Knowledge Production at AFD

Transcription

Agence Française de Développement
Working
paper
December 2014
Knowledge Production at AFD
Stakes and Orientations
Studies and Research
Agence Française de Développement
5 rue Roland Barthes
75012 Paris - France
www.afd.fr
140
This strategy paper was presented to AFD’s Board of Directors on 10th July 2014. It was produced through collective work led
by Alain HENRY and the Research Department.
Publications Director: Anne PAUGAM
Editorial Director: Alain HENRY
ISSN: 1958-539X
Copyright: 4th quarter 2014
Translation: Warren O'CONNELL
Layout: Elsa MURAT
© AFD Working Paper n°140 • Knowledge Production at AFD - Stakes and Orientations • December 2014
2
Contents
Introduction 5
1. The stakes of knowledge 7
1.1
Questions of development 1.2
A relatively homogeneous international corpus
10
2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD 14
7
2.1
A body of practical knowledge 14
2.2
A decade of broad-ranging, studies and research 17
2.3
Applicable and cumulative knowledge 20
3. Activities, partnerships and products
23
3.1
Activities and organisation 23
3.2
Research partnerships 25
3.3
AFD's knowledge products 26
Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms 29
4.
4.1
Multidisciplinary and contextualised research 29
4.2
Priority areas and themes 31
4.3
Greater clarity and accessibility 36
Conclusion
37
Appendices
38
42
Acronyms and abbreviations References
45
3
Introduction
The Agence Française de Développement (AFD) has a
years. Overall, AFD develops a vision of development
dual mandate to finance sustainable development and
strategies that is pragmatic, systemic and contextualised,
produce knowledge. The second aspect of this mandate
particularly due to its dual experience as a project funder
aims to enhance strategies and provide concrete responses
and bilateral aid operator. And the visibility of AFD’s
to the challenges of poverty and sustainable development.
knowledge production has been gaining ground. However,
This means learning from experience, anticipating future
this paper proposes some far-reaching changes to its
challenges, proposing innovative solutions, and promoting
study and research activities: (i) a more specific focus on
exchanges between actors and geographies. This mandate
operational issues, (ii) greater readability of its knowledge
enables AFD to contribute to international debates and
inputs and how these can be applied to programmes, (iii)
further France’s influence. This knowledge production is
a grounding in multidisciplinary and more contextualised
systematically conducted in partnership with the academic
analyses that make the link between the economy and
world, to which AFD brings its specific knowledge of
society and, finally, (iv) furthering the influence of French
concrete development issues as well as privileged access
aid in international debates. The third part of the paper
to the fields involved.
describes how these orientations will be implemented – by
creating new outputs that break away from the mainstream.
This paper presents the stakes and orientations for AFD
AFD’s knowledge production will be structured around six
in terms of knowledge production for the next five years
main areas. This will entail strengthening partnerships with
(2014 - 2018).
French research for development, as well as research with
partner countries.
The first part of this paper recalls the main global challenges,
their number and scale, as well as the complexity of the
AFD will more effectively disseminate and promote the
questions raised. Yet, the corpus of knowledge developed by
knowledge it produces vis-à-vis international aid actors. It will
the international community is still relatively homogeneous
contribute to the pooling of research focused on innovative
and normative, underpinned by some basic principles that
paradigms that afford fresh solutions and knowledge for
crucially need to be discussed. The second part briefly
sustainable and solidarity-based development.
reviews AFD’s intellectual production over the past ten
5
1. The stakes of knowledge
Globalisation is ambivalent. It leads to greater uncertainty
a greater interdependence among societies than by an
and complexity as well as greater interdependence among
increase in international trade. The share of trade in the
societies. It raises a whole host of critical questions involving
world economy is certainly much lower than is commonly
as much the balance of natural resources as the difficulty of
believed.1 Some consider that the future ecological transition
crafting rules for living together.
will rely at least as much on regional economies as on
international trade. Yet, global interdependence is already
Although the past twenty-five years of globalisation have
making itself felt when it comes to accessing strategic
gone hand in hand with significant progress – the proportion
resources – energy, rare earths, information, patents, etc.
of people living under the poverty line has halved from 43%
This trend is accompanied by increasing vulnerability and
to 21% – global developments clearly pose formidable
unpredictability.
threats. This has been shown by the tight succession of
crises – ecological, financial, economic, social, political,
In this setting, global research today plays a critical role.
health, food, etc. The world is now a riskier place, buffeted
It necessarily focuses on a vast number of questions that
by what seems to be an increasing number of shocks. These
are related as much to environmental management as to
changes incite us to review our ways of thinking.
poverty reduction, and it targets both the local and global
levels. Aid actors and donors, for their part, are more directly
The stakes of the green transition (including climate change),
concerned with public policy management and therefore
increasing food requirements and the aggravation of certain
more with economic and social sciences than natural
inequalities call on us to envisage “different” growth models
sciences. However, the knowledge developed to date is
in which the economy accords better with the vision that
still too far removed from local realities and is implicitly
societies have of themselves (their idea of the “social
underpinned by beliefs that can be called into question.
contract”). In fact, globalisation is characterised more by
1.1 Questions of development
The central issue of sustainable and shared development
to access greater well-being, while safeguarding the planet
can be summed up as follows: How can we reduce extreme
from consumption that destroys natural balances… and this
poverty and enable the middle classes in emerging societies
under the constraint of predictable population growth?
1
According to Ghemawat (2011), international phone calls account for
only 2% of the total number of calls, first-generation immigrants account
for only 3% of the world’s population, and exports make up only 20% of
the global economy.
7
Today, no one has the solution to this equation, which will
improve social and economic well-being. Although poverty
only be solved by taking into account the need for a balance
has declined markedly (measured solely on the indicator
between territories. The question does, however, call for
of daily income), a large proportion of the population is still
urgent responses, which we can break down into three main
deprived of access to a minimum level of well-being (low
groups (for the sake of convenience, but they are closely
life expectancy, poor access to basic services, absence of
interrelated).
modern energy). While inequality between countries has
decreased in recent decades, it has continued to rise within
A first group of questions concerns the equilibria of natural
countries.3 Extreme poverty persists, particularly in the least
systems and the constraints on resources, be it the carbon
developed countries and Sub-Saharan Africa, and one of the
impact of human activities on climate, the destruction of living
major challenges lies in the capacity to guarantee a minimum
species, ocean acidity, chemical pollution, the preservation
social safety net and access to basic services for all.4
of agricultural land, water resources and energy, or the
development of urban centres.2 Today, the amount of non-
At the global level, new forms of coordination are slowly being
recycled waste is constantly increasing. For example, the
developed. Progress is being made with the enactment of
density of plastic particles in the North Pacific is now higher
harmonised rules – as with process of the Paris Declaration
than that of plankton. Almost a third of the world’s food
on Aid Effectiveness – but this nevertheless falls short of
production goes to waste. Human food supply looms as
the challenges. It will require nations to look beyond their
one of the critical challenges for 2050. According to the
own legitimate interests and particularisms for the sake of
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), sea
common challenges. However, new divides are opening up.
levels are expected to rise by between 50 centimetres and
The large emerging countries have been both actors and
1 metre by 2100. The transition to a low-carbon economy can
beneficiaries of globalisation, while growth in Sub-Saharan
no longer be postponed. The “green economy” is not simply
Africa remains highly concentrated in the primary sectors,
the current economy corrected by a “greening coefficient”,
and Europe is seeking new openings to counter its economic
but necessarily one based on choices that are assessed for
slowdown. Aside from the economic aspects, international
the long term. It has yet to be defined, both in terms of its
relations carry major political stakes: what stances will China
incentive and equilibrium models and new sectoral policies.
adopt given its latent rivalry with the USA? What will the
The questions are only very partially technical and call,
situation be like in ten years’ time in an Arab world where
above all, for new forms of economy and governance.
ongoing political transformations are riddled with powerful
Islamic movements divided among themselves?
A second group of questions concerns living together and
the future of the world’s seven billion human beings (some
Another major challenge lies in the cultural and political
nine billion by 2050). Lévi-Strauss (1971) underlined the risk
heterogeneity of societies. Although the State model is
that population explosion poses to human progress, or even
the only one to be recognised by the international system,
to the survival of the species. The question of living together
tribal and community attachments are still a powerful force
on a global scale comes up against diverse obstacles. A first
across the world. At the same time, the rights of individuals
issue, at local level, is to give each human being access
and communities raise questions. The dissemination of
to basic capabilities (in Amartya Sen’s sense, i.e. access
education contributes to the expansion of the “modern”
for all to healthcare, education, networks, etc.) and to
ideals of democracy, freedom of expression, reduced
2
Cf. Rockström et al. (2009).
3
Cf. Giraud (1996) and Bourguignon (2012).
4
Cf. Severino and Ray (2011).
8
inequality, gender equality, shared access to public goods,
member countries. Against a backdrop of strengthened
etc. Yet, paradoxically, there is a simultaneous rise in
commitments and a fast growing number of actors, the
identity-based demands and irredentism. Religion is taking
role of traditional donors is being increasingly challenged.
on a growing importance, regardless of countries’ levels of
The concepts on which aid was built are a thing of the past
economic development. The universality of “modern” ideals
(First World/Third World, North/South, donors/beneficiaries,
is being challenged,5 and putting them into practice requires
rich and poor countries, etc.; cf. Zoellick, 2011). And the
compromises specific to each context (d’Iribarne, 2012).
multilateralisation of international relations has reshuffled the
former hierarchies that underpinned aid.
The challenges and questions are thus many, and on a vast
scale. The responses will be at the same time environmental,
Donor effectiveness has become a pivotal issue. Donors
social (or rather societal) and economic. It is estimated,
are asked to increase the impact of the programmes and
for instance, that food needs in 2050 can be adequately
public policies that they finance. Yet, a number of projects
met provided the solutions are not only agricultural, but
due for mainstreaming into public policies all too often
also environmental, institutional and economic (Guillou and
remain at the “pilot” stage. At the same time, the competition
Matheron, 2011). Questions relating to the environment
created between donors gives rise to fashion trends:
and development must give rise to unified doctrines. Future
solutions dominate the debate… until a new watchword
climate agreements will therefore need to be included in an
ousts the previous one. Donors need to open up to other
agenda for development.
contributors, propose new instruments, support economic
and social change, and provide practical expertise and
Finally, in this context, donors and aid actors must reconsider
innovation capacities (economic, institutional and social).
their role. Today’s world is not the one that the architects of
Donors’ intellectual production must imperatively learn from
Bretton Woods knew, in terms of its political, technological,
experience – the reasons for failure, for success and the
monetary, financial and commercial aspects. In 1990 – the
unresolved questions. They need to analyse the mainsprings
year that the Internet was introduced – developing countries
of innovation and change: What conditions are necessary for
accounted for a fifth of global output. Nowadays, the six
scaling-up? How can innovation be moved from the “pilot”
emerging economies account for half of global output and
stage into generalised policy?
the trend is expected to increase. Towards 2030, when the
average income in China is forecast to reach USD 16,000
Each society must produce knowledge for itself. All the
(up from USD 4,000 today), the current weight of fifteen
scientific disciplines are involved. Donors, however, focus
South Koreas is likely to be added to the global economy.
their knowledge production primarily on public management.
Emerging countries have demonstrated their ability to come
They are less concerned with “hard” sciences, except
up with solutions that had not been anticipated by donors. The
to ensure that technical innovations become embedded
aid landscape is changing fast and includes new partners:
in development processes. Generally speaking, donors
emerging
organisations
contribute to the production of a public good consisting
(NGOs), vertical funds, foundations, international firms –
of knowledge that is open and available for development
sometimes with more funds than those of the Organisation
purposes.
countries,
non-governmental
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
5
The Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, adopted in 1990 by the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation to the UN, aims to differentiate itself
from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
9
1.2 A relatively homogeneous international corpus
Knowledge production for development is now part and
capitalism (control of resources is under the Party’s authority)
parcel of donor activity. It plays a role in public policy
managed separately from the opening up of markets in
formulation, in the dissemination of “good practice” or as a
goods and protected from world financial markets. The
decision-making tool, and contributes to the development
“Chinese path” (Aglietta and Bai, 2012) has been led by
of common global governance. First initiated by multilateral
State bureaucracy, imbued with a culture of family devotion
institutions – the first World Bank Chief Economist was
and friendship networks rooted in the Empire’s distant past.
appointed in 1972 – this activity dates back about ten
The Party has retained its role as a guardian of harmony
years for regional banks and bilateral donors (Department
(in a sense close to the notion of order). Growth has come
for International Development [DFID], Gesellschaft für
about following an experimental, pragmatic path that was not
Internationale Zusammenarbeit [GIZ], Japan International
planned in advance. The controlled opening of the market
Cooperation Agency [JICA] and AFD).
was seen simply as a means, a choice aimed at effectiveness
and adaptable to constantly readjusted objectives.
