TIBRE Arable Handbook TIBRE Arable Handbook

Transcription

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Scottish Natural Heritage is a government body responsible to the
Scottish Executive Ministers, and through them to the Scottish
Parliament.
Our mission statement:
Working with Scotland’s people to care for our natural heritage.
Our aim:
Scotland’s natural heritage is a local, national and global asset.
We promote its care and improvement, its responsible
enjoyment, its greater understanding and appreciation and its
sustainable use now and for future generations.
TIBRE Arable Handbook
Our operating principles:
We work in partnership, by co-operation, negotiation and
consensus, where possible, with all relevant interests in Scotland:
public, private and voluntary organisations, and individuals.
We operate in a devolved manner, delegating decision-making to
the local level within the organisation to encourage and assist
SNH to be accessible, sensitive and responsive to local needs and
circumstances.
We operate in an open and accountable manner in all our
activities.
Further copies of this book are available from
Scottish Natural Heritage
Publications Section
Battleby
Redgorton
Perth
PH1 3EW
t: 01738 444177
f: 01738 458613
e: [email protected]
w: www.snh.org.uk
Copyright Scottish Natural Heritage 2004
ISBN 1 85397 416 1
TP1.5K1204
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Page 2
Contents
page
Section 1
Section 2
Disclaimer
2
Acknowledgments
3
General Information
Introduction
5 -
6
How to use the TIBRE Arable Handbook
7 -
8
Technologies and Products: The data sheets
List of data sheets
9
General Management
sheets
1-2
11 -
14
Crop Establishment
sheets
3-5
15 -
20
Crop Nutrition
sheets
6-16
21 -
42
Crop Protection
sheets
17-40
43 -
96
Harvesting
sheet
41
97 -
98
Making the Most of Technology
Section 3
Section 4
99 - 100
Supplementary Information
Products Under Development
101 - 102
Good Management Practices
103 - 104
Appendices
Sources of Further Information
105 - 107
Acronyms
109 - 110
1
Disclaimer
The technologies and products which are the subject of this updated version of the TIBRE Arable Handbook have
been developed and marketed by their manufacturers. Further information about them is available from the
manufacturers and their agents, farm advisers and consultants.
Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) is a Non-Departmental Public Body with no commercial interest in this field. It has
obtained a wide range of specialist advice in reviewing and in compiling this Handbook.
All reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the information given in the TIBRE Arable
Handbook. SNH or any of its staff or agents cannot, however, be held responsible for any loss or damage which may
be attributed to the use of any of the technologies, products or management practices to which the TIBRE Arable
Handbook refers. The information given in this Handbook is not warranted and no responsibility can be accepted by
SNH for any inaccuracies.
Users of agricultural chemicals have a legal responsibility to read and understand the product label and to comply
with current regulations. If the user is in any doubt about the nature, effect or use of any chemical or other
technology or product they should clarify the position with either the manufacturer or their agents or otherwise obtain
their own expert advice.
2
Acknowledgements
Aidan Monaghan
SOYL Ltd
SNH wishes to thank all the people who provided
Douglas Ogilvy
Smiths Gore Ltd
information and advice during the course of the review
of the TIBRE Arable Handbook.
John O’Rorke
Scottish Quality Cereals
The TIBRE Arable Group Farmers
Mark Prentice
British Potato Council
Robert Balfour (SNH East Areas Board)
Edward Baxter
Geordie Burnett-Stuart
Philip Chamberlain
Peter Chapman (SNH Main Board)
Bruce Cowe
Alex Gordon
Angus Jacobsen
Brian Kaye
Colin McGregor
Michael Williams
Doug Niven
Norman Niven
Willie Porter
Gordon Rennie
John Rymer
Bill Taylor
John Weir
Allen Scobie
Scottish Agronomy Ltd
Dr Bruce Ball
SAC
Dr Rosie Bryson
Velcourt Ltd
Dr Ken Davies
SAC
Dr Andy Evans
SAC
Dr Steve Hoad
SAC
Dr Nigel Kerby
SCRI
Dr Rob Morris
SEPA
Dr Adrian Newton
SCRI
James Wyllie
Dr Simon Oxley
SAC
Arable Advisers, Consultants and Others
Richard Allan
Robertson Crop Services Ltd
Dr Philip Simons
The Arable Group
Gerald Banks
Buchan Agricultural Consultants
The review of the TIBRE Arable Handbook was carried
out by Prof Paul Miller and Dr Ian Scotford of Silsoe
Clive Christian
Cleanacres Ltd
Craig Herkes
Crop Chemicals Ltd
Jim Rennie
Crop Chemicals Ltd
Martin Johnston
SEERAD
J Neville Jones
Neville Jones Crop Services
David Kerr
SAC
Research Institute with contributions from Dr Jim Orson
of The Arable Group.
SNH would like to record special thanks to Dr Keith
Dawson of SAC and Mr Tom Bals of Micron Sprayers Ltd.
The TIBRE Arable Handbook was edited by Cécile Smith
assisted by Scottish Natural Heritage colleagues Daniel
Gotts, Claudia Rowse, Peter Pitkin and Hannah Levene.
3
4
section 1
General Information
Introduction
What is TIBRE?
the TIBRE Arable Handbook. Some
data sheets that were in the original
TIBRE – Targeted Inputs for a Better
Rural Environment – is an initiative
by Scottish Natural Heritage which
aims to show how technology can be
used in farming to benefit the
handbook were omitted because
they were no longer considered
relevant and similar benefits could
be obtained by other more practical
or reliable technologies.
environment.
environmentally responsible farming
can be compatible with intensive
available both in print and on the
Internet at
http://www.snh.org.uk/tibre
methods and clear business
objectives. Many new developments
Environmental Management for
Agriculture – In addition to being
available on its dedicated web site,
the TIBRE Arable Handbook is also
included in interactive form within
The TIBRE Arable Handbook is
TIBRE aims to show that
TIBRE and other
initiatives
the EMA – Environmental
Management for Agriculture software
and can be found in the EMA on-line
library. In addition to a library, the
EMA software contains decision
The benefits of TIBRE
support tools, data-bases, planning
business performance of the farm
The TIBRE Arable Handbook is an
been developed to be used by
can reduce the risk to the
informed and practical tool for all
farmers, advisers and consultants to
environment that may result from
involved in arable farming. It
review environmental performance.
farming.
provides valuable information that is
Although originally developed for
not readily available in a collated
England and Wales, it is now
form anywhere else.
available for Scotland and can
in technology which will improve the
The TIBRE – New options for arable
farming handbook was first
aids and audits for farm use and has
provide Scottish farmers with a
published in 1997 and provided
The implementation of the
range of environmental management
information on 40 technologies and
technologies and techniques
tools relevant in Scottish farming.
techniques including crop protection
highlighted in the TIBRE Arable
chemicals, machinery, information
Handbook will help farmers:
Integrated Farm Management –
technology, fertilisers and crop
•
Protect the environment without
The advice in the TIBRE Arable
varieties. It was developed in close
major changes to farm
Handbook can help with
consultation with a group of arable
management
implementing Integrated Farm
Improve margins through better
Management (IFM). IFM integrates
management of inputs
beneficial natural processes into
Comply with environmental
modern farming practices. It aims to
standards while saving on costs
reduce inputs such as fertilisers and
farmers and advisers in Scotland.
•
The initiative received a very
positive response from farmers,
•
advisers, consumer organisations
and manufacturers.
Over the last few years, there have
been a variety of new technological
•
Gain access to quality markets
and justify treatments to buyers
and processors
developments with the potential to
help farmers achieve greater
environmental standards and gain
access to quality markets. As well as
information on new ideas,
developments and improvements of
the original technologies have been
incorporated in this new version of
crop protection chemicals, enhance
biodiversity, maintain soil fertility
and minimise air, water and soil
pollution. Methods used encompass
a range of agronomic measures,
The potential of these technologies
and techniques will become greater
as farmers are required to adhere to
both cross compliance and the
requirements of legislation
implementing the EU Water
Framework Directive.
including crop rotation, appropriate
cultivation techniques, careful choice
of varieties and the use of predictive
techniques. The TIBRE technologies
and products can contribute to IFM
5
section 1
General Information
procedures as they help:
practices. The latter include
•
•
•
•
diagnose diseases
indicators for better practice in the
apply crop chemicals judiciously
use of technology and pesticides. In
determine crop nutrient needs
Crop Protection Management Plan
match fertiliser application to infield variations in crop
requirements
•
•
addition, the Voluntary Initiative
(CPMP) proposes the use of suitable
technology as best environmental
practice in a number of activities.
improve waste management
Here, the TIBRE Arable Handbook
reduce contamination of non-
provides a useful source of
cropped areas and water courses
additional information for farmers
when drawing up a CPMP and
In the UK, LEAF (Linking
Environment and Farming)
encourages farmers to adopt
Integrated Farm Management. LEAF
produces a range of technical
information and demonstrates the
principles of IFM on a network of
6
volunteer demonstration farms. LEAF
members can benchmark their
business against standards set in the
LEAF Audit. In addition, they can
apply to join the LEAF Marque
certification scheme. For these
farmers who have joined LEAF, the
TIBRE Arable Handbook provides a
useful reference to help achieve
targets for action set in the LEAF
Audit.
The Voluntary Initiative – The
adoption of new technology can help
with the implementation of the
Voluntary Initiative (VI). Farmers,
advisers and manufacturers are
urged to embrace the Voluntary
Initiative, a programme of measures
put forward by the industry to
reduce the adverse environmental
impacts from the use of pesticides
and avert a pesticide tax. Targets
have been set for a range of
indicators covering water quality,
biodiversity and changes in
identifying priorities for action. The
Voluntary Initiative also publishes
Environmental Information Sheets
(EIS) which provide information on
the environmental impacts of crop
protection products. Referencing a
product’s label and its EIS to the
local conditions at the application
site can help improve product use
decisions. The careful use of
pesticides in combination with the
adoption of improved application
techniques will reduce the
environmental impact of crop
protection products both within the
crop and on the wider countryside.
section 1
General Information
How to use the TIBRE Arable
Handbook
The Handbook aims to be practical
Within each section, you will find a
business and most relevant to your
to use. The most important part is
set of data sheets on different types
environmental objectives. For
section 2, which contains the data
of technologies ranging from
example, if your farm is in a Nitrate
sheets. These highlight 41
machinery or diagnostic equipment
Vulnerable Zone (NVZ), you may
techniques and products with the
to ways of using IT and mobile
wish to concentrate on the
information grouped under the
communications. Each data sheet
technologies that help minimise
headings of the main arable
provides information about a product
potential nitrate leaching losses.
operations – including Crop
or a technology and its benefits for
Establishment, Crop Nutrition, Crop
both your business and the
The general layout of the data
Protection and Harvesting, as well as
environment. The information will
sheets is as shown below:
a section on General Management.
enable you to choose those aspects
that are most suitable to your
Caution
Whenever relevant,
alerts you to any
potential risk to your
business or to the
environment that you
need to be aware of
when installing or using
the technology.
How can it help you?
Outlines the benefits that
the technology can bring
to the farm business
What is it?
Explains what the
technology is and
describes its main
features
Name of technology
or technique
How can it help the
environment?
Outlines the potential
environmental
benefits of the
technology
Arable Operation
Sheet number
Crop Establishment
Minimum Tillage
Minimum Tillage
Minimum tillage involves reducing
cultivation depth and can avoid the
use of the plough. The technique
enables cheaper and quicker
establishment and is predominantly
used for winter cereals and winter
oilseed rape. The approach can
involve a number of techniques
including direct drilling, broadcasting
into existing stubbles or adopting a
strategy of reduced tillage.
Caution: Minimum tillage
expected in your area. Establishing
methods can sometimes result in
crops early in the autumn
poor establishment and increased
(particularly oilseed rape) may
input costs. For example, there
present the best opportunity for
can be an increase in slug activity
using minimum tillage under suitable
resulting from increased trash on
soil moisture conditions in Scotland.
the soil surface. An increase in
Therefore there may be less benefit
grass weeds, such as bromes and
from using minimum tillage
meadow-grasses, can also lead to
techniques on farms in high rainfall
increased herbicide use. In
areas that have a large area of root
addition, non-inversion tillage has
crops.
the speed of development of
•
The gross margins for combinable
Eases management and workload
crops have fallen and farm sizes
in autumn
have increased with fewer farm
Helps achieve optimum drilling
workers being employed. This has
dates
prompted interest in minimum tillage
How can it help the
environment?
•
•
•
Soil texture and structure are the
circumstances
main factors that influence
Potential to increase soil
for carabid beetles
component in the decision making
extra problems with cleavers and
Often broad-leaved herbicide is not
thistles.
of soil necessary. The
technique is probably not
appropriate for the whole
farm but there are instances
(oilseed rape, first wheats
required
after peas) where it could
difficult in Scotland for later
•
Sometimes poor spreading of chaff
What is the current cultivation
•
Further information
HGCA Topic Sheet 59
19
20
What is the objective of any
change?
How much will it cost you?
Can the current system be
Capital cost
Large investment may be required
Operating cost
Potential to reduce establishment costs due
££
improved with little investment?
•
What is the current type of
to more efficient use of labour and machinery.
machinery, is it due for
This may be offset by higher variable costs
replacement soon?
•
establishment techniques?
•
e.g. herbicide
Cost benefits
__
What are the consequences of
any change for fixed costs?
leaching in some circumstances,
e.g. by virtue of increased organic
matter
meadow-grass and sterile brome can
A recent survey has indicated the
make fields unsuitable for non-
advantages and disadvantages of
inversion tillage. Ploughing will be
establishing oilseed rape by using a
necessary on a rotational basis if
novel system that sows the rape as
root crops are included in the
the previous cereal crop is
rotation and this will help to reduce
harvested. The system comprises a
the grass weed burden.
seed hopper and spreader that is
fixed behind the combine header.
It is also important to consider
Optimum soil conditions have been
whether minimum tillage techniques
shown to be important of the
will work given the levels of rainfall
success of this broadcast technique.
AICC
HGCA
Rothamsted Research
SAC
SCRI
Soil Management Initiative
•
•
•
Novel Seed Treatments
•
Mechanical Weed Control
process. The presence of rough
Reduced pesticide and nitrogen
AIC
Technology links
Potential increase in margins compared with
ploughing
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
_
How much knowledge is there
among farm staff of different
cereal crops.
results in patchy establishment.
Are the soil, rainfall patterns and
cropping system suitable?
•
cultivation method but weed
problems are also an important
techniques than in drilled crops.
system and cost per hectare?
drills) are now widely available.
Reduced soil erosion in some
weeds competing with crops. Some
technique has proved to be
•
Reduced use of fossil fuels
biodiversity, e.g. improved habitat
•
equipment, presses and cultivator
move the minimum amount
established using broadcasting
work. In wet autumns this
cultivation methods and suitable
machines (e.g. disc/tine cultivation
to re-establish drainage and
drainage.
cereal diseases.
higher work rates
Extra time to learn the system and
for post-sowing management
Prolific volunteer cereals and grass
capped or compacted soil with poor
•
•
Cheaper, quicker establishment
Fewer broad-leaved weeds in crops
often made travelling easier
should be asked:
Reduced establishment time –
ground after any cultivation
Establishment may be poor in
and resistance to fungicides in
Availability and use
Disadvantages
Use of tramlines from previous crop
cultivation methods the following
resulting in reduced cost
Technical tip
Always consolidate the
Advantages
Before considering minimum tillage
resistance to herbicides in weeds
•
Advantages and disadvantages of broadcast establishment
of oilseed rape
been associated with increasing
Potentially reduced passes
5
Crop Establishment
section 2
Crop Establishment
What is it?
Technical Tip
Outlines a pertinent
technical point
Indicates the scale of costs
and benefits of the technology
5
Crop Establishment
section 2
Further Information
Suggests a range of
organisations or
publications that can
give further information
about the technology
Availability and Use
Indicates which products are
currently on the market and
how easy it will be to use
the technology
Co-ordinated Slug Control
Appropriate Active Ingredient
Use
Technology links
Lists other related
technologies
in the Handbook
7
section 1
General Information
How to use the TIBRE Arable Handbook
8
Note that the information provided
that interest you and adopt them.
For any product, it is important to
in How much will it cost you? aims
Each product and technology can
follow good practice to achieve full
to give a general indication of the
independently deliver benefits to
farming and environmental benefit.
scale of costs and benefits
farming practices and provide an
New technology on its own
associated with the purchase and
improved level of environmental
cannot replace careful use.
the implementation of the
protection. However, if you are
technology or product. It does not
prepared to go beyond these simple
You may also wish to consider
provide a tool for comparing
choices, you will be able to make
implementing some of the ideas
different technologies and products.
more and better use of the available
described in the section Good
The symbols used do not represent
technology by planning your
management practices to enhance
equivalent numerical values: for
approach more thoroughly. Give
the environmental benefits from the
example a low to medium cost
careful thought to your current farm
use of the TIBRE products and
capital investment cannot be
management and the scope for
technologies and help support
compared to a low to medium
improvement from both the business
farmland wildlife.
operating cost.
and environmental point of view. We
recommend that you consult an
If you have any comments on the
You can use the Handbook in several
adviser before adopting the
TIBRE Arable Handbook, please get
ways. At the simplest level, you
technologies and products contained
in touch with us at [email protected]
could browse through the data
in the Handbook.
sheets, choose one or two products
Symbols
Capital and operating costs
Cost:Benefits
-
No increase in cost
Neutral
£
Low to medium costs
Low net costs
££
High to very high costs
High net costs
Small savings
Low net benefits
Significant savings
High net benefits
section 2
Technologies and Products
List of data sheets
General Management
21
Improved Formulation and Packaging
1
Electronic Communication
22
Appropriate Active Ingredient Use
2
Internet Information,
23
Appropriate Herbicide Use
24
Appropriate Fungicide Use
25
Appropriate Insecticide Use
26
Pesticide Mixtures
27
Pesticide Handling Systems
28
Sprayer Control and Maintenance
29
Patch Spraying
30
Appropriate Spray Quality
31
Drift Reduction by Nozzle Selection
32
Air-Assisted Spraying
Application
33
Air Induction Nozzles
10
Improved Fertiliser Spreading Characteristics
34
Twin Fluid Nozzles
11
Improved Targeting of Fertiliser Close to
35
Rotary Atomisers
36
Low Volume Spraying
37
Low Volume Washing Systems
38
Sprayer Decontamination
39
Weed Wipers
40
Prediction Schemes and Tools
Crop Establishment
3
Variety Choice
4
5
Minimum Tillage
Crop Nutrition
6
Fertiliser Planning
7
Nitrogen Diagnostic Technology
8
Targeted Nitrogen Application
9
Targeted Phosphate, Potash and Lime
Field Boundaries
12
Boom Fertiliser Spreaders
13
Manure-Value Diagnostics
14
Improved Manure Storage
15
Improved Manure Application
16
Precision Irrigation
Crop Protection
17
Crop Diagnostics
18
Monitoring Pest Activity
19
Decision Support Systems
20
9
Harvesting
41
Yield Mapping
section 2
10
Technologies and Products
1
General Management
section 2
General Management
What is it?
With reducing staff numbers and
How can it help the
environment?
increasing complexity of the farm
•
business, good communication and
up-to-date information is critical.
•
wealth of information for the
farmer and adviser. See the
Reduced amounts of pesticides in
TIBRE data sheet Internet
the environment
•
information, prediction schemes
Reduced groundwater and surface
Electronic communication covers a
water pollution resulting from
wide range of technologies from
improved timing and targeting of
citizens band radio and mobile
inputs
Internet – the Internet provides a
and tools.
•
e-mail – used to send and receive
information e.g. agronomic
recommendations, weather
phones to computers and the
information, crop alerts,
improve the quality of decision
An increasing number of electronic
analysis reports.
making. Many of the technologies in
communication devices are coming
the TIBRE Arable Handbook rely on
onto the market every day, each
devices, which can be used to
electronic communication to be most
being more user-friendly, as well as
make notes while field walking or
effective (see Technology links
increasing in durability and
carrying out other operations. On
below).
electronic complexity over its
returning to the farm office the
predecessor. Some devices are listed
information can be downloaded
below, but many others are also
and used to update farm records
available.
and data.
Internet. They all help to increase
the speed of communication and
•
•
•
•
•
Improved timing and work
planning
•
•
agronomy bulletins and soil
•
Mobile communication – citizens
Improved decision making
band radio for on-farm or local
Avoidance of unnecessary
communication and mobile
applications of fertiliser and
phones many of which now offer
pesticides
facilities for sending pictures.
Improved training efficiency
•
•
Hand-held loggers – electronic
Rate control systems – designed
for accurate application of
pesticides and fertiliser. They can
be used with Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) to enable the right
treatment to be applied in the
Messaging services – several
right place at the right time.
through use of distance learning
companies offer to send the latest
Digitised input plans can be
methods via web based resources
information to your mobile phone,
downloaded to machinery e.g. via
Improved record keeping
e.g. weather forecasts, or potato
smart cards. Such systems can be
blight information in your area.
used throughout the year in an
Computers – an essential part of
integrated approach to control
the farm office, used for record
many farming operations.
Better use of limited staff
resources
•
keeping, data recording, Internet,
e-mail, decision support systems
and other operations.
11
1
General Management
section 2
General Management
Technical tip
There are many types of
electronic communication
equipment produced and sold
by many different
manufacturers, often to their
own individual standards,
which may not be compatible
with other manufacturers.
Ensure all the communication
equipment you select is fully
compatible.
Silsoe Research Institute
12
Further information
•
Local high street phone
stores
•
Computer shops and
magazines
•
•
•
•
•
•
Popular farming press
Electronic communication can be used to integrate the farming
approach and improve many farming operations
Capital cost
Operating cost
Cost benefits
Mobile communication, e.g. mobile phones
and citizens band radio
£
Computer
££
Hand held logger
£
Rate control systems
££
Contract or call charges for mobile phones
£
Charges for messaging service
£
Internet provider
£
AIC
AICC
HGCA
SAC
Technology links
•
Prediction Schemes and
Tools
•
•
Fertiliser Planning
•
Targeted Nitrogen
Application
•
Targeted Phosphate, Potash
and Lime Application
•
•
•
•
•
Using electronic communication to integrate
the farming approach can improve the
AEA
efficiency of many operations
Nitrogen Diagnostic
Technology
Patch Spraying
Yield Mapping
2
General Management
section 2
General Management
Internet Information, Prediction
Schemes and Tools
What are they?
The Internet (or World Wide Web)
The list of information and tools to
contains a vast amount of
be found on the Internet is
information that can be useful to
extensive. Below is a list of the
you. This useful data source can be
types of information that are
accessed from a personal computer
available.
•
select the most suitable nozzle
type for the crop protection
product you plan to use, its mode
of action, the target pest, weed or
disease type and the crop or
weed growth stage.
which is connected via a service
provider to the Internet, either using
Nozzle selection – allows you to
•
Weather information – provide
•
General information – most
a dial-up service or Broadband link.
detailed weather information on a
organisations now have web sites
There are now many sites on the
regional basis and offer forecasts
that contain information on their
Internet specifically designed to
up to 15 days ahead.
activities.
provide information and advice to
•
Disease trackers – indicate the
farmers and advisers on a range
risk of crop disease on a regional
The information on the Internet is
of topics.
basis.
constantly being updated; use it
How can they help
you?
•
•
Pest trackers – indicate the risk of
crop pest on a regional basis.
•
compare varieties of your choice
decision making
from the latest recommended
lists.
•
Offers potential for reduced inputs
Fertiliser calculators – help you to
optimise fertiliser rates and
reduce the risk of losses into the
How can they help the
environment?
•
the environment
•
wider environment.
•
Seed rate calculators – estimate
the seed rate needed to achieve a
desired crop establishment based
on seed germination, expected
inputs
regularly to obtain the latest
information available.
Variety selectors – help you
Improved risk analysis and
planning
•
•
establishment, required plant
population and Thousand Seed
Weight.
