Final Project Evaluation Report

Bowman & Associates Pty Ltd
BIODEGRADABLE ALTERNATIVES AND RECYCLING
OPPORTUNITIES FOR AGRICULTURAL MULCH FILM AND
DRIP IRRIGATION TAPE FOR THE GASCOYNE FRUIT AND
VEGETABLE GROWERS
STRATEGIC WASTE INITIATIVES SCHEME - 10583
FINAL
24 June 2009
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ CONTENTS
1.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................. 5
2.
ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................ 7
3.
DISCLAIMER ............................................................................................................... 7
4.
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 8
4.1.
5.
4.1.1.
Overview...................................................................................................... 8
4.1.2.
Carnarvon and the Gascoyne Region ....................................................... 10
4.1.3.
Definitions .................................................................................................. 10
PROJECT METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 11
5.1.
6.
BACKGROUND ................................................................................................... 8
PROJECT SCOPE ............................................................................................ 11
RESULTS ................................................................................................................... 11
6.1.
CURRENT PRODUCTS AVAILABLE ON THE MARKET ................................. 11
6.1.1.
Aqua-Traxx Drip Irrigation Tape ................................................................ 11
6.1.2.
T-Tape Irrigation Systems by T-Systems .................................................. 12
6.1.3.
LDPE Black Agricultural Mulch Film .......................................................... 13
6.1.4.
Crop Nets .................................................................................................. 14
6.1.5.
Agfilm Agencies Top Bunch Covers .......................................................... 14
6.2.
ALTERNATIVE PRODUCTS POTENTIALLY AVAILABLE ON THE MARKET 14
6.2.1.
EPI Environmental Technologies Inc......................................................... 15
6.2.2.
Ciba ENVIROCARE .................................................................................. 15
6.2.3.
Novamont Bioplastics ................................................................................ 18
6.2.4.
BioAgri Produced by BioBag ..................................................................... 19
6.2.5.
Biograde .................................................................................................... 19
6.2.6.
EcoCover Paper Mulch Mat....................................................................... 20
6.2.7.
Kraft Paper ................................................................................................ 21
6.2.8.
Rainstorm Hydromulching ......................................................................... 21
6.2.9.
Om Bioplast ............................................................................................... 21
Page 2 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 6.2.10.
Bionolle ...................................................................................................... 22
6.2.11.
The Dog Tidy Company and Biowrap ........................................................ 22
6.2.12.
Amcor Flexibles Australasia ...................................................................... 22
6.2.13.
Univenture ................................................................................................. 23
6.2.14.
Stark Engineering ...................................................................................... 23
6.2.15.
Andros Engineering ................................................................................... 24
6.3.
AUSTRALIAN AND INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH INTO ALTERNATIVES ... 25
6.3.1.
Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries ................... 25
6.3.2.
Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia ............................ 27
6.3.3.
Environment Australia – Biodegradable Plastics Review .......................... 27
6.3.4.
Victorian Research Trials .......................................................................... 28
6.3.5.
Centre for Research and Technology of Aragon, Spain ............................ 28
6.3.6.
EcoCover Research .................................................................................. 30
6.3.7.
Israel Research ......................................................................................... 32
6.3.8.
Florida Research ....................................................................................... 33
6.4.
COLLECTION AND RECYCLING MARKETS .................................................. 33
6.4.1.
Review of Used Industrial Plastics in Western Australia ........................... 33
6.4.2.
Plastics Granulating Services .................................................................... 34
6.4.3.
GreenAIR – Agricultural Irrigation Recycling ............................................. 34
6.4.4.
Ruggies Recycling ..................................................................................... 35
6.5.
DISPOSAL AND RECYCLING OPPORTUNITIES ........................................... 36
6.5.1.
CLAW Environmental ................................................................................ 36
6.5.2.
Gascoyne Waste Services ........................................................................ 37
6.5.3.
Amcor Recycling Australasia ..................................................................... 37
6.5.4.
RKO Industries – Ag Plastics Recycling and Plastic Resins Supply ......... 37
6.5.5.
GM Engineering in conjunction with LEDA Recycling ............................... 38
6.5.6.
Plastic Bag Recycling – an online resource .............................................. 39
6.5.7.
Plastic Technology .................................................................................... 39
Page 3 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 6.5.8.
6.6.
7.
ALA Recycling Industries, USA ................................................................. 39
WASTE AVOIDANCE AND RESOURCE RECOVERY ACT ............................ 39
6.6.1.
Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act 2007 and Levy Act 2007 . 39
6.6.2.
Extended Producer Responsibility............................................................. 40
6.6.3.
drumMUSTER – an EPR working example ............................................... 43
6.6.4.
MobileMuster– an EPR working example .................................................. 44
6.6.5.
SCHÜTZ DSL Packaging .......................................................................... 45
6.6.6.
Irish Farm Film Producers Group .............................................................. 45
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................. 45
7.1.
CURRENT HORTICULTURAL PLASTIC PRODUCTS..................................... 45
7.2.
HORTICULTURAL PLASTIC PRODUCT ALTERNATIVES.............................. 46
7.3.
COLLECTION AND RECYCLING OPPORTUNITIES....................................... 47
7.4.
BARRIERS TO RECYCLING HORTICULTURAL PLASTICS WASTE ............. 48
7.5.
EPR SCHEMES - AN ATTRACTIVE ALTERNATIVE ...................................... 48
8. ISSUES RAISED BY THE GASCOYNE HORTICULTURAL GROWERS AND
STAKEHOLDERS ............................................................................................................. 50
9.
RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................. 53
Page 4 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Department of Environment and Conservation under the Waste Authority’s Strategic
Waste Initiatives Scheme engaged the services of The Gascoyne Development Commission
in conjunction with Bowman & Associates Pty Ltd to conduct an investigation into options for
the reuse of plantation agricultural polyethylene mulch film, polyethylene drip irrigation tape
and crop netting used in the Gascoyne horticulture industry. The Strategic Waste
Management Plan1 (2008) highlighted these products as a major source of plantation waste
in the Gascoyne growing region.
The products currently used by the Gascoyne fruit and vegetable growers are not recycled.
Instead, the agricultural mulch film and drip irrigation tape end up in landfill or growers may
bury or stockpile it on their properties. In many cases burial or stockpiling occurs within the
flood zone of the Gascoyne River and the plastics can potentially be washed out to sea
when the river floods. The black plastic film is difficult to recover from paddocks as it is
partially buried in heavy clay soils and is usually contaminated with soil and organic matter.
The plastic film is typically only recyclable if it is free from such contamination and therefore
requires substantial washing. There are no existing washing facilities in Carnarvon. Disposal
by landfill is problematic due to the plastics becoming entwined in compaction machinery.
The investigation revealed that alternative degradable agricultural mulch film products are
available in Australia. In particular, the Mater-Bi modified starch based 100% biodegradable
polymer, has been trialled in Queensland and Spain with promising results. The use of a
degradable mulch film, while considerably more expensive than the current non-degradable
product, negates the need for collection and disposal of the waste plastic at the end of each
growing season, potentially minimising crop production costs. A more economically attractive
alternative is paper mulch, such as EcoCover paper mulch mat, which is more competitively
priced and also contributes carbon to the soil profile. This is of particular benefit in the
Gascoyne horticultural district where the soils are typically low in organic matter.
Despite the fact that none of the plastic horticultural waste is currently recycled in Western
Australia, there are still options that may present future opportunities to do so, particularly
where recycling facilities exist in other states. South Australian company GreenAIR have the
technology to recycle contaminated agricultural waste, including agricultural mulch film, drip
irrigation tape and crop netting, by shredding and passing the waste plastics on for
reprocessing into poly pipe and other products. Either the waste plastics may be transported
to GreenAIR’s recycling facility or alternatively the technology may be transported to
Western Australia with assistance by industry and government, provided the supply of
recyclable plastics is great enough. Another option may be to use Ruggies Recycling, a
Western Australian recycling firm already established to collect and transfer waste plastics to
recycling companies in South Australia. The proceeds are donated to the Princess Margaret
Hospital (PMH) for Children in Perth.
The development of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes is another key option
for encouraging waste plastic recycling in Western Australia. Successful EPR schemes that
operate in rural areas include drumMUSTER and MobileMuster, providing examples which
may be guide the development of additional schemes, particularly for drip irrigation tape and
crop netting. Under EPR schemes industry takes responsibility for a product for its whole of
life cycle and as a result, recycling and re-use may be improved.
T-Systems, manufacturers of T-Tape drip irrigation tape have shown interest in establishing
an EPR scheme with GreenAIR for T-Tape drip irrigation. An EPR model might involve an
advanced recycling levy at the point of sale, deposit/refund schemes or levies/taxes on other
non-degradable products. At the end of the growing season T-Tape would be collected,
baled and transported to GreenAIR where the waste plastics would be recycled. Support
1
Gascoyne Development Commission (2008). Strategic Waste Management Plan. Prepared by A Prince Consulting and Bowman & Associates in consultation with the Gascoyne Development Commission. Page 5 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ would be required from the producers (T-Systems), consumers (Gascoyne fruit and
vegetable growers), service providers (GreenAIR, transport companies such as Nexus
Freight) and government bodies. Similar EPR schemes could be developed for standard
non-degradable agricultural mulch film and crop netting, involving the chain of
manufacturers, retailers, consumers, waste collectors and recyclers in the process of
collecting, processing, recycling or disposing of post-consumer waste.
The Gascoyne fruit and vegetable growers and stakeholders involved in the local
horticultural industry provided information and feedback at a community meeting in May
2009 about opportunities for use of degradable mulch film alternatives and recycling of
waste plastics. The predominant opinion from the Carnarvon fruit and vegetable growers
that attended was that:
•
A change to degradable mulch alternatives was unlikely in the near future, and
•
EPR was regarded as a good way to progress with recycling of waste plastics in the
region.
There appears to be no single solution to address the problem of plantation plastic waste
disposal in the Gascoyne region. There is however, a combination of recommendations,
including product replacement with degradable alternatives, accessing recycling services
currently available out of Western Australia, and the development of EPR schemes, that may
together begin to address the issues faced by horticultural fruit and vegetable growers
throughout Australia.
Page 6 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 2. ACRONYMS
AAC
Aliphatic-Aromatic Copolyesters
AMTA
Australian Mobile Telecommunications Association
ARO
Agricultural Research Organization
ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials
BFA
Biological Farmers of Australia
CGA
Carnarvon Growers Association Inc.
CRC
Cooperative Research Centre
DAFWA
Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia
DEC
Department of Environment and Conservation
DPI&F
Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries
EPR
Extended Producer Responsibility
GDC
Gascoyne Development Commission
GST
Goods and Services Tax
HDPE
High Density Polyethylene
LDPE
Low Density Polyethylene
LLDPE
Linear Low Density Polyethylene
MFI
Melt Flow Index
PACIA
Plastics and Chemicals Industries Association
PET
Polyethylene Teraphthalate
PGS
Plastics Granulating Services
PMH
Princess Margaret Hospital
RRRS
Resource Recovery Rebate Scheme
SWIS
Strategic Waste Initiatives Scheme
TDPA
Totally Biodegradable Plastic Additives
TPS
Thermoplastic Starch
T-Tape
Trickle Tape
UV
Ultraviolet
3. DISCLAIMER
The content contained herewith has been compiled in good faith using normal industry
practices employed by Environmental Engineers and Consultants in the preparation of
review documents. Bowman & Associates Pty Ltd accepts no liability for loss or damages
incurred by the Department of Environment and Conservation, the Gascoyne Development
Commission or any other individual or organisation due to reliance on the included content.
Page 7 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 4. INTRODUCTION
4.1.
BACKGROUND
4.1.1. Overview
The Department of Environment and Conservation under the Waste Authority’s Strategic
Waste Initiatives Scheme engaged the services of The Gascoyne Development Commission
in conjunction with Bowman & Associates Pty Ltd to conduct an investigation into options for
the reuse of plastic agricultural mulch film and plastic ‘trickle’ or drip irrigation tape used in
the Gascoyne horticulture industry. The Strategic Waste Management Plan1 (2008)
highlighted these products as a major source of horticultural plantation waste in the
Gascoyne growing region.
Horticultural plantation waste is currently produced by approximately 200 plantations
conducting intensive horticulture in an area of 1,000 hectares situated within the delta of the
Gascoyne River. A proposed new land release of 400 ha will enable the development of a
further 10 to 12 plantations1. The Gascoyne horticultural industry produces a variety of fruit
and vegetable crops including: banana, mango, tomato, capsicum, paw paw, citrus, beans,
melons, grapes and pumpkins.
Within the existing plantations approximately 400 ha are used for intensive horticulture,
predominantly growing fruit and vegetables. Of this area half is typically under cultivation.
Around 200 ha of land is typically covered by Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) 25 or 30 µm
black agricultural mulch film underlain by 16 mm polyethylene drip irrigation tape. The
plastic mulch is used for weed suppression and reduction of the use of herbicides and
pesticides, to increase soil temperature, speed up germination and cultivation cycles, reduce
water consumption, keep fertilisers and nutrients closer to the plants, and prevent fruits and
vegetables from direct contact with soil. Trials have found that LDPE mulch with a thickness
of 60 µm takes 300 years to break down (Ohtake et al. 19982; Feuilloley et al. 20033). After
ten years LDPE films buried in soil have been recorded with only 0.2% weight loss
(Albertsson et al. 19874) suggesting that the product is not degradable.
The life expectancy of these plastic products is eighteen months. The total market for drip
irrigation tape per year in Carnarvon is about 1,500 rolls @ 27 kg per roll, and plastic film
sales are 2,083 rolls @ 30 kg per year, equating to a total of around 103 tonnes of waste
plastics produced by the Gascoyne horticulturists each year1.
The local Carnarvon waste collection company collects approximately 3,600 m3 of black
plastic film and drip irrigation tape from 50 plantations annually1. An estimated 15,000 m3 of
waste plastics are produced annually. The remaining 150 plantations either transport the
material to Brown Range Landfill or bury or stockpile it on their properties. In many cases
burial or stockpiling occurs within the flood zone of the Gascoyne River and the plastics can
potentially be washed out to sea when the river floods.
2
Ohtake, Y., Kobayashi, T., Asabe, H. and Murakami, N. (1998). Polymer Degradation and Stability 60:79‐84. Feuilloley, P., César, G., Benguigui, L. and Grohens, Y. (2003). Biodégradation des films de paillage en polyéthylene: Conjecture ou réalité? Colloque International: Produits biodegradable et environnement. Rouen, France, 20–21 May 2003. 4
Albertsson, A.C., Andersson, S.O, and Karlsson, S. (1987) Polymer Degradation and Stability 18:73‐87. 3
Page 8 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Plate 1: Horticultural waste plastics at the Brown Range Landfill, Carnarvon.
The black LDPE mulch film is difficult to recover from paddocks as it is partially buried in
heavy clay soils. Disposal by landfill is problematic due to the plastics becoming entwined in
compaction machinery. The plastic mulch film may be recyclable if it is free from
contamination. However, the material is usually contaminated with soil and organic matter.
The use of biodegradable plastic mulch film or paper-based mulch products has been
offered as an attractive solution. Alternate degradable plastic film and paper mulch products
are under development internationally with trials being conducted by the Queensland
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPI&F) and in Europe, however, it is
expected that the higher cost of the majority of these new products may be a barrier to use
without some form of government subsidies.
Two brands of drip irrigation tape are sold to the industry in Carnarvon: T-Systems T-Tape
and Toro Ag Irrigation Aqua-Traxx Drip Irrigation Tape, which are both regarded as
recyclable. One brand was thought not to be recyclable due to an incompatible plastic used
in the manufacture of the variable flow rate emitter1 however this does not appear to be an
issue for the two brands currently used in Carnarvon. The drip irrigation tape cannot be
reused as mice chew holes through the pipe and it is difficult to re-lay. Gaining industry
cooperation and support to phase out any remaining non-recyclable trickle tape would be a
step in the right direction. However, in its current form, it appears that a washing facility may
be required to be built at Carnarvon to clean the plastic to an acceptable standard prior to it
being sold for reprocessing, to remove soil and chemical residues. Logistically the materials
would require shredding prior to washing leading to additional capital cost outlay and
processing cost for materials handling. The development of an Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) scheme could be an option to raise money for the disposal of trickle
tape waste to landfill.