The body of knowledge shared by donors is abundant and
diversified. It is constantly evolving. However, given its
It would be an understatement to say that India is at the
multilateral roots, it retains a strongly universal scope based
antipodes of the Chinese example. Firstly, it is based on
on normative definitions and framed at the necessary level
a formal democracy, secondly, it tolerates disorder and,
of abstraction to ensure its validity – this normative role is
lastly, it is highly fragmented along multiple ethnic, linguistic,
advocated by the OECD and UN institutions. It is often far-
religious, cultural and regional lines. The 1980s economic
removed from the field, couched in a discourse disconnected
take-off arrived well ahead of liberalisation measures, which
from reality and relatively uniform (Jullien, 2008), which
were integrated ten years later into the existing framework.
means that it needs to be discussed and completed with
It was driven by the ambivalence of the heirs of Indian
reference to specific situations. In the economic sphere –
socialism, who initiated a policy favouring large family groups
and even though analyses are constantly evolving – the
(financial support, preferential access to public procurement,
prevailing discourse of the major financial institutions vaguely
precedence for certain infrastructures, the reining in of trade
intimates that priority is given to opening up markets,
unions; cf. Kohli, 2006). Social tolerance for contradictions,
deregulation and countervailing actions. It has not made
the social imaginary and creativity are all ingredients that
it possible to anticipate actual development trajectories.
have fostered growth as a priority over the reduction of
Several authors who criticise the mainstream economic
inequalities (Pattanaik, 2013).6
discourse (cf. Severino and Ray, op. cit.) have shown that
emerging economies have not followed the prescribed
Brazil is yet another example of State intervention, reflecting
models and that the State has played a determining role. Yet,
a different representation of the State’s role. The need to
they placed less emphasis on the specific character of their
build structural coalitions among national actors (political
institutional models and the related political cultures, as the
parties, landed oligarchy, private business owners, state-
following simplified illustrations show.
owned companies, the military, civil servants, trade unionists,
churches, social movements) compels the federal State
China’s growth, its rapidity and its capacity for reform
to devise compromises (Bizberg and Théret, 2012) that
challenge the familiar patterns. It is based on a form of State
produce a unique blend of the developmental model and
6
Devdutt Pattanaik is Chief Belief Officer of Future Group, a large private
retail group.
10
a liberal economy – Brazil is one of the terrains where the
individual contribution; an instinctive mistrust of any kind
theory of import substitution has been most fully applied.
of authority, which by its very nature is tempted to distort
On the one hand, the State has supported public-sector
competition and promote unproductive behaviour. In this
groups, the national development bank, densification of
vision, social ties result from connecting up individual
the inter-industry matrix and deeper development of the
interests, as in the model of utilitarian philosophies. “Good
domestic market. On the other hand, it has facilitated private
governance” plays a key role in this by setting strict limits
investment, effective devolution to the federal States and
on powers, when the latter cannot be dispensed with. This
municipalities, and a low level of supervision of local banks.
vision implies a strong moral role of the group – village, ethnic
group, parish or company – as a framework for community
Many such examples could be cited to illustrate the diversity
integration. Here, the idea of a spontaneous manifestation of
of models: for instance, a comparison between the cases
the “win-win” principle still has currency.
of Mexico and Argentina, which are mistakenly likened on
account of their apparent similarities (European colonial
What we see here is an implicit structure – property
past, federal states with a presidential system, constitutions
rights, primacy of competition, aversion to authority and
inspired by that of the USA and high social inequality), but
community values – that underpins much of the research
which in fact have extremely different institutional, societal
on development economics. This structure develops a
and economic forms.
reference. It conveys a particular vision of the relationship
with the world and pilots global thinking like a clandestine
The State has played a significant role the world over, but in
driver (implicitly imposing a doxa).
each case this has been based of forms, representations and
imaginaries specific to each country. Mainstream economic
This reference simply furnishes underlying logics. It can be
discourse, however, is characterised by implicit common
utilised to support different theories that may even contradict
ground, as evidenced by the 2013 edition of the Human
each other. It effortlessly managed to materialize in the
Development Report (World Bank, 2013): despite all of the
“Washington Consensus”, but was not a product of this.
authors’ precautions to respect the diversity of situations and
Other studies, inspired by the same logics, predicted that
avoid the “one-size-fits-all” syndrome, the report emphasises
the world would eventually adopt Anglo-Saxon institutions
in its conclusion the ultimate primacy of competition and
(Fukuyama, 1992).7 Although their theory now seems dated,
freedom of enterprise, and that “the need to remedy the
the attachment to these logics remains intact. Speaking to a
institutional failures and market imperfections […] is common
group of academics in 2010,8 the previous President of the
to all”. There are also other logics: the universal nature of
World Bank – after insisting that the Washington Consensus
Western property rights (inherited from Roman law); the
was no more, that the experience of emerging countries
primacy of competition not so much as an optimal means
meant abandoning any “unique and universal framework for
of allocating resources, but as the sole objective judge of
reflection”, and that, as a non-economist, he was agnostic to
7
A similar proposal, in a more elaborate form, can be found with Douglas
NORTH et al. (2009).
8
Cf. Zoellick (2010): “Yes, there are some basic principles we can follow:
a belief in property rights; contract rights; the use of markets; getting incentives right; the benefits of competition within and across economies; the
importance of education; macro-economic stability. … I would maintain that
a competitive market should be the economy’s fundamental mechanism for
allocating resources. But there are market failures. There are also government failures – including an inability to correct market failures. There is an
important role for good governance, anti-corruption and the rule of law, and
governance will go beyond considerations of simple economic efficiency.”
11
all theories and bowed down to no taboo – noted that some
policy. Each society appropriates the principles and impetus
“basic principles” in which “we can believe” did indeed exist
that it receives from the outside, in matters of markets,
(thus clearly a matter of belief rather than ideology): property
finance or techniques, for example, according to its own
rights; the requirements of the market and competition; the
logics.
educational community; government shortcomings… Certain
flagship themes taken up by the international community
Regular patterns crosscutting different sectors and fields
in recent years – participative approach, pro-poor growth,
of management are generally visible in the way this
inclusiveness – come across as kinds of softeners to ease
appropriation operates. When a given country looks at what
the harsh social realities of this vision.
works (in order to replicate it) and what works less well (in
order to correct it), we find a unity of local representations
Real societies are based on more diverse models whose
in areas as diverse as the use of contracts, management,
references include customary or hybrid property rights,
evaluation, law and even areas that are generally viewed as
specific representations of the State, figures of social ties
encompassing the most intangible dimensions (d’Iribarne,
(family, friends…) other than those of a moral community,
2013). This regularity makes it possible to understand how
etc. Moreover, these models are compatible with widely
institutional specificities emerge. The hypothesis of each
diverse economic practices – that can include liberal visions.
society having its own model shaped by its history, based on
They do not necessarily contradict the economic policies of
its own vision of the social contract and embodied in specific
recent decades, which have served to eliminate a number
institutions and policies makes it possible to take better
of rent effects and invigorate the global economy. They
account of the social and economic realities of each.
do, however, imply taking a closer look at the coherence of
institutions at the local level.
One of the challenges for knowledge production lies in
developing a body of contextualised analyses that reflect
Development trajectories are grounded in institutional
diverse realities and shed light on the linkages between
arrangements specific to each society’s history and
the economy, institutions, societies and concrete forms of
cultural genius. The State, whatever its perceived or real
governance. A contextualised approach is more universal
shortcomings, embodies a figure that is specific to the
than one produced by single reference model: it means
imaginary and representations of each individual society. It is
apprehending development models within their own societal
a producer of collective meaning and organises the network
logics. Empirical research, which may sometimes suffer
of institutions – the set of more or less formal cultural, legal
from a degree of approximation but yet able to highlight
or organisational rules – that shape political, social and
local coherences, can be of more use than seemingly highly
economic interactions (North, 1990).9 Institutions and public
rigorous research that proposes general laws to the entire
policy strive to reconcile the social contract specific to each
planet.
society with the principles of economic effectiveness (e.g.
protect the vulnerable, support certain initiatives, labour law,
Due to AFD’s dual role as an operational and bilateral donor,
etc.).
sensitive to the specifics of geography and populations, the
agency is in a vantage position to focus on the logics specific
Elaborating a network of institutions that makes sense – and
to each context.
is thus relatively effective – is a key issue for development
9
In this seminal work, North opens the door to understanding the diversity
of societies, but shuts it again in his Violence and Social Orders (2009),
where he enshrines the historical supremacy of the American political
model.
12
2. An array of knowledge resources produced by AFD
AFD’s knowledge production is an essential component
has confirmed the quality of the production thus far, as
of its mandate and complementary to its financial activity.
well as the need for AFD to have an autonomous capacity
The three objectives set out in its most recent Strategic
for reflection. It points up possible avenues for progress,
Orientation Plan are: (i) to learn lessons from experience
including the formulation of a clear strategy, an objective
(learn from the past), (ii) to contribute to debates on aid
of influence and more effective promotion of publications.
by making new proposals (influence ideas), and (iii) to
This paper is the first formalisation of AFD’s knowledge
anticipate future developments (propose future solutions).
production strategy.
The Orientation Plan also defines four priority thrusts: the
first three – environment and development, growth modelling
In a first section, we outline the knowledge gained from
and social cohesion, and financing aid – correspond to
AFD’s experience and its sectoral strategies. We then
the three groups of questions outlined above; the fourth
offer an overview of the studies and research produced
thrust ensures AFD’s contribution to reflection on the
by the institution in recent years. A third section focuses
French overseas territories. The report commissioned from
on the question of how results are used, based on some
Professor Jean-Louis Reiffers (Reiffers and Vincent, 2013)
illustrations.
2.1 A body of practical knowledge
AFD’s operational experience is one of its assets in terms of
capacities, public-private partnerships, microfinance,
knowledge of development mechanisms. Over its seventy
vocational training, energy efficiency, the economies of
years of existence, it has financed no fewer than several
the French overseas territories, fragile states and states
hundred projects in dozens of countries. The economic
in crisis, and migration. AFD supports an in-depth renewal
analysis of projects, the formulation of sectoral strategies
of public policies in favour of balanced and sustainable
and the monitoring of macroeconomic situations form the
development. The knowledge associated with each of these
cornerstone of AFD’s knowledge.
topics represents “nuggets” that can leverage France’s
intellectual influence. Yet, sectoral aspects aside, donors in
AFD has an expertise recognised by its peers in multiple
general still need to make significant headway in improving
domains. The following list is neither exhaustive nor in
their grasp of societal contexts and recognising that the
any particular order: the fight against climate change, land
groups concerned have their place in decision-making.
tenure, direct seeding mulch-based cropping systems
(DMC), sustainable forest management, the financing of
In recent years, AFD has formalised its strategic frameworks
biodiversity, financing for local authorities, development
by sector, by thematic area, by country or by region. Each of
macroeconomics, the links between growth and institutional
these strategic documents sets out the ways in which AFD
14
envisions its contribution to the Millennium Development
innovation. Lastly, focus on the specificities of contexts must
Goals (MDGs) and to global public goods (GPGs) by
involve public policy design, within local logics.
presenting the public policies that AFD wishes to promote.
A cross-cutting reading of these strategic frameworks
Yet, it must be recognised that donors lack in-depth
reveals the principles that characterise AFD’s approach,
knowledge of societies. They are unfamiliar with the groups
which is generally shared by its partners. The approach is
who “receive the projects” (in itself a problematic expression),
differentiated according to contexts, sectors and fields. Its
which thus limits project scope and sustainability. Projects are
concern is to maintain a balance between territories and
sometimes terminated prematurely or not continued. By way
among social groups. It aims to be pragmatic, sustainable
of illustration, it is estimated that in Mali’s rural areas 35% of
and multi-partnered – associating the private and public
hand pumps are inoperative, and that in Sub-Saharan Africa,
sectors and associations.
the operational efficiency of hydro and wind power facilities
rarely exceeds 85% (Douat, 2014). Rationales imposed from
A specific feature of this approach is its systemic vision,
the outside also lead to deep disappointment for populations,
which is most likely a French originality. It is interested in
as they see aid slipping away from them or, worse still, they
students and teachers, not only in the classrooms that need
sometimes experience the destruction of their economic,
to be built; it is interested in the patient and his environment,
social and environmental fabric (Catarini, 2014 and 2005).10
not only the disease; it is interested in rural societies and
The success of institutional grafting is limited due to the
farmers, not only agricultural products; it is interested in
biases in negotiations between local administrations and
sectors, not only economic growth, etc. Regarding access
donors, the lack of support for change and inadequate “post-
to healthcare, AFD adopts a spatial vision (the territorial
project” follow-up.
network of health services), whereas others follow an
approach focussed more on the diseases to be combated
The MDGs have had the merit of raising global awareness
(AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria). In education, the emphasis
of just how many basic needs remain unmet, whether in the
is on teaching quality and continued training after primary
areas of healthcare, water, sanitation, energy, etc. Yet, they
school. It focuses more on students’ study paths than on
have also tended to reduce this issue to a financial problem:
building infrastructure. In vocational training, it is a matter of
what is lacking, what affordable technical solution exists
matching the labour supply produced by public actors with
and so how much do we need – without forgetting to add
the needs of companies and the labour market. Concerning
training costs? This type of approach does not adequately
small-scale farming, AFD helps to structure value chains and
reflect the task at hand, which is a great deal more complex
organise producers. It involves improving their production so
than installing taps or distributing vaccines. In reality, it
as to increase their incomes, create rural employment, better
involves organising – or reorganising – local sectors, bringing
supply urban areas and strengthen food self-sufficiency.
together trained and competent staff, who need to agree on
rules, prices, incentives and controls, in order to create an
The systemic approach calls on certain principles: the
efficient and viable service.
importance placed on regulation, the intermediation function of
public authorities, efforts to internalise identified externalities
While the private sector plays an important role in the
as far as possible (to reduce market imperfections, for
infrastructure sectors and the management of basic
instance) and the search for institutional and financial
services, delegation can only be defined by a public
10
The fact that a public policy escapes the beneficiaries that were initially targeted and benefits more affluent populations is nothing new and
is something that has to be constantly monitored in all aid policies (cf. the
housing assistance policies in France).
