Boys` Use of Technology in the Middle Years

Transcription

Boys’ Use of Technology in the Middle Years:
A Home–School Comparison
A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of
Philosophy
Janet Carroll
University of Canberra
2013
Abstract
This study investigated the interaction of boys in middle school with technology at home and
at school. The study’s main purpose was to provide an account of boys’ interactions and
engagement with many and varied forms of technology across the domains of home and
school with a view to considering the implications for literacy learning. The study drew on
three participant groups, the boys themselves, their parents and their teachers, to understand
the actions, attitudes and expectations of each in relation to technology and literate practices.
Techtivity, a key concept in this study (a combination of the words technology and activity), is
defined as any actions resulting from boys’ engagement with a variety of technological
devices at home and at school. The study draws on the theoretical perspectives offered by the
New Literacy Studies, which declare technology to be socially situated and central to the
literacies required for full participation in society (Coiro, Knobel, Lankshear and Leu, 2008;
Leu, 2002). Further, incumbent on schools is the need to incorporate a variety of technologies
effectively for quality teaching and learning. A research gap exists in harnessing the benefits
of technology to support boys’ literacy outcomes, drawing on the social, cultural and personal
experiences boys bring to school from their digitally literate out-of-school activities (Alloway,
Dalley-Trim, Gilbert and Trist, 2006; Burnett, 2009; Warrington and Younger, 2006).
Significant trends have emerged that have identified the difficulties that boys face in society
in general, and particularly with literacy (Brozo, 2009; NAPLAN, 2012; OECD PISA, 2010;
Wilhelm, 2010). This study aims to explore and chronicle the possibilities and opportunities
of capturing boys’ interactions with technology, and the uses, meanings, values, attitudes and
relationships they derive from it. By also considering the perspectives of boys’ parents and
teachers, the findings of this study will contribute to better literacy outcomes for boys in
middle school.
The investigation utilised multiple case study design with an ethnographic, qualitative
research orientation. Participants included 27 boys in middle school (aged 10 to 14 years), 45
parents and 15 teachers, recruited from two schools in Canberra in the Australian Capital
Territory (ACT). The participants represented a range of cultural and economic backgrounds
from two education sectors (Catholic and Independent). Data were generated through
observation in classrooms and homes; in-depth interviews with all participants; a survey
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instrument encompassing 405 boys; and the collection of artefacts. Eighty-eight cases were
conducted. Grounded theory was used for analysis, which included coding transcripts, field
notes and artefacts in a recursive, iterative manner, and frequency analysis and the coding of
survey results.
The findings suggest that out-of-school literacies, particularly online gaming, provide many
opportunities for boys to develop literacy skills in a social, collaborative way. Boys in this age
group transfer and employ skills learned and practiced in the game world across contexts
when given the opportunity. Significantly, the gaming world is a world in which literate
behaviour is a requirement for success and boys’ passion motivates their engagement. The
boys demonstrated a willingness and enthusiasm for sharing their skills, not only with each
other but also with their teachers and parents when given the chance. Findings suggest that
boys who come from homes in which parents provide access to digital tools and engage in
gaming with their sons are at an advantage. Boys who have firm boundaries in terms of time
and access, as well as high parental expectations, also appeared to be more engaged with
using technology for learning. Boys in this study reported enjoying reading more than
previous research, NAPLAN and PISA statistics would indicate.
A rich seam of opportunity for literacy among boys exists if parents and teachers can find a
way to bridge the gap between boys’ use of literacy for gaming success and how technology
is used for literacy learning in the classroom. For parents, this means providing access to
digital tools and books and instilling high expectations of boys’ literacy practices at home.
Barriers to success in fostering such an environment include feelings of nostalgia linked to the
place of traditional book-based literate practices at home and in the classroom, and the tension
and apprehension that parents feel about how to parent digital natives with a view to ensuring
their sons’ future success. This is understood as the drive and drag of new and old
technologies. Teachers expressed similar views on boys’ use of technology to those of
parents, but on balance, they perceived the benefits of teaching with technology as
outweighing the barriers. There is much opportunity for engaging boys with the combination
of digital texts, books and multimedia, and harnessing the enthusiasm with which boys
engage in the online world. This study suggests that educators need to discover what is
actually happening in peer cultures by getting alongside the boys in their classes and
becoming familiar with the symbols, practices and artefacts that define this generation. The
rewards will be mutually beneficial and have ready implications for improving boys’ literacy.
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Acknowledgements
The journey of a thesis is one of endurance, sacrifice, patience and creativity, not only for the
author but also for those whose support enables the undertaking. My deepest, heartfelt love
and gratitude to my wonderfully supportive, patient and encouraging husband, Simon, who
remains my steadfast friend, sounding board and sustainer—this is for you. To my amazingly
wonderful, priceless children David, Stephen and Bridget, who understood the hours when I
went missing as their mother and urged me on to completion—this is for you. To my parents
Ian and Wendy, who travelled the PhD road a few decades ago, for their deep interest, love
and support and for modelling for me the never-give-up-do-your-best philosophy that enabled
the completion of this project—this is for you. To my sisters Glenda and Felicity and their
families who encouraged me from afar—it is now done.
Full thanks to my inspiring supervisor, Dr Kaye Lowe for generously sharing her formidable
knowledge as she kindly steered, challenged and encouraged me on the journey. Thanks too
to Dr Phil Fitzsimmons whose experience and encouragement were always there on which to
draw. Special thanks to my advisor Dr Steve Shann who is the best listener and who always
urged me to find my voice and use it. Thanks to the Faculty of Education at the University of
Canberra, for the financial and practical support and Elite Editing who edited this thesis
according to the Australian Standards for Editing Practice (Standards D and E).
To the boys and their parents who so generously gave of their time, expertise and opinion and
to the inspiring teachers and school executives of the research sites who made this study
possible, my grateful thanks. It has been a pleasure being part of your world and sharing the
journey with you.
Finally, thanks to my precious circle of friends whose love, listening ears and prayers brought
balance and strength, my gratitude to living the journey with me: Jan, Margot, Penny, Leanne,
Alison, Drewe, Argi, Lee and Deb.
Those who hope in the Lord will renew their strength. They will soar on wings like eagles;
they will run and not grow weary, they will walk and not be faint. Isaiah 40:31 (NIV)
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Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................................. i
Form B: Certificate of Authorship of Thesis ..................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ...............................................................................................................v
Contents ............................................................................................................................. vii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xiii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... xv
List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... xvii
Chapter 1. Introduction to the Study...................................................................................1
1.1. Introduction..................................................................................................................1
1.2. Research Questions ......................................................................................................2
1.3. Rationale ......................................................................................................................2
1.3.1. Digital Literacies are the Core of Future Instruction ...............................................3
1.3.2. The Divide between Home and School Technological Practices is Widening .........4
1.3.2.1. Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games .........................................5
1.3.2.2. First Person Shooter Games ............................................................................6
1.3.3. Technology is Changing Literacy Practices and Needs to be Monitored Over
Time Because Currently There is a Paradigm Shift from Print to Digital Literacy ....6
1.3.4. An Examination of the Connections and Disconnections between Boys’ Use of
Technology at Home and School Has Implications for Pedagogy in Middle
School Classrooms ..................................................................................................7
1.4. Background to the Study ..............................................................................................9
1.4.1. Political and Economic Landscape: Impacts on Classrooms ................................. 10
1.4.2. Technology in Society ......................................................................................... 13
1.4.3. Boys’ Education .................................................................................................. 14
1.5. The Study................................................................................................................... 16
1.5.1. Site ...................................................................................................................... 16
1.5.1.1. School Systems in the Australian Capital Territory ........................................ 17
1.5.1.2. School Sites (Pseudonyms Used).................................................................... 19
1.5.2. Participants ..........................................................................................................19
1.5.2.1. Boys ..............................................................................................................20
1.5.2.2. Parents ..........................................................................................................21
1.5.2.3. Teachers ........................................................................................................ 22
1.6. Chapter Conclusion .................................................................................................... 23
Chapter 2. Review of the Literature .................................................................................. 25
2.1. Introduction................................................................................................................25
2.2. Middle School as Context........................................................................................... 26
2.3. The Focus on Boys ..................................................................................................... 28
2.3.1. Research into Boys’ Education ............................................................................ 30
2.3.2. Effective Pedagogy for Boys ................................................................................32
2.4. The New Literacies .................................................................................................... 35
2.4.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 35
2.4.2. New Literacy Studies ........................................................................................... 37
2.4.3. New Literacies and School Practices .................................................................... 42
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2.4.4. A Note on Authenticity ........................................................................................ 44
2.4.5. How do Boys Learn? ........................................................................................... 45
2.4.5.1. ‘Real’ ............................................................................................................ 45
2.4.5.2. ‘Authentic’..................................................................................................... 46
2.4.5.3. ‘Social’..........................................................................................................46
2.4.5.4. ‘Liminal’ ....................................................................................................... 47
2.4.5.5. ‘Relational’ ................................................................................................... 48
2.4.5.6. ‘Substantive’.................................................................................................. 48
2.4.6. Boys and Gaming ................................................................................................ 49
2.4.7. Benefits of Gaming for Boys................................................................................54
2.4.7.1. Affective Benefits ........................................................................................... 54
2.4.7.2. Cognitive Benefits.......................................................................................... 54
2.4.8. Gaming and Education ......................................................................................... 56
2.4.9. New Literacies and Social Networking ................................................................ 58
2.5. The Home–School Connection ................................................................................... 60
2.5.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 60
2.5.2. The Role of Fathers.............................................................................................. 64
2.5.3. Home–School Connection, Technology and Pedagogy......................................... 65
2.6. Chapter Conclusion .................................................................................................... 67
Chapter 3. Methodology ..................................................................................................... 69
3.1. Introduction................................................................................................................69
3.2. Primary and Supporting Questions Investigated.......................................................... 70
3.3. Interpretative Paradigm .............................................................................................. 70
3.4. Case Study and Ethnography ...................................................................................... 72
3.5. Study Overview ......................................................................................................... 74
3.5.1. Units of Analysis ................................................................................................. 74
3.6. Integrated Data Sources for Study: The Contexts ........................................................ 76
3.7. Research Sites ............................................................................................................ 79
3.7.1. St John’s Primary................................................................................................. 80
3.7.2. Red Hill College .................................................................................................. 81
3.8. Participants ................................................................................................................83
3.8.1. Boys in this Study ................................................................................................ 84
3.8.1.1. St John’s........................................................................................................ 85
3.8.1.2. Red Hill College ............................................................................................ 90
3.8.2. Parents ................................................................................................................. 95
3.8.3. Teachers ..............................................................................................................96
3.9. Characteristics of Case Study as Applied to this Study ...............................................97
3.9.1. Establishing Trustworthiness ............................................................................. 100
3.10. Data Collection ...................................................................................................... 104
3.11. Participant Observation .......................................................................................... 106
3.11.1. St John’s Observation ...................................................................................... 106
3.11.2. Red Hill College .............................................................................................. 107
3.11.3. Observation in Homes ...................................................................................... 107
3.11.4. Interviews ........................................................................................................ 108
3.12. Artefacts................................................................................................................. 112
3.13. Field Notes ............................................................................................................. 113
3.14. Data Analysis Framework and Process ................................................................... 115
3.15. Application of Grounded Theory Actions to this Study........................................... 118
3.15.1. Conduct Data Collection and Analysis Simultaneously in an Iterative Process . 118
3.15.2. Construct Codes and Categories from Data ...................................................... 119
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3.15.3. Use the Constant Comparative Method ............................................................ 120
3.15.4. Draw on Data in Service of Developing New Conceptual Categories ............... 121
3.15.4.1. Boys .......................................................................................................... 122
3.15.4.2. Parents ...................................................................................................... 123
3.15.4.3. Teachers .................................................................................................... 127
3.16. Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................ 128
Chapter 4. Boys’ Perspectives: Techtivity and Literacy ................................................. 129
4.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 129
4.2. Boys and Techtivity ................................................................................................. 129
4.2.1. Why Do Boys Play Games? ............................................................................... 130
4.2.2. Devices Most Often Used .................................................................................. 132
4.2.3. Frequency of Game Play .................................................................................... 134
4.2.4. Games Boys Play ............................................................................................... 137
4.2.5. Intrinsic Rewards of Game Play ......................................................................... 142
4.2.5.1. Engaged and Entertained ............................................................................ 142
4.2.5.2. Positive Feelings of Happiness and Friendship............................................ 144
4.2.5.3. Sense of Achievement .................................................................................. 145
4.2.5.4. In Control away from Real Life ................................................................... 147
4.2.5.5. Physical Response ....................................................................................... 148
4.2.6. Gaming and Literacy ......................................................................................... 149
4.3. Boys as Readers ....................................................................................................... 151
4.3.1. Self-Perception .................................................................................................. 153
4.3.1.1. Choice of Books........................................................................................... 156
4.3.1.2. Time to Read ............................................................................................... 159
4.3.1.3. Reading Fluency.......................................................................................... 159
4.3.2. Preference for Books or Online Reading? .......................................................... 160
4.3.2.1. Physical Characteristics of Books................................................................ 162
4.3.2.2. Books are User-Friendly ............................................................................. 162
4.3.2.3. Books are ‘Healthier’ .................................................................................. 164
4.3.2.4. Boys who Prefer Online Reading ................................................................. 164
4.4. Boys as Writers ........................................................................................................ 166
4.4.1. Writing Online ................................................................................................... 168
4.5. Chapter Conclusion .................................................................................................. 171
Chapter 5. Parents’ Perspective: Techtivity at Home and School .................................. 173
5.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 173
5.1.1. Drive and Drag of New and Old Technologies ................................................... 173
5.1.2. School Issues and Perspectives .......................................................................... 174
5.2. The Drive and Drag of Technology .......................................................................... 174
5.2.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 174
5.2.2. Access ............................................................................................................... 175
5.2.2.1. Number and Type of Access to Technology .................................................. 175
5.2.2.2. Location Facilitates Access ......................................................................... 178
5.2.2.3. Frequency of Access .................................................................................... 179
5.2.2.4. Rules around Access .................................................................................... 183
5.2.3. Time and Techtivity ........................................................................................... 187
5.2.4. Content and Techtivity ....................................................................................... 191
5.2.5. Critical Literacy and Sources of Information ...................................................... 192
5.2.6. Social Media ...................................................................................................... 195
5.2.6.1. Sanitised Vicarious Experience of Life......................................................... 196
5.3. School Issues and Perspectives ................................................................................. 198
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5.3.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 198
5.3.2. Opportunities for Teaching and Learning with Technology ................................ 199
5.3.2.1. Opportunities for Teaching .......................................................................... 199
5.3.2.2. Opportunities for Learning .......................................................................... 202
5.3.3. Barriers to Teaching and Learning with Technology .......................................... 204
5.3.3.1. Depth v. Breadth ......................................................................................... 205
5.3.3.2. One Size Fits All .......................................................................................... 206
5.3.3.3. Home–School Connection............................................................................ 207
5.3.3.4. Inconsistent Approach ................................................................................. 208
5.3.3.5. Pace of Change ........................................................................................... 211
5.3.4. Literacy at School .............................................................................................. 212
Chapter 6. Teachers’ Perspective: Classroom Interface ................................................. 219
6.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 219
6.1.1. Boys’ Interactions with Technology ................................................................... 221
6.1.2. The Nature of Teaching and Learning with Technology ..................................... 221
6.2. Boys’ Interactions with Technology ......................................................................... 221
6.2.1. Boys Love Technology ...................................................................................... 222
6.2.2. Boys’ Skills and Technology ............................................................................. 226
6.2.3. Boys and Critical Literacy ................................................................................. 229
6.2.4. Technology is Changing Boys’ Reading ............................................................ 232
6.2.5. Boys Enjoy Choice ............................................................................................ 234
6.2.6. The Connection between Technology, Good Readers and Academic Success .... 235
6.2.7. Need to Integrate Technology and Books ........................................................... 236
6.2.8. Technology, Literacy and Teacher Practice ........................................................ 239
6.2.8.1. St John’s Primary ........................................................................................ 239
6.2.8.2. Red Hill College .......................................................................................... 246
6.3. The Nature of Teaching and Learning with Technology ........................................... 249
6.3.1. School Resources ............................................................................................... 250
6.3.2. The Up-Side ...................................................................................................... 252
6.3.2.1. Access to Vast and Varied Resources ........................................................... 253
6.3.2.2. Opportunity to Teach Critical and Visual Literacy ...................................... 253
6.3.2.3. Collaborative Teaching and Learning Opportunities ................................... 253
6.3.2.4. Move to Mobile ........................................................................................... 256
6.3.2.5. Exciting Opportunities for Interactive Lessons ............................................ 257
6.3.2.6. Students become Independent Learners, Inquisitive and Internationally
Minded ......................................................................................................... 259
6.3.2.7. Technology Enables Differentiation ............................................................. 260
6.3.2.8. Opportunity to Foster Creativity and Innovation ......................................... 261
6.3.2.9. Behaviour Management Tool ....................................................................... 261
6.3.3. The Down-Side .................................................................................................. 263
6.3.3.1. Time ............................................................................................................ 264
6.3.3.2. Reliability and Access .................................................................................. 266
6.3.3.3. Lack of Technical Skills and Knowledge ...................................................... 268
6.3.3.4. Control ........................................................................................................ 269
6.3.3.5. Social Interactions ....................................................................................... 270
Chapter 7. Conclusion: A Confluence of Perspectives .................................................... 273
7.1. Boys’ Interactions with Technology at Home and at School ..................................... 275
7.2. Findings on Boys from this Study............................................................................. 278
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7.3. Benefits of Online Engagement for Literacy Learning .............................................. 279
7.4. Disadvantages of Online Engagement for Literacy Learning .................................... 280
7.4.1. Parents ............................................................................................................... 280
7.4.2. Teachers ............................................................................................................ 281
7.5. Harnessing Boys’ Positive Responses to Techtivity .................................................. 281
7.5.1. Skills ................................................................................................................. 281
7.5.2. Attitudes ............................................................................................................ 282
7.5.3. Practices ............................................................................................................ 283
7.6. Boys’ Use of Technology and the Curriculum .......................................................... 284
7.6.1. Teachers’ Perspective ........................................................................................ 284
7.7. Findings from the Teachers’ Perspective .................................................................. 285
7.7.1. Technology ........................................................................................................ 285
7.7.2. Literacy ............................................................................................................. 288
7.8. Findings from the Parents’ Perspective ..................................................................... 289
7.8.1. Techtivity .......................................................................................................... 290
7.8.2. Literacy ............................................................................................................. 291
7.9. Recommendations: Future Research ......................................................................... 292
7.10. Concluding Thoughts ............................................................................................. 293
Appendices ........................................................................................................................ 295
Appendix A: Interview Questions for Boys ..................................................................... 295
Appendix B: Student Questionnaire on Reading and Writing Practices ........................... 297
Appendix C: Interview Questions for Parents Selected for In-depth Case Study .............. 299
Appendix D: Interview Questions for Teachers ............................................................... 301
Appendix E: Participant Information Form—Parents/Carers for School/Home Consent 303
Appendix F: Participant Information Form—Teachers .................................................... 307
Appendix G: Vignettes St John’s Boys ............................................................................ 311
Appendix H: Vignettes Red Hill College Boys ................................................................ 315
References ......................................................................................................................... 319
Games Mentioned by Boys ............................................................................................ 343
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List of Figures
Figure 3.1: Elements of the Research Design ........................................................................ 69
Figure 3.2: Units of Analysis ................................................................................................ 76
Figure 3.3: Integrated Data Sources ...................................................................................... 78
Figure 3.4: Multiple Methods, Perspectives and Contexts ................................................... 102
Figure 3.5: Example of Broad Conceptual Categories ......................................................... 122
Figure 3.6: Conceptual Categories, Boys ............................................................................ 124
Figure 3.7: Conceptual Categories, Parents (Home) ............................................................ 125
Figure 3.8: Conceptual Categories, Parents (School) ........................................................... 126
Figure 3.9: Conceptual Categories, Teachers ...................................................................... 127
Figure 4.1: Boys’ Enjoyment of Reading ............................................................................ 152
Figure 4.2: Boys’ Preferences for Reading a Book or Online .............................................. 161
Figure 4.3: Online Writing Preference ................................................................................ 169
Figure 5.1: The Home–School Connection ......................................................................... 216
Figure 6.1: Teachers’ Observations on Boys and Technology ............................................. 222
Figure 6.2: Force Field Diagram Representing Teacher Attitudes ....................................... 250
Figure 7.1: Perspectives on Technology and Literacy ......................................................... 274
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List of Tables
Table 1.1: Participants: Boys ................................................................................................ 20
Table 1.2: Participants: Parents ............................................................................................. 21
Table 1.3: Participants: Teachers .......................................................................................... 22
Table 3.1: ICSEA Ranking by School ................................................................................... 83
Table 3.2: Participants by School .......................................................................................... 84
Table 3.3: Summary Data Table, Participants from St John’s Primary, Year 5 ...................... 86
Table 3.4: Summary Data Table, Participants from St John’s, Year 6 ................................... 89
Table 3.5: Summary Data Table, Participants from Red Hill College, Year 7 ........................ 91
Table 3.6: Summary Data Table, Participants from Red Hill, Year 8..................................... 94
Table 3.7: Data Collection Process ..................................................................................... 105
Table 3.8: Data Generation Sources .................................................................................... 106
Table 3.9: Number of Participants Interviewed ................................................................... 108
Table 3.10: Number of Students Surveyed by Year Group .................................................. 112
Table 3.11: Examples of Preliminary Conceptual Categories .............................................. 116
Table 3.12: Preliminary Coding Themes ............................................................................. 118
Table 4.1: Reasons Boys Play Games ................................................................................. 130
Table 4.2: Devices Owned, by Year Group ......................................................................... 132
Table 4.3: Frequency of Game Play .................................................................................... 134
Table 4.4: Genres of Games and Frequency of Play ............................................................ 138
Table 6.1: The Upside of Teaching with Technology .......................................................... 252
Table 6.2: The Down Side of Teaching with Technology .................................................... 264
Table 7.1: Benefits to Literacy Learning from Game Play................................................... 280
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List of Abbreviations
ABS
Australian Bureau of Statistics
ACARA
Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority
ACT
Australian Capital Territory
ALEA
Australian Literacy Educators Association
ATAR
Australian Tertiary Admission Ranking
BELS
Boys’ Education Lighthouse Schools
BER
Building the Education Revolution
DEAW
Drop Everything and Write
DER
Digital Education Revolution
ICSEA
Index of Community Socio-educational Advantage
ICT
information and communication technologies
IWB
interactive whiteboard
MMORPG
massively multiplayer online role-playing games
NBN
National Broadband Network
NSW
New South Wales
OECD
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
RPG
role-playing games
SES
socioeconomic status
SMS
short message service
WWE
World Wrestling Entertainment
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1. Introduction to the Study
1.1. Introduction
The ascendency of technology has had a wide reaching and pervasive influence on
contemporary society, and children are often at the forefront of adoption and interaction. The
technologies that are found in homes and schools are continuously emerging and evolving and
research in this area is struggling to keep up. In this context, this study investigates the central
question of:
How do boys in middle school interact with technology at home and at school?
The broader research field in which this study occurred, and which provided a context,
perspective and understanding through which to view boys’ interactions with technology, was
literacy and English middle school classrooms. By gaining perspectives of boys, parents and
teachers, this case study aims to capture the concerns and opportunities that the Internet and
associated new literacies offer, through a multi-generational lens within the context of the
‘third space’ (Moje, 2002). I have used the word techtivity, a combination of technology and
activity, to describe all forms of activity, using a range of digital devices both at home and at
school, with which boys engage for entertainment and learning. For the purposes of this
research study, Larson and Keiper’s (2007) definition of technology, which includes the use
of hypermedia and multimedia, is employed:
Modern electronic resources that are found in classrooms and in the home that
can be used for teaching and learning. Most of these are digitally orientated
resources typically found on computers and other handheld devices (p. 24).
The New Literacy Studies provide an expansive socio-cultural approach to the study of
language and literacy in everyday life (O’Brien and Scharber, 2008). The new literacies as a
theoretical basis are defined as being ‘grounded in the social practices of the Internet and
other ICT [information and communication technologies] opportunities and the contexts and
conditions under which these social practices occur, develop and evolve’ (Coiro et al., 2008,
p. 12). Therefore, there is a reciprocal relationship between changing technologies and
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emerging literacy practices that requires new attitudes, as well as skills and strategies based
on collaboration and social relationships (Chandler-Olcott, 2009). Lankshear and Knobel
(2003) add that the new literacies include ways of creating meaning that are relatively new in
chronological terms and/or that are (or will be) new to being recognised as literacies. In other
words, the New Literacy Studies seek to understand and document the ways in which
meaning is made through literacy as a social practice in light of the technological world in
which we live. These changes have implications for instruction, assessment, professional
development and research (International Reading Association, 2009).
1.2. Research Questions
This research is orientated around answering the primary question: How do boys in middle
school interact with technology at home and at school? Other interrelated questions seek to
uncover emerging practices and to theorise them in a flexible and appropriate way within
socio-cultural contexts. Additional questions include:
i.
What are the benefits (if any) of online engagement for boys in middle school?
ii.
What are the disadvantages (if any) of online engagement for boys in middle school?
iii.
What impact does boys’ engagement in online worlds have on pedagogy?
iv.
What are the similarities and differences in the skills, attitudes and practices that boys
display when using technology in the school context and the home context, and how
can educators and parents harness them?
1.3. Rationale
There are four fundamental reasons for undertaking this study, based largely on the work of
new literacies researchers (Coiro et al., 2008) and my observations as a teacher and academic.
In summary:
i.
Digital literacies are the core of future instruction.
ii.
The divide between home and school technological practices is widening.
iii.
Technology is changing literacy practices and requires monitoring over time because
currently there is a paradigm shift from print to digital literacy.
2
iv.
An examination of the connections and disconnections between boys’ use of
technology at home and school has implications for pedagogy in middle school
classrooms.
The following sub-sections provide a detailed explanation of these reasons.
1.3.1. Digital Literacies are the Core of Future Instruction
Digital literacies are situated within the dynamic framework of the New Literacy Studies and
include the composition of multimodal texts. O’Brien and Scharber (2008) define digital
literacies as:
Socially situated practices supported by skills, strategies and stances that
enable the representation and understanding of ideas using a range of
modalities enabled by digital tools. Digital literacies enable the bridging and
complementing of traditional print literacies with other media (pp. 66–67).
According to Chase and Laufenberg (2011) digital literacies enable students to interact with
‘multiple, authentic texts navigating them by using numerous tools and code switching to
understand the writing of multiple authors on a single subject’ (p. 536). In so doing, students
learn to read beyond the printed page. Like the digital literacies themselves, their definition is
fluid and evolves in response to the creativity that the Internet affords.
Researchers agree that there is a need for the preparation of students for the future using
digital literacy and its corresponding literacy learning opportunities (Coiro et al., 2008). Leu
(2001b) discusses how traditional definitions of literacy and instructional practices will be
insufficient to equip students for the future in which digital literacy is a prerequisite.
Lankshear and Knobel (2003) comment that there is far too little research in the area of the
skills and strategies required to effectively use technology in the classroom, while Jenkins et
al. (2006) contend that there is a need for a better understanding of the technological world of
students.
Teachers are increasingly being required to engage with the new literacies and incorporate
these into the classroom. The International Reading Association (2009) posits that:
3
To become fully literate in today’s world, students must become proficient in
the new literacies of 21st Century technologies. As a result, literacy educators
have a responsibility to effectively integrate these new technologies into the
curriculum, preparing students for the literacy future they deserve.
November (2010), who is recognised internationally as a leader in education technology,
argues that the widespread application of technology can transform schools, assist students
with disabilities and provide them with real opportunities for learning in mainstream
environments, provide equitable access to students from disadvantaged backgrounds and
create new opportunities for educators to build communities of best practice. He further
argues that technology has the potential to transform education with the idea that
‘anytime/anywhere learning at a reasonable cost is achievable’ (November, 2010, p. 2). From
this point of view, technology is simply a tool that enables students to assume more
responsibility for managing their own learning, based on an expansion of collegial and
community relationships and the notion that creating authentic audiences rather than
assigning grades is the new role and skill base of the teacher (November, 2010, pp. 2–3).
Researchers agree that research into the nexus regarding literacy and technology has a long
way to go (Burton and Bartlett, 2009; Harris, 2011; McNabb, 2005; Oakley and Jay, 2008).
This is due in part to the fact that classrooms are complex places in which to conduct
research, and ethical issues influence access to students’ home technology practices. While
research in technology integration and hardware access in schools is prevalent, the literature
base is far from clear on best practice and lacks substantial evidence about the effects of these
practices on students’ literacy development (Burton and Bartlett, 2009; Gee, 2003; McNabb,
2005). According to McNabb (2005) and Harris (2011), therefore questions concerning the
effect of digital texts on reading and writing processes and skill development, particularly in
the middle years, need to form the basis of future literacy research.
1.3.2. The Divide between Home and School Technological Practices is Widening
Technology permeates young people’s lives and daily routines, yet Dede (2005) and
Goodwyn (2011) found that there is a partition between the technology used in everyday life
and that used in many classroom settings. This was confirmed more recently by Australian
researchers Kervin and Mantei (2009). However, first-hand information about boys’ out-of4
school lives is difficult to find, particularly in relation to technology and literacy (Nichols and
Cormack, 2009). Edwards (2006) and Goodwyn (2011) call for more research into the area of
technology and home literacies.
According to the 2011 Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) census data, 363,800 people
currently reside in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), where this study took place. Of
these, the highest proportion, at 18.7 per cent, falls into the 0–14 age category, of which threequarters have access to the Internet in their home environment (ABS, 2011b). Despite the
high percentage of Internet access among this new generation, Tarasiuk (2010) writes that
schools have been slow to acknowledge students’ involvement in information and
communication technologies (ICT) as a respected form of literacy. Bulfin and North (2007)
urge further research to ‘retheorise’ the relationship between home and school in light of new
technologies and practices, to encourage and draw on the rich and complex ways in which
young people interact with literacy and technology (p. 260).
Examples of the technological practices with which boys are engaging at home coalesce
around gaming literacies, which include massively multiplayer online role-playing games
(MMORPGs) and role-playing games (RPGs). The activity of choice for boys in this study
using technology was gaming on a variety of devices. The following definitions are given to
assist the reader in understanding the types of games identified in this study.
1.3.2.1. Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games
MMORPGs are defined by the very large number of players who interact with one another in
a virtual game world, allowing highly organised play in teams or groups. Players assume the
role of a character, often in a fantasy world, and take control over many of that character’s
actions. The primary goal of the game is to develop the online character through earning
experience points for his or her actions. MMORPGs take place in a persistent game world,
which means that the game continues to exist and evolve while the player is offline and away
from the game (Wikimedia, 2012).
5
1.3.2.2. First Person Shooter Games
First person shooter games are defined as those games that can be played alone or with
friends, using multiple offline consoles, or through the Internet on PlayStation and Xbox. First
person shooter games take place in a 3D environment in which the player sees the action
through the eyes of their avatar or protagonist. First person shooter games are characterised
by narrative, problem solving, logic, fast-paced fire fights, multiple levels of difficulty and
choice of weapons.
1.3.3. Technology is Changing Literacy Practices and Needs to be Monitored over Time
Because Currently There is a Paradigm Shift from Print to Digital Literacy
There has been a synergy between technology and literacy for at least the last 500 years,
beginning with the invention of the printing press in 1440 by the German Johannes
Gutenberg. This complex relationship has shaped our way of communicating and
understanding the interaction between reading and writing. The move to different forms of
modern technology allowing access to hypermedia, multimedia and word processing has
created a need for research to establish a new way of understanding reading and writing and
its relationship to digital literacy (McNabb, 2005).
Technology has forced a change in literate practices due to its accessibility in the wider
society, which in turn has ramifications for what it means to be literate (Kervin and Mantei,
2009). Healy (2003) writes that ‘the reality of multiliteracies and a globalised world mean
that it is essential to reconsider literacy-related practices in education’ (p. 154). Leu et al.
agree, acknowledging that the Internet is rapidly generating new forms of literacies that must
be a central part of any literacy instruction in schools (Leu and Kinzer, 2000; Leu, 2001a;
Reinking, McKenna and Labbo, 1998).
Broughton and Manuel (2007) report that relatively little research has been conducted on
students’ actual engagement with new media, apart from some small-scale studies, with recent
examples including the work of Goodwyn (2011) and Harris (2011). However, the very
nature of changing literacies in response to the rapidly shifting landscape of digital devices
means that research opportunities abound. Further, research in this area is significant because
6
the effectiveness of educational technology is enmeshed in pedagogy. Many factors determine
the way in which students use computers to learn and teachers use computers to teach, and
there is currently debate over the manner in which computers are used in schools. Kervin and
Mantei (2009) identify that clarity is required on whether technology is the learning or
supports the learning (p. 19). This is supported in the literature by the argument that ‘clear
relationships need to be identified between literate practices, technology and learning’
(Durrant and Green, 2000; Kervin and Mantei, 2009, p. 30; Labbo, 2006a; Reinking et al.,
1998). Kervin and Mantei (2009) believe that carefully planned classroom tasks ‘promote the
nexus between literacy, technology use and learning’ (p. 30); it is only together that they form
an effective learning experience. For example, through undertaking a task within the realm of
technology, the student comes to an understanding of the given concept supported by
multimedia, in which the teacher, fellow students and technology play a part (Wenglinsky,
2005, pp. 8–9).
1.3.4. An Examination of the Connections and Disconnections between Boys’ Use of
Technology at Home and School Has Implications for Pedagogy in Middle School
Classrooms
The middle years of schooling are under-researched, despite the research that has been
conducted indicating that these are the years during which learning can plateau. For example,
the Centre of Applied Educational Research at the University of Melbourne focussed on the
middle years (Years 5–9) of schooling and revealed a strong pattern of underachievement and
disengagement from school, particularly for boys (2002, p. 2). Recent research by Moyle
(2009) in her paper Building Innovation: Learning with Technologies found that this pattern
still exists, particularly among boys during the middle years of schooling. Brozo and Flynt
(2008) discuss the ‘fourth grade slump’ (RAND Reading Study Group, 2002) and note that
many students are merely surviving, rather than thriving, during the middle years. This is a
crucial moment in the lives of school-age children, as it is the point at which students must
begin to engage in content literacy learning to cope with the increasing academic demands of
school (RAND Reading Study Group, 2002).
According to Brozo and Simpson (2007), students who have early problems with reading that
continue into the middle grades are especially vulnerable to failure with content texts and
required English novels. Atkinson (2006) found that boys, who engage less frequently in
7
reading activities, make slower progress due to fewer opportunities to develop their skills.
Wyatt-Smith and Elkins (2008) comment that the nature and extent of the disconnections
between literacies practiced at home and at school is unclear, especially in the middle years,
and that this has significant implications for student learning. This is supported by Unsworth
(2002). Rennie and Patterson (2008) observe that ‘very little is known about the reading
habits of middle years students’ (p. 53). This is based on their summary of research conducted
over the last 12 years in relation to literacy in middle school. They quote, for example, Luke
et al’.s 2003 study in which a recommendation was made that ‘systematic data is required to
chart the impact of multiple literacies in classrooms’ (Luke et al., 2003; cf. Rennie and
Patterson, 2008, p. 53). According to Pendergast and Bahr (2005), this process requires
continuous research, especially as it relates to students in the middle years of school, who are
a key user group of this type of technology.
This study adds to the understanding of computer use in authentic ways. The value of
technology is dependent on how it is used in the classroom. According to Kervin and Mantei
(2009), constructivist practice has been shown to be one of the best environments in which
technology can be successfully employed to support authentic and pedagogically sound
learning. Thus, the key to provision of authentic learning opportunities is to embed the use of
technology into classroom practice, rather than to leave it as a standalone or ‘add-on’
component of the curriculum (Coiro et al., 2008; Dede, 2005; Gee, 2003; Gee and Levine,
2009). There are many opportunities for learning to be transformed by harnessing the benefits
of technology in schools. However, often the integration of technology in classrooms depends
on teachers’ confidence and acceptance of the value of technology for learning and their being
convinced of the ability of technology to deliver efficiency, ensure improved performance and
raise standards, particularly for boys.
In summary, the rationale for this study rests on digital literacies being at the core of future
instruction, which has implications for literacy learning and teaching. Examining the
differences and similarities between boys’ use of technology at home and at school has the
potential to provide an understanding of the divide between home and school technological
and literate practises, which may inform future pedagogy, especially in middle school.
8
1.4. Background to the Study
Kettering, the American inventor and engineer wrote, ‘The world hates change, yet it is the
only thing that has brought progress’ (Kettering n.d). The events particularly of the last 30
years have seen a marked change in the way in which people communicate. This is evidenced
by the global proliferation of the Internet and new media and communications technologies. It
is now easier and cheaper to keep in touch than at any time in history. Yet this progress also
seems to have added exponentially to our growing sense of change in everyday life. Social,
political and economic changes have accompanied the move to digital, as life becomes
increasingly mediated by these new technologies.
The broader context of this research is situated within what Kress (2003) terms, an ‘era of
radical instability’, in which the Internet and the digital revolution have contributed to
widespread social change. Social change is played out in family homes, classrooms and the
wider society, complemented and reported upon by mainstream media and social media.
Within each of these contexts, we find different ‘funds of knowledge’, which reflect, echo and
challenge the changes occurring in society (Moje et al., 2004). ‘Funds of knowledge’ are the
networks and relationships that shape our ways of knowing, reading, writing and talking
(Moje et al., 2004, p. 38). Therefore, literacy, being a social practice, can be seen as both a
vehicle for understanding social change, and as a measure for the level of concern about the
impact technologies are having on young people, and particularly on their education (Moje,
2002; Snyder and Beavis, 2004). Concern about social change is often also reflected in the
debate about curriculum and pedagogy.
The integration of funds of knowledge drawn from different contexts leads to what Moje et al.
(2004) term the construction of a ‘third space’ that merges the ‘first space’ of people’s homes,
their community and peer networks with the ‘second space’ of the discourses they encounter
in formal situations such as school and work (p. 41). Moje et al. (2004) argue that the active
integration of multiple ‘funds of knowledge’ encountered in the ‘third space’ is vital to
support teenagers in learning how ‘to navigate the texts and literate practices’ that are part of
school (p. 40; also see Harris, Turbill, Fitzsimmons and McKenzie, 2006). Drawing on
hybridity theory (Bhabha, 1994), which examines how being ‘in-between’ several funds of
knowledge can be both productive and constraining in terms of one’s literate, social and
9
cultural practices, Moje et al. (2004) introduce the investigation of the ‘third space’ as a way
of understanding students’ interactions with literacies in and out of school (p. 42). This study
occurs within this intimate context as it relates to technology use in Australian English
classrooms and within the wider landscape of widespread change shaped by the possibilities
of the digital age.
To provide further relevant background to this study, the following section outlines the
political and economic changes that have taken place in the education sector, affecting
Australian classrooms.
1.4.1. Political and Economic Landscape: Impacts on Classrooms
In Australia, the decade has been marked by massive educational reform, particularly coming
from the political arena. The reform agenda is largely driven by the Federal Government’s
commitment to prepare its citizens for the twenty-first century and take advantage of the
significant potential of the digital revolution. The reform agenda encompasses the Building
the Education Revolution (BER), the Digital Education Revolution (DER) and the Australian
Curriculum, all of which are having a significant impact on schooling in Australia (DEEWR,
2012b). Adding to this transformation is the influence of the current pattern of use of
technology in Australian homes and the reliance on national assessment instruments; namely,
NAPLAN. All schools have been influenced by these reforms. Schools in this study are drawn
from the non-Government sector and they have benefitted from the significant reforms
introduced by the Federal Labor Government under the leadership of Julia Gillard, who held
the position of Minister for Education prior to becoming the current Prime Minister.
According to the website of the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace
Relations (DEEWR) (2012a), and in response to the Global Financial Crisis, the Federal
Labor Government committed $16.2 billion to the BER fund. The primary aim of the BER
was to modernise schools through the delivery of infrastructure and in so doing support local
jobs and stimulate investment. This was largely an economic stimulus measure targeted at
improving educational facilities around the country, with approximately 24,000 projects being
delivered in every community across Australia. Both of the schools in this study were
beneficiaries of the BER.
10
Another facet of the reform agenda is the Federal Government’s commitment to the DER.
The DER is predicated on the explosive growth of digital technology that has occurred over
the last 10 years. It aims to ‘contribute sustainable and meaningful change to teaching and
learning in Australian schools that will prepare students for further education, training and to
live and work in a digital world’ (DEEWR, 2012b). It represents unprecedented investment in
ICT in schools to take advantage of the global opportunities for education, trade, information
and ideas (DEEWR, 2012b; Murphy, 2011). From 2008 to the present, the Australian
Government has committed over $2.4 billion to support the effective integration of ICT in
schools to support broader education initiatives such as the Australian Curriculum. In parallel,
the Federal Government is committed to delivering high-speed broadband connections to
individual schools, homes and workplaces via the National Broadband Network (NBN) to
ensure students all over the country have equity and access to similar bandwidth capabilities.
In addition to hardware provision, the Gillard Government has implemented a number of
initiatives to support the development of online and interactive education and training projects
to support students and teachers. For example, The NBN Enabled Education and Skills
Services program worth $27.2 million is aimed at tertiary and secondary students. The
National Secondary School Computer Fund (the Fund) is a major funding element of the DER
to assist schools to provide new computers and ICT equipment for students in Years 9 to 12.
The primary aim of the Fund is to achieve a one to one computer to student ratio by the end of
2011. Another initiative, the ICT Innovation Fund promises over $16 million to fund projects
to assist teacher pedagogy and increase teacher proficiency in the use of ICT to support the
effective delivery of the new online Australian Curriculum. This is further supported by the
Online Curriculum Resources and Digital Architecture initiative, which aims to contribute to
the development of digital resources, tools and infrastructure to enable communication,
collaboration and resource sharing across school, system and jurisdictional boundaries. A
further commitment of $41.2 million was announced by the Federal Government in
September 2011 to fund the Online Curriculum Support Package to coincide with the start of
the Australian Curriculum in 2012 (DEEWR, 2012b). From these initiatives, it is clear that
the Federal Government has a very strong commitment to the DER and the future of
education in Australia.
Critics recognise the importance of the DER, but are quick to point out the rationale of the
DER as unduly economic. This, critics argue, de-emphasises the role of creativity and
11
innovation in education (Murphy, 2011). Reid (2009) suggests that by focussing on
technology as a driver of global change and achievement of economic goals, the cultural,
social, political and relational aspects of education are marginalised. The DER focuses on
skilling up students as potential workers and consumers rather than on developing
responsible, creative local and global citizens (Reid, 2009 in Murphy, 2011). Further, many
issues remain to be resolved, with these going well beyond the one to one laptop for every
student program. Research shows that resistance to the use of ICT coalesces: around teachers’
confidence and competence with ICT; equity of access; struggle between traditional
assessment and digital assessment; sustained teacher professional development and an
inadequacy or unwillingness, or both, of schools to implement a whole-school approach to
integrating ICT. According to Murphy (2011), this is evident in the scope and potential of
digital resources and the opportunities not being captured in the Australian Curriculum and in
the Australian Curriculum for English in particular (ACCE Position Paper, 2011).
Another major initiative of the reform agenda has been the Australian Education Ministers’
agreement on a National Curriculum, the aim of which is to deliver quality education into the
future for all students from Kindergarten to Year 12. This initiative is based on a review of
contemporary views of education, documented in the 2008 Melbourne Declaration of
Educational Goals for Young Australians. It acknowledges the changing ways in which
young people learn, promotes equity and excellence, and supports young Australians to
become successful learners, confident and creative individuals and active and informed
citizens (ACARA, 2011).
The Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) is an independent
authority responsible for the design, in consultation with local school and curriculum
authorities, of the Australian Curriculum. ACARA is also responsible for the national
assessment program that supports twenty-first century learning in Australian schools.
ACARA collaborates with a wide range of stakeholders including teachers, principals,
governments, State and Territory education authorities, professional education associations,
community groups and parents (ACARA, 2012). The aims of the Australian Curriculum are
to facilitate collaboration between states to ensure that high-quality teaching and learning
materials are available for all schools, to equip students with the skills, knowledge and
capabilities necessary to enable them to effectively engage with and prosper in society,
12
compete in a globalised world, and thrive in the information-rich workplaces of the future
(ACARA, 2012a).
According to the ACARA website, the Australian Curriculum for English, launched in 2012,
is one of the first redesigned curriculums to be implemented on a national basis. The study of
English is central to the learning and development of all young Australians, helping as it does
to create confident communicators, imaginative thinkers and informed citizens. It is through
the study of English that individuals learn to analyse, understand, communicate with and
build relationships with others and the world around them. The three strands of the English
curriculum help students to engage imaginatively and critically with literature, language and
literacy to expand the scope of their experience (ACARA, 2012b). Technology is an integral
part of the new English curriculum, manifested through the general capability entitled ‘ICT
capability’.
Further, The Shape of the Australian Curriculum: Technologies draft paper (ACARA, 2012d)
charts the importance of technology for young Australians, indicating the imperative of
learning about and working with traditional, contemporary and emerging technologies. The
paper stresses the importance of making connections between creativity, technologies and
enterprise as a catalyst for twenty-first century innovation and encourages new ways of
thinking, collaborating and communicating for all ages and abilities (p. 3). Young Australians,
according to this report, require ‘opportunities to shape and challenge attitudes to the use and
impact of technologies’ to understand and contribute to the local, national and global
economy in which they are citizens (2012d, p. 3). Clearly, there is a strong commitment on
the part of the Australian Government to equipping students with the skills they need to be
successful learners, and later citizens, in the twenty-first century context. Moreover, these
same children are already voluntarily engaging with many of these skills in their home
context.
1.4.2. Technology in Society
This study examines the connections and disconnections between boys’ use of technology in
the home and school contexts. It is increasingly being recognised that the disconnection
between the activities and access to technology that boys have at home as compared to at
school constitutes a digital divide. According to the Household Use of Information
13
Technology survey conducted by the ABS, nearly two-thirds of Australian households now
have access to broadband at home (ABS, 2011b). Between 1998 and 2009, household access
to the Internet at home more than quadrupled from 16 to 72 per cent, while access to
computers increased from 44 to 78 per cent. The state in which this study was conducted, the
ACT, continues to register the highest proportion of households with broadband Internet
connection in Australia, at 74 per cent of all households (ABS, 2009). Latest figures indicate
that overall Internet subscribers in Australia climbed 4.4 per cent to 10.9 million in the 6
months to June 2011. For the same period, there was an 18 per cent increase in mobile
handset Internet subscribers. These figures make Australia one of the leading adopters of
mobile and Internet technology. However, the same rate of take up has not been seen in
schools. There is thus a huge potential for mobile technology to be exploited for learning.
In 2009, the ABS’s Children’s Participation in Cultural and Leisure Activities survey
reported that, of the 2.7 million children in Australia aged 5 to 14 years, 79 per cent used the
Internet on a regular basis, with home and school being the most common sites of Internet
use. Educational activities accounted for 85 per cent of time spent on the Internet, closely
followed by 69 per cent for playing online games. Also in 2009, an estimated 31 per cent of
children in the 5 to 14 age group owned a mobile phone, with 4 per cent using their phones to
access the Internet. A more recent survey by the Entertainment Software Association (2012)
annual study of game players in the US found that 97 per cent of youths play computer and
video games. In 2012, in Australia, the Digital Australia Report found that 92 per cent of
youths play computer and video games, an increase of nearly one-quarter since 2009 (Digital
Entertainment and Games Association, 2012). With numbers increasing each year, it is clear
that students are coming to school with multiple hours of experience in the digital world. This
grants schools the opportunity to leverage this wealth of voluntarily gained, out-of-school
developed knowledge and experience on the part of today’s students. However, as yet this has
not happened, and indeed mobile technologies in particular have proven fairly problematic in
schools, based on the potential disruption they can cause to traditional curriculum and
pedagogy.
1.4.3. Boys’ Education
For the last three decades, researchers and commentators alike have been pointing to the
continuing decline in boys’ academic achievement. Reasons given include the uniqueness of
14
boys’ psychological, emotional and physical needs (Gurian, 1997; Kindlon and Thompson,
2000; Tyre, 2008). The impetus for investigating the nature of boys’ learning has been largely
based on significant emergent trends highlighting the difficulties that boys’ face in society in
general. Educators have also chronicled this trend (Brozo, 2009; Newkirk, 2002; Smith and
Wilhelm, 2002). Thus, books on this topic serve the purpose of raising consciousness on the
links between, in particular, adolescent and pre-adolescent boys’ emotional and educational
development. However, according to Nichols and Cormack (2009), first-hand information
about boys’ out-of-school lives is difficult to find, particularly in relation to technology and
literacy.
The last two decades have seen a rise in concern over the state of boys’ education;
particularly, in the Australian context, in their educational underachievement and
disengagement from learning. As a response, the Federal Government commissioned a
comprehensive report on boys’ education, entitled Boys: Getting it right, published in 2002 by
the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Education and Training (DEEWR,
2002). This report resulted in two major initiatives. The first of these was the Boys’ Education
Lighthouse Schools (BELS) program, which was implemented in two stages over 2003–2005
and which provided funding to over 550 Australian schools to help to improve boys’
educational outcomes. The final BELS report Stage Two provided a detailed analysis and
discussion of the key findings and experiences of the schools involved. Also in 2005,
DEEWR engaged James Cook University and the Curriculum Corporation to develop and
trial professional learning materials for teachers working with boys in the compulsory years
of schooling. Following the success of the BELS initiative, the Federal Government
committed an additional $19.4 million to fund grants to over 1,600 schools in 2006/7 for the
Success for Boys initiative. These grants targeted at-risk and disadvantaged boys to address
the key intervention areas of mentoring, effective literacy learning, engagement through ICT
and relevant Indigenous issues. The Australian Government has also managed a number of
research projects, and it was the major sponsor of the fifth biennial Working with Boys,
Building Fine Men Conference, held in 2007 at the University of Newcastle. Statistics
indicate that investigating how boys spend their time interacting with technology at home has
the potential to improve their engagement in the classroom.
15
Research and public debate have identified the following key issues in relation to boys’
participation in schooling and their educational outcomes. These and other significant issues
pertaining to boys’ education will be more fully discussed in Chapter 2. In summary:

There are more boys than girls identified as ‘at-risk’ in literacy. A lower proportion of
boys are achieving the national literacy benchmarks as compared to girls.

Recent studies have indicated that boys report less positive experiences and enjoyment
of schooling.

Other studies have indicated that boys are less engaged in their schooling, more easily
distracted and less motivated.

Behavioural issues, such as risk taking, are more likely to be associated with boys; and
depression and suicide is more prevalent among boys than girls.

The school retention rate for boys is lower than for girls.