In addition to plastic film and drip irrigation tape many plantations cover their cropping area
with protective High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) crop netting (similar to HDPE shade cloth)
to reduce damage to produce caused by birds, sun and wind1. The netting has a ten to
fifteen year life expectancy and canopy replacement is expected to occur in the next few
years. Geoff Woods, owner of the local Carnarvon supply and installation company Crop
Nets, has estimated that approximately 30 farms use crop netting to cover about 200
hectares1. An average netting when removed could take up 8.4 m3/hectare of air space,
Page 9 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ resulting in up to 2,500 m3 of waste material requiring disposal in the near future1. Reuse or
recycling options would require baling for transport. As in the case of plastic film and trickle
tape disposal by landfill may be problematic if difficulties arise with netting becoming
entwined in compacting machinery. Crop nets could potentially be handled through an EPR
scheme also. The key existing barriers to greater resource recovery within the Gascoyne
Region are transport costs, distance from markets, relatively small volumes and free
disposal to landfill1.
4.1.2. Carnarvon and the Gascoyne Region
Carnarvon lies within the Gascoyne Region of Western Australia and is located 902 km by
road north of Perth. The Gascoyne Region consists of the Shires of Carnarvon, Exmouth,
Shark Bay and Upper Gascoyne, covers an area of 138,000 square kilometres and
represents 6% of the State’s total area. The Shire of Carnarvon is the administrative centre
for the region and has an estimated resident population of 6085. The town has a fertile and
thriving horticultural district situated within the delta of the Gascoyne River that supplies up
to 85% of Perth’s fruit and vegetables during the winter months5.
A variety of industry activities occur within the Gascoyne Region, ranked in order of value to
the economy in 2006/7, including: tourism, retail, horticulture, mining, fishing, manufacturing,
construction and pastoralism5. The predominant land use activity is pastoralism. The
significant local industries within the Shire of Carnarvon are fishing, horticulture, the Dampier
Salt Works and tourism1.
The small growing region along the banks of the Gascoyne River offers a tough horticultural
environment with high temperatures and high winds increasing the risk of soil erosion, soil
water loss through evaporation, and leaching of nutrients through the soils with low organic
matter content. Despite this, in 2007 the Gascoyne horticultural industry grew approximately
39,000 tonnes of produce worth $87.6 million5. Of this, fruit accounted for 8,400 tonnes
worth $26.7 million and vegetables 30,500 tonne, valued at $60.9 million5. Bananas are the
most commonly grown fruit, with a banana crop grown for up to six years. The Carnarvon
Horticulture District is considered the best managed irrigation district in Australia5 due to its
low water use.
Website http://www.gdc.wa.gov.au
4.1.3. Definitions
Degradation of plastics can occur through a variety of processes, including biodegradation
and composting. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines
‘biodegradable’ as: “capable of undergoing decomposition into carbon dioxide, methane,
water, inorganic compounds, or biomass in which the predominant mechanism is the
enzymatic action of microorganisms, that can be measured by standardised tests, in a
specified period of time, reflecting available disposal condition.” Biodegradation is
degradation caused by biological activity, particularly by enzyme action leading to significant
changes in the materials’ chemical structure6.
‘Compostable’ plastics are a subset of biodegradable plastics which must biodegrade and
disintegrate in a compost system during the composting process (typically around 12 weeks
5
GDC Website Gascoyne Economic Perspective http://www.gdc.wa.gov.au/contents/industry‐
profiles/horticulture.htm?id=126 6
Environment Australia (2002). Biodegradable Plastics – Developments and Environmental Impacts, website http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/publications/waste/degradables/biodegradable/pubs/biodegra
dable.pdf Page 10 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ at temperatures over 50°C). ‘Compostable’ is defined by the ASTM as: “capable of
undergoing biological decomposition in a compost site as part of an available programme,
such that the plastic is not visually distinguishable and breaks down to carbon dioxide, water,
inorganic compounds, and biomass, at a rate consistent with known compostable
materials.”4
5. PROJECT METHODOLOGY
5.1.
PROJECT SCOPE
The study aims to investigate options for the reuse of plastic agricultural mulch film, drip
irrigation tape and crop netting, all waste products of the Carnarvon horticulture industry.
The project scope includes:
1.
Investigation of current horticultural products available on the market.
2.
Investigation of alternative products available on the market.
3.
Investigation of options for reuse of agricultural mulch film and drip irrigation tape.
4.
Desktop study of Australian and international research into alternatives to current
horticultural products, in particular biodegradable plastics.
5.
Investigation and identification of collection and recycling markets for selected products
and liaison with the recycling industry as to how to make the material sellable on the
recycling market.
6.
Research into disposal and recycling opportunities.
7.
Evaluation of possible alternatives and their viability within the Gascoyne region.
8.
Consultation with local Carnarvon stakeholders and fruit and vegetable growers.
9.
Report presented to the Waste Authority.
6. RESULTS
6.1.
CURRENT PRODUCTS AVAILABLE ON THE MARKET
There are a number of products available on the market that are used within the horticultural
industry in the Gascoyne region and elsewhere in Australia for irrigation and weed control,
all of which produce plastic plantation waste on an annual basis. These products include:
6.1.1. Aqua-Traxx Drip Irrigation Tape
Aqua-Traxx, from Toro Ag Irrigation in California is ideal for irrigating row crops such as
strawberries, lettuce, asparagus, watermelon, eggplant, tomatoes and many other crops.
Aqua-Traxx is made from Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE) and can be installed
above the ground, sub-surface or under mulch. The tape has a seamless construction, is
resistant to plugging, and has wall thickness of 4 – 15 mm, diameter 16 – 35 mm, outlet
spacings from 10 to 60 cm and roll length 820 – 3,960 m (Figure 1). The product is
recyclable.
Page 11 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Figure 1: Aqua-Traxx drip irrigation tape.
The thicker, more durable (and more costly) Aqua-Traxx drip irrigation tape products can be
recovered and re-used, however these products are not used by the Carnarvon fruit and
vegetable growers.
Website http://www.toroag.com/main.aspx?category1=2&Category2=3&Category3=1
6.1.2. T-Tape Irrigation Systems by T-Systems
T-Tape irrigation drip tape from T-Systems is formed from a strip of thin but strong
polyethylene plastic that is rolled into 9.5, 16, 22, 28.6 or 35 mm inside diameter tubes glued
at the seam7. Wall thickness varies from 0.1 – 0.375 mm and rolls are available in lengths
between 915 and 3,050 m. T-Systems describe T-Tape as “significantly stronger and more
durable than comparable materials of the same thickness”. A more recent version of the
product allows a personalised imprint on the tape and reel label, providing an opportunity for
labeling by individual growers.
T-Tape can be recycled into useful products such as nursery containers, speed bumps and
park benches7. The tape must go through an extensive and expensive scrubbing process
that rids it of dirt and chemical residue before the plastic can be recycled. The thicker, more
durable T-Tape products can be recovered and re-used, however these products are not
used by the Carnarvon fruit and vegetable growers.
Figure 2: T-Tape drip irrigation tape.
Website http://www.t-tape.com/
7
T‐Systems website http://www.t‐tape.com/ Page 12 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 6.1.3. LDPE Black Agricultural Mulch Film
LDPE is the most commonly used plastic for agricultural mulch film due to its mechanical
and optical properties and competitive market price8. LDPE black or black and white 25 and
30 µm plastic film is widely used in the Gascoyne horticulture industry and is sourced by the
Carnarvon Growers Association Inc. (CGA) from Amcor Flexibles Australasia. The X-Pect
black/white mulch film is used in the hotter growing season with the white side on the
surface to reflect solar radiation.
The plastic sold in the region is not degradable. Three hundred years are required to
degrade a polyethylene sheet of 60 µm without additives (Ohtake et al. 19982; Feuilloley et
al. 20033). The plastic mulch film is recyclable once cleaned however this is regarded as an
expensive alternative, requiring the construction of a washing facility in Carnarvon to clean
the plastic to an acceptable standard prior to it being sold for reprocessing.
Amcor Flexibles produce a thinner pre-stretch “X-Pect Plus” mulch film of 18 or 20 µm,
which has been trialled in Carnarvon by Amcor Flexibles and has been commercially
available for the last four years (Andrew Makin, pers. comm.9). X-Pect Plus uses cold
stretching technology to produce thinner mulch film without compromising quality. X-Pect
Plus films are applied with reduced laying tension that pulls tight as the film memory is
activated. These mulch films hug the bed tighter which reduces billowing and damage to
seedlings from wind damage. These mulch films generally reduce the amount of film used by
30%9, however are more costly.
Amcor Flexibles have also been involved in a research project with the CRC for Polymers
over the last four years looking at degradable additives, however product development has
not been finalised10). The CRC research is directed towards “developing stretched polyolefin
films for use in agricultural production that will degrade in a controlled way during, or at the
completion of, the growing cycle and so enhance water retention and crop outcomes”10.
Website https://www.crcp.com.au/index.php
Amcor Flexibles have recently sold their interests in producing agricultural mulch film to
Integrated Packaging Australia Pty Ltd in Victoria (Terry Henderson pers. comm.11). In
recent years one of Integrated Packaging Australia Pty Ltd's chief commercial focuses
has been the development of thin, pre-stretched plastic stretch films, which have similar
performance characteristics to conventional thicker films12. They represent a downgauging of approximately 40 per cent on average, and if the Australian agricultural and
industrial market were converted to pre-stretch films, the amount of stretch film required
by the market would be reduced by approximately 10,000 tonnes. Integrated Packaging
Australia Pty Ltd supports the development of markets for use of recycled products
through its membership of PACIA and of the Silage and Mulch Film Task Force.
8
Briassoulis, D. (2005). The effects of tensile stress and the agrochemical Vapam on the ageing of low density polyethylene (LDPE) agricultural films. Part I. Mechanical behaviour Polymer Degradation and Stability 88:489‐
503. 9
Andrew Makin, Amcor Flexibles Australasia, Kewdale, pers. comm. 2009 10
CRC for Polymers website https://www.crcp.com.au/index.php?stm_a=23|&stm_h=m;252|ma;3043|r;&m=252|&ma=3043|&r=|&stm_
s=|&stm_o=|&0&rid=8274249aeac46de3&pid=8274249aeac46de3 11
Terry Henderson, Amcor Flexibles, Australia, Melbourne, pers. comm. 2009. 12
Integrated Packaging Australia Pty Ltd National Packaging Covenant Action Plan 2005‐08. Website http://www.packagingcovenant.org.au/documents/File/ap_Integrated_Packaging_Australia_05_08_PUBLIC.pd
f
Page 13 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 6.1.4. Crop Nets
A Carnarvon-based company Crop Nets sells and erects HDPE crop netting, manufactured
by Gale Pacific Inc. and marketed under the ‘Coolaroo’ brand, which is used in the
horticultural industry to reduce damage to produce caused by birds, sun and wind1. The
netting has a ten to fifteen year life expectancy1. When removed the nets are cut down from
supporting structures, leaving the wire around the perimeter to be collected separately13. It
is possible that the HDPE crop netting is recyclable provided the material is relatively free
from contamination and the perimeter wire has been removed.
The use of crop netting has expanded in recent years, from covering crops and offering bird
protection with 12-30% shade cloth netting (8-24 mm quad cross-over; 120-60 g/m2) to also
utilising 50-70% shade cloth (160-220 g/m2) netting as a wind break, particularly for banana
crops13.
Website http://www.coolaroo.com/products/synthesis/
6.1.5. Agfilm Agencies Top Bunch Covers
Top Bunch Covers are co-extruded polyethylene tubular film used for casing banana
bunches and sold by Agfilm Agencies Pty Ltd based in Brisbane, Queensland. The covers
produce a micro climate conducive to reduce burning of the fruit and aid in pest
management. CGA sell around 25 rolls of Top Bunch Covers each year. Their relative
impact on waste plastic production within the Gascoyne is minimal.
Website http://www.topbunchcovers.com.au/index.html
6.2.
ALTERNATIVE PRODUCTS POTENTIALLY AVAILABLE ON THE
MARKET
A range of potential replacement plastic products exist, particularly for the LDPE plastic
mulch films, that are either recyclable, degradable or thinner than the existing film used in
the Gascoyne horticultural industry. The first alternative degradable mulch film products
were a mixture of polyethylene with starch and polyesters of bacterial origin. There are at
least 30 different types of degradable materials available in the market, some of which have
the same characteristics and are as manageable as traditional plastics (Bastioli et al. 199014;
Bastioli et al. 199315). Many polymers that are claimed to be ‘biodegradable’ are in fact
‘bioerodable’, ‘hydrobiodegradable’, ‘photodegradable’, or just partially biodegradable9
requiring some process of degradation other than by microorganisms, such as action by
water or UV radiation. These polymers are classified under the broader category of
‘environmentally degradable polymers’. Biodegradation is chemical degradation of plastics
through the action of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae16. The products
outlined below may provide future possibilities, with the support of industry partners, for
product replacement, innovative product development or technology transfer, with a resultant
reduction in plastics being sent to landfill. Some possibilities include:
13
Geoff Woods, Crop Nets, Carnarvon, pers. comm. 2009. Bastioli, C., Belloti, V. and Gilli, G. (1990). The use of agricultural commodities as a source of new plastic materials. International Symposium on Biodegradable Packaging and Agricultural Films. Paris, France, 10‐11 May. 15
Bastioli, C., Belloti, V., Del Giudice, L. and Gilli, G. (1993). Mater‐Bi: properties and biodegradability. Journal of Environmental Polymer Degradation, 1(3):181‐191. 16
Kyrikou, J. and Briassoulis, D. (2007). Biodegradation of Agricultural Plastic Films: A Critical Review. Journal of Polymer Environment 15: 125‐150. 14
Page 14 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 6.2.1. EPI Environmental Technologies Inc.
TDPA™ (Totally Biodegradable Plastic Additives) based technology, used by the Dog Tidy
Company and Biowrap (see Section 6.2.7), enables products made from polyethylene to
degrade and, in most cases biodegrade, when discarded, into environmentally benign
products within a few months to a few years. EPI markets TDPA to plastics manufacturers
around the world, primarily to include in packaging materials and agricultural plastics.
Small quantities of TDPA added to commonly used resins during the manufacture of plastic
products causes the modified plastic to degrade at a controlled rate17. Degradation of the
plastic products is initiated by exposure to ultraviolet light, elevated temperatures and/or
mechanical stress and involves the reaction of the plastic with oxygen in the air. It is
“programmed” to start degradation on disposal after the product has fulfilled the required
service lives as defined by end users. Products made with polyethylene (such as shopping
and garbage bags) have been shown to biodegrade into non-toxic end products17.
Biodegradable plastics incorporating TDPA are cost-competitive, compatible with existing
recycling operations and can be mixed with conventional plastic products in the recycling
process. ASTM D6954-04 is the standard guide developed for Exposing and Testing plastics
that Degrade in the Environment by a Combination of Oxidation and Biodegradation.
Composts made from plastics incorporating TDPA have no toxic effect on sensitive plant or
animal life17.
TDPA products produced by EPI include: blown, cast, cling, laminated, pallet-stretch and
shrink film, bin and box liners, flower wrap and fresh-produce packaging. TDPA additives are
marketed through a network of licensees, sales agents and distributors in eastern
Australia17. Companies such as Tesco (UK), Auchan (France) and the Body Shop
(Worldwide) use TDPA incorporated products. EPI recently opened a new production and
R&D facility in British Columbia, Canada. The laboratory has been established to
manufacture commercial orders of additive blends and process a variety of plastic products
by extrusion17.
Website http://www.epi-global.com/
6.2.2. Ciba ENVIROCARE
Ciba represents EPI in agricultural film additives and applications. Ciba® ENVIROCARE®
AG 1000 is a degradable plastic agricultural mulch film with the TDPA additive from EPI that
offers an economical and ecological alternative when collection and recycling are not viable.
According to Ciba, controlled degradation of the mulch film provides the same agricultural
benefits as conventional mulch film: improved yield, weed control and reduced consumption
of herbicides and water savings18. After harvest the mulch film becomes brittle and breaks
down, leaving no harmful residues. The soil is ready to till for the next crop. Ciba
ENVIROCARE has been successfully used under tomatoes (Plate 2), melon, maize, lettuce
and cotton crops.