15
authority. The latter is responsible for defining the sectoral
AFD, together with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the
framework stipulating service obligations, for sharing out
Technological Research and Exchange Group (GRET),
responsibilities and balancing finances. It is also responsible
supports the Land and Development Committee,11 which
for ensuring that these arrangements are implemented.
includes diverse and multidisciplinary actors. Its purpose
French experience shows that many diverse solutions
is to obtain recognition of property rights and secure them
exist in this field, and not simply a single one-size-fits-all
for populations in developing countries. The Committee
solution. AFD supports a wide variety of arrangements,
supports the definition and application of land policies
but reality dictates that the objectives be adapted to the
adapted to their specific context, with a view to giving as
means. To establish basic services in less-favoured areas
many people as possible access to land and ensuring
(health and education, water and sanitation, energy for
more effective management. The Committee has driven
all), participatory approaches are particularly necessary.
a better understanding at the international level regarding
Fundamental environmental issues must also be taken
the diversity of rights and the need for a multi-stakeholder
into account (this is particularly the case for the use of
dialogue on land issues. Over the past fifteen years, it has
renewable energies). Tariff conditions must allow universal
addressed several critical issues concerning land policies
access to networks, while at the same time promoting
and land markets, which typically involve large-scale land
efficient use.
grabbing.
Conurbation growth is one of the major silent transformations
AFD is one of the few donors to have concrete experience
of the planet: cities accelerate economic, social and cultural
in support to local contracting authorities. In fact, the
exchanges, but their densification and congestion also lead
agency stands out from most bilateral donors, who manage
to opposite results. This crucially calls for a spatial approach
projects themselves using their own procedures (as is the
to the urban structure and its flows (transport, sanitation,
case of European Union, for example). AFD, on the other
services, energy, etc.). The wave of decentralisation that
hand, systematically operates through the structures and
is continuously spreading across many countries raises
procedures of its partners.
management issues and requires support tailored to the
partners’ contexts. AFD therefore contributes to financing
Its approach is comparable to that used by multilateral
local authorities, which often have no access to other
banks, although the latter tend to impose their own
sources of external public financing.
procedures and documents. The support that AFD gives to
strengthening local contracting authorities constitutes per
The same approaches are applied to the French overseas
se one of the main added values of its operations. At the
territories, taking account of their geographical singularities
same time, it gives the Agency a concrete understanding of
(Caribbean, South America, Indian Ocean and Pacific).
local institutional capacities.
Their economic integration into the regional environment is
one of AFD’s areas of intervention. Trade with neighbouring
Developing financial solutions and new products is also an
countries, most of which are also AFD partners, offers
important area for AFD. Reducing barriers to development
a way of supporting joint development and the regional
funding is one of the mandates of donors. AFD seeks
production of global public goods (climate, biodiversity,
to offer a wide range of products tailored to its partners’
energy efficiency, healthcare).
demand. The aim is not to select the good risks (which
is the norm for commercial banks), but to offer innovative
11
http://www.foncier-developpement.fr
16
solutions in terms of risk-hedging. Risk analysis is part of
of jobs and income, environmental destruction).
AFD’s expertise and is constantly evolving (for example,
to take political or energy risks into account). Donors have
AFD’s experience-based knowledge represents a substantial
an international regulatory role: they must seek to amplify
capital, but is not sufficient in itself. The agency also
the benefits of globalisation (expanded commercial outlets,
supports research in order to enhance its comprehension
financing for change, dissemination of knowledge and
of development matters, resolve unanswered questions and
techniques) and try to limit its harmful effects (polarised
offer its partners more appropriate solutions.
production capacity, widening inequality, unequal distribution
2.2 A decade of wide-ranging studies and research
Over the past ten years, AFD has supported and produced a
for decision-making: what structural changes should
large number of studies and research, which have given rise
be targeted in priority, depending on the countries and
to publications and conferences (see below). It is impossible
sectors? Fossil fuel prices are not sufficient means of
to summarise all of this research and its results, but we can
regulation. At the same time, CO2 emissions remain
offer an overview of recent and ongoing research.
above the levels judged to be acceptable in relation
to the ceiling for climate change. But what types of
The studies and research conducted by AFD cover a
regulation should be given priority and on what scale?
diversified field calling for a variety of competencies. The
What other incentives need to be introduced in terms of
studies, applied research and theoretical research should
income or job creation to promote increased production
not be placed in opposition. Research can alternate between
of environmental goods?
empirical stages and conceptual phases that sometimes
overlap. Some purely theoretical discoveries may well have
-- Growth models and social cohesion: this theme brings
12
far-reaching practical applications (even in mathematics),
together various questions. How can the world’s food
and the idea of setting them in opposition derives from a
requirements be met over the next thirty years and new
sociological logic rather than a scientific reality.
rural balances enabled? How can access to education
and training be improved and employment increased?
The studies supported by AFD are divided into four priority
How can we better understand the links between
areas set out in the Strategic Orientation Plan: (i) environment
governance, institutional capacities and long-term
and sustainable development, (ii) growth models and social
growth? What are the drivers of the demographic and
cohesion, (iii) economies in the French overseas territories,
migration trends? What social protection floors need
(iv) architecture of aid and financial innovations (see the
to be built? How can we further the modernisation of
summary of recent and ongoing research in Appendix 1).
societies, gender mainstreaming or the understanding of
cultures and religions? The issue of governance, which
-- Environment and sustainable development: the issues
is frequently discussed among donors, is many-sided. It
of climate change, biodiversity preservation and green
covers diverse realities relating to economic, financial,
transition (what this term acutally encompasses needs
territorial, administrative, legal and political governance.
clarifying) are crucial. Public officials require support
Governance and development are seen as being
12
Like Newton’s convergence sequence; cf. Cédric Villani (2012), Théorème
vivant, Grasset.
17
interconnected, although no simple correlation has been
Macroeconomic assessment also occupies a central place
found, even if there are clear linkages with the dynamics
at AFD, both for defining its financing strategies and for
of long-term growth. Governance is also considered to
managing risks. As a development actor, AFD must indeed
be critical factor in resolving the world food challenge.
build its strategies on an analysis of macroeconomic
It is synonymous with sound public management and
situations and trajectories, and gather information on
also dominates basic services management (education,
each country regarding the composition of its production
health, etc.). The shortcomings in basic service and
factors, its productivity potential, its sectoral and regional
infrastructure management are critical barriers to the
issues, its commercial and financial position, the state of
growth of the formal economy, particularly in the least
its public finances, and its economic financing needs. For
developed countries and Sub-Saharan Africa.
example, in the Mediterranean, the low productivity gains
of recent years indicate that there are significant needs for
-- Economies in the French overseas territories: in the
vocational training that do not appear to have been met by
context of France’s protracted economic crisis, the
the efforts already deployed. In the Sahel, the low level of
overseas territories need to find their own specific new
access to modern energy and the energy dependence of
models. They are driven by different demographic, social
some countries result in actions to boost power generation
and economic dynamics specific to each individual
facilities. In the French overseas territories, structural
territory and which strongly impact policies on health,
deficits in the long-term resources of local banks justify
education, housing, energy and the environment.
putting in place an additional range of financing.
They each face the key challenge of developing
comparative advantages which they can leverage vis-
AFD itself monitors the macroeconomic risk in its countries
à-vis international competition and in their regional
of operation and the global economic situation. It has its
environment.
own dedicated macroeconomic assessment tool, which is
adapted to its activity and enables it to form an independent
-- Architecture of aid and financial innovations: the
opinion. It also relies on its network of local agencies. The
financing needs for the fight against poverty and
methodology used breaks down risk assessment into five
the green transition are substantial. Donor-supplied
“pillars” – the socio-political context, the growth regime, the
funding will continue to fall short. It can play only a
financial system and stability (banks and financial markets),
catalytic role. A fresh analysis of the systemic risks and
public finances and solvency, and external financing and
development objectives must spur proposals of new
solvency.
financial tools. Intermediation via bank credit lines is
a way to leverage incentives but it nonetheless raises
The recent financial crises have shown that markets
questions as to the level of interest subsidies to be
continue to be imbued with beliefs that lead actors to
granted. AFD has also demonstrated the feasibility of
reason along similar lines and which prove a posteriori to
devising countercyclical financing, with amortisation
haven been unfounded (Valerian, 2011). AFD’s capacity for
being adjusted in response to market fluctuations. At
macroeconomic analysis must enable it to address certain
different levels, financial innovation is a decisive factor
critical questions about its geographical areas of operation:
for attracting new investments. At the same time, an
What are the links between growth and employment in the
understanding of the current changes caused by the
Mediterranean? What are the current growth fundamentals
arrival of new actors in the world of aid is also needed.
in African countries? What impact does the monetary
18
anchor of the Franc zone have on its competitiveness? How
The production of economic data is an essential need.
can the export diversification be supported in countries that
It conditions economic decision-making and the validity
are sensitive to commodity market conditions?
of public policy. It also meets a fundamental need for
economic research. AFD must contribute to the production
Finally, AFD’s evaluation function meets a dual and
of economic data and information, which are a public
essential requirement of accountability and capitalisation.
good. The weakness of national statistics systems in Sub-
Both aim to learn lessons from experience and inform
Saharan Africa is a particularly critical issue for the analysis
practices. Evaluation is grounded on a set of rules, in line
and monitoring of economic policies. AFD works with its
with the standards recommended by the OECD: relevance,
partners (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Institute for Research
effectiveness, efficiency, sustainability and impact. The
and Development [IRD], Agricultural Research Centre for
evaluation process draws some its approach from research
International Development [CIRAD], National Institute for
methods: a review of the literature, an empirical field study,
Statistics and Economic Studies [INSEE] and multilaterals)
rigorous quantitative measurements, development of a
to promote the strengthening of local statistical capacities. It
theory of action and a model for understanding. Evaluation
also provides input for several studies (Migrations-Families-
is one of the main sources of learning and knowledge
Ageing with the National Institute for Demographic Studies
building. It must be able to shed light on the paradoxes
[INED] and Migrations-Diasporas-Development with the
observed in projects and provide solutions regarding
OECD and World Bank).
“what works”. Finally, it serves as one of the sources for
formulating research questions, on the basis of difficulties
AFD also co-produces the Institutional Profiles Database
that are observed recurrently.
(IPD) with the Ministry of the Economy and Finance. Its
aim is to analyse the role of institutions in development and
AFD has taken a particular interest in impact measurements
stimulate research in these areas. This database presents
based on experimental methods (randomized control trial,
132 institutional indicators for 143 countries and covers
or RCT) and quasi-experimental methods. Using a rigorous
a wide range of institutional characteristics. The data are
approach, the purpose is to identify “what works” and
provided by the perceptions of experts. They are subjective
“what does not work”. These methods rely on defining a
by nature and may under no circumstances be used as
without-project situation – constructing what is called a
an aid allocation tool. However, they do provide a clearer
“counterfactual” group – in order to measure the impacts
understanding of the role of institutions and governance in
that can be strictly attributed to the project. These impact
development mechanisms.
evaluations have come to be considered as a knowledge
production tool for donors. They do, however, give rise to
It remains difficult to give a full picture of all the work
heated debates that nonetheless converge on the need to
produced in recent years. Its importance can be measured
improve causality tree analysis and set out the conditions
by the sheer number of conferences and publications
for validation of impacts and their contextual character.
realised and the echoes that these have given rise
They also advocate for a better articulation between
to (see below). Yet to better promote this production
quantitative and qualitative approaches and for a focus on
and more effectively determine future content, AFD now
the uncertain aspects of knowledge. The costliness of these
systematically publishes a synthesis of each of its research
studies means that efforts are made to share the financing.
works in an accessible four-page format (A Question of
AFD will, however, continue to use these tools and to
Development).13
strengthen the scientific approach to evaluation.
13
http://librairie.afd.fr/filtres/?terms=1085
19
2.3 Applicable and cumulative knowledge
Here, we need to address the question of the utility of this
• Following the failure of the first renewable energy
research and its impact on AFD’s operations: What has it
projects in the Sahel in the 2000s (individual solar
taught us and where does it lead us?
kits), AFD redefined its programmes for a project in
Mauritania during the consultation with the communities
There are commonly three main types of use for social
involved, with the assistance of an anthropologist
science and economic research (Delarue et al., 2009). The
(Caratini, 2012). This approach made it possible to
first type is dubbed “instrumental” and includes research
review the initial design for equipment distribution and
that delivers rational responses to the issues raised by
maintenance and integrate the way the project was
actors. This model is based on natural sciences and is what
organised into the concrete social context.
public decision-makers are most eager for. Unfortunately, it
is more rarely applicable to the social sciences. The second
In another field, the development of computable general
so-called “cumulative” model considers that research
equilibrium (CGE) models is a fine example of research that
gradually produces conceptual knowledge that modifies the
has operational use. AFD, in partnership with international
actors’ views and their way of formulating questions and
teams, supports the development of macroeconomic
solutions. This is the model that most closely corresponds
models to measure the impacts of climate mitigation and
to the social and economic sciences: research gives
energy transition policies, notably in China, Mexico and
an in-depth understanding of individual and collective
South Africa. The standard CGE models do not currently
behaviour, and improves the understanding of informed
incorporate the specific issues of developing economies,
decision-makers and audiences. Finally, for the third model,
particularly the share of the informal sector and the impact
called “political” or “interactive”, research is a way of
of debt. Very few of them are able to produce a quantitative
documenting public policies and their impacts, in order to
analysis of the inter-sectoral links that characterise the
improve their feasibility and support change, but warns
economy of each country, or analyse the impacts that
against the risk of using the research as a tool.
policy choices have on their ecological structure. The
available tools, as well as the tendency to measure
The studies supported by AFD fit these different models, as
carbon impact only for infrastructure projects, carry the
can be seen in the following examples:
embedded risk of short-termism: in other words, favouring
actions that produce an immediate effect to the detriment
-- In the first group of “instrumental” research, we
of orientations that could significantly change long-term
can mention the analysis conducted in Kenya on
balances. The climate/energy CGE models used by AFD
natural protected areas. Given the increasing threats
aim to go beyond these these limits, proposing models that
to flora and fauna, an analysis grid was developed
capture the multiple sources of imperfection in transition
making it possible to characterise the different types
and developing economies. These tools reap the benefits
of management (private, public or community-based)
of direct collaboration with local experts and ministerial
and to support their complementarities. This typology
departments in charge of decarbonisation policies. The
facilitated a review of public policies. It has also served
approach thus goes beyond a purely scientific exercise and
as a model in other geographical areas.14
enables support for public policies.
