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SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN LA TIN A M ERICA
The Role ofM icro-and Sm allEnterprises and Cooperatives
Jorge A rroyo M oreno
Francisco R ivas B IO S
Inge Lardinois
Solid w aste m anagem entin Latin Am erica
The R ole ofM icro-and Sm allEnterprises and C ooperatives
U rban W aste Series 5
The research forthis docum entreceived financing from the N etherlands D evelopm entA ssistance (N ED A form erD G IS),
by the U nited N ations U rban M anagem entProgram m e forLatin A m erica and the Caribbean (U M P)and the W orld Bank.
Citation is encouraged.
Shortexcerpts m ay be translated and/orreproduced w ithoutpriorperm ission,on the condition thatthe source is indicated.
Fortranslation and/orreproduction in w hole A CEPESA ,IPES orW A STE should be notified in advance.Responsibility for
the contents and forthe opinions expressed rests solely w ith the authors;publication does notconstitute endorsem ent
by A CEPESA ,IPES,W A STE orthe financier.
Solid W aste M anagem entin Latin A m erica:The Role ofM icro-and Sm allEnterprises and
Cooperatives.
J.A rroyo,F.Rivas,I.Lardinois.IPES,A CEPESA ,W A STE (U rban W aste Series,5)
IPES
Carlos K rundiek 325,U rbanization Santa Catalina,Lim a 13,Peru
E-m ail:ipes@ m ail.cosapidata.com .pe
A CEPESA
A partado 1257-1002,San Jose,Costa Rica.
E-m ail:acepesa@ sol.racsa.co.cr,prosac@ acepesa.or.cr
W A STE,A dvisers on U rban Environm entand D evelopm ent
N ieuw ehaven 201,2801 CW G ouda,The N etherlands.
E-m ail:office@ w aste.nl
ISBN :9972-668-07-X
C om pilation and TextEditing:Cecilia Castro,Jorge A rroyo,V ictorH urtado
Edition Supervisor:Jose Luis Carrillo M endoza
English Translation:M urielM cCullough de D elgado
English V ersion TextEditing:A nne Scheinberg,Inge Lardinois
C over D esign:Carolina A rredondo
Layout:Punto y Com a Editors and Printers e.i.r.l.;Jr.Eduardo Caceres 161,2Q piso,
U rb.Rosario de V illa,Chorrillos;telephones:467-0707/932-6556
FirstEdition:Lim a,Peru,O ctober1997 in Spanish and January 1999 in English.
Solid w aste m anagem entin Latin A m erica
The role ofm icro-and sm allenterprises and cooperatives
1
TA BLE O F C O N TEN TS
TA BLE O F C O N TEN TS.........................................................................................................2
LIST O F M A IN A BBR EV IA TIO N S U SED ..........................................................................8
PR EFA C E
........................................................................................................................9
A C K N O W LED G EM EN TS...................................................................................................11
FO R EW O R D
......................................................................................................................12
C H A PTER 1
IN TR O D U C TIO N ......................................................................................14
1.1
R ESEA R C H M ETH O D O LO G Y ..........................................................................15
1.2
A N O TE O N TER M IN O LO G Y ...........................................................................17
1.3
STR U C TU R E O F TH IS BO O K ...........................................................................18
C H A PTER 2 SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN LA TIN A M ER IC A ...................21
2.1.1 U RBA N G RO W TH A N D PO V ERTY ........................................................21
2.1.2 SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T .............................................................22
2.1.3 Roles and responsibilities ofm unicipalities................................................22
2.1.4 W aste storage and set-outatpointofgeneration.........................................23
2.1.5 Public cleansing and,streetsw eeping..........................................................24
2.1.6 W aste collection...........................................................................................24
2.1.7 Finaldisposal...............................................................................................24
2.1.8 Recovery and recycling................................................................................25
2.1.9 Public education...........................................................................................25
2.2
TH E U R BA N ISA TIO N C O N TEX T.....................................................................26
2.3
C IV IC SO LU TIO N S:D EC EN TR A LISA TIO N A N D SO C IA L
PR IV A TISA TIO N ...................................................................................................27
2.3.1 The socialprivatisation ofsolid w aste m anagem ent...................................28
C H A PTER 3
TH E R O LE O F M SE/C O O PS IN SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T
IN LA TIN A M ER IC A :R ESU LTS O F TH E R ESEA R C H ...................30
3.1
TY PES O F M SE/C O O PS......................................................................................30
3.2
PR IM
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.3
STA TU TO R Y FR A M EW O R K S FO R M SE/C O O PS.........................................37
A R Y A N D SEC O N D A R Y A C TIV ITIES..................................................31
Solid w aste collection..................................................................................32
Recovery and sorting ofrecyclable m aterials..............................................34
Public cleansing and streetsw eeping...........................................................36
O theractivities related to solid w aste m anagem ent.....................................37
2
3.4
STA K EH O LD ER R ELA TIO N SH IPS W ITH TH E M SE/C O O PS...................38
3.4.1 The m unicipalities and the M SE/Coops......................................................38
3.4.2 Com m unity participation.............................................................................40
3.5
FIN A N C IA L A SPEC TS O F TH E M SE/C O O PS................................................43
3.5.1 The hidden costs ofthe M SE/Coops............................................................43
3.5.2 Incom e generation........................................................................................44
3.5.3 Taxation.......................................................................................................45
3.5.4 Capped Revenues.........................................................................................45
3.5.5 Public Benefitand Solid W aste Services.....................................................46
3.5.6 Productivity Criteria.....................................................................................46
3.5.7 W ages ofthe w orkers...................................................................................46
3.6
TEC H N O LO G Y C H O IC ES A N D LEV ELS.......................................................48
3.6.1 M aterials recovery .......................................................................................48
3.6.2 Solid w aste collection..................................................................................48
3.6.3 Prim ary and secondary collection................................................................49
3.6.4 O w nership ofthe technology.......................................................................50
3.6.5 Technologicaladaptations...........................................................................51
3.6.6 Effectiveness versus efficiency....................................................................51
3.7
W O R K C O N D ITIO N S A N D W O R K IN G EN V IR O N M EN T ...........................52
3.7.1 The w ork process and,risk factors..............................................................52
3.8
TH E PA R TIC IPA TIO N O F W O M EN ................................................................54
3.8.1 Streetsw eeping and,cleaning......................................................................55
3.8.2 W aste collection...........................................................................................55
3.9
TH E EN V IR O N M EN TA L A N D EC O N O M IC C O N TR IBU TIO N S M A D E
BY M SE/C O O PS....................................................................................................59
3.9.1 Im proved w aste m anagem ent;low ercosts and a cleanerenvironm ent.......59
3.9.2 G eneration ofem ploym ent..........................................................................61
3.9.3 The sustainability ofthe M SE/Coops..........................................................61
3.9.4 Replicating the experience ofthe M SE/Coops............................................62
C H A PTER 4
R EC O M M EN D A TIO N S FO R TH E FU TU R E ......................................63
4.1
BA SIC ISSU ES A N D FU N D A M EN TA L C O N C EPTS......................................63
4.1.1 The structuralcharacterofthe "w aste m anagem entproblem ......................63
4.1.2 D istributionalinequities and potentialrem edies..........................................63
4.1.3 System atic,long-term approaches...............................................................63
4.1.4 Politicalw ill.................................................................................................63
4.1.5 Com m unity participation and w illingness to pay........................................64
4.1.6 M aintenance ofpublic sectorcontrol,supervision,and oversight...............64
4.2
PR IN C IPLES FO R STR EN G TH EN IN G O F TH E M IC R O EN TER PR ISE
M O D EL ...................................................................................................................64
4.2.1 Strengthening ofthe three principalactors..................................................64
C H A PTER 5
G U A TEM A LA ...........................................................................................70
3
5.1
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN G U A TEM A LA ......................................71
5.1.1 The generation and physicalcom position ofthe w aste...............................71
5.2
TH E PA R TIC IPA N TS IN SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T .........................72
5.2.1 Streetsw eeping and cleaning.......................................................................72
5.2.3 Finaldisposal...............................................................................................74
5.2.4 Solid w aste recovery and sorting.................................................................75
5.3
SELEC TIO N O F TH E EN TER PR ISES IN TH E STU D Y ................................76
5.4
TH E FO R M A TIO N O F M SEs IN G U A TEM A LA ............................................77
5.4.1 Streetsw eeping and public cleansing..........................................................77
5.4.3 Finaldisposal...............................................................................................78
5.5
TH E O PER A TIO N O F TH E M SEs.....................................................................79
5.5.1 Streetsw eeping and cleaning.......................................................................79
5.5.3 Finaldisposal...............................................................................................80
5.6
C U R R EN T SITU A TIO N O F TH E M SEs IN G U A TEM A LA :SW O T
A N A LY SIS...............................................................................................................82
5.6.1 Strengths......................................................................................................82
5.6.2 W eaknesses..................................................................................................83
5.6.3 Threats..........................................................................................................83
C H A PTER 6
EL SA LV A D O R .........................................................................................85
6.1
TH E SA N SA LV A D O R M ETR O PO LITA N A R EA ..........................................85
6.2
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN EL SA LV A D O R ....................................86
6.2.1 Solid w aste generation and com position......................................................86
6.2.2 Legislative aspects ofsolid w aste m anagem ent...........................................87
6.3
TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISE U N IV ER SE IN TH E SA N SA LV A D O R
M ETR O PO LITA N A R EA ....................................................................................87
6.3.1 Selection ofthe study sam ple......................................................................88
6.4
TH E FO R M A TIO N O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN EL SA LV A D O R 88
6.5
TY PES O F M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES ..................................................................90
6.5.1 Collection.....................................................................................................90
6.5.2 Recovery and sorting...................................................................................91
6.5.3 Com posting..................................................................................................92
6.6
TH E C U R R EN T SITU A TIO N O F TH E M SEs IN EL SA LV A D O R :SW O T
A N A LY SIS...............................................................................................................93
6.6.1 Strengths......................................................................................................93
6.6.2 W eaknesses..................................................................................................93
6.6.3 O pportunities................................................................................................94
4
6.6.4
C H A PTER 7
Threats..........................................................................................................94
C O STA R IC A .............................................................................................95
7.1
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN C O STA R IC A .......................................95
7.1.1 Solid w aste generation and com position......................................................96
7.1.2 Solid w aste recovery and sorting activities..................................................97
7.1.3 The legalcontextforsolid w aste m anagem ent............................................97
7.2
TH E M SE U N IV ER SE IN C O STA R IC A ...........................................................97
7.2.1 Selection ofthe study sam ple......................................................................97
7.3
TH E FO R M A TIO N O F TH E M SEs IN C O STA R IC A ....................................98
7.4
TH E R O LES O F TH E M IC R O -A N D SM A LL EN TER PR ISES.....................99
7.5
C U R R EN T SITU A TIO N O F M SEs IN C O STA R IC A :SW O T A N A LY SIS 102
7.5.1 Strengths....................................................................................................102
7.5.2 W eaknesses................................................................................................103
7.5.3 O pportunities..............................................................................................104
7.5.4 Threats........................................................................................................104
C H A PTER 8
BR A ZIL ....................................................................................................105
8.1
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN BR A ZIL ................................................105
8.1.1 Recycling in Brazil....................................................................................106
8.1.2 M aterials recycled......................................................................................107
8.2
TH E SELEC TIO N O F TH E STU D Y SA M PLE ...............................................108
8.3
The three M SE/C O O PS in the study..................................................................108
8.3.1 The Sao Francisco Com m unity Centre......................................................108
8.3.2 Coopam o-re w aste pickers cooperative.....................................................109
8.3.3 The Canoas A ssociation ofW aste Pickers and Carters.............................112
8.4
BETW EEN SO C IA L D EV ELO PM EN T A N D TH E M A R K ET .....................113
8.4.1 Econom ic analysis.....................................................................................114
8.4.2 D irections forfuture developm ent.............................................................115
C H A PTER 9
C O LO M BIA .............................................................................................116
9.1
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN C O LO M BIA ........................................117
9.1.1 Legalcontextforsolid w aste m anagem ent................................................117
9.1.2 Solid w aste generation and com position....................................................118
9.2
W A STE C O LLEC TIO N PR E-C O O PER A TIV ES:TH E C U C U TA A N D
LO S PA TIO S C A SES............................................................................................118
9.2.1 Solid W aste M anagem entin Cucuta and Los Patios.................................119
9.2.2 Factors Leading to the Form ation ofthe Pre-cooperatives........................119
9.2.3 Pre-cooperative Financing M odel..............................................................120
9.3
SW O T A N A LY SIS O F TH E PR E-C O O PER A TIV ES IN TH E STU D Y .......122
9.3.1 Strengths....................................................................................................122
9.3.2 W eaknesses................................................................................................122
5
9.3.3
9.3.4
O pportunities..............................................................................................123
Threats........................................................................................................123
9.4
TH E N A TIO N A L A SSO C IA TIO N O F R EC Y C LER S (A N R ).......................123
9.4.1 Factors Leading to the Form ation ofthe A N R ..........................................123
9.4.2 The Selection ofthe A N R Cooperatives in the Study ...............................124
9.4.3 O rganisationalM odels Found in the A N R ................................................125
9.5
TH E EN TITIES IN TH E STU D Y ......................................................................126
9.5.1 The RescatarRecyclers'Cooperative.........................................................126
9.5.2 Prosperar:Pre-cooperative forRecyclers..................................................127
9.5.3 The Ecologicaland Sanitation Society (ECO A SEO E.S.P.).....................128
9.6
M O D IFIED SW O T A N A LY SIS O F TH E A N R EN TITIES IN TH E STU D Y 128
9.7
TH E R EC U PER A R C O O PER A TIV E...............................................................128
9.7.1 Solid W aste M anagem entin M edellin.......................................................128
9.7.2 The Form ation ofthe RecuperarCooperative...........................................129
9.7.3 Solid W aste M anagem entServices............................................................130
9.7.4 Colom bia O therIncom e-Producing A ctivities..........................................130
9.7.5 The Relationship ofthe Cooperative w ith O therParticipants...................130
9.8
A BBR EV IA TED SW O T A N A LY SIS O F R EC U PER A R ................................131
C H A PTER 10 PER U .........................................................................................................133
10.1
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN PER U ...................................................134
10.2
M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN V O LV ED IN SO LID W A STE
M A N A G EM EN T ..................................................................................................135
10.3
TH E SELEC TIO N O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN TH E STU D Y .....136
10.4
TH E FO R M A TIO N O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES.................................136
10.5
PER U V IA N M SE/C O O P M O D ELS ..................................................................138
10.6
M IC R O -EN TER PR ISE A C TIV ITIES ..............................................................141
10.6.1 Collection...................................................................................................141
10.6.2 StreetSw eeping .........................................................................................142
10.6.3 FinalD isposal............................................................................................143
10.6.4 Recovery and Sorting.................................................................................144
10.7
C U R R EN T SITU A TIO N O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES:SW O T
A N A LY SIS............................................................................................................144
10.7.1 Strengths....................................................................................................144
10.7.2 W eaknesses................................................................................................145
10.7.3 O pportunities..............................................................................................146
10.7.4 Threats........................................................................................................147
C H A PTER 11 BO LIV IA ..................................................................................................149
11.1
LEG A L C O N TEX T .............................................................................................150
11.2
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN BO LIV IA .............................................150
6
11.3
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES ........................152
11.4
STU D Y SA M PLE SELEC TIO N ........................................................................152
11.5
TH E FO R M A TIO N O F TH E SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T M IC R O EN TER PR ISES ......................................................................................................152
11.5.1 The La Paz M icro-Enterprises...................................................................152
11.5.2 The ElA lto M icro-Enterprises...................................................................156
11.6
TH E O PER A TIO N O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES..................................157
11.7
FIN A N C IA L A N A LY SIS O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES........................158
11.8
C U R R EN T M IC R O -EN TER PR ISE SITU A TIO N :SW O T A N A LY SIS.......159
11.8.1 Strengths....................................................................................................159
11.8.2 W eaknesses................................................................................................159
11.8.3 O pportunities..............................................................................................159
11.8.4 Threats........................................................................................................160
A N N EX 1
LIST O F M SE/C O O P EX PER IM EN TS IN PA R A G U A Y ..................162
A N N EX 2
R ESEA R C H PA R TIC IPA N TS ..............................................................164
A N N EX 3
G EN ER A L IN FO R M A TIO N A BO U T TH E U R BA N W A STE
EX PER TISE PR O G R A M M E (U W EP).................................................165
A N N EX 4
EX C H A N G E R A TES U SED IN TH E R ESEA R C H ............................167
A N N EX 5
PU BLIC A TIO N S A BO U T SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T ..........168
G LO SSA R Y
....................................................................................................................170
BIBLIO G R A PH Y ................................................................................................................174
7
LIST O F M A IN A BBR EV IA TIO N S U SED
A CEPESA :
A N R:
A RM SA :
A SEA M :
CEM PRE:
CCSF:
D A N CO O P:
EM A :
G TZ:
GM A:
ILO :
IPES:
JICA :
M SE/Coops:
N ED A :
NGO:
N W P:
PA H O :
PD O :
PRO A :
SEN A :
SSM A :
U M P:
U W EP:
W HO:
A ssociation forthe Execution ofEconom ic and H ealth Projects (from Spanish:
Asociacion Centra Ejecutor de Proyectos Econom icosy de Salud)
N ationalA ssociation ofRecyclers (from Spanish:Asociacion Nationalde Recicladores)
A ssociation forRecovery,M anagem entand Environm entalSanitation (from Spanish:
Asociacion para la Recuperation,M anejo y Saneam iento Am bientaf)
Bolivian A ssociation ofM unicipalSanitation Entities (from Spanish:Asociacion
Boliviano de Entidades de Aseo M unicipals)
Brazilian Business Com m itm entforRecycling (from Portuguese:Com prom isso
Em presarialpara Reciclagem )
Sao Francisco Com m unity Centre
D epartm entforthe A dm inistration ofCooperatives (from Spanish:D epartam ento
Adm inistrative de Cooperativas)
M unicipalSanitation Entities (from Spanish:Entidades M unicipals de Aseo)
G erm an TechnicalCooperation
G uatem ala M etropolitan A rea
InternationalLabourO rganisation
Institute forthe Prom otion ofthe SocialEconom y (from Spanish:Institute de Prom otion
de la Econom ia Social)
Japanese InternationalCooperation A gency
M icro-and Sm allEnterprises and Cooperatives
N etherlands D evelopm entA ssistance (form erD G IS)
N on-G overnm entalO rganisation
Costa Rican N ationalW aste Plan
Pan A m erican H ealth O rganisation
Private D evelopm entO rganisation
Integrated Services forU rban D evelopm entCentre (from Spanish:Centro de Servicios
Inte0m dos pam elD esarrollo U rbtm o)
N ationalService forCapacity Building (from Spanish:Servicio Nationalde
Aprendizaje)
San SalvadorM etropolitan A rea
U rban M anagem entProgram m e
U rban W aste Expertise Program m e
W orld H ealth O rganisation
8
PR EFA C E
The solid waste m anagem entproblem s confronting cities in the developing countries are well
known,butprogress in solving tkem is slow.There are stillm any neighbourhoods where garbage
is notcollected.Itis allowed to rotin the streets,to provide a,breeding site for flies,m osquitoes,
rats and other disease-carrying pests,to block streetdrains and cause flooding,or itis burned
and increases urban air pollution levels.M any ofthe affected households are located in poor
peri-urban com m unitieswhere m unicipaltruckscannotenter because streets are too narrow.
Better solutions are urgently needed.
Another com m on problem is the apparentinability ofm any localauthorities to investin and
operate sanitary landfills.The open dum ps which dotthe fringes ofcities are a realproblem .
Arm ies ofwaste pickers can be seen com bing through the waste,struggling to m ake a m eagre
living in unsafe and degrading conditions even though the recycling they do provides a valuable
service to the econom y and the environm ent.There m ustbe ways to involve waste pickers in
sustainable collection and recycling schem es while atthe sam e tim e im proving their health and
work conditions as wellas their self-im age.
W hile the problem s described above continue to cause headaches for localgovernm ents,
innovative and affordable solutions are being found within m any low-incom e com m unities
through the action ofm icro-enterprises and cooperatives or by com m unity initiatives.The m icroenterprises collectwaste in their com m unities where the households,even though poor,are
willing to pay for the service.The m icro-enterprises are also being engaged by the com m unities
and som etim es by m unicipalgovernm ents to transportthe waste to disposalsitesand even to
operate sm alllandfills.In other cases,waste pickers have been encouraged to organize recycling
cooperatives or associations to provide safer and m ore efficientrecycling services.Through
access to opportunity,education and financialassistance,ithas been possible to upgrade the
status,earnings and working conditions for waste pickers and recyclers.
Although som e prom ising solutions have been observed in m any cities around the world,the m ost
extensive experience appears to be in Latin Am erica.Through the work ofACEPESA,IPES and
W ASTE,ithas been possible to survey 89 m icro-enterprises and cooperatives (M SEs/Coop)in
seven countries to learn how they are organized,whatservices they provide,whattechnology
they use,how efficientthey are,whattheir costs are and how costsare covered.The study also
helps identify the basic conditions for establishing successfulprojects.The m ostdram atic finding
is thatthrough the m icro-enterprisesstudied m ore than a m illion urban poor are now having
their garbage collected!
Notwithstanding these successfulcases,a key question rem ains how to increase m icro-enterprise
participation in solid waste m anagem entso as to reach the m any m illions ofurban poor
throughoutthe world who are stillwithoutservice? Itis with hope ofanswering this question that
the W orld Bank and the U nited Nations U rban M anagem entProgram m e have supported this
study.In publishing .their findings,the researchers provide us with an invaluable guideline for
the developm ent,equipm entand creation ofm any m ore such com m unity m icro-enterprises and
sim ilar undertakings.
The readers ofthis publication willfind im portantinsightsinto whatisa suitable fram ework for
9
collaboration between m icro-entrepreneurs,com m unity based organizations and local
authorities.Its contributions willalso help the reader discover how m icro-enterprises,
com m unity groups and cooperatives can obtain access to creditand technicalassistance,how
they can effectively prom ote user participation and paym entfor services,as wellas how to
design com m unalsystem s for easy and efficientoperation.W hile notproviding allthe answers,
this publication should help readers visualize how poor com m unities and localm icro-enterprises
working together can create cleaner and healthier neighbourhoods.
CA RL BA RTO N E
PrincipalEnvironm entalSpecialist
Transportation,W ater& City Planning D epartm ent
The W orld Bank
10
A C K N O W LED G EM EN TS
M any friends and colleagueshave helped,to m ake this publication possible.First,we would like
to thank the research team s for doing so m uch in so little tim e.Secondly,we wish to express our
gratitude to the people working in waste m anagem entfor describing their activities and sharing
their experiences.W e would also like to thank allthe experts who gave us the benefitoftheir
observations and insights on this work atthe workshop on m icro-enterprises involvem entin
m unicipalsolid waste m anagem entin developing countries,which took place in Cairo in O ctober
of1996.The workshop was organised by the U rban M anagem entProgram m e (U M P)and the
Swiss Agency for D evelopm entand Cooperation (SD C).W e would especially like to thank Carlos
Landin (U M P)and CarlBartone (W orld Bank)fortheirvaluable supportand constructive
criticism ofthe originaltext.
Finally,we wish to thank Netherlands D evelopm entAssistance (NED A),the U nited Nations
U rban M anagem entProgram m e for Latin Am erica and the Caribbean (U M P)and the W orld
Bank for their financialsupport.Forew ord This book presents the results ofthe research project:
Solid W aste M anagem entin La-tin Am erica:the Role ofM icro-and Sm allEnterprises and
Cooperatives.This research was carried outbetween January and M ay 1996 in cities in eight
Latin Am erican countries:Bolivia,Brazil,Colom bia,Costa Rica,ElSalvador,G uatem ala,
Paraguay and Peru.The Paraguay data has notbeen included in this book other than in Annex 1,
due to insufficientm aterialencountered in the research phase.
11
FO R EW O R D
This book is designed to serve as a guide for introducing effective change and im provem entin solid
waste m anagem entthrough explicitly incorporating the experience ofthe M icro-and Sm all
Enterprises and Cooperatives (M SE/Coops),and im proving their functioning.
W e also hope thatthis book willm otivate widespread discussion on the role ofM SE/Coops in solid
waste m anagem ent,garnering insightand practicalsupport,which in turn can im prove the potential
ofthese enterprises to contribute to solutions to the persistentsolid waste m anagem entproblem .
This book is directed principally towards m unicipalauthorities and staff;interm ediary organisations
such as localNG O s and internationaldevelopm entorganisations;waste m anagem entprofessionals;
and other individuals or organisations who seek to solve the waste problem and/or to create
em ploym ent.The owners ofM SE/Coops and leaders ofcom m unity organisations,especially in the
low-incom e areas,can also benefitby taking advantage ofexperiences from sim ilar enterprises and
organisations elsewhere.
This book is designed to acquaintthe reader with the Latin Am erican experiences which have been
researched and docum ented;to give an overview ofthe currentstatus ofM SE/Coop activity in each
country;and to suggestits relevance and significance.The book does notpretend to give a com plete
review ofallthe technicaland econom ic options concerning solid waste m anagem ent,since itis
focused only on the reports ofthe researchers involved in the study.
A rigorous com parative analysis ofthe cases was notpossible because ofthe large differences
between countries,and the persistentlack ofcurrentand statistically accurate inform ation on solid
waste in particular and the financial-econom icsituation in general.Although care hasbeen taken in
the presentation ofthe research results,the reader is nevertheless advised thatthe inform ation
provided should be used with caution to serve as guidelines,notas absolutes.
D espite these lim itations,itis hoped thatthis publication willserve as a resource and introduction to
basic principles and approaches for the sm allscale waste m anagem entoptions available.
The book shows how a greatm any people are able to generate incom e through solid waste
m anagem entactivities,and to inspire others to place their trustin the new M SE/Coops.Atthe sam e
tim e,itrecognises thatenvironm entalproblem s and inadequate work conditions persist.These m ust
be addressed through the establishm entofenforcem entstrategies or through the introduction of
cleaner and safer work practices.
W e are convinced thatthe research results presented in this book can serve as a source ofknowledge
and inspiration for those who are closely involved with the problem s ofsolid waste m anagem ent.The
M SE/Coops studied have each developed in their specific localcontexts;in spite ofthis,itis hoped
thatthe reader willcom e to appreciate certain com m on factors which appear to be essentialto the
successfuldevelopm entand operation ofM SE/Coops.Anyone seeking to replicate the results would
do wellto take these insights into consideration.
Jorge A rroyo,IPES
Francisco Rivas,A CEPESA
Inge Lardinois,W A STE
12
13
C H A PTER 1 IN TR O D U C TIO N
Solid w aste m anagem entin low and m iddle-incom e countries represents a grow ing urban,environm ental
and socialproblem .D espite m any w ell-m otivated attem pts atsolutions in recentdecades,there are only a
few m unicipalities in these countries w hich have been able to adequately m anage the accelerated
production ofurban w aste.
Figure 1. M A P O F LA TIN A M ER IC A SH O W IN G TH E LO C A TIO N O F TH E C O U N TR IES
A N D C ITIES IN V O LV ED IN TH E R ESEA R C H
This has led to an increase in the efforts ofcivilsociety organisations and the private sectorto take on in
increasing m easure ofm unicipalw ork and responsibility,despite a generalised lack ofm unicipalsupport
oracknow ledgem ent.The various private sectorentities -largely consisting ofm icroand sm allenterprises
and cooperatives (M SE/Coops)-located in various Latin A m erican countries participating in the study
(see Figure 1)have developed them selves into effective participants in the search fora solution to the
14
crisis in solid w aste m anagem ent.
The research w hich provided the basis forthis book w as carried outunderthe auspices ofthe U rban
W aste Expertise Program m e (U W EP)and w as financed by the N etherlands D evelopm entA ssistance
(N ED A ).Ithas also received financialsupportfrom the U nited N ations U rban M anagem entProgram m e
forLatin A m erica and the Caribbean (U M P)and the W orld Bank.
1.1
R ESEA R C H M ETH O D O LO G Y
The research w as designed to docum entand analyse the experiences ofM SB/Coop econom ic units or
enterprises devoted to the follow ing services and/oractivities:
- Streetcleaning and sw eeping;
- W aste collection,including prim ary and secondary collection and transfer;
- Finaldisposalofsolid w aste;
- Separate collection ofm aterials forrecycling orcom posting;and
- Sorting,processing,and recovery ofw aste.
Researchers covered a totalof89 M SE/Coops in seven differentcountries.The num berofenterprises
included in the study from each country appears in Table 1,organised by country and type ofactivity.
The researchers soughtto determ ine how these econom ic units functioned,and to learn w hich social,
econom ic,politicaland technologicalelem ents facilitated orhindered theirconstitution,operation and
institutionalisation.This book is based on the results ofthatresearch.Itseeks to contribute to the
im provem entofsolid w aste m anagem entservices in otherdeveloping countries,and to facilitate
im plem entation ofnational,regionaland localpolicy changes w hich w illperm itand supportthe
form ation,operation and institutionalisation ofthese type ofM SE/Coops in otherlocations and in the
future.The study w as perform ed by localresearchers in each country,and in som e cases by team s of
researchers.In Colom bia,there w ere tw o separate research team s.The nam es ofthe researchers in
each country and the com position ofthe team s is presented in A nnex 2.
The research w as coordinated by three organisations w hich form ed the project's steering com m ittee:
W A STE,A dvisors on U rban Environm entand D evelopm entofG ouda,the N etherlands;A CEPESA ,
the A ssociation forthe Execution ofEconom ic and H ealth Projects (Asociacion Centra Ejecutor de
Proyectos Econom icosy de Salud),ofSan Jose,Costa Rica;and IPES,the Institute forthe Prom otion of
the SocialEconom y (Institute de Prom otion de la Econom ic Sociat),ofLim a,Peru.
A llm em bers ofthe steering com m ittee,w orking closely w ith the researchers them selves and assisted by a
representative from the U rban M anagem entProgram m e (U M P),contributed to the design ofthe research
m ethodology during an initialw orkshop in Costa Rica in February 1996.
15
Table 1
EN TER PR ISES STU D IED BY C O U N TR Y A N D TY PE O F A C TIV ITY
Country
G uatem ala
Principalactivity
Streetcleaning and sw eeping
Collection
Finaldisposal
Recovery and sorting
N um ber
2
6
1
5
Starting year
1984
1950
1982
1990
ElSalvador
Collection
Com posting
5
4
1
1983
1970-1985
1994
Costa Rica
Collection
Recovery
Finaldisposal
Beach cleaning
7
8
1
1
1952-1995
1981-1993
1995
1987
Colom bia
Collection
Recovery*
5
3
19901990-1994-1994
1985-19901985-1990
Brazil
Recovery
Separate collection
1
2
1989
1985-1987
Bolivia
Streetsw eeping and
collection
Collection
9
1991
9
1987-1994
Streetcleaning and sw eeping
Collection
Finaldisposal
1
15
1
2
1993
1989-1994
1994
1989,1982
Peru
*excluding the AN R .
The firsttask w as a generalanalysis ofthe econom ic,political,technologicaland socialcontextforthe
developm entofthe M SE/Coops in each country,in conjunction w ith an inventory ofexisting M SE/Coops.
In general,the researchers selected cases forstudy w hich w ere broadly representative ofthe existing
M SE/Coops in Bolivia,Costa Rica and Peru.In Braziland ElSalvador,the lim ited num berofexisting
M SE/Coops led to indepth docum entation ofspecific cases.This also occurred in Colom bia and
G uatem ala despite the large num berofenterprises.
D uring the inform ation-gathering process,IPES and A CEPESA visited alm ostallthe participating
countries in orderto enhance the analytic capabilities ofthe research team s w ith specialised expertise in
tw o specific areas:econom ic and financialanalysis on the one hand,and analysis oflabourconditions and
w ork environm enton the other.
The researchers presented and discussed the results ofthe research w ith representatives both ofthe
M SE/Coops studied and oflocalgovernm ents in w orkshops organised in alm ostallthe countries included
in the study.The finalresults w ere presented by the researchers in a w orkshop in Lim a in M ay of1996,at
w hich representatives from the M SE/Coops in each country also participated.The results w ere discussed
and the experiences ofeach country w ere shared in this m eeting,providing a criticalreview ofthe
research.Based on the contributions ofthe participants,the researchers proceeded to w rite up theirfinal
research reports.
16
Certain ofthe concepts and definitions w hich the researchers delineated in the initialm eeting in Costa
Rica are im portantforunderstanding this book,even w hen they are notnorm ally in use in the entities or
countries studied.These are presented below .
1.2
A N O TE O N TER M IN O LO G Y
Fourdefinitions w ere established to describe the econom ic units forstudy,(i)Self-em ployed:independent
autonom ous w orkers w ho take the initiative to spontaneously create theirow n em ploym entw hen they are
unable to find form alw ork.They operate w ith the help ofim m ediate fam ily m em bers and ow n very few
assets,(ii)M icro-enterprise:an econom ic unitbasically organised to produce orofferservices.Itusually
operates inform ally,although itcan have the status ofa business partnership,an association ora joint
venture.The ow neris also a w orkerand its purpose is to provide incom e exceeding the salary the ow ner
m ightotherw ise be able to earn,(iii)Sm allenterprise:a form alised econom ic unitw hich can be a
business partnership,an association orother.Ithas a m ore defined m anagem entstructure and a m ore fully
developed business culture,(iv)Cooperative:an econom ic unitw hich is form ally organised in accordance
w ith the law s concerning cooperatives in its hom e country.The com pound abbreviation M SE/Coofw illbe
used throughoutthis book as a generalterm to identify allofthe enterprise types studied w hetherthey be
m icro-enterprises,sm allenterprises orcooperatives.
The term civilsociety is understood to referto institutions and organisations w hich belong neitherto the
public northe private sector,forexam ple,N G O s (non-governm entalorganisations),PD O s (private
developm entorganisations),universities,churches,com m unity organisations,and the like.
The expression traditionalprivatisation is used to referto the sale ofm unicipalpublic enterprises
perform ing urban w aste m anagem entservices and theirequipm entorthe transferthrough concessions of
the respective services to the form ally constituted private sector,w hich is generally represented by
m edium orlarge enterprises,som e ofw hich are foreign orm ulti-national.
In this book,solid waste m anagem entis understood as being the environm entally oriented integrated
m anagem entofsolid w aste produced by the population.Itinvolves urban cleansing,w aste recovery (atthe
source,during transportation,in the streets and atthe finaldisposalsite),and recycling.Italso includes
public education to encourage the population to develop attitudesand practices w hich are sensitive to
w aste issues such as source separation orw aste m inim isation.
U rban cleansing includes the cleaning and sw eeping ofpublic areas and streets,and the prim ary and
secondary collection,transfer,and finaldisposalofsolid w aste.Prim ary collection is the collection of
solid w aste atthe source (from households,businesses,institutions,etc)and its transportation to points of
transfer.Secondary collection is the transportation ofthe w aste from transferpoints to the finaldisposal
site.Recovery represents the rem ovalorrescue ofw aste from the w aste stream forsom e type ofreuse.
This usually im plies its separation,sorting and eventualprocessing foruse in production.Recycling is
used to m ean the transform ation ofrecovered and sorted m aterials into interm ediary products for
industrialproduction (such as crushed glass orground orextruded plastic)orthe m aking ofnew products
forfinaluse,such as the production oflanterns from steelcans.In som e ofthe Colom bian casestudies it
w as found thatthe w ord recycling is used to referin a specific m annerto recovery and segregation.O ne of
these cases is the N ationalA ssociation ofRecyclers (A N R)case,w hose m em bers do notrecycle in the
strictsense ofthe w ord butcallthem selves 'recyclers'to boosttheirim age and give theirw ork a m ore
environm entaloutlook.
The conceptofbidden costs has been introduced in orderto betterunderstand the operation and
17
developm entofthe M SE/Coops studied,m aking itpossible to determ ine the realexpense ofoperating
these econom ic units.H idden costs are those norm alM SE/Coop operating expenses w hich are not
explicitly recognised orw hich are hidden in the econom ic and financialreports.In som e cases,these
hidden costs give the im pression ofa successfulorhealthy enterprise w here no such success orhealth
exists.The term hidden subsidy is used in parallelw ith hidden costs to referto the m annerin w hich the
hidden costs are paid.
In m ostcases,the actualterm s used locally,by the people involved in the M SE/Coops them selves,have
been adapted and applied to take advantage ofdefinitions in legislation ortax law s governing the financial
contextin w hich the M SE/Coops m ustoperate.Forexam ple,itis easy to form ally registera cooperative
in Braziland Colom bia,so m any enterprises registeras cooperatives,even w hen theirhorizontal
organisationalstructure and/orthe assignm entofresponsibilities do notsignificantly differfrom those of
m icro-enterprises registered as associations in otherlocations,such as Peru and Bolivia.
1.3
STR U C TU R E O F TH IS BO O K
This book is divided into tw o parts.The firstthree chapters provide an overview ofthe state ofthe artin
solid w aste m anagem entin Latin A m erica,and the contribution ofthe M SE/Coops to its developm entand
operation.The rem aining chapters presentthe individualresearch results foreach country included in the
study.
Chapter1 gives an overview ofsolid w aste m anagem entin Latin A m erica and describes how the
deliberate intervention ofcivilsociety,represented by m i-Solid w aste m anagem entin Latin Am erica croand sm allenterprises,N on-G overnm entalO rganisations (N G O s)and Com m unity-Based O rganisations
(CBO s),has had an im pacton how solid w aste is handled in the cities studied.
Chapter2 presents the results ofthe research,including certain conceptualaspects ofthe solid w aste
m anagem entprocesses studied.This chapteralso discusses the differentaspects ofeach operation:the
daily activities ofthe M SE/Coops;theirinteractions;theireconom ic and financialcircum stances;their
technologicaldevelopm ent;theirw ork environm entand conditions ofw ork;and the role ofw om en in the
enterprises.Lastly,itoffers som e overallassessm entofthe M SE/Coop situation in the region.
Chapter3 firstpresents som e generalrecom m endations directed tow ards facilitating and strengthening
future M SE/Coop activity,and secondly identifies additionalresearch priorities.
The second partofthe book,Chapters 4 through 10,provides a briefreview ofeach ofthe solid w aste
m anagem entM SE/Coop cases studied in each country,in the follow ing order:G uatem ala,ElSalvador,
Costa Rica,Colom bia,Brazil,Peru and Bolivia.A generaloverview ofthe solid w aste m anagem ent
contextis provided foreach country,w ith a description ofthe organisation ofurban services (used here
and throughoutthis book to m ean solid w aste collection and disposal,streetsw eeping,recycling,and,in
certain cases,the m aintenance ofpublic areas,parks,beaches,and the like).The circum stances w hich
fostered the creation ofthe M SE/Coops are also presented,as is a description ofM SE/Coop operations
and relationships w ith othersolid w aste m anagem entactors.The currentstatus ofthe M SE/Coops in each
country is also discussed,follow ed by an analysis ofthe internaland externalfactors w hich strengthen or
w eaken theiractivities,provide opportunities forexpansion orplace theirsurvivalatrisk.~
There is an exception to this generalform atin the cases from Colom bia and Brazil;in these countries,
each M SE/Coop in the study is presented separately.The setofappendices w hich follow s Chapter10 is
designed to contribute to the usefulness ofthis book.A nnex 1 is a listofthe M SE/Coop experim ents in
18
Paraguay,even though these w ere notincluded in the analysis.A nnex 2 offers a listofthe participants in
the research and a briefdescription ofthe activities carried outby each ofthe institutions involved in the
study.
A nnex 3 provides generalinform ation aboutthe U rban W aste Expertise Program m e (U W EP),w hich
provided the generalfram ew ork forthe study.
A nnex 4 gives the rates ofcurrency exchange in effectin M arch 1996 (the period ofactualfield research
forthe book),on w hich the financialcalculations and econom ic inform ation in the study have been based.
In this contextis im portantto note thatthe calculations presented have been abstracted from real
situations,and generalised to expand theiranalytic usefulness.Specific costs and prices are m entioned
only to give a generalpicture,and should be used w ith caution and forpurposes ofillustration only.
A nnex 5 lists the solid w aste m anagem entpublications from IPES,A CEPESA ,and W A STE,the three
coordinating organisations.
A bibliography and a glossary oftechnicaland regionalterm s used in the textfinish the resource section.
References appearatthe end,and do notgenerally appearin the text.This is partly because the
inform ation com es from a w ide variety ofsources,notallpublished,and partly in ordernotto interfere
w ith the reading ofthe text.
19
PA RT I
TH E RO LE O F TH E M SE/CO O PS IN SO LID W A STE
M A N A G EM EN T IN LA TIN A M ERICA
20
C H A PTER 2 SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN LA TIN A M ER IC A
A s the close ofthe tw entieth century draw s near,there are m ore people living and w orking in cities than in
ruralareas.This is placing increasing dem ands on the cities as they strive to offertheirinhabitants the
basic conditions necessary forexistence.
2.1.1
U R BA N G R O W TH A N D PO V ER TY
Latin A m erica has becom e m ore highly urbanised than A frica and A sia,w ith m ore than 70% ofits population
living in cities.The urban population is grow ing m ore quickly than the totalpopulation.N evertheless,
urban grow th figures have been slow ly declining;betw een 1965 and 1980 the urbanisation rate in Latin
A m erica and the Caribbean w as alm ost4% ,w hile ithad dropped to 3% in the eighties.
In 1995,there w ere approxim ately 478 m illion people in Latin A m erica.O fthese,351 m illion (73,4% )
lived in urban environm ents,w hereas in 1970,the urban population w as only 57,2% ofthe total
population.The totalpopulation ofLatin A m erica is projected to be 520 m illion in the year2000,of
w hich 405 m illion w illlive in cities,w ith m ore than fifty ofthese cities exceeding one m illion
inhabitants.These dem ographic developm ents create pressures on em ploym entand urban services,and
contribute to the urbanisation ofpoverty.
The m ajority ofhouseholds in Latin A m erica continue to be poorordestitute,and the cities are the
principalw itnesses to this poverty.A distribution ofincom e w hich is even m ore concentrated and
unequalin the nineties than itw as in the seventies exacerbates the inequalities betw een rich and poor.
The process ofurbanisation in Latin A m erica,therefore,can be characterised as both biased and
m arginalising.
A s in otherdeveloping areas,urban poverty and lack ofform alem ploym entcoincide w ith substantial
grow th in the non-structured orinform alsector.This occurs because one ofthe m ostserious problem s
caused by accelerated urban grow th is the incapacity ofthe form aleconom ic sector(the m odern
industrialised and com m ercialised sectors)to absorb the expanding urban labourforce.A lthough the
officially reported unem ploym entrate in the m ajority ofthe developing countries tends to be relatively
low ,the under-em ploym entrates (die realnam e forunem ploym entin Latin A m erica)are very high.For
exam ple,under-em ploym entin Peru is m ore than 70% .In ElSalvador,the under-em ploym entrate is
around 20% w ith an additional37% w hose em ploym entstatus is unknow n.These under-em ployed
basically com prise the sectorw hich has com e to be know n as the inform alsector.
A pproxim ately 15,7 m illion jobs w ere created betw een 1990 and 1994 in Latin A m erica.A bout84% of
these w ere created in the inform alsector,including self-em ployed w orkers,m icro-enterprises,and
dom estic servants.The participation ofthis sectorin non-agriculturalw ork increased significantly during
the decade,rising from 52,1% atthe beginning ofthe decade to 55,7% in 1994.This increase reflects the
rapid expansion ofinform alem ploym ent,4,7% yearly.
D uring this sam e period form alurban unem ploym entincreased slightly,reaching 6,4% .The w eakened
form alurban labourm arketcaused average incom es in the inform alsectorto decline,disproportionately
affecting the self-em ployed w orkers w ho experienced the sharpestdrop.The poorest,being the m ost
vulnerable to under-and unem ploym ent,bore the bruntofthis decline.The sam e period w as characterised
by a robusteconom ic recovery resulting from adjustm entactions taken in the preceding years,w ith the
21
resultthatthe grow th rate ofgdp w entfrom 0,3% to 3,7% betw een 1990 and 19941.
Poverty,as itis understood in the 1990s,is notm erely a question oflack ofw ork and incom e.Its defining
characteristics include the lack ofaccess to basic services:education,health,housing,security,drinking
w aterand urban services,such as the collection,treatm entand disposalofw aste.
Insufficienturban infrastructure,particularly the lack ofadequate housing,is one ofthe m ostacute aspects
ofLatin A m erican poverty.In the 1990s,one outofthree Latin A m erican households w as dom iciled in
deficientorinadequate shelter.A ccording to estim ates by the U nited N ations Econom ic Com m ittee for
Latin A m erica,the construction and/orim provem entof37 m illion housing units w ould be needed to m eet
this deficit.The lack ofdrinking w ateraffects slighdy m ore than 130 m illion people and the absence of
adequate sew age system s affects one third ofthe urban population in Latin A m erica.W orstofall,
significantim provem ents w illbe elusive,ifthey occuratallin the shortterm ,due to the econom ic crisis
in this region,w hich is stifling investm entin housing forthe poor.Itis the poorestand m ostdestitute w ho
sufferm ostfrom this vicious cycle.
2.1.2
Solid w aste m anagem ent2
Serious problem s caused by inadequate urban solid w aste m anagem entare com m on,to a greaterorlesser
degree,in Latin A m erica.In 1995,the urban population ofLatin A m erica produced 240.000 tonnes of
solid w aste daily.This is projected to have increased to 300.000 tonnes in the year2000.Theper capita
dom estic w aste generation is betw een 0,3 and 0,8 kg/person/day.Totalsolid w aste generation,including
w astes generated by the com m ercialand industrialsector,by hospitals and clinics,by public m arkets,
streetcleaning and otherurban com m ercialactivities,the am ountaverages betw een 0,5 and 1,2
kg/person/day.The average forthe largercities is 0,8 kg/person/day.
2.1.3
R oles and responsibilities ofm unicipalities
H istorically,m unicipalgovernm ents in Latin A m erica have born the responsibility forurban w aste
m anagem ent,and the m unicipalcorporations have both regulated and operated urban w aste m anagem ent
and public cleansing services.O nly recently,as a resultofstate reform s in som e countries,have traditional
privatisation processes begun to operate in a few cities,and in m ostofthese cases only the responsibility
foroperating the services has been transferred to private business.
The m unicipalities theoretically fulfilthe principalfunctions ofoperating,regulating and supervising the
range ofactivities related to urban w aste m anagem ent.In certain cases they have a responsibility to
registerthe enterprises w hich carry outrecycling activities.The rationale form unicipalinvolvem entin
these services is thatthe'public sectorcannotabandon its m andate to "protectpublic health and w elfare"
forthose w ithin its jurisdiction;although in practice this is seldom accom plished.
1
.ILO :"Panoram a laboral1995".Reportnr,2.Lim a,1995;and Carlos M aldonado and
M onserratH urtado,editors:Elsector inform alen Bogota:U na perspective interdisciplinaria.
(English:The Inform alSectorin Bogota:A n Interdisciplinary Perspective.)Bogota:
ILO /Colom bia D epartm entofLabour/SEN A ,1997.
2
The basic inform ation in this partofthe book has been taken from Zepeda,Francisco:
Elm anejo de residues solidos m unicipals en Am erica.Latino,y elCaribe.(English:M unicipal
Solid W aste M anagem entin Latin A m erica and the Caribbean).PA H O (Pan A m erican
H ealth O rganisation),1995.
22
M unicipalities assign jurisdiction and responsibility forurban cleansing to certain units ordepartm ents
w ithin theirorganisation.The m ajority ofLatin A m erican m unicipalities operate theirurban w aste
m anagem entservices directly,using theirow n equipm ent.In certain cases they lease,ratherthan ow n,
theirw aste collection vehicles.
The officialdum p
site "ElTrebol" is
located atthe
centre of
G uatem ala C ity.
D epartm ents charged w ith public cleansing and urban w aste m anagem entare generally located quite far
dow n the adm inistrative and decision m aking hierarchy,often subordinated to low leveldepartm ents.Staff
tend to lack any training orspecialisation in these areas,and com petentorcapable leadership is rare.This
situation persists despite the currentconcern forurban w aste m anagem entproblem s.W ith few exceptions,
m unicipalauthorities (m ayors,councilm en and m unicipalexecutives)lack any coherentoreffective
approach to theirurban w aste m anagem entproblem s,and,afterthe elections,w hatinterestthere is tends
to be subm erged to higher-status concerns.In general,one can say thatthe m unicipalities have failed to
reach m inim um levels ofinstitutional,adm inistrative and econom ic m odernisation,and are farbehind in
attaining technically adequate w aste handling procedures.M ostm unicipalw aste m anagem entorpublic
w orks organisations are unw ieldy,overstaffed,and severely lim ited in theirability to offerservice.Itis
notexaggerating to characterise as deficientvirtually allthe services related to w aste m anagem entin the
Latin A m erican countries studied.The situation is described in greaterdetailbelow .
2.1.4
W aste storage and set-outatpointofgeneration
Solid w aste storage atthe pointofgeneration is seldom adequate.This is true fordom estic w aste as w ell
as forthe w aste generated by the com m ercial,industrial,institutional,and othersectors.G enerators have
and use adequate containers forw aste storage in only a few cities,and this is generally lim ited to the
higherincom e sectors,w hich are also the only sectors likely to handle theirw aste in an appropriate
m anner.Furtherm ore,few m unicipalities considerthatthis is theirproblem ,orthatthey have any role at
allin controlling oraddressing it.The m ostacute difficulties in w aste storage and set-outoccuram ong the
industrialand health sectors,and these tend to have little interestin im provem ent.