17
EPI website http://www.epi‐global.com/ Ciba website http://cibasc.com/index/ind‐index/ind‐agr/ind‐agr‐effects‐2/ind‐agr‐eff‐safety‐and‐
environment/envirocare 18
Page 15 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Plate 2: Ciba ENVIROCARE AG 1000 mulch film under a tomato crop.
Agricultural plastic becomes heavily soiled (e.g. 30% plastic film, 70% dirt, soil, and biomass) and therefore requires extensive cleaning before recycling can be considered.
Agricultural mulch film containing Ciba ENVIROCARE accelerates the weathering of the
mulch film during growing and after harvesting the crop. The “oxo-biodegradation” process is
facilitated by the thermo-inducer (Ciba ENVIROCARE), which breaks down the polymer
chain into oxidized low molecular weight particles. The resultant small pieces are mixed with
the soil during routine cultivation, with further biodegradation by soil micro-organisms19.
The cost of Ciba ENVIROCARE based film is higher than a conventional mulch film (Table
1), but because it degrades, it does not need to be collected, thereby decreasing the total
crop production costs.
Ciba ENVIROCARE has a plastic additives blending facility in Thomastown in Melbourne
where they produce pre-blended additives for the polymer producing industry20.
Unfortunately Ciba ENVIROCARE is no longer supported outside Europe and is not sold in
Australia, however the company remain interested in entering the Australian market and are
keen to pursue trials of the product (D. Svoboda, pers. comm.21).
Website http://cibasc.com/index/cmp-index.htm
Table 1: Australian distributors and approximate cost of currently used (from Carnarvon
Growers Association Inc.) and alternative horticultural products. Costs of alternative products
(not currently used in Carnarvon) are approximate, do not include transport (unless
otherwise stated) and are wholesale to horticultural suppliers. All prices exclude GST. The
costs offer a guide for comparison of alternative products.
Product
Currently used
LDPE mulch film
• 900mm wide x
1250m long (28 kg)
• 1050mm x 1000m
• 1050mm x 1250m
• 1050mm x 1000m
Indicative unit
cost $/m2
Thickness
µm
• $0.10/m
$128/roll
($4.57/kg)
• $126/roll
• $133/roll
• $0.14/m
$138/roll
* Amcor $6/kg
• 25 µm
• 30 µm
• 25 µm
• 30 µm
Australian
Distributor
Distributor Contact
Details
CGA
From Amcor
Flexibles Australia
X-Pect
Ivor Gaylard
General Manager CGA
[email protected].
au
(08)9941 8384
19
Ciba website Case Study http://www.ciba.com/envirocare_case_study.pdf Ciba Australia website http://www.ciba.com/index/cmp‐index/cmp‐worldwide/cmp‐countries/cmp‐ww‐
australia/cmp‐ww‐au‐thomastown.htm 21
Dieter Svoboda, Ciba Australia, pers. comm. 2009. 20
Page 16 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Product
T-Systems T-Tape
2286 m roll (33 kg)
Aqua-Traxx irrigation
tape
2285 m roll
Coolaroo crop netting
• 8mm quad crossover (120 g/m2)
2
• 12mm (100 g/m )
2
• 16mm (80 g/m )
• 20mm (66 g/m2)
• 24mm (60 g/m2)
• 50% wind
break/shade cloth
(160 g/m2)
• 70% (220 g/m2)
Biodegradable
alternatives
Mater-Bi by Novamont
Bioplastics
• 1200mm wide x
1000m long
• 1200mm x 1000m
Indicative unit
cost $/m2
Thickness
µm
$0.10/m
$227/roll
*T-Systems
$160/roll,
$4.85/kg
$0.10/m
$230/roll
• $1.50/m2
2
Australian
Distributor
Distributor Contact
Details
CGA
From T-Systems
CGA
CGA
From Toro Ag
Irrigation
Crop Nets
From Gale Pacific
Inc.
CGA
• $1.00/m
• $0.95/m2
• $0.90/m2
• $0.95/m2
• $1.75/m2
Geoff Woods
Crop Nets
[email protected]
0407 920 193
• $2.20/m2
Australian BioPlastics Bio Mulch
Film
Tom McConchie
[email protected]
m.au
0408 262 228
Olivier de Beaurepaire
Business Developer
Ciba France
olivier.de_beaurepaire
@ciba.com
Neil Thomson
[email protected]
(02) 8257 3338
• $0.29/m
$291.22/roll
• $0.35/m
$352.06/roll
• 12 µm
(4 mths)
• 15 µm
(7 mths)
Ciba ENVIROCARE
AG 1000
1200mm wide x
6666m long
€242.86/roll
$422.26/roll
$0.06/m
15 µm
Ciba Australia Pty
Ltd, Melbourne
From Ciba France
BioAgri
1200mm wide x
1500m long
$459/roll
$0.31/m
delivered to
Carnarvon
For 60+ rolls
$0.12/m
$1.16/roll
$0.02/kg
15 µm
BioBag
Australasia Pty
Ltd
330
grams/m2
Coffs Harbour
Challenge
sales.ecocover@coffsc
hallenge.com.au
(02) 6652 6066
Rainstorm Dust
Control
Roy McInnes
[email protected]
(08) 9459 2785
CGA
From Amcor
Flexibles Australia
X-Pect Plus
CGA
EcoCover GSM 330
2m x 100m (74 kg/roll)
Hydromulching
• Newspaper
• Gluon 240
Other alternatives
LDPE pre-stretch
mulch film
• 1200mm wide x
1250m long (? kg)
• $1.05/m2
• $4/m2
$286/roll RRP
18 µm
Page 17 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 6.2.3. Novamont Bioplastics
Plastral Pty Ltd is the Australasian distributor for the range of Mater-Bi™ non-genetically
modified starch based 100% biodegradable polymers from Novamont Bioplastics in Italy.
Mater-Bi is a bioplastic material with similar properties to conventional plastics. The key raw
materials are natural starch and biodegradable polyesters. Products made from Mater-Bi
retain their properties while in use, then when disposed of into an environment containing
bacteria, biodegrade to carbon dioxide, water and organic humus with no polymeric or toxic
residue22. Mater-Bi conforms to the European EN 13432-2000 requirement for packaging
recoverable through composting and biodegradation.
Mater-Agro (Mater-Bi) film for agricultural mulching is manufactured by Novamont
Bioplastics and sold in Europe. The primary production plant is located in Umbria, Italy and
the current production capacity is 35,000 tonnes per year22.
Experimental trials conducted in 2001-2 in Italy, France, Germany and Spain have shown
that Mater-Bi films maintain their mulching function for 2-5 months, in different seasons and
at different latitudes23. The product was found to be suitable for a variety of fruit and
vegetable crops tested, including melons, tomato, lettuce, aubergine, zucchini, strawberries
and maize. The average production obtained from crops mulched with films in Mater-Bi was
apparently statistically no different from those obtained using conventional films, weed
control was satisfactory and the film biodegraded into the soil without any harmful effects or
accumulation24. Mater-Bi mulch film is effective at lower thicknesses than traditional mulch
films, saving large quantities of material. The film can be placed using currently available
mulching machines and its physical properties compare favourably with standard LDPE film
(Table 2).
Table 2: Typical characteristics of Mater-Bi compared with LDPE25.
Test
Melt flow index
Breaking load
Breaking extension
Young’s modulus
Start of
• Tearing
• Propagation
Water vapour permeability
Standard
Method
Unit of Measure
Mater-Bi
LDPE
ASTM D1238
ASTM D882
ASTM D882
ASTM D638
ASTM D1938
g/10 min
MPa
%
MPa
2-4
20-50
200-600
200-600
0.1-6
20-30
150-600
150-300
N/mm
N/mm
Gr 30mm/m2 24H
20-120
20-120
250-1000
70
70
15
ASTM E96
Novamont Bioplastics highlight the need for residual Mater-Bi mulch film to be ploughed into
the soil as film residuals left on the surface will not degrade as rapidly as those under the soil
exposed to the action of the soil microorganisms that are responsible for the biodegradation
of Mater-Bi26.
Novamont Bioplastics website www.materbi.com
Plastral website http://www.plastral.com.au/bioplastics.htm
22
Novamont Bioplastics Italy website www.materbi.com Mater Bi Experimental Field Trials website http://www.materbiagro.com/ing/tabelle.html 24
Mater Bi Agronomic Results website http://www.materbiagro.com/ing/risultati.html 25
Website http://www.polymailplastics.com/materbitechnical.htm 26
Mater Agro User Manual. Novamont Mater‐Bi located at http://www.materbiagro.com/ing/caratteristiche.html 23
Page 18 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Mater-Bi is distributed in other countries under a variety of trade names. For example
Dubois Agrinovation market BioTelo Mulch Film made of Mater-Bi in North America and
BioBag produce BioAgri in Australia (see section 6.2.4below).
Website http://www.duboisag.com/catalog.php?lang=en&category_id=8
6.2.4. BioAgri Produced by BioBag
BioAgri is produced from Mater-Bi by Norwegian company Polargruppen under the BioBag
label from Mater-Bi bioplastic (developed by Novamont Bioplastics) that is biodegradable
and compostable in soil. BioAgri mulch films are ploughed into the soil at the end of a crop
cycle and are a Biological Farmers of Australia (BFA, a not-for-profit organisation working on
policy and organic industry development) registered product for organic agriculture. BioAgri
mulch film can be delivered in a variety of sizes and thicknesses from 10 to 180 µm, though
15 µm is recommended for agricultural mulch film (Neil Thomson pers. comm.27). The
product is marketed in Australia by BioBag Australasia Pty. Ltd. based in Sydney (Table 1).
Widths vary from 600 – 3,000 mm and typically 2,000 m lengths are produced, though
various lengths can be supplied upon request.
Website http://www.polargruppen.no/default.pl?showPage=217
Website http://www.biobaganz.com/Site/Home.html
6.2.5. Biograde
The Biograde Group manufactures biodegradable corn starch-based resins in China and
distributes products globally28. Biograde Limited is an Australian company that was
established in Melbourne in 2002. Biograde B-F is a biodegradable and compostable
polymer suitable for the manufacturing of film-type products, including agricultural mulch film.
Biograde B-F is based on a blend of TPS, aliphatic polyesters and natural plasticizers and
does not contain any non-degradable polymers such as polyethylene.
It can be
manufactured in the same machinery used for conventional plastics.
Biograde’s resin complies with European standard EN13432, meeting the following four
standard requirements:
• 90% of the material must disintegrate into small fragments less than 2 mm in size
within 3 months of being placed in Industrial Compost,
• 90% of the material must biodegrade and change into carbon dioxide and water
within 6 months,
• The material must meet strict limits for heavy metal content set on a national basis,
and
• The quality of the resulting compost must be safe for the environment. Toxicity tests
are conducted using plant seedlings and earthworms29.
At present Biograde B-F is designed to last for two weeks only, degrading more rapidly in the
presence of moisture and with exposure to higher temperatures. Biograde B-F is typically 610 times the price of standard LDPE black plastic mulch film30. Biograde Limited specialise
in the production of blown film bags in Australia and while they are able to produce a longer
lasting mulch film, are not likely to do so in the near future30.
Website http://www.biograde.com.au/
27
Neil Thomson, Director, BioBag Australasia Pty. Ltd, pers. comm. 2009. 28
Biograde website http://www.biograde.com.au/ Biograde Brochure located at http://www.biograde.com.au/downloads.htm 30
Biograde Managing Director, Frank Glatz pers. comm. 29
Page 19 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 6.2.6. EcoCover Paper Mulch Mat
EcoCover is a paper mulch mat made with up to 87% recycled waste paper and post
consumer recycled paper (Plate 3), predominantly produced and marketed in North
America31. It is made with two pieces of recycled Kraft paper with a centre filled with
shredded white paper or clean office waste31. The core of the mat is also a carrier for
additives like organic fertiliser, soil amendments or minerals. The manufacturing process
creates ‘zero waste’ and the product is biodegradable and therefore tilled into the soil.
EcoCover suggest that “independently conducted agricultural research has shown
repeatedly and conclusively that EcoCover does a better job than plastic” in stopping weed
growth, increasing agricultural yields and plant growth, conserving irrigation water and soil
moisture, moderating soil temperatures due to its insulative properties, and reducing plant
mortality. EcoCover also enriches the soil and reduces the need for herbicides and chemical
fertilisers. Manufactured from paper based products, its decomposition provides valuable
carbon to the soil structure, in turn increasing the water and nutrient retention properties of
the soil.
Plate 3: Laying EcoCover paper mulch mat in preparation for planting a horticultural crop.
Photo
from
EcoCover
website
http://www.ecocover-america.com/plastic-mulchalternative.htm
EcoCover has been used in Australia for agriculture and by commercial nurseries
and government supplied from the EcoCover plant in Auckland, New Zealand32. Coffs
Harbour Challenge has recently commenced manufacturing EcoCover Mulch Mat in
Australia (Table 1). The organisation is contracted to the Commonwealth Department of
Family and Community Services to provide supported employment for people with a
disability33. Bunnings now stock EcoCover in eastern Australian stores from Melbourne to
Brisbane, for home gardening and small-scale landscaping applications33.
EcoCover is available in standard widths of 50 cm to 2 m and a standard roll length of 100 m
however it is easily cut to required lengths and widths.
31
EcoCover website http://www.ecocover‐america.com/index.html EcoCover website http://www.ecocover‐america.com/business‐opportunities‐australia‐manufacturing.htm 33
Coffs Harbour Challenge website http://www.coffschallenge.com.au/ecocover/ 32
Page 20 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ To establish an EcoCover production plant in Australia costs approximately $2,000,000 (S.
Thompson pers. comm.34). The patented process requires Kraft paper and clean office
waste, which would be available in high enough quantities in Perth, but not Carnarvon34.
Website http://www.ecocover-america.com/agricultural-mulch-plastic-replacement.html
6.2.7. Kraft Paper
Another option for the replacement of LDPE agricultural mulch film is heavy brown Kraft
paper (Saikraft 200 g/m2, 185µm), as used during research trials in Spain35 (see section
6.3.5) and marketed by VISY in Australia in a range of dimensions. The “kraft process”
converts wood chips into pulp consisting of almost pure cellulose fibres via treatment with a
mixture of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide.
Website http://www.visy.com.au/pulpandpaper/?id=52
6.2.8. Rainstorm Hydromulching
Rainstorm Dust Control was founded in 1983 to provide dust suppressants and soil
stabilisers for a range of industries36. Rainstorm developed a “hydromulching” division in
Western Australia in 2001, offering newspaper pulp and a polymer Gluon 240 sprayed over
the soil via high capacity water cannon, fan or boom sprays or by hand-held hose at a rate of
up to 10 hectares per day. Trucks used are 4WD or 6WD and mulch can be sprayed with
additives of seeds, fertilisers, tackifiers and green dye36.
Hydromulching in the Perth metropolitan area currently costs around $0.35/m2, however
discussion with Roy McInnes37 from Rainstorm’s Perth office, suggested that for an
agricultural application, the paper mulch may need to be 2-3 times the thickness, bringing
the cost to $1.05/m2 (Table 1)37. Mobilisation costs need to be added to bring specialised
machinery to Carnarvon, either from Perth or the Pilbara.
The Gluon 240 polymer is similar to a Glad Wrap film that remains intact on the surface but
biodegrades once ploughed into the soil37. During trials at Iluka minesite in Eneabba,
Western Australia, the product remained on the surface for 4-5 years37. In the Perth
metropolitan area Gluon 240 is typically sprayed at a rate of 800 litres/ha, however the
product might be utilised at a higher rate of up to 2,000 litres/ha and an associated cost of
around $4/ha37 (Table 1).
A negative aspect is the fragility of both mulches once sprayed; if trodden on they will break
as they are designed for non-trafficking purposes37.