14
Cf. Elliott et al. (2014).
20
-- The second group of “conceptual” or “cumulative”
studies encompasses a larger share of the research.
should inform the conditions for using this mechanism
in other situations.
Mention can be made of recent contributions in various
fields relating to the informal economy (the hidden part of
• Along the same lines of cumulative knowledge, we
developing economies), vocational training for informal
could cite the approach that gathered together a
sector beneficiaries, barriers to setting up public-
group of European researchers and senior public
private partnerships for water services, diversification
officials under the “Chatham House Rule”15 in order
of employment in rural areas, reconstruction methods
to shed light on the social, political and economic
in fragile States and post-crisis situations, the global
causes of the crisis in Mali.
dynamics of migration, etc.
-- Finally, a third group of “interactive” research includes
studies in which researchers intervene alongside
actors (sometimes called action-research), as well as
• There is also research on the links between “good
macroeconomic and risk supervision analyses, and
governance” and long-term growth. The idea had
evaluations. Three examples can be given of this: (i) the
gained ground among donors that good governance
evaluation of the sustainable management strategy for
was all that was needed to ensure rapid and
Congo Basin forests, (ii) the impact evaluation of rural
strong growth. AFD successfully demonstrated that
microfinance in Morocco, (iii) the link between sectoral
there was no obvious cause-effect relationship.
growth and job creation in the Mediterranean.
What is now required is closer investigation of the
relationships between political configurations, the
• The first study, which focused on twenty years of
quality of institutions and growth, laying emphasis
experiments by AFD with forest development plans
on the dimensions of equitable human development.
(Samyn et al., 2011), evidenced the substantial
The question of the linkage between institutional
changes brought about by these plans; it also
capacities and growth is one of the major issues in
proposed improving aspects related to biodiversity
Sub-Saharan Africa.
and social responsibility and adapting them to the
constraints of small- and medium-sized enterprises
• Another case study: the analysis of the mechanisms
(SMEs). Following discussions with all the partners
for payment for environmental services (PES). The
(private, public and associations), these proposals
idea of establishing an economic link between the
were published as a White Paper for tropical forest
actors who contribute to preserving resources and
management, which is disseminated at regional
those who benefit from them can be illustrated by
and international conferences (Brazzaville and Paris,
the Vittel Water model: the company pays farmers
2012). A large number of these proposals have been
to help preserve the quality of the resource. This
taken up by other countries and donors.
mechanism could be applied to other situations,
such as controlling reservoir silting, protecting soil
• Another example is the experimental evaluation of the
or biodiversity, etc. There are, however, many social
introduction of microfinance services in rural areas
apprehensions and institutional barriers. Research
(already developed in urban centres by Al Amana
15
According to this rule, participants express themselves in a personal and
not institutional capacity: nothing is quoted and there is no attribution of
comments.
21
in Morocco; cf. Crépon et al., 2012). The impact
As a result, the study led to an in-depth reorganisation
measurement showed that the project had not led to
of service provision in rural areas.
new activities, although at an economic level it had
enabled families to diversify into livestock farming
and food production. The increase in incomes did,
• Finally, the production of economic data and
information also falls within this category.
however, come at the price of a reduction in families’
wage incomes. After two years, the project had
These few examples illustrate the impacts of a knowledge
brought little change to the village economy. Neither
production that is above all intended to inform strategies
had it impacted poverty reduction, the economic
and resolve concrete development questions.
empowerment of women and schooling for children.
22
In a number of countries, AFD plays a central role in
The research advances in response to international meetings
development. Consequently, it has the capacity to produce
and publications in which researchers discuss their results.
knowledge drawn from its experience and facilitate access
AFD’s production takes the form of publications, seminars
to the field for researchers.
and conferences. More generally, it is intended for the
development community (researchers, donors, decision-
AFD’s knowledge production is partly achieved in-house,
makers from the North and South). It also serves for the
using its own expertise, and partly by external partners
preparation of AFD’s strategy papers (thematic reviews,
(researchers and consultants), who are mandated and
doctrine notes, policy notes), for training activities, and to
cofinanced by AFD. In addition to the Research teams’
support project design and implementation.
own production, it mobilises all the in-house teams. It
further relies on a number of partnerships with French and
The organisation of activities and partnerships is outlined
international research institutes, also in collaboration with
below. After a period of gradual adaptation over the past
other international donors and institutions.
ten years, it is overall in line with the proposed strategy and
can evolve if necessary.
3.1. Activities and organisation
AFD’s corporate university, the Centre for Economic,
-- Capitalisation of AFD’s experience of project financing
Financial and Banking Studies (CEFEB), which celebrated its
and supporting public policies. This is mainly achieved
fiftieth anniversary in 2013 was, in the early 1960s, the main
through the mechanism to evaluate projects, sectors and
body for AFD’s knowledge production and dissemination.
strategies;
In the 1980s, the ex post evaluation of projects and
macroeconomic monitoring of countries were added.
-- The production of studies and research on development
issues that are identified and formulated either with the
In 2002, knowledge production made further progress:
operational teams or in connection with the international
capitalisation of sectoral strategies and evaluation were
debate on development;
systematised, and AFD engaged in research partnerships.
The first research papers were published in 2003. Following
-- Macroeconomic analyses and risk rating (“country risk”
strong growth between 2002 and 2010, the activity has
and “sovereign risk”), mainly for in-house use, but some
stabilised in recent years. It now enjoys good visibility and
non-confidential elements are published;
is implemented through several practical modalities that are
complementary and sometimes overlap:
23
-- Training and support for countries that benefit from
research authored or co-authored by AFD. While AFD has
AFD financing and French partners. These activities
neither the mandate nor the means to run a research unit,
are conducted via CEFEB, but also in collaboration with
some of its staff contribute, sometimes directly, to research
external academic institutions (Sciences Po, Centre for
work. Indeed, some of them remain on secondment to
Studies and Research on International Development
research institutes and regularly publish in national and
[CERDI], University Paris I, etc.), or via “customised”
international journals.
programmes;
Everyone at AFD contributes to knowledge production: it
-- Direct contributions to in-house reflection and to the
involves both the Strategy Department and the Financing
definition of strategies (sectoral, geographic, cross-
and Operations Department. They each have a budget
cutting);
earmarked for knowledge production, and the capacity to
initiate and manage studies and formalise partnerships.
-- The organisation of and participation in national and
international seminars and conferences in order to
Knowledge production comprises several types of activities,
which are generally led by specifically dedicated teams:
promote and disseminate the knowledge produced and
-- In the Strategy Department, the divisions in charge
stimulate debate on present and future issues.
of evaluations, macroeconomic analyses and country
The work on studies, research and capitalisation is generally
risk benefit from the necessary independence from
conducted with external partners (consulting firms or
teams in charge of operations. The division in charge
research institutes). This work is led by steering committees,
of economic and social research has a more direct
involving
or
vocation for research work. They also have a role of
sectoral), the committees of the Research and Knowledge
operational
departments
(geographical
cross-cutting coordination for AFD’s other activities.
Department and the Strategic Steering and Accountability
The research planning is established together with the
Department, and sometimes external personalities. The
operational and strategy units. For two years now, the
research produced outside is carried out either under
focus has systematically been on the operational and
partnerships (generally between six months and three
strategic impact of the studies and research;
years) with research institutes that are selected for their
approach to the issue addressed, or in the form of ad hoc
-- In the Operations Department, the geographical and
studies attributed through calls for tenders (the research
sectoral departments have their own capacity for
work lasts between three and six months).
studies and research. The respective budget and
coordination are provided by the department for cross-
AFD conducts a good deal of the research itself:
macroeconomic
analyses
and
country
risk
cutting support;
rating,
a significant part of the intervention frameworks that
- At PROPARCO, a team coordinates a network of
summarise AFD’s knowledge of a sector or cross-cutting
practitioners, academics and private sector players via the
theme, certain meta-evaluations and, finally, studies and
Private Sector and Development publication.16
16
http://www.proparco.fr/Accueil_PROPARCO/Publications-Proparco/secteur-prive-et-developpement
24
3.2. Research partnerships
AFD’s knowledge production is based on high-level
European Centre for Development Policy Management
international partnerships with universities, research
[ECDPM], Overseas Development Institute [ODI], etc.) and
institutes and think tanks. These partnerships contribute
in the South (Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada
to both the production of research and its dissemination in
[IPEA] in Brazil, Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Cambio
international fora, and have a decisive effect on the quality
Climático [INECC] in Mexico, Laboratory for the Study
and outreach of the studies that are conducted.
and Research on Social Dynamics [LASDEL] in Niger,
African Centre for Cities in South Africa, Vietnam Academy
AFD has established a number of partnerships with the
of Social Sciences [ASSV]). These partnerships take
main French research institutes, first and foremost CIRAD
various forms, ranging from ad hoc studies to multi-annual
and IRD, but also the Foundation for Studies and Research
agreements. Through these partnerships, AFD benefits
on International Development (FERDI), the Institute for
from a state of knowledge and advanced expertise in a
Sustainable Development and International Relations
variety of disciplinary fields. It also wishes to encourage the
(IDDRI), Paris School of Economics (PSE), Toulouse
academic community to address subjects and fields that
School of Economics (TSE), the French School of Asian
hold an interest for the development community.
Studies (EFEO), the Foundation for the Analysis of Political
Societies (FASOPO), Sciences Po, INSEE, INED, the
AFD will continue to develop its collaborations with the study
University of Burgundy’s Institute for Research in the
and research centres of its partner countries. Certainly, the
Sociology and Economics of Education (IREDU), GRET,
latter have privileged knowledge of their situations, and
etc. The collaboration with CIRAD and IRD is notably
the strengthening of local capacities is also a development
subject to concerted annual programming. In particular,
objective. These research teams are also an essential
it takes the form of joint publications (the 2013 launch of
vector for the dissemination of results to national actors.
an annual AFD-CIRAD publication). In France, one of the
In the same spirit, partnerships are beginning to be
objectives would be to achieve a formalisation of influential
established with French research institutes abroad (Joint
topics that give rise to innovative paradigms compared to
Entity of French Research Institutes Abroad – UMIFRE).
the mainstream (see below).
The ex post evaluations are an example of the intellectual
AFD is also associated with prestigious research institutes
collaboration between AFD and its partners. This feedback
in the North (Massachusetts Institute of Technology [MIT],
makes it possible to enhance the dialogue with partner
Oxford, School of Oriental and African Studies [SOAS],
countries. In return, it validates the results.
25
Map 1. AFD’s research partnerships
French
CERDI/FERDI
French
PSE
OFCE
TSE
IEDES/Paris I
IDDRI
CEPREMAP
IRD
Politique Africaine
CIRAD
FASOPO
International
Aix-en-Provence
Sciences Po
EUDN
CIRED
INSEE
GDN
CODEV
INED
World Bank
MIT
Global/donors
CEPII
OECD
CGDEV
International
EHESS
UNDP
IPEA
IPEA
ENPC
ILO
Oxford
EDRI
AsDB
SOAS
WITS
JICA
IDS
INEQ
Maastricht (UNU-Merit)
IPAR
BAPENAS
LASDEL
EFEO
Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences
Source: AFD.
Finally, in order to finance more ambitious research
In particular, AFD must have an active role with the World
projects and improve its visibility in the international
Bank and multilateral donors in order to promote the
debate, AFD has established partnerships with donors
research based on innovative paradigms, and contribute to
and international institutions (World Bank, OECD, United
a greater dissemination of French research. For example,
Nations Development Programme [UNDP], JICA, Aga
AFD is planning to contribute each year to the World Bank’s
Khan University). These collaborations will be scaled up.
World Development Report.
3.3. AFD’s knowledge products
A large part of the research is promoted via publications
to in-house programming processes or analyses of a
and specific events. Some knowledge production work does
confidential nature.
not give rise to a publication, as it involves contributions
26
AFD publishes about fifty titles a year in several collections:
Since 2002, AFD has published over 450 titles. In the past
Working Papers (results of specific research), A Savoir
two years, the number of downloads has almost tripled (from
(state of knowledge on a topic), Focales (case studies or
107,000 a year in 2011, to 292,000 a year in 2013) and their
research related to a specific context), Recherches (body
monthly average currently exceeds 24,000 downloads.
of research on a major issue), Conférences et Séminaires
(conferences), Ex Post (evaluations and capitalisation),
AFD hosts or organises over a hundred events a year, such
MacroDev (macroeconomic note). All the research works
as conferences or seminars, which are open to the public and
supported by AFD now give rise to a synthesis in the form of
address major development issues. The two most important
a four-page Policy Note targeting a broad public (A Question
are the AFD-European Development Network (EUDN)
of Development).
annual conference and the biennial conference AFD-Rapid
Economic Account for Overseas France (CEROM).