23
2.1.5
Public cleansing and,streetsw eeping
Public cleansing and streetsw eeping tend to be restricted to paved streets w ith high pedestrian traffic.The
areas w here unpaved streets predom inate,usually in the low erincom e sectors,are ignored.In contrast,
com m ercialcentres,w hose appearance is considered im portant,receive an inordinate am ountofattention.
V ery few m unicipalities fosteractive com m unity participation in this service;and w hen they do the public
response tends to be apathetic in response to the deficientquality ofthe w aste collection services,w hich
leave the streets littered and dirty.The costofpublic cleansing and streetsw eeping varies w ithin the
region from U S $7 to U S $L2 perstreetkilom etre.
2.1.6
W aste collection
Coverage by w aste collection services averages about70% in large Latin A m erican cities having
populations in excess ofa m illion inhabitants;in sm allercities this coverage is estim ated to range betw een
50% and 70% .H ere too,itis norm ally the high and m iddle-incom e areas thatenjoy regularservice,w hile
low -incom e neighbourhoods can countonly on erratic service w hen they haveany atall.In m any ofthe
capitalcities ofLatin A m erica,including Tegucigalpa,M anagua,San Salvador,Caracas,Lim a and
A suncion,w aste collection coverage rem ains below 40% forthe low -incom e areas.
Transportofw aste to its finaldisposalsite is becom ing increasing difficultand costly,given the lack of
adequate orconveniently located finaldisposalsites.Because ofthis,itis com m on fora large partofthe
solid w aste w hich does getcollected to end up in open dum ps (w ith the tacitconsentofthe m unicipal
authorities)located along the road to the finaldisposalsite.These unofficialdum ps function as the site of
inform aland irregularsales ofrecovered m aterials.
The rem oteness offinaldisposalsites has also caused an increase in the use ofw aste transferpoints or
transferstations as a m ore efficientand cost-effective m ethod ofm oving -the w aste to disposal.
N otw ithstanding,the use oftransferpoints orstations rem ains the exception,and these are in use in only a
few cities.Collection costs in Latin A m erica vary from U S$ 15 to U S$ 25 perm etric ton;transfercosts
range from U S$ 5 to U S$ 17 perton,depending upon the distance to be covered.A verage collection costs
in low ,m iddle and highincom e countries are listed in Table 2.
Table 2.
C O M PA R A TIV E C O STS O F W A STE C O LLEC TIO N SER V IC E
C ollection cost
Costperm etric tonne in
U S$
Percapita yearly costin
U S$
Costas a percentage of
incom e
Low -incom e countries
15-30
M iddle-incom e countries
30-70
H igh-incom e countries
70-120
3-6
9-21
42-72
0.90-1.70
0.50-1.10
0.20-0.40
Source:C ointreau-Levin:Private SectorParticipation in M unicipalSolid W aste Services in D eveloping C ountries,U rban
M anagem entProgram m e,1994.
2.1.7
Finaldisposal
The state offinaldisposalservices atthe presenttim e in Latin A m erica provides perhaps the m ost
convincing evidence ofthe inadequacy ofthe currentsolid w aste m anagem entsituation in Latin A m erica.
O nly about60% ofthe solid w aste collected in and transported from the area's principalcities,the
equivalentoflittle m ore that35% ofthe totalw aste generated,is treated and/ordisposed ofin accordance
w ith m odern technicaland public health standards.The restnorm ally ends up in unregulated open dum ps
w hich failto m eetthe m inim um criteria forenvironm entalsafety,and w hich are perm anentsources of
24
contam ination and health risk.The situation in sm alland m edium -sized cities is w orse:rough estim ates
are thatno m ore than 20% ofthe w aste produced in these m unicipalities is being treated.A gain,itis
usually the w aste generated by the poorestpeople w hich is handled im properly.Even in controlled
landfills,leachates are generally allow ed to seep unrestricted into the ground,orto flow directly into
irrigation ditches orsurface stream s w ithoutany treatm ent.Landfilloperation costs range from U S$ 3 to
U S$ 10 perm etric tonne in Latin A m erica.
2.1.8
R ecovery and recycling
Recovery and recycling are notconsidered to be" partofthe form alw aste m anagem entsystem in Latin
A m erica,as they have com e to be in m osthighincom e countries,and as such they are perceived as being
com pletely outside ofpublic orm unicipalresponsibility.In m any cases,these activities have been
forbidden and the violators punished.
Thousands devote them selves
to the inform alrecovery of
recyclable m aterials atLatin
Am erican dum ps sites.
A tthe sam e tim e,due in partto the econom ic crisis in the countries in the region,recovery and recycling
activities allow vastsectors ofthe urban population to generate subsistence incom e.M ore than 50.000
persons,often assisted by theirfam ilies,are estim ated to be involved in largely inform alrecovery and
recycling activities in the principalcities alone.
O nly a few organisations,usually N G O s ordevelopm entaid organisations,actto supportthose involved
in inform alrecovery orrecycling.The m unicipalities usually take no responsibility forthese activities
despite the role w hich they could be playing to stim ulate source separation,to reduce the volum e ofw aste
requiring disposal,and to conserve naturalresources.
2.1.9
Public education
In spite ofthe generaldeficiencies in urban services,few public authorities in Latin A m erica concern
them selves w ith public education thatm ightfocus on raising the public's aw areness ofw aste-related issues.
There are few existing program m es w hich seek to reduce,prevent,orm inim ise the generation ofsolid
w aste atsource,usually carried outby N CO S.
25
A tthe sam e tim e,m any superm arkets and com m ercialestablishm ents,confusing "m odern" w ith
"disposable packaging",are actively prom oting a shiftto less recyclable products and packages.A few
private organisations have attem pted to address this trend and to increase public understanding ofand
conducttow ards a m ore environm entally sound approach to developm ent.
2.2
TH E U R BA N ISA TIO N C O N TEX T
A serious analysis ofthe solid w aste problem in Latin A m erica m ustlook pastthe deficiencies in service
to the persistentm arginalisation ofthe poor,w ho tend to sufferthe m ost.O ne can say w ithout
exaggerating thatthe low estincom e sectors bearthe bruntofthe solid w aste problem ,even though the
othersectors generate farm ore w aste.
W hy do the solid w aste problem s in Latin A m erica resistsolution? W hy do the negative effects ofthe
situation fallso heavily on the poor? The technicaland institutionaltools needed to im plem enteffective
and m odern w aste m anagem entare w ellknow n,even forpoorneighbourhoods.Buta lack ofinterestin
solving the problem continues to m anifestitself.In som e cases,the m unicipalauthorities use financial
problem s to explain orexcuse theirinaction.In others,they blam e citizens fortheirlack ofcivic
responsibility,orcom plain thatitis a politicalproblem .
Considered broadly,there are a num berofrootcauses forthe solid w aste m anagem entcrisis in general
and its acuteness in poorcom m unities in particular.
The m ostim portantare:
x accelerated urban grow th,w hich outstrips the capacity ofthe state (as represented by m unicipal
governm ent)to m eetthe needs ofthe steadily increasing population forbasic urban services;
x the grow ing quantity ofw aste generated each day;
x the econom ic crisis in Latin A m erica,w hich results in pressure to reduce public expenditure,
w hich in turn has a negative effecton m unicipalbudgets;
x the structuralinability ofm unicipalcorporations to adequately offerthis and otherservices,due in
partto the obsolescence ofthe politicalsystem s w hich supportthem ;
x the generally high costofthese services as they are norm ally conceived,com pounded by
inadequate ornon-existentsystem s forcollection ofservice fees;
x the population's indifference to the problem ,w hich is exacerbated by a lack ofpublic health
education oraccess to civic orpoliticalparticipation.The structuraldifficulties ofthe
m unicipalities and the outdated politicalsystem s w hich supportthem stand outam ong these
causes.The m unicipalities in Latin A m erica have historically been m arginalised and even abused
by centralgovernm ents w hich continually strip them ofauthority and revenues in orderto protect
centralgovernm ent"authority".This process reduces the m unicipalities to adm inistrators ofa few
urban services,im prisoned by com plex and unw ieldy legislation and shrinking budgets.A ttim es
m unicipalgovernm ents can noteven m eettheirpayroll.
O n top ofthis,the politicalsystem s w hich support(orunderm ine)localgovernm entare characterised by
politicalpatronage and corruption.Forexam ple,professionalm unicipalcareers w ith civilservice status
protection existin hardly any ofthe countries in the study.Therefore,each change ofelectoralauthorities
brings w ith ita change in m unicipalm anagem entstaff,often accom panied by a reshuffling oftechnical
personnelas w ell.
Furtherm ore,any expressions ofinterestin solid w aste m anagem entw hich m ay have been in evidence
during the electoralcam paign rapidly fade as the new adm inistration takes office,since once elected,the
26
search forpoliticalsurvivaltends to favour"bricks and m ortar" projects overthe m uch less visible or
glam orous urban services.
In recognition ofthis problem ,a series ofform al,largely im ported solutions aim ed attechnology transfer
and institutionalcapacity-building have been tested in Latin A m erica in the lastfifteen years;these have
yielded little progress in spite ofthe large investm ents m ade,and the foreign debtincurred.Faced w ith
this im passe,significantsectors ofthe Latin A m erican population have soughtto inventeffective
alternatives through theirow n directand active participation in solving the problem .They have in effect
opted to take responsibility forurban w aste m anagem entservices into theirow n hands.
2.3
C IV IC SO LU TIO N S:D EC EN TR A LISA TIO N A N D SO C IA L PR IV A TISA TIO N
The 1980s found the nations ofLatin A m erica virtually bankrupt,and capable neitherofdealing w ith an
increasingly com petitive globaleconom ic system norw ith adequately m eeting the grow ing dem ands of
theircitizens.The econom ic reform s and adjustm entprogram m es ofthe nineties -along w ith their
counterpartsocialreform s-w ere im posed in response to this situation.The socialreform s w ere m eantto
fillthe gaps generated by the econom ic reform s,w hich in turn stim ulated activity to reform the public
sectorand to enable itto provide an institutionalplatform ofpublic sectorstructures capable ofsupporting
the reform s.This coincided w ith the gradualphase-outofthe oversized public institutions w hich had been
created in response to the am bitious public developm entschem es ofthe 1970s.
Sim ultaneously,in partas a resultofthe state reform s and the easing ofcentralgovernm entpressure on
peripheraland subordinate entities,countries initiated decentralisation processes.These w ere designed to
restore a certain am ountofautonom y and responsibility to localgovernm ents.In som e cases,
decentralisation stim ulated localgovernm ents to forge alliances w ith regional,local,and in som e cases
internationalcivilsociety organisations.Localcom m unities and groups,aided and supported by the press
and m edia,accelerated this process as they began to reorganise and to exercise a certain am ountofpow er
in articulating and pursuing theirow n developm ent.In this w ay,decentralisation processes began in the
1970s as partofstate reform s.D ecentralisation cam e to be seen as an indispensable aspectofthe
structuraladjustm entprogram m es in Latin A m erica.
Y et,in the environm entcreated by the top-dow n restructuring ofstate apparatus,influenced by the search
fora m ore rationalallocation ofthe State's resources and a generalim perative to dow nsize the public
sector,these decentralisation processes have lostsightoftheiroriginalobjective,w hich is a m ore efficient
adm inistration ofthe responsibilities assum ed by the state.Privatisation,forexam ple,tends to be defined
as the sale ofpublic enterprises to the private business sector,a lim iting vision w hich in effectprevents the
developm entofnew form s ofprivatisation and constrains the possibilities forautonom ous developm entto
the narrow ly construed "public benefit" activities w hich had traditionally been assigned to the state.
In spite ofthis,orperhaps because ofit,a num berofexam ples ofspontaneous grassroots privatisation
processes,generally centred on group interests,have been docum ented as addressing the crisis in urban
function.These com m unities and enterprises have chosen to take on certain governm entalorpublic
services w hich are notfunctioning,do notexist,orw hich (like recovery and recycling)have traditionally
been outside the purview oflocalgovernm ent.The various form s ofsocialprivatisation initiated in the last
few years in Latin A m erica provide clearexam ples ofthis.This broader,m ore social,and lesstraditional
definition ofprivatisation can be understood as the transferoffunctions and responsibilities w hich had
"belonged to" the state to various civilsociety actors,w ithoutin any sense absolving the governm entofits
responsibility to guard the public interest.The high degree ofsocialinterestin these activities has
suggested thatthey be called "socialprivatisation",to differentiate them from m ore traditional
27
privatisation w hich is a sim ple substitute forgovernm entactivity.
There are m any exam ples ofsocialprivatisation;from the oldest,such as the private schools or
educationalcentres,to the m ostrecent,such as private police services.In both ofthese exam ples,
privatisation arises outofthe needs ofcertain sectors w hen faced w ith the ineffectiveness and inefficiency
ofthe state to guarantee adequate education orreliable civilprotection.In m ostcases these form s of
privatisation have been found m ostly am ong the higherincom e sectors ofthe population,since only they
have had the econom ic resources to substitute forpublic sectorinvestm entin these activities.
Recently,in the face ofreduced public expenditure caused by the aggravation ofthe econom ic crisis in
Latin A m erica in recentyears,increasing num bers ofsocialsectors,regardless oftheireconom ic
lim itations,have soughteitherdirectly orindirectly to take charge ofthose services w hich the state can
notofferadequately oratall.A tthe sam e tim e,broad sectors ofthe population have com e to recognise
thatpeople are the realprotagonists in developm ent,understood as the substantive im provem entofthe
standard ofliving thatsatisfies fundam entalhum an needs.This aw areness requires citizens to abandon the
passivity ofw aiting forstate solutions and to optforactive dem ocratic participation in crafting creative,
bottom -up solutions to theirproblem s.In this sense,socialprivatisation has also been understood as an
effective developm entinstrum ent.Proofofthis can be adduced from a setofexperim ents carried outby
populations organised in various entrepreneurialform s to satisfy criticalnecessities:housing (through
cooperatives),health care (through com m unity m edicalposts),civilsecurity (through neighbourhood
patrols),dom estic w ater(through neighbourhood com m ittees),solid w aste m anagem ent,etc.The form s
them selves vary w idely,ranging from m edium ,sm all,and m icro-enterprises and cooperatives to
com m unity developm entassociations;professionalassociations;w om en's clubs;and N G O s.
Socialprivatisation searches forefficiency in the fulfilm entofthose responsibilities adm inistered
inadequately and alm ostalw ays deficiently by the State.Thus,itis also a m echanism forself-governance
and a m eans ofassuring the w ell-being ofthe population.Y etsocialprivatisation,in im plying the transfer
ofpow erand responsibility from the state to civilsociety,does notin any w ay rem ove the need for
governm entalparticipation.To the contrary,its efficiency depends upon on the tripartite integration of
active civilsociety,an effective public sectorengaged in regulation and controlofthe transferred
activities,and the com petence ofim plem enting entities carrying outactivities previously in governm ent
hands.
2.3.1
The socialprivatisation ofsolid w aste m anagem ent
In the past15 years,and especially in the lastfive,there has been an acceleration oftraditional
privatisation processes resulting in the concession ofurban services prim arily to large and m edium -sized
private enterprises.These processes have tended to benefitthe w ealthiersectors ofsociety,ignoring the
low erincom e sectors w hose needs have generally been ignored,and w hose ability and w illingness to pay
has been dism issed.The high costs ofthe services offered in the conventionalm odelofprivatisation,w ith
its guaranteed returns to investm entto the private entities,have been provided a rationale forthis'neglect.
Farless has been m ade know n aboutw aste m anagem entservices delivered by M SE/Coops.In som e cases,
as w illbe seen in the nextchapter,these M SB/Coops have been self-conceived.In others,N G O s have
stim ulated and supported theirform ation.The M SE/Coops are contracted on the one hand by the
m unicipalities in w hose jurisdictions they w ork;on the otherhand,they m ay w ork undercontractto orin
cooperation w ith the com m unity as an independententity ororganised in com m unity developm ent
associations,neighbourhood com m ittees and the like.The recovery M SE/Coops,w hich enterthe m arket
according to its rules,notonly m ake the recovery ofw aste m aterials possible,butalso persistin an
activity w hich is traditionally ignored by public authorities.
28
In this book,the type ofprivatisation activitiescarried outby the M SE/Coops,independently orunder
contract,is referred to as "socialprivatisation",be-cause itis the activity,and its socialeffects,w hich are
the prim ary m otivators ofthe enterprises,ratherthan a conventionalprofitm otive.These types of
M SE/Coops contribute directly to solving the solid w aste m anagem entproblem s by addressing som e of
theircore causes,through the process of:
- introducing m anagem entefficiency by transferring responsibility forthe services to the
enterprises;
- reducing the capitaland operating costs ofthe environm entalservices through the use ofnonconventionalsystem s characterised by appropriate technology and reliance on m anuallabour;
- getting the population to actively participate in the solution to environm entalproblem s by raising
theiraw areness and changing theirattitudes and behaviour.
A s w illbe furtherelaborated and explained in the nextchapter,this study dem onstrates thatM SE/Coops
have the potentialto contribute in a significantw ay to the sustainable and integrated m anagem entof
w aste,w ithin a system w hich is com m itted to the environm entally sound m anagem entofw aste m aterials
in w ays thatbenefitthe com m unity,the econom y,and the environm ent.
29
C H A PTER 3 TH E R O LE O F M SE/C O O PS IN SO LID W A STE
M A N A G EM EN T IN LA TIN A M ER IC A :R ESU LTS O F TH E
R ESEA R C H
This chapterattem pts a generaloverview ofthe activities ofthe m icroand sm allenterprises and
cooperatives in the seven countries in the study,abstracting certain oftheircharacteristics,distinguishing
features,and functions.The detailed country inform ation is presented in Chapters 4-10.
3.1
TY PES O F M SE/C O O PS
Itis possible to identify six categories ortypes ofM SE/Coops,according to theirorigins and principal
characteristics (see Table 3).The firsttype includes those w hich w ere developed w ith the approvalofthe
m unicipality by groups ofsm allentrepreneurs to offerurban w aste m anagem entservices to the public.
This type is represented by som e cases in CentralA m erica and Bolivia.
Table 3.
TY PES O F M SE/C O O PS ID EN TIFIED IN TH E STU D Y
Types ofM SE/C O O PS
1. G roups ofsm allentrepreneurs offering services
directly to the population w ith m unicipal
approval.
-
2. Inform alsectorw aste pickers w ho have been
organised to protecttheirlivelihoods
-
C ases or cities per country
G uatem ala City,G uatem ala
A lajuela,Costa Rica
San Salvador,ElSalvador
Cochabam ba,Bolivia
-
The Canoas A ssociation ofw aste pickers and
carters and the Coopam are Cooperative Brazil
The N ationalA ssociation ofRecyclers (A N R,
Colom bia)
RecuperarCooperative,Colom bia
3. Collection enterprises backed by the com m unity
-
Som e cases in Costa Rica
Som e m icro-enterprises in Lim a,Peru
4. Collection organisations created by the
com m unity
-
Sao Francisco Com m unity Centre,Brazil
Som e cases in Costa Rica
5. M SE/Coops sponsored by international
developm entaid organisations
-
M icro-enterprises in Lim a,Cajam arca,Ilo and
Piura,Peru
ElA lto,Bolivia
Pre-cooperatives in Cúcuta,Colom bia
A lam eda N orte,G uatem ala
-
La Paz,Bolivia
-
6. M SE/Coops created by and w ith the supportof
m unicipalgovernm ents
The second type is com prised ofinform alsectorw aste pickers w ho have organised them selves w ith the
backing ofphilanthropic organisations,oron theirow n initiative,in orderto protecttheirlivelihoods.This
type is represented by the Canoas and Sao Paulo cooperatives in Braziland the collectors ofrecyclables
belonging to the A N Rin Colom bia.Both ofthese have been backed by the Catholic Church.The
RecuperarCooperative in M edellin is also a representative ofthis type.
30
The third type is com prised ofentrepreneurs w ho have organised theirservice units w ith the supportofthe
com m unity.They coordinate theiractivities w ith com m unity organisations and counton the backing of
the com m unity to continue operating.In som e cases,they operate w ithoutm unicipalauthorisation in their
service areas.This occurs in certain ofthe w aste collection m icro-enterprises in Costa Rica and Peru.
The fourth type consists oforganisations w hich the com m unity has created in response to its ow n needs
and in orderto m anage its ow n solid w aste.The relationships — w hen they exist— betw een this class of
enterprises and theirhostm unicipalities are extrem ely lim ited.This type is represented by the separate
collection com m unity enterprise ofSao Francisco,Brazil,and by som e cases in Costa Rica.
The fifth type is com prised ofM SE/Coops supported by developm entaid organisations,principally
N G O s,both localand international,w hich have a priorrelationship w ith the com m unities.The cases in
Peru,ElA lto (Bolivia)and Cucuta (Colom bia)fallinto this category.
The sixth (and last)type consists ofM SE/Coops w hich have been created atthe initiative ofthe m unicipal
governm ent,and operate w ith its support.This is the case in La Paz,Bolivia.
3.2
PR IM A R Y A N D SEC O N D A R Y A C TIV ITIES
The variety ofentrepreneurialform s studied can be observed operating in every partofthe w aste cycle.
Som e ofthem prom ote separation atthe source;others play an im portantrole in the sw eeping and
cleaning ofpublic streets,in w aste collection,and in transportto finaldisposal.
In m any cases,an enterprise has one principalactivity and severalsecondary ones.The M SE/Coops in
Cochabam ba,Bolivia,are involved in w aste collection,streetsw eeping,cleaning ofcanals and storm
drains,and park m aintenance.H ow ever,the activity forw hich they are bestknow n is w aste collection.In
Costa Rica,tw o ofthe collection M SE/Coops are also involved in streetand public area m aintenance,
recovery ofrecyclable m aterials,and m anagem entoffinaldisposalsites.In G uatem ala,the street
cleaning m icro-enterprise uses certain days ofthe w eek to care forthe green areas.In this case the
w orkers are contracted to carry outboth services.In ElSalvadorand Peru,the w aste collection
M SE/Coop w orkers also recoversom e m aterials culled from the w aste to sellon a sm allscale fortheir
ow n personalbenefit.
In general,the M SE/Coops receive incom e from both theirprincipalactivity and theirsubsidiary or
com plem entary ones,although there are som e exceptions to this.Forexam ple,the personalinitiative of
the w orkers ofa w aste collection M SE/Coop to separate and sellrecyclable w aste yields additional
personalincom e.
In certain cases,the term s ofthe contracts w ith the m unicipalities require the M SE/Coops to perform
com plem entary activities forw hich they are notcom pensated.In Cajam arca,Peru,the M SE/Coop offers
w aste collection service as stipulated in its contractw ith the m unicipality.A "clean area" clause in the
contract,w hich stipulates thatthe enterprise w illonly be paid on those days on w hich the m unicipal
inspectorhas verified thatthe assigned areas are "clean",forces the M SE/Coop to provide otherservices
such as sw eeping,em ptying ofw aste bins,and cleaning ofcontainers,forw hich itreceives no
additionalpaym ent.
The m icro-enterprise devoted to finaldisposalin Ilo,Peru presents a sim ilarexam ple.Itoffers a nonrem unerated service to the m unicipality,recovering allthe recyclable m aterials w hich reach the landfill,
31
selling them ,and passing allrevenues on to the m unicipality.
3.2.1
Solid w aste collection
There are M SE/Coops devoted to solid w aste collection in alm ostallofthe countries studied.Brazil
constitutes the exception,since there allthe collection activities are directed tow ards recovery of
recyclables.
The entities studied operate undera variety ofentrepreneurialform s.In Costa Rica,ElSalvadorand
G uatem ala they operate as individually ow ned M SB/Coops w hich w ere form ed attheirow ner's initiative,
oras com m unity businesses;one ofthese in ElSalvadoris an N G O .In Peru and Bolivia the large m ajority
are com m ercialenterprises constituted as associations.In Colom bia,m ostoperate as pre-cooperatives.
M any ofthe entrepreneurialform s studied w ere conceived and prom oted as a m eans to provide urban
w aste m anagem entservices to the poorestcom m unities.In spite ofthis,in certain cases collection services
have recently been restricted to only those w ith the ability to pay.Thisphenom enon is attributable to
the generalabdication ofm unicipalresponsibility forurban services.The m ajority ofthe enterprises
handle both prim ary and secondary w aste collection.Forthis they use vehicles .w hich they ow n,rentor
contract.In rare cases,the enterprises do nothave theirow n vehicles,butcoordinate theirw ork w ith the
m unicipality:collecting the solid w aste and transporting itto pre-determ ined transferpoints orcontainers.
They integrate theiroperations w ith routes ofthe m unicipalvehicles w hich transportthe w aste to its final
disposalsite.The M SE/Coops in Ilo,Peru,and the m ajority ofthe w aste collection M SE/Coops in El
Salvadorare exam ples ofthis form ofoperation.
The oldestoperating w aste collection M SE/Coops w ere registered in G uatem ala in 1950 and in Costa Rica
in 1952.These M SE/Coops arose spontaneously,atthe initiative oftheirow ners,w ho discovered in them
a w ay to m eetan unsatisfied com m unity need and atthe sam e tim e to create a livelihood forthem selves.
O nly a few ofthese had the form alsupportofpublic orprivate institutions.
In South A m erica,the origin ofthis type ofM SE/Coop dates to the late eighties,arising in ElA lto,
Bolivia in 1987,in Peru in 1989 and in Colom bia in 1990.Certain N G O s and m unicipalities initiated the
form ation ofthese enterprises to address the serious w aste m anagem entproblem s,and to provide
livelihoods forresidents living in urban peripheralareas.In these countries the M SE/Coops are integrated
w ith and supplem entalto the conventionalm unicipalw aste m anagem entsystem .
In term s ofthe clientpopulation,M SE/Coops in G uatem ala,ElSalvadorand Costa Rica serve a range of
clients and do notnecessarily lim ittheiractivities to the low ersocio-econom ic levelperipheralareas.In
the m ajority ofthe cases,they serve clients w ho are w illing to pay forthe service.Since few ofthe
M SE/Coops are contracted by the m unicipalities,they establish m arketrelations w ith theirclients and
w ith com peting M SE/Coops.This situation can be observed clearly in G uatem ala,w here the M SE/Coops
-ow ners ofthe so called "yellow trucks"-com pete am ongstthem selves.They offerdifferentfees to their
clients,and even com pete to collecton the sam e routes.
The M SE/Coops in Colom bia,Peru and Bolivia offertheirservices in the poorerm arginalurban areas.
The m ajority are contracted directly by the m unicipalities.There are tw o factors w hich facilitate the w ork
ofthese M SB/Coops:(i)the inaccessibility ofthe area forthe m unicipalcollection vehicles;and,(ii)the
low population density w hich results in less w aste produced,perm itting the use ofnon-m otorised
equipm ent.
32
Som e M SE/Coops in the low -incom e areas,including the m unicipality ofV illa ElSalvadorin Peru and El
A lto,Bolivia,w hose m unicipalcontracts have notbeen renew ed,have continued to collectthe w aste
w ithouta contract.They charge standard rates directly to the households in orderto recovertheircosts of
operation.
Table 4.
C H A R A C TER ISTIC S A N D PA R A M ETER S O F M SE/C O O P C O LLEC TIO N
O PER A TIO N S IN SO M E C O U N TR IES IN TH E STU D Y (PER EN TER PR ISE)
Service area
characteristics
Peru
G uatem ala
C olom bia
Bolivia (La Paz/El
A lto)
H om es served
3 500-4 800
70-1 100
8300
5500/11400
People served
21 000-28 000
n.a.
41 500
27 777/50 873
D ensity
Low
M edium
Low
Low
Incom e Level
Low
A lllevels
Low
Low
A ccess roads
U npaved
Paved,graded
U npaved
U npaved
Topography
Irregularand hilly
Flat
Flat
Steep,irregular/flat
Technicaland operationalparam eters
Equipm ent
1 tractor+ trailer
6 tricycles and
5 cargo tricycles
10 cargo tricycles
2 dum p trucks
O thers
U niform s,caps and
n.a.
protective equipm ent
U niform s,caps and
U niform s,caps and
protective equipm ent protective equipm ent
Personnel
10 collectors
5 operators
10 collectors
12 operators/
1 driver
1 driver
1 driver
16 operators
1 helper
2 drivers
D oorto door
D oorto door
D oorto door
D istance to dum p site 4-8 km
2-20 km
5-6 km
4-7 km *
Frequency ofw aste
collection
3 tim es w eekly
D aily
D aily
D aily/tw ice w eekly
H ours w orked
8 hrs-3 days/w eek
10 hrs-6 days/w eek
12 hrs-6 days/w eek
8 hrs-6 days/w eek
Coverage**
30-100%
n.a.
60-70%
30-90%
Productivity
150H H /hr
N 266H H /hr.397
H H /hra.
Sorting and recovery
yes
yes
yes
yes
Type ofservice
1 tractor+ trailer
D oorto door
1 truck
C osts ofservice and source offinancing
Equipm ent
U S$ 9 800
U S$ 10 000
n.a.
U S$ 5 000/8 000
M onthly salaries and
socialbenefits
U S$ 2 816
U S$ 1 046
U S$ 524
U S$ 753
M onthly operation
and m aintenance
costs
U S$ 353
U S$ 183
U S$ 524
U S$ 753
O therm onthly
costs***
U S$ 496
U S$ 114
U S$ 1 673
U S$ 100
33
Service area
characteristics
Peru
G uatem ala
C olom bia
Bolivia (La Paz/El
A lto)
Service financing
Paid by contract/
D irectservice charge Paid by contract
D irectservice charge
Paid by contract/
D irectservice charge
Frequency
M onthly
M onthly
M onthly
M onthly
Collection ofservice M unicipaltariff/
fee charge to the user direct
D irectcharge to the
user
M unicipaltariff
M unicipaltariff/
direct
Tariff/household/
m onth
U S$ 0.6-1.00
U S$ 1.67-8.33
U S$ 3.15
U S$ 0.6-3.22
Totalm onthly
incom e (incl.sale of
recyclables)
U S$ 4 200
U S$ 2 100
U S$ 6 124
3 420-5 600
O rganisation and M anagem ent
Initiated by:
NGO
Sm allentrepreneurs
N G O -PD O
M unicipalenterprise/
entrepreneurs and
com m unity
Created in:
1989
1966-1992
1990
1991-1989
A dm inistered by:
Shareholder
O w ner
Shareholder
Shareholder/ow ner
Legalstatus:
Lim ited liability CO . O ne em ployee
business w ith a
M unicipalPerm it
Pre-cooperative
Lim ited Liability Co/
one em ployee
business
N eighbourhood
participation
W aste set-out,
proposalof
candidates,paym ent
forservice and
inform alsupervision
W aste set-out,
paym entforservice
W aste set-out,
paym entforservice
W aste set-out,
proposalof
candidates,paym ent
forservice and
inform alsupervision
Relationship w ith
m unicipality
Service contract/
Supervision
V ehicle inspection
Service contract
Concession of
territory
Relationships w ith
othergroups
A ssociation of
Environm ental
M anagem entM E
W aste m iddle m en
n.a.
A SEA M /A M ERSEA
Supervised by:
M unicipality and
com m unity
U sers
M unicipalW aste
M anagem ent
Enterprise
M unicipalW aste
M anagem ent
Enterprise
W ork conditions
A cceptable
A cceptable
G ood
G ood
Technical/
adm inistrative
advisors
IPES,otherN G O s
Som e by RH U D O U SA ID
G TZ-CO RFA S
A SEA M -G TZ/
PRO A
O theractivities
Transportation to
finaldisposal
Transportation to
finaldisposal
Transportation to
finaldisposal
Streetsw eeping
n.a.
*
**
***
N otavailable
Transferstation
% covered w ith the geographicalarea
D oes notinclude hidden costs
A s can be seen from Table 4,and as described above,there are significantdifferences betw een the
34
M SE/Coops in the differentcountries.These enterprises differin:m otivation and m annerofform ation;
type and location ofoperations;equipm entused;characteristics ofthe areas w here they operate;financial
conditions ofoperations (incom e and expenses);and relation to theirhostm unicipalities.
3.2.2
R ecovery and sorting ofrecyclable m aterials
M SE/Coops involved in recovery ofrecyclable m aterials occupy second place in term s ofthe num bers of
w orkers,and w ere found in alm ostallofthe countries studied.
A large percentage ofthese econom ic entities are form ally constituted.They are legalised undera variety
oforganisationalform s:as lim ited individualenterprises,as publicly orprivately held com panies,as
lim ited com panies,as sole proprietorships in Costa Rica,G uatem ala,ElSalvador,Bolivia and Peru,and
as pre-cooperatives and cooperatives in Colom bia and Brazil.
In the m ajority ofthe cases in the study the enterprise has been initiated by its ow ner(s),as a m eans to
generate incom e.In Brazil,the cooperatives w ere an initiative ofN G O s,developm entsupport
organisations,and the Catholic Church.In Colom bia,the streetand dum p w aste pickers used the
form ation ofcooperatives and pre-cooperatives to organise theiractivities.In both Braziland Colom bia,
the originalobjective ofpre-cooperatives and cooperatives w as to dignify the w ork ofthe streetw aste
pickers and to guarantee betterlabourconditions and few erhealth risks.
The principalproducts recovered and sold vary from enterprise to enterprise and from cooperative to
cooperative.Som e handle allrecyclable m aterials;others only w ork w ith one ortw o specific m aterials or
grades ofm aterial.In ElSalvador,the principalproducts sold by the M SE/Coops are alum inum and paper.
In Brazil,Coopam are recovers allm aterials,w hereas in Canoas recovery focuses on paper,carton,glass,
plastics and m etals.
In their service prom otion posters,
the ANR cooperatives in Colom bia
dem onstrate respectfor their
associates'labour and educate the
population aboutwaste
m anagem ent.
In G uatem ala and Peru,certain M SE/Coops specialise in the purchase,classification,processing and sale
ofrecyclable m aterials,including plastics,textiles,and otherm aterials.They have equipm entw hich
perm its them to perform these tasks and to produce clean m aterials w hich can be sold atbetterprices to
the end-userindustries.
35
Recyclable m aterials are obtained in differentw ays.The m ajority ofenterprises and cooperatives collect
atpointofgeneration:schools,households,industry;they m ay also buy m aterials from w aste pickers w ho
salvage m aterials on the streetand atthe finaldisposalsites.
In Costa Rica and som e G uatem alan enterprises the ow ners buy the m aterials from suppliers in
conveniently located sites orshops.In Peru,ElSalvador,Colom bia and Brazilm aterials are collected
periodically in doorto doorvisits to previously identified suppliers.Som e M SE/Coops in ElSalvadorand
Peru stock them selves from the finaldisposalsites,w here they buy directly from the w aste pickers.
In Braziland Colom bia,the w aste collectors travelthe streets and the public give them the m aterials from
households atno cost.A variation ofthis w as found in Canoas,Brazil,and in the N G O FU N TEC in
G uatem ala,both ofw hich place containers in convenientlocations so thatresidents can depositthe
designated m aterials.
In Colom bia,the N ationalA ssociation ofRecyclers (A N R),an association ofpre-cooperatives and
cooperatives,has given the collectors ofrecyclables the pow erto challenge and surm ountcertain m arket
thresholds im posed by large end-users and interm ediaries operating w ithin the constraints ofthe global
secondary m aterials m arketplace,and gives them increased leverage in setting prices and quantities forthe
sale ofrecyclable m aterials.Likew ise,A N R and the cooperative Recuperarare searching forw ays to
generate em ploym entin otheractivities,including public w aste m anagem entservices;the processing of
recyclable m aterials;the sale ofsecondary products;and the like.N o othercountry in the study show ed
any sim ilarorganisation,butvarious individualindependentm icro-enterprises seem to be follow ing this
route as w ell.
Separate drop offcontainer for glass
collection in Sao Francisco,Brazil.
3.2.3
Public cleansing and streetsw eeping
There are a num beroftypes oforganisationalentities included in the study w hich involve them selves in
streetsw eeping and public cleansing in residentialareas.There is one m icro-enterprise in Peru w hich
specialises in offering this service,undercontractto the m unicipality.In G uatem ala,the neighbourhood
36
com m ittees contractw ith a group ofindividuals forthis purpose.The w aste collection M SE/Coops in La
Paz,Bolivia,are responsible forsw eeping the streets in the areas they serve,as a secondary activity.
The M SE/Coops in Peru,in addition to sw eeping the principalavenues and the quieterstreets ofthe area,
they are responsable forcleaning public areas such as squares and park benches,and forw ashing the
paved areas ofthe parks.M unicipalinspectors continually supervise these enterprises and the
neighbourhood residents m onitortheirw ork.Those contracted in G uatem ala also m aintain the
neighbourhood green areas and parks,underthe directsupervision ofthe clients them selves.In La Paz,the
m icro-enterprises use rakes and m etalbroom s to rem ove solid w aste leftin both paved and unpaved
streets..
The protocols foroperation vary from country to country.In Peru,the w orkers coverpre-established
routes w ithin a geographicalarea determ ined by the m unicipality.They w ork in daily shifts,using carts,
broom s and dustpans.In G uatem ala,the w orkers devote som e days to sw eeping and others to m aintaining
the green areas.Each w orkerhas an assigned area.Instead ofcarts,they use plastic bags.In La Paz,the
w orkers sw eep the streets in the sam e areas w here they collectthe garbage.
3.2.4
O ther activities related to solid w aste m anagem ent
The research turned up severalotherinteresting cases ofw aste-m anagem entrelated activities,such as the
cleaning ofbeaches in Costa Rica,the integrated treatm entofsolid w aste in G uatem ala,and com posting
in ElSalvador.Since these are isolated cases,they cannotbe included in a globalanalysis,butare briefly
m entioned here forinform ation and com pleteness.
In respectto finaldisposal,tw o quite differenttypes ofentities w ere found.The firstis the A lam eda N orth
Integrated Treatm entPlant(from the Spanish:Planta integralde tratam iento de Alam eda Norte] in
G uatem ala,w hich,besides being involved in com posting and sale ofrecyclables,is responsible forthe
finaldisposalofw aste w hich cannotbe recycled orused in the production ofcom post.The w aste is
com pacted into blocks w hich are sentto a designated area.The otherexam ple is from H o,Peru,w here the
m icro-enterprise operates a m anuallandfill,separating the reusable and recyclable w aste from the
residuals to be buried.
The com m unity founded the G uatem ala plantto try an integrated approach to w aste m anagem ent.In
H o,the m unicipality w orked w ith an N G O to found the m icro-enterprise w hen itbecam e clearthatit
w ould be less expensive to w ork w ith specialised m icro-enterprises than w ith m unicipalw orkers.
3.3
STA TU TO R Y FR A M EW O R K S FO R M SE/C O O PS
There is very little specific inform ation aboutthe legislation concerning oraffecting the M SE/Coops in
w aste m anagem ent.In general,allofthe countries in the study areas have in com m on a lack ofm unicipal
ornational-levellegislation w hich adequately controls ordirects the m anagem entofthe urban solid w aste
stream .W hatlittle legislation there is in relation to solid w aste m anagem enttends to be dispersed,
fragm ented,and disorganised:the various rulings tend notto be com piled into any single docum ent,norto
be available in any orderw hich w ould facilitate theirunderstanding and application.The legislation lacks
organisation and/orclearjurisdictionalauthority forform ulating and enforcing legalrequirem ents.A
variety ofgovernm ententities,both sectoraland hierarchical,tend to be involved in establishing and
m anaging the legalfram ew ork surrounding and affecting solid w aste m anagem ent.N orm s and regulations
37
applying to solid w aste m anagem entare contested am ong various entities,any one ofw hich m ay actin a
particularinstance w ithoutany type ofcoordination ora clearidea ofjurisdiction orresponsibility.This is
com pounded by the obsolescence ofm any ofthe standards,w hich bearlittle relationship to currentneeds
orthe dem ands ofefficientand sound environm entalm anagem ent.
In the lastseveralyears,the legislative and constitutionalcontextforurban services has changed
significantly in Bolivia and Colom bia (see also the respective chapters on these countries).In Bolivia,
legislation has been altered in recentyears to facilitate the participation ofcom m unity based organisations
in the provision ofpublic services.The Public Participation Law (from Spanish:Ley tie Participation
Popular)anticipates im provem ents in the system ofoversight,controland evaluation through assigning
neighbourhood and regionalorganisations and com m unity com m ittees the pow erto m onitor,docum ent,
and budgetthe quality ofthe public services,including those offered by the M SE/Coops.This m otivates
the ow ners ofthe m icro-enterprises to im prove theirinternalcontroland evaluation m echanism s.
In Colom bia the form ulation ofa new Constitution has had a num berofim portantim pacts on solid w aste
m anagem ent.The constitution strongly prom otes decentralisation and citizen participation,w hich tends to
influence the distribution ofresponsibilities atvarious levels ofgovernm ent.A separate law regulating the
participation ofthe private sectoralso perm its recycling cooperatives to com pete forpublic contracts for
the im plem entation ofw aste m anagem entoperations.
Since such changes influence existing pow errelations,they do nottake place in the absence ofsocialor
econom ic conflict.In Bolivia,in particular,these changes face politicalopposition.In Colom bia the new
constitution has created enhanced opportunities forstakeholders — such as the recycling cooperatives —
to actively participate in w aste m anagem entoperations,even w hen they have traditionally been excluded
from form alw aste m anagem entactivities.
3.4
STA K EH O LD ER R ELA TIO N SH IPS W ITH TH E M SE/C O O PS
A variety ofrelationships existbetw een the differentactors involved in solid w aste m anagem ent.The
principalactors are:
x the m unicipality (som etim es through the involvem entofm unicipalenterprises);
x the M SE/Coop;and
x the localpopulation.
In addition,there are otheractors exerting influence on the process,such as voluntary associations,N G O s,
com m unity organisations,private developm entorganisations,and utility com panies.
3.4.1
The m unicipalities and the M SE/C oops
Solid w aste m anagem enttakes priority in the m unicipalagenda in only a few cases.Costa Rica and
Colom bia are unique in m aking solid w aste the objectofpoliticalattention,although this does notalw ays
guarantee good solid w aste m anagem entpractice.
The m unicipality is norm ally the governm entalentity charged w ith responsibility forw aste m anagem ent.
In every case,this responsibility includes streetsw eeping and public cleansing as w ellas the collection
(both prim ary and secondary),transfer,and finaldisposalofsolid w aste generated in the cities.This
obligation is designated by nationallaw ,as in Costa Rica's G eneralH ealth Law ,orby provincialor
m unicipallegislation.To fulfilthis responsibility the m unicipalities have the authority to contractthird
parties to offerthe variety ofservices related to solid w aste m anagem ent.
38
The relationships betw een the m unicipalities and the M SE/Coops differgreatly am ong the particular
entities in the countries studied.In G uatem ala the relationship is distant:the m unicipality does not
intervene in any w ay in the functioning ofthe w aste collection system .The G uatem alan M SE/Coops
decide forthem selves w hom they w illserve,how m uch they w illcharge theirclients,the frequency and
tim ing ofservice,and the like.In Peru,in contrast,the relationship is very close:the m unicipality
determ ines in greatdetailhow the m icro-enterprise m ustoperate.
In the m ajority ofthe cities studied the M SE/Coops operate by contractorconcession from the
m unicipality.In Cucuta,Colom bia,this contractcovers a period offourto six m onths,butin Costa Rica
and in V illa N ueva,G uatem ala,som e M SE/Coops have m anaged to secure contracts forup to ten years.
The m ajority ofcontracts w ith the enterprises have a duration ofone year.
Certain M SE/Coops operate underm unicipalauthority w ithoutexplicitw ritten ororalcontracts.In
G uatem ala City,300 to 400 enterprises have collected solid w aste w ithoutany form ofcontractforthe last
fifty years.There are sim ilarexam ples in the city ofElA lto,Bolivia,the districtofV illa ElSalvadorin
Lim a,Peru,and in the m ajority ofthe cities w here the M SE/Coops operate in Costa Rica.
Even w hen a particularm unicipalcorporation has no contractw ith its M SB/Coops,the M SE/Coops are
dependenton it,especially forperm ission to dispose ofcollected w aste in the m unicipallandfills,w hich
are overw helm ingly adm inistered and controlled by the m unicipality.The coordination w hich m ustexist
betw een the w aste collection enterprises,w hich are notnorm ally involved in directtransportto final
disposal,and the m unicipalvehicles w hich are orshould be,is the source ofanothercom m on dependency
relationship.The contractconditions governing these services also vary from country to country.In the
m ajority ofthe cases the contractdeterm ines the zone to be served,the duration ofthe service,and the
form ofpaym ent.H ow ever,in Peru som e ofthe M SE/Coop contracts specify the num beroflots to be
served,the num berofservice units to be provided (specified in term s ofm etric tonnes and cubic m eters of
w aste,as w ellas kilom etres travelled),the frequency ofcollection,and w ork hours.
M onitoring and evaluation ofthe service forpurposes ofdeterm ining paym entare subjectto varying
criteria.In La Paz,Bolivia,the enterprises are paid according to a price established by contractperm etric
tonne collected.O thercriteria used in cities such as Cochabam ba,Bolivia,and Cajam arca,Peru,are less
easily m easurable,and m ake reference to criteria such as the "cleanliness ofthe service area",w hich
leaves m uch to subjective interpretation.
The m unicipalities in generaluse supervisors from the departm ents responsible forurban w aste
m anagem entto m onitorthe service offered by the M SB/Coops.The results oftheirevaluations influence
the possible extension ofthe contractordeterm ine the penalties thatthe M SE/Coops m ustpay.In La Paz,
Bolivia and in M iraflores,Lim a,Peru,the m unicipality m onitors perform ance factors such as adherence to
assigned routes,quality ofthe w ork,and behaviourofthe w orkers.
There are tw o prim ary m ethods ofpaym entforthe service.The firstinvolves the clients paying the m icroenterprise directly forthe service provided.The second m odelrequires the public to pay service fees to the
m unicipality orthe utility com pany:the m unicipality orutility m ustthen pay the M SE/Coops the am ount
established in the service contract.D ifferentvariations on these tw o m ethods w ere found in the cities
studied.
A key elem entin understanding the relationship betw een the M SE/Coops and the m unicipalities is the fact
thatin m ostcases the M SE/Coops have been founded w ithoutany involvem enton the partofthe
m unicipality,and they continue to operate outside ofthe fram ew ork ofany form alsolid w aste
m anagem entprogram m e.This leads to theirbeing considered m arginal;and in som e cases m ay incite
com petition betw een the m unicipality and the M SE/Coops.Cochabam ba,Bolivia provides an exam ple of
39
this:there the M unicipalEnvironm entalW aste M anagem entEnterprise (EM SA )(from Spanish:Em presoM unicipalde Sanea-m iento Am biental)com petes againstthe M SE/Coops operating there.This m ay m ean
thatthe M SE/Coops are excluded from the process ofoffering form albids forurban w aste m anagem ent
services.
In sum m ary,the frequently tense and difficultrelationship betw een the M SB/Coops and m unicipalities
represents a significantdisadvantage forthe M SB/Coops and detracts from the socialvalue and public
benefitofthe services they offer.The M SE/Coops also face difficulties in establishing peerrelationships
w ith the m unicipalities,due to the hum ble origins orlow socialstatus oftheirow ners,w hich tend to foster
asym m etricaldependency relationships favouring the m unicipalities.D espite theirim portance,the
M SE/Coops generally occupy a m arginalplace in the m unicipalsolid w aste m anagem entsystem ,
unrecognised by the form alm unicipalstructure.
Som e notable exam ples ofthe range ofrelationships betw een the M SE/Coops and the m unicipalities in the
seven countries are listed below :
x In V illa N ueva,G uatem ala,the M SE/Coops are required to pay the m unicipality a certain am ount
in orderto offertheirservice.
x In La Paz,Bolivia,the m unicipality facilitates the form ation ofthe M SB/Coops by giving them
loans forthe process oflegalincorporation,and forthe acquisition oftools,equipm ent,and
furniture.
x In San Salvador,ElSalvador,som e M SE/Coops depend on the m unicipaltrucks to transportthe
solid w aste from transferpoints to the finaldisposalsite.
x In Piura,Peru,the M SE/Coops are in effectserving as the m unicipalbillcollectors,since they
collectfees fortheirservices directly from the clients,butthen turn the m oney they have collected
overto the m unicipality,w hich in turn pays them forthe service.
x In G uatem ala,the m unicipality requires the w aste collection trucks to undergo an annualtechnical
inspection.W hen the trucks have passed the inspection,the m unicipality paints num bers on the
vehicles,form ally authorising them to operate in the city forone year.
3.4.2
C om m unity participation
By theirvery nature,M SE/Coops involved in household w aste collection tend to establish relationships
w ith the com m unities they serve;and in som e sense they can be said to be born in response to the needs of
those com m unities,offering personalised services and becom ing a partofcom m unity activities.The
research indicates thatclientsatisfaction w ith the service offered is vitalto the success ofthe M SE/Coops
in theircom m unities and is a necessary condition fortheirlong-term survival.