Website http://www.rainstorm.com.au/hydromulch.htm
6.2.9. Om Bioplast
Om Bioplast Pty Ltd manufacture a biodegradable plastic agricultural mulch film using 30%
Masterbatch loading (compounded blend of polyethylene and carbohydrates) and 70%
LLDPE. The film is combustible, photodegradable and compostable in the presence of
34
Stephen Thompson, Sales Consultant, Coffs Harbour Challenge, pers. comm. 2009. Anzalone, A., Cirujeda, A., Aibar, J., Pardo, G., León, M. and Zaragoza, C. (2007). Evaluation of biodegradable mulch materials for weed control in processing tomato. In: European Weed Research Society. Proceedings of the 7th EWRS Workshop on Physical and Cultural Weed Control, 11‐14 March 2007. Salem, Germany. 36
Website http://www.rainstorm.com.au/hydromulch.htm 37
Roy McInnes, Director, Rainstorm, (08) 9459 2785, pers. comm. 2009. 35
Page 21 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ earthworms. Limited field trials in Queensland by DPI&F were not promising (see Section
6.3.1below).
Website http://www.omengrs.com/ombio/product2.htm
6.2.10. Bionolle
Bionolle is biodegradable plastic that has been used as agricultural mulch film and
decomposes into water and carbon dioxide with microbial action. Japanese company
Showa Highpolymer Co Ltd produces Bionolle. Limited field trials in Queensland by DPI&F
were not promising (see Section 6.3.1below).
Website http://www.shp.co.jp/en/bionolle.htm
6.2.11. The Dog Tidy Company and Biowrap
Carnarvon Shire Council use degradable dog faeces disposal bags supplied from The Dog
Tidy Company in Moorabbin, Victoria. The plastic used in the bag manufacture is recycle
grade 2 and follows ASTM D883 (1999), ASTM D3826 (2002), and ASTM WK 262 (2003)
standards. The Dog Tidy Company uses the TDPA oxo-biodegrading technology developed
by EPI Environmental Technologies Inc. of Vancouver, Canada (see Section 6.2.1). Bag
dimensions are: length 400 mm, width 200 mm, depth (gusset) 100 mm, 200 bags per roll,
supplied in cartons of 10 rolls38.
Website www.dogtidy.com.au
Biowrap, another Australian company, produces 100% degradable plastic film for packaging.
Biowrap is made from polyethylene and like the Dog Tidy Company’s biodegradable dog
faeces disposal bags contains the TDPA oxo-biodegradable additive manufactured by EPI39.
D&D Mailing Services, the largest plastic shrink wrap mailing house in Australia, use
Biowrap. In addition to the degradability, all waste plastic is recycled back to the supplier.
The recycled product is pulped and used again, reducing the amount of plastic material
which would normally end up in landfill.
Website http://www.biowrap.com.au/aboutus.asp
Both companies, while not manufacturing agricultural mulch film, utilise degradable plastics
technology that offer possibilities for use in horticultural products in Australia.
6.2.12. Amcor Flexibles Australasia
Amcor Flexibles Australasia makes a range of flexible packaging products including
agricultural mulch films, printed and unprinted mono and multi-layer plastic films, laminations
and converted products for consumer and industrial applications. One of the key features of
flexible packaging is the fact that it weighs so little in comparison to the product that it
contains. This has resulted in a reduction in the materials used, and thus resources utilised,
to contain the same amount of product. There are also continuous improvements in
packaging materials and production methods that allow even lighter weight materials to be
used. Although mixed flexible packaging waste is often not easily recycled, it does provide a
valuable source of energy and many countries benefit from the calorific value of this
packaging waste being used as fuel at energy plants.
Amcor Flexibles produce the X-Pect LDPE black and black and white 25 and 30 µm plastic
mulch film used by the Carnarvon fruit and vegetable growers (see Section 6.1.3 above).
38
39
Dog Tidy Company website www.dogtidy.com.au Biowrap website http://www.biowrap.com.au/aboutus.asp Page 22 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Website http://www.amcor.com/businesses/australasia/aa_flexibles/amcor_flexibles.html
6.2.13. Univenture
Irish company Univenture has been designing and manufacturing plastic media packaging
since 1988. One arm of the company, Eco Endure, provides 100% biodegradable
polypropylene and 100% recyclable polypropylene products. For example, plastic bags
manufactured from polypropylene Mater-Bi resin are compostable and biodegradable (Plate
4). The modified cornstarch bio-resin is up to 40% sustainable/renewable40.
Plate 4: Eco Endure plastic bags manufactured from Mater-Bi.
Website http://ecoendure.com/packaging.php
6.2.14. Stark Engineering
Stark Engineering and Hardware Pty Ltd construct equipment for the material handling of
fruit and vegetables, particularly in the post harvest area using the trade name “Starkbilt”.
Their factory is situated in the Lockyer Valley, Queensland. One product “Plasroll” (Plate 5)
is used to reel in drip irrigation tape and mulch film, providing a more compact bundle of
waste plastics (Plate 6) for disposal via transport to landfill. A new Plasroll costs around
$15,000.
Plate 5: Stark Engineering’s “Plasroll” for reeling used drip irrigation tape and LDPE mulch
film, used by a Carnarvon fruit and vegetable grower.
40
Eco Endure website http://www.univenture.com/acatalog/eco_friendly_products.html#a13763 Page 23 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Plate 6: Drip irrigation tape and mulch film rolled up in Carnarvon using Stark Engineering’s
“Plasroll” in readiness for transport to Brown’s Range Landfill.
Website http://www.starkeng.com.au/hortic.html
6.2.15. Andros Engineering
Andros Engineering in California, USA designs micro-irrigation retrieval and extraction
products. The patented Agri-Spool II (Plate 7) enables users to retrieve and reuse drip
irrigation tape.
Plate 7: Agri Spool II manufactured by Andros Engineering in the USA.
Website http://www.andros-engineering.com/irrigation.html
Page 24 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 6.3.
AUSTRALIAN AND INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH INTO ALTERNATIVES
6.3.1. Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries
The Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPI&F) have been working on methods
for recycling and more recently replacing horticultural plastic film at Bowen Research Station
in Queensland for the last 20 years.
DPI&F list the key desirable characteristics for biodegradable mulch as:
•
No disposal issues – mulch can be incorporated into soil after harvest leaving no
toxic residues or build up of toxins or plastics over time,
•
Ability to be handled with current commercial equipment and systems with only
minor, if any, adjustments needed,
•
Weed suppression, water retention, crop quality and yields comparative to those
currently provided by standard polyethylene mulch film,
•
Adequate bed coverage throughout the life of the crop including a period of at least
four weeks exposure to photo-degradation prior to the crop being planted, and
•
Economic viability41.
A recycling plant was established and functioned from 2004 to 2005 however the product
was contaminated and expensive to produce42 (S. Heisswolf pers. comm.). The plant was
subsequently decommissioned.
DPI&F researchers have trialled alternative mulches and up until now, all have failed due to
prohibitive cost, failure to biodegrade or being unusable in a commercial context. Mater-Bi
biodegradable plastic from Novamont Bioplastics in Italy was first trialled at the Bowen
Research Station in 1998, along with a Japanese product, Bionolle. Neither product was
pursued at the time.
More recently, improved black 12, 15 and 20 µm Mater-Bi mulch film was compared with the
standard black LDPE mulch film currently used by the horticulture industry with trials under
tomato, watermelon, zucchini and capsicum crops (Plate 5). Trials were conducted on local
farms during 2006, 2007 and 2008 and in strip trials at the Bowen Research Station during
2007 and 2008 with promising results41,43,44,45.
41
Heisswolf, S. (2009). Agricultural Mulch Film Trials Situation Statement March 2009. Sue Heisswolf, Senior Horticulturist, Bowen Research Station, pers. comm. 2009, DPI&F (07) 4761 4000 43
DPI&F (2008). Media Release. Biodegradable mulch trials: growers invited to view progress http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/cps/rde/dpi/hs.xsl/30_11084_ENA_HTML.htm 44
Heisswolf, S. (2007). Biodegradable Mulch Trial. November 2007 Farm Walk. Leaflet produced by DPI&F. 45
Heisswolf, S. (2008). Biodegradable Mulch Trials. November 2008 Farm Walk. Leaflet produced by DPI&F. 42
Page 25 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Plate 8: 15 µm Mater-Bi biodegradable plastic film in use during field trials in Queensland.
Photo from DPI&F44.
Results from this research (Figure 3) have suggested that both 12 and 15 µm Mater-Bi
mulch film were capable of being laid and planted with existing commercial equipment.
Some technical issues need to be considered in future research including:
•
Problems with planting wheel damage with Mater-Bi and polyethylene mulch were
encountered due to hard ground, requiring water addition prior to planting,
•
Mater-Bi was more susceptible to tearing and damage,
•
15 µm Mater-Bi may be laid several weeks prior to planting but 12 µm Mater-Bi was
untested. Mater-Bi will photo-degrade more quickly in the absence of a crop cover,
thus additional research into the length of time required between laying mulch and
planting crops is required,
•
The date of manufacture is important in assessing longevity in the field; mulch should
have been produced within six months of laying,
•
Possible permeability issues remain under investigation and it was recommended not
to use a soil fumigant such as metham sodium, and
•
Potential problem with small pieces of mulch adhering to capsicum and watermelon.
This problem was also observed during the Bowen Research Station trials41,45.
Figure 3: Biodegradability rating for Mater-Bi mulch film under capsicum crops at the Bowen
Research Station in Queensland in 2007. Figure from DPI&F44.
Page 26 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Two small samples of other products Bioplast (2008) and Biograde (an alternative corn
starch/polyester based biodegradable mulch from China; trials in 2007 and 2008 used white
20 µm and black 25 µm) were also evaluated but gave less promising results44.
Previous research at DPI&F’s Bowen Research Station in Queensland trialled the use of
permanent-bed vegetable production systems using annual crops as organic mulch and
herbicides to control weeds46. Trial sites were located in the Northern Territory, Queensland,
New South Wales and Victoria. Crops grown included capsicum, aubergine, rockmelon,
pumpkin, honeydew, watermelon, broccoli and ground tomatoes. Results were variable. For
example, total yields were similar between the two systems for tomato production, but were
delayed where organic mulch was used instead of black plastic. Seedless watermelon
yields were comparable under both systems, however the harvest period and number of
harvests was greater on the crops grown on organic mulch compared to plastic45. Cost
comparisons between the two systems suggested that savings were generated by using the
permanent-bed growing system, particularly through land and pre-planting preparation and
clean-up.
DPI&F recently submitted a project proposal to Horticulture Australia Ltd with support from
Novamont Bioplastics (Mater-Bi), EcoCover (paper mulch mat), the Bowen District Growers
Association and the Queensland state government in March 2009. The ongoing project
seeks to examine the efficacy of weed control and the effect of Mater-Bi mulch film on crop
production using field trials at the Bowen Research Station and continued on farm evaluation
of new products41.
6.3.2. Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia
The Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia (DAFWA) apparently conducted
trials of biodegradable plastic mulch at the Gascoyne Research Station in Carnarvon,
however results of the trials are unknown as the Research Officer involved in the trials no
longer works with DAFWA and is currently uncontactable47.
DAFWA advise horticulturists that standard hay balers can be used to reduce waste
polyethylene volume to about one-sixth48. Balers need a tine fork feed, not an auger feed, to
avoid plastic wrapping around the feed mechanism. Small square balers were preferred
because their bales are easier to handle. Plastic should be as clean as possible and bales
tied with plastic twine, not jute.
Agricultural plastic has a high relative energy value (40 MJ/kg) compared to other products
such as wood and newspaper2 (18 MJ/kg) and produces water and carbon dioxide during
the combustion process. It is therefore regarded as a suitable fuel for high temperature
combustion should large quantities be available close to an incinerator. While polyethylene
can be recycled, the process is energy-negative and is not common in Australia.
Website http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/content/past/stor/f00197.pdf
6.3.3. Environment Australia – Biodegradable Plastics Review
A range of alternative biodegradable plastics were suggested by the Department of the
Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (2002; formerly Environment Australia) including
TPS (thermoplastic starch biodegradable plastics), AAC (aliphatic-aromatic copolyesters)
46
Horticulture Australia. No‐Till, Permanent Bed, Vegetable Production Systems Best Practice Manual located at http://www.growcom.com.au/_uploads/155413NOVBestPracticeManual.pdf 47
M. Littlely, DAFWA Research Officer, pers. comm. 2009. 48
Environmental Best Practice Guidelines 8.0 Waste Management http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/content/aap/dc/8_wastemanagement.pdf Page 27 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ and “Prodegradant” additives5. The use of biodegradable agricultural films may also prevent
the loss of topsoil humus that can be removed at the end of the growing season along with
the plastic film by instead enriching the soil with an additional source of carbon.
Thermoplastic starch biodegradable plastics (TPS) have a starch (amylose) content greater
than 70% and are based on gelatinised vegetable starch. TPS compounds can be
processed on existing plastics fabrication equipment.
Aliphatic-aromatic copolyesters (AAC) combine the biodegradable properties of aliphatic
polyesters with the strength and performance properties of aromatic polyesters5. AAC come
closer than any other biodegradable plastics to equalling the properties of LDPE. AAC
biodegrade to carbon dioxide, water and biomass.
“Prodegradant” additives impart controlled degradation behaviour to conventional
thermoplastics and biodegradable plastics5. The additives are generally based on catalytic
transition metal compounds such as cobalt stearate or manganese stearate5. The additive
typically leads to additional costs of 10-35% above polyethylene. EPI Environmental
Technologies in the USA are the principal company that has developed these prodegradant
additives (TDPA). In Australia Enviro Covers Australia (Nerang, Queensland) distribute
degradable polyethylene landfill covers based on EPI technology. Valpak (Cromer, NSW)
produce degradable plastic BioBag bags, again based on EPI technology. Amcor Flexibles
have licensed the EPI technology, which allows them to produce plastic film and bags that
will degrade in a dry landfill5. These prodegradant containing films possess the same
mechanical properties as polyethylene.
6.3.4. Victorian Research Trials
The Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for International Food Manufacture and Packaging
Science developed a starch-based biodegradable mulch film for farmers in association with
CSIRO Manufacturing Science and Technology in Victoria.
Field trials using the
biodegradable mulch film on tomato and capsicum crops have shown it performs just as well
as polyethylene film but can simply be ploughed into the ground after harvest (Salt 200249).
However, degradable starch-filled conventional polyethylene films were regarded as
potentially unacceptable due to residuals that build up in the soil over time (Kitch 200150).
LLDPE plastic used for silage wrap was collected from three regions in Victoria. The
unprocessed, contaminated film was exported to Hong Kong to be reprocessed. However,
the material was rejected by the Hong Kong markets due to high water and contamination
issues. Sustainability Victoria was also performing trials to reprocess the film in Victoria to
produce new plastic51.
6.3.5. Centre for Research and Technology of Aragon, Spain
Field trials in Zaragoza, Spain in 2005 and 2006 through the Centre for Research and
Technology of Aragon (CITA) Plant Health Research Unit, evaluated biodegradable plastics
49
Salt, D. (2002). Making packaging greener – Biodegradable Plastics, CSIRO Manufacturing Science and Technology, from: http://www.science.org.au/nova/061/061cred.htm 50
Kitch, D. (2001). Global Overview – Biodegradable Polymers and Organics Recycling. Biocycle – Journal of Composting and Organics Recycling, The JG Press, February 2001. 51
DEC (2006). Used Industrial Plastics in Western Australia ‐ Waste Management Practices and Potential Recycling Strategies. Prepared by Cardno BSD Pty Ltd. Located at website http://www.zerowastewa.com.au/documents/used_indust_plastics.pdf Page 28 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ as a soil cover to control weeds in horticultural crops52. As in Carnarvon the plastic mulch
film was causing a disposal problem for the growers. Anzalone et al. (2007)35 found the use
of heavy brown Kraft paper (Saikraft 200 g/m2, 185 µm) as mulch for weed control
comparable to biodegradable black Mater-Bi mulch film (15 µm) and standard black
polyethylene mulch (15 µm). The researchers suggested that paper was a cheap and
biodegradable product which may offer alternatives to the plastic film currently used in the
horticultural industry (Anzalone et al. 2007; Palou et al. 2008)35,53.
Figure 4: Weed soil cover 63 days after transplantation in 2005 and 2006. Different letters
refer to significant differences following Tukey mean separations test (P < 0.05) in each
year. Source: Anzalone et al. (2007) Figure 135. The results show that “in those plots where
no control measure was applied in 2005 or where the control measure was not sufficient (like
in Artemisia), weed cover increased in 2006, probably due to an increase of the weed soil
seed bank.35” In other trial plots the weed cover typically decreased in the subsequent
growing season due to the cumulative effect of mulch used over the two growing seasons.