These publications are intended for the scientific community
and development professionals (international institutions,
Each year, AFD co-organises, with the World Bank and
donors, NGOs, policymakers, consultants, experts and
Center for Global Development (CGDEV), the academic
students). They can be downloaded on AFD’s website.
conference “Migration and Development”. The conference
17
cycle “Ideas for Development” (iD4D; about fifteen a year)
Since 2007, AFD has been co-publishing, with IDDRI and
now brings in a regular public.
the TERI Institute (based in India), a reference annual on
sustainable development (Regards sur la Terre). With CIRAD,
The EUDN conference gathers high-level researchers and
it co-publishes an annual publication (Agricultures et défis du
a public composed of researchers and public policymakers
monde), and with the World Bank, the Africa Development
from AFD’s partner countries. It is held alongside the annual
Forum collection (about two publications a year). It publishes
meeting of the EUDN European network (which is affiliated
a quarterly review on Africa, Afrique Contemporaine (a
with the Global Development Network). Ten sessions have
recent analysis by the authors shows the international
been held since 2003; the themes for the last two were:
dimension of the review and that it is well-anchored in Africa).
“Evaluation and its discontents: do we learn from experience
These are priced publications and produced with commercial
in development?” and “Development and the financial sector”
publishers. PROPARCO publishes the magazine Private
(2013). The objective is to make this event into the leading
Sector and Development, with each issue addressing a
annual European meeting on development.
specific topic (African banking sector, forest exploitation,
waste, healthcare, power generation, etc.).
The CEROM conference gathers business leaders, elected
officials, representatives of regional and local authorities,
AFD also publishes Kaléidoscope (a periodic review of
researchers and experts. Four sessions have been held
publications on development) and Produitdoc (quarterly
since 2007. The themes for the last two were “Creating
review of commodity markets).18 Finally, AFD periodically
added value and employment in the French overseas
works with reviews and book publishers for the publication of
territories” (2011) and “The French overseas territories in the
specific works, in order to diversify its distribution.
international competition” (2013).
17
http://www.afd.fr/lang/en/home/publications/travaux-de-recherche
18
http://www.afd.fr/lang/en/home/publications/travaux-de-recherche/publications-documentaires
27
CEFEB, AFD’s corporate university, contributes to initial
AFD has systematised the evaluation of projects after
and further training for students and decision-makers from
completion. These evaluations are mostly managed in a
the South, as well as to the organisation of short training
decentralised manner by the network of local agencies. They
programmes (40 seminars a year) in response to requests.
are conducted by external evaluators, in partnership with
It participates in knowledge production and dissemination.
the local contracting authorities. They are consistent with
AFD staff also benefit from these training programmes.
the principles and standards of the OECD’s Development
Assistance Committee (DAC). Evaluation has been carried
Training seminars have been created as part of the
out for approximately 85% of projects (70% of amounts)
research partnerships, such as the African Programme on
that reached completion between 2010 and 2012 and fall
Rethinking Development Economies (APORDE), which is
within the scope of evaluation19 (i.e. a total of 128 projects
intended for African decision-makers in South Africa, and
worth EUR 1.8 billion).
the Tam Dao Summer School (Vietnam) for researchers
from Southeast Asia. These seminars stand as regional
Twice a year, AFD reassesses the risk of over a hundred
references. The APORDE programme has inspired similar
countries. It specifically analyses the situation of 25
sessions in Ethiopia (in 2013, a half-day session was
countries that account for 80% of its sovereign risks.
organised and led by the Prime Minister, in the presence of
Cross-cutting research is also conducted, for example, on
the entire government).
the Franc zone.
19
“Specific” financing does not fall within this scope: global budget support,
Study and Capacity Building Fund, projects from the Priority Solidarity Fund
transferred to AFD and PROPARCO sub-participations.
28
4. Pooling research centred on innovative paradigms
AFD’s knowledge production goes hand in hand with its
This final section sets out the principles and directions
financing activity. Its overarching objective is to enhance
for AFD’s knowledge production for the next five years.
the effectiveness of the development strategies and
Development economics has made significant strides due
projects that it finances. As a result of this, a second aim is
to advances in modelling and quantitative methods. At the
to formulate research questions drawn from its operational
same time, the programmes financed by donors continue
practices.
to be based on a limited number of evidence-based
arguments. An increased and effective multidisciplinarity
The Reiffers Report confirmed the overall quality of AFD’s
should enable a more contextualised vision of development
production. It criticises the excessive number of subjects
policies.
addressed and the lack of clear directions. It suggests
that AFD put forward original proposals that break away
More specifically, we propose that AFD’s knowledge
from the dominant doxa. It also highlights the need to set
production be centred on six main areas. Overarching these
strategic priorities, clarify the programming processes,
is the objective of generating innovative and actionable
raise the academic standard and clarity of publications, and
knowledge, both in developing countries and in the French
involve AFD staff more in this aspect of its mission.
overseas territories.
4.1. Multidisciplinary and contextualised research
For AFD, there is nothing new in the view that “development
the development of empirical and econometric studies. Yet,
trajectories [are] widely idiosyncratic” and that development
in recent years, the discipline has been facing a number
economics must evolve using “tools that are likely to
of questions from both within and without. Internally, even
inform the interpretation [of facts]” and “give priority to
if this should be seen as a sign of scientific dynamism,
interdisciplinarity”. However, much remains to be done to
several titles alone point to the scale of the questioning:
translate these principles into practice.
“Rethink the economy” (Orléan, 2011), “Get out of
20
economystification” (Dupuy, 2012), «Homo economicus,
Over the past fifty years, economic sciences have shown
lost prophet» (Cohen, 2012) and «Poor Economics» (Duflo
great dynamism. They have benefited from mathematical
and Banerjee, 2011). Externally, the discipline is criticised
modelling efforts and from the introduction of new
for its abstract vision of human societies and its hegemonic
hypotheses that have supplemented the neo-classical
attitude. Economics is closely related to the principles of
framework. New information technologies have facilitated
methodological individualism and has not escaped from
20
Pierre Jacquet, “Does economic research serve development?”,
roundtable for the 20th anniversary of the joint research unit Development,
Institutions and Globalisation (DIAL), Paris Dauphine University, November
2010.
29
the risk of producing “abstract beings” (Dumez, 2013),21
their cultural permanence over the long term; collective
which are kinds of absolute causal entities detached from
strengths that are not merely the sum of individual play;
concrete societies (like the all-purpose concept of “inclusive
the social representations that give meaning to social
growth”). Another risk of research – whatever the discipline
relationships, etc. Each discipline has its own approach,
– is its subordination to the “law of the instrument” (Kaplan,
they each have their own limits.
1964),22 which would have any problem encountered
dealt with using the tool at hand. In economics, this type
What is needed is a better understanding of the
of deviation has been accompanied by a “fascination for
internal borders of disciplines, for instance, between
as illustrated by
microeconomics, macroeconomics, institutional economics,
certain research work that seeks to model the genocides
economic history and economic theory. Certain notions
in the form of an economic optimum (cf., among others,
remain at the borders of the discipline as, for example,
Esteban et al., 2010).
the human development indicators, the meaning of equity,
mathematical models” (Zoellick, 2010),
23
uncertainty, the meaning of time and quantification of the
Economics and engineering and environmental sciences
long term, perceptions, irrationality and the exploitation
remain the dominant development disciplines. While the
of natural resources. Major crises, such as the sub-prime
idea of multidisciplinarity may be relatively consensual, it
crisis, are today prompting economists to step out of their
would still need strong determination to materialise this into
framework (Giraud and Renouard, 2009).
procedures and put it into practice.
AFD needs to promote the utilisation of tools that are still
Development factors are multidimensional. It is thus
relatively unused, such as participant observation methods,
particularly necessary to guard against a causalist and
and open up to neglected issues as, for example, traditional
linear vision of the evolution of societies. Demography,
knowledge of biodiversity.
geography, political science, law, management science,
history, sociology, anthropology and philosophy need to
This multidimensional approach to development applies
be mobilised more often. Indeed, each of these disciplines,
to developing and emerging countries and to the French
with its distinct viewpoint, provides a capacity to see aspects
overseas territories alike. Furthermore, under the single
of human action that are not sufficiently considered: in the
category of the French overseas territories, generalisations
long term, the force of population flows and migration; the
are made regarding very different institutional, economic,
spatial inclusion of human organisations and production
demographic, social and anthropological contexts. The
systems; the role of institutions and power strategies; the
specific trajectories of these territories are not just about
consistency of laws and the context of their application;
their relationship with mainland France, but also relate to
the coordination and decision-making processes within an
their regional specificities and their own positioning within
organisation; the historicity of societies, their changes and
globalisation.
21
The author quotes Tocqueville’s self-criticism: “I have frequently used the
word ‘equality’ in an absolute sense – nay, I have personified equality in
several places; thus I have said that equality does such and such things, or
refrains from doing others … These abstract terms … enlarge and obscure
the thoughts.”
22
“I call it the law of the instrument, and it may be formulated as follows:
Give a small boy a hammer, and he will find that everything he encounters
needs pounding.”
23
“According to its risk model, one investment bank suffered a loss on
several consecutive days that should only have occurred once in 14 lifespans of our universe”.
30
AFD will set out to foster multidisciplinary and comparative
governance, communitarianism, the spontaneous existence
thinking that offers a comprehensive and contextualised
of win-win, the leitmotif of inclusiveness, etc., which are
understanding of actors, their motives, their intentions
often the vectors of Anglo-Saxon economic influence).25
and their actions. A multidisciplinary and internationally
recognised approach can pave the way for contextualised
The creation of a multidisciplinary scientific committee
analyses and new paradigms.
dedicated to AFD’s knowledge production would make it
possible to interest the research community in development
It also involves supporting and pooling research based
issues. Its composition will reinforce the multidisciplinarity
on
the
and quality of research. Its consultative role will provide
French perimeter. This approach meets the objective of
AFD with a forum for reflection and exchange on the
strengthening France’s economic influence. It sheds a
quality of its knowledge production, on developments within
critical light on the “essential, but hardly visible” standards
disciplines and on priority thematic areas.
alternative
hypotheses
stretching
beyond
that underlie international regulations and “determine market
rules and governance methods” (Revel, 2013).24 It paves
AFD’s experience in project financing, its proximity to local
the way for other visions, free of the beliefs and “abstract
partners, its position as a bilateral actor with a concern for
beings” (see above) that prevail in the economic doxa (the
geographical specificities, as well as its multidisciplinary
universal right to property, the primacy of competition,
approach, should constitute its comparative advantages.
the innate shortcomings of power and a limited vision of
4.2. Priority areas and themes
Based on its experience and in light of recent scientific
industries, the fight against corruption, governance,
research, AFD must help to identify concrete questions
institutional capacities, employment, productive systems,
and clearly formulate them. It will participate in shaping and
gender equality, human capital, training, migration,
disseminating innovative responses that are of interest for
trade, healthcare, food crises, social protection, essential
the development agenda. It will help to pool international
services… These topics are all compulsory figures for the
research, in addition to French research, on innovative
knowledge production to which donors must contribute.
research concepts that offer an interesting alternative to
They all relate to the programmes financed by aid. None of
those that dominate the knowledge “market”.
them escape the agenda of harmonisation among donors.
The number and scale of research topics are considerable.
The knowledge “market” is fiercely competitive. As AFD has
They form an open-ended list of global public themes,
operational experience and regularly takes part in donor
as evidenced by the conferences that are repeatedly
coordination initiatives, it must contribute to the exchange of
dedicated to them: climate (adaptation and mitigation),
good practice on these topics. By doing so, it can contribute
biodiversity, water, natural resources, energy, sustainable
to French influence. It can valorise its advantage as an
cities, agricultural land, emerging diseases, extractive
operational donor. If AFD did no more than follow the topics
24
This report calls for “technical cooperation and development assistance
to contribute to promoting French rules and standards at international level.”
25
French aid is itself often faced with this type of conceptual opposition.
By way of example, we can mention the opposition in the 1970s between
the “effects method” and “Shadow Prices”, in the 1980s, the antagonistic
conceptions of “agricultural extension” and “Training and Visit”, or recently,
the unreconcilable processes of “geographical indications” and “Branding”.
31
in vogue, it would consign itself to offering a pale reflection
topics. It must focus on the practical questions that it faces
of what other donors produce, especially the World Bank,
in its activities as a donor, in line with the political priorities
which has considerable means both in terms of quantity
assigned to it, particularly by the Interministerial Committee
and quality. AFD must nonetheless feed its input into the
on International Cooperation and Development of July
debates. It must thus work with the World Bank, and the
2013 (CICID, 2013). Six areas are considered as priorities.
other leading international donors and institutions, by
They remain quite broad since, research-wise, it is difficult
promoting different and innovative approaches (cf. Revel
to exclude certain fields (many discoveries actually derive
2013, op. cit.).
from research work produced with a different purpose). It
above all provides a framework that serves as a basis for
AFD cannot, however, support research on all of these
annual programming.
Box 1. Research: AFD’s six priority areas
• Natural resources and green transitions
• Social cohesion and growth
• Urban growth
• Innovations
• Accountability and indicators
• New financing tools
Natural resources and green transitions
The issue of natural balances requires taking a closer
look at unpaid environmental costs (ecological debt).