The participation ofcom m unity m em bers in relation to the M SE/Coops appears in m any differentform s:
x A s residents,they place the w aste outside forcollection and they store itas desired by the
M SE/Coops.
x A s com m unity m em bers,they participate in com m unity cleansing activities.
x A s clients,they pay forthe service.
x A s com m unity residents,they m onitorand supervise the w ork.Forexam ple,they controlthe
quality ofthe w ork;adherence to assigned routes;dem eanourofthe w orkers;correctuse of
uniform s and equipm ent,etc.They also give theiropinions aboutthe service rendered,discuss the
operationalproblem s,and m ake suggestions concerning im provem entofthe service.
x A s stakeholders,they participate in m anaging the w ork.Forexam ple,an enterprise in ElSalvador
and anotherin Brazilare the property ofa com m unity organisation.
x A s citizens,they pressure the m unicipalauthorities so thatthe M SE/Coops are able to offerthe
service.Forexam ple,in one instance a com m unity forced the m unicipality to retractits decision
40
notto re-contractan enterprise.
x A s beneficiaries,they participate in the design ofsolid w aste collection projects to be presented to
the m unicipality,in the recruitm entand selection ofw orkers,in the establishing ofrates,etc.
In the seven countries in the study,there are broad variations in the types ofcom m unity organisations
w hich facilitate the functioning ofthe M SE/Coops.These organisations have an im portantrole in the last
fourform s ofparticipation m entioned above.Som e exam ples are provided below .
Com m unity-based organisations have existed in the m ajority ofurban and ruralcom m unities in Costa
Rica forseveraldecades.In m any cases they assum e the adm inistration ofw atersystem s,transportation
lines,parks,and solid w aste m anagem entsystem s,w hen these becam e problem atic forthe m unicipality.
The form ation and operation ofthese organisations has been stim ulated by the governm ent.60% ofthe
com m unity leaders interview ed agree thatthe com m unity organisations supportthe w aste collection
enterprises.In Peru,a vastnetw ork ofcom m unity organisations,including neighbourhood com m ittees,
w om en's organisations,such as the com m unity kitchens and the vaso tie leche (a glass ofm ilk)
program m e,am ong others,supportthe w aste collection M SE/Coops.
The situation is com pletely opposite in G uatem ala.O nly in the lasteightyears has the politicalclim ate
tolerated neighbourhood com m ittees.The G uatem alan M SE/Coops are characterised by very direct
relationships w ith the clients served,w ho are ready to pay them fortheirservices w ithoutany
interm ediaries.
O ne ofthe biggestsources oftension betw een the M SE/Coops and the com m unities is delayed paym ent.
Regardless ofw hetherthe M SE/Coop has been contracted by the m unicipality orw hetherit"contracts"
directly w ith its clients,serious problem s can arise forthe enterprise ifitdoes notreceive its paym enton
tim e.This significantly affects the quality ofthe service and itm ay also harm the M SE/Coop's relationship
w ith the com m unity.
In m any ofthe countries in the study,there is no tradition ofindividualpaym entforsuch basic services as
household w aterand w aste collection.This situation m akes itdifficultto introduce the idea ofpaying the
M SE/Coops foroffering a service;this too m ay cause problem s,especially forthe enterprises w orking in
the poorerneighbourhoods.H ow ever,in othersituations,the clients are actually paying tw ice,once forthe
costs ofthe private service offered by the M SE/Coops and once forthe public service fees charged to
them by the m unicipalities.
Furtherm ore,itis im portantto distinguish betw een those M SE/Coops w hich have arisen spontaneously
(w ithoutexternalhelp),as in G uatem ala and Costa Rica,and those form ed w ith the aid ofN G O s in the
poorneighbourhoods ofPeru and Bolivia.The firstgroup ofM SE/Coops existbecause the public is
w illing to pay forthe service,and the entrepreneurs have econom ic incentives to do theirw ork.For
exam ple,there are m any M SE/Coops in Costa Rica w hich have arisen as partofa com m unity initiative to
contribute to the preservation ofthe environm ent,especially in predom inantly ruralareas.The second
group,in addition to theireconom ic m otivation,have the additionalim portantgoalofim proving living
conditions in theircom m unities.This explains w hy certain Peruvian M SB/Coops m ay w ork forseveral
m onths in a row w ithoutreceiving com pensation from the m unicipalities.
41
A Collection M icroEnterprise in Lim a,
Peru,O rganises a
Cam paign to
Educate the
Com m unity in the
Care ofits local
Environm ent.
W om en from
Com m unity Kitchens
Participate in the
Cam paign with
Posters.
The ow ners and w orkers in the M SE/Coops are conscious oftheirgenerally uneasy relationship w ith the
population,although in the m ajority ofcases the residents are slow ly learning to keep the streets clean,to
settheirgarbage outatthe propertim e forcollection,and to notthrow theirw aste into inform aldum ps.
H ow ever,m ostM SE/Coops believe thatm ore environm entaleducation is needed.
The factthatnotallofthe inhabitants are w illing to pay forthe service has caused m any M SE/Coops to
seek to educate theircom m unities through educationalcam paigns.This can be seen in severalcountries.
In ElSalvadorthere are continuous educationalcam paigns,and the association in charge ofsupervising
com pliance w ith health standards established in tow n m eetings has setup a m onitoring com m ittee.
In Costa Rica,som e M SE/Coops participate in com m unity actions directed tow ards the protection ofthe
environm ent,offering voluntary w ork;providing equipm entforcom m unity clean-up cam paigns;donating
42
m oney;and stim ulating and dissem inating reforestation projects.They use handouts,circulars,and
pam phlets in activities designed to im prove the participation oftheirclients and to raise the levelof
acceptance ofthe M SE/Coops'activities.
In Peru and Bolivia,M SE/Coops also prom ote these types ofeducationalactivities in orderto sensitise the
population to the environm entalproblem and teach them the im portance ofpreserving theirhealth and
environm entalquality by regularly paying forthe costofthe w aste collection service.These activities have
been directed and organised by governm ententities in Bolivia and w ith the aid ofN CO S in Peru.
The enterprises devoted to recovery have anothertype ofrelationship w ith the population,w hich is less
personal,since they are notpaid by the inhabitants (although som etim es they do pay them form aterials).
H ow ever,public cooperation in separating atthe source is criticalforthe optim um collection ofm aterials
forrecovery.
A n im portantcontextforcom m unity education is the generaltendency ofm ostcom m unity m em bers to
look dow n on the collectors ofrecyclables.Forthis reason,the cooperatives in Braziland Colom bia pay a
lotofattention to the organisation ofeducationalcam paigns w hich feature the im portance ofrecycling.In
this w ay they facilitate the public's collaboration in recovery activities.
Public education cam paigns provide im portanthidden benefits to the com m unity and the environm ent
since these are offered w ithoutadditionalcharge as partofthe M SE/Coop service.
3.5
FIN A N C IA L A SPEC TS O F TH E M SE/C O O PS
In orderto fostera m ore com plete understanding ofthe operations ofthe M SE/Coops,the researchers
requested inform ation on incom e and expenses,and,often w ith the assistance ofthe M SE/Coops ortheir
accountants,soughtto analyse this inform ation to produce a com parative analysis.H ow ever,the very
nature ofthe enterprises,theirinform alcharacter,theirunw illingness to pay the fulltax burden,and their
operation in a largely cash econom y,m ade the isolation offinancialinform ation elusive.Certain
inform ation,in addition,is considered privileged orproprietary and cannotbe provided in a published
docum ent.
Therefore the section w hich follow s,w hile itdoes provide a certain am ountoffinancialinform ation,
concentrates on a discussion offactors affecting the econom ic health ofthe entities,ratherthan analysing
precise operationalincom e and expenses data.A ctualfigures provided are generally representative ofthe
enterprises they describe,butshould notbe taken as a source ofprecise inform ation,norused in cost
estim ates orbusiness plans fornew projects.
3.5.1
The hidden costs ofthe M SE/C oops
Profound econom ic changes in recentyears in the countries w here the enterprises developed have forced
them to adaptto altered circum stances,although notnecessarily ata consistentrate.Those entities w hich
have notbeen able to adapthave slow ly disappeared from the m arket;as have businesses in the w orld in
general.In orderto rem ain in this evolving m arketplace and to continue to com pete effectively,the
M SE/Coops have had to resortto a variety ofadaptive m echanism s.
O ne ofthese m echanism s is the subm erging ofcosts ofdoing business,and relying on a num berof
inform alm echanism s to reduce the explicitcoststructure ofthe business.The so-called "hidden costs" of
43
doing business are apparentin an analysis ofallofthe M SE/Coops in the study.Follow ing are som e
exam ples ofthese hidden orsubm erged costs.
Personnelcosts are hidden orsubm erged through the use ofcontingentpersonnelw ho w ork on a
tem porary basis and relieve the com pany ofthe need to pay forsocialbenefits,such as severance pay,
unem ploym entcom pensation,"thirteenth m onth" and vacation allow ances,and health insurance.This
low ers the directcostofm anuallabour,although atthe expense ofthe w ellbeing ofthe w orkers.In this
firstexam ple,the w orkers them selves are paying a hidden subsidy to the enterprises.
Equipm entor capitalcosts can be subm erged w hen the com pany uses certain assets w hich belong to
ow ners (orw orkers)— assets forw hich itdoes notpay rent.This m ay include interiororexteriorspace,
utilities (electric pow er,w ater,telephone),equipm ent,vehicles,and the like.In this second exam ple,itis
the ow ner(orw orker)w ho is paying the hidden subsidy.
The broad prevalence ofthe practice ofoperating w ith hidden costs orsubsidies has m ade itnecessary and
advisable to attem pt,w ithin the fram ew ork ofthis study,to analyse the realcosts ofthe M SE/Coops.
Som e prelim inary explanatory term s used to referto the costs ofthe M SE/Coops are offered preparatory
to this analysis.
In the m ajority ofthe cases the totalcosts ofthe services are calculated from existing docum entation and
from inform ation given by the m anagem entorboards ofdirectors ofthe m icro-and sm allenterprises and
cooperatives.This calculation includes both the explicitcosts and the hidden costs,and attem pts to deliver
the realcosts.
The explicitcostis thatw hich the enterprise orcooperative has form ally recognised as a costoran
expense,and has paid forin cash orin docum ented inkind services.The hidden costs include costs of
doing business thatare notrecognised as explicitcosts,and thatare usually paid forin received goods or
services forw hich no explicitly recognised paym enthas been m ade.The realcostis the sum ofthe
explicitand hidden costs.
These concepts are criticalforany com plete understanding and evaluation ofthe operationallogic ofthe
M SE/Coops:to understand how they have been able to rem ain in the m arket;and to determ ine how (ifat
all)the participation ofexternalagents involved in the operations ofthe solid w aste m anagem ent
M SE/Coops m ay have contributed in one form oranotherto theircontinued survival.Forexam ple,in the
m ajority ofthe countries,N G O s participated in the initiation,form ation and/orprom otion ofcertain ofthe
M SB/Coops.The econom ic value ofthis participation — even w hen the M SB/Coop did nothave to pay
anything forit— needs to be captured fora fullunderstanding ofthe entity's finances.
3.5.2
Incom e generation
A lthough ithas notbeen possible to precisely determ ine oranalyse the levels ofincom e and the costs of
operation in allthe M SE/Coops3,itis possible to generalise thatthis relationship is fragile atbest,and the
m ajority ofenterprises studied only continue to operate because oftheirability to m obilise hidden
subsidies.The G uatem alan collection M SE/Coops representan exception to this generalsituation.
3
.This occurred in allofthe entities studied.H ow ever,in som e cases itw as m ore difficultto getinform ation due to the
lack ofform alaccounting records ordocum entation ofthe volum es collected,sorted ordisposed.This lim its the possibility
ofpresenting a detailed com parison,w hile allow ing a broad analysis ofthe aspects w hich appearto representim portant
influences.
44
A m ore com plete understanding can be gained by exam ining som e relevantfactors w hich influence the
incom e yield and future grow th ofthe M SE/Coops in the study.
3.5.3
Taxation
Taxation is one ofthe m ostim portantfactors in determ ining the econom ic health ofthe M SE/Coops.
ExceptforBrazil,w here activities involving used goods are exem ptfrom taxation,alleconom ic activities
in allcountries studied m ustpay sales,service and incom e taxes.In Colom bia the m icro-enterprises pay
taxes butthe cooperatives and pre-cooperatives are exem pt.
Tax avoidance is fundam entalto the developm entand survivalofthe M SB/Coops,since paying "allthe
taxes" can seriously affecttheirprofits.The large m ajority covertheirexplicitoperating costs,and som e
generate a m argin ofprofitw hich varies w ith each specific activity.There is a consistentattem ptto evade
as m any taxes as possible (a practice shared by m ost,ifnotall,businesses,regardless oflocation,country
oflocation,size,orfield ofendeavour),in orderto achieve positive returns.
Tax evasion and non-paym entis w idespread in allofthe countries studied.The M SE/Coops w hich charge
theircustom ers directly,such as those in G uatem ala,ElSalvadorand Costa Rica,operate in this m anner
as w ell.In G uatem ala,the clients only dem and receipts (causing the business to form ally record their
incom e)w hen they need them fortax purposes them selves.This results in a reported paym entrate of
about20% ofthe legitim ate tax assessm ent.In Peru and Costa Rica,the enterprises do notpay taxes atall.
In Bolivia,they buy receipts in orderto show a biggertax shelter.Itis therefore possible to conclude that
ifthe clients do notdem and receipts,itis im probable thatthe m icro-enterprises w illcreate orm aintain
records w hich could be used to force them to fulfiltheirtax obligations.In this case,itis the governm ent
w hich is providing a hidden subsidy to the M SE/Coops,since ifthey actually paid allthe taxes they
should be paying,few ofthem w ould be able to rem ain in business.
3.5.4
C apped R evenues
Taxes are notthe only variables w hich influence the incom e ofthe enterprises.In general,w hile these
enterprises m ake legitim ate efforts to m inim ise costs and expenses,they are also ham pered on the incom e
side by certain inflexibilities in the m arketw hich preventthem from earning revenues orincreasing prices
com m ensurate w ith the services provided.
The recovery and sorting M SE/Coops face a restricted m arketform aterials.Largerbuyers and end-users,
operating in the globalcom m odities m arket,setprices and create m inim um sales volum es,w hich are
beyond the reach ofm ostofthe M SE/Coops.The m aterials prices they are able to earn reflecttheirlack of
pow erin this m arket,and representa loss ofpotentialincom e.H ow ever,in Brazil,the Coopam are
cooperative pays the collectors ofrecyclables a higherprice than those paid by othertraditionalrecycling
brokers.In Colom bia,the A N R and the cooperatives do have a significantpresence in the m arketand are
able to establish prices,butthis represents an exception,ratherthan the rule.
M SE/Coops involved on the service side,in w aste collection,streetsw eeping,and public cleansing,are
likely to face restraints on incom e as a resultofpublic policies orpressure on m unicipalbudgets.The net
resultin both cases is thatrevenues are capped,w hile costs and in som e cases service requirem ents rise to
the pointthatthe bottom line is no longerpositive.
This explains w hy those M SE/Coops w hich charge clients directly fortheirservices presenta very
differentfinancialprofile from the ones contracted by the public sector.In G uatem ala the w aste collection
45
M SE/Coops,w hich w ere begun by the entrepreneurs them selves and serve the m iddle and high-incom e
neighbourhoods,operate in a perfectly com petitive m arketin w hich the practice ofdirectcharge to the
clients is effective and provides sufficientrevenues forcontinued operations,and in certain cases grow th.
In Peru,in contrast,w here the M SE/Coops w ere founded w ith the backing ofthe N G O s to serve the low er
incom e neighbourhoods,thelevels ofpaym entdelinquency are high w hile the service param eters are
controlled by the concession agreem ent,forcing the enterprises to continue providing a levelofservice
beyond thatw hich theirrevenues can support.
3.5.5
Public Benefitand Solid W aste Services
These situations pointoutthatthe N G O s'active in the low erincom e areas view theirm ission as taking on
certain ofthe governm ent's responsibility forim proving the living conditions oftheirinhabitants,
som ething w hich the public sectordoes notdo.This situation is illustrated in Peru,w here the low incom e
population tends to believe thatitis the State's responsibility to offerthe services forfree,and therefore is
notinterested in paying the costs ofsolid w aste m anagem entservices.
The burden ofproviding the public benefitofim proved living conditions is less forthose M SE/Coops
w hich operate underfree m arketrules,so these are likely to succeed w here they serve the high-incom e
neighbourhoods w hich are w illing to pay fortheirservices.
3.5.6
Productivity C riteria
Productivity (understood as the relationship ofpaym entto service volum e orquantity)is notnorm ally
used by the M SE/Coops orthe m unicipalbodies contracting them as a criterion forcalculating fees.In
those countries w ith a less restricted m arketenvironm ent,including G uatem ala,ElSalvador,Costa Rica,
and Bolivia,this criterion has som e m eaning.In Peru,w here the w aste collection M SE/Coops m ustcharge
a setfee unrelated to the quantity ofsolid w aste handled,productivity is notused in calculating fees.Y eta
healthy financialstatus w ould tend to require the M SE/Coops to establish rates having a functional
relationship to the quantity orvolum e ofservice provided.
A n agreem entw hich provides paym entperton forthe w aste collected m ay provide,butdoes not
guarantee,a fairrelationship betw een service and com pensation.In Bolivia the m unicipality punctually
pays a fee perton,w hich allow s the M SE/Coops to covertheiroperationalcosts and m eettheirfinancial
obligations and even generates a profitm argin w hich allow s forgrow th.In Peru,m unicipalities in
financialcrisis,suffering from a scarcity offunds forpublic w aste m anagem ent,bargain hard w ith the
M SE/Coops forthe low estrates possible,w hich in som e cases do noteven coverthe operationalcosts,
and certainly provide little orno netprofitm argin.Itis this type ofsqueeze — restricting revenues w hile
pressuring the M SE/Coops to keep increasing theirlevelofservice,m aintain,replace,and upgrade
equipm ent,and in generalincureverhighercosts— w hich m ay require the enterprises to look forw ays to
subm erge costs in orderto survive.This in turn results in forcing w orkers,fam ilies,orthe state to
subsidise theiroperations by foregoing pay,benefits,ortax revenues.
3.5.7
W ages ofthe w orkers
The M SE/Coop w orkers earn w ages above the m inim um w age established by law in theircountries w ith
the exception ofrecovery and sorting activities in Costa Rica.There are w ide variations in the salaries in
46
the countries in the study.The m ajority ofthe w orkers earn betw een U S$ 100 and U S$ 199 m onthly.
Table 5 show s thatin fourcountries,Colom bia,Brazil,Costa Rica and ElSalvador,w orkers receive legal
m inim um w ages above U S$ 100 m onthly.In Peru,G uatem ala,and Bolivia theirincom e is less than this,
w ith Bolivia show ing the low estm inim um w age in allofSouth A m erica,U S$ 46.
Table 5 .
A V ER A G E W A G ES R EC EIV ED PER A C TIV ITY A N D LEG A L M IN IM U M
W A G ES IN TH E C O U N TR IES STU D IED (IN U S S/M O N TH )
C oncept
Country’s m inim um w ages
Peru
C olom bia Bolivia
Brazil
C osta R ica El
Salvador
G uatem ala
60
140
46
112
200
130
94
Collection
124
271
96
n.i.
258
144
285
106
243
n.i.
275
149
133
169
Streetsw eeping
136
n.i.
n.i.
n.i.
n.i.
n.i.
129
Finaldisposal
129
n.i.
n.i.
n.i.
n.i.
n.i.
n.i.
Ifthe salaries are analysed by activity,the w aste collection w orkers ofG uatem ala are the bestpaid,since
they receive three tim es the m inim um w age (see Table 6).The average salary forthis activity includes the
salary ofthe helper,the chauffeur,and the ow ner,w ho receives the largestbenefit.In absolute term s,
second place is occupied by the w orkers ofColom bia,w ho w ork forthe w aste collection M SE/Coops in
Cucuta,receiving an average ofU S $271 perm onth,w hich is double the m inim um w age.
In Bolivia the w aste collection w orkers receive U S $96 m onthly,w hich is tw ice the m inim um w age,
although in absolute term s the Bolivian salary is less than the Colom bian salary.H ow ever,the Bolivian
w orkers are partially com pensated by low erprices ofsom e consum ergoods and transportation.
W ith respectto the recovery and sorting w orkers,in relative term s (average salary/m inim um w age)as
w ellas absolute term s,the Brazilians are the bestpaid,because they receive 2,5 tim es the m inim um w age.
This is because labourlegislation in Brazilis very advantageous forthe w orkerand places heavy burdens
on the em ployer,w ith the resultthatbenefits paid representapproxim ately one additionalm onth's salary
peryear.
Percountry,in Peru the bestrem unerated activity is streetsw eeping,follow ed by w aste collection.In
Colom bia,Costa Rica,ElSalvador,and G uatem ala,the bestrem unerated activity is w aste collection.
Table 6.
R A TIO O F A V ER A G E SA LA R Y PER A C TIV ITY TO M IN IM U M W A G E PER
C O U N TR Y (SA LA R Y /M IN IM U M W A G E)
C oncept
Peru
C olom bia Bolivia
Brazil
C osta R ica El
Salvador
G uatem ala
Collection
2.07
1.94
2.09
n.r.
1.29
1.10
3.03
1.77
1.74
n.r.
2.46
0.75
1.02
1.80
Sw eeping
2.27
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.
1.37
Finaldisposal
2.15
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.
1.17
N ote:n.r.= notrelevant.
47
3.6
TEC H N O LO G Y C H O IC ES A N D LEV ELS
The enterprises in the study use technologies thatrange w idely,from carts fabricated outofw aste
m aterials to new trucks.Itis im portantto note thatthe technologies used by the recovery M SE/Coops
differsignificantly from those in use forM SE/Coops involved in w aste collection.
3.6.1
M aterials recovery
The Brazilian and Colom bian cooperatives use sim ilartypes ofcarts to collectrecoverable m aterials from
neighbourhoods.D ue to the large volum es to be transported and the distances to be travelled,trucks are
used m ore frequently to transportthe m aterialfordirectsale to end-userindustries.Com pacting trucks are
notusefulforthe collection ofrecyclables,since the action ofcom pacting crushes and contam inates the
collected m aterials.In Peru,recoverable m aterials are salvaged from the dum ps and large transferpoints,
orcollected atpoints ofgeneration,including com m unity kitchens,schools,textile factories,and the like.
The enterprises deploy large trucks,trenching spades,rakes,shovels and bags.Then the recovered w aste
is transported to a w arehouse w hich is leased orow ned by the M SE/Coop,w here w orkers sortand pack
the m aterialin bales.W heneversufficientvolum es accum ulate,the enterprise contacts theirm arket,and
the bales are transferred to the pointofsale.
3.6.2
The choice oftechnology forw aste collection dependslargely on the accessibility ofthe service area,
particularly the breadth and characterofthe streets (straightorcurved,paved ornot,narrow orw ide)and
on the type ofterrain (flat,hilly oruneven).The volum e ofw aste and m aterials to be collected and the
distance to be transported also influence the selection ofequipm ent.In Peru,the w aste collection
M SE/Coops operating in poorneighbourhoods use cargo tricycles and carts.The m ostcom m on vehicle is
a 1 m 3 cargo tricycle w hich has been adapted foruneven terrain.The tricycles are ridden by pairs of
w orkers,w hich facilitates controlofthe vehicle in the generally irregularterrain.The w orkers coverfour
to six m icro-routes daily,serving an average of600 household connections each.They em pty the tricycles
atpredeterm ined transferpoints (orcontainers)along the route.They then continue untilthe route is
finished,return to the transferpoint,and,w ith otherw orkers,load the solid w aste onto the vehicle w hich
w illtransportitto its finaldisposalpoint.
The transfervehicle can be a truck,a dum p truck ora tractor-trailer.A lm ostallthe M SE/Coops take on
the responsibility oftransporting the w aste to its finaldisposalsite,using eithera contracted vehicle or
theirow n vehicles fortransport,usually open box trucks orstake-body trailers pulled by a farm tractor.
In the neighbourhoods located in the steep hills ofLa Paz,Bolivia,hand carts sim ilarto those used in
G uatem ala are used to load the w aste onto the trucks.W here these enterprises are collecting w aste from
high and m iddle-incom e areas,80% to 90% ofthe vehicles in use are trucks;9% to 19% are m ule draw n
carts,and few erthan 1% are carts pow ered by hum an effort.Figure 2 show s the vehicles used forthe
collection ofw aste in the study areas.
The richness and diversity ofm aterials and technologies constitutes an im portantelem entin the success of
the enterprises.In ElSalvador,som e ofthe w aste collectors have taughtthem selves to constructcollection
vehicles using bicycle tyres and found m aterials in the w aste stream .In Costa Rica,the collection,
transportation and finaldisposalenterprises possess heavy equipm entconsisting oftrucks,carts and farm
tractors w ith trailers,allofw hich (exceptthe trailers)have been adapted from theiroriginalagricultural
uses.
48
3.6.3
Prim ary and secondary collection
Fora variety ofreasons,notallofthe vehicles used forcollection are suitable in allcircum stances.Large
trucks cannotcollectin neighbourhoods w here the streets are very narrow ,and cargo tricycles and hand
carts cannottransportlarge volum es ofw aste orm aterials overlong distances.
The M SE/Coops address these problem s by using differentm ethods oftransportation in different
circum stances.In Peru,som e enterprises have six tricycles forprim ary collection,along w ith a truck.In
G uatem ala,fourtrockets w ork in com bination w ith a truck.In othercases,open sacks orpieces ofplastic
are used instead oftrockets for collection.In the Sao Paulo cooperative there are diirty-five carts and one
truck.In ElSalvador,som e M SE/Coops transportthe w aste in hand carts to transferpoints w hich have
been previously assigned by the m unicipalities,and the m unicipalvehicles transportthe w aste to its final
disposalsite.
49
3.6.4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
O w nership ofthe technology
Equipm entused by the streetsw eeping m icroenterprise in the districtofM iraflores,Lim a,Peru.
H and cartused forhousehold w aste collection by a
m icro-enterprise in La Paz,Bolivia.
Collection cartused in ElSalvador.
Collection cargo tricycle used in Peru.
Pick-up truck used forcollection in various countries.
Figure 2.
6.
7.
8.
9.
H igh sided truck used in various countries for
collection.
Farm tractorand trailerused in Costa Rica and
Cajam arca,Peru.A m ini-tractoris used in N iteroi,
Brazil.
Cartused by the w aste pickers in Braziland Colom bia.
Three-w heeled cartused forcollection in Cochabam ba,
Bolivia.
Technologies used by M SE/C O O PS
In the m ajority ofthe cases in the study,the technology used is ow ned by the M SE/Coops them selves.
They have acquired the equipm entw hich they usein theirw ork in one ofthree w ays:by producing it
50
them selves;through selforexternalfinancing;orthrough donations.
The Brazilian and Colom bian cooperatives use carts and trucks,som e ofw hich have been donated.The
Peruvian recovery and collection M SE/Coops have theirow n trucks purchased w ith loans orsavings.The
situation is sim ilarin G uatem ala,Costa Rica and Bolivia.In som e Costa Rican situations,such as the
beach cleaning enterprise,the equipm entbelongs to the governm entcontracting entity,and the enterprise
is perm itted to use a vehicle,loaderand streetcleaneras partoftheirservice concession agreem ent.
Likew ise,certain recovery and sorting enterprises rentvehicles to transportthe m aterials w hich they buy
and sell,orsolicitthe loan ofshredders and otherpre-processing equipm ent.In Colom bia,ECO A SEO is
perm itted to use m unicipalequipm ent,such as a com pactortruck.Sim ilarly,equipm entused in the
processing ofrecoverable m aterials is generally on loan from otherenterprises,purchasers,orsom etim es
from the m unicipalities,orin som e cases have been donated.
3.6.5
Technologicaladaptations
The enterprises have frequently m ade technologicaladaptations to theirequipm ent.In Costa Rica,one
w aste collection enterprise uses a truck w ith a partition and chain forem ptying the solid w aste;another
uses a circulartable saw instead ofa shredderforcutting m aterials.
In G uatem ala,30% ofthe garbage trucks are closed vehicles w hich have a dum ping system designed and
adapted by the collectors them selves.This technology responds to the need to shorten the unloading
period atthe finaldisposalpointand to lessen the health risks to the w orkers.
ECO A SEO uses a three-tonne garbage truck w ith the com pacting system rem oved to avoid dam aging the
recyclable m aterials.A n engineerw orking fora localN G O designed the alterations,atthe suggestion of
the recycling w orkers,and a nationalfirm did the fabrication,using localtechnology.
In the m ajority ofthe Peruvian w aste collection M SE/Coops in the study the equipm entw as designed w ith
certain ergonom ic considerations in m ind.This has been the case in the design ofthe w aste collection
tricycles and capachos (sm allcarts used in m anualcollection).In som e cases the M SE/Coop w orkers have
introduced im provem ents in the equipm entto rem edy problem s and to be able to do theirw ork betterand
m ore com fortably.
In spite ofthe adaptations w hich have been m ade,additionalim provem ents in technology are needed.For
exam ple,the use ofbicycle w heels has caused a criticaltechnicalproblem w ith the carts in ElSalvador,
since the w heels are easily dam aged by the w eightofthe refuse and the roughness ofthe terrain,incurring
extra operationalcosts forrepairs.
3.6.6
Effectiveness versus efficiency
The techniques and technology used forthe collection ofW A STE have been adapted forthe situations in
each locality,often through spontaneous im pro- visation.The resulting collection m ethod m ay be
effective,butnotnecessarily efficient,due to factors relating to the organisation ofthe enterprise.
In the G uatem alan w aste collection M SE/Coops,forexam ple,the effective collection,operating w ith
appropriate technology,collects 90 to 95% ofthe w aste produced by the 60 to 70% ofthe population
w illing to pay forthe service.The system established to collectthis 90% ,how ever,can notbe said to be
51
efficient4,since (a)the clients are notconcentrated in the sam e service area;(b)each collectorw orks in at
leastthree differentzones;and (c)the distance betw een the service area and the w orker's place of
residence is large,m aking the w orkertravelatleasthalfofan hourto getto his area.Sim ilarly,
inefficiencies m ay be introduced by excessively slow unloading ofthe w aste atthe finaldisposalsite,
w hich adds to the tim e spenton the route.
3.7
W O R K C O N D ITIO N S A N D W O R K IN G EN V IR O N M EN T
This partofthe research has been designed to study the situation the w orkers face in theirdaily activities,
in orderto understand theirw ork conditions and w orking environm ent.Itis notan epidem iologicalstudy,
nordoes itseek causalrelationships betw een the health problem s observed and nature ofw ork w ith solid
w aste.
Tw o factors are com m on to allproductive processes and the labourinvolved:conditions ofw ork and risks
in the w ork environm ent.Conditions ofwork relate to the substance and contentofthe w ork:w hatthe
w orkeris supposed to do and actually does,the length and configuration ofthe shift,the system s of
paym ent,the use ofergonom ics in trie design ofthe actualpositions and m ovem ents,technology transfer,
m anagem entm ethods in use,the participation ofthe w orkers,and the socialservices and benefits to w hich
they have access.
The working environm entis associated w ith the risks pertaining to the site forthe w ork activities:the
equipm entand tools used;the w astes and m aterials handled;the physicallocation ofthe w ork,heating and
cooling,ventilation,lighting,dustand fum es,and sim ilarfactors.
These tw o are the resultofa com bination ofsocial,technicaland organisationalfactors w hich are present
atthe w ork place and interactw ith the risk factors involved in any process producing goods orservices.
These tw o factors com bine to determ ine the overallw ork contextand w orkload,placing a com plex of
physicaland psychologicaldem ands on each w orkerin his orherplace ofw ork.Each w orkerresponds to
these dem ands differently in accordance w ith his orherphysicalconstitution,capacity to adapt,the type
ofw ork perform ed,and otheraspects ofa w orker's personalprofile.
3.7.1
The w ork process and,risk factors
C ollection
The w ork process in the M SE/Coops begins w ith the collection ofdom estic solid w aste.The principle
sources ofrisk forcollection w orkers occurduring the w aste generation,storage and set-outstages.
W orkers having little controloverthese factors nevertheless experience im portantconsequences ofthe
disposalm ethods in use by the generators.
D uring the entire collection process,the w orkers generally w ork in pairs orsm allgroups on previously
assigned routes.They norm ally w alk quickly ortrot,lifting bags,cans,barrels and othercontainers filled
w ith w aste to chestheightoronto theirshoulders.In m any cases,the w orkers recoverm aterialduring the
collection process and store ituntilthey accum ulate the volum es w hich are needed to m ake a sale.
4
Certain collectors are them selves taking steps to im prove this inefficiency.They have altered theirservice areas
w ith the purpose ofconcentrating clients in the sam e area.
52
The risks associated w ith this activity are:
x biological:contactw ith decom posed food,anim alrem ains,live anim als;
x ergonom ic:w eightlifting,uncom fortable positions,fastpace ofw ork;
x technological:traffic accidents,equipm entfailure;
x chem ical:auto exhaustfum es,corrosive and toxic liquids,pow ders;
x m echanical:blow s,cuts,slips,punctures;and
x psychosocial:due to the contem ptin w hich w aste w orkers are held.
In general,they offerservices in areas w hich are noteasily accessible,and are characterised by rough
topography;gravelordirtroads;m ud in the w etseason;and buildings offive orm ore floors w here itis
im possible to offerthe norm alservices.These conditions,togetherw ith the use ofm anualequipm entand
hum an traction,m ay m ake som e contribution to the observed deterioration ofthe health ofthe w orkers.
Public cleansing and streetsw eeping
The w orkers devoted to streetsw eeping and park m aintenance are involved in activities such as w alking;
bending;lifting;carrying theirw ork im plem ents;and the transporting ofw aste collected.The risks
associated w ith this labourare:
x biological:contactw ith decom posed food,anim alrem ains,live anim als,faecalm atter,dangerous
orallergenic plants;
x ergonom ic:discom fortdue to the w ork m ethods used orthe rapid pace ofthe w ork;
x technological:traffic accidents,equipm entfailure;
x chem ical:auto exhaustfum es,corrosive and toxic liquids,dustin the streets;
x physical:changes oftem perature,solarradiation,dam pness;
x m echanical:blow s,cuts,slips;and
x psychosocial:poorw ork im age.
R ecovery and classification
The w orkers w ho recoverm aterialdirectly from finaldisposalsites are exposed to the biological,
ergonom ic,technologicaland otherrisks m entioned in the preceding paragraph.
The w orkers w ho purchase m aterials forrecovery and sortthem are exposed to the follow ing risks:
x ergonom ic:w eightlifting,uncom fortable positions caused by the w ork m ethods used,accelerated
pace ofw ork during the receiving periods;
x technological:traffic accidents in the cases ofthose w ho transportthe m aterial;equipm entfailure
orm alfunction;
x biological:forexam ple,insects,fungiorbacteria deposited in orattracted to the m aterials,
m aterials contam inated by faeces;
x chem ical:accum ulated dustin the m aterials w hich they classify;chem icalresidues;
x physical:dam pness w hen the job includes w ashing the m aterial,lack ofillum ination or
ventilation,risk ofexplosion from aerosolcans;
x m echanical:blow s,cuts,slips;and
x psychosocial:low status.
The health ofthe w orkers
The suggestions presented here aboutpossible connections betw een particularcom plaints and specific
aspects ofw ork and the w ork environm ent,therefore,representinferences m ade by the researchers based
53
on observations and discussion.They are in no w ay supported by statistical,causal,orepidem iological
data oranalysis,and although they m ay suggestdirections forfuture research,should be treated as
suppositions orinferences only.Som e additionalstudy ofthese findings is necessary.
In general,the w aste collection and recovery w orkers perceive little orno relation betw een theirjobs and
theirhealth problem s.W ith the exception ofthe w orkers in Costa Rica,a significantpercentage ofthe
w orkers in allcountries reported having m issed w ork due to sickness.
The health problem s reported by the w orkers in the differentcountries suggestthatm any ofthem suffer
from lum bago,pains in theirlim bs,headaches,com m on colds,backaches and depression.These could
potentially be tied to the risk factors to w hich the w orkers are exposed:the lum bago's and arm and leg
pains could possibly be related to w alking,lifting and carrying bags,cans,bins,and boxes;pushing carts,
cargo tricycles,and w heelbarrow s;orto lifting loads ofsorted m aterial.The headaches m ightconceivably
be related to exposure to the sun,tem perature changes,fatigue,dust,chem icals,and strong odours.
W eakness could be attributable to the dem ands ofheavy physicalexercise and probable nutritional
deficiencies caused by the quality as w ellas the quantity ofthe food consum ed,tem perature and clim ate,
and the roughness ofthe terrain.Som e otherhealth problem s m entioned in certain ofthe countries w ere:
kidney problem s,conjunctivitis,anxiety,rhinitis,asthenia,irritability,faintness ordizziness,gastritis,and
depression.M any ofthese w ere m entioned by the w orkers in group sessions,butnotin the health survey.
The gynaecologicalproblem cited m ostfrequently by w om en w orkers w as dysm enorrhaea.They also
m entioned m enstrualirregularities,m iscarriages and,to a lessordegree,vaginalinfections.W hen this
inform ation is placed in the contextoflong hours ofw ork,itis suggestive ofa relationship betw een w ork
activities and health.
Itis im portantto pointoutthatsignificantdifferences by genderw ere found in relation to certain health
problem s in Peru.A lm ost50% ofthe w om en reported dentalproblem s,headaches,pains in theirlim bs,
and anxiety ordepression,w hile a m uch sm allerpercentage ofthe m en m anifested suffering from kidney
disorders,dentalproblem s orheadaches.
The w orkers have only lim ited access to disease prevention and health prom otion program m es attheir
places ofw ork.O nly a sm allnum berofthe w orkers surveyed had requested a m edicalexam ination on
theirow n initiative.The M SE/Coops do nothave access to the vaccination program s offered by the
com m unity health system s existing in the differentcountries.In the m ajority ofthe countries the w orkers
have been vaccinated only fortetanus and m easles.This is an extrem ely lim ited vaccination profile,given
theirhigh levels ofexposure to biologicalrisks.Still,m ostofthose vaccinated have soughtvaccination on
theirow n initiative.W orkers in G uatem ala,ElSalvador,Costa Rica and Peru,reportthatthey do noteat
food w astes to be found in the garbage.
The Bolivian w orkers believe thatthey are taking adequate m easures to assure personalhygiene,butthis
perception does notappearto be consistentw ith the labourconditions observed atthe w ork sites.W ith the
exception ofCosta Rican w orkers,the w orkers believe thattheirem ployers have little interestin their
health,a beliefconsistentw ith observations m ade in the various M SE/Coops,as w ellas w ith the
inform ation obtained in the health survey.
3.8
TH E PA R TIC IPA TIO N O F W O M EN
A n analysis ofthe participation ofw om en and m en in the enterprises in the study suggests certain patterns
w hich vary by region and by type ofactivity perform ed.In the CentralA m erican countries,solid w aste
54
collection activities are generally a source ofm ale em ploym ent,w hereas in Peru and Bolivia a significant
num berofw om en are involved in this activity.Peru is the country w ith the largestconcentration of
w om en devoted to w aste collection and the m aintenance ofthe public areas.In general,w om en are m ost
likely to participate in the recycling and recovery operations.
3.8.1
Streetsw eeping and,cleaning
O ne Peruvian m icro-enterprise in the study consists exclusively ofw om en from the urban fringe areas of
Lim a,and allw om en w orkers are ow ners.In general,the Peruvian streetsw eeping enterprises preferto
contractw om en because they considerthem to be m ore efficientatthis w ork than m en,based in parton
the stereotype thatw om en are m ore able to identify w ith the w ork ofcleaning because oftheirdom estic
responsibilities.
3.8.2
W aste collection
Table 7 show s the percentages offem ale and m ale participation in the w aste collection M SE/Coops in the
study.Itis especially interesting to note the contrasts in the participation ofw om en in this type ofactivity
betw een the CentralA m erican countries,w here the enterprises arose spontaneously,and in Peru and
Bolivia,w here N G O s facilitated theirform ation.
Table 7.
C ountry
TH E PA R TIC IPA TIO N O F W O M EN A N D M EN IN TH E W A STE C O LLEC TIO N
EN TER PR ISES STU D IED
Totalnum ber of
w orkers
N um ber of
w om en
N um ber ofm en
Percentage of
w om en
Percentage of
m en
ElSalvador
25
2
23
8
92
Costa Rica
31
2
29
6
94
G uatem ala
49
1
48
2
98
Colom bia
55
9
46
15
84
Peru
123
72
51
59
41
Bolivia
231
76
155
33
67
The participation ofw om en in this type ofactivity in CentralA m erican is negligible.O ne ofthe tw o
w om en in the Salvadoran w aste collection M SB/Coops stated thatshe only participates in orderto help
herhusband.O ne explanation forthis low levelofparticipation is the culturalstereotype thatthe activities
related to w aste collection are too strenuous and dem and too :greata physicaleffortforw om en.
The initialdecision to constitute M SE/Coops in Peru and Bolivia w ith the strong participation ofw om en
had as m uch to do w ith an understanding ofthe relative disadvantages faced by w om en in urban fringe
areas — especially in term s ofaccess to paid w ork and econom ic resources— as w ith an appreciation of
the urgentneeds ofa com m unity underdesperate econom ic strain.The results from Peru suggestthat
w om en stay in the enterprises longer,in contrastto m en w ho consideritto be transitionalw ork,and w ho
preferto leave im m ediately ifthey can find m ore socially prestigious w ork.In contrast,the w om en see
this w ork as theironly source ofincom e and they approach itw ith m ore responsibility and continuity.
This goes a long w ay to explaining w hy the principalow nership and m anagem entofthe Peruvian
enterprises are in the hands ofw om en.The m ajority ofthe active associates are w om en and alm ost70%
55
are inform alorform alleaders;m any ofthese sam e w om en had previously acted as leaders in com m unity
organisations,an experience thatassisted them in taking leadership roles in the enterprises.
N otw ithstanding theirpositions ofpow er,the w om en leaders ofthe M SB/Coops seek to m aintain
dem ocratic labourrelations w ith the m en in the field.
O wner and worker
ofa collection
m icro-enterprise in
Lim a,Peru,using
a m etaltriangle to
callthe com m unity
to bring outtheir
refuse.
A llw orkers share the responsibilities ofw ork equally,,so thatdifferences in genderhave notresulted in
any w age differentiation.W om en and m en receive the sam e salaries forthe sam e jobs,and no problem s
have arisen due to unfairtreatm entorpersonalconfrontations due to sex differences.
Butcooperation betw een m en and w om en is notalw ays so harm onious.In the three w aste collection
enterprises in the Peruvian departm entofPiura,w aste collection com panies show a m arked preference for
hiring only m en,attributable to generalculturalprejudices discrim inating againstw om en.These
prejudices,w hich tend to be shared by m unicipalauthorities,fosterthe idea thatitis notappropriate for
w om en to engage in the strenuous physicallabournecessary forw aste collection.
In Cucuta,Colom bia there is continuous conflictin the division oflabourbetw een m en and w om en.
There,the m ale w orkers refuse to cooperate w ith the fem ale w orkers in w aste collection activities.
H ow ever,itis com m on to find w om en in allthe w aste collection M SE/Coops in the restofthe cities
studied in Peru.These w om en considerthem selves as capable ofperform ing daily w ork assignm ents as
m en.This includes changing tires,tightening screw s,carrying large bags ofgarbage,and repairing m inor
m echanicalproblem s.
In placing them selves atthe head ofthe M SE/Coops and accepting a paid independentposition,the fem ale
leaders recognise thatthey have m odified theirtraditionalroles and have developed an expanded gender
identity w hich has perm itted them to altertheirposition in society.They feelem otionally strongerand
m ore capable ofconfronting the challenges oftheirw ork and the problem s in theirhom es.The m ajority of
leaders and associates reporthaving taken on new roles athom e as w ell.They share dom estic chores w ith
theirchildren and som etim es w ith theirpartners,and in this w ay stim ulate the introduction ofegalitarian
practices in theirhom es.O n a num berofoccasions this process has resulted in incidents ofdom estic
56
violence and psychologicaland physicalabuse,causing tem porary separation in som e cases and divorce in
others.
W om en's m em bership in the m icro-enterprises has induced shifts in theirfam ily relationships,as
evidenced by the persistentcom plaints ofchildren and partners abouttheirlong hours aw ay from hom e
and the physicaldem ands ofthe w ork.In spite ofthis,the econom ic contribution oftheirw ork to fam ily
subsistence is recognised as being im portantby the w om en them selves,and possibly by theirdom estic
partners as w ell.
Finaldisposal
Six m en and tw o w om en w ork in the A lam eda N orth Integrated Treatm entPlantin G uatem ala.The m en
w ork in collection,in the preparation area,and in the cultivation ofagriculturalproducts.The w om en
w ork only in the area forclassification and sorting ofm aterials.
A llofthe w orkers ofthe m icro-enterprise studied in Ilo,Peru are m en,since the ow ners and the m unicipal
authorities w illonly em ploy m en atthe landfill.
Recovery Table 8 show s the participation ofw om en and m en in m aterials recovery activities in the
M SE/Coops included in the study.
Table 8.
TH E PA R TIC IPA TIO N O F W O M EN A N D M EN IN TH E R EC O V ER Y
EN TER PR ISES STU D IED
C ountry
Totalnum ber of
w orkers
N um ber of
w om en
N um ber ofm en
Percentage of
w om en
Percentage of
m en
ElSalvador
28
11
17
39
61
Costa Rica
40
7
33
17
83
G uatem ala
113
102
11
90
10
17
11
6
65
35
Peru
In the cases ofthe cooperatives in Colom bia and Brazil,itis difficultto determ ine the percentages of
participation by sex,due to the continualfluctuation ofthe num berofw orkers in the cooperatives.Butthe
distribution by sex in the Prosperarcooperative,in M anizales,Colom bia,is indicative ofgeneraltrends:
there the m en occupy 69% ofthe jobs,w om en 23% and children 8% .
In the A N R,genderis notan im portantaspectofthe division oflabour.There m en and w om en atall
levels perform the sam e jobs.The A N R concerns itselfw ith continually supporting and stim ulating the
w ork ofboth sexes.In spite ofthe officialpolicy ofegalitarianism ,the w om en operate ata disadvantage,
because the supervisors,m anagers and ow ners resisthiring "those poorlittle girls" because they believe
thatthey have little physicalstrength.
57
W om en sort
out
recyclable
m aterials at
the
association
ofwaste
pickers and
carters in
Canoas,
Brazil.
W om en participate in greaternum bers in recovery activities than in w aste collection,probably because the
classification w ork requires visual-m otorabilities and prolonged periods ofconcentration,abilities
traditionally associated w ith w om en.A n additionalfactorfavouring the incorporation ofw om en is the fact
thatm ostsorting and classification activity takes place in theirow n hom es,allow ing the w om en attend
both to dom estic responsibilities and the w ork ofthe m icro-enterprise.
The collection and recovery ofw aste in the streets and atdum ps is a spontaneous process w hich provides
subsistence fora large num berofpeople.In this situation differences in genderam ong the recovery
w orkers them selves are less im portant.
In spite ofculturalprejudices and em ploym entdiscrim ination,w om en have consistently dem onstrated
theircapacity,responsibility and dedication to the w ork ofthe M SE/Coops in w hich they participate,
w hile continuing to m anage theirdom estic responsibilities.M oreover,certain w om en have m anaged to
develop an entrepreneurialprofile w ithin this new context.In ElSalvador,three outofeleven w om en w ho
w ork in recovery activities are ow ners ofthe businesses and are responsible form anagerialactivities along
w ith the selection and classification ofthe w aste.
A lthough the lim ited num berofenterprises studied by the researchers m akes itrisky to attem ptto draw
generalconclusions,som e strong tendencies em erge from the data.Traditionally w om en have been
excluded from w aste collection,butpoorw om en in m arginalareas have alw ays participated in the
collection,sorting and recovery ofm aterialforrecycling.A tthe sam e tim e,experim ents w ith w om en's
entrepreneurship in Peru and Bolivia dem onstrate thatitis possible to create sustainable w ork forw om en
in an area norm ally dom inated by m en,and thatN G O s can play an im portantrole in this process.
58
3.9
TH E EN V IR O N M EN TA L A N D EC O N O M IC C O N TR IBU TIO N S M A D E BY
M SE/C O O PS
In allofthe countries w here they operate,the M SE/Coops studied contribute significantly and consciously
to the im provem entofurban living.A lthough they m ay have broadersecond-leveleffects,their
contribution is focused in tw o areas:environm entalim provem entthrough betterw aste m anagem ent
practices and econom ic developm entthrough the creation ofjobs.
3.9.1
Im proved w aste m anagem ent;low er costsand a cleaner environm ent
The M SE/Coops devoted to public cleansing and urban w aste m anagem ent,including streetsw eeping,
collection,transportation and finaldisposal,offersolutions to the w aste problem forlarge sectors ofthe
Latin A m erican population,including the low incom e areas.Rough calculations based on the results ofthe
study indicate that,taken together,the collection M SE/Coops studied are serving a population of
2.400.000.
The urban w aste m anagem entM SE/Coops in Colom bia,Peru and Bolivia im prove the environm entand
provide econom ic opportunity m ainly in the peripheralorm arginalzones,largely undercontractto the
m unicipalities.Theircontribution is possible and sustainable due to the unique confluence offourfactors
favourable to theircontinued operation:
(a) Conventionalm unicipalcollection vehicles face the technicaland logisticaldifficulties in
reaching the service areas;therefore theirservice tends to be scarce and inadequate,and to be
recognised as such by both the m unicipalgovernm entand the residents;
(b) The relatively low population densities in these areas facilitate the use ofnonconventional
technology and m ake the use ofconventionaltechnology,even w here itm ightbe possible,not
efficient;
(c) M SE/Coops in these areas,w ith theirdependence on appropriate technology and intensive use of
m anuallabour,have the technicaland econom ic ability to fillthe gaps,as w ellas the social
m otivation to carry certain ofthe hidden costs.The resulting service can be m ade available at
m oderate costs (see Table 10),w hich provide a com petitive advantage overthe conventional
approaches.