Additional work on biodegradable plastics by Martín and Pelacho (2004)54 and Moreno et al.
(2004)55 has also shown promising results. In particular, weeds were controlled without
leaving harmful soil residues.
Paper has been touted as another alternative to plastic mulch film. It is economic,
biodegradable and can be purchased in quantities suitable for small and large fruit and
vegetable farms. Its greatest limitations are its placement by the machinery, which causes
52
Website http://www.cita‐
aragon.es/index.php/mod.proyectos/mem.detalle/idproyecto.208/relcategoria.1071/chk.ba0b100305bfcd348
cc5f0e036fc6990.html 53
Palou, A.T., Ranzenberger, A.C. and Larios, C.Z. (2008). Management of herbicide‐resistant weed populations 100 questions on resistance. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 54
Martín, C. and Pelacho, A. (2004). Los acolchados biodegradables como alternativa a los acolchados de papel y polietileno en un sistema de producción de tomate. In: Resúmenes del VI Congreso de la Sociedad Española de Agricultura Ecológica (SEAE). Editado por la SEAE. Valencia, España. 55
Moreno, M., Moreno, A., Mancebo, I., Meco, R. & Lopez, J. (2004). Comparación de differentes materiales de acolchado en cultivo de tomate. VI Congreso de la Sociedad Española de Agricultura Ecológica (SEAE), Almería, p.243. Page 29 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ the paper to be broken easily, and its short life span due to soil moisture. Research has
shown that Kraft paper of 90-200 g/m2 can be used with 77–96% weed control. Its
effectiveness was equal to standard polyethylene mulch film used for three months for
growing a tomato crop52. The weeds were not able to perforate the paper layer, soil moisture
was not retained like plastic sheeting, and the paper did not leave residues as in plastic
mulching52. The greatest disadvantage was that equipment had to be adjusted (tension
reduced, microperforation avoided and installation speed reduced) so that placement over
the soil was more difficult35,52. Recycled paper is recommended whenever the heavy metal
content is low in order to prevent harmful soil residues.
A field experiment was conducted in 2001 in an organic tomato farm in Spain to compare the
agronomic behaviour of polyethylene mulch, bare soil (the control), paper mulch and starchbased biodegradable Mater-Bi mulch film. The Mater-Bi and polyethylene mulch treatments
were similar and better than the paper mulch and control treatments with respect to plant
growth and fruit production. All mulch treatments were effective in controlling the weeds
however Mater-Bi was regarded as a good alternative to the use of polyethylene or paper
mulch in organic tomato production systems (Martín-Closas et al. 200656; Martín-Closas et
al. 200657).
6.3.6. EcoCover Research
A six-month independent research project was conducted at Massey University in New
Zealand, comparing the use of EcoCover paper mulch mat and black plastic film in the
production of tomatoes and capsicums in an organic field trial. For tomatoes EcoCover
yielded 4.0 kg or 60 tomatoes per plant compared with 3.4 kg or 48 tomatoes per plant for
black plastic mulch. For capsicums EcoCover yielded 18 per plant while black plastic mulch
yielded 14 per plant. EcoCover produced larger tomatoes and capsicums58. The EcoCover
mulch mat is able to be enriched with fertiliser prior to laying, adding further benefits to
horticultural production.
EcoCover was successful in suppressing many annual and perennial weed species (Table
3)59. All weeds in EcoCover plots grew through the planting holes only with no physical
penetration of the mulch. Fewer weeds grew through the EcoCover planting holes than
through the black plastic planting holes, primarily due to the flexibility of the paper mulch that
allows it to be folded back to cover the planting holes after slitting and is less likely to be
moved by the wind. No weed germination was apparent under the EcoCover mat throughout
the trial, suggesting no light was able to infiltrate the mulch mat. A slight problem occurred
with black plastic mulch sometimes covering crop plants at early growing stages due to
movement of the plastic by wind. This problem did not occur under EcoCover.
56
Martín‐Closas, L., Bach, M.A. and Pelacho A.M. (2006) Biodegradable Mulching In An Organic Tomato Production System ISHS Acta Horticulturae 767: XXVII International Horticultural Congress ‐ IHC2006: International Symposium on Sustainability through Integrated and Organic Horticulture. 57
Martín‐Closas, L., Soler, J., and Pelacho, A. M. (2003). Effect of different biodegradable mulch materials on an organic tomato production system. Kuratorium für Technik und Bauwesen in der Landwirtschaft e.V. Reference located at Cabi Abstracts website. http://www.cababstractsplus.org/abstracts/Abstract.aspx?AcNo=20033186608 58
EcoCover website http://www.ecocover‐america.com/plastic‐mulch‐alternative.htm 59
EcoCover website http://www.ecocover‐america.com/organic‐weed‐control‐product.htm Page 30 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Table 3: Total weed number per m² of weeds under treatments of EcoCover mulch mat,
black plastic and bare soil59. Results from EcoCover website http://www.ecocoveramerica.com/organic-weed-control-product.htm
New Zealand weed species
Bare soil
Black plastic
EcoCover
Twin cress (Coronopus didymus)
Chickweed (Stellaria media)
Sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus)
Mallow (Malva spp.)
Red dead-nettle (Lamium purpureum)
Dock (Rumex spp.)
Scrambling speedwell (Veronica persica)
Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris)
White clover (Trifolium repens)
Annual poa (Poa annua)
Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum)
Hawkbit (Leontodon taraxacoides)
Milkweed (Euphorbia peplus)
Scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis)
Oxalis (Oxalis spp.)
Prickly sow thistle (Sonchus asper)
Daisy (Bellis perennis)
Narrow-leaved plantain (Plantago lanceolata)
Nettle (Urtica urens)
Spurrey (Spergula arvensis)
Broad-leaved plantain (Plantago major)
Cleavers (Galium aparine)
228.9
120.0
90.0
78.9
61.1
42.2
38.9
35.6
26.7
11.1
6.7
5.6
3.3
3.3
2.2
2.2
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
5.9
7.0
0.3
2.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.3
0.0
0.0
1.7
0.0
3.0
0.7
0.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
Total weed number per m²
761.0
20.8
9.7
A small research trial at Southern Cross University in Australia showed that EcoCover
suppressed 100% of weeds over a period of 18 weeks59.
Additional trials examining soil moisture profiles under bare soil and EcoCover were
conducted at Southern Cross University and Massey University. Both trials determined that
the top 5 cm of soil was the most important in terms of moisture conservation and that soil
moisture content was substantially improved by the use of EcoCover mulch mat compared to
that of bare soil59. Massey University research also suggested that EcoCover had greater
efficiency than bare soil or black plastic in conserving soil moisture and that moisture content
in black plastic and bare soil treatments were similar59.
Living Systems, Sustainability Consultants of Auckland, are supervising a five-year
University R&D project, which commenced in September 2008. To date, the key findings of
the research in New Zealand are:
•
“EcoCover will increase the total organic carbon in the soil, sequestering carbon
dioxide (CO2), mitigating climate change,
•
A single application of EcoCover may sequester an additional 188.6+
tonnes/hectare* (t/ha) of CO2 over a two year period compared to soil under bar,
•
This would have a monetary value based on tradable carbon credits of USD $6,365
/hectare** based on the New Zealand Government forecast for carbon trading prices
in 2008, and
Page 31 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ •
EcoCover will also deliver 236,000+ litres/hectare* (l/ha) of free water as a result of
the increased organic carbon content of the soil.
* This is the New Zealand interim research data. Results are soil/climate dependent and will
differ from country to country.
** This monetary value is calculated from EcoCover’s independent research data, standard
conversion tables for soil/CO2 sequestration and a carbon trading value presently used in
the future carbon calculations of the New Zealand Government. EcoCover makes no claim
as to how a user of the product might financially benefit from this carbon credit $$ value.
Exchanges will have different: rates ($$ value) of exchange; audit requirements (time and
substance); and calculations for the annual values that can be claimed in respect of actual
cash remuneration year on year60.”
Figure 5: EcoCover’s closed loop solution for Governments’ waste paper problem and
climate change impact benefit. “One tonne of waste paper produces approx 6,000 EcoCover
weed squares (0.5m x 0.5m), protecting 6,000 trees, building the earth’s biomass, mitigating
climate change and generating possibly USD $955 in carbon credits and 35,400 litres of free
water to 30cm depth.60”
6.3.7. Israel Research
Israel is regarded as a world leader in the development of drip irrigation61. Israeli water
engineer Simcha Blass and his son, Yeshayahu, are credited with the development of the
modern drip irrigation system in 1959, coinciding with the introduction of plastics in the
1950’s. The firm they created, Netafin, has since fabricated drip irrigation systems for the
world market.
Website http://www.netafim.com/corporate-overview
The Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), the research arm of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development in Israel, is responsible for most of the agricultural
research conducted in Israel. The research aims to improve existing agricultural production
systems and to introduce new products, processes and equipment. The Department of
Environmental Physics and Irrigation seeks to use its state-of-the-art research facilities to
EcoCover New Zealand (2008). EcoCover Carbon and Free Water Research Paper. 60
61
Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs website http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA
Page 32 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ promote wise management of soil and water resources, both to sustain agricultural
production and to safeguard environmental quality.
Website http://www.agri.gov.il/en/home/default.aspx
The Institutes for Applied Research of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev were set up as
the direct successor of the Negev Institute for Arid Zone Research, founded in 1956 by the
Government of Israel. The research is orientated towards developing and commercialising
chemical, biotechnological, and agricultural products.
Wesbite http://www.bgu.ac.il/IAR/index.php
6.3.8. Florida Research
Hydramulch, a paper-like material applied as a slurry consisting of cotton waste, newsprint,
gypsum and a proprietary adhesive, was tested as a biodegradable alternative to
polyethylene mulch during 200362. Experiments were conducted in southeastern and northcentral Florida to compare the effects of three hydramulch formulations, polyethylene mulch
and a no mulch control on soil temperature, soil moisture and weed infestation. The results
suggested that hydramulch may be applicable for use for the suppression of broadleaf
weeds and grasses in some instances, but did not typically perform as well as plastic mulch
film.
6.4.
COLLECTION AND RECYCLING MARKETS
6.4.1. Review of Used Industrial Plastics in Western Australia
A Review of Used Industrial Plastics in Western Australia - Waste Management Practices
and Potential Recycling Strategies51 was commissioned by DEC in 2006. Virgin plastic resin
and recycled resin were comparative in price, thus manufacturers typically continued to
choose virgin resin due to its known properties51. The cleaning of waste plastics during
recycling was costly also and may outweigh any financial benefits of recycling. The cost to
dispose of industrial plastic waste to landfills in Western Australia remains inexpensive,
thereby encouraging the continued disposal of plantation waste. There is a lack of Western
Australian markets for recycled resin. International markets exist however the cost of
exportation is prohibitive. The payment for waste recycled via a ‘Recycling Credit’ has been
used in Western Australia through the now discontinued Resource Recovery Rebate
Scheme (RRRS), accessed only by local government51 and initiated to increase local
government participation in resource recovery63.
Products made from reprocessed HDPE (usually bottles, not crop nets) in Western Australia
included coat hangers, crates and pallets and drainage pipe. LDPE is not reprocessed in
Western Australia, but elsewhere in Australia contributed to the production of agricultural
and building film, garbage and shopping bags, and film for packaging51.
Advance Plastic Recyclers (APR) in South Australia and Jo Jo Plastics in Perth, Western
Australia have developed products using mixed processed plastic waste, including
polyethylene, which can be mixed with limited cleaning and removal of impurities. APR
currently receive 3,500 tonnes per year of agricultural mulch film (Doug Faulkner pers.
62
Warnick, J.P., Chase, C.A., Rosskopf, E.N., Simonne, E.H., Scholberg, J.M., Koenig, R.L. and Roe, N.E. (2006). Weed suppression with hydramulch, a biodegradable liquid paper mulch in development. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems (2006), 21:216‐223.
63
Waste Management Board (2005). Resource Recovery Rebate Scheme Final Report. Located at website http://www.zerowastewa.com.au/documents/rrrs_fin_report.pdf Page 33 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ comm.64). The output is granulated, turned into agglomerate, heated and then pumped into
moulds65. Products include wharf beams, retaining walls, plastic lumber, bollards, fence
posts, outdoor furniture and plant pots (Plate 5). The recycling process is energy efficient as
heat is generated predominantly by friction and is licensed by the South Australian EPA. No
chemicals are used in the process, minimal water is used for closed-circle cooling and
emissions (mainly steam) have been tested and approved65. Jo Jo Plastic Recyclers have
utilised plastic waste from industrial and mining enterprises in Western Australia in the past
but are currently not involved in recycling.
Plate 9: Plant pots manufactured by Advanced Plastic Recyclers in SA using waste plastic
recovered by GreenAIR. Photo from GreenAIR website66.
Website http://www.a-p-r.com.au/main.asp?Page1=profile.asp&Page2=nav.asp
Website http://www.jojoplastics.com.au/aboutus.html
6.4.2. Plastics Granulating Services
Zero Waste SA provided a $250,000 grant to Plastics Granulating Services (PGS), the
largest processor of post-consumer plastics in South Australia, to acquire an extruder,
washing plant and compaction press to process more difficult industrial plastic waste such as
heavily soiled plastic films and plastics containing high moisture levels. According to PACIA,
5,043 tonnes of LDPE was recovered in South Australia in 2005 for reprocessing, of which
61% occurred in SA, 31% interstate and 8% was exported overseas67. PGS produced
recycled resin from low quality disposed plastic waste products such as packaging waste,
used agricultural pipe and silage wrap68. The resin was used to produce recycled irrigation
pipe.
6.4.3. GreenAIR – Agricultural Irrigation Recycling
GreenAIR collect used plastic irrigation and film products and reprocess the material back to
its raw product, which is then used in the manufacture of identical products, thus completing
the recycling circle64. GreenAIR are an Australian-owned company and predominantly sell
back to Australian manufacturers.
GreenAIR have existing factories in Melbourne and Queensland where they conduct onsite
waste plastic cleaning and chipping, including T-Tape and plastic mulch film. T-Tape drip
64
Doug Faulkner, GreenAir, pers. comm. 2009 APR website http://www.a‐p‐r.com.au/main.asp?Page1=profile.asp&Page2=nav.asp 66
GreenAIR website http://www.greenaire.com.au/recycling.html 67
Zero Waste SA (2007). Recycling Activity in South Australia 2005‐06 Final Report. Located at http://www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/Content/Uploaded/Assets/recycling_activity_2005‐06.pdf 68
Zero Waste SA website http://www.zerowaste.sa.gov.au/About.mvc/Showcases 65
Page 34 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ irrigation tape from T-systems can be recycled if quantities are great enough. Plastic mulch
film is separated from the T-Tape and both products are recycled. GreenAIR fill a niche in
their ability to handle agricultural plastics contaminated by dirt whereas other Australian
companies (e.g. PGS and Astron in South Australia) restrict plastic recycling to the readily
available cleaner plastic waste products that their existing wash plants are capable of
handling. GreenAIR have been chipping waste plastics for Fosters in Australia for eight
years and are interested in increasing the quantity of plastics recycled and establishing
additional factories64. The chipped plastic is transported to a recycled plastic manufacturer.
T-Systems have offered to support GreenAIR in a combined endeavour to recycle waste
agricultural plastics by purchasing the cleaned and chipped plastic64. This arrangement may
form the basis for an EPR scheme, whereby a levy is collected by T-Systems at the point of
product sale and the funds are then used to supplement the recovery and reprocessing
costs by the growers and GreenAIR.
GreenAIR wish to place a washing and chipping plant in either Kununurra or Darwin in order
to address waste plastics in northern Australia. GreenAIR have sourced new wash plant
technology that cleans contaminated agricultural waste64. At present transport costs prohibit
sourcing additional plastic waste from Western Australia however these options may be
more accessible than the eastern states of Australia.
Website http://www.greenaire.com.au/
6.4.4. Ruggies Recycling
Ruggies Recycling commenced operations in 1996 offering to recycle a range of minesite
waste materials that were previously going to landfill. The proceeds are donated to the
Princess Margaret Hospital (PMH) for Children. Nearly 50 mining companies throughout
Western Australia are now involved in the programme and have raised almost $1,000,000
for PMH69.