Climate is a priority as it responds to an urgent need and
Human needs for 2050 will require addressing the energy-
the ongoing preparation for the COP 21 in Paris. Emerging
water-food nexus. This means bolstering innovation and
countries have an interest in the research into green
introducing new regulations that enable needs to be
transition models, as these can be adapted to their specific
satisfied.
contexts. AFD will also provide specific support for issues
related to climate change, with a heightened focus on Sub-
Agroecological intensification can be considered as the
Saharan Africa, agri-food production and the sustainable
future of the world’s agricultural modernisation, an area in
development of cities.
which French expertise and research play a leading role.
This can be conceived as a process whereby innovation
The topic of biodiversity is one of the subjects that receives
gains social recognition (in other words, it crosscuts other
little donor financing. AFD’s experience in this area should
areas dealing with issues of employment, innovation and
feed into proposals at international level.
social cohesion).
32
The concept of resilience (the capacity to withstand internal
reproduction of behaviour patterns, as well as the economic
and external shocks) establishes a structural link between
level of individuals. The research undertaken will aim to
this first area and the following two, social inclusion
clarify possible avenues for social change, depending on
and urban growth. Multidisciplinary reflection on socio-
the context.
environmental resilience, in which AFD participates with its
scientific partners, is ongoing and regards environmental
Corruption is an area in which France often appears to be
issues as inseparable from societal issues. Experience
little involved at international level. Knowledge of these
shows that effective management of climate risk requires the
phenomena would be of practical use in order to put
participation of local societies, which involves understanding
forward solutions and enhance the effectiveness of aid.
their situations and specificities. Traditional knowledge of
This knowledge supposes an understanding of the different
the natural environment is inseparable from social practices
types of concrete situations.
and relations. Conversely, support for the resilient aspects
of societies and States in crisis can have a major impact
The issue of social cohesion more broadly covers the
on the environment and rural development (agriculture,
necessary coherence between social and economic logics.
livestock raising), just as the design of a sustainable city
Rather than setting these at odds, as is often the case, the
needs to enhance resilience to natural disasters.
point is to show how some forms of social coherence can
contribute to economic efficiency (legitimacy of regulations,
Social cohesion and growth
mutual obligations, etc.). Building institutions takes time
and their effectiveness largely depends on how they are
The success of the notion of “inclusiveness” reveals many
able to make sense within a political culture. Time can
forms of social exclusion that today impede the reduction of
be gained by observing, within a given context, those
inequalities. Moreover, the realities of these exclusions are
organisations that function effectively. Such observations
as diverse as gender inequality, corruption, lack of social
show that the solutions applicable to one sector can often
protection, regulatory shortcomings or crisis situations – the
be transposed to another sector. In the poorest countries,
list is not exhaustive. The aggregation of these exclusions
particularly in Africa, building institutions that make sense
into a single concept bears no relation to reality, unless
and are effective remains a major challenge. The weakness
we take the view that their common denominator is that
of contracting authorities is a critical issue and is likely
they are difficult to surmount and have a determining
to remain so for many years. AFD has a head start
effect. Efforts to reduce them have often been to no avail.
when it comes to improving management and institutional
Research must address each of these exclusions in their
capacities and its research in this area will continue.26 This
concrete forms.
line of research is consonant with the nascent interest
that economics is showing in cultural issues. It opens up
Although there have been several attempts to implement
horizons regarding the idiosyncrasies of development
pro-gender policies, they continue to have little impact.
trajectories and the complex links between governance and
It is, however, recognised that country-level social and
institutions.
economic progress is historically correlated with women’s
level of education (Todd, 1984). The causes of gender
The emergence of middle classes at the global level
inequality involve cultural contexts, discriminations and the
provides the underpinnings for a movement in favour of
26
The first research produced by AFD on the adjustments of modern
management to cultural frameworks of interpretation dates back to 1991.
Cf. Henry (1991).
33
social protection systems. In many countries, the younger
technology – NICT) and agroecology. At the same time,
generations represent both a force for change and a
some companies are innovating by developing on “bottom of
source of challenges that need to be anticipated. AFD will
the pyramid” (BoP) markets.
develop research on the issue of social protection and social
transformation.
Mobile telephony, for example, provides a platform that can
accommodate a whole host of applications for education,
Urban growth
healthcare, markets or finance. Forward-looking research
that is close to both research and demand will help to identify
The uninterrupted growth of cities over the course of
those developments in need of support.
several decades has brought on profound changes in social,
economic, political and institutional models. The sustainable
The social ownership of innovations rarely follows linear
city will be a theme for research and innovation for many
paths and needs to be better understood. Many projects that
years to come. French expertise and research in this field is
are supposed to be disseminated in public policies remain at
held up as a reference.
the pilot stage. It is important, therefore, to understand how
to move from an innovative pilot project to broad collective
Urban morphology – resulting from both social forms and
dissemination. Special attention will be given to innovations
urban governance – has major consequences on the
and their potential impacts, including their financing.
economy of flows and the use of natural resources (energy,
transport, sanitation, etc.). It is currently the subject of
NGOs play an essential role as initiators of experimental
innovative research.
projects that can serve as a basis for broader applications.
Large private companies are also vectors of innovation,
The city is also the product of its essential services and
management skills and initiatives to reduce poverty.
infrastructure networks (energy, water, sanitation, health,
Consequently, partnerships with companies will be scaled
etc.). Research work will cast light on the diversity of French
up in several areas: new technologies, management training
experience in managing services in developing countries.
programmes for the elites and knowledge input in order to
build basic projects.
The governance of cities is another major issue, particularly
in terms of improving their financial governance and meeting
Accountability and indicators
their investment financing needs. The reality of municipalities,
and how they actually function, will be considered in the light
The increasing demand for transparency requires assessing
of their geographical, social, historical and political contexts.
and measuring public action. This question involves
measuring not only its effectiveness but also its human
Innovations
progress.
Innovation is one of the wellsprings of economic development.
The MDGs have popularised the issues of less unequal
Current or anticipated technological and social innovations
and more sustainable human development. The ongoing
hold major potential for development in the South. Certain
reflection on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
sectors are witnessing the emergence of many discoveries
which are to constitute the next global indicators, is at the
for which the full extent of possible applications has not
centre of a number of debates and gives rise to a great deal
yet been assessed – renewable energies, digital and
of research.
networks (also called new information and communications
34
Several research programmes are already focussing on the
the effectiveness of concessionality.
need to go beyond the universal indicator of gross domestic
product (GDP) and propose new human development
In addition to these needs, the global financial crises
indicators (e.g. new UNDP human development indicator,
prompt us to look at market regulation and evolution.
indicators of well-being and relational capacities, etc.). These
Global financial stability is a public good. As a financial
new indicators will also need to integrate measurements of
institution with the dual role of financial actor and economic
sustainable development (physical and immaterial capital,
actor, AFD must propose new ways of expanding financial
natural resources, social capital, etc.).
markets for developing countries. Generally speaking,
in-depth knowledge of aid actors represents a strategic
The demand for indicators is a response to the increasing
requirement for AFD. More particularly, we will examine the
demand for transparency and effectiveness in public action.
issue of increasing the effectiveness of vertical funds.
This demand sometimes appears to have no limits, at the
risk of losing its validity and causing unexpected effects.
The six main areas put forward correspond to general
Indeed, all statistical indicators lose their meaning when
issues rather than sectoral fields. An area concerning the
they are used as management indicators (Goodhart’s Law;
French overseas territories needs to be added. These
cf. Goodhart, 1975).
themes provide the general framework for a two-year
27
programming cycle that will be reviewed annually.
New financing tools
Furthermore, one of the challenges for AFD’s knowledge
Development finance is at the core of AFD’s activity. The
production – in addition to developing its partnerships
financing needs are considerable. Donors can only meet
– will be to pool research on influential topics. The goal
a tiny fraction of these needs, but they must be a force for
is to promote living economic concepts (Reiffers and
innovation and proposals.
Vincent, 2013) based on alternative paradigms, free from
the beliefs and rigidities of the international doxa and
AFD has two means of operating: either via financial
with the potential to feed into development policies. The
intermediation or by directly financing projects. A balance
formulation of unifying themes goes beyond the scope of
between these two approaches requires having a better
this paper. It can only come out of a dialogue with national
knowledge of the expected impacts of each one.
and international research communities. AFD will seek to
promote flagship topics that are markedly different from
AFD
for
“inclusive growth”, the “participative approach”, “output-
countercyclical financing that it has experimented with,
based aid”, etc. by foregrounding other international topics,
as well as other windows for financial innovation. The
such as agroecological intensification, the sustainable
rapid changes in the aid landscape and the constant
city, family farming, public management efficiency, the
reinforcement of international rules call for new analyses of
specificity of institutions, innovative instruments, etc.28
27
will
further
investigate
the
opportunities
The author was Chief Economist for the Bank of England. This law was
established independently in France by researchers from the Ecole polytechnique. Cf. Berry et al., 1979.
28
Cf. Revel, op. cit. The first two themes (ecological transition and sustainable cities) are two of the priorities for France’s economic influence. The
themes of institutional specificities are the very foundation of the approach
to economic intelligence.
35
4.3 Greater clarity and accessibility
This strategy involves enhancing the literary and scientific
Knowledge production and dissemination also needs to
quality of AFD’s publications, as well as their accessibility.
include innovative formats. Producing video narratives and
documentaries is an ideal way that is widely used by social
The publications are part of an ensemble of structured
networks, sometimes as training tools.29 AFD has several
collections. The knowledge market is highly competitive.
community portals (iD4D, Solidaires du monde, etc.)30 that
Efforts need to be made to ensure the clarity of questions
can be promoted. On top of data production, the creation
raised, and the scientific quality and legibility of the
of databases with input from actors will be explored (wiki,
published results.
crowdsourcing). Finally, AFD will develop visualisation
tools to disseminate data that are useful to researchers
A diverse public is targeted, including AFD’s partners, the
and operational actors – such as Statplanet and Google
scientific community, the world of development experts,
Motion Chart.
operational actors and donor staff. Each audience has
specific requirements. For public policy makers, research
Measuring the impact of knowledge production remains
conclusions need to be concise and, as far as possible,
a difficult exercise. Discussions on this topic within the
free of critical academic arguments. For researchers, there
research community are heated and not very conclusive.
is a need to satisfy minimum requirements in terms of a
Contrary to natural sciences, economic and social sciences
review of the literature and the demonstration of results.
do not progress on the basis of demonstration, but through
We will thus ensure that a balance is struck between these
the gradual accumulation of concepts that are likely to
expectations.
change actors’ views. The production of ideas, which is by
nature immaterial, is difficult to gauge. It can be measured
Several components meet the objectives of quality and
up to a point using a set of indicators, which reflect more a
accessibility. AFD’s publications are now reviewed by
level of activity than actual results. AFD will publish its main
an editorial committee, following a procedure that calls
indicators for knowledge production every year. In addition,
on independent and anonymous referees, in line with
perceptions surveys may be conducted on the impact of
international standards. These objectives are also furthered
the new concepts that AFD and its partners are seeking to
as summaries of results are systematically published (A
promote.
Question of Development), collections have been simplified
(Ex Post), an annual catalogue is published, and analytical
The capacity to disseminate innovative concepts depends
criteria have been enhanced (Working Papers). AFD will
on the quality of publications, in line with standards that
continue to develop its joint publications with research
will be simplified, completed and upgraded. Debates,
institutes and universities. Finally, CEFEB will promote
conferences, education and training will continue to play a
its training programmes by systematically publishing its
key role for knowledge production and dissemination.
education materials. The knowledge production website
pages will be revamped.
29
For example, the film by Christian Lallier (1999) is one of the most disseminated on the Internet and the most used for training, including at AFD.
30
http://ideas4development.org/ et http://www.solidairesdumonde.org/
36
5. Conclusion
Twelve years after the creation of the Research Department,
of French aid and adapt its production to its capacities,
knowledge production has become a fully fledged mandate
the agency will orient its research around six cross-
for AFD. It contributes to the mobilisation of French and
cutting themes (see above: natural resources and green
international research on shared and innovative sustainable
transitions; social cohesion and growth; urban growth;
development issues. A strategy aiming to promote new
innovation; accountability and development indicators; new
paradigms in the international debate is an ambitious goal.
financing tools). In addition to partnership building, the
It will need to be a long-term effort.
broader objective is to pool international research centred
on alternative paradigms that are free of certain common
AFD as a whole must be a knowledge producer. The aim
ground that characterises an international doxa. This ability
is to contribute to knowledge production that nourishes the
to promote innovative hypotheses will be grounded in an
operational activity and to mobilise research on new ideas.
effective multidisciplinarity that will notably afford insights
The studies and research initiated or supported by AFD
on the link between economy and societal contexts.
must meet concrete objectives connected to its operational
activities. In so doing, AFD, alongside other partners, can
This strategy will involve strengthening partnerships with
play a role as a “formulator” of research questions.
the scientific community and the other donors.
AFD contributes to debates on all of the topics on the
international agenda. In order to focus on the priorities
37
Appendix 1. Summary of themes addressed (2010-2013)
Environment and sustainable development
essential to human well-being. To what extent can donors
promote development that respects the ecological balances
Climate change: How can the requirement be met for all
of our planet?
nations to make equitable efforts to combat climate change,
albeit at different paces? How can production methods
Growth models and social cohesion
and energy consumption be made more sustainable in
a context of increasing insecurity, in terms of accessing
Food security and agriculture: To deal with world population
and pricing fossil fuels? How can the “climate” and
growth, without causing irreversible destruction to the
environmental services rendered to the international
environment (rising demand in the face of increasingly
community be enhanced by more effective management of
constrained supply), agricultural and food systems will
countries’ natural resources? How can the vulnerability of
need to see a radical change, otherwise there is a
populations and goods to climate change impacts be taken
risk of triggering chronic price surges leading to social
into account? What should the new financial architecture to
destabilisation. How can these issues be integrated by
meet climate issues be?