The gap between boys’ and girls’ tertiary entrance scores has widened over the past
two decades (DEEWR, 2012a).
Given that boys in the middle years are often identified through national testing instruments,
such as NAPLAN, to be lagging behind girls of a similar age, finding tools and techniques
that help to engage these reluctant readers in literacy activities is important. While these
issues are significant, research also warns that boys should not be viewed as a homogeneous
group to which generalised solutions can be applied (Martino, 2005). Not all boys are at risk
and their poor performance is not inevitable, despite the alarmist perspective often portrayed.
This simplistic view relies heavily on the biological make up of boys together with the
attitude that ‘boys will be boys’, creating a win-lose dichotomy between boys and girls that
can put the genders into competition with each other (Rowan et al., 2002). Chapter 2 more
fully analyses the issues relating to boys and literacy performance.
1.5. The Study
1.5.1. Site
This research was conducted in two schools and the homes of 27 students living in Canberra,
in the ACT, Australia.
Canberra, the nation’s capital, is home to 363,800 people, representing a great diversity of
cultures, religions and ethnicities. The city also houses a large number of pre-eminent national
16
institutions (ABS, March 2011a). Known as the ‘Bush Capital’ it is renowned for having the
best of city and country living according to the ACT Government website (2012).
There are five tertiary institutions in Canberra, the largest of which are the Australian
National University and the University of Canberra. The average level of degree qualification
in the ACT is higher than the national average. The level of educational attainment in the 15–
64 age group is significantly higher than for the rest of Australia, with 30 per cent of the
ACT’s residents having gained a bachelor’s degree or above, compared with 19 per cent for
the wider Australian population. Similarly, within the ACT, 4.5 per cent of the population
have a postgraduate degree, compared to 1.8 per cent of Australians generally. Being the
nation’s capital, one in two people of working age are employed in either Local or Federal
Government services (ACT Govt. website). This influences the expectations of the parents in
this study for their son’s educational achievements.
1.5.1.1. School Systems in the Australian Capital Territory
The participants in this study are from the Catholic and Independent school sectors. There are
three school systems operating in the ACT: the Government or Public school system, the
CEO Catholic system and the Independent school sector.
Government or Public schools are supported and administered by the ACT Government and
encompass preschools, primary, high schools and the college system. These schools are
heavily subsidised by Federal and State Governments and parents pay a nominal term fee.
According to the ACT Department of Education website (2012), the Government schools are
very well resourced and the ACT Government has committed significant funds to improve the
facilities and infrastructure of these schools, and to upgrade classrooms and improve sporting
and arts facilities and playgrounds. These schools are transitioning to the National
Curriculum, and are using the Every Chance to Learn curriculum documents to guide their
teaching and learning (ACT Department of Education, 2012).
The Catholic Education Office is responsible for pre-primary, primary and high schools in the
Canberra–Goulburn Archdiocese. Catholic schools provide an education based on Christian
principles in the Catholic tradition and are grouped together with other non-Government
schools to form the Independent school sector. Those who choose a Catholic school for their
17
children do so on the understanding that they respect and agree to support the Catholic
identity of the school and acknowledge the importance of religious education for their
children. Catholic schools seek to contribute to the creation of an Australian community that
is ‘highly educated, skilled and cultured with an ability to promote and embrace a critical
analysis of social issues, the expansion of knowledge and the pursuit of truth (Archdiocese of
Canberra and Goulburn, 2012). At the time of this study, the Every Chance to Learn
curriculum was guiding teaching and learning in Catholic schools. The Catholic system
requires parents to pay fees of approximately $400.00 per school term. BER and the DER,
which are Federal Government initiatives, have benefitted Catholic schools by provision of
computers and upgrades to school facilities.
The Independent schools, which make up the third system in the education sector in the ACT,
hold as their values independence, diversity and choice. The non-Government or Independent
school sector consists of schools from a range of different educational and religious
philosophies. The variety of schools in this sector reflects the diversity of the community and
the preferences of parents for a particular style and philosophy of education for their children
(ACT Department of Education, 2012). These schools have fee scales in excess of the other
two education systems. In 2006, 12,506 K–12 students attended Independent schools, and
combined, more students go to non-Government (Catholic system and Independent) schools
in the ACT than in any other State or Territory in Australia. There was a 40 per cent increase
in students attending ACT Independent schools between 1996 and 2006. Between 2004 and
2009, Independent school student enrolments rose by nearly 1,400 students, or 12.5 per cent.
This trend is mirrored in the wider Australian community, where, according to the ABS
Schools Australia report (2010), for more than 10 years, the number of students attending
Independent schools has increased by more than the number of students in Government
schools. The proportion of non-government affiliated schools is highest in the Australian
Capital Territory at 35 per cent (ABS, 2011a). This research took place within the Catholic
and Independent school sector in the ACT in literacy and English classrooms.
Selection and identification of the schools for this study were based on access to, and
knowledge of the schools involved, which represent the two non-Government systems,
Catholic and Independent, which educate the majority of students in the ACT. The schools are
situated in the inner south and western areas of Canberra and represent high and medium
18
ICSEA (Index of Community Socio-educational Advantage) ranked schools (ACARA, 2012).
A more detailed profile of the schools is presented in Chapter 3.
1.5.1.2. School Sites (Pseudonyms Used)
1.5.1.2.1. St John’s Primary
St John’s is a co-educational Catholic primary school for Kindergarten to Year 6 students. It
has been operating for over 35 years, meeting the needs of the Catholic and general
community in the Central Western suburbs of Canberra. The school has 300 students, 13 fulltime teachers and six support staff. There are four males on the teaching staff, providing a
good blend of gender, age and ability among the staff. St John’s has recently been extensively
remodelled, with all classrooms and other learning spaces renovated and refurbished.
According to the school Principal, the refurbishment reflects contemporary educational
thinking.
1.5.1.2.2. Red Hill College
Red Hill College is an all boys’ school in the Anglican tradition, providing education from
Preschool to Year 12. The school, which has been operating for 82 years, is a day and
boarding school and caters for 940 boys from years 7 to 12, comprising boys from many
different cultures and religions, with the house structure providing pastoral care for smaller
groups within these years. The students undertake an academic program in Years 7 to 10
based on the ACT system and curriculum, and in Years 11 and 12, the boys undertake the
New South Wales Higher School Certificate or International Baccalaureate. This school has
also been a recipient of Federal funding.
1.5.2. Participants
The case study comprised three major groups of participants: 27 boys, 45 parents and 15
teachers. In addition, 405 boys in Years 5 to 8 eight completed anonymous surveys.
19
1.5.2.1. Boys
In total, 27 boys were interviewed across the two research sites, St John’s Primary and Red
Hill College. The first phase of this research involved observing students in English
classrooms undertaking literacy and technology related activities in a primary school setting.
In the case of St John’s, three co-educational classes were observed with students in Years 4
to 6, as in the year of the study, the school had one Year 6 class and three Year 4/5 composite
classes.
Table 1.1: Participants: Boys
In-depth Interviews
Year 5
Year 6
Year 7
Year 8
Surveys
St John’s Primary
6
7
26
Red Hill College
7
7
375
At St John’s, there were only seven boys in Year 6, so all boys were selected and participated
in this study. In the ACT, it is very common for boys in upper primary to move from their
primary setting to the all boys’ Catholic schools, which cater for boys from Year 4 to Year 12.
This is why there were so few boys in upper primary in this school. Of the two Year 4/5
classes, purposive sampling was used to select six boys in Year 5. In total, the number of boys
interviewed and observed in their home context was 13.
The second phase of the research took place at Red Hill College with boys in Year 7 and 8.
Four classes were observed in each grade, and on average, each class comprised 26 boys. The
classes were selected based on the teacher’s voluntary participation in the study. Each teacher
taught both a Year 7 and 8 English class, and 10 weeks of observation occurred across the two
year groups. Students were selected based on the class teacher’s recommendation using the
following criteria: the boy’s achievements in formal and informal English assessment; the
boy’s engagement in class; the teacher’s knowledge of the family; and the completion of a
parental consent form. Further details are provided in Chapter 3. However, among the boys
who were chosen and who agreed to participate in this study, a wide range of literacy ability,
behaviour and attitudes is represented.
20
1.5.2.2. Parents
Forty-five parents volunteered to participate in this study. All of the St John’s parents who
were approached agreed to participate voluntarily. I was known to these parents as a former
staff member of the school and, therefore, access to the participants was straightforward. It
was also easy to establish rapport based on common ground during the interview process.
These parents generally hold a strong conviction about the role of their faith in the overall
development of their children and were particularly positive regarding the sense of
community they experience at the school and within their parish. All were satisfied with the
opportunities presented by the school in terms of literacy development and access to
technology for education. They were particularly proud of the school’s redevelopment and the
modernisation of the teaching spaces because of the BER.
Table 1.2: Participants: Parents
St John’s Primary
Red Hill College
Total Parents
23
22
45
The same process was repeated at Red Hill College and 22 parents volunteered to participate.
Twenty families were approached to participate in the in-depth interview in their home
context and 14 agreed. The key reasons given for not participating in the study were lack of
time and work commitments. Of the parents interviewed, all were passionate about the
importance of literacy and the opportunities that sending their son to an Independent
secondary school provided. Many couples both worked to ensure that their son could attend
the school and take advantage of the opportunities available. They spoke about valuing
education highly and were therefore prepared to make sacrifices to afford the fees. As a result,
there were high expectations on the school, their son’s teachers and their son, to achieve. The
majority of these parents had attained a university education, with the exception of two
fathers; one of whom was a bus driver for a Government provider, and the other a youth
worker. The parents resided across a range of suburbs, representing most socio- economic and
geographic locations in the ACT and New South Wales (Jerrabomberra).
21
1.5.2.3. Teachers
Teachers’ perspectives were also considered in this study. Teachers participated voluntarily
and provided access to their classroom and school artefacts. Table 1.3 sets out the teacher
participants by location, gender and position.
Table 1.3: Participants: Teachers
In-depth Interviews
St John’s Primary
Red Hill College
2
1
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
9
Females
 Classroom teachers
 Executive teachers
 Other
Males
 Classroom teachers
 Executive teachers
 Other
Total Teachers
1
6
Following approval from the Principal at St John’s Primary, the research study was presented
to all teachers, and volunteers were sought. Six teachers volunteered. Four volunteered to
have their classrooms observed and participated in interviews, and a further two teachers were
interviewed. The classroom teachers who were observed in Year 5 and 6 at St John’s were all
in their mid-20s and each had less than five years’ teaching experience. They considered
themselves highly competent and comfortable with technology for personal and classroom
use. The teacher in charge of Information Technology and Indonesian was also observed and
interviewed, as was the school’s Curriculum Coordinator and Special Needs teacher.
The nine teachers at Red Hill College provided a broader cross section of years of service and
experience. For one young male teacher, in his early 20s, Red Hill was his first appointment
and his first year of teaching. He was an avid reader and was passionate about English and
Drama. His classes reflected his well-organised lessons and he incorporated technology at
every opportunity. The three other classroom English teachers were women in their 30s and
40s who had several years’ teaching experience. One had spent many years in a primary
school setting before moving to secondary teaching. While all exhibited very different
teaching styles and pedagogical practices, all were passionate about reading, literature and
encouraging the boys in their classes to read more.
22
In addition, in-depth interviews were conducted with a range of other staff members at Red
Hill College to understand the school’s philosophy and the teachers’ personal viewpoints
regarding boys’ literacy and technology. Interviewees included the Director of Curriculum;
Head of English; Head of the Resource Centre; a senior male English teacher and a
Languages teacher. The latter was included as she had a keen interest in gaming. Many
informal conversations in classrooms, corridors and staff rooms added to the richness of the
data collected.
1.6. Chapter Conclusion
The focus of this study is the boys and their interactions with technology. The journey on
which each boy took me as they entered their online world offered details of their lives to
which many parents and teachers are not privy. Listening to the perspectives of parents added
to the richness of each boy’s story and assisted my understanding of their actions, beliefs and
values across the overlapping domains of home and school. Overlaying the teachers’
perspectives about their own aspirations and fears of teaching and learning with technology
completed the picture, enabling an understanding of the connections and disconnections of the
‘third space’ in which much of this research takes place. This thesis uncovers the perspectives
of each of the key participant groups to explore the tensions and opportunities, or the drive
and drag, of technology that pervades their everyday lives. The following chapter presents the
research literature and theories relevant to this study and continues to build the study’s
rationale.
23
24
2. Review of the Literature
2.1. Introduction
To explore how boys interact with technology at home and at school, this chapter brings
together the fields of research concerning boys and schooling, the New Literacy Studies and
the importance of the home–school connection. This review of the literature addresses the
themes pertinent to understanding the associated research. However, it does not claim to be
exhaustive, as the area of technology, especially as regards its engagement with ‘at home’, is
expanding rapidly and continually. Instead, this chapter aims to trace the key studies that have
contributed to understanding the needs of boys, the New Literacy Studies and the home–
school connection within the context of literacy being a social practice.
For the purposes of this study, a socio-cultural perspective of literacy is applied to provide an
understanding of literacy as a social practice, transmitted through cultural contexts,
relationships, language and values (Emmitt, Zbaracki, Komesaroff and Pollock, 2011).
Vygotsky (1978) identified learning as a social process involving interactivity and
communication with others to build community, with learning to read and write as the vehicle
to understanding the social and cultural practices of the world. Following this, Bruner (1983)
examined the relationship between the learner and learning and argued that learning is
sensitive to the context in which the learner is situated; that is, their cultural context or
cultural perspective. Therefore, literate practices can be said to vary with social context,
cultural norms and discourses; for example, gender, belief, age and social class (Wyatt-Smith
and Elkins, 2008). The significance for research is the way in which the worldwide popularity
of technology manifests itself as a socio-cultural practice at the local level.
Gee (1996) takes the perspective that literate practices are found within domestic, community
and institutional relationships, and can only be understood within the situations of their social,
cultural and historical contexts (Gee et al., 1996, p. xii in Lankshear and Knobel, 2003). For
example, reading and writing are influenced by ‘specific places and specific times’ - meaning
that we read and write differently, according to the purpose for which we are doing so, which
is itself determined by social practices, the people we are with and the discourse in which that
purpose fits (Gee, 1996, p. 3). The rise of technologies, especially mobile devices for
25
communicating and entertainment, is challenging the social practices of our time, while
simultaneously enhancing connections between and across individuals and nations as never
before. One of the key user groups of technology are teenage boys, who have taken to the
game world in which vicarious excitement abounds in a never-ending cycle of challenge,
choice and collaboration. This has produced a phenomenon in which gamers demonstrate a
level of engagement, perseverance and commitment while gaming that appears not to
manifest itself in classrooms, despite the best efforts of educators. Thus, this study aims to
contribute to a better understanding of the contemporary learning needs of boys in the middle
years by unpacking techtivity at home and at school.
2.2. Middle School as Context
Middle schooling is relatively new to the Australian educational landscape, having its origins
in international action and research, particularly in America. Unlike in America, where the
demands of population growth, racial segregation and curriculum imperatives drove the
demand for a different model of schooling, Australia traditionally has a two-tier system of
schooling, which makes it a different context for middle school reform (Pendergast, 2005, p.
4). According to Pendergast (2005), the failure of traditional structures of distinct primary and
secondary pedagogy, organisation and relationships with teachers prompted the introduction
of middle schooling models in Australia. However, while Pendergast (2005) believes middle
schooling is here to stay, she acknowledges that no single definition of middle schooling
exists in the Australian context, and that the consistency of a range of principles and practices
needs to be more clearly and widely articulated (p. 18). Despite this, there is evidence of the
beneficial outcomes of the middle school model.
According to Pendergast and Bahr (2005), the middle years of schooling are being
progressively recognised as having considerable benefits for the ongoing educational success
of early adolescents. Over the last two decades in Australia, there has been growing interest in
and application of middle years schooling to meet the needs of young adolescents (10–15
years), particularly for boys. According to Pendergast (2005), traditionally it has been in the
transition from primary to secondary school that boys can display a disengagement from
schooling, which is often manifested in reduced achievement and poor behaviour. The middle
school approach therefore provides opportunity for a ‘metaphorical developmental bridge’ to
26
transition students from primary to secondary school (Main and Bryer, 2005) with its
particular educational philosophy, pedagogy, curriculum, school organisation, resources and
administrative support (Chadbourne, 2001 in Pendergast, 2005).
The benefits of middle schooling for boys include meeting the particular needs of young
people in a fast changing world; promoting social connections between boys, peers and
teachers; engineering positive experiences for boys; fostering positive attitudes among them
towards learning; and promoting intellectual engagement. These benefits can be expected to
lead to improvements in boys’ literacy, numeracy and academic engagement in the later years
of schooling (Chadbourne and Pendergast, 2005; Martino and Pallotta-Chiarolli, 2003;
Pendergast, 2005).
However, criticism of middle schooling rests most often on the pedagogy used by middle
school teachers. For example, Yecke (2003) criticised the increased use of cooperative
learning, peer tutoring and group work recognisable in middle school classrooms as ‘levelling
achievement’. She points to the emphasis on the group rather than on the individual as
unfairly disadvantaging high-achieving students, as the expectation is for them to help others
at the expense of their own needs. Further, Yecke (2003) holds the belief that cooperative
learning eliminates the need for competition, which is seen as a key component for learning,
particularly among boys (p. 152). In response, Chadbourne and Pendergast (2005) report that
the National Middle Schooling Association rebuts each of Yecke’s assertions on their website
and point to Zemelman et al’.s (1998) research that the teacher–student balance of effective
pedagogy is evident from their research in middle school classrooms (Chadbourne and
Pendergast, 2005, pp. 36–37).
Maclean (2005) identified the middle years as being a particularly challenging time for boys
and their literacy development. He reports that boys can disengage from literacy, choosing not
to read or write often, which results in a plateauing or reversal effect in their learning that
does not augur well for their entry into the later years. Similarly, Kiddey and Robson (2001)
found that schools are often out of step with the contemporary literacy needs of boys, while
Green (1998) found that the reading and writing tasks found in typical secondary classrooms
are fragmented, more abstract and hold less interest than those experienced by boys in
primary school. Maclean (2005) recognises the need for middle school teachers to embrace
and integrate the types of new literacies that boys are engaging with out of school. Teachers
27
are encouraged to use the combination of words, images and design that is characteristic of
boys’ everyday reading and writing as they engage with digital texts across the domains of
home and school (Pendergast and Bahr, 2005, ch. 7). The following section further explores
the educational research focusing on boys.
2.3. The Focus on Boys
For the last three decades, researchers and commentators alike have been pointing to the
continuing decline in boys’ literacy achievements in comparison to girls. Moreover,
significant trends have emerged regarding the difficulties boys face in society in general. This
has led to a growing body of research to facilitate improvement in the area of boys’ education,
and literacy in particular. As part of this research, the uniqueness of boys’ psychological,
emotional and physical needs has been highlighted in many works (Gurian, 1997; Kindlon
and Thompson, 2000; Pollack, 2000; Tyre, 2008). For example, boys are diagnosed with
having attention or learning disorders at four times the rate of girls (Tyre, 2008); boys are
twice as likely to have to repeat a grade than are girls; boys are referred to special education
in a ratio of four to one over girls; boys are three times more likely to be suspended from
school; they are more likely to be victims and perpetrators of violent crime, and boys are five
times more likely to commit suicide than are girls (Brozo, 2009; Lenz, 2010; Tyre, 2008).
Research reveals boys who do not achieve expected outcomes for literacy learning through
their early school years are met with fewer opportunities both at school and after leaving
school (Brozo, 2009; Lenz, 2010; Tyre, 2008). For example, Clay and Hartman (2004) found
that low levels of literacy and numeracy affect boys’ prospects of further education and
employment, which may restrict their life choices. This finding was echoed in the ACER
reports of 2000 and 2009. Technology may well prove a bridge to improving educational
outcomes for boys.
Educators have also chronicled this trend (Newkirk, 2002; Rowan et al., 2002; Smith and
Wilhelm, 2002). More recently, Brozo (2009) provided a very practical account of how to
engage teen and pre-teen boys in active literacy in his book, To be a boy, to be a reader.
These books serve the purpose of raising the consciousness of the links between, in particular,
adolescent and pre-adolescent boys’ emotional and educational development.
28
Educational research has identified that boys take longer to learn to read than do girls, and
that when they start reading they read less often than do girls (Lenz, 2010; Sawyer, Singh and
Zhao, 2009; Smith and Wilhelm, 2002; Tyre, 2008). In addition, these researchers found that
boys perceive reading as having a lower priority than other activities, and they demonstrate
less interest in reading for leisure and see reading as a ‘girlie’ activity. The ‘Matthew effect’,
so called after a New Testament parable, refers to the fact that readers who fall behind in
reading and writing after their first year at school may experience a widening gap each year in
comparison to their peers (Matthew 25:29; Stanovich, 1986). This is evidenced particularly
during the middle years when instruction moves from learning to read to reading to learn
(Fisher and Frey, 2012; Smith, Smith, Gilmore and Jameson, 2011). However, it also appears
that, at this stage in development, boys are engaging with complex online games out of school
that require a great deal of literate and cognitive ability to succeed.
Alloway et al. (2006) recognise the importance of boys’ out-of-school activities and
recommend that ‘schools and teachers acknowledge and explore the varied social, cultural and
ethnic backgrounds that boys bring with them to the classroom’ (p. 7). Watson, Kehler and
Martino (2010) propose that the way in which gender is socially constructed should be given
greater consideration through understanding what constitutes acceptable male behaviour
based on social, cultural and ethnic norms formed primarily in out-of-school contexts. This
was also reported by Sawyer et al. (2009). However, focusing on either gender alone or outof-school practices can be viewed as too simplistic. For example, while gender can be a
strong predictor of performance, especially among less privileged boys, Hutchinson (2004)
notes that while girls outperform boys at school, this is not represented in higher education or
leadership positions in the workplace. Further, Alloway and Gilbert (1997) argue that boys
from more privileged backgrounds may be more accepting of school practices because they
see these as ultimately linked to post-school professional and career rewards and as such are
supported at home through parental expectations and provision. However, this view has been
challenged by Whitehead (2003), who sees intrinsic motivation as a more important factor in
achievement than the extrinsic motivation that privilege affords. Therefore, understanding
what and how boys experience the complexity of school and home interactions becomes
fertile ground for research.
29
2.3.1. Research into Boys’ Education
Educational research over the previous decade has included a number of key reports into
boys’ education in Australia. Commissioned by the Commonwealth Department of Education,
these reports have sought to address the contemporary needs of boys in schools, particularly
with regard to literacy attainment. The reports include: Addressing the Educational Needs of
Boys (Lingard, Martino, Mills and Bahr, 2002); Improving the Educational Outcomes of Boys
in the ACT (Martin, 2002); Boys, Literacy and Schooling: Expanding the Repertoires of
Practice (Alloway, Freebody, Gilbert and Muspratt, 2002); Boys in School and Society
(Cresswell, Rowe and Withers, 2002); Boys’ Education Lighthouse Schools Programme
(DEEWR, 2007); Success for Boys (Alloway et al., 2006) and Motivation and Engagement of
Boys: Evidence-based Teaching Practices (Munns, Arthur, Downes, Gregson, Power,
Sawyer, Singh, Thistleton-Martin & Steele 2006). These reports share the aim of highlighting
the educational needs of boys and presenting best practice. While it is not necessary to go into
detail about the merits of each of the studies, the following issues are pertinent to this
research.
Common to these reports are a range of factors that positively influence and shape boys’
educational outcomes, and the broader social development of boys. For example, teachers
being cognisant of the social, cultural and economic backgrounds of boys; employing a mix
of teaching approaches and strategies in a selection of settings, such as single gender and coeducational classrooms; and fostering the home–school connection to improve boys’
engagement and achievements at school.
Common and key findings from these reports include: boys from lower socioeconomic status
(SES) and/or Indigenous backgrounds tend to be less successful in conventional literacy
activities than are those from higher SES backgrounds; the quality of pedagogies experienced
by students is a significant factor in learning; boys are more successful in terms of engaging
with multiliteracies; the home–school connection is highly significant; and boys are not a
homogenous group, and therefore the provision of choice and high interest, active and
challenging learning experiences is essential to their learning (Alloway et al., 2002; Alloway
et al., 2006; Cresswell, Rowe and Withers, 2002; Lingard et al., 2002; Munns et al., 2006;
Smith et al., 2011). What these authors share is an emphasis on understanding the complexity
of educating boys, which is being increasingly mediated through the influence of technology
30
as evidenced by the explicit linking of success to engagement with multiliteracies and
challenging learning experiences. However, this view of boys’ education is a relatively new
one.
According to Alloway et al. (2006), research chronicling how boys’ learning has been
perceived over time found that up until the last 10 years, much research into boys’ learning
was based on the deficit model of thinking about boys. The deficit theories are often criticised
for being simplistic and for relying too heavily on the assumed biological make up of boys,
together with the attitude that ‘boys will be boys’. According to Rowan et al. (2002) and
Watson et al. (2010), deficit theories built on biological or role model theories can create a
win-lose dichotomy between boys and girls and can put the genders into competition with
each other. Further, relying on statistics alone can lead to deficit thinking, which may not
eventuate in good practices for boys.
An example of a biological deficit theory is different brain theory, which explains the
differences between boys’ and girls’ brains based on cerebral lateralisation and
neurobiological evidence, suggesting that boys are right-brained (creativity and action) and
girls are left-brained (language and reasoning). However, critics argue that this theory does
not account for the high-achieving boys from medium- to high-SES backgrounds who
outperform girls and other boys. This suggests that it is more than brain function that indicates
success (Alloway et al., 2006, pp. 10–13).
A second example of a deficit theory for boys is based on the number of male role models for
boys. These theories surmise that there are not enough male role models in schools or in
homes to inspire boys to read and engage with literate activities. However, research has not
supported these theories as significant factors in boys’ achievement. For example, previous
research on how boys learn best has generally been grounded in ‘male repair’ or recuperative
masculinity approaches (Biddulph, 1998; Browne and Fletcher, 1995; Hannan, 1999). These
approaches are based on the thinking that because schools are seen as feminine institutions
due to the large proportion of female teachers, they are therefore feminising teaching to boys’
detriment. There is little evidence to suggest that male teachers are more effective than are
female teachers in teaching boys, and indeed Thornton and Bricheno (2002) found to the
contrary. This was supported by Warrington and Younger (2006) who, through numerous
interviews with boys, found that it was ‘personality, rapport and effectiveness which were far
31
more important than gender in determining to them [boys] what constitutes a good teacher’
(p. 12). Likewise, Skelton (2003) criticises the strategy of increasing the number of male
teachers as role models in classrooms to increase boys’ engagement and achievement as
‘being naive and simplistic’ (p. 207). Further, the gender of the teacher did not emerge as a
significant factor in determining positive learning outcomes for boys in Australian research
(Alloway et al., 2002; Alloway et al., 2006; Lingard et al., 2002; Martin, 2002).
Significantly, when educators see boys from a deficit perspective such as those based on
either biological or role model foundations, it may limit their vision of what can be done to
improve boys’ educational outcomes (Alloway et al., 2006; Warrington and Younger, 2006).
These theories hold that difference is always negative and that ‘too few’ or ‘too little’ is
always counter-productive for boys. Instead, it is helpful for teachers to understand that boys
are not a homogenous group; factors such as home–school partnerships, socio-economic
circumstances, cultural background and leisure activities, such as gaming, also affect boys’
educational attainment. Even within each of these factors, there are differences with which
teachers can become familiar to reach and teach boys. According to Smith and Wilhelm
(2002), relying on gender as the main determinant for pedagogy may lead teachers and
parents to ignore or undervalue the out-of-school practices of boys. Therefore, there is much
potential in inviting boys to share their out-of-school literate and technology-based activities
in the classroom, so that these can be utilised to far greater benefit in boys’ education.
2.3.2. Effective Pedagogy for Boys
Self-efficacy, engagement and motivation are important for developing, establishing and
motivating middle school students. However, Pumfrey (1997) asserts that the curriculum
favours the cognitive aspects of reading, especially as boys advance through school. Selfefficacy belief is a precursor to academic achievement, because it motivates behaviour that
leads to academic success, which in turn affects engagement or non-engagement for use to
acquire new knowledge (Atkinson, 2006). For example, it can be particularly hard for boys
who find reading difficult to maintain motivation for literacy tasks, particularly where there is
a disconnection between what they are being asked to read for school and their outside
interests. According to Hayes, Mills, Christie and Lingard (2006), pedagogy that is more
intellectually stimulating, more connected to boys’ lives and the world beyond the classroom
and more socially supportive, with clear pathways to assessment and curriculum goals, are
32
central to engaging boys (p. 119). Kervin and Mantei (2009) take a similar stance, contending
that building on the existing strategies, skills and strengths that boys bring with them from the
world of cyberspace can enhance, for example, reading choices and methods of delivery to
engage boys in literacy.
Adolescence is a complex event in the lives of boys, and it can coincide with a decline in
motivation and engagement (Maclean, 2005). Munns et al. (2006) found this to be less
evident among high-achieving students. Brozo and Flynt (2008) offer a solution, suggesting
that teachers apply strategies to assist middle school students to become motivated and
engaged, such as by ‘connecting outside with inside school literacies’ (p. 173; Brozo, 2009).
This suggestion is based on the premise that boys in this age group are often engaged with
media literacy found in their everyday worlds. For example, some students can be illiterate
with academic texts (Alvermann, 2003), but be highly engaged readers and users of new
media, such as reading graphic novels, emailing, blogging and reading ‘cheats’ to enable them
to play online games. Research has found that motivating these students may be made easier
when they are encouraged to use their multiliteracy skills, honed in the home context, to make
connections with content material at school (Alloway et al., 2002; Alloway et al., 2006;
Hinchman, Alvermann, Boyd, Brozo and Vacca, 2003, 2004). To this end, teachers can
integrate interesting and varied sources of print and digital information in their lessons to
engage and motivate boys by capitalising on their interests.
Smith and Wilhelm’s (2002) study of adolescent boys found that boys rejected school literacy
because they did not feel competent to read set texts, did not feel they received appropriate
assistance to scaffold their reading, and felt that the content of the assigned reading was
disconnected from their own interests or lacked personal relevance (p. 20). Broadly, Smith
and Wilhelm’s most important finding was that boys were motivated and engaged with
literacy outside school and enjoyed great success with literate activities in which they were
interested. In their study, the factors that repeatedly appeared in conversations with boys were
the need for competence, control and an appropriate level of challenge and choice:
The young men in our study wanted to be challenged, but they wanted to be
challenged in contexts [in] which they felt confident of, if not success, at least
improvement. If the challenge seemed too great, they tended to avoid it and
return to a domain in which they felt more competent (Smith and Wilhelm,
2002, p. 24).
33
Clearly, setting goals and receiving feedback was important for the boys to feel in control.
Without a clear goal, Smith and Wilhelm (2002) write that ‘it seems impossible to have a
sense of competence and to identify an appropriate level of challenge’ (p. 24). Building on
Smith and Wilhelm’s work, Atkinson (2006) and Munns et al. (2006) report a relationship
between motivation, pleasurable experience and feedback that reinforces enjoyment, choice
and independence as effective pedagogy for boys. Alloway et al. (2002) recommended that
teachers adopt a range of strategies that are designed to encourage an active, purposeful and
democratic learning environment in which all students learn cooperatively and collaboratively
and share their knowledge, opinions and interests (pp. 8, 9). Interestingly, there are clear
parallels in the game world, which boys reported in this study.
Further, the aforementioned reports suggest that sound pedagogy for boys rests on shared
learning, partnerships and a sense of belonging, which can be forged in online learning
communities. It is true that technology can provide a platform in the classroom through which
to motivate and engage boys and, as shall be shown in subsequent chapters, the boys in this
study are already voluntarily engaging with active, purposeful pursuits in a democratic and
collaborative virtual environment. However, it is important not to present ‘technology as
saviour’ (Bulfin, 2009) or as a ‘utopian’, or perfect, solution (Churchill, Feguson, Godinho
and Johnson, 2011). As with any ‘perfect’ solution, this is always subjective and value-laden.
Drawing on Bigum and Kenway’s (2005) analysis of perspectives on the utopian usage of
technology in effective pedagogy, four streams along a continuum can be identified:
i) Boosters believe that improved access, use and integration of ICT will enhance
educational outcomes and solve many, if not all, problems. They live by the motto
‘technology is good’.
ii) Anti-schoolers are similar to Boosters in that they hold that ‘more ICT is better’.
However, the context varies. Anti-schoolers believe that schools are old fashioned. For
this group, the home environment has more prospects to enhance students’ learning
potential by becoming the primary site for education.
iii) Critics position themselves as asking the ‘why’ and ‘what’ questions considering the
practicalities, benefits, dangers, limitations and multiplicities of accepting and
integrating ICT. Critics question the idea of digital natives (Prensky, 2001) and argue
that ‘just because ICT can carry out a function does not mean it should do so’
34
(Churchill et al., 2011, p. 312). Scepticism is the dominant manner of thinking in this
group.
iv) Doomsters, at the far end of the continuum, believe life and education were far better
before ICT; believing the latter does little to enhance teaching. Their perspective rests
on why ‘perfectly good’ educational practices should be replaced by ICT-based ones.
Further, they predict the end of society ‘as we know it’ and irreparable damage to the
English language (cf Churchill et al., 2011, pp. 311–313).
It was clear from this study that teachers’ and parents’ perspectives did not fall into distinct
categories as Bigum and Kenway (2005) suggest, but moved with fluidity along and back on a
continuum, depending on the context on which they were reporting. Of significance is that
digital practices and ICT have blurred the lines between home and school such that it has
become difficult to disconnect one entirely from the other.
By way of explanation of the blurring of lines across contexts, Bulfin and North (2007) draw
on Bourdieu’s concept of habitus, which suggests that while home and school may be
physically separate, the influence of each domain is fluid and perpetual, each influencing the
other (Bourdieu, 1977, 1990; Bulfin and North, 2007). This is similar to Dyson’s (1997)
notion of the home–school boundary being ‘permeable’, through which practices and artefacts
commonly associated with one domain may unexpectedly emerge in the other, influencing
social and literate practices in a range of ways (Bulfin and North, 2007; Dyson, 1997). This is
more fully discussed in Section 2.5 of this chapter. The next section discusses the new
literacies and their implications for effective pedagogy for boys.
2.4. The New Literacies
2.4.1. Introduction
According to the International Reading Association (2009), the Internet is continually
evolving as new information and new technologies transform and enrich our communication
and understanding at a rapid rate, evidenced particularly in mobile technology. The uptake of
Internet usage as part of our everyday lives has never been higher and it is having an impact
on all areas of life, especially on education and literacy. This has spawned reports such as the
Horizon Report K–12 (Johnson, Smith, Levine and Haywood, 2010). As our environment is
35
infused with visual, electronic and digital texts, and our students are steeped in multimodal
activities that supersede, yet are founded upon, traditional print-based literacy, there exists an
imperative for teachers to understand these changes.
In Australia, according to the MYCEEDYA (2009) Statement of Learning on Information and
Communication Technology, students live in a technological world in which ICT is
fundamental to most activities. Additionally, the statement of learning holds that ‘ICT literate
citizens are central to Australia’s economic and social goals, to improve productivity and
efficiency, to build innovative capacity and competitiveness’ (p. 2). This statement outlines
the knowledge, skills and capacities that students in schools require to operate effectively.
Correspondingly, the National Catholic Education Commission identifies that the use of
digital technologies will continue to expand to meet the needs of the twenty-first century
learner, and it recognises ICT as an essential tool in contemporary pedagogy, the most recent
manifestation of which is the iPad.
The impact contemporary emerging ICT’s are having is significant for literacy research
because, according to the International Reading Association (2009), the Internet has enabled
literacy to operate in fresh and inventive ways, giving rise to new paradigms, for example,
writing on weblogs and reading eBooks. Researchers have sought to explain and understand
these changes to capture the shifting nature of reading, writing and communication within a
multimodal environment known as the New Literacy Studies (Blair and Sanford, 2004; Coiro
et al., 2008; Lankshear and Knobel, 2006; Walsh, 2006). These studies draw heavily on
multiliteracies theory (New London Group, 1996), integrating studies about the impact of new
technologies into understanding literacy as multimodal and digitally mediated (Anstey and
Bull, 2006; Jewitt, 2008; Snyder and Beavis, 2004).
The New London Group (1996) proposed the theorisation of a pedagogy of multiliteracies.
Based on an understanding that the context in which language is used relates to a context of
culture and/or a context of situation, a meta-language to support the critical analysis of
language and other semiotic systems was developed. The New London Group describes what
is required to support a pedagogy of multiliteracies as:
An educationally accessible functional grammar; that is a metalanguage that
describes meaning in various realms. These include the textual and the visual,
as well as the multimodal relations between different meaning-making
36
processes that are now so critical in media texts of electronic multimedia. The
primary purpose of the metalanguage should be to identify and explain
differences between texts, and relate these to the context of culture and
situation in which they seem to work (Unsworth, 2001, pp. 16–18).
The concept of literacy as a social practice understands the relationship between different
modes mediated by the context in which they occur. No longer is there a heavy reliance on
text alone; rather, there is a movement away from the linguistic mode to the semiotic mode,
facilitated by mobile technologies, that assists our understanding of the distinction between
print literacy and multimodality (Kress, 2003).
From the New Literacy Studies’ perspective, Leu (2002) asserts that the advent of the Internet
has ushered in a wide array of new social practices, ways of communicating and of being in
the world. Lankshear and Knobel (2003) recognised that reading and writing cannot be
separated from the values, gestures, contexts and tools associated with the opportunities the
Internet affords because literacy is embedded in the social practices in which reading and
writing are acquired. Significantly, the new literacies are not confined to traditional
educational contexts, but are mediated across and within a variety of contexts including
classrooms and family rooms.
For the purposes of this study, ‘the new literacies’ has been chosen to offer an ‘allencompassing phrase to connect social practices, people, technology, values, and literate
activity’ (Selfe and Hawisher, 2004, p. 2). The New Literacy Studies offer a useful theoretical
understanding of particular pedagogical frameworks to assist educators to incorporate the
benefits of the Internet. Additionally, drawing on the work of Gee (2003) and Prensky (2006,
2010) in relation to the educational benefits of gaming and Smith and Wilhelm’s (2002) work
with adolescent boys, the following section offers a framework in which the confluence of
boys’ techtivity at home and at school may be understood.
2.4.2. New Literacy Studies
The new literacies are understood as the ability to use digital and multimodal technologies to
communicate and learn effectively (Tompkins, Campbell and Green, 2012). According to
37
Coiro et al. (2008), the theoretical basis for the new literacies is one that is ‘grounded in the
social practices of the Internet and other ICT opportunities and the contexts and conditions
under which these social practices occur, develop and evolve’ (p. 12). Further, ‘to understand
these new literacies will collectively require us to bring multiple sets of perspectives to
research’, as single perspectives will not be able to take into consideration the complexity of
contexts provided by the Internet (Coiro et al., 2008, p. 12). Clearly, these changes have
implications for instruction, assessment, professional development and research because,
according to the International Reading Association (2009):
To become fully literate in today’s world, students must become proficient in
the new literacies of 21st Century technologies. As a result, literacy educators
have a responsibility to effectively integrate these new technologies into the
curriculum, preparing students for the literacy future they deserve.
Researchers agree that literacy is no longer a static construct based singly around books and
print (Tompkins, et al., 2012). The advent of the Internet requires that literacy be redefined to
incorporate the skills and strategies required to read, write, view, listen, compose and
communicate information online, with these skills and strategies still subject to a rapid and
continuous process of change (Coiro et al., 2008, p. 5; Unsworth, 2001; Walsh, 2010).
Moreover, with change comes disturbance and discomfort, requiring a significant paradigm
shift regarding the manner in which the task of teaching is applied to ensure literate citizens
(Goodwyn, 2011; Reinking, 1998). This disturbance is apparent in altered social practices,
evidenced in this study by practices at home for boys.
The new literacies manifest as new social practices associated with new technologies. This
can be identified as ‘learning in the family room’, such as through collaborative online
gaming. To be successful at these games, students must be literate in a large variety of
semiotic domains including print, images, symbols, sounds, gestures, graphs, artefacts and
video; they must be able to communicate effectively across many media (Coiro, 2003). In
relation to gaming as a form of new literacy, Gee (2004) identifies that meaning in gaming is
derived from a common understanding and is predominantly social in nature (p. 24). This is
important for learning because semiotic systems provide the space in which we engage in
cultural, historical and human interactions through social practices (Gee, 2004, p. 43). Each
semiotic domain encompasses terms, symbols, images and artefacts that are peculiar to it and
38
find their meaning in the situation in which they are placed. It follows that meaning is derived
from the actions, interactions and dialogue in which we engage around a particular subject,
experience or activity, and is therefore both situation and domain specific (Gee, 2004; Gee
and Levine, 2009). This is especially significant when understanding the role gaming plays in
boys’ lives, in which they opportunistically engage both at home and at school.
Researchers encourage educators to consider that, together with new skills, a larger mindset
and the ability to continuously adapt to the new literacies fostered by the new technologies are
required because students are coming to school more literate in some dimensions of the new
literacies and ICTs than are their teachers (Leu and Kinzer 2002). Leu (2001a) contends that
literacy is therefore increasingly deictic: what it means to be literate continuously changes as
new technologies of literacy rapidly appear. Due to the increasing number of new
technologies, evidenced in, for example, the recent release of the iPad 4, the skill of
discernment and choice of technology for achieving a purpose becomes increasingly
important, as does the skill of collaboration, as no one person can be fully literate in every
technology (Coiro et al., 2008). Unsworth (2001) agrees, writing that conventional literacies
are maintaining a ‘complementary’ role rather than being displaced by digital texts. Further,
with the emergence of new literacies, we are required to become literate continually. The
development of new digital devices creates both new opportunities and new challenges for
teachers and parents, in which knowledge of the theoretical underpinnings can assist.
Coiro et al. (2008) undertook a comprehensive review of recent research in the diverse and
multifaceted field of new literacies. They concluded that new literacies theory operates on two
levels. The first, the upper case ‘New Literacies’, is a broader, more inclusive concept that
enables a dynamic and rich response to the changes that define the Internet. The other, the
lower case, ‘new literacies’, explore a specific area, such as Crystal’s (2008) comprehensive
analysis of short message service (SMS) or ‘texting’. The review recognised that each piece
of research reflects different emphases and agendas and ranged across diverse areas, for
example, promoting social justice and equity, cyber safety and enhancing cross-cultural
perspectives; yet all contribute to a richer understanding.
From their review, Coiro et al. (2008) identified four common elements that define the
broader theory of ‘New Literacies’:
39
1. New Literacies include the skills, strategies, dispositions and social practices that are
required by new technologies for information and communication.
2. New Literacies are central to full participation in the global community.
3. New Literacies regularly change as their defining technologies change.
4. New Literacies are multifaceted.
An explanation applicable to this study follows.
Firstly, from an educational perspective, the New Literacies refer to the skills and strategies
required by students to access and process information on the Internet. Posing questions to
focus inquiry, locating information, evaluating the accuracy and applicability of the
information discovered, synthesising, and communicating the information to others are
examples of these skills and strategies (Leu et al., 2004). The New Literacies demand a
change in reading and writing skills for example, with strong comprehension skills required
by students as they navigate the Internet both for work and for pleasure. Similarly, teachers’
skills and strategies regarding best practice require revision and adaptation to the
opportunities the New Literacies present (Coiro, 2003). For example, comprehension can be
impaired by the unfamiliar structure of online texts, which can hinder a student’s search
efforts. The online text structure is different to traditional text forms and can differ markedly
from website to website and link to link. Thus, teachers are required to teach explicitly the
skills needed for students to improve, for example, their online comprehension and critical
literacy (Coiro et al., 2008; Henry, 2006).
Secondly, the New Literacies are central for preparing children to be proficient members of
the global community. Schools offer the capacity to provide students with the necessary
literacy skills required to live their lives now and in the future. For students who have been
excluded and negatively labelled for their lack of text literacy competence, recognition of
knowledge gained in the home context needs to be more formally taken into account. These
students often demonstrate excellent control of the language and skills required to operate in
cyberspace, yet these skills are not often measured or acknowledged as legitimate forms of
literacy in schools (Coiro et al., 2008; Lankshear and Knobel, 2003; Leu et al., 2004).
The International Reading Association (2009) suggests that one way in which students can be
future proofed is by education systems developing school policies to ensure that classrooms
40
are connected to the Internet, provision is made for appropriate software access and ICT is
integrated into the curriculum. However, focusing on hardware and software provision has
limitations. Critics argue that any list of hardware and software is subject to rapid change and
that instead, integration based on effective pedagogy is a more effective method (Churchill et
al., 2011, p. 309).
Thirdly, New Literacies emerge from new technologies and thus regularly change what it
means to read and write (Leu, 2001a). The New Literacies of today will be replaced by even
newer literacies tomorrow as new technologies continuously emerge (International Reading
Association, 2009; Leu, 2001a). Similarly, some New Literacies will ‘rise and rise’ while
others will be superseded very quickly (Lankshear and Knobel, 2006, p. 24). These
researchers urge that, for literacy education to be soundly based, continuous accounts must be
kept of the technological, economic, social and cultural conditions that affect what effective
literacy looks like in our schools. An example of this is monitoring the digital divide.
Therefore, effective literacy can no longer be defined by knowledge and information, but
should instead be based on how knowledge, information and the new literacies are combined
and applied to generate understanding and efficacy for learning. In turn, teaching can no
longer be rooted in didactic means of learning, as the literate practices that boys bring with
them to the classroom gained in the cyber world will prompt and demand changes to everyday
classroom practice (Churchill et al., 2011). In the words of Sutherland-Smith (2002),
‘[t]eachers must weave the expanding web of technology into … [their] classroom practice’
(p. 664); and this begins with teachers understanding the new literacies evolving in their
classrooms (Henry, 2006; Leu, 2001b).
Lastly, Coiro et al’.s (2008) review found that New Literacies are multifaceted and that our
understanding of them benefits from multiple points of view (p. 14). The International
Reading Association (2009) acknowledges that the task of understanding and analysing the
changes brought about by the Internet on education is enormous and the impact on instruction
is profound. To this end, the Association is urging researchers to contribute to the body of
knowledge on this issue by bringing their area of expertise to address the many new questions
that are being generated by the multifaceted nature of the New Literacies. This study aims to
contribute to the tenets of the New Literacy Studies by exploring how boys interact with
technology at home and at school.
41
2.4.3. New Literacies and School Practices
In 1993, Papert observed that curriculum is based on the assumption that ‘reading is the
principal access route to knowledge for students’ (in Lankshear and Knobel, 2003, p. 9). What
happens when technology intersects with established schooling models? Firstly, many
teachers are unprepared for the challenge of integrating the new literacies into their
classrooms in authentic and engaging ways. Not only are teachers learning how to use the
technology themselves, they are also time poor and operating out of the paradigm of being the
‘sage on the stage’. King (1993) and later Jones (2006) flagged that a shift is required in
thinking for teachers to become ‘the guide on the side’ and to see their classrooms as
collaborative spaces in which student and teacher can work cooperatively to construct and
develop knowledge, both of subject matter and of the technological vehicles used to achieve
that knowledge.
Research indicates that the goal in education is becoming the use of the new technologies as a
means of authentic and engaging learning for all students, rather than as an add-on in the
curriculum (Klein and Rose, 2010; Smith and Wilhelm, 2002). However, this is not always
evident in classrooms. For example, in some educational settings, computers are used simply
to produce neat final copies or to create power points of ideas gathered from books. This is
being termed ‘old wine in new bottles’ syndrome, in which teachers tend to focus on the
technology aspects of use rather than viewing the issue as an instructional opportunity for
literacy (Honan, 2012). In contrast, it is preferable that students engage with, refine and
reinvent literacy approaches that embed the new technologies with the New Literacies
(Lankshear and Knobel, 2003).
Subsequently, and with the rapid increase in the availability of digital tools, Lankshear and
Knobel (2003) define digital epistemology as the concepts, issues and relationships concerned
with ‘knowing, believing, opining, [and] justifying with truth and standards of reasoning
related to knowledge of digital literacy’ (p. 156). They report that school curricula, by
necessity, must define the area and kind of knowledge that students are required to learn, and
that this should include propositional, procedural and explanatory types of knowledge
(Lankshear and Knobel, 2003). With the advent of the New Literacies, traditional
epistemology is being challenged by, for example, the rapid changes to communication
through SMS, Facebook and Twitter technology, and online gaming communities.
42
Three key challenges to conventional epistemology are identified by researchers (Lankshear
and Knobel, 2003; Lankshear, Peters and Knobel, 2000). Firstly, traditionally in education,
knowledge is constructed linguistically and expressed in sentences or propositions and
theories. However, multimedia, with its text, audio, image and animation, break down the
‘primacy of propositional linguistic forms of truth bearing,’ altering the meaning of traditional
talk and text and how meaning is made (p.171, 2003). Therefore, it becomes equally
important that students are taught the analytical and critical literacy skills needed to discern
‘truth’ in the digital world, which impacts on curriculum and pedagogy (Lankshear and
Knobel, 2003, p. 171).
Secondly, the way in which school curricula and timetables are constructed is on a subjectspecific basis, with teachers recognised as individual experts in their field. The Internet, with
its collaborative knowledge-generating power, stands diametrically opposed to the individual
nature of knowledge as held by a select group. In contrast, corporations are requiring that
knowledge be distributed rather than concentrated, to remain flexible and responsive to
changes in markets and trends. Therefore, as future workers, students must develop
information gathering, analysing and synthesising techniques as they work collaboratively to
solve problems. The purpose is to produce knowledge accurately and collectively (Labbo,
2006a; Lankshear and Knobel, 2003, p. 172).
Thirdly, Lankshear and Knobel (2003) maintain that knowledge and the gaining and
expressing of that knowledge is based on truth as already exists within established ways of
achieving and expressing that knowledge. Digital technologies open up a new space in which
the social and accepted practices of knowing are challenged. The aforementioned researchers
understand this as a shift from ‘propositional knowledge to performance epistemology’,
where ‘rule breaking and innovation is required to know how to proceed in the absence of
existing models and exemplars’ (2003, p. 173). Of vital importance are the decisions,
understandings and procedures in making successful choices to determine answers to
questions in the quest for knowledge, summed up as critical literacy. For example, students
must discern which hyperlinks to follow on a web page to successfully find an answer to a
problem. This is similar to Leu’s (2001a) idea of literacy being deictic.
Researchers have come to recognise that, due to the sheer volume of information and
constantly changing text formats, it becomes virtually impossible for primary school students
43
to discern fact from fiction and determine the trustworthiness of information gained through
technology (Coiro, 2003; Etherington, 2008). In November’s (2010) opinion, teachers are
thus more important than ever, as students cannot learn the skills of critical thinking and
global communication, which include understanding ethics and social responsibility, on their
own. November (2010) explains that the Internet is a ‘powerful and potentially manipulative
environment and one in which critical thinking is essential’ (p. 27). By this, he implies that
critical literacy is non-negotiable in the school curricula.
The implications of these challenges for schools are ongoing and illuminate issues relating to
the value of knowledge, the social construction of knowledge, and beliefs and actions relating
to knowledge acquisition and teaching. Social practices occurring outside school seem to be
privileging ways of knowing that are more performance and procedure orientated, more
collaborative and more concerned with making an ‘impact on attention, imagination, curiosity
and innovation’ (Lankshear and Knobel, 2003, p. 176). This is not always true in classrooms.
The digital world can provide a context in which all students, especially boys, can embark in
collaborative settings on activity that is meaningful and authentic in purpose, to gain
knowledge and skills to equip them for the future.
2.4.4. A Note on Authenticity
Authenticity is a thread that weaves its way through this study. Understood as that which is
real or genuine, ‘authentic’ was historically linked to assessment in the literature during the
1990s. For example, assessment tasks that met certain criteria embedded into ‘real-world
experiences’ were considered authentic (Churchill et al., 2011). In terms of application,
Groundwater-Smith, Ewing and LeCornu (2003) and Pendergast and Bahr (2005) claim that
authentic assessment is compatible, useful and prevalent for primary and middle school
students. In contrast, Reinking (1998) argued that school learning is learning for school and it
is therefore often at odds with authentic ways of learning to be in the world. This suggests that
‘authentic assessment’ is not always relevant to middle school students.
In the context of this study, ‘authentic’ is understood to represent those actions that boys
engage with as embedded in plausible real-world problems and through which they can easily
make connections to other contexts. These actions primarily reside in the digital game world,
on a variety of devices that afford both individual challenges and rewards, an element of skill
44
building and a high degree of choice. The boys approached their gaming with a genuine desire
to achieve, to compete and to succeed. Researchers such as Gee (2003) and Prensky (2006)
and others have sought to capture the authenticity and passion that gamers bring to the game
world and extrapolate this to the classroom. Their work rests on the foundation of the New
Literacies and will be discussed next.
2.4.5. How do Boys Learn?
In understanding how boys learn, the picture is complex. The ideas of play, action and
collaboration foreshadowed by Vygotsky (1978) have been drawn on by other researchers, in
particular Browne, Collins and Duguid (1989) and more recently by Gee (2003), Prensky
(2006, 2010) and Wilhelm (2010). The current study adopts the pedagogical principles that
support boys’ learning based on the work of Browne, Collins and Duguid (1989), who write:
There is a need, particularly among boys, to situate learning in what is ‘real’,
‘authentic’, ‘social’, ‘liminal’, ‘relational’ and ‘substantive’.
Following is an explanation of each of these terms with particular emphasis on boys’
interactions with technology from a literacy perspective. Also in this section, links are made
to the cognitive and affective benefits of gaming that, more than a decade after the work of
Browne, Collins and Duguid (1989), have been identified and extrapolated by New Literacy
researchers.
2.4.5.1. ‘Real’
Real learning is understood as that which is relevant to boys’ lives and has its foundations in
their interests and practices. Being able to make a connection between what they are learning
in the classroom and their interests makes learning real and relevant for boys (Smith and
Wilhelm, 2002; Wilhelm, 2010). It is here that choice becomes a valued asset in literacy
practice for boys, especially those in middle school. Alloway and Gilbert (1997) articulate
that many boys have literacy skills that are not recognised in the classroom. ‘Surfing the net,
reading video screens and engaging with computers all demand levels of literacy competence
that do not figure highly in school measurements of literacy’ (p. 54; Alloway et al., 2006).
Building on the existing strategies, skills and strengths that boys bring with them from the
45
world of cyberspace can enhance reading choices and methods of delivery to engage boys in
real learning.
2.4.5.2. ‘Authentic’
Smith and Wilhelm (2002) identified that boys respond well to a clear purpose linked to
authentic activities. Similarly, Klein and Rose (2010) report that success is often achieved
when boys are asked to write for authentic purposes, real audiences and use hands-on
activities, such as technology. Authentic activities include the ordinary practices of our
culture, linked to a meaningful outcome and a genuine audience. An example is contributing
cheats to a gaming wiki to assist other gamers, in which boys in this study willingly engaged.
In the classroom, online engagement lends itself to the incorporation of critical characteristics
of authentic activities to enhance learning, such as writing for a genuine audience (Herrington,
Reeves, Oliver and Woo, 2004). One such classroom example was the Year 6 class in this
study, which created a collaborative wiki on Indonesia that had as its audience the rest of the
school. The wiki was created by the students to engage other students in learning about the
customs and language of Indonesia as part of their Language Other Than English curriculum.
2.4.5.3. ‘Social’
An alternative term for social learning is collaborative learning. The benefits of collaborative
learning are well documented. Gee (2004) writes that ‘reading and thinking are social
achievements connected to social groups’, and this is well supported by the collaborative
opportunities found in the new literacies (p. 3). For example, in the cyber world, readers and
writers take on an identity as a ‘way of being in the world’, which in turn shapes their way of
thinking and affects their perceptions (Coiro, 2003). Through this process, identity is formed
and shaped by the social interactions participated in with others, for example, through online
gaming and social media, such as Facebook.
Bruce and Bishop (2008) define community as ‘support for collaborative activity and for
creating knowledge that is connected to people’s values, history and lived experiences’ (p.
711). Smith and Wilhelm (2002) emphasise the importance of boys belonging to a close
friendship group and note that this affected the way in which boys engaged with technology
and learning in their study. For example, many boys reported using social networking sites
46
and email to continue conversations with the friends that are important to them at school.
These boys belong to an online or virtual community based on shared interests, with
boundaries existing symbolically rather than literally in cyberspace. Alan November (2010) in
his book Empowering Students with Technology writes:
There is enormous opportunity to motivate and deepen our students’
understanding of complex issues by connecting them to authentic audiences
around the world. We have powerful and easy to use tools. What is needed is a
vision that will support a more authentic experience for our students and a
realisation that many of our students want to tap the social communication side
of the Internet (p. 32).
2.4.5.4. ‘Liminal’
Liminal in this context refers to ‘at the threshold’, or as Vygotsky (1978) termed it, the ‘zone
of proximal development’. The zone of proximal development is defined as the ‘higher level
of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers’ (Vygotsky, 1978 in Daniels, 2008, p. 20). Liminal
learning is learning that is challenging to boys. It is situated on the outer edge of what boys
know. Liminal learning requires boys to work at extremes with others, to push their learning
into new territory (Blair and Sanford, 2004; Zambo and Brozo, 2009). An example is the
playful, collaborative aspect that boys engage in when playing computer games.
Vygotsky (1978) suggested that play is a learning dynamic in which children can prosper. He
observed that through play, a child’s imagination, interpretation and will is externalised
(Prensky, 2010; Vygotsky, 1978). Further, ‘the unity of perception, speech and action’ is the
combination that best engages children, and particularly boys, in given tasks (Vygotsky, 1978,
pp. 25–26). For example, computer games are built on the premise that action takes place in
the imaginative sphere, governed by rules and supported by prompts as boys progress through
the levels of a game with a specific purpose. If boys are engaging in complex uses of
technology at home through play and are only given the option of traditional methods to
express their learning in classrooms, there is a disunity between perception, speech and action
that can lead to boys ‘powering down’ when at school.
47
2.4.5.5. ‘Relational’
Relational learning refers to relationships with teachers and classmates. Much has been
written about the feminising influence of female teachers on boys (Biddulph, 1998; Smith and
Wilhelm, 2002b). However, there is little evidence to suggest that male teachers are more
effective than are female teachers in teaching boys (see Section 2.3.1). Smith and Wilhelm
have consistently found that it is the relational aspect of boys feeling valued, supported and
challenged by their teacher that enhances their learning outcomes (2002, 2004). In their study,
effective pedagogy for boys was enhanced when teachers drew on boys’ outside interests and
established a caring relationship with each student. They write, ‘[t]he boys clearly saw
teaching and learning as relational pursuits’ (2004, p. 20). Alloway et al. (2002) agree,
suggesting that encouraging boys to work cooperatively and collaboratively to distribute their
knowledge, opinions and interests can lead to a strong sense of belonging (pp. 8, 9).
2.4.5.6. ‘Substantive’
Lingard et al. (2002) describe pedagogy that is more intellectually stimulating, more
connected to boys’ lives and the world beyond the classroom and more socially supportive
with clear pathways to assessment and curriculum goals as being central to engaging boys (p.
119). Wilhelm (2010) identified that, to develop competence, boys require activities that are
immediately functional, engaging, creative and challenging. Substantive learning incorporates
these elements, and is weighty but achievable for boys.
Central to Vygotskian theories is the notion that the individual is active in shaping a response
as well as being shaped by the cultural artefacts with which he or she is engaging, thus
enacting the development of new and improved forms of thought (Daniels, 2008; Somekh and
Lewin, 2008; Vygotsky, 1978). The constructivist theory of learning has as its basis the
gaining of knowledge acquired through the activity of constructing meaning from the social
situations, artefacts and people in which the learning is situated. Technology at home and in
the classroom provides the opportunity to make explicit the hidden processes of learning,
thereby providing a platform for the individual to actively shape their thinking and engage in
substantive activity. This has benefits for literacy development, tempered with a balance of
constructivist and direct instruction methods that may increase engagement for boys. Gaming
48
is one such vehicle that serves as a means of connecting boys’ outside interests to school
literacy.
2.4.6. Boys and Gaming
The past decade has seen a dramatic increase in the amount of time children and adolescents
spend playing computer games and, according to Rideout, Foehr and Roberts (2010), children
aged between 10 and 14 years spend more time on this activity than any other age group.
However, computer games have been around for nearly 40 years. A historical review of the
literature relating to gaming on electronic devices reveals that as early as 1984 researchers
such as Dominick and Selnow in the Journal of Communication were researching and
commenting on teenagers and video games (in Lawry et al., 1994). These early researchers
suggested that teenagers were fulfilling friendship needs with video games (Selnow, 1984)
and that games were a substitute for social relationships and an attempt to raise self-esteem
(Dominick, 1984).
Earlier research identified that boys are more likely to play computer games than are girls. For
example, research studies by Subrahmanyam, Greenfield, Kraut and Gross (2001), Durndell
and Haag (2002) and Madell and Muncer (2004) all found this gender gap in favour of males.
In contrast, a study by Odell et al. (2000) did not find significant gender differences in
frequency of game playing among adolescents. More recently, Willoughby (2008), in her
longitudinal study of adolescent boys’ and girls’ Internet and computer game use, found that
being male significantly predicted both gaming and Internet use.
The predilection for boys to engage in Internet and computer gaming has been explained by
research. Cone (2001) suggested that gender differences exist because many computer games
are based on violence and competition, which are more attractive to boys. Subrahmanyam and
Greenfield (1998) suggested that the nature of the narrative of online games is more suited to
boys, as many games reflect fantasy-based as opposed to reality-based game worlds, with
girls preferring the latter.
Thus, gender differences have been observed not only in time spent playing, but also in the
game preferences of boys and girls. Chen (1986) and later Odell et al. (2000) found that girls’
online activities largely filled a communication need, rather than involving gaming for
49
entertainment. Similarly, Rideout et al. (2010) testified to boys in the 10 to 14 age group
being likely to spend twice as much time as girls playing video games. More recently, Homer,
Hayward, Frye and Plass (2012) confirmed these findings and added that more boys than girls
elect to play stereotypical male games such as first person shooters, fighting or sports-based
games. In contrast, very few boys state a preference for typically female video games such as
Star Doll or Nintendogs.
Research has also identified that computers influence children’s behaviour. Provenzo (1992)
was a strong critic drawing on the work of Anderson and Ford (1986) and Silvern and
Williamson (1987), all of whom concluded, firstly, that aggressive behaviour increases after
children play video games; secondly, that games of this kind encourage anti-social behaviour
and increase anxiety; and finally, that there is an addictive element to games of this nature.
Lawry et al. (1994) refuted these claims, reporting in their study addressing the themes of
addiction, anti-social behaviour and violent behaviour, that while some boys may become
consumed by gaming, most realise the potential for balance with other activities in their lives.
Contrary to games being considered anti-social, Lawry et al. (1994) did not find any evidence
of this, instead finding that boys enjoyed the narrative in games and were willing to help each
other to overcome the forces of evil versus good on which video games are predicated. In
answer to the criticism of violence and competition, this was acknowledged as being part of
many video games. However, they postulated that it was the challenge of learning and
executing the game playing skills embedded in a violent game that was the real draw card for
boys and not the violence per se (Lawry et al., 1994).
Willoughby (2008) found with the rise of social media and increasingly sophisticated gaming
devices and games there is potential for concern. Willoughby’s research (2008) on game
playing and affective predictors, reports that concerns are still being raised about increasing
levels of social isolation. For example, research by Lanthier and Windham (2004) and
Alexander and Mitchell (2005 in Willoughby, 2008) found that students self-reported higher
levels of loneliness and depression with increased technology use.
Willoughby also identified that excessive Internet use and gaming and the link with
aggressive and anti-social behaviour is still being found in research. She provides the example
of Anderson and Bushman’s study in 2001. However, recent research by Homer et al. (2012)
50
refutes these claims. Instead, their study of 213 middle school students in the United States
(US) found that, contrary to negative stereotypes of children who play violent online games,
adolescents were not evidently depressed, inattentive or aggressive, nor did boys exhibit
maladaptive behaviours, despite averaging over 40 hours of game play per week (Homer et
al., 2012).
According to De Aguilera and Mendiz (2003), computer games in particular are influenced
by, and are influencing, our culture and society, creating a parallel symbolic universe
inhabited daily by millions. The term ‘moral panic’ was first used by Cohen (1972, p. 9) and
describes intense feelings by the wider population about an issue that appears to threaten
dearly held societal and cultural values. The rise of a gaming culture has triggered moral
panic within many sectors of society; in the present study, this was particularly evident among
the interviewed parents.
De Aguilera and Mendiz (2003) report on research about the moral panic surrounding
computer games and the effect these have on youth culture. Basing their review primarily
within the fields of psychology, psychiatry and communication technology, they categorise
the main findings as follows.