A mobile shredding plant macerates soiled poly pipe removed from mine sites, which is
placed in bags and transported to Perth in empty mine trucks at no cost to the mining
companies. Jo Jo Plastics, based in Perth, were involved in recycling the waste plastic for
three years however the contract was not renewed and the company are currently not
involved in recycling plastics due to the economic down turn70. The shredded plastic now
makes the journey to South Australia, again at no cost and organised by Ruggies Recycling,
where two recycling companies reprocess the material to make recycled plastic products70.
The majority is used to produce poly pipe with 25% recycled content and 75% new raw
materials, via granulation, heating and extrusion through a molding machine70.
An increase in landfill costs for many European countries has led to transportation of waste
plastics to China (rather than local recycling). There has also been a subsequent loss in
value of waste plastics of up to 70% due to the global economic crisis and drop in demand
for recycled materials70,71. Ruggies Recycling earned approximately $40/tonne from plastic
polyethylene teraphthalate (PET) bottles and HDPE, and $50/tonne from plastic film in
March 200970. The price typically fluctuates over time. Once transport costs are added to
the equation, recycling is rarely a favourable option from a financial perspective.
Ruggies Recycling are prepared to take horticultural waste plastics, particularly plastic mulch
film and drip irrigation systems, provided the plastic can be moved from the Gascoyne region
to Perth70. Crop nets are regarded as a less attractive option as the fine wire at the edges of
crop nets needs to be removed in an additional process of magnetic separation, again
69
Ruggies Recycling website http://www.ruggiesrecycling.com/
Tony Fitz‐Gibbon, Ruggies Recycling, PMH Foundation, Perth, pers. comm. March 2009. 71
Website http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2009‐03/20/content_7601590.htm 70
Page 35 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ increasing the costs of recycling. This may not be a problem if the wire is removed onsite
when the crop nets are removed manually from the supporting structures.
Nexus Freight has empty trucks from Carnarvon to Perth on a regular basis out of the
growing season. Tony Maslin from Nexus Freight Carnarvon was interested in scoping
future possibilities for transport of waste agricultural plastics through Ruggies Recycling
provided the material was baled or contained in some manner for transport72. The timing of
waste plastic removal at the end of the growing season would tie in well with the availability
of empty trucks heading south to Perth.
Website http://www.ruggiesrecycling.com/
6.5.
DISPOSAL AND RECYCLING OPPORTUNITIES
There are no companies currently recycling LDPE agricultural mulch film or drip irrigation
tape in Western Australia, however there are a variety of potential opportunities elsewhere in
Australia and the possibility of developing disposal and recycling opportunities via
modification of existing technology.
6.5.1. CLAW Environmental
CLAW Environmental is Western Australia’s largest industrial plastics recycler. The
company uses heavy-duty shredders, granulators and balers to break down rigid plastics
and compress flexible materials, and produce regrind, granule or baled plastics to be
remanufactured into recycled plastic products73. CLAW Environmental do not currently
recycle LDPE plastic film or drip irrigation tape however they offer a commitment to
increasing the “variety and volumes of plastics handled”. CLAW Environmental are able to
manufacture and supply balers for the compaction of material for collection.
CLAW Environmental participate in the successful drumMUSTER programme managed by
the waste industry in Western Australia (see section 6.6.3 below). It is a good example of an
EPR scheme that successfully operates in rural Western Australia. However, many plastics
recycling companies are suffering economically due to the drop in recycled plastic prices and
demand for the product70, so that the continued recycling of plastic products in Western
Australia will require additional support from industry and Government. For example, the
West Australian newspaper reported in March 2009 that “Welshpool-based CLAW
Environmental, which turns out 3,000 tonnes of recycled plastic a year, is set to close
because of a lack of demand for recyclable materials74." The potential demise of CLAW
Environmental as a plastics recycler in Western Australia highlights the fragility of developing
any new recycling schemes. Discussions with CLAW Environmental management indicated
that the company intends to stay in business and is reviewing several options to assist with
business viability.
Other recycling organisations also participate in the drumMUSTER programme in Western
Australia, including Dalwallinu Recycling Services75. It is therefore likely that the
drumMUSTER programme will continue in Western Australia should CLAW Environmental
withdraw from the service.
72
Tony Maslin, Nexus Freight, Carnarvon, pers. comm. 2009. CLAW Environmental website http://www.clawenvironmental.com/ 74
Website http://www.thewest.com.au/default.aspx?MenuID=77&ContentID=131679 75
Shire of Dalwallinu website http://www.dalwallinu.wa.gov.au/shire_calendar/drummuster 73
Page 36 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Website http://www.clawenvironmental.com/
Website http://www.drummuster.com.au
6.5.2. Gascoyne Waste Services
Gascoyne Waste Services are a Carnarvon-based waste management company
specialising in collection and waste disposal including solid, liquid and medical waste, road
sweeping, landfill services and some recycling.
A more costly option to address plantation waste may be for a local company such as
Gascoyne Waste Services to acquire both washing and mobile plastic chipping plants.
Another option is to purchase a baler such as “Big Foot: The Mulch Plastic Baler” available
from Pliant Corporation in the USA (Plate 6). The baler mounts on a tractor and runs off the
tractor hydraulics, has a top fed vertical heavy duty ram and makes a pallet size bale ideal
for storage or transport76.
Plate 10: Big Foot, the plastic mulch baler from Pliant Corporation in the USA.
An organization such as Gascoyne Waste Services may also be interested in developing a
composting facility in Carnarvon. Degradabale agricultural mulch film alternatives
contaminated with soil and organic matter would be ideal for creating composting feed stock.
6.5.3. Amcor Recycling Australasia
Amcor Recycling Australasia provide paper and cardboard recycling services in WA. Amcor
also provide services including collection of high volume recyclable materials from industrial
sites. The company does not appear to be involved in plastics recycling in WA at present.
http://www.amcor.com/businesses/australasia/aa_recycling/amcor_recycling2.html
6.5.4. RKO Industries – Ag Plastics Recycling and Plastic Resins Supply
RKO Industries is a private Florida-based corporation specialising in the manufacture and
wholesale supply of plastic resin pellets through the recycling of agricultural plastics77.
Pellets can be produced by either extrusion or agglomeration (densification).
76
Website http://www.mulchfilm.com/products/bigfoot.html RKO Industries website http://www.rkoindustries.com/id11.html 77
Page 37 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ RKO offer an “environmentally sound” alternative for the disposal of agricultural plastics
used by row crop growers, nursery growers, citrus growers and agricultural fumigant
application companies. RKO divert of millions of pounds of agricultural plastics annually
from entering Florida landfills or being burned on-sight at individual farms. Agricultural
plastics will not degrade in the absence of UV light and burning the plastics releases
carcinogenic dioxins into the environment. Both disposal methods place pollutants in the
atmosphere or soil. As an alternative RKO’s recycling process consists of removing waste
from farms, sorting by type, resizing, washing and drying. The material is then extruded or
densified into pellets using a patented recycling process. Recyclable materials include drip
irrigation tape (Plate 7).
Website http://www.rkoindustries.com/id26.html
Plate 11: Piles of irrigation drip tape at RKO’s recycling plant in Florida, USA. Source
http://www.rkoindustries.com/id11.html
6.5.5. GM Engineering in conjunction with LEDA Recycling
GM Engineering is an Italian company that provides information and advice about plastic
recycling machinery, specifically for LDPE plastic film. LDPE waste products are typically
baled on site, pre-washed and sorted at the factory. For agricultural mulch film, a low energy
consumption wet trommel is used for pre-washing and removes 95% of dirt by spraying
water in a tumbling, perforated screen followed immediately with a washer and dryer78. The
material is then fed into a single-shaft shredder, followed by separation into a sink-float tank.
The material is washed to separate and clean the plastic film flakes. The washing process
may need to be repeated depending on the level of contamination. As the quality of the
product is variable the outputs are variable also. Both contamination through incomplete
cleaning and variation in LDPE thickness prior to the recycling process can affect the ability
of the current machinery to produce a uniform output and production rate78.
Website http://www.ledarecycling.it/default.htm
78
LEDA recycling website http://www.ledarecycling.it/default.htm Page 38 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 6.5.6. Plastic Bag Recycling – an online resource
The majority of plastic films are made from polyethylene resin and are readily recyclable if
the material is clean, dry, and not pigmented black. Clean polyethylene film is in demand by
the major film markets and it can be recycled into a variety of products. Contaminated film
such as agricultural films or film with residue such as glue or paint may not have a market
even though the film is polyethylene. As agricultural films often come in contact with the
ground or most farm products, many recyclers currently reject this material due to
contamination. Residue and paint used for UV protection are other contaminants often found
on agricultural films.
plasticbagrecylcing.org offer an online resource for plastic bag and film recycling, bringing
together consumers, recycling companies and businesses requiring recycling services in the
Canada and USA. The construction of a similar internet-based waste exchange database in
Australia may prove beneficial in managing collection and recycling of plastic wastes.
Website http://www.plasticbagrecycling.org/00.0/
6.5.7. Plastic Technology
Plastic Technology is the largest LDPE recycler in Victoria, with the ability to recycle more
than 4,500 tonnes per year through two sites at Reservoir and Campbellfield79. The
company collects LDPE material, typically shrink, stretch and packaging film. A washing and
treatment plant enables the production of resin for the remanufacture of LDPE film and bags
made from 100% domestic and industrial plastic waste. The plastic waste is sorted,
shredded and thoroughly washed to remove all dirt and impurities. The plastic is dried and
extruded into high quality resin beads, which are used by Plastic Technology in its own film
manufacturing; primarily builders’ barrier films79. These films are used to hold back moisture
under concrete slabs where its non biodegradable use is particularly important.
Website http://www.plastictechnology.com.au
6.5.8. ALA Recycling Industries, USA
ALA Recycling Industries in the USA buy and sell all grades of plastic waste for plastic
recycling and move it directly from source to the plastic mills, including LDPE plastics.
Website http://www.recycledfibers.com/plastic_recycling.html
6.6.
WASTE AVOIDANCE AND RESOURCE RECOVERY ACT
6.6.1. Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act 2007 and Levy Act 2007
The Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act 2007 (WARR) and Waste Avoidance and
Resource Recovery Levy Act 2007 (WARRL) passed through Parliament in December
2007. Both Acts have now been enacted, with The Waste Avoidance and Resource
Recovery Regulations 2008 and The Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Levy
79
Plastic Technology website http://www.plastictechnology.com.au Page 39 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Regulations 2008 gazetted on 1 July 2008 and providing for the introduction of EPR
schemes in Western Australia80.
The primary objective of the WARR Act is to “contribute to sustainability, and to the
protection of human health and the environment. It is also designed to help Western
Australia to move towards a waste-free society by:
•
Promoting the most efficient use of resources, including resource recovery and waste
avoidance,
•
Reducing environmental harm, including pollution through waste,
•
Consideration of resource management through avoidance of unnecessary resource
consumption and disposal, and
•
Resource recovery which includes reuse, reprocessing, recycling and energy
recovery”81.
The WARRL Act provides for prescription of a series of levies payable in respect of waste
received by disposal companies. Following enactment of the WARR and WARRL Acts the
Waste Authority was established to “develop a State-wide, long-term waste strategy for the
continuous improvement of waste services, and waste avoidance and resource recovery
including the setting of targets for waste reduction and resource recovery and the diversion
of waste from landfill. It will also play an important role in advancing product stewardship and
extended producer responsibility in Western Australia.”82 The Waste Authority will regulate
the implementation, operation and enforcement of EPR schemes.
The WARR Account was established to receive revenue from the landfill levy. The funds are
to be used for the management, reduction, reuse, recycling, monitoring or measurement of
waste83.
Website http://www.wastenet.net.au/issues/Legislation/warract
6.6.2. Extended Producer Responsibility
The Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Policy Statement for Western Australia was
launched in June 2005. EPR is a “suite of policy tools for reducing the generation of wastes
by promoting greater recycling and resource recovery and encouraging more sustainable
product design”83. EPR is a tool designed to reduce waste from consumer goods and its
impact on the environment. EPR involves producers taking more responsibility for managing
the environmental impact of their products. EPR schemes shift the responsibility of waste
management and environmental impact to the suppliers or producers of the products
throughout their whole of life cycle.
EPR schemes involve the chain of manufacturers, retailers, consumers, waste collectors and
recyclers in the process of collecting, processing, recycling or disposing of post-consumer
waste. Producers are often regarded as responsible for product design, pricing, packaging,
distribution and consumer information and are therefore best placed to influence future
decisions directed towards resource conservation, litter control, reducing reliance on landfill,
promoting the waste hierarchy or promoting cleaner production84.
80
Department of Environment (2005). Extended Producer Responsibility Policy Statement http://www.zerowastewa.com.au/documents/epr_ps.pdf 81
WasteNet website http://www.wastenet.net.au/issues/Legislation/warract 82
DEC Waste Management Website http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/pollution‐prevention/waste‐
management/index.html 83
Towards Zero Waste website http://www.zerowastewa.com.au/ourwork/specificprograms/epr/ Page 40 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ The WARR Act 2007 allows the Waste Authority to invoke mandatory EPR schemes on
priority or problematic wastes. The Waste Authority must provide an annual business plan
which includes a “priority statement with respect to any extended producer responsibility
schemes the Waste Authority proposes to recommend for implementation and operation
under the regulations”84. The EPR Policy Statement outlines a variety of ways in which EPR
schemes may be used as follows84:
Regulatory Instruments
•
Compliance measures, such as penalties for non-compliance with EPR schemes,
•
Gazettal of priority wastes with waste reduction targets and goals, with penalties for
not achieving the targets or goals,
•
Mandatory EPR schemes,
•
Product or substance bans (e.g. ban of organochlorine pesticides) and/or restrictions
or prohibitions on the disposal of certain waste residues to landfill or to waste
treatment facilities, and
•
Residue bans and/or restrictions or prohibitions on the disposal of certain waste
residues to landfill or to waste treatment facilities.
Economic Instruments
•
Advance recovery/disposal fees, where a fee (generally paid at the point of sale) is
levied on certain products to fund their collection, recycling or appropriate disposal,
•
Container deposit provisions (in Australia, probably only applicable for single trip,
non-refillable containers),
•
Deposit/refund schemes, where a payment is made when the product is purchased,
which is fully or partially refunded when the product is returned to an appropriate
dealer or specialised treatment facility,
•
Extended product ownership, where the producer retains ownership of the product
and leases it to consumers for use under certain conditions,
•
Green procurement, where purchasing authorities aim to promote sustainable
resource use, resource recovery and recycling through “green” purchasing policies,
•
Incentives and rewards, such as store discounts or other benefits, to encourage
consumers to return goods to stores; subsidies to recyclers for effective reuse; grants
to develop resource-efficient alternatives; or incentives to replace toxic materials,
•
Levies or taxes on particular materials, such as taxes on virgin materials to
discourage their use where recycled or recovered products would not be competitive
on cost, or to provide funds to cover the cost of managing externalities, such as
education, enforcement or clean-up of litter or illegal dumping or for the management
of waste with problematic components,
•
Levies or taxes on particular products to provide funds to cover the cost of managing
externalities, such as education, enforcement or clean-up of litter or illegal dumping
or for the management of waste with problematic components,
•
Levies or taxes on wastes disposed of to landfill to provide funds to cover the cost of
managing externalities, such as education, enforcement or clean-up of litter or illegal
dumping or for the management of the waste’s problematic components,
•
Tradeable landfill diversion certificates, where a threshold diversion rate is set by the
regulator and designated product manufacturers are required to hold certificates
84
WasteNet website http://www.wastenet.net.au/issues/Legislation/warract Page 41 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ proportional to the volume/weight or value of their production within a set period and
certificates are issued to reusers/recyclers based on net waste volumes processed
that would be tradeable, and
•
Tradeable recycling certificates issued to recyclers undertaking recycling and reuse
activities, where a specified proportion of certificates must be purchased by
producers (manufacturers and importers) during the accounting period based on the
desired recovery and recycling rate.
Public Information Programmes
•
Cleaner production processes to reduce the use of hazardous materials and adopt
more sustainable production processes,
•
Eco-labelling, where labels are placed on products or packaging to provide
consumers with information about a product's environmental performance,
•
Education and awareness-raising to promote community awareness about how to
safely dispose of certain products/wastes or access EPR schemes,
•
Environmental reporting database, where an environmental agency or some
independent environmental body publishes criteria for environmental acceptability
and ratings lists for manufacturers and products,
•
Industry voluntary covenants where industry groups make a published voluntary
covenant to meet specifies waste reduction targets and goals,
•
Performance standards, where targets are set, such as for minimum amounts of
recycled content per product,
•
Product design, such as adoption of the 'design for the environment' and 'design for
disassembly' principles,
•
Product hazard warnings, where manufacturers are required to advertise
environmental risks of a product on that product’s packaging,
•
Seal-of-approval environmental labelling, where environmentally responsible
manufacturers are allowed to have an independently assessed environmental sealof-approval displayed on their products, and
•
Take-back schemes, where specific products or waste streams are voluntarily taken
back by the producer or returned to them for material recovery and recycling.
The Waste Authority, formerly the Waste Management Board, can implement EPR in
Western Australia through DEC using a collaborative process involving industry, local and
state government and the community. The first stage in developing EPR schemes involved
DEC publishing a priority waste list, which will in turn determine priorities to develop EPR
schemes that target the reduction of problematic wastes. It is intended that EPR schemes
are to be undertaken voluntarily by industry with operational details of individual EPR
schemes determined by the relevant industries and now embedded in the Waste Avoidance
and Resource Recovery (WARR) Act 2007 (see Section 6.5.11 below).
After EPR priority areas are determined, DEC and relevant industries will establish
performance targets for EPR schemes based on best practice international standards74.
Should progress towards meeting targets not be achieved, the Minister for the Environment
may introduce mandatory EPR schemes through provisions in the new waste legislation for
Western Australia84. Industry is reluctant to voluntarily participate in EPR schemes requiring
the Minister to invoke mandatory EPR schemes on problematic wastes.
Page 42 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Priority areas for funding under the Waste Authority’s Strategic Waste Initiatives Scheme
(SWIS) 2009 with regard to plastics include “funds to be made available to support the
development or adoption of new and/or enabling technologies and processes that:
•
Demonstrably increase resource recovery, for example, optical sorting technology, or
•
Deliver value-added products with an emphasis on those that can replace virgin
materials and can be used as an input into local markets, for example, shredding to
crumbing in the case of tyres; or shredding to pelletised form for use in the local
plastic injection moulding manufacture in the case of plastics, or
•
Contribute to improved product/process design and development85.”
Website http://www.zerowastewa.com.au/ourwork/specificprograms/epr/
Website http://www.zerowastewa.com.au/documents/epr_ps.pdf
The Container Deposits System operating in South Australia since 1975 is a well known
example of an Australian EPR scheme and more recently the drumMUSTER and Mobile
Muster EPR programmes have been successfully implemented on a national scale, including
in rural areas (see Sections 6.5.12 and 6.5.13 below).
6.6.3. drumMUSTER – an EPR working example
drumMUSTER is a national industry-run programme which includes a levy on the sale of
agricultural chemicals to ensure that the drums that they are packaged in, are recycled
effectively. drumMUSTER promotes the “collection and recycling of cleaned eligible non
returnable crop production and on-farm animal health chemical containers”86.
CLAW Environmental aims to divert waste away from rural landfill sites so that plastic and
steel recycling is conducted state-wide. CLAW Environmental has invested considerable
resources into developing a mobile shredding unit. Plastic drums are shredded onsite while
steel drums may either be shredded or baled prior to reprocessing. CLAW Environmental
also lease balers in order to assist the transport of waste products to Perth for cleaning and
shredding.
Containers for recycling must be flushed, pressure rinsed or triple rinsed so they are free of
any chemical residue then delivered to one of over 700 drumMUSTER receival sites across
Australia, provided by 474 collection agencies. After drumMUSTER containers have been
collected and inspected they are removed for processing. The containers are shredded,
granulated and heat extruded. The extruded materials are manufactured into a variety of
products such as recycled containers, wheelie bins, outdoor furniture, irrigation pipes,
bollards, road signs and vineyard posts87.
There are currently 72 agricultural and veterinary manufacturers participating in the Industry
Waste Reduction Scheme. Clients’ eligible containers can be returned for recycling.
Participating manufacturers pay a four cents per litre/kilogram levy on behalf of the users
into an Industry Waste Reduction Scheme Account. The manufacturers then recover this
levy from the sale of the product. The levy is passed on at every transaction through the
distribution chain until it is ultimately sold to the end chemical user.
Four hundred and twenty six local councils participate in the programme. Since the inception
of the programme in May 1999 there has been 12,520,634 containers collected across
Australia (Figure 5), representing 17,073 tonnes of recyclable materials87.
85
WasteNet SWIS website http://www.zerowastewa.com.au/ourwork/supportschemes/swis/ Drum Muster website http://www.drummuster.com.au/ 87
Drum Muster website http://www.drummuster.com.au/category.php?id=9 86
Page 43 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Figure 6: DrumMUSTER national container returns from February 1999 to May 2008.
Source: http://www.drummuster.com.au/category.php?id=9
DrumMUSTER is an excellent working example of an EPR scheme, the methodology for
which may be transferred to other waste plastic products, such as agricultural mulch film,
drip irrigation tape or crop nets should the tonnage for recycling be available on a national or
state-wide scale.
Website http://www.drummuster.com.au
6.6.4. MobileMuster– an EPR working example
MobileMuster is another successful EPR scheme operating in Australia that collects and
recycles mobile phones for the mobile phone industry. The telecommunications industry
initiated the scheme in 1999 with the aim of preventing mobile phones ending up in landfill.
The programme collects and recycles mobile phone handsets, batteries and accessories
from over 2,000 mobile phone retailers, local councils, government agencies and business
drop off points across Australia. The programme is funded by the Australian Mobile
Telecommunications Association (AMTA) members (manufacturers, carriers, service
providers and distributors) such as: LG Electronics, Motorola, Nokia, NEC, Panasonic,
Samsung, Sharp, Sony, 3 Mobile, Optus, Telstra, Vodafone, AAPT, Virgin and Force
Technology88.
MobileMuster involves industry members who fund and support the programme, over 3,000
“wranglers” (e.g. retail stores, ANZ Branches, local councils, state and federal government
agencies and businesses) who help collect mobile phones, Australia Post who distribute free
recycling satchels, including with new mobile phones, and many service providers who
transport, recycle and process mobile phones, batteries and accessories89. MobileMuster is
a “whole of industry led” recycling programme, funded voluntarily by handset manufacturers,
battery distributors and mobile phone network service providers. Each pays an advance
recycling levy raising 42 cents for every handset they import into Australia90.
88
MobileMuster website http://www.mobilemuster.com.au/what_is_mobilemuster MobileMuster website http://www.mobilemuster.com.au/whos_involved 90
MobileMuster website http://www.mobilemuster.com.au/quick_facts 89
Page 44 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ The recycling service is free to consumers, schools, businesses, local councils and
government agencies. As of March 2008 over 525 tonnes of mobile phone handsets,
batteries and accessories had been collected (more than 3 million handsets and batteries)89.
Handset casings are sent to local plastics manufacturer Australian Composite Technology
which shreds and uses the plastic to produce composite plastic fence posts and pallets.
Non-recyclable plastics are sent to landfill.
Website http://www.mobilemuster.com.au/what_is_mobilemuster
6.6.5. SCHÜTZ DSL Packaging
SCHÜTZ DSL manufactures reusable industrial packaging for a range of products including
industrial chemicals, lubricants, food, beverages, agricultural chemicals, pharmaceuticals
and many dangerous goods. The company was originally established in the 1970’s to buy,
sell, collect and recondition steel drums. SCHÜTZ DSL is one of Australia’s largest container
manufacturing and reconditioning companies and provides another example of an EPR
scheme in action.
Website http://www.schuetzdsl.com/about_dsl/about_schuetz_dsl.phtml
6.6.6. Irish Farm Film Producers Group
The United Kingdom plastics industry has started a silage plastic recycling scheme managed
by Farm Film Producers Group Ltd. The scheme is financed by a levy of £100/tonne on farm
silage plastic products, typically adding 10-20 pence per bale, and a small collection fee91. It
is another example of an EPR-based scheme.
Website http://www.farmplastics.ie/
7. DISCUSSION
LDPE agricultural mulch film, LDPE and LLDPE drip irrigation tape and HDPE crop netting
are recognised as a major source of current (mulch film and irrigation tape) and future (crop
netting) plastic waste from horticultural plantations in the Gascoyne region1. The majority of
these waste materials are directed to landfill or disposed of by burial or stockpiling within the
flood zone of the Gascoyne River, which can then potentially be washed out to sea when the
river floods. In order to reduce the generation of waste plastics a variety of potential
alternatives for either the replacement or recycling of these waste plastics has been
identified.
7.1.
CURRENT HORTICULTURAL PLASTIC PRODUCTS
Black LDPE plastic agricultural mulch film is used under crops by the Gascoyne fruit and
vegetable growers, predominantly for weed suppression, but also to minimise chemical use,
increase soil temperature, speed up germination and cultivation cycles, reduce water
consumption, keep fertilisers and nutrients closer to the plants, and prevent fruits and
vegetables from direct contact with soil. The mulch film is recyclable, particularly once soil
and organic matter are removed by washing, though this is not generally regarded as a
simple process.
91
Irish Farm Film Producers website http://www.farmplastics.ie/ Page 45 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Two types of drip irrigation tape are used predominantly to irrigate crops in the Gascoyne: TTape by T-Systems and Aqua-Traxx by Toro Ag Irrigation. Both are regarded as recyclable,
particularly if cleaned of soil. HDPE crop netting is used to reduce damage to produce
caused by birds, sun and wind. Once wire edging is removed this product is recyclable also.
None of the plastic technologies currently used by the Gascoyne horticultural growers are
degradable. As such all require collection and disposal by transport to landfill or stockpiling
on site.
7.2.
HORTICULTURAL PLASTIC PRODUCT ALTERNATIVES
There are a range of degradable plastic agricultural mulch film alternatives on the market
that have been trialled in Australia and are currently used internationally in an attempt to
minimise the quantity of waste plastics reaching landfill. These products should be made
available for use within the Gascoyne horticultural industry, particularly if the support of
product distributors and government can be acquired. Research conducted in Australia and
internationally suggests that the product alternatives may be suitable for use in the
Gascoyne region.
Four products marketed in Australia are:
1.
The Mater-Bi modified starch based 100% biodegradable polymer has been trialled in
Queensland and Spain with promising results.
2.
Ciba ENVIROCARE AG 1000 contains the TDPA additive from EPI, which causes the
modified plastic to degrade at a controlled rate, but there is no information on trials
evident.
3.
Biograde B-F, a starch based polymer used to produce agricultural mulch film is a third
option, which was trialled in Queensland, but results were less promising.
4.
Hydromulching by Rainstorm with layers of Gluon 240 polymer film sprayed on with
water cart or water cannon. This product has not yet been trialled in Australia but
Rainstorm are interested in doing so and recommended a site visit with Rainstorm’s
existing trucks and machinery, followed by horticulturists applying the product
themselves should there be interest in the product.
Yet another alternative are paper mulch films, such as:
1.
Heavy brown Kraft paper, which has been trialled in Spain and found to be as effective
as LDPE mulch film.
2.
EcoCover is a paper mulch mat made with recycled waste paper and post consumer
recycled paper. EcoCover has been trialled with success in New Zealand and
manufacturing of the product in Australia has commenced recently in New South
Wales. Trials in Queensland were less supportive of the product, finding EcoCover
more bulky to handle than the standard LDPE mulch film and Mater-Bi. The fact that
the paper mulch is made using an already recycled product adds to its attractiveness
as an environmentally friendly alternative. The costs associated with acquiring and
transporting the product may be greater than the non-degradable products currently
used due to size, however may be offset by the removal of collection after use.
3.
Hyrdomulching by Rainstorm with newspaper mulch. This product has not yet been
trialled in an agricultural application in Australia.
The replacement of LDPE agricultural mulch film with a degradable alternative that is readily
available in Australia may be more costly to purchase, however the benefits associated with
not collecting the plastic film at the end of each growing season are considerable. All
problems and costs associated with transport, disposal and potential recycling of the plastic
Page 46 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ waste materials would be removed. In addition, soil tests conducted by CSBP Limited have
revealed < 1% organic matter under horticultural crops in the Gascoyne region (Ivor Gaylard
pers. comm.92). The addition of any paper mulch products, and to a lesser degree,
biodegradable plastic mulch film that is tilled into the soil after the growing period may
provide a valuable increase in soil organic content, which would benefit future crop
production.
Unfortunately, the high purchase cost of some products, particularly mulch films such as
Mater-Bi, may prohibit their use without Government subsidies. The cost of transport from
Perth to Carnarvon is typically $120/pallet and the retail mark-up on products is in the vicinity
of 20%, which need to be added to the wholesale prices (Table 1), further increasing the
total cost92.
T-Systems T-Tape remains the obvious choice for drip irrigation tape to provide an
opportunity for recycling should cost-efficient baling, transport and recycling facilities become
available to the Gascoyne horticultural growers, particularly with interest from T-Systems in
developing an associated EPR scheme. Similarly, recycling opportunities for used HDPE
crop nets at the end of their life cycle appears to represent the most viable option for
disposal in the future.
7.3.
COLLECTION AND RECYCLING OPPORTUNITIES
At present there are limited collection and no recycling opportunities for horticultural plastic
waste in the local Gascoyne region. Carnarvon waste company Gascoyne Waste Services
provides collection and landfill services only.
There are however, a variety of potential opportunities for collection, transport and recycling
of the horticultural plastic waste that have been identified in this study and warrant further
investigation:
1.
Ruggies Recycling is prepared to take horticultural waste plastics at no cost to
horticultural growers provided the plastic can be moved from the Gascoyne to Perth.
Nexus Freight has empty trucks from Carnarvon to Perth on a regular basis out of the
growing season and is interested in scoping future possibilities for transport of baled
waste agricultural plastics through Ruggies Recycling. The timing of waste plastic
removal at the end of the growing season would tie in well with the availability of empty
trucks. Ruggies Recycling offer an attractive alternative to disposing of waste plastics
to landfill, with the added benefit of supporting a charitable organisation, the Princess
Margaret Children’s Foundation, in the process.
2.
GreenAIR fill a niche in their ability to handle agricultural plastics contaminated by dirt
and on-sell the chipped plastic to a recycled plastic manufacturer. T-Systems have
offered to support GreenAIR in a combined endeavour to recycle waste agricultural
plastics by purchasing the cleaned and chipped plastic. This would form the basis for
an EPR scheme, whereby a levy is collected by T-Systems at the point of product sale
and the funds are then used to supplement the recovery and reprocessing costs by the
growers and GreenAIR. However, transport of waste plastics to their existing recycling
facility in Melbourne would be required, or to an alternative location such as Kununurra
or Darwin should GreenAIR be successful in establishing a similar facility in northern
Australia.
Other prominent Western Australian companies involved in the recycling industry, such as
CLAW Environmental or Jo Jo Plastics, are faced with a decline in the demand for recycled
plastics due to the current global economic crisis. It is unlikely that they would be capable of
92
Ivor Gaylard, General Manager, Carnarvon Growers Association Inc., pers. comm. 2009. Page 47 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ participating in any additional plastics recycling schemes in the near future without
considerable industry and government backing. Similarly, it is unlikely that organisations not
currently involved in plastics recycling, such as Gascoyne Waste Services or Amcor
Recycling would be capable of entering the industry within the current economic climate.
A comprehensive freight rate subsidy scheme must be introduced by the State Government
to support rural communities within the Gascoyne Region if back-freighting waste plastics is
to be considered1.
7.4.
BARRIERS TO RECYCLING HORTICULTURAL PLASTICS WASTE
It is likely that the Western Australian plastic recycling market may simply be too small to be
sustainable in its own right, with most recycled materials going interstate or overseas. The
associated transport costs are often prohibitive, resulting in the majority of plastic wastes,
particularly in remote locations, being transported direct to landfill sites.
Plastic waste products such as agricultural mulch film, drip irrigation tape and crop netting
are bulky and all therefore require compaction prior to transport. Limited compaction
facilities tend to be available in rural areas thus would probably need to be acquired. Even
with the ability to ready plastic wastes for transport, the cost of transport itself is likely to
remain prohibitive, due to the cheaper alternatives of landfill or stockpiling on site. The
transport of waste plastic materials internationally is likely to remain cost ineffective in the
near future due to the decline in demand for recycled plastics.