Southern countries, which generally have a development
strategy oriented towards growth and price stability (for
Transition towards a green economy: The expression
example, using the weapon of subsidies on imports of food
“green growth” links economic growth and environmental
products)? Sustainable models, relating to widely differing
conservation. Yet, what meaning should be given to this
geographical areas, are yet to be developed, taking into
concept and what structural changes should be promoted,
account the representations specific to each society. What
particularly in developing countries? Is there not a risk that
changes will farming systems and agricultural and agri-food
the oft-mentioned, long-term growth opportunities (energy
systems undergo in the future? What financial tools should
saving, job creation) will remain a dead letter due to the
be offered on agricultural markets with a view to providing a
short-term cost of the transition of production models? This
more effective response to risk management? How are the
is a sensitive issue in Northern countries and is even more
interactions between agriculture and global goods (climate,
critical in Southern countries, which face greater resource
biodiversity, etc.) to be understood and how can managing
constraints and have other short-term priorities.
the agriculture-water-food triptych be envisaged? What
tools can support the development of rural areas? How can
Biodiversity, the foundations of change: While natural
priority food-producing sectors be financed?
resources and biodiversity are a pillar of development,
they suffer from its negative impact due to production
Education, training and employment: With just a few
and consumption patterns and demographic pressure
months to go before the 2015 deadline, and despite
(60% of ecosystems that enable life on Earth are already
substantial progress, the MDGs in the field of education
deteriorated). The services rendered by ecosystems are
(access to school for all and gender parity) will not be
38
reached, with 60 million children who are still not in school.
and public policies, and cultural representations. This
What priorities must be set in this sector post-2015? The
means substituting an omnipresent discourse that serves
progress made in terms of schooling has often been
as a reference in the international doxa for a more open
achieved to the detriment of the quality of education.
universal approach, free of its prerequisites. Development
What has been planned for the generations of children
assistance could thus more effectively involve the economic
who are completing primary school today? This difficulty
and political elites in productive strategies.
in achieving the initial objectives again raises the question
of the role assigned to schooling and the priorities chosen
Demographics, migration and social protection: Is it possible
(integrated or compartmentalised vision of education
to help countries to create the conditions for a demographic
levels), as well as the question of how these are funded. On
dividend, and help them to make the most of it? How can
these questions, each country necessarily adopts different
migrations (internal and international) be taken into account
strategies in line with their own representations. Beyond
in Official Development Assistance (ODA) projects? How
basic education, what training systems need to be devised
can donors support public policies on migration? How
to meet the needs of a fragmented and unproductive
can the diaspora be mobilised so that it contributes to the
informal sector, which nonetheless continues to play a
development of countries of origin? The issue of social
predominant role in the economy and employment? How
protection has now appeared with the emergence of a
can sectors be professionalised and graduates better
global middle class. A key question involves the bases to
integrated into the labour market? What financing systems
be taken into account when defining such social protection
should be promoted in order to open up access to higher
schemes, so that these contribute to the well-being of
education? The issue of job creation now has a vital place,
populations and provide access to some essential services
specific to each geographical area. In the Mediterranean,
such as education and healthcare. What bases should
understanding the link between growth and employment is
be proposed for social protection and how could these
today of critical and political importance.
schemes –, which are not only vectors for social justice but
also reducers of economic shocks – be financed to ensure
Governance and long-term growth: The term “governance”
that they benefit a population that earns most of their income
covers various notions of political, financial, administrative,
in the informal sector? What strategies could be put in place
territorial, legal governance, etc. Currently, there is a
to promote family planning in Sub-Saharan Africa, or how
widespread consensus among international donors that
could systems be adapted to cover risks related to disease
“good governance” stands as a prerequisite for the economic
and old age in the Mediterranean and Sub-Saharan Africa?
take-off of developing countries and yet no distinction is
Pilot projects do exist, but they need to be scaled up if they
drawn between the areas mentioned above. However, no
are to bring about real social transformation. How can these
empirical evidence exists to support or demonstrate the
social protection strategies be coordinated with the action
causal link between “good governance” and long-term
of religious movements, which themselves often elaborate
economic growth. No one has ever seen the case of a
reproductive health policies, educational activities or even
country establishing “good governance” and subsequently
have their own vision of progress and social development?
starting its economic take-off. Conversely, observation
shows that emerging countries with rapid and sustainable
Economies in the French overseas territories
growth in no way exhibit all the characteristics of this “good
governance”. Understanding the links between governance
New models for the overseas territories: Despite their
and growth implies understanding the relationships linking
specific trajectories, the growth dynamics observed in
governance, growth-enhancing institutional configurations
the economies of the overseas territories over the last
39
three decades came to a halt in 2008 as a result of
principles of effectiveness, transparency, social and
several crises (economic, social, public finances), leading
environmental responsibility, and debt sustainability. A new
to a rise in unemployment and recurrent social tensions.
aid architecture involving greater South-South cooperation
What sociodemographic dynamics are at work in these
is now taking shape before our eyes. However, this raises
territories and what are their impacts on economic
fears among Northern donors that sustainable development
and social prospects, as well as their implications for
concerns in recipient countries will be undermined. What
health, education, housing, energy and environmental
actually underpins the practices of these new donors? What
policies? What comparative advantages can the Overseas
strategy should AFD adopt towards them?
Departments and Local Authorities (DCOM) promote in
view of international competition and, first and foremost,
Financial innovations: The analysis of risks and the ways to
in trade with countries in their immediate neighbourhood?
limit and finance them without straying from the development
What strategy should AFD put in place to foster the
objective need further research, experimentation and
development of sectors and niches that have real potential
exchange between development banks. The tendency
in terms of activities and job creation?
to transpose microeconomic risk methodologies to
macroeconomic risks may conceal systemic risks greater
Aid architecture and new financing tools
than the sum of the microeconomic risks avoided. Hence,
the importance of increasing the use of countercyclical
Aid Architecture and emerging donors: The increasing
tools and taking into account the structural impact of high
importance of emerging donors outside the framework
rates, long-term rationales and, particularly for insurers,
of the DAC – primarily China, Brazil, India and Russia
the specific legal form of contracts between entities under
– is a cause for concern for traditional donors, who
public law.
view these new actors as insufficiently aligned with the
40
Appendix 2. Logical framework
Establish academic partnerships
with French and international
institutions
Influence international research
topics in addition to our
partnerships
POOL
Involve AFD and partners in the
production of new knowledge
Widely disseminate via
publications, conferences,
workshops and training
Make AFD a learning organisation
based on research and evaluation
Global issues and
interdepencies
French overseas
territories
INFLUENCE DEBATES
Contribute to international debates
on development and feed into
French positions
Enhance the clarity and
accessibility of research, which is
conceived as a public good
Developping
countries
Knowledge in support of
sustainable development
More effectively model the
reality of the situation and
provide tools tailored to needs
(studies, evaluations, training)
New financing tools
APPLY TO PRACTICE
Inform public policies of partner
countries and the contexts of AFD’s
operations
Search for new models by
promoting the plurality of
disciplines and theoretical
frameworks
Performance and progress indicators
INNOVATE
(“thinking out of the box”)
Promote innovation and
multidisciplinary in development
research
Urban expansion
Formulate research questions
based on operational needs
New social cohesion
Activities
Innovations
Objectives
Natural resources and green transition
Goal
41
Acronyms and abbreviations
AFD Agence Française de Développement
APORDE African Programme on Rethinking Development Economics
ASSV Académie des sciences sociales du Vietnam
BOP Bottom of the pyramid
CEROM Comptes économiques rapides pour l’Outre-mer
CGDEV Center for Global Development
CGE Computable general equilibrium
CICID Comité interministériel de la coopération internationale et du développement
CIRAD Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement
DAC Development Assistance Committee
DCOM Départements et Collectivités d’Outre-mer
DFID Department for International Development
DIAL Développement, institutions et mondialisation
DMC Direct seeding mulch-based cropping systems (agriculture)
ECDPM European Centre for Development Policy Management
EFEO Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient
EUDN European Development Network
42
FASOPO Fonds d’analyse des sociétés politiques
FERDI Fondation pour les études et recherches sur le développement international
GDP Gross domestic product
GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
GPGs Global public goods
GRET Groupe de recherches et d’échanges technologiques
IDDRI Institut du développement durable et des relations internationales
INECC Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Cambio Climático
INED Institut national d’études démographiques
INSEE Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPD Institutional Profiles Database
IPEA Instituto de Investigación Económica Aplicada
IRD Institut de recherche pour le développement
IREDU Institut de recherche sur l’éducation
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
LASDEL Laboratoire d’études et de recherche sur les dynamiques sociales et le développement local
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NICT New information and communications technology
43
ODI Overseas Development Institute
OECD
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PES Payment for environmental services
POS Strategic Orientation Plan
PSE Paris School of Economics
RCT Randomized control trial
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SMEs Small- and medium-sized enterprises
SOAS School of Oriental and African Studies
TSE Toulouse School of Economics
UMIFRE Unités mixtes des instituts français de recherche à l’étranger
44
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Série Documents de travail / Working Papers Series
Publiés depuis janvier 2009 / published since January 2009
Les numéros antérieurs sont consultables sur le site : http://recherche.afd.fr
Previous publications can be accessed online at: http://recherche.afd.fr
N° 78
« L’itinéraire professionnel du jeune Africain » - Les résultats d’une enquête auprès de jeunes leaders Africains sur
les dispositifs de formation professionnelle post-primaire
Richard Walther, consultant ITG, Marie Tamoifo, porte-parole de la jeunesse africaine et de la diaspora
Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - janvier 2009.
N° 79
Le ciblage des politiques de lutte contre la pauvreté : quel bilan des expériences dans les pays en développement ?
Emmanuelle Lavallée, Anne Olivier, Laure Pasquier-Doumer, Anne-Sophie Robilliard, DIAL - février 2009.
N° 80
Les nouveaux dispositifs de formation professionnelle post-primaire. Les résultats d’une enquête terrain au
Cameroun, Mali et Maroc
Richard Walther, Consultant ITG
Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - mars 2009.
N° 81
Economic Integration and Investment Incentives in Regulated Industries
Emmanuelle Auriol, Toulouse School of Economics, Sara Biancini, Université de Cergy-Pontoise, THEMA,
Comments by : Yannick Perez and Vincent Rious - April 2009.
N° 82
Capital naturel et développement durable en Nouvelle-Calédonie - Etude 1. Mesures de la « richesse totale »
et soutenabilité du développement de la Nouvelle-Calédonie
Clément Brelaud, Cécile Couharde, Vincent Géronimi, Elodie Maître d’Hôtel, Katia Radja, Patrick Schembri,
Armand Taranco, Université de Versailles - Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, GEMDEV
Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - juin 2009.
N° 83
The Global Discourse on “Participation” and its Emergence in Biodiversity Protection
Olivier Charnoz, AFD - July 2009.
N° 84
Community Participation in Biodiversity Protection: an Enhanced Analytical Framework for Practitioners
Olivier Charnoz, AFD - August 2009.
N° 85
Les Petits opérateurs privés de la distribution d’eau à Maputo : d’un problème à une solution ?
Aymeric Blanc, Jérémie Cavé, LATTS, Emmanuel Chaponnière, Hydroconseil
Contact : Aymeric Blanc, AFD - août 2009.
N° 86
Les transports face aux défis de l’énergie et du climat
Benjamin Dessus, Global Chance.
Contact : Nils Devernois, département de la Recherche, AFD - septembre 2009.
N° 87
Fiscalité locale : une grille de lecture économique
Guy Gilbert, professeur des universités à l’Ecole normale supérieure (ENS) de Cachan
Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - septembre 2009.
N° 88
Les coûts de formation et d’insertion professionnelles - Conclusions d’une enquête terrain en Côte d’Ivoire
Richard Walther, expert AFD avec la collaboration de Boubakar Savadogo (Akilia) et de Borel Foko (Pôle de Dakar)
Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - octobre 2009.
49
N° 89
Présentation de la base de données. Institutional Profiles Database 2009 (IPD 2009)
Institutional Profiles Database III - Presentation of the Institutional Profiles Database 2009 (IPD 2009)
Denis de Crombrugghe, Kristine Farla, Nicolas Meisel, Chris de Neubourg, Jacques Ould Aoudia, Adam Szirmai
Contact : Nicolas Meisel, département de la Recherche, AFD - décembre 2009.
N° 90
Migration, santé et soins médicaux à Mayotte
Sophie Florence, Jacques Lebas, Pierre Chauvin, Equipe de recherche sur les déterminants sociaux de la santé
et du recours aux soins UMRS 707 (Inserm - UPMC)
Contact : Christophe Paquet, AFD - janvier 2010.
N° 91
Capital naturel et developpement durable en Nouvelle-Calédonie - Etude 2. Soutenabilité de la croissance néocalédonienne : un enjeu de politiques publiques
Cécile Couharde, Vincent Géronimi, Elodie Maître d’Hôtel, Katia Radja, Patrick Schembri, Armand Taranco
Université de Versailles – Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, GEMDEV
Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - janvier 2010.
N° 92
Community Participation Beyond Idealisation and Demonisation: Biodiversity Protection in Soufrière, St. Lucia
Olivier Charnoz, AFD - January 2010.
N° 93
Community Participation in the Pantanal, Brazil: Containment Games and Learning Processes
Participation communautaire dans le Pantanal au Brésil : stratégies d’endiguement et processus d’apprentissage
Olivier Charnoz, AFD - février 2010.
N° 94
Développer le premier cycle secondaire : enjeu rural et défis pour l’Afrique subsaharienne
Alain Mingat et Francis Ndem, IREDU, CNRS et université de Bourgogne
Contact : Jean-Claude Balmès, département Education et formation professionnelle, AFD - avril 2010
N° 95
Prévenir les crises alimentaires au Sahel : des indicateurs basés sur les prix de marché
Catherine Araujo Bonjean, Stéphanie Brunelin, Catherine Simonet, CERDI - mai 2010.
N° 96
La Thaïlande : premier exportateur de caoutchouc naturel grâce à ses agriculteurs familiaux
Jocelyne Delarue, AFD - mai 2010.
N° 97
Les réformes curriculaires par l’approche par compétences en Afrique
Francoise Cros, Jean-Marie de Ketele, Martial Dembélé, Michel Develay, Roger-François Gauthier, Najoua
Ghriss, Yves Lenoir, Augustin Murayi, Bruno Suchaut, Valérie Tehio - juin 2010.
N° 98
Les coûts de formation et d’insertion professionnelles - Les conclusions d’une enquête terrain au Burkina Faso
Richard Walther, Boubakar Savadogo, consultants en partenariat avec le Pôle de Dakar/UNESCO-BREDA.
Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - juin 2010.
N° 99
Private Sector Participation in the Indian Power Sector and Climate Change
Shashanka Bhide, Payal Malik, S.K.N. Nair, Consultants, NCAER
Contact: Aymeric Blanc, AFD - June 2010.
N° 100
Normes sanitaires et phytosanitaires : accès des pays de l’Afrique de l’Ouest au marché européen Une étude empirique
Abdelhakim Hammoudi, Fathi Fakhfakh, Cristina Grazia, Marie-Pierre Merlateau.
Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - juillet 2010.
N° 101
Hétérogénéité internationale des standards de sécurité sanitaire des aliments : Quelles stratégies pour les filières
d’exportation des PED ? - Une analyse normative
Abdelhakim Hammoudi, Cristina Grazia, Eric Giraud-Héraud, Oualid Hamza.
Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - juillet 2010.
50
N° 102
Développement touristique de l’outre-mer et dépendance au carbone
Jean-Paul Ceron, Ghislain Dubois et Louise de Torcy.
Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - octobre 2010.
N° 103
Les approches de la pauvreté en Polynésie française : résultats et apports de l’enquête sur les conditions de vie en 2009
Javier Herrera, IRD-DIAL, Sébastien Merceron, Insee.
Contact : Cécile Valadier, AFD - novembre 2010.
N° 104
La gestion des déchets à Coimbatore (Inde) : frictions entre politique publique et initiatives privées
Jérémie Cavé, Laboratoire Techniques, Territoires et Sociétés (LATTS), CNRS - décembre 2010.
N° 105
Migrations et soins en Guyane - Rapport final à l’Agence Française de Développement dans le cadre du contrat
AFD-Inserm
Anne Jolivet, Emmanuelle Cadot, Estelle Carde, Sophie Florence, Sophie Lesieur, Jacques Lebas, Pierre Chauvin
Contact : Christophe Paquet, AFD - décembre 2010.
N° 106
Les enjeux d’un bon usage de l’électricité : Chine, Etats-Unis, Inde et Union européenne
Benjamin Dessus et Bernard Laponche avec la collaboration de Sophie Attali (Topten International Services),
Robert Angioletti (Ademe), Michel Raoust (Terao)
Contact : Nils Devernois, département de la Recherche, AFD - février 2011.
N° 107
Hospitalisation des patients des pays de l’Océan indien - Prises en charges spécialisées dans les hôpitaux de la Réunion
Catherine Dupilet, Dr Roland Cash, Dr Olivier Weil et Dr Georges Maguerez (cabinet AGEAL)
En partenariat avec le Centre Hospitalier Régional de la Réunion et le Fonds de coopération régionale de la Réunion
Contact : Philippe Renault, AFD - février 2011.
N° 108
Peasants against Private Property Rights: A Review of the Literature
Thomas Vendryes, Paris School of Economics - February 2011.
N° 109
Le mécanisme REDD+ de l’échelle mondiale à l’échelle locale - Enjeux et conditions de mise en oeuvre ONF International
Contact : Tiphaine Leménager, département de la Recherche, AFD - mars 2011.
N° 110
L’aide au Commerce : état des lieux et analyse
Aid for Trade: A Survey
Mariana Vijil, Marilyne Huchet-Bourdon et Chantal Le Mouël, Agrocampus Ouest, INRA, Rennes.
Contact : Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - avril 2011.
N° 111
Métiers porteurs : le rôle de l’entrepreneuriat, de la formation et de l’insertion professionnelle
Sandra Barlet et Christian Baron, GRET
Contact : Nicolas Lejosne, AFD - avril 2011.
N° 112
Charbon de bois et sidérurgie en Amazonie brésilienne : quelles pistes d’améliorations environnementales ?
L’exemple du pôle de Carajas
Ouvrage collectif sous la direction de Marie-Gabrielle Piketty, Cirad, UMR Marchés
Contact : Tiphaine Leménager, département de la Recherche, AFD - avril 2011.
N° 113
Gestion des risques agricoles par les petits producteurs Focus sur l’assurance-récolte indicielle et le warrantage
Guillaume Horréard, Bastien Oggeri, Ilan Rozenkopf sous l’encadrement de : Anne Chetaille, Aurore Duffau,
Damien Lagandré
Contact : Bruno Vindel, département des Politiques alimentaires, AFD - mai 2011.
N° 114
Analyse de la cohérence des politiques commerciales en Afrique de l’Ouest
Jean-Pierre Rolland, Arlène Alpha, GRET
Contact : Jean-René Cuzon, AFD - juin 2011
51
N° 115
L’accès à l’eau et à l’assainissement pour les populations en situation de crise : comment passer de l’urgence à
la reconstruction et au développement ?
Julie Patinet (Groupe URD) et Martina Rama (Académie de l’eau),
sous la direction de François Grünewald (Groupe URD)
Contact : Thierry Liscia, AFD- septembre 2011
N° 116
Formation et emploi au Maroc : état des lieux et recommandations
Jean-Christophe Maurin et Thomas Melonio, AFD - septembre 2011.
N° 117
Student Loans: Liquidity Constraint and Higher Education in South Africa
Marc Gurgand, Adrien Lorenceau, Paris School of Economics
Contact: Thomas Melonio, AFD - September 2011.
N° 118
Quelles(s) classe(s) moyenne(s) en Afrique ? Une revue de littérature
Dominique Darbon, IEP Bordeaux, Comi Toulabor, LAM Bordeaux
Contacts : Virginie Diaz et Thomas Melonio, AFD - décembre 2011.
N° 119
Les réformes de l’aide au développement en perspective de la nouvelle gestion publique
Development Aid Reforms in the Context of New Public Management
Jean-David Naudet, AFD - février 2012.
N° 120
Fostering Low-Carbon Growth Initiatives in Thailand
Contact: Cécile Valadier, AFD - February 2012
N° 121
Interventionnisme public et handicaps de compétitivité : analyse du cas polynésien
Florent Venayre, Maître de conférences en sciences économiques, université de la Polynésie française et
LAMETA, université de Montpellier
Contacts : Cécile Valadier et Virginie Olive, AFD - mars 2012.
N° 122
Accès à l’électricité en Afrique subsaharienne : retours d’expérience et approches innovantes
Anjali Shanker (IED) avec les contributions de Patrick Clément (Axenne), Daniel Tapin et Martin Buchsenschutz
(Nodalis Conseil)
Contact : Valérie Reboud, AFD - avril 2012.
N° 123
Assessing Credit Guarantee Schemes for SME Finance in Africa: Evidence from Ghana, Kenya, South Africa and
Tanzania
Angela Hansen, Ciku Kimeria, Bilha Ndirangu, Nadia Oshry and Jason Wendle, Dalberg Global Development Advisors
Contact: Cécile Valadier, AFD - April 2012.
N° 124
Méthodologie PEFA et collectivités infranationales : quels enseignements pour l’AFD ?
Contacts : Frédéric Audras et Jean-François Almanza, AFD - juillet 2012
N° 125
High Returns, Low Attention, Slow Implementation: The Policy Paradoxes of India’s Clean Energy Development
Ashwini Swain, University of York,
Contact : Olivier Charnoz, PhD, AFD - July 2012
N° 126
In Pursuit of Energy Efficiency in India’s Agriculture: Fighting ‘Free Power’ or Working with it?
Ashwini Swain, University of York,
Contact : Olivier Charnoz, AFD - August 2012
N° 127
L’empreinte écologique et l’utilisation des sols comme indicateur environnemental : quel intérêt pour les politiques
publiques ?
Jeroen van den Bergh, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona,
Contact : Fabio Grazi, AFD - octobre 2012
N° 128
China’s Coal Methane: Actors, Structures, Strategies and their Global Impacts
Ke Chen, Research consultant & Olivier Charnoz, AFD - November 2012
52
N° 129
Quel niveau de développement des départements et collectivités d’outre-mer ?
Une approche par l’indice de développement humain
Olivier Sudrie (cabinet DME)
Contact : Vincent Joguet, AFD - novembre 2012
N° 130
Taille des villes, urbanisation et spécialisations économiques
Une analyse sur micro-données exhaustives des 10 000 localités maliennes
Claire Bernard, Sandrine Mesplé-Somps, Gilles Spielvogel, IRD, UMR DIAL,
Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - novembre 2012
N° 131
Approche comparée des évolutions économiques des Outre-mer français sur la période 1998-2010
Croissance économique stoppée par la crise de 2008
Claude Parain, INSEE, La Réunion, Sébastien Merceron, ISPF, Polynésie française
Contacts : Virginie Olive et Françoise Rivière, économistes, AFD - mars 2013
N° 132
Equilibre budgétaire et solvabilité des collectivités locales dans un environnement décentralisé
Quelles leçons tirer des expériences nationales ?
Guy Gilbert, Professeur émerite ENS Cachan, CES-PSE, François Vaillancourt, Université de Montréal, Québec, Canada
Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - avril 2013
N° 133
Les politiques d’efficacité énergétique en Chine, Inde, Indonésie, Thaïlande et Vietnam
Loïc Chappoz et Bernard Laponche, Global Chance
Contact : Nils Devernois, AFD - avril 2013
N° 134
South-South cooperation and new agricultural development aid actors in western and southern Africa
China and Brazil - Case studies
Jean-Jacques Gabas (CIRAD, UMR ARTDev) et Frédéric Goulet (CIRAD, UMR Innovation)
N° 135
L’économie politique et la gestion territoriale des services environnementaux
Bernard Dafflon, université de Fribourg (Suisse)
Contact : Réjane Hugounenq, AFD - juin 2013
N° 136
Séminaire AFD, Mali : une contribution de la recherche française et européenne, vendredi 12 avril 2013
Contact : François Gaulme, AFD - janvier 2014
N° 137
Evaluer l’impact des instruments financiers en faveur des entreprises
Olivier Cadot, Université de Lausanne, FERDI et CEPREMAP, Anne-Célia Disdier et Akiko Suwa-Eisenmannn,
Paris School of Economics, INRA et CEPREMAP, Julien Gourdon, CEPII et CEPREMAP, Jérôme Héricourt,
EQUIPPE-Universités de Lille, CES-Université de Paris 1 et CEPII
Contact : Bertrand Savoye, AFD - mars 2014
N° 138
Une réévaluation de l'objectif de scolarisation primaire universelle sous l'angle des acquis scolaires
Nadir Altinok1, 2, Jean Bourdon1
1
IREDU (Institut de recherche sur l’éducation) - université de Bourgogne, CNRS
2
BETA (Bureau d’économie théorique et appliquée) - université de Lorraine, CNRS
Contact : Véronique Sauvat, AFD - juillet 2014
N° 139
Indicateurs d’impact des projets de gestion durable des terres, de lutte contre la dégradation des terres et la
désertification, Partie 1
Isabelle Amsallem, Agropolis Productions, Marc Bied-Charreton, Centre d’études des territoires, de la
mondialisation et des vulnérabilités de l’Université de Versailles Saint Quentin-en-Yvelines (CEMOTEV/UVSQ),
Comité Scientifique Français de la Désertification (CSFD)
Contact : Constance Corbier-Barthaux, AFD - mai 2014
53
N° 140
La production de connaissances à l'AFD
Enjeux et orientations
Contact : Alain Henry, AFD - septembre 2014
N° 141
L'information sur les prix agricoles par la téléphonie mobile : le cas du Ghana
Julie Subervie (Inra) et Franck Galtier (Cirad)
Contact : Stéphanie Pamiès et Marie-Cécile Thirion, AFD - novembre 2014
N° 142
Les gaz de schiste : enjeux et questions pour le développement
Benjamin Dessus (Global Chance)
Contact : Cyrille Bellier, AFD - décembre 2014
N° 143
L’agroécologie et son potentiel environnemental en Zambie : de l’utilité d’une réflexion sociotechnique pour l’aide
au développement.
Véra Ehrenstein (CSI) et Tiphaine Leménager (AFD)
Contact : Tiphaine Leménager, AFD - décembre 2014
N° 144
La présence de la Chine dans la Caraïbe
Carlos Quenan, Éric Dubesset, Viktor Sukup, Romain Cruse, Juan Carlos Diaz Mendoza, Laneydi Martinez
Alfonso, Antonio Romero (Institut des Amériques)
Contact : Éric Jourcin et Quentin Lajus, AFD - février 2015
54

Knowledge Production at AFD

Transcription

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