Access and use: covering differences according to age, gender and SES, and including
time spent gaming.

Subject matter: including genre, structure, origin and background of games.

Social perceptions: influenced by wider discourses on technology, youth issues and
education.

Positive and negative behaviour: for example, aggression, addiction, sexism,
educational potential, impact on socialisation, identity and cognition.

Other applications: for example, medical procedures such as keyhole surgery, and
didactic uses such as simulation games and practical applications for people with
special needs (De Aguilera and Mendiz, 2003, p. 3).
More recently, Bulfin’s (2009) study of 15- and 16-year-olds’ use of digital technologies in
school and at home found that parents are confused about their parenting role in the face of
the rapidly changing youth culture and the influence of technology. Indeed, parents in the
current study expressed similar views and listed similar reasons as to their acceptance or
51
rejection of technology for gaming as those found by De Aguilera and Mendiz (2003) and
Bulfin (2009).
Teachers also struggle with balancing the advantages and disadvantages of technology
integration from a pedagogical, ethical, moral and personal viewpoint. Most teachers
recognise that the ‘virtual schoolbag’ that boys bring to the classroom has as much or more
influence on their learning outcomes as does the curriculum and school of which they are also
a part. Thompson (2002) introduced the metaphor of the ‘virtual schoolbag’ to represent ‘all
that students have already learned at home, with their friends, and in and from the world in
which they live’. Nichols and Cormack (2009) found that the value of boys’ digital
experience depends on a teacher’s standpoint and their willingness to adapt pedagogy to
accommodate boys’ interests and knowledge.
Research has also heralded the positive aspects of technology use, and in particular gaming.
For example, studies demonstrate that computer use and gaming has the potential for
improved
cognitive
development
(Turow,
1999);
increased
visual
acuity
skills
(Subrahmanyam et al., 2000); the development of engaging learning activities (Coiro, 2003;
Wood et al., 2005); assistance for students with home and school work (Subrahmanyam et al.,
2000); enhancement of spatial performance skills and supportive literacy skills; and addition
to academic performance (Coiro et al., 2008; Subrahmanyam and Greenfield, 1994).
Significantly, all of these findings, already fostered in the home environment, have
implications for greater engagement for boys in the middle school classroom.
A recent survey of the Entertainment Software Association (Siwek, 2010) annual study of
game players in the US found that 97 per cent of youths play computer and video games; 40
per cent of all gamers are women; 25 per cent of all gamers are over 50; and the average game
player is 35 years old and has been playing for 12 years. According to McGonigal (2011),
every year these numbers increase. In Australia, the number of youths who report playing
computer games is 92 per cent (Digital Entertainment and Games Association, 2012). A
popular example of games played is World of Warcraft, which has one of the largest
memberships of all games, at more than 10 million subscribers worldwide as of October 2012
(Wikimedia, 2012).
52
MMORPGs had their beginning in the 90s. Accumulated points are used to reach character
‘levels’, which improve the character and enable it to earn more points. This is called
‘levelling up’ and often comes after hours of ‘grinding’, or repetitive combat tasks, to earn
experience points. The games eventually demand players to team up with others to progress at
the optimal rate (Wikimedia, 2012). MMORPGs differ from single player or small RPGs in
the number of players and whether the game’s world is persistent. A persistent world means
that the game continues even when the player is not playing. Concern has long been voiced on
this aspect of the game, as it sometimes forces players to change their real-world schedules to
meet game world commitments (Turkle, 1995, p. 177). In this study, time spent playing
online games was one of the major criticisms voiced of boys, particularly by mothers.
McGonigal (2011) writes in her illuminating book, Reality is Broken, that with rapidly
increasing numbers of gamers, it will become necessary to take them more seriously. She
argues that it is necessary for educators to understand how gaming will impact our real
societies and might be used for real-world good. For example, while parents and many
researchers call on schools to expand their curriculum to bring boys’ interests and skills into
the classroom, curriculum expansion for this purpose can also be a source of conflict
(McGonigal, 2011).
The conflict many parents and teachers feel relates to the notion that ‘play’ and ‘real learning’
are thought of as diametrically opposed (McGonigal, 2011). Many researchers have
contributed to the discussion about the educational benefits of computer gaming combining
formal and informal contexts (Gee, 2003; McGonigal, 2011; November, 2010; Prensky,
2010). They ask the question, ‘How can digital literacies or video games deepen learning both
in and out of school?’ Researchers have noted that young people seem to engage in deeper
learning in their popular culture than in school (Gee, 2003, 2004, 2008; Gee and Levine,
2009; Lankshear and Knobel, 2003; Prensky, 2006). Gee (2008) provides the example of
games such as Rise of Nations, Age of Mythology and World of Warcraft as complex, long and
difficult games, but that can be learned and played for pleasure, and hold many benefits.
53
2.4.7. Benefits of Gaming for Boys
There are many learning features of good computer games, primarily linked to affective and
cognitive benefits. These benefits, as identified by Gee (2003) and Prensky (2006), have been
linked to the characteristics of how boys learn as identified by Browne, Collins and Duguid
(1989) and Wilhelm (2010) (see Section 2.4.5.1–2.4.5.6).
2.4.7.1. Affective Benefits
Good video games offer players strong identities. This requires viewing the virtual world
through a distinctive identity found in the game or that the player has created him or herself.
This relates to the social learning of boys. Good games lower the consequences of failure by
allowing the player to begin a new game or providing scaffolds to overcome difficulties. In
this way, players are encouraged to take risks, explore and try new things. In addition, good
games encourage players to think about the relationship between how their actions now will
impact future actions in their game. These are examples of real learning for boys (Browne,
Collins and Duguid, 1989). Further, good games allow new players to customise their
learning and playing styles through having varying degrees of difficulty and problems that are
able to be solved in multiple ways. This is an example of substantive learning for boys. Social
learning for boys is evident in good games, as they allow players to feel in control and enjoy
a sense of ownership as they return to ‘my’ game. Good games are achievable but challenging
or ‘pleasantly frustrating’ (Gee, 2008), demonstrating an opportunity for liminal learning for
boys. Good games, like World of Warcraft, require players to join in cross-functional teams,
with each player bringing his or her own expertise and skill. Each player must know enough
about other players’ functionality to work in a cooperative way to solve problems. This
resembles the world of work, making this an authentic learning experience for boys.
2.4.7.2. Cognitive Benefits
The cognitive benefits of playing computer games have also been identified by Gee (2003,
2008) and Prensky (2006, 2010) and linked to how boys learn. These authors claim that
substantive learning for boys is evident when good video games make players hypothesise,
investigate options, get a reaction, reflect on results and react to get better results in a
continuous cycle. Good video games allow players to be producers rather than consumers
54
alone, in authentic situations. Complex games allow players to co-design their game through
their unique actions and decisions, making the game’s outcome different for every player.
These are examples of both authentic and relational learning for boys. Good games
encourage creative problem solving to complex problems. Problems are well ordered so that
solutions to earlier problems serve as stepping-stones to later, harder challenges, providing
liminal and substantive learning for boys. According to Bereiter and Scardamalia (1993),
good games offer players a set of challenging problems and let them practice until they have
achieved mastery. Once mastery is achieved, the game delivers a harder set of challenges
requiring players to rethink and problem solve once again. This is ‘a repetition of a cycle of
consolidation and challenge and is the basis of the development of expertise in any domain’
(in Gee, 2008, p. 1025), capturing the liminal and substantive learning aspects for boys.
According to Prensky (2006), authentic learning is achieved in good games when players are
encouraged to explore all of the options and think laterally before making a decision. Good
ideas are encouraged and rewarded in a world full of high-risk, complex and challenging
systems. As games become more sophisticated, ‘smart tools’ are embedded that work with the
player to distribute available knowledge to achieve the goal. For example, the citizens in the
strategy game Rise of Nations know how to build a city, but the player must make the
decision of where to build it and balance the associated implications, which mirrors real
learning for boys. Further, good games operate on the principle of performance before
competence; in other words, good games allow a player to perform supported by ‘smart tools’
built into the game or to rely on the support and expertise of other players to get them started
and in so doing bring relational learning to the forefront for boys. A further example of
authentic learning is found in the language established in good games. For example, good
games show words and definitions and how they vary across actions in context and are
usually supported by images and dialogue. Technical terms are not simply listed as definitions
at the beginning of a game but are delivered ‘just in time’ to assist the player at their point of
need (Adapted from Gee, 2008, pp. 1024–1026; also see Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2006, 2010).
Research by De Aguilera and Mendiz (2003) lists additional abilities that can be gained from
computer games, including intellectual and sensory-motor development, perception,
deduction, parallel and simultaneous processing, spatiality, visual acuity, selective attention to
stimuli and determination. On this basis, computer games can be instrumental in both the
55
intellectual and emotional or affective development of boys, with simulation games in
particular possessing infinite educational potential (Prensky, 2006).
2.4.8. Gaming and Education
Educators are able to recognise the parallels between Gee’s (2003, 2008) features of good
video games and good teaching and learning practices, particularly in relation to how to
engage boys in literacy. Meyer (2009) identifies four areas of learning that originate from
virtual worlds. Firstly, through participation in virtual worlds, boys can create a persona or
unique identity that reflects their growing sense of self. Thomas and Brown (2011) agree,
adding that this is an opportunity for creating the social self and for teaching safe online
habits and cyber citizenship. Secondly, virtual worlds are exciting and present the opportunity
for new literacy activities as students engage with websites and each other in new ways, such
as in real time through chat, or by creating and manipulating their avatars. Thirdly, virtual
worlds consist of a series of challenges to be met, providing skills for problem solving. As
each challenge is encountered, needs must be identified, sources selected, credibility and
relevance determined, decisions made, and conclusions drawn. Further, in many cases,
players’ successes and the ‘cheats’ to recreate these successes are shared with other online
participants. All of these skills can be transferred to real-life learning. As such, Meyer (2009)
encourages teachers with the ability to do so to assist students to make the connections
between game worlds and schooling. Lastly, Meyer (2009) highlights the benefits of
belonging to an online community. Just as literacy is a social activity in real life, literacy
becomes a social activity online and communities form around common practices that mould
identity and belonging.
The Queensland Department of Education and Training (Queensland Government, 2010) has
an ongoing project that focuses on ‘how game play, game study, game development and game
innovation can be used to improve student learning outcomes’. Coming from a productive
pedagogies philosophy, the rationale for this project acknowledges that digital game playing
is already a billion dollar industry and that the opportunity exists to integrate digital games
into teaching and learning. The Queensland Government project (2010) acknowledges that
digital games can improve students’ learning outcomes when integrated into carefully
constructed learning experiences. The way in which integration can occur is through building
students’ storytelling skills; encouraging cooperative learning; engaging students in higher56
order thinking and problem solving; encouraging planning and reflection; developing selfmonitoring, pattern recognition, problem recognition and problem solving skills at a deep
level; and fostering the development of qualitative thinking, principled decision making and
memory skills. This work is founded on students bringing their knowledge of digital games
into the classroom and sharing their experiences, thereby creating a learning community
around shared interests (Queensland Government, 2010).
Classrooms can also strive to become communities of learners by harnessing the motivation
and engagement in authentic activities encountered in online worlds. These acts can become
touch points for literacy and be viewed as complementary rather than competitive as teachers
explore the links between the pedagogy of virtual-world and real-world literacy. Meyer
(2009) suggests that teachers look to ‘leverage the learning and problem solving aspects’ and
the motivation and collaborative learning opportunities that virtual worlds provide (p. 52). An
example of where pedagogy and literacy co-exist and have the potential for integration is in
the school library. Eisenberg (2006) strongly encourages the role of the librarian as being one
who can teach meaningful ICT skills integrated with the curriculum, advocate reading, and
provide guidance through the promotion and successful management of information sources,
services and facilities (p. 22).
Converting learning in some school subject areas to video game-like learning is easier than
for others. For example, Rise of Nations features 18 civilisations playable through eight ages
of world history. It can be argued that this supports knowledge and understanding of Ancient
History. However, not all subject areas are so easily linked. Critics point out that video games
do not supply ‘content’ such as is required in Mathematics, Science and Chemistry for
example, in which students are required to know and understand a body of facts and
principles (Gee, 2008). Video games may assist a player to think and act like a soldier within
the game setting, but this learning may not be accurately transferred to real life with beneficial
effects, because the knowledge is situated within the context of the game. Game-like learning
is not only about a game in a box; it is also about the learning and social system built around
the game. Critics point out that many video games are based on war, domination and
competition, which do not match with the values and ideology that schools are seeking to
promote for our future generations (Dapin, 2011).
57
Researchers recognise that not all games are suitable for school use. However, computer
games are a digital text type, and the proliferation of digital texts is changing the nature of
literacy and generating new forms of literacy narratives (Hunt, 2000; Locke and Andrew,
2004, Unsworth, 2008). Unsworth (2008) argues that the advent of digital texts is not in
competition with books, but rather that ‘strongly synergistic complementarities are emerging’
(p. 26). Moreover, Unsworth (2008) describes online texts as an opportunity for student
engagement, comparison, critical thinking and innovation through activities related to texts
and authors, which teachers can employ to engage boys.
According to Smith and Wilhelm (2002) and Wilhelm (2010), belonging to a group or groups
forges identity and this is particularly important for the social and emotional development of
pre-teens and teenagers. These researchers found that belonging brings with it the benefits of
acceptance, recognition and friendship. In online learning communities such as Second Life,
participation in active learning involves experiencing the world in new ways, forming new
affiliations and preparing for new learning through collaboration. Similarly, Gee and Levine
(2009) established that successful interactions require the player to critically reflect on and
manipulate elements in the game to achieve the intended outcome through problem solving
and collaboration. Therefore, success in these online learning communities fosters a sense of
belonging and a mutual interest that serves as a platform for future interactions and learning
(Wilhelm, 2010). This takes place within the socio-cultural domain as players actively interact
to experience the world in new ways. One example accessible to boys in middle school is
social networking sites.
2.4.9. New Literacies and Social Networking
According to boyd and Ellison (2007), social networking sites are web-based services that
allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile or identity within a bounded
system. Users then create a list of other users with which a connection is shared, allowing
them to view and navigate that list of connections and communicate with them (p. 211). The
names and nature of social networking sites may vary, but all share these three functions and
have the primary aim of enabling users to make their social networks visible for the purposes
of ongoing communication.
58
The first recognisable social networking site, SixDegrees.com, was launched in 1997.
Participants in the present study predominantly used Facebook, which made its debut in 2004
(boyd and Ellison, 2007). Most social networking sites, like Facebook, provide the
opportunity for users to communicate using written messages in the form of ‘comments’,
which become the object of literate activities such as reading, writing, comprehending and
viewing. Increasingly, researchers are tapping into the rich literacy environment of social
networking sites for work with students of all ages and education levels. One such study, by
Perkel (in press), analysed copy and paste practices on Myspace as a form of literacy
involving social and technical skills (see boyd and Ellison, 2007).
However, researchers also concede that social networking sites bring problems as they
become deeply embedded in teenagers’ lives. For example, boyd and Ellison (2007) cite
George (2006) and Kornblum and Marklein (2006), who raised the issue of potential threats
to privacy. Similarly, Stutzman’s (2006) survey of Facebook users found that most teenagers
are unaware of the public nature of the Internet and that their actions on social networking
sites are a permanent record. Other researchers have argued that privacy controls on social
network sites such as Facebook do not provide users with the flexibility they need to deal with
conflicts with ‘Friends’ who may have different privacy settings thus enabling an
unauthorised sharing of information (Preibusch et al., 2007). boyd and Ellison (2007) also
report that privacy becomes an issue in users’ ability to control their identity and manage
social relationships.
Researchers concur that the opportunity for engaging in risky and anti-social behaviour is
present on social networking sites (boyd and Ellison, 2007; Reich and Subrahmanyam, 2012).
Mesch and Talmud (2006) found that, while parents were concerned about the types of online
spaces their teenagers access, few parents took steps to monitor Internet use. Adolescence is
characterised by the need to establish intimacy and emotional connections with others, and
research suggests that the Internet and social networking sites in particular have become a
vehicle for supporting and growing emotional connections for teenagers (Reich and
Subrahmanyam, 2012). Perspectives from boys, their parents and teachers on social
networking sites are discussed in later chapters in this study.
Literacy in the technological age encompasses so much more than reading and writing. The
intersection of the emerging new literacies and the social aspect of literacy have particular
59
relevance for boys’ literacy development. Literacy as a social practice is evidenced by the
manner in which boys communicate using technology as a basis for social interaction and the
sharing of common interests with their peers. Playing computer games is but one example of
this. This social aspect of literacy shapes boys’ identities and provides them with a means to
develop and maintain personal relationships and belonging (Blair and Sanford, 2004; Clay
and Hartman, 2004). This has implications for middle school pedagogy.
The next section explores the links between home and school, and the discourses around
technology and literate practices in these domains.
2.5. The Home–School Connection
2.5.1. Introduction
This study draws on the perspectives of 45 parents who have a central role in the provision of
access to computer technology in the home for the benefit of their sons. This section refers to
research about the role of parents in relation to technology and literate practices, with
particular links to fathers.
Researchers agree that parents are their children’s first and most enduring educators (Ashton
and Cairney, 2001; Churchill et al., 2011; Kervin, 2005). Research has also established that
when parents and teachers work together, particularly in the early years, the results have a
positive impact on the child’s development and learning (DEEWR, 2009; Kervin, 2005).
Further, according to Tompkins, Campbell and Green (2012), parents play an important role
in the development of early literacy skills through, for example, the spoken word and reading
to their child as partners in literacy learning. Cairney’s (2002) contribution to the field is
useful for the current study:
Literacy in all its forms can only by understood when we study the people who
use it. Literacy is in essence a set of social practices situated in sociocultural
contexts defined by members of a group through their actions with, through
and about language. ... To understand literacy in all its richness, we need to
understand the groups and institutions that socialise us into specific literacy
practices (Cairney, 2002, p. 159).
60
The historical roots of literacy studies grew out of revolutionary research into how children
are socialised into particular forms of communicative practices by families. This included
work by such authors as Heath (1983), in her book Ways with Words: Language, life and
work in communities and classrooms, and Street (1984). These authors brought, for the first
time, an explanation of literacy and language beyond the school grounds, broadening our
understanding of social contexts and practices in which literacy is experienced and learned.
Authors such as Halliday (1984) and Kress (1997) furthered the field’s understanding of
literacy as semiotics, explaining the shift from print-based logic to other modalities such as
digital media in meaning making. This shift enabled interactivity, or the ability to
communicate across texts, and hypertextuality, or the ability to alter, layer or reinterpret
others’ texts to create new opportunities for what it means to be literate (Rowsell and Lapp,
2011, pp. 396–397). This has links to the New Literacy Studies.
One of the early pioneers in describing the importance of the home–school connection was
Shirley Brice Heath (1983). Her ground breaking ethnographic study of three communities,
Trackton, Roadville and Maintown, in the Piedmont Carolinas in the US identified
measurable differences in the way in which parents socialised their children through language
(Heath, 1983). Heath documented the communication and socialisation practices of families
in each community, and particularly their use of oral and written language in everyday life.
Following these children into the school environment, Heath realised, for example, that
teachers were interpreting the language differences of the children from particularly the
Trackton community, a largely black working-class neighbourhood, as deficits, which in turn
hindered their learning in the classroom. Heath explained the differences in each community
as not based on biological, ethnic or socio-economic difference, but rather on the social and
cultural practices of each family:
The place of language in the cultural life of each social group is interdependent
with the habits and values of behaving shared among members of that group
(Heath, 1983, p. 11).
Heath’s work, among other things, demonstrated how social and cultural practices shape
literacy attainment. She argued that understanding the networks in which children grow up
assists teachers, and this formed a useful starting point for the current study.
61
A similar study by Wells (1987) in England showed that one of the most significant roles for
parents was as conversationalists, to prepare their children for education both before and
during school. Wells found that class and cultural differences emerged when children began
school, and these were related to the ease with which the children expanded their language to
include the use of formal literacy practices, such as reading and writing (Wells, 1987 in
Emmitt, et al., 2011). These and other researchers established that the first and early
experiences of children influence their achievement at school. In this decade, there are links to
the first and early technological experiences that parents provide, and which can set students
up for success in the classroom.
Continuing research in the area of the home–school connection has established, for example,
that a child’s performance in literacy, learning and academic development is related to preconditions at home and the influence of parental education, expectations and occupational
status (Alloway et al., 2002; Cairney, 2002). According to Amato (2005) and reiterated by
Magnuson and Berger (2009), economic, sociological and psychological theories provide
insight into how family structure may influence children. Thus, it is relevant to explain
differences in child wellbeing across family structures, as Amato (2005) contends that access
to economic resources, parental time and attention, family conflict and stress, and social
selection all have roles to play. These factors were evident in this study.
Researchers too have established the importance of parental involvement in children’s
education, recognising this as an important element in effective schooling (Cairney and Ruge,
1999; Epstein, 1996; Galindo and Sheldon, 2012; Kervin, 2005; Senechal, 2006). Others have
found the high positive correlation between parent knowledge, beliefs and parent–child
interaction and student achievement to be more important than the family’s income, education
level or cultural background (Bokhurst-Heng and Pereira, 2008; Cairney, 2002).
The social and cultural background of the family, peer group, class and ethnicity are all
considered factors that influence boys’ achievement. What boys bring with them in terms of
values and attitudes towards learning is formed within the home context and influences their
success or otherwise in the classroom (Taylor, 2004). This appears to be relevant around the
world, as the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) reports that
there is a significant relationship between students’ assessment results and their SES globally
(Taylor, 2004, p. 162). In their longitudinal study of literacy development from the year prior
62
to school to the first four years of school across Australia, Hill et al. (2002) found that the
lowest performing children were overwhelmingly located in schools serving families living in
poverty (p. 5). Further, Hill, Comber, Louden, Rivalland and Reid (2002) found that some
parents in these schools felt unwelcome due to not sharing the cultural and social capital
valued by the school. Useful to this study is that these researchers continually found that those
children whose parents had the educational background and social capital to monitor their
child’s progress, provide extra support and dialogue confidently with teachers were those that
succeeded in school (p. 7).
Galindo and Sheldon (2012) refer to numerous studies conducted over the last two decades
that have reached the conclusion that those children from homes with more books and with
parents who engage with and encourage reading practices at home tend to perform better on
literacy assessment and reading achievement tests than do children from less reading-rich
environments. They concluded that parent–child interaction is not only the first, but also the
strongest, influence on children’s cognitive development (Galindo and Sheldon, 2012, p. 91).
Epstein’s (2001) idea that home and school constitute ‘overlapping spheres of influence’ has
been adopted for this study. Epstein contends that the contexts of home and school cannot be
separated in understanding student development and academic achievement. Using this notion
of overlap, Galindo and Sheldon (2012) found that positive relationships between contexts
lead to academic success. Further, it has been suggested that specific home literacy practices,
such as parent help with reading, are better predictors of success than other factors such as
intelligence (Lowe, Martens and Hannett, 2009; Senechal, 2006). According to Fan and Chen
(2001), parental involvement in their children’s learning positively affects the child’s
academic performance in both primary and secondary schools, leading to higher academic
achievement, greater cognitive competence, greater problem-solving skills, higher school
enjoyment, better school attendance and fewer behavioural problems at school (Clark, 2009;
Feinstein and Symonds, 1999). The implications as identified by Jewitt (2008), drawing on
the work of Leander (2001), are that ‘learning traverses institutional boundaries, seeping
across and at times collapsing the boundaries between in school and out of school literacies’
(p. 32). Therefore, we can conclude that literacy and techtivity are social practices that begin
long before children begin formal schooling, and that these are influenced by the adults in the
home. As shall be discussed more in Chapter 4, in relation to boys, fathers are particularly
63
influential around both reading and techtivity. In the next sub-section, the research informing
this notion is outlined.
2.5.2. The Role of Fathers
Just as the rise of the Internet has changed our literate practices, the role of fathers in relation
to fatherhood has changed. Goldman (2005) described the increased involvement of fathers
with their children in traditionally mothering pursuits as a ‘renaissance’. The reasons are
many; for example, Goldman (2005) indicates the desire of fathers to achieve a level of
intimacy with their own children that was denied them by their own fathers. From another
perspective, Bailey (1994) surmised that father involvement has increased out of necessity, as
mothers return to the workforce in increasing numbers. Ortiz and Stile (2001) believe that the
father’s involvement, particularly in early literacy activities, can be attributed to his desire to
give his children a head start for school and develop an intimate relationship. Add to these
social changes such as paternity leave and flexitime and fathers are enabled to spend more
time with their children.
Increased time is significant for the relationship between father and son and educational and
social research is increasingly examining the father–son interaction on children’s learning
within and outside school (Gadsden, 2003; Saracho, 2007). These researchers suggest that the
father’s ability to support his child’s learning affects the child’s engagement at school, and
this is a particularly useful lens through which to view responses in this study.
Relatively few studies of family literacy programs have investigated the role of fathers in the
literacy development of their sons. However, one such study by Morgan, Nutbrown and
Hannan (2009) found that fathers tend to be less involved than are mothers in providing
literacy experiences at home. However, other research offers a strong link between fathers
who do read and their sons’ reading habits, indicating that fathers can provide a positive role
model for boys (Nichols, 2000; Zambo and Brozo, 2009). According to Lloyd (1999), fathers’
reading habits can have a substantial influence on boys’ ability to read, their levels of interest
and their reading choices. Lloyd’s study found that although mothers were often mentioned as
having encouraged boys to read and exposing them to books, fathers were more likely to be
monitoring and evaluating their sons’ reading as they progressed through primary school.
64
Useful to this study, Lloyd (1999) and later Clark (2009) concluded that fathers saw reading
as a way to ‘maintain a relationship’ with their sons and believed that having books in the
home and being seen reading by their sons was very important. Significantly, although very
few studies have reported on the relationship between fathers’ and sons’ use of gaming as a
way of maintaining and fostering an intimate relationship, techtivity can certainly be argued
to have become as important a vehicle for supporting relationships in the twenty-first century
as were books in the twentieth century.
2.5.3. Home–School Connection, Technology and Pedagogy
According to the Futurelab report (Green et al., 2005), by the age of 21, the average person
will have spent 15,000 hours in formal education, 20,000 hours watching television and
50,000 hours in front of a computer screen (Henderson, 2011, p. 152). From these figures, we
can surmise that there is a significant imbalance between the time spent in formal education
and computer usage at home.
In this section, rather than attempting to provide an exhaustive overview of research on the
links between home and school, technology and pedagogy (due to the sheer volume), only the
key research pertinent to this study is summarised, based on its usefulness in explaining the
themes raised later in this research.
From an educational point of view, the experiences and interests that boys bring with them to
the classroom as being central to a successful curriculum are well recognised (Kalantzis and
Cope, 2004) and theorised in the pedagogy of multiliteracies (New London Group, 1996).
Clay and Hartman (2004) use the term lifeworld to explain who boys are and what they bring
to the classroom from their home environment (p. 5). More recently, Bulfin (2009) used
Goffman’s (1962) notion of underlife to explain the unofficial, unsanctioned digital literacies
of teenagers and how these might influence pedagogy. Dyson’s (1997) concept of a
‘permeable’ and reciprocal dialogue between home and school provides an understanding of
learning styles, culture, values and interests to inform pedagogy and curriculum. Indeed, there
appears to be little dispute about the importance of drawing on the home–school connection to
improve pedagogy. Yet, it remains a complex and intricate endeavour for schools.
65
Given the proliferation of technological devices, boys’ penchant for engagement with them
and the 24/7 access, keeping up with technology becomes a challenge for schools. In theory, it
is possible for schools to draw on the pedagogy of the new literacies and cater to the
multiliterate strengths honed by boys through hours of gaming (Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2010).
Many schools desire to capitalise on these experiences as best they can. However, in practice,
this is difficult; particularly as most schools are not nimble in their response to new
technologies and lack sufficient funding to keep up with new products. In schools’ defence,
the solicitous management of funds and resources that limits schools’ response to
technological developments is expected by stakeholders as the responsible course of action.
Yet parents also have an expectation that schools will prepare their sons for the world of work
by engaging them productively with technology in the classroom. Parents generally
acknowledge the complex environment in which the education system operates and the
potential and problems of the digital revolution. Bulfin (2009) terms this perception of the
school the ‘new home–school mismatch hypothesis’, and positions schools as out-of-touch or
playing catch up with the digital revolution that could potentially transform curriculum,
pedagogy and learning. This hypothesis is particularly useful for understanding the parent and
teacher responses in the present study (see Chapters 5 and 6).
According to Cullen (2001), there is evidence to suggest a digital divide concerning access to
technology and its benefits based on socio-economic or rural–urban status. In contrast, when
considering technology for teaching and learning, Honan (2006) suggests that the ‘home–
school divide’ is a more accurate term (p. 41). By way of explanation and drawing on the
work of Merchant (2007), Henderson and Honan (2008) report on a growing sense that the
‘rich literate practices used by young people in their homes and the restricted practices
engaged in by schools and teachers’ is of more concern to educators than the digital (socioeconomic) divide (Henderson, 2011, p. 153). The home–school divide was evident in this
study, and is useful for understanding boys’ and parents’ responses (see Chapters 4 and 5).
In her study in middle school classrooms, Henderson (2011) revealed that teachers viewed the
teaching of literacy as separate from technology, although both were considered important.
Teachers did not acknowledge the ‘funds of knowledge’ (Gonzales et al., 2005) that students
brought with them as being of use in the classroom (Henderson, 2011). However, discovering
ways in which to unlock the repository of knowledge that students bring with them to school
66
can open up innovative pedagogy and multiliterate practices and capitalise on the home–
school connection. Prensky (2010) terms one such method as partnering.
Prensky (2010) encourages the closer partnering of home and school to prepare students for
twenty-first century learning. He suggests that partnering should cut across the barriers of
home, school and community settings to give traction to the accumulated store of knowledge
that students have mastered through their motivated engagement with online worlds. He also
acknowledges the barriers that can be encountered when converting the informal literacies of
gaming and media creation to the more formal school literacies (Prensky, 2010). This is
echoed by Gee and Levine (2009) who write:
Our innovation based global age requires us to retool foundational literacy
skills and link them with other competencies such as critical thinking,
collaborative problem solving and digital media (p. 50).
Gee and Levine (2009) believe that most teachers are motivated to prepare their students and
begin a dialogue to understand and recognise the skills and passions that boys bring with them
from their home literacy practices. According to Beavis and O’Mara (2010), teachers that are
willing to embrace the home literate practices that boys bring demonstrate their understanding
of the ‘shift in attention towards innovation’ that working with new text types can bring (p.
75). However, in the present study, it was found that simply being willing and actually
changing classroom pedagogy to draw on the rich cyber-world experiences of boys do not
always go hand in hand.
In this chapter, contemporary research on boys’ education was traced, and key theoretical
perspectives on literacy as a social practice in relation to the influence of technology and
home literate practices was explored. The pedagogy of multiliteracies (New London Group,
1996) and the New Literacy Studies (Coiro et al., 2008) suggested a framework through
which to recognise the changing nature of literate practices in society and in schools. These
theoretical positions were discussed, encompassing the close relationship between
technology, literate practices and pedagogy, particularly with regard to boys. The role of
gaming in the lives of boys was outlined with links to its affective and cognitive benefits as
67
recognised by research. Many boys show expertise and confidence in a range of literate
practices relating to entertainment, such as games, because they see these activities as
meaningful in their lives. The following chapter (see Chapter 3) discusses the methodological
approach used in this thesis.
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3. Methodology
3.1. Introduction
This chapter charts the development of this study, which is founded within an Interpretivist
paradigm (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007) utilising an ethnographic case study approach
(Woods, 1996). The study set out to unpack the question of how boys interact with
technology at home and at school and to describe the opportunities and disadvantages of their
online engagement from multiple perspectives. Located within the qualitative paradigm
(Lincoln and Guba, 1985), an emergent multiple case study design (Yin, 2003, 2012) was
employed to capture and articulate perspectives on techtivity. The following diagram
demonstrates the elements of the research design and an explanation follows.
Elements of Research Design
Interpretivist Paradigm
Research Question:How do boys interact with technology
at home and at school?
Methods of
Data
collection
Case Study
Methodology and Design Framework
Contexts of
Data
collection
Ethnography
Observation
Classrooms
St John’s School
Red Hill College
CASE 1
CASE 2
Interviews
Artifacts
Embedded units of analysis
Embedded Units of Analysis
Boys n=13
(Interviewed)
Boys n=14
(Interviewed)
Boys n= 26
(Surveyed)
Boys n=379
(Surveyed)
Teachers n=6
Teachers n=9
Parents n=23
Parents n=22
Surveys
PERSPECTIVES ON LITERACY AND TECHNOLOGY:
BOYS, PARENTS, TEACHERS
Data Analysis:
Grounded Theory
Emergent
Themes
Access
Attitude
Choice
Provision
Data Analysis:
Grounded Theory
Expectations
Figure 3.1: Elements of the Research Design
69
Homes
3.2. Primary and Supporting Questions Investigated
The primary research question this study investigates is ‘How do boys in middle school
interact with technology at home and at school?’ Additional questions include:
i.
What are the benefits (if any) of online engagement for boys in middle school?
ii.
What are the disadvantages (if any) of online engagement for boys in middle school?
iii.
What impact does boys’ engagement in online worlds have on pedagogy?
iv.
What are the similarities and differences in the skills, attitudes and practices that boys
display when using technology in the school context and the home context, and how
can educators and parents harness these?
3.3. Interpretative Paradigm
The rise of techtivity among boys particularly in middle school provides fertile ground for
social researchers. Having the goal of understanding the home and school contexts from
multiple perspectives, which are the dominant contexts in which boys in this age group
interact, I chose an Interpretivist paradigm in which to situate this research. Being a middle
school teacher and mother of teenage boys, I was interested to understand the everyday
dynamics of adolescent social interaction through techtivity, as well as whether boys
transferred their experiences between and across contexts. Just as important was to gain an
understanding of how parents and teachers viewed and understood these interactions, as these
adults often become the gatekeepers for techtivity for boys in this age group.
The Interpretivist paradigm enables the understanding of human experience through the
‘participants own views of the situation being studied’ (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007;
Creswell, 2003) and multiple perspectives often lead to a better understanding of the situation
(Willis, 2007). The examination of multiple perspectives required me to examine the
influences that the social context, either home or school, had upon the actions of the boys and
it assisted in the elucidation of why different groups—that is, boys, teachers and parents—
behaved in the manner that they did in relation to techtivity. Willis (2007) writes that
Interpretivist researchers:
seek methods that enable them to understand in depth the relationship of
human beings to their environment and the part those people play in creating
70
the social fabric of which they are a part ... people have their own
interpretations of reality, and interpretivists choose methods that encompass
this world view (p. 98).
As I was interested in using research methods that would enable me to capture the world view
of participants in relation to techtivity within a particular social context, an ethnographic
approach was employed. This perspective highlights the lived experiences of participants and
seeks to explore their experiences authentically while positioning them within their cultural
and social contexts. Through participant observation and interviews, I was able to explore
deeply (Willis, 2007), as my intention was to investigate the ‘intentions, motives, meanings,
contexts, situations and circumstances’ of techtivity in the participant groups (Denzin, 1988
cited in Glesne and Peshkin, 1992, p. 19). However, while I held some ideas about boys’
interactions with techtivity, to use the words of Bogdan and Biklen (1992), ‘to state exactly
how to accomplish this task would be presumptuous’ (p. 59). Instead, I utilised an emergent
design based on my foundational beliefs informed by the New Literacy Studies (Coiro et al.,
2008; Leu, 2001a) and my experiences as a teacher and a parent, which enabled the gaining of
‘valuable insights’ into how boys interact with technology (Bell, 2005, p. 7). The emergent
design evolved as I learned about the settings, participants, actions and other sources of data
through iterative examination. Therefore, the process of making meaning from the
researcher’s perspective was emergent from the exploration of the environments and data
collected (Willis, 2007).
This study is a multi-sited, qualitative case study (Yin, 2003) of boys’ interactions with
technology at home and at school. The research field in which this research occurred relates to
literacy and English learning and teaching as opposed to other subjects found in the middle
school curriculum. Yin (2003) defines case study as ‘investigat[ing] a contemporary
phenomenon within its real-life context when the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident’ (p. 13). Willis (2007) suggests that case study is an approach
used by Interpretivist researchers to examine ‘a specific phenomenon such as an event,
person, process, institution or social group’ … [in relation to] ‘real people and real situations
to illuminate the reader’s understanding of the phenomenon under study’ (p. 239).
71
This study comprises more than one context, more than one case and many ‘embedded units
of analysis’ (Yin, 2012, p. 7). This exploratory case study, with its ethnographic perspective,
includes multiple cases including the perspectives of 27 male students, 45 parents and 15
teachers, drawn from two schools in the ACT. The research took place over 12 months and
was set in both classrooms and homes. The qualitative results, deduced through grounded
theory analysis (Charmaz, 2006) that did not proceed in a linear manner but was instead
recursive, are not intended as generalisable to wider social groups, but rather convey a
narrative of individual experiences and commonalities among participant groups that may
reflect wider trends.
3.4. Case Study and Ethnography
Ethnography in all its guises has … proved critical to the social study of
children. Its key strength as method lies in the way in which, through close
attention to the everyday and familiar through the social worlds is both created
and sustained, it has enabled the voices of those who would otherwise be silent
to be heard (James, 2001, p. 255).
Case study has been used in this study to explore the connections, parallels and differences
among and between three distinct yet interconnected groups around the research question of
how boys interact with technology at home and at school. It is inherently ethnographic in
nature, as the ‘contextual nature of case study heightens our capacity to understand
contemporary phenomena in real-life contexts’ (Meyer, 2001; White, Drew and Hay, 2009, p.
25). Adopting an ethnographic stance facilitates the exploration of social practices and,
according to Freebody (2003), educational practices are ‘nothing but social and cultural’,
being situated and experienced across a range of contexts (p. 9). For the past four decades,
ethnography has been used in educational research, drawing on the work of anthropologists
and sociologists and blurring the boundaries between the disciplines. Relevant early examples
include Heath (1983) and Wells (1987), who investigated language use and school success
across diverse populations and multiple contexts over time and in natural settings (see Section
2.5.1). Similarly, this study investigated boys’ use of contemporary technology in the natural
settings of their homes and classrooms over nearly 12 months.
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More recently, educational case studies, particularly in the field of technology and literacy,
have adopted ethnographical perspectives to examine familiar practices while employing
multiple case study design (Bulfin, 2009; Cruickshank, 2006; Farrell, 2006). According to
Stake (2000), case study ‘concentrates on the experiential knowledge’ of the case and pays
close attention to the influence of the ‘social, political and other contexts’ in which the
research is taking place (p. 444). Freebody (2003) identified educational settings as examples
of an inherently complex dynamic that plays out both in the settings in which they occur and
in society more broadly. The choice of literacy/English classrooms was intentional and serves
as a research setting in which to place this study.
Along with changes in the socio-cultural composition of families, the influence of digital
technology and subsequent changes to educational policy, Freebody (2003) argues that the
practices that are termed ‘educational’ are always changing and are therefore contestable. He
suggests that an ethnographic perspective to research provides a ‘theoretical integrity’ that
enables researchers to receive ‘a pleasurable shock of the familiar’ (p. xi) as they aim to
record and investigate the experiences and encounters of people across families, communities
and institutions (pp. 1–2). According to Yin (2003), the use of case study methodology allows
the researcher to focus on a particular phenomenon—in this study, the way in which boys
interact with technology at home and at school—which serves to taper and focus the scope of
ethnographic research—here, boys’ activities relating to techtivity and literacy.
St John’s Primary and Red Hill College were the school sites chosen for this research study.
The research setting within the schools was Year 5 to 8 classrooms, with a particular focus on
the daily literacy block in primary school and English classes in secondary school. Research
was also undertaken in 27 homes in the ACT and New South Wales (Jerrabomberra). The
school and home contexts represented natural settings for the participants, who included 27
boys, 45 parents and 15 teachers. The homes included in this study were predominantly
middle class, and the schools were situated within the Catholic and Independent education
sectors. The study’s design is detailed in the following sections.
73
3.5. Study Overview
The design of a case study requires a logical sequence connecting the nominated research
questions to the raw data collected and ultimately to the analysis and conclusions drawn from
the findings in a clear chain of evidence (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). According to Denzin and
Lincoln (2005), the research design situates the researcher in the observed world and connects
him or her to the specific sites, participants and domains being studied and to the body of
research documents in the field. This thesis presents an interpretation of boys’ interactions
with technology at home and at school, in which patterns, similarities and differences are
analysed and reported (Johnson and Christensen, 2004; Yin, 2012). The cases have an
ethnographic orientation because my aim was to understand techtivity and literacy within the
home and school context, and the case study approaches assisted in focusing the research on
boys in middle school.
Three elements—the research questions, the units of analysis and the integrated data
sources—form the basis on which this study rests (Yin, 2012). To consider a number of
perspectives across ages and settings, an emergent design was adopted to generate thick
descriptions, experiential understandings and multiple realities (Stake, 2006). The emergent
design was refined as the study proceeded, which influenced the development of the research
questions and the direction of the study, while the broad focus of the research adhered to the
central focus of boys and technology in middle school. An explanation of the research sites,
participants and sample narratives, as well as tabulated summaries of the boys in this study
and the data collection process follows.
3.5.1. Units of Analysis
Yin (2003) identifies the types of case study design as either single or multiple, with the latter
comprising more than one context, more than one case and with many ‘embedded units of
analysis’ (p. 7). The advantages of a multiple case study lie in the results of the examination
of more than one case; the evidence gleaned across cases is more convincing when multiple
perspectives are considered, and multiple case designs can highlight the convergences and
divergences among cases, leading to a richer and more comprehensive understanding of the
74
subject being studied. In this study, data were collected from 88 cases across multiple homes
and two schools to form the research base from which conclusions were drawn.
Observations in classrooms and family rooms provided data on the setting, activities and
relationships inherent in the study, while interviews and anecdotal conversations added
another more concrete dimension to understanding how boys interact with technology at
home and at school. For example, I observed boys playing their favourite computer games at
home while simultaneously conversing with them. Being in their homes enabled me to
observe the ways in which boys’ interacted with technology at home, and by interviewing
their parents, I gained their perspectives on their sons’ interactions with technology. I was
then also able to relate the data collected in the home context to my observations of, and
conversations with, boys in the classroom setting. In this way, divergent and convergent
views were made explicit within and between cases. The perspectives of their parents and
teachers helped to illuminate the extent of the ‘experiential knowledge’ of the boys under
review (Stake, 2000).
According to Bogdan and Biklen (2007), sound research methods are consistent with the
heuristic ‘embodied in the methodology’ (p. 31). Multiple methods were used to collect the
data or units of analysis in this qualitative study. Based on Yin’s (2009) recommendation that
a persistent point of reference be maintained to blend all of the units of analysis into a single
study, the point of reference ‘boys and technology’ was used when designing the interview
questions, survey and collection of artefacts. A diagram (see Figure 3.3) of the units of
analysis follows, with ‘boys and technology’ being the shared point of interest. This diagram
conceptualises the units of analysis demonstrating the three perspectives from which boys and
technology are examined, and shows the major conceptual categories that emerged from the
data for further analysis.
75
PERSPECTIVES OF DATA
Reading
Techtivity
Equity and
Access
Boy’s
Perspective
Writing
Pedagogy and
Curriculum
Home-School
Connection
Teacher’s
Perspective
Parent’s
Perspective
Opportunities and
Barriers
Boys and
Opportunities and
Barriers
Technology
Impact on
Students
Literacy and
Technology
Flashpoints and
Tensions
Figure 3.2: Units of Analysis
3.6. Integrated Data Sources for Study: The Contexts
According to Stake (2000), cases in a study are ‘embedded in a number of contexts or
backgrounds’. Lincoln and Guba (2000 in Stake) agree that qualitative case study calls for the
‘examination of these complexities’ as the research is based on social happenings, human
interactions and the situation in which these interactions take place (p. 449). Additionally,
Stake (2000) explains cases as ‘bounded systems’ that are always situated within larger
networks and multiple cases, describing the opportunity for ‘coherence and sequence being
there to be found’ (p. 444). Yin (2003) concurs, seeing the case study as a ‘comprehensive
research strategy’ (p. 14) and ‘all-encompassing method’ (p. 14) that facilitates ‘a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries
between phenomena and context are not clearly evident’ (p. 13).
In relation to this study, both the school and home contexts can be understood as natural
settings for the participants. Natural or authentic settings in which boys aged 10 to 14 are
predominantly found include classrooms and homes, as activities, relationships and
development occur within these primary contexts by virtue of time spent. However, it is also
acknowledged that there is a dynamic tension between the two contexts, which are, as Lincoln
and Guba (2000) describe, providing an opportunity for the study of the ‘sequence and
coincidence of events that are interrelated and contextually bound’ (p. 449 in Stake, 2000).
76
For example, parents in this study held very strong views on the role of the school in relation
to teaching and learning with technology, with these views largely based on their own prior
experience of schooling rather than on any contemporary knowledge of twenty-first century
classrooms. Boundaries were thus blurred between the home and school contexts, as parents
considered that they were knowledgeable of both contexts, yet were often not.
A case study approach enabled exploration of these perspectives and shared meanings, which
coincide, interconnect and intertwine technology use and literacy across these domains.
Through observation, interviews and interaction in both school and home contexts, a
collection of ideas emerged that painted a picture of boys’ interactions with technology across
and within domains that were ‘contextually bound’ and intricately connected (Lincoln and
Guba, 2000).
Together with context, the personal biography of the researcher in the process of research,
according to Denzin and Lincoln (2005), is also ‘interconnected’ (p. 29). The set of ideas or
theory held by the researcher influences the choice of questions, what is observed, what and
who are surveyed and what is collected and examined in the analysis. This perspective also
leads the researcher to adopt a particular set of views of those who are being studied, drawing
attention to the understanding that the process of research is always filtered through lenses
applied by the researcher. Further, Denzin and Lincoln (2005) observe that ‘there are no
objective observations, only observations socially situated in the world of, and between, the
observer and the observed’ (p. 29). This is similar to Moje et al’.s (2004) notion of
understanding the ‘third space’, as researchers seek to understand the interactions between the
contexts of home and school, while being aware of the part they play in it. In understanding
the ‘third space’, I became what Willis (2007) terms a ‘participant observer’; that is, I
interacted with the research participants continually through discussion and observation to
question, identify and verify their perceptions, and the priorities they associated with
techtivity at home and at school.
The contexts of home and school in this study are understood as influenced by the physical
setting, the social practices and activities that take place therein, and the meditation of activity
based on the context in which the research takes place. Studying students in both the
classroom and home context according to Yin (2003) creates opportunities to ‘retain the
holistic and meaningful characteristics of real life events’ (p. 2) as they occur between and
77
across contexts. As a participant observer across contexts, I was able to ‘draw conclusions and
seek verification from participants in a recursive manner, which added to the emergent data
collection and analysis (Willis, 2007).
Data collected included observation in homes and schools, formal and informal interviews,
surveys of boys and girls, extensive field notes within the research sites and collection of
school artefacts. All sources provided an integrated approach to data collection, as there were
many complementary overlaps despite the multiple natures of the research sites (Yin, 2006).
The following diagram (see Figure 3.4) demonstrates the instruments through which data
were collected within the research contexts. The arrows depict the reciprocal and recursive
manner in which the instruments were used to gain information from both contexts. This was
adapted from Yin (2006).
Integrated Data Sources (Yin 2006)
SCHOOL
CONTEXT
HOME
CONTEXT
Observation and
Field notes
Observation and
Field notes
Formal and
Informal
Interviews
Formal and
Informal
Interviews
Surveys
Personal
Biography of the
Researcher
School Artefacts
and
Documentation
Figure 3.3: Integrated Data Sources
Although the data collected within each context were diverse, methods of data collection were
similar, thereby enabling comparison between contexts. The questions within the formal and
informal interviews were designed to have some overlapping as well as non-overlapping
elements to discover common ground, as well as areas of difference. This can be seen, for
78
example, in the interview questions asked of students, parents and teachers (see Appendices
A–D). For example, questions asked of students revolved around their self-perceptions of
themselves as readers and writers, their favourite books and online games, their duration of
reading and game play, and their general online activities. Parents were asked questions about
home literacy practices; their attitudes, fears and concerns; the opportunities they perceived in
relation to technology use at home and at school; and the role of the school in literacy and
technology learning. The teachers were asked similar questions, including a self-assessment
of their own literacy and technological abilities, observations on boys’ literacy and
technology use, and identification of their attitudes, fears and concerns and the opportunities
around technology for teaching.
In summary, ethnographic case studies find their value in making visible the connections and
interactions of human experience on contemporary issues based on several sources of
information with a view to highlighting and suggesting complexities for further investigation
(Stake, 2000, p. 460). This study seeks to avoid over-generalisations such as found in the
‘digital native, digital immigrant’ paradigm (Prensky, 2001), preferring to reflect on trends
and potential applications relating to and deriving from the technologically rich world of
boys. The following section introduces the research sites and participants.
3.7. Research Sites
Two schools, St John’s Primary and Red Hill College, were the primary sites in this research
study, and 27 homes in the ACT and New South Wales (Jerrabomberra) were visited. Visits
to the multiple research sites were undertaken concurrently over the course of 12 months to
gain the greatest degree of exposure to the settings as possible, and to develop rapport with
the participants. Participant schools were selected based on their willingness to be involved in
the study, and based on my affiliation with them as a former teacher or parent. Individual
teachers participated on a voluntary basis and their recommendations led to me approaching
boys and their parents, who also participated voluntarily. In addition, survey data of 405 boys
in Years 5 to 8 across both schools were collected. The primary research sites are described
below, and to ensure anonymity and confidentiality, pseudonyms are used.
79
3.7.1. St John’s Primary
The philosophy and ethos of St John’s Primary follows the Catholic tradition, which holds
that the school, along with the Catholic community, educates the spirit, mind and body to
embrace today and assist students to meet the challenges of the future (school website,
accessed October 10, 2011). The National Catholic Education Commission (2012) identifies
that ‘Christ is the model who inspires our beliefs, thoughts and action’ and that ‘education
through faith in the Catholic Tradition guides decisions’. There is an underlying theme of
acceptance of the individual and a celebration of the challenges, excitement and love of
teaching and learning evidenced in daily prayer, weekly Mass and whole-school assemblies.
Observation revealed that the teachers are committed to providing high standards of education
through a variety of teaching and learning experiences.
St John’s is a co-educational primary school for Kindergarten to Year 6 students, and has
been operating for over 35 years to meet the needs of the Catholic and general community in
the Central Western suburbs of Canberra. The school has 300 students, 13 full-time teachers
and six support staff. There are four males on the teaching staff, providing a good blend of
gender, age and ability to the staff.
According to the Principal, St John’s has recently been extensively remodelled with all
classrooms and other learning spaces renovated and refurbished to reflect contemporary
educational thinking. The corridors are wide and adorned with beautiful artworks reflecting
the children’s learning, thinking and creativity, and the use of vibrant colour and simplicity is
noticeable on entering this learning space.
Each classroom is large and the feeling of openness is achieved through one wall being floorto-ceiling glass opposite wide windows that allow lashings of natural light to flood the
learning environment. Each classroom boasts an interactive whiteboard (IWB), data projector,
two desktop computers and six laptop computers. The students sit at desks that comfortably
seat two; and in most classrooms, desks are arranged in groups or in a U shape to allow for
easy classroom discussion and group work facilitation. There are colourful bean bags or
cushions, book shelves full of books and a locker for each child. Each teacher has added his
or her own touches, but the overall feeling is one of an inviting learning environment.
80
3.7.2. Red Hill College
Red Hill College is an all boys’ school in the Anglican tradition, and has been operating for
83 years. The school’s philosophy is based on the Anglican traditions of pastoral care and
Christian values, seeking to provide each boy with a well-rounded education with every
opportunity to reach his potential. According to the school website, the school is committed to
creating an environment that gives all students access to excellent teachers, facilities and
opportunities.
Red Hill College caters for students from Preschool to Year 12. The school educates 940 boys
from Years 7 to 12, with the student body comprising boys from many different cultures and
religions, and the house structure providing pastoral care for smaller groups within these
years. The students undertake an academic program based on the ACT’s system. In 2011, 43
per cent of the students who sat the final exams achieved an ATAR (Australian Tertiary
Admission Ranking) of 90 per cent or over, and 90 per cent of the year group received
university offers (school website, accessed February 23, 2012).
The school offers a comprehensive co-curricular program that includes offerings in a wide
range of sports and activities, including a computer-programming group called Code Cadets.
Being over 80 years old, the school has developed over time such that it is now spread over a
large campus. The classrooms are traditionally set up with rows of desks. In the older
buildings, classrooms have high ceilings and an abundance of natural light.
Red Hill College is well equipped in terms of educational resources with six designated
computer laboratories. Most classrooms house IWBs and digital projectors. The excellent
Resource Centre is the hub of the digital- and print-based resources for the school, offering
flexible spaces for teaching and learning. The school is currently investigating and investing
in new forms of educational technology such as iPads for individual digital learning and
teaching to provide twenty-first century learning opportunities for boys. This school has been
a recipient of the BER and the DER.
To provide additional background information on the two school sites used in this study, it is
useful to explain the ICSEA, as well as how the study schools perform on it.
81
The ICSEA is used to represent the levels of educational advantage or disadvantage that
students bring to their academic studies. The mean for Australian schools is 1000 and the
range is from 500 (catering for students from very educationally disadvantaged backgrounds)
to 1300 (very educationally advantaged background). The ICSEA does not describe or reflect
the wealth of the students’ parents in a particular school, or the wealth or resources of that
school. The ICSEA ranking has the purpose of enabling fair and meaningful comparison of
the performance in literacy and numeracy of students in a given school with students of a
similar background (ACARA 2012c).
The ICSEA is calculated by collecting student family-background data such as level of
parental education, parental occupation and language background from school enrolment
forms, as well as using indirect data from the ABS. Each school’s ICSEA value can be found
on the My School website on the school profile page. The tables below outline the relevant
data from the two research sites as given in 2011 on the My School website
(http://schools.myschool.edu.au/ )
The ICSEA value provides contextual information about the socio-educational composition of
the students’ community. With rankings over 1000, both of the research schools are
considered as having above average ICSEA rankings, with Red Hill College ranking higher
than St John’s Primary. The table demonstrates the composition of the students in each
quarter, with the bottom quarter representing relative disadvantage and the top quarter relative
educational advantage based on the data collected. Students from both schools come from
homes of relative educational advantage, and this is reflected in the underlying attitudes and
values towards academic achievement of the parents surveyed.
82
Table 3.1: ICSEA Ranking by School
St John’s Primary School
Student Background 2011
School ICSEA value
1093
Average ICSEA value
1000
Data source
Distribution of students
Parent information
Bottom quarter
Middle quarters
Top quarter
School distribution
4%
7%
61%
28%
Australian distribution
25%
25%
25%
25%
Red Hill College
Student Background 2011
School ICSEA value
1187
Average ICSEA value
1000
Data source
Distribution of students
Parent information
Bottom quarter
Middle quarters
Top quarter
School distribution
0%
2%
21%
76%
Australian distribution
25%
25%
25%
25%
Note: Percentages are rounded and may not add up to 100%.
3.8. Participants
The participants of this study are 27 boys in middle school, 45 parents and 15 teachers at two
research sites: St John’s Primary and Red Hill College. As the total number of boys available
at St John’s Primary was only 26, the boys in Year 5 and 6 at Red Hill College were also
surveyed. Participants took part in the study voluntarily by invitation, which were offered
based on my affiliation with the two schools in this study, as either a teacher or parent.
83
Table 3.2: Participants by School
St John’s
Primary
Red Hill College
26
208
Boys surveyed
26
379
Boys (in-depth study)
13
14
Parents
23
22
Teachers
6
9
Total
94
632
Boys (general
observation in class)
3.8.1. Boys in this Study
This study privileges the boys’ position by placing them as central with regard to the other
participants. The parents and teachers are inextricably linked to each boy through relationship
and/or context. The relationship I had with all participants inhabited a ‘curious space’ (Moje
et al., 2004) as I was not quite a peer, a parent or a teacher, but rather a researcher who was
afforded the opportunity of sharing their lives for a short time. The data set comprised 234
boys, who were observed in classrooms across two school settings. Of these, 27 boys across
the two schools were selected for in-depth study.
As a researcher, my relationship with the participants at St John’s, in particular the Year 6
boys, was comfortable and familiar. I taught many of these boys in lower primary and had
previously met and interacted with their parents at school functions. I did not have the same
level of familiarity with the Red Hill College boys and their parents, never having taught at
the school. However, as a parent of older boys at Red Hill College, I was very familiar with
the school, which assisted in the building of a rapport and a sense of common ground with the
participants from this site.
Barton and Hamilton (1998) describe data compiled and presented on an individual basis as
representing a ‘vertical slice’ through the data. Therefore, vignettes of each boy aim to
provide the reader with a sense of the boy, their family and their interactions with technology
and literacy. Below, I have chosen to provide vignettes for two boys from each grade by way
of example. The remainder can be found in Appendices G and H. A summary of all
participants by year level follows in year level order (see Tables 3.3–3.6). Pseudonyms are
84
used for all participants. All quotations are taken from the interview transcripts or field notes
collected in 2011.
3.8.1.1. St John’s
At St John’s, three co-educational classes were observed with students in Years 4, 5 and 6, as
in this year, the school had one Year 6 class and three Year 4/5 composite classes. These
students were from low to middle SES homes according to the ICSEA index on the My
School website. In the ACT, many boys leave their primary schools to attend all boys’
Catholic High Schools that begin in Year 4. This means that the ratio of boys to girls drops
significantly in upper primary. St John’s is a case in point. At St John’s, there were only seven
boys in Year 6, so all boys were selected and participated in the in-depth study. Of the two
Year 4/5 classes observed, purposive sampling was used to select six boys in Year 5. These
boys were selected based on consultation with the class teacher, to represent a broad range of
literacy and technology abilities. In total, 13 boys from St John’s were both interviewed and
observed in their home context. Individual case studies are discussed in the following chapters
and interview questions are available in Appendices A and B.
Thomas (Year 5): ‘I play with millions of people around the world’
Snapshot: Reluctant reader; keen gamer; unsupported home literacy practices
Thomas is the younger of two boys and spends week about with each of his parents,
who have both remarried. He is a keen sportsman and described sport lessons and his
friends as the best thing about school. Thomas does not see himself as a reader and
chooses to spend any free time playing Call of Duty: Black Ops. He feels a part of the
community of gamers, proudly stating, ‘I play with millions of people around the
world’. He described the skills he needs to play well as including fast reactions, quick
decision-making skills, good coordination and well-developed peripheral vision. He
also mentioned that he has to read a lot online to know what he has to do, which
provides a purpose for him to engage in reading. He shares his love of gaming with his
friends and the social aspect of a shared experience draws the boys together. He talked
about the challenge of gaming being to ‘unlock new stuff’. Despite the fact that he
fails yet continues trying, Thomas described feelings of happiness while playing, as he
is improving as he encounters harder challenges. His journey into literacy has not been
smooth. His mother reports that her own dyslexia has held her back and she suspects
the same is true for Thomas. He attended Kumon for 12 months, which assisted his
reading, and his parents chose for him to repeat Year 3 at school due to his lack of
concentration and poor reading skills.
85
Lewis (Year 5): ‘I feel very tired but satisfied because good games take a long time to
master’
Snapshot: Avid reader; keen gamer; very well supported in literacy and technology at home
Lewis is a bright, articulate boy with a bubbly personality and ready smile. He
achieves very well academically, has many friends and a younger sister. He is from a
close-knit family that values reading, education and technology. He is an avid reader,
Lego builder, gamer and sportsman. His bedroom houses an abundance of books and
Lego creations, together with scientific toys such as a microscope, telescope and
magnetic tools. This home is clearly set up for family interaction around television and
gaming, and Jack, Lewis’s dad, an IT professional, has an abiding interest in
technology, computers and gaming that he shares with his children. Nerrida, his
mother, is in the public service. She sees no benefit in gaming. However, she concedes
that Jack and the children do have a close relationship based on shared experiences
through such activities as gaming and that in some way their use of technology is
preparing her children for the world of work. After 20 minutes on the Xbox Connect, I
asked Lewis how he was feeling. He replied, ‘Very tired but satisfied because good
games take a long time to master’. He added that it helps him at school because he can
focus for longer periods and stick at a problem.
Table 3.3: Summary Data Table, Participants from St John’s Primary, Year 5
Name
Attitude
towards
reading
Parental
occupation
Likes
reading
Public
servants
Thomas
Negative
and has
struggled
Father:
Public
servant
Mother:
Fitness
instructor
Lewis
Excellent
and
voracious
reader
Jackson
Public
servants
Parental
attitude
to
reading
Printrich
home
Access
technology
at home
Both
very
positive
Yes
Yes
Mother
has
dyslexia;
Father
reads
No
Yes,
extensive
Both
very
positive
Yes
86
Yes,
extensive
Boy’s attitude
towards
technology
Representative
quotation
Loves playing
WWE and
Pokémon
‘I like reading
but I’d rather
play WWE
than read a
book’
Passionate
about Call of
Duty, Sport,
Facebook
‘I play with
millions of
people around
the world’
Passionate and
highly
competent
across a range
of games
‘I feel very
tired but
satisfied
because good
games take a
long time to
master’
Name
Attitude
towards
reading
Parental
attitude
to
reading
Public
servants
Both
very
positive
Wayne
Only when
he has to
Public
servants
Mother
very
positive;
Father
never
reads
Jeremy
Excellent
and avid
reader
Both
secondary
teachers
Both
very
positive
Andrew
Excellent
and avid
reader
Parental
occupation
Printrich
home
Access
technology
at home
Yes
Yes,
although
limited
Yes
Yes,
extensive
Yes
Yes,
extensive
Boy’s attitude
towards
technology
Representative
quotation
Passionate
about Lego
and strategy
games
‘I just love
zooming in on
these kind of
bikes and see
them flying?
So it’s just
like,
Woohoo!’
Passionate
about rugby
league,
Pokémon and
WWE games
‘It may run
out of charge
when the
book gets
interesting’
Passionate
about gaming,
Lego and
history games
‘I played it
and I really
loved it and I
played it a lot
ever since’
Matthew (Year 6): ‘I am best at reading in my head’
Snapshot: Loves gaming; avid reader; well supported in literacy and technology at home
Matthew, son of a teacher, loves all things technical, reading and the outdoors. These
passions are fostered and supported by his family. His knowledge of computer
technology is advanced and he has a well-developed love of reading. He has an older
sister and father who share his love of gaming. Matthew’s mum, Kerryn, is a primary
school teacher who is passionate about technology in education and literacy. Literacy
is an important part of this family’s identity and Kerryn states: ‘We are excited that
Matthew is a reader, very excited. The fact that we read to him and still do is … it’s
paid off’. The family has two computers, three televisions and a Playstation wirelessly
networked, but in public areas. Matthew’s parents report that bedrooms are reserved
for reading, relaxing and sleeping. Matthew’s room houses many bookcases, which
hold books in logically organised categories. The other feature of his room is
numerous Lego models and boxes full of Lego pieces, which he uses for construction,
imagination and play. He is equally passionate about computer games. During my
visit, he played Minecraft skillfully, demonstrating excitement and engagement. The
creative aspect of Minecraft is far reaching and Matthew’s years of building,
imagining and playing with Lego have clearly stood him in good stead to be
successful at Minecraft. He is also most often engaged while playing in a conversation
with his friend via Skype using headphones. It is the social aspect that he emphasised
as being a key part of his motivation to play. At school, Matthew often loses himself
in a book. He believes that he is best at ‘reading in his head’. Matthew is very adept at
using the laptops at school and shows real excitement when the opportunity arises.
87
Brandon (Year 6): ‘I am a medium reader and a writer who only writes when I have to’
Snapshot: Reluctant reader; keen gamer; literacy unsupported, technology well supported at
home
Brandon is the middle child of three, with one older high-achieving brother and a
younger extrovert sister. Brandon would be considered an introvert and not a very
confident child academically. His father is in the military and his mum is a medical
receptionist. Ben’s Dad commutes to Sydney for work each week, having made the
decision not to move the family from Canberra. They have wireless Internet with four
computers: three laptops and a desktop. The main uses are for homework, gaming and
social networking, although they do not encourage their boys to have Facebook
accounts. Each of the boys has his own laptop, Brandon also has a TV and a bookshelf
of books in his bedroom. Brandon does not see himself as a reader or a writer,
classifying himself as a ‘medium’ reader and a writer who only writes when he has to.
His interests lie in watching TV, particularly documentaries, playing ‘addicting’
games and the Wii and cricket. He enjoys watching funny videos on YouTube as well
as music videos, but ‘only the good ones’. He estimates that he plays games on the
computer for three to five hours per week. At school, Brandon is quiet yet engaged.
88
Table 3.4: Summary Data Table, Participants from St John’s, Year 6
Name
Matthew
Attitude
towards
reading
Loves
reading
series of
books
Parental
occupation
Father:
Public
servant;
Mother:
Primary
teacher
Parental
attitude to
reading
Both very
positive
Quade
Excellent
and avid
reader
Both public
servants
Both very
positive
Lachlan
Excellent
and avid
reader
Father:
Baggage
handler;
Mother:
Nurse
Both very
positive
Joseph
Keen
reader
and
writer
Father:
Accountant;
Mother:
Public
servant
Father very
positive
Simon
Excellent
and avid
reader
Father: IT
consultant;
Mother:
Banker
Both very
positive
Brandon
Sporadic
reader
Father in
Military;
Mother:
Receptionist
Not a
priority
Oscar
Passionat
e and
avid
reader
Father:
Lawyer;
Mother:
Photographe
r
Both very
positive
Printrich
home
Yes
Access to
technology at
home
Attitude towards
technology
Representative
quotation
Yes,
extensive
Equally
passionate about
reading and
gaming
‘I am best at
reading in my
head’
Yes
Yes,
although
limited
Useful for
learning about
his passions
Yes
Yes,
extensive
Equally
passionate about
reading, writing
and gaming
Yes
Equally
passionate about
reading, writing
and gaming
Yes
Yes
Yes,
extensive
Equally
passionate about
reading, writing
and gaming
No
Yes,
extensive
Loves TV and
gaming with
friends
Yes
Yes,
although
limited
Prefers to read
and write.
Games
occasionally
89
‘Without me
being
fascinated, I
wouldn’t be
playing games
like that’
‘What is
important is
my words and
ideas and how
I put them all
together’
‘If we each
had a laptop
that would be
the best’
‘You can play
against the
computer, or
you can play
against your
friends if they
have it as
well’
‘I am a
medium
reader and a
writer who
only writes
when I have
to’
‘I like to work
online, as it is
more
interesting and
I think it gets
you working
harder’
3.8.1.2. Red Hill College
At Red Hill College, boys in Year 7 and 8 were observed. Four classes were observed in each
grade and each class comprised an average of 26 boys. The classes were selected based on the
teacher’s voluntary participation in the study. Each teacher taught both a Year 7 and Year 8
English class, and 10 weeks of observation occurred across the year groups. Purposeful selection
of 14 boys was based on the class teacher’s recommendation of boys for in-depth study.
Selection was based on the following criteria: the boy’s achievements in formal and informal
English assessment, the boy’s engagement in class, teacher’s knowledge of the family and
parental consent. Further details are provided in the individual case studies. However, a wide
range of literacy ability, behaviour and attitudes is represented among the boys that were chosen
and that agreed to participate in the study. Most of the boys came from middle SES backgrounds.
However, a proportion came from high-SES backgrounds, and one boy was from an American
family on a posting in Canberra with the American Embassy.
Nigel (Year 7): ‘I love to read, I read lots of the time’
Snapshot: Avid reader; Lego player; well supported with literacy, less so with technology
Nigel is in Year 7 and has one older sister. The family is passionate about reading and
Nigel is too. His major concern with reading is that he cannot find good, long books fast
enough. He would still choose a book to read rather than reading on an e-reader as he
says ‘The books feel more realistic and it’s better to be turning the pages yourself’. One
wall of the family room boasted floor to ceiling books and there were assorted piles on
coffee tables and couches. Nigel prefers fantasy and adventure novels, with titles in the
bookcases reflecting this. Another wall in the family room was lined with Lego models
and Lego boxes. Nigel, like many boys in this age group, is passionate about reading,
Lego and music. ‘I love to read, I read lots of the time’. Claire, Nigel’s mother, is a nurse.
Edward, Nigel’s father, works in the public service, and while he does not play computer
games with Nigel, he often assists Nigel with computer-related learning. The family has
one laptop for family use and his older sister has her own laptop. This family has
intentionally not purchased a game console, such as an Xbox or Playstation. Recently,
Nigel purchased his own iPod touch. He is allowed to play on the computer on the
weekends and his choice of game is Lego Pirates of the Caribbean, Lego Harry Potter
and Lego Star Wars. He likes the challenge of the games, but especially enjoys the
storyline, the promise of instant rewards and the feedback, which sees him returning to
play. He states that the skills that he needs to play the game well are logic, perseverance,
reading ability and knowledge of Lego. He has a very low opinion of Facebook, stating
simply, ‘It is stupid’. Nigel is a quiet, diligent student at school who rarely contributes to
class discussion and achieves very well.
90
Ben (Year 7): ‘I play an hour a day. So it is not a really long stint. I can’t stay on there for the
whole day and ignore mum’.
Snapshot: Keen sportsman; reads to please; literacy supported and encouraged at home
Ben is the younger of two brothers who are both very accomplished in sport and
academic pursuits. Ben has a bright, bubbly personality. His preference is to be outside
playing sport. School is a place to pursue these interests with a larger group of boys and
enjoy the camaraderie of collaboration. Ben does not describe himself as a reader, but
knows the importance of reading and is well supported at home. His choice of genre
revolves around the sports he plays. Given the choice, he would read a book rather than
an e-reader, as he is concerned that he would lose his place. Ben is limited in the amount
of time to play on the computer due to his busy schedule. His favourite site for games is
Stick sports, a single player site that hosts games relating to soccer, cricket, AFL and
other sports. He finds that his knowledge and expertise in the real-life game stands him in
good stead when playing virtual sports games. He is unsure whether this is reciprocal. He
has more opportunity to play computer games during the holidays. However, he is limited
to one hour a day. Other activities that he undertakes on the computer are checking
school emails, playing Mathletics and checking the official AFL ladder and draws of his
favourite team. Margaret, Ben’s mum, describes Ben as a very verbal and active boy,
with above-average reading ability, but with low motivation to read for enjoyment or to
pursue reading for any other purpose than to achieve a school-directed aim. Peter, Ben’s
Dad, is a reader, as is his older brother, and Margaret reads daily for relaxation. The
family owns one computer for homework and work-related matters. This family does not
own a games console of any kind.
Table 3.5: Summary Data Table, Participants from Red Hill College, Year 7
Name
Nigel
Brody
Attitude
towards
reading
Passionate
and avid
reader
Competent
and
occasional
reader
Parental
occupation
Father:
Public
servant;
Mother:
Nurse
Father: IT
specialist;
Mother:
Actuary
Parental
attitude to
reading
Both very
positive
Mother very
positive;
Father
ambivalent
Print-rich
home
Access to
technology at
home
Yes
Yes,
although
limited
Yes
91
Yes,
extensive
Attitude
towards
technology
Representative
quotation
Loves the
challenge
and storyline
‘I love to read, I
read lots of the
time’
Very
competent
and avid
user
‘I used to be
like on
Facebook every
night, but kind
of now it’s like
once every
three/four days’
Attitude
towards
reading
Parental
occupation
Hugo
Passionate,
avid reader
and writer
Father:
Public
servant;
Mother:
Teacher’s
assistant
Both very
passionate
Yes,
extreme
Yes,
although
limited
Loves
playing car
games on
Xbox
Michael
Passionate,
avid reader
and writer
Father:
GP;
Mother:
Lawyer
Both very
passionate
Yes,
extreme
Yes,
although
limited
Functional
for
homework
Ben
Competent
yet
reluctant
Father:
Lawyer;
Mother:
Secretary
Both very
passionate
Yes
Yes,
although
limited
Plays sports
games
Jake
Passionate
and avid
reader and
writer
Father
Diplomat;
Mother:
Teacher
Both very
passionate
Yes
Yes,
although
limited
Plays sports
games and
searches
areas of
interest
Slow but
enjoyable
Father:
Chef;
Mother:
English
teacher
Mother very
passionate;
Father
ambivalent
Yes
Yes,
although
limited
Loves
Minecraft,
YouTube
and Google
Name
Lincoln
Parental
attitude to
reading
Print-rich
home
Access to
technology at
home
Attitude
towards
technology
Representative
quotation
‘Once I get a
good idea I just
write something
and before you
know it it’s like
being in a river,
just letting it
take you’
‘I like to listen
to music. I like
sports. Reading.
That’s it’
‘I play an hour a
day. So it is not
a really long
stint. I can’t stay
on there for the
whole day and
ignore mum’
‘Well, I think I
started reading
sort of early and
I like almost
every book I
read’
‘I’d say
Minecraft, it’s
like, its
constructive, it’s
creative; a bit
like Lego, and
I’m a big fan of
Lego’
John (Year 8): ‘I am more of a reader than a writer’
Snapshot: Avid reader; serious; well supported with literacy and technology at home.
John is a quietly spoken young man and avid reader. He lives on a rural property 45
minutes from Canberra. His favourite subjects are History, Art and English. He has two
older siblings. His family has four desktop computers, one of which is in John’s room,
but on which he does not have Internet access. There are also four laptops, which are
used by John’s older brothers and parents. Thanks to the new broadband rollout, the
family recently received wireless Internet connection. John understands himself to be a
very good reader, and he enjoys finding and collecting series of books, which he likes to
keep and reread. He enjoys reading action, adventure and fantasy narratives such as
Harry Potter. The same is not true of writing, as he commented that he is much more of a
reader than he is a writer. John enjoys playing strategy-based games such as Age of
Empires or Rome: Total War, in which cities through the ages have to be built, protected
and captured. He also likes playing Sim City, which involves building and maintaining a
92
city and its population. These are single player, non-Internet-based CD-ROM games.
John enjoys the combination of thinking, strategy and historical facts that are at the core
of these types of games. Due to long days at school, he only plays these games on the
weekends. John is a quiet member of the class who achieves at a satisfactory academic
level. He would also like to see a laptop for each student, so that he does not have to
carry around so many heavy textbooks.
Brad (Year 8): ‘I like playing my Playstation in my room, watching TV. That’s more fun than
reading’
Snapshot: Struggling reader; keen gamer; good sportsman; well supported with technology at
home
Brad is the younger of two siblings. His journey into literacy has been a bumpy one and
he receives learning support from school each week. His parents, Barry and Jackie, report
that his primary school education was ‘below par’ and so they moved him into his current
school in Year 5. Barry, Brad’s Dad, is a ‘salt of the earth’ type of guy. He is a bus
driver. Jackie works as a public servant. They live in one of the outer western suburbs of
Canberra in a very modest home. They value education highly and want their children to
have better opportunities than their parents provided them. This family owns two
desktops and one laptop, and the house is wirelessly networked. Each child owns an iPod
touch and they have a Wii console that ‘sits in the cupboard and we don’t use it’
(Interview, p. 15). Brad is a quiet boy who loves sport, his Playstation and being
outdoors. He has a 40-inch screen, television and Playstation in his room, which he saved
up for and purchased himself. He estimates that he plays his PlayStation for at least an
hour and a half per day and more on the weekend. While he enjoys the collaborative,
challenging nature of Call of Duty: Black Ops online, he also plays PlayStation driving
games. Given the choice, he would prefer to watch TV or play on his PlayStation than
read a book, as these are ‘more fun than reading’ (Interview, p. 1). If he has to read,
books that are action packed from start to finish with comedy included are his choice. He
does enjoy reading Top Gear magazine and basketball magazines. Brad is a quiet member
of the class who is very diligent.
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Table 3.6: Summary Data Table, Participants from Red Hill, Year 8
Name
Attitude
towards
reading
Parental
occupation
Parental
attitude to
reading
Print-rich
home
Access to
technology
at home
Attitude
towards
technology
Ethan
Competent
but
chooses
illiteracy
Father:
Businessman;
Mother:
Curator
Mother
very
passionate;
Father
ambivalent
Yes, very
Yes,
extensive
Avid gamer
and social
network user
John
Passionate
and avid
reader
Both senior
public servants
Both
passionate
Yes
Yes,
extensive
Enjoys
strategy
games
Nathan
Very
reluctant,
lacks
confidence
Father:
Lawyer;
Mother: Public
servant
Both
passionate
Yes, very
Yes,
extensive
Passionate
gamer and
social
network user
Passionate,
avid reader
and writer
Father: IT
specialist;
Mother:
Physiotherapist
Mother
passionate;
Father
ambivalent
Yes,
extensive
Passionate
gamer, loves
the
collaboration
of online
games
Alex
Passionate
and avid
reader
Father:
Specialist;
Mother:
Public servant
Yes,
extensive
Passionate
gamer, loves
the
collaboration
of online
games
Elliott
Very
competent,
regular
reader
Both senior
public servants
Both
passionate
Yes,
extremely
Yes,
extensive
Loves to
play strategy
games with
strong
storylines
like Fable
Brad
Very
reluctant,
lacks
confidence
Father:
Transport
provider;
Mother: Public
servant
Mother
passionate;
Father
reluctant
Limited
Yes,
extensive
Passionate
gamer and
social
network user
Oliver
Both
passionate
Yes, very
Yes
94
Representative
quotation
‘I haven’t
stooped that
low to have
Facebook as
my home
page’
‘I am more of
a reader than
a writer’
‘I am not very
good at
reading or
even enjoy
reading. I am
not fond of
reading at all’
‘Facebook
can be good
but also really
bad. Some
stuff is weird
and pointless’
‘It would be
nice to get a
little more
time to read
in class, but
you get 10
minutes
which is
pretty good’
‘I also use
books (not
just Google)
because I
prefer that
type of
knowledge,
because it is
more correct’
‘I like playing
my
PlayStation in
my room,
watching TV.
That’s more
fun than
reading’
3.8.2. Parents
Twenty-three St John’s parents volunteered to participate in this study. All of the St John’s
parents who were approached agreed to participate. I was known to these parents as a former
staff member of the school and therefore access to these participants was straightforward. It was
also easy to establish rapport based on common ground during the interview process. These
parents generally held a strong conviction about the role of their faith in the overall development
of their children and were particularly positive regarding the sense of community that they
experienced at the school and within their parish. All were satisfied with the opportunities
presented by the school in terms of literacy development and access to technology for education.
Comments by parents demonstrated that they were particularly proud of the school’s
redevelopment and modernisation of the teaching spaces using BER funding (Field notes, 2011).
Twenty-two Red Hill College parents consented to participate voluntarily in this study. Twenty
families were approached to participate in the in-depth interview in their home context and 14
families agreed. The key reasons for not participating in the study were time and work
commitments. Of the parents interviewed, all were passionate about the importance of literacy
and the opportunities that sending their son to an independent school provided. Many couples
both worked to ensure that their son could attend the school and take advantage of the many
opportunities available. They spoke about valuing education highly and were therefore prepared
to make sacrifices to be able to afford the fees. As a result, there were high expectations on the
school, their sons’ teachers and the boys themselves to achieve. The majority of these parents
had attained a university education, with the exceptions being two of the fathers. One was a
public transport driver, the other a youth worker. The suburbs in which parents resided
represented a range of socio-economic and geographic locations in the ACT and New South
Wales (Jerrabomberra). Thick descriptions of the participants are provided in the individual
vignettes located in the appendix.
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3.8.3. Teachers
At St John’s, the six teachers that participated in this study did so voluntarily. Of these, four
teachers consented to the researcher observing students in their classrooms during literacy and
technology lessons. The Curriculum Coordinator was included in the interview process, but was
not observed, as she taught a Year 3 class. The remaining teacher taught children with special
needs and did not have her own class as such. The classroom teachers in Year 5 and 6 at St
John’s were all in their mid-twenties, and each had less than four years’ teaching experience.
They considered themselves highly competent and comfortable with technology for personal and
classroom use. However, this did not often flow through to their pedagogical practices. They all
have an easy rapport with their students and two of the three classroom teachers express a
personal bias towards the teaching of Mathematics, Art and Physical Education, as this is where
they feel their strengths lie. The other classroom teacher is a passionate literacy advocate and her
classroom reflects her philosophy. The teacher in charge of Information Technology and
Indonesian was also interviewed.
The nine teachers at Red Hill College provided a broader cross section of years of service and
experience. For one young male teacher, in his early 20s, Red Hill College was his first
appointment and his first year of teaching. He is an avid reader and is passionate about English
and Drama. His classes reflected his well-organised lessons and he incorporated technology at
every opportunity. The three other classroom English teachers were women in their 30s and 40s,
with each having several years’ teaching experience. One had spent many years in a primary
school setting, and she was very practical in her approach. While all displayed very different
teaching styles and pedagogical practices, all spoke of their passion for reading and literature and
continually encouraged the boys in their classes to read more.
In-depth interviews were also conducted with five other staff members at Red Hill College to
understand the school and their personal philosophies regarding boys’ literacy and technology.
These included the Director of Curriculum; the Head of English; the Head of the Resource
Centre; a senior male English teacher and a Languages teacher with a keen interest in gaming.
96
3.9. Characteristics of Case Study as Applied to this Study
Case study is an appropriate methodology for this project because, according to Stake (2000):
Case study facilitates the conveying of experience of actors and stakeholders as
well as the experience of studying the case. It can enhance the reader’s experience
with the case. It does this largely with narratives, and situational descriptions of
case activity, personal relationships and group interpretation (p. 454).
This research study involved gaining the perspectives of boys, their parents and teachers, as well
as their experiences of technology at home and at school. Through interviews, observation, field
notes and artefact collection, personal relationships, interactions and narratives contributed to an
understanding of boys’ interactions with technology, with a view to contributing to a deeper
understanding of the implications this might have for boys and literacy in middle school
classrooms.
Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) characteristics of case study inquiry have been applied in this study.
These authors hold that, firstly, research should take place in a natural setting, suggesting that
realities cannot be understood as separate from their contexts. This study took place in
classrooms and homes, which are the natural settings in which the participants learn, teach and/or
live. Within these naturalistic settings, one begins to understand the complex mutual shaping and
interactions of students’, parents’ and teachers’ views on technology (Lincoln and Guba, 1985).
For example, more and varied types of technology were found in homes as compared to in
classrooms, which influenced not only the skills that boys developed around technology, but also
their attitudes towards it. Additionally, their access to technology at home was shaped by
parental attitudes as to the importance or otherwise of technology to enable their son to be
successful at school and in the future world of work. Similarly, boys’ access to technology in
classrooms was largely dependent on their teacher’s attitude towards technology in the
classroom.
97
The contexts, while different in their details, were largely the same, being middle school
classrooms and Australian homes. Representative sampling, or what Ball (1990) terms
‘naturalistic sampling’ (p. 102), covers time, place and persons. For example, students were
studied in their classrooms and in their homes, as it is well known that behaviour can differ
markedly in different situations at different times and in different contexts (Woods, 1996). While
there are some understandings and findings that are specific to the particular contexts, the scope
of this research and the number of participants provides an opportunity for extrapolation to
similar populations that may resonate with the contexts, participants and activities discussed in
this study. However, Willis (2007) highlights that meaning resides in context and thus cannot be
completely removed from it. Hence, any conclusions must be made with the context or natural
setting in mind.
Secondly, Lincoln and Guba (1985) identify the human-as-instrument as a characteristic of case
study methodology. The researcher is the primary data-gathering instrument and considers the
voice and perspective of the participants and the interactions between them. This can also be
understood as the relationship of the ‘knower to the known’, which are inseparable (pp. 37, 39).
In this study, the classrooms and homes in which the research took place were familiar to myself
as researcher and an inherently emic perspective was adopted when viewing interactions across
contexts (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Being human-as-instrument allowed me to respond to both
the context and the people in the environment, to facilitate data collection. For example, in some
instances, I was drawn into a helper role in the classroom as boys requested guidance on a class
task. This enabled adaptable, informal, unscheduled conversations and interactions, observation
of non-verbal activity and observation of work samples, which served to add to or clarify the
data collected.
Thirdly, case study methodology is characterised by multiple perspectives as the result of
purposive sampling (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p. 40) or what Stake terms ‘case selection’ (2000,
p. 450). In this study, the inclusion of middle school boys’ and their parents’ and teachers’
perspectives on technology use were selected to understand their activities and attitudes in the
home and school contexts. For example, the boys ranged in age from 10 to 14 years, the teachers
ranged in both age and experience, and the parents represented differing socio-economic and
98
occupational groups. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), purposeful selection of data
increases the range and scope of the data collected to uncover ‘multiple realities and mutual
shapings’, to understand local and specific contexts (p. 40). Stake (2000) argues that ‘balance
and variety’ are important, but that in his view the ‘opportunity to learn is often more important’
(p. 451). Participants in this study represented multiple perspectives, which facilitated ‘group
interpretation’ (Stake, 2000, p. 454). In considering the contextualised experiences of
participants in this study, multiple perspectives enabled what Willis (2007) encourages as
methods that ‘enable the researcher to understand the depth of relationship of human beings to
their environment’ and across contexts to draw conclusions (p. 192); for example, there were
parallels in attitudes and expectations regarding techtivity between parents and teachers, but not
surprisingly these were not often shared by the boys in this study.
Together with multiple perspectives, the strength of case study research lies in the use of multiple
sources of data collection, including observation, interviews and document analysis. This study
records the views of boys, parents and teachers as they interact with technology and their views
on aspects of literacy, most notably reading. Yin (1993) describes this method as having ‘unique
strengths’ and one of the most powerful research designs (p. 12). According to Thomas (2009),
the aim of case study research is to gain a ‘rich, detailed understanding’ of the case by examining
aspects of it in detail (p. 115). According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), case studies are successful
if there is rich detail and contextual understanding resulting in thick description to satisfy the
requirement of transferability. Stake (2000) measures a case study’s success if the thick
description includes ‘conflicting perceptions’ in which lie the ‘vitality, trauma and uniqueness’
of the case (p. 457) as the researcher seeks to compare and blend multiple cases and contexts.
The following chapters (see Chapters 4–6) describe the perspectives and understandings of the
participants using thick descriptions, including detailed accounts of participants, sites, artefacts
and findings. A ‘grounded assessment of the contexts’ is applied, which enables the reader to
gain a solid understanding of the context, complexities, similarities and differences present in the
study (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, pp. 359–360).
A fourth characteristic of case study methodology is the building of tacit knowledge of a context
or situation to present the reader with a vicarious experience of being present in the situation.
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According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), in addition to the knowledge articulated in language
form, tacit knowledge is that which is felt or intuited and which captures the nuances of the
multiple perspectives and interactions present in classrooms and homes. It may also be
understood as the provision of the reader with a feeling of déjà vu (p. 359). This is evidenced
through the excerpts from interview transcripts, field notes and the personal biography of the
researcher.
3.9.1. Establishing Trustworthiness
A fifth characteristic applicable to this study is establishing trustworthiness, which Lincoln and
Guba (1985) report goes hand in hand with prolonged engagement, persistent observation and
triangulation (p. 301). Each of these concepts is outlined in relation to this study below.
Trustworthiness is defined as the ability of the researcher to persuade or convince the audience
that the findings of the inquiry are worth paying attention to because internal validity, external
validity, reliability and objectivity have been established (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, pp. 290–
292). Willis (2007) argues that triangulation can be used as a ‘qualitative equivalent to validity
and reliability’, whereby multiple sources lead to the confirmation of a conclusion. Thus,
activities that increase the probability that trustworthiness can be established include prolonged
engagement, persistent observation and triangulation.
Prolonged engagement is the investment of sufficient time to achieve the purposes of the
research being conducted. The duration of this study covered almost 12 months of prolonged
engagement in the two school research sites and in multiple homes. Through prolonged
engagement, trust and knowledge of the participants and the contexts in which the research took
place was established (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p. 301). Having adequate and sufficient data
from prolonged engagement instils confidence in the research findings.
Persistent observation enables the researcher to build trustworthiness through the identification
of those characteristics and elements in the situation that are most relevant to the problem or
issue being researched. This requires labelling of the salient factors, deep exploration and
100
analysis, identification of the atypical, and questioning that which is observed, to more fully
understand the phenomenon being studied (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, p. 304). In this study,
persistent observation occurred in middle school classrooms and in boys’ homes and served to
identify the characteristics and elements most relevant to boys’ interactions with technology and
their reading and writing habits across contexts.
Triangulation is declared to be ‘crucially important’ (p. 283) by Lincoln and Guba (1985). This
is the process of using multiple data collection methods, data, sources, analyses and theories to
check case study findings. The essence of triangulation, according to Yin (2012), lies in the
coincidence or intersection of three or more independent sources of data and is the most desired
pattern for dealing with case study data. Willis (2007) agrees, adding that triangulation can also
be achieved across sources of information (for example, interviews) with multiple participant
groups (here, boys, parents and teachers). Yin (2012) advises that successful data triangulation is
achieved through asking the same questions to different sources of evidence and of different
interviewees (p. 104). Stake (2000), drawing on Flick (1998) and Silverman (1993), argues that
triangulation serves to clarify meaning by identifying the different ways in which a case may be
seen ‘to identify different realities’ (p. 454). However, Bogdan and Biklen (2003) caution that
triangulation can mean ‘verification of the facts’, which may prevent the researcher from
exploring the inter-relationship of multiple sources to gain a fuller understanding of that which is
being studied (p. 107).
Three clear perspectives are discussed in this research: the views of boys in middle school, their
parents and their teachers. Triangulation served the purpose of using multiple perceptions to
clarify the meaning inherent within an observation or interpretation (Stake, 2000 in Denzin and
Lincoln, 2005, p. 133). According to Gall et al. (2005), triangulation can serve to determine
convergence, as well as inconsistencies and contradictions. The aim of this research was to
describe, explain and evaluate the way in which boys interact with technology and literate
activities through multiple perspectives and data collection resources, and in so doing to
contextualise the data analysis within the middle school context in Australia.
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Triangulation in this study was achieved through the use of different perspectives, different
methods of data collection and multiple sites, as depicted in Figure 3.4. For example, to establish
trustworthiness, boys in this study were interviewed, observed in their home and classroom and
surveyed. Teachers were observed in their classrooms and interviewed, and field notes were also
taken.
Establishing Trustworthiness: Multiple Methods, Perspectives and Contexts
Classroom
Observation
Interviews
Home
Observation
Interviews
Boys’
Perspective
Surveys
Parent’s
Perspective
Informal
Conversations
Boys,
Technology
and Literacy
Home
Observation
Field notes
Teacher’s
Perspective
Informal
Conversations
Classroom
Observation
Interviews
Figure 3.4: Multiple Methods, Perspectives and Contexts
Additionally, to assist in improving this case study’s research credibility, coherence (Lincoln and
Guba, 1985) and transparency, I used a range of techniques including:

A coherent study design

Multiple sources of evidence

Prolonged engagement in the field and with the literature
102

Detailed field notes, similar interview questions and documentation on contexts

Use of recursive grounded theory
According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), construct validity contributes to trustworthiness and is
based on the processes of keeping an audit trail and performing member checking. An audit trail
can be used to ascertain and identify links that are grounded in the data themselves. In this way,
findings can be traced back to the raw data such as interview transcripts, field notes and school
artefacts. In the process of collecting data, I annotated and documented my data, writing up
emerging ideas and linking them to data previously collected, which enabled an iterative
refinement and expansion of ideas (Willis, 2007).
Member checking involves establishing the credibility of the collected data, and it provides an
opportunity for participants to ensure the accuracy of the representation of their opinions.
Lankshear and Knobel (2000) use the term ‘coherence’ to describe this element of
trustworthiness as described by Lincoln and Guba (1985), and add that the need for coherence
instils an imperative for the researcher to conduct the study in a trustworthy manner (cf Bulfin,
2009). This was achieved in the present study through coherence in the study’s aim throughout
planning the design process; recognising the need for flexibility in collection; and having
sufficient data collected, analysed and employed to instil confidence in the research findings (cf
Bulfin, 2009).
With regard to the participants that were interviewed formally, they were given the opportunity
to read and remark on their interview transcripts. Informal member checking occurred during
conversations or interactions with boys, parents and teachers through questioning; for example,
‘Earlier you mentioned ... would you explain that again?’ This enabled emerging conclusions to
be checked by participants. Conceptual categories emerged from data analysis and were checked
against the study’s aims. Eighty-eight cases across multiple contexts were included, thus
producing sufficient data for analysis.
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3.10. Data Collection
This research utilised a multiple method approach for data collection. The methods outlined in
the table below (see Table 3.7) enabled the building of a multilayered data set that provided a
thick description of the participants in this study. One year of this three-year study was allocated
to the collection of data and the transcription of interviews, after relevant ethics and approvals
were in place. Classrooms are by nature very busy places and to focus the data collection it was
decided to be selective and observe only those settings in which literacy and technology use
occurred simultaneously.
As a teacher researcher, I was part of the data collection process, as I brought my values,
background knowledge and assumptions to both the data collection phase and the analysis
process. These assumptions and perspectives shaped the research and the concepts that were
privileged providing a starting point to construct the framework in which data were collected,
analysed and understood.
Observation began at St John’s school daily during the first term and continued two weeks into
term two. During this time, immersion in the classroom, routines and wider life of the school,
with particular emphasis on literacy blocks and technology lessons in the primary setting
facilitated the recording of extensive field notes. Concurrently, interviews with teachers, parents
and boys were conducted and survey data were collected. The process was repeated at Red Hill
College during the remainder of the second term and all of the third term of 2011. A Gantt chart
provides details (see Table 3.7).
104
GANTT Chart: Timeframe for this Study, 2011
Table 3.7: Data Collection Process
Number/
Task
Feb
Mar
April
May
June
July
Aug
Sept
Oct
Duration
21/2
Observation
at St John’s
10 weeks
Observation
at Red Hill
College
14 weeks
Interviews
with
teachers
Interviews
with
parents
Interviews
with boys
Field notes
Conduct
surveys
Artefact
collection
30/9
15 at 60–90
minutes
45 at 60–90
minutes
27 at 20–30
minutes
Daily in school
terms
Ongoing
Student work,
photos, policies
Qualitative research is essentially descriptive and declares that nothing within the research
context is trivial. Bogdan and Biklen (2007) assert that nothing should be taken for granted, but
rather everything should be questioned and used as a ‘potential clue to unlock a comprehensive
understanding of what is being studied’ (p. 5). This is the source of rich data. Rich data,
according to Charmaz (2006), are ‘detailed, focussed and full’ (p. 14) and reveal participants’
views, feelings, intentions and actions as well as describing the context and structures in which
participants live their lives. In relation to this study, rich data were recorded in the form of
extensive field notes, collection of respondents’ surveys, school artefacts, transcribed interviews
and written personal accounts. Rich data provided an insider’s view of the studied phenomena,
which may or may not match the perceived view from the outside.
Overall, the interviews were most effective in engaging participants in conversation about
technology and literacy, with the exception of most of the younger boys who preferred to
105
demonstrate their digital skills while talking to me in their homes. The survey data generated a
comparison of boys’ interactions with technology and literacy preferences across a wider
population. As a result, these conversations and comparisons have been prioritised in the data
analysis. Table 3.8 provides a summary of the data types generated.
Table 3.8: Data Generation Sources
Boys
Participant
observation
Semi-structured
interviews
20 weeks in schools
Surveys
405 surveys across
16 classes, 15 min
to complete survey
Photos
Artefacts
27 boys 30–60
minutes per
interview
Parents
27 interviews
averaging 60–90
minutes each
Classroom
teachers
20 weeks of 9
teachers
9 teachers x 1 hour
each. Informal
conversation in staff
rooms
Other school staff
6 teachers x 1 hour
each. Informal
conversations in
staff rooms
School ICT policy,
School website,
English curriculum
documents
3.11. Participant Observation
According to Thomas (2009), researchers use ‘unstructured and/or participant observation’. The
researcher immerses him or herself in the situation, becoming part of it and seeing the situation
as a whole (p. 187). Participant observation occurred through conversations with staff, students
and parents, observed interactions, examination of documents and school artefacts, field notes
and reflections in each of the research settings. Participant observation moved along a continuum
of both structured and unstructured observation depending on the situation and the degree of fit.
In some instances, I was an ‘actor’ in the observation, as I was drawn into a helper role by boys
and teachers in the classroom.
3.11.1. St John’s Observation
Observation began in St John’s Primary school Year 5 and 6 classrooms in February 2011 to
investigate boys’ interactions with technology and literacy in classrooms. I began in Year 6.
106
Lessons observed included the formal two-hour daily literacy block as well as any extra ICT
lessons for a period of 10 weeks. During this time, three classes were observed and teachers
reflected informally on the boys in their class, their teaching styles, and boys’ attitudes towards
literacy and technology. Teachers also engaged in a one-hour interview.
3.11.2. Red Hill College
At Red Hill College, the observation process was different, yet still focused on boys and
technology within the English classroom context. Being a secondary school, there were two days
per fortnightly cycle on which the Year 7 and 8 boys did not undertake English classes. The
nature of secondary school timetables means that boys move from teacher to teacher and do not
have concurrent English lessons. This meant that I had time between periods to observe in other
parts of the school. I spent most of this time in the Resource Centre, which is the learning hub of
the school. In this space, there is opportunity for four classes to be engaged in learning with
technology, as well as individual study opportunities. All teachers were very accommodating of
observation of their lessons in the Resource Centre and willingly shared their expertise and
thoughts on boys and technology through informal conversations. These observations and
anecdotes were recorded as field notes. These lessons primarily included the subject areas of
Ancient and Modern History, Geography and Science, all requiring sound literacy skills. In
addition, I attended lessons in the Learning Support unit in which smaller groups of boys were
supported primarily with targeted literacy teaching and homework assistance. Two of the Year 8
boys who were part of the in-depth interview data attended Learning Support on a regular basis.
3.11.3. Observation in Homes
Twenty-seven homes were visited to explore the nature of technology use in the home context.
The purpose of these observations was to interview and observe the boys in their home context
and to observe the boys playing a computer game of their choice. During these observations, the
following factors were considered: evidence of books and home literacy practices, the number of
technology devices and patterns of play, and evidence of boys’ interests and passions. Parents
were also interviewed during this time. All families were welcoming and eagerly talked about
107
their sons. I observed boys’ bedrooms, where they proudly showed me their books, Lego, cars or
games collections. Particularly with the younger boys, I was invited to watch as they played their
online games, while they happily chatting away to tell me the importance and sequence of their
actions. This took place in various locations in the house, with the most common setting being
the family room or formal lounge. The interviews were audio taped and field notes were written
soon after leaving the home.
3.11.4. Interviews
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 27 boys, 45 parents and 15 teachers. The
interviews with boys revolved around their reading and gaming preferences. The parents’
interviews included home literacy practices, attitudes towards technology and the role of the
school in relation to technology. A list of interview questions for boys, parents and teachers can
be found in Appendices A, C and D. The following table details the number and range of
interview participants.
Table 3.9: Number of Participants Interviewed
Boys
Parents
Teachers
St John’s Primary
13
23
6
Red Hill College
14
22
9
Total interviews
27
45
15
A number of interview techniques informed the interviews and these are explained below. The
purpose was to find out how boys, teachers and parents gave meaning to their experiences of
technology. I sought to give participants the opportunity to answer the question ‘What is going
on here?’ when using technology to engage in learning and play. Firstly, the focused interview
technique described by Merton, Fiske and Kendall (1990) was used to draw out nuanced and
descriptive responses in a recursive manner. I also referred to Minichiello’s (1995) description of
gaining information from participants grounded in their experiential world from the focussed
interview as facilitating ‘a retrospective and detailed discussion of what was involved in the
experience of the concrete environment’ (p. 176). I wanted the boys in particular to simply
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describe their relationship and feelings when interacting with technology and books. For
example, ‘How do you feel when you are playing your favourite computer game?’
Secondly, the technique of using open-ended broad questions invited the participants to discuss
their experiences and articulate their meanings and intentions and was conducted in
conversational style. I found that boys responded more openly when we sat shoulder to shoulder
at the computer, rather than face-to-face. When I wanted the participants to expand, I used
questions such as, ‘Tell me more about [the type of book you enjoy reading]’. Woods (1996)
describes the interview process as not just a device for gathering information, but a ‘process of
reality construction in which both parties contribute and by which both are affected’ (p. 53).
Similarly, Rubin and Rubin (1995) describe this type of interview as a guided conversation. For
example, when interviewing in homes, I found that asking about photographs, books and special
objects that were on display eased us into a conversational interview and built rapport. For
example, ‘You have a wonderful collection of books, what are your favourites?’ Another way in
which rapport was built was when the boy was demonstrating the computer game of his choice. I
found that parents wandered over and became part of the experience, which was spontaneous but
which added richly to my data collection. The following excerpt is from Matthew’s interview
(Year 6):
J.C
Tell me how you play Minecraft Matthew.
M:
And then I click, and then I click to just mine or … click, randomly you click …
and there if you click the block, it will like fall far away from here. You just build
with blocks and mine for minerals. And this is my pool.
JC:
Wow.
M:
I’ll show you how far the block … and it … there are 64 blocks below the ground
and 64 blocks above the ground. And that’s a very big road. The game world is
made four times the size of the real world. And no one has actually reached the
end.
J.C:
I see and can you choose what you do in the game world?
M:
It’s just computer generated so you can choose what’s there. But you can plant
trees. And this is my boat.
Mum:
They know more about it than I do. [Matthew’s mother entered the conversation]
M:
Then I can just jump into my boat. I can slow down here at my dock.
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J.C:
I can just see the connections between this and Lego. This is just wonderful. And
the creative aspect of this is incredible. [Matthew’s father entered the
conversation]
Dad:
We mainly got this because there weren’t any more Lego blocks we could buy or
fit into his room.
Mum:
And Michael was ready for a change in games (Interview, April 2011).
Thirdly, the questions devised were framed by the inquiry ‘What do you have to say?’ or ‘Tell
me about?’ or ‘Would you share your experience of ... with me?’ For example, ‘Tell me, Oscar,
what do you think of yourself as a reader?’ The interactive nature of a qualitative interview
process ‘negotiated through talking, listening and reflecting’ assists participants to feel at ease
(Minichiello, 1995, p. 101). Having an adaptable framework provides scope for following
participants’ leads, thus allowing the researcher to draw on participants’ experiences and
enabling a more conversational style of interview. However, a certain amount of structure was
used to guide the interview process and maintain consistency across interviews to establish
reliability and structures important to the research study.
Structure is provided in a focused interview through the use of an interview guide or set of
questions. These questions provided a ‘loose conceptual map’, which was referred to during the
interview process (Zeisel, 1984, p. 137). Most questions were asked of most participants. For
example, ‘How many hours a week do you estimate you play games online?’ According to
Merton et al. (1990, p. 48) recursivity enables the interviewer to ‘respond to the cues and
implications of comments’ (Merton et al., 1990, p. 48). Minichiello (1995) describes this as ‘the
relationship between a current remark and the next one’ (pp. 80–81). Lindlof (1995) points out
that privileging the experiential or subjective realities of participants does not mean that the
researcher follows a different line of questioning with each participant. Rather, it is the nuances
that provide opportunity for recognising difference.
According to Thomas (2009), recursivity introduces both control and flexibility into the
interview and is demonstrated through the use of probes. Probes, which can be verbal or
nonverbal, enable the researcher to follow up queries and use cues to guide the conversation,
elicit clarity and gain responses that are more detailed. Probes provide encouragement to
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interviewees to continue with an aspect of their answer (Thomas, 2009). Probes might appear as
using body language such as nodding, saying ‘mmm’ to encourage continued conversation while
demonstrating listening behaviour, or seeking further clarification.
Qualitative researchers have identified many different types of probes for research purposes (see
Merton, Fiske and Kendall, 1990; Thomas, 2009; Zeisel, 1984). The probes that I found most
useful in the present study were echo probes, in which the participant’s own words were
reflected back to him or her in the form of a question; attentive listening probes, in which I posed
a question based on what I believed the participant had implied and cued reversion probes,
which refer back to a comment made by the participant earlier in the conversation that I felt
needed further exploration; for example, ‘Earlier you mentioned ... could you tell me more about
that?’ Probes were most useful when trying to engage the boys more deeply about their
responses, particularly in eliciting a more detailed response from a general comment or statement
such as ‘it is ok’ or ‘this game is the best!’ However, the use of probes did not always guarantee
success.
Probes were also used to check understanding about the participant’s experience both in the
classroom and at home, to achieve specificity and depth of meaning, and to determine nuances
and gain clarity. This was particularly useful for when the boys were demonstrating their online
games, as I was approaching the gaming world with very little experience and poor gaming
skills. My question of ‘What just happened there?’ would promptly elicit an explanation from the
boy. An example follows of a conversation with Lachlan in Year 6:
JC:
So what’s the purpose of the game, what do you have to do?
L:
Well the purpose of the game [Halo] is that you’re in a suit as a Spartan. Spartan was a
breed of superhumans that were used to fight off, it’s a futuristic game like 2300 and
something, an alien invasion which when Matthew actually showed it to me I thought it
appealed to us because we both like sci-fi sort of things so we decided to play it. And this
Spartan he’s the last of his breed so there were no other superhumans which yeah you
just play it, you just play your way through the game.
I:
How do you feel when you play computer games?
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L:
I like lots of games I feel really happy, fun, excited maybe; hard, and annoyed if it’s a
game which has a puzzle. And yeah I love games, how they can be challenging and lots
of fun too (Interview, April 2011).
3.12. Artefacts
Texts as artefacts collected for this study included school policy and curriculum documents,
samples of boys’ writing, and photographs. Charmaz (2006) writes that texts are constructed for
specific purposes both in paper and electronic form, and that they are constructed within social,
economic, cultural, historical and situational contexts. Texts provide a record, explanation,
justification, commentary or intention situated within the context of the originator and the
audience for whom it is intended (p. 35). Examples of texts as artefacts that formed part of the
data collection process were school ICT acceptable use policies, literacy programs and
curriculum documents. Extant texts have the benefit of relative availability, are an unobtrusive
data collection method and demonstrate relative objectivity.
Surveys as artefacts, entitled Student Survey on Reading, Writing and Technology Practices (see
Appendix B), were conducted with 405 students to collect information across the grades about
the reading, writing and technology habits and routines of boys across the research sites. The
table below summarises the number of survey responses by research site (see Table 3.10).
Table 3.10: Number of Students Surveyed by Year Group
Year Group
Boys
Year 5
70
Year 6
94
Year 7
130
Year 8
111
TOTAL
405
The surveys contained a combination of open and closed questions including dichotomous or
two-way questions, a Likert scale to measure attitudes and beliefs, and multiple-choice
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questions; for example, regarding the child’s preferred gaming device or genre for leisure
reading. A copy is given in Appendix B.
Recording logs as artefacts were part of the initial research design and included the collection of
student reading and technology logs. The boys who were interviewed were asked to record all of
their computer and reading activities for a period of one week in paper format. The intention was
to gain an understanding and measure of what the students said they did in terms of the number
of hours, types of games they played and books read on a weekly basis. Compliance was higher
among the primary school boys with 80 per cent completing and returning the weekly log. This
process was largely driven by daily reminders for the boys to fill out their log each day. The
small nature of the school facilitated this process more readily. However, the data was thin and a
decision was made not to use it as many boys repeated their activities and hours. Others only
filled in one or two days of the log.
In the secondary setting, compliance and return of the logs by the Year 7 and 8 boys was reduced
to one boy out of 14. This was due in part to their ‘forgetfulness’, compounded by differing
schedules, which meant that reminders were irregular. The second and third terms demand a
greater homework load as teachers assess students. Many of the boys are also heavily involved in
co-curricular sport and music. I suspect completing the log was just another ‘thing that had to be
done’ and out of politeness the boys chose to ‘forget’. Therefore, as this data was not truly
representative, nor could a comparison be formed, a decision was made to exclude the data
completely based on poor compliance and reliability. Perhaps an electronic log or Facebook page
would have yielded a higher compliance rate and improved data collection.
3.13. Field Notes
Field notes as artefacts were written as sources of evidence based on observations made in
family rooms and classrooms throughout the duration of the research. Field notes served to
enhance the recollections, observations, ideas and connections, as data were referred to
recursively. For example, during one Year 8 English class, the teacher was utilising
contemporary culture in the form of rap and hip hop to illustrate the contemporary nature of
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poetry. She also encouraged the boys to use ‘Whatever electronic devices you have with you’ to
find an example of their own. My field notes state:
There are two boys with iPads, one looking up apps, the other getting lyrics for a
rap song (to read to the class). He chose his song, we listened to it and the teacher
went on to explain the use of metaphor, colloquialism and street talk. Another boy
found the music of the Hallelujah song from Shrek. The class encouraged him to
sing it which he did—closed his eyes and sang beautifully. The whole class
clapped. I am so impressed at the diversity. I wonder why I see some boys with
their heads on desks, drawing on themselves, not engaged? (Field notes, 8B,
20/6/2011).
An example from a home visit is as follows:
Having taught all these boys in Year 2, in my interviews with the Year 6 boys, the
boys willingly shared more information with me than the questions asked. Many
showed me into their bedrooms pointing out meaningful artefacts such as their
Lego collection, posters that had been signed by their sporting heroes, a model
train set they had built with their Grandad or their book collection all lovingly
displayed. They were anxious to show me their skills on their computer or Wii
and chatted happily, knowing this was an area in which they were very confident
and competent, excited that I was taking an interest. In these exchanges, there
were what Christiansen calls ‘established reciprocity’ between us, thus creating an
avenue for meaningful dialogue leading to deeper understanding (Field notes,
29/3/2011).
In summary, the data generation design and collection produced a useful range of data. The
semi-structured interviews and survey data proved to be rich fields of information. All sources
added to an understanding of boys’ interactions with technology, providing multi-generational
perspectives.
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3.14. Data Analysis Framework and Process
In this section, the framework and process for data analysis is explained. Charmaz’s (2006)
grounded theory was used as a framework for the data analysis, based on existing synergies with
the data, context, methods and purpose. Patterns, themes and categories emerged recursively and
iteratively, and each of the elements shaped and was in turn shaped by the others. According to
Charmaz (2006):
Grounded theory is a method of qualitative inquiry in which data collection and
analysis reciprocally inform and shape each other through an emergent, iterative
process. The term, ‘grounded theory’ refers to its method and its product, a theory
developed from successive conceptual analysis of data (p. 360, in Denzin and
Lincoln, 2011).
Charmaz (2006) explains that grounded theory ‘consists of systematic yet flexible guidelines for
collecting and analysing data to construct theories grounded in the data themselves’ (p. 2).
Through gaining an understanding of the situation and experiences being studied, discoveries
inherent in the data give rise to new interpretations and theories. Charmaz (2006) describes the
role of the researcher as one of remaining open to whatever is happening in the field and working
‘from the ground up’ to pursue that which is of most interest (p. 21). In the initial stages of the
study, I observed and recorded any activities relating to technology use or literacy activities in
the classroom. Initial stages of analysis required me to sift through the data recorded as field
notes and to code similar events.
Charmaz (2011) states that grounded theory emphasises research being conducted in field
settings, which links to the ethnographic perspective adopted in this study. During field research,
grounded theorists, while simultaneously engaging in data collection and analysis, adopt
comparative methods and checking and begin to create tentative categories. Thus, data analysis
commenced with the first day in the classroom, as I observed boys interacting with technology
and various forms of literacy, wrote field notes and collected artefacts. This process continued
throughout the data collection period. Concurrently, informal conversations and in-depth
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interviews began with teachers, boys and their parents. Reflection, rereading and the tentative
labelling of salient themes were continuously undertaken at this time.
Constant comparison and reflection on the data makes grounded theory an iterative, emergent,
comparative and interactive method for data analysis. It is this aspect of grounded theory that
makes it useful in educational research (Charmaz, 2011, pp. 360–361). The data is broken down
using coding, and the resultant codes are then analysed to enable the construction of categories
and relationships (Charmaz, 2006). Emerging themes inform future interviews and raise the
researcher’s awareness to that which is common and different across contexts. Examples of the
emergent coded themes in the present research are as follows.
Table 3.11: Examples of Preliminary Conceptual Categories
Code
Classification into Emergent Theme
Tech
Techtivity
Lit
Reading, writing, listening
Game
Love of gaming
Flshpt
Flashpoint or conflict
H-S
Home–school connection
ACC
Access
SNN
Social media/networking
F-S
Father–son connection
ATT
Attitudes
As previously stated, the interview transcripts provided the richest data and were complemented
by field notes, observation and, to a lesser extent, by school artefacts such as the ICT acceptable
use policy or the English curriculum. Not only did I engage in an ongoing process of reflection
on the interview at hand, but I was constantly comparing emergent themes between and among
participant groups as I coded transcripts and field notes. Data were reviewed at the conclusion of
each research session, reread and annotated with emerging categories, commonalities and
differences.
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Glaser and Strauss (in Charmaz, 2006) describe one of the benefits of grounded theory as
assisting researchers to control their own research process and thus improving analysis and
evaluation and encouraging fresh theories. In this way, researchers avoid seeing the world
through the lens of existing theories. Further, by locating subjective and collective experiences in
organisations like schools and homes, grounded theory research allows for a deeper
understanding of how these structures work and the relationships within them.
According to Glaser (1978, 1992; Glaser and Strauss, 1967 in Charmaz, 2006), on completion, a
submitted grounded theory would meet the criteria of usefulness, conceptual density, durability
over time, modifiability and explanation of the context and it would also fit closely with the data
(p. 6). In relation to this study, usefulness and durability over time are demonstrated by the
rationale of this study; that is, that digital literacies are at the core of future instruction and that
technology has implications for pedagogy over time. Grounded theorists demonstrate conceptual
density through movement across settings or contexts to gain knowledge of the studied process
(Charmaz, 2006). This was achieved through observation in manifold classrooms and numerous
homes. Additionally, interview transcripts with boys, parents and teachers, vignettes and field
notes describe the context and participants, which fit closely with the data. In this study, it was
necessary to modify interview questions, observation patterns and data collection throughout the
data collection phase based on the iterative nature of grounded theory and to suit the context.
Grounded theory acknowledges that this is an ‘interpretative portrayal’ of classrooms and family
rooms, not an exact replica of them (Charmaz, 2006, p. 10), and that the coding schemes
emerged out of the data rather than being prescriptive from the beginning. In this study, excerpts
and summaries of data demonstrate the connection between the data and the category and
provide evidence for the strength of each category. An example follows showing how access,
expectations and the home–school connection emerged as connecting themes.
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Table 3.12: Preliminary Coding Themes






Home–school connection
High parental involvement
Expectations, values and
attitudes strong
Offer work and life
experiences
Socio economic for access
Moral panic
Access leads to advantage





literacy
Strong home reading
practices
Access to books
Established routine
Highly valued
Modelled




technology
Provision is
important
Access is
facilitated
Means of achieving
success
Source of conflict
Access, Expectations Home–school connection
3.15. Application of Grounded Theory Actions to this Study
The grounded theory actions in relation to this study are based on the work of Charmaz (2006,
2011) and are applied as explained in the following sub-sections.
3.15.1. Conduct Data Collection and Analysis Simultaneously in an Iterative Process
Grounded theory provides an opportunity for the synthesis of data analysis and data collection to
accommodate probing for detailed and specific responses and the analysis of nuances and
complex relationships characteristic of classrooms in particular. According to Strauss and Corbin
(1994), there is a ‘continuous interplay between analysis and data collection’ to develop and
assist the theory-building process (p. 273). The collection and analysis of data in this study
employed three guiding principles. Firstly, data were compared from the beginning of the
research rather than waiting until all data collection had ceased. Secondly, data were compared
with emerging categories. Thirdly, comparison and demonstration of relations between concepts
and categories that occurred repeatedly through conversations, field notes and reviewing the
literature was utilised. For example, observation in classrooms, listening to boys’ informal
conversations and watching their activity on technology at school formed the basis for
documenting possible categories for data analysis recorded in field notes. Meanwhile, the
categories began to inform my questions and directed my observations in homes and other
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classrooms. The interviews began to reveal similar themes, which in turn assisted in the
development of categories for analysis.
The guiding principles mentioned above informed me in ‘probing under the surface and digging
into the scene’ and enabled me control over the research process, as I was able to focus, structure
and organise the data collection methods (Charmaz, 2006, p. 23). I became aware that layers of
reality are present in every research environment, as social life is complex in its variety and
circumstance (Woods, 1996) and many layers of meaning exist due to each new discovery
altering the perception of the whole (Berger, 1966). Blumer (1976) refers to this as ‘lifting the
veils’ (p. 15). For example, in this study, I found that as I spent more time in the classroom and
developed rapport with students and teachers, veils were identified and lifted, which led to more
questions, which in turn steered my research. In some cases, my hypothesis was confirmed; in
others, I revised my thinking in light of new discoveries.
By using grounded theory methods in structured, open-ended interviews, I was able to manage
the data collection and analysis. Interviewing proved a flexible technique, allowing for the
pursuit of ideas and issues as they emerged during the interview. Returning to the field to collect
specific data for developing theoretical frameworks and filling conceptual gaps was also utilised,
while maintaining awareness of Glaser’s warning to guard against forcing interview data into
preconceived categories (in Charmaz, 2006, pp. 29, 32). With this in mind, I determined to be
intentionally reflexive and alert about the nature of the questions that I was asking and the
responses of the participants (Gubrium and Holstein, 2001). One way in which this was achieved
was through the writing of summaries of field notes and interviews, which helped me to dissect
and process the data (Barton and Hamilton, 1998), to deepen my understanding of the data and
emerging themes and to capture salient issues.
3.15.2. Construct Codes and Categories from Data
According to Charmaz (2006), the starting point should not be from some preconceived logically
deduced hypotheses, but rather from the data from which analytic codes and categories are
constructed (p. 5). Grounded theory allows for the shaping and reshaping of data collected and is
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dependent on the researcher having a keen eye, listening ears and an open mind to collect,
identify and discern rich data for the study. In this study, this was achieved through an emphasis
on establishing rapport, equality and informality in the relationship with the participants, to
maximise access to information pertaining to boys’ interactions with technology, their reading
practices and preferences, and parents’ and teachers’ view of the same. As data were collected,
cogitated over and separated, codes and categories emerged that in an iterative process resulted
in the culmination of cohesive conceptual categories and emergent themes in relation to boys’
interactions with technology in middle school. Aiding this process was the compilation of data
summaries of each boy’s likes and dislikes, broader interactions at school and unsolicited
responses to others and teachers, all of which helped me to understand their lived experiences in
the classroom. The following excerpt took place during a Year 6 literacy block and was very
different to Lachlan’s experience with technology at home:
What caught my attention was one student who worked laboriously on the laptop for about 5
minutes with no success. He seemed to be having difficulty making the computer do what he
wanted it to do. After many failed attempts to correct the proper nouns, he eventually found the
Help button and poured over the directions given to undertake the proofreading activity. He chose
another grammar game, found it too difficult, then returned to the proofreading section, choosing
another piece of text in which he had to correct plurals. He checked the rules under the Help
button again, peered closely at the monitor and tried again. He highlighted the incorrect word and
seemed to have success by pressing the space bar, without actually making the correction himself.
He then asked the girl next to him how the game worked (15 minutes into the activity) and she
demonstrated for him. He then said ‘Oh I worked out that if you click the space bar four times the
computer automatically corrects it’.
When the buzzer went for the groups to rotate I asked Lachlan the following:
J.C: How did you find that activity?
Lachlan: Weird, there were no instructions and I had no idea what to do at the start. I had to look
it up.
J.C: What do you think you learned from that activity?
Lachlan: Dunno, Um ... that double tapping the space bar doesn’t do anything, but four times and
the computer fixes it for you? (Field notes, 22/3/2011).
3.15.3. Use the Constant Comparative Method
Grounded theory encourages the researcher to constantly evaluate the connection between the
initial research interest and questions that emerge from the data. The constant comparative
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method holds that comparisons are continuously made between data, codes and categories, which
advances the researcher’s conceptual understanding of the participants and processes at hand.
The combination of observing and interrogating the relationships between the categories and
fundamental aspects evident in the study leads to the emergent themes. In this study, the constant
comparative method was evident through the recording of interviews, field notes and reflections
on observed events in classrooms and homes to expand on categories and their properties,
describe relationships between the categories, and identify gaps to direct further data gathering.
The most intense phase of comparison occurred after the data collection had ceased and I had
time to return and interrogate the data, searching for patterns across all participants and contexts.
Grounded theory provides for flexible guidelines rather than rigid data collection methods,
enabling the researcher to direct the study, imagine the possibilities, and use the appropriate
method for the data being studied. The skill lies in the type of methods employed, the
phenomena studied, the context, and what sense is made of these. For example, boys in primary
school were more likely to demonstrate their skills on their games console, which facilitated
questions around the game they were playing. In contrast, boys in secondary school were more
likely to be able to articulate their experience of gaming without the demonstration. In this way,
flexible guidelines were employed to gather similar information, while still enabling constant
comparisons to existing data.
3.15.4. Draw on Data in Service of Developing New Conceptual Categories
Drawing on data as it was collected assisted in the development of categories for data analysis. It
was necessary to be aware of the ‘said’ and ‘unsaid’, the inferences being made and that which
was not directly reported. For example, conversations with boys, parents and teachers were
recorded for transcription and coding. Field notes were also coded on observed phenomena such
as the number and placement of books in evidence in the home or classroom and the presence or
absence of technology in boys’ bedrooms, family rooms and classrooms. My participant
summaries were also coded.
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3.15.4.1. Boys
As I returned to the data, refining my descriptions and codes, I continued to read, reread and try
out categories. Constant comparative analysis revealed a number of recursive categories. Coding
of interview transcriptions soon after they occurred provided ideas and understandings that
informed future interviews and served to give a deeper understanding of boys’ use of technology
and their literate activities, as well as the perspectives of parents and teachers in this regard.
Recursive data analysis based on all of the data collected was undertaken again at the end of the
data collection period. A more refined process and understanding of the data was applied through
activities such as reading, journaling, coding and writing journal articles to assist in reflection
and analysis (Carroll, 2011; Carroll and Edwards, 2012). Broad conceptual categories were then
inferred from each group of participants in an iterative, recursive process. Through coding and
reflection, data were initially organised into like-groups of activities; for example, boys’ use of
technology for play, reading and writing (see Figure 3.5).
Boys Reading, Writing and Techtivity for Play
Boys read more than we think
Boys write online
Boys love games
Boys prefer books to online reading
Writing online increases with age
Parents influence boys’ reading
Mechanics/self-perception limiting
Boys learn valuable skills from gaming
Games bring intrinsic rewards
Combination of purpose, opportunity, choice and control encourages reading, writing and techtivity
Figure 3.5: Example of Broad Conceptual Categories
Coding further enabled the data to be sorted, synthesised and organised into narrower categories.
Data were reread and annotated; for example, interview transcripts were highlighted and coded,
out of which major categories emerged. New ideas and themes emerged as I read, reflected,
linked and compared the interview data with what I had observed in the field. Using the same
approach, I reread and annotated my field notes in light of the major categories, coding them in a
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similar manner to the interview transcripts. Where required, I referred to the school artefacts to
clarify processes unique to the research context; for example, the English curriculum documents.
I analysed the 405 surveys using Excel and frequency analysis to determine the differences and
similarities between boys and among boys in similar grades within the broad categories of
reading, writing and techtivity.
Three clear themes emerged; namely, ‘techtivity’, ‘reading’ and ‘writing’, as depicted below (see
Figure 3.6).
A similar process was used to determine the key conceptual categories for the parents, and then
for the teachers.
3.15.4.2. Parents
The following diagrams (see Figures 3.7 and 3.8) demonstrate the conceptual categories that
emerged for the 45 parents who were interviewed (that is, ‘drive and drag’, and ‘issues and
perspectives’). Constant comparative analysis revealed that parents hold strong views across the
domains of home and school in relation to their sons’ interaction with technology and
engagement with literate activities. For the purposes of clarity of analysis, the two domains have
been discussed separately with regard to parents’ views on technology and literacy at home (see
Figure 3.7) and their views in relation to the school context (see Figure 3.8).
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Conceptual Categories: Boys
Themes
FINDINGS
Why boys play
games
Devices used
Boys love Reading and
Games
Frequency
Techtivity
Games boys play
Literacy is key in gaming
Intrinsic rewards
Games and
Literacy
Technology influences
writing
Home reading
practices
BOYS AT
PLAY
Gaming and literacy
inherently social,
collaborative
Boys enjoyment of
reading
Reading
Self perception
Preferences
Intrinsic rewards are
motivating
Boys enjoyment of
writing
Writing
Writing online
Lessons from Gaming
Figure 3.6: Conceptual Categories, Boys
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Conceptual Categories: Parents (Home)
Access
Time
Techtivity
Content
Critical Literacy
Social Media
Drive and
Drag
Technology
Achievement
Home school
connection
Drive and drag
Flashpoints/
Concerns
Time
Content
Priority of activity
Figure 3.7: Conceptual Categories, Parents (Home)
Figure 3.7 reveals the broad themes of techtivity, technology and the flashpoints or concerns that
emerged from interviews with parents in relation to the home context. For example, parents felt
that access to books and technology was important in setting their sons up for success. However,
they perceived the drive and drag of new and old technology (digital devices versus books) as
both a motivator and detractor in relation to their sons’ achievement across domains.
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Conceptual Categories: Parents (School)
Linking Literacy and
technology
Authentic Learning
Opportunities
Preparation for future
Creativity, innovation
Issues and
Perspectives
Teacher’s age, skill and
attitude
Consistency, depth of
learning
Barriers
Access
Curriculum
Figure 3.8: Conceptual Categories, Parents (School)
Similarly, but in the school context, Figure 3.8 demonstrates the conceptual categories revealed
mainly through interviews with parents in relation to their son’s engagement with technology
and literate practices in the classroom. Parents held very strong views on both the opportunities
and barriers they perceived technology to have in relation to educational opportunities for their
sons. For example, opportunities included authentic learning experiences provided through
technology at school. However, this was perceived as counter to some teachers’ skill and attitude
regarding the utilisation of technology in the classroom for learning.
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3.15.4.3. Teachers
Fifteen teachers were interviewed and observed in their classrooms and or just interviewed to
collect data on their perceptions of boys’ interactions with technology and their literate practices
at school (see Figure 3.8). The overarching themes emerging in this study from teachers related
to boys and technology, boys and literacy and teaching with technology. These perspectives are
discussed in the following chapters.
Conceptual Categories: Teachers
Boys love
technology
Boys and
Technology
Boy’s skills
Critical Literacy
Boys are readers
Boys enjoy choice
TEACHERS
Boys and
Literacy
Reading and
academic success
Integrate books
and technology
Up-side
Teaching with
Technology
Down-side
Figure 3.9: Conceptual Categories, Teachers
In summary an iterative, recursive procedure was used to analyse the data based on the
framework of grounded theory. According to Charmaz (2006), diagrams are an intrinsic part of
grounded theory methods, offering concrete images of ideas through the visual representation of
categories and their relationships. The diagrams summarise the data by participant group from
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which emerged the conceptual categories used for analysis. Further, they demonstrate the
analytical and reflective procedures employed. Central to the process was the application of
human-as-instrument, which enabled the collection and analysis of data in a continuous
movement between and among participants and contexts in an iterative manner (Charmaz, 2006;
Lincoln and Guba, 1985).
This chapter outlined the ethnographic, case-study orientation and design of this study. Further, it
provided a discussion of ethnography in educational research and established the merits of case
study for a project such as this. The study design facilitated data collection and analysis using a
grounded theory framework from which emerged themes and conceptual categories relating to
boys’ interactions with technology. The study design enabled a logical approach to the selection
of participants and contexts and the collection of data. Grounded theory enabled an iterative and
recursive process to be applied to the analysis of the data with reference to the study’s questions
and lines of inquiry pertaining to the subject at hand. Additionally, the perspectives of each of
the participant groups, and the participant vignettes, survey data and summaries of the boys
provide a context within which the following three chapters can be read.
It became clear from the data and recursive investigation that the way in which to discuss the
analysis was to use ‘perspectives’. Three distinct perspectives emerged; namely, how boys view
technology and literacy, how their parents perceive it, and the view on this issue of teachers. The
following three chapters recount these groups’ perspectives. Within each chapter, there are data
categories that are common and those that are different. However, all seek to shed light on the
findings of the study.
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4. Boys’ Perspectives: Techtivity and Literacy
4.1. Introduction
This chapter examines how boys used technology at home and at school. In particular, it focuses
on boys’ interactions and attitudes with techtivity, particularly through the activity of gaming on
a range of devices. Boys’ understandings and attitudes towards reading and writing using ICT
are also discussed, as they become users and creators of online content. In the analysis, I identify
themes common across the study schools and homes and group these into conceptual categories
that have implications for pedagogy. I draw on three sources of data: in-depth interviews with 27
boys in their homes, over 20 weeks of observation in middle school classrooms, and 405 surveys
conducted with boys across two research sites. This chapter is divided into three sections: boys
and techtivity, boys as readers and boys as writers.
4.2. Boys and Techtivity
For the purposes of this study, the term techtivity has been used to describe all of the activities
undertaken by the study participants using a variety of technological devices. The range of
technology includes mobile devices such as the iPod touch, gaming consoles and laptops, used
for a variety of purposes both in and out of school. This section explores boys’ understandings
and attitudes towards techtivity under the following headings, which serve to organise the data
from the multiple sources:
1. Why do boys play games?
2. Devices most often used
3. Frequency of game play
4. Games boys play
5. Intrinsic rewards of game play
6. Games and literacy
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4.2.1. Why Do Boys Play Games?
Based on interview data and casual conversations with boys in both family rooms and
classrooms, boys identified the following list of why they voluntarily play games on digital
devices. This list echoes the findings of Prensky (2006, 2010), Gee (2003, 2008) and Browne,
Collins and Duguid (1989), as described in Chapter 2. The list in the left-hand column uses the
terms from the aforementioned literature, and the list in the right-hand column reflects the boys’
own words.
Table 4.1: Reasons Boys Play Games
Gee (2008), Prensky (2006) and Browne,
Boys in this study
Collins and Duguid (1989)
(in boys’ own words)
Strong identity
Clear, fast feedback
Real learning
Taking risks, approximating
Hypothesise, interact
Belonging, social learning
Sense of ownership and control
Substantive learning
Authentic learning
Affective benefits
Liminal and substantive learning
Customised learning
Collaborative, relational and social
learning
Acquire a special power
Earn points
Receive money to buy stuff online
Satisfaction when levelling up
Enjoyment of the narrative
Feeling part of the story
Escapism
Creative expression
Build general and specific knowledge
It is fun!
Testing and challenging
Improving eye–hand coordination
Socialising while playing with friends
either in person or virtually
Gee (2003; Gee and Levine, 2009) and Prensky (2006, 2010) have written extensively on the
benefits of game play and translated many benefits to an educational setting. From the point of
view of this study, much of what the boys in middle school reported in their own words above
mirrors what Gee, Prensky and others have comprehensively addressed (see Chapter 2). For
example, the boys spoke of perseverance, logical thinking, learning through consequences and
other players, creative thinking, good eye–hand coordination, fast reflexes and collaboration as
what they considered the most important skills to succeed in their chosen game. This is
significant because there is an overlap in the skills required to succeed in a game and their
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motivation for playing the game. Boys were clearly able to articulate and transfer the benefits of
game play to their future actions, which may be one of the ways in which educationalists can
capture the wonderment and engagement that boys articulated and demonstrated in this study
when discussing and demonstrating gaming.
The following representative quotation indicating the skills of gaming comes from the interview
with Elliott (Year 8) as he demonstrated the game Fable as we sat in his family room:
You just have to decide about which way you’re going, because you have to get to
quests, but there is an icon which helps you because it’s a really big map. But it’s
a bit, more strategic than most people think, because you have to gain money and
buy things to help your character out, and then you can buy houses and stuff and
rent them out. And even though it’s a quest game and stuff, you can do a lot of
real-life type things. The main story line is that your sister dies and you have to
revenge her and you have to collect renown and wealth, because this person that
killed her is getting stronger, and so you can’t fight him alone so you have to
recruit some other people (Interview, 2011, p.8).
In this short excerpt, Elliott identifies the skills of strategic decision making, earning money for
real purposes in the game, attention to the narrative and the goal of the game, and collaboration
to assist his quest. It is apparent that the skills Elliott identifies are reflected in contemporary
research as detailed in Chapter 2 and summarised in Table 4.1 above, as being significant for
boys in educational situations. This is discussed more deeply later in this chapter.
To gain a deeper understanding of why boys play games, the following sub-sections discuss the
frequency of play and devices used, the type of games played and the intrinsic rewards of game
play, with the aim of illuminating links to effective pedagogy for boys.
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4.2.2. Devices Most Often Used
In response to the question ‘What types of electronic devices do you like to use and which
devices do you use most often?’ survey respondents were asked to list all of the electronic
devices that they like to use both at home and at school; for example, Xbox, Personal Computer,
DS, iPod, mobile, Wii and PlayStation. They were then asked to nominate the one device that
they used most often (see survey in Appendix B). The following table indicates the devices boys
own, shown by year group level (see Table 4.2)
Table 4.2: Devices Owned, by Year Group
Device
Personal
computer
Gaming console
Handhelds
No gaming
Year 5
(n =70)
33%
Year 6
(n= 94)
26%
Year 7
(n=131)
32%
Year 8
(n= 112)
37%
44%
23%
0
60%
13%
1%
48%
20%
0
50%
13%
0
The device of choice for online game playing for boys across all age groups in this study was the
gaming console, which included the Xbox, Sony PlayStation and Nintendo Wii. Boys in Year 6
and 8 were the most prolific on this device. Boys favoured the PlayStation and Xbox as this
afforded multiplayer capability, an extensive variety of online games and the added incentive of
real time communication, such as chatting to their friends via Skype while playing. For example,
Lachlan (Year 6) in his interview said:
There are certain games that I play by myself, but most games I like playing with
friends and helping each other out and working the puzzle together so I don’t have
to think as hard (Interview, 2011, p. 2).
Matthew (Year 6) adds, ‘I often talk to my friend, too, who is either playing Minecraft or playing
another game, just through Skype’. When interviewed, Oliver and Alex (both Year 8) spoke of
the collegiality they enjoy when playing collaboratively:
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Yeah, you do Xbox Live and you can play online with your friends and you can
talk to them through your microphone. So, yeah, that’s pretty cool. Instead of
playing all by yourself, you can play with your mates (Interview, 2011, p. 9).
The significance of this for boys is the collaborative nature of solving a challenging problem
with their peers or players who share the same interest in the game that they have chosen to play.
The apparent benefits of gaming consoles for boys are that they facilitate challenge,
collaboration and engagement across shared interests.
The personal computer, either the family computer or laptop, is the next most popular device for
gaming, with a third of all boys reporting using this device. Accessibility at home is facilitated
by parents providing computers or laptops for both school and entertainment purposes. However,
boys in primary school do face greater scrutiny in terms of the time spent and content accessed
due to higher parental involvement and monitoring. Children of primary school age were more
likely to be given limits by their parents such as ‘I can play only on the weekends’ or ‘I am not
allowed to play during school time’ to which they will adhere.
In comparison, more boys have access to their own laptop in secondary school. The latter group
had more opportunity to play games in the privacy of their room away from parental observation.
Significantly, it is in Year 8 that boys report gaming to be a very important part of their
relaxation and socialisation practices. For example, ‘I feel happy and relaxed’; ‘I am happy and
focused and it’s always a lot of fun to play with friends’; ‘Gaming is lots of fun especially when
playing with friends’; ‘I feel relaxed and focused on what I am doing while getting a feeling of
accomplishment’ and ‘I feel excited and part of a group’. The significance of these comments is
that boys view gaming not only as a worthwhile activity in terms of achievement, but also as
fulfilling the socio-emotional need of belonging, with the benefit of relieving stress and
providing opportunity for relaxation.
The convenience, portability and accessibility of handheld devices is attractive to an average of
17 per cent of boys in the middle years, with this figure gradually decreasing with age as boys
report playing longer and more challenging games such as Call of Duty or Fable, which
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handheld devices do not support. Further, all boys reported having more than one device on
which to play online and app games. It is apparent that the use of handheld devices is closely
linked with circumstance and opportunity. For example, survey responses include ‘I play
wherever I want to’; ‘I play at home and anywhere’; ‘I play in the car and at home’ and ‘I play
my iPod touch everywhere—car, my room, school, friends’ houses’. Boredom served as a
stimulus for game play with survey responses across the grades revealing that they ‘play anytime
they are bored’. This is significant because boys are engaging with virtual worlds through game
play across a range of devices and, on many occasions, voluntarily embedding the skills, habits,
affective and cognitive benefits fostered by gaming, as discussed in Chapter 2.
4.2.3. Frequency of Game Play
The following table presents the boys’ responses to the question, ‘How often do you play your
favourite computer game?’ A minority of boys (10 per cent, or 40 boys) own digital devices, but
did not report using them on a regular basis. These responses have been included in the ‘rarely or
not at all’ category for frequency of use, and include responses such as ‘Not often at all’, ‘not a
lot at all’ and ‘I am not a gamer’ (see Table 4.3).
Table 4.3: Frequency of Game Play
Frequency
Daily
1–3 times a
week
Weekends and
holidays only
Rarely/not at all
Year 5
(n=70)
49%
26%
Year 6
(n=94)
37%
19%
Year 7
(n=131)
33%
27%
Year 8
(n=112)
32%
34%
20%
31%
26%
25%
5%
13%
14%
9%
The Year 5 cohort reported playing games most frequently. Nearly half or 49 per cent of them
reported playing on a daily basis. Comments such as ‘I play whenever I want’; ‘I play a few
times a day, it is so addicting’ and ‘If I get up early for school I am allowed to play every day’
represent this group. This cohort demonstrated an infectious wonder towards the world of
gaming through their persistent engagement and enthusiasm. The Year 5 cohort also has the
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lowest number of boys who play rarely or not at all in comparison to the other year levels. While
the survey did not request this data, potential reasons for high frequency game play among Year
5 may include fewer co-curricular commitments, less homework, increased access to digital
devices and increased interest in gaming among this particular group of boys.
Significantly, a third of the remaining year groups reported playing every day. However, older
boys recognised time as a factor in frequency of game play. The youngest cohort did not mention
this factor. Comments by those boys who play computer games every day in the older years
suggest that they are aware of how much time they spend; for example, ‘I play every day, way
too much’ and ‘I play on weekends for up to 20 hours’. This was corroborated in the interviews
by Alex (Year 8), who reported averaging 8 hours’ game play during the week, but more on
weekends. Alex described an in-game event that had taken place recently (the Call of Duty
Newtown, 24/7, with Double Experience Event) and the effect that this had had on his time spent
playing:
A big event happened on Call of Duty, so heaps of my friends and I were just
playing for the entire weekend. I played for 20 hours (Interview, 2011, p. 10).
It appears that the length of time and frequency of game play have implications for boys in terms
of the effect on other activities; for example, opportunity to read for leisure, participation in
family activities and pursuing other interests. The parents interviewed held strong views on the
frequency of their sons’ gaming, which was often a source of conflict (see Chapter 5).
From the boys’ point of view, it appears that the transition into secondary school can curtail
game time: ‘Now that I am at Red Hill College, I only play once a week’ (Ben, Year 7). Further,
it appears that parental influence has an effect: ‘I play once a week, if I am lucky; my parents
don’t encourage it’. Boys talked about playing when their parents allowed them to; for example,
there were reports of parents instituting completion of all homework as a prerequisite for game
play during the week: ‘I play whenever it does not interfere with other things like books,
homework and sport’; ‘I rarely play, I have to work or study’ and ‘Depends on homework’.
Thus, for some boys, the opportunity to play only arose on weekends or during holidays, as
school, homework, sport and music commitments had to be attended to during the week. Typical
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comments from Year 8 boys, who reported having more commitments than did primary aged
boys, were: ‘I play every day in school holidays’ and ‘I play whenever I have free time on
weekends’. Oliver (Year 8) during the interview said:
Well, if it’s during, like, school, I can’t really play much. I can only get to play on
the weekends. So, and even then Mum’s strict, so I can’t play for too long unless I
have a friend over. So in a week, maybe two hours or something. Because I can’t,
I don’t have much time to do that during school (Interview, 2011, p. 10).
It appeared that not all of the boys had parental controls in the form of restrictions or conditions
on game play. This was most obvious when a parent, in all cases, fathers, played with their son.
For example, Wayne (Year 5), Lewis (Year 5) and a survey respondent in Year 7 reported that ‘I
play every day with my dad’. When fathers engaged in gaming with their son, play became a
sanctioned, social and relationship-building opportunity. This was particularly the case for
fathers and sons in primary school. Of the boys interviewed from primary school, there was an
80 per cent incidence of fathers reporting playing computer games with their sons on a weekly
basis. Matthew’s (Year 6) father takes an interest and often plays Minecraft with Matthew:
I’ll help out … I’ll see what Matthew’s been doing or his sister has been doing,
and they’ll show me stuff that I haven’t seen. It’s a daddy and kid thing as well
(Interview, 2011, p. 5).
Another example of father and son gaming is Lewis (Year 5) and his father. Lewis’ father, who
admits to ‘losing hours of his life’ to gaming, told of his favourite games and playing with his
son:
And my other favourite game is Total Annihilation, which was a real-time
strategy game, and Lewis loves that as well. We certainly do sit down and play
games. We were playing Portal Two together the other day. There are a lot of
games that we play together. I probably don’t do it as much as Lewis would like
but it’s just sort of a balance of timing and things (Interview, 2011, p. 15).
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Andrew (Year 5) has a younger brother in Year 2 and the boys demonstrated their skills on the
Xbox during our interview. The following excerpt describes their parents’ involvement in
gaming:
J.C:
Who plays this game with you?
Andrew:
Our mum just watches and Dad helps us with levels we’re stuck on.
From these anecdotes, it is apparent that fathers rather than mothers take an active interest in
game playing with their sons. In so doing, fathers become involved in the choice of the game
played and transfer their knowledge, skill and enthusiasm to their sons, making the act of game
playing on digital devices a pleasurable bonding experience. It appears that boys with fathers
who also enjoy online games have more opportunity to play, as the activity is family sanctioned.
In contrast, the parents interviewed that did not play games with their sons had a more negative
attitude to gaming in general, which in turn affected their son’s access to online gaming and
frequency of play.
4.2.4. Games Boys Play
It became apparent in this study that boys prefer the genres of action, adventure, war and sport.
This preference was summarised by Wayne (Year 5) who, in relation to his favourite computer
games, commented:
I like rugby and sport ones [computer games], and I like ones where you get to
fight things and see things blow up’.
Table 4.4 below shows the responses to the survey question ‘What is your favourite game to play
using technology?’ In the analysis phase, the games were coded and grouped into broad
categories to enable comparison between the grades. The categories were informed by
McGonigal’s work (2011).
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Table 4.4: Genres of Games and Frequency of Play
War/Action
Sports
Strategy
Fantasy
Flash/App
Call of Duty Black
Ops and MW3
FIFA 11
Minecraft
League of
Legends
Cut the rope
World of
Warcraft
Angry Birds
Most
played
(Soccer)
Halo Reach
WWE
(Wrestling)
Lego Star Wars;
Lego Harry
Potter
Assassins Creed
Driving/Auto
games
Portal 1 & 2
Achtung die
curve
Medal of Honour
Wii sports
Poptropica
Doodle jump
Back breaker
Club Penguin
Bubble pop
Stick sports
Least
played
Most played
Least played
Overwhelmingly, boys preferred games in the war/action genre, and specifically, the first person
shooter game, Call of Duty, or ‘COD’ as it is called by the boys. A quarter of all boys in Years 5,
6 and 7 who played games nominated Call of Duty as their favourite game. In Year 8, this rose to
41 per cent of all boys. When Call of Duty is combined with other war/action games, the
numbers rise to approximately half of all boys in this survey being engaged with this game
genre.
Call of Duty is an RPG that can be played by single or multiple players. It simulates the infantry
and combined arms warfare of World War 2. Later iterations are set in the Cold War and
Vietnam War and most recently (at the time of writing) Call of Duty: Modern Warfare is on its
third release (MW3). Call of Duty is a first person shooter game, as are most of the war/action
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genre games. A player is a first person shooter and has the perspective of being the protagonist
with a gun, projectile, knife or other weapon, which allows the player to experience the action
first hand. Regarding why the majority of boys surveyed cited Call of Duty as the game they play
the most often, the most common explanation given was that they liked ‘The opportunity to kill
people and socialise with my friends at the same time’. Other respondents said: ‘I play to be the
best soldier’; ‘I play to strive for a high death/kill ratio’; ‘I play to get a high score’; ‘I play to
complete the campaign’ and ‘I like to counter enemy tactics’. Boys who played Call of Duty also
reported the enjoyment of gaining points to level up, which builds confidence and enjoyment as
they strive to ‘become the best’ or ‘most dominant’ in the game. Field notes record conversations
overheard and the jargon used relating to Call of Duty that peppered the boys’ conversations at
school as their exploits in the game world spilled over into real life. An example is found in the
use of the word ‘Boss’.
‘Bosses’ are usually significantly superior to regular enemies in RPGs, and are most often found
at the culmination of a level. When a player defeats the ‘boss’ at the end of a level, they can
assume ‘boss’ status and level up. This means that the player has used all of their skills to
maximum effect and to the best of their ability, often in collaboration with others, and is ready
for the next challenge. I was interested to hear this phrase ‘I’m da Boss!’ used by boys on the
playground and in the classroom. After I had built rapport with one of the Year 7 classes, I asked
the boys to explain it to me. They referred variously to ‘being the best’, ‘being at the top’ and
being ‘in control of the level’. This language was accompanied by positive body language such
as standing tall, thumping their chest or raising the V for victory sign as they spoke. When I
asked how hard it was to achieve this status, they all expressed the difficulty and obstacles they
had to overcome, their perseverance and working at the outer edge of their knowledge and skills.
Liminal is a word that describes this place of working at the threshold of one’s abilities.
Vygotsky (1978) termed this the ‘zone of proximal development’. What is interesting is that the
boys had voluntarily committed many hours and much effort to achieving ‘boss’ status. Not only
was it rewarded in the game, but effects were also felt on the playground. The boys gave
testimony to continued game play being a strong motivator to keep practicing one’s skills and
extending one’s threshold, as without persistence one does not remain ‘da Boss’ for long.
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The second most played genre of games for boys was sport-related games. Boys of all ages
reported enjoying FIFA 11 soccer and wrestling games such as Smack Down vs. Raw or World
Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). However, this genre of game was more often played by
primary school boys than by secondary school boys. Stick sports on the personal computer
covers cricket, football, baseball and tennis. NRL, AFL and Rugby Union games were also
enjoyed predominantly on games consoles. In the interviews, Ben (Year 7), an avid cricketer and
AFL player, and Wayne (Year 5), a keen NRL player, spoke of their enjoyment of sports-related
computer games. These boys identified the skills and knowledge of the real game that they could
transfer to the screen and vice versa as being a motivator for continued play. Survey respondents
added: ‘I play FIFA 11 to win the game and reach the goal I set for myself’; ‘I play football to
get past the other players without them tackling me’ and ‘I like the rugby league competition
where I have to win games’. Gran Tourismo 5, a car game, is also popular in this category.
Regarding this game, boys reported: ‘I play to race fast cars, beat them and buy expensive cars’
and ‘I love to get past all the cars while I go faster and faster’. It appeared that boys who play
this game have ‘a need for speed’.
Strategy games such as Minecraft were particularly popular, especially among those boys who
were also Lego fans. Matthew (Year 6) said, ‘We could not fit anymore Lego into my room so I
started playing Minecraft’. Minecraft requires the player to mine and build using blocks similar
to Lego. It has the added dimension of predators in the form of monsters from which the player
must defend himself. In the survey, one Year 8 boy described the game in one sentence: ‘I play
Minecraft to build the most creative or helpful structure and find diamonds while repelling
enemies’. The boys who were passionate about Minecraft expressed the following comments: ‘I
like building cities and mining for stuff’ and ‘I like to create a home and stay alive with limited
resources’. Minecraft has the added dimension of creativity, which boys recognised; for
example, ‘I love just building and creating on Minecraft’. Lincoln (Year 7) in his interview said
of his favourite online game:
I’d say it is Minecraft. It’s like, it’s constructive, it’s like, a bit like Lego, and I’m
a big fan of Lego, so it’s much like Lego. So it’s constructive, it’s creative and
you can build whatever you like. So that’s why I like Minecraft (Interview, 2011,
p. 5).
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Other games in this genre include Lego Star Wars, Civilisation, Age of Empires, Poptropica and
Club Penguin. The latter two games were played by boys in primary school. Justification for
enjoyment of strategy games can be found in the following comments: ‘I play to navigate the
course without dying’; ‘I like to position my troops and army and defeat other empires’; ‘I use
tactical thinking’ and ‘I play to keep my kingdom or empire alive with money, food and an army
to win the game’. This genre of game requires planning, tactics, problem solving and the
harnessing of creativity so that the player can ‘build an empire’. Of significance are the
creativity, motivation and strategic thinking required for success.
Fantasy games such as World of Warcraft and League of Legends were not as popular with
middle school students, with an average of only 10 per cent reporting that these particular games
were their genre of choice. A comment on World of Warcraft related to the collaborative nature
of this game, ‘I play to depend on the other players to achieve our goal’. World of Warcraft has
over 10 million players who work in guilds or teams to achieve goals collaboratively.
Only 12 per cent of boys rated Flash or App games as their favourites. Examples included Angry
Birds and Cut the Rope, which are very short in duration and require fast reflexes. The rate at
which boys reported favouring this game type is consistent with their lower reported incidence of
use of handheld, portable devices such as the iPod touch and iPhone for gaming. The appeal of
Flash/App games was that they offer a quick game that can be played almost anywhere. Boys
enjoyed the speed, challenge and convenience of these types of games.
From the interviews and survey responses, it emerged that one of the most important hooks that
online games have is their storyline or narrative. The strong narratives in computer games of
most genres require players to read the game’s meaning, writing back to it as they choose actions
within the virtual world. Steinkuehler (2010) describes games as ‘narrative spaces that the player
inscribes with his or her own intent’ (p. 61). Respondents in this study often cited ‘control over
their world’ or their own intent as a major incentive for game playing, and they also noted a deep
enjoyment of the storyline or narrative in which they were immersed: ‘I like the tactical take
downs but I also love the very detailed storyline’ (Elliott, Year 8).
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It is apparent that boys love playing games on digital devices. Some of the key motivators for
engaging in games for boys in this study were the creative accomplishment, collaborative nature,
competition, clear rules, current and immediate feedback and detailed narrative that is inherent in
a good game. The significance of game play is that boys are engaging in these gaming
opportunities voluntarily and frequently as they experience ‘flow’ (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) and
success with their peers in the real and virtual world. At the same time, they are performing the
technical skills required for living and succeeding in the twenty-first century. Game-like skills
can enhance cognition, and skills can be transferred to learn capabilities recognised as important
in educational settings. However, technology is merely one tool to be used in dynamic ways to
engage students and augment effective teaching and learning opportunities in the classroom. It
may be argued that when boys engage in gaming, they are learning mechanical literacy of how to
operate the games console and level up. Using games in the classroom might provide benefits in
teaching about culture, genre and literacy, by drawing on the skills that boys bring to the
classroom from their ‘third space’ experience.
4.2.5. Intrinsic Rewards of Game Play
The final question on the survey dealt with how students feel when they play computer games
and engage in techtivity. This question aimed to provide an insight into the affective benefits of
game play. In many instances, the responses mirrored the rewards of game play as listed above.
There were many similarities between the boys in primary school. However, as students matured,
their responses differed more markedly. The responses of the boys were coded and grouped into
the themes of ‘engagement’, ‘friendship’, ‘achievement’, ‘control’ and ‘physical response’.
4.2.5.1. Engaged and Entertained
Boys spoke of being totally focussed with deep concentration while playing a computer game. A
typical comment was, ‘I feel really excited and can think of nothing else except the game’.
Enjoyment was one of the words most often used, along with ‘interested’, ‘absorbed’, ‘happy’
and ‘thinking hard and using my mind while having fun’. Some students recognised the feelings
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that keep them playing: ‘It is addictive and I want to keep playing’. The boys identified that
gaming is addictive because it ‘boosts our mood and makes us feel happy’.
McGonigal (2011) identified this state of enjoyment as ‘optimistic engagement’, when one finds
oneself experiencing ‘extreme emotional activation in a concentrated state’ to achieve a goal,
make social connections, build personal strengths and receive rewards (pp. 28–29). This is
significant because, as the rewards continue, the boys in this study expressed feeling more
capable than when they first started playing. McGonigal writes, there is a ‘seemingly endless
supply of invigorating activity and every reason in the world to feel optimistic about our own
abilities’ (p. 41). On many occasions, I witnessed this optimistic supply of activity and wellbeing
while observing boys playing the game of their choice in their home environment. Some boys
were able to chat happily to me, explaining the minutiae of the game while playing. Others
simply forgot I was there as their attention became transfixed by the avatars and actions on the
screen.
Joseph (Year 6) demonstrated Club Penguin, which is an Internet website hosting a
conglomeration of strategy games aimed mainly at the pre-teen market. Joseph estimates that he
plays for an hour a day on this site. As Joseph played, he described what he was doing:
See there is a big shark, two people captured on an island and if you go on the
water, the shark gets you. So, you have to make up this coconut that makes the
sharks go to sleep, so can go across and yeah I like it ‘cos you earn coins and then
you can buy items for your penguin (Interview, 2011, p. 3).
Joseph clearly articulated the goal of this particular game and the solution that he had learned
through experience. An interesting by-product of gaming is the exposure very young children are
receiving to online shopping. On game websites such as Club Penguin and Poptropica, the
currency of reward is coins, which accumulate in value. Coins hold a value in the virtual world
that can be traded for items for an avatar in the name of entertainment. This resembles the real
world of commerce, and it might be construed as grooming children for online shopping as
opposed to retail shopping in physical spaces, or as preparing children for the commercial future
in which they will be doing business.
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Elliott (Year 8) also chatted as he demonstrated the game he enjoys playing, Fable, as we sat in
the family room in his home:
I like quest games, like right now I am playing Fable. It’s about your character
and you have to, sorry … ok, got it [Elliott paused while he negotiated a tricky on
screen situation then continued], so this is more strategic than you think and you
can sleep to make the time go faster (Interview, 2011, p. 8).
Tom (Year 5) stopped mid-sentence when the Call of Duty battle began and I simply observed
his complex and energetic use of the controller as he fought the battle. Tom appeared totally
engaged and lost to reality as he gave his full attention to the fighting and choices presented to
him on the screen. In fact, he seemed quite surprised to see me still sitting next to him after the
12-minute battle (Field notes).
These examples demonstrate the boys’ optimistic engagement and interest in the game of their
choice for entertainment. Through repeated practice, they learned the intricacies and tactics
involved to succeed, which delivered a feeling of confidence in their own abilities, in turn setting
up a positive cycle of attempt and reward. It is apparent that it is the positive cyclical nature of
attempt and reward that draws boys back to engaging in games for entertainment; referred to by
boys as ‘addictive’.
4.2.5.2. Positive Feelings of Happiness and Friendship
For the nearly 50 per cent of boys who play RPGs such as Call of Duty, sharing their game with
friends brought a significant level of wellbeing and camaraderie. The idea of online games being
‘universally social’ was indicated by boys as a reason for continued game play. By this, the
respondents meant that they could play online anytime and connect with friends or strangers to
achieve a common goal and a high degree of satisfaction. Examples of quotations from the
surveys include: ‘I feel full of adrenaline and happy as I am with friends I don’t see any more’; ‘I
feel happy plus I can chat to my friends online’, and from Year 6 boys, ‘I feel like I am having
fun and socialising with friends’ and ‘I feel challenged because most people have different
abilities and we collaborate’. Among the boys that play computer games as well as
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communicating on Facebook, many positive feelings were noted, including a strong theme of
‘feeling happy and connected’. It is apparent that a sense of community featuring intrinsic
rewards of happiness and belonging becomes evident through game play and leads to feelings of
wellbeing for boys.
4.2.5.3. Sense of Achievement
One of the keys to a good game is that each game has a clear goal or objective. Another success
factor in good games is clearly stated, fair rules of play with a tight feedback loop (McGonigal
2011). Research has shown that boys in particular benefit from the explicit statement of what is
required to achieve success followed by fast, frequent feedback. For example, Call of Duty
requires players to improve their ‘death/kill ratio’; Minecraft requires players to develop and
defend their part of the world; Lego Star Wars requires players to earn studs and, in Club
Penguin, players earn points for successful actions. These are measures of success and enable the
player to ‘level up’, to purchase items to improve their avatar, and to achieve mastery. All of
these elements engender a great sense of achievement. At every stage, the game provides fast,
frequent feedback, which guides future actions.
Like all games, good computer games challenge the player to overcome voluntary obstacles
using their personal skills. As the player’s skill improves, the voluntary obstacle becomes more
challenging, which in turn improves the player’s skill in the game. Players are constantly
required to discover innovative ways to solve open-ended problems. One of the key elements of
a good computer game is a ‘tight, intense feedback loop’ based on the player’s actions in the
game (McGonigal, 2011). Boys can see their points accumulating on the screen based on their
immediate actions, which guides them towards the goal and helps to decode the rules as they
play. Comments from the boys demonstrate this: ‘There is a high satisfaction rate when getting a
kill [in Call of Duty]. I feel so good’ and ‘I feel addicted to the kill’. One Year 5 boy added,
‘Like I am conquering the world and at the same time killing guys. It is an awesome feeling’.
More generally, students identified the sense of achievement of being on the winning team;
collaborating to make sure their team does well, including the individual; and a feeling of
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happiness and accomplishment when the task is complete. For example: ‘I feel great, the feeling
of being on the winning team is good, but it’s the individual achievements that matter most’ and
‘I feel happy while I play and proud of myself when I do well and even happier’. It appears from
comments in this study that self-efficacy is enhanced when students play computer games and
achieve their goals. For example, ‘I feel invincible, indestructible, invisible and super’, and as
one Year 5 boy wrote, ‘I feel like an 18-year-old and a pro’. In first person shooter games such
as Call of Duty, other players do not know the ages of the players they are playing with. One’s
acceptance into the team is based on skills alone. This is empowering and a driver for further
practice and success.
Boys referred to ‘levelling up’ and the sense of anticipation of what the next level had in store
for them as motivators for continuing with their game. ‘I feel excited to see what the next level
is’. Gamers refer to the work a player does to ‘level up’ as ‘grinding’, which is often repetitive
and hard work, but fun nonetheless. It is within this ‘hard fun’ (McGonigal, 2011) that gamers
find the emotional high from deep levels of interest, achievement and positive emotions.
McGonigal (2011) uses the word ‘Fiero’ to describe this feeling of achievement and the
accompanying emotional benefit of hard fun, taken from the Italian word for ‘pride’. It is a
universal gesture, when one has achieved something particularly difficult, to raise one’s arms
above one’s head and shout like Cadell Evans did when he finally won the Tour de France in
2011 after years of participating. This is the physical manifestation of ‘Fiero’. I witnessed this
not only in the boys’ homes when I watched them demonstrate their game to me, but also in the
library and the classroom. In particular, I had to smile when, in the latter venues, boys perhaps
had wandered off task to play a game and, completely forgetting their location, burst out
rejoicing over a victory:
Year 7 English class in the computer lab and the boys are working on an
assignment on Shakespeare. The class is quiet and the boys are staring at their
screens with intent. The teacher is moving around the room quietly discussing
aspects of the assignment with individual boys. I noticed three boys at the back of
the room who, by the looks on their faces, indicated an intensity far greater than a
website on Shakespearean times could engender even for the most studious of
boys. Suddenly, one of the boys flung his arms in the air and shouted Yessss!
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Much to the surprise of all present. There was a severe reprimand from the
teacher and the boys were separated. Afterwards they told me they had been
playing a game called Achtung, die Kurve! against each other and this was the
first time this particular boy had won. He said, ‘I forgot where I was and got into
trouble, but I beat my mates for the first time—so cool!’ (Field notes, Red Hill,
August 2011).
4.2.5.4. In Control away from Real Life
Boys in this study demonstrated and reported that they choose to play computer games in which
the goal is compelling, the feedback is motivating, the social networks are sincere and the
rewards are immediate and valuable. In contrast, school for some boys, like Nathan (Year 8),
who has struggled with literacy and appropriate behaviour throughout school, is a tedious
practice. For Nathan, gaming provides release from the pressures school holds for him and a
mastery that builds his confidence in ways that school never has (Interview, June 2011).
Computer games afforded the boys the opportunity to escape the stress of everyday life by
transporting them into a different world: ‘I feel part of a different world, a momentary release
from modern life’; ‘I feel engaged in the game and distracted from real life’ and ‘I love playing
because it lets me forget about everything else’. Many reported that when playing games they
feel ‘carefree’, ‘less stressed’ or simply ‘free’.
Boys in Year 7 and 8 in particular identified the ability to be in total control as one of the key
drivers for playing RPGs: ‘I feel in control because I can do what I want’ and ‘I feel in power
and able to have an advantage over everyone and it sends me into a realistic atmosphere that I am
not able to access in my normal life’. Control in the game world led to increased confidence; for
example, ‘I feel confident and unrestricted because I can do what I want when I want in a game’
and ‘I feel in control and that there is a solution to every problem and with Halo I feel sneaky
and that I am defying my parents’.
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It is apparent from the statements above that, to achieve the sense of control that is a marker of
one’s teenage years, boys in this age group are volunteering for unnecessary hard work through
their choice of computer game, because the payoff or reward is so great. These games offer a fast
and predictable cycle of learning and reward, which affords players total control over the world
on their screen. It was evident from the animated and passionate manner in which boys spoke
about the games that they were playing with their friends that they cared very deeply about the
outcome of their actions in the game world. The conversations inspired and motivated,
encouraged participation, built hero status and gave the boys a feeling of ‘fiero’ and control
(Field notes, Red Hill, 2011).
4.2.5.5. Physical Response
This theme was strong across boys of all grades, as boys linked their feelings to a physical
response when playing computer games. The activation of positive emotions when achieving in a
game often translated for boys into a physical reaction. I observed this in family rooms when
boys animatedly and excitedly used whole body movement, voice and facial expressions as they
lived the experience of their avatar on the screen. Boys used words such as ‘pumped’, ‘excited’,
‘energetic’ and ‘an adrenaline rush’, and explained their feelings as, ‘I feel happy, full of
adrenaline, like I am on drugs’; ‘I love it, it makes me feel released and away’ and ‘I feel happy
and the urge to be violent’. Others spoke of feeling ‘relaxed and confident’, ‘content’ and
‘chilled’. While not a representative sample from this survey, four of the boys who played games
every day in Years 7 and 8 used the word ‘aroused’ when describing how they felt. For example,
‘I feel on the verge of a massive rage and aroused as well’. The games that these boys chose as
their favourite game to play all differed and included Pokémon, Minecraft, Call of Duty and
Excitebike.
There was a very small minority of boys, less than 10 per cent of all respondents, who
experienced negative emotions when playing computer games; for example, ‘If I keep getting
killed I get frustrated, but otherwise happy’; ’I feel entertained but sometimes bored when
playing over and over again’. Of all of the 405 respondents in the survey, only one Year 7 boy
responded with a strong negative reaction: ‘I feel bored and frustrated, I hate computer games’.
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Clearly, for the majority, gaming is embedded in the social fabric and everyday experience of
boys in this study. Thus, there exist many opportunities for teachers to draw on these everyday
experiences and delve into boys’ ‘virtual school bags’. The following section unpacks the
opportunities revealed by this study.
4.2.6. Gaming and Literacy
Observation of the boys in their home situations and classrooms revealed a number of
opportunities that appear to have links to educational settings. These also have implications for
literacy learning and the integration of ICT into classrooms, based on what was observed of boys
engaging with technology at home.
All games require the ability to read, comprehend and follow directions and examples, some
more than others. For example, Minecraft and World of Warcraft have extensive wikis. I
observed that, when real problems in a game needed to be overcome, boys were motivated to
read and comprehend complex texts to level up. This is reading for a particular purpose. These
wikis are written by gamers, who are often adults, and contain complex ideas. I was also
surprised in Call of Duty, which I understood from others as just a ‘kill or be killed game’, to
observe text scrolling along the bottom of the screen and a constant stream of audible commands.
These commands, in both written and verbal form, appeared to me to require instant and regular
processing as one controlled one’s avatar to stay alive. I was impressed by the boys’ skill to deal
with so many variables and succeed.
Moreover, each game has its own vocabulary and rules; for example, ‘spawn’ in Minecraft refers
to creatures reproducing, and ‘stud’ in Lego Star Wars refers to the unit of currency in the game.
This is significant, as boys’ vocabulary is being expanded through their choice of game. Indeed,
from watching and listening to the boys playing computer games, I learned many new words and
new meaning for words that I knew from other contexts.
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The games that the boys played built on players’ real-world knowledge and added to their
existing background knowledge. For example, in Minecraft, for a player to bake a cake, he or she
must first grow wheat for flour and tend chickens for eggs and cows for milk to gather the
ingredients. The laws of physics and chemistry seem also to apply intrinsically in games; for
example, TNT is used in Minecraft for explosions and coal is mined to make torches; and each
mineral that is mined in Minecraft has real-life characteristics. In Portal 2, to succeed at the
game, players need to know and understand some laws of physics such as ‘forward momentum’
and ‘equal and opposite attraction’. Thus, certainly in these games, learning takes place that can
contribute to a player’s background knowledge, which might then be used in school curricula.
It was also observed that many games are inherently creative and give the player a high degree of
choice and responsibility. This can be a positive strategy when teachers consider giving students
choice and responsibility about the ways in which they can engage with and demonstrate their
learning in the classroom. Significantly, it is also an example of student-centred pedagogy using
contemporary learning tools.
Lessons for pedagogy can also be drawn from the way in which feedback is given in games. A
high degree of accuracy concerning visual perception, speed of thought and decision-making
skills are rewarded in games in a very tight action-feedback loop. This was particularly evident
in Call of Duty, in which quick reactions are essential for staying alive. Fast, frequent, focussed
feedback was one of the key motivators for boys in returning to online games. Research also
indicates that this is essential to boys’ learning and their success in literacy (see Chapter 2). To
achieve accuracy, both hands are required to operate the controls, and this assists in developing
boys’ eye–hand coordination. Moreover, players’ moves require logical, strategic and
anticipatory thinking. Literacy research confirms that these are also key skills for effective
reading.
Most games require a degree of forward planning and understanding of consequences, with
examples being planning a mission in Call of Duty, or having the correct equipment in Minecraft
to undertake the building that is required to progress. Research links planning and executive
function, both of which are experienced in game play, as two areas from which boys can benefit,
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especially in the transition from primary school to secondary school (Pendergast and Bahr,
2005).
The boys that I observed playing games obtained genuine pleasure and fascination with the
game. This was a key driver that inspired and motivated them to continue onto mastery. As
already discussed, the game narrative was a hook or incentive that also drew the boys in to the
game world. Every boy interviewed enjoyed his game time as entertainment and engagement,
without any notion that it might be educational. It appeared that the seductive nature of the
narrative, and the competition and collaboration involved was entertaining and fun for boys.
Game play is inherently social, especially in the case of online multiplayer games in which
players connect through headsets and microphones to a wider community of like-minded gamers.
Boys report a high degree of ‘fun and connectedness’ to their friends when playing the same
game. The idea of a shared experience and achievement is the topic of animated conversation
long after the game is over. Listening to boys in classrooms, family rooms and the Resource
Centre revealed that their achievements and similar interests in gaming are a dominant topic of
conversation and a shared investment in their friendship. Gaming from the socio-cultural
viewpoint is inherently collaborative and social, and it was apparent that for boys, games become
a genre of choice to experience a sense of belonging to their community.
4.3. Boys as Readers
Twenty-four out of 27 families in this study demonstrated reading as a familial practice that had
been established in their families over time and through more than one generation. The majority
of boys in this study came from homes in which reading was valued and in which books were
easily accessible. Most had at least one parent that modelled reading as a leisure activity. Using
the survey and interview data, each boy was asked to rate themselves on how much they enjoyed
reading as a leisure activity. Data were gathered from the 405 boys in middle school who
completed the survey and 27 of these boys were interviewed as well. The question appeared on
the survey as follows:
Give yourself a score out of 5 for how much you enjoy reading. Use the following scale:
5 = Absolutely love it
2 = I do it but I struggle to enjoy it
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4 = I really enjoy it
3 = It’s ok
1 = Terrible and I hate reading
The boys’ self-perceptions of their enjoyment of reading were thus collected using a Likert scale.
Based on frequency analysis, the raw scores were converted to percentages, and the results are
shown in the following graph (see Figure 4.1).
Boys' Reading Enjoyment
90
78
80
%
70
71
70
63
60
50
40
30
High to very high
24
20
20
13
13
17
It is ok
14
9
9
Year 5
Year 6
Year 7
Year 8
High to very high
63
78
71
70
It is ok
24
13
20
17
Low to very low
13
9
9
14
10
0
Low to very low
Figure 4.1: Boys’ Enjoyment of Reading
From the data in Figure 4.1, it appears that the middle school boys in this study enjoyed reading
for leisure. Over two-thirds, or 70 per cent of boys, rated reading as one of their most enjoyed
activities. Reading enjoyment peaked for boys in Year 6. However, this may be unique to this
cohort, or perhaps lower academic demands at this stage in their schooling give rise to more
opportunity for leisure reading. Nearly three-quarters of boys in Years 7 and 8 rated their level of
reading enjoyment as high to very high. It appears that these results run counter to the prevailing
wisdom reported in the media that all boys play computer games and no longer value reading as
an enjoyable activity in this age group.
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The trend line for boys’ enjoyment of reading reduces slightly from Year 6 to Year 8 (78 to 70
per cent). Boys in this study reported that the increased demands of homework, as they transition
from primary school to secondary school, reduced their leisure reading time. However, once they
had adjusted to the new routines, 70 per cent of boys continued to read for leisure and enjoyment
into Year 8. Further analysis generated the following conceptual categories to assist in
understanding what compels boys’ enjoyment or otherwise of reading: self-perception, choice of
texts, time to read and reading fluency.
4.3.1. Self-Perception
In response to the survey question ‘What do you think of yourself as a reader?’ over two-thirds
(70 per cent) of the boys in this study rated their enjoyment of reading highly and their
comments about their self-perception of themselves were very positive. This was based on selfscoring using a Likert scale of 1 to 5, followed by the question ‘Why?’ These boys used words
such as ‘great reader’; ‘love reading’; ‘reading is fun’; ‘confident reader’; ‘intrigued reader’;
‘excellent reader’; ‘keen reader who reads interesting books’ and ‘I am awesome and I love it’.
For example, over 63 per cent of boys spoke of their self-belief as readers in glowing terms: ‘I
am confident and I believe in myself’; ‘I think of myself as an avid reader’ and ‘I am a very good
reader’. A positive cyclical relationship between self-opinion, practice and enjoyment appeared
to exist around reading for boys who scored themselves highly.
The interview data reflects similar findings. For example, Oliver’s (Year 6) home was filled with
books and he belongs to a family with a rich reading heritage. He said, ‘I think I’m a good
reader, I can read well and yeah, I’m a good reader and I love it’ (Interview, 2011, p. 1). Jake
(Year 7), who also comes from a family of readers, said:
Well, I think I started reading sort of early and I like almost every book I read. I
don’t pay attention to how fast I read, I just read until the book is done. I like
reading in my bed because it is soft so that is normally where I read (Interview,
2011, pp. 1, 7).
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For boys like Oliver and Jake, prioritising reading above other activities and self-belief as a
reader appears in the form of a synergistic relationship between reading for pleasure, their selfperception and continued practice.
The 19 per cent of students who rated their enjoyment of reading as ‘ok’, or 3 on the Likert scale,
in response to the question ‘What do you think of yourself as a reader?’ commented that they
perceive themselves to be good readers, but do not enjoy the act of reading. For example, ‘I think
of myself as a fast reader, but I don’t read an awful lot’ or ‘I can read if I want to, but I am not
usually motivated to do so’. A boy surveyed in Year 6 said, ‘I extremely dislike reading, but
some chapter books are interesting to me’. It appears from these comments that the choice and
interest in a text becomes the motivation for reading for these boys. Respondents in this group
used words such as ‘average reader’, ‘ok reader’ and ‘alright’. These comments are in keeping
with the findings of Smith and Wilhelm (2002) that if boys are given a purpose of their own
choosing for reading, they are more likely to read. It was apparent in the present study that boys
valued choice of text in reading for enjoyment.
An example from the interview data is Lincoln (Year 7), who identified himself as an ‘ok’ reader
and responded to this question in his interview saying:
I wouldn’t call myself a reader-reader because it just depends on the book I am
reading. Mum tries to make me read every night or in the middle of the day when
I say I am bored, and I will if it’s a book I enjoy (Interview, 2011, p. 1).
For Lincoln, it appears that choice of book becomes the driver for engaging in the act of reading,
rather than the enjoyment of reading as an activity in and of itself.
Ben (Year 7) expressed similar feelings:
If I’m in a book that is really good, I like to keep going with it and can’t really put
it down. But, other times if I’m either in a bad book or I am just starting a book, I
am not that keen. I’m more of a get outside and run around person (Interview,
2011, p. 3)
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For boys like Ben and Lincoln, their enjoyment of a book is dependent on their choice of book,
which needs to capture their interest and hold them to the act of reading. Enjoyment of reading as
an activity in and of itself does not motivate them.
Eleven per cent of students across the grades reported that they either struggle with reading or
hate reading. This was closely aligned with negative statements regarding their self-perception of
themselves as readers. A survey respondent in Year 5 wrote, ‘I just don’t think of myself as a
reader, I just don’t like reading’. For this cohort of readers, many said that reading was not
something they would choose to do for ‘fun’, while others in this group reported having the
ability to read well, but said that they did not like to read for enjoyment. For example, a Year 8
survey respondent wrote, ‘I am a very strong reader and if I needed can read a book quickly.
However, I hate reading’. Thus, there is strong trend that boys who struggle with reading do not
identify themselves as readers and consequently do not find reading enjoyable. Consequently, an
absence of affirmative action in the act of reading without enjoyment manifests in boys who
choose not to read.
One interviewee, Brad (Year 8), is a struggling reader and describes himself as a ‘not good’
reader. He attends Learning Support each week instead of learning a second language. Brad
remarked in our interview:
I think of all the other things I could do [instead of reading] like playing my
PlayStation in my room, watching TV. That’s more fun than reading (Interview,
2011, p. 1).
Similarly, Nathan, who has struggled with reading throughout his schooling and who often finds
himself visiting the Principal for reprimanding due to off-task behaviour in class, states:
I am not very good at reading or even enjoy reading. I am not very fond of
reading at all! … I may read if I want to work something out, but definitely not
for fun (Interview, 2011, p. 1).
For Brad and Nathan, reading is not an enjoyable activity, largely due to their experience of
school reading as difficult. Thus, reading is not an activity of choice for these boys.
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Less than 5 per cent of the boys interviewed self-reported being good readers and yet choose not
to read for relaxation or enjoyment. Ethan (Year 8) was one of these 5 per cent:
I used to read every night, like quite a lot. And like last year [in Year 7] I got my
laptop so I have been going on that more. I still sometimes read and I can read
pretty fast, like I understand a lot of words and like my vocabulary is pretty wide
and like I don’t have trouble reading a lot of things, but I don’t read books
anymore, it’s just school stuff (Interview, 2011, pp. 1, 2).
Ethan comes from a home in which reading and books are highly valued. However, at this stage,
it seems that he is choosing only to read the required texts for school, preferring to spend his free
time on online activity. Consequently, he does not perceive himself as a reader.
From this research and prior studies, it is apparent that, not only do home reading practices shape
reading habits, boys’ self-perceptions also play a central role in developing a positive cyclical
relationship between self-belief, enjoyment and practice around reading. Analysis also revealed
that choice of texts is a motivating factor for those who enjoy reading, as is having the time to
read and the boy’s own fluency. These factors are discussed in the following sub-sections.
4.3.1.1. Choice of Books
Of the 74 per cent of boys who read fiction, most prefer reading series of books rather than
standalone novels. Authors such as John Marsden (Tomorrow When the War Began), Robert
Muchamore (The Cherub series), Christopher Paolini (The Inheritance Cycle), Suzanne Collins
(The Hunger Games Trilogy) and Anthony Horowitz (The Alex Rider series) were favourites
among boys in middle school. The following comments reflect their attraction to series: ‘I am
passionate about reading a certain series of books’; ‘I like to read a lot if I am reading a series,
otherwise not much’ and ‘I love to read a series of books of magic or guns or anything action
packed’. Boys reported an equal appetite for graphic novels, nonfiction, comedy and cartoons: ‘I
am a fast reader who loves graphic novels and nonfiction’ and ‘I do read serious novels, but I
prefer short stories and magazines’.
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The data revealed that the genres of adventure, action and fantasy remain the most popular
among this age group. This has been the genre of choice for middle school boys since
Thompson’s study of Australian teenagers’ reading preferences in 1987, and this same trend has
been reported in Hall and Coles’ study in England in 1999 and, more recently, in Broughton and
Manuel’s 2007 study. In the school libraries at each of the school study sites, a large collection
of books and magazines of interest to boys is available, and some of the boys avail themselves of
these on a regular basis.
Boys also referred to the types of books they are required to read for school, which influences
their leisure reading. For example, at Red Hill College, the Year 7 boys were required to read
four set texts for English, one per term, which they study as a class. In addition, one English
period per 10-day timetable cycle is devoted to ‘Shared Literature’ and takes place in the wellstocked Resource Centre or Library, rather than in the classroom. The purpose of ‘Shared Lit’, as
it is commonly referred to, is to encourage the boys to read a novel of their choice per fortnight
and discuss aspects of it with their peers. This is intended to expose boys to a wider choice of
authors and genres than they might have read in primary school, and to provide them with an
opportunity to discuss characters, plot, protagonists, antagonists, setting and so on, to assist them
with English literature development and understanding. In addition, ‘Shared Lit’ offers the boys
the opportunity to hear their peers talk about books with which they might not be familiar and
encourages the boys to read 10 books for leisure each semester.
From the school’s point of view, the boys are given a wide choice of appropriate novels,
including ones from the action/adventure/fantasy genres, from which to choose each fortnight.
The following comments reflect the concept of control through choice by some of the Year 7
boys and are motivated by their experience of Shared Literature: ‘If I am reading a book I am
interested in, I will read for ages. I don’t like being forced to read’ and ‘I do not read for pleasure
but when forced to read a book I don’t find it stressful’. However, for one boy in Year 7 the
Shared Lit program was revelatory: ‘I don’t think of myself as a reader, but I read my first book
this year because of Shared Lit!’
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It appears that boys conceive of ‘being forced to read’ as being asked to read as part of their
school-based reading, despite the high degree of choice and flexibility embedded into the Shared
Lit program from the school’s point of view. Further, even though boys have a degree of choice
and control over their reading in the program, and regardless of the fact that the school’s
intention is to increase boys’ leisure reading, enjoyment of reading as an activity and literacy
skills, it is still perceived as ‘school reading’. It appears that some boys in this study perceived
reading related to school as a means to an end for completing academic and assessment tasks and
considered school-based reading as for learning and achievement, rather than for developing an
enjoyment of reading.
From the boys’ perspective, it appeared that there was not as much emphasis on reading for
enjoyment when reading school-related texts, which can perhaps be seen as responsible for their
feeling that they were being ‘forced to read’. For example, one Year 7 boy remarked that
‘Reading is fine, but I do not enjoy the selection offered at school’ (Field notes, 2011). Although,
the Year 7 example of Shared Literature was used here, boys in all grades who contributed to this
study made a distinction between their control and choice in reading school-sanctioned texts and
home-chosen texts as a key determinant of reading enjoyment, and this was especially so for
those who perceived themselves as average or poor readers. In contrast, it appears that for boys
who had a strong self-perception of themselves as readers, Shared Lit is another opportunity to
read for enjoyment.
The significance is that this may have implications for teachers when planning literacy-related
activities and reading lists in middle school because, although many teachers are providing
choice and control to boys in their reading material, there seems to be resistance on the part of
some boys simply because the suggestion to read has emanated from school.
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4.3.1.2. Time to Read
Another contributing factor to students’ self-perception of themselves as readers is related to
time to undertake reading for enjoyment. Boys in primary school did not mention having a lack
of time to read, as did the 70 per cent of book lovers in high school. Instead, students across the
research sites commented that they believed themselves to be good readers because they ‘stay up
for two hours at night to read’ and they read ‘whenever they can’ and ‘wherever they can’ and
became ‘cranky’ when someone (a teacher or parent) tries to stop them reading.
Boys who responded positively to reading as an enjoyable activity recorded answers that spoke
of reading as a way to relax, to escape, to foster their imagination, and to become ‘an explorer of
different worlds and books’. For those whose love is reading, it was apparent that they perceived
a lack of time to pursue their reading interests as negative. This was reflected by the following
representative comment: ‘I love to read, but sometimes there is just too much going on and I
can’t find time to read’.
When the boys reached high school, and for some boys in Year 6, the competing demands of
school, homework, sport and music commitments, coupled with greater access and interest in
digital devices, meant that their opportunity for leisure reading declined as compared to in the
earlier years. For example, Tom (Year 5), Brody (Year 7) and Ethan (Year 8) reported that the
lure of a digital device meant that when they did have free time, the choice to read or play on the
computer had to be made, and the trend was more towards the digital world the older the boys
became.
4.3.1.3. Reading Fluency
This category makes reference to the speed at which students read, reading aloud and their
pronunciation when reading. Boys across the grades in this survey perceived themselves to be
‘good’ or ‘bad’ readers based on their reading fluency, which affected their enjoyment of
reading. The speed at which one read was a strong indicator for 30 per cent of boys, who rated
themselves as average or poor readers. Examples include: ‘I am very bad at reading because it
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takes me a long time to read a book’, and one Year 8 boy scored himself 1 out of 5 for his
enjoyment of reading based on the fact that he was ‘not a fast reader’. For those very confident
readers, speed was also a factor in their positive perception of themselves as readers: ‘I love to
read and I am a fast reader’ and ‘I am a good, fast reader’. It appears that boys perceive
themselves as readers based on a measurable indicator such as fluency, which they perceive good
readers to have. This was more common among primary school students.
The idea of choice and control, especially as relates to school literacy, might need further
investigation, as boys seem to be making decisions about reading for leisure based on their
perception that any reading for school is based on reading for achievement. There is also a
perception that they are being ‘forced to read’ rather than being encouraged to read for
enjoyment. This appears counter to their desire for choice and control over their reading. Another
way in which boys exercise choice and control is through the vehicle (physical book, e-reader or
online) that they choose for engaging in reading. This is discussed in the following sub-section.
4.3.2. Preference for Books or Online Reading?
In response to the question, ‘Do you prefer to read a book or do you prefer to read online for
enjoyment? Why?’ 84 per cent of the boys in this study indicated their preference for reading a
physical book rather than reading a book on any type of e-reader or online, as depicted in Figure
4.2 below.
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Reading Online or Books?
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
91
91
81
73
27
19
9
Boys: prefer books
Boys: prefer online
9
Year 5
Year 6
Year 7
Year
8
Boys: prefer books
81
91
91
73
Boys: prefer online
19
9
9
27
Figure 4.2: Boys’ Preferences for Reading a Book or Online
This study found that overall, the majority of boys (84 per cent) in middle school would choose
to read a book rather than to read online for enjoyment. Despite boys’ passion for all things
technical and their enjoyment of gaming, 91 per cent of Year 6 and 7 boys would choose to read
a physical book over an e-reader or online. A small percentage, less than 5 per cent, reported that
they are equally comfortable with both forms of reading. For example, ‘Both give me pleasure, I
am socialising while I am reading online, but I also enjoy reading a gripping book on my own’.
Less than 5 per cent of boys rejected reading for enjoyment in any form, responding: ‘Neither, I
don’t like reading’ or ‘I hate reading!’
The reasons the students provided for choosing a book over online readers were largely practical
in nature and included: the physical characteristics of books (64 per cent), books being userfriendly (29 per cent) and books being seen as ‘healthy’ (7 per cent). The following sub-sections
investigate these reasons more closely.
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4.3.2.1. Physical Characteristics of Books
Boys were very pragmatic in their answers and, in short, boys’ preferences for books over ereaders included: books are portable and compact; one can read anywhere; books feel better in
the hands; the smell and feel of a book; a sense of satisfaction and achievement when turning
pages rather than scrolling down; the act of flipping through the pages of a book; and sharing a
book with friends. Representative survey comments from boys in support of the physical
characteristics of books include: ‘I like to feel the physical book in my hands’; ‘Books are more
compact, portable and original’; ‘I like turning the pages’ and ‘Books are tangible, smell and feel
wonderful’.
During the interviews, Andrew (Year 5), Lewis (Year 5), Jake (Year 7), Nigel (Year 7) and Hugo
(Year 7) mentioned that the comfort of reading a book in bed is what draws them in: ‘I prefer to
read a book because I can snuggle up in bed and read, which is the best’ (Jake). The comments
on the physical characteristics of books appear to dovetail with the data on boys’ preference for
enjoying a series of books. The boys value the collectable nature of actual books, which take
pride of place in the bedrooms of 74 per cent of the boys that received home visits for this study.
Field notes from my visit to avid reader Matthew’s (Year 6) home record the following:
Matthew’s room is full of his passions. There are four tubs overflowing with Lego
and so many books! Matthew explained that he keeps his books in series order
and in the order he read them and this was evident in his well-organised
bookshelves. He spoke of his passion for collecting actual books even though he
received an e-reader for Christmas. ‘I just like looking at them and feeling them in
my hands’ he said (Field notes).
4.3.2.2. Books are User-Friendly
Of those boys who prefer books to reading online, 29 per cent reported that their choice of books
over an e-reader rests on the premise that books are more user-friendly and durable than are ereaders. They report that books do not require computer download and Internet usage and the
associated cost of doing so; books do not shut down or log off during reading, nor do they take a
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long time to load. Books do not attract malware or viruses, or ‘stuff up at the exciting part’.
Books do not require charging, do not require batteries and are able to withstand the forces
associated with the life of the average school bag. Representative comments included, ‘Books
don’t run out of battery or drop out of the connection’ and ‘Books don’t waste electricity’. The
practical features of access and reliability seemed to be an important factor for boys in their
choice of vehicle for reading.
Survey respondents recorded that books encourage the imagination more so than does reading on
a screen. Comments included, ‘You can escape into a book but not online, the screen is a barrier’
and ‘I find books more interactive and imaginative than online reading’. Identification of the
distraction found online was evident in the following comment: ‘the Internet is too tempting to
play games and not read’. It was apparent that for some boys the distracting nature of reading
online found in pop-ups, animated advertisements and sound bites made reading online more offputting and difficult for them. This drove their choice to read a physical book. It seemed that for
these boys there was a preference to use their imaginations to conjure up the setting and
characters in the book, rather than reading online, which may be supported by artists’
impressions of characters and settings.
Boys also reported that it is always harder to find your place online than in a book. Particularly
boys in primary school lacked confidence in accessing entire books online and, if they did, they
expressed frustration at ‘finding your place again’. This appeared to be a barrier for reading
books online. For example, a Year 6 boy at Red Hill summarised boys’ pragmatic preference for
reading a book by saying: ‘Books will always be there and you can put a bookmark in it’.
Additionally, it became apparent that books were more accessible for this age group through
parents, teachers and the school library. Ninety-three per cent of the parents interviewed spoke of
the value they placed on reading and the giving of books as gifts to their sons. In contrast,
primary students spoke of their limited access to computers due to parental control, house rules
or having to share with siblings. Therefore, books are more accessible to them. Examples of
statements by respondents included: ‘My mum only lets me do homework on the computer’; ‘I
have to share with my older sister and she has more homework than me so I can’t go on there for
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long’ and ‘I prefer to read a book because I can only go on the Internet on weekends’. It appears
that technical skill and access are barriers to reading online for boys in this age group, which
explains their choice of physical books.
4.3.2.3. Books are ‘Healthier’
Seven per cent of all survey respondents made mention of reading a book as opposed to reading
on a screen as being a ‘healthy’ choice. Their motivation for reading a book was based on
physical consequences; for example, ‘I prefer to read a book because it gives me fresh air
because I can read anywhere’ and ‘I read a book because it is healthier than being in front of the
screen again’. Students of all ages commented on their eyes being sore or watering, developing a
headache, permanently damaging their eyes, and finding the screen light too bright if reading
online for any length of time. Comments in this vein included: ‘I prefer a book because it doesn’t
hurt your eyes’; ‘the light of the computer can damage your eyes’ and ‘Books won’t give me a
headache or sore eyes’. A small sample of boys in each grade were concerned about the impact
on the environment through the use of electricity and greenhouse gas emissions when reading
online and felt that books were ‘better for the environment’.
In summary, the data revealed that 84 per cent of boys in this study prefer reading books rather
than reading online or on e-readers, due in large part to the physical characteristics of books
themselves, the functionality and accessibility of books, and the perceived ‘healthy’ nature of
books as compared to reading online. Significantly, this data is at odds with a wider perception
that ‘boys don’t read—they only play games’. As this study shows, boys were clearly deliberate
in their choice of books over onscreen reading and could articulate their reasons, justifying their
choice.
4.3.2.4. Boys who Prefer Online Reading
Across the grades, an average of 16 per cent of the boys favoured reading online over reading
books. The percentage was highest among the Year 8 cohort, at 27 per cent of respondents (see
Figure 4.1). There is a link between access and preference for reading online, as most of the Year
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8 boys in this study had access to their own laptop, a privilege not afforded to the younger boys.
Those who advocated for reading online reported that reading online is more social and
interactive; the stories are shorter; there is more variety of interest to boys online; reading online
is faster and easier, for example, to find sports results or breaking news stories; online reading is
bright and has pictures and videos; and there is more choice online. Those who prefer reading
online enjoyed the immediacy of finding and reading information of interest, the variety of
interesting sites, the ease of access and use, the interactivity and the ability to multitask and gain
support through online dictionaries or Google searches. Some representative quotations from the
survey data include, ‘I can find things in an instant online’; ‘Online reading is more active and
interesting’ and ‘Online there is a wide variety and better stuff’. Thus, choice was a key and
significant factor, along with the idea of the active engagement that boys enjoy online. The
corollary is that these same boys would view reading books as passive and linear, and therefore
disengaging. This has implications for school pedagogy when boys are tasked with reading
multiple physical books in subject areas such as English, or are still dealing with paper-based
textbooks in courses such as biology, particularly in the last three years of secondary school.
Of significance is that for these boys online reading is preferred, as they express satisfaction
about having control over what they want to read due to the wide choice and variety online. The
words ‘more fun’; ‘interactive’ and ‘movement’ were used by boys who prefer to read online in
over three-quarters of the surveys. Tom (Year 5), who is an avid Call of Duty player, wrote ‘I
prefer online because you don’t get high scores in books’. It appears that for Tom, a reluctant
reader, the sense of achievement and external validation in the form of points and levelling up
has no comparison in book form. Of those students who did not rate their enjoyment of reading
highly, they reported reading online as ‘easier’. For example: ‘I read online so I do not have to
use my brain, as I do enough of that at school’ and ‘Online is easier and more fun and you can
read whatever you want’.
In summary, there are benefits to reading online for boys that support reluctant readers like Tom.
However, online reading appears to increase with age and access, as boys enjoy the ease of use
that a laptop or other mobile device affords them as they progress through school. Similar to
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reading books, enjoyment of reading online appears to be predicated on choice, control, access,
activity and motivation for boys.
4.4. Boys as Writers
Literacy and the new literacies can be understood as the ability to use reading, writing, viewing,
listening and speaking for a variety of tasks and across many mediums both at home and at
school. This section provides an understanding of boys’ sense of themselves as writers and as
creators of online content. These findings draw on 405 survey responses and 27 interviews.
Just over one-third, or 35 per cent, of boys rated writing as an enjoyable activity. Those who
declared enjoying writing used words such as ‘writing is fun’ and ‘enjoyable’ more so than did
those that reported lower levels of enjoyment. Common answers from the anonymous surveys
ranged from ‘I don’t see myself as a writer’; ‘no way I suck’ and ‘I don’t think of myself as a
writer at all’ to those who recognised that they did some things well. For example, ‘I am fair at
writing, a guy who tries hard’; ‘I think of myself as a competent writer with room for
improvement’ and ‘I am creative, but slow’. There were also those who have a strong belief in
themselves as writers; for example, ‘I believe I can write good stories’; ‘I am a talented writer’;
‘I have a lot of potential, I love creative writing’ and ‘I am a good writer, I just feel the story
develop in my head as I write’. In the words of one Year 8 student: ‘I am a writer creating a
world for someone else to explore’. In these examples, self-perception becomes a lens through
which the boys judge themselves as writers, either positively, using words such as ‘competent’,
‘fair’, ‘talented’ and ‘potential’, or negatively, by saying ‘I suck’, ‘no way’ or ‘not a writer’.
These self-perceptions affect boys’ motivation and engagement with writing.
Interestingly, from the surveys, boys across all grades equated being a good writer to performing
the mechanical aspects of writing well. For example, neatness of presentation, sound spelling,
vocabulary, punctuation, grammar and sentence construction skills, speed of writing and tidy
handwriting were all reasons given for being a successful writer. Without these skills, many
perceived themselves as poor writers. Representative examples from the surveys demonstrate
this: ‘I need to work on my neatness’; ‘I am a terrible writer, sloppy and slow’; ‘I think my
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writing needs a lot of work, spelling in particular’; ‘I don’t like writing, my grammar and
spelling needs work’; ‘I lack creativity and have bad punctuation’; ‘I am pretty messy so I don’t
enjoy writing very much’ and ‘My hands hurt when I write for a long time’. One Year 6 boy
described his opinion on writing as ‘I find writing harder and more like work than reading’.
The act of handwriting appeared to be especially vexatious for boys, typified by the comment of
a Year 6 boy who wrote: ‘I am a bad writer because my handwriting is bad’. This was reflected
in the interview data as well. For example, Jeremy (Year 5), an above average reader and very
bright student, reported in his interview:
My Year 3 teacher told me my handwriting was so bad she could not read my
story. Now I think my ideas and stories are bad, so I don’t like writing (Interview,
2011, p. 5).
Brad’s (Year 8) mother reported that he endured a similar experience in primary school.
However, with the help of Learning Support in secondary school, he is gradually overcoming
both his untidy writing and poor perception of himself as a writer, formed in part by a teacher’s
past reaction to the appearance of his writing.
The issue of handwriting is significant because boys report a mismatch between their enjoyment
of out-of-school writing, which is largely undertaken on digital devices and perceived as ‘easier’,
and their school writing, which is most often handwritten. There is a notion among boys that
writing by hand at school is a test that needs to be endured, whereas writing on digital devices is
for enjoyment. There is a perception that handwriting hampers the flow of ideas while writing
and that creating on digital devices frees boys up to log their ideas without the tedious process of
checking for their correct usage of spelling, punctuation and grammar. This has implications for
schools, particularly when exit exams require handwritten assessment. Data revealed that boys in
middle school are increasingly relying on digital devices when writing for either enjoyment or
school assignments, and that handwriting is not being used in these circumstances or as a
medium of choice.
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Additionally, boys consistently identified a clear purpose for which to write as key to getting
their ideas down on paper. Only three boys, Lachlan (Year 6), Simon (Year 6) and Hugo (Year
7) of the 27 boys who were interviewed reported that they enjoy writing simply for pleasure.
Instead, the majority of boys identified writing to fulfil school requirements, and this came with
negative connotations of being ‘forced to’ or ‘having to’ write, which reduced the enjoyment
factor of writing. For boys who wanted to achieve well academically, they perceived school
writing as something ‘that has to be done if you want good grades’. Enjoyment was not the
motivator for these boys; achieving well in their subject was given higher priority. Boys who
were interviewed spoke about not having ideas to begin the writing process at school as an
obstacle. These boys also felt the time pressure of having to write a prescribed number of words
in a restricted time as problematic for their writing. Add to this ‘boring topics’ and boys’
motivation to write was further reduced. This is significant because given their choice of topic
and genre most boys agreed they would enjoy writing more. It was apparent that as with reading,
choice and purpose are motivators for boys to engage more deeply in writing.
Thus, it is apparent that enjoyment and choice are strong motivators for writing for leisure.
Further, choice and purpose (either school sanctioned or self-selected) are key factors to writing
enjoyment for boys and form part of the complex network in understanding and navigating
literate practices in this age group.
4.4.1. Writing Online
The chart below depicts the responses by boys to the survey question ‘Do you write online? If
yes, where?’ Frequency analysis revealed that there was a consistent increase in online writing
through the grades for boys, largely due to increased school-related tasks such as email and
Word documents, gaming and social media; online writing peaking in Year 8 (see Figure 4.3).
Boys list YouTube and game sites as their most used online writing sites after Facebook, which
emphasises the entertainment aspect of the online world for boys.
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Online Writing Preference
80
69
70
55
60
%
50
40
47
40
Boys
30
Linear (Boys)
20
10
0
Boys
Year 5
Year 6
Year 7
Year 8
40
47
55
69
Figure 4.3: Online Writing Preference
The types of writing for boys in this study in Year 5 include emails, game sites and a small
number of Facebook users. From Year 6 onwards, boys consistently report their main form of
online writing as Facebook, closely followed by YouTube, game sites and forums. For example,
Minecraft and World of Warcraft have their own wiki sites and most boys referred to
contributing to ‘walk throughs’ (examples of how to solve a problem) on YouTube or game
wikis to assist their mastery of Call of Duty. Many boys reported contributing to special interest
forums covering diverse subjects such as car racing, sporting teams, and nature and wildlife. The
implication is that what it means to be literate is being constantly challenged by the opportunities
that ICT presents.
The boys at St John’s Primary enjoyed contributing to their school Ning, which the Special
Needs teacher had set up to encourage students to share their writing, post and read book reviews
and post poetry. The school Ning provides a collaborative writing space through which students
can see their work instantly published, receive feedback and encouragement from others, and
post their thoughts online. The teacher is committed to engendering a love of reading and writing
among her students and is using technology as a didactic tool to improve literacy. She runs
digital writing workshops, maintains the dynamic collaborative site and encourages reading and
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writing with technology for primary students. Students of all ages through the primary school
intuitively engage with the Ning. Analysis of the postings on the school site revealed that,
overall, girls contributed more to this than did boys.
Facebook provides a forum for informal reading and writing online and is very popular with
secondary students. None of the primary school students in this study had turned 13 at the time
of this survey (the minimum age to hold a Facebook account), although approximately 20 per
cent were active on Facebook. Of the boys interviewed, 10 admitted to having an active
Facebook profile, and of these, 6 boys were in Year 8. Of the Year 7 boys who were legally
eligible to open a Facebook account, only two had done so. The others regarded a Facebook
account as a ‘distraction’, ‘stupid’ or ‘not necessary’. Oliver (Year 8), who is active on
Facebook, admitted that ‘Facebook can be really good but also really bad. Some stuff on there is
weird and pointless’.
It was apparent that the opportunities boys have of writing online increased with age. This can be
attributed to increased possibilities and access to technology through sites such as Facebook,
game-related wikis and forums, as well as school-related requirements. Further, students in
middle grades had a better understanding of the writing process than did lower primary students,
indicating that confidence with writing conventions and ICT improves each year. The
opportunity to publish one’s work for a global audience is a favourable outcome from writing
online. In the words of a survey respondent, ‘Writing online is fun and rewarding in a virtual
world’ and ‘I am interested in writing when I get to write my own opinion [on the game wiki]’.
In summary, boys are engaging with writing outside school as they pursue their own interests.
These interests foster writing online to socialise with friends and discover information from
others to assist in game play or special interest development. Facebook, special interest blogs and
online gaming sites provide the platform on which to write and publish boys’ work for a
worldwide audience. Additionally, boys were more likely to write on game wikis or blogs to
share their experiences in the game or to ask questions to improve their standing in the game
world. Of those who had a Facebook account, writing online was reported as being social,
positive, engaging and motivating.
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This chapter described the techtivity, reading and writing practices of the boys involved in this
study. This chapter outlined the ways in which boys were engaging with techtivity for a range of
purposes and across a range of genres. The types of devices used, frequency of use and the
games and skills that boys enjoyed were explored, and links between literacy and gaming were
discussed. The benefits of techtivity suggested by the boys themselves largely centre on the
social relevance of computer games, which inhabit both their home and school lives and
influence the identity formation and confidence of these teens and pre-teens.
The data revealed that in relation to reading, an average of 70 per cent of boys in middle school
read for enjoyment and that support from home assists boys greatly in their choice and practice.
Findings suggest the element of choice facilitates control for boys over their learning and that it
is very highly valued by boys in this age group. Further, despite boys expressing a love of all
things technical, 84 per cent reported their preference for reading books in paper form rather than
online. In relation to writing, the analysis suggests that given the option of writing online and
with increasing age, the trend for boys writing for enjoyment increases significantly through the
grades. The elements of choice and purpose resonate with boys in this area as well. The
following chapter explores parents’ point of view in relation to techtivity and literacy.
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5. Parents’ Perspective: Techtivity at Home and School
5.1. Introduction
In this chapter, parents’ understandings and attitudes towards techtivity and the home–school
connection are discussed. The home–school connection is well established in research, with
parental influence acknowledged as a powerful contributor to academic success (see Chapter 2).
This chapter draws on data collected from 45 parents through in-depth, semi-structured
interviews, which took place in homes in Canberra and surrounding areas over the course of 11
months. The parents shared the common ground of all having sons in middle school at either of
the two research locations. Parents in this study represent a wide range of education levels,
professions and experience. Twenty fathers and 25 mothers constituted this participant group.
This chapter examines parental perspectives, attitudes and concerns around boys’ interactions
with technology at home and the role schools play in preparing boys for the digital age. This
chapter is organised under two main themes: the drive and drag of new and old technologies, and
school issues and perspectives. These themes are briefly overviewed in the following subsections and are then discussed in more detail in the subsequent sections.
5.1.1. Drive and Drag of New and Old Technologies
This theme explores the possibilities, contradictions and complications that parents identified as
a result of what I have termed the drive and drag of new and old technologies. For example,
parents clearly perceived the opportunities that computers can provide to enhance learning, but
simultaneously, all parents, to varying degrees, recognised old technologies or book-based
learning as being of importance and as more comfortable for them. This created a multilayered
tension and dichotomy of views between parents and boys. I have termed these areas of conflict
‘flashpoints’.
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5.1.2. School Issues and Perspectives
This theme explores the expectations, opportunities and concerns that parents identified in
relation to what they perceive to be occurring at school. They offered strong opinions on teacher
practice, the use of technology for teaching and learning and their opinions regarding literacy in
middle school classrooms.
5.2. The Drive and Drag of Technology
5.2.1. Introduction
Parents in this study expressed their dilemma over the influence of all things digital in relation to
still providing the best for their children. The phrase ‘surprised and resigned’ was used to
indicate the rate of change they were witnessing, which in turn implied their unpreparedness for
parenting this digital generation. Additionally, conflict, and to some extent nostalgia, was
expressed over the place of old technologies, such as books, and the opportunities provided by
new technologies such as iPads. I have termed this the drive and drag of new and old
technologies. Similarly, Bulfin (2009) described a ‘moral panic’, as parents attempt to balance
the positive and negative influences of the digital age (see Chapter 2). The basis of the moral
panic evident in this study was the struggle and resultant feeling of anxiety concerning parenting
in a rapidly changing world. This anxiety appeared to be based on the widening gap between
parents’ own knowledge of technology and their son’s, as well as on the place of books in the
digital world, and the resulting behaviours, which in many cases seem to parents to be
incompatible with traditional family life.
Differing levels of expectations between parent and child in terms of time, access and content
can be thought of as a basis for either collision points or collaboration points when reflecting on
techtivity. This study found that participants moved along a continuum depending on the
perspective each member of the family held on the place for and use of digital devices in the
home. For example, overwhelmingly the boys in this study viewed technology and gaming
primarily as a source of entertainment. In contrast, their parents viewed technology as a means of
achieving educational outcomes and therefore success in life. The boys viewed technology as a
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social tool that also holds challenge and excitement; their parents mainly perceived it as a
functional tool for learning, completing work commitments, paying the bills and booking
holidays. Herein lays the conflict.
Factors discussed that influence the drive and drag of techtivity relate to access, time, content,
critical literacy and social media. The drive of the new technologies such as Internet-enabled
handheld devices and the perceived drag of ‘old-fashioned’ resources such as books are
compared in this section. It became clear through analysis that parents expressed far more
concern over issues relating to techtivity than they did when discussing books and the activity of
reading.
5.2.2. Access
5.2.2.1. Number and Type of Access to Technology
It was apparent that techtivity is influenced by access to the number and type of devices available
in the home. For example, every home visited provided access to their son in the form of either
laptop or desktop computers, primarily serving the function of supporting boys in homework
activities. Of the 27 homes visited, 25 per cent had only one computer, 60 per cent had between
two and four computers and the remaining 15 per cent had five or more computers. Additionally,
all homes except two had at least one games console, used exclusively for entertainment, and all
homes had more than one handheld device such as an iPod, iPod touch or mobile phone. There
was no correlation between the number of digital devices and apparent SES. For example, Ben
(Year 7) and Michael (Year 7), whose parents are both professionals (managing partner in a law
firm and specialist physician, respectively) had one computer each, which was shared by
children and parents. This was also the case in two similar homes: those of Andrew (Year 5) and
Nigel (Year 7). In contrast, in Brad’s home (Year 8), in the traditionally lower SES outer western
suburbs of Canberra, parents reported that there were ‘more computers and games consoles than
occupants in this home’. Similarly, at Brody’s home (Year 7), his parents reported that each
family member ‘had their own computer and there was a spare’.
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There was a link between the age of boys and the number of digital devices owned, with number
increasing with age. For example, four boys in Year 7 and 8 reported saving money to purchase a
television set and gaming console device or handheld device of their choice. In contrast, only one
primary-aged boy, Brandon (Year 6), had an Internet-enabled computer in his bedroom, which
was supplied by his parents.
The significance of the provision of access to many and varied forms of technology at home lies
in the degree of acceptance and understanding parents have regarding the preparation of their son
for their technological future. Ensuring future success drives their decision to provide access to
varying degrees.
Also evident in the homes visited were the collections of books available to boys. A common
observation, in 92 per cent of homes, was the collection and display of books that parents
reported as forming the basis of home reading practices. This was also one of the characteristics
of homes in which reading was highly valued. The following field notes extract encapsulates the
attitudes and value that most parents in this study placed on the provision of books to promote
enjoyment and practice:
Reading practices in this home are highly valued and supported, evidenced by the
scores of books in the family room. All members of the household read and books
are always given as gifts by friends, relatives and immediate family. Edward
(Nigel’s father) shares this passion for reading and every fortnight Nigel and his
Dad go to the public library to select up to 30 books to read (Nigel, Year 7, Field
notes, 2011).
It was apparent that Nigel’s parents continue to foster an ongoing relationship with books
through visits to the library. Therefore, books continue to form an important part of Nigel’s
teenage years. It was apparent that Nigel’s parents are motivated by their own love of books and
reading, but also by their desire for Nigel to be successful academically, which they recognise as
forming the platform for tertiary studies and further success. This sentiment was commonly
expressed by all but two of the interviewed families.
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A further example is that of Elliot’s (Year 8) parents who ‘cultivated an interest in books from an
early age’ through taking their son to story time at the local library, purchasing books, giving
book gift vouchers for special occasions and reading every night. They report that their son is
still an ‘avid user’ of the local library and that he asks that they buy the series of books in which
he is interested. Elliot’s father said, ‘we have a house full of books and books in his room, we
have plenty of books around’. Observation revealed this as accurate and his mother added,
‘books are highly valued in our home’ (Interview, 2011, pp. 1, 2). In contrast, no parents spoke
of the value they placed on technological devices, nor were devices revered in the same way as
books.
Trish, mother of John (Year 8), described the ‘ritual and discovery of being able to select a book
in a bookshop’ that was part of their family routine each weekend, serving as a motivator for her
son to read. She also attributed ‘key books [as] being very influential [for John], such as the
Harry Potter series’. They invested in these to provide access to reading material of interest to
him. It was apparent for Trish that ‘key literature brought on a love of reading’, which they
happily supported through purchase. Oscar (Year 6), who his mother described as ‘always being
into books’, was also captivated by the Harry Potter series, asking for them as a Christmas gift.
She recounts how he received the books and a PlayStation that Christmas. Oscar played the
PlayStation twice and had finished the whole Harry Potter series by April: ‘the books were far
more important to him’. Similarly, the Harry Potter series was a turning point in reading for
Jackson in Year 5.
Oliver’s parents report that Oliver (Year 8) loves buying books because ‘he sees us enjoying
buying books, because that is one of the things we do a lot, we buy books’. It was apparent that
parents’ own motivation for reading as an enjoyable activity becomes a predictor for the types of
activities that support or oppose home reading practices. This has implications for boys in middle
school. Providing access to books through purchasing points to a commitment to reading and a
certainty that ‘buying a series rather than borrowing is better because then he goes back and
rereads them’. Parents in this study understood their sons’ need for collecting and rereading
series’ of books, which corroborates the boys’ data of the preference for owning a series of
books. There appears to be a synergistic relationship between access to books and reading for
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enjoyment, fostered and supported by parents, and encouraged and indulged in by boys.
Significantly, literate practices appear to be supported by more than one generation, as
grandparents too play a role in providing access to and support for home literacy practices.
The significance of parents’ comments in relation to books was in their enthusiasm and
conviction that books are ‘valued, educational and positive’. Parents provided access to books
through purchasing or providing opportunities to borrow, and these were treasured family rituals.
Like technology, provision of access is similarly based on parents’ desire for their sons to
achieve and succeed; the difference lies in the apparent absence of conviction and enthusiasm
around the provision of access to technology, instead approaching it more perfunctorily.
5.2.2.2. Location Facilitates Access
It was also apparent that techtivity is influenced by the location of access to digital devices in the
home. In 44 per cent of homes, the desktop computer used most often was located in the family
room; in 30 per cent of cases, the main computer was in the study, and 26 per cent of the time, it
was in the boy’s bedroom. In the 44 per cent of homes in which desktops were provided, parents
expressed a preference for being able to see the activities their sons were undertaking online by
having the computer in the family room or study. Parents reported a preference for observing the
websites their sons were accessing online in the name of safety and appropriateness. In the
homes in which laptops were used, wireless Internet connection facilitated ‘anywhere/anytime’
access in the house. However, only two boys in primary school reported having their own
laptops, as compared to over 50 per cent for boys in Year 7 and 8. Thus, there was a clear trend
towards mobile computer use as boys got older.
When considering the location of books in homes, there appeared to be no restrictions. In fact,
parents encouraged the collection and display of books in most rooms in the house, evidenced by
my visits to family rooms and boys’ bedrooms in particular. There was an acceptance and
encouragement for boys to read anywhere/anytime; no wariness of the kind directed towards
mobile technology was evident towards books.
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5.2.2.3. Frequency of Access
It was also apparent that frequency of access influenced techtivity at home for boys. For
example, parents were asked to estimate the number of hours their son engaged with techtivity
on a weekly basis. Seventy per cent of parents responded that they believed it was every day.
The remaining 30 per cent reported their son accessing the Internet ‘about 4 or 5 times a week’.
The primary reason given for access by the parents was to satisfy homework requirements.
However, this did not always match with what the boys were actually doing, as discussed in
Chapter 4. Those boys who owned an Internet-enabled handheld device such as an iPod touch or
a Smartphone had continuous online access, which made it more difficult for parents to provide a
definitive answer. It was apparent that parents were unsure of exactly how many hours boys
engaged with techtivity per week. This interview question always stimulated a discussion and
most often parents agreed to disagree on the actual number of hours and frequency of access. For
example, Jake’s (Year 7) parents had the following conversation:
Mother:
I bet its 10 hours a week.
Father:
I don’t think so.
Mother:
About 10 hours, because that’s one hour a day and then over the
weekend, 3 hours.
Father:
Yeah, but he’s not on it an hour a day sometimes. When he has lots
of homework, or soccer … it just depends. Ok you can say 10, but
I don’t think it is 10. Ok so I will defer.
In addition to not being able to accurately report on the number of hours played, in some homes
tension was expressed between parents about frequency of access. This related exclusively to the
80 per cent of fathers who played computer games with their primary school son on a regular
basis. These fathers were understandably enthusiastic about playing computer games. Mothers
were often less encouraging, and expressed resignation or frustration at the number of hours
spent. An example comes from the home of Wayne (Year 5):
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We will quite often have the argument, you know he’s playing his game console
and I’ll go that’s such a waste of time and he goes but you’re sitting there reading,
what’s the difference? But also in saying that, there’s also like I don’t know
anything much about these games, that’s the whole ‘them’ world (Wayne’s
mother, Interview, 2011, p. 8).
This sentiment was also expressed by the mothers of Andrew (Year 5), Oscar (Year 6) and Lewis
(Year 5), who articulated their lack of interest in gaming as a pastime but acknowledged the
relationship-building opportunity of shared activity around techtivity. It is interesting to note that
in the case of Andrew, Oscar and Lewis, reading for enjoyment is equally as privileged and
undertaken by all members of the family as is gaming. However, in Wayne’s family, his mother
and sister are avid readers, while Wayne and his father prefer gaming as a leisure activity.
In relation to books and reading, all except two of the families in this study reported that reading
to their son each night was a significant part of the bedtime routine in their son’s early years.
Further, it was apparent that frequent and regular reading by family members constituted a
valued family practice, and that no restrictions were placed on access to books or reading. For
example, Alison, Oscar’s (Year 5) mother, said ‘I read to him from birth so he loves books. I
guess we’ve always encouraged reading’. Similarly, the parents of Nigel (Year 7) reported
having read to both their children every night. Although Brodie’s (Year 7) parents did read to
him when he was younger, their philosophy has always been around reading for enjoyment: ‘We
have never forced our kids to read as a routine thing, we just let them do it as they enjoy it ’
(Interview, 2011, p. 1). It is apparent that, in homes in which reading is highly valued, regular
reading has an emphasis on enjoyment rather than reading for academic success. For example,
Michael (Year 7) has parents who ‘both have a love of reading ourselves’ and ‘for no other
reason than it might engender a lifelong love [of reading] rather than necessarily anything related
to academia’ (Interview, 2011, p. 2).
Eighty-five per cent of parents also modelled routines for reading as part of everyday life. For
example, Margaret, mother of Ben (Year 7), remarked that her sons witness her husband reading
the paper each morning for information and both parents read each night for relaxation. Of the 45
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parents in this study, 20 were male and 25 were female. It was apparent that mothers were more
consistent in modelling and encouraging reading than were fathers. For example, Hugo’s (Year
7) mother remarked, ‘I will vanish into a book, read intensely to the exclusion of all else’. Three
mothers, or 12 per cent of those interviewed, said that they did not model reading for enjoyment
on a regular basis.
In contrast, five fathers, or 25 per cent, reported that they did not enjoy reading and did not
model reading for their sons. Reasons included: ‘I have to read a lot for work, so once I get
home, I’m kind of sick of reading’ (Father of Jake, Year 7); ‘I am not a reader at all, I like to go
outside and do things’ (IT specialist, Father of Brody, Year 7) and ‘I do have a book over there
with dust on it that I am going to read one day, although I do read the newspaper when I have
time at work’ (Father of Brad, Year 8).
There were fathers (75 per cent) who model reading and spoke of their love of reading, such as
Nathan’s father, who is an ‘incredibly avid reader of history and science’ and shares his
knowledge with Nathan ‘through dinner table conversation’. Mark, father of Jackson (Year 5)
still reads to Jackson and his younger brother ‘for up to half an hour per night’ and encourages
both boys to read before they go to sleep. The same is true of Andrew (Year 5), who also has a
younger brother and enjoys being read to every evening, even though he is a very accomplished
reader. For the boys in primary school with younger siblings (38 per cent), it is apparent that they
are the continued beneficiaries of strong home reading practices, which may support their own
reading and cement the importance of reading for enjoyment as modelled in their own family.
The significance of modelled reading in the home lies in the opportunity for readers to share their
experiences with others, to be supported in their choice and access to books and to develop a
love of reading that augurs well for more reading and engagement around books. It was apparent
that adults who model consistent home literacy practices and support their sons through regular
routines such as reading at night before bed may facilitate exposure to a wider genre of books,
shared experiences and conversations that build vocabulary and comprehension. Additionally,
boys are supported in their literacy journey and may have the opportunity to develop positive
attitudes towards reading, which has implications for academic success. It was apparent that
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parental inclinations drove early literacy practices and set the tone for engendering a love of
reading and sharing of books among family members in this study.
The two families that reported that their home reading practices were not well established were
the parents of Thomas (Year 5) and Brandon (Year 6). These particular parents self-reported an
aversion to reading for enjoyment, and expressing their own reading difficulties, too much
reading at work and a lack of desire to institute a regular reading routine as reasons for weak
home reading practices. In both cases, the boys considered themselves ‘ok readers who would
never read for enjoyment’. This is significant because there appears to be a link between home
reading practices and boys’ investment in reading as an enjoyable activity when it has been
modelled and supported at home.
In addition to regular home reading routines, 16 per cent of parents also placed importance on
providing formal opportunities outside school to develop children’s literacy. For example, Oscar
(Year 5) attended drama lessons that involved him reading and memorising scripts. Two boys,
Elliot (Year 8) and Thomas (Year 5) were enrolled to attend Kumon English classes and Simon
(Year 6) received tutoring in English and Chinese outside school hours. This is significant
because these practices underscore the importance of boys being supported by parents in literate
practices from an early age, both in the home and through other outside school activities; this has
implications for school literacy.
The importance of providing opportunity and instituting home literate practices that support
reading for pleasure, and to a lesser extent academic achievement, was clearly articulated by
parents in this study. Less clear, and indeed often a source of conflict or concern, was parents’
enthusiasm (or lack thereof) for techtivity in relation to enjoyment and academic achievement,
with the exception of father–son gaming.
Gaming appeared to become an enjoyable pastime and source of shared fun and connectivity in
those families in which father and son engaged in virtual game play. Of the boys whose fathers
play computer games with them, all of the boys were in primary school and all grew up in homes
with strong home reading practices. The significance of the interaction with digital literate
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practices is found in the comments of fathers and boys, who reported high levels of engagement
and camaraderie when gaming. They considered the experience as beneficial as if they had been
reading together in terms of building relationship, sharing their experiences and being supported
in their choice and access. These reasons mirror those provided for reading books.
It is apparent that boys are making choices around time spent on techtivity at this time in their
development that are either being supported or discouraged at home. Perhaps for the fathers who
play games with their sons, there has been a coincidence of digital advancement through more
sophisticated games together with becoming a parent, and this produces excitement and the
blurring of boundaries, of which the mothers in this study were not very supportive or
understanding. It is significant that parents understand their role to be provision of many
engaging and motivating opportunities through both technology and books. However, there is
still a tension and mismatch between parental attitudes and practices on the value of technology
in relation to books.
5.2.2.4. Rules around Access
Another factor influencing access to techtivity at home is the notion of house rules. Parents were
asked to respond to a question concerning house rules in relation to techtivity. Responses
depended mainly on the age of the boy and his year at school. Rules tended to be stricter for boys
in primary school than for boys in secondary school. However, this was not always the case. Of
the 22 parents who had boys in primary school, 85 per cent reported enforcing some rules around
game play on computers and other forms of technology. Examples were ‘an hour on
[technology] and an hour off’, ‘only for homework’, ‘only after homework and on the weekends’
and ‘never before school’. For Simon (Year 6), whose father is an IT consultant, the house rules
revolved around a balance of gaming to studying. For every hour gaming, Simon and his sisters
had to study their parents’ language, which is Chinese, or read or write to improve their English
skills. Simon’s father tutors the children each day.
The parents who spoke about having to ‘enforce rules’ justified their actions through their belief
that their sons had not yet displayed self-control in terms of techtivity. However, enforcing
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consistent rules around techtivity is a challenge for parents. For example, as Andrew’s (Year 5)
mother said, ‘It’s a constant battle and you try to limit it and balance it, and sometimes they just
wear you down!’ Similarly, Jackson’s (Year 5) parents admit to wanting to be consistent with
rules around techtivity, but say ‘We have tried on and off, but we are a bit slack around enforcing
it’ (Interview, 2011, p. 5). It is apparent that parents begin with the best intentions and have
‘deliberate policies’ around techtivity, but it is not easy to remain consistent in their
implementation. It is apparent that implementation of ‘house rules’ usually rests on
circumstances, access and availability of leisure time and is more likely to be enforced during
school terms than in school holidays.
Brandon (Year 6) and Tom (Year 5) were the exceptions. Brandon’s father said, ‘We don’t have
any standing rules, it is more circumstantial’. For Brandon, the circumstances of his access to
technology rested on his behaviour. His parents enforce periods of abstinence for Brandon when
he becomes ‘agitated, quite cranky in a not positive way’. Thomas’ mother explained that when
Tom starts using ‘bad language’, he is ‘banned for up to a week’ from computer games. It is
apparent that for some boys, some computer games may negatively affect their behaviour.
However, this avenue was not pursued in this study. In passing, a few parents of boys both in
primary and secondary school commented that they did not feel comfortable enforcing ‘house
rules’ when their son has a friend over. This may rest on a reluctance to ‘spoil the fun’ or
because it is leisure time and the boys have a choice of activity. For example, Brandon’s father
said, ‘We’ll have Sam to sleep over and they’re bound to be spending an insane amount of time
on it [technology]’.
Parents of boys in Year 7 and 8 were less likely to impose strict rules around techtivity;
preferring instead to monitor its use. These parents were more likely to have what Elliott’s father
described as a ‘periodic blitz’ based on the decision that ‘if we think they are using it too much
we will come down on them and limit use’. Of the 23 parents interviewed who had sons in
secondary school, 50 per cent admitted to ‘keeping an eye’ on the time their son spent using
technology, and not hesitating to suggest logging off if they deemed that their son had over
stayed his welcome in the cyber world. However, this was not based on the strict rules that 85
per cent of the primary parents reported. For example, John’s (Year 8) mother said, ‘It is a
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constant thing that we are always monitoring his use’; this mainly occurred after 9pm on week
nights, to ensure that sleep was not compromised.
For Nigel (Year 7), his father’s words, ‘I think that’s enough now buddy’, signal a change in
activity away from technology. Jake’s parents agreed, saying there were no hard and fast rules,
but they expect their son to get off the computer when told he has ‘been on for long enough’.
There were some exceptions; namely, Nigel (Year 7), Lincoln (Year 7), Ben (Year 7) and John
(Year 8), who were still subject to time limits when playing on digital devices. Another example
is Nathan’s (Year 8) parents, who have ‘taken to confiscating the laptop at 9.30pm so it does not
go to bed with him because he can’t get off it’. Oliver (Year 8) is also required to hand his
mobile, laptop and iPod touch to his parents at 9.30pm on school nights. It was apparent that
decisions on house rules were based on their son’s perceived need to use technology for
homework and his performance at school, implying that parents did not want to disadvantage
their son in case homework completion might be compromised.
By way of comparison, parents did not report any ‘rules’ in relation to books and reading. The
emphasis was on supporting and encouraging reading and there did not appear to be any
conditions attached to the type of reading or the length of time boys engaged with their favourite
book. No links to poor behaviour or lack of self-control were identified either when their sons
read too much, as was reported in relation to techtivity.
Another point of difference between techtivity and reading was in the choice of genre. Parents
were familiar with the types of books their sons read, and many, like Susan (Ethan’s mother),
longed for him to ‘expand his repertoire beyond the Cherub series’. However, she did not
enforce any rules around his choice. In relation to techtivity, it was apparent that parents were
much more comfortable with game genres in which the characters depicted were in non-human
form when shooting and killing was required, as compared to their reactions towards Call of
Duty, for example, in which human-looking soldiers are graphically shot, beaten and killed. Nonhuman avatar games include, for example, Lego Star Wars, Halo and Pokémon. For example,
Nigel’s father said, ‘We wouldn’t let him play MA games even if he wanted to. It’s harmless
killing in Lego’ (Interview, 2011, p. 14). It is apparent that parents distinguish between games
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featuring killing based on the appearance of avatars and the game’s rating. No parallels were
found in parents’ attitudes towards book genres.
In summary, in this study there was a broad spectrum regarding the provision of, access to and
consent around technology by parents for boys in the middle years. Of significance is that,
regardless of the family’s SES, it was apparent that parents’ values guided their decisions around
their sons’ access to and engagement with technology and books in the home. This was more
strongly evident in the primary school years in terms of ‘house rules’; yet all parents provided
technology in varying forms to ensure that their son was ‘keeping up’ and being prepared for the
future through having access to technology and books at home.
The data revealed that parents who provide opportunity and access to technology at home are
advantaging their children, particularly those fathers who engage in gaming with their sons. This
contributes to the understanding that there are links between skills gleaned and practiced in the
home environment using a range of technologies, which have application in other settings such
as the classroom. This was confirmed by evidence collected through classroom observation. For
example, the boys who demonstrated above average computer competence in the classroom
became ‘technology experts’ for their teacher and peers. These same boys also had fathers who
reported playing computer games with their son on a regular basis, engaged in techtivity every
day on a wide variety of devices, and had access to the Internet for homework and leisure. These
boys included Lewis (Year 5), Simon (Year 6), Lachlan (Year 6), Thomas (Year 5) and Wayne
(Year 5), in particular.
Parents in this study expressed differences in their attitudes towards access to books and access
to techtivity. Access and actions around techtivity appeared to be more complicated and rulebound in comparison to the relationship with books. However, there were similarities as well.
The similarities are manifested in the relationship between parents and boys around techtivity,
which can be described as a relationship of participation and partnership. Parents are complicit in
providing, supporting and in some cases participating in the use of the technological devices,
albeit under different ‘rules’ to those found in relation to books. However, their motivation lies
in partnering with their son to support, prepare and develop him, firstly for academic success and
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then for the future world of work. The significance of thinking about technology and the
resulting techtivity as both participation and partnership lies in the idea that techtivity exists
within social relationships and relies on collaboration between parents and boys and the wider
digital world. Participating and collaborating with people in an increasingly connected world is
becoming an essential skill that boys require for success at school and work. However, because
technology has the potential to rearrange social relationships and cause harm (for example,
through cyber-bullying), not all parents were enthusiastic about the effects that techtivity was
having on their home lives.
5.2.3. Time and Techtivity
In each interview, a question was asked regarding parental concerns over their son’s use of
digital devices. For all parents interviewed, the overwhelming concern was the amount of time
boys spend playing on digital devices, which include handheld devices such as an iPod touch,
gaming consoles such as the Xbox or PlayStation and Internet access through a personal
computer (techtivity). We have already understood that parents are unclear as to the frequency of
boys’ access to technology at home and this appears to be true of time spent as well. However,
unlike frequency of access, time spent was more likely to be a source of conflict or flashpoint in
families.
Parents had differing ways of managing the amount of time their son spent on techtivity. For
example, Matthew (Year 6) has his screen time strictly monitored, with a weekly roster of all
activities displayed on the fridge. The roster allocates screen time based on each member of the
family’s schedule and includes television, computer, handheld and gaming devices. He
understands that no screen time is allowed prior to school and that his screen time is very closely
monitored. Despite this, Matthew demonstrates very sound skills on Minecraft, as well as
searching skills and expertise on the Microsoft suite of products. His father said, ‘Computer
games are his key social and literacy interactions’; he averages 14 hours of screen time a week.
Another example is Lachlan (Year 6), whose father is acutely aware of his son’s techtivity,
saying, ‘An hour a day, we always keep an eye on what, especially what Lachlan’s looking up’
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(Interview, 2011, p. 5). Examples from among the older boys in this study include Nathan and
Oliver, both in Year 8, who have to hand in their digital devices, laptop, mobile phone and iPod
at 9.30pm each school night to ensure they get some sleep. Jane, Nathan’s mother, reports:
‘Otherwise he can’t get off it’. Anne, Oliver’s (Year 8) mother said, ‘There are better things to
do than play those games’.
Generally, parents did recognise that the amount of time on techtivity is influenced by family
schedules, homework and co-curricular commitments and holidays, which does make it difficult
to estimate time spent. Despite the lack of counting actual hours spent, for all parents there
appeared to be level of discomfort around the perceived amount of time their son engaged in
techtivity. It became apparent that time spent on techtivity becomes either a delicate negotiation
or a battleground, and both scenarios caused stress or flashpoints.
The key reason parents cited for their anguish over the time their son spent on digital devices
relates primarily to time lost in preference for the value they place on other activities. For
example, reading was more highly valued than any activity on a digital device in all but two of
the families interviewed. For example, Elliot’s father summed up his thoughts about time used
on techtivity by saying that Elliott displays ‘immaturity about time’, and Ethan’s (Year 8) mother
was disappointed in the time her son spends on technology instead of ‘reading a good book’.
This was discussed in Chapter 4.
Of significance for parents is the time and priority boys give to researching on the Internet at the
expense of referring to a reference book, which is the preferred and familiar strategy for parents.
This becomes a flashpoint, particularly in homes in which time is highly valued and family
members, particularly parents, report being ‘time poor’. It appeared that the underlying desire is
for their son to achieve academically and parents want to facilitate this in the most expeditious
way. Parents achieve this by falling back to the way in which they did research when they were
at school; they therefore do not give as much credence to the Internet, and report witnessing their
sons’ meandering for long periods on the Internet, without the results to show for it.
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The second reason parents cited as being a flashpoint was the predominantly sedentary nature of
techtivity. All parents agreed that physical activity assists in healthy development and teaches
boys teamwork. ‘If you are playing online with others you are not exercising your body’ was a
common phrase uttered by frustrated parents. For example, Barry, father of Brad (Year 8), said,
‘We even bought him a push bike, but he doesn’t use it’, to which Brad (Year 8) replied, ‘Well
it’s not electronic’ (Interview, 2011, p. 16). Nigel (Year 7) is often told by his father, ‘If you are
on the computer then you are not getting strong outside, and the dog isn’t being played with’.
There appeared to be a tension between the largely inactive nature of techtivity and other familyrelated activity, which was considered ‘healthier’ by parents.
Time spent on techtivity was also influenced by the age of the child. This study found that the
older the boys became, the fewer restrictions or house rules parents placed on them, mainly
because parents expressed uncertainty as to the activities that boys were engaging with online;
for example, gaming or homework. Additionally laptops were increasingly being used by boys in
their bedrooms and not in open areas such as in the family room. It was apparent that boys were
expected to learn to manage their own time. For example, Jackson’s (Year 5) mother reports that
he ‘knows he has certain things to do, certain responsibilities and if they get done then fine, he
can play’. Jeremy’s (Year 5) parents admit that ‘The whole issue of self-regulation at this age, it
hasn’t quite clicked yet. He is just immersed in his world and time disappears’.
Time spent on techtivity is influenced by the number and type of devices available in the home.
For example, Nigel’s parents made the conscious decision not to purchase a games console such
as an Xbox, because it would ‘be time spent that would take him away from being part of the
world’. This was also the case in Ben’s (Year 7) home in which the family shares one computer
and does not intend to purchase a games console at all. For other boys like Max (Year 7), Nigel
(Year 7) and Brody (Year 7), being part of the conversation with other family members usually
drives their parents’ desire for their son to disengage from technology. Brad and Ethan, both in
Year 8, had purchased their own laptop, gaming console and television, and installed these
devices in their bedrooms. Their parents reported feeling powerless to prevent the boys from
using their devices as often and for as long as they please.
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Time allowed for techtivity is also influenced by family commitments. Those boys who had busy
co-curricular commitments such as sport or music activities, such as Ben (Year 7), Michael
(Year 7) and Quade (Year 6), reported less time for game play because homework, sports and
music practice took precedence. Another example is Brody (Year 7), whose father reports:
He does a huge amount of sport and then crashes and his crashing is playing on
the iPad. But if he is using it too much, we ask him to come and talk to us or cook
with us or something else (Interview, 2011, p. 10).
In summary, time spent engaging in techtivity was a source of conflict or flashpoint in all of the
homes of the boys interviewed. It was apparent that the severity and duration of conflict differed
between homes and that this was largely dependent on the priority ascribed by boys to certain
activities, which potentially differed from the preferences of their parents. In particular, parents
prioritised reading, using reference books over Internet searches, physical activity and family
time as more important than spending time on technology. Unlike the boys who rated techtivity
as relaxing and fun, the majority of the parents, with the exception of those fathers who played
computer games with their sons, held this perspective. Parents typically viewed the role of
‘policing’ time using technology as a stress factor in their home and reported ‘making sure they
don’t get square eyes from playing games for hours’.
Alongside the provision of technology at home, there appeared to be a degree of uncertainty and
restlessness on behalf of parents in relation to parental decisions about the role technology plays,
not only in their son’s life, but also in family life. The significance lies in the need parents feel to
limit techtivity because there was a tension that parents expressed when they talked about their
son’s engagement with technology. At a fundamental level, the parents in this study did not feel
comfortable with the number of hours their son used technology, but they admitted that the
provision of technology would somehow assist their son to ‘get ahead’. The idea that the family
room has been turned into a media centre in which family members are ‘alone together’ (Turkle,
2011) may position parents as helpless against the tide of new media. Still, they struggle to
maintain a sense of connectedness in person simply because this ‘feels’ better. There was also
fretting and turmoil expressed by parents over which activities should be privileged in terms of
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time spent; for example, are reading, physical activity and conversation to be equal with gaming
and techtivity, given the benefits of each?
5.2.4. Content and Techtivity
Concern over the nature of material accessed is a point of great concern for most parents as the
‘unpredictability of one click can lead to harmful experiences’. For example, Lachlan’s parents
said, ‘Exposure to violence and porn and social bullying over social networks worries us’. Fear
of their son accessing inappropriate content such as pornography and extremely violent material
is handled in different ways by different families. For example, Oscar’s (Year 6) mother worried
about her son accidentally finding things and being exposed to ‘the kind of people who go
prowling on Facebook’. She regularly checks the history of sites Oscar has visited and engages
him in conversation about the sites he visits. Andrew’s (Year 5) parents have chosen to have
only one computer in their home and their response to monitoring their boys’ computer use is:
We monitor it ourselves to make sure that they don’t inadvertently pull up
inappropriate content. When one of the boys was searching for something, quite
inappropriate stuff came up. So we tend to try and be a bit proactive (Interview,
2011, p. 11).
Another approach used by parents was trust. For example, Susan, mother of Ethan (Year 8),
shared concerns about inappropriate content negatively affecting her sons. However, Susan
prefers to discuss appropriate content with her teenage sons and does not police their techtivity in
any way. She has built a mutual relationship of openness, trust and respect with her boys and
trusts them to monitor their own online activity. Similarly, Brandon’s (Year 6) parents
acknowledged that:
Curiosity will probably kick in, but they know that we are pretty tech savvy on the
computer as well. At this point, the trust is definitely working (Interview, 2011, p.
10).
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None of the parents of boys in this study, regardless of the boy’s age, reported applying the
highest level of Internet filters available on their home computers. The exception was Matthew’s
parents who reported having ‘medium to high settings’. Each family was asked if they had
installed a blocking device such as ‘Net Nanny’ or similar. All of the responses were in the
negative. Every family recognised violent and/or pornographic sites as being inappropriate
content for their son, yet none of the families in this study employed software to block this type
of content. This is significant because research from relevant organisations such as the Australian
Media and Communications Authority (ACMA) suggests and highly recommends that filters be
used to keep children safe in the cyber world. Instead, it was apparent that parents trusted their
son to ‘do the right thing’, or that they had instituted other measures deemed sufficient, such as
history checking or location of the computer.
Those with a religious background spoke of the values they expect their son to live by; others
framed their conversation around trust and ‘doing the right thing’. For example, Robert, father of
Elliott (Year 8), was confident his children:
have a well-developed value system and rules to live by which will assist them in
making wise choices about the type of content accessed (Interview, 2011, p. 7).
Lewis’s (Year 5) father remarked ‘Lewis is a trustworthy child and I think if I tell him to do
something he will follow direction’. For the parents of boys in primary school, many
acknowledged that, in time, curiosity and peer pressure may get the better of their son and they
may need to rethink their strategy of open communication and trust.
5.2.5. Critical Literacy and Sources of Information
Close on the heels of the type of content, is the integrity of the content accessed, and the skills
required to find appropriate content. The third most coded flashpoint emerged for parents over
differences in the integrity of Internet sources versus quality reference books. This is reflected in
a quotation from Robert, a Year 8 parent, who eloquently reported being concerned about:
The immaturity Elliott displays as to realising how much time he is spending
unproductively and that the same could be used more productively by just
referencing good quality books sometimes (Interview, 2011, p. 12).
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From this comment, it is apparent that there exists significant tension between the drive of the
new and the drag of the old in sourcing information.
For parents and boys, the priority of activity in relation to that which is valued by the different
generations is where the tension begins. For example, some parents admitted they have ‘a hard
time adjusting to Wikipedia being more up to date than the Encyclopaedia that is sitting on our
bookshelf’ (Hugo, Year 7). Quade’s father, Nick, put it this way:
We do purchase books that he hasn’t asked for as references that he can actually
use when the time is right. If he has an assignment to do and he has to look for
information and chase up stuff on the Internet, I will take him to the library to see
what books we can actually get to him to do that. From all the things he has
managed to get off the Internet and the books that I’ve already purchased for him,
we were able to find good information (Interview, 2011, p. 5).
For many parents, the way in which they successfully conducted research for their own school
assignments many years ago revolved around sources such as the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Quade’s (Year 6) father reflected with fondness on this time, and is endeavouring to share his
enthusiasm with his son for what he termed ‘considered sources’. He implies through this that
Internet-based research cannot always be considered trustworthy and unbiased. In this home, in
which scholarly achievement is highly valued, he is prepared to spend both time and money
coaching Quade to value knowledge and sources in his pursuit of academic success.
The idea of Digital Natives and Digital Immigrants was first conceived by Prensky in 2001.
Parents who raised this as an issue articulated the difference in their observation of their son in
comparison to their own preferences for trustworthy sources. For example, Susan, mother of
Ethan (Year 8) reported that she has had to learn to adapt to the online environment and still
‘speaks with an accent’. She understands this as her son being ‘authentic’ in both spheres,
whereas she feels like a ‘try hard’ in the online world (Interview, 2011).
Susan provided an example to demonstrate her understanding of digital natives and immigrants:
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I was using Google Sketch up and became disoriented. I asked Ethan for advice.
It’s not because Ethan is young, it’s because he is fluent in technology use. He
knows the symbiotics of the whole thing; he has the lexicon, he has the
experience to draw on what he has already experienced in a game or an app that
he can apply to something else and does not face the same fear that I do. Ethan
has an ‘authenticity of being’, whether he is online or interacting in person,
whereas I do not experience this when I am online. I feel like I am travelling in a
strange land (Interview, 2011, p. 8).
Kevin, father of Nathan (Year 8) agreed with Susan based on his own experiences. He does not
find digital devices intuitive as his sons do. He recognised that a different set of skills is required
and that these skills do not come naturally to him:
For me computers do not make sense and learning new programs for my legal
work and the constant change is a real challenge for me; I prefer to refer to a book
The significance of these comments is that the digital landscape in which the boys in this study
are learning and interacting is experienced in a significantly different way by their parents’
generation. It is apparent that, at this junction, the drive and drag of the new and old methods of
collating and validating data for both school and work can be a flashpoint in homes. However,
this can also be perceived as an opportunity through which the generations can learn from each
other. The drive and drag of new versus old methods of research also has implications for
schools.
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5.2.6. Social Media
Cyber bullying was a key concern for parents, especially for boys who have a Facebook account.
Anne, Oliver’s mother described how making inappropriate comments on another student’s
Facebook page had landed Oliver (Year 8) in serious trouble in Year 7. Susan ‘detests the fact
that Ethan can never experience a break from the comments from friends and acquaintances
because he can access Facebook 24/7’. For parents of boys who do not yet have a Facebook
account, cyber bullying was the key reason for ‘holding off as long as they can’. All parents
praised the work schools do in preparing their child with strategies to guard against and report
instances of cyber bullying. One family uses the ‘Nanna principle’ to teach their children
appropriate online behaviour which goes: ‘If you would not say it in front of Nanna, then don’t
say it or type it anywhere’ (Interview, 2011, p. 12).
Facebook was not generally spoken of in positive terms by parents and some boys. The
Facebook newsfeed facilitates a minute-by-minute account of trivial details of so-called cyber
friends, and this was considered as a virtual gossip forum that never ends. Facebook can be seen
to facilitate the reliving of other’s life experiences through voyeurism, rather than by engaging
with life through lived experiences. Comments by parents in this study were particularly vitriolic
of the role of Facebook: ‘Facebook is nothing more than mindless drivel’; ‘too much temptation
for teenage boys who lack maturity’; ‘it’s an abject waste of time’; ‘a continuous exchange of
trivialities’; ‘all that stuff is useless’; ‘they are unaware of the ramifications’ and ‘it’s full of
juvenile people doing juvenile things’.
Only one Year 5 boy who was interviewed in this study held a Facebook account, which he used
to communicate with the parent that he was not living with that week. None of the other primary
school aged boys who were interviewed had Facebook accounts. One Year 7 and five of the Year
8 boys were active on their Facebook accounts. Ethan (Year 8), who admits to being a very
social teenager, remarked that ‘I haven’t stooped that low to have Facebook as my home page’,
and Oliver (Year 8) said that he turned off Facebook during term time to limit his temptation.
Alex (Year 8) had no interest in Facebook and chooses not to have an account at all. Developing
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social skills by engaging in conversation and real-life activity with others in person is considered
far more beneficial by parents than is connecting via social networking.
The issue of privacy and safety, including inadvertently downloading malware and spyware, was
raised by 20 per cent of parents, particularly by those with experiences of such issues from the
work situation. For example, one father was involved with the Australian Federal Police, another
parent worked in child protection and another in computer security. This is significant, as parents
recognised that breaches of personal privacy have ongoing ramifications and that malware and
spyware can destroy hard drives, slow down the speed of the computer and compromise home
networks. This was also a flashpoint regarding their son engaging with technology, particularly
when using the home computer. Andrew’s parents, both of whom have had experience in this
area through work, were very aware of privacy and said: ‘I think my concern about privacy
means we’re very cautious about our identity on the web. The boys won’t be having a Facebook
account’ (Interview, 2011, p. 12).
5.2.6.1. Sanitised Vicarious Experience of Life
All parents identified the many merits of technology, despite their misgivings about time, access
and content. However, a smaller group (20 per cent) identified their fear that gaming (and
Facebook) provides a ‘sanitised, vicarious experience of life’ that is ‘impacting on character
development and the work ethic of this generation’. As a result, time spent gaming by their sons
becomes a flashpoint. For example, Greg, father of Brody (Year 7) and an IT specialist, is critical
of technology in that it can reduce the ‘lived experiences’ that influence learning. He believed his
son’s generation is unaware of the real consequences of their actions; have limited risk-taking
strategies to handle real-life events and are being ‘robbed of the opportunity to experience real
life’ and learn through their mistakes. He believed that it is within the relationship of shared reallife experiences and support that learning occurs best (Interview, 2011). Stephen, Hugo’s (Year
7) father, agreed, adding that time spent on technology takes away from family conversation, is
not good for physical health and shortens the attention span, which all influence learning and
character development. Similarly, for Nigel’s parents, techtivity resulted in their son ‘not
interacting socially, because he is just on his phone or iPod and that’s it’. It is apparent that
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contradictions and conflicts can be found in the collaborative nature of technology, which did not
appear to pertain to book-based activity.
Add to this the concern about their son becoming desensitised due to repeated interaction with
games that involve the killing and maiming of humans, destruction of the environment and the
opportunity for vilification on Facebook, and it is apparent that parents conclude that none of
these actions are conducive to developing a sound moral character. At the basis of their fear is
that boys may lack an understanding of the long-term ramifications of their repeated actions and
may reduce their social interaction, resulting in their loneliness and isolation. In this study, 60
per cent of parents were very concerned about the isolation that long hours on a digital device
can bring, and the depersonalising effect this can have on their son. Yet these same concerns
were not voiced in relation to reading, book genre or content. It is clear that the new literacies
with which parents are not as familiar are a cause for angst and tension when reconciling the
drive and drag of new and old technologies.
In conclusion, despite all of their concerns and potential flashpoints, parents in this study felt a
real pressure to provide their sons with every opportunity to ‘make it’ in the digital world. This
included purchasing expensive gaming consoles, games, televisions, laptops and installing
wireless Internet connection in their home. Every home visited in the course of this research,
owned a combination of these devices. It was apparent that parental expectations of their son,
which appeared to be based on academic and future success, determined their attitude and
provision of access to digital devices. Parents spoke of filling a ‘perceived gap’, where schools
are ‘lagging behind’ providing the experiences their sons need to get ahead in the digital age.
Thus, parents in this study were articulating the growing home–school digital divide discussed in
Chapter 1. However, despite articulating the advantages of boys’ engagement in techtivity,
tension and dissonance were clearly evident and interconnected in the social, cultural and
personal spheres through which parents have influence over their sons because of techtivity.
Parents’ views and opinion regarding technology use in the school domain are discussed in the
following section.
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5.3. School Issues and Perspectives
5.3.1. Introduction
This section will report on parental observations and comments regarding the role of the school
in relation to parents’ perspectives on technology and literacy. In-depth semi-structured
interviews with 45 parents in 27 homes were used to gather parental attitudes, expectations and
understandings of technology and literacy in the school domain in relation to boys. In this study,
six parents identified themselves as qualified teachers, four of whom were currently teaching. Of
the four who were teaching, one was teaching in primary school and three taught in secondary
settings. This is significant because it may be surmised that the remaining 38 parents based their
opinions largely on their own experiences at school, interactions with their children’s schools
and/or their reading and viewing of current educational issues filtered through the media.
According to parents in this study, the digital revolution has the potential to transform
curriculum, pedagogy and learning, and their comments on the home–school divide reflected
similar dichotomies.
The data as a whole revealed there was unequivocal support for schools to have a clear vision of
their use of technology for teaching and learning. Parents were unanimous in their articulation of
a concise vision of the purpose, pedagogy and practice related to spending money, time and
training on technology. Without a vision, parents assumed that schools would be less likely to
achieve sound educational outcomes for their sons. A second, but just as strongly articulated,
belief was the role of using technology effectively for communication. Parents at both research
sites expressed concern at not really understanding or having access to the school’s ‘big picture
on teaching and learning’ with technology and felt that communication of such was poor. This is
significant, as there is an opportunity for school executive teams to open avenues of
communication with parents through forums, focus groups and consistent feedback mechanisms
to improve parental understanding in this area. Themes relating to technology at school and the
role of teachers from the parental perspective are discussed below under the following headings:
1. Opportunities for teaching and learning with technology
2. Barriers to teaching and learning with technology.
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All parents expressed their views on their sons’ school, teaching and resources, and our
conversations included the influence of technology on the teaching of literacy. Significantly,
parents’ concerns demonstrate the blurring of boundaries that the Internet and digital devices
have brought to bear on literacy learning and teaching, which, in the past, was principally bookbased. All parents acknowledged the complex environment in which the education system
operates and the potential and problems of the digital revolution.
5.3.2. Opportunities for Teaching and Learning with Technology
The categories that emerged in relation to opportunities that technology provides for teaching
and learning have been further refined in the following sub-headings as encompassing
opportunities for teaching and opportunities for learning.
5.3.2.1. Opportunities for Teaching
All parents provided varying insights and opinions on the opportunities they believe technology
can bring to teaching. There was recognition that the role of technology in education is in the
midst of a transition phase and with that arise challenges. For example, Kevin, father of Nathan
(Year 8) described the transition as follows:
We are transitioning from blackboards to screens and the merger is troublesome
but not impossible (Interview, 2011, p. 8).
Nevertheless, there was agreement among parents that teachers are required to develop their
skills and expertise on technology through professional development, to make the most of the
technology that is present in their school. For example:
I think the teaching fraternity should always be under some sort of pressure to
grip up technology, but to be fair to teachers, it means their institutions need to
put things in place to actually support teachers in bridging those gaps (Interview,
2011, p. 11).
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It is unclear who would exert the ‘pressure’ on teachers, and perhaps a combination of parental
and student expectations and school leadership is necessary to fulfil the role of assisting teachers
to improve their skill base in this regard.
Other parents expressed similar views, urging teachers to embrace a more ‘positive attitude’ to
teaching and learning with technology. This may imply that parents have had experiences with
classroom teachers that suggest a lack of enthusiasm towards using technology more widely for
teaching. Lachlan’s parents put it this way:
Computers are a fantastic learning tool and they [schools] should be doing
everything they can to harness it (Interview, 2011, p. 10).
The ways in which parents suggested that teachers could harness the ‘fantastic learning tool’ that
comes in the form of different technologies are listed below:

Teach old and new technologies and strategies simultaneously

Provide opportunity for guided practice with technology

Develop creativity and innovation

Teach strategies and dispositions that can be applied to any technology

Facilitate different learning styles using technology

Employ technology to build relationships with boys

Be aware of and address the digital divide between the access and devices boys have at
home in comparison to school.
The significance of this list of opportunities parents offered to teachers is that it mirrors very
closely what the teachers in this study identified as being opportunities for teaching and learning
with technology. This is more thoroughly discussed in the following chapter.
Additionally all parents commented on the positive application of technology to the curriculum.
For example:
Technology is thought to increase our exposure to larger volumes of information
and diverse viewpoints enabling a more balanced intellectual discourse (Stephen
Interview, 2011).
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A greater variety in presenting information is conducive to all types of learners as
well as providing choice in assessment (John, Jakes’ father, Interview, 2011).
The opportunity for guided discovery and self-paced learning is much better than
when I was at school (Robert, Elliot’s father, Interview, 2011).
From these comments, it was apparent that the parents in this study held considered views on the
role that technology can play in teaching and learning.
A resounding theme identified by over 80 per cent of parents in this study was the role the school
plays in teaching critical literacy. For example, Wayne’s (Year 5) parents raised the issue of
research projects. They believe it is the school’s role to ‘teach them [boys] how to select the right
sources and look for relevant information’. Their observation was that the ‘websites were
targeted at early and later high school age’, and thus they are not always easily understood by
boys in primary school. It was apparent that, alongside a strong foundation of literacy, the
school’s role was seen as one of teaching critical literacy skills to enable students to discern
reputable sources of information, while also widening the resources students use to build
knowledge. John, father of Jake (Year 7), put it this way:
It is important to have a good grasp of modern technology, but training the mind
to think critically and analytically about all the information we have access to is
more important than ever before (Interview, 2011, p. 8).
Jake’s (Year 7) parents were both qualified teachers no longer working in education, and so
bring teaching experience to this debate. They referred to the importance of critical literacy,
believing that the school’s role is one of exposing children to the new technologies and providing
them with a sound grasp of learning to critically evaluate information:
What is important is not the type of digital device, but rather the training of the
mind to think critically and analytically to process vast stores of information for
good and weigh the merits of one’s sources. To teach students to think in a
disciplined pattern to determine a coherent end result rather than accepting
another’s ideas that have popped up on a website (Interview, 2011, p. 9).
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This is significant for schools in that critical literacy appears to be a ‘non-negotiable factor’ with
parents in the use of technology for learning. The basis of the argument is that ‘there’s so much
stuff on the Internet and a lot of it is fluff’ (Mother of Wayne, Year 5, 2011, p. 11). Kerryn, a
primary teacher and mother of Matthew, added:
Technology needs to be around to use and its teaching those critical literacy skills
of who has authored the site, how old it is and its validity that are important’
Of further significance for schools is the need to build online learning environments that teach,
develop and test boys’ critical literacy skills to prepare them for the new literacy classrooms and
workplaces of the twenty-first century.
5.3.2.2. Opportunities for Learning
Parents in this study identified four benefits relating to learning which they think technology can
facilitate; namely, opportunities for active, authentic learning; creativity and innovation;
collaboration and increased engagement.
Firstly, it is well documented that technology has the potential to provide active learning
experiences for boys. For example, Susan, an avid reader, scholar of English literature and
mother of Ethan (Year 8), suggested that schools have little choice but to engage boys using
technology for active and authentic learning. She said:
Ethan is bored the minute you put a book in his hands. The opportunity to read
online, access a wide variety of literature and manipulate text is essential to
engaging boys with literacy. Schools have to use texts to break open text, provide
opportunity for authentic writing tasks and allow boys to type up their work, not
reduce their creativity and enthusiasm by making them hand write essays and take
notes from lectures in class (Interview, 2011, p. 10).
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It is apparent that the active, authentic learning that Susan sees as beneficial for her son is that
kind based on experiential and active learning as opposed to passive, unilinear learning, which
she described as being ‘boring the moment you put a book in his hands’. Susan’s comments go to
the heart of the need for boys to experience choice, activity and purpose to feel successful in
literacy learning, as discussed in Chapter 2. This has implications for schools. The notion of
active, authentic learning was echoed by Margaret who welcomes the Internet and digital devices
into the classroom as a resource for her son Ben (Year 7), as the ‘active engagement, visual
literacy and instant feedback suit his learning style’ (Interview, 2011, p. 3). Similarly, Thomas’s
(Year 5) mother says that, for boys like her son who have a rich digital home life, but who
struggle with literacy, the way to better engage in literacy is to be allowed to draw on the skills
they bring to the classroom. She observed that the interactive nature of technology engages
Thomas more than the ‘low energy’ reading and writing activities ‘typical of traditional
classrooms’.
Secondly, research describes the opportunities technology provides for collaborative learning—
that is, boys learning side-by-side or engaging virtually, facilitated through digital devices—and
notes evidence of this in boys’ enjoyment of multiplayer online games. Parents recognised this
too. For example, Susan (Mother of Ethan, Year 8) recognises the importance of her son’s Call
of Duty community, with which he collaborates each day. Dan (Father of Oscar, Year 6),
identified using the Internet for ‘research, sharing ideas and learning, providing feedback and
generating discussion’ as examples of collaborative learning. Kerryn, Matthew’s (Year 6) mother
and a teacher, referred to the social nature of technology in which boys can create, for example, a
‘power point together as teaching and enabling collaboration’. Sharon, mother of Simon (Year
6), reported that her three children like to ‘form a team against the computer, like teamwork to
win’. Parents perceive the provision of opportunities for collaboration to be the school’s role.
Allied with collaboration is the opportunity technology provides for creativity and innovation.
Mike, father of Jackson (Year 5) said:
If there is a way to use technology to teach students how to be innovative and
creative that would be a good thing. This is what they need in the world of work
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Technology being used to teach and foster creativity and innovation at school was a resounding
theme among all parents, with their motivation being their child’s success in the world of work.
This is significant because not only is this an expectation of the school, but this motivation also
drives parents to provide access to digital devices at home. For example, Simon (Year 6), whose
father is a computer programmer, is encouraged to create new games using Scratch and Game
Maker, which allow the simple programming of animated games and the sharing of those games
on Yoyo Games. This is a passion shared by Lachlan (Year 6), who tinkers with java script and
idolises his big brother who is ‘into programming’. Both Simon and Lachlan demonstrated their
confidence and ability with technology in the classroom, and this was fostered and practiced at
home.
Together with collaboration and creativity, which may be fostered through technology, parents
perceived increased engagement or ‘flow’ when observing their son engaged in techtivity.
Parents were asked to respond to the question, ‘When is your son most engaged?’ The data
reveal that 70 per cent of parents identified total engagement when their son was immersed and
absorbed by some form of techtivity. In contrast, 19 per cent reported their son was totally
engaged when reading a book. The remaining 11.5 per cent, or three boys, demonstrated greatest
engagement when playing sport or building with Lego. This is significant because parents may
assume that if boys can demonstrate and display total engagement in techtivity at home, then
schools could use similar methods to engage boys deeply at school. However, the nature of the
material being accessed at home compared with that which parents perceive to be offered at
school within curriculum guidelines often bears little correlation, and herein lays the mismatch.
5.3.3. Barriers to Teaching and Learning with Technology
Parents in this study were generally supportive of the way in which their son’s school was
endeavouring to make the most of the technology they possess for teaching and learning. There
were widely diverse views on how technology should be used in classrooms and these views,
both positive and negative, appeared to be directly linked to their sons’ real and perceived
achievement in the classroom. Parents raised concerns that they perceived to be barriers to
teaching and learning, including: sacrificing depth for breadth, a one size fits all approach,
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home–school divide, inconsistency in approaches and the pace of change. A discussion of each
of these points follows.
5.3.3.1. Depth v. Breadth
Kerryn, a primary school teacher and mother of Matthew (Year 6), was concerned that depth of
learning was being compromised by the crowded curriculum. ‘Teachers need to address depth
fairly carefully. Kids are good at skimming and scanning to find a quick answer’. Brandon’s
father adds that in his opinion, ‘Schools spend a fair bit of time doing things that take away from
the main things students should be learning’ (Interview, 2011). Oscar’s parents believe the focus
should be on Mathematics and English because ‘as long as you can do Maths and English you
end up teaching yourself other things through life anyway’ (Interview, 2011). Abby, Quade’s
mother, believes teachers no longer have time to ‘front load’ new topics, giving boys a greater
sense of understanding of the topic before they are asked to ‘search the net’. In her opinion, this
leaves parents to fulfil this role. This was echoed by all of the primary school parents.
In relation to depth versus breadth, technology itself was deemed the culprit rather that the
pedagogy of teachers. Stephen, a father of a Year 7 boy surmises:
We do not spend as much time thinking and cogitating as technology has
quickened the pace of everything. Technology short circuits the intellectual effort
required for intellectual training and shortens the attention span affecting one’s
cognitive processing abilities (Interview, 2011, p. 15).
Dale, father of Oscar (Year 5) stated, ‘There is a lot more room to go off on tangents and not get
into as much depth, you cover more but not in as much depth’ (Interview, 2011 p. 5). Greg,
father of Brody (Year 7) and an IT specialist, believed very strongly that schools were exposing
students to technology too early. He says:
That’s my big gripe. I think technology restricts their forms of learning and
experiencing things and looking for other ways to get information and probably
limiting their understanding of the depth of a topic (Interview, 2011, p. 21).
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Anthony, father of Michael (Year 7), a General Practitioner and father of four, was clear in his
opinion and qualified his response saying:
The overreliance on technology erodes thinking skills and can make students and
teachers lazy however it is a systems motivation tool to engage students and
access large sources of data, but should not take the place of sound teaching and
interesting subject matter (Interview, 2011, pp. 14–15).
Barry, father of Brad (Year 8) and a bus driver, offered a similar view to Anthony, saying
‘maybe they should get rid of all technology and go back to basics’ (Interview, 2011, p. 19). The
idea of going back to basics was voiced by Jake’s parents, Brody’s parents, Ben’s mother and
Hugo’s parents, who all grappled with the lack of perceived depth in their sons’ learning.
The significance of the perceived sacrifice of depth in learning, in particular as relates to
technology, is the influence on thinking skills. Parents were fretful regarding what they perceive
to be a lack of ability to critically analyse information and sources on the Internet by their sons.
This has links to the earlier concept raised by parents on the role of critical literacy being nonnegotiable. It is apparent that there is a need to clarify the role of technology and view it as a
contemporary learning tool to be used in conjunction with student-centred pedagogy to teach
critical thinking and critical literacy. Instead of focusing on the technology itself, the skills
students require for contemporary times can become the goal; with technology taking its place as
another tool through which depth can be achieved.
5.3.3.2. One Size Fits All
All parents in this study were in agreement over the benefits of using technology for education as
long as the ‘end justifies the means’. Technology was viewed as an opportunity to differentiate
learning and meet individual learning needs; not only for those students who experienced
difficulty, but for each student regardless of ability. Parents were critical that schools are not
employing technology in an individualised manner, preferring to adopt a ‘one size fits all’
approach. For approximately half of parents, this translated into education becoming
demotivating and restrictive for their sons. For example, Kaitlin, mother of Brody (Year 7),
reported that ‘when he finds a topic he is really interested in he will just go on forever learning
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about it’. She hopes for more opportunities for her son to experience this at school because,
while, in her opinion, ‘he is doing well, he is not stimulated and therefore often bored’. Kate,
mother of Jeremy (Year 5) and a secondary teacher, argues that:
The vast majority of kids aren’t as digitally literate as we think they are or they’re
not digitally literate in the way we want them to be. I want schools to have a more
individual focus and use the vast resources [offered by technology] to let students
go off in their own direction (Interview, 2011, p. 17)
What is known from research is that prospects of assisting all students at school using a more
individualised approach to literacy learning can be facilitated by technology. Examples include
providing choice of texts and using blogs or wikis to facilitate discussion between boys who can
engage in self-paced learning. Elliott’s parents provided the example that technology can provide
a self-paced form of learning, especially in the area of Languages, when classroom teachers ‘do
not have enough hours in the day’. Patricia, mother of John (Year 8), was excited about the
opportunities that technology has opened up for ‘kids who have got different learning styles’. It
is apparent that self-paced, individualised learning can be facilitated by technology at school.
However, parents remain to be convinced that teachers are using technology for differentiation to
a great enough extent.
This contributes to our understanding that parents have the opportunity to facilitate
individualised learning at home through providing access and encouragement for their sons,
which may suggest a further extension of the home–school divide. There is a perception by
parents that schools are some way behind and need to ‘catch-up’ in terms of what children are
doing at home, as there is a ‘big gap’ in what parents see their sons’ doing with technology at
home and the provision and practice at school (Drew, Lachlan’s father, Interview, 2011).
5.3.3.3. Home–School Connection
Kerryn, a primary teacher herself, noted that even though teachers may want to teach more with
technology, ‘you can’t always plan homework to support your teaching as not every child has
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access at home’. This underscores the importance of the home–school digital divide as
articulated by Sharon, mother of Simon (Year 6):
I don’t think schools are preparing children well enough [in terms of technology].
Without help from home, a lot of children would be struggling. I don’t think
schools have enough or use technology enough (Interview, 2011, p. 12).
Patricia agreed, commenting that in her opinion schools need to be inclusive and think about how
to make technology accessible to all families, even those families who do not have the means to
fund it themselves (Interview, 2011, p. 13).
The home–school digital divide was documented in Chapter 2 and these remarks, although made
by relatively few parents in this study, are significant for schools.
5.3.3.4. Inconsistent Approach
Following from the one size fits all approach, all parents, with the exception of the four parents
who were also teachers in this study, identified a perceived lack of consistency in teaching and
learning with technology when their son moved from one grade level to the next. This
inconsistency was based largely on teachers’ skills from the parents’ point of view, and many
wondered why all teachers were not skilled in all aspects of teaching and learning with the
technology available in their school setting.
For example, teachers were expected by parents to be able to use the full extent of the technology
in their classrooms to engage all boys in learning. It has been the experience of many parents,
based largely on the hearsay of their sons; that is, that very few teachers have these skills and
that book-based learning is still given precedence. For example, Mark, father of Wayne (Year 5),
commented that:
Within a school environment you will still have a lot of teachers who come from
books and literature and they may not have the understanding or the experience
with using technology (Interview, 2011, p. 15).
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According to the views articulated by parents, there also appeared to be a link with the age of a
teacher and his or her willingness to engage with technology for teaching and learning. For
example, Brandon’s father expressed concern at the average age of teachers being, in his
opinion, ‘over 40’ and ‘Therefore they prefer to teach how they were taught 20 years ago’
(Interview, 2011). Nigel’s (Year 7) mother agreed, saying:
I think especially the generation of teachers in at the moment who are older and
who never had technology, you know perhaps that will change in the next
generation of teachers as they grew up with computers at school, they will see the
power of the computer and use it more (Interview, 2011, p. 4).
Other reasons provided by parents regarding inconsistency were lack of teacher skills and
experience with Web 2.0 applications, lack of time, and in some cases inclination, to learn,
which was a barrier to using technology effectively for teaching and learning. Added to this was
the perception of untrustworthy hardware and inconsistent Internet connectivity experienced at
both research sites, which makes it more difficult for teachers to plan teaching and learning using
technology. Kerryn, a practising teacher, agreed with this, as did Matthew’s (Year 5) mother,
who said: ‘The problems are time, untrustworthy facilities and teacher expertise. It is only the
teachers on the leading edge that are using technology effectively’. An oft-repeated example in
primary classrooms was one of using the IWB as a ‘large television screen’ rather than as an
interactive student tool for learning.
Kate and Geoff, parents of Jeremy (Year 5) and both practising secondary teachers, provide a
contrasting viewpoint to teachers using technology consistently in the secondary setting:
I think what teachers try and do is jump into the technological world because they
think that’s what the kids want, that’s what they’re familiar with and that’s what
will engage them. I would argue that the opposite is true, sometimes teachers who
just use pure traditional teaching because it is different do better [because] the
kids are used to working on computers, that’s normal for them. What’s not normal
is sitting down and having a really cerebral discussion face-to-face with someone.
There’s a place for the expert teacher and it’s not limited at all to age. I think
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we’re really devaluing what some people can offer if we say no, well older people
have trouble with technology so they are less effective (Interview, 2011, p. 16).
The significance of the comments by Geoff and Kate are that in their schools technology is
available and the same barriers may be present as in primary school; it is the perception of the
teacher that is different. In primary schools, parents may expect teachers to be experts in all
things and to provide active, collaborative and engaging lessons using the latest technology
available to them. In secondary schools, according to Geoff and Kate, the older teachers using
traditional pedagogies are still viewed as being experts in their field, capable of assisting students
to achieve very well academically because assessment is still based on handwritten exams. From
Kate’s point of view, the use of technology is a moot point because ‘until we change assessment
and what is considered to be success, it’s never going to change anything’.
Patricia, mother of John (Year 8), praises the Internet and digital devices as one resource for
teachers to use as a means of engaging boys in the classroom, but cautions that the most
important aspect of teaching is still the relationship between teacher and student:
The relationship is critical to learning and while computers can facilitate many
opportunities, the connection between student and teacher needs to transcend the
need to replace teachers with technology (Interview, 2011, p. 8).
What is known through research is the importance of the student-teacher relationship and this
was alluded to by Geoff, Kate and Patricia as being more significant that the type and/or means
by which technology is consistently utilised for teaching.
Stephen, a public servant, held strong convictions about the role of technology in schools,
saying:
Schools should not just suck it up (technology) because it is a new fad ... because
if you can’t measure the outcomes you might as well write with chalk on a
chalkboard. The assumption that it’s better because it is the latest technology is a
specious assumption. Technology does not necessarily lead to better results
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A more moderate viewpoint was held by Quade’s father, who reflected that on balance in his
opinion, it was apparent that teachers needed to focus on ‘exposing kids to both aspects of
learning, that is books and technology’ (Interview, 2011, p. 5). John, father of Jake (Year 7),
eloquently shared his hope as follows:
The trick is to have a combination of the old school diligence and stick-to-it-ness
developed through books as well as using the modern technologies with the
amazing miracles of the world that they can provide (Interview, 2011, p. 10).
It was apparent that parents held very strong views on the consistency of practice with regard to
technology use in classrooms. It was also apparent that parents based their responses on their
own experiences of technology and book-based learning and those of their sons, which in some
cases were corroborated and in other cases contradicted by those parents that were also
practicing teachers. However, all expressed their desire to see their sons succeed and they
conceded that technology was definitely part of the equation when considering contemporary
education. The other part of the equation was the desire for sound pedagogy, explicit purpose
and the use of the best tool to engage and motivate boys.
5.3.3.5. Pace of Change
A further barrier to teaching with technology as identified by parents was the pace of change that
schools have to accommodate. Parents were sympathetic to the pressure and pace of change that
new technologies bring to bear on schools. All parents acknowledged the complex environment
in which schools operate, but they also have the expectation that their sons’ school tries to keep
pace with the rate of technological change. On the one hand, the drive of new technologies
provides opportunities for preparing their sons for the world of work, and offers the chance for
authentic learning and engagement experiences. On the other hand, the drag of the tried and true
technologies, such as books in English and History, drill and practice in subjects such as
Mathematics and hands-on laboratory work in Science is where parents’ experience lies and they
continue to view this as a comfortable fit for their expectations of learning. Interestingly, on the
whole, parents made it clear that while schools have a responsibility to respond to the pace of
change relating to new technologies, the school’s response should not be pressured by parental
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expectations but rather by the pursuit of sound educational outcomes for their sons. For example,
Patricia, mother of John (Year 8), believes that the rapid changes to technology mean that
‘schools have to understand how to interface with new technologies and that is essential for
young people to get the benefits from it’ (Interview, 2011, p. 12). Stephen, Hugo’s father, took
the argument one-step further saying:
Schools need to understand why they are using technology and be able to
demonstrate, if not to parents at least to themselves, that it did make a difference,
and if it didn’t, having the courage to say it didn’t work and stop doing it
Greg an IT specialist and father of Brody (Year 7), sees the school’s role as one of building
relationships, deepening learning and teaching critical thinking as more important than having
the latest technology in every classroom. Jack, father of Lewis (Year 5) and a software developer
articulates this well:
I don’t see technology as the answer it is just a tool we use to help our thinking
and execution of ideas (Interview, 2011, p. 24).
Understanding the pace of change is significant for school leaders, as they are required to
balance the contemporary needs of their students and simultaneously learn to utilise the
capabilities of the resources, both in terms of personnel and technology, that they have available
to them. Findings from this study indicate that parents were aware and accepting of the
difficulties this can involve.
5.3.4. Literacy at School
Parents in this study did not have as many comments to make on literacy at school as they did
about technology. However, there was an expectation by parents in this study that the use of
technology should rest on a strong foundation of literacy. As reported above, parents in this
study valued the use of books alongside technology to continually move their sons forward on
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the reading and thinking continuum, to set them up for success in their later years. Geoff, father
of Jeremy (Year 5), summed it up this way:
The most helpful thing a school can do is recognise where the individual is at and
to provide opportunities for them to explore and be stimulated through literacy.
Teachers need to provide opportunities for them to explore and stimulate their
interest, like having interesting books around when they have free time for
reading (Interview, 2011, p. 5).
Kerryn, a primary teacher and mother of Matthew (Year 6), believed that teachers have to ‘catch
boys in an informal or unofficial way saying something like “Here, why don’t you try this?” or
using their mates to sell a book, rather than formal library sessions’. For Thomas (Year 5) his
mother reports that taking Tom out of class for reading assistance was the ‘worst thing’ for him:
‘He did not like being taken out of class, it was a stigma and kids can be pretty nasty’. Thomas’
experience of being removed from the classroom echoes research (see Chapter 2).
To engender a love of reading, approximately half of the primary school boys’ parents raised the
issue of the formal reading program as a positive means of reading support in the early years.
However, there was criticism by these same parents who believed that teachers in the upper
primary years were not as diligent in providing opportunities for boys to experience reading as
an enjoyable activity as parents would have wished. For example, in Quade’s parents’ view:
‘Once the kids achieve the highest level [on PM benchmark of 30], it’s left up to the kids and it
just drops off’. This was echoed by Jeremy’s parents, Andrew’s parents, Matthew’s parents and
Ben’s mother, who said: ‘I had hoped that he would be encouraged to try different genres and
engage him more in reading’.
This is significant, as parents identified that their expectation is that a passion for reading needs
to continue for their sons beyond the levelled reading program students undertake in their early
years of primary school. Parents expected teachers to be passionate about reading and books to
encourage and extend boys’ reading. It was apparent that the solution adopted by these parents
was to take up the role of providing books and opportunities for reading at home to support their
sons’ continued development in literacy in the absence of perceived leadership in this area from
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teachers. This has parallels with what parents provide in terms of technology to support their son
at home.
It is apparent that there are opportunities for teachers at all grade levels to provide a focus on and
demonstrate a passion for literacy, not just the mechanics of reading, particularly in middle
school. It was also apparent that in the homes in this study, 80 per cent of parents took on the
role of providing their sons with interesting and varied reading material in the absence of teacher
direction through purchasing books, visits to libraries and strong home literacy practices.
However, there was an imperative on the part of many parents that school’s need to be
responsible in their choice of ‘good books’. For example, when visiting Michael’s home, I
observed that many pieces of furniture had yielded their original function to piles of books.
Anthony, father of Michael (Year 7), described reading practices in their home as ‘obsessional’.
Anthony remarked that schools make the ‘dreadful mistake of picking fashionable books’ rather
than books that will be more enduring and lead boys on to reading other reputable authors. He
sees the school’s role as one of creating an ‘overwhelming passion’ for reading that should be
taken ‘very seriously’ (Interview, 2011). Brody’s (Year 7) mother agreed, and added:
The types of book they do [at school] doesn’t really interest him. He loves to read
for his own pleasure, but he doesn’t get much pleasure out of what he has to do as
part of the school structure and choice. That is not the way to encourage boys to
read (Interview, 2011, p. 4).
It is apparent that these particular parents were dismayed with their sons’ school’s choice of
books. The reason most often given was that parents identified the popular culture trends (for
example, Harry Potter) as being fleeting, while the classics go largely untouched at school. This
has deep ramifications for culture and heritage that were beyond the scope of this study.
However, what is significant is that parents displayed a more confident attitude when
commenting on types of books they believe schools should be exposing boys to in English
classes. Compared to when parents discussed web-based resources for education (with which
most had limited experience), their views on books appeared to be based more on their own
educational and reading experiences.
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For boys such as Nathan and Brad who have struggled with literacy attainment and are still
attending literacy support classes in Year 8, and Thomas in Year 5, their parents see
technology’s role in literacy learning as both friend and foe. Jane, Nathan’s mother, comments
that, for her son, the provision of audio books and educational software such as Dragon.com, a
speech-to-text application, has assisted him to access all materials and demonstrate his learning
despite his literacy difficulties. However, she fears that Nathan views technology as a source of
entertainment and approaches academic tasks with the wrong mindset for learning. Jackie,
Brad’s mother, is full of praise for the school’s support of Brad in literacy and their use of the
IWBs as a means of ‘cracking open books’ for her son. However, she admits that Brad gets sidetracked too often when he is doing homework on the computer and that the lure of his gaming
console means that he does not want to read a book (Interview, 2011).
It is apparent that home reading practices support boys through the middle years in terms of their
choice and provision of books. Technology can also play a role in supporting boys that are
reluctant or struggling readers; and parents are willing to embrace these opportunities. The
significance for schools is that there are opportunities for teachers to support boys in middle
schools with a range of genres, expanding their knowledge of authors and providing opportunity
to engage with ‘good books’ as well as web-based resources to build literate practices.
In summary, according to research, it is difficult to separate the influence of the home and school
domains. Epstein (2001) articulated the idea that home and school constitute ‘overlapping
spheres of influence’ on student’s development and academic achievement. For example, the
importance of parental involvement in children's education has long been recognised as an
element in effective academic achievement and participation. Research indicates that there is a
positive correlation between parent knowledge and beliefs, parent–child interaction and student
achievement. This has been found to be more important than the family’s income and/or
education level or cultural background (see Chapter 2). Research also shows that parent–child
interaction is not only the first, but also the strongest, influence on children’s cognitive
development (see Chapter 2). This was evident in this study.
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For the purpose of this study, the home–school connection was perceived as being
interconnected and supportive. Figure 5.1, adapted from Cohen et al. (2007), depicts the home–
school connection and the way in which parents in this study supported their sons in practices
relating to both literacy and technology. For example, there appeared to be a synergistic
relationship between home reading practices and boys’ literacy attainment at school. Similarly,
there appeared to be a synergistic relationship between boys’ access to technology at home and
the technological skills they demonstrated at school. Parents in this study recognised that skills in
literacy and technology are important for the future success of their son and can be successfully
applied in the home and school domains. Moreover, Figure 5.1 demonstrates the continuum that
supports boys across the two domains.
The Home-School Connection
Literacy
Strong home
reading
practice
Provision of
print
resources
Reading is a
highly valued
activity
Modelled and
encouraged
Home
Technology
School
Provision of
Technology
Means of
achieving
success
Access is
facilitated
Can be
source of
conflict
Figure 5.1: The Home–School Connection
(Adapted from Cohen et al., 2007)
216
This chapter discussed the views of 45 parents of boys in middle school and constructed an
account of parents’ perspectives on techtivity and literate activities in relation to the home–
school connection, and the role of the school and teachers in learning and teaching with
technology in literacy and English classrooms. It is apparent that there exists a significant tension
between the drive of the new and the drag of the old technologies and that this is influencing
parenting, family life, literacy attainment and education. This tension exists primarily around the
time and type of activities with which boys engage. Boys in this study appeared to be giving
priority more and more to techtivity as they progress through middle school. In contrast, parents
prioritised and valued activities related to reading for enjoyment, usually in traditional book
form, music practice, homework, sports and other physical exercise, with techtivity coming last
in parents’ list of priorities in this study.
It is also apparent that parental concern over time spent on digital devices, critical literacy skills,
inappropriate content, cyber bullying and vicarious, rather than real-life, experiences are
outweighed by the benefits of technology in preparing a boy for the future world of work.
Parents were open to seeking and implementing different strategies to manage their concerns and
were turning most often to their child’s teacher to provide guidance. In this, teachers and parents
can be seen as co-parenting the digital natives in their care.
There appeared to be an expectation that the use of technology in classrooms rests on a strong
foundation of literacy. Teachers are seen by parents as needing to be passionate about books and
literature and to work in partnership with parents to continue to fan the flame of early literacy so
that their son matures as a reader. Parents also expect that critical literacy and critical thinking
remain core skills that need to be explicitly taught throughout middle school. The significance of
the role of parents is that parents are willing to engage in the process of education and become
partners in the learning community. The opportunities presented through utilising a wide range
of technologies were seen as essential to engaging and motivating boys by parents, provided that
critical literacy skills, authentic learning, creativity and innovation were taught in concert with
the curriculum.
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6. Teachers’ Perspective: Classroom Interface
6.1. Introduction
In this chapter, the perspectives of 15 teachers are examined across two research sites in relation
to boys’ interactions with technology and teaching with technology in the English classroom.
Data was collected from in-depth interviews with 15 teachers, classroom observation and field
notes, as well as from many informal conversations in staff rooms and classrooms. Five males
and 10 females were interviewed.
Six teachers worked in primary school and nine in secondary school. Of these, seven classroom
teachers (two males and five females) were observed in their classrooms for a period of two to
three weeks each. Of the classroom teachers observed, three were in the primary setting and four
in the secondary setting. The remaining teachers were interviewed due to their experience and
the position of responsibility they held at their respective school. The research took place over
the course of 2011 in English/literacy classrooms. Teachers were observed and engaged in casual
conversations around boys, technology and literacy in their classroom on a daily basis as well as
in one in-depth semi-structured interview each. The interviews ranged from 40 minutes to an
hour and a half in duration.
All teachers in this study acknowledged that they were witnessing a shift in the definition of
what it means to be literate. For example, the older teachers at Red Hill College observed that
when they completed school it was enough for them to be termed proficient readers and writers
when they completed formal schooling. However, the digital revolution has introduced a number
of new ways of being literate and all teachers, regardless of their age or length of service,
recognised that constant learning and application is required to function as a literate individual in
today’s society.
The responses of the teachers at St John’s Primary were based on a limited number of years of
teaching experience. Of the four classroom teachers interviewed and observed, three were under
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30 and had a maximum of three years’ teaching experience each. Their names were Paul, Emma
and Linda. The fourth, William, the schools IT and Indonesian teacher, was a mature entry
graduate with three years’ teaching experience, having previously worked in the IT industry.
Caroline, a very experienced teacher, was interviewed in her role as Curriculum Coordinator of
St John’s Primary, and Carol was interviewed in her role as Special Needs teacher. The research
took place in this school during the first term and into the second term, so the teachers were still
getting to know their classes, which may have influenced their answers.
In contrast, the teachers who were interviewed and observed at Red Hill College had on average
15 years’ teaching experience. The research took place in this school in terms 2 and 3 of 2011
and these teachers had a better understanding of their students due to the time of year. Four
teachers (three females and one male) were observed in their classrooms teaching Year 7 and 8
classes over a period of two to three weeks each. Their names were Veronica, Brenda, Kara and
David. The Director of Curriculum Studies (Kate), the Head of English (Phillip), the Head of
Resource Centre (Gail), a senior English teacher (Alex) and a senior Languages teacher (Joanne),
who is a keen gamer, were also interviewed in this school using in-depth semi-structured
interviews.
Concurrently, observation took place over a period of 15 weeks in the Resource Centre (Library)
of the secondary school during terms 2 and 3. The Resource Centre is the busy learning hub of
the school, housing a vast collection of books and other reference material, three computer labs,
a large open space for boys to meet, plan and learn together and over 30 desktop computers for
individual use. There are a minimum of four qualified information management teachers on duty
at all times who work with whole classes, individual students and teachers to support the learning
and teaching in the classrooms.
The analysis in this chapter personalises the experience of teachers as they seek to understand
their own learning in relation to teaching with technology. Teachers hold a unique position as
both a supplier and a consumer of digital content. The chapter is organised under the following
headings: boys’ interactions with technology (see Section 6.2) and the nature of teaching and
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learning with technology (see Section 6.3). First, a brief summary of these themes is given,
below.
6.1.1. Boys’ Interactions with Technology
This theme examines aspects of technology and techtivity and includes boys’ love of technology,
boys’ technology skills and boys and critical literacy. Additionally teachers’ share their views on
the impact technology is having on boys’ reading. Teachers identified that boys are readers, but
that this is changing. They also note that boys enjoy choice, there is a connection between good
readers and academic success, and there is a need to integrate books and technology for boys.
The relationship between teacher practice and boys’ literacy is also investigated.
6.1.2. The Nature of Teaching and Learning with Technology
This section is organised according to the up-sides or benefits and the down-sides or barriers to
teaching and learning with technology in the English classroom.
6.2. Boys’ Interactions with Technology
In-depth, semi-structured interviews with 15 teachers across two research sites, in combination
with observation, field notes and informal conversations were used to gather teacher attitudes,
expectations and understandings of technology in relation to boys in middle school. Eight
teachers identified their own technology skills as ‘good’ to ‘very good’, with the remaining
seven reporting poor to average skills. The following themes emerged, and each of these will be
taken up in a sub-section below:

Boys love technology

Boys’ skills and technology

Boys and critical literacy

Technology is changing boys’ reading

Technology supports choice

Connection between technology, good readers and academic success
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
Integration of technology and books for boys

Teacher practice and technology
The following diagram (see Figure 6.1) presents teachers’ general observations on boys and
technology.
Observation Summary Boys and Technology
Boys love
technology
Boys are
risk takers
on
technology
Interactivity
suits boys
Boys play
games
Boys vary
in ability
Boys and
Technology
Boys
transfer
knowledge
to classroom
Boys love
diversity of
resources
Boys
motivated
using
technology
Boys more
engaged
using
technology
Figure 6.1: Teachers’ Observations on Boys and Technology
6.2.1. Boys Love Technology
Among all teachers, there was consensus that boys ‘love anything to do with technology’.
Teachers based their opinion on observation as well as on personal experience; for example, Paul
(St John’s) stated:
I think well personally as a boy I love IT. I think and with this new generation
coming in where everything is IT based, for example, iPods, computers and
laptops. I think that’s the way that they learn (Interview, 2011, p. 1).
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William, the IT Coordinator at St John’s, who came from the IT industry, said of boys:
I find that boys tend to gravitate more to the games, the action games, the shoot
them up type games, the driving games, as in car driving that sort of thing. They
don’t tend to go to the sites where you have to think a great deal, Cool Maths for
instance.
Emma, a Year 4/5 teacher who had been teaching for three years, commented:
Boys are very interested in games and yeah they’re obsessed with computer
games and things like that, that's what I've noticed (Interview, 2011, p. 1).
It is apparent from these comments that teachers perceive boys as enjoying technology in the
classroom. However, the references to ‘games’ may suggest that teachers are drawing on other
sources of information such as the boys’ conversation and what boys do on technology in their
free time at school to make this assumption. However, from David’s viewpoint as a secondary
teacher, he observed that when boys are using technology, they are more involved in their
learning and ‘it makes them feel a bit professional too’. David made this assumption based on his
observation of the boys in his English classes who ‘enjoy being on the computer, enjoy having to
look up information, enjoy having to think about how they could present something on the
computer’ (Interview, 2011, p. 3).
Veronica, a secondary teacher of 20 years, observed that the implementation of technology into
classrooms and the rise of the Internet have been very positive for boys in particular. She also
spoke of the enjoyment for boys when they are given the opportunity to engage with technology.
Similarly, Kara, a secondary English teacher of 15 years, commented that in her view ‘boys love
technology’. She has noticed that the classes in which she uses the IWB flow more smoothly and
that the boys maintain their focus for longer. Boys in her classes showed an eagerness to research
on the Internet and to structure their ideas using mind mapping and word processing tools more
so than with pen and paper (Field notes). Alex, who has taught at Red Hill College for 12 years,
has seen the rapid implementation of technology into his English classrooms. He enjoys and uses
the numerous resources that are now available to teach English. He observed that boys are more
motivated to focus more deeply on texts supported by digital resources, whereas in the past some
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may have ‘given up’. He observed that his students are quieter and more engaged when working
online, as they are ‘more comfortable’ with the medium as compared to with books. He surmises
that boys see technology as ‘less boring or old fashioned’.
An example from observation of Veronica’s Year 8 English classroom demonstrated the
contemporary use of technology for enjoyment. The unit of work was on poetry using modern
culture. The boys had been asked to bring a poem of their own choosing to share in class. The
lesson was devoted to sharing the poem. The class was noisy and unsettled as the teacher split
them into groups of three or four to share their poem. She encouraged the use of iPods if it was a
song. The boys were instructed to answer three questions for each poem:

Literal question: How does the chorus contrast to the song/poem?

Interpretative question: What meaning do you draw from the song/poem that is relevant
to your own life?

Applied question: How does this song/poem relate to modern society?
The boys worked in their groups sharing the lyrics or poetry with each other for 10 minutes.
Examples of poetry included ‘The Jabberwocky’; ‘The Man from Snowy River’; ‘Hallelujah’
from Shrek; ‘The Sea is Rising’ by Bliss and Eso; and Eminem raps. The boys were animated
and engaged and the teacher engaged easily with each group, encouraging boys to use the online
dictionary to look up words such as ‘doozy’ or ‘spliff’. Veronica gave the boys two more
minutes to decide which poem they were going to share with the class. One outstanding example
included the boy who chose ‘Hallelujah’ from Shrek to share with the class. He used his iPad to
find the lyrics, projected them onto the IWB, then stood in front of the class, closed his eyes and
sang the song in perfect pitch without music. The rest of the class listened in silence then
spontaneously applauded (Field notes).
It is apparent that there are opportunities to engage boys in the literacy classroom by drawing on
their perceived love of technology. Teachers report that boys love technology based on factors
such as increased engagement, demonstrated enjoyment and the way in which boys speak about
the games that they play. Additionally, Brenda, formerly a primary teacher but now teaching in
secondary school, observed that boys do not consider what they do on the computer as literacy.
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She thinks boys see themselves as risk takers on technology, and that, for example, they can do
things on the computer that they would never attempt with the written word. Based on her
observation, particularly for boys in middle school who do not achieve well in English,
technology becomes a source of fun and experimentation rather than learning, and this can be
harnessed for teaching.
There were strong links to motivation when secondary teachers referred to boys’ love of
technology. For example, David encouraged boys in his class to use their technology (mobile
devices) to look up a word more often than searching through a dictionary or to listen to music
on their iPod during class to motivate on-task behaviour. Kara expressed her belief that
technology is more motivating for boys as they are very comfortable with it. ‘Instead of it being
a teacher controlled tool, they can be active in their learning and not sitting passively at desks’
However, the teachers in primary school cast some doubt on the motivational aspect of
technology in the classroom. For example, Linda said, ‘I don’t know how much it does motivate
them anymore because I don’t think it is a really novel thing to be doing’ (Interview, 2011). Paul
agreed, as did William, who pointed out that at St John’s, it appeared that ‘many students had
access to technology at home on a regular basis’, implying that using technology at school was
‘part of the routine’. William expressed that the motivation and enjoyment boys display when
using technology lies in the fact that they are ‘in charge of their environment on the screen’,
suggesting that boys feel in control and have choice over their actions when working in this way.
This is consistent with research and is supported by Kara’s view.
It thus appears that technology can play a role in motivation and engagement within the literacy
classroom, which teachers appeared to exploit, not necessarily because it was the most effective
way of teaching, but because it assisted with classroom management. It can also be argued that a
settled class is one in which learning occurs more easily, and that connecting with boys through
the medium of technology in its various forms is the key to effective teaching, engagement and
motivation of digital natives. However, Alex, a secondary teacher, was unsure if the learning
outcomes were any better. He tempered his answer saying:
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Unless technology does enhance learning outcomes and prepare students for life
beyond school, we need to question why we are relying on it so much (Interview,
2011, p. 9).
There appears to be a dilemma associated with the interactivity and transformation that is
occurring in English literacy classrooms based on the pervasiveness of technology with which
teachers are grappling. This is consistent with the parents’ views of the role of technology for
teaching. However, as Anthony commented, ‘Society uses IT a lot so we should do the same’.
While acceptance of technology for motivating and engaging boys ranged from uncertain to
enthusiastic, two key gaps identified by teachers in this study include boys’ skills associated with
technology, and critical literacy.
6.2.2. Boys’ Skills and Technology
David from Red Hill, in his first year of teaching, was ‘surprised’ by the great variation in levels
of competency among boys in his class with regard to simple word processing and computer
research skills. He observed that many boys in his class produced better pieces of work when
they were asked to handwrite a draft and rework the draft prior to publishing it. He also observed
that comprehension skills were not as he expected as boys relied on skimming and scanning
rather than reading for depth. To counter this, he created and modelled a strong culture and
expectation that silent reading for pleasure for 10 minutes each lesson was a priority, and he
reported that boys have responded very positively to this ‘old fashioned’ way of reading:
All they want do is read and I find that if I am sitting reading silently too they are
all engaged in their books (Interview, 2011, p. 2). (Field notes support this)
Phillip’s response regarding the skills students require to use technology was ‘I think they need
to be taught’. This was the opinion of all of the secondary teachers based largely on the belief
that despite boys loving the entertainment and enjoyment aspect of technology, the skills
required for academic success at school in relation to using technology were not as clearly
evident. Alex agreed saying, ‘I think there is a misconception that boys all know how to use
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Google or even basic things like Word’. Kara added, ‘These kids are meant to know about
technology’ (Interview, 2011).
Veronica articulated her surprise when her assumption that boys know how to behave in an
online forum, use basic Word programs or undertake an efficient search is proven wrong:
I think we make the mistake and it’s just becoming apparent to me that we assume
these kids know—they don’t (Interview, 2011, p. 8).
Kara agreed, adding that:
The discovery that boys do not know how to use a particular aspect of technology
results in having to teach a lower level skill to ensure they understand a task and
can respond to it (Interview, 2011, p. 5).
It is apparent that there is an expectation by secondary teachers that boys will have been taught
basic computer skills in primary school. For these teachers, their expectations had not been met.
However, alongside the conviction that boys need to be taught to use technology effectively for
learning, there appeared to exist confusion as to whose responsibility this should be. The
confusion was most evident in comments by Phillip, who said:
There is no scope and sequence of ICT skills that I know of. I think something
happens in Year 7, at the beginning, but I don’t know what happens, if anything,
after that. We all think somebody else must be doing it (Interview, 2011, p. 7).
Philip’s statement was corroborated by Kate, the Director of Curriculum at Red Hill, who
identified that the school needs to undertake ‘a backward mapping exercise’ to determine the
scope and sequence of the technology skills that boys require to achieve well across all subject
areas. It was apparent from Kate’s interview that presently each department is responsible for
teaching the technology skills required by their students to complete assessment tasks
successfully. For example, the History department ensured boys had sound research and critical
analysis skills in History, and the Geography department was well known for teaching mapping
and power point skills.
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Phillip also shared Brenda’s view saying, ‘I don’t think boys are as adept at using technology for
learning as we think they are’. He has not observed the skills transfer from gaming which boys
undertake for entertainment to the skills required for classroom success. Linda, a Year 4/5
teacher agreed, saying:
The boys are tech-savvy but they still require the skills of skimming and scanning
and specific programs to be taught to them (Interview, 2011, pp. 2, 3).
The idea of a scope and sequence regarding technology skills also emerged from the Curriculum
Coordinator at St John’s who described it as very ‘hit and miss here’. Caroline identified that ‘we
need a very defined scope and sequence of skill, because otherwise in the mix it just gets lost’
(Interview, 2011). While there is an assumption that boys love technology and there is no doubt
that there is some skill transference from gaming, Caroline and Kate, the curriculum
coordinators, believe there are ‘still skills which need to be taught’ and neither are ‘confident
where that fits’. Some reasons provided were the crowded curriculum, and the implementation of
the Australian Curriculum, which schools are currently tackling. Caroline said, ‘I think now that
IT has gone cross-curricula, we’re going to lose it even more. I think that is a real concern’
(Interview, 2011, p. 5). Significantly, their work is made more difficult by the perpetual changes
wrought by new technologies, the increased and uneven knowledge and skill base students bring
with them to the classroom and the varying capabilities of their teaching staff. Add to this
security settings and legal responsibilities and it is apparent that the task becomes very
complicated. Parents voiced similar concerns (see Chapter 5).
The term technology is ‘slippery’ and changeable, particularly as regards the move to mobile
through iPads. For example, the skills students require can become device specific. Gail, Head of
the Resource Centre observed:
Well technology is just galloping along; we’ve become familiar with the iPhone,
the iPad, the eBook is here. There are a lot of technologies that libraries have to
keep up with and digitising everything to make it accessible to students
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Additionally, teachers require time and training to become adept at the skills they are required to
teach their students, and with rapid changes in educational technology, schools are constantly
‘playing catch up’. Gail added:
That’s where the boys are leaving the staff behind. I think sometimes the
difficulty for staff is just not having time to respond that way (Interview, 2011, p.
4).
Further the decreasing cost and increasing choice of technology makes it difficult for schools to
decide when to commit to new technology, which has implications for teacher and student skill
development and budgets. Caroline, the Curriculum Coordinator at St John’s, expressed this
dilemma as a ‘fear of jumping into the virtual ocean too soon’:
As a school, you don’t necessarily want to be on the crest of the technological
wave because that is where all the issues occur and the bugger ups happen. It is
best to be 2 to 3 years behind the crest of the wave so one can learn from the
mistakes of others. However, you can’t be a leading edge, innovative school
unless you are willing to take risks (Interview, 2011, p. 6).
The significance of this statement appears to be that in the quest to become innovative users of
technology for teaching and learning, schools have to weigh the relative advantages of student
outcomes and engagement with the cost, training, disruption and timeliness of investing in new
forms of technology. Nevertheless, teachers are aware that boys vary in ability when using
technology and therefore that skills such as critical literacy and functional skills such as word
processing, email and power point are still required. It appears that teachers are taking on the role
of providing boys with the skills that they believe are required for the technology at hand, which
is driven largely by assessment and need, based on subject area.
6.2.3. Boys and Critical Literacy
Brenda, a secondary teacher, believed her role to be one of explicitly teaching critical literacy
through discerning valid sources and promoting active critical thinking to assist boys to learn
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effectively with technology. David observed that technology makes English more interesting by
presenting the visual, aural and oral dimensions to a text. He stated:
I want the boys to analyse everything from front cover to back cover the visual
devices as well as the text. When they talk with their peers and use the Internet
they get new insights that goes beyond the classroom, and it’s not me telling them
those themes, they can understand the themes for themselves. In an ideal world I
would create a forum and my students could discuss texts with others around the
world (Interview, 2011, pp. 4, 5).
David, Alex and Veronica spoke of overtly teaching critical literacy skills as they observe a large
gap in this area among all boys, even though they may be competent operators of technology at
home. Kara added that in her experience, even though boys love technology for entertainment,
many lack direction and critical literacy skills. This was echoed by Kate, who said,
They are good at finding stuff but they are actually not good at actually
processing it or understanding or thinking about what it means (Interview, 2011,
p. 2).
Gail, Head of the Resource Centre at Red Hill, was in agreement. She described one of her key
roles as working with teachers and boys to locate, discern and interpret sources, and to help boys
to become critical of what they read. She suggested that boys should never use the Internet alone
for their research, and that instead they should seek to access a broad range of resources, while
being encouraged to compile annotated bibliographies and, for the Red Hill boys, complete a unit
of work called ‘All my own work’ from the NSW Board of Studies to become aware of
plagiarism. She conceded that it is easier with the older boys (years 10 to 12), as boys in Year 7
come to high school with ‘varying levels of expertise’ and it takes time to develop critical
literacy skills among them.
Teachers in the upper primary setting also identified the need to teach critical literacy as part of
the effective teaching and learning with technology. For example, Paul, a Year 6 teacher,
reported:
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The biggest skill they need is to learn how to be critical of websites. There’s so
much junk on the Internet. Critical literacy is very important especially in upper
primary because when these boys go to high school they are going to get all their
information off the Internet (Interview, 2011, p. 6).
Emma, a Year 4/5 teacher, added that the skill of summarising and discerning relevant
information needs to be strongly developed as part of critical literacy skills: ‘They need to be
able to summarise from the Internet because there is so much’ (Interview, 2011, p. 4). Emma
addresses the problem of information oversupply by pre-selecting five or six websites for her
students rather than ‘sending them off to search the net’. She also endeavours to teach critical
literacy through the subject areas of Literacy, History, Geography and Science, but concedes that
‘technology can be a barrier as it does not always work’. Carol, the Special Needs teacher, was
trialling iPads for children with learning difficulties. She makes use of iPad applications such as
mind mapping tools and text to speech software to assist students to learn critical literacy skills.
She notes that boys in particular have responded very well.
A third of teachers also identified the effect of technology on developing students’ cognitive
skills as being a significant barrier to developing critical literacy skills. One teacher labelled this
generation ‘the cut and paste generation’, fearing that deep and critical thinking were being lost.
Like their parents, all teachers expressed frustration that students cannot or will not critically
analyse websites for validity and trustworthiness and that this negatively affects their learning.
Kara was particularly concerned that:
Boys feel they don’t have to use their own brains, retain information or learn
anything because they can simply Google it (Interview, 2011, p. 9).
She extrapolated this to an overreliance on technology for teaching, learning and testing, which
in her opinion may result in ‘lower educational outcomes’. This was echoed in the parents’
concerns of ‘too much breadth and not enough depth’ in educational content (see Chapter 5).
The significance of teachers in this study identifying the combination that boys love technology,
boys need to be taught technology skills to assist academic performance and boys need to
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develop critical literacy through practice is two-fold. Firstly, the teachers themselves are required
to ‘walk the walk’ and immerse themselves in the new technologies to foster the new literacy
skills required for twenty-first century learners. Secondly, teachers will be required to know and
understand the implications of using new technologies in their classrooms to draw on and take
advantage of the skills that digital learners prefer. The digital skills that boys prefer include
interactivity rather than individual work; taking risks and using pictures, sound, and video before
text; transferring skills learned in the game world to a diversity of resources in the classroom;
and learning that is relevant, active, motivating and engaging. The new literacies classroom
needs to encompass daily rather than occasional work in multiple forms of representation,
including practice and reflection in the new forms of ‘reading’ and ‘writing’. However, it is also
significant that more technology is not necessarily the answer; a balance of sound pedagogy and
appropriate technology creatively utilised to meet the needs of twenty-first century boys will be
required.
6.2.4. Technology is Changing Boys’ Reading
Alex, a secondary teacher of nearly 20 years’ experience, identified the nature of boys’ reading
as changing over time. He observed that much has changed over the years in boys’ literacy
habits. He noted that on average boys appear to be reading less in terms of traditional reading,
such as books:
I don’t know if they actually read less than boys did 15 to 20 years ago by the
time you take into account all the other kinds of reading they do (Interview, 2011,
p. 3).
Philip, in his role as head of English, was aware that his teachers were working harder than ever
and was concerned that the changes effected by the Australian Curriculum would tighten the
teach-assess-report cycle and leave his teachers with fewer options for creativity in the teaching
of English, which he values highly. He asked his teachers to rewrite their Year 7 to 10 units of
work, taking into consideration more ‘contemporary, boy-friendly’ texts. He observed that boys
at Red Hill College seem to have ‘an ingrained level of reading instilled into them’. However, he
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also observed that this level is declining slightly each year due in large part to increased screen
time.
Belinda is a Primary trained teacher who recently joined the secondary school English
department. She observed that boys are more literate as there is now a wider choice of boyfriendly literature than when she first started teaching 20 years ago. She also noted that parents
who send their children to this school value reading and books highly, which supports literacy
learning in the classroom. In her experience of teaching boys, she has found that:
It is easy to lose boys from reading in the 10–14 age group, primarily because we
do not give credence to those boys who chose to read nonfiction. Unless a boy is
hooked on a series of fiction novels by Year 5, it becomes very difficult to inspire
him to read novels and connect him to books (Interview, 2011, p. 1).
Gail is Head of the Resource Centre, and has been a teacher-librarian for over 30 years. In her
experience, she has seen many significant changes in boys’ reading habits. In particular, she has
witnessed the advent of boys bringing more handheld devices into the Resource Centre for study
purposes. There has been a shift from book-based resources to electronic sources for learning
and teaching. She has observed that the increased pressure to achieve academically and the
‘heavy load most boys carry into the final years at school’ reduced their opportunity for reading
for leisure.
From the primary school perspective, Paul notes:
Okay well this is the first year that I’ve been teaching Year 6 so from the first
couple of weeks that I’ve been in there with this group of boys they’re a bunch of
readers. They really love to read and a lot of them are good writers as well and I
think their imagination in their writing comes through reading a lot (Interview,
2011 p. 1).
Paul based his observation on boys’ behaviour during silent reading time. ‘The boys can’t wait to
get into their books and they get frustrated if others are talking’. Field notes support this
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observation. Boys in Linda’s classroom demonstrated a similar passion for reading and exhibited
a wider range of genres than did boys in Year 6 (Field notes).
The significance of these observations is that teachers’ believe boys are still reading, but their
reading choices and platforms have changed to reflect the new literacy practices.
6.2.5. Boys Enjoy Choice
The understanding that boys enjoy reading more if given a choice of text types is well
documented in the literature (see Chapter 2). This was also the experience of teachers in this
study, together with the understanding that boys are not homogenous in their choice of texts. For
example, Linda reported that in her experience:
Once boys find books they like, they really are obsessive about it but often times
it’s hard to get them to stop reading once they’ve found it or to focus on what we
need to be doing at the time, and it’s hard to try to encourage them to read and to
be interested in books at the same time as saying it’s time to move on (Interview,
2011, p. 1).
An example of Linda’s sentiments was borne out by the following observation:
10.50: Teacher called all students to the floor and distributed seven copies of Boy
Overboard to enable students to share and follow her reading. All the boys sat in
the front row listening intently.
11.00: Lunchtime bell rang and the cry of ‘No!’ could be heard as they were so
engrossed in the story (Field notes).
Caroline was in agreement with the idea of boys requiring choice. She drew on her experience
over many years of teaching, reflecting that she welcomed the opportunity to differentiate and
provide more choice, particularly for boys. She encouraged her students to bring their own
favourite books to class. She explained ‘Milo’ reading, one of her class’s favourite literacy
activities:
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Silent reading where you just relax into books, sit on a beanbag, have a drink of
Milo and that’s one of our literacy rotations, is very exciting for boys, particularly
Kara, having previously taught at a co-educational school, remarked that she realises now ‘how
much of a feminine bias in terms of the texts chosen and teaching style’ she employed in her
previous school. ‘It’s a real eye opener, I find the diversity in boys quite unusual’ she said
(Interview, 2011). She sees her role as an English teacher being to assist the boys to broaden
their repertoire in relation to the books and online texts they read. She noted that ‘boys like
fantasy, crime and action novels the best’. This is also consistent with previous research and the
comments of boys in this study (see Chapter 4). It appears that teachers who love reading
themselves allocate time in their class schedule for their students to enjoy reading on a regular
basis. It is also apparent that it is incumbent on teachers to introduce a variety of texts and media
that appeal to, extend and tap into the interests of boys to maintain motivation and engagement in
reading. This was an expectation of parents in this study (see Chapter 5).
6.2.6. The Connection between Technology, Good Readers and Academic Success
Veronica, an experienced English and Drama teacher, noted that boys who have higher literacy
ability with texts are able to manipulate any subject matter and medium to their advantage. In her
experience, these boys also tend toward higher academic achievement in school. David agreed
saying, ‘If they are good at reading and they’re good at writing, they seem to be good at
computers as well, it’s just an overall thing’ (Interview, 2011, p. 8).
Veronica observed that the boys with lower literacy ability on standardised tests will engage in
complex online reading if the subject matter appeals to them or to which they bring significant
background knowledge. She provided the example of boys who have a keen interest in sport or
motor vehicles. She believed that literacy learning needs to begin with subject matter that
interests the boy and ‘taps into his abilities beyond the classroom’. For this reason, she draws on
popular culture using a variety of web-based resources as much as the curriculum allows,
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particularly in poetry and narrative writing, to assist all boys in her class to improve their reading
strategies. This is consistent with current research.
Gail also noted that she has observed the connection between the boys who are good readers and
their achievement of academic success in her role in the Resource Centre. Kara commented that
in her opinion ‘the brighter boys are often good readers and thinkers and they are able to
negotiate technology well’. However, she was also able to provide examples of boys who are
avid readers and who are ‘fairly ordinary on technology’, surmising that they may not have
opportunities with technology at home.
The significance of the links that teachers in this study made between ‘good readers’ being able
to achieve ‘academic success’ may be thought of as belonging to their own book-based
paradigm. Digital texts are considered to be part of the new literacies paradigm, with which, by
their own admission, most teachers (and parents) are not as familiar. From this viewpoint, there
may be a danger that teachers who view English teaching through a book-based paradigm are
trying to ‘pour new wine into old skins’. Perhaps they are still measuring or judging boys,
perhaps at an unconscious level, by the standards with which they are most familiar. This may
not necessarily be helpful for most boys in middle school. Conversely, teachers like Veronica,
who consciously engage with boys at their point of interest in the digital world, may have more
success in fostering critical literacy skills and an ongoing love of reading, albeit on a parallel
track to books.
6.2.7. Need to Integrate Technology and Books
Kara stated that she had observed a shift to ‘faster reading’ as a result of the speed of online
responses and actions. It is apparent that the need to capitalise on the skills that boys are bringing
to the classroom is a field rich in promise for some teachers. However, tension exists between the
new literacy skills practised by boys in the cyber world and the reality of book-based learning in
the classroom, particularly in the secondary setting.
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Kate brings the perspective of being the Curriculum Director. Her observation of the way in
which boys’ literacy has changed over the years includes the impact of technology on boys’
literacy skills. She viewed this impact as largely detrimental, providing the example:
many boys having poor handwriting, using shorter, incomplete sentences, poorer
grammar skills and an overreliance on skimming and scanