the “Great Debate” over U.S.
intervention in World War II, from the outbreak of the European war in September 1939 to the attack on
Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941. Ultimately, I plan to make this collection the basis of a book in the Bedford
Series in History in Culture. The book will be designed for use in college-level classes in 20th Century U.S.
History, American Diplomatic History and the U.S. History survey.
The “Great Debate” is perhaps the most significant public debate on foreign policy that the United
States has ever engaged in. This debate had the effect of scrambling easy political categories; there were
liberal isolationists and conservative isolationists, liberal internationalists and conservative internationalists.
Elected officials, academics, private citizens, newspaper editors, members of organized interest groups and
many others addressed fundamental questions about the nature of American society and the role it should
play in the world. The debate ranged from sober to demagogic, encompassing the full range of opinion in
the country during a turning point in both American and world history. In many ways, it set the stage for
the world we live in today.
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Coming to Greenville—The Salvation Army’s History and
Continuing Impact in Greenville, South Carolina
Jessie Davis ’08
My summer research investigated the history of the Salvation Army in Greenville, SC and its social
impact today. The Army was founded by William Booth in the slums of London in 1865 and its mission
has always been a two-fold one: Christian evangelicalism and social welfare. The Salvation Army first
arrived in Greenville, SC in 1888, although its permanent establishment was not until 1904 by Ensign
Mrs. J.W. McSheehan and Cadet Pearl Hewitt. The first Salvation Army specific building in South
Carolina was completed in the summer of 1907 on East Broad Street and the Army has continued to
be a driving force in Greenville ever since. This research focuses on work specific to the Greenville area.
These areas of focus include shelters, Bruner Children’s Home, Emma Moss Booth Memorial Hospital,
Rural Outreach, the Salvation Army Boys and Girls Club, and the Men’s Fellowship Club. Today, the
Salvation Army continues to have a significant impact on the Greenville area as investigated through my
volunteering in Salvation Army facilities, especially the shelters and Boys and Girls Club. I also researched
Greenville’s racial history in order to answer questions that arose during my volunteering that the Army
either could not or would not answer. The Army’s significance seems to only be increasing. With the
endowment left to the national Salvation Army by Joan Kroc, Greenville is expected to be the first city to
open its endowed Ray and Joan Kroc Community Center. Therefore, the Greenville Salvation Army not
only has a deeply rooted history in the area, but a firm grip on community impact as well.
Women Writing Doctoral Dissertations:
Shared Stories from Across the Disciplines
Dr. Christine Sorrell Dinkins, Department of Philosophy
This book-in-progress focuses on the experiences of women writing doctoral dissertations. The
study is designed to help faculty and students better understand how to facilitate the process of writing
a dissertation. There has been little research undertaken to understand the factors that act as aids and
barriers to the process of writing a dissertation. While the primary goal of the study is to help students
who are currently preparing for or writing a dissertation, the issues have significance for administration of
doctoral programs and for doctoral faculty, since considerable costs are reflected in students extending the
dissertation process past the usual timeframe.
59
Around the Drum
Ivy Farr ’08
Last year, I traveled as one of Wofford’s Presidential International Scholars to developing nations
around the world: Mexico, Brazil, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Egypt, France, Poland, Ukraine, Russia, and
Vietnam. I kept a daily journal of the places I went, the people I met, the experiences I had. My project,
“Around the Drum,” is a collection of essays that attempt to share those experiences, the impressions they
made on me at the time, and the impact they have had on my life back in the United States. The essays
vary in topic: some are stories of my own shaky confidence and naiveté, others are testaments to those
who manage to keep a positive attitude despite overwhelming adversity. But they are all tied together as
lessons I learned in an unconventional classroom.
Understanding the View: Exploring Attitudes Towards
Landscape Painting in the Italian Renaissance
Dr. Karen Goodchild, Department of Art History
Over the next 24 months, I will consolidate my work on the topic of Renaissance landscape painting
into a book-length manuscript, with the preliminary title Understanding the View: Exploring Attitudes Towards
Landscape in the Italian Renaissance. This summer, with the support of the Fullerton Foundation, I was able
to bring myself up-to-date with recent research in the field of landscape studies. I will present some of
my summer research in a paper to be delivered in Chicago in March 2008 at the Renaissance Society of
America Conference. The paper will be titled “Take thyself to Venus’ Realm: Landscape and Medicine in
Renaissance Italy.”
Limited intermittent access to a highly palatable food combined with
chronic mild stress induces overeating in laboratory rats.
Kishan Govind ’08, Robynn Mackechnie ’08, Dr. G.R. Davis, Department of Biology
To investigate conditions which promote over-eating, we asked whether scheduled limited access to
Froot Loops® in combination with Chronic Mild Stress (CMS) which produces symptoms of depression
in laboratory rats could trigger episodes of binge eating. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to 8
groups of 10 rats each that were subjected to CMS (n=40) or not (n=40). All rats received ad libitum rodent
chow and water. C(ontrol) animals did not receive FL during the 28 day experiment. R7 rats received
ad libitum FL 2-4 pm every day. R3 rats received FL on MWF. I(rregularly scheduled) rats received FL
on 12 of 28 days. CMS animals (CS, R7S, CS and IS, n= 10 each) were exposed to stressors (prolonged
photoperiod, water deprivation, wet bedding, and tilted cage) repeated weekly for 4 weeks. FL intake
was measured from 2-4 pm. Daily chow intake was measured at 4 pm (lights off.) By Day 10, CMS rats
weighed less than non-stressed rats (the expected effect of CMS on weight gain.) Daily and cumulative
caloric intake did not differ for CS and R7S rats (approximately75-100 kcal/day) but was less than that
of non-stressed C and R7 animals. By the second week of CMS, R3S rats consumed significantly more
(~120 kcal/day) on MWF than CS and R7S rats and did not compensate for this increased intake on
days when FL were unavailable. IS rats often consumed fewer calories on days after FL access. Thus, only
MWF access combined with CMS produced overeating on FL.
60
Synthesis and Photochemical Reactivity of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne
Ryon Hamilton ’08, Chemistry
Cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was synthesized using a palladium-coupled reaction starting with cis-dichloroethylene
and two equivalents of trimethylsilyl acetylene to prepare 1,6-bistrimethylsilylhex-3-ene-1,5diyne. This
product was converted to cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne by reaction with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride in
ethylene glycol. The final reaction product proves to be a mixture of the desired product and significant
quantities of hexamethyl disiloxane. In the infrared studies the impurity is subtracted from the sample
spectrum. The vibrational spectrum of cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was recorded in a low-temperature argon
matrix, providing a complete vibrational characterization of this molecule. Density functional calculations
gave vibrational frequencies that were within twenty wavenumbers of the experimentally measured
frequencies for the eight most prominent vibrations.
Cis-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne was examined for its photochemical reactivity at 250 nm, both in the gas phase
and under low-temperature matrix isolation conditions. The photoreactivity was monitored by GC/
MS and IR spectroscopy. In the gas phase the primary photoproduct is trans-hex-3-ene-1,5-diyne. In the
low-temperature matrix the photoreactivity, monitored by IR spectroscopy produces trans-hex-3-ene-1,5diyne, but also produced at least one other significant photoproduct. The new photoproduct is observed
by vibrational spectroscopy and its identity is still under investigation. In neither case was the low energy
isomer benzyne formed.
The Emerging Church in The American South
Stephen Harris ’08
My research began with two main goals in mind. My first concern was to create my own definition of
the Emerging Church, and after arriving at my own definition, I wanted to see how the Emerging Church
exists and copes with a region which seems to be antithetical to Emerging ethos: the American Southeast.
Because of Postmodernism’s recent influences, a new stream of church has become popular among
18-30 year olds in large cities. This is the Emerging Church. These Emerging Churches have a focus on
knocking down barriers that create unnecessary conflict, they create authentic, intimate communities, and
they strive to make their lives holistically spiritual. By definition, the Emerging Church conflicts with the
Southern Evangelical culture, which has become the civil religion of the South. Southern religious culture
is often stifling and too focused on tradition lifeless rituals for many young people, which drives the growth
of the Emerging Church. Because of the collision of Postmodern religion and Evangelical culture, the
Emerging Church has faced a myriad of challenges in the South, including: the nature of salvation, the
definition of the Gospel, and the need for progressive social justice.