(d) These areas are econom ically underdeveloped,and therefore lack potentialem ploym entin the
m odern sectorofthe econom y atthe sam e tim e thaturbanisation is bringing a largerlabourforce
to the cities.O ne resultofthis is a large poolofunem ployed w orkers w ho are m otivated to w ork
(even in the socially stigm atised area ofw aste collection)because they see lim ited otheroptions
forcreating livelihoods forthem selves in theirow n neighbourhoods.
The low costs ofinitialinvestm entperservice unitrepresentanotherfactoroffavouring the ability ofthe
M SE/Coops to occupy a service niche in the low erincom e areas studied.Table 9 presents a com parison of
the capitalcosts ofheavy equipm entgenerally used by the m unicipalities and the average investm entcosts
ofthe M SE/Coops in Peru.This table is forcom parative purposes only,and is som ew hatarbitrary in its
assum ption ofw hatconstitutes a service unitand the relations betw een certain types ofheavy equipm ent
and the m anuallabourw hich substitutes forit.
Table 9.
C O M PA R ISO N O F TH E IN V ESTM EN T C O STS O F TH E C O N V EN TIO N A L
M U N IC IPA L TEC H N O LO G Y A N D O F TH E M SE/C O O P IN PER U
Type ofservice
C onventional
equipm ent
Sw eeping
M echanicalsw eeper
C ostfor
conventional
equipm ent(U S $)
46 000
59
M SE/C O O P
alternative
1
C ostfor
M SE/C O O P
alternative (U S $)
5 640
Collection
Com pactortruck
(9-tonne capacity)
Tractor
Frontend loader
Finaldisposal
90 000
1
18 768
80 000
1
12 965
The G uatem ala,ElSalvadorand Costa Rica cases show a som ew hatdifferentcom bination ofsocial,
econom ic and logisticalfactors,and the resulting form ofthe M SE/Coops reflects this difference.In these
countries (allofw hich are CentralA m erican),the users ofthe services ofthe urban w aste m anagem ent
M SE/Coops do notnecessarily reside in low incom e areas,nordo the w orkers reside in the areas they
service.O nly in ElSalvadorcan M SE/Coops be found w hich are sim ilarto the ones in South A m erica,
thatis,enterprises w hich have been setup by N G O s in the low -incom e areas.This is notthe case in Costa
Rica and G uatem ala.The paralleltw o factors in these areas can be characterised as follow s:
(a) Conventionalm unicipalcollection tends to be scarce and inadequate,and to be recognised as such
by both the m unicipalgovernm entand the residents,notbecause oflogisticalortopographical
difficulties,butbecause the m unicipalgovernm ents tend notto have sufficientfinancialresources,
m anagem entcapacity,orpoliticalw illto provide the service on a regularbasis (the reasons for
this m ay be political,econom ic,historical,social,ora com bination ofthese factors).
(b) M SE/Coops in these areas are the only option available.The socio-geographic conditions,
com bined w ith the'questionable reliability ofm unicipalgovernm ents,m eans thatw aste-related
activities in these areas are notattractive eitherto form alentrepreneurs orto m ultinational
com panies.Since they have the technicaland econom ic ability to fillthe gaps,the resulting
service can be m ade available atm oderate costs (see Table 10),w hich provide the users w ith cost
experience w hich m akes iteven less likely thatconventionalprivate sectorcom panies could
com pete in these areas.
In the m ajority ofthe cases in Costa Rica and G uatem ala,the enterprises offerservice to households and
clients w ho are w illing to pay forit,surviving by establishing a directm arketrelationship betw een the
client-neighbours and the M SE/Coops.G uatem ala represents the m ostextrem e case of"freem arket"
collection;there the "yellow truck" M SE/Coops com pete w ith each other,negotiate rates w ith theirclients
and even com pete w ith otherM SB/Coops to w ork the sam e routes.
Som e exam ples ofthe average collection costs ofthe M SE/Coops illustrate theircostadvantages (see
Table 10).Costs ofthe M SE/Coops studied are in generallow erthan the costs ofconventionalsystem s
w ithin the region.In Bolivia,collection costs are highestfrom the cases studied.A verage streetsw eeping
and cleaning costs vary from U S$ 7 to U S$ 12 percurb kilom etre in Latin A m erica,w hile costs ofthe
enterprises in Peru are around U S$ 4.50 percurb kilom etre.
Table 10.
A V ER A G E C O LLEC TIO N C O STS (U S $TO N N E)
C ountry
Peru
G uatem ala
Colom bia (Cucutá)
Bolivia (La Paz)
Latin A m erica
*
U S $/tonne
15.30
7.50
15.60
19.55
15-25*
Zepeda,Franciso:Elm anejo de residuos sólidos m unicipals en A m érica Latina y elCaribe.(English :M unicipalsolid
w aste m anagem entin Latin A m erikca and the Caribean).PA H O (Pan A m erican H ealth O rganisation),1995
The M SE/Coops notonly provide a m oderately priced service.Even m ore im portantly,theiractivities
provide a basic levelofenvironm entalm anagem entin the areas they serve.A lthough no precise indicators
existin this respect,som e exam ples are useful.The streetsw eeping and collection services preventthe
w aste from accum ulating in streets,em pty lots,orin surface w aters.Finaldisposalin a controlled location
contributes directly to the m inim isation ofenvironm entalrisks.The recycling ofw aste m aterials avoids
60
burialofm aterialw hich is stilluseful-m aterialw hich w ould have contributed to the contam ination ofthe
finaldisposalsites -w hile atthe sam e tim e itconserves naturalresources.Itis estim ated thatthe total
num berofM SE/Coops identified in the research collects around 1.200 tonnes ofw aste perday.
3.9.2
G eneration ofem ploym ent
In addition to theirenvironm entalfunction,the M SE/Coops studied contribute to the econom ic status and
grow th ofthe areas w here they operate.Thesurvey included 89 M SE/Coops w hich togetheraccountfor
m ore than 800 jobs,and the M SE/Coops studied representonly a sm allnum berofthe totalofM SE/Coops
thatexistin the countries investigated.Forexam ple:
- in G uatem ala,five outofm ore than 300 w aste collection enterprises w ere studied;
- in Colom bia,three cooperatives w ere included in the research,w hile m ore than 100 cooperatives
(m ostofw hich are m em bers ofthe N ationalA ssociation ofRecyclers)existin the country;
- in Peru,19 enterprises w ere studied outofa totalofm ore than 100 enterprises.
Thus,the actualnum berofjobs created in w aste m anagem entactivities is m uch higher,and can be
estim ated as being close to 20.000 jobs (excluding individual"self-em ployed" w aste pickers and
recyclers).A s w as show n in section W ages ofthe W orkers,the M SE/Coop w orkers generally earn w ages
w ellabove the m inim um w age established by law in theircountries.
Itis usefulto m ention thatthe theoretical(and feared)displacem entofm unicipalw orkers by the
M SE/Coops occurs very seldom in practice,m ostly because the M SE/Coops tend to operate in unserved
orunder-served areas.The only exception to this in the cases studied occurred in the m unicipality of
M iraflorcs in Lim a,Peru;and in thatinstance allparties reached an agreem entthatprotected their
interests.In spite ofthis,the M SE/Coops frequently face the hostility ofm unicipaladm inistrators and
w orkers w ho considerthem a threatto theirjob security.
W hen m odernisation ofw aste m anagem entoccurs,the M SE/Coops are often w ell-placed to com pensate
forloss oflivelihood by creating alternative em ploym ent.Forexam ple,w hen m any w aste pickers lost
theirjobs due to the closing ofthe dum p site in M edellin (Colom bia),the RecuperarCooperative w as able
to expand to absorb the displaced w orkers.A s a result,Recuperarnow offers a variety ofcleaning and
m aintenance services,such as the cleansing and collection ofseparated recyclables from public and
private institutions and the m aintenance ofpublic restroom s,m any ofw hich generate farm ore incom e
than the w aste picking activities w hich w ere disrupted by the closing ofthe landfill.
3.9.3
The sustainability ofthe M SE/C oops
D espite the difficulties thatm any ofthe M SE/Coops face,the m ajority are stable enterprises w hich have
been offering services fora num berofyears.This has allow ed theirow ners to gain valuable experience,
w hich usually includes provision offlexible and diverse services in business entities thatare directly
ow ned and operated by theirw orkers,w ith com m unity participation fostering closerrelationships betw een
allthose involved,along w ith bettercontroloverthe quality ofthe services offered.In this sense,one can
say thatthe M SE/Coops have staying pow er,even though they continue to have som e problem s to
overcom e before becom ing truly sustainable.H ow can the sustainability ofthe M SE/Coops be achieved?
The follow ing definition ofsustainability offers evaluation criteria w hich m ay prove helpfulin answ ering
this question.
A proposalor projectis sustainable whenever itis feasible in technical,econom ic,social-institutionaland
environm entalterm s and ithas the capacity to m aintain itselfover tim e withoutperm itting the progressive
dim inution ofthe resources which sustain it.
61
A ccording to this definition,are the M SE/Coops sustainable?
Technically,the M SE/Coops are sustainable because they use technology w hich is ''''feasible in technical,
econom ic,social-institutionaland environm entalterm s" forthe needs ofthe population,w hich is w ithin
theirreach,and w hich they com plem entw ith conventionaltechnology w hen needed.
Econom ically,the M SE/Coops should be sustainable because they have low costs and could support
them selves w ith the paym entreceived from the population covering the price ofthe service.H ow ever,as
has been seen,there are stillsom e difficulties — prim arily in relation to m unicipalbudgets— w hich
preventthis criteria from being com pletely fulfilled.A s a resultofthis,they cannottruly be said to
operate "withoutthe progressive dim inution of[their] resources",since overtim e they tend to becom e
less econom ically viable as the costs m ount,butthe paym entfrom the m unicipalities rem ains stagnant.
Socially and institutionally,they can be sustainable because they m eetthe explicitneeds ofthe public they
serve,and incorporate m anagem entm odels w hich are acceptable to the people and institutions involved,
principally m unicipalities and com m unity organisations.H ow ever,in particularthe relationship w ith the
m unicipalities is in m any cases stilldifficultand tense,and could be im proved.
Finally,the M SE/Coops are environm entally sustainable because they contribute directly to an
im provem entofpublic health and a reduction in environm entalrisks,w hile increasing the am ountof
resources (from source separation and recovery)w hich are available foreconom ic activities.
3.9.4
R eplicating the experience ofthe M SE/C oops
The potentialsustainability ofthe M SE/Coops,especially the urban w aste m anagem entones,is likely to
stim ulate interestin replication.In orderforthis to be assured,the follow ing basic conditions m ustbe m et
in a service area considered forim provem ent:
- The population m usthave the capacity to pay,although this can be lim ited,and they m ustbe
w illing to pay forurban w aste m anagem entservices.
- The population (consisting both ofpotentialw orkers and potentialclients)m ustbe orm ust
becom e aw are oftheirrole in urban w aste m anagem entand be w illing to participate actively.
- Significantm icro-enterprise experience m ustexistin the intervention area,oraccess to this
experience through consulting and technicalassistance m ustbe available.
- The m unicipality w ith jurisdiction forpublic cleansing m ustbe in the-process ofdelegating
operationalresponsibility forurban w aste m anagem entservices;m ustbe w illing to considera
structure incorporating M SE/Coops,and m ustfurtherbe w illing to acceptthe risks w hich this
im plies.
- The urban w aste m anagem entneeds ofthe com m unity should be eitherbeing m etinadequately or
notatall.
Chapter3 gives som e recom m endations forfuture activities supporting the developm entofthe M SE/Coop
sector.
62
C H A PTER 4 R EC O M M EN D A TIO N S FO R TH E FU TU R E
A ny attem ptto address and solve the solid w aste problem in Latin A m erica invokes the incredibly
com plex urban developm entdilem m a faced by cities in developing countries.These developing
conurbations face problem s so acute as to m ake them close to ungovernable.This factalone dem ands a
com prehensive re-exam ination ofthe nature ofcities and theirgovernance,the role ofm unicipal
governm ent,and the potentialto reform city governm ents to introduce accountability,adm inistrative
discipline,basic principles ofm odern adm inistration,and sustainable urban developm ent.
M oreover,a serious attem ptto address the w aste problem effectively and efficiently im plies a coordinated
approach to allaspects ofurban w aste m anagem entcom bined w ith a com prehensive and strategic
fram ew ork to prom ote sustainable developm entofhealthy and liveable cities.
4.1
BA SIC ISSU ES A N D FU N D A M EN TA L C O N C EPTS
To acknow ledge the breadth ofthe issues facing cities is notto deny thatthis book has chosen to focus
m ore narrow ly on the specific topic ofthe role ofM SE/Coops in solid w aste m anagem ent.Butbefore
placing this subjectin the contextofthe future developm entofM SE/Coops and the potentialfor
expanding theirglobalim portance,som e basic issues m ustbe raised and som e broaderconcepts
discussed.
4.1.1
The structuralcharacter ofthe "w aste m anagem entproblem
In the firstplace,the w aste m anagem entproblem in Latin A m erica is structural.Consequently,any
com prehensive and sustainable solution m ustinclude structuralm easures.The M SE/Coops representone
possible approach am ong severalcurrently available.W hile theirsuccessfulcontribution to solid w aste
m anagem entim plies a certain structuralevolution in the area ofurban environm entalservices,by
them selves they are notand can notprovide a com plete orcom prehensive solution.
4.1.2
D istributionalinequities and potentialrem edies
Secondly,the public w aste m anagem entproblem in Latin A m erica is notegalitarian in its im pacts.The
poorersectors,representing m ore than 60% ofthe population,sufferalarm ingly and disproportionately
from this problem ,w hile the 40% ofthe population fortunate enough to fallw ithin the higherincom e
brackets norm ally enjoys atleastpartially adequate service.Because ofthis,an equitable solution im plies
rem edialtreatm entforthe poorand destitute.
4.1.3
System atic,long-term approaches
M oreover,given the currentnature ofthe problem ,and taking the structuralcharacteristics into account,
there is a need to look forsystem atic and longterm solutions;tem porary m easures,how evereffective they
m ay appearin the short-term ,should be avoided.
4.1.4
Politicalw ill
In the face ofthe historicalreluctance ofm ostpoliticalpow ers to take on the public w aste m anagem ent
63
problem oraddress its im pacts,any efforttow ards an integralsolution requires decisive exercise of
politicalw illby centraland localgovernm ents and a com m itm entto m obilise allthe socialand political
forces ofeach country to seek consensualand unified solutions.
4.1.5
C om m unity participation and w illingness to pay
Com m unity participation is essentialto finding sustainable solutions.Therefore,a concerted efforton the
partofcentralgovernm ents and m unicipalities,w hile essential,does notconstitute a sufficientcondition
forsolving the public w aste m anagem entproblem .This im plies,am ong otherthings,thatthe public m ust
be prepared to pay forthe services itreceives,justas itdoes forw ater,sew er,and telephone;and rates
m ustbe established consistentw ith the realcosts ofthe service and the w illingness and capacity to
pay.M oreover,the urban w aste m anagem entfees m ustclearly differentiate dom estic service from
com m ercialorindustrialservice,and charge forthe com m ercialservices on a perunitofservice — thatis,
a volum e orw eight— basis.
4.1.6
M aintenance ofpublic sector control,supervision,and oversight
Finally,even ifthe services are com pletely privatised,the responsibility forregulation,controland
supervision m ustcontinue to be a m unicipalfunction,oriented tow ards protecting the public interestand
its health and safety,and this m ustcontinued responsibility m ustbe supported by active and
continuous participation ofthe com m unity.
4.2
PR IN C IPLES FO R STR EN G TH EN IN G O F TH E M IC R O EN TER PR ISE
M O D EL
The study has dem onstrated thatthe M SE/Coops involved in solid w aste m anagem entactivities have the
potentialto form partofa sustainable integrated w aste system ,understood as a m ulti-faceted approach
w hich guarantees long term service thatis beneficialto the com m unity,the environm ent,and the localand
nationaleconom y.The enterprises studied base theiractivities on a body ofexperience developed in Latin
A m erica by com m unities and individuals organised in distinctentrepreneurialform s to solve the solid
w aste m anagem entproblem .In spite oftheirindependentand autonom ous successes to date,there is a
need fora setofcoordinated policy m easures to enable the M SE/Coops to m ake a sustained long-term
structuraland system atic contribution to solving the solid w aste m anagem entproblem .
4.2.1
Strengthening ofthe three principalactors
The possibilities w hich these entrepreneurialform s offertend to be lim ited by an underdeveloped
institutionalfram ew ork w hich often places them on the m argins ofform alenvironm entalm anagem entand
public service activities.This holds true even w here the m unicipalities them selves are characterised by a
lack ofcapability to offerservices forw hich they are form ally responsible,resulting in inadequate and
inefficientservices;a failure to professionalise the staff;inefficientadm inistrative and financialsystem s;
and dispersed and/ordated legislation.In this context,the m unicipalities can only w ith difficulty fulfil
theirnorm ative,regulatory and supervisory functions,w hich are indispensable ifthe enterprises (large,
m edium ,M SE/Coops,etc.)are to carry outtheirw ork in an orderly and integrated fashion.The success of
these enterprises is necessarily based on the tripartite integration ofcivilsociety,the enterprises w hich
take overoperations w hich w ere previously in public hands,and the public sector.
64
Figure 3.
C IV IL SO C IETY ,TH E EN TER PR ISES A N D TH E STA TE IN SO LID W A STE
M A N A G EM EN T
A lthough in principle,the role played by N G O s and organisations such as the universities orthe churches
is notessentialforthe functioning ofthe system ,in the instances in w hich they w ere involved,the N G O s
filled im portantroles,serving as:
- the prom oters ofinnovations;
- advocates forfairness and egalitarianism ;
- defenders ofm arginalised m inorities;
- catalysts fordevelopm ent;and
- technical,financial,socialand institutionaladvisors.
The recom m endations offered below seek to strengthen the perform ance ofthe principalactors and to
achieve three core objectives w hich the study show ed to be necessary:
- to stim ulate the developm entofa constituency forw aste m anagem entin Latin A m erica together
w ith a broad-based interestin integrated sustainable solid w aste m anagem ent,and including the
range ofactivities w hich are partofit:urban w aste m anagem ent;w aste prevention,m inim isation
and recycling;and public education and participation;
- to design and im plem enta setofpolicies favourable to integrated solid w aste m anagem entand the
incorporation ofsocialprivatisation m odels ofthe relevantservices;
- to expand the participation ofM SE/Coops sim ilarto those researched in the study to other
countries in the region and the w orld w ithin the overallfram ew ork ofintegrated sustainable w aste
m anagem ent.
In supportofthese objectives,itis recom m ended:
1. The startofa broad program m e ofdissem ination ofthe results ofthe research,and featuring an
orientation to the variety ofM SE/Coops operating in Latin A m erica and theircontribution to
integrated sustainable w aste m anagem entin the m unicipalities w here they are located.
2. The taking ofm easures to im prove the design and operation ofthe M SB/Coops to enable them to
serve the diverse urban necessities ofLatin A m erica in a pragm atic and utilitarian w ay.
3. The developm entand im plem entation ofa broad program m e oftechnicalassistance and training
directed tow ards the solid w aste m anagem entM SB/Coops in orderto substantially im prove the
quality,effectiveness and efficiency ofthe services w hich they now offerand to integrate them m ore
com pletely into sustainable w aste m anagem entsystem s in the m unicipalities they serve.
4. The developm entand im plem entation ofa program m e oftechnicalassistance and training directed at
m unicipalstaff,officials and authorities w ith the objective ofim proving m unicipalintervention in
integrated sustainable solid w aste m anagem ent.This program m e should focus on regulation and
65
legislation,collection offees and tariffs,and the supervision,controland budgeting ofurban services,
as w ellas on a com m itm entto fostering adequate levels ofcitizen participation in the integrated
sustainable m anagem entofw aste.
5. Lastly,a concerted effortorcam paign to supportand prom ote public environm entaleducation
program m es w ith the purpose ofdeliberately involving the localpopulation in the integrated and
environm entally safe m anagem entofsolid w aste,particularly in tw o areas:(1)theiractive
participation in w aste m inim isation and recovery activities;and (2)theirinvolvem entand oversight,
as clients ofthe urban w aste m anagem entservices.
Additionalresearch
This publication is the resultofa study ofthe characterand functioning ofthe solid w aste m anagem ent
M SE/Coops in seven countries in Latin A m erica,w hich covered m any differenttypes ofM SE/Coops and
included differentaspects.Such research certainly raises new questions,w hich can only be answ ered by
additionalresearch.The listbelow offers a num berofsuggestions oftopics to be studied.
1. Changes ofnationaland m unicipalgovernm entaladm inistrations,as w ellas new legislative and
regulatory initiatives,such as those w hich occurred in the legislation in Colom bia,have proved
im portantin strengthening and increasing in num berofthe M SE/Coops.In Bolivia,the new
legislation facilitates the participation ofthe citizens.Butw hatare the exactpros and cons of
these legislative changes and the decentralisation processes? W hatdoes this m ean forother
countries? D oes the spread of(conventional)privatisation pose threats to the continued existence
ofthese enterprises? H ow can they strengthen and protecttheirposition in the urban service
m arketplace?
2. The politicalchanges w hich have occurred in the differentcountries are notthe only forces for
change in the study area.Externalinfluences are also operating,such as the influence ofaid
donations ofW estern technology such as incinerators,a w ide range ofcentralised com posting
technologies,and state ofthe artlandfilltechnology.The influence ofthe globalcom m odities
m arketis im portantin the setting oflocalprices forrecovered m aterials and secondary
com m odities.W hattypes ofinternationalactivities and policy m easures w ould contribute to
developm entofan integrated w orld-w ide w aste elim ination system ?
3. The M SE/Coops use a variety oftechnologies,w hich succeed because they are appropriate to the
localsituation.In the lastfew years,the discussion oftechnology has evolved from the conceptof
appropriate technology to thatofclean orsustainable technology.Butto w hatextentare w e
talking abouttechnologies w hich are clean,environm entally sound,and operationally effective?
W hatare the possibilities forim proving the technologies in use?
4. The experiences ofthe M SE/Coops in Peru and Bolivia illustrate thatw hile w aste collection is a
traditionally m asculine activity,the possibility exists to create em ploym entforw om en.Butitis
im portantto look further,asking w hetherthis has had a generally positive effecton the lives of
the w om en,orhas perhaps resulted in an exacerbated "double burden" and w ork overload.H ow ,
to w hatextent,and to w hateffecthas participation in this w ork changed orstrengthened the
position ofthe w om en in theircom m unities and households,and w hatare its financial,political,
social,and personalconsequences forthe w om en w orkers?
5. This presentstudy included an analysis ofthe hidden costs and subsidies ofthe enterprises,w ith a
focus on unpaid costs oflabour.W hatare the corresponding hidden costs and subsidies ofthe
m unicipalorform alprivate sectorservice? Itw ould be interesting to carry outa com parative in
depth study ofthe differenttypes ofservice w ith new indicators ofsustainability,taking into
accountnotonly the econom ic costs butalso the environm entaleffects and the quality ofthe
services rendered.
6. The m ajority ofthe inhabitants ofthe Latin A m erican countries studied belong to a "no-pay"
culture,in partbecause there is a history ofincom es insufficientto pay forthe services offered,so
thatthe public sectorw as traditionally forced to coverthese costs.The poorersectors ofthe
m odern population also lack the resources necessary to m eetthese costs.H ow can the culture be
66
changed? H ow m any people w antthe service and are able to pay forit? D o exam ples of
differentiated fee system s exist? H ow can the services be charged to the clients? Likew ise,the
study provides som e exam ples ofcases in w hich residents are w illing to pay forthe services
rendered.H ow can these discrepancies be explained? W hatis the role ofcivilsociety
organisations in this m atter?
7. The m ajority ofthe enterprises perform theiractivities in a dependentsituation.The enterprises
w hich w ork w ith recovery depend upon internationalprices forthe recovered m aterials (as do all
recovery enterprises throughoutthe w orld).Those w hich collectw aste and provide cleansing or
otherservices depend on contracts w ith m unicipalities orcom m unities.Is there a potentialto
increase the independence and autonom y ofthese enterprises? W hatare the alternatives forthe
diversification ofproducts and services?
67
PA RT II
TH E M SE/CO O PS IN TH E
CO U N TRIES STU D IED
68
69
C H A PTER 5 G U A TEM A LA
G uatem ala,located in northern CentralA m erica (see Figure 4),has a population of9,7 m illion inhabitants
(1993)5.62% ofthe population lives in ruralareas and 38% lives in urban areas.A tleast40% ofthe
population consists ofindigenous (N ative A m erican)people and 55% ofthe totalpopulation lives in
conditions ofextrem e poverty,isolated by geographic conditions and linguistic differences.
The m ajority ofthe urban population lives in the G uatem ala M etropolitan A rea (G M A )6,w hich in 1994
had an estim ated population of2 m illion.The G M A is m ade up ofeightprincipalm unicipalities,am ong
them three m ajorcities:G uatem ala City (the capital),M ixco,and V illa N ueva,w hich betw een them
represent86% ofthe totalpopulation ofthe G M A (see Table 11).
Figure 4.
G U A TEM A LA :C A SES IN V ESTIG A TED
Econom ic grow th and investm entconcentrated in the G M A has led inhabitants from the otherparts ofthe
country to m igrate to it,causing its population to increase rapidly,w ithoutbenefitofany type ofurban
planning.The resultis a fragm ented and disorganised — and very diversified— use ofspace.M ore than
25% ofthe G M A consists ofravines and steep valleys w ith depths w hich vary from 20 to m ore than 200
m etres.M any ofthe poorestcom m unities live in these steep valleys.
5
Source:N ationalcensuses and inform ation from the G eneralSecretary ofEconom ic Planning (SEG EPLA N ).
A clear delineation of the extension of the m etropolitan area of G uatem ala does notexist.In the study,only the three largest
cities in this area are considered: G uatem ala City, M ixco and V illa N ueva. From this point on, any reference to the G M A is
referring only to these cities.
6
70
Table 11.
TH E U R BA N PO PU LA TIO N O F TH E C ITIES IN V ESTIG A TED (1995)
Population
G uatem ala City
M ixco
V illa N ueva
N o ofinhabitants
1 253 112
422 925
250 622
Source:Solid W aste SectoralAnalysis in G uatem ala,PAH O /W H O ,1995.
The distribution ofthe population in the residentialareas ofthe city varies according to socio-econom ic
level.The m iddle-incom e,and low -incom e are basically found atthe outskirts ofthe city.A bout800,000
people live in 300 m arginalareas in the m unicipalities ofM ixco,V illa N ueva and G uatem ala City.
5.1
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN G U A TEM A LA
Few studies have been perform ed on w aste m anagem entin G uatem ala7,butitis nevertheless possible to
extractthe follow ing inform ation.A ccording to law ,G uatem alan m unicipalities are responsible for
m anagem entofboth household and non-household solid w aste.Forthis,they have budgets w hich are
financed by the centralgovernm ent.In spite ofthis,few m unicipalities,w ith the exception of
Q uetzaltanango8,show any consistentinterestin solid w aste m anagem ent,and there is a lack of
understanding ofdie health and environm entalim plications ofignoring it.A s in otherLatin A m erican
countries,w ater,sew er,and electrification are consistently seen as higherpriorities.The urban w aste
m anagem entservices offered by the m unicipalities include:sw eeping ofthe m ain streets and central
com m ercialareas;collection ofstreetsw eepings;w aste collection from m arkets and som e public
buildings;and the lim ited collection ofhousehold solid w aste.A llw aste is transported to m unicipalor
unofficialdum ps,w hich are characterised by inadequate m anagem entand a lack ofcontrols.
A n estim ated 40% to 60% ofthe solid w aste produced in the principalm unicipalities ofG uatem ala is
collected by m unicipalorprivate services.The restrem ains uncollected,deposited in ravines orin any
nearby orconvenientlocation,usually a valley orriver.Recovery and sorting ofrecyclable m aterials
occurs only in the principalcities,in particularin G uatem ala City.
The m unicipalities have a very lim ited supply oftrained personnel,equipm entand vehicles forsolid
w aste m anagem ent,and w hatequipm entand staffthere is tends to be subjectto diversion to other
m unicipalactivities and tasks.There is also constantpressure on the personnelto take on additional
responsibilities,atthe expense ofw aste m anagem ent.
5.1.1
The generation and physicalcom position ofthe w aste
There is a generallack ofinform ation in G uatem ala on the characterisation ofsolid w aste both in the
7 In the lastfew years,three studies concerning solid w aste have been perform ed:in 1991,the Japanese InternationalCooperation
A gency (JICA )analysed solid w aste m anagem entin the capital,butconcentrated its efforts solely on G uatem ala City;in 1994,
PA H O /W H O (Pan A m erican H ealth O rganisation/W orld H ealth O rganisation),perform ed a "D iagnosis ofSolid W aste in
G uatem ala".This docum entserved as the basis fora m ore in-depth study m ade in 1995 by PA H O /W H O itselfunderthe title
"SectoralA nalysis ofSolid W aste in G uatem ala"..
8
A ccording to the m ost recent PA H O /W H O study in 1995, Q uetzaltenango is the only city, outside the capital, w hich has
experim ented w ith m odernisation of solid w aste m anagem ent:integrated m anagem entof m unicipaltaxes (including one for the
m anagem entofsolid w aste)has been introduced here;collection has been contracted by concession to a private enterprise w hich
uses six M ercedes-Benz trucks in good condition;a sorting plantforsolid w aste collected is in operation;and an integrated w aste
m anagem ent plan has been prepared w hich identifies the various aspects of solid w aste m anagem ent, including separation,
com posting and finaldisposal.
71
capitaland in the ruralareas.There is neithera daily nora yearly record ofthe am ountofsolid w aste
produced,so thatthese volum es can only be roughly estim ated using standard projections9.Taking these
lim itations into account,an estim ated 323.3 m etric tonnes ofhousehold solid w aste w ere produced daily in
1990 in the 29 principalcities,excluding the G M A .
The sam e standard com position factors have been used to estim ate the am ountofsolid w aste produced in
the G M A m unicipalities.A ccording to the inform ation w hich appears in Table 12,m ore than 1.000 tonnes
are generated daily in the three m ain m unicipalities,G uatem ala City,M ixco and V illa N ueva;an
estim ated 1.200 tonnes area generated in totalG M A .The m ostrecentstudy ofthe Pan A m erican H ealth
O rganisation/W orld H ealth O rganisation (PA H O /W H O )10 found the density ofresidentialsolid w aste in
the principalcities inside the country to vary betw een 253 and 345 kg/m 3.
Table 12.
H O U SEH O LD SO LID W A STE G EN ER A TIO N IN TH E C ITIES IN V ESTIG A TED
Population
G uatem ala City
M ixco
V illa N ueva
Tonnes/day
1995
679.20
229.20
135.80
Tonnes/day
2000*
829.30
274.50
165.90
*Projections.
Source:Solid W aste SectoralAnalysis in G uatem ala,R AH O /W H O ,1995.
In 1991,the Japanese InternationalCooperation A gency (JICA )determ ined the com position ofsolid
w aste forthe capitaland forthe country.A ccording to this study,only 38% ofthe solid w aste w as
organic,and the partially recyclable part(paper,plastic,glass and m etal)reached 52,5% .A separate
analysis ofthe com position ofthe w aste in the G M A w as m ade in 1991.A ccording to this analysis,
betw een 60% and 65% ofhousehold w aste is organic,varying by socio-econom ic level.80% ofthe w aste
from the m arkets is organic.This inform ation contradicts thatofthe JICA study,in estim ating that
potentially recyclable m aterialconstitutes betw een 20% and 25% ofthe household w aste stream and
betw een 60% and 90% ofthe w aste generated in superm arkets,buildings and com m ercialestablishm ents.
This discrepancy has notbeen resolved,although the higherfigure fororganic m aterials appears to be
consistentw ith otherLatin A m erican countries.
5.2
TH E PA R TIC IPA N TS IN SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T
V arious actors participate in a range ofactivities related to solid w aste m anagem entin the G M A .A brief
description oftheirroles follow s.
5.2.1
Streetsw eeping and cleaning
There are 380 m unicipalw orkers w ho serve the 22 principalstreet-sw eeping routes in G uatem ala City,
and 50 Pica Polio ("Picking Chicken")w orkers w ho w ork along the principalboulevards.Streetsw eeping
9
.The tw o indicators used to determ ine the am ountof solid w aste produced are the population and the per capita,daily w aste
generation.The population data w as gathered from the tw o m ostrecentcensuses,1981 and 1994,and theirgrow th projections.U p
until the 1994 census, the data from 1981 w as used w ith projections. A ccording to these projections the 1994 population in
G uatem ala should have been 10 m illion.H ow ever,the 1994 census show ed thatthe nationalpopulation w as 8 m illion.W hen this
difference is expressed in term s ofsolid w aste generated perday (0,5 kg/per/day),itresults in a difference of1.000 m etric tonnes
perday,or365.000 tonnes peryear.Because ofthis,these data are provided only as indicators and can offeratbestan estim ation
ofthe situation.
10
.A sam ple ofsix principalcities from the interior ofthe country w as taken,butno m ention w as m ade ofw hetherthe w aste at
thatseason w as w etordry.
72
undercontractis very lim ited,and only includes the w orkers contracted by the neighbourhood
com m ittees.This arrangem entw as encountered in tw o m iddle-and high-incom e areas in G uatem ala City,
"La Canada" and "Residenciales V ";there the neighbourhood com m ittees hire independentw orkers to
collectw aste and m aintain public areas.These cases w ere included in the study.
5.2.2
The actors involved in the G M A in collection ofsolid w aste,both residentialand non-residential,in the
G M A ,include:
- The m unicipality,w hich collects solid w aste from m arkets,public areas and buildings,public
institutions,places w here itis has been leftby the m unicipalw orkers sw eeping the streets,and
from the Pica Polio w orkers.
- M icro-enterprises w ith m unicipalauthorisation.
- M icro-enterprises w ithoutm unicipalauthorisation ("pirates").In orderto be authorised by the
m unicipality the collection trucks m ustundergo and pass a technicalinspection.In m any cases,
the "pirates" refuse to do this because they know thattheirtrucks w ould notpass the inspection,or
they pass the testone year,butdo notundergo the inspection in the follow ing years.The factthat
this authorisation is enforced in only a lim ited m annerby the m unicipality provides a disincentive
to the pirates to gettheirvehicles inspected.
- The unauthorised inform alsectornotconsisting ofm icro-enterprises.These are prim arily m en,
w ho go along the streets w ith handcarts tw o orthree tim es a w eek bags w ide w aste.In exchange
they receive a sm allfee.They depositthe w aste in die nearestopen area,in m any cases,a nearby
ravine.These collectors operate on theirow n,som etim es w ith a fam ily m em berto help diem .
Therefore,this activity is considered to be a type ofselfem ploym entand is notincluded in the
study.A lthough no data exists aboutthis sector,itis estim ated that50 to 100 ofthese collectors
w ork in the G M A.
- Private entrepreneurs operating trucks w hich take the w aste from various industries and
construction com panies to the landfill,called "ElTrebol".
M icro-enterprises have a significantpresence in die collection activity,collecting 50% to 70% ofthe solid
w aste in the G M A and serving an estim ated 750.000 and 1.200.000 residents in the various residentialand
non-residentialareas11.Each m icro-enterprise is ow ned by one person and possesses atleastone collection
vehicle,w hich in 95% ofthe cases is a truck.Currently,300 to 400 collection m icro-enterprises using
betw een 400 and 700 trucks and em ploying betw een 2.000 and 3.000 people are collecting solid w aste in
G uatem ala City12.
The m icro-enterprises offercollection service to those w ho are w illing to pay foritin those areas w hich
are accessible to theirtrucks.Both ofthese conditions leave the m ajority ofthose in the steep valleys
(betw een 500,000 and 800.000 people)w ithoutservice.
11
Estim ates have been prepared,using the inform ation from the lastPA H O /W H O study,to m odelthe theoreticalcoverage ofthe
services offered to a G M A population of2.000.000 inhabitants.N o specific study norany exactinform ation exists concerning the
population served by the m icro-enterprises or any of the other actors.N either does any inform ation existon the am ountof solid
w aste collected in totalorby type.
12
.N o precise data exists on the m icro-enterprises.There is no record of the num ber of trucks ow ned by each m icro-enterprise,
how m any helpers w ork w ith the driver,w hatroute is served,how long they have been collecting or w hattypes of w aste they
collect.The estim ates given are based on conversations w ith som e m icro-entrepreneurs,the head of the G uatem ala M unicipal
W aste M anagem entD epartm ent,the presidentofthe M etropolitan G arbage Collectors U nion (G M RB),and field observations.
73
G uatem ala
Yellow trucks
being
unloading
solid w aste
at"El
Trebol".
5.2.3
Finaldisposal
Solid w aste is notadequately treated in G uatem ala eitheratthe nationalorthe capitaldistrictlevel.W ith
the exception ofa few isolated projects,the greatm ajority ofsolid w aste is throw n into open dum ps or
inform alheaps in valleys,rivers,stream s,orvacantlots;these areas then attractm ore w aste untilthey
have becom e unofficialdum ps.
The officialm unicipaldum p in the capital,"ElTrebol",is notvery differentfrom the 300 unofficial
dum ps spread throughoutthe city;its m ain distinction is thatitis official,and the largest.Itis located at
the centre ofG uatem ala City and has served as a dum p form ore than 30 years.The disposalsite is a
ravine w ith a depth of80 to 120 m etres.The trucks deposit600 to 800 m etric tons ofw aste each day atthe
edge ofthe ravine,and m unicipalm achinery is used to push itinto the ravine.A large num berof
individuals and fam ilies scavenge "ElTrebol",searching forusefulobjects and recyclable m aterials.They
are called guajeros.
The A lam eda N orte Integrated Treatm entPlantlocated in the northern partofthe capitalin a m arginal
sem i-urban area represents the only attem ptin the G M A to adequately m anage solid w aste.This plant
processes solid w aste from the 5.000 inhabitants ofthe surrounding area.The planttreats solid w aste in its
various phases:collection,sorting,grading,storage,com posting,and finaldisposal.D espite the factthat
developm entofa finaldisposalfacility has been in process form ore than ten years,itis stillnot
functioning.H ow ever,land w as being prepared forthe installation ofa m anuallandfillduring the study
period.In its various operations,the plantem ploys eightw orkers,w ho form partofa m icro-enterprise.It
is operated by an N G O called A RM SA (A ssociation forRecovery,M anagem entand Environm ental
Sanitation,from Spanish:Asociacion far a la Recuperation,M ane jo y Saneam iento Am biental),w hich
w on the contractto operate itin 1994,w hen the plantresum ed operations afteran 11-yearhiatus.This
plantw as chosen as one ofthe study units because ofits com prehensive approach to w aste handling.
74
5.2.4
Solid w aste recovery and sorting
Recovery and sorting ofrecyclable m aterials have been occurring in G uatem ala for30 to 40 years.The
various participants in this sectorrecoverrecyclable m aterialatdiffering points in the solid w aste
m anagem entchain,and sellitto interm ediaries,ordirectly to end-use industry (see Table 13).
Table 13.
M A TER IA LS R EC O V ER ED A N D R EC Y C LED BY TH E IN D U STR IES
M aterial
Paper
N ew spaper
Cardboard
Plastic
Broken glass (cullet)
G lass bottles
A lum inium cans
A lum inium (otherscrap)
Copper
O therm etals
Industry
Paperm ills (there are 4 differentm ills)
Paperm ills,toy factories,factories forbuilding construction m aterials,
packaging foreggs
Paperm ills,factories forbuilding construction m aterials,packaging foreggs
Plastic industries (7 differenttypes ofplastics are being used)
G lass m ill(there is only 1)
Reused by various bottling factories (26 differenttypes ofglass bottles are used)
Exported to the U nited States
The participation ofthe public sectorin this activity is lim ited to personalrecovery initiatives ofthe
m unicipalw orkers thatoccurduring theirdaily w ork ofsw eeping and collection.These activities
consistprim arily ofselling m aterials sorted from the w aste during collection,w ith revenues fortheir
ow n benefit.The follow ing actors from the private sectorparticipate in recovery activities in the G M A :
- theguajeros,w ho operate in the dum ps.M ostofthem w ork atthe dum p "ElTrebol"13;
- the.m unicipalsolid w aste collectors and theirhelpers;
- collectors collecting separated m aterials atsource,especially w om en w ho visitoffices and hom es
to collectrecyclable m aterials.They then take these m aterials to the centre ofthe city to m icroenterprises devoted to sorting and pre-processing them .
- the w holesalers,w ho w ork individually and devote partoftheirtim e to buying recyclable
m aterials from offices,banks and schools in orderto sellitto industries,orm icro-enterprises that
sortand clean the m aterial;
- the m icro-enterprises thatbuy,classify,clean and sellrecyclable m aterials;
- the A lam eda N orte Integrated Treatm entPlant,w here plastic,cardboard,clothing,glass and cans
are sorted from m ixed w aste;and
- the N CO S devoted to the recovery ofrecyclable m aterials.
In addition,there are betw een 30 and 50 m icro-enterprises in the capitalw hich pre-process the recyclable
m aterialforindustries using itin theirproduction processes14.
13
The guajeros are neitherofficially norinform ally organised.There are no cooperatives orassociations,and each one w orks on
his orherow n.Even fam ily cooperation is lim ited.Since they are considered to be self-em ployed they have notbeen included in
the study.There is an unofficialdivision of labour and specialisation according to the types of m aterialcollected.Thatis to say
thateach one specialises in a particular m aterialand m ustbe very carefulabout changing or adding other m aterials.There are
from 500 to 1.500 guajeros in"ElTrebol".
14
The estim ates are based on conversations w ith the m icro-entrepreneurs.A tthis tim e there is no registry orstudy concerning the
exactnum berofparticipants in this activity.A n accurate estim ate ofthe num berofresidents served by the m icro-enterprises can
notbe m ade because no data exists concerning the follow ing:
- the am ountorvalue ofthe m aterialrecovered daily atthe various recovery points;
- the num berofsuppliers ofm aterials;
- the com position ofthe solid w aste in relation to its source;and
- the am ountand value ofthe m aterialboughtdaily by industry.
D espite these lim itations,observation indicates that a good quantity of recoverable m aterial still ends up at the bottom of "El
Trebol",and therefore is not being recovered during the solid w aste cycle,neither at source,nor by the collectors,nor by the
guajeros.
75
The m icro-enterprises can be classified according to certain characteristics oftheiroperations:
- theirlocation:there is one group ofm icro-enterprises near"ElTrebol";a second group located
around the bus term inalin G uatem ala City;and others dispersed throughoutthe city;
- the m ethod used to acquire m aterial:the m icro-enterprises located near"ElTrebol" orthe bus
station depend on suppliers to bring the m aterialto theirw arehouses;the othertype go outand
collectorpurchase m aterials atsource;
- the m aterials involved:certain m icro-enterprises w ork w ith only one type ofm aterial,w hile others
w ork w ith severaltypes ofm aterials;
- the am ountofpre-processing perform ed on the recyclables by the w orkers:certain m icroenterprises sim ply separate paperby grade,w hile others are involved in m ore elaborate
operations,such as cleaning,cutting and pelletizing plastic.
5.3
SELEC TIO N O F TH E EN TER PR ISES IN TH E STU D Y
The study focused on m icro-enterprise activity in G uatem ala City,M ixco and V illa N ueva,allthree of
w hich are partofthe G M A .Tw o enterprises w ere chosen to representthe streetsw eeping and cleaning
activity:one in the com m unity "La Canada",w hich has tw o w orkers and offers its services to a totalof
1.600.clients,and the otherin the com m unity "Residenciales V ",w hich has five w orkers and serves a
totalof1.450 clients.Forfinaldisposal,the A lam eda N orte Integrated Treatm entPlant("A lam eda N orth")
w as selected.In both types ofactivities,the m icro-enterprises studied w ere the only exam ples w hich could
be found.
Table 14.
TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES STU D IED IN G U A TEM A LA
N am e*
Com m unity “Residenciales V ”
Com m unity “La Canada”
M ER 1**
M ER 2
M ER 4
M ER 4
M ER 5
LIM PIE S.A .
A lam eda N orte
M EC** 1
M EC 2
M EC 3
M EC 4
Conciencia Ecológica
A ctivity
StreetSw eeping
StreetSw eeping
Collection
Collection
Collection
Collection
Collection
Collection
Finaldisposal
O rganisation type
N eighbourhood com m ittee
N eighbourhood com m ittee
M icro-enterprise
M icro-enterprise
M icro-enterprise
M icro-enterprise
M icro-enterprise
M icro-enterprise
N G O “A RM SA ”
M icro-enterprise
M icro-enterprise
M icro-enterprise
M icro-enterprise
N G O “FU N TEC”
*Forreasons ofprivacy,som e nam es have been changed.In the case ofstreetsw eeping,the nam es referto the
com m unities.
** M ER (from Spanish:M icro-em presa recoleccidn)refers to solid w aste collection m icro-enterprises and M EC
(M icroem presa reciclaje)refers to m aterials recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises.
In contrast,the 14 m icro-enterprises selected to representthe activities ofcollection,recovery and sorting
representonly a sm allfraction ofthe totalnum berofm icro-enterprises participating in these activities.
Table 14 gives a listofthe 14 m icro-enterprises w hich w ere selected.In term s ofthe selection ofthe
sam ple forthese tw o activities,neitherthe exactnum bernorthe specific characteristics ofthe betw een
300 and 400 collection m icro-enterprises operating w ithin in the G M A are know n.D ue to this fact,the
enterprises in the study sam ple are notnecessarily representative ofthe w hole.The five selected to
representw aste collection are quite differentfrom one another,butthey nevertheless do notrepresentthe
76
fullrange oftypes ofcollection units operating in the G M A .The five M SE/G oops selected to represent
the recovery and sorting activity include an N G O called FU N TEC.They w ere selected to illustrate,as
fully as possible,recovery ofvarying types ofm aterials acquired using various m ethods.
5.4
TH E FO R M A TIO N O F M SEs IN G U A TEM A LA
The m icro-enterprises in the study have been involved in a w ide variety ofsolid w aste m anagem ent
activities form ore than 40 years.Certain factors can be identified as having been im portantatthe tim e of
theirfounding,and persistence ofthese factors appears to contribute to the enterprises'continued survival.
5.4.1
Streetsw eeping and public cleansing
Tw elve years ago,the neighbourhood com m ittees in the com m unities of"La Canada" and "Residenciales
V " began,on theirow n initiative,contracting m icro-enterprises to clean and m aintain the public areas for
the follow ing reasons:
- the m unicipalw orkers w ere notserving these tw o com m unities,due to the long distances betw een
them and theirnorm alroutes;
- the tw o com m unities are very dispersed.In addition,they are closed com m unities,and anyone
seeking to enterm ustpass a guard station.N eitherthe guards,the inhabitants northeirem ployees
sw eep the streets norm aintain the public areas;
- the inhabitants'incom e perm its them to pay m onthly fees forcleansing services;and
- the com m unities are already provided w ith the otherbasic urban services,including drinking
w ater,sew ersystem s,electrification,and paved streets.
5.4.2
The private sectorparticipates significantly in the collection ofsolid w aste in the m etropolitan area.These
enterprises arose spontaneously in the 1950s through the initiative oftheirfounders and in response to the
perceived lack ofm unicipalcapacity to collectand handle m unicipalsolid w aste,especially in the face of
expanding urbanisation and in-m igration from the countryside..The rapid grow th in the urban population
created both an increase in the dem and forw aste collection service and increased pressure to generate
em ploym entforthe im m igrants.Severalofthem began to patrolthe streets ofthe city w ith theirhand-or
m ule-carts,largely in orderto earn som e m oney.This activity required hardly any investm ent,since they
already had a vehicle they could use and they could counton the help oftheirchildren.In addition,the
edible parts ofthe solid w aste collected could be used to feed the m ules.
The residents w ere w illing to pay private service providers forcollection ofw aste,given the inadequacy
ofm unicipalservices atthattim e,thatm ade this early developm entpossible.The resulting urban service
sectortended to expand in parallelw ith the increase in population,to the extentthatcertain entrepreneurs
began to realise thatthis business could be profitable,and the collectors (atthattim e)w ere notasham ed to
be dealing w ith w aste.The m unicipalities accepted theirow n lim itations and allow ed the m icroenterprises to offerthe service,satisfying the needs ofthe localpopulation.
N ow ,40 years later,the collection m icro-enterprises have acquired "prioruse and existence rights" from
the m unicipality.Theirw ork is acknow ledged and they receive the supportofthe residents and the
m unicipalauthorities,even though they have no form alcontracts from the m unicipalities to deliverthe
service.
77
5.4.3
Finaldisposal
The construction of"A lam eda N orte" w as the resultofan initiative ofthe m em bers ofthis com m unity at
the beginning ofthe 1980s.Itw as created as partofa projectto relocate those affected by the 1976
earthquake.M ostofits residents cam e to the city from ruralareas ofthe back-country.In the beginning,
they sim ply threw theirw aste into one ofthe nearby ravines.