13
2
General Management
section 2
General Management
Internet Information, Prediction Schemes and Tools
Capital cost
Computer
Operating cost
Internet provider and access to individual
££
web sites
Cost benefits
£
Improved management offers the potential
for reduced inputs
Technical tip
Use search engines to find
Further information
Search Engines
sites that provide information
weather data, potato blight,
Other sites of interest include:
• AEA (www.aea.uk.com)
seed rates). Beware that
•
AIC
(www.agindustries.org.uk)
•
•
•
AICC (www.aicc.org.uk)
•
•
•
BCPC (www.bcpc.org)
•
•
DEFRA (www.defra.gov.uk)
•
•
HGCA (www.hgca.com)
•
Pesticide Forum
(www.pesticides.gov.uk/
pesticides-forum)
•
•
PSD (www.pesticides.gov.uk)
on a particular subject (e.g.
some manufacturers’ web
14
sites may only provide partial
information. Always
compare data on several
sites to obtain a more
comprehensive
understanding of the subject.
BASIS (www.basis-reg.co.uk)
BBC Weather Forecast
(www.bbc.co.uk/weather)
•
•
•
SASA (www.sasa.gov.uk)
•
•
SNH (www.snh.org.uk)
•
Voluntary Initiative
(www.voluntaryinitiative.org.
uk)
•
Weather Channel
(uk.weather.com)
BPC (www.potato.org.uk)
SCRI (www.scri.sari.ac.uk)
SEERAD
(www.scotland.gov.uk/agri)
UK FWAG – Scottish Site
(www.fwag.org.uk/scotland)
CPA
(www.cropprotection.org.uk)
Farmers Weekly
(www.fwi.co.uk)
Met Office
(www.metoffice.co.uk)
SAC (www.sac.ac.uk)
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fertiliser Planning
Crop Diagnostics
3
Crop Establishment
section 2
Crop Establishment
Variety Choice
What is it?
A crop’s agronomic and quality
Experiments have shown that
characteristics, as well its resistance
significant savings can be made in
to diseases and insect pests are
pesticide use in the more resistant
genetically determined and vary
and disease-tolerant crop varieties.
widely between varieties. Variety
Such varieties are widely available
choice depends on many factors, but
and their uptake by farmers is
often the two main criteria are
determined by whether they can
meeting market requirements and
meet market requirements. There
yield. However, it is often possible to
may be yield penalties associated
choose varieties with inherently
with resistant varieties, but cost
better resistance to insect pests and
savings on inputs can often offset
diseases that can still meet market
the reduced income from a lower
requirements. This can reduce
yield. There are a number of ways in
pesticide use and enable a more
which you can exploit varietal
flexible approach to management,
resistance or tolerance to disease in
which can be particularly valuable
your variety choice, and below are
where labour and machinery
just some examples:
rotations. Potato varieties
showing improved resistance to
•
number of suitable spraying days.
Reduced pesticide use leading to
reduced costs and a delay in the
•
•
The use of the Mlo gene in
that this can prove to be
impractical as different maturity
and grain specifications can
complicate harvest and
marketing. Generally, it is only
suitable for cereals used for feed,
although recent work by SCRI on
blends for malting markets has
shown some promise. Recent
work has also shown that cereal
resistance management.
control.
selection. For example Riband and
Some disease tolerant varieties of
applications. This is particularly
Increased flexibility of
useful in fields that are a long
way from the steading.
•
cereals, although resistance or
How can it help the
environment?
tolerance of barley yellow dwarf
•
barley variety selection.
virus (BYDV), which is spread by
aphids, is an important factor for
Reduced amount of pesticides in
•
Consort, which are grown for the
distilling market in Scotland, have
inherently poor resistance to
Septoria tritici (see table below).
Trials data from Scotland and
elsewhere in the UK suggest that
fungicide costs in these varieties can
Varietal resistance is not so
successful for insect control to
high disease resistance
•
resistance within the crop. Note
driving force behind variety
two rather than three fungicide
the environment
to improve overall disease
reducing the costs of mildew
resistance to pesticides
apply fungicides to varieties with
mixtures, particularly with cereals
Market forces are generally the
winter wheat may only require
A larger time window in which to
Blends of varieties can be used as
has been very successful in
development of pest or disease
management
•
•
malting spring barley varieties
•
available e.g. Lady Balfour
blends can aid fungicide
resources are limited or where
weather conditions restrict the
potato blight are also becoming
be £15-£20/ha higher than in
varieties with higher levels of
resistance to the disease and that
the timing of fungicide application is
also more critical. On the other
hand, the winter barley variety Pearl
has been accepted for malting and
Certain varieties of potato are
offers inherently better disease
Reduced energy use, e.g. reduced
relatively resistant to Potato Cyst
resistance than some older winter
applications of pesticides
Nematode (e.g. M Piper, Ro1) or
barley malting varieties, although its
slug attack (e.g. P Dell, L
quality is sometimes poorer in
Rosetta). These are important
Scotland.
factors to consider in planning
15
3
Crop Establishment
section 2
Crop Establishment
Variety Choice
2004 UK recommended list of winter wheat varieties: comparative
Technical tip
disease resistance
Potato varieties with
Resistance
to disease Claire
Consort
Malacca
Hereward
Riband
resistance to potato cyst
nematode are useful as part
Mildew
4
6
7
5
6
of an integrated control
Yellow rust
9
5
9
5
6
programme, decreasing the
Brown rust
8
4
7
6
3
Septoria
7
5
7
7
4
Septoria tritici 6
4
5
6
3
Eyespot
6
7
3
5
6
Fusarium
7
6
6
5
6
need for soil applied
nematicides.
nodorum
ear blight
Further information
•
HGCA recommended lists for
cereals and oilseeds
•
PGRO recommended lists for
peas and beans
•
BPC recommended lists for
potatoes
•
NIAB recommended lists for
pulses and other crops
•
SAC recommended lists for
cereals and pulses
•
•
•
•
•
Breeder’s information
Data from the HGCA Recommended List 2004/05, full database at http://www.hgca.com
Note: The higher the number, the more resistant the variety is to the
disease.
16
Quality, yield and disease and insect pest resistance are not the only factors
to consider when selecting varieties to be grown. Time of sowing, resistance
to lodging, maturity date, ear loss and sprouting risk are just some other
factors to take into account when selecting varieties. These factors are
increasingly important when planning crop management requirements for
the whole crop cycle now that many farms have significantly reduced labour
and machinery availability.
Capital cost
No capital investment required
Operating cost
No appreciable increase in price of seed
-
over other bought-in varieties. Newer
varieties often command a small price
premium.
Cost benefits
Savings can be made by reduced pesticide
usage in addition to reduced cost of
labour and machinery
Note: There may be cost implications for home savers who use older
varieties with no BSPB royalties to pay (e.g. Riband and Pastoral).
£
AIC
AICC
BSPB
SCRI
Technology links
•
•
•
•
Crop Diagnostics
4
Crop Establishment
section 2
Crop Establishment
What are they?
Dressings can be applied to seed to
These seed dressings are widely
control insect pests and soil-borne or
available when purchasing certified
foliage diseases in cereals and other
seed. They are also available to
crops. They have been used for
contractors who dress seed on-farm.
many years, but the introduction of
Products include:
shown there are acceptably low
infestations of the target diseases.
newer novel treatments has widened
their scope. Some will help avoid the
•
avoid or reduce the use of
that may have greater
insecticide sprays. These may
environmental impact.
have an overall benefit to the
environment, e.g. seed
•
•
wheat bulb fly, barley yellow
dwarf virus (BYDV) in early drilled
cereals with imadocloparid.
Potential for improved insect pest
and disease control
•
•
•
•
treatments for the control of
Improved yield
diagnostic technologies that allow
rapid testing of seed.
Yield responses to the use of
silthiofam seed dressing for take-all
Seed treatments that help to
use of post-emergence treatments
How can they help
you?
This has been made possible by new
control in winter wheat have been
around 0.5t/ha in Scotland and in
England where crops are grown in
high risk situations. This average
hides a large variation in yield
response despite a risk assessment
based on field history, place in
rotation, level of inoculum, soil
structure, pH and phosphate status.
This is because weather conditions
•
Seed treatments that increase the
over the winter and spring (i.e. after
modes of action available for the
sowing) determine the rate of
Alternatives to insecticide sprays
control of a particular pest (e.g.
development of the disease. It has
Ease of management
aphid as vectors of BYDV in
also been shown in trials that the
cereals), hence reducing the risk
seed treatment supplements,
of resistance developing
complements rather than replaces,
Longer term insecticide protection
Improved pesticide resistance
management strategies
cultural control of take-all.
environment?
•
•
Seed treatments can also indirectly
reduce environmental impacts, for
example take-all seed treatments
help reduce nitrate leaching which
the environment
would otherwise occur due to poor
Less insecticide use in autumn in
rooting in affected crops.
areas at high risk from insect
pests
More cereal seed can now be used
that has not been treated with
Caution: Some products are toxic
fungicides for the control of seedling
to birds and good seed coverage
diseases, provided that tests have
is essential. Personal Protection
Equipment (PPE) may be required
when handling seed. The seed is
often sown before the precise
level of threat from the target can
be quantified and so a proper risk
analysis needs to be carried out
before treated seed is ordered
and used.
17
4
Crop Establishment
section 2
Crop Establishment
Technical tip
-
Capital cost
Operating cost
Seed treatments may cost more than
risk assessment before using
the equivalent spray treatment
novel seed treatments. Seed
(where the two options are available)
£
It is important to carry out a
treatments should be viewed
as complementing rather
Cost benefits
Improved margins may be achieved along
with the advantage of easier management
than replacing cultural
control, as their use for all
seed would prove
prohibitively expensive and
could have adverse
environmental effects.
Further information
18
•
•
•
•
•
AIC
AICC
HGCA
SAC
SCRI
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Variety Choice
Minimum tillage
Crop Diagnostics
5
Crop Establishment
section 2
Crop Establishment
Minimum Tillage
What is it?
Minimum tillage involves reducing
cultivation depth and can avoid the
use of the plough. The technique
enables cheaper and quicker
establishment and is predominantly
used for winter cereals and winter
oilseed rape. The approach can
involve a number of techniques
including direct drilling, broadcasting
into existing stubbles or adopting a
strategy of reduced tillage.
Caution: Minimum tillage
expected in your area. Establishing
methods can sometimes result in
crops early in the autumn
poor establishment and increased
(particularly oilseed rape) may
input costs. For example, there
present the best opportunity for
can be an increase in slug activity
using minimum tillage under suitable
resulting from increased trash on
soil moisture conditions in Scotland.
the soil surface. An increase in
Therefore, there may be less benefit
grass weeds, such as bromes and
from using minimum tillage
meadow-grasses, can also lead to
techniques on farms in high rainfall
increased herbicide use. In
areas that have a large area of root
addition, non-inversion tillage has
crops.
been associated with increasing
the speed of development of
Before considering minimum tillage
resistance to herbicides in weeds
cultivation methods the following
and resistance to fungicides in
should be asked:
•
cereal diseases.
Potentially reduced passes
resulting in reduced cost
•
•
•
Reduced establishment time –
higher work rates
The gross margins for combinable
Eases management and workload
crops have fallen and farm sizes
in autumn
have increased with fewer farm
Helps achieve optimum drilling
workers being employed. This has
dates
prompted interest in minimum tillage
•
system and cost per hectare?
•
How can it help the
environment?
•
•
•
•
•
Soil texture and structure are the
circumstances
main factors that influence
Potential to increase soil
•
for carabid beetles
component in the decision-making
What is the current type of
machinery – is it due for
replacement soon?
•
How much knowledge is there
among farm staff of different
establishment techniques?
cultivation method, but weed
problems are also an important
Can the current system be
improved with little investment?
drills) are now widely available.
Reduced soil erosion in some
What is the objective of any
change?
Reduced use of fossil fuels
biodiversity, e.g. improved habitat
•
equipment, presses and cultivator
Are the soil, rainfall patterns and
cropping system suitable?
cultivation methods and suitable
machines (e.g. disc/tine cultivation
What is the current cultivation
•
What are the consequences of
any change for fixed costs?
process. The presence of rough
Reduced pesticide and nitrogen
leaching in some circumstances,
e.g. by virtue of increased organic
matter
meadow-grass and sterile brome can
A recent survey has indicated the
make fields unsuitable for non-
advantages and disadvantages of
inversion tillage. Ploughing will be
establishing oilseed rape by using a
necessary on a rotational basis if
novel system that sows the rape as
root crops are included in the
the previous cereal crop is
rotation and this will help to reduce
harvested. The system comprises a
the grass weed burden.
seed hopper and spreader that is
fixed behind the combine header.
It is also important to consider
Optimum soil conditions have been
whether minimum tillage techniques
shown to be important to the
will work given the levels of rainfall
success of this broadcast technique.
19
5
Crop Establishment
section 2
Crop Establishment
Minimum Tillage
Advantages and disadvantages of broadcast establishment
of oilseed rape
Technical tip
Always consolidate the
Advantages
Disadvantages
Cheaper, quicker establishment
Extra time to learn the system and
to re-establish drainage and
for post-sowing management
move the minimum amount
ground after any cultivation
Fewer broad-leaved weeds in crops
Prolific volunteer cereals and grass
established using broadcasting
weeds competing with crops. Some
techniques than in drilled crops.
extra problems with cleavers and
Often broad-leaved herbicide is not
thistles.
of soil necessary. The
technique is probably not
appropriate for the whole
farm but there are instances
(oilseed rape, first wheats
required
after peas) where it could
Use of tramlines from previous crop
Establishment may be poor in
work. In wet autumns this
often makes fieldwork easier
capped or compacted soil with poor
technique has proved to be
drainage.
difficult in Scotland for later
Sometimes poor spreading of chaff
cereal crops.
results in patchy establishment.
Further information
HGCA Topic Sheet 59
20
Capital cost
Large investment may be required
Operating cost
Potential to reduce establishment costs due
££
to more efficient use of labour and machinery.
This may be offset by higher variable costs
e.g. herbicide
Cost benefits
Potential increase in margins compared with
ploughing
-
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
AIC
AICC
HGCA
Rothamsted Research
SAC
SCRI
Technology links
•
•
•
•
Use
6
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Fertiliser Planning
What is it?
Fertiliser planning is an important
part of crop production. Fertiliser
•
based on environmental factors
week in Farmers Weekly for the
and previous cropping regimes.
first few months of the year and
MANNER – is a computer program
is also available on the Internet.
that assesses the fate of nitrogen
management programs aim to
following application of manure
reinforce best practice. They can aid
based on manure type, soil type,
decisions on fertiliser
application method and timing of
recommendations, timing and rate of
•
•
•
•
SCRI fertiliser models.
Fertiliser and manure application
models are available on the latest
application.
application, using a given set of
SAC manure models.
edition of the EMA (Environmental
TSum – is a measure of the
Management for Agriculture)
crop data, weather data, etc.) which
cumulative air temperature over
software from the University of
are based on the specific conditions
time, beginning in January.
Hertfordshire.
found on your farm or in your field.
Dependant upon ground and crop
information inputs (e.g. soil data,
condition, the first application of
•
•
distributors and suppliers also
nitrogen for grass should be
have computer based fertiliser
applied when TSum reaches 200.
Improved nutrient utilisation
Many fertiliser manufacturers,
programs available.
A TSum map is printed every
resulting in improved gross
margins
•
Improved timing and targeting of
inputs
•
Help comply with rules in nitrate
vulnerable zones (NVZs)
Example of a TSum map, used
for determining optimum timing
for nitrogen applications
to grass crops
(20 February, 2003)
005
001
006 007 008
009 010 011 012 013 014 015
How can it help the
environment?
•
•
21
002 003 004
133
016 017 018 019 020 021 022
023 024 025 026 027 028
Reduced build up of nutrients in
the soil above the levels needed
029 030 031 032 033 034
for optimum production
035 036 037 038 039 040
Reduced atmospheric pollution
041 042 043 044 045 046
from excess application of
•
nitrogen fertilisers
127 128 129
047 048 049 050 051
130 131 132
052
053 054 055 056
057
058 059 060 061 062
water pollution from nitrate
leaching and phosphate run off
063 064 065 066 067
T-Sum forecast by 27/2/2003
Many fertiliser programs are
068 069 070 071 072 073 074
075 076 077 078 079 080 081 082 083
available; the list below shows some
examples.
084 085 086 087 088 089 090 091
T-Sum forecast after 19/3/2003
•
SUNDIAL – is a computer
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
program that assesses the
110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
nitrogen requirements of fields
119 120 121 122 123 124 125
126
Farmers Weekly
092 093 094 095 096 097 098 099 100 101
6
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Fertiliser Planning
Capital cost
some computer programs
Operating cost
£
Unlikely to be increased operating costs
compared with standard practice
Cost benefits
Technical tip
There may be a small cost associated with
Improved fertiliser planning can reduce
fertiliser costs
-
Fertiliser planning programs
are often tailored to given
climatic conditions. Ensure
that the plan you are using is
suitable for your given
application. In addition,
these plans often require a
series of inputs, e.g. soil
data, crop data and weather
data. Always use the best
data available - poor data can
result in poor
recommendations.
Further information
•
•
22
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Farmers Weekly web site
(www.fwi.co.uk)
EMA software. University of
Hertfordshire
Fertiliser Recommendations
for Agricultural and
Horticultural Crops (RB 209).
MAFF
Guidelines for farmers in
NVZs. Scottish Executive
P and K fertiliser planning,
using soil and plant analysis
to plan fertiliser use. Autumn
2000. HGCA
AIC
AICC
FACTS qualified adviser
SAC Technical fertiliser notes
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tools
Nitrogen Diagnostic
Technology
Targeted Nitrogen
Application
Yield Mapping
7
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
What is it?
This technology aims to maximise
the efficient use of nitrogen by
matching application rate to the
in. Other tests such as the N-min
For these techniques careful
tool take soil cores and the
sampling is required to ensure the
estimate from this is fed into a
soil or leaf samples are
point system related to yield
representative.
potential and crop nitrogen
specific needs of the crop. This can
requirement.
help to reduce over application of
nitrogen, which results in economic
Satellite, aerial or vehicle mounted
sensors, measuring the spectral
Indirect measurements via a plant
characteristics of the crop canopy,
value such as chlorophyll content
can also be used to assess crop
or tissue analysis: for example,
condition from which nitrogen inputs
chlorophyll testers are used to
can be determined. Several
estimate the amount of
commercial companies offer this
•
Improved nitrogen utilisation
chlorophyll in individual leaves
service. Field maps produced by
which can then be related to the
these techniques can now be linked
margins
N requirements of the crop.
into soil and yield maps.
Improvements in yield and
Nitrate test strips can also be
quality, particularly in malting
used in the field to give an
Caution: Nitrogen is a key driver
barley and breadmaking wheat
approximate guide to N status.
of yield and great care must be
losses and increased risk of nitrate
leaching.
•
•
Reduced risk of lodging in cereals
How can it help the
environment?
•
taken in targeting rates correctly.
Growth regulator use may also be
linked to nitrogen application rate.
Reduced watercourse and
groundwater pollution from nitrate
leaching
Chlorophyll testers are small hand held devices
that can be used to determine the leaf chlorophyll
content and help to determine subsequent
nitrogen application
nitrogen fertiliser
Yara UK Ltd
•
•
Several nitrogen diagnostic
techniques are available:
•
Direct measurements of soil
available nitrogen using simple
tests: an example is the Solomon
system that uses portable field
equipment to determine nitrate
concentrations in soil, plant-sap
and water in arable crops.
Reagent strips are placed in a
reflectometer to give a nitrate
reading after the sample is dipped
Prototype tractor mounted sensors used to assess canopy condition
to help determine nitrogen requirements
23
7
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Capital cost
Operating cost
Chlorophyll testers
£
Vehicle mounted sensors
££
Increased operating costs for direct
measurement of soil-N
24
Nitrogen diagnostic
technology reinforces best
practice, e.g. using fertiliser
recommendations. Ensure
££
that your spreading
Sensor derived maps will increase operating
equipment is correctly
costs either produced by yourself via vehicle
calibrated and is able to
mounted sensors or by a contractor using
apply the nitrogen evenly and
aerial or satellites
Cost benefits
Technical tip
Although there is a cost associated with
££
at the correct rate.
nitrogen diagnostics, better use of nitrogen
Further information
can result in improved gross margins
•
The Wheat Growth Guide,
1998. HGCA
•
Canopy management in
winter wheat, Topic Sheet
No. 40. Autumn 2000. HGCA
•
Precision farming of cereals,
practical guidelines and crop
nutrition, 2002. HGCA
•
MAFF
•
•
•
•
•
AICC
AIC
The Precision Farming
Alliance
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
Fertiliser Planning
Targeted Nitrogen
Application
8
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
What is it?
Targeted nitrogen application aims
Assess your in-field variability using
to build on nitrogen
techniques such as field walking, soil
recommendations and nitrogen
nitrogen measurement, chlorophyll
diagnostic techniques. It uses
testers or spectral characteristics of
variable rate application technology
crop canopy. Yield maps from
to apply nitrogen to account for the
previous seasons will also help
in-field variability of the crop
assess variability (see HGCA Topic
nitrogen requirements.
Sheet No. 70). If sufficient
•
variability is found, decide on which
variable nitrogen strategy to use:
•
conditions. Use conventional
Reduced variability in yield and
application equipment to apply
quality, particularly for
nitrogen to each zone depending
breadmaking wheat and malting
•
Use a treatment map, generated
from nitrogen diagnostic
How can it help the
environment?
techniques, and variably apply
•
system and Global Positioning
Systems (GPS). Several GPS and
leaching
rate control systems are now
available commercially.
•
available to measure canopy
condition in real time – as you
drive along spreading fertiliser.
These can be used in conjunction
with control systems to vary
nitrogen applications in real time.
The map below shows an example of
the variability in crop density as
measured using spectral reflectance
used to variably apply nitrogen. The
general philosophy is to increase
nitrogen in areas of low crop density
and decrease nitrogen in areas of
high crop density.
on its specific conditions.
barley
Reduced risk of lodging in cereals
Zone field into management areas
having similar soil or canopy
margins
•
Commercial systems are also
techniques. Such information can be
Improved nitrogen utilisation
•
•
nitrogen using a spreader or
sprayer fitted with a rate control
Caution: Nitrogen is a key driver
of yield and great care must be
taken in targeting rates correctly.
Growth regulator use may also be
linked to nitrogen application rate.
nitrogen fertiliser
Variability in crop density identified using spectral reflectance
techniques
25
8
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Caution: Care is required when interpreting these maps. It is important
to check in the field to identify other possible causes of in-field variability.
For example:
•
An area shown as having a high crop density may actually be a weed
infested area rather than a thick crop.
•
Further information
•
•
•
FACTS qualified advisers
•
1998. HGCA.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Technical fertiliser notes
A low crop density may be an indication of pest damage or disease and
hence would not benefit from increased nitrogen application without
controlling the cause of the problem.
In some circumstances, variable rate application of nitrogen has shown
benefits of up to £22/ha compared to standard input programmes. (Source:
Precision farming of cereals, practical guidelines and crop nutrition, Spring
2002. Home Grown Cereals Authority).
Capital cost
Operating cost
Variable rate control systems
££
Sensing systems
££
Variable rate control systems: increased
maintenance
26
£
Sensing systems: production of treatment
maps
Cost benefits
£
Equipping machinery with a variable rate
control systems is a significant cost. However
the technology can also be used for varying
other inputs, e.g. seed rates, herbicides,
fungicides and growth regulators
Technical tip
Always apply nitrogen based
on best practice; only
consider using targeted
nitrogen application if you
have sufficient in-field
variability to justify it. For
example, assuming 20% of
your farm responded to
variable rate application you
would need to have a yield
increase on those areas of
0.95, 0.48, 0.32 and 0.24
(t/ha) for farmed areas of
250, 500, 750 and 1000 (ha)
respectively to justify the
cost of variable rate
technology.
Precision farming advisers
MAFF
AIC
AICC
SAC
SCRI
Alliance
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
Improved Fertiliser
Spreading Characteristics
•
Improved Targeting of
Fertiliser Close to Field
Boundaries
•
•
Yield Mapping
Fertiliser Planning
Nitrogen Diagnostic
Technology
9
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Targeted Phosphate, Potash and
Lime Application
What is it?
potash and pH levels have been
Phosphate, potash and pH levels can
vary significantly within a field due
to differences in soil type,
management history and nutrient offtake as harvested crop. High yielding
areas will remove large amounts of
nutrients, whereas low yielding areas
built up or run down. Using
Re-sampling commercial fields in
Macaulay soil maps and field
Scotland after five years of variable
experience can aid the correct
phosphate, potash and lime
positioning of sampling points.
application has shown very clear
Generally an average of 1
evidence of reducing the proportion
sample/ha is needed; in most
of the field with low and high
circumstances it is not economic
nutrient levels. This reduced soil
to sample more intensively.
nutrient variability has resulted in
remove only small amounts.
Targeted application aims to
maintain uniform levels of
yield and quality improvements in
•
phosphate, potash and lime across
the field by matching product
application rates to soil variability,
nutrient levels, pH, nutrient off-take
and crop requirements.
Electromagnetic inductions (EMI)
cereals and potatoes. The ability to
scanning to assess soil variability
return to precisely the same
– EMI systems measure soil
sampling point five or ten years later
electrical conductivity which is
greatly enhances the value of soil
determined by soil properties.
sampling to monitor trends in
This technique alone is insufficient
nutrient levels.
to assess P and K variability but
can add to conventional P and K
Whole-farm trials in the Borders
maps. Several companies offer
have shown savings in lime
•
this as a commercial service.
application of 50% and savings on
Improved phosphate, potash and
phosphate and potash of 27%. This
lime utilisation resulting in
improved gross margins
•
•
Where yield maps are available
Reduced variability in yield and
use them to calculate variable
quality, e.g. common scab in
phosphate and potash off take.
How can it help the
environment?
•
•
determine an application strategy
based on the in-field variability.
Apply using variable rate technology
including where necessary Global
the soil above the levels needed
Positioning Systems (GPS) – several
for optimum production
GPS and rate control systems are
water pollution from phosphate
run off and leaching
now available commercially.
Several commercial companies in
Scotland now offer a complete
targeted application service from
assessing variability, map production
Assess in-field phosphate, potash
through to variable application and
and pH variability using techniques
subsequent monitoring. This type of
such as:
technology can also be used for
variable application of other inputs,
•
Soil sampling – this should be
e.g. sulphur, copper and
done every 4 to 5 years, but
magnesium.
more often where phosphate,
240ha dairy and potato farm, after
machinery purchase have been
Use all the information available to
Reduced build up of nutrients in
£20,000 over a five year period on a
all costs of sampling analysis and
potatoes caused by acid patches
in fields
has led to net savings of over
taken into account. (Source: CSC
CropCare)
27
9
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Targeted Phosphate, Potash and Lime Application
Further information
Electromagnetic induction (EMI) scanning systems used to assess
soil variability
ADAS, Boxworth
Capital cost
28
Operating cost
Cost benefits
EMI scanning instrument
££
Variable rate control systems
££
Use of contractors to assess soil variability
using EMI
£
Soil sampling
£
Savings can be made by the variable
application of phosphate, potash and lime
Technical tip
•
•
•
•
1998. HGCA
•
P and K fertiliser planning,
using soil and plant analysis
to plan fertiliser use, 2000.
HGCA
•
•
•
•
•
remember to take into
account any responsive crops
to be included in the rotation
(e.g. potatoes and
vegetables) and make
allowances for any animal
manure that has been or will
be applied.
AICC
Alliance
•
Improved Fertiliser
•
Boundaries
•
•
•
the field. However, when
potash applications
AIC
•
•
•
maintenance levels across
planning phosphate and
MAFF
Technology links
Always aim to keep
phosphate and potash at
Precision farming advisers
Fertiliser Planning
Targeted Nitrogen
Application
Yield Mapping
10
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Improved Fertiliser Spreading
Characteristics
What is it?
•
The ability to spread fertilisers
How can it help the
environment?
uniformly with any type of spreader
•
•
Ground conditions at the time of
spreading
The type and quality of the
fertiliser
depends on the physical properties
water pollution as improved
of the material. Flow characteristics
uniformity of application
With any product, it is important to
through a metering system are
minimises potential leaching
set up and calibrate the spreader for
important for all types of spreaders.
losses
both application rate and pattern.
For spinning disc and spout
•
machines, the size distribution of the
Reduced contamination of field
margins and hedgerows
particles is critical particularly when
operating at bout widths greater
important, many growers do not
than 18m. Good spreading
characteristics for a fertiliser are
affected by the way in which it is
made, packaged, stored and handled
on the farm. Many materials are
hygroscopic and will absorb moisture
if exposed to the atmosphere leading
to caking and poor spreading
performance.
Good quality fertilisers should be
widely available. For straight
nitrogen products the ‘SP’ quality
mark indicates good spreading
quality and a consistent supply. This
scheme is operated on behalf of the
Agricultural Industries Confederation
in the UK and is audited by Lloyds.
It is to be extended to other
materials.
•
Improved uniformity of spreading
Where quality is not known, ask for
particularly at wide bout widths:
information about
less lodging risk and better
•
utilisation leading to improved
high percentage of particles less
Improved timeliness and labour
utilisation, and reduced crop
losses due to the ability to
than 1mm in diameter.
•
•
Particle strength – it should not
be possible to break particles
operate with wide bout widths
•
Particle size distribution – a sieve
box test will show if there is a
yields and quality
•
Whilst all of these factors are
easily with your fingernails, nor
Improved fertiliser handling – less
should the fertiliser be excessively
break-up of material and less dust
dusty.
Consistent quality means less
need for frequent re-calibration of
A number of factors affect the
spreader
accurate spreading of fertiliser:
•
•
The condition of the spreader
The set-up and calibration of the
spreader
•
The skill, experience and training
of the operator
•
Weather conditions at the time of
spreading
fully appreciate the effect of changes
in prill quality on crop yields and
hence on profitability. The spread
pattern rating system (SP) has been
developed to test the various
nitrogen fertilisers on the market,
and provide a quality standard. The
fertiliser is tested independently by
Silsoe Research Institute. The SP
system measures the two most
significant factors in spreadability:
throw and flow. The flow is the
movement through the hopper and
into the spreader vanes or boom,
and the throw is the spread across
the working width.
29
10
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Improved Fertiliser Spreading Characteristics
An operating rig used to test fertiliser spreading qualities
Technical tip
Granular and prilled
fertilisers from different
sources have differing flow
rates and spreading
characteristics. The spreader
must be set-up and
calibrated to take account of
these factors according to
the manufacturers’
recommendations
Further information
30
As different granules behave differently in different machines, it is critical to
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fertiliser suppliers
Spreader manufacturers
AIC
AICC
SRI
tray test the spread of the machine (disc or pneumatic) with all the
Technology links
fertilisers used on the farm. A coefficient of variation (CoV – a measure of
•
Targeted Nitrogen
Application
•
•
Boundaries
•
the variation of spread across the working width) of less than 10% should
be the aim. The striping of a cereal crop by poor application does not
become apparent until the variability exceeds 20%. Thus a great deal of
wasted fertiliser and lost yield can occur before striping is visible.
Work at the Silsoe Research Institute has calculated the direct effects of
poor spread pattern on yield and financial return. Poor spreading can result
in a £6-12/ha margin reduction, which at 160kg N/ha equates to £13-26/ha
of fertiliser for a 34% N product. The financial impacts may be even greater
where quality specifications are important for crops such as malting barley
and winter wheat.
Capital cost
No capital costs involved
-
Operating cost
Some increase in material costs
£
Cost benefits
Increased cost of material should be readily off-set
11
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Improved Targeting of Fertiliser
Close to Field Boundaries
What is it?
Improved targeting of fertiliser close
•
Use of specialised spout (spout
machines only)
•
to field boundaries reduces
Most fertiliser spreader
contamination of hedgerows and
manufacturers will offer a
spread pattern for each disc on a
watercourses. High levels of fertiliser
mechanism for modifying the
twin disc machine
applied into the base of hedgerows
distribution pattern from a spreader
and field margins have been shown
close to the field boundary although
Boundary limiting systems for
to disturb the balance of flora in
for any particular machine there will
fertiliser spreaders are a well-
such areas so as to limit
probably not be a choice of system
established technology that has been
biodiversity. Most single point
to be used.
exploited commercially in a number
Use of different feed rate and disc
of ways. The use of such systems
fertiliser spreaders (e.g. disc or
spout machines but not boom
A number of approaches have been
avoids a ‘tailing off’ of application
spreaders) rely on matching
developed for changing the spread
rate close to the field boundary
overlapping spread patterns. This
pattern from such machines to limit
although the uniformity of
means that at the field boundary
fertiliser loss into the boundary
application in the last field bout is
substantial amounts of fertiliser may
including:
likely to be less than that obtained
with fully over-lapping patterns.
be spread beyond the edge of the
field giving a direct contamination
•
disc (disc machines only)
risk to water as well as indirect
effects on biodiversity.
The use of a specialised border
•
31
Tilting the whole spreading
machine
•
Reduced loss of fertiliser from the
•
Changing the position of the feed
to the disc
productive area of the field
•
Improved spreading uniformity up
Changing the distribution pattern by tilting the whole machine
to the edge of the field
•
Improved management of field
margins
•
Helps with adherence to quality
assurance protocols
•
Reduced weed growth in field
boundaries
How can it help the
environment?
•
Reduced risk of watercourse
contamination
Improved biodiversity in field
margins and hedgerows
•
11
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Fertiliser Close to Field Boundaries
A distribution pattern obtained from a disc spreader. Boundary
control devices will modify one side of this pattern
Technical tip
Although operation of
280
boundary limiting systems is
C/L
Fertiliser rate as %
of mean rate
240
200
160
120
necessary to undertake
separate calibrations for such
systems. It is also important
to remember that most
boundary limiting systems
only operate on one side of
80
the machine. Hence it is
40
important to carefully plan
spreading in each field so
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
that you drive round the
outside in the right direction
Pattern width, m
The use of boundary limiting systems to reduce the fertiliser spread into the
32
straightforward, it may be
field boundary is a requirement of some crop assurance scheme protocols
Further information
(e.g. Scottish Quality Cereals) and is likely to be a component in Nitrate
•
Crop Assurance Scheme
action plans
•
•
•
•
•
Vulnerable Zones (NVZ) action plans.
Note: Boom spreaders can achieve control of fertiliser application into the
field boundary with no modification.
Capital cost
Spreader components for machines that, for
example, change discs
Operating cost
Cost benefits
•
Targeted Nitrogen
Application
£
•
-
•
Improved Fertiliser
•
Capital and operating inputs needed to deliver
benefits
AICC
-
No additional materials – may be a small
saving in fertiliser use
AIC
Technology links
Some cost due to time and expertise needed
to set up the boundary limiting systems
AEA
£
Machines that change settings or adjust the
mounting angle will involve no additional cost
Spreader manufacturers
12
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
What are they?
Boom spreaders use nozzles on a
Boom fertiliser spreaders take two
boom to deliver either liquid or solid
forms, namely:
depend on the pump capacity.
Contractors can be employed to
reduce capital costs.
fertiliser materials. Solid materials
A crop sprayer equipped to apply
Pneumatic fertiliser spreaders are
air flow. Such application systems
liquid fertilisers, often using
less readily available and relatively
are capable of achieving high levels
relatively large diameter boom
expensive to purchase and maintain
of uniformity, provided the boom is
supply lines to handle large flow
when compared with disc type
well mounted via a suspension
rates and fitted with specialist
spreaders. Booms tend to be heavier
system that minimises the
nozzles; or
than those on crop sprayers and this
are conveyed to the nozzle using an
transmission of vehicle roll and yaw
•
•
Pneumatic spreaders in which
to the boom. Boom widths typically
rigid plastic pipes secured to a
match those of the sprayer to enable
boom are used to supply
the use of tramlines for a number of
fertilisers in a high speed air
operations; 18 and 24m are
stream to deflector plate nozzles
common widths. Separate sections
spaced along the boom.
•
•
•
speed; air flow to all delivery pipes
Methods of adapting crop sprayers
is balanced as is the performance of
to apply liquid fertilisers are widely
the metering segments so that a
available. Some machines will use
uniform distribution pattern can be
dual lines such that the larger
achieved.
diameter pipes can be used for
fertiliser application and smaller
application
pipes with reduced residual volumes
Liquid fertiliser delivery with the
can be used for pesticides. Fertiliser
sprayer can reduce investment in
nozzles and dribble bars apply
machinery
streams of liquid and aim to
Effective spreading can be done in
minimise crop scorch by limiting the
a wider range of weather
contact between applied material
conditions
and crop leaves. Fertiliser nozzles
The distribution pattern from
pneumatic spreaders or liquid
application with a crop sprayer is of
a different form to that of disc or
and dribble bars are widely available
•
similar metering system driven from
rate is independent of forward
Improved uniformity of fertiliser
environment?
using a segmented fluted roller or
a ground wheel so that application
off to allow less overlap on
How can they help
you?
to a maximum of 24m. Fertiliser is
metered into the delivery tubes
of the boom can be switched on and
headlands and butts.
has tended to limit working widths
from specialist manufacturers. Using
spout type machines – it is even
across the width – so that accurate
bout matching is very important.
This makes such application methods
suited to tramline operation.
such machines to apply fertiliser is
straightforward, but work rates
water pollution as improved
uniformity of application
•
Fewer losses at field boundaries
reducing contamination of
hedgerows and field margins
losses
Dribble bar
Hardi International A/S
minimises potential leaching
Stream nozzle
33
12
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Pneumatic fertiliser spreader in operation
Technical tip
Many automated systems for
patch spraying can also be
used to provide targeted
application of liquid
fertilisers.
Further information
34
Capital cost
Operating cost
•
•
•
AEA
Targeted Nitrogen
Application
•
£
•
Improved Fertiliser
-
•
Fertilisers Close to Field
Boundaries
Pneumatic spreaders: no operating costs
Cost benefits
Sprayers: benefits can be obtained at
a low cost
Pneumatic spreaders: costs are higher and
results can be achieved by other methods
AICC
•
££
through higher maintenance and where a
other than standard maintenance
AIC
Nitrogen Diagnostic
Technology
Sprayers: a slight increase in operating costs
storage tank is required (hire charge)
Nozzle, sprayer and spreader
manufacturers
•
£
Pneumatic spreaders: pneumatic machines
represent a high cost investment
Technology links
Sprayers: capital cost is low (purchase of nozzles)
particularly if sprayer is fitted with dual lines
•
•
-
13
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
What are they?
Agricultural manures (solid manure
The nutrients available to the crop,
and slurry) contain useful amounts
particularly nitrogen, will depend on
of plant nutrients. However, their
the manure or slurry type, the soil
variable nature means that their
type, the timing of application and
nutrient content is often difficult to
the application technique used. They
predict. Manure-value diagnostics
can be estimated using standard
are techniques aimed at improving
figures (e.g. tabulated figures) or
the estimation of the manure
computer software programs (e.g.
nutrient content, allowing improved
MANNER or EMA).
ammonium nitrogen estimation.
Prototype in-line nutrient sensors
fertiliser planning. Both the manure’s
that can estimate the nutrient value
of slurry in real time have been
developed, but such systems are not
currently commercially available.
Manure is a valuable resource that
can bring considerable savings of
inorganic fertiliser. For example, the
excreta produced annually by a
There are 3 main techniques
typical dairy cow can provide
currently available to help estimate
nutrients worth £16.40 and pig
the nutrient value of manure:
manure applied at 35t/ha can supply
standard values, sampling and
nutrients worth £85/ha (see table).
How can they help
you?
laboratory analysis and rapid on
For some arable crops, organic
farm methods such as hydrometers
manures can supply all the
for phosphate estimation and
phosphate and potash the crop
•
Improved fertiliser planning
hypochlorite oxidation methods (e.g.
requires. Manures also supply useful
resulting in savings on inorganic
Agros or Quantofix meter) for
quantities of sulphur and
total nutrient content and its
availability to the crop must be
considered.
•
Help to comply with rules in
Nitrate Vulnerable Zones (NVZs)
•
requirement for phosphate and
potash
environment?
•
•
Fertiliser value of organic manures
Nitrogen
In some situations, organic
manures can supply the total
Utilisation of manures as a
resource rather than disposal of a
waste product
Caution: Livestock manures,
especially pig and poultry
manures, can contain heavy
metals, particularly zinc and
35
magnesium.
fertiliser
Phosphate Potash
Nutrients (kg) supplied by 100 dairy cows
per year, assuming they are housed
for 6 months
4800
1900
4800
% available to next crop following spring
application
35
50
90
Fertiliser available per year (kg)
to following crop
1680
950
4320
Value of manure fertiliser assuming
nitrogen = 30p/kg; phosphate = 30p/kg;
potash = 20p/kg
£500
£280
£860
Typical nutrient content of 25% dry matter
pig farmyard manure (kg/t)
7.0
7.0
5.0
% available to next crop following winter
application
10
60
90
Fertiliser available (kg) to following crop
assuming an application rate of 35t/ha
25
150
160
Value of manure fertiliser (£/ha) assuming
nitrogen = 30p/kg; phosphate = 30p/kg;
potash = 20p/kg
£8
£45
£32
copper, which over the long term,
e.g. more than 100 years, may
result in toxic levels of these in
the soil.
MAFF RB 209
© Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO
and Queen's Printer for Scotland
13
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Further information
Capital cost
Computer programs and standard values
£
Rapid on farm methods
£
Operating cost
Analysis of samples by a laboratory
£
Cost benefits
Although there can be a cost associated
with improved estimation of manure
nutrient content, considerable savings
on inorganic fertiliser can be made
•
•
•
MAFF
•
Managing Livestock Manures:
Booklet 1 – Making better
use of livestock manures on
arable land; Booklet 2 –
Making better use of
livestock manures on
grassland and; Booklet 3 –
Spreading systems for
slurries and solid manures.
ADAS
•
PEPFAA code, Dos and Don’ts
guide. Scottish Executive
•
•
•
•
AIC
Technical tip
Careful sampling is required
to ensure the manure being
analysed is representative of
the stored material. This will
require taking multiple
36
samples from a range of
positions within the store or
heap, mixing them together
and then taking a sub-sample
for analysis. Poor sampling
will result in inaccurate
manure-value estimation.
Hertfordshire
The 4 Point Plan.
Straightforward guidance for
livestock farmers and
contractors to minimise
pollution and benefit your
business. SEERAD, SEPA,
SAC, NFUS, SNH, WWF,
FWAG and BOC
AICC
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fertiliser Planning
Nitrogen Diagnostic
Technology
14
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
What is it?
and slurry) are invariably stored on
farms before they are spread. Poor
storage can result in harm to the
environment. Improved storage
techniques can minimise the amount
of nitrogen lost through ammonia
volatilisation and increase the
manure’s nutrient value to the crop.
These techniques can also help with
compliance in Nitrate Vulnerable
Zones (NVZs).
•
Improved utilisation of manures
to determine the storage capacity
store, which is equivalent to 50
you require. A minimum storage
tanker loads (Scotford and Williams,
capacity of 4 months is
2001).
recommended, but increasing
capacity increases the flexibility
Other studies have indicated that
allowing manure to be spread when
preventing rainwater from yards and
the crops require the nutrients. In
roofs entering slurry stores can
some circumstances, it may be
reduce the volume of slurry to be
necessary to build a new store.
spread by more than 600 tonnes per
Failure to apply manure at a time
year equivalent to 100 tanker loads
when the crop requires the nutrients
(Scottish Agricultural Pollution
will result in environmental pollution
Group, 2000).
through ammonia volatilisation and
nitrate leaching (see table).
Relationship between time of application of manures and amount of
available N remaining for spring growth
fertilisers
•
Helps comply with rules in Nitrate
Vulnerable Zones (NVZs)
•
Available nitrogen effective for spring growth, %
Autumn
0 – 20
Early winter
30 – 50
Late winter
60 – 90
Spring
90 – 100
Easier manure management and
increased flexibility in timing of
applications
How can it help the
environment?
•
Time of application
Scottish Agricultural Pollution Group, Pollution Review, No. 14, August 2001
Sufficient storage for slurry may be
from poorly timed manure
achieved by reducing the amount of
Consider using manure treatment
application
clean water entering the storage
processes such as composting for
system, e.g. rainwater runoff from
solid manures, aeration, weeping
roofs and yards. New covering
wall, low rate irrigation systems and
techniques can reduce both the
separation for slurries. These
rainwater entering the store, odour
technologies can ease handling and
emissions and the amount of
increase the availability of the
nitrogen lost through ammonia
nutrients. Anaerobic digestion,
volatilisation (by over 80%), thus
either on farm or centralised can be
resulting in more nitrogen being
used to produce bio-gas. Centralised
available to the crop. The lagoon
digesters are now common in
It is important to have sufficient
pictured on the next page covers an
Denmark, Germany and Sweden;
storage to allow manure to be
area of 525m2; assuming an
the first one has been constructed in
spread at the optimum time for crop
average annual rainfall of 600mm,
the UK and these units may provide
uptake (usually in the spring). Use
the cover would prevent 300 tonnes
an alternative outlet for farm waste
techniques such as standard values
of water per year from entering the
in the near future.
•
•
waste product
37
14
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Cover being fitted to a slurry store
Technical tip
Improved manure storage
must form part of an
integrated approach to
manure management.
The key requirements are:
•
Determine the nutrient
content of the manure
•
Apply manures at the correct
time (usually in the spring)
•
Apply evenly at the correct
rate using techniques that
minimise ammonia losses
Further information
•
•
•
MAFF
££
•
increase maintenance costs
£
•
Manure treatment processes
££
•
•
•
•
AIC
38
Capital cost
Major capital investment required for new
manure storage system
££
Major capital investment required for covering
manure storage system
££
Treatment plants are likely to involve major
capital investment
Operating cost
Cost benefits
Covering storage systems is likely to
Improved utilisation of manure reduces the
use of inorganic fertilisers
Note: Grants may be available for improving slurry stores in NVZs
References
Hertfordshire
The 4 Point Plan.
Straightforward guidance for
livestock farmers and
contractors to minimise
pollution and benefit your
business. SEERAD, SEPA,
SAC, NFUS, SNH, WWF,
FWAG and BOC
AICC
Scotford I.M and Williams A.G. (2001). Practicalities, costs and effectiveness
of a floating plastic cover to reduce ammonia emissions from a pig slurry
lagoon. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research
80 (3), 273-281.
Scottish Agricultural Pollution Group (2000). Pollution Review No. 13.
Technology links
•
•
15
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
What is it?
A reduction in ammonia emissions
and slurry) are commonly spread
can be achieved by rapid
using broadcast spreaders which
incorporation of solid manure and
often have poor accuracy of
slurries which are broadcast to bare
application and can result in
land. Care must be taken to avoid
potentially damaging gaseous
compaction or damage to soil
emissions. Improved manure
structure: incorporation should not
application techniques are able to
take place when soil conditions are
achieve accurate application rates
poor. Alternatively, for slurries, use
(e.g. t/ha or m3/ha) and improved
low level application systems such as
lateral distribution whilst using
band spreaders, trailing shoe
techniques that minimise ammonia
spreaders or injectors all of which
losses. These techniques will help
are commercially available. Often
with compliance in Nitrate
these types of machines are fitted
Vulnerable Zones (NVZs) and quality
with flow meters and control
systems that accurately manage the
application rate. In a novel system
called Direct Ground Injection, slurry
is injected into the ground without
the need for soil engaging tines.
These machines are not generally
available in the UK but are now
being used in Scandinavian
countries.
The figure shows that the use of low
level techniques such as deep
injection can result in ammonia
volatilisation being reduced by up to
90% compared with broadcast
spreading.
assurance (QA) schemes.
•
Improved utilisation of manures
Comparison of slurry emissions from slurry spreading with and
without the use of abatement techniques
•
Helps comply with rules in Nitrate
Vulnerable Zones (NVZs)
How can it help the
environment?
•
from poorly applied manure
•
•
waste product
Caution: In certain conditions,
such as light gravelly soils,
injection of slurry – especially deep
injection – can result in increased
nitrate leaching and watercourse
pollution. Steeply sloping ground
or stony soils may not be suitable
for slurry injection.
% ammonia emission compared with
broadcast spreading
fertilisers
100
75
50
25
0
Broadcast
spreading
Rapid
incorporation
(within 6 hours)
Band
spreading
Shallow
injection (7cm)
Deep injection
(25 cm)
Defra, Ammonia in the UK
© Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and
Queen's Printer for Scotland
39
15
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Caution: Do not over apply manures, especially in NVZ, where the
Technical tip
limit is 250kg/ha organic nitrogen for grassland and 210kg/ha organic
nitrogen for arable (reducing to 170kg/ha organic nitrogen after four
The manure’s physical
years).
characteristics (e.g. dry
matter content, straw
Typical manure application rates to achieve 250 and 170 kg/ha
content, fresh or old) will
organic nitrogen
affect spreader performance.
It is important that the
Manure type
Application rate to achieve
250kg/ha N
170kg/ha N
36t/ha
24t/ha
8t/ha
3t/ha
83m3/ha
57m3/ha
spreader is calibrated based
on the type of manure used
to ensure the required
Pig manure 25%DM
Broiler litter 60%
Dairy slurry 6%
amount is applied.
Further information
MAFF RB 209
© Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and Queen's
Printer for Scotland
•
•
•
MAFF
•
•
•
•
•
•
Some solid manure spreaders cannot achieve low application rates (less than
40
10t/ha), which results in over application of manures with high
concentrations of nutrients, such as poultry.
Capital cost
Replacing manure spreading equipment is a
major capital investment
££
Hanging low level application systems on the
Operating cost
Cost benefits
back of an existing tanker is a cheaper option
£
Rapid incorporation of manure
£
Low level application systems
£
Hertfordshire
AEA
AIC
AICC
Costs offset by more efficient use of
nutrients contained in agricultural manures
and savings on inorganic fertiliser
Note: As an alternative to buying new equipment, consider using a
contractor’s spreading services
Technology links
•
•
16
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
What is it?
•
Irrigating at night reduces water
evaporation rates
This is making better use of your
supply to the specific needs of the
There are also several techniques
crop. Improved use of irrigation
that can be used to improve water
water can be achieved using various
management on farms. This is
techniques such as improving the
normally achieved by measuring
distribution of the water or
water available to the crop in the
measuring and/or predicting water
soil via sensors (probes) and/or
demand by individual crops.
using weather data to derive
evapotranspiration rates.
•
Improved water use and better
crop performance
•
•
•
Technologies to achieve this include:
•
Mathematical models - water is
used at a rate determined by the
Improved crop quality by timely
size of the crop canopy.
applications
However, certain crops have
Inform legislators and the general
limitations in their ability to take
public that water for irrigation is
up water. Models take this into
being used responsibly
account in order to measure
Help comply with new regulation
water use by a crop.
on water use
How can it help the
environment?
More efficient use of water
resources
distribution pattern resulting in
improved water usage.
•
Trickle irrigation for some crops
can greatly reduce water
consumption
achieve as accurate measurement of
water use as possible. This
information can then be used to
estimate water use in nearby fields.
It should be noted that all measuring
techniques measure soil water in the
vicinity very accurately when set up
correctly but they only measure
water use between two points in
time rather than measure directly
what the plant has used.
Note: The uniformity of water
being under-irrigated, reducing yield
prediction of evapotranspiration
and crop quality. Other parts of the
rates. A large network of remote
field are over-irrigated, wasting
in-field weather stations is
water and leaching out fertiliser.
•
Measuring techniques –
example neutron probes or
they have a much better
field so that they are replicated to
This results in parts of the field
amount of water in the soil, for
boom) instead of rain guns as
concentrate measurements in one
conditions to improve the
water, including:
(e.g. centre pivot or transverse
information. It is often best to
especially poor in windy conditions.
techniques that measure the
•
when to irrigate based on very little
used to monitor environmental
improve the application accuracy of
Using boom irrigation systems
growers may make judgements on
Weather stations – they can be
available in Scotland.
Several techniques can be used to
more than two sites per field. Hence,
distribution from rain guns is
•
•
techniques in fields are point specific
and instrument cost often precludes
irrigation water to match the water
All assessments using measuring
EnviroScan diviners.
41
16
Crop Nutrition
section 2
Crop Nutrition
Capital cost
Boom irrigation system
Technical tip
££
When choosing irrigation
systems, ensure that the
Specialist equipment for monitoring soil
moisture is normally hired
Operating cost
-
correct pump and pipe size
combination is used. Using
Operating boom irrigation systems can
too small a pipe will increase
reduce operating costs compared with
rain guns
higher operating costs. Fully
Contractor charge for hire and installation
maintain any system: worn
of the probes, regular reading and
pumps and leaking pipes not
interpretation
Cost benefits
the pressure resulting in
£
only waste water but also
increase the operating costs.
Improved margins will be achieved through
improved yields and quality
Further information
42
•
•
BPC Technical Information
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
CSC PotatoCare
Irrigation equipment
suppliers
CUPGRA
SAC
SEERAD
SEPA
SCRI
AEA
AIC
AICC
Technology links
•
•
17
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Crop Diagnostics
What are they?
Crop diagnostics are products which
allow fungal and viral disease, and
nutrient deficiency to be diagnosed.
Correct identification helps to
improve the targeting of inputs. This
bags for sending in samples and
previously possible, enabling the
results can be back within the week.
industry to adopt early anti-
Tests are available for disease
resistance strategies.
presence or identification, presence
of fungicide resistance, presence and
Delays arising from laboratory tests
species of potato cyst nematode and
can limit the usefulness of the
plant nutrient status.
approach, which has a wider
usually involves the sending of
samples to specialist laboratories for
diagnosis although some in-field kits
are now available.
adoption as an aid to plant nutrition
For example, a test based on the
than for diagnosis of plant disease.
malate:sulphate ratio now allows
sulphur deficiency in oilseed rape
Some in-field diagnostic kits are
How can they help
you?
and cereal crops to be predicted with
available and others are being
more confidence. It also allows the
developed for identification of crop
success of the corrective treatment
diseases e.g. potato blight and plant
•
Improved diagnosis of crop
to be monitored. It is now being
viruses.
disorder, avoiding unnecessary
developed for other crops.
In-field diagnosis kits are widely
expenditure
•
•
Improved choice of product, level
Biotechnology-based techniques
used by inspectors of Scottish seed
of input or choice of technique to
such as Polymerase Chain Reaction
potato crops for the diagnosis of
tackle problems
(PCR) are being used to identify
viruses. The test device is packaged
seed stocks of cereals that do not
together with a system that is used
require seed dressings for the
to extract sap from the plant
control of seedling diseases. These
material (Bottle and Ball extraction
techniques also allow the detection
method). A few drops of the sample
of the development of fungicide
will then be placed on the device as
resistance at an earlier stage than
shown in the diagram.
Identify deficiencies, disease or
fungicide resistance before they
result in yield and quality
reduction but still in time to
correct by the appropriate use of
inputs
•
•
Reduced doses and costs
In-field test devices
Help to justify treatment
programmes to quality assurance
auditors, buyers and processors
environment?
•
Reduced amount of pesticides and
nutrients in the environment
based and require specialist
knowledge for interpretation.
Sampling kits are often readily
available from specialist laboratories.
They usually include postage-paid
CSL, Crown Copyright
Most of the tests are laboratory-
43
17
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Crop Diagnostics
Technical tip
The biggest likely error
source is at sampling. It is
essential that the sample is
representative.
Representative sampling
requires a very structured
approach to deciding where
to collect samples from in
order to help ensure useful
results from the test.
Further information
CSL, Crown Copyright
44
Capital cost
Operating cost
Small additional operating costs compared
with standard practice
Cost benefits
£
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
AIC
AICC
BPC
CSL Pocket Diagnostics
CSC PotatoCare
HGCA
PGRO
SAC
SCRI
Matching crop inputs more closely with
crop requirements will improve margins
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
Variety Choice
18
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Monitoring Insect Pest Activity
What is it?
Monitoring pests involves regular on-
There are now systems where
farm sampling in order to assess the
manufacturers of key insecticides
levels of insect pest activity. The
monitor progress of the insect pest
information collected will determine
and supply the relevant information,
the need to treat with an insecticide
usually by electronic means. The
and helps to identify the optimum
extent and intensity of the laying of
timing of treatment. The information
wheat bulb fly eggs (to indicate the
is provided regularly to those
necessity for seed dressings) as well
requesting the service (e.g.
as the progression of egg hatch (to
monitoring of wheat bulb fly hatch)
optimise spray timing) are good
or by direct measurements on the
examples.
Action threshold levels are generally
available (e.g. 66% tillers infested
for late aphid treatments in winter
wheat, 10 or more pea moths in
either of the two traps on two
consecutive occasions in combining
peas for seed and human
consumption).
farm concerned (e.g. in-field
threshold techniques for
In-field assessments can be made
leatherjackets).
either by field observation (e.g.
aphid numbers in crops), by using
•
decision making
•
farm built traps (e.g. slug traps) or
by purchasing traps (e.g. pheromone
traps for pea moth, sticky traps for
monitoring carrot root fly and pollen
Reduced costs by avoiding
beetle).
unnecessary applications of
insecticides
•
•
The on-farm information may be
Improved timing of application
supplemented by information from
and hence utilisation of
key representative sites (e.g. aphid
insecticides
suction traps at SCRI). All purchased
traps, where appropriate, are
assurance protocols
modestly priced for the information
they provide. Learning requirements
How can it help the
environment?
•
in some circumstances specialist
advice may be necessary to interpret
non-target species and beneficial
results.
Reduced amount of insecticides in
the environment
•
are not normally required, although
Reduced impact of insecticides on
insects
•
are fairly minimal and contractors
Increased food sources for birds
and other wildlife
45
18
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
A typical Wheat Bulb Fly Report produced by Dow AgroSciences:
WHEAT BULB FLY
Following is egg hatch and plant invasion data for 18 February 2004. Egg hatch samples were only taken at the
Yorkshire site this week.
Site
Date Sampled
% Hatch
% Plant Invasion
% Larvae in Instar
1
2
3
Suffolk
Ixworth Thorpe (mineral)
16/02/04
no sample
0
0
0
0
Stuntney (organic)
16/02/04
no sample
32
74
21
5
Holme (silt)
16/02/04
no sample
29
91
9
0
16/02/04
no sample
8
50
50
0
16/02/04
33.3
24
100
0
0
Cambridgeshire
Lincolnshire
Morton (silt)
Yorkshire
46
High Mowthorpe (mineral)
Below is the Pestwatch issued on Friday 20 February 2004.
Report 6
Wheat Bulb Fly
20/02/04
Larval plant invasion has advanced steadily over the past week, with more second instar larvae starting to appear. We are
now at the optimum timing for deadheart sprays in all southern and eastern risk areas. Now is the last opportunity to
get maximum effect from an egg hatch application of Dursban* WG at all risk sites in the north of England and
Scotland.
% Plant Invasion 18 Feb 2004
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Suffolk Mineral
Cambs Organic
% Plant Invasion
Cambs Silt
% 1st instar
Lincs Silt
% 2nd instar
Yorks Mineral
% 3rd instar
Action: Use Risk Assessment Charts to identify fields at high risk. These are late drilled, e.g. following sugar beet, or
backward crops with few tillers and poor overall establishment. Application of Dursban WG at 1.0kg/ha should be
made as soon as possible to all crops in the north of England and Scotland considered to be at risk. If
necessary, Dursban WG can be applied to frosty ground but should NOT be tank mixed. Applications of dimethoate
should now be considered at all other risk sites.
Always read the label. Use pesticides safely
* Trademark of Dow AgroSciences LLC
Dursban WG contains chlorpyrifos
Dow AgroSciences
18
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Capital cost
Small capital investment required for traps
Operating cost
No additional cost where crops are already
being regularly monitored.
Cost benefits
Savings compared with standard practice
Technical tip
£
Make sure that sample sites
are representative and
-
regularly monitored. Where it
is identified that insecticides
are necessary, use ones that
take account of beneficial
insects such as carabid
beetles, ladybirds and
hoverflies. This reduces
costs, avoids resistance
developing and keeps
disruption of beneficial
species to a minimum.
Further information
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
AIC
AICC
HGCA
PGRO
Rothamsted Research
SASA
SCRI
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
•
Variety Choice
47
section 2
48
19
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What are they?
Decision support systems (DSS) are
There are many decision support
computer based programs that help
systems currently available. The list
with decision making on a field-by-
below provides a few examples but
field basis. They use inputs such as
there are many others available or
weather, soil and crop data to
becoming available.
•
service to track confirmed and
potential blight outbreaks in your
area.
•
HGCA provides a light leaf spot
forecasting service for oilseed
rape based on a model developed
support decisions on pesticide use.
Similar computer programs for
BPC provides a blight mapping
•
at Rothamsted.
ArableDS is an integrated suite of
•
recommending fertiliser inputs are
decision support systems to assist
described within the TIBRE Arable
the farmer and adviser. Wheat
Management for Agriculture aims
Handbook in the data sheet
Disease Manager (WDM) is the
to help farmers improve the
‘Fertiliser planning’.
first of the series to be made
environment by using the
available. It can help farmers
principles of environmental
make decisions about spray
management systems. It
timing, product choice and dose.
contains a wide range of decision
Other modules currently being
support tools e.g. pesticide
developed include disease and
database, guide to LERAPs, soil
pest management of oilseed rape,
erosion risk assessment,
a weed management support
nematode risk assessment.
How can they help
you?
•
decision making
•
Reduced costs by saving
treatments or improved targeting
•
planning
•
system and a simulation of
nitrogen dynamics in arable land.
•
distributors and suppliers have
DSSs – check which ones are
Helps justify treatment
Package for Potatoes, developed
available for use.
programmes to quality assurance
by SCRI, combines real on-farm
auditors, buyers and processors
and commercial data with the
environment?
a ‘virtual crop’, allowing you to
test your management decisions
and monitor the likely outcomes.
In particular, it helps with
the environment
•
Pesticide manufacturers,
MAPP – Management Advisory
best scientific knowledge to create
•
•
EMA – Environmental
planning of desiccation dates,
inputs
crop quality and seed rates.
•
CSC PotatoCare PLANT-Plus is a
Scottish service based on over
20 in-field radio-linked weather
stations connected to a potato
blight prediction model first
developed in The Netherlands.
The system uses weather data to
provide updates on blight risk.
Decision support systems are often
tailored to given climatic conditions
so ensure that the program you are
using is suitable for your situation.
Always use the best data available,
as poor data can result in poor
recommendations.
49
19
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Example of the Rothamsted Research light leaf spot forecasting
Technical tip
service (available at www3.res.bbsrc.ac.uk/leafspot/)
Decision support systems are
constantly being updated and
new ones developed. Use the
latest version of the DSS
available to ensure the best
2002/03
recommendations.
70% +
Further information
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
68%
50
45%
41%
© 2004 Rothamsted Research Ltd
9%
53%
For improved prediction you can input area, variety and date of sowing. The
values represent the percentage of crops with greater than 25% affected
plants.
Small initial outlay may be required to
purchase decision support systems
£
Operating cost
Unlikely to be any operating costs
-
Cost benefits
Improved decision making can result in
increased profitability
AIC
AICC
BPC
CSC CropCare
HGCA
SAC
SCRI
Technology links
26% 15%
Capital cost
ADAS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tools
Fertiliser Planning
Crop Diagnostics
20
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
from early/mid July through to
However, cereal seed, when in a
August and if harvest is delayed.
smeared slot as a result of direct
Co-ordinated slug control provides a
decision framework to minimise the
damage from slugs by integrating
cultural control with the responsible
use of molluscicides. Prevention of
crop damage by cultural techniques
is cheaper than control with pellets.
Sowing date, depth of drilling of
drilling, is at particular risk when
The most significant factors
influencing slug populations and crop
the soil is too wet.
•
of winter cereals and oilseed rape
information should be used to
can better withstand slug attack
develop a co-ordinated control
as emergence and early growth
strategy in order to minimise the use
are faster and the crop is more
of pellets.
able to compensate for slug
cereals, field history, and current soil
and weather conditions all have a
part to play. Slug pellets should be
damage.
•
Crop Rotation. Slugs thrive
under crops providing dense
the last resort once baiting has
•
Reduced risks of crop failure from
preceding crop. ‘Double low’ rape
slug damage
crops also have a higher risk of
Better yields and easier crop
slug damage. Carabid beetles,
management resulting from
which are slug predators, can
optimum plant populations
reduce slug numbers significantly
but are affected by crop rotation
and inappropriate insecticide use.
reduced slug pellet use
beetles is also important.
•
•
•
•
Soil type. Heavier soils support
higher slug populations.
unconsolidated seedbeds increase
Reduced impact on non-target
the risk of slug damage by
species resulting in improved
allowing easier movement of the
biodiversity
pest through the soil.
The approach requires the
integration of both cultural and
chemical methods. Slug pellets
alone will not prevent damage.
Cereals and oilseed rape are
vulnerable from sowing to the
tillering/four leaf stage. Susceptible
varieties of potatoes are vulnerable
damage before they emerge and
sowing to a depth of 4 cm helps
to minimise the damage.
•
Weather conditions. Cool moist
conditions favour slugs’ growth
and reproduction as it enables
them to move more easily
through the soil.
•
Slug bait traps should be used in
high risk situations to indicate
whether slugs are feeding on the soil
surface and are hence vulnerable to
Seedbed conditions. Cloddy,
the environment
are most vulnerable to economic
Provision of habitat for carabid
How can it help the
environment?
highest risk from slugs. Cereals
build-up of slug populations in the
Lower costs resulting from
Seed depth. Shallow sown or
broadcast cereal crops are at
particularly at risk following
oilseed rape or peas due to the
•
•
shade. Winter wheat is
indicated there is a problem.
•
Sowing date. Earlier sown crops
damage are given below. This
pellets. Bait traps with methiocarb
pellets should be used to enable
accurate assessment. When the soil
surface is moist and suitable for slug
activity, a minimum of 10 small
Cultivation. Higher slug numbers
squares (at least 15cm x 15cm) of
are associated with non-plough
relatively impervious and well
tillage but this does not
insulated material (such as plywood
necessarily mean that crops
or roof tiles) should be placed over
established using minimum tillage
some slug pellets or layers mash in
are at more risk. This may be
the known danger areas. Treatment
because there are more
of the field may be worthwhile once
alternative food sources for slugs
slugs are detected in all or nearly all
in min-tilled crops and that
the traps. For wheat, the threshold
seedbeds tend to be more
trap catch is four slugs per trap over
consolidated in such crops.
a three-day period.
51
20
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
A rolled firm seedbed, unlikely to suffer from slug problems
Technical tip
2
At least 40 pellets/m are
required for effective
coverage. Repeat ‘low dose’
approaches can be successful
in cereals provided that
sufficient pellet numbers are
used to achieve adequate
coverage. In very high risk
situations in cereals, the
optimum time to apply
pellets is 3–5 days before
sowing. Length of effective
control period by the pellets
will also depend on the
durability of the formulation.
52
A cloddy seedbed on heavy land, likely to suffer from severe
slug problems
Further information
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Operating cost
Increased management time to develop
•
•
•
-
and introduce strategy may be compensated
for by easier crop management
Cost benefits
Improved slug control will result in improved
margins
AICC
BPC
HGCA
SAC
SCRI
Rothamsted Research
Technology links
Capital cost
AIC
-
Minimum Tillage
21
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
Improved formulation and packaging
of pesticides can ease handling,
•
Approaches to minimising packaging
loading
waste being adopted by the crop
Reduced risk of groundwater and
protection industry involve:
surface water contamination
reduce packaging disposal problems
and reduce point source pollution.
reduced spillage during sprayer
•
Reducing the amount of
packaging components
-
use of higher activity chemistry
-
increasing the concentration in
Formulations as gels, tablets or dry
Many pesticides are now formulated
flowable granules, rather than liquids
as granules, tablets or gels for
or powders, can be handled safely
reasons of handling safety. However,
and can be loaded rapidly into the
it is not possible to formulate all
sprayer. These can be dispensed in
active ingredients in this way.
pre-measured packs and can be
Similarly water soluble packaging is
recovered more effectively if spilt.
not appropriate for all formulations.
Granules can be packed into bags
Returnable keg-type containers are
that are more easily disposed of
suitable and available for products
than plastic bottles.
with relatively high usage rates and
-
use bulk/re-usable containers
are generally more suited to larger
-
re-use secondary packaging
Re-usable containers used for liquid
formulations
-
use of water soluble film
packaging
-
•
operations.
use of lightweight containers
Re-using packaging materials
components, e.g. pallets
formulations eliminate the need for
•
Re-cycle packaging
the rinsing and disposal of used
Even with ‘conventional’ containers
containers. Water soluble packaging
and liquid formulations, important
is also a means of reducing both
environmental and operator safety
container contents and
disposal and rinsing problems
features relate to:
subsequent container rinsing
-
promote complete use of
although the unit size of the pack
then dictates the volume with which
•
the sprayer can be loaded.
•
-
support education and training
disposed of
be effectively rinsed – e.g. no
facilitate good container rinsing
Reduced spillage and operator
hollow handles;
•
•
-
consider that energy recovery in
Using a standardised 63mm cap
approved facilities is the most
Easier and rapid filling of the
so that connections to closed
suitable and economic solution
sprayer giving faster work rates
transfer systems can be made if
for the disposal/recovery of used
appropriate.
crop protection packaging where
viable collection schemes are
Most containers for liquid
formulations comply with the
Less packaging material for
disposal
•
product labels
programmes designed to
How can it help the
environment?
•
instruction on all appropriate
this is influenced by both
formulation and container design;
include a rinsing and disposal
Ensuring that the container can
Less packaging waste to be
contamination risk
•
-
minimise ‘glugging’ and splashing:
•
Pouring in such a way as to
the environment resulting from
reduced contamination from
residues in containers and
requirements for easy rinsing,
pouring into induction hoppers and
connection to other systems.
available
53
21
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Capital cost
No additional capital expenditure involved
Operating cost
There may be an increase in the cost of
formulations but this will generally be small
Cost benefits
Benefits are easily obtained by the user at
only a modest increase in the cost
of chemicals
-
Technical tip
Care is needed when using
water soluble products and
£
packaging as dissolving will
be influenced by water
temperature in the tank.
Allow adequate time for the
product to dissolve and use
sufficient agitation to ensure
that the tank is fully mixed.
Further information
54
•
•
•
•
AIC
•
Voluntary Initiative web site
AICC
CPA guides.
Chemical manufacturers’
literature.
Technology links
•
Use
•
22
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
Appropriate active ingredient use
Recently introduced pesticides
involves the selection of pesticides
(herbicides, fungicides and
and tailoring of rates whilst
insecticides) can provide effective
maintaining control of weeds, crop
control at lower quantities of active
diseases and crop pests. It requires
ingredient per hectare and help
a knowledge of pesticides, weather
reduce the impact on the
conditions and other factors affecting
environment provided that their
their use.
environmental profile is
Caution: Although these products
are easier to handle due to the
equivalent on a gram for gram
•
•
Reduced pesticide use
basis to one of the older products.
These pesticides are often supplied
in granular formulation, which has
Easier handling since many newer
pesticides are in granular form
benefits in terms of easier product
reduced quantities required per
hectare, there is still a potential
risk arising from product leakage
or spillage and contamination of
the sprayer. An example are the
sulfonylurea herbicides where a
very small residual amount left in
the spray tank can cause damage
if applied to susceptible crops.
Spray tanks should be cleaned
out following the methods
prescribed by the pesticide
manufacturer.
handling and reduced storage
requirement.
Caution: Using lower rates than
the manufacturers’ label
All are readily available and can
recommendation is always at the
easily be incorporated into existing
grower’s risk.
spray programmes with no specific
How can it help the
environment?
•
the environment
•
May enable less frequent pesticide
applications in some
circumstances
•
training requirement.
The environmental profile of
pesticides can be obtained from the
(EIS) produced as part of the work
of the Voluntary Initiative. For
example, new potato blight products
offer improved environmental and
Less waste and packaging to
toxicological profiles as indicated by
dispose of
their Environmental Information
Sheets. They contain much lower
active ingredient rates than more
conventional alternatives and allow
less frequent spray applications
leading to much lower total active
ingredient applications.
55
22
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Technical tip
Capital cost
-
There are now alternatives to
Operating cost
Possible increase particularly with insecticides
£
isoproturon, a herbicide that
Cost benefits
Improved margins may be achieved where
control is more effective than with products
that have a higher active ingredient rate/ha
is commonly found at above
prescribed limits in surface
waters due partly due to its
high dose of active
ingredient.
Further information
56
•
•
•
•
BASIS advisers
•
•
•
•
•
The UK Pesticide Guide
PSD web site
EMA
Environmental Information
Sheets
AIC
AICC
CPA
SAC
Technology links
•
•
Minimum Tillage
•
•
•
•
•
Improved Formulation and
Packaging
Pesticide Mixtures
23
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
Appropriate herbicide use involves
weeds (like creeping thistle) in the
spring. In general, residual
the optimal use of herbicides. This is
Treatment thresholds should be used
at the appropriate rate required to
pragmatically. Research has shown
achieve adequate weed control to
that thresholds are difficult to
safeguard yield and crop quality,
measure, because of variation in
minimise harvest delays and avoid
weed numbers within a field. In
unnecessary long term weed build
addition, there are limited
up in the soil. This requires
opportunities to apply thresholds
knowledge of the efficacy of the
because of the impact on weed
herbicide (or herbicide mixture) on
populations in future crops of seed
individual weed species as well as
shedding from untreated weeds.
understanding the impact of weather
The use of appropriate herbicide
conditions, crop competition and
rates to manage weeds has been
weed size on herbicide efficacy. An
proven to be the most profitable
appreciation of crop competition and
long term option.
herbicides at reduced rates are most
active when the seedbed has a fine,
even, moist tilth and weeds are just
emerging in good growing
conditions.
The sulfonylureas are an example of
a foliar-acting herbicide group with
robust recommended rates and wide
weed spectra. This enables reduced
rates to be used for broad-leaved
weed control in cereals, if for
example, conditions are favourable,
the target weeds are very
susceptible and, particularly, if they
the relative competitiveness of
weeds is also important.
have a suitable partner herbicide in
Timing of applications and spraying
the tank mixture. Mixing herbicides
conditions are more critical at
•
•
with a different mode of action is not
reduced rates than recommended
always essential to efficacy, but is a
label rates. Hence careful
Reduced herbicide costs
good anti-resistance strategy
management is required. Many of
particularly as some broad-leaved
Helps to increase the number of
the newer herbicides are very
predators of insect pests because
effective on certain weed species
of the survival of less competitive
and good knowledge and experience
weeds that are important to
enables significant savings.
weed species in Scotland have
developed resistance to the
sulfonylureas.
biodiversity
The table shows that control of some
Reduced rates of autumn applied
weed species can be maintained at
residual herbicides followed by
the manufacturers label
spring applications can reduce the
cost of broad-leaved weed control in
grower’s risk.
winter cereals, particularly where it
very low rates of the sulfonylurea
Ally (20% w/w metsulfuron-methyl)
at seedling stages under ideal trial
conditions. Any gaps in the spectrum
is necessary to treat perennial
How can it help the
environment?
•
Reduced amount of herbicides in
at such low rates may be made up
SAC herbicide screen 1997 – percent control of broad-leaved weeds
at the four leaf stage in spring barley
the environment
•
•
Chickweed
May enable the survival of less
Field pansy
Black bindweed
Oilseed rape
30g/ha Ally
100
98
100
99
important to biodiversity
15g/ha Ally
99
100
93
100
Potential reduction in insecticide
7.5g/ha Ally
100
100
93
100
use resulting from increased
3.75g/ha Ally +
98
100
100
100
numbers of insect pest predators
0.25l/ha Deloxil
SAC
competitive weeds that are
57
23
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
by tank-mixing with other herbicides as shown in this example with Deloxil,
Technical tip
a 400g/l mixture of bromoxynil and ioxynil.
Weed control at lower than
Note: The efficacy of most soil acting herbicides is reduced by application to
recommended label rate is
dry soils (even with rain imminent). Foliage acting herbicides are most
dependent on many factors.
effective when applied to small weeds that are actively growing because of
There is less scope to reduce
moist soils and warm days and nights; however, note that some herbicides
rates when faced with
have a minimum weed size.
difficult-to-control weeds in
difficult conditions.
Capital cost
Operating cost
No additional operating costs where crops
-
are regularly monitored. Increased
knowledge may be required.
Cost benefits
Some savings compared with standard
practice
58
-
Further information
•
•
•
•
•
•
BASIS qualified advisers
AIC
AICC
HGCA
SAC
Weed Resistance Action
Group
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pesticide Mixtures
Use
Patch Spraying
24
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
Appropriate fungicide use involves
the tailoring of the use of fungicides
to suit the crop situation and
varieties grown i.e. the appropriate
rate required to achieve good
disease control whilst safeguarding
application will also have an impact
Fungicides differ in their activity
on disease type and severity.
depending on whether they are
However, prediction schemes are
applied before or after the disease is
widely used to inform farmers, for
present in the crop. All fungicides
example when blight programmes
are more effective when applied as a
should commence and intensify in
protectant (i.e. applied before the
potatoes or when there is need for
plant has been infected) than they
fungicide application in oilseed rape.
are when applied as an eradicant
yield and crop quality. This approach
requires knowledge of the factors
(i.e. applied after the plant has been
Fungicides are approved in cereals
infected). Using dose response
on the basis of single applications,
curves helps in the selection of the
but in practice farmers use two or
appropriate fungicide for a given
three applications. This, along with
disease pressure. Tank mixtures of
the fact that tank mixtures are often
both protectant and eradicant
employed, that some diseases are
fungicide may be required where a
•
•
Reduced fungicide costs
more susceptible than others to a
disease has already started to
fungicide and that disease pressure
develop.
assurance and processors’
and varietal resistance vary from
protocols
site to site, enables rates below
Appropriate fungicide use in the
those recommended on the label to
major cereal crops has been well
be used. The same opportunity to
researched and treatment
reduce rates does not exist when
programmes are readily produced
using fungicides for blight control in
each year. There is concern about
potatoes, but may exist in other
fungicide resistance (Septoria tritici
broad-acre crops, particularly where
to the strobilurins in cereals and
How can it help the
environment?
sequences or tank-mixes are used.
phenylamide resistance in potato
Attitude towards risk and disease
blight) and hence it is important to
resistance management are also
consider mixtures alongside
•
Reduced amount of fungicides in
important factors to take into
appropriate doses. HGCA-funded
the environment
account.
experiments have shown poor
that encourage disease development
such as varietal resistance, rotation
and weather conditions.
grower’s risk.
•
control of Septoria tritici by
May allow less frequent
Crop quality specifications can be
strobilurins in 2003; however
affected by fungicide use, but
mixtures with triazoles gave good
appropriate rates should provide
disease control (see figure over).
Thresholds and disease prediction
monitoring is required for successful
programmes should be used
control, and timing of applications is
pragmatically and within a risk
critical for the successful use of
management process. Use of current
reduced rates. Treatment at early
weather conditions may provide a
stages of disease development can
guide to the types of disease to be
also be important for many diseases
expected in cereals. Unfortunately,
(e.g. mildew in wheat).
applications of fungicides
weather conditions occurring after
reliable disease control. Regular crop
59
24
Crop Protection
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Crop Protection
Comparison of disease control from treatment with a triazole,
strobilurin and a mixture of the two.
Technical tip
Dose response curves for a
70
range of fungicides in wheat
are published by HGCA: use
these to assist in the
60
selection of appropriate
fungicide rates in your
programmes. Use reduced
rate fungicide mixtures to
guard against resistance
40
developing.
Strobilurin
30
20
Triazole
10
Mixture
60
0
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
Dose
Further information
Wheat disease management 2004, HGCA
Septoria tritici (%)
50
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
AIC
AICC
BPC
HGCA
SAC
Fungicide Resistance Action
Group
Technology links
Note: The use of targeted rates of chlorothalonil in fungicide mixtures help
to safeguard the performance of both triazole and strobilurin fungicide
chemistry.
Capital cost
Operating cost
-
are regularly monitored. Increased
knowledge may be required.
Cost benefits
Significant savings compared with standard
practice
-
•
•
•
•
•
Variety Choice
•
•
•
Pesticide Mixtures
Crop Diagnostics
Use
Patch Spraying
25
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
Appropriate insecticide use involves
the tailoring of the rate and use of
insecticide whilst providing economic
control of insect pests. This requires
regular crop monitoring and
knowledge of economic thresholds.
Such an approach can also aid the
survival of predators of insect pests
allows targeting of pests at an
No synthetic insecticide is inherently
earlier stage, using reduced rates or
immune from resistance. Esterase
targeted methods of application,
and MACE resistance, which is
such as new seed treatments for
potentially very serious for seed
wheat bulb fly or BYDV control. This
potato growers, exists within aphid
is also important for problem pests
populations. A sensible resistance
such as aphids which can infect
management strategy is essential
crops with plant viruses and where
using products with different modes
the problem can only be controlled
of action in tank mixtures or
in a protectant manner.
sequences at appropriate rates
but this often requires careful choice
of insecticide as well as using an
appropriate rate.
within a carefully planned
Good spraying conditions will allow
programme.
lower rates to be effective. A little
moisture on the leaf surface can
Advice on the manufacturers label
increase uptake, and the correct
should be followed and on occasions
•
•
Reduced insecticide costs
spray quality should always be used.
where reduced rates are appropriate,
Helps to maintain predator levels
Fine sprays applied in low drift
advice should be taken from a
and hence reduce necessity for
conditions can be most effective for
BASIS-qualified agronomist.
repeat treatments, i.e. reduced
aphid sprays on the ears of winter
Inappropriate dosing can lead to
spray passes through the crop
wheat, whereas coarser spray
resistance problems developing.
droplets are more appropriate for
grower’s risk.
soil-applied insecticides (e.g.
Note: Difficult pests require high
chlorpyriphos for leatherjacket
water volumes and this is probably
control).
as important as the rate of product
applied.
Careful choice of product and rate
How can it help the
environment?
will enable the more specific
•
Reduced amount of insecticides in
Many of these are important to the
the environment
animals higher in the food chain
Reduced impact on beneficial
(e.g. birds) and/or are predators of
insects that contribute to the food
the target insect pest. This, along
supplies of animals higher in the
with cultural control measures, may
food chain
reduce insect problems in the future.
•
targeting of the pest and may allow
the survival of non-target insects.
Applications of broad spectrum
Thresholds for application are widely
biodiversity in late spring and
available for most insect pests.
summer and should be avoided.
Crops should be regularly monitored
Particular care needs to be exercised
at the appropriate time and
when applying products hazardous
applications made as soon as
to bees. Crops in which bees are
possible after thresholds are
foraging should not be treated and
exceeded if spraying conditions are
local beekeepers should be notified
acceptable. Timeliness in application
well in advance of application.
insecticides are most damaging to
61
25
Crop Protection
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Crop Protection
-
Technical tip
Capital cost
Operating cost
of pirimicarb or the careful
are regularly monitored. Increased knowledge
selection of pyrethroid
may be required.
Cost benefits
Some savings possible compared with
standard practice
-
Use of the appropriate dose
product, applied as soon as
the threshold for aphids in
the ears of wheat is reached,
will provide economic control
and should enable the
survival of many non target
species. Using relevant
Environmental Information
Sheets can give a useful
guide to environmental
performance.
Further information
62
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
British Beekeepers
Association
•
Insecticide Resistance Action
AIC
AICC
BPC
HGCA
SAC
SASA
SCRI
CPA – Voluntary Initiative
literature on insecticide use
and Environmental
Information Sheets
Group
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pesticide Mixtures
Use
Patch Spraying
26
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Pesticide Mixtures
What are they?
These are mixtures of pesticides
Pesticide mixtures can be integrated
(herbicides, fungicides and/or
into existing programmes easily.
insecticides) usually added together
Manufacturers and distributors
at lower than label recommended
produce compatibility lists for their
rates to produce better overall
products and recommended tank
performance against a variety of
mix partners. Use of this information
problems. Pesticide mixtures are
will help avoid using mixtures that
also a useful way of protecting
are physically incompatible and/or
individual active ingredients against
where one partner reduces the
the development of resistance. They
efficacy of another partner.
Caution: There may be some
reduction in efficacy of one of the
partners in some combinations
(e.g. some grass weed herbicides
mixed with the hormone or
sulfonylurea herbicides) and there
are sometimes restrictions on the
time interval allowed between the
applications of products in order
not to compromise efficacy.
usually give an improved spectrum
of control compared with the
Currently, the only legal restrictions
individual pesticides used on their
on tank mixing in the UK are that
own.
two or more anti-cholinesterase
pesticides should not be mixed,
How can they help
you?
•
•
Reduced pesticide costs
all components of a tank mix should
be used within their conditions of
approval.
Improved overall weed, disease
and insect pest control
•
unless expressly permitted and that
There are many examples of
Help reduce risk of resistance
pesticide mixtures that, by acting
build up
additively, work better than the
individual component alone. It is
environment?
•
the environment
very important, for instance, to have
cyanazine (Fortrol) included with
bentazone + MCPB or MCPA + MCPB
in pea crops to enhance the activity
of the partner product. The use of
hormone herbicides, such as
mecoprop, mixed with sulfonylurea
herbicides, such as metsulfuronmethyl may minimise the
development of sulfonyl resistant
chickweed already found on a few
Scottish farms. The use of targeted
rates of chlorothalonil in fungicide
mixtures is important to safeguard
the performance of both triazole and
strobilurin fungicide chemistry.
63
26
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Pesticide Mixtures
Technical tip
Capital cost
-
Fungicide mixtures are
Operating cost
Extra management input may be required
£
increasingly important to
Cost benefits
Potential savings by using reduced rates
of partners
protect against the
development of resistance of
Septoria tritici to the
strobilurins. Inclusion of
appropriate rates of triazole
and chlorothalonil enhances
the eradicant and protectant
activity offered by the
strobilurin and may reduce
the development of
resistance.
Further information
64
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fungicide Resistance Action
Group
•
Insecticide Resistance Action
Group
AIC
AICC
CSL Liaison on-line service
HGCA
SAC
The UK Pesticide Guide
Weed Resistance Action
Group
Technology links
•
Use
•
•
•
27
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What are they?
Pesticide handling systems reduce
the risk of spillage by improving the
process by which pesticides are
transferred from the original
container to the sprayer tank.
Spillages of concentrated pesticide
Caution: When using closed
Closed transfer systems remove
transfer systems it is important
the need to manually pour pesticide
that systems are well maintained
from the original container into the
and operated in accordance with
sprayer and hence substantially
manufacturers instructions.
reduce the risk of operator and
Failures with this type of
environmental contamination from
equipment can result in major
splashing and spillage. Most systems
pollution incidents.
use specialised connectors on both
formulations, particularly when
loading the sprayer, represent an
important risk of both operator and
the pesticide container and on the
point source environmental
Induction hoppers will enable the
contamination. Small volumes of the
sprayer to be loaded with chemical
concentrated formulation that are
by an operator standing on the
associated, for example, with the
ground. They are widely available for
residues on foil caps or washings
use with all designs of sprayer. All
from a pair of gloves used when
new sprayers should incorporate an
handling concentrated liquid
induction hopper. Hoppers are also
products can result in substantial
available from specialist companies
contamination of surface waters. To
and can be retrofitted to most
minimise the risk of such
sprayer designs. There needs to be a
contamination, two approaches are
good working clearance around the
currently available: induction
opening of the hopper; this opening
hoppers and closed transfer
must be large enough so that there
systems.
is minimum risk of spillage or
splashing. Ensure that the induction
How can they help
you?
•
with British Standard BS 6356: Part
Reduced problems associated with
advantages in terms of the speed of
loading and ease of cleaning of both
the hopper and used containers.
•
•
Reduced risk of operator
In most designs of induction hopper,
contamination
material poured into the hopper is
Reduced spillage risk
drawn into the main sprayer tank by
Improved loading accuracy
environment?
•
•
operated in conjunction with
conventional standardised containers
and so place no restrictions on
chemical packaging and supply.
Other systems require that the
chemical is delivered in a specified
container fitted with the appropriate
coupling. Closed transfer systems
encourage the use of returnable
containers and this reduces the
requirement to rinse containers and
dispose of the washings. Compliance
with British Standard BS 6356:
Part 9: 1996 will help ensure that
transfer and safety performance
meet defined criteria.
the action of a Venturi valve.
Streams of water are directed down
the side-walls to prevent material
build up in the hopper; being able to
important aspect of the performance
of induction hoppers. A mechanism
problems
part packs must have some way of
measuring the quantity of pesticide
the graduations in the hopper will
generally be too coarse for accurate
measurement. Use a measuring jug
or calibrated container. For closed
transfer systems, some form of
accurate measurement system will
need to be incorporated.
work with high loading rates is an
Reduced packaging disposal
Systems designed to operate with
transferred. For induction hoppers,
washing out pesticide containers
•
closed transfer systems can be
8: 1996; this will provide further
Easier handling and loading of
sprayers
•
hopper on your sprayer complies
connection to the sprayer. Some
for rinsing empty pesticide
containers to a recognised standard
must be incorporated into the
hopper design.
For returnable ‘key’ type containers,
the Micro Matic ‘Drum Valve’ has
now become the industry standard
coupling.
65
27
Crop Protection
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Crop Protection
For low level filling and container rinsing
Technical tip
Knight Farm Machinery Ltd
Systems meeting British
Standards are likely to give
better performance – ask
your supplier which designs
meet the requirements of the
standard.
Further information
Induction hopper
66
Standardised (Micro Matic) coupling
Capital cost
cost if sprayer not fitted with well-designed
£
Closed transfer systems – some capital cost
for system and container interface.
•
•
Chemical manufacturers
•
•
•
•
•
ADAS Cherwell Study
British Standard BS 6356,
1996, Parts 8 & 9
Equipment manufacturers’
information
CSL Pesticide Usage Report
AEA
AIC
AICC
££
Technology links
•
Use
•
Sprayer Control and
Maintenance
•
Improved Formulation and
Packaging
Induction hoppers – no increase in operating
cost. Savings may come from reduced
loading and container washing time.
-
Closed handling systems – speed and ease
of operation are critical. Some designs slow
the loading process.
Cost benefits
BCPC Monograph
Induction hoppers – some small increase in
hopper. Many now meet the required standard.
Operating cost
•
•
Induction hoppers – a small investment will
give substantial improvements in pesticide
handling
Closed transfer systems – costs are higher
than for an induction hopper but benefits
are potentially greater.
£
28
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
Sprayer control systems ensure
How can it help the
environment?
the correct volume of spray solution
•
is delivered to the target. These
systems allow precision farming
the environment
•
techniques to be used (e.g. variable
margins, groundwater and surface
rate application technology). The
water from direct over-spraying in
control system should also (i) allow
‘difficult’ shaped field, and
sections of the boom to be turned
priming and washing of the
on/off without changing the pressure
sprayer
in the other operating sections; and
(ii) adjust the output from the
•
pollution incident from machine or
nozzles to apply a constant volume
when operating over a range of
forward speeds.
Maintenance of the sprayer on a
regular basis is essential to avoid
breakdowns and spillages of dilute
pesticide, as well as ensuring
accurate application rates at all
times.
•
•
•
•
•
Improved operation in awkward-
that is washed out when cleaning
out the sprayer is minimised.
The ability to switch off small
sections of the boom is particularly
important to help avoid overlapping
applications and help protect field
boundaries and watercourses.
Electronic control systems will also
provide information on parameters
Systems for re-circulating spray
Sprayer control systems
All new sprayers are generally
equipped with a relatively high level
of control equipment. Control
systems can also be purchased from
specialist manufacturers and
operate but some may require
specific operator training.
Recently developed control systems
have facilities for
•
circulating spray liquid within the
boom plumbing system so that
Provide feedback information on
priming of the nozzles at the
what has been treated and
beginning of a spraying operation
chemical use
requires less output of spray
Potential for improved timeliness
liquid;
breakdown
so that the quantity of pesticide
total quantity of pesticide used.
shaped fields
of application from reduced risk of
completion of a spray operation
such as the total area treated and
systems are relatively easy to
Easier priming and emptying
lines back into the tank at the
component of record keeping
retrofitted to sprayers. Most control
Reduced overdosing on overlaps
sucking liquid within the spray
Can provide an important
pesticide delivery
procedures
•
system failure
Accurate control of rate of
and headlands when turning
•
Reduced risk of a point source
•
liquid and providing suction to
recover liquid from the boom are
specialised and only available from a
limited number of suppliers.
67
28
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
The diagram shows the layout of the plumbing arrangement for a boom
Technical tip
sprayer incorporating ‘suck-back’ facilities.
Care is needed to minimise
Re-circulating
Spraying
the range of speeds that the
sprayer controller is expected
Knight Farm Machinery Ltd
Line Agitation System with Environmental Re-circulation
to compensate for in order to
maintain good delivery
conditions. Use of multiple
nozzle holders allows quick
and easy selection of the
correct nozzle to improve
spray targeting and reduce
the risk of spray drift.
Caution: The use of an electronic control system will aid but not replace
the need for sprayer calibration.
Maintenance
Further information
•
Code of Practice for the safe
use of pesticides on farms
and holdings. MAFF (under
revision)
•
•
•
•
•
Manufacturers literature
Sprayer testing can be undertaken by a test centre under the UK National
68
Sprayer Testing Scheme (NSTS). The NSTS was introduced to support the
Voluntary Initiative. The test is conducted by an independent examiner who
holds a valid NPTC Certificate for Sprayer Examiners. It covers the delivery
system, the application system and ancillary equipment. A list of all test
centres in the UK is available from NSTS.
Capital cost
AEA
NSTS
and monitoring
££
Technology links
Re-circulation and suck-back facilities
££
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
should enable equipment to last longer
-
Control systems – there should be no
increase in operating costs and some
savings in pesticide use
-
Maintenance – small cost of maintenance
and testing to be recovered by savings in
pesticide use
Cost benefits
AICC
Control systems – recording, control
Maintenance – involves no capital cost and
Operating cost
AIC
Control systems – all will give advantages
but cost:benefit will depend on options
taken
Maintenance and testing involves a small
cost to give large potential benefits
-
Patch Spraying
Air Assisted Spraying
Twin Fluid Nozzles
Rotary Atomisers
Low Volume Spraying
Low Volume Washing
Systems
29
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Patch Spraying
What is it?
•
component of record keeping
Patch spraying aims to adjust the
application of pesticides to match
localised conditions and account for
in-field variability. Much of the work
to develop these systems has been
Can provide an important
weeds in cereal crops. Selective
herbicides for grass weeds are
relatively expensive. There is
use GPS for in-field location.
Any patch spraying approach will
Some components of an automated,
require:
high-resolution patch spraying
system will be common with other
•
•
evidence to show that grass weeds
such as wild oats, couch and black
grass occur in patches that are
relatively stable both from season to
•
a method of detecting weed,
components of a precision farming
disease or other target patches
system.
a means of in-field location for
defining the position of patches
For high-resolution automated
and for directing the application
systems, it has been shown that
system
weed patches can be mapped
a decision making module that
season and within a season. Patch
defines the total area(s) to be
spraying with high/low rate
treated, the mixture of pesticides
applications can give good levels of
to be used, the rates and method
control with reduced pesticide use
of delivery
and the control of weeds is
sustained in subsequent seasons.
pressure control and combinations of
these); these systems now mainly
done to improve the application of
selective herbicides to control grass
(injection metering, on/off control,
•
manually from a range of types of
vehicles (e.g. using ATVs early in the
growing season through to mapping
from the combine harvester). This
map then needs to be transformed
into a treatment map. This will
a means of applying the
account for weed seed movement
treatment.
between mapping and treatment,
Patch spraying can also use different
positional errors and the response
pesticide mixtures and/or deliver
Patch spraying can be implemented
sprays with different forms to match
automatically using systems
target requirements across a field or
employing in-field location
A key factor relating to the
in different parts of the same field.
equipment such as a Global
treatment system is the range of
Positioning System (GPS). Simpler
rates that can be delivered while
approaches with large-scale
maintaining the required physical
resolution can be operated with
characteristics of the spray. This is
existing equipment (e.g. treat one
because a dual-rate strategy will
half of the field with a different rate
require a low rate in field areas
or pesticide mixture from the other
where weed pressure is low and a
half). Simple hand drawn field maps
higher rate where there is a defined
can also be useful when used in
weed or disease problem. An
conjunction with careful field
analysis of such systems has
monitoring. The approach to use
indicated that a rate range of at
depends on the scale, resolution and
least 3:1 is required. This cannot be
degree of automation that is
achieved by conventional pressure
appropriate for your particular farm.
control systems but is possible with
•
•
Reduced pesticide costs
Potential for improved and
automated record keeping,
demonstrating compliance with
crop assurance schemes, codes of
practice and LERAP regulations
•
Reduced risk of damage to
sensitive adjacent crops such as
potatoes
•
Reduced risk of prosecution due
to spray drift
How can it help the
environment?
•
the environment
•
function of the application system.
twin-fluid nozzles, rotary atomisers
At the largest scale, patch spraying
and with combined on/off and
can be done by treating sections of
pressure control units. These are all
fields with conventional equipment.
available commercially.
At the smallest resolution and with
the highest level of automation, a
number of systems are commercially
Reduced surface water and
available using different approaches
groundwater pollution
to adjusting sprayer output
69
29
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Patch Spraying
Example of a treatment map
Technical tip
Many automated systems for
19980018
patch spraying can also be
Field name
Area
: Elmdon
: 8.4 ha
used to provide targeted
Implement
: Patch Sprayer
application of liquid
Product
: Fungicide
fertilisers.
Std. app. rate
: 3 litres/ha
Grid size
: 24 m
Further information
•
Equipment manufacturers –
sprayers and control
equipment
•
Precision farming of cereals:
•
•
•
•
•
AEA
App. amount needed:
litres
5
litres/ha
4
litres/ha
3
litres/ha
2
litres/ha
1
litres/ha
3
litres/ha
70
33
Useful savings and efficacy improvements can be made by treating headland
areas or areas near trees with different pesticide rates. Potential herbicide
savings are less where serious patchy grass weeds are not a problem.
AIC
AICC
SAC
Alliance
Technology links
Capital cost
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Twin Fluid Nozzles
High resolution – specialised equipment is to
be used for mapping, treatment map
generation and application equipment
££
Lowest resolution – can be implemented with
existing equipment but benefits will be lower
Operating cost
-
High resolution – higher technical input is
required to operate highly automated
systems. However, operating costs will be
reduced due to savings in pesticide use.
-
Lowest resolution – there is a cost associated
with mapping but this should be more than
recovered by savings in pesticide use
Cost benefits
Cost benefits depend on level of resolution
and weed, disease or other target patch
distributions – can involve both high
investment and large savings
-
Sprayer Control and
Maintenance
Rotary Atomisers
Yield Mapping
30
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
‘Spray quality’ describes the droplet
The spray quality required when
size distribution in the spray
applying a particular pesticide will
produced by a nozzle. Spray
depend on the mode of action and
qualities of very fine, fine, medium,
the mechanisms of uptake by the
coarse and very coarse are defined
target. Most pesticides will give the
in the International BCPC
best coverage and retention when
classification scheme in comparison
applied as a fine spray unless
with a reference nozzle. The spray
penetration into the crop canopy is
quality produced by any nozzle
important to the mode of action.
system depends on the type of
The need to both control drift and
nozzle, the orifice size, spray angle
give some penetration of the crop
and operating pressure. Choosing
means that a medium spray is most
the appropriate spray quality to
commonly recommended.
information to aid nozzle selection
for cereals and oilseed rape is also
available in the HGCA Nozzle
Selection Chart.
For conventional flat fan hydraulic
pressure nozzles, the following
simple relationships apply:
•
wider fan angles give finer
sprays
•
smaller nozzle sizes of a given
angle give finer sprays
•
increasing spray pressure gives
finer sprays
match the mode of action of the
pesticide will give the highest
Characteristics of the main spray qualities
efficacy and allow the minimum dose
to be used. Spray quality will also
provide an indication of the risk of
drift (with finer sprays leading to
higher levels of drift). Other factors
Spray
Relative
Spray
Penetration
quality
coverage
Retention
of canopy
1
Fine
Drift risk
71
Very good
Low
High
Good
Good
Moderate
Moderate/poor
High
Low
such as droplet speed, wind speed
and trajectory angles will also
Medium
2
influence the risk of drift.
Coarse
1
/3
/2
•
•
Enables optimal use of pesticides
Choosing and using the appropriate
Spray quality can only be used as an
spray quality is relatively
indicator of the risk of drift. Fine
straightforward. Many pesticide
sprays will tend to drift unless
labels will specify the spray quality
constrained in some way. Some
to be used for application. Where
medium quality sprays can also pose
Reduced risk of spray drift onto
spray quality specifications are not
high drift risks if released slowly and
non target areas such as adjacent
provided, using a medium spray
with a predominantly horizontal
crops
quality is generally acceptable.
trajectory. It is likely that
Where tank mixes involve products
nozzle/spray classification schemes
with different spray quality
in the future will be extended to
requirements, use a nozzle which is
include a direct assessment of drift
appropriate to all of the products.
risk but such approaches have not
Enables the balance between
efficacy and drift control to be
considered in all application
situations
•
How can it help the
environment?
•
the environment
•
yet been established. Where
Nozzle manufacturers produce charts
possible, obtain information about
Reduced contamination of
that show spray qualities for
drift risk that is independent of
hedgerows, field margins,
different nozzle designs, sizes and
spray quality information.
groundwater and surface water
operating pressures. Additional
30
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Capital cost
Technical tip
Small capital cost involved so as to provide
Vertical or small targets (e.g.
an appropriate range of nozzles from which
to choose
grass weeds) are generally
£
best covered with a fine
Multiple nozzle turrets involve a small cost
quality spray, whereas
increase but make changing nozzles easier
horizontal or large targets
and quicker
£
(e.g. soil applied residual
herbicides) are best applied
Operating cost
Small increase in costs associated with
using a coarse spray
using the correct spray quality but potential
savings in pesticide use
Cost benefits
Small cost of nozzles gives benefits to the
user and the environment
72
Further information
•
•
Pesticide labels
•
Nozzle Selection Chart, 2002.
HGCA
•
Sprayer calibration
procedures included in
publications by BCPC and
CPA
•
•
AIC
Nozzle manufacturers’ data
sheets
AICC
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Drift Reduction by Nozzle
Selection
Twin Fluid Nozzles
Rotary Atomisers
Low Volume Spraying
31
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
Careful sprayer nozzle selection
Most manufacturers of agricultural
optimises efficacy whilst reducing
spray nozzles offer both pre-orifice
risk of spray drift onto non-target
(low drift) and air induction nozzles
areas. Much of the emphasis relating
as part of their range. Twin-fluid
to spray nozzle design over the last
nozzles and rotary atomisers are
decade has been directed at
available from specialist suppliers.
on the results from field tests) or
nozzles (based on the results from
delivering reductions in the risk of
wind tunnel evaluations). The star
ratings are comparative measures
based on drift reductions compared
with a reference system, i.e. a
conventional 110° flat fan nozzle
operating on a 12m boom at a
pressure of 3.0 bar and a flow rate
drift. Three main nozzle types have
With any nozzle design, the risk of
been shown to deliver drift reduction
drift will be a function of design
when compared with conventional
parameters (e.g. spray angle – for a
hydraulic pressure nozzle designs.
given size of conventional nozzles,
Pre-orifice (low drift) and air
wider angles give finer sprays which
induction nozzles fit into standard
increases the risk of drift) and nozzle
nozzle holders on the sprayer and
size (smaller sizes of conventional
operate with pressurised liquid only.
nozzle give finer sprays and an
Twin-fluid nozzles require a
increased risk of drift).
per nozzle of 1.2l/min. The star
ratings are then defined in relation
to this reference as follows:
1 Star (*) = drift less than 75%
of the reference
2 Star (**) = drift less than 50%
of the reference
specialised holder and a compressed
air supply. Rotary atomisers require
Studies have also shown that the
specialised fitting and an electrical
same nozzle specification (e.g. in
supply.
terms of flow rate at a given
pressure and nominal spray angle)
•
Provides a basis for selecting
nozzles that will minimise drift
while maintaining efficacy
•
from different manufacturers can
give different levels of drift risk.
There is a need therefore to provide
users with information relating to
the risk of drift from different nozzle
Enables reduction to as little as
1m for the size of buffer zones
designs, sizes and operating
pressures.
used to protect water from spray
drift contamination under the
LERAP rules
Assessment for Pesticides (LERAP)
How can it help the
environment?
•
and nozzles that gives a direct
the environment
indication of the drift-reducing
margins, hedgerows, groundwater
and surface water
Pesticides Safety Directorate defines
a star rating scheme for sprayers
capability of an application system
when compared with a conventional
boom and flat fan nozzle
arrangement. The scheme applies to
Caution: Nozzle performance and
the risk of spray drift are also
influenced by the physical
properties of the spray liquid.
of the reference
Details of sprayers and nozzles that
have achieved given LERAP star
ratings can be found at
www.pesticides.gov.uk. Note that
the awarding of a LERAP Low Drift
star rating is for a particular design
of nozzle at a given height,
operating pressure, forward speed
and operating condition. When
The Local Environmental Risk
scheme administered by the
•
3 Star (***) = drift less than 25%
complete spraying systems (based
nozzles with a given star rating are
fitted to a boom sprayer with a
conventional design, then the
complete sprayer takes the same
rating as for the nozzles. Note that
LERAP Low Drift three star ratings
can only be achieved with nozzles
operating at low air input pressures
(typically <0.5bar).
73
31
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Most nozzle systems obtain a LERAP Low Drift star rating from results
Technical tip
collected in wind tunnel conditions. The graph shows measured downwind
profiles of sedimenting spray drift captured on sampling lines in a wind
The use of multi-nozzle turret
tunnel test. This type of data is used when determining LERAP Low Drift star
holders enables drift-
ratings for nozzles. The results for the different nozzle designs operating at
reducing nozzles to be
the same pressure and flow rate show:
selected when operating
•
close to the field boundary
the high level of drift reduction that can be achieved by air induction
nozzles leading to LERAP Low Drift three star ratings
•
an increase in drift from flat fan nozzles when spray fan angle is
o
o
increased from 110 to 120
•
the levels of drift reduction achieved by pre-orifice nozzles are less than
those from air induction designs
Horizontal airborne spray profiles for different designs of flat fan
pressure nozzle
74
16.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Distance downwind, m
Conventional flat fan - 120 deg.
Pre-orifice flat fan - 120 deg
Air-induction flat fan - 120 deg.
Reference flat fan 110 deg.
From Miller & Lane, Aspects of Applied Biology, 1999
Airborne spray, % of nozzle output
14.0
31
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Comparative information relating to the risk of drift from different nozzle
designs operating in conjunction with conventional boom sprayers can be
obtained from the HGCA Nozzle Selection Chart. This guide also gives
comparative information relating to efficacy when treating different targets
Further information
•
•
Manufacturers data
•
•
PSD web page on LERAPs
•
•
•
CPA – Voluntary Initiative
with a range of nozzle types. The International BCPC nozzle classification
system is likely to include a measure of drift risk assessment but this is yet
to be well established.
Capital cost
Small increase in capital costs due to
the need to purchase additional
drift-reducing nozzle sets
Operating cost
No increase in operating costs. Reducing
the width of the buffer zone may improve
returns.
Cost benefits
Important benefits in return for small cost
of nozzles
£
LERAP Guide for Horizontal
boom sprayers. Defra
HGCA
AIC
AICC
Technology links
•
•
•
•
•
•
Twin Fluid Nozzles
Rotary Atomisers
Low Volume Spraying
75
section 2
76
32
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
Air-assisted spraying uses relatively
A number of the major European
large volumes of low-pressure air,
sprayer manufacturers build models
for example generated by a fan, to
that are specifically designed to
direct spray into the crop. The
carry a flexible air duct along the
system aims to give good control of
boom. The flexible air duct is
spray drift when using conventional
supplied with air from an axial flow
nozzles. Penetration into the crop
fan. Air can be delivered from an
canopy and improved coverage on
array of holes or from a slot. Most
shaded targets, such as the
air-assisted sprayers of this type
undersides of leaves and stems
enable adjustment of the quantity of
when spraying for blight control in
air that is delivered along the boom,
potatoes, is also made possible with
and sometimes adjustment of the
this type of application system. In
delivery angle. Where air-assistance
most designs, air is transported
is not a design option, systems are
along the spray boom in flexible
available for retro-fitting to most
ducts. The shape of the duct and the
types of boom sprayers.
The figure over shows the
improvements that can be achieved
in reducing drift at different wind
speeds by using air-assisted
spraying when compared with a
conventional system. As expected,
drift increased with wind speed;
adding air-assistance reduced the
level of drift by more than 50% at
the lower wind speeds and up to
65% in the higher winds.
baffles inside each duct are designed
to give uniform air delivery along the
Operators need to be aware of the
boom.
importance of using the correct
setting for the operating, weather
•
Increased penetration into dense
canopies and increased coverage
on shaded targets
•
and crop conditions associated with
each application. Training is
essential to be able to optimise use.
A separate module in the NPTC
scheme for spray operators covers
Potential improved timeliness
air-assisted sprayers.
from use of low volumes
•
Enables fine sprays without
The improved drift control available
increasing risk of drift
with air-assisted sprayers means
that this type of machine can
How can it help the
environment?
•
the environment
•
and surface water
achieve LERAP Low Drift star ratings
when operating with conventional
nozzles that otherwise do not have a
LERAP Low Drift star rating.
77
32
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Drift reducing capabilities of air-assisted spraying at different
Technical tip
wind speeds
Care is needed when setting
levels of air-assistance for
Conventional
Air assisted
operation over sparse crop
and/or bare ground. High
5
level of air-assistance in
these conditions can lead to
4
crop damage in adjacent
Drift %
fields due to the increased
risk of spray drift caused by
3
spray being ‘reflected’ off the
ground
2
1
Further information
Hardi International A/S
0
1.5
3
4.5
8.5
Wind speed, m/s
78
Speed = 7.7km/h
Water volume = 100 l/ha
Pressure = 2.5 bar
Capital cost
A spray vehicle with a larger power unit
££
•
•
££
•
Air-assistance increases power consumption
and requires a higher operator skill level
Cost benefits
•
•
•
•
•
the purchase of an air-assisted sprayer.
Operating cost
•
Relatively high costs involved to deliver
advantages relating to drift control and
spray deposit targeting
Sprayer manufacturers
literature
AEA
AIC
AICC
Technology links
Some increased investment associated with
may also be required
•
-
Sprayer Control and
Maintenance
Selection
Low Volume Spraying
33
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What are they?
Air induction nozzles are designed to
fit into conventional nozzle holders
on sprayers. They generally create a
spray with large droplet sizes and air
inclusions that gives good control of
spray drift. Each nozzle is made with
two types of orifice – a flow
metering orifice at the inlet to the
nozzle and a final orifice at the
outlet. Between these two orifices,
there is an air inlet positioned so
that, as a result of the Venturi
effect, air is drawn into the nozzle
acting materials such as some grass
Caution: Sprays from air
or broadleaf herbicides or those
induction nozzles have spray
products requiring good target
droplets with ‘air inclusions’ –
coverage such as strobilurin
small bubbles of air within the
fungicides. Some manufacturers
droplets. After leaving the nozzle,
specifically recommend not using
they differ in behaviour compared
this nozzle type with certain
with the same size conventional
pesticides: check the label and seek
droplet. This means that the
advice from a BASIS-qualified
established spray classification
adviser. Use of this nozzle type in a
system does not apply directly to
multi-turret nozzle holder in
sprays from this type of nozzle
conjunction with conventional
design.
hydraulic pressure nozzles enables
the correct nozzle to be selected for
any given application.
behind the metering orifice. The
nozzle design often includes an
elongated mixing section so that
these nozzles can look very different
from conventional designs.
How can they help
you?
•
79
A typical design of air induction
nozzle
Improved control of spray drift
helping with compliance with
LERAP requirements
environment?
•
the environment
•
Type of droplet structure generated by this nozzle design
and surface water
All major conventional nozzle
manufacturers include an air
range of designs.
There is some risk to product
efficacy particularly when treating
small plant targets with foliage
induction flat fan nozzle in their
33
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Recent research funded by HGCA has shown differences in efficacy between
Technical tip
different commercial designs of air induction nozzles particularly when
treating small targets with foliage acting pesticides or where reduced rates
Different designs of air
of pesticide are used. Nozzles giving a smaller droplet size tended to give
induction nozzles from
higher levels of efficacy, but increase the risk of spray drift.
different manufacturers give
different droplet size
distributions for the same
nozzle specification. Data
Comparison of blackgrass control achieved using different designs of
from the manufacturers or
air induction nozzles at different pesticide rates and growth stages
from LERAP star ratings will
help inform air induction
nozzle selection
% Control
100
Further information
95
•
•
Nozzle manufacturers.
•
•
•
•
•
•
90
80
85
2.5 l Hawk+Oil@1 leaf
1.25 l Hawk+Oil@1 leaf
2.5 l Hawk+Oil@2-3 leaves
1.25 l Hawk+Oil@2-3 leaves
Treatment
Nozzle 1
Nozzle 2
Nozzle 3
HGCA Report No.317
80
HGCA
AEA
AIC
AICC
SAC
Conventional flat fan
Technology links
Nozzle 1 - gives a relatively small droplet size
Nozzle 2 - gives a medium droplet size
Nozzle 3 - gives a relatively large droplet size
Capital cost
Small increase in capital cost since these
nozzles are more expensive than conventional
designs
£
Operating cost
No increase in operating costs
-
Cost benefits
Important gains in nozzle performance in
relation to spray drift control delivered at
relatively low cost
•
•
•
Low Volume Spraying
Selection
34
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Twin Fluid Nozzles
What are they?
Twin fluid nozzles use spray liquid
environment?
and air both fed to the nozzle body
•
under pressure to create a spray.
The air supply required to operate
included droplets in the spray
from twin fluid nozzles means
the environment
•
Caution: The presence of air-
that they differ in behaviour after
leaving the nozzle compared with
the same size conventional
this design of nozzle is usually
droplet. Therefore, the
provided by a compressor mounted
and surface water
established spray classification
on the sprayer. An important feature
of this system is the ability to vary
nozzle output and spray quality
independently for a given nozzle tip
by varying the input pressures of
both air and liquid. The nozzles can
operate effectively at low volumes;
sprays have droplets with airinclusions. Trials have shown that
good control of drift can be achieved
Twin fluid nozzle systems use
system does not apply directly to
sprays from this type of nozzle
design.
specialised nozzle bodies and a
compressed air supply. Therefore,
The figure over shows increased
they are commonly incorporated into
deposition when using twin fluid
complete spraying systems. Retro-
nozzles compared with conventional
fitting such a system onto a
hydraulic nozzles.
conventional sprayer is possible, but
complex and costly.
nozzles operating at the same flow
rates. Drift reduction compared with
conventional hydraulic pressure
nozzles is achieved due to (i) the
relatively large air-included droplets
generated with appropriate settings,
(ii) the downward current of air
coming from the nozzle, and (iii) the
mechanism of spray formation within
the nozzle.
Twin fluid nozzle systems are more
complex to operate than
conventional spraying equipment
because of the need to set/adjust
the pressures of both the air and
spray liquid. However, nozzle
manufacturers supply detailed charts
giving flow rates and spray qualities
for different air and liquid input
combinations. Automatic control
How can they help
you?
•
•
systems have been developed to
maintain a given spray quality over
a range of output flow rates. This
Improved timeliness from use of
enables effective compensation for
low volumes
speed changes over a wider range
The ability to change spray
than would be possible with
quality and output rate on the
conventional hydraulic pressure
move can improve targeting and
nozzles.
helps to minimise pesticide costs
•
•
Systems are less prone to nozzle
The output from twin fluid nozzles
blockage at low volumes than
can be adjusted over a wide range
equivalent conventional designs,
(more than a factor of 3:1). This
resulting in less downtime
design is therefore useful in
Improved control of spray drift
helping with compliance with
LERAP requirements
targeting applications and patch
spraying.
81
34
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Twin Fluid Nozzles
Spray deposition on grass weeds
Technical tip
Showing a comparison between twin fluid and conventional hydraulic nozzle
Twin fluid nozzles can be
very sensitive to pressure
60
settings. Ensure that gauges
50
are correct and pressure
regulation/control systems
40
30
20
10
0
Twin fluid fine Twin fluid med 100L/ha F
100L/ha M
200L/ha F
200L/ha M
200L/ha C
400L/ha F
Clodinafop mg/g
82
Capital cost
Syngenta Crop Protection UK Ltd
Mcg Clodinafop/gm fresh wt
70
are operating effectively.
Further information
•
Nozzle and sprayer
manufacturers
•
•
•
•
•
conventional sprayer both because of the
££
Operating costs for a twin fluid nozzle
system are slightly higher than for a
conventional unit because of the air supply
Cost benefits
Better use of pesticides may enable the
higher capital and operating costs to be
recovered
AICC
•
Sprayer Control and
Maintenance
•
•
•
Patch Spraying
•
Low Volume Spraying
need to supply compressed air and because
Operating cost
AIC
Technology links
There is a higher capital cost than for a
the nozzle bodies are relatively complex
AEA
£
Selection
35
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Rotary Atomisers
What are they?
Rotary atomisers use the centrifugal
environment?
energy created by a spinning disc,
•
cup or cage to create a spray, rather
than using liquid pressure.
The tight control over droplet sizes
in the spray from rotary atomisers
the environment
•
good performance.
means that some of the defined
spray qualities will not directly
match those from conventional
Important features of this system
nozzles; this is why drift reduction is
are the ability to produce a more
and surface water
achieved for the same nominal spray
tightly controlled droplet spectrum
quality. If very low drift levels are
than pressure based nozzles, and
Caution: Using very low volumes
needed, low atomiser rotational
the ability to maintain spray quality
with rotary atomisers requires
speeds must be used in order to
over a large range of liquid flow
careful choice of product and
produce large spray droplets.
rates at a particular atomiser
spray quality. Spray
rotational speed. Rotary atomisers
behaviour/trajectory is different
Because the output from rotary
can operate effectively at very low
from conventional hydraulic
atomisers can be adjusted over a
volumes. Trials have shown that
pressure nozzles.
wide range (more than a factor of
good control of drift can be achieved
nozzles producing the same spray
quality. Rotary atomisers are usually
either electrically or hydraulically
powered.
Rotary atomisers need special
mounting brackets and additional
electrical wiring/controls or hydraulic
lines/valves and are therefore better
How can they help
you?
•
suited to being incorporated into a
complete spraying system.
Retrofitting such a system onto a
The ability to closely control
conventional sprayer is possible but
droplet size and change spray
complex.
quality and output rate on the
•
•
move improves targeting and
Rotary atomisers are more complex
minimises pesticide costs
to operate and maintain than
Improved timeliness and
conventional spraying systems
optimised pesticide use from use
because of the need to set/adjust
of low volumes
atomiser rotational speed as well as
Systems are less prone to
liquid output. The atomisers are
blockage than conventional
relatively complex, have moving
nozzles, resulting in less
parts, and a reasonably high degree
downtime and less risk of
of maintenance is required to ensure
operator contamination
3:1), this design is useful in
targeting sprays better and in patch
spraying.
83
35
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Rotary Atomisers
Deposition (µl cm-2 x 10,000) of fluorescein tracer after correction
for application volume through a wheat crop at different growth
Technical tip
Rotary atomisers need to be
stages from flat fan nozzles and rotary atomisers (±SE).
well maintained. Ensure that
the system is thoroughly
Growth stage
Sampling
position
Flat fan
nozzles
200l/ha
Rotary 20l/ha
(fine quality
spray)
Rotary atomiser
40l/ha (medium
quality spray)
cleaned and basic
maintenance is carried out at
the end of each spray
31
39
59
84
70
75
77
Leaf 1
5
(1)
75 (5)
15 (1)
Leaf 3
7
(1)
35 (4)
17 (6)
Ground
9
(1)
44 (6)
21 (3)
Flag
5
(0)
34 (2)
12 (1)
Leaf 3
4
(1)
23 (1)
10 (0)
Ground
2
(0)
10 (0)
9 (1)
Ear
2
(0)
10 (0)
10 (0)
16 (1)
Flag
3
(0)
12 (1)
Leaf 3
2
(0)
13 (1)
13 (1)
Ground
3
(0)
11 (0)
11 (0)
Ear
9
(1)
6 (1)
Flag leaf
26 (2)
30 (3)
Leaf 1
25 (1)
26 (3)
Ground
12 (1)
18 (2)
Ear
15 (1)
24 (2)
Flag leaf
26 (1)
60 (14)
Leaf 1
23 (2)
17 (1)
Ground
15 (1)
10 (1)
Ear
30 (2)
19 (3)
Flag leaf
30 (2)
30 (3)
Leaf 1
20 (1)
20 (2)
Ground
16 (1)
14 (2)
From Holland et al., 1997
operation.
35
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Rotary Atomisers
Further information
Using reduced volumes with rotary atomisers gives equivalent control to
high volume applications, with large reductions in dosage rates possible
against specific targets (see figure).
Corrected cereal aphid mortality following application of
deltamethrin at half (3.125g a.i./ha) and one twentieth
(0.313g a.i./ha) of the full recommended dosage rate on winter
wheat using rotary atomiser and flat fan nozzle sprays
100
Nozzle and sprayer
manufacturers
•
•
•
AEA
AIC
AICC
90
Technology links
80
•
Sprayer Control and
Maintenance
•
•
•
Patch Spraying
•
Low Volume Spraying
70
Corrected % mortality
•
60
50
40
Selection
30
References
20
10
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
From Holland et al., 1997
Days after treatment
Micromax1/2 rate
Micromax 1/20 rate
flat fan 1/2 rate
flat fan 1/20 rate
Control mortality
Capital cost
There is a higher capital cost than for
a conventional sprayer because of the
need to power the atomisers and because
of the complexity of the atomisers
Operating cost
££
Operating costs for rotary atomiser sprayers
are higher than for a conventional system
due to maintenance requirements
Cost benefits
Better timeliness and better use of pesticides
due to targeted low volume sprays should
enable the higher capital and operating costs
to be recovered
£
Holland J.M., Jepson P.C.,
Jones E.C. and Turner C.
(1997).
A comparison of spinning disc
atomisers and flat fan pressure
nozzles in terms of pesticide
deposition and biological
efficacy within cereal crops.
Crop Protection 16 (2),
179-185.
85
section 2
86
36
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Low Volume Spraying
What is it?
Low volume spraying is the use of
The use of low volumes is easy to
lower than typical or lower-than-
implement with modern spraying
label recommended water volumes
equipment. Spray volumes can be
for spraying, and is often referred to
reduced by:
as reduced volumes. It improves
•
14km/h. If no changes are made
to the nozzle selection, this
results in a reduction in volume
rate of between 20 and 45%
when compared with travelling at
8km/h.
Using nozzles with a lower flow
work rates and hence timeliness.
rate – the limiting factor on the
Lower volumes tend to give a higher
Conventional standard spray
nozzle to be used is the risk of
retention in the canopy although not
applications to arable crops apply a
drift from the smaller droplet
necessarily higher efficacy.
volume of 200l/ha from boom
sizes produced by conventional
Penetration into the canopy is
sprayers travelling at 8km/h.
hydraulic pressure nozzles.
generally reduced with lower
Substantial improvements in work
However, this can now be
volumes.
rates can be achieved if sprays are
overcome by using air assistance
applied at lower volumes
or by selecting a nozzle type
The most important features of low
(e.g. 100l/ha) because the time
giving larger droplets for
volume spraying are the
taken per unit area sprayed to fill
improved drift control (e.g. air
improvement in work rates,
the machine is reduced.
induction, twin fluid nozzles or
timeliness and reduced cost per unit
rotary atomisers).
area sprayed. The figures show how
Increasing forward speeds during
decreasing volumes and high
Low volumes give higher work
application – improved spray
spraying speeds can increase work
rates that in turn give
vehicle design, and particularly
rates.
-
improved timeliness and the
improved boom suspensions,
potential to use reduced rates
have meant that many operators
reduced capital and operating
are now able to travel at 10-
•
-
•
87
costs per unit area sprayed
•
Reduced problems with supplying
Effect of volume (l/ha) on work rate
water to the machine in field
7.0
6.0
•
5.0
Reduced risk of run-off from
treated crop
Caution: It is important to
consider the risk of drift when
using low volume applications and
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
not use low volumes if aiming to
penetrate a dense crop canopy.
This method of application is not
0.0
250
200
150
Application volume, l/ha
recommended for some
pesticides: read the product label
carefully.
24 m boom
12 m boom
100
50
to select nozzles appropriately. Do
Work rate, ha/h
How can it help the
environment?
36
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Low Volume Spraying
The effect of spraying speed on work rate
Technical tip
6.0
As adjuvant rate is generally
based on achieving a given
Work rate, ha/h
5.0
concentration in the spray
mix, reducing volumes
4.0
enables reduced rates of
adjuvants to be used.
3.0
2.0
Further information
1.0
0.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
Spraying speed, km/h
12 m boom
24 m boom
•
HGCA
•
•
•
•
•
CPA publications
Pesticide product labels
AEA
AIC
AICC
Research is currently examining the scope for reducing volume rates to less
88
than 100l/ha. Twin fluid nozzles and rotary atomisers allow volume rates as
low as 50l/ha to be used in some circumstances.
Capital cost
Little capital cost involved. Good sprayer
Technology links
•
Sprayer Control and
Maintenance
•
•
•
•
•
•
maintenance is important and it may be
necessary to purchase additional or
specialist nozzles.
Operating cost
Operating costs will be lower due to
increased work rates and savings in
pesticide use
Cost benefits
Better timeliness and better use of
pesticides will give substantial benefits
£
Selection
Twin Fluid Nozzles
Rotary Atomisers
37
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What are they?
Low volume washing systems reduce
the need to use large quantities of
washing water to clean out spray
tanks by incorporating specially
designed spray nozzles within the
tank. This results in a lower volume
If the tank is of an awkward shape
lead to the formation of dried
or has several compartments or
deposits which are more difficult to
internal baffles, multiple nozzles may
remove at a later stage.
be necessary to ensure complete
Manufacturers guidelines should be
coverage of the tank. Tank wash
strictly
nozzles can be plumbed into the
adhered to.
spraying equipment by fitting an
extra line on the pressure side of the
Two rinses with a small volume of
pump. A valve can be installed so
water are more effective in diluting
that the line can be turned on and
the spray residue than a single rinse
off. An in-line filter is needed before
with a higher volume. Tests have
the washing nozzle to prevent any
shown that two reduced volume
How can they help
you?
debris affecting its operation.
wash-outs with a sprayer cleaner will
Consult the nozzle manufacturer for
remove any sulphonylurea residues
the recommended pressures, flow
which might damage sensitive crops.
•
•
•
Reduced washing out problems
rates and depth of placement within
The effectiveness of this procedure
Reduced sprayer cleaning time
the tank.
depends on starting with a clean
Smaller volume of washings to
In order to reduce significantly the
dispose of
risk of point source pollution,
Reduced risk of chemical carry-
decontamination of sprayers and
over to the next spraying
disposal of the dilute washings
operation
should be carried out in the field or
of washings for disposal, and a
reduced risk of spillage and point
source contamination of surface and
groundwater.
•
sprayer, free from sticky coatings or
using a biobed, rather than onto
environment?
•
•
concrete at the farm buildings. The
principle of biobeds is to retain the
dilute pesticides in a pit containing a
mixture of materials that will enable
the environment
the active ingredients to decompose
by a process of biodegradation.
Some crops are extremely sensitive
Low volume tank washing systems
are widely available. They are a
standard fitting on many new
sprayer designs and can be readily
retro-fitted if they are not already
part of the standard equipment on a
to very small quantities of herbicides
remaining in spray equipment from
previous applications. It is therefore
essential, after spraying, to clean
the sprayer and all associated
equipment (e.g. induction bowls and
lances) to prevent damage to
sensitive crops sprayed afterwards.
sprayer.
Following any herbicide application,
Tank washing nozzles fit inside the
an immediate rinse of the spray tank
tank and come in two basic forms:
with clean water is recommended to
•
•
A fixed cluster of several nozzles
dilute any chemical remaining in the
A nozzle device which rotates
machine. A full clean-out should be
o
through 360
done as soon as possible. Delay can
visible residues. It is important to
use the correct concentration of
cleaning solution and to expose all
surfaces to it.
89
37
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Components of a rotary tank washing system
Technical tip
Guidelines for low volume
washing are now available
for sulphonylurea herbicides.
Low volume washing can
reduce both the time taken
and the volume of waste
water produced when
switching from applying
cereal herbicide on spring
barley to spraying oilseed
rape, potatoes or swedes.
Improved formulations of
these herbicides are being
developed which will reduce
the need for complex
Fixed jet washing nozzle
washout procedures
Further information
90
•
Nozzle and sprayer
manufacturers
•
•
•
•
•
Pesticide manufacturers
AEA
AIC
AICC
CPA
Technology links
Capital cost
Small capital cost of retro-fitting systems
if they are not already part of the standard
equipment on the sprayer
£
Operating cost
No increase in operating costs
-
Cost benefits
Important benefits, particularly as the
disposal of washing water can cost less
•
Sprayer Control and
Maintenance
•
38
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
Sprayer decontamination is the
Systems have now been developed
effective cleaning of the sprayer and
to aid the safe cleaning of sprayers
safe disposal of washings. Recent
including:
from a separate bowser tank. These
systems are simple to operate but
research has shown that significant
contamination of water systems can
•
pressurised hand lance to wash
loading of the sprayer and/or from
down the sprayer and spraying
cleaning off the internal and external
vehicle in an untreated area of
surfaces of the application
the field where it has been used,
machinery. This is especially likely to
thus removing the need to
occur when filling and cleaning is
dispose of washing water.
•
•
The use of a dedicated wash-
down area has been prepared by the
Environment Agency in England and
Wales, and by SEPA in Scotland.
Specific filter systems are available
to dispose of washings on larger
holdings or for use by contractors.
Biobeds have been developed in
Helps to comply with codes of
pressurised clean water for
Scandinavia and in the USA, but
practice, quality assurance
washing. Sprayer washings can
their development is still at a
requirements and environmental
be collected and disposed of
relatively early stage in Scotland,
regulations at relatively low cost
using:
England and Wales. The principle is
whilst being practical to
-
a purpose-designated
to retain dilute pesticide in a pit
treatment system
containing a mixture of materials
Reduced risk of corrosion on the
-
a biobed system
that will enable the active
sprayer giving longer machine life
-
an approved disposal
ingredients to decompose by a
contractor
process of biodegradation.
How can it help the
environment?
•
specification for a sprayer wash-
disposal facilities and a supply of
and reduced maintenance costs
•
dilute washings are now available. A
down area with appropriate
implement
•
Specifications for sprayer wash-down
areas and biobeds for disposing of
The use of a clean water
result from small spillages during
done on a concrete yard area.
do increase time in the field.
-
spraying onto an area of land
selected for this purpose
Many sprayers can now be fitted
the environment
with external washing systems as an
option. Clean water for washing can
be carried on the sprayer or supplied
Caution: If you choose to clean
the sprayer and the spraying
vehicle in the field, leave an area
that has not been treated with
the full dose of pesticide for
washing purposes. Ensure that it
is not close to headlands, surface
water or a drainage channel.
91
38
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Capital cost
Technical tip
Different methods of implementation
If it is not possible to clean a
will have different cost profiles but all
machine at the end of a
will involve some capital expenditure
spraying operation, it should
Wash-down system on sprayer for use
be stored undercover to
in the field
£
prevent rain washing surface
residues into drains.
Construction and maintenance of a dedicated
wash-down area and disposal system
Operating cost
££
Operating costs are generally low
Time to operate in-field cleaning
Further information
£
Disposal is generally low-cost, except if using
processing plant and/or approved contractor
Cost benefits
Important benefits can be gained from a
relatively low-cost system
92
£
•
•
•
•
•
SEPA
ADAS Cherwell Study
AEA
AIC
AICC
Technology links
•
Low Volume Washing
Systems
•
Weed Wipers
39
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Weed Wipers
What are they?
Weed wipers transfer herbicide to a
Specialist units are available for
target weed by direct contact
operation in:
that maintains a high level of
herbicide at the wick surface but in
between the weed and a vehiclemounted boom or hand-lance-
•
wider units mounted directly on a
generally used to exploit the height
tractor.
•
gives the highest herbicide transfer
to wiped targets (see figure over).
Arable crops – these tend to be
mounted wick material. They are
difference between target weeds and
such a way as to minimise dripping,
When transfer rates are high, higher
deposits of herbicide are achieved on
the upper parts of plants. Some
Grassland and areas of value to
herbicide is often deposited on lower
the base crop or grass sward,
wildlife – these tend to be smaller
parts of tall plants due to run-off
enabling a non-selective herbicide to
units suitable for mounting on or
from the higher sections.
be used and/or reducing overall
towing by all terrain vehicles
herbicide use. It is important to
(ATVs).
control wick height and minimise the
risk of herbicide dripping from the
Such units cannot substitute
wick. Skids and wheels are used to
completely for a crop sprayer.
maintain boom height.
How can they help
you?
•
•
Chemical transfer by rubbing contact
is generally less effective than
spraying, particularly in variable
Selective control of tall weeds in
weed conditions. In areas of high
grassland or beet crops with low
weed density the wick tends to dry
cost herbicides
out whereas when the density is low,
Reduced quantities of broad
dripping can occur.
spectrum herbicide used resulting
in cost savings
•
Approaches to improving the
performance of weed wipers include:
Likely to be an effective way of
achieving weed control in
environmentally-sensitive
grassland, although derogations
to use herbicides will still be
•
in different directions
•
•
•
the use of an active contact
surface, for example a roller or a
required.
environment?
the use of multiple passes often
re-circulating rope, that enables
the surface of the wick to be kept
replenished with chemical
•
methods of keeping the wick
saturated whilst avoiding chemical
the environment
dripping from the surface; recent
No risk of drift to surrounding
areas
Caution: Care is required to
minimise dripping from the wicks
and when handling and disposing
of used wick materials that have
been soaked with herbicide.
designs have involved controlled
spraying onto the wick or the use
of sensors to control herbicide
delivery to the wick surface.
The use of wipers with a moving
surface and with a control system
93
39
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
Weed Wipers
Deposits from a saturated wick system treating single thistles
Technical tip
compared with a spray application
Operation with selective
herbicides is possible
0.04
provided such products have
the appropriate registration.
0.035
Plant deposit, ml/g vegetation
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
Wiper
94
Wiper
Above 150 mm
Spray
Spray
Below 150 mm
Silsoe Research Institute – from a study sponsored by Defra
0.03
Relatively few herbicides are
approved for application by
weed wipers. Ensure the
product that you want to use
has the correct approval.
Further information
•
•
•
•
•
Machinery manufacturers
Chemical companies
AEA
AIC
AICC
Technology links
Capital cost
Capital cost involved in purchasing a
specialised unit
Operating cost
•
££
Relatively low operating costs associated
with wick maintenance. Considerable
savings of herbicide when compared with
blanket spraying.
Cost benefits
Some benefits in specific situations
£
40
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
What is it?
Mechanical weed control uses
Non-selective tine and harrowing
cultural control via harrows, brushes
machines are commercially
or hoes to disrupt weed growth.
available, mainly from non-UK
Mechanical weed control can be
suppliers. Inter-row hoeing systems
Inter-row cultivation overcomes the
either non-selective or selective. In
are also relatively common and at
problem of selectivity by cultivating
non-selective systems, an overall
least one manufacturer in the UK
aggressively between the rows, and
treatment is applied to the field,
now offers a system that uses vision
tackling a wide range of weed
using light spring tines or brushes,
guidance to improve the steering
species and growth stages without
and control is achieved because the
accuracy. This helps to increase both
crop damage. The problem is that
weeds are more vulnerable to the
work rates and the length of time
cultivator blades must be accurately
tines or brushes than the crop. In
over which good performance can be
aligned between the crop rows, a
selective systems, treatment is
maintained without the effects of
task that is both difficult and very
applied both between and within
operator fatigue.
tiring using manual methods alone.
control and a much reduced risk of
crop damage when compared with
tine/harrowing treatments applied
across the whole crop.
Modern vision-based guidance
crop rows typically using hoeing
blades. Mechanical weed control is
Both systems, but particularly the
technology now offers a solution to
particularly suited to high value
non-selective treatments, are very
the alignment problem, allowing
crops grown with a wide row spacing.
dependent upon weather conditions.
lateral accuracy within 3cm to be
High soil moisture at the time of,
achieved at a wide range of speeds.
and following treatment can result in
Forward speed under most
reduced levels of control. Very dry
circumstances is limited by the
conditions can increase the risk of
cultivation operation and may be as
crop damage. Scottish weather
low as 4km/h in a small sugar beet
conditions and soils are less
crop or as high as 12km/h in well-
favourable for such treatments.
established cereals. The work rates
Increased soil mineralisation may
of inter-row cultivation is limited by
lead to increased risk of nitrate
the operating width, which is in turn
leaching when mechanical
determined by drill or planter width.
•
Provides weed control in a range
of conditions without using
herbicides
•
Meets the requirements of organic
crop production
•
No herbicide costs, but several
passes may be required
How can it help the
environment?
treatments are used in the autumn.
•
hoeing (i.e. the selective system)
the environment
Caution: Timing of treatments is
95
Technological developments
Studies have shown that inter-row
gives adequate levels of weed
associated with computer vision
guidance have enabled inter-row
hoeing systems to become faster,
The control of weeds by inter-row hoeing compared with tine
weeding in a randomised plot
critical to avoid:
•
Disruption of ground nesting
Treatment
Weed dry weight
g/m2
g/m2
No weeding
1010
62
Hoe (inter-row) weeding
1230
27
Tine (non-selective) weeding
1150
8
Seek advice from a
conservation adviser.
•
Crop damage and nitrate
leaching
From Tillett et al., 1999
Crop dry weight,
birds and beneficial insects.
40
Crop Protection
section 2
Crop Protection
wider and more reliable. Even though this approach is more applicable for
Technical tip
crops grown in widely spaced rows such as potatoes or vegetables, research
has shown it is feasible in widely spaced (e.g. 25cm rows) cereal crops with
Timing, weather and soil
no substantial loss of yield.
conditions are critical to the
success of such techniques.
A combination of mechanical weeding and minimal rates of low-dose herbicides
Take note of weather
is being used successfully in Denmark and in the UK in spring barley.
forecasts when planning
treatments.
A guided hoe system
Further information
96
Capital cost
A significant capital investment in machinery
is required for both selective and non-selective
approaches. Unless an organic system is being
adopted, the machinery for mechanical weed
control will be needed in addition to a sprayer
Operating cost
££
Higher labour costs than spraying as mechanical
treatments have lower work rates. There may
be some increased machine maintenance,
particularly of soil-engaging parts.
However, pesticide costs should be reduced.
Cost benefits
Offers alternative means where herbicide use
must be reduced. Particularly useful in organic
production
£
•
Manufacturers of hoeing and
harrowing equipment
•
•
•
•
•
Soil Association
AEA
AIC
AICC
SAC
Technology links
•
•
Minimum Tillage
References
Tillett N.D., Hague T., Blair
A.M., Jones P.A., Ingle R. and
Orson, J.H. (1999). Precision
inter-row weeding in winter
wheat. Proceedings, The 1999
Brighton Conference – Weeds,
3, 975-980.
41
Harvesting
section 2
Harvesting
Yield Mapping
What is it?
Yield mapping produces a contoured
field map showing high and low
yielding areas of the field. The
How can it help the
environment?
One of the major factors leading to
•
•
Methods for mapping variability in
development of satellite based infield location systems such as Global
Improved targeting of inputs
soils directly using electro-magnetic
the environment
•
variations in yield is soil conditions.
induction (EMI) have been developed
and good correlation has been
Reduced water and atmospheric
demonstrated between field areas
Positioning Systems (GPS) has
pollution by avoiding excess
defined from yield maps and from
provided a stimulus for the
application of fertilisers
EMI. The use of soil maps in
Aids the identification of areas of
conjunction with yield maps can
lower productivity that can be
increase the value of both maps and
used to deliver environmental
allow improved interpretation.
development of yield mapping
systems. The use of a GPS together
with a grain flow sensor on the main
elevator into the grain tank of a
combine harvester and a computer-
•
benefits, e.g. as set-aside or
created habitats
based recording system forms the
basis of a yield mapping system.
Crop responses to different soil
conditions in different parts of a field
will depend on the weather and
Recorded data is fed into an analysis
program for smoothing/interpolation
Most manufacturers of combine
underlying soil variability. Because of
and plotting as a contour map of
harvesters now offer yield mapping
this, the interpretation of yield maps
crop yield. Yield maps can improve
as an optional facility and it is
should use data collected over a
the management of differing field
becoming a standard feature on
number of seasons. For example, in
areas and help optimise the use of
larger machines. Systems can also
a dry season, cereal crops on the
inputs.
be retro-fitted to existing harvesters.
heavier parts of a field will tend to
Yield maps from a single season can
whereas the reverse may be true in
provide valuable data relating to
a wet season.
The analysis of a sequence of yield
maps can provide information that
will help to:
yield higher than on the lighter areas
crop performance in that season;
however, more information can be
obtained by analysing a sequence of
•
Define different areas of a field
that could be managed in
different ways so as to optimise
the use of inputs and reduce
costs
•
drainage problems
•
•
yield maps collected over a number
of cropping seasons. A detailed field
assessment of the areas identified
from a sequence of yield maps will
be necessary to determine
appropriate management strategies.
Identify compacted areas or soil
seasonal effects as well as the
The ability to handle large amounts
of data within a computer system is
Identify areas that could be taken
important if the best possible
out of primary production
information is to be obtained from
Provide improved management
yield maps. There is currently
records
relatively little software commercially
available that will aid the
interpolation of a sequence of yield
maps but such approaches are being
developed.
97
41
Harvesting
section 2
Harvesting
Yield Mapping
A yield map that can be used to identify
areas of a field that can be managed in
different ways.
24.5%
Technical tip
The use of a combine
17.3%
operating with a yield
12.3%
11.4%
11.4%
driver to follow a defined
7.2%
5.4%
4.5%
code of practice so as to
3.6%
minimise the time during
4.75-5.00
Over 5.00
4.25-4.75
3.50-4.25
3.25-3.50
3.00-3.25
2.50-3.00
2.25-2.50
1.25-2.25
1.4%
up to 1.25
mapping facility requires the
which the machine is
operating without a full
width of cut and avoid
Yield (T/ha)
misleading anomalies in yield
maps. Methods of
compensating for variations
in cut width are being
evaluated but are not yet
commercially available
Data from SOYL Ltd
98
Note:
•
•
Combine harvester
manufacturers
•
Suppliers of precision
farming software packages
•
•
•
•
AIC
Costs are reducing as technology becomes standardised and use of
computerised systems becomes more common
•
Further information
The use of infra-red photography from either satellite or aeroplane and
chlorophyll-N sensor maps from tractor-mounted sensors can also aid
interpretation of yield maps.
AICC
HGCA
SAC
Technology links
Capital cost
•
•
•
•
•
Patch Spraying
In-field location equipment (e.g. GPS), and grain
flow sensor together with recording system
££
Some investment in computer systems in
the farm office will be needed if it does
not already exist
Operating cost
£
A small increase in operating costs because
of data handling during harvesting,
subsequent processing and interpretation
Cost benefits
High initial capital cost, but once established
the system should give useful information
at a low cost
£
Fertiliser Planning
Targeted Nitrogen
Application
section 2
The products and technologies
6
Fertiliser Planning
7
described in the TIBRE Arable
Handbook provide an opportunity for
you to improve your farming
13 Manure-Value Diagnostics
system, but whether or not they do
so in practice will depend on how
14 Improved Manure Storage
the individual products or
15 Improved Manure Application
Options to help make better use
further advice if you need it. It also
of inorganic fertilisers:
draws your attention to other related
system. Generally speaking,
environmentally damaging than
fungicides. By targeting their use
more precisely, you can save money
1
2
impact on the non-farmed areas of
Schemes and Tools
the farm and in the wider
and also reduce the environmental
techniques that could be used in
This section takes the approach
the best starting point for improving
insecticides and herbicides are more
them and tells you where to go for
combination.
fungicides or herbicides, targeting
the performance of your farming
41 Yield Mapping
technologies to get the best out of
data sheets on technologies or
When you use insecticides,
these inputs more effectively may be
they are used. Each data sheet gives
outline information on how to use
Efficient use of
insecticides, fungicides
and herbicides
environment.
6
Fertiliser Planning
7
8
9
Targeted Phosphate, Potash and
further and describes groups of
linked products which will help you
to make the most of the technology
you adopt. By combining a wider
range of products, the overall
efficiency of the farming system and
Options to help maximise the
effectiveness of pest control:
Lime Application
1
2
Schemes and Tools
the environmental benefits will be
maximised.
10 Improved Fertiliser Spreading
Characteristics
Efficient use of
fertilisers and manures
11 Improved Targeting of Fertiliser
Close to Field Boundaries
If your farm is close to a loch, river
or other watercourse which suffers
from nutrient enrichment from the
12 Boom Fertiliser Spreaders
41 Yield Mapping
surrounding land, you could make
most difference by concentrating
first on products which can help
tackle this and which can also
improve your efficiency when using
fertilisers and manures.
Combining some or all of these
options will help ensure that you
3
Variety Choice
4
18 Monitoring Pest Activity
19 Decision Support Systems
20 Co-ordinated Slug Control
21 Improved Formulation and
Packaging
only apply enough fertiliser to satisfy
the needs of the crop and that you
apply it in a targeted way. This
22 Appropriate Active Ingredient Use
25 Appropriate Insecticide use
ensures that less is wasted by losing
Options to help make better use
of slurries and manures:
1
2
it from the field into the wider
damage to hedgerows, ponds and
other non-farmed areas.
Schemes and Tools
26 Pesticides Mixtures
environment and that there is less
41 Yield Mapping
99
section 2
Spraying equipment which can
effectiveness of disease control:
be used to help with the control
of pests, weeds and diseases:
1
2
27 Pesticide Handling Systems
Schemes and Tools
28 Sprayer Control and
Maintenance
3
Variety Choice
4
29 Patch Spraying
30 Appropriate Spray Quality
17 Crop Diagnostics
31 Drift Reduction by Nozzle
Selection
32 Air Assisted Spraying
Packaging
33 Air Induction Nozzles
22 Appropriate Active Ingredient
Use
34 Twin Fluid Nozzles
24 Appropriate Fungicide use
35 Rotary Atomisers
36 Low Volume Spraying
41 Yield Mapping
37 Low Volume Washing Systems
100
38 Sprayer Decontamination
effectiveness of weed control:
1
2
Schemes and Tools
Efficient management
of soil and water
resources
1
2
Schemes and Tools
Packaging
22 Appropriate Active Ingredient
Use
23 Appropriate Herbicide use
39 Weed Wipers
40 Mechanical Weed Control
41 Yield Mapping
5
Minimum Tillage (soil)
16 Precision Irrigation (water)
41 Yield Mapping
section 3
The options described in the TIBRE
Arable Handbook provide a snapshot
of some of the tools available to
farmers and their advisers.
Legislation as well as pressures from
consumers, food retailers and
distributors will ensure that industry
•
the electronic labelling of chemical
inputs
•
the automatic transfer of
information from mobile
machinery and field sensors to
the farm office and adviser
and research organisations will
Developments in molecular biology
and ecology are now being
integrated with long term benefits
for agronomy and crop
improvement. Genomics involves the
large-scale use of molecular
techniques for identification and
functional analysis of complete or
continue to refine these products
The continued development of lower-
nearly complete genomic
and to develop new technologies.
dose, more specifically-targeted
complements of genes. Crop
pesticides will reduce the
improvements using the tools of
Several new technologies are
environmental load in key areas,
genomics will have a significant
developing rapidly at present, but
such as control of grass weeds,
impact on ways in which crops
not all have been included in this
where current options are of concern
respond and interact with their biotic
updated edition of the TIBRE Arable
due to links to water pollution.
and abiotic environment. For
Handbook either because they are
Higher specificity of action of
example, modifying weed-crop
too far from the market or because
insecticides will reduce impacts on
interactions in favour of the crop will
their environmental advantages are
beneficial insects.
improve yields and quality while
not yet clear.
reducing weed problems.
The use of plants and bacteria to
It is likely that relevant technologies
bioremediate washout facilities or
Progress in crop modelling has been
will continue to develop rapidly,
other contaminated areas will reduce
matched with advances in crop
particularly where there are strong
pollution risk and lower
physiology, crop ecology and
drivers for applications in other
environmental load. The use of
computing technology. Crop models
industries as well as in agriculture.
specific fungi which attack certain
have the potential to facilitate
The main areas that are likely to see
weeds or fungal pathogens in the
decision making by allowing farmers
significant developments in the next
soil, for example Sclerotinia, will
and agronomists to broaden their
five to ten years include:
develop and be implemented
management skills to address issues
particularly for high value crops or
of environmental and ecological
the continued development of
where chemical alternatives are not
aspects of crop production. This is
lower-dose and more specifically-
available.
essential for realisation of other
•
targeted pesticides
•
the development and
implementation of decision
support systems
•
•
improvements in plant performance.
developed to collect soil information
The development of in-field sensors
Reflectance of the soil relates to
and plant diagnostics linked into
corresponding nutrient contents (e.g.
decision support systems and the
P, K, Ca, and Mg) along with pH and
use of GPS precision applications will
the development of soil nutrient
soil organic matter content. This
allow more detailed part-field
sensors
could be useful in the development
solutions to problems and improved
developments in molecular
of a soil nutrient sensor for site-
targeting of specific pests in the field
biology and ecology
specific crop management. This will
and in store.
decontamination
•
on the environment or
some way off, prototypes are being
to assist in fertiliser rate evaluation.
the use of plants and bacteria for
bioremediation and
•
benefits in sensing and monitoring
Although soil nutrient sensors are
development of on-farm
diagnostics and in-field sensors
linked to decision support systems
help to maximise efficiency of inputs
and reduce nutrients run off and
leaching
101
section
section
30
Variety Choice
-1
Supplementary
Information
102
Automated product labelling is well
Important developments are also
particularly level of machine use,
established in all parts of the retail
likely in the handling of information
associated with different parts of a
sector and is mainly based on bar
on arable farms. Sophisticated
field. This could be provided by
codes. However, such printed codes
equipment on field machinery, such
recording systems which are
are unlikely to be sufficiently robust
as that used for the collection of
currently under development. This
for reliable operation in physically
data for yield mapping, is now well
information, together with
hostile agricultural environments –
established. However, the data
information from yield maps, will
for example, wet or dusty
transfer from machine to the farm
enable management decisions about
conditions. On the other hand, the
office normally involves manually
cropping plans to be made in a way
development of the electronic tag
doing this using a device such as a
that maximises both financial return
(Radio Frequency Identification
‘smart card’. The development of
and environmental benefit.
Device - RFID) gives important
automated data transfer systems,
capabilities that can help with record
for example based on mobile
keeping and traceability in the
telephone technology, will enable
agricultural industry. The
field machinery to communicate
development of such tags for use in
automatically with the farm office
situations such as retail outlets and
with the minimum need for manual
luggage handling facilities at airports
intervention. Associated
gives advantages of low volume and
developments are likely to:
hence a low unit cost. The use of
electronic labels on pesticide and
•
improve the compatibility of
fertiliser packaging will provide field
different components within the
equipment with information on the
farming system, particularly in the
material being applied. This will
area of electronic communication
enable:
•
•
simplify the interface with the
the automatic generation of
users so that operation of both
application records – operation
hardware and software is less
with control systems using field
complex
location equipment such as GPS
will enable detailed records of
inputs at both the field scale and
within individual fields
There should also be further
developments in the use of sensing
systems and the ways in which the
outputs from sensors can be
•
the more precise control of
interpreted. Systems using more
application machinery to improve
than one method of sensing are
targeting of inputs based on both
likely to be developed for monitoring
the target and the material to be
factors such as crop condition.
applied
Developments in the financial
•
automatic inventory control for
support systems for arable
on-farm stores, particularly since
agriculture may mean that it is
tags can be both read and have
important for farmers to have
data written to them
information on the inputs,
section 3
The importance of arable land
that nesting birds are left
In order to maximise the wildlife
for wildlife
undisturbed.
benefit, position field margins
Allow nesting birds about eight
alongside hedgerows or
valuable for wildlife, with many
weeks to hatch between first and
watercourses where they act as a
species of plants and birds relying
second rollings.
buffer strip helping to protect
Arable land can be extremely
purely on cultivated farmland. Spring
sown cereals provide short
vegetation suitable for nesting
lapwing and skylark, with winter
•
•
If possible do not plough stubbles
watercourses and boundary habitats.
in until the end of February.
•
Different types of field margins
Plan crop rotations carefully to
restore soil fertility and reduce
stubbles providing an important
the need for pesticides.
source of spilt grain and weed seeds
•
include tussocky grass strips, grass
and wildflower strips. Grass strips
across the middle of fields are called
Try to ensure that a variety of
Beetle Banks and are especially
corn bunting and linnet. Arable
crops are growing at the same
suitable in bigger fields as a way of
farms are also important for
time to create different habitats
providing areas for wildlife in a
mammals such as brown hare, for a
for wildlife, as this will help
cultivated landscape.
range of insects and for important
provide food and shelter
rare arable plants. Most of the TIBRE
throughout the year.
for birds such as grey partridge,
Boundary features
Hedges, ditches and dykes are
Arable Handbook provides advice on
in-field measures that can be taken
Field margins
important features in the landscape,
to minimise any adverse
The careful management of field
contributing especially to the scenic
environmental impacts by using
margins will be one of the most
value of an area. They provide a
modern technology. This section
important ways to increase the
habitat for all kinds of wildlife
looks at management of the rest of
diversity of plants and wildlife on an
including beneficial insects such as
an arable unit that can be done to
arable farm. Field margins are often
butterflies and ladybirds, and
benefit biodiversity.
the least productive area of a field
mammals such as bats and
and many benefits for wildlife can be
hedgehogs, and are a prime source
Priority species of arable
achieved with just a one-metre grass
of food, shelter and cover for hedge-
farmland require the most
strip between the field boundary and
nesting species and farmland birds.
urgent conservation action.
the crop edge. They can benefit
In general, the thicker the hedge,
Species such as grey
small mammals such as mice and
the more wildlife benefit it provides.
partridge, corn bunting, barn
voles, providing ideal hunting areas
Trees in hedge lines are also
owl, yellowhammer, linnet,
for barn owls and kestrels. They can
important for the landscape and help
bullfinch, pipistrelle bat,
also help to reduce the impact of
to increase bird numbers. A good
brown hare and cornflower
fertiliser and pesticide on sensitive
mix of species in hedges provides
are characteristic of arable
habitats nearby and can help comply
seeds and berries throughout the
farmland, but their numbers
with LERAP requirements.
winter, which is one of the main
reasons why hedge trimming should
have decreased over the last
two decades or so.
As well as giving wildlife benefits,
not be carried out every year.
grass margins help reduce the
Good management
spread of hedgerow weeds into the
Conservation Headlands
There are many actions that can be
crop and encourage predatory
A conservation headland is a less
taken to encourage wildlife on
insects that can help to control crop
intensively managed strip at the
cropped land:
pests. They are inexpensive, easy to
outer edge of the crop – with less
•
Minimise the time between
establish and require very little
fertiliser and pesticide applied than
harrowing, sowing and rolling so
maintenance.
elsewhere in the field. Conservation
103
section 3
•
headlands are a key habitat because
for two years. It can also be sown
of the broad-leaved weeds that grow
on set-aside and is a good way of
that provides food and shelter for
in them and the insects that they
making use of these areas to benefit
gamebirds as well as other
support. Insects in turn are food for
wildlife.
wildlife.
Take up the wild bird cover option
gamebird chicks and other birds. The
weeds provide seeds for small
Set-aside
mammals and the flowers nectar for
The way set-aside is managed has a
butterflies. This less dense part of
significant impact on its wildlife
the crop provides an area of easily
value. If managed to benefit
used cover for young birds.
conservation, set-aside can provide
Conservation headlands are also a
seeds and cover for wildlife,
refuge for rare and declining plants
particularly over winter. Set-aside
and many species of beneficial
management options include natural
insects. By tilting the spreader or
regeneration, wildlife cover and
switching off the outer section of the
wildflower mixes. In order to
sprayer to reduce fertiliser and
maximise the environmental benefit,
pesticide inputs in the outer six-
you can:
metre strip, these environmental
•
benefits can be achieved.
104
Alter the cutting and spraying
dates to benefit grey partridge,
lapwing, skylark and brown hare.
Wild Bird Cover
•
Grant Aid
Much of the wildlife management
above is eligible for support under
agri-environment schemes (such as
the Rural Stewardship Scheme) or
from other local funding sources.
Contact your local SEERAD office for
details of agri-environment schemes
available or seek advice from
conservation advisers at FWAG or
SAC.
Further information
Further detailed information on all
these management options is
Delay cutting as late as possible,
available from organisations such as
Wild bird cover (or unharvested
and consider leaving up to 20%
FWAG, RSPB and SAC Conservation
crops) is an important way of
uncut in any one field for up to
Services.
increasing wildlife areas on a farm;
three years.
by acting as a giant bird table, it
provides a source of insects and
•
around field margins for up to
seeds throughout the year to benefit
birds such as grey partridge and
yellowhammer and mammals such
as brown hares and bats. Wild bird
cover should contain a mix of at
least two crop types such as a cereal
and a brassica and is usually down
Leave up to two metres uncut
three years.
•
Locate set-aside along
hedgerows, field margins, dykes
and ditches to buffer these areas
from farming activities.
section 4
Appendices
ADAS
AICC in Scotland:
Crop Protection Association
Registered Office: ADAS Holdings
Contact Allathan Associates
(CPA)
Limited
Hallhill
4 Lincoln Court
Woodthorne
Turriff AB53 4BL
Lincoln Road
Wergs Road
Tel: 01888 563464
Peterborough PE1 2RP
Wolverhampton WV6 8TQ
Fax: 01888 563951
Tel: 01733 349225
Tel: 01902 754190
Email:
Fax: 01733 562523
Fax: 01902 743602
[email protected]
Email: [email protected]
http://www.adas.co.uk/
http://www.cropprotection.org.uk/
BASIS (Registration) Ltd
34 St John Street
CSC CropCare & CSC PotatoCare
Agricultural Engineers’
Ashbourne DE6 1GH
CSC Crop Protection Ltd.
Association (AEA)
Tel: 01335 343945
Glenearn Road
Samuelson House
Fax: 01335 346488
Perth PH2 0NL
Paxton Road
http://www.basis-reg.com
Tel: 01738 623201
Orton Centre
Fax: 01738 630360
Peterborough PE2 5LT
British Potato Council (BPC)
Tel: 01733 362925
Scottish Office
Fax: 01733 370664
Rural Centre
Central Science Laboratory (CSL)
West Mains
Sand Hutton
http://www.aea.uk.com/
Newbridge EH28 8NZ
York YO41 1LZ
http://www.csccrop.co.uk/cropcare/
Tel: 01314 724064
Tel: 01904 462000
Agricultural Industries
Fax: 01314 724065
Fax: 01904 462111
Confederation (AIC)
http://www.potato.org.uk/
Confederation House
http://www.csl.gov.uk/
East of England Showground
The British Beekeepers
Peterborough PE2 6XE
Association
FACTS
Tel: 01733 385230
The National Beekeeping Centre
Contact BASIS
Fax: 01733 385270
National Agricultural Centre
Stoneleigh Park CV8 2LG
Farming and Wildlife Advisory
http://www.agindustries.org.uk/
Tel: 02476 696679
Group (FWAG)
http://www.bbka.org.uk/
Scottish Head Office
Algo Business Centre
Association of Independent Crop
Consultants (AICC)
British Society of Plant Breeders
Glenearn Road
Head Office: Agriculture House
(BSPB)
Perth PH2 ONJ
Station Road
Woolpack Chambers
Tel: 01738 450500
Liss GU33 7AR
16 Market Street
Fax: 01738 450495
Tel: 01730 895354
Ely CB7 4ND
http://www.fwag.org.uk/scotland/
Fax: 01730 895535
Tel: 01353 653200
Fax: 01353 661156
http://www.aicc.org.uk/
http://www.bspb.co.uk/
105
section 4
Appendices
Home Grown Cereals Authority
Pesticides Safety Directorate
Scottish Crop Research Institute
(HGCA)
(PSD)
(SCRI)
Caledonia House
Mallard House
Invergowrie
223 Pentonville Road
Kings Pool
Dundee DD2 5DA
London N1 9HY
3 Peasholme Green
Tel: 01382 562731
Publications
York YO1 7PX
Fax: 01382 562426
Tel: 01904 455775
http://www.scri.sari.ac.uk/
Tel: 020 7520 3920;
Fax: 01904 455733
Fax: 020 7520 3958
Email:
Scottish Executive Environment
Research & Development
[email protected]
Rural Affairs Department
http://www.pesticides.gov.uk/
(SEERAD)
Tel: 020 7520 3945;
Contact your local SEERAD Area
Fax: 020 7520 3992
Rothamsted Research
http://www.hgca.com/
Harpenden AL5 2JQ
Tel: 01582 763133
Head Office:
Linking Environment and
Fax: 01582 760981
Pentland House
Farming
http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/
47 Robb’s Loan
Edinburgh EH14 1TY
(LEAF)
106
Office
The National Agricultural Centre
Royal Society for the Protection
Tel: 0131 5568400 or 0845 7741741
Stoneleigh
of Birds (RSPB)
http://www.scotland.gov.uk/agri
Warwickshire CV8 2LZ
RSPB Scotland
Tel: 02476 413911
Dunedin House
Scottish Environment Protection
Fax: 02476 413636
25 Ravelston Terrace
Agency (SEPA)
E-mail: [email protected]
Edinburgh EH4 3TP
Contact your local SEPA office
http://www.leafuk.org/
Tel: 0131 3116500
National Sprayer Testing Scheme
Head Office:
http://www.rspb.org.uk/scotland/
Erskine Court
Castle Business Park
(NSTS)
Samuelson House
Scottish Agricultural College
STIRLING FK9 4TR
Paxton Road
(SAC)
Tel: 01786 457700
Orton Centre
West Mains Road
Fax: 01786 446885
Peterborough PE2 5LT
Edinburgh EH9 3JG
http://www.sepa.org.uk/
Tel: 01733 362925
Tel: 0131 5354185
Fax: 01733 370664
Fax: 0131 5354332
Wrest Park
http://www.aea.uk.com/sprayer/
http://www.sac.ac.uk/
Silsoe
Processors and Growers
Scottish Agricultural Science
Tel: 01525 860000
Research Organisation (PGRO)
Agency (SASA)
Fax: 01525 860156
The Research Station
East Craigs
Great North Road
82 Craigs Road
http://www.sri.bbsrc.ac.uk/
Thornhaugh
Edinburgh EH12 8NJ
Peterborough PE8 6HJ
Tel: 0131 2448890
Tel: 01780 782585
Fax: 0131 2448940
Fax: 01780 783993
http://www.pgro.co.uk/
http://www.sasa.gov.uk/
Bedford MK45 4HS
section 4
Appendices
Soil Association
To see a demonstration of the
TSO Customer Services
Bristol House
Environmental Management for
PO Box 29
40-56 Victoria Street
Agriculture (EMA) software
St Crispins House
Bristol BS1 6BY
package and purchase a copy,
Duke Street
Tel: 01179 290661
visit:
Norwich NR3 1GN
Fax: 01179 252504
http://www.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ema/
Tel: 0870 600 5522
EMA help line:
Fax: 0870 600 5533
http://www.soilassociation.org/
http://www.tso.co.uk/
Tel: 01707 284548
Fax: 01707 284185
UK Soil Management Initiative Ltd
British Standards 6356 can be
obtained from the TSO bookshop.
1, The Paddocks
For the Scottish Executive
Powey Lane
publications, contact:
For information on the UK
Mollington
Scottish Executive Desk
Pesticide Guide and how to
Chester CH1 6LH
The Stationery Office Bookshop
order, visit
71 Lothian Road
http://www.ukpesticideguide.co.uk/
http://www.smi.org.uk/
Edinburgh EH3 9AZ
Tel: 0870 606 5566
The Precision Farming Alliance
http://www.scotland.gov.uk/publicati
ons/
Or contact your local SEERAD Area
Office
(For technical enquiries about crop
protection management plans, email
For Defra (and MAFF)
[email protected])
publications, contact:
http://www.voluntaryinitiative.org.uk/
Defra Publications
Admail 6000
London SW1A 2XX
can be found on the Voluntary
Tel: 08459 556000
Initiative web site.
Fax: 020 8957 5012
The Fungicide, Insecticide and
http://www.defra.gov.uk/corporate/p
Weed Resistance Action Groups
ublications
guidelines can be found on the
PSD web site
http://www.pesticides.gov.uk/rags_ho
me.asp
107
section 4
108
Appendices
section 4
Appendices
Acronyms
AEA:
Agricultural Engineers’ Association
AIC:
Agricultural Industries Confederation
AICC:
Association of Independent Crop Consultants
BPC:
British Potato Council
BSPB:
British Society of Plant Breeders
CPA:
Crop Protection Association
CSL:
Central Science Laboratory
CUPGRA:
Cambridge University Potato Growers Research Association
Defra:
Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs
DSS:
EIS:
EMA:
Environmental Management for Agriculture
EMI:
Electro-Magnetic Induction
FWAG:
Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group
GPS:
Global Positioning Systems
HGCA:
Home Grown Cereals Authority
LEAF:
Linking Environment and Farming
LERAP:
Local Environment Risk Assessment for Pesticides
NFUS:
National Farmers’ Union Scotland
NPTC:
National Proficiency Tests Council
NSTS:
National Sprayer Testing Scheme
PGRO:
Processors and Growers Research Organisation
PCR:
Polymerase Chain Reaction
PSD:
Pesticides Safety Directorate
RSPB:
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
SAC:
Scottish Agricultural College
109
section 4
Appendices
Acronyms
110
SASA:
Scottish Agricultural Science Agency
SCRI:
Scottish Crop Research Institute
SEERAD:
Scottish Executive Environment Rural Affairs Department
SEPA:
Scottish Environment Protection Agency
SRI:
VI:
52105_Inner_Cover
13/1/05
8:47 am
Page 1
Scottish Natural Heritage is a government body responsible to the
Scottish Executive Ministers, and through them to the Scottish
Parliament.
Our mission statement:
Working with Scotland’s people to care for our natural heritage.
Our aim:
Scotland’s natural heritage is a local, national and global asset.
We promote its care and improvement, its responsible
enjoyment, its greater understanding and appreciation and its
sustainable use now and for future generations.
Our operating principles:
We work in partnership, by co-operation, negotiation and
consensus, where possible, with all relevant interests in Scotland:
public, private and voluntary organisations, and individuals.
We operate in a devolved manner, delegating decision-making to
the local level within the organisation to encourage and assist
SNH to be accessible, sensitive and responsive to local needs and
circumstances.
We operate in an open and accountable manner in all our
activities.
Further copies of this book are available from
Scottish Natural Heritage
Publications Section
Battleby
Redgorton
Perth
PH1 3EW
t: 01738 444177
f: 01738 458613
e: [email protected]
w: www.snh.org.uk
Copyright Scottish Natural Heritage 2004
ISBN 1 85397 416 1
TP1.5K1204

TIBRE Arable Handbook TIBRE Arable Handbook

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