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Nearly Almost Perfect Numbers
Ryan Hill ’08
Let σ(M) denote the sum of the divisors of a positive integer M and define a function F(M) = 2M
– σ(M). If F(M) > 0, M is perfect-plus. If F(M) < 0, M is perfect-minus. In particular, if F(M) = 2, M is perfectplus-two (PP2). For example, 215(216+1) is PP2.
This paper corroborates and extends the work of K. Inkeri in the April 1977 edition of The American
Mathematical Monthly. Specifically, we show that a number of the form M = 2npk is PP2 if and only if k = 1.
Furthermore, if p and q are odd primes such that p < q and q ≥ p2 + 1, then no number of the form M =
2npq is PP2.
Discovering, Conjecturing, Proving
Dr. Charlotte Knotts-Zides, Department of Mathematics
This paper describes a collection of activities on “what mathematicians do” which I created and
implemented into a freshmen-level mathematics course for liberal arts majors. Students learn geometric
proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem and are asked to teach the theorem and one of its proofs to two
individuals not in the class. Students then write a response paper explaining their understanding of the
proof, their reactions to teaching it, the reactions of the individuals to whom it was taught, and how
this activity helped them to understand the mathematical concept of proving a theorem and the idea of
“what mathematicians do”. Most students report an increase in self-confidence as a result of successfully
explaining a mathematical idea to another person. Additionally, students write about a new-found
admiration for mathematicians and others that teach.
Imagination and Identity in the Literature of Austrian and German
Exiles to China during WWII
Dr. Kirsten A. Krick-Aigner, Department of Foreign Languages
My project explores common themes in memoirs by Austrian and German exiles to Shanghai, China
during WWII in a socio-historical context. While most of the world closed its doors to Jews fleeing Nazi
persecution, Japanese-occupied Shanghai let in 20,000 European refugees, many of whom had no visas,
between 1938 and 1941. Refugees survived in the area of Hongkew, or the Ghetto, which was controlled
by the Japanese. In 1945, most survivors emigrated to countries which had loosened their emigration
laws, such as Australia, Canada, and the United States. Some of the themes common to these memoirs
include basic shared experiences such as the sense of loss, alienation, and mourning in exile, illness,
starvation, and often, a reassessment of individual and communal moral conduct in light of pure physical
survival. More complex themes emerge, such as how romantic and idyllic notions of China in the authors’
imagination and early childhood memory differ greatly from the reality of living in abject poverty as
foreigners in Japanese-occupied China, men’s, but especially women’s, reproductive health and choices
during this difficult time in exile, and community formation through a shared traumatic experience rather
than through traditional social networks based on employment and social status.
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Joseph Paxton on Cultivating the English Garden
Vanessa Lauber ’08
Drawing from the writings of Joseph Paxton, mid nineteenth-century landscape gardener and
architect, this research examines the role of gardening in defining a new identity for the middle classes
in the shifting social structure and burgeoning industrialism. Paxton pioneered the Gardenesque style
of landscape design that emphasized gardening with a mind to the scientific, as well as the aesthetic
principles of the cultivation of plants, playing an active role in the development of public parks as an
escape from urban industrialism. Through his periodical, Paxton’s Magazine of Botany and Register of Flowering
Plants (1834-1849), which featured cultivation guides accompanied by colored plates for plants imported
from around the world, Paxton wished to surmount the “formidable barrier facing those who have had
little practical experience or opportunity for observation” by providing intelligible and practical reference
at an affordable price. Implied in Paxton’s writing was the idea that improving the quality of British
gardens would in turn help to improve the quality of the individual, drawing a direct correlation between
the activities of a properly instructed gardener and the aspects of self-improvement so prized by Victorian
culture.
Does scheduled access to a highly palatable carbohydrate-rich food
trigger binge eating in laboratory rats?
Kishan Govind ’08, Robynn Mackechnie ’08, Dr. G.R. Davis, Department of Biology
To investigate conditions which promote over-eating, we asked whether scheduled limited access to
Froot Loops® (FL; 3.8 kcal/g) could trigger episodes of binge eating in laboratory rats as reported for
a high fat food (Corwin, 2004). Male Sprague-Dawley rats matched for body weight and overnight FL
consumption were assigned to 4 groups of 10 rats each: C(ontrol) animals did not receive FL during the 28
day experiment. R7 rats received ad libitum FL 2-4 pm every day. R3 rats received FL on MWF. I(rregularly
scheduled) rats received FL on 12 of 28 days. FL intake was measured from 2-4 pm. All rats received ad
libitum rodent chow (3.3 kcal/g) and water. Daily chow intake was measured at 4 pm (lights off.) Daily energy
intake ( ~100kcal/day), cumulative caloric intake for 28 days, and body mass were not different for C and
R7 rats. R3 and I rats consumed ~100 kcal daily when FL were provided and thus did not over-eat. By
week 2, R3 and I rats consumed significantly fewer calories (~80 kcal) on days when FL were unavailable.
Cumulative caloric intake and body mass for R3 and I rats were significantly less than C and R animals.
During 2 hour access periods, R7, R3, and I rats consumed ~25 kcal in FL whereas C rats consumed <5
kcal of chow. Thus, none of the access schedules resulted in over-eating which suggests that binge eating
depends at least in part upon the food characteristics (energy density, macronutrient content, etc.)
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African-American Soldiers in World War II
Patrick McCain ’08
The focus of my project is African-American soldiers in World War II, though I interviewed (and
continue to interview) WWII veterans of all ethnicities. I believe the bravery, valor, and patriotism
demonstrated by black soldiers in WWII contributed greatly to the eventual integration of the entire
military. It is important for Americans to understand that changes regarding race in the military reflected
larger societal changes happening in the United States. Military history tends to be very popular, but
too often it is told from the perspective of military and/or civilian leadership. Without dismissing such
histories as undesirable my goal is to present the accounts of individual veterans who were not wellknown, but to whom Americans owe much gratitude. I want to preserve the feelings, thoughts, memories,
and struggles of these men and women of the Greatest Generation. As World War II veterans fall victim
to age and infirmity, society risks the loss of these stories and experiences forever. By investigating the
processes by which African-Americans adjusted to and resisted their conditions, I hope to facilitate an
understanding and appreciation of 20th century American social history.
“I exist and I suffer, but the law denies my existence”
Caroline Norton and Nineteenth Century Feminist Thought:
A Documentary Collection
Dr. Anne Rodrick, Department of History
This project has culminated in a book proposal to be submitted for consideration in Bedford-St.
Martins’ “Bedford Series in History and Culture.” Caroline Norton, a woman of the English upper
classes, married her husband George in 1827. The stormy and unhappy marriage produced three sons
and continuous acrimony, mostly over lack of money. After a failed attempt to convince a jury that leading
politician Lord Melbourne had engaged in adultery with Caroline, George shut the doors against his
wife and moved the children out of her reach. Caroline, faced with the reality that under English law she
“did not exist” as an autonomous individual and therefore had no legal rights to her children or even to
her own earnings as a writer, began a lifelong pursuit of changes in the legal code. In 1839 her efforts
helped frame the law that allowed wives to petition for custody of their young children in the case of
marital separation, and in 1857 England passed laws making it possible under limited circumstances for
women to sue for divorce in civil court. Caroline’s decision to make her own personal life a catalyst for
legal reform was a painful one, coming as it did in the midst of a failed marriage and in the context of
women as private rather than public individuals. This proposed book will take selections from Caroline
Norton’s writings on marriage, infant custody, and divorce and supplement them with a wide variety
of other primary documents, including her correspondence with Lord Melbourne, debates within the
parliamentary House of Commons over proposed reforms, and commentary from contemporaries, both
supporters and detractors of Caroline’s efforts. The resulting volume will be a teaching tool that can be
used in a variety of courses to introduce students to issues of gender, law, justice, and politics.
64
Energy in My Pocket
Geoff Taylor ’09
The final product of my Community of Scholars research is a twenty page paper in four parts
entitled “Energy in My Pocket.” The first part of the paper is an overview of the nuclear era from
1939 to the present, including a section on the current status of the nuclear industry worldwide. The
second part addresses energy sources other than nuclear power, comparing and contrasting these against
nuclear power. These sources are solar power, wind power, geothermal energy, biomass (biofuel) energy,
hydroelectric power, petroleum, coal, and natural gas. The third part addresses the nuclear cycle and
the importance of Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX). The final part of the paper is the conclusion that it would
greatly behoove the US to continue to operate the MOX Fuel Fabrication Facility (MFFF) to fabricate
MOX fuel by recycling nuclear waste after the MFFF has served its current purpose of converting
weapons-grade plutonium into MOX fuel.
Greeks of the Upstate
Dr. Deno Trakas, Department of English
Because there is a fairly large Greek community in Spartanburg, and because my paternal grandfather
was the first Greek to settle here (in 1900), Hub City Writers Project asked me to write a book about my
family and the Greeks of the Upstate. I have spent the last year and a half reading historical, sociological,
and literary accounts of twentieth century Greek history and the history of Greek immigration;
interviewing Greeks of the Upstate; traveling to Greece, where I spent three days in Arahova, the village
where my Trakas grandparents and other local Greeks came from; and, with the help of my family and
friends, remembering revealing anecdotes about four generations of Greek-Americans in this area.
My book explores the difficulties of assimilation and notes the successful adjustments that Greeks have
made to become integrated into their communities in the Upstate. It looks at the tension between wanting
to hold on to heritage and wanting to be accepted by the dominant culture, and the way that tension
changes from generation to generation. It examines the importance of the Greek Orthodox Church as a
unifying force in the Greek community, as well as the natural diminishment of ethnic culture that comes
with the passage of time.
65
The Regicide of Pedro the Cruel:
A translation of La Coronica del rey don Pedro by Pero López de Ayala
Mariel Willenberg ’09, History
My research focuses on an English translation of the Coronica del rey don Pedro by Pero López de Ayala.
This 700 year old medieval Spanish document holds a primary historical account of the history of the
King Don Pedro the Cruel from the start of his reign at the age of sixteen until his murder at the hands
of his half-brother at the age of thirty-five. This piece remains a vital account of the reasoning and
justifications of his citizenry’s rejection of his reign even under the medieval pre-Enlightenment tradition
of divine, absolute monarchs. Through a translation of this primary source, one receives the reasoning
behind the revolt against the King Don Pedro. His greed, countless and brutal murders, and endless debt
ridden warfare all are accounted in detail through Ayala’s history and shed light on the final rejection of
this divine absolute king. I view this work as a rough translation of half of this vital history which reveals
the evils that made the King Don Pedro worthy of the title “The Cruel” and the justifications for the
rejection of the unquestioned divinity of this visibly ruthless king. This is a project that needs a much
longer session than ten weeks (possibly years) and a complete 200 page translation in to English with
proper Spanish archive aid, numerous translators, etc. is something that in a few years I hope to look in to
and further develop for publication.
The German Healthcare System: Past, Present, and Future
Claudia Winkler ’08, German, History
My study provides an overview of the socialized healthcare system in Germany and shows how
and why social programs work or fail in a given political and social climate.  I examine the German
system’s formation in relation to the socio-political history to better understand the environment that
fostered the introduction of the Social Insurance Laws of 1881.  This is followed by a survey of the
current structure of the German healthcare scheme, which provides a context for the difficulties facing
Germany’s healthcare today. The healthcare system faces several current challenges and problems, such
as a budget drain caused by unnecessary expenditures, as well as shifting demographics. The reunification
of Germany has also contributed greatly to these challenges, such as low birthrates, on which my paper
focuses. East Germany’s sudden integration into West Germany caused many East German women
to be unsure of their futures. Because many women chose to remain childless the birthrates dropped
significantly.  Meanwhile, the German population has continued to grow older, creating a gap between
those paying into the system and those collecting benefits.  This challenge in particular is important
because it is simultaneously the most threatening to the future of Germany’s healthcare system and the
hardest to solve through political action.