H ow ever,atthe beginning ofthe 1980s the solid w aste problem began to attractattention.A com m unity
organisation — acting on behalfofthe residents ofthe com m unity— asked the G uatem ala City
G overnm entto offerw aste collection service w ith a truck.The com m unity believed thatcollection w as
perform ed by the m unicipality.H ow ever,atthattim e itw as in factm ainly being operated by the private
sector.The m unicipality offered an alternative solution w ith the objective ofim proving local
environm entalw aste m anagem ent:to constructa plantforthe integrated m anagem entofsolid and liquid
w aste.The geographical,topographicaland dem ographic characteristics ofthe A lam eda N orte districtare
sim ilarto those ofallofthe surrounding areas ofG uatem ala City,w hich is w hy the plantw as considered
to be a pilotprojectcapable ofreplication.This decision w as m ade forthree basic reasons.First,the
distance from this com m unity to "ElTrebol" w as too great,m aking itunprofitable to operate collection
w ith a truck;secondly,itw as :difficultfora garbage truck to gain access to the com m unity.In the third
place,the m unicipality w as atthattim e preparing to com batdeforestation in the steep valleys,and
recognised thatthey could use the com postproduced from the organic partofthe solid w aste for
reforestation projects.
In 1982,the plantcom m enced operations underm unicipaladm inistration,em ploying m unicipalw orkers
and com m unity m em bers.Both design and construction ofthe plantw ere financed by donations.Later,
localresidents w ere trained in the operation ofthe plant.
The plantstopped w orking from 1983 to 1994 (during the civilw ar)w hen the nationalgovernm entand
the m unicipality had theirdoubts aboutthe successfulfunctioning ofany com m unity organisation.Form al
supportforthe plantceased and the w orkers (both those from the m unicipality and those from the
com m unity)w ere obliged to leave.
The G uatem ala City governm entlostinterestin the plantuntilthe end of1993 w hen itdecided to take
bids forits operation.The bid w as w on by A RM SA ,and the m unicipality proceeded to sign a contract
giving this N G O the rightto operate the plant.In 1996,aftertw o years,the m ajority ofthe infrastructure
had been im proved.A lthough the planned m anualsanitary landfillhad notbeen com pleted yet,
com m unity confidence in the projectappeared to have been restored,and itreceived an acceptable am ount
ofparticipation and cooperation.The projectis presently in its consolidation phase,and A RM SA is
currently planning to transferthe operation and m anagem entofthe plantto a board ofdirectors com prised
ofcom m unity representatives.
5.4.4
A llofthe recovery m icro-enterprises w ere founded on the initiative ofthe ow ners them selves,w ho
decided forvarious reasons to enterthe business.Som e thoughtitw ould be good business;others indicate
that,in addition to m aking a living,they also w ished to contribute to recycling and to the im provem entof
the environm ent.O nly one m icro-enterprise ow nerentered the business by chance,subsequently form ing
a fam ily business.O ne m icro entrepreneurm entioned thatw hen he began in 1992,the industry did notuse
recoverable m aterialfrom G uatem ala itselfbutratherim ported paper,plastic and otherrecyclable
m aterials from abroad.A lthough recyclable m aterialw as being generated in the country,itw as notbeing
recovered.In addition,the paperindustry w as using virgin m aterials forits production process,and
contributing to deforestation ofthe country.The principalobjective ofthe m icro-enterprise w as to acquire
78
recyclable m aterials atsource and sellthem to industry.The entrepreneurs w ere able to getinform alloans
from relatives orassociates,and in theirfirstm onths w ere able to counton supportin the form of
availability ofa truck orw arehouse,oruse ofa telephone,atm oderate prices.
5.5
TH E O PER A TIO N O F TH E M SEs
5.5.1
Streetsw eeping and cleaning
The w orkers cleaning and m aintaining the tw o com m unities are contracted and paid forby the
neighbourhood com m ittees.The inhabitants pay a fee to coverthe costs ofthe w ages ofthe w orkers,their
uniform s,and the costs ofbuying,m aintaining and operating the equipm ent.The w orkers w ork five days a
w eek,from 7:00 a.m .to 4:00 p.m .,perform ing the follow ing tasks:
- streetsw eeping,
- cleaning and m aintenance ofparks and public green areas,including pruning trees,cutting grass,
planting new trees and plants,and w atering.
5.5.2
The currentcollection system operates in G uatem ala City w ithoutthe intervention ofthe m unicipality.
There are no concessions orcontracts betw een the m unicipality and the collectors.H ow ever,the
m unicipality requires thatthe vehicles used forthis service m eetseveraltechnicalstandards,and,in
addition,allvehicles m ustbe registered w ith the m unicipality and m ustsecure an annualperm itto collect
in the city.
The collectors are free to decide how m any and w hich specific clients and routes they w illserve,the types
ofw aste w hich they w illcollect,and how m uch they w illcharge (see Table 15).
Table 15.
SO LID W A STE C O LLEC TIO N SER V IC E TA R IFFS
C lient
Residential
Com m ercial
O ffices
Institutional
Industrial
H ospital
Tariff(U S $/m onth)
1.64-8.20
3.28-41.00
3.28-32.80
3.28-6.72
8.20-737.70
3.28-24.60
Source:Interview s w ith the ow ners ofthe m icro-enterprises.
The collectors offerpersonalised service,knocking on each client's doorto receive the w aste orto be
adm itted to the house to retrieve it.The clients place the w aste outside in plastic bags orcontainers w hich
they leave on the sidew alks.The helpers use large cut-open corn orsugarsacks to collectthe w aste and to
load itonto the truck.
The num berofclients served by a collectordepends upon the type ofw aste collected,how m uch each
clientis charged,the size ofthe truck,and the num berofhelpers.The study found thatthere is a range of
70 to 1.200 clients perindividualcollector.
The clients are distributed throughoutthe city.Itis com m on fora collectorto w ork in three,four,and
even five differentzones,and form ore than fivecollectors to w ork the sam e street.The collectors travel
m ore than 10 kilom etres daily from the beginning ofthe route to the firstclientorfrom the lastclientto
disposalat"ElTrebol".They serve a m ix ofresidentialand non-residentialclients.
79
The trucks used by the collectors vary in size,m odeland age.There are tw o m ethods generally used
forunloading the w aste.The firstis to use a dum p m echanism (tipper),w hich takes ten m inutes.The
second involves use ofa truck w ith a fixed body w hich m ustbe unloaded m anually.The second form is
know n as "slow unloading",because ittakes from 30 to 210 m inutes.
The collection sectoris characterised by a high levelofcom petition betw een the collectors.The 300 to
400 entrepreneurs are grouped into various entities:the M etropolitan G arbage Collectors U nion (from
Spanish:G rem ialM etropolitans de Recolectores de Basura),the G uatem ala RegionalPrivate G arbage
Rem ovalW orkers A ssociation (from Spanish:Asociacion de Trabajadores Particulares de Extraction de
Bo-sum delD epartam ento de G uatem ala),cooperatives,and independents.Each one ofthese groups
seeks to protectthe interests ofits m em bers and to actas a spokesperson in negotiations w ith the
m unicipality,the banks,orinternationalcooperation entities.
5.5.3
Finaldisposal
The A lam eda N orte Integrated Treatm entPlantdeals w ith fourseparate phases ofsolid w aste
m anagem ent.Tw o collectors travelthe streets three tim es a w eek using equipm entconsisting ofbarrels on
w heels,collecting w aste and taking itto the plantsorting area.There,tw o w om en classify the m aterialon
a table.They sortitinto m aterialw ith com m odity value (such as alum inum ,glass,plastic,cardboard,
paper),"rejects" (big orthick m aterialw hich is easy to extractand useless in the com posting process),
organic w aste,and othernon-usable w aste.Three products are obtained from the integrated solid w aste
treatm entprocess.These are:
- m aterials w ith com m odity value,such as plastic,alum inum ,and tin,w hich are sold to
interm ediaries orindustries;
- com postused in agriculture and the cultivation ofornam entalplants and flow ers;and
- the "rejects",w hich are baled and deposited in a specialarea setaside forinterim disposaluntilthe
m anualsanitary landfillstarts operating.
The plant's basic operating incom e com es from the fees collected from the collection clients.This incom e
is supplem ented by proceeds from the sale ofrecyclable m aterials and com post.
5.5.4
The m icro-enterprises involved in this activity,in addition to recovering and sorting the m aterials,also
pre-process them forsale to industries to be used in theirproduction processes.These m icro-enterprises
have developed tw o strategies forsupplying them selves w ith recyclable m aterials:(1)the establishm entof
a netw ork ofsource separation clients (hom es,offices,banks)and the use oftrucks to collectthe
m aterials;and (2)the establishm entofplaces ofbusiness in strategic locations w hich offereasy access to
the itinerantw aste buyers (those w ho buy m aterialfrom offices and houses)and the recoverers.These
shops are located near"ElTrebol" ornearthe bus term inalw here the itinerantw aste buyers arrive w hen
they com e into the city.M aterialprocessing forindustrialpurchasers includes the follow ing activities:
- sorting ofthe various types ofm aterials;
- cleaning ofglass and plastic containers;
- rem ovalofextraneous orcontam inating m aterialsuch as staples and tape from paperand
cardboard;
- crushing ofalum inum cans;and
- com paction orpackaging ofthe m aterials to facilitate efficienttransportation to m arkets.
80
W om en
workers ata
recovery
m icroenterprise
sortthe
recyclable
m aterials.
The num berofw orkers contracted by the m icro-enterprises fluctuates betw een 4 and 40,depending upon
the size ofthe m icro-enterprise,the capabilities ofthe w orkers to process the recyclable m aterials,and the
types ofm aterials w hich are processed.
The success ofthe m icro-enterprises basically depends upon theirm aintaining personalrelationships w ith
theirsuppliers and buyers.In addition,the enterprises need to be able to counton having ready cash to buy
m aterials and to covertheircosts,because the buyers frequently delay theirpaym ents.FU N TEC's policy
involves acquiring recyclable m aterialw ithoutpaying forit,w hich they do using one ofthe follow ing tw o
m ethods:
- they place coloured barrels in strategic locations so thatresidents can depositm aterials w hich w ill
laterbe collected;and
- they collectthe m aterials doorto doorfrom a netw ork ofperm anentclients w ho are w illing to
give aw ay theirrecyclable m aterials.The supply ofm aterials depends in a large m easure on the
good w illofthe ipublic to donate the m aterials ratherthan selling them to otherbuyers.
81
Figure 5.
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN SO LID W A STE C O LLEC TIO N M IC R O EN TER PR ISES A N D O TH ER STA K EH O LD ER S IN G U A TEM A LA C ITY
5.6
C U R R EN T SITU A TIO N O F TH E M SEs IN G U A TEM A LA :SW O T A N A LY SIS
5.6.1
Strengths
The strength ofthe streetsw eeping and cleaning m icro-enterprises investigated is thatthey contribute to
the im provem entofthe com m unities'environm ent.G uatem ala The collection m icro-enterprises show the
follow ing advantages:
- the collectors have m ore than 40 years experience offering this service;
- appropriate technology is used;forexam ple,the "tipping" system in the trucks w as developed in
G uatem ala by the collectors them selves;
- a personalrelationship is m aintained w ith the cb'ents;
- stable em ploym entis provided forbetw een 2.000 and 4.000 persons,each earning an average
incom e betw een U S $209,68 and U S $403,23 perm onth,or,2,2 to 4,2 tim es the m inim um w age;
and
- 50% to 70% ofthe solid w aste produced in the city is collected by the m icro-enterprises w ho
serve betw een 750.000 and 1.200.000 residents.
"A lam eda N orte" enjoys the follow ing advantages:
- itperform s integrated solid w aste m anagem ent;
- itrepresents a localsolution fora m arginalarea w hich w ould nototherw ise have collection or
disposaloptions,due to the distances involved;and
- itcontributes to environm entalquality in the com m unity ofA lam eda N orte.
82
The recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises have the follow ing strengths:
- they reduce the volum e ofsolid w aste w hich goes to the dum p "ElTrebol";
- they generate directem ploym entfor300 to 700 people and indirectem ploym entfor1.500 to
3.000 m ore (the guajeros and the retailers);and
- they teach residents aboutthe im portance ofseparating solid w aste and m ake them aw are ofthe
necessity ofprotecting the environm ent;
5.6.2
W eaknesses
In orderto operate,the sw eeping m icro-enterprises depend upon the public's w illingness to pay theirfees.
The follow ing are the m ostsignificantw eaknesses ofthe collection m icroenterprises:
- there is stiffcom petition betw een the collectors;
- there is a lack ofroute planning orcoordination;
- they have very dispersed clientele;and
- there is stilla lack ofservice in areas w hich are difficultto getto orw ho can notpay forthe
service.
"A lam eda N orte" has an im portantw eakness:
- the operation does notsupportthe recovery ofinvestm entcosts ofinfrastructure,and,atthe
presenttim e,additionaloutside investm entis needed.
The recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises have the follow ing w eaknesses:
- som e lim itthem selves to selling one ortw o types ofm aterials;and
- they m ustalw ays have cash-on-hand.
O pportunities
The streetsw eeping and cleaning m icro-enterprises have certain opportunities:
to initiate separation and recovery program m es in the com m unities;and
to establish m ore cooperative relationships w ith otheragents such as the m unicipality,the recovery m icroenterprises and the collectors.
In theirturn,the collection m icro-enterprises have the follow ing opportunities:
- to establish cooperative relationships betw een the collectors them selves;
- to create m ore cooperative relationships w ith the otheractors such as the m unicipality,the
recovery m icro-enterprises and the neighbourhood com m ittees;and
- to potentially m ake positive and pro-active responses to regulation (by the m unicipality)w hich
facilitates the w ork ofthe collectors.
In the case ofthe A lam eda N orte Integrated Treatm entPlant,ithas the opportunity to have the project's
positive environm entalim pactrecognised.
The follow ing opportunities are presentforthe recovery and sorting m icroenterprises:
- the potentialto increase cooperation betw een the various m icro-enterprises to underm ine the
pow erofthe buyers to setthe prices;
- the potentialto increase public know ledge ofenvironm entaltopics;and
- the potentialto take advantage ofthe availability ofnew and im proved technologies forthe use of
recyclable m aterials in industry.
5.6.3
Threats
The collection m icro-enterprises confrontthe follow ing threats:
83
-
the threatofnew oraltered m unicipalsolid w aste m anagem entordinances and regulations w hich
influence the w ay the collectors operate today;
the threatofthe appearance ofinternationalcom petitors w hen and ifthe m unicipality calls for
bids forthe service;
a lack ofknow ledge concerning the dangers inherentin m anaging and handling various types of
solid w aste;and
excessive reliance on "ElTrebol",w here solid w aste is disposed ofin the open w ithoutany form
oftreatm ent.
"A lam eda N orte",in its turn,confronts these threats:
- dram atic fluctuations in the dem and and the price ofthe com post,the recyclable m aterials and the
agriculturalproducts in each ofits m arkets;and The recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises face
the follow ing threats:
- a persistentlack ofpredictability orstability in the prices ofthe m aterials;G uatem ala a
consequentinability to predictincom e levels from the sale ofthe recyclable m aterials;and the
inability ofthe m icro-enterprises to influence the conditions and specifications setby the
purchasing industries.
84
C H A PTER 6 EL SA LV A D O R
ElSalvador,w ith an area of21.000 square kilom etres,is located in the m iddle ofCentralA m erica (see
Figure 6).M ountain ranges and volcanoes predom inate in its uneven terrain.In 1993,ithad a population
of5,4 m illion,w hich w as projected to increase to 5,5 m illion by 1996.Itis the sm allestcountry in Central
A m erica,and the second m ostdensely populated.Its capitalcity,San Salvador,located in the departm ent
San Salvador,is located in the centralregion ofthe country in the valley form ed by the A celhuate river
basin.
Figure 6.
ElSalvador:C ases investigated
The country is divided into 14 departm ents and 262 m unicipalities.Each m unicipality is governed by a
M unicipalCouncil,com prised ofrepresentatives from the sam e politicalparty,presided overby a m ayor
w ho is elected by popularvote fora term ofthree years,afterw hich he orshe can be re-elected.
6.1
TH E SA N SA LV A D O R M ETR O PO LITA N A R EA
The study focused on the San SalvadorM etropolitan A rea (SSM A ),w hich is com prised of13
m unicipalities.11 ofthese m unicipalities are in the departm entofSan Salvadorand tw o are in the
departm entofLa Libertad.D evelopm entin the SSM A is heavily centralised,a resultofthe capital's large
concentration ofservices,togetherw ith econom ic,industrialand governm entalactivities.This,in turn,led
to high in-m igration to the capitalfrom the otherparts ofthe country,especially during the tw elve years of
civilw ar.
85
The SSM A has a population ofapproxim ately 1,5 m illion15 and an area of543 square kilom etres.30% of
the country's totalpopulation lives there.The country's overallpopulation density is 2,8 inhabitants per
square kilom etre;in contrast,thatofthe capitalis 5,8 inhabitants persquare kilom etre.
6.2
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN EL SA LV A D O R
Currentlegislation gives responsibility forsolid w aste m anagem entto the m unicipalities.H ow ever,the
lack oftechnicalresources in som e cases and .econom ic lim itations in others keep m unicipalgovernm ents
from being able to effectively m eetthe grow ing dem and forw aste m anagem entservices.A n indication of
this inability and a sym bolofthe country'sw aste m anagem entproblem s is the prevalence ofopen dum ps.
By law ,the D epartm entofPublic H ealth and SocialW elfare is in charge ofm anaging ElSalvador's solid
w aste.There is no national-levelentity w hich coordinates the developm entofthe m icro-enterprise sector
involved in solid w aste m anagem ent.A N ationalSolid W aste Strategy proposalhas been presented for
approvalto the N ationalLegislative A ssem bly in San Salvador.
A tthe presenttim e,certain solid w aste m anagem entactivities are taking place in the m etropolitan areas.
The CouncilofM ayors is acting to develop a profile foran inter-m unicipalenterprise to offerw aste
m anagem entservices in the SSM A .A tthe sam e tim e,collection services have been privatised in San
M iguel,the second largestcity in the Eastern zone.
The estim ated solid w aste generation for1996 in the SSM A is 1.277,73 m etric tonnes,w ith collection
coverage ofapproxim ately 50% ofthe w aste generated16.95% ofthe collected w aste is collected by the
m unicipality and the rem aining 5% is collected by m icro-enterprises.The m unicipalservice rem ains
lim ited due to lack ofcollection equipm ent.
The w aste is transported to a (conventional)m echanically operated landfillw here bulldozers and
com pactors are used to process the w aste,spreading it,com pacting itand covering itas often as three
tim es perw eek.The uncollected w aste is leftin vacantlots and streets,oris throw n into rivers orother
inappropriate places.
N o SSM A m unicipality is currently involved in any form alrecovery activities.Such activities are
perform ed by private sectorinitiative.Private enterprises recoverand process about15% ofthe totalw aste
generated in the SSM A 17.
6.2.1
Solid w aste generation and com position
Solid w aste in ElSalvadoris generated by households,hospitals,businesses,industries and institutions.
There are no restrictions orrules aboutstorage and the w ay the w aste is to be placed outside.
System atic inform ation concerning solid w aste generation and com position in ElSalvadoris notavailable;
and the only inform ation com es from isolated sam ples.In 1994,the City ofSan Salvador18 took a w aste
generation and com position sam ple in an inform alsettlem ent.This sam ple show ed the per capita solid
w aste generation to be 0,49 kg/person/day.
15
Inform ation from the 1992 N ationalPopulation and H ousing Census.
16
Inform ation from the San SalvadorM unicipalM ayor's O ffice.
17
Elm ercado delreciclaje en San Salvador (English:The Recycling M arketin San Salvador):Salvanatura,1994.
18
The firstw orkshop in the com m unities ofSanchez and Tinetty concerning solid w aste m anagem ent.
86
The w aste in the sam ple w as com posed ofa variety ofm aterials.In term s ofphysicalcom position,the
m ajorfraction ofthe w aste sam pled w as organic m aterial.Table 16 show s the com position ofthe w aste
from the sam ple.
The com position ofthe w aste varies by day ofthe w eek and by season ofthe year.Forexam ple,
alum inium and tin basically appearon M ondays.Likew ise,the am ountoforganic w aste increases in
M arch and A prilw hen m ore fruitis consum ed due to the seasonalincrease in availability.
Table 16.
PH Y SIC A L C O M PO SITIO N O F SO LID W A STE IN TH E SSM A SA M PLE
M aterial
O rganic m aterial
Plastic
Paper
Cardboard
Cloth
G lass
Iron
W ood
Leather
A lum inium
O thers
total
6.2.2
Percentage
65.00
11.00
9.00
2.00
2.00
1.00
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.10
6.00
100.00
Legislative aspects ofsolid w aste m anagem ent
The Constitution designates the D epartm entofPublic H ealth and SocialW elfare and the m unicipal
governm ents as the bodies responsible forthe regulation ofsolid w aste m anagem ent.This departm entis
responsible forsetting nationalregulations,and the m unicipalities are responsible forsupervising the
application ofrules and the im plem entation ofactivities related to solid w aste m anagem entw idiin their
jurisdictions.H ow ever,clause 19 ofarticle 4 ofthe M unicipalCode opens the potentialfortaking bids
from organisations and private orm unicipalenterprises orfoundations forthe concession ofcollection
services.
O nly the M unicipality ofSan Salvadorhas a solid w aste ordinance;the otherSSM A m unicipalities have
only gone so faras to establish the rates forthe paym entofpublic w aste m anagem entfees and taxes.
6.3
TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISE U N IV ER SE IN TH E SA N SA LV A D O R
M ETR O PO LITA N A R EA
The study identified m icro-enterprise activity in the areas ofhousehold w aste collection and recyclable
m aterialrecovery in the SSM A .Itw as notpossible to identify any m icro-enterprises w orking in final
disposalnorany devoted to collecting w aste from industries,businesses and hospitals.
Table 17 gives a breakdow n ofthe solid w aste m anagem entm icro-enterprises studied in the SSM A .
Recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises constitute 50% ofthe total.
87
Table 17.
TO TA L N U M BER O F SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES
ID EN TIFIED IN TH E SA N SA LV A D O R M ETR O PO LITA N A R EA
A ctivity
Com posting
Prim ary collection
Secondary collection
Prim ary collection
Recovery
Prim ary collection
Total
6.3.1
M unicipality
N uevo San Salvador
A popa
San Salvador
San Salvador
M exicanos
Rellenos (A popa0
San M artin
N um ber of
enterprises
2
1
1
2
4
10
1
20
Party w hich took the
initiative
O w n initiative
NGO
NGO
M unicipality
O w n initiative
O w n initiative
Com m unity organisation
Selection ofthe study sam ple
The study sam ple included five collection m icro-enterprises,fourrecovery and sorting m icro-enterprises,
and one com posting m icro-enterprise.A llofthem are located in the SSM A .Table 18 show s the
distribution ofthe sam ple.The collection m icro-enterprises m ake up 50% ofthe study sam ple.Three are
privately ow ned,one belongs to the com m unity,and the otherw as created atthe initiative ofan N G O .
43.000 people are served by the m icro-enterprises selected forthe study.Those w hich are devoted to
household collection offertheirservice to alm ost8.000 single-fam ily households,constituting about2%
ofthe totalpopulation ofthe SSM A .The m icro-enterprises tend to offertheirservices in areas w hich have
no service orreceive inadequate service from the m unicipalities.O ne ofthe collection enterprises also
sw eeps the pedestrian w alkw ays.The com posting m icro-enterprise offers its services to 80 clients in the
public m arket.
Table 18.
STU D Y SA M PLE D ISTR IBU TIO N IN EL SA LV A D O R
A ctivity
N um ber ofM SE/C O O PS
Collection
Com posting
6.4
5
4
1
TH E FO R M A TIO N O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN EL SA LV A D O R
The firstrecovery and sorting m icro-enterprises w ere form ed in 1970,w ith the firstcollection m icroenterprises being form ed som ew hatlater.The earliestcases :w ere started atthe initiative ofw aste
pickers (pepenndores)devoted to the recovery and sorting ofm aterials in the dum ps,w ho w ere m otivated
by the necessity offinding a livelihood.The collection m icro-enterprises w ere founded fortw o reasons:
the high unem ploym entrate and the large public dem and forw aste m anagem entservice,in the contextof
the inability ofthe m unicipalities to provide it.
88
Solid w aste m icro-enterprise collectorin San Salvador.
The com posting m icro-enterprise began its activities in 1994.Its form ation w as stim ulated by an N G O
and backed by the board ofdirectors ofthe public m arket,to w hich itcontinues to offerits services.
W orkers ofa m icro enterprise
devoted to the recovery and
sorting outofplastics in San
Salvador.
89
6.5
TY PES O F M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES
6.5.1
C ollection
G iven thatsolid w aste m anagem entactivities in ElSalvadorare notregulated by existing legislation,
various m odels ofcollection have been identified w hich illustrate the diverse relationships existing
betw een the m icro-enterprises and the othersolid w aste m anagem entsectoractors,including
beneficiaries,m unicipalities,N CO S,etc.
The collection m icro-enterprises relate in various w ays to die otherparticipants,based on the w ay the
service is offered,and w hetherthe m icro-enterprises transportthe w aste to the M ariona landfillorw hether
the m unicipality does so.The study found thatthe clients ofthe m icro-enterprises are in generalpleased
w ith the service and even preferitto thatoffered by the m unicipality.In som e cases,the clients pay the
costofprivate collection in addition to the m unicipalfee,w hich they continue to pay despite the
inadequate m unicipalservice.In addition,the residents have confidence in the m icro-enterprise w orkers,
especially since they are w orking alongside the ow ner,w ho also participates in offering the service.
The m icro-enterprises use conventionaland adapted technologies in theirw ork,including collection
vehicles w hich they have fabricated them selvesfrom reusable m aterials and bicycle tires.
Figure 7.
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E C O LLEC TIO N M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES A N D TH E
O TH ER PA R TIC IPA N TS
The privately ow ned m icro-enterprise transports the solid w aste to the finaldisposalsite w ith tw o 12tonne dum p trucks and seven carts fortransporting 5 5-gallon barrels.O therenterprises transportthe
barrels in hom e-m ade hand carts.The entrepreneurs have fabricated alltheirvehicles,w hich range from
sm allcarts to w agons.The principalproblem w ith the carts is thatthe w heels are easily dam aged by
excess w eightand rough terrain.
90
Figure 8.
RELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E CO LLECTIO N M ICRO -EN TERPRISES
A N D TH E O TH ER PA TICIPA N TS
6.5.2
R ecovery and sorting
The recovery and sorting enterprises are ow ned by individuals orfam ilies.In the beginning they w ere
created as alternative livelihoods by theirow ners.Each one em ploys fourto eleven w orkers.These
enterprises are notlegally constituted.They do notpay taxes and theirw orkers do notqualify for
socialsecurity.
The enterprises are devoted to the sorting and processing ofrecyclable and reusable m aterials foruse in
industrialproduction.The entrepreneurs buy the m aterialdirectly from the pepenadores atthe final
w aste disposalsite.
The ow ners sellthe m aterials to dealers and supervise the w ork ofthe operators and those w ho buy
the m aterialatthe finaldisposalsite.The operatorssortand pre-process the m aterials.
Table 19 show s the type ofclients the m icro-enterprises have in relation to the m aterialsold.
Table 19.
R EC O V ER Y A N D SO R TIN G M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES
M aterial
N um ber ofm icro-enterprises
3
1
3
2
1
1
1
3
1
2
1
Paper
Plastic
G lass
Bronze
Copper
Tin
PV C
Rubber
M etals
Cotton
1
C lient
Interm ediary
Recycling enterprises
Recycling enterprise
Interm ediary
Recycling M SE
Interm ediary
Interm ediary
Interm ediary
Interm ediary
Recycling M SE
Tin,copper,bronze and glass are generally sold to interm ediaries.Rubberand plastics are sold directly to
recycling enterprises.In the m ajority ofthe cases paperis sold to large dealers.The prices paid by the
m icro-enterprises to the pepenadores forthe recovered m aterials are determ ined by the enterprises
91
them selves,based on the m arketprices they can getform aterials.
The entire m aterials handling process is m anual.O ne enterprise has tw o six tonne trucks to carry the
m aterials to a storage room in the house ofthe ow nerw here the sorting and storage tasks are perform ed.
A notherenterprise sorts the m aterials atthe landfilland hires a truck each day to take the recovered
m aterials to a w arehouse nearby the landfill.The othertw o enterprises sortthe m aterials atthe landfilland
take them directly to the purchasers.Paperand alum inium are the tw o m aterials w hich are recovered in
the greatestvolum es.The m icro-enterprises recoverbetw een 1.058 and 1.702 kg ofpaperand betw een
460 and 598 kg ofalum inum perday.
Figure 9 show s the relationships established betw een the recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises and the
otherparticipants in w aste m anagem ent.
Figure 9.
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E R EC O V ER Y A N D SO R TIN G M IC R O EN TER PR ISES A N D TH E O TH ER PA R TIC IPA N TS
6.5.3
C om posting
The com posting plantbegan operations in 1994.In the beginning itw as prom oted by an N G O
(FU N TEC)and the board ofdirectors ofthe localm arket.Ithas notyetbeen legally incorporated as an
enterprise because itw as born as an N G O pilotproject.In orderto guarantee its sustainability the
N G O proposed from the startthatthe plantbe adm inistered by the m arketboard.A tthe presenttim e,
the projectis stillin its experim entalphase.
The fees w ere determ ined by using an initialcostanalysis as a base.The capacity ofthe users to pay,the
am ountofcom postto be produced and the sale value ofthe producthave allbeen taken into account.The
rates have been approved by the generalassem bly ofm arketm erchants,w ho have designated a person to
collectthe service fees.
The technology used forthe process is sim ple.A cartto transportthe organic m aterialfrom the m arket
w as designed and builtto accom m odate the volum e ofm aterialand the conditions ofthe terrain.In spite
ofits specialdesign,som e basic problem s w ith the cartpersistand itcontinually deteriorates,especially
its bicycle tires,suggesting thatits design needs im provem ent.
92
The enterprise hopes to m ake the activity profitable and atthe sam e tim e to contribute to decreasing
the volum e oforganic w aste.A tpresentorganic w aste m akes up 60% to 80% ofthe totalw aste
produced in the m arket.
6.6
TH E C U R R EN T SITU A TIO N O F TH E M SEs IN EL SA LV A D O R :SW O T
A N A LY SIS
6.6.1
Strengths
The collection m icro-enterprises have the follow ing strengths:
- they use appropriate technologies,although som e im provem ents are necessary;
- they offerpersonalised service to the clients;
- there is shared responsibility w ithin the enterprise;
- there is a balance betw een the dem and ofthe sectorserved and the capacity ofthe enterprises;
- they m aintain low operationalcosts;
- they have extensive know ledge ofthe characteristics ofthe area and the habits ofthe residents
served;
- they have the know ledge to take the necessary health precautions w hen handling the w aste;
- the ow ners,w orkers and clients,allofw hom are m em bers ofthe com m unity served,have
com m on interests;
- there is m utualrespectbetw een w orkers and clients;and
- the clients'satisfaction w ith the quality ofthe service.
The recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises have the follow ing strengths:
- theirbusinesses are located nearthe source ofsupply ofrecyclable m aterials;
- high quantity ofm aterials is handled;
- activities do notdepend upon specialised m achinery;
- they have low operationaland storage costs;and
- they have a large num berofsuppliers.
6.6.2
W eaknesses
The collection m icro-enterprises have the follow ing w eaknesses:
- they are vulnerable to changes in policies and solid w aste m anagem entoperations underthe
jurisdiction ofthe m unicipalgovernm ents;
- they coordinate very little w ith the m unicipalities;
- there is a lack ofinteraction and coordination betw een the m icro-enterprises operating in each
sector;and
- they lack financialresources w hich w ould perm itthem to obtain capitalfornew investm ents.
The recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises have the follow ing w eaknesses:
- they are vulnerable to changes in m unicipalpolicy on solid w aste;
- they are vulnerable to m aterials price alterations setby large buyers and the international
com m odities m arketplace w hich affecttheirrelationships w ith the buyers and the pepenadores^
- the entrepreneurs have little adm inistrative orm anagem enttraining;
- the storage facilities are generally notadequate;
- the enterprises have difficulties getting the clients to pay on tim e oratall;
93
-
6.6.3
the personnelturnoveris high;
there is a lack ofunity orgroup cohesion am ong the m em bers ofthe sector;and
there is a generallack ofknow ledge am ong the entrepreneurs aboutlegalfactors affecting the
enterprise.
O pportunities
The collection m icro-enterprises enjoy the follow ing opportunities:
- the m unicipalgovernm ents do notofferappropriate collection services,leaving this service
m arketopen;
- there is strong dem and forthis'service,especially in the urban sector;
- nationaland localgovernm entprivatisation policies supportthe participation ofprivate
enterprises;
- the service offered can be diversified and/orextended to othersectors;
- there is a potentialto educate the population in environm entalhealth;and
- the operations are consistentw ith internationalinterestin environm entalm anagem ent.
Fortheirpart,the recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises have the follow ing opportunities:
- the opportunity to add value to the m aterials through interm ediate processing;
- the high dem and forcertain products;
- the trends tow ards m unicipaldecentralisation and privatisation ofurban services;and
- the internationalinterestin environm entin general,and in recycling in particular.
6.6.4
Threats
The collection m icro-enterprises are exposed to the follow ing types ofthreats:
- in the future,the m unicipalities m ay have collection trucks donated to them by internationalaid
agencies,decreasing theirtolerance forand appreciation ofm icro-enterprise activity;
- com petition m ay increase through the appearance ofnew private enterprises;and
- no legalfram ew ork exists w hich guarantees theirexistence orregulates theiroperation.
In the case ofthe recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises,the threats are:
- the large form alrecycling industry establishes quotas on m aterials and sets the prices ofthese
m aterials,based on globaldem and and prices;
- there is an im m inentrisk thatthe landfillw here they operate w illbe closed dow n.
94
C H A PTER 7 C O STA R IC A
C osta Rica,located atthe southern edge ofCentralA m erica,has an area of51.000 square kilom etres (see
Figure 10).Itis politically and adm inistratively divided into seven provinces and 81 cantons.Its
population in 1991 w as approxim ately 3,2 m illion.A tthattim e 48% ofthe population lived in the cities
and the rem aining 52% lived in ruralareas.H ow ever,today itis estim ated that56% ofthe population
lives in the cities and 44% live in the ruralareas.The m ostdensely populated area is the G reater
M etropolitan A rea (G M A ),located in the CentralV alley.The capitalofCosta Rica is San Jose.Itis
estim ated that24% ofthe urban population and 30% ofthe ruralpopulation live in poverty.In 1993,the
per capita yearly incom e w as U S $2.160.
Figure 10.
C O STA R IC A :C A SES IN V ESTIG A TED
Costa Rica has traditionally been an agriculturalcountry;in the lastfew years tourism and the exportof
non-traditionalproducts have increased considerably.
7.1
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN C O STA R IC A
Solid w aste m anagem entin Costa Rica has been approached in a haphazard w ay,as can be observed in the
lack ofconsistency in the approaches proposed C oste R ica by the authorities and in the m unicipalities'
lack oftechnicaland financialresources19.
19
A rrieta,R.:M anejo de los desechos solidos en Costa Rica.Inform e PNU D .(English:Solid W aste M anagem entin Costa
Rica.U N D P Report.)San Jose:U N D P,1995.
95
The Costa Rican N ationalW aste Plan (N W P)w as prepared in 1991 w ith the collaboration ofthe G erm an
TechnicalCooperation (G TZ).W ithin the fram ew ork ofthis plan,there w as a diagnosis ofthe current
w aste m anagem entsituation:objectives w ere defined;proposals w ere m ade fortechnicaland institutional
planning;m anagem enttraining forpersonnel;and forpublic education.A lthough the plan w as very
com prehensive,its features have generally been ignored by the politicaland governm entalauthorities.
The generalaspects ofthe Costa Rican w aste m anagem entproblem s include:
- the accelerated urbanisation process,new consum erhabits and an increase in touristactivity add
to the com plexity ofthe problem .A tthe sam e tim e the dem and forpublic w aste m anagem ent
service is grow ing;
- the historicalproblem s ofa generally low levelofpublic services,characterised by an inadequate
fee and costrecovery system ,high rates ofdelayed ordelinquentpaym ents,and elevated costs of
potentialsolutions20;
- inadequate planning,and,in general,a lack ofinstitutionalcapacity to solve problem s21.
The m ostvisible consequence ofthis crisis has been a series ofpersistentconfrontations betw een the
com m unities located nearthe "Rio A zul" dum p in San Jose and governm entauthorities attem pting to
close it;w ith the resultthatits closing has been repeatedly postponed.In addition,in theirattem pts to
develop a new m etropolitan landfill,the governm entauthorities have faced siting difficulties w ith the host
and adjacentcom m unities in the areas w here they planned to build.
In spite ofthese problem s,Costa Rican society m aintains its beliefthatthe responsibility forsolid w aste
m anagem entlies exclusively w ith the m unicipalities,and the public declines to engage itselfin any active
process directed tow ards solving the problem .Fortunately,m any com m unities,w hen faced w ith the lack
ofinstitutionalcapacity to solve the problem ,have begun to develop theirow n alternatives.The local
governm ents and certain civilsociety organisations have reached basic agreem ents w hich prom ise the
beginnings ofa solution to the solid w aste m anagem entproblem .These processes have been initiated by
com m unity organisations,N CO S,and internationaldevelopm entorganisations.
7.1.1
A ccording to the N ationalW aste Plan,the alm ost12.000 m etric tonnes ofsolid w aste produced daily in
Costa Rica in 1991 included 85% agro-industrialw aste;14% household w aste and 1% hazardous w aste
(industrial,pesticides and m edical).D epending upon the socio-econom ic and urbanisation levelofthe
population,household w aste generation ranges from 0,3 to 0,5 kg/person/day.
Itis im portantto pointoutthatotherthan a few isolated studies in the m etropolitan area,no studies have
been perform ed to update the inform ation concerning solid w aste generation and com position in Costa
Rica since thatdone by the N ationalW aste Plan.
In the m ajority ofthe canton capitals,the m unicipalities are the entities providing w aste services.The
exceptions are som e m unicipalities in the provinces ofA lajuela,H eredia,and partofSan Jose,w here the
service is offered by W PP Continental,an enterprise w hich operates dom estically using foreign capital.
W ithin the urban area ofA tenas,O sa and H ojancha,m icro-enterprises have w on the right— through
public bid— to offerthis service.
20
CO PRO D ESA : First N ational Conference of D evelopm ent A ssociations, Com m unities, M unicipalities and
Environm entalW aste m anagem entM icro-enterprises,1995.
21
D uarte,J.: Ana-lists de la situation actual del m anejo de desechos solidos en la region centroa.m erica.na.(EngJish:
A nalysis ofthe CurrentSolid W aste M anagem entSituation in CentralA m erica).San Jose:CentralA m erican Environm ent
and D evelopm entCom m ission,ProjectCCA D /U N D P/1D B/CA M ,1994.
96
The m ajority ofthe areas setaside by the m unicipalities forfinaldisposalare open dum ps.The entire
country has only three m echanicallandfills and fourm anuallandfills.
7.1.2
Solid w aste recovery and sorting activities
The recycling industry is notvery w elldeveloped in Costa Rica,and the exist-|ing recycling enterprises
have hardly any com petition.In the G M A ,there is a very lim ited infrastructure forthe recycling ofpaper,
cardboard and glass.G lass bottles are collected and re-used by sm all,m edium and large enterprises to
bottle vinegar,sauces,honey,w ine and otherliquors.A lum inium cans are recovered,com pacted and
exported.The recycling industries are supplied by a w ide netw ork oflarge and m edium -sized
enterprises,sm allfam ily enterprises,and collectors ofrecyclables w ho som etim es buy and som etim es
receive m aterials.The low estposition in this netw ork belongs to the buzos,w ho search forw aste from
dum ps and streets.
To date,plastic has notbeen recycled on a large scale,and the existing plants are very sm all.In the banana
plantation area on the A tlantic coast,a strong effortis being m ade to recoveratleast50% ofthe plastic,
largely black orw hite low density polyethylene film ,used in banana and m elon cultivation.In addition,a
pilotprojectis currently underw ay to recycle polyethylene terephthalate (PET)bottles.
7.1.3
The legalcontextfor solid w aste m anagem ent
A ccording to the G eneralH ealth Law and the M unicipalCode,the m unicipalities are responsible forthe
collection,transportation and disposalofsolid w aste.The solid w aste m anagem entm icro-enterprises in
Costa Rica operate w ithin tw o legalfram ew orks:one w hich has to do w ith the organisation,operation and
registration ofm icro-enterprises,and a second w hich involves the legislative contextforthe m anagem ent
ofsolid w aste,w hich is both lim ited and disorganised.In general,the controland regulation ofthese
operations can bestbe described as inadequate.
7.2
TH E M SE U N IV ER SE IN C O STA R IC A
In February 1996,a totalof69 enterprises w orking in the various areas ofsolid w aste m anagem ent
w ere identified in allofCosta Rica.They are listed in Table 20.
Table 20.
Province
Collection
A lajuela
Cartago
G uanacaste
H eredia
Puntarenas
San José
Lim on
Total
7.2.1
IN V EN TO R Y O F M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN C O STA R IC A
21
1
3
1
26
Recovery and
transporting
4
3
2
4
2
24
39
Beach cleansing
1
1
2
Finaldisposal
2
2
Total
25
3
5
4
6
24
2
69
Selection ofthe study sam ple
17 ofthe 69 m icro-enterprises identified in Costa Rica w ere selected forthe study,orapproxim ately
97
25% ofthe total.Previous inform ation on the principalcharacteristics ofthe collection,beach cleaning
and finaldisposalenterprises had already been gathered,perm itting the sam ple to be representative.
Forthe enterprises devoted to the recovery and sorting ofrecyclable m aterials,the proportional
stratification m ethod w as used.The type ofactivity and the geographic location w ere taken into
accountin both cases in such a w ay as to include enterprises from allthe provinces.The distribution
ofthe sam ple according to the type ofactivity is show n in Table 21.
Table 21.
STU D Y SA M PLE IN C O STA R IC A
A ctivity
Collection
Beach cleansing
Finaldisposal
Total
7.3
Frequency
7
8
1
1
17
%
41
47
6
6
100
TH E FO R M A TIO N O F TH E M SEs IN C O STA R IC A
The solid w aste m anagem entm icro-enterprises in Costa Rica w ere notcreated as the resultofany
governm entalorm unicipalpolicy.The factthatthe m unicipalities do notprovide collection service
outside ofthe urban areas m otivated certain com m unities to address theirsolid w aste problem s by
them selves.75% ofthe collection m icro-enterprises offerthe service in areas w here the m unicipalities do
notofferit.
The beach cleaning enterprises,the collection enterprises,and the finaldisposalenterprises in the study
w ere form ed as a resultofthe desire ofcertain com m unity leaders to create them in response to local
needs forw aste service.The recovery and sorting enterprises cam e aboutthrough the individualinitiative
oftheirow ners,w ho w ere above allinterested in creating a livelihood forthem selves.
Tw o im portantelem ents concerning the appearance ofthe m icro-enterprises are w orth m entioning.The
firstis that44% ofthe collection and beach cleaning m icro-enterprises are found in areas w ith a large
num beroftourists,both dom estic and foreign.In these areas,the m ajority ofthe population is
econom ically dependentto som e degree on the num berofvisitors to the area.D ue to this,the conservation
ofnaturalresources and the appearance and environm entalhealth ofthe com m unity is a high priority for
the public.
The second im portantfactoris thatcom m unity based organisations existin m ostofthe urban and rural
com m unities in Costa Rica.These organisations oversee the developm entoftheircom m unities,in m any
cases by taking responsibility forthe adm inistration ofaqueducts,transportation lines,parks,and solid
w aste m anagem entoperations,w hen these becom e a problem fortheircom m unity.
98
W orkers ofa solid
w aste collection
m icro enterprise in
C osta R ica.
7.4
TH E R O LES O F TH E M IC R O -A N D SM A LL EN TER PR ISES
The enterprises studied basically perform fouractivities:collection,finaldisposal,cleaning ofpublic
spaces (beach cleaning),and the recovery and sorting ofrecyclable m aterials.In addition to the collection
service,tw o ofthem offersupplem entary services,such as the cleaning ofstreets and public spaces,the
recovery ofcertain recyclable m aterials,and the m anagem entoffinaldisposalsites.
O ne ofthe
recovery and
sorting m icro
enterprises
investigated in
C osta R ica.
The data received from the collection m icro-enterprises abouttheirservice areas suggests thatthese
99
enterprises serve about61% ofthe population in the areas w here they are located.They offertheirservices
to 14 state institutions,one industry,227 businesses,and ten health centres benefiting approxim ately
33.000 users.
In the m ajority ofcases studied,com m unity leaders in the respective service areas evaluate the service as
being good.The sam e opinion is held by a high percentage ofthe m unicipalauthorities interview ed.
The recovery and sorting enterprises buy m aterials from enterprises,institutions and from individuals w ho
go to theirw arehouse and/orcallthem to offerm aterials.The collection and finaldisposalenterprises
have a totalof31 w orkers,ofw hich 94% are m en.The solid w aste recovery enterprises have a w ork force
of40,ofw hich 83% are m en.
The relationships betw een the collection and finaldisposalm icro-enterprises take a num berofform s,each
ofw hich has its ow n characteristics.Fourseparate m odels have been identified forthe collection m icroenterprises.The firstm odelrepresents those enterprises w hich are ow ned by a com m unity organisation
(association)w hich adm inisters,m arkets,and supervises the service (see Figure 11).The association
requests perm ission from the m unicipality to offerthe service and pays forusing the finaldisposalsite.
The m icroenterprise w orkers collectthe paym ents from the users and give them to the association.The
users have a directrelationship w ith the enterprise w orkers and the com m unity organisation in its role as
adm inistrator.
Figure 11.
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN C O LLEC TIO N M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES A N D
In the second type,the m unicipality contracts the m icro-enterprise to offerthe service.The users pay the
m unicipality forthe service and the m unicipality in turn pays the m icro-enterprise the m onthly am ount
established in the contract.The users basically have a relationship only w ith the m unicipality (see Figure
12).
100
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
In the third m odel,the com m unity organisation asks a m icro-enterprise to offerthe service and oversees
the quality ofthatservice.The m icro-enterprise charges the users directly forthe service they receive and
pays the m unicipality forthe use ofthe finaldisposalsite (see Figure 13).
101
Finally,in the lasttype,the m icro-enterprises begin offering the service on theirow n initiative and charge
the users directly forthe service.They coordinate w ith com m unity organisations and the m unicipality,
since the approvalofboth is fundam entalto theiroperation,despite the factthatno form alrelationship
exists.In this specific case,a private enterprise is paid forthe use ofthe finaldisposalsite (see Figure 14).
Figure 14.
The recovery and sorting enterprises basically establish relationships w ith theirsuppliers.These can be
enterprises,institutions,streetcollectors orw aste pickers atdum ps.In addition,they establish
relationships w ith the enterprises w hich buy the sorted m aterials.
7.5
C U R R EN T SITU A TIO N O F M SEs IN C O STA R IC A :SW O T A N A LY SIS
7.5.1
Strengths
In general,the solid w aste m anagem entm icro-enterprises have a series ofstrengths,am ong w hich are the
follow ing:
- the m ajority are stable enterprises w hich have been offering the service form any years;as a
consequence theirow ners have a lotofexperience;and
- they offerpersonalised,flexible,diversified service w hich is supervised and operated directly by
the ow ners.Therefore,a significantnum berofinterpersonalrelationships existand atthe sam e
tim e there is m ore and bettercontrolofthe quality ofthe service.
102
The collection enterprises specifically have the strengths detailed below :
- they allpossess the basic equipm entneeded fortheirw ork:thatis,a vehicle in w hich to transport
the w aste;
- there is a strong feedback loop,in thatthe stability oftheirw ork environm entin the service area
depends upon the levelofsatisfaction ofthe com m unity served,and therefore on the quality ofthe
service offered by the enterprise;
- there is organisationalpotentialin the sectoras show n by the factthatin one ofthe provinces an
experience ofunion organising has been validated;and
- they operate in the m arginalzones ofthe m unicipalities;therefore,there is a reduced likelihood of
com petition from largerenterprises.
The recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises are characterised by the factthat:
- they require little investm entin equipm entand m achinery;
- w ith m inim um investm ent,they can operate using partoftheirhouses as storage areas;and
- theirw ork hours are flexible.
7.5.2
W eaknesses
The m icro-enterprises share a series ofw eakness w hich are slow ing dow n theirgrow th and expansion.
A m ong the m ostim portantare:
- they sufferfrom a lack ofequipm entform aintenance and im provem entofthe service and the lack
ofresources to investin them ;
- there is a generallack oftechnicaltraining and environm entaleducation form icro-enterprise
personnel;
- they produce only sm allincom e yields;
- there is a lack ofadequate resources to prom ote the service am ong the users,as w ellas to
establish inform ation and education m echanism s explaining changes in the delivery ofthe service.
A lso lacking are clearinstructions on how to m anage w aste adequately,how to separate m aterials
forrecovery,and the like;
- they are characterised by internalorganisationalproblem s w hich m anifestthem selves as
deficiencies in adm inistration and/orfinancialm anagem entw ithin the enterprises;
- there is an absence,w ith only a few exceptions,ofrelationships betw een the various m icroenterprises operating in a single region;
- there is scarcity ofcapable personneland relatively high turnoverofw orkers due to the low status
associated w ith the w ork and the preference ofw orkers to m ove to m ore socially acceptable jobs
attheirearliestopportunity;and
- there is a lack ofform alcontracts w ith the otherparties (recycling enterprises,m unicipalities,etc.)
w hich w ould assure stability.
The collection enterprises also confrontthe follow ing difficulty:
- they consistently receive late paym ents.