The agricultural plastic waste materials are contaminated with soil, organic matter and
chemicals. There are few recycling companies that are able to recycle contaminated
plastics without washing. Either the construction of an onsite washing facility at Carnarvon,
or transport to a washing facility would be required to facilitate plastics recycling. A simpler
solution may be to transport the contaminated waste plastics to a recycling organisation
such as GreenAIR, who are equipped to recycle the contaminated plastic waste. Once
again the issue of transportation cost acts as a barrier to recycling unless empty trucks are
available at minimal cost to the horticultural growers, firstly to Perth and then on to South
Australia or Victoria.
7.5.
EPR SCHEMES - AN ATTRACTIVE ALTERNATIVE
There are a number of EPR schemes that have functioned well for many years in rural
areas, including the national drumMUSTER and MobileMuster programmes and the
Container Deposits System in South Australia. In each of these case studies industry has
taken responsibility for a product for its whole of life cycle and as a result, recycling and reuse has been greatly improved.
Interest by T-Systems in establishing an EPR scheme with GreenAIR in relation to T-Tape is
an encouraging sign that producers are willing to support the development of EPR schemes
in Australia in order to head towards the aim of zero waste. An EPR model might involve
attaching an advanced recycling levy at the point of sale of T-Tape, paid by horticulturists.
At the end of the growing season T-Tape would be collected, baled and transported to
GreenAIR where the waste plastics would be recycled and used in the production of
recycled polyethylene products. Support would be required from the producers (T-Systems),
consumers (Gascoyne fruit and vegetable growers), service providers (GreenAIR, transport
companies such as Nexus Freight) and government bodies.
Similar EPR schemes could be developed for standard non-degradable agricultural mulch
film and crop netting, involving the chain of manufacturers, retailers, consumers, waste
Page 48 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ collectors and recyclers in the process of collecting, processing, recycling or disposing of
post-consumer waste. There are a range of options for developing an EPR scheme. While
creating an advanced recycling levy may be a useful tool, a more suitable option might
involve deposit/refund schemes, where a payment is made when the product is purchased,
which is fully or partially refunded when the product is returned to a specialised treatment
facility. Levies or taxes on particular non-degradable products, such as taxes on standard
LDPE agricultural mulch film, could be implemented to discourage their use, particularly
where the degradable mulch alternatives are currently more expensive and therefore less
economically attractive to the horticultural growers.
Individual EPR schemes need to be investigated and developed for each product with the
involvement of all industry members involved in the manufacture of plastic products, use by
the horticultural industry, and collection, transport and recycling of the waste plastic
materials. Figure 6 provides an example of the process of developing an EPR scheme for
resource recovery of drip irrigation tape. All stakeholders need to be involved in the
development of the scheme, including: producers (T-Systems), retailers (CGA, Elders), fruit
and vegetable growers, waste collection services (Gascoyne Waste Services), recycling
companies (GreenAIR), transport companies (Nexus Freight, Ruggies Recycling) and
government bodies (GDC, DAFWA Carnarvon, DEC Geraldton). The EPR framework needs
to be developed under the guidance of the WARR Act and the Waste Authority.
T‐SYSTEMS T‐TAPE Page 49 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Figure 7: Suggested process for establishing an EPR scheme using T-Tape as an example.
A levy would be charged at the retail point of sale of T-Tape (CGA) and possibly a small
collection fee upon disposal to Gascoyne Waste Services. The levy and fee would in turn
contribute to the costs associated with transport and recycling.
8. ISSUES RAISED BY THE GASCOYNE
GROWERS AND STAKEHOLDERS
HORTICULTURAL
A meeting with staff from Bowman & Associates, CGA, GDC, Gascoyne Waste Services and
DAFWA Carnarvon was held with the Gascoyne fruit and vegetable growers on the 26th May
2009 in Carnarvon at CGA (Figure 7). Bowman & Associates provided information on
alternatives to current horticultural products and recycling opportunities to the 20 attendees
and an opportunity for the community and industry to comment on the research findings. In
addition Bowman & Associates conducted interviews with ABC Regional Radio, and the
Northern Guardian (Figure 8) and Countryman newspapers about the project.
Figure 8: Advertisement placed in the Northern Guardian newspaper with details of the
community consultation meeting in Carnarvon.
Page 50 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ Figure 9: Article from the Northern Guardian newspaper with details of the community
consultation meeting in Carnarvon.
The growers clearly stated that they were concerned about developing environmentally
sustainable horticultural practices and understood the need for change however they
outlined that:
•
Growers are most likely to participate as long as there is no additional cost,
•
Provided there is no requirement for a considerable change in existing horticultural
practices, e.g. they would take plastic to a recycling facility instead of landfill but
would not pay to chip the plastic themselves, and
•
Any levy should ideally be in the form of an upfront cost that cannot be avoided.
The growers highlighted the lack of external funding provided to the town of Carnarvon and
the lack of growth within the town. Attracting capital investment for infrastructure and
business development remains one of the main challenges facing the region93 and the
growers regarded this as a challenge for government to address, rather than the community,
which includes the local horticultural industry. The growers were supportive of attempts to
invest in infrastructure that would aid in developing more environmentally sustainable
horticultural practices and particularly in association with the development of recycling
opportunities.
The growers and stakeholders were generally supportive of the development of EPR
schemes that might involve a small levy up front and minimal change to current practices of
disposing of waste plastics. If levies were required to dispose of waste plastics to landfill
there was concern that some growers may choose to dump their waste instead, in order to
avoid further fees.
The time and labour costs associated with the collection of the plastic mulch film and drip
irrigation tape were regarded as minimal, estimated by the horticultural growers at only
half a day for two people. Savings from using degradable alternatives and not needing to
collect the waste plastics are negligible, therefore the cost associated with being
‘environmentally friendly’ was regarded as prohibitive to using the alternative products.
Total LDPE mulch film sales during the 2008/2009 year in Carnarvon were approximately
$325,000 and the total drip irrigation tape sales were estimated at $400,000 (predominantly
93
GDC website http://www.gdc.wa.gov.au/contents/investing/economic‐profile.htm?id=123 Page 51 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ sold by CGA and Elders Carnarvon)92. On average for the 130 fruit and vegetable growers
in Carnarvon this equated to $2,500/grower for mulch film and $3,100/grower for trickle tape.
These costs are regarded as low when compared to costs associated with fertiliser
application and transport costs, however the growers were resistant to any increase in these
costs without any direct benefit to crop productivity or gross profits.
Two Carnarvon growers used machines to roll up the mulch film and/or drip irrigation tape at
the end of the growing season. One grower used a Plasroll from Stark Engineering and the
other a homemade machine to roll up drip irrigation tape under sweet corn crops (P.
Johnson pers. comm.94).
The drip irrigation tape is disposed of via onsite burial or landfill with no opportunity for reuse due to clogged emitters and holes due to mice damage, which occurs even with the
thicker, more durable tapes95.
Little money is spent within the Carnarvon horticultural region on adding carbon to the soil
profile within the plantations, despite considerable knowledge of nutrients and additives such
as fertiliser leaching rapidly from the carbon-poor soils. Options for adding carbon were
regarded as too expensive, predominantly due to high freight costs. The majority of growers
diffuse fertiliser through irrigation systems on a weekly or constant basis. There was some
interest from growers in using alternative paper mulch mats to add carbon to the soil profile,
along with ploughing crop residues into the soil as organic mulch at the end of each growing
season rather than burning or removing the organic waste. This was also seen as a potential
method in gaining eligibility for carbon credits. EcoCover New Zealand60, the Department of
Climate Change, through their National Carbon Accounting Toolbox developed by the
Australian Greenhouse Office of the Department of the Environment and Heritage, CSIRO,
the Australian National University and Geoscience Australia and supported by NASA95 and a
variety of other organisations are currently working on this very issue and may provide an
insight into accessing the methodology in the future.
A suggestion was made to examine the possibility of launching a cottage industry in
Carnarvon to produce EcoCover, or a similar paper mulch product using the supply of
cardboard trucked every fortnight from Perth via IGA and Woolworths supermarkets.
Members of the Carnarvon Rotary and Lions Clubs had a meeting earlier in 2009 where they
announced an interest in becoming involved in recycling in Carnarvon. Unfortunately, clean
office waste is required to produce EcoCover rendering Carnarvon unsuitable due to lack of
suitable and available recyclable materials.
Another alternative discussed was to establish a large scale composting facility at the Brown
Range Landfill. Small scale composting has been conducted in Carnarvon by Chris
Armstrong at Homestay Organic Fruit & Vege Plantation. At least two fulltime staff would be
required to manage a commercial scale composting facility.
Other suggestions involved gasifying waste plastics to produce fuel. The calorific value of
plastic waste such as LDPE and HDPE is around 40 MJ/kg96 and compares favourably with
27 and 45 MJ/kg for fossil fuels such as coal and diesel respectively97. Internationally
feedstock recycling of mixed plastic wastes has been considered via a range of processes
including: gasification, polymer cracking, and use as a reducing agent in blast furnaces94.
Options to store waste plastic until such technology arrives in Carnarvon were discussed,
94
Peter Johnson, Callagiddy Station, Carnarvon (pers. comm.). and Landline, ABC Television, screened 7 June 2009. 95
Department of Climate Change National Carbon Accounting Toolbox website http://www.climatechange.gov.au/ncas/factsheets/fs‐toolbox.html 96
Tukker, A. (2002). Plastic Waste, Feedstock Recycling, Chemical Recycling and Incineration. Report 148. Rapra Review Reports 13(4). Available at website http://books.google.com.au/books?id=6FJHm3YwIIUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=tukker 97
Website http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels‐higher‐calorific‐values‐d_169.html Page 52 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ along with the need for waste plastics to be baled and compressed in order to facilitate
storage and eventual transport.
The need for community education to prevent contamination of waste products was
highlighted as at present mixed waste is often dumped at landfill despite requests to
separate waste streams.
A proportion of the growers were long-term residents of Carnarvon and have been involved
in the local horticultural industry for over a decade, making considerable capital investment
in land and technology. A smaller proportion of growers have entered the industry as share
farmers due to the low barrier to entry with funding provided from a farmer’s cooperative
rather than the growers supplying their own capital. The profit margins tend to be lower and
as a consequence these growers are regarded as less likely to invest in new technology
such as biodegradable mulch products that may be more environmentally friendly but involve
significant additional costs.
The growers regarded the local industry as quick to uptake new technologies that promote
cost savings and increased productivity. They regarded the Gascoyne Region as the first to
utilise drip irrigation to replace pre-emergent herbicide sprays with LDPE mulch film within
Australia, both as a cost saving measure and to promote environmental sustainability
practices. A suggestion was made to examine historical and current research conducted in
Israel due to the similar arid climatic conditions, and the country’s notoriety as the birth place
of modern drip irrigation techniques61.
The predominant theme from the Carnarvon fruit and vegetable growers that attended the
community meeting was therefore that:
1.
A change to degradable mulch alternatives was unlikely in the near future.
2.
EPR was regarded as a good way to progress with recycling of waste plastics in the
region.
9. RECOMMENDATIONS
There appears to be no single solution to address the problem of plantation plastic waste
disposal in the Gascoyne region. There is however, a combination of recommendations that
may together begin to address the issues faced by horticultural fruit and vegetable growers
throughout Australia. The following are recommendations for consideration by the Waste
Authority and Carnarvon fruit and vegetable growers:
1.
The use of biodegradable plastic agricultural mulch film or paper mulch is an attractive
solution for replacement of standard LDPE agricultural mulch film, however the current
cost is likely to be prohibitive. Gascoyne fruit and vegetable growers have an option to
convert from using non-degradable agricultural black plastic mulch film to a
biodegradable mulch film such as Mater-Bi Bio Mulch Film (modified starch based
100% biodegradable polymers) that has already been trialled in Australia and
internationally with promising results or Ciba ENVIROCARE should there prove to be a
market for the product in Australia. A more economical option would be to consider
converting to heavy brown Kraft paper, which offers a cheaper alternative or EcoCover
paper mulch mat once additional trials have been conducted. Most alternative products
are available from Australian distributors. Field trials have resulted in the Mater-Bi
biodegradable alternative providing similar agricultural benefits as conventional mulch
film. The higher cost of Mater-Bi mulch film, at up to nearly three times that of LDPE
mulch film, may be seen as a barrier to their use but because they degrade, collection
costs are removed (albeit minimal), and carbon would be added to the soil profile
thereby potentially decreasing fertiliser consumption and in turn, decreasing total
Page 53 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ production costs. EcoCover is a more cost comparable alternative and would contribute
greater carbon to the soil profile at the end of the growing season, which may make it a
more attractive option in the immediate future.
2.
Additional trials by local Gascoyne fruit and vegetable growers to accompany the use of
alternative products in the region would be beneficial in the early stages of product use.
Small scale trials would provide a means of determining whether the alternative
products are suitable for the growing conditions experienced by the Carnarvon fruit and
vegetable growers and whether the products are commercially viable. Support from
Department of Agriculture and Food Western Australia (DAFWA) and manufacturers of
the alternative products in any research trials should be encouraged.
3.
Encourage the use of T-Systems T-Tape that is recyclable in Australia, particularly if
support for recycling is offered by T-Systems. T-Systems have offered to support
GreenAIR in an EPR-like scheme to recover and recycle waste agricultural plastics by
purchasing the cleaned and chipped plastic to produce poly pipe with 25% recycled
content.
4.
Industry cooperation and support to phase out any non-recyclable drip irrigation
systems and eventually non-biodegradable mulch film, once a suitable product is
available.
5.
Development of an EPR scheme for drip irrigation tape and crop netting as options for
increasing the amounts of agricultural plastics recycled and re-used in Western
Australia. Should recycling opportunities not be available EPR schemes could also
provide opportunities to fund the disposal of plastic trickle tape and crop netting waste
to landfill. Stakeholders such as the Gascoyne fruit and vegetable growers, DEC, GDC,
CGA, Elders, Gascoyne Waste Services, DAFWA, GreenAIR, Ruggies Recycling and
freight companies would need to be involved in establishing such an EPR scheme.
6.
Development of an EPR scheme to support the use of biodegradable plastic mulch film
instead of standard non-degradable LDPE agricultural mulch film. This could be in the
form of a levy or tax on the non-degradable film.
7.
Investigate additional funding opportunities through the Waste Authority’s SWIS grant
scheme to provide on site agricultural plastics recycling infrastructure at Carnarvon
(e.g. extruder, washing plant, compaction press or baler) similar to that provided by
Zero Waste SA to PGS. With adequate funding a washing facility could be built at
Carnarvon to clean the plastic to an acceptable standard prior to it being sold for
reprocessing. A mobile baling machine would also be required to decrease the volume
of plastic prior to transportation.
8.
Investigate additional funding opportunities through the Royalties for Regions, Regional
Grants Scheme 98.
9.
Scope future possibilities for transport of waste agricultural plastics from Carnarvon to
Ruggies Recycling in Perth via road freight companies such as Nexus Freight at the
end of each growing season and at minimal cost by using empty trucks returning to
Perth. Any proceeds would be donated to the Princess Margaret Hospital for Children.
Ruggies Recycling arrange on-transport to South Australia, again at no cost, where two
recycling companies reprocess the material to make recycled plastic products,
predominantly poly pipe with 25% recycled content. Should quantities be great enough
and transport to Perth is available, this presents an existing option for recycling plastic
mulch film, T-Tape and crop nets.
10. Encourage growers to roll up and bale LDPE mulch film and drip irrigation tape ready
for future recycling opportunities, rather than burying onsite.
98
Website http://www.dlgrd.wa.gov.au/RegionDev/RforR/RGS.asp Page 54 of 55
SWIS 10583 – Horticultural Plastic Waste Disposal_______________________________________________________________________ 11. Investigate options for a storage facility at Brown Range Landfill for baled mulch film
and drip irrigation tape until recycling opportunities become available in the future.
12. Encourage growers to plough organic crop waste into the soil at the end of each
growing season to add carbon to the soil profile.
13. Investigate establishing a composting facility at Brown Range Landfill or an alternative
location within the Carnarvon region.
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