The recovery enterprises are w eak in the follow ing aspects:
- they are isolated and have no contactw ith the com m unities,the com m unity organisations orthe
m unicipalities;and
- they do nothave access to tim ely inform ation aboutfluctuations in the prices forrecyclable
m aterials.
103
7.5.3
O pportunities
In general,the opportunities w hich theirsurroundings presentinclude:
- the nationaland internationalrecognition ofthe seriousness ofthe solid w aste problem and
im portance ofenvironm entally sound w aste m anagem ent;
- the incorporation ofsolid w aste m anagem entinto the areas ofdisease prevention and health
prom otion,w hich has led to the involvem entofdepartm ents ofhealth both in the regulatory
aspects ofw aste m anagem entand in the search forpracticalalternatives;and
- the potentialforboth N G O s and governm entinstitutions to supportthe continued expansion and
strengthening ofthe m icro-enterprise effort.
The follow ing opportunities are available to the collection and finaldisposalenterprises:
- the grow ing urbanisation ofthe peripheralcom m unities and the developm entofthe tourist
industry,togetherw ith the difficulties faced by m unicipalgovernm ents in offering services to all
areas undertheirjurisdiction,strengthens theirposition because itm akes itnecessary to find
alternative w ays ofserving these com m unities;
- there is strong supportreceived from com m unity organisations in particularand the com m unities
in general,forthe developm entofw aste m anagem entactivities.
The recovery and sorting enterprises benefitsignificantly from public and private educationalcam paigns
prom oting the source separation and sorting ofm aterials forrecycling.This enhances the likelihood of
theirreceiving donations ofpost-consum erm aterials -principally paper
from businesses,institutions,and educationalcentres.
7.5.4
Threats
A m ong the threats to the survivaland expansion ofthese enterprises arc:
- they lack access to financing,w hich inhibits the organisationaland econom ic developm entofthe
sector;
- the handling ofw aste by the w aste generators and system users is generally inadequate,due to
lack ofknow ledge orm otivation;and
- there is an alm osttotallack ofinstitutionalsupportforthe activity.
A specific threatforthe collection and finaldisposalservice is the factthatlarge nationaland
internationalenterprises have entered into this area in the lastfew years.
The use offinaldisposalsites is threatened from various perspectives:
- the m icro-enterprises depend on the m unicipalities orlarge enterprises forthe use ofthe final
disposalsites;
- som e places do nothave any landfills to provide adequate finaldisposal;
- in certain cases,the distances betw een service area and the finaldisposalsite are large;
- to a certain extent,the m arketdom ination by the large private com panies raises operationalcosts
form icro-enterprises;and
- the dependency ofthe m unicipalities on politicalparty supportcan jeopardise professional
relationships betw een the m icro-enterprises and theirgovernm ents.
W ith regard to the recovery and sorting enterprises,the follow ing threats are present:
- the m arketform aterials is dom inated by large buyers and the globalcom m odities m arketplace,
w hich results in highly unstable prices;and
- there are difficulties in com m ercialising plastic and glass recycling.
104
C H A PTER 8 BR A ZIL
Brazilis a federalrepublic located in South A m erica (see Figure 15).Itcovers an area of8.000.000 square
kilom etres and has a population of152 m illion people.N early 79% ofthe people live in urban areas.The
estim ated per capita-daily w aste generation is 0,6 kg/person/day.The legalm inim um w age is U S$ 112.
A pproxim ately 52% ofthe econom ically active population has an average incom e ofalm osttw ice the
m inim um w age.
Figure 15.
8.1
B R AZIL:C A SES IN VESTIG A TED
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN BR A ZIL 22
D ue to Brazil's large size,its sharp social-econom ic contrasts,and the incom pleteness ofthe available
statistics on solid w aste,a precise analysis ofthe solid w aste situation is difficult.N evertheless,som e
factors can be highlighted to help clarify the currentsituation.Solid w aste m anagem entdata forthe years
22
D ata from the nationalstudy for dom estic sam pling carried outby PN A S and the Synthesis of Indexes/1985/IBG E w as
used in the preparation ofthis chapter.Rio de Janeiro:IBG E,1986.
105
1989 and 1994 from the Brazilian G eography and Statistics Institute (IBG E)indicate thatsolid w aste
m anagem entis inadequate,especially w ith regards to finaldisposal.
Table 22.
A M O U N T O F SO LID W A STE C O LLEC TED IN PR IN C IPA L BR A ZILIA N
C ITIES (tonnes/day,1989)
Sao Paulo
8834
Rio de Janeiro
4030
Recife
2776
Porto A legre
1741
M anaos
1550
Salvador
1500
Belem
1500
Fortaleza
1150
G ioana
1050
Curitiba
988
Brasilia
843
Source:Brazilian G eography and Statistics Institutes (IG BE),1989
In total,around 91.000 m etric tonnes ofhousehold w aste is produced daily in Brazil.A bout70% ofthe
solid w aste generated is collected (table 12 gives and overview ofthe solid w aste collected daily in 11
m ajorcities in Brazil),and ofthis fraction,88% is disposed ofin open dum ps;10% is buried in landfills;
and,only 2% is officially directed to recycling and com posting activities23.Forthe volum e ofw aste
produced,the percentage thatis officially recycled is sm all,even fora developing country.Forexam ple,
only 14% ofthe plastic discarded is reported to be recycled.
W aste m anagem entin Brazilis the responsibility ofthe m unicipalities;they are focused on w aste
collection,and farless interested in finaldisposal.In m any ofthe cities,especially the largerones,the
m ayor's offices have contracted w ith private enterprises to collectthe w aste.These contracts usually pay
the enterprise according to the num beroftonnes collected.The public is charged forw aste collection
services via a "w aste tax",w hich is usually included in the property tax,although itis notexplicitly listed.
The am ountcharged is usually based on the assessed value ofthe taxable property,and bears no relation
to the volum e ofw aste generated perperson orperhousehold.
N o tradition ofhousehold w aste collection by m icro-enterprises exists in Brazil,and directpaym entby
users ofthe service is com pletely unknow n,in contrastto som e ofthe othercountries studied.The
separate collection ofdom estic organic m aterialforcom posting is practically non-existent,although an
earliertradition ofbackyard com posting m ay com e to be reactivated as interestin form alcom posting
grow s.
8.1.1
R ecycling in Brazil
The firstform alsectorBrazilian source separation activities started in 1985,and w ere based on a m odel
proposed by the Sao Francisco Com m unity Cen tre (CCSF),a com m unity association,and the Federal
Flum inense U niversity (U FF).A num berofm unicipalities proposed alternative m odels forsource
separation in 1988.These tended to be characterised by high collection costs and a highly centralised
m anagem entapproach.These and otherearly form alm unicipalexperim ents in the w aste sorting and
com posting sectors w ere generally unsuccessful,due to technicalproblem s,inadequate m anagem ent,and/
oran incom plete analysis ofthe quality and com position ofthe m aterials to be handled.
23
Inform ation from CEM PRE.
106
A ttention to recycling reached noticeable levels in 1989 w hen approxim ately a dozen localgovernm ents
in the higher-incom e southern states started collection program m es to separate the recyclable m aterials
from the organic w aste in households and offices.There w ere initiatives prim arily in the largercities,and
to a lesserextentin the sm allerones.Program m es w hich educate the com m unity aboutthe relationship
betw een individualproduction ofw aste and the environm entw ere also initiated,and rem ain popular.
Inform alrecycling in Brazil,as in otherLatin A m erican countries,is m uch older.The collection of
recoverable m aterialis an activity w ith a fairly long history in Brazil,beginning w ith activities of
Portuguese and Spanish im m igrants atthe beginning ofthis century,especially in the large cities.The
large interm ediaries operating in this sectortoday,like theircounterparts in N orth A m erica,are descended
from enterprises started by these pioneers.
There is an equally long tradition ofactivity by w aste pickers (catadores),engaged in picking and
collection,w ho gatherm aterials w hich they sellto the interm ediaries.These activities tend to take place
underinadequate sanitary conditions deteriorated,an increasing num berofpeople,especially in the large
urban centres,have begun collecting recyclable m aterials from the streets and w aste handling and disposal
sites.These people representan abundantand low -priced source ofcontingentlabour,w hich varies
according to the dem and form aterials and the prices offered by the m arkets.
The m ixed im pactofinform alcollection is reflected in various governm entaland industrialstatistics.O n
one hand,less than 2% ofthe officially collected w aste is recycled.O n the otherhand,industrialstatistics
indicate that30% ofthe raw m aterialused in industrialpaperproduction is from secondary (recycled)
fibre.Secondary m aterials provide 49% ofthe alum inium used to m ake cans,20% ofthe m aterialused to
m anufacture glass containers and 20% ofthe polym ers used in the production ofplastic bottles.The
discrepancy betw een these statistics and the reported "2% recycling rate" is partially explained by the fact
thatm ostofthe recyclable m aterials are collected before the officialcity trucks arrive to collectthe w aste,
so these m aterials are notincluded in the officially calculated estim ate of"totalw aste",w hich is based on
the am ounts collected by the m unicipalw aste m anagem entsystem .
A s the public sector's interestin recycling increases,the lines betw een form aland inform alrecycling are
beginning to blur.Forexam ple,certain m ayors'offices have been encouraging the w aste pickers in their
cities to form cooperatives,w ith the stated goalofenhancing the collectors'm arketleverage.This new
organisationalinitiative appears to be ignoring the significantbody ofexperience from the organisations
ofw aste pickers’cooperatives in recentyears initiated by philanthropic institutions interested in fostering
socialdevelopm entofthis “streetpopulation”,and m ay notin factsucceed in its stated aim ofshifting the
balance ofpow erin the m arketing sectorto favourthe collectors.In contrast,certain ofthe cooperatives
w hcihave been form ed in Sao Paulo,Santos,Porto A legre and othercities in the south ofBrazilhave
successfully integrated them selves w ith the w ork ofthe w aste pickers in these areas.
8.1.2
M aterials recycled
Paperoccupies the firstplace am ong the recyclable m aterials.Paperconstitutes about25% ofthe
w aste stream in Brazilian cities.A pproxim ately 30% ofthe paperand paperproducts produced in
the country are m ade from recycled fibre.In m ostdeveloped countries this figure exceeds 50% .
Paperrecycling in basically controlled by the interm ediaries,orpaperstock brokers,expecially
the largerones.A cooperative w hich can accum ulate largervolum es can com m and betterprices
and develop foritselfa distinctadvantage in this m arketplace,one w hich w ould notbe available
to individualw aste pickers.
107
G lass is the second m ostrecycled m aterialin Brazil.The glass industry could use as m uch as
300,000 m etric tonnes peryear,although atpresentless than ofhalfthatis being recycled,a total
of1209.000 tonnes peryearor10,000 tonnes m onthly.
8.2
TH E SELEC TIO N O F TH E STU D Y SA M PLE
The sam ple w as selected using the follow ing criteria:
1. Length oftim e ofexistence:Cases w ere chosen w hich had been in existence foratleast
fouryears,Thatis to say,thathad m anaged to survive form ore than one m unicipal
governm entterm ofoffice.The cooperatives m anaged directly ofindirectly by the
m unicipalities are too new to be evaluated,since thy have notyetsurvived the challenge
ofa change in m unicipaladm inistration.
2. Type oforganisation:Cases w ere selected fortheirdiffering types oforganisation,w ith
som e preference forthose w hich w ere m ore easilty identifiable and w ere able to provide
detailed inform ation.
8.3
The three M SE/C O O PS in the study
The three organisations included in the study w ere:
o The separate collection experim entby the Sao Francisco Com m unity Centre,a
com m unity organisation;
o The Coopam are streetpickers cooperative;
o The Canoas A ssociation ofW aste Pickers and Carters,a cooperative.
8.3.1
The Sao Francisco C om m unity C entre
The Sao Francisco Com m unity Centre (CCSF)m anages a projectdevoted to the separate collection of
solid w aste in the Sao Francisco neighbourhood ofthe city ofN iteroiin the State ofRio de Janeiro.N early
1.200 residences in Sao Francisco,a m iddle to high-incom e neighbourhood,are served by the CCSF.The
projectstarted in A pril1985,w ith a donation from the G erm an TechnicalCooperation (G TZ)forthe
construction ofits facilities.Later,otheragencies -Finep and V itae (Brazil)and G TM (Sw itzerland)m ade donations forthe purchase ofequipm ent.This becam e the firstBrazilian separate collection
experim entto be extensively system atised and docum ented.
The m aterials in the w aste stream ,including paper,cardboard,glass,plastic,m etal,clothes,books and
m edicines,are collected from each household once perw eek.The m aterialcannotbe placed outthe street
oritw ould be pirated by othergroups,and this lim itation m akes the service considerably m ore expensive
than itw ould otherw ise need to be.
The m aterialis collected using a m ini-tractorpulling a trailer,and taken to a supportarea w here itis
sorted,classified and in som e cases packed to be sold atm arketprices to interm ediate processors and enduserenterprises.The buyers are responsible forpicking up the m aterials from the cooperative's prem ises.
The eightm en w ho w ork forthe CCSF are registered as em ployees and receive a salary.A llthe labour
and socialsecurity obligations ofthe w orkers are paid.The sources ofincom e forthe cooperative include
108
the sale ofthe m aterials,and a subsidy from the Brazilian beerindustry — specifically from the Brahm a
Enterprise — w hose trade-m ark is used as a logo on uniform s,on collection carts,and forprom otion
purposes.The com m unity enterprise is experiencing econom ic problem s due to w ide fluctuations in the
m arketprices forthe m aterials w hich are collected.
The CCSF has an agreem entto receive technicalassistance from the U FF,w hich also uses the operational
unitforfield study.The greatestdifficulty w ith this m odel(see Figure 16)lies in trying to balance the
constantchange in the prices ofthe m aterials w ith the grow ing costs ofsalaries and labourobligations,a
problem w hich does notoccurin the cooperatives.
Centre separate
collection workers of
the Sao Francisco
Com m unity Centre in
the City ofNiteroi
8.3.2
C oopam o-re w aste pickers cooperative
Coopam are is a successfulm odelofa w aste trading cooperative.The cooperative w as created in 1989 by
w aste pickers in the city ofSao Paulo w ith the supportofthe FraternalA ssistance O rganisation (O A F),as
an extension ofw ork begun in the 1950s to supportpeople w ho lived in the streets.Coopam are has 53
m em bers and is one ofthe m ostsuccessfulcooperatives in Brazil.By itself,itcollects 100 tonnes of
recyclable m aterialperm onth,w hich is equivalentto halfofthe m aterialcollected in the entire city ofSao
Paulo by the officialrecycling program m e.Italso collects ata low ercostthan the officialprogram ,w hich
a study by the Brazilian Business Com m itm entforRecycling (CEM PRE,from Portuguese:Com prom isso
Em presarialpara Recicla0em )24 has show n to costm ore than U S $400 perm etric tonne ofrecyclable
24
CEM PRE has been w orking very actively in the recycling field in Brazilin the lastfew years.CEM PRE,together w ith
the Fraternal A ssistance O rganisation (FA O ),a Catholic com m unity aid organisation,has produced a set of educational
m aterials,called "Cooperate for Recycling,Recycle for Cooperation" to docum entthe recycling cooperative experim ents
and the organisation of the catadores de lixo (w aste pickers).The m aterials w ere designed as a "do ityourself course on
how to develop this type ofcooperative,and are aim ed atN G O s and localgovernm ents.O ne goalofthe training is to help
the w aste pickers understand thattheirjob is a professional,econom ically viable activity,w hich can generates incom e and
provide a decentlivelihood.The m aterials w ere originally designed by the N ationalCom m ercialA pprenticeship Service
(SEN A C),a profitoriented training foundation,and include training m aterialand teaching aides (such as videos)fora tw o
m onth course for the w aste pickers on how to form their ow n cooperative w ithoutthe intervention of CEM PRE,O A F or
SEN A C staff.The course has been used in Brazilto setup as m any as tw o dozen cooperatives:the m ostsuccessfuland
w ellknow n is the Coopam are Cooperative ofSao Paulo.
109
m aterials collected.This contrasts w ith the regularw aste collection system using trucks,w hich costs U S$
25 pertonne.The officialnationalaverage forform alm unicipalseparate collection in Brazilis U S$ 262
pertonne,w hich is higherthan any othertype ofcollection.
The m em bers ofthe Coopam are cooperative can earn an average ofU S $300 a m onth (orm ore in som e
cases)from the recyclable m aterials thatthey collect.This is a little m ore than double the m inim um w age
in Braziland gives the m em bers a livelihood superiorto 50% ofthe w orkforce,w hich earns less than
tw ice the m onthly m inim um w age.The collectors are able to earn aboveaverage incom e by selling the
m aterials directly to the large users,and also because ofthe abundance ofhigh-grade printed m atterand
packaging m aterialin the w aste stream s oftheirm iddle-incom e clients.
In 1995,the cooperative w as w orking w ith about30 w aste pickerm em bers and othernon-m em berw aste
pickers.The paper,cardboard,glass,plastic and m etalcollected from the m iddle and high-incom e
neighbourhoods w ere taken to the site,w eighed,and purchased by the cooperative fora price w hich w as
alw ays superiorto thatpaid by the traditionalpaperstock brokers.Later,this m aterialbegan to be sold to
largerenterprises (see Figure 17).
Figure 16.
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E C C SF W O R K ER S A N D TH E O TH ER
PA R TIC IPA N TS
In 1995,the w aste pickers w ere using carts w hich they ow ned orborrow ed from the cooperative to collect
the recyclable m aterials.The cooperative w as also involved in socialservice developm entw ork w ith the
w aste pickers.10% ofthe incom e from the sale ofthe recyclable m aterials atthattim e w entto the
cooperative to offsetits generalexpenses.
Today,the cooperative occupies an area of3.000 square m etres area as provided forundera com odatum
(contractforloan and repaym ent)w ith the M unicipality ofSao Paulo.This area is located undera tw ostreetviaductw hich covers nearly 2.000 square m etres w hich acts as ifitw ere a large roof.The w aste
pickers are able to repairand even build theircarts atthis site.
110
Associates and
w orkers ofthe
C oopam are W aste
pickers
C ooperative in
Sao Paulo,Brazil
The m em bers take turns doing the internalw ork ofthe cooperative,such as cleaning,repairs,
m aintenance,and the like.The City ofSao Paulo,through an agreem entw ith the cooperative,pays the
salaries ofthe presidentofthe cooperative,w ho w orks as generalm anager,a secretary and a social
w orker/assistant.This cooperative receives supportfrom CEM PRE.
Figure 17.
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E C O O PA M A R E C O O PER A TIV E A N D
111
8.3.3
The C anoas A ssociation ofW aste Pickers and C arters
The Canoas A ssociation ofW aste Pickers and Carters (A ssociation)w as founded in M ay 1987 w ith the
backing ofthe M inorCapuchin O rderin the City ofCanoas,Rio G rande do Sul.The association's w ork is
diverse and com plex.Itis carried outin cooperation w ith the M unicipality ofCanoas,and receives a lotof
supportfrom the com m unity,especially schools,enterprises,public and private institutions,neighbours,
w ho are m otivated to separate theirw aste deliveritat150 drop-offcentres.The w aste pickers atthe city
landfillalso w ork in directcooperation w ith the A ssociation.
The A ssociation has three centres orsheds (galpao in Portuguese)forthe collection ofm aterials,
including paper,cardboard,plastic,glass and m etal.The association has its headquartersingo-lpao #1
(630 square m etres);a com m unity association nursery schoolis located ingalpao #2 (236 square m etres)
although itis notcurrently functioning;andgalpao #3 (50 square m etres),located in the "G uajuviras"
dum p,is a tem porary w ooden structure used as a dressing room and dining hallby the w aste pickers w ho
w ork there.
W orkers ofthe
C anoas
Association of
W aste1 Pickers
and C arters
C ollecting
C ardboard.
The m aterialis collected w eekly from the 150 drop-offcentres by the w aste collectors,using trucks ow ned
by the m ayor's office.There are volunteers and people in charge atthe drop-offcentres,w hich the w aste
pickers keep clean.The m aterials are taken to jw /poes 1 and 2 forsorting and sale.
112
Figure 18.
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E A SSO C IA TIO N A N D TH E O TH ER
PA R TIC IPA N TS
The A ssociation also carries outeducationalactivities in 35 m unicipalschools and gives an annual
sem inaron w aste.Figure 18 show s the relationships established betw een the A ssociation and the other
participants.A round 50,000 people are estim ated to benefitdirectly orindirectly from the collection of
m aterials in the city.
8.4
BETW EEN SO C IA L D EV ELO PM EN T A N D TH E M A R K ET
The history,perspective and organisation ofthe three Brazilian experiences analysed in the study differ
sharply.N eitherthey northe m ajority ofparallelentities w ere created prim arily forthe purpose of
m anaging the solid w aste in theirrespective cities.
N one ofthe Brazilian cases representclassicaleconom ic m odels ofm icroenterprises and cooperatives,
since they depend fortheirfunctioning on continuous and essentialparticipation by socialdevelopm ent
institutions.N eitherdo they operate in a situation w here integrated solid w aste m anagem entrepresents a
policy goal,given the com plexity oflabourlegislation and the currentpublic bids forform alw aste
collection and disposal,w hich tend to favourlarge firm s.
So itis fairto ask w hetherthese initiatives can properly be treated as m icroenterprises orcooperatives at
allin the technicalsense,despite theirsuccesses in environm entaleducation and theircontributions to
effective and partially decentralised solid w aste m anagem ent.A llthree are deeply rooted in hum an
developm ent,educational,and com m unity service goals,and are firstand forem ostexcellentm otivators
and exam ples ofsocialdevelopm ent,as w ellas being experts atcom m unity m obilisation.
The originalobjective ofthe Sao Paulo and Canoas initiatives w as to dignify the w ork ofthe catndores
(w aste pickers)w ho w ere already recovering w aste from the streets and the finaldisposalsites,w hile
allow ing them to m aintain theirlivelihoods and rem ain in theirw ork areas.The socialstigm a w hich these
w aste pickers w ere confronting on a daily basis w as inhibiting cooperative w ork,by eroding the sense of
113
responsibility and self-confidence necessary forcooperative relationships.The restoration ofdignity and
self-esteem ;the evolution from individualistic to group-oriented behaviour,and the instability ofthe
secondary m aterials m arketplace continue to representhuge challenges forthese cooperatives,and require
the ongoing intervention ofsocialdevelopm entorganisations.
The N iteroiinitiative,in contrast,w as founded to strengthen com m unity ties,stim ulate the developm entof
environm entaleducation,and create jobs forpeople w ithoutprofessionaltraining.A lthough itfocused
these goals on the separate collection ofhousehold w aste,itneverincorporated the w aste pickers,and
partially in consequence suffers from the low productivity ofcertain w orkers w hose m otivation is lim ited
to w orking enough to obtain unem ploym entinsurance orothersocialservices.
A llofthe three initiatives studied are operating in urban areas w here the city governm entis collecting the
solid w aste on a regularbasis,eitherusing the public sectorw orkforce orw ith enterprises contracted by
the city.In pointoffact,the overriding sense ofm ission found in the creation ofthese institutions appears
to have a m ore decisive effectin determ ining theirsuccess than the classic factors w hich generally
characterise a service m icro-enterprise orcooperative,although allofthem seek to m aintain a positive
balance betw een theirincom e and expenses,som ething w hich is noteasy in the volatile environm entof
the secondary m aterials m arket.
8.4.1
Econom ic analysis
The analysis ofthese enterprises w hich w as done in the course ofthe study m akes itclearthatthere are
m any aspects ofsupportw hich these enterprisesreceive — use ofrealestate,goods,services,m oral
support,and advise — w hich contribute to theirsuccess,butw hich are difficultto be m easured or
accounted forin m onetary term s.The hidden subsidies thatsupportthese entities are contributed
voluntarily orunderduress by professors,technicians from the m ayors'offices,church w orkers,etc.These
"contributions" are as im portantto acknow ledge as the intangible benefits w hich they produce such as
environm entaleducation,and should definitely be factored into any evaluation oftheirfeasibility and
socialvalue.Butthis presents practicaldifficulties as w ell:how does one accountforthe w ork ofa priest,
m aintained by the church,w ho w orks in hum an socialdevelopm ent? Is this a "hidden benefit",and does
the need forthis supportrepresenta "hidden cost"? Severalexam ples should highlightthe difficulties
involved in a globalanalysis ofthese initiatives.In Sao Paulo,the catadores collectw hatthey w antand
can find directly from the streets,w ithoutany supportfrom the public and alm ostalw ays w ithouta
contract.They are perhaps the closestto the business approach ofthe M SEs,in thattheirlivelihoods com e
from the collection and sale ofthe m aterials.
In Canoas,the residents participate by separating m aterials,and the catadores have been integrated into
the system .H ow ever,the collection requires a com plex system ofdrop-offcentres and exchange areas
involving governm entoffices,com m unity volunteers and private support,and thus,can only existbecause
ofintensive private-public partnership.
In N iteroi,the threatofpiracy posed by the few existing streetw aste pickers w orks to inhibitthe
effectiveness ofthe doorto doorcollection system ,w hich receives a lotofcom m unity support.The clients
have no desire to separate the m aterials forthe inform alcollectors orbuscadores,w hom m any ofthem
associate w ith destitution,alcoholism and m arginalisation.This resistance is fed by the security-conscious
characterofthe neighbourhood,w here residents are happy to w elcom e the uniform ed,organised w orkers
ofthe cooperative.Integration ofw aste pickers has notbeen successfulin this case.
114
8.4.2
D irections for future developm ent
A m ong the m ostprom ising alternatives forsupporting and facilitating the expansion ofM SE/Coops in
Brazilis supporting the form ation ofassociations orentities thatcan build theirow n institutionalbase,
ratherthan relying on internationaldonors orform algovernm entalorprivate financing sources.The types
ofsupportthatcould be helpfulcould com e from :
a. N on-profitinstitutions (forexam ple,charities)w hich share theircom m unity w ork experience.
b. M unicipalities,w hich offerfinancialand technicalsupportby redirecting the resources they w ould
otherw ise expend on collection and finaldisposalto paying the M SE/Coops and socialdevelopm ent
projects,
c. Private entrepreneurialinitiative,financed by sales and revenues.
d. Revenues generated by the sale ofrecyclables to interm ediaries orenduserindustries paying lair
prices forthe m aterials recovered.
e. Training,research,educational,and technicalsupportinstitutions.
f. Public policies w hich focus on w aste collection and disposalfees,and on the developm entof
incentives forrecycling and w aste prevention.
115
C H A PTER 9 C O LO M BIA
Figure 19.
C O LO M BIA :C A SES IN V ESTIG A TED
Colom bia is a dem ocratic republic w ith an area of1.139.000 square kilom etres (see Figure 19).Its
estim ated population in 1993 w as m ore than 33 m illion inhabitants.In 1990,population registry data
indicated that8% ofits urban population and 41% ofits ruralpopulation w ere poor.Its .annualpercapita
G D P in 1993 w as U S $1.400.The currentm onthly m inim um w age is U S $140.
Colom bia has both rich racialdiversity,and a large diversity offlora and.fauna,due respectively to the
historicalcircum stances associated w ith colonisation,-settlem ent,and developm ent,arid extrem e
differences in clim ate w ithin the country.Its econom y is predom inantly agricultural.There are m any
interrelated problem s:land titling and ow nership;in-country m igration caused by violence;drug
trafficking;an ongoing guerrilla conflict;and,in the lastfive years,the rise ofparam ilitary groups.Itis in
this troubled contextthatthe processes ofdecentralisation,strengthening ofm unicipalautonom y and
developm entofpublic participation have been occurring.
116
9.1
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN C O LO M BIA
Colom bian cities are grow ing rapidly w ithoutany attem ptaturban planning.There is a generally high
levelofin-m igration from the countryside to the cities,m otivated by the search forw ork and the desire to
escape from violence.A pproxim ately 100 ruralinhabitants arrive in the capitalofBogota daily.The
grow th in the urban population,urbanisation,and the changes in cposum erhabits have caused an increase
in the volum e ofw aste in the cities.A s is the case in otherLatin A m erican countries,Colom bian
m unicipalities are responsible forw aste m anagem entand are perm itted to do so using theirm unicipal
w orkforces,private contractors,ora m ixture ofpublic and private service enterprises.H istorically,the
state has notbeen able to offeradequate w aste collection services,w hich has led to the privatisation of
w aste m anagem entservices.
W aste m anagem entservice differs from city to city,although certain patterns em erge based on the size of
the city:
o In cities w ith m ore than a m illion inhabitants,60% ofthe w aste is collected and the rem aining
40% is notcollected and is disposed ofinadequately.
o In the m edium -sized cities,80% ofthe w aste is collected,but60% ofthe collected w aste is
disposed ofinadequately.The City ofM anizales,w here a treatm entplantis operating atthe
presenttim e,represents an exception to this,and early results ofthis effortare currently being
evaluated.
o In the sm allcities,no adequate collection service exists.Itis estim ated that50% ofthe w aste is
notcollected and thatthe other50% is disposed ofinadequately25.
9.1.1
Legalcontextfor solid w aste m anagem ent
D ebates initiated by the studentm ovem entand various politicalforces led to drafting ofa new
Constitution in 1991.The docum entprom otes the autonom y and decentralisation ofthe politicalregions;
decentralizes adm inistrative functions;and assigns new responsibilities to the various governm ental
bodies.A notherim portantelem entis citizen participation,w hich is oriented tow ards m oving decisionm aking pow erdow n to the levelatw hich the data and inform ation are gathered.The O rganic Law gives
citizens the rightand responsibility to participate in the form ulation ofthe developm entplans;in public
decision m aking;and in the setting ofpublic service tariffs.
To ensure the possibility forcitizen participation in the delivery ofpublic services,Law 142 w as created.
Finalresponsibility forservices,togetherw ith the regulation offees,rem ains in the hands oflocal
governm ent,butm unicipalities are allow ed to contractm ixed orprivate enterprises26 forthe delivery of
the services.
U nderthis law ,the contracted enterprises have the follow ing obligations:(i)to assure thatthe service is
offered continuously and efficiently;(ii)to avoid m onopolistic orrestrictive practices;(iii)to facilitate
access to subsidised service forlow er-incom e groups;(iv)to inform the users aboutthe efficientuse ofthe
public services;and,(v)to fulfiltheirenvironm entalresponsibilities (A rticle 11,Law 142,1994).These
enterprises are subjectto control,inspection and supervision by the Inspectorate ofPublic Residential
Services.The Inspectorate is an independently incorporated technicalbody attached to theD epartm entof
25
D ata taken from the docum ent "Sectoral A nalysis of Solid W aste in Colom bia. Regional H ealth and Environm ent
Investm entPlan".Bogota:PA H O /W H O /Environm entalD epartm ent,A pril1995.
26
The officialpublic service enterprises are those in w hich 100% of the capitalcom es from the State;m ixed enterprises
are those in w hich 50% or m ore ofthe capitalcom es from the State;private enterprises are those in w hich atleasthalf of
the capitalcom es from private sources (article 14,Law 142,1994).
117
Econom ic D evelopm entand ithas adm inistrative and jurisdictionalautonom y.
9.1.2
In general,very little inform ation on solid w aste generation and com position exists,and w hatthere is,is
generally com piled in the m unicipaloffices responsible foroffering orcontracting forcollection services,
w hich results in disorganised and inadequate data.Bogota has the only m unicipalenterprise exclusively
devoted to w aste m anagem ent,and thus has generally betterinform ation available.In Table 23 and 24
available data on w aste generation and com position can be found.
Table 23.
SO LID W A STE G EN ER A TIO N IN C O LO M BIA
C ity
Bogotá
Barranquilla
M edellín
Bucaram anga
Cúcuta
Cali
M anizales
Per capita w aste
generation kg/pers/day
1.29
0.50
0.77
0.60
0.48
0.41
G eneration tonnes/day
4 056
1 577
1 159
732
238
333
180
Table 24.
A V ER A G E SO LID W A STE C O M PO SITIO N IN LA R G E,M ED IU M -SIZED A N D
SM A LL C ITIES IN C O LO M BIA (% )
W aste m aterials
O rganic m aterial
Cardboard/Paper
Plastics
G lass
M etals
Textiles
O ther
Large C ities (% )
60
12
7
6
3
2
10
M edium -sized C ities (% )
72
9
5
3
2
1
7
Sm allC ities (% )
76
8
4
3
2
1
7
Source:2nd N ationalC ongress on R ecycling,M anizales,1991.Q uoted from :G onzalez etal.,1993
9.2
W A STE C O LLEC TIO N PR E-C O O PER A TIV ES:TH E C U C U TA A N D LO S
PA TIO S C A SES
Seven m icro-enterprises and pre-cooperatives specialising in the collection ofsolid w aste operate quite
successfully in five Colom bian m unicipalities,serving approxim ately 217,000 inhabitants (see Table 25
form ore details).
The fourpre-cooperatives operating in San Jose de Cucuta and Los Patios w ere chosen forthe study
sam ple,using the follow ing criteria:(i)the significance ofthe city w here the enterprise operates;(ii)the
length oftim e the M SE/Coop has been operating;(in)the num berofw orkers in the M SE/Coop;(iv)the
levelofentrepreneurialdevelopm ent;(v)the technology in use;and (vi)the availability ofbasic
inform ation necessary forthe research.
118
Table 25.
SO LID W A STE C O LLEC TIO N M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES A N D PR EC O O PER A TIV ES
C ity
San José de Cúcuta
M icro-Enterprise
PRECO O SA C
PRECO O SA N O RS
PRECO O RIEN TE
N um ber ofw orkers
Population served
40
116 000
Los Patios
PRECO O PA S
15
50 000
Salazar
PRA D O S
7
4 000
Tibú
M IREM BA C
3
7 000
O caña
RECO M BA D
13
40 000
9.2.1
Solid W aste M anagem entin C ucuta and Los Patios
San Jose de Cucuta and Los Patios have respectively 428.785 and 55.000 inhabitants w ith a percapita
w aste generation rate ofrespectively 0,48 and 0,30 kg/person/day.A public service enterprise has been
created in each ofthese m unicipalities,charged w ith regulating and adm inistering the public w ater,
sanitation and w aste m anagem entservices.These m unicipalenterprises have chosen to contractprivate
enterprises to offerw aste m anagem entservices.
The EM CU CU TA Public Service Enterprise operates in the M unicipality ofCucuta,regulating and
adm inistering w aste m anagem entservices.Ithas contracts w ith eightprivate enterprises w hich offerstreet
sw eeping and city centre cleaning services.The enterprise also hires a private operatorto operate the
"G uaym arala" landfill.The City Sanitation D epartm entuses eightofits ow n com pactors and fourofits
ow n dum p trucks (tippers)to collectand transportthe w aste from the city centre.The w aste from the
peripheralareas ofthe city is collected and transported by three specialised pre-cooperatives:
PRECO O SA C,PRECO O SA N O RS and PRECO O RIEN TE undercontractto the EM CU CU TA Public
Service Enterprise.Itis estim ated that5% ofthe city lacks coverage forsolid w aste collection and
disposal.
The EM PA TIO S Public Service Enterprise operates in Los Patios.Itregulates w aste m anagem entand has
only tw o em ployees:a m anagerand a technicaldivision head.EM PA TIO S contracts the pre-cooperative
PRECO O PA S to offersoid w aste collection services.The m unicipalenterprise also operates a m anual
landfillw hich contracts fourw orkers forfinaldisposalofsolid w aste.
9.2.2
Factors Leading to the Form ation ofthe Pre-cooperatives
The pre-cooperatives w ere initiated by a localN G O ,CO RFA S,on the m odelofthe urban service m icroenterprises prom oted by IPES in Lim a,Peru They w ere form ed in 1990 w ithin the fram ew ork ofthe
Colom bian-G erm an Public H ealth Project(from Spanish:Proyecto Colom bo-Alem an Atencion Prim arm
de Salud)im plem ented by N orsalud,the G erm an TechnicalCooperation (G TZ),and CO RFA S,in
cooperation w ith the m unicipalenterprises and the D epartm entforthe A dm inistration ofCooperatives
(D A N CO O P;from Spanish:D epartam ento Adm inistrative de Cooperativas).
The w aste m anagem entpre-cooperatives w ere created to respond to the needs ofthe people in the
m arginal-urban zones ofthe m unicipalities ofLos Patios and Cucuta.The public participated actively in
the creation ofthe pre-cooperatives w hile CO RFA S facilitated theirform ation,providing training,and
119
assisting w ith the legalincorporation;the developm entofbylaw s;financing;and start-up In addition,
CO RFA S provided socio-entrepreneurialhelp and m aintained a revolving loan fund using financial
resources from G TZ.Conditions ofcreditincluded a 36-m onth term ofrepaym entand an annualinterest
rate of30% .
Tractorand TrailerU sed by a
W aste C ollection PreC ooperative in C úcuta.
9.2.3
Pre-cooperative Financing M odel
The enterprises in the study w ere eligible to be form ed as pre-cooperatives in accordance w ith the
Cooperative Law (Law 79,1988),because:(1)they had a sponsor(CO RFA S);(2)they w ere to be
incorporated as non-profitorganisations;and,(3)they lacked the econom ic,adm inistrative and
educationalcapacities needed to be organised as fullcooperatives.In addition,by being pre-cooperatives,
they had access to certain tax benefits,such as incom e and patrim ony tax exem ptions.A ccording to
D A N CO O P,these pre-cooperatives should prom ote to the status ofcooperatives w ithin a period offive
years.
The entity thatsponsors a pre-cooperative is responsible forfacilitating and ultim ately ensuring its
developm ent,by providing itw ith technical,adm inistrative and financialassistance,and by training its
m em bers.H ow ever,the sponsorm ustgradually decrease its participation in orderto develop the
autonom y and responsibility ofthe associates,and CO RFA S has com plied fully w ith this requirem ent.
The organisationalflow chartofa pre-cooperative appears in Figure 20.
120
Figure 20.
O R G A N ISA TIO N A L FLO W C H A R T O F A W A STE M A N A G EM EN T PR EC O O PER A TIV E
A llofthe pre-cooperatives are legally constituted and m ustbe registered w ith the SocialSecurity System
and the D epartm entofLabour.A pre-cooperative m usthave an auditorw ho is a certified public
accountantto keep its accounts.
Figure 21.
PR E-C O O PER A TIV E O PER A TIO N A L M O D EL
This person is very active in providing m anagem entand adm inistrative training and in supporting the precooperative's leaders,w hich explains w hy precooperatives have generally w ell-keptaccounts.The
m unicipalenterprises contractthe pre-cooperatives to operate in predeterm ined neighbourhoods.The
m unicipalenterprise m onitors the quality ofthe service provided,and pays the pre-cooperatives a m onthly
fee outofthe fees paid by the users,w ho pay itas partoftheirw aterbill.
121
9.3
SW O T A N A LY SIS O F TH E PR E-C O O PER A TIV ES IN TH E STU D Y
9.3.1
Strengths
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
The pre-cooperatives representa w aste m anagem entservice decentralisation strategy w ith the
follow ing benefits:
- transparency in localgovernm entalm anagem ent;
- participation ofprivate investm entin the area ofurban environm entalw aste m anagem ent;
- w aste collection service available ata low ercost,because the capitalinvestm entand
operations costs are low erthan those ofthe conventionalsystem ;and,
- a higherlevelofcom m unity participation in environm entalm anagem ent,in the sense thata
close and directrelationship exists betw een the com m unity and the pre-cooperatives.
The pre-cooperatives supplem entthe conventionalsystem and im prove solid w aste m anagem entin the
city.Forexam ple,in Cucuta the pre-cooperatives only operate in the peripheralareas ofthe city,
supplem enting ratherthan displacing m unicipalservices.
They provide a positive solution in poorurban areas w here the conventionalsystem can notoperate or
has difficulties because ofthe sm allvolum es ofsolid w aste generated orthe nearly totalinability of
the people to pay forconventionalservice.
The w aste m anagem entpre-cooperatives have tested and proved an environm entalm anagem ent
system w hich is capable ofgenerating em ploym entin the m arginal-urban areas and ofoffering
reliable low -costquality services through the use ofappropriate technology.
The pre-cooperatives are currently producing incom e and are attaining a levelofeconom ic stability
w hich perm its them to pay theirshort-term debts,acquire assets,and becom e financially independent.
The pre-cooperative board ofdirectors and associates-w orkers have leadership and m anagem ent
capacity in theirenterprises.In addition,the pre-cooperatives have com piled financialand accounting
inform ation w hich perm its them to m ake appropriate decisions in a tim ely m anner.
The m ajority ofw orkers in the pre-cooperatives identify w ith theirw ork and recognise their
advantages in relation to the generallabourm arket,in thatthey receive salaries above to the legal
m inim um w age as w ellas benefits and socialsecurity.
They m aintain good relationships w ith the m unicipalities.D espite changes in m unicipal
adm inistrations,the m ajority ofthe pre-cooperatives have been able to renew theirservice contracts.
9.3.2
o
o
o
o
W eaknesses
The institutionalvulnerability ofthe pre-cooperatives represents a w eakness,since they do nothave
any secondary supportstructures w hich can representthem and negotiate on theirbehalf.
They lack an integrated socially responsible entrepreneurialstrategy w hich w ould perm itthem to
operate m ore efficiently and position them selves m ore strongly in theirrespective com m unities.For
exam ple:
- they do notprovide any specialised training program m es fortheirleaders orw orkers;
- they do notpursue technologicalinnovations w hich w ould perm itthem to increase their
operationalcapacity and/orenhance the quality ofthe service;
- they do notprovide the w orkers w ith the protection ofoccupationalhealth program m es.For
exam ple,there are no regularly scheduled vaccination program m es.
Theircontractualrelationship w ith the m unicipalities lacks stability,due to the need to renew their
contracts every fourto six m onths.
The use ofm anualtechnology requires a lotofphysicalstrength,energy and effortfrom theirw orkers.
122
9.3.3
o
O pportunities
The currentpolitical,econom ic and legalcontextin the country is interacting w ith the preferences of
public authorities,show ing a tendency tow ards decentralising and privatising w aste m anagem ent
services.This favours the developm entofthe pre-cooperatives.
Currently,the pre-cooperatives are the only entities offering solid w aste and urban cleansing services
in those low incom e urban areas w here m edium and large capitalhas notinvested and does notappear
to be interested in investing.The users'extrem ely lim ited capacity to pay and the low volum e of
recyclable m aterialfound in the solid w aste only reinforces theiradvantage in these areas.
The pre-cooperatives increase public aw areness ofthe need forenvironm entaland public health,and
provide inform ation on changes in behaviourand attitudes thatprom ote these goals.
o
o
9.3.4
o
Threats
There is a grow ing threatofcom petition in the w aste m anagem entservice m arket,and the precooperatives lack the ability to com pete effectively,atleastforas long as theirw orkers lack
specialised training and they continue to w ork w ithoutm odern techniques ortechnology.
The pre-cooperatives sufferthe effects ofdistortions introduced in the m arketplace forw aste
m anagem entin particularand urban services in general,caused by the tendency ofm unicipal
authorities to m anipulate the m anagem entofthe pre-cooperatives forpoliticalpurposes.
o
9.4
TH E N A TIO N A L A SSO C IA TIO N O F R EC Y C LER S (A N R )27
9.4.1
Factors Leading to the Form ation ofthe A N R
The N ationalA ssociation ofRecyclers (A N R,from Spanish:Asociacion Nationalde Kecicladores)is a
nationalorganisation com prised of78 localcooperatives and pre-cooperatives grouped into seven regional
organisations w hich cover65% ofthe m ostdensely inhabited partofthe country.Figure 22 show s the
areas w here the pre-cooperatives and cooperatives associated w ith the A N R operate.The A N R w as
form alised in 1990 w ith the nom ination ofthe firstBoard ofD irectors.Itcam e aboutas a resultofthe
jointeffortofvarious N G O s,ofw hich the SocialFoundation is the m ostim portant,togetherw ith various
governm entbodies,in particularSEN A ,the N ationalService forCapacity Building (from Spanish:
Servicio Nationalde Aprendizaje)and D A N CO O P.The A N R has relied extensively on supportfrom the
SocialFoundation,and now the Board ofD irectors is negotiating w ith this N G O forthe w aste recyclers to
have m ore autonom y in financialm anagem entand decision-m aking.
In general,poverty and the w aste recyclers'search fora m ore dignified livelihood and im proved quality of
life fortheirfam ilies have provided the predom inantm otives forthe form ation ofthe cooperatives and
pre-cooperatives thatlaterjoined togetherto form the A N R.They soughtto form an um brella organisation
thatcould address theirdifficulties and increase theirchances ofsurvival.
The A N R has becom e a decision-m aking and politicalorgan,w hich acts as a labourunion protecting the
hum an rights ofthe w aste recyclers and prom oting the environm entalbenefits ofrecycling.Itrepresents
one ofthe m ostsuccessfulColom bian organising experiences,and one ofthe few cases w orldw ide w here
w aste recyclers have m anaged to organise them selves atnationallevel.Its leaders have becom e genuine
guild spokespersons and activists w ho,as they becom e qualified and assum e leadership positions,propose
27
In Colom bia,the term "recycling" is used to refer to "recovery".The m ajority of the cases cited are in fact m ore
appropriately classified as w aste collection ofrecyclables.
123
solutions and alternatives ata nationallevel.Forexam ple,one ofthe interesting proposals m ade by the
A N R leadership to the Legislative branch ofthe nationalgovernm enthas been a proposed regulation
w hich w ould oblige the State to contractforsolid w aste collection w ith the organised recyclers in the
areas w here they exist.This proposalis being studied.
Figure 22.A N R C O V ER A G E M A P
9.4.2
The Selection ofthe A N R C ooperatives in the Study
Tw o A N R-affiliated cooperatives,"Rescatar" and "Prosperar",w ere chosen forthe study,outofa totalof
78.Both are exam ples oflocalrecycling organisations.A ftertheirm anagem entand developm entw ork
had been recog-nised,they entered into partnerships w ith largerenterprises to contractforw aste collection
services,and in som e cases streetsw eeping,in theirrespective localities.This has been a big success,and
is reflected in the grow th ofselfconfidence and organisationalaccom plishm ents.
The enterprise,Ecology and Sanitation ECO A SEO S.A .-E.S.P.-w as also included in the study.Itis an
association w hich claim s as associates:tw o cooperatives,seven pre-cooperatives,five associations of
recyclers (including the A N R)and an associative m icro-enterprise.Itw as born outofthe decentralisation
process,and the freedom itallow ed the m unicipalities to contractcivilsociety organisations to perform
public services.Itis a resultofthe negotiating capacities ofthe A N R.
124
Table 26.
O rganisation
BEN EFITS R EC EIV ED FR O M TH E A N R EN TITIES IN TH E STU D Y
D irectbeneficiaries:
recyclers
78 (pre-)cooperatives,600
children and 400 parents
Indirectbeneficiaries:the Services for recyclers
cities
The capitalcities of22
Education
departm ents
H ealth
Stable salary
Socialsecurity
Rescatar
150 recyclers
10 localities in Bogotá
Education
H ealth
D ay-care centre
Stable salary
Socialsecurity
Prosperar
256 recyclers
The entire city of
M anizales
H ealth
Stable salary
Socialsecurity
ECO A SEO
85 w orkers,7 recycling
cooperatives belonging to
the A N R as shareholders
60% ofthe m unicipality of Education
Chiquinquira
H ealth
Stable salary
Socialsecurity
ANR
9.4.3
O rganisationalM odels Found in the A N R
The groups studied are organised in cooperatives orpre-cooperatives and associations.Figure 23 show s
the relationships established betw een the A N R cooperatives in Bogota and M anizales and the other
stakeholders.
The cooperatives are subjectto specific regulations.They begin as pre-cooperatives and m ustgraduate to
cooperative status w ithin a setperiod oftim e.In theirdevelopm enttrajectory,they are supervised by
D A N CO O P,and m em bers m usttake courses on cooperative organisation and m anagem ent.
The associations operate undera differentsetofrules.First,they are full,legally incorporated entities.
Secondly,unlike the cooperatives,they do notnecessarily have to prove thatthey are m otivated by social
responsibility oreconom ic solidarity.They are com prised ofentrepreneurs,m icroenterprises orbusinesses
w hich m ove specific am ounts ofm aterials and m oney.
125
Figure 23.
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E A N R C O O PER A TIV ES IN BO G O TA A N D
M A N IZA LES A N D O TH ER PA R TIC IPA N TS IN W A STE M A N A G EM EN T
9.5
TH E EN TITIES IN TH E STU D Y
9.5.1
The R escatar R ecyclers'C ooperative
Itis estim ated that12,000 fam ilies are involved in the w aste recycling activities in Bogota,m any ofw hich
have organised them selves into associations,cooperatives and com m unity enterprises.The Rescatar
Recyclers Cooperative,Ltd.represents one such cooperative forrecyclers,operating in the city ofSanta
Fe de Bogota.Itis recognized by D A N CO O P,is one ofthe seven m ostim portantgroups in the capitaland
is a m em berofthe A RB (Bogota A ssociation ofRecyclers)w hich is in turn a m em berofthe A N R.
Rescatarhas 150 recyclers,m en and w om en heads ofhousehold,w ho have spenttheirlives earning their
living from recovering w aste.The prim ary recyclable m aterials handled in Rescatarinclude cardboard,
paper,glass,plastic,etc.Rescatarhas notdeveloped w ithoutproblem s.Its m em bers had to struggle for
recognition ofthe w ork they w ere doing.Internaldifficulties and abandonm entby State entities w hich had
prom ised supportresulted in-an initialcollapse.The cooperative w as furtherplagued by financial
problem s,partly due to lack ofexternalsupportand partly due to a crisis in the prices ofrecyclable
m aterials.Beginning in 1990,financialsupportand advice from the SocialFoundation helped itto identify
its potentialand recognise its lim itations.O vertim e,w ith supportand encouragem entofthe Social
Foundation,the recyclers w ere slow ly able to reunite and to rebuild theirassociation.
126
Rescatar Cooperative
Associate and waste
pickers
A tthe m om entthe m ostim portantactivity ofRescataris the collection ofsource-separated recyclables
from offices,industries,hotels and othercom m ercialentities.Rescataris also involved in public
cleansing services and household w aste collection.Togetherw ith othercooperatives in the region,
Rescatarhas developed a pilotprojectto m arketits recyclables ata regionallevel.The cooperative ow ns
storage and retailspaces;has a num berofpre-processing operations (baling,packaging),and operates a
sm alltruck and a sm alldum p truck.The cooperative has m anaged to becom e a significantstakeholderin
w aste m anagem entin Bogota,and is now able to participate in tenders through the form ation ofa
consortium in w hich otherw aste m anagem ententerprises participate.
9.5.2
Prosperar:Pre-cooperative for R ecyclers
The recyclers pre-cooperative ProsperarLtd.operates in the city ofM anizales.Prosperarw as created as a
pre-cooperative group forthe collectors ofrecyclable m aterials in 1986,as an attem ptto stabilise the
precarious w ork conditions experienced by the recycling com m unity there.A tthattim e the recyclers,w ho
had been collecting atthe source,picking m aterials in the streets and in the dum ps form ore than fifty
years w ere m arginalised,unrecognised and illegal.
In the beginning,Prosperarconsisted of13% ofthe recyclers in the city.A fterseveralfailures,it
recovered and w as able to secure betterm aterials prices forits associates,once the largerbuyers realised
thatthey had no alternative to cooperating w ith it.Itreceived supportfrom the SocialFoundation and
othergovernm entand industrialentities.M anizales isa clean city w hen com pared to otherColom bian
cities,and this contributed to the socialacceptance and recognition ofthe w ork ofthe recyclers.In
addition,the group is w orking in the field ofenvironm entaleducation forsource separation,w hich further
raises the status ofthe recyclers beyond w hatthey w ould experience in the otherColom bian cities.
M anizales generates 180 tonnes w aste perday,ofw hich 25% is recyclable.80% ofthe recyclable m aterial
is recovered:10% ofthis is recovered by Prosperarm em bers,w hich is equivalentto 108 tonnes per
m onth.There are three othergroups in M anizales,apartfrom Prosperar,w hich dealin recovered m aterial.
The num berofpeople involved in recycling in M anizales fluctuatesin response to the dem and form anual
labourduring the coffee harvest.Besides w aste recycling,the cooperative is engaged in public cleansing
127
activities,such as cleaning the airportand collecting household w aste.Prosperarhas signed a contract
w ith "Ciudad V erde",a public-private consortium forthe delivery ofpublic services,to provide the
consortium w ith labourforthe execution ofthe services.
9.5.3
The Ecologicaland Sanitation Society (EC O A SEO E.S.P.)
ECO A SEO is a corporation w hich operates w ith a high profile in the city ofChiquinquira,a sm all
m unicipality.Itw as born as a resultofthe descentralisation process and the negotiating capacities ofthe
A N R.Itrepresents an alternative organisationalstructure,and operates w ith seven participating entities
w hich actas shareholders.ECO A SEO originated as an initiative ofa group ofm em bers ofthe various
recycling organisations,as a m eans to institutionalise theirm utualsupportactivities and to create new
w ork alternatives in poorcom m unities.
The enterprise's activities include the sw eeping ofstreets,highw ays,avenues and parks,as w ellas
household w aste collection,collection ofsource-separated m aterials forrecovery and public
environm entaleducation.
ECO A SEO has 85 em ployees,including the ones thatw ork in the cities ofLa V irginia and La Plata.The
capitalassets ofthe enterprise belong to its associated entities and reach a value ofU S $163,000,
including shared capitalofU S $134,000.In 1996,ECO A SEO had an annualgross profitofU S $8,200.
This signifies a m odest5% capitalrecovery in constantdollars.
9.6
M O D IFIED SW O T A N A LY SIS O F TH E A N R EN TITIES IN TH E STU D Y
Table 27 presents an abbreviated SW O T analysis ofthe A N R entities studied,w hich focuses only on their
strengths and w eaknesses.
9.7
TH E R EC U PER A R C O O PER A TIV E
N otallcooperatives are m em bers ofthe A N R,and the Recuperarcooperative in M edellin is an exam ple
ofone w hich is not.W hile the A N R initially prim arily focused on recognition ofthe w aste recyclers,
Recuperarhas,from its form ation,been oriented tow ards the generation ofalternative em ploym ent
opportunities forits associated recyclers.
9.7.1
Solid W aste M anagem entin M edellin
Solid w aste m anagem entis one ofthe highestpriority in M edellin.The m unicipalenterprise D iversified
Enterprises ofM edellin (from Spanish:Em presas Varies de M edellin)w as created m ore than 30 years
ago,to m anage a num berofutility functions,including w aste m anagem ent.Itcollects the w aste of
128
Table 27
STR EN G TH S A N D W EA K N ESSES O F TH E A N R EN TITIES
O rganisation
N ationalA ssociation of
Recyclers (A N R)
Strengths
Represents its entitities in negotiations w ith the
public sector
Firstorganisation w ith entity in the sector
Recognised as guild spokesm an
H igh negotiating capacity
W eaknesses
Internaldivisions
Rescatar
Itm aintains itselfas a consortium w ith its ow n
capital
Ithas a renew able 5-yearcontract.
Itsearches fornew w ays to keep itselfin the
m arket
The people,in the city look upon itfavourably.
Itis recognised in the city ofM anizales as an
enterprise w hich m erits the supportofthe
m ayor's office.
Itform s partofthe negotiations in the Ciudad
V erde consortium ,w hich w illcarry outthe first
integrated solid w aste m anagem entprogram m e
in the country.
Itprovides environm entaleducation
program m es.
Itneeds m ore financialsupportso as
to becom e less vulnerable to the
recycling interm ediaries and to be
able to interactw ith the large
enterprises in the capitalm arket
Prosperar
ECO A SEO
Itneeds to find a betterm arketforits
m aterialsince there is a lotof
com petition in this coffee zone.
Itoriginated as a resultofA N R negotiations,in Itexists in a sm allm unicipality and
w hich itw on a bid againstotherenterprises,
its success m ightnotbe replicable in
including internationalcom panies hoping to
a largercity
enterthe Colom bian m arket.This perm itted the
A N R to thing aboutotherproposals and also
abouta regulatory proposalw hich w ould
require m unicipalities to give procurem ent
preferences to the groups
360.822 residentialusers and 31.697 industrialand com m ercialusers,achieving 97% coverage.In
addition itsw eeps the streets and m anages the "Curva de Rodas" landfill,w hich accepts 1.400 m etric
tonnes ofw aste daily from tw elve localities.M edellin is characterised by its prom otion ofrecycling and
w aste separation atthe source.This is the responsibility ofthe m unicipalenterprise and a group of
enterprises and socialservice organisations,the m ostim portantofw hich is Recuperar,w hich recovers 450
m etric tonnes m onthly through seperation atthe source and w aste collection activities.
9.7.2
The Form ation ofthe R ecuperar C ooperative
The cooperative Recuperaris the only cooperative specialising in w aste m anagem entthatoperates in the
city ofM edellin.Itw as form ed in 1983 as a resultofthe closing ofthe M oravia dum p by the m unicipality.
320 inform al.w aste pickers w orked in this dum p.The initialproposalto create a cooperative w as of
interestto only tw enty-three w aste pickers,butitalso attracted the interestofM edellin D iversified
Enterprises (the "m unicipalenterprise)and a localN G O called A ntioquia M icro-enterprises.A cautious
estim ate atthe tim e w as thatthe cooperative w ould be able to em ploy atm ost80 w aste pickers.In fact,it
took only seven m onths to reach this level,and atthe end oftw o years the cooperative w as generating
em ploym entforallofthe 320 originalw aste pickers.Later,itw as eligible to constitute itselfas a
cooperative in accordance w ith the Cooperative Law ,because ithad tw o sponsors,M edillin D iversified
Enterprises and A ntioquia M icro-enterprises,and ithad the econom ic,adm inistrative and educational
capacity to organise itselfas a cooperative.In addition,itw as eligible forcertain tax benefits and
129
exem ptions.The sponsors are required to facilitate and guarantee the developm entofthe cooperatives by
providing them w ith technical,adm inistrative and financialassistance,and by training theirm em bers.
A ntioquia M icro-enterprises took charge ofthe business training and M edellin D iversified Enterprises
provided financialbacking am ounting to U S $25,000 during the course ofeightyears.By the end of1995,
the cooperative had broughttogether917 w orkers,601 w om en and 316 m en.M ostofits grow th took
place from 1995 onw ards.D uring its tw elve years ofexistence the cooperative has devoted itselfm ainly to
separation atthe source and recovery.H ow ever,afterits form ation italso began to offerenvironm ental
services and m anuallabour,w hich have ended up producing m ore jobs and higherincom e forthe
cooperative in the lastfew years.Activities ofRecupear Recuperar's activities can be classified into tw o
generalareas:solid w aste m anagem entservices and otherincom e-generating activities.
9.7.3
Solid W aste M anagem entServices
Collecting and selling recyclables represents one ofthe m ostim portantactivities ofthe cooperative.70%
ofthe m aterialgathered by the cooperative is recovered by its associates through the Source Separation
Program m e,w hich serves industries,businesses,and public and private institutions.The recovered
m aterials are boughtby Recuperarand taken to its w arehouse.Interm ediate products are also collected
and processed orbaled forsale to industry.In 1995,w hich w as an excellentyearforthe cooperatives,
alm ost5,000 tonnes ofrecyclables,the largestpartbeing packaging m aterials,w ere sold.Recuperarhas
contracts w ith various enterprises and hotels to collecttheirw astes.The cooperative has also a contract
w ith the m unicipality ofG uarne forstreetsw eeping and cleaning,collection,recovery,and disposalof
urban w astes.W aste generation in G uarne is around 1800 tonnes peryear,ofw hich 9.4% is recovered by
Recuperar28.Recuperar,along w ith otherM edellin institutions,has been prom oting the Com m unity
Recycling Contestsince 1989.The purpose ofthe contestis to raise aw areness ofw aste m anagem ent
issues,educate the public,and prom ote recycling.Com m unity-based organisations are encouraged to
collectthe largestpossible volum e ofrecyclable m aterials forthe cooperative to buy and take to its
prem ises forprocessing.
9.7.4
C olom bia O ther Incom e-Producing A ctivities
The cooperative is responsible forcleaning the transportation term inal,the facilities belonging to the
public enterprises located in the m etropolitan area ofM edellin and O riente Cercano,and allofthe stations
and facilities ofthe underground railsystem .A num berofbusinesses contractRecuperarto m anage their
restroom s orbathroom s.The cooperative sends personnelto clean and m aintain them .Since 1992,the
cooperative has offered portable bathroom services in public areas and in areas w here m usicalortheatrical
perform ances are being held.A tpresent,the cooperative ow ns fourportable bathroom units.A gardening
service w as started in 1984,and up untilthe presenthas been lim ited to landscaping and m aintaining the
green areas and gardens surrounding the surface (bus)transportation term inal.
9.7.5
The R elationship ofthe C ooperative w ith O ther Participants
The cooperative operates through contracts w ith public and private entities,w ich are generally renew able
one-yearcontracts.The relationship betw een the cooperative and the com m unities in w hich itoperates is
generally expressed through its educationalcam paigns advocating a "no w aste" culture and prom oting
com m unity participation in recycling contests.Likew ise,Recuperarhas established firm ties w ith private
and m unicipalentities w hich perm ititto offerits business services and carry outrecycling contests.Italso
participates actively in recycling conferences and sem inars in Colom bia.The relationship ofRecuperar
28
A tthe tim e this book w as published,Recuperarw as no longeroffering its services to the m unicipality ofG uarne.
130
w ith the m unicipalauthorities takes the form ofa variety ofservices w hich the cooperative has been able
to offer,m ade possible by the supportofthe m unicipality.In spite ofm any positive experiences to date,
this relationship is farfrom stable,and the contracts m ustbe frequently renew ed.The factthatthe
m unicipalities tend to delay paym ents to the cooperative by one to fourm onths introduces tension into the
relationship.The threatofa traditionalprivatisation ofthe M edellin m unicipalw aste m anagem ent
enterprise has the potentialto w eaken the relationships w hich the cooperative has builtw ith the m unicipal
authorities.Recuperaris the only cooperative involved in w aste m anagem entin M edellin.N onetheless,it
m aintains active relationships w ith othercooperative enterprises,such as banks and insurance com panies,
as w ellas w ith guild cooperative organisations.Figure 24 show s the relationships betw een Recuperarand
the otherparticipants.
9.8
A BBR EV IA TED SW O T A N A LY SIS O F R EC U PER A R
A lthough itdoes notrepresenta fullSW O T analysis,there follow s a discussion ofthe strengths,
w eaknesses,opportunities and threats w hich characterise Recuperar.
Figure 24
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E C O O PER A TIV E R EC U PER A R A N D TH E
The founding ofRecuperarw as possible because the w aste pickers'w ere able to m obilise localresources.
Itw as form ed to generate em ploym entforthe M oravia w aste pickers through source separation and
m aterials recovery program m es.In the lastfew years,the balance ofactivities and revenues has shifted to
the generation ofem ploym entto overcom e poverty.Strengths and W eaknesses In term s ofstrengths,the
cooperative currently is a profitable entity generating sufficientincom e to m eetits shortterm debts and to
becom e financially independent.The cooperative's w orkers receive salaries above the legalm inim um
w age,benefits,and socialsecurity.The boards ofdirectors and associate-w orkers show considerable
leadership and m anagem entcapacity,butlack the depth thata second-levelorganisation could provide in
reinforcing its position in the urban w aste m anagem entm arket.O pportunities and Threats In term s of
131
opportunities,the cooperative is a valid alternative forim proving localsolid w aste m anagem ent,
especially m aterials recovery,and has been w orking to develop an integrated w aste m anagem entsystem .
A tthe presenttim e itis ham pered by a lack ofincentives to search foralternative options form arket
access.The cooperative's relationships w ith the m unicipalities are good,buttend to be com plicated by the
factthatthe contracts m ustbe renegotiated each yearand because the m unicipalities,in general,delay in
paying itforits services.The m ain threatto the cooperative is the grow ing com petition in the services
C olom bia m arket,w hich dem ands greaterspecialisation from its w orkers,the m odernisation ofits w ork
process and capitalequipm ent,and an evergreaterincrease in value-added.
132
C H A PTER 10 PER U
Figure 25 PER U :C A SES IN V ESTIG A TED
The D em ocratic Republic ofPeru is located on the m id-w estern coastofSouth A m erica (see Figure 25).It
has an area of1.300.000 square kilom etres.
A ccording to the 1993 N ationalPopulation Census,Peru has a population of23.946.779.A tthe tim e ofthe
study,the legalm onthly m inim um w age w as aboutU S $60.H ow ever,the basic fam ily food basket29 costs
29
The basic fam ily food basket referred to is that w hich satisfies the nutritional requirem ents recom m ended by the
N ational N utrition Institute for a fam ily of six. This inform ation w as accurate for M arch 1996 and w as calculated by
Cuanto Institute Ltd.
133
the equivalentofU S $261,75 m onthly.
The largestPeruvian cities are located on the coast,and are the productofim m igration from the rural
areas,a process w hich w as very intense during the 1950s.A ccording to the W orld Bank 71% ofthe
Peruvian population w as urban and 42% ofthis urban population lived in the capitalin 1992.In general,
the cities have grow n ata surprising rate:29% ofthe totalpopulation,6.932.000 people,live in the capital
city,Lim a.
Lim a is divided into 43 districts30.Its population is heterogeneous and consists ofa variety ofsocioeconom ic levels.A pproxim ately 49% ofthe people live atorbelow the poverty level31 and 10% ofthese
live in destitution.The m ajority ofthe population lives in peripheralcom m unities,highly populated
settlem ents on the sides ofthe foothills and desertareas nearthe city.These areas are characterised by
steep inclines and irregulartopography,and a large num berofthe streets,roads and passages are close to
im passable forregularvehicles.
10.1
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN PER U
Solid w aste m anagem entin Peru is both inadequate and inefficient.Itis one ofthe m osturgentproblem s
facing the public,especially in the low -incom e areas.O nly the high-incom e districts in Lim a m anage their
w aste m anagem entservices w ith a certain degree oftechnicalcom petence.In the restofthe city,these
services are eithernotoffered orare offered in such a w ay as to be alm ostw orthless.This situation is
sim ilarin the otherlarge cities and in the sm allertow ns,w here m unicipalgovernm ents do notofferany
w aste services atall.
N o inform ation on the com position and precise quantity ofw aste generated in Peru has been com piled by
any institution,state agency orm unicipality.O nly in the case ofLim a is data published by the N ational
Institute ofStatistics and D ata (IN EI).
The daily w aste generation per capita,in Lim a is approxim ately 0,5 kg/person/day32;and a totalof3.535
m etric tonnes ofsolid w aste is produced daily.O fthis,60,3% is collected butonly 31,1% is disposed of
according to m odern standards,m eaning thateach day 68,9% ofthe w aste is allow ed to accum ulate in
the streets,is throw n into the nearby rivers,oris disposed ofin inform aldum ps located in the low -incom e
districts33.The organic w aste is recovered from these places and sold to chancherias (inform alpig
farm ers).The inorganic m aterials in the w aste stream w hich are recyclable and have com m odity value are
sold to interm ediaries w ho pre-process them forsale to industry.In accordance w ith the M unicipal
O rganic Law (D L 23853),Peruvian cities are responsible forw aste m anagem ent,and the collection and
finaldisposalofsolid w aste is theirexclusive responsibility.This is true forboth the regulatory and
operationalaspects ofw aste m anagem ent,butdoes notexclude the possibility ofthe actualw ork being
perform ed by third parties.
30
Lim a Cercado is included as a district.
InternationalLabour O ffice G eneva estim ated thatin 1990,49% of the urban population in Peru lived in poverty.This
w as a significant increase over 1980 w hen it w as estim ated that 31% of the population w as poor. Critical poverty is
understood as the state in w hich the totalspending percapita,is less than thatrequired forthe basic basketw hich takes into
consideration nutritional and non-nutritional needs. The poorest am ong the critically poor are said to live in extrem e
poverty,also called destitution.
32
The data concerning the city of Lim a m entioned in the follow ing have been taken from G arbage in Lim a:Problem and
Solutions (from Spanish:Basura en Lim a:Problem ay soluciones),Lim a:IPES,1995.
33
Inform ation developed by IPES from the 1993 N ationalCensus data,the Lim a M unicipalSanitation Services Enterprise
(ESM LL) (from Spanish: Em presa de Servicios M unicipales de Lim pieza, de Lim a.) and 18 studies m ade by IPES in
differentdistricts in Lim a in the lastfive years.
31
134
The m unicipalities have specialised departm ents w hich are responsible forurban services w ithin their
areas ofjurisdiction.These Public Sanitation D epartm ents generally answ erto the D irectorate of
Com m unity Services orthe D irectorate ofTechnicalServices.The m ajority ofthe m unicipalities operate
w aste m anagem entservices directly using theirow n equipm ent,orin som e cases renting collection units.
Som e m unicipalities have transferred w aste m anagem entoperations to specialised entities located outside
theirbasic structure.This is especially true in Lim a.D ecentralisation ofurban cleansing services,w hen it
occurs,is found in tw o alternative m odels:(i)delegation to m unicipalw aste m anagem ententerprises;or
(ii)privatisation ofw aste services.
The study identified m edium -sized,sm alland m icro-enterprises w hich are operating orhave been
authorised to operate by the districtm unicipalities in the cities.A num berof"inform alw orkers" — truck
ow ners,inform altricycle operators and streetw aste pickers — are involved in the collection of
recoverable m aterials w ith econom ic value.These actindividually and w ithoutauthorisation from the
m unicipalities.
10.2
M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN V O LV ED IN SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T
The solid w aste m anagem entm icro-enterprises w ere created in Peru betw een 1989 and 1995.The study
identified a totalof163 m icro-enterprises34 w hich had been legally constituted during this period by
various N CO S and com m unity organisations.The m ajority ofthese m icro-enterprises dealw ith solid
w aste collection,although certain others w ere involved in otheractivities having to do w ith environm ental
m anagem ent,such as the production ofcom post,the m aintenance ofparks and gardens,and the like.
Currently,there are still91 solid w aste m anagem entm icro-enterprises operating,w hich are estim ated to
serve about800.000 people35.They disappeared because ofthe bad relationship w ith the m unicipality;
som e continued on an inform albasis (w ithoutcontracts)w orking directly w ith the population.The
activities carried outby these enterprises are show n in Table 28.
Table 28 M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN V O LV ED IN SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN PER U
A ctivity
Collection
Park and garden m ainentance
Stree sw eeping and cleaning
G eneralservices
Sorting and recycling
M aintenance ofpublic bathroom s
M anualfinaldisposal
Com posting
Total
N o.ofenterprises
46
14
12
10
3
2
2
1
1
91
%
50.60
15.40
13.20
11.00
3.30
2.20
2.20
1.10
1.10
100
Sources:Evaluation reportofthe PRO ESA -IPES Project,1994.Interview s w ith N G O boards ofdirectors and com m unity
organisations.A totalof325 m ale and fem ale w orkers have been identified in the collection m icro-enterprises alone.
34
The total num ber of m icro-enterprises corresponds to the inform ation given by the N CO S involved in the creation of
m icro-enterprises in the country.
35
The num ber of m icro-enterprises w hich appear in Table 28 corresponds to the total num ber of m icro-enterprises
identified in the inventory prepared forthe investigation in the country.
135
10.3
TH E SELEC TIO N O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN TH E STU D Y
The totalnum berofexisting solid w aste m anagem entM SE/Coops inventoried atthe beginning ofthe
investigation w ere considered w hen selecting the enterprises forthe study.The m icro-enterprises involved
in the collection ofsolid w aste,the cleaning and sw eeping ofpublic streets and the recovery and sorting of
m aterials w ere the subjectofspecialfocus.
The sam ple selection also considered the follow ing criteria:availability ofinform ation on the relationship
ofthe enterprises to com m unity m em bers and m unicipalities;the type ofactivities carried out;
geographicallocation;length oftim e in existence;the intervention ofcom m unity organisations in the
creation and m anagem entofthe enterprises;and the extentto w hich each ofthem appears to representthe
restoftheiractivity sector.M icro-enterprises sponsored by differing Peruvian N CO S w ere included in
orderto evaluate the differententrepreneurialm odels thathave been developed in Peru.
Based on these criteria,19 m icro-enterprises w ere chosen forthe study.They represent21% ofthe total
num berofenterprises identified in the entire country.The principalactivity of15 ofthese m icroenterprises is the collection ofsolid w aste,although the w ay in w hich the service is offered to the public
differs am ong them .O nly one is devoted to the sw eeping and cleaning ofpublic streets,butitshares its
principalcharacteristics w ith the otherenterprises w hich are involved in this activity.Tw o are m icroenterprises involved in the recovery and sorting ofrecyclable m aterials,one focusing on recovery of
household w aste and the otherw ith recovery ofonly one single specific m aterial.O ne enterprise m anages
a landfill.The lastenterprise is the only m icro-enterprise ofits type identified in the inventory.The m icroenterprisesin the study are listed in Table 29.
10.4
TH E FO R M A TIO N O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES
In 1989,the w aste m anagem entservices offered by Peruvian m unicipalities lefta greatdealto be desired,
a situation w hich has notchanged significantly untilnow .The m unicipalgovernm ents w ere gradually
including the low erincom e areas in urban w aste m anagem entservices,butthey had lim ited access to
collection vehicles w hich w ere appropriate forthe terrain and dem ographic conditions.M oreoverthe
available dum p trucks,com pactors and highsided trucks had been transferred from otheruses ordonated;
and m ostw ere m ore than 15 years old.The effectw as thatthe m unicipality w as barely able to collect50%
ofthe solid w aste produced in these areas,and the service w as neitherregularnorsatisfactory.Itw as
com m on to find large heaps ofhousehold w aste dum ped in streets,vacantlots,and deserted areas,
stim ulating the spread ofinfection and creating a public health risk.
The firstknow n solid w aste m anagem ententerprises in Peru w ere initiated in m id 1989 to address this
situation in the districtofV illa ElSalvador.The com m unity leaders ofthis districtasked the supportof
an N G O ,IPES,in identifying solutions to this problem .IPES developed the idea ofoffering the
collection service in these areas using low -costnon-conventionaltechnology and inviting the participation
ofthe com m unity m em bers them selves.IPES and the com m unity leaders coordinated the start-up ofthe
m icroenterprises w ith the districtm unicipality.A pilotprojectestablished the feasibility ofim plem enting
a non-conventionalw aste m anagem entsystem w hich w as com plem entary to the conventionalm unicipal
collection system .
The com m unity m em bers took an active role in recruiting and selecting the participants,w hich added
to the com m unity m otivation to supportthe m icro-enterprises and theirw orkers.From the start,
com m unity leaders supervised the service,m onitoring quality,and establishing close com m unication links
136
w ith the leaders ofthe m icro-enterprises thatw ould serve as a channelforfeedback and com plaints.
A s reports aboutthis projectbegan to circulate,residents ofotherareas,as w ellas the authorities in
severaladditionalm unicipalities,began to requestthatIPES setup m icro-enterprises in theirdistricts.In
this w ay,the m icroenterprise experience w as replicated in otherparts ofthe city ofLim a and in other
Peruvian cities.
U nderthe originalm odel,the m icro-enterprise offered the service and the m unicipality paid a service fee,
supervised the quality ofthe w ork,and controlled the operations.H ow ever,as tim e w enton,the
m unicipalities show ed a consistenttendency to delay theirpaym ents due to tax collection delinquency
and otherfiscaldifficulties.
Table 29
M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN C LU D E IN TH E STU D Y 36
D epartm ent/locality
M icro-enterprise nam e
A ctivity
D epartm ent:Piura
Province:Piura
D istrict:
- Catacaos
Servicios de Lim pieza Catacaos SRL
Prim ary collection
Province:Sechura
D istricts:
- V ice
- Sechura
U nidad de Servicios de Lim pieze V ice
Servisios de Lim pieza Sechura SRL
Prim ary collection
Prim ary collection
D ept:Cajam arca
Province:Cajam arca
City:Cajam arca
Lim pieza D om éstica V ecinalS.A .
D epartm ent:M oquegua
Province:Ilo
City:Ilo
Lipiecito SRL
Bib-Bib SRL
U nidos porelProgreso SRL
M anualLandfill
D epartm ent:Lim a
Province:Lim a
D istricts:
- V illa ElSalvador
ESA V ISA SRL
N uevo Progreso SRL
N uevo A m anecerSRL
V irgen de ChapiSRL
Com ercialM arleni
A m igos U nidos SRL
Servicios La U nión SRL
O las de A ncón SRL
A SEM U SA S.A .
Las D alias SRL
Em presa Com unalde Lim pieza de A ño
N uevo S.A .
Textile recovery and sorting
Streetsw eeping
Ernesto Q uispe
Recovery ofvarious types ofm aterials
- V ila M ará delTriunfo
-
A ncón
V entanilla
M iraflores
Com as
Prov.:H uarochiri
Collection
In othercases,in the absence ofm unicipalinterestin offering the w aste m anagem entservice,the
36
A tthe tim e this book w as published,five ofthe m icro-enterprises investigated w ere no longeroperating (those included
in the districts of V illa M aria del Triunfo and Ilo) because the m unicipalities w here they had previously offered their
services had decided notto renew theircontracts.The principalreason forthis w as thatthe m unicipalities in the m eantim e
acquired com pactortrucks (basically from donations),and begun offering theirow n services.
137
com m unity initiated a contractdirectly w ith the m icro-enterprises,usually because the residents had
learned aboutm icro-enterprise services in otherareas.In this m odel,itw as the clients thatcontracted,
supervised and benefited from the labourofthe m icro-enterprises.O n a sm allerscale,otherN CO S also
developed sim ilarm icro-enterprise projects in severaldistricts and cities.Som e exam ples include:Rutas
in Cajam arca;Labour-Ilo in Ilo;A lternativa in A ncon;ID ERN (Institute forthe RegionalD evelopm entof
the N orth)in Piura;and,O A CA (O ffice ofA dvice and Environm entalConsultation)in Com as.
10.5
PER U V IA N M SE/C O O P M O D ELS
Certain ofthe solid w aste m anagem entm icro-enterprises w hich operate in the low erincom e districts of
Lim a w ere created as a resultofagreem ents concluded betw een the m unicipality and socialorganisations,
and im plem ented w ith the advice ofN CO S.In otherareas,the com m unity leaders developed theirow n
initiatives,asking the N G O forits supportin organising a m icro-enterprise in theirneighbourhood.
Som etim es the com m unity organisations,represented by theirleaders,have participated in the form ation
process ofm icro-enterprises by offering the unem ployed m em bers ofthe com m unity the opportunity to
form orw ork in an urban service m icro enterprise.
In this m odel,the N G O usually provides a prelim inary training to the job applicants,afterw hich (based on
an evaluation by the N G O developm entteam in w hich the localleaders ora m unicipaladm inistratorcan
participate),the bestcandidates (ofthose m eeting the basic requirem ents)are selected to form partofthe
enterprise.The N G O also assists the enterprises in gaining access to creditfrom internationalcooperation
funds;in a few cases they becom e involved in negotiating w ith private enterprises to co-sign forloans for
the form ation ofthe enterprises.This enables the enterprise to equip itselfand startoperations.
In addition to offering the service,tw o ofthe enterprises in the study initiated w aste aw areness cam paigns
on a fairly frequentbasis,and actively participated in the environm entaleducation oftheircom m unities
through participation in the w orkshops organised by an N G O .
Figure 26 show s how the m unicipalities,based on agreem ents w ith the socialorganisations,(a)form ally
contractthe m icro-enterprises to offerthe services;(b)assure thatthe m icro-enterprises receive a m onthly
paym ent;(c)supervise the service offered and m onitorits quality;and (d)facilitate the reliable operation
ofthe m icro-enterprise.H ere,itis the m unicipality w hich contracts the service and pays the enterprise,
w hile the clients paym entforthe service is included in theirm unicipaltaxes.
Certain ofthe collection m icro-enterprises in the departm entofPiura are organised according to a second
m odel.There,the m unicipality passed an ordinance em pow ering the m icro-enterprise to collectthe public
cleansing taxes on behalfofthe m unicipality (see Figure 27).
The m unicipality contracts the enterprise to offercollection service in the locality in exchange fora
m onthly paym entw hich covers costs ofoffering the service,specifically,w ages and equipm ent
m aintenance costs.The streetsw eeping m icro-enterprises are contracted directly by the m unicipality w ith
com m unity participation.
138
Figure 26
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E C O LLEC TIO N M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES
A N D TH E O TH ER PA R TIC IPA N TS
Figure 27
139
In othercases,the collection m icro-enterprises offerthe service to the clients and charge them directly for
it.U nderthis arrangem ent,the collection m icro-enterprises operate w ithouta form alcontract,and w ithout
form alsupervision from the m unicipality.Instead,they have a "de facto" contractin w hich the parties
tacitly agree to theirobligations.
U nderthis m odel,the m unicipality gives the collection m icro-enterprises a w ritten authorisation to offer
the service in a specific area,and an N G O acts as a consultantto the m icro-enterprise and the com m unity.
The directors ofthe enterprises m ake contactw ith the com m unity representatives in orderto establish
"verbalcontracts" and be able to rely on the supportofthe com m unity leaders (see Figure 28).Forits part,
the m icro-enterprise com m its to offerregularand efficientservice,w hile the users fortheirpart,agree to
pay the fee setby the enterprise.The com m unity leaders,som etim es togetherw ith representatives from
the m unicipalgovernm ent,participate in the determ ination ofthis fee.A variation on this m odelinvolves
the leaders ofthe com m unity organisations directly contracting the collection m icro-enterprises w ithout
the intervention oracknow ledgem entofthe m unicipality.
Figure 28
The recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises,in contrast,establish m arketrelationships w ith theirclients for
purchase and sale oftheirproducts.Theirprices are determ ined by the supply and dem and in the context
ofa w orld m arketforsom e ofthese com m odities (see Figure 29).The m unicipality does notactively
participate in this m odel,butits generalw atchdog responsibilities nevertheless require continuous
regulation and controlofthe service,especially in regards to the process ofcollection.
140
Figure 29
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E R EC O V ER Y A N D SO R TIN G M IC R O EN TER PR ISES A N D TH E O TH ER STA K EH O LD ER S
10.6
M IC R O -EN TER PR ISE A C TIV ITIES
M icro-Enterprise W orkers C ollecting
W aste in Villa ElSalvador.
10.6.1 C ollection
The m icro-enterprises,m ostofw hich have been in operation foran average offouryears,operate in the
141
cities ofIlo,Cajam arca and parts ofPiura,and in severalofthe low erincom e neighbourhoods ofdistricts
ofthe city ofLim a,w here the m unicipalities eitherdo notofferthe service orofferinadequate service.
They collect2.596,4 m etric tonnes ofw aste m onthly.
Each m icro-enterprise w orks in the area assigned to itby the m unicipality,in coordination w ith the
com m unity.They collectusing one cubic m etre cargo tricycles w hich have been specially m odified for
access to the irregularterrain ofthe low erincom e areas.Each tricycle is operated by a pairofw orkers
w ho collectthe w aste on a daily basis,w ith extensive use ofm anuallabour.This w aste is packed into bags
orsacks w hich are deposited atpre-determ ined transferpoints;these are latercollected by trucks or
tractors pulling trailers,and taken to the landfillorm unicipaldum p forfinaldisposal.
Since the service is highly personalised,the w orkers establish a personalrelationship w ith the collection
clients w hich facilitates com m unication regarding the quality ofthe service,and allow s forrapid and
am icable solutions to problem s and difficulties thatm ay arise.
The average m onthly costofthe service is U S $0,88 perhouse lot.This is 25% less than the low estw aste
m anagem enttariffsetby any Peruvian m unicipality taking into accountthatthe tariffs are below the real
costs.The fees setby each m icro-enterprise are the sam e forallthe users,and are negotiated w ith the
m unicipalauthorities and the users.
The conclusion thatcan be draw n from the econom ic and financialanalysis is thatthe collection m icroenterprises benefitthe m unicipalities and the users by sacrificing theirow n econom ic health.The
enterprises do notcovertheirtotalrealcosts,and very few ofthem earn a profit.They do notenjoy
additionalincom e from the sale ofm aterials orothersupplem entary activities.In general,the incom e
earned bears little relation to the costs incurred.In cases w here the m unicipality sets the fee,ittries to
keep itas low as possible.In the cases w here the com m unity is charged directly,the late paym entrate is
very high.In addition,certain hidden costs are incurred,the m ain one being personnel,since notallthe
w orkers are on the payrolland m any do notreceive allthe required socialservice benefits.
A llofthe w orkers in these enterprises liveiin ornearby the areas served.The m icro-enterprise w orkers
m ay orm ay notbe associates (co-ow ners):the study found thatalm ostallthe ow ners are operators,but
thatthey also hire additionalw orkers w hen necessary.Som e enterprises also hire agents to collectthe fees
from the clients.Both m en and w om en w ork forthe m icro-enterprises w ith the higherpercentage (59% )of
the w orkers being w om en.O n average the w orkes are 34 years old.A large fraction ofthem are
im m igrants w ho have settled in the areas w here the m icro-enterprises offerthe service.The average w age
is U S $124,the equivalentof2,2 tim es the legalm inim um w age.O nly 46% ofthe w orkers receive social
service benefits.Theirsalaries represent68% oftheirtotalfam ily incom e.
The enterprises form ally establish service concession contracts w ith the m unicipalities,m unicipal
enterprises ordirectly w ith the com m unity they serve.The concession ofthe service by the m unicipality is
subjectto the norm s ofthe Exclusive Ruling on Contracting (from Spanish:Reglam ento U nico de
Adquisiciones)w hich has jurisdiction overthese type ofconcessions.The renew alofcontracts depends
upon the m unicipality's evaluation ofthe service.D espite the contracts,the contracting party often fails to
m ake the required paym ents on tim e.
10.6.2 StreetSw eeping
The m icro-enterprise selected forthe study has been in existence forthree years and operates in
M iraflores,a high-incom e district.The service w as privatised atthe m unicipality's initiative.The
142
enterprise has a service concession contractw ith the m unicipality,w hich obliges itto offerthe service in a
designated area forone year.There are seven sim ilarstreetsw eeping m icro-enterprises operating in this
district,allofw hich have been in existence forthree years.
The w orkers sw eep the sidew alks and sides ofthe streets daily.Each day,the m icro-enterprise is
responsible forsw eeping approxim ately 24 linearkilom etres,in an area serving 1,000 fam ilies.The
service is notpersonalised,and the w orkers do theirsw eeping w ithoutany directcontactw ith the
m em bers ofthe com m unity.
M icro-Enterprise O w nerSw eeping and
C leaning the Streets
The m unicipality established the sw eeping system in coordination w ith the enterprise.W orkers use
broom s and long-handled dustpans,and putthe sw eepings into w heeled barrels (see illustration 21)to
m ove itto w aste containers.The costis U S $4,52 perkilom etre cleaned,paid m onthly by the
m unicipality.The econom ic-financialanalysis show s thatunlike the collection enterprises,diis street
sw eeping enterprise generates a profitm argin of11,45% ,based on its totalincom e.H ow ever,ifthe
hidden costs are considered,the profitm argin decreases to 3,97% .
The street-sw eeping m icro-enterprise is entirely com prised ofw om en w ho live in the low erincom e areas
on the south side ofLim a.A llofthe w orkers are ow ners.Theiraverage age is 32.Theiraverage salary is
U S $136;the equivalentof2,4 m inim um w ages.A llofthem receive socialsecurity and labourbenefits.
Theirsalaries represent71% oftheirtotalfam ily incom e.
10.6.3 FinalD isposal
The finaldisposalm icro-enterprise studied accepts 50% ofthe totalw aste generated in the city ofIlo on
the southern coastofPeru.A totalof384 m etric tonnes perm onth generated by 32,172 residents ofthe
143
city is deposited forfinaldisposalin the landfilllocated 17 kilom etres to the south ofthe city.The
rem aining 50% ofthe w aste is m anaged by m unicipalpersonnel.
The m icro-enterprise w orkers com pactthe solid w aste m anually,using rollers and m anualram s.In
addition,they recoverreusable m aterials w hich are latersold by the m unicipality.O w ners and operators
allperform the sam e w ork.The m icro-enterprise has been in existence fortw o years.A tpresent,the
enterprise has a service concession contractw ith the m unicipality forsolid w aste disposal.The contract
costpertonne disposed is U S$ 3,93.The econom ic and financialanalysis show s thatthe m icro-enterprise
generates a very low gross profitm argin of1,37% .H ow ever,ifhidden capitalcosts and totalhidden costs
are taken into consideration,itsuffers a loss of40% .
The six m icro-enterprise w orkers are m en,w ith an average age of31.Theiraverage salary is U S $129;the
equivalentof2,3 legalm inim um w ages.They allreceive socialsecurity and socialservice benefits.Their
salaries represent87% oftheirtotalfam ily incom e.
10.6.4 R ecovery and Sorting
The m icro-enterprises investigated recoverand sella variety ofm aterials.O ne ofthem recovers all
m aterials generated,including paper,cardboard,plastic,glass,and cans.Itacquires the m aterials through
tw o differentm ethods:(i)collecting from tw o dum ps in the city ofLim a;and,(ii)collecting and buying
the recyclable m aterials separated and collected by schools and w om en's organisations (com m unity
kitchens,"a glass ofm ilk" children's lunch program m e)in som e ofthe districts in EastLim a.The
enterprise pre-processes these m aterials and stores them fortheirsale to recycling interm ediaries.
The second enterprise is devoted exclusively to the recovery,sorting and sale oftextile w aste from cloth
and yarn factories.The m icro-enterprise sells this w aste to craftw orkshops and othersm allbusinesses.
These enterprises em ploy a totalofseventeen w orkers (six m en and eleven w om en).Both m en and
w om en perform a variety oftasks,butthere are indications ofa sexualdivision oflabourin relation to
som e ofthe w ork:the m en tend to do the heaviertasks such as the loading ofm aterials and the recovery in
the dum ps,w hile the w om en perform tasks w hich require less physicalstrength,such as the sorting ofthe
m aterials and the adm inistration ofthe enterprise.
Both enterprises tend to be lim ited in theirability to negotiate favourable prices fortheirm aterials w ith the
recycling interm ediaries,w ho are theirclients.They often face liquidity problem s caused by delay in
paym ents.D espite this problem ,these enterprises have the highestprofitm argin ofany ofthe enterprises
in the study.
10.7
C U R R EN T SITU A TIO N O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES:SW O T A N A LY SIS
10.7.1 Strengths
The streetsw eeping and cleaning m icro-enterprises show strengths in the follow ing areas:
- They use sim ple m anualtechnology.The sw eeping service offered by the w orkers w ith this
technology is m ore efficient,m ore productive and less costly than the sw eeping service offered by
the m unicipalpersonnel.
- They coordinate theirw ork w ith the m unicipality forthe transportation ofthe w aste collected to final
144
disposal.Supervision has contributed to theiroffering the service efficiently.
- W om en have proved to do this job m ore efficiently than m en.D espite this,the m unicipalities (as
opposed to the m icro-enterprises)usually hire m en forthis activity.
The solid w aste collection m icro-enterprises:
- They offerthe service in low -incom e com m unities notattended by private enterprises,w here the
m unicipalities do notofferany effective service.They offera localsolution to solid w aste
m anagem entin these areas.
- They have developed close relationships w ith the com m unity,w hich supports them and m otivates
them to continue offering the service because itfullfills a need;the com m unities recognise the
im portance ofthe w ork,and know thata m unicipalalternative does notexist.
- They use sim ple,low -costtechnology w hich is appropriate forthe situation found in each area and
w hich expedites access to irregularterrain and narrow passages.This technology is also flexible and
com plem ents othertechnology.
- They have efficientoperating system s w hich m anage the solid w aste ofspecific com m unities from
the pointofcollection to the finaldisposalsites.They have a lotofexperience in offering the service
in areas w ith difficulttopographicalconditions.
- The costofoffering the service perm etric tonne is low .
- The entrepreneurs,especially the w om en,are conscious ofthe im portance oftheirw ork in preserving
the environm entin theircom m unities and are w illing to continue offering the service to the people as
long as possible,despite the difficulties w hich arise.
The recovery and sorting m icro-enterprises:
- They have theirow n vehicles,usually trucks,w hich are appropriate fortheiractivities ofbuying and
selling m aterials.
- They cooperate closely w ith theirsuppliers — w ith the textile factories as m uch as w ith the
com m unity-based organisations and schools — w hich provide them w ith various m aterials.
- O ne ofthe enterprises participates in environm entaleducation activities developed by an N G O to
teach schoolchildren and com m unity organisation m em bers the im portance ofseparating m aterialfor
recycling.
- Theiroperation costs are low .This perm its them to earn a profitw hich guarantees theirfinancial
sustainability.
The finaldisposalm icro-enterprise:
- Ithas a costperm etric tonne thatis low erthan thatofthe m unicipality w here itoffers the service.
- Itrecovers and segregates reusable and recyclable m aterials forthe m unicipality as an additional
activity.These m aterials are sold by the m unicipality.
10.7.2 W eaknesses
In general,the solid w aste m anagem entm icro-enterprises actindependently in theirnegotiations w ith the
m unicipalities and com m unities.They initiated the U rban Environm entalM anagem entM icro-enterprise
A ssociation,w hich needs to be strengthened and consolidated,enabling itto becom e a truly representative
entity and spokesperson forthe needs ofthe M SE/Coops.The A ssociation could also take a role in
negotiating w ith the m unicipalities,and itcould propose,on a large scale,integrated solutions forsolid
w aste m anagem entin the country.
In regards to the w eaknesses ofthe streetsw eeping and cleaning m icro-enterprises,the follow ing m ustbe
added:
145
-
-
The absence ofpersonalrelationship betw een the streetsw eepers and the com m unities w here they
w ork m eans thatin generalthe com m unities failto supportthe continued offering ofthe service ifthe
m unicipalities decide to notrenew theircontract.
D espite the use ofspecialuniform s,sw eepers are notoften recognised as being independentw orkers;
the com m unity m em bers and passers-by easily confuse them w ith m unicipalpersonnel.
The ow ners ofthe enterprise have developed little business sense.This inhibits them from developing
new activities related to w aste m anagem ent,due to theirfears,a circum stance largely attributable to
the history ofthe creation ofthis enterprise,w hich w as initiated by the m unicipality,and the ^.
m unicipality's persistentpaternalrelationship w ith it.
W ith regards to the w aste collection m icro-enterprises,the follow ing w eaknesses are found:
- The necessity forcontracts w ith the m unicipalities orm unicipalenterprises forthe service in orderto
guarantee paym ent,oratleastto have signed docum ents proving the econom ic obligation,creates
dependence.
- The econom ic w eakness ofthe m unicipalities w ith w hich the enterprises w ork and the difficulties
involved in negotiating favourable service contracts have reduced the incom es ofthe m icroenterprises,a situation w hich is exacerbated by the m unicipality bargaining forthe low estrates
possible.W hen the enterprise is contracted directly by the com m unity,there are paym entproblem s,
and there are no m echanism s forthe coercive collection ofpaym ent.This situation lim its the
possibilities foreconom ic grow th and developm entin the m arket.
- In m any cases,the enterprises are notable to coveralloftheiroperating costs.They can only m eet
the principaloutofpocketexpenses,butnotthose hidden costs such as depreciation,uniform s,
protective equipm ent,orthe replacem entcostofequipm ent.
- The form alrequirem ents setforcom peting in m unicipalbids (forexam ple,the am ountofthe
enterprise's capital)in practice lim itthe potentialofthe m icro-enterprise to com pete in the bids and
offerits services to otherm unicipalities.
- They operate w ithoutany legalfram ew ork w hich guarantees theirexistence orregulates their
operation.
- The m icro-enterprises in this sectoractindependently.Because ofthis,they m ustacceptthe
conditions setby theirclients forthe sale ofrecyclable m aterials.
- They m ustalw ays have w orking capitalon hand.This is notalw ays possible due to theirclients
delaying paym ents.The lack ofa guild w hich unites them lessens theirpow erto negotiate orto
pressure people forpaym ents.
- The w orkers in these enterprises are exposed to health risks because they do notuse adequate
uniform s orprotective equipm entw hile w orking.This is especially true in cases w here the w orkers
recoverrecyclable m aterialfrom a dum p orlandfill.
The finaldisposalm icro-enterprise:
- Its activities are isolated from the com m unity due to the distance to theirplace ofw ork.Theirlabour
is notw ellunderstood orsupported by the inhabitants ofthe area.
- The w orkers w ork in unhealthy conditions because the enterprise does nothave the funds necessary
to buy shoes,uniform s and protective equipm ent.This is basically due to the perm anentarrears in the
m onthly paym ents forthe service and the low fees setby the m unicipality.
10.7.3 O pportunities
The streetsw eeping and cleaning m icro-enterprises:
146
-
-
They are ready to com pete in bids tendered by otherm unicipalities.D ue to theirlow costs and
efficiency and responsibility in offering the service,the authorities ofthe M unicipality ofM iraflores
(a m odelm unicipality in Lim a)have asked them to offertheirservice in otherm unicipalities and thus
w iden theirm arket.
They are positioned to diversify theircleaning activities and offerservices to otherinstitutions
(schools,offices,households,etc.).
The w aste collection m icro-enterprises:
- There is a tendency in the governm entand society to privatise the w aste m anagem entservices.This
supports the practice ofcontracting w ith the m icro-enterprises and m otivates them to rem ain in
operation.
- The m icro-enterprises are supported by law s w hich in theory prom ote private investm entin the
environm entalw aste m anagem entfield.H ow ever,som e oversightofthe application ofthese law s
prom oting private investm entis necessary in orderto guarantee free com petition in the w aste
m anagem entservice m arket.
- The m icro-enterprise-com m unity alliance is a decisive factorw hich gives the enterprises m ore ability
to negotiate,w hile they are developing the skills necessary to integrate them selves in the com m unity
and to becom e a force in im proving theirow n conditions and confronting the problem s w hich
threaten them .
- Itis im portantthatthe m icro-enterprises develop activities w hich perm itthem to increase their
returns and im prove theirincom e-yield and econom ic accum ulation capacities.These activities,
related to solid w aste m anagem ent,w ould be recovery,sorting,sale ofm aterials and recycling.This
strategy w ould allow them to diversify theirservices,im prove theirincom e and guarantee their
sustainability.
- The urbanisation and grow th ofthe peripheralareas ofthe cities,including the appearance ofnew
invasions,settlem ents and shanty-tow ns,and the severe lim itations ofthe m unicipalities to offer
public services to these com m unities,favourthe grow th in the dem and forcollection service.
- Theircontacts w ith the com m unity organisations forthe purchase ofsource separated m aterials allow
them to approach the com m unities and indirectly influence the form ation ofw aste separation habits
in the com m unities.In addition,the w orld-w ide tendency tow ards environm entalprotection and the
use ofrecycled products favours the recycling activities and influences the form ation ofthese habits.
10.7.4 Threats
The threatw hich the streetsw eeping and cleaning,collection,and finaldisposalm icro-enterprises have in
com m on is the w eakness ofthe institutionalfram ew ork w hich sustains them .This fram ew ork does not
guarantee theirstability in the contextin w hich they w ork.The m icro-enterprises depend to a large degree
on the politicaldecisions ofthe m unicipalauthorities.Because ofthis,the developm entofan institutional,
legaland regulatory fram ew ork w hich guarantees theircontinuity is an urgentneed'.
The w aste collection m icro-enterprises:
- theircontractualrelationships w ith the m unicipalities are notstable;and
- there are stillpeople in the low -incom e areas w here they offertheirservices w ho are unconcerned
aboutthe solid w aste problem ,and this is m ade evidentw hen com m unity m em bers choose notto pay
forthe service and preferto throw the w aste in vacantlots,ravines orfields.
- theirm arketcan presentsharp fluctuations in the dem and and prices ofthe recovered m aterials,based
147
-
on globalm arketfactors notw ithin theircontrolorinfluence;
theirsize and fragm entation lim its theirm arketleverage,leaving them subjectto price and quantity
restrictions setby larger-scale recycling dealers operating in the contextofw orld m arketdem and for
the com m odities they handle.
148
C H A PTER 11 BO LIV IA
Figure 30
BO LIV IA :C A SES IN V ESTIG A TED
Bolivia is a dem ocratic republic located in the south-eastern partofSouth A m erica.Ithasan area of
1.098.581 square kilom etres and is divided into 9 departm ents.Its capitalis Sucre,butthe seatofthe
governm entis located in La Paz (see Figure 30).In 1995,its population w as estim ated as being 6.834.864
people.O fthis,57,5% lived in the cities and 42,5% lived in the ruralareas.A ccording to the 1992
Census carried outby the N ationalInstitute ofStatistics (IN E),ithas an annualgrow th rate of2,11% .
Bolivia has one econom ic and politicalregion w hich clearly dom inates,and w here m ostofthe
agricultural,industrial,com m ercialand politicalactivity is concentrated.This area is com prised ofthe
departm ents ofLa Paz,Cochabam ba and Santa Cruz.In addition,the capitals ofthese departm ents are
m agnets w hich attractim m igration because they offera betterchance offinding w ork,and therefore
prom ise betterliving conditions.
The accelerated grow th ofthe urban population has resulted in unplanned urban extensions and a lotof
pressure to offerbasic urban services (w ater,electricity,sew ers,and solid w aste m anagem ent)and social
services.This situation causes serious problem s forthe developm entofthe cities,m aking theirgrow th
149
chaotic and disordered.
11.1
LEG A L C O N TEX T
In 1985,Bolivia began an am bitious program m e to re-establish its econom ic stability by putting into
practise structuralreform s in orderto achieve sustainable grow th.The initiation ofthis process involved
the aprovalofa num beroflegalinstrum ents,such asreform s to the PoliticalConstitution ofthe State and
the Executive Pow er;Law 1551 orthe Public Participation Law ;the D ecentralisation Law ;the
EducationalReform ;the Capitalisation Law ;and Suprem e D ecree 21060.
The D ecentralisation Law gave the regionalgovernm ents the pow erto m ake decisions and they
becam e the plannerofdepartm ental,provincialand localdevelopm entactivities coordinated w ith the
m unicipalities.They representthe highestdepartm entalpoliticalauthority,and representthe transferof
legalstatus to territorially based organisations (TBO )and non-governm entorganisations (N G O s).The
Law recognises the indigenous com m unities,ruralcom m unities and com m unity assem blies (those w hich
are notlegally constituted)as TBO S.The regionalgovernm ents also establish oversightoverthe
provincialm unicipalities,w hich w as unheard ofbefore in Bolivia's history.
The Public Participation Law is m eantto im prove socialexpenditure through the regionalisation ofthe
country.This law includes directfinancialtransferfrom the centralgovernm entto the m unicipalities so
thatthese can becom e the realprotagonists in theirow n developm ent.The m unicipalities are
responsible forbuilding the infrastructure necessary forhealth,education,production,sports,and culture
in theirterritories.The TBO s are considered to be valid spokespersons fortheirconstituencies by the
Executive Pow erand atlocaldecision-m aking levels.The Law furthervalidates and respects theirhabits
and custom s,and prom otes a non-partisan policy.
These reform s are being im plem ented in a top-dow n m annerby the nationalgovernm ent,w ith
resistance from the socialsectors,w hich are reluctantto accepta change w hich im plies a radical
m odification in public behaviour.The new socialnorm s have sentshock w aves through the society,
illustrated by daily m arches,strikes — basically the urban and ruralteachers,the Bolivian Labourers
Centre (CO B)and labourers in general— protests and w ork stoppages throughoutthe country.The slow
adaptation ofthe politicalclasses and civilsociety to a participative dem ocracy instead ofa representative
one has had a high social,and above allpoliticalcostdue to the loss ofcredibility and confidence in the
currentnationalgovernm ent.
11.2
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T IN BO LIV IA
A n estim ated 1.510 m etric tonnes ofsolid w aste is produced daily in the nine principalcities ofBolivia37.
The M unicipalSanitation Entities (EM A ,from Spanish:Entido-des M unicipals de Aseo)are responsible
forthe m anagem entofthis w aste.
The w aste m anagem ententity has been decentralised in the cities ofLa Paz,Potosi,Santa Cruz,O ruro,El
A lto and is scheduled to decentralise soon in Sucre.In Cochabam ba,Trinidad and Tarija,they are
specialised boards ofdirectors operating w ithin the structure ofthe m unicipality.The EM A S have allbeen
organised and represented in the Bolivian A ssociation ofM unicipalSanitation Entities (A SEA M ,from
37
Estim ates based o the inform ation available from the w aste m anagem ententerprises
150
Spanish:Asociacion Boliviano de Entidades de Aseo M unicipales).
Private operators are responsible forstreetsw eeping and w aste collection in the cities ofLa Paz,Potosi,
Santa Cruz,O ruro and ElA lto.The enterprise Starco Inconstruc.Ltd.operates in La Paz,along w ith nine
m icro-enterprises.D im ension Enasa operates in O ruro.Ciudad Lim pia Ltd.operates in Potosiand ElA lto,
and Jichioperates in Santa Cruz.The streetsw eeping and solid w aste collection services,in contrast,are
offered directly by the EM A S in Cochabam ba,Sucre,Trinidad and Tarija.
O nly La Paz and Santa Cruz have transferstations.Landfills are used forw aste disposalin seven cities:La
Paz,Santa Cruz,Cochabam ba,Tarija,Potosi,O ruro and Trinidad.D um ps are used forw aste disposalin
Sucre and ElA lto.
Public w aste collection m icro-enterprises operate in three cities:Cochabam ba,La Paz and ElA lto.In
Cochabam ba and La Paz,the m icro-enterprises are legally recognised and have contracts w ith their
respective EM A S.The operation in ElA lto is inform aland the m icro-enterprises dealdirectly w ith the
public.
The charge forw aste m anagem entservices is included in the electric billin La Paz,Cochabam ba,O ruro,
Trinidad,Tarija and (very soon)Potosi.The Santa Cruz and Sucre EM A s have theirow n fee collection
system .The ElA lto EM A w as atthe pointofstarting to charge forthe service in M arch of1996.The
inform ation received from the five cities ofLa Paz,Cochabam ba,Santa Cruz,Sucre and Tarija suggests
thattheirfees do notadequately coverthe costs ofthe service.
Table 30
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN BO LIV IA
C ity
La Paz
M icro Enterprise
N um ber ofw orkers
N ueva Esperanza
Sagrado Corazón
H orizontes
Fortaleza
Illim ani
Porvenir
N ueva A m éricana
N ueva Raíces
Señorde Sentencia
Population served
18
21
12
10
12
14
8
17
8
120
37.315
41.942
21.668
20.305
25.194
28.144
19.035
34.948
19.106
247.657
M espal
K antuta
Surum i
A m anecer
12
12
12
12
48
27.020
7.996
18.500
20.147
73.663
Jasu-2000
K hom a M arca
N eco-90
Progreso
Sinfrón
Total
35
16
12
12
10
85
105.000
70.000
49.000
39.000
49.000
312.000
Total
253
633.320
Total
Cochabam ba
Total
ElA lto
151
11.3
SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES
There are 18 w aste m anagem entm icro-enterprises operating in the cities ofLa Paz,ElA lto and
Cochabam ba.These are listed in Table 30.
There are nine m icro-enterprises in La Paz,w here a totalof120 w orkers serve 247.657 inhabitants.There
are fourm icro-enterprises in Cochabam ba w hich have a totalof48 w orkers and serve 73.663 inhabitants.
In ElA lto,five m icro-enterprises w ith a totalof85 w orkers serve 312.000 inhabitants.
11.4
STU D Y SA M PLE SELEC TIO N
The study included allofthe w aste m anagem entm icro-enterprises operating in the cities ofLa Paz,El
A lto and Cochabam ba.The study sam ple included nine m icro-enterprises from La Paz,fourfrom
Cochabam ba and five from ElA lto (see Table 30).
11.5
TH E FO R M A TIO N O F TH E SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T M IC R O EN TER PR ISES
11.5.1 The La Paz M icro-Enterprises
The m unicipalgovernm ents,and in particularthe urban service providers,have actively prom oted the
creation ofthe m icro-enterprises as an answ erto the w aste m anagem entneeds ofthe public in the low er
incom e areas ofLa Paz,ElA lto and Cochabam ba.
N ine m icro-enterprises are responsible forw aste collection in the upland m ountainside areas thatcover
nearly 30% ofthe urban area ofLa Paz.The topography ofthese areas is very irregularand m akes it
im possible to collectw ith m echanicalequipm ent.The m anuallabourrequired dem ands a greatdealof
physicaleffort.The m icro-enterprises have both m echanicaland m anualequipm entw hich they have
acquired through creditgiven them by the m unicipality and A SEA M G TZ (G erm an Technical
Cooperation).Som e ofthese m icro-enterprises w ere sub-contracted by Starco Inconstruc Ltd,a private
com pany.H ow ever,Starco dissolved its contracts w ith the m icro-enterprises in 1995 and returned the
w aste m anagem entservice in the upperslopes to the EM A .This led to the reorganisation ofthe w aste
m anagem entoperations system ,the reassignm entofw ork zones to the existing m icro-enterprises,and the
creation ofnew m icro enterprises,to reach the totalofnine m entioned earlier.In A ugust1995,these nine
m icro-enterprises w ere contracted directly by EM A fora period offive years,ending in A ugustofthe year
2000.They charge forservice in the sam e m anneras Starco did:perm etric tonne collected and
transported to the transferstation orlandfill.
152
C ollection M icro
Enterprise in La
Paz.
The m icro-enterprises clean the city.This includes sw eeping the streets,"doorto door" collecting of
household w aste,and transporting ofthe w aste to the transferstation orlandfill.W orkers travelin pairs
using carts especially designed forthe slopes ofthe city.The w aste is deposited atestablished transfer
points from w hich itis transported to the transferstation orthe landfill38.
38
La Paz has a transferstation in the K anutuani-O brajes zone.The distance from the centre ofthe city to the transfer
station is 7 km .The distance from the transferstaion to the M allasa landfillis 11 km .
153
Figure 31
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E C O LLEC TIO N M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES IN
LA PA Z A N D TH E O TH ER PA R TIC IPA N TS
O n the average,the nine m icro-enterprises collecton average 1.675 m etric tonnes ofsolid w aste per
m onth.Each collects allofthe solid w aste from theirassigned area w ithoutregards to its source:the w aste
m ay originatefrom households,businesses,industries and hospitals,although theirbasic service areas are
residentialzones inhabited by people w ith scanteconom ic resources.
The relationships established betw een the collection m icro-enterprises in La Paz and the otherparticipants
are show n in Figure 31.
The m icro-enterprises charge a tariffofU S $21.97 perm etric tonne to collectthe solid w aste and
transportitto the transferstation.This tariffis slightly low erthan thatcharged by Starco (see Table 31).
O perator
Starco
M icro-enterprises
(average)
W aste deposited attransfer station
(U S$/tonne)
22.75
21.97
W aste deposited atlandfill
(U S$/tonne)
24.42
23.47
The M unicipalEnvironm entalSanitation Entity (EM SA )in Cochabam ba provides w aste collection and
finaldisposalservice itself.H ow ever,italso contracts fourm icro-enterprises to offerthe collection
service in the sparsely populated southern zone,w here access is difficultand conventionalcollecting units
154
cannotoperate.
The fourm icro-enterprises are jointventures.These m icro-enterprises are in charge ofsw eeping the
streets,cleaning the gutters,m anually collecting the w aste in vacantlots,public areas and recreational
sportareas,and m aintaining the green areas.
Figure 32
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E C O C H A BA M BA C O LLEC TIO N M IC R O EN TER PR ISES A N D TH E O TH ER PA R TIC IPA N TS
The w aste is collected by pairs ofw orkers operating three-w heeled carts w ith a cargo capacity of100
litres each39,orin som e cases,cargo tricycles.The w aste is transferred to m unicipalcontainers ordirectly
to w aste trucks.The w orkers sortand recoverrecyclable m aterials inform ally,and sellthem to generate
supplem entary incom e forthe m icro-enterprise.EM SA is responsible forthe transferofthe w aste to the
landfill40.The relationships established betw een the collection m icro-enterprises in Cochabam ba and the
otherparticipants are show n in Figure 32.
The m icro-enterprises are contracted by the m unicipality fora period oftw o years.They are responsible
forcleaning pre-determ ined zones ofthe city in w hatare called "clean zone contracts." They w ork fora
fixed fee,unlike the La Paz m icro-enterprises,w hich are paid by tonne forthe am ountofw aste collected.
O ne reason forthis is thatthere are no scales atthe landfill.
39
40
This description fits the originaldesign w hich w as laterchanged.
Cochabam ba has the K jara landfill.In 1996,ithad an estim ated usefullife of23 years.
155
11.5.2 The ElA lto M icro-Enterprises
The history ofthe ElA lto m icroenterprises dates back to 1987,w hen the com m unity organised them as a
response to the insufficienttechnicaland econom ic capacity ofthe m ayor's office.The localcom m unity
board started up a pilotprojectto organise a m icro-enterprise to collectthe w aste in the zone "1 de M ayo",
underthe nam e U rban Sanitation A dm inistrative Board (JA SU ,from Spanish:Junta Adm inistrativa
de Saneam iento U rbtm o).The success ofthis projectand the assistance and collaboration oftw o N CO S
stim ulated the projectto expand to otherzones.The tw o N G O s w ere PRO A ,the Integrated Services for
U rban D evelopm entCentre (from Spanish:Centra de Servicios Integrates para elD esarrollo U rbano]
and the EN D A 'Trogram m e to K eep Children O ffthe Streets".In Septem ber1989,the m unicipality
decided to supportthe extension ofthe projectand issued a public invitation foradditionalm icroenterprises to carry outthe service in otherzones ofthe city.
Collection M icro-enterprise in Cochabam ba
In M ay 1990,the seven m icro-enterprises existing atthattim e organised the ElA lto Solid W aste
Collection M icro-enterprise A ssociation (A M ERSEA )in orderto strengthen the m icro-enterprises and to
assure the fulfilm entofcontracts established w ith the m unicipality.This association represents the m icro
enterprises in theirdealings w ith the localauthorities and m unicipalities.The m icro-enterprises w ere
finally contracted by the m unicipalities in A ugust1991.They collectthe w aste m anually and transportit
to disposal41.They finance theiractivities by charging the people directly forthe service.The m onthly
tariffis U S $0,61 perhousehold.
41
A dum p located in the Río Seco zone is used forElA lto w aste.
156
Currently,the m icro-enterprises — represented by A M ERSEA — are in a legaldispute w ith the m ayor's
office in an effortto defend theirw ork in the city ofElA lto.The conflictarose because the m unicipality
reneged on its 10-yearcontracts w ith the m icro-enterprises,w hich w ere signed in A ugustof1991.The
m unicipality instead organised an internationalpublic bid forthe w aste collection service,w hich w as
designed to take advantage ofa donation ofw aste collection equipm entand creditgiven by the Bolivian
RegionalD evelopm entFund.This bid process,in w hich the m icro-enterprises did notparticipate,w as
w on by Ciudad Lim pia Ltd.The m atteris in the courts because A M ERSEA has presented a civilrights
proceeding;although itis stillbeing adjudicated,the firstfindings w ere favourable to A M ERSEA .
Figure 33
R ELA TIO N SH IPS BETW EEN TH E EL A LTO C O LLEC TIO N M IC R O EN TER PR ISES A N D TH E O TH ER PA R TIC IPA N TS
The resultofthis judicialaction againstthe m unicipality w illdeterm ine theirsurvivalordem ise.
M eanw hile,Ciudad Lim pia has a concession contractto offerthe w aste m anagem entservice in allofthe
urban zone.O nly five m icroenterprises continue to collectthe w aste,and they charge the clients directly
forthe service.
11.6
TH E O PER A TIO N O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES
There are m icro-enterprises in Bolivia w hich operate form ally w ithin the legalfram ew ork foroffering
public services,and otherm icro
enterprises w hich operate inform ally.
157
Collection M icroenterprise in ElAlto
In the cities ofLa Paz and Cochabam ba,the m unicipalities contractthe m icro
enterprises and authorise them to operate in designated areas ofthe city.The m icro-enterprises are
responsible forproviding the w aste collection service.The residents pay a m onthly fee to the m unicipality,
and the m unicipality paysthe m icro-enterprises on a m onthly basis as w ell.
Inform alm icro-enterprises operate in the city ofElA lto.They operate w ithoutm unicipalauthorisation
because the m unicipality has reneged on the contractsigned w ith them ,although previously they w ere
clearly recognised and authorised to operate by the m unicipalauthorities.A tthe presenttim e they have a
directrelationship w ith the public:the m icro-enterprises provide the service and the users pay them
directly forit.
The La Paz and Cochabam ba m icro-enterprises are associations,since the m ajority oftheirw orkers are
also ow ners,w ho take the risks togetherand m ake jointdecisions aboutthe future oftheirorganisations.
In contrast,the ElA lto m icro-enterprises are each ow ned by a single entrepreneurw ho assum es the risks
and decides the future ofhis orherenterprise on his orherow n.
11.7
FIN A N C IA L A N A LY SIS O F TH E M IC R O -EN TER PR ISES
The inform ation available forthe La Paz and Cochabam ba m icro-enterprises suggests that,overtim e,they
have the potentialto becom e econom ically sustainable.H ow ever,this w illdepend upon a significant
im provem entoftheirfinancialm anagem entand theirrelationships w ith theirclients,the m unicipalities.
A tthis tim e,the m ajority are able to pay theirshortterm debts,as m easured by the factthattheircurrent
assets surpass theircurrentliabilities,and they have accum ulated som e w orking capital.They are
financially independentsince theirtotalliabilities are less than 50% oftheirassets,exceptin the cases of
tw o m icro-enterprises w hose liabilities surpass theirassets.The m ajority have also adequately financed
theirassets w ith long-term credits.There are tw o exceptions,Sagrado Corazon and A m anecer,w hich have
financed the m ajorpartoftheirassets w ith short-term credits.
158
O fthe totalnum berofm icro-enterprises in La Paz and Cochabam ba,six are m aking a profit.H ow ever,
fourm icro-enterprises (tw o in each city)are operating ata loss.O nly one is in liquidation.
11.8
C U R R EN T M IC R O -EN TER PR ISE SITU A TIO N :SW O T A N A LY SIS
11.8.1 Strengths
The principalstrengths ofthe m icro-enterprises are the follow ing:
- They are an instrum entw hich effectively contributes to the reversalofenvironm ental
deterioration as w ellas to the reduction and controlofpublic health risks resulting from
inadequate solid w aste m anagem ent,especially in the densely populated urban areas ofthe
principalBolivian cities:La Paz,ElA lto and Cochabam ba;
- They representa feasible alternative forbuilding healthy cities generating em ploym ent,prom oting
the introduction ofw om en into the w orkforce,and stim ulating the developm entofthe local
econom y;
- They participate in an environm entalm anagem entsystem w hose equilibrium is based upon a
good relationship betw een the m unicipality and the com m unity.Theiradvantage is reinforced by
the factthattheirw orkers com e from the neighbourhoods w here they w ork;the com m unity
m em bers participate in the organisation ofthe m icro-enterprises;theirw orkers are com m itted to
theircom m unity;and they coordinate closely w ith theirusers;
- They use sim ple technology,w hich supplem ents the conventionalsystem ,forsolving the w aste
m anagem entproblem ,forexam ple,w aste collection is accom plished effectively using sim ple
technology,m anuallabour,and basic tools and equipm ent.The m ostsophisticated m echanical
com ponentis a dum p truck (tipper),used fortransporting the w aste.In addition,they offera
positive and practicalsolution in those densely populated urban areas w here the conventional
system can notofferthe service:on the slopes ofLa Paz orthe low -incom e areas ofCochabam ba.
- The m icro-enterprises representa distinctpotentialfororganising com petitive w aste m anagem ent
services w hich are m otivated as m uch by the desire to serve the com m unity as they are by the
drive to m ake a profit.
11.8.2 W eaknesses
The m icro-enterprises m ustovercom e the follow ing w eaknesses:
- They lack an entrepreneurialdevelopm entstrategy w hich w ould strengthen theirinstitutionalbase
and give them im proved capacity to negotiate on the one hand,and w ould enhance their
m anagerialcapacity and im prove the technicalefficiency oftheiroperations on the other.
- They do nothave health program m es fortheirw orkers.
- The adm inistration in the m icro-enterprises is w eak:theiraccounting,m anagem ent,and
m onitoring ofthe w orkers perform ance need im provem entand professionalisation.
- The m icro-enterprises appearto lack the capacity to m ake rapid decisions.
- They face w idespread negative attitudes in relation to the environm entin generaland w aste
m anagem entin particular.
11.8.3 O pportunities
The principalopportunities are the follow ing:
- The m icro-enterprises are being organised w ithin the fram ew ork ofthe urban public service
159
decentralisation process.In this context,itis an advantage thatthe enterprises provide:
o G reatertransparency in urban service m anagem ent.
o A n increase in private participation in the environm entaland urban service field.
* Enhanced quality ofservice and decreased costs to the com m unity,since theiroperation and investm ent
costs are low .* Increased com m unity participation in addressing environm entalproblem s.
11.8.4 Threats
The follow ing are considered to be threats forthe m icro-enterprises:
- The sustainability ofthe entrepreneurialm odeland the success ofthe projectare m arkedly
dependentupon the adm inistrative and financialcapacity ofthe m unicipalities,w hich are w eak
and vulnerable to politicalm anipulation.Since the m unicipalities do nothave effective fee
collecting system s,the nature ofthe m icro-enterprises is uncertain;
- The urban service m arketis subjectto possible distortions due to the lack ofspecific and/or
effective supervision by an environm entalorcom m erce authority w hich effectively regulates open
com petition and avoids m onopoly by the state orsom e private enterprise,supervises the operation
ofthe m unicipalw aste m anagem ententities and the private enterprises (large orsm all);and w hich
can serve as the arbiterin conflicts betw een the m icroenterprises,the m unicipalities and the users.
160
A N N EX ES
161
A N N EX 1
LIST O F M SE/C O O P EX PER IM EN TS IN PA R A G U A Y
In the capitalofParaguay,A suncion,the household w aste collection (85% coverage)and finaldisposal
service is offered exclusively by the m unicipalities,yetvery few m unicipalities in factprovide any w aste
m anagem entservice.In som e ofthem there are one-person businesses orm icro-enterprises offering these
services eitherthrough m unicipalconcession oron theirow n initiative.In the m ajorcities,w hose size,
population and econom ic conditions perm itthe m unicipalities to have theirow n collection services,solid
w aste is collected by the m unicipalities.
In the follow ing,a briefsum m ary w illbe given ofhow solid w aste m anagem entis carried outin som e
Paraguayan m unicipalities.
A SU N CIO N
The m unicipality provides household and com m ercialsolid w aste collection.The m unicipality has a fleet
ofdum p trucks (tippers)w hich collectan average of575 m etric tonnes daily and depositthe w aste in the
"Cateura" dum p,w here approxim ately 200 w orkers recoverm aterials.
In the m arginalareas w here there are no good access roads forthe collection vehicles,the com m unity
m em bers hire a person to collectthe w aste,usually using a barrow orcart.Currently,18 sectors are
covered.Som etim es,the com m unity m em bers them selves depositthe bagged w aste in containers,and itis
collected by m unicipalcom pactors equipped w ith containerlifts and taken to the dum p.
The m ajority ofthe w orkers are m em bers ofan association w hich has been operating since 1992,
and/orare m em bers ofa union.In 1995,the union and the association form ed the CO O G A N K EC,in order
to strengthen theirm aterials sales negotiating capacity,to have access to loans,and to offersocial
service benefits and health care to the m em bers.
The associates selltheircardboard to the cooperative w hich then negotiates its directsale to one ofthe
three recycling interm ediaries in the A suncion m etropolitan area.10% ofthe profits go to the
cooperative,w hich operates exclusively w ith cardboard.The associates sellthe otherproducts such as
plastics,glass and alum inium directly to the interm ediaries fortheirow n financialbenefit.The sale
takes place atthe dum p and the m aterials are generally sold as-is,w ithoutany specialprocessing orhighgrading.
EN CA RN A CIO N
Encarnacion is the capitalofthe departm entofItapua.Itis 360 km .to the south ofA suncion nearthe
A rgentine border.The m unicipalpublic w orksdepartm entcollects approxim ately 40 m etric tonnes of
w aste perday,and an additionalunrecorded am ountis notcollected.A pproxim ately six large fam ilies
w ith around 50 w orkers w ork in the dum p.
CIU D A D D EL ESTE
The collection service is offered by the m unicipality and a private enterprise.The w aste volum e is 25
m etric tonnes perday,buta large percentage ofthe w aste is notcollected.
There are num erous groups dedicated to the sale oflarge volum es ofcardboard,«isopor» and
alum inum .The groupsw ork in blocks,and are very w ary oreven hostile tow ards the m unicipality,
162
because they do notw antthe m unicipality to collectw aste in theirareas ofthe city.
LIM PIO A N D N EM BY
These are m unicipalities in the m etropolitan area ofA suncion.Tw o one-person enterprises offerthe
collection service to the com m unity w ithoutany involvem entfrom the m unicipality.O ne ofthese has a
dum p truck (tipper)and the otherhas a truck w ith a w ooden body.
ITA U G U A
The collection service is privatised.Itis carried outby a one-person enterprise belonging to M r.M axim o
A dorno,w ho also m anages the industrialw aste ofCA PSA (Paraguayan Cotton Com pany Ltd.)w hich
produces oils.The risk ofcom bustion w hen disposable plastic bottles com e into contactw ith bentonitic
earth has led this enterprise to focus on recycling plastics.
CA RA PEG U A
Located 75 km .south-eastofA suncion,Carapegua presents an interesting case ofseparate collection and
com postproduction.The collection service is offered by a person contracted by the m unicipality.The
m unicipality charges forthe service and pays the person.The service is carried outw ith one sm all
w ooden sided truck w ith a second truck available forbackup.
PA RA G U A RIT
his is the departm entalcapitaland itis located 60 km .from A suncion.The collection system used is
identicalto thatofCarapegua.
Q U IIN D Y
This city is only slightly south ofCarapegua.Collection is provided by a oneperson enterprise.The local
Public Service Board (w hich also m anages the dom estic w atersupply system )includes the charges in a
single w ater/sanitation billand the m oney goes directly to the m unicipality,w hich then pays the enterprise
forthe service.
CO LO N IA S U N ID A S
A m icro-enterprise w ith one com pactortruck collects w aste in the three m unicipalities ofH oenau,Bel
V ista and O bligado,in the departm entofItapua.
Y BY CU I
This city is 120 km .south-eastofA suncion.The service is offered by a oneperson enterprise using a sm all
vehicle.The enterprise disposes ofthe w aste in open dum ps.
CO RO N EL O V IED O ,SA N IG N A CIO ,SA N BERN A RD IN O
They have a m unicipalcollection service.A regua does nothave a w aste collection service.
163
A N N EX 2
R ESEA R C H PA R TIC IPA N TS
JO IN T ED ITO RS
A SSISTA N CE IN ECO N O M IC
FIN A N CIA L A SPECTS
A SSISTA N CE IN H EA LTH A N D
W O RK EN V IRO N M EN T A SPECTS
RESEA RCH ERS:
G uatem ala-:
ElSalvador:
Costa Rica:
Colom bia:
Brazil:
Peru:
Bolivia
Jorge A rroyo M oreno (IPES),Inge Lardinois (W A STE),Francisco
Rivas (A CEPESA ).
N aldiD elgado Cruz (IPES),M ercedes Flores M atienzo (IPES),
Lex H em elaar(W A STE).
Patricia U lloa Corrales (A CEPESA ),M aritza M arin A raya
(A CEPESA ),Carlos M ata M ontero,M arco A ntonio G arcia Saenz.
Jeroen IJgosse.
Carlos M elendez A valos,V ilm a A paricio de M elendez,M ario
M oreno V asquez,N ury G uadalupe M onico.
V ictoria Rudin V ega (A CEPESA ),Luis A cevedo,Richard
M aradiaga,Jorge Cayetano M ora,Patricia U lloa y M arco G arcia.
Bogota,M anizales,Chiquinquira:M artha Elena Toledo (ID EA ,
U N C),Espolito M urillo (A N R),Rodrigo Rodriguez (A N R),Silvio
Ruiz (A N R),N ohra Padil(A N R)Cucuta:CesarZela Fierro (IPES).
M edellin:Jorge Price M asalias (IPES).
Em ilio Eigenheer(U FF/ISER).
Cecilia Castro N urena (IPES),Jorge Price M asalias (IPES),Luz
Elena Pinto (IPES).
Coordination:CesarZela Fierro (IPES).Cochabam ba:K athia
Ferrufino.La Paz,ElA lto:Reynaldo Espinoza G uisbertand Juan
Jose Blanco.
164
A N N EX 3
G EN ER A L IN FO R M A TIO N A BO U T TH E U R BA N W A STE
EX PER TISE PR O G R A M M E (U W EP)
From an analysis ofthe generalurban w aste problem s,tw o im portantintervention areas have been
identified forthe U rban W aste Expertise Program m e:
- Frequently,the m icro-enterprises and com m unities do nothave access to inform ation,authorities,
financialfunds and/ortechnicalresources to im prove orexpand theirenterprise (products,w ork
conditions)ortheirw ork environm ent.
- The capacity and potentialofthe entrepreneurs and the com m unities to participate in urban w aste
m anagem entare nottaken seriously.The authorities and donors do notinclude them in their
financing policies orin policies to solve theirurban w aste problem s.
The U rban W aste Expertise Program m e is a 6-yearprojectcom m issioned by the N etherlands M inisterfor
D evelopm entCooperation (D G IS),and contracted to W A STE,A dvisors on U rban Environm entand
D evelopm ent,in G ouda,the N etherlands.
The Program m e goals are:
- To perm itthe organisations from the south to initiate and im plem entprojects to im prove w aste
m anagem entin low -incom e areas,and to im prove the collection and recycling ofthe w aste
through sm alland m icroenterprises.
- To provide inform ation to governm entauthorities and developm entagencies concerning sm all
and m icro-enterprises and aboutthe participation ofthe com m unity in the collection and recycling
ofw aste in orderto im prove the w aste m anagem entsystem s in the m unicipalenvironm ent.
This is w hy the Program m e seeks to develop localexpertise through pilotprojects,research,w orkshops,
courses,the inform ation exchange visits and the continualdiffusion ofdocum ented and field know ledge
generated by the program m e.In addition,through regionalencounters and policy conferences w ith local
authorities and developm entorganisations,the Program m e seeks to prom ote w aste policies w hich seek to
integrate the sm alland m icro-enterprises into the existing urban m anagem entsystem s.
TA RG ET G RO U PS A N D BEN EFICIA RIES
The dissem ination ofthe docum ents produced by the U W EP Program m e is directed tow ards local
professionals,com m unity interm ediary organisations,m icro
and sm allenterprises and cooperatives,and the entities responsible forform ulating policies:localand
nationalgovernm entauthorities and donoragencies.The ultim ate beneficiaries are designed to be the
com m unities and the m icro
and sm allenterprises and cooperatives,since the prim ary objective is to im prove theirliving and w orking
conditions.
The program m e has tw o parts:
- A n initialphase from M ay 1995 to D ecem ber1996,forw hich W A STE established the policies
and activities:Som e exam ples are:the w ork conditions in sm allplastic recycling enterprises;
com m unity participation;collection and treatm entofliquid w aste;solid w aste collection;
com posting;hospitalw aste.
- A projectexecution phase from January 1997 to A pril2001.The them es and policies w ere
determ ined by the associates from the south during the initialphase.
The U W EP Program m e Policy Com m ittee,com prised ofthree people from the south,has final
responsibility forthe coherentim plem entation ofthe U W EP program m e.W A STE is the initiatorand
165
executing agency forthe U W EP program m e.W A STE is in charge ofthe Program m e's secretariat,
m anagem entand coordination and provides substantive supportand expertstaff.
W hen the
program m e ends,the activities w illhave helped to achieve five distinctresults:
- A ppropriate know ledge in the urban m anagem entfield w illhave been generated and adapted for
dissem ination atthe practicaland politicallevels.
- Professionals in the south w illhave increased theirknow ledge and levels oftraining in relation to
the dem ands ofthe organisations in this region carrying outthese activities,and the dem ands of
the authorities and developm entorganisations preparing urban w aste policies thataffectpractical
results atthe m icro-enterprise and com m unity levels.
- O rganisations in the south w illhave access to localsources ofexpertise and appropriate
know ledge concerning the substantive and technicalaspects ofsolid w aste m anagem ent.
- G overnm ents and donoragencies w illhave been exposed to the prom otion ofpolicies aim ed at
increasing the involvem entofm icro
- and sm allenterprises and cooperatives and theirhostcom m unities.
- O rganisations in the south w illhave received assistance in the developm entofproposals for
im provem entand w illbe supported through the process ofgetting theirproposals approved by the
relevantauthorities.
166
A N N EX 4
EX C H A N G E R A TES U SED IN TH E R ESEA R C H
Exchange rates used in the research
M arch 31,1996
G uatem ala
ElSalvador
Costa Rica
Colom bia
Brazil
Peru
Bolivia
U S $1 = 6.20 quetzales
U S $1 = 8.79 colones
U S $1 == 211.92 colones
U S $1 = 1,000 pesos
U S $1 =0.99 reales
U S $1 =2.31 soles
U S $1 = 4.95 bolivianes
167
A N N EX 5
PU BLIC A TIO N S A BO U T SO LID W A STE M A N A G EM EN T
W A STE
U rban W aste Series:
2. O rganic W aste,O ptions for Sm all-Scale Resource Recovery.
3. Plastic W aste,O ptions for Sm all-Scale Resource Recovery.
4. Rubber W aste,O ptions for Sm all-Scale Resource Recovery.
5. H azardous W aste.
6. G estion de Residues Solidos en Am erica Latino,:ElCaso de las Pequenas y m icroem presa y
cooperativas.(Published in English underthe tide:Solid W aste M anagem entin Latin Am erica:M icro
7. and Sm allenterprises and Cooperatives).
8. The Collection ofH um an Excreta,Case Studies on the O peration ofServices in U rban Low -Incom e
N eighbourhoods (published in English and French).
U W EP W orking D ocum ents:
W D 1.W asted Agriculture-The U se ofCom postin U rban Agriculture.
W D 2.Com m unity-Based Solid W aste M anagem entand W ater Supply Projects.Problem s and Solutions
Com pared
A Survey ofthe Literature.
W D 3.W astewater Treatm ent,a Case.Study in M ali(only in French).
W D 4-I.The O ccupationalH ealth Aspects ofW aste Collection and Recycling,A Survey ofthe Literature.
W D 4-II.The O ccupationalH ealth Aspects ofW aste Collection and Recycling,an Inventory Study in
India.
W D 5.Reader ofthe U W EP Program m e Policy M eeting.W D 6.Proceedings ofthe U W EP Program m e
Policy M eeting.
Reports aboutvarious studies concerning the urban m anagem entthem e are also available.
These publications can be acquired from :
W A STE
N ieuw ehaven 201
2801 CW G ouda
The N etherlands Electronic m ail:
office@ w aste.nl
IPES
- Basura en Lim a:Problem asy soluciones (EN G LISH :W aste in Lim a:Problem s and Solutions)
- Rescatando Vida (EN G LISH :Rescueing Life)
- M anualde Instruction:Curso-Taller:M anejo de Residues H ospitalarios (EN G LISH :Instruction
M anual:Course-W orkshop:H ospitalW aste M anagem ent)
- Reciclaje en las Fuentes de G eneration:M anualde Instruction para O ficinas,Colegiosy
O rganizaciones Com m unitarias (EN G LISH :Source Recycling:Instruction M anualforO ffices,
Schools and Com m unity O rganisations.)
- Reciclaje de D esechos Plasticos:G uia Tecnica (EN G LISH :The Recycling ofPlastic W aste:
TechnicalG uide.)
- Reciclaje de D esechos Textiles:G uia Technica (EN G LISH :The Recycling ofTextile W aste:
TechnicalG uide.)
168
These publications can be acquired from :
IPES
Carlos K rundiek 325,
U rbanizacion Santa Catalina
Lim a 13,Peru
Electronic m ail:ipes@ m ail.cosapidata.com .pe
A CEPESA
- ITaller de Intercam bio para Prom otion de Autojjestion U rbana de D esechos Solidos en Centra
Am erica y Panam a (EN G LISH :Exchange forthe D evelopm entofthe Self-m anagem entofU rban
Solid W aste in CentralA m erica and Panam a W orkshop I).acepesa/PG U -LA C
- ITaller Centroam ericano M ASICA/H EP-O NG :Par Prom otion de Am bientesSaludables
(EN G LISH :M A SICA /H EP-N G O CentralA m erican W orkshop I:Forthe Prom otion ofH ealthy
Environm ents).
PRO SA C/A CEPESA
- M em oria:Prim era Conferencia Nationalde Asociaciones de D esarollo,Com unidades,
M unicipalidadesy M icroem presarios de Saneam iento Am biental:Par elFortalecim iento Localen
G estion Am biental(EN G LISH :A ccount:The FirstN ationalConference ofEnvironm ental
Sanitation D evelopm ent,Com m unity,M unicipal,and M icro-enterprise A ssociations:Forthe
LocalStrengthening ofEnvironm entalM anagem ent).PRO SA C/A CEPESA .
- O rganization de Cam ara Nationalde Em presarios Recolectores,RecuperadoresyRecicladoresde
Costa Rica (CANARD ES)(EN G LISH :The O rganization ofthe Costa Rican N ationalCham berof
Collectors,W aste Pickers and Recyclers).PRO SA C/A CEPESA .
- Estudio delvolum en de desechos dom esticos y com erciales de hojalata y alum inio y alternativas
de reciclaje (EN G LISH :A Study ofthe V olum e ofTin and A lum inum found in D om estic and
Com ercialW aste and Recycling A lternatives).PRO SA C/A CEPESA and others.
- IntegralSolid W aste M anagem entTraining M odules:Lo Q ue Todos Producim os y Nadie
Aprovecha (EN G LISH :W hatw e allproduce and N obody Exploits).
M as Com plejo de lo Q ue Parece:ElM a-nejo Integralde D esechos Solidos (EN G LISH :M ore
Com plicated Than ItSeem s:IntegralSolid W aste M anagem ent).
Solution esta en NuestrasM anos (EN G LISH :The Solution is in O urH ands).
M eAirBien Cam isa (EN G LISH :M easure the ShirtW ell).
These publications are available from :
A CEPESA
A partado 1257-1002 San Jose,
Costa Rica
E-m ail:acepesa@ sol.racsa.co.cr.
169
G LO SSA R Y
Bale:(verb)To com pactcardboard,new spaper,alum inum cans,orrigid orflexible plastic using a
com pressing m achine (baler)w hich applies m anualorm echanicalvertical("dow nstroke")orhorizontal
("sidestroke")pressure resulting in the production ofdense,stackable cubes bound w ith tw ine orw ire
w hich can be stored ortransported efficiently.
Bale:(noun)O ne such stackable cube.
Biogas:A m ixture ofgases produced by the anaerobic decom position oforganic w aste.Itis basically
com posed ofm ethane and carbon dioxide.
C apachos:A Spanish term used to referto sm allcarts used in m anualcollection.
C atador:A Portuguese term m eaning w aste picker.
C om pacting:The m anualorm echanicalreduction ofthe volum e ofw aste by increasing its density under
pressure.
C ontam ination:The presence in the environm entofany physical,chem icalorbiologicalagentora
com bination ofthese w hich is harm fulto hum an beings,anim als orplants,orw hose presence reduces the
purity ofcertain m aterials and/orrenders them unfitforsale oruse in production processes.
C ooperative:A n econom ic unitw hich is form ally organised in accordance w ith the regulations concerning
cooperatives in its country oflocation.
C over m aterial:Earth,dirt,gravel,com postorotherinertm aterialused to coverthe exposed surface of
the w aste in a landfill,usually on a regular(daily orw eekly)basis.
D ensity:The relationship ofthe w eightofthe solid w aste to its volum e,usually expressed as the ratio of
kg/m 3.
D um p:A place w here solid w aste is indiscrim inately dum ped in the open w ithoutofany type oftechnical
orsanitary treatm ent.
Finaldisposal:(also,disposal)The ultim ate destination ofsolid w aste:the finalpartofthe solid w aste
cycle.
G alpao:A Portuguese term used to referto a centre orshed used forthe storage ofrecyclable m aterials.
G arbage can:Containerused to store solid w aste.G arbage:Com m on nam e given to solid w aste.
G uajero:A Spanish term used to referto a person w ho recovers recyclable orreusable m aterialin the
solid w aste disposalsites.
H azardous w aste:W aste w hich because ofits corrosive,reactive,explosive,toxic,inflam m able and/or
pathogenic characteristics is capable ofcausing dangerto hum an health orthe environm ent.Itrequires
specialhandling.
H idden benefits or subsidies:Sources ofsupportforits operations oradm inistration w hich a M SE/Coop
enjoys w ithouthaving to pay outofpocket,such as use ofthe ow ners'assets.Som eone orsom e institution
is usually subsidising these benefits,eitherw illingly (as in the case ofusing the ow nersassets)orunder
170
duress,as in the case w here w orkers w ho are notreceiving theirsocialservice orhealth benefits are
subsidising the M SE/Coop's labourcosts.
H idden costs:These are costs w hich are notexplicitorw hich are hidden in the econom ic-financial
reports,butw hich m ostM SE/Coops have.In som e cases these hidden costs create the im pression ofprofit
w here the enterprise is actually suffering from a loss.
Incineration:A controlled high tem perature therm aloxidation process in w hich the w aste is com busted
w ith resulting residualgasses and incom bustible residues,w hich in som e countries are classified as
hazardous.The flue and com bustion gas is released to die atm osphere (often afterithas been cleaned and
precipitated onto lim e)and the solids are disposed ofin a landfill.
Itinerantw aste buyer:A person w ho goes doorto doorobtaining postconsum ergoods and m aterials by
gift,barterorsale.Landfill:Place w here the finaldisposalofsolid w aste is carried outby burying itunder
the surface ofthe ground in a controlled environm entw hich has been excavated and/orprepared using
engineering techniques.This m ay include placing the w aste in a trench,cell,hole,orotherdefined area,
com pacting it,covering itw ith earth oranotherinertm aterialatleastonce a day,and m aintaining control
ofproduction,m igration,and release ofgases,vapours,and leachates.Its purpose is to accom plish
disposalw hile avoiding contam ination ofthe environm entand w hile protecting the health ofthe
population.
Leachate:Liquid w hich seeps outofsolid w aste.Itis com prised ofa m ixture of:the w aterfrom
precipitation ordrainage;m oisture occurring in orproduced from the w aste and the decom position of
organic m aterial;ground
orsurface w atercom ing into contactw ith the w aste;and liquid m aterials (paints,chem icals,oils,w ash
w ater)w hich have been disposed ofas w aste.Itaccum ulates dissolved and suspended m aterials,
especially m etals.
M echanised landfill:A landfillw here m echanicalequipm entis used.Itis recom m ended forareas w ith a
population ofm ore than 30,000 inhabitants.
M icro-enterprise:A n econom ic unitorganised to offerservices orto buy and sellcom m odities.A s used
in this book,itis usually inform al,and can take the form ofa partnership,civic association orjoint
venture.The ow neris generally also a w orker.Its purpose is to produce a livelihood forthe ow nerand the
w orkers
ideally one w hich involves earnings above the levelthatw ould resultfrom m inim um w age em ploym ent.
O pen air burning:U ncontrolled and incom plete com bustion ofm ixed solid w aste orw aste-derived
m aterials in open fire on the ground,in barrels,oron open hearths orfireplaces.This produces gas and
particles w hich contam inate the air.
Pathogenic or infectious w aste:W aste w hich contains m icro-organism s orbiologicalorchem icaltoxins
capable ofproducing diseases.
Pepenador:A Spanish term used to referto tiiose w ho recoverw aste from open dum ps orcontrolled
landfills and sellthe recovered volum es to the m icro
enterprises,usually on a daily basis.
Pica pollo:From the Spanish:"Picking Chicken":Refers to m unicipalw orkers w ho collectlitterfrom
171
m ain streets,parks,and public areas by spearing the litterw ith an iron rod.
Piecew ork:M ethod ofpaym entby the unitofproduct,ratherthan by the am ountoftim e w orked.This
approach m ay be used in the sorting M SB/Coops to pay the papergraders.
R ecovery:The rescue ofw aste from disposalforreuse.This usually im plies its sorting,w hich m eans its
separation,classification and processing to im prove the quality orincrease the m arketvalue.
R ecycling:The process oftransform ing recovered and sorted m aterialinto interm ediate m aterials (such as
crushed glass orground orextruded plastic)orinto finalproducts forconsum erorindustrialconsum ption.
Itcan also be defined as the process in w hich sorted w aste is reincorporated in the productive cycle as a
(secondary)raw m aterial.
Self-em ployed:Refers to individuals w ho spontaneously take the initiative to create theirow n livelihood.
They generally w ork w ith the help ofim m ediate fam ily m em bers and have very few assets.
Set-O ut:The stage ofw aste m anagem entw here the residents ofbusinesses puttheirw aste outon the
street,curb,steps,orthe like,forcollection.The containerused to contain the w aste so itcan be collection
is referred to as a set-outcontainer.
Sm allenterprise:A form ally organised econom ic unitw hich can be a partnership,civic association or
other.Ithas m ore specialised m anagem entbecause ithas developed a definite business culture.
Solid w aste:A heterogeneous m ixture ofallthe solid and sem i-solid m aterials w hich have been discarded
from hum an activities in households,businesses,industries,streetsw eeping,health establishm ents,
m arkets and others institutions.
Solid w aste m anagem ent:A system atic setofactions directed tow ards handling the m aterials discarded
by households,businesses,institutions and otherpublic and private entities in such a w ay as to (a)collect
orrem ove the w aste from its pointofgeneration in an organised m anner;(2)preventinjuries and risks to
hum an health and the environm ent;and (3)provide a reliable urban service w hich is (usually)paid forby
its users.In this book,solid w aste m anagem entis used to include the activities ofw aste collection,w aste
recovery (atsource,during transportation,in the streets and atfinaldisposal)and the recycling or
transform ation ofm aterial.Italso includes public education to fosterthe spread ofincreased aw areness
and enlightened attitudes concerning w aste;forexam ple,its m inim isation.The environm entally sound and
sustainable m anagem entofsolid w aste im plies an integrated solid w aste m anagem entapproach.
Source separation and recovery:The separation,set-out,collection orpurchase ofrecyclable m aterial,
such as paper,atsource,thatis,from the household orbusiness w here itis generated,and before the
collection phase ofthe solid w aste cycle.
SW O T analysis:A nalysis ofthe Strengths,W eaknesses,O pportunities and Threats ofan enterprise,
projectoractivity.
Transporter:Private individualorlegalentity responsible forthe transportation ofthe w aste.
Treatm ent:A ny physical,chem ical,therm ic orbiologicalprocess w hose objective is to reduce or
elim inate the dangers,hazards,nuisances,orotherproblem s caused by w aste,orto change its characterto
m ake itm ore easily m anageable orto increase its com m ercialvalue.
Trocket:N am e (Spanish)given to a specialdolly forsacks.
172
W aste m anagem ent:The activities ranging from the sw eeping and cleaning ofstreets and public
areas,to prim ary and secondary collection and the finaldisposalofsolid w aste.Prim ary collection
includes the collection ofsolid w aste atits source and its transportation to interm ediate collection points
ortransferstations.Secondary collection is the transportation ofthe solid w aste from the interm ediate
collection points ortransferstations to the finaldisposalsite.
W aste:D iscarded m aterialorgroup ofm aterials resulting from any process oroperation w hich has been
defined by its disposeras no longerhaving value to him orher.
W aste picker:A person w ho picks outrecyclables from m ixed w aste w hereveritm ay be (tem porarily)
accessible ordisposed of.W aste processing:A setofactivities aim ed atthe handling ofw aste and the
changing ofits physical(and occasionally chem ical)characterin orderto directitto reuse,recycling,
industrialproduction orfinaldisposal.
173
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IPES
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1996
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1994
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1996
M icroem presasy Cooperativas en G estion de Residues Solidos en Am erica Latino-.Estudio de
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1996
M icroem presas y Cooperatives en G estion de Residues Solidos en Am erica Latina.Estudio de
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1995
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1996
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1995
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Printed in Peru
A liarte grafico
publicaciones S.R.L.B 348 4782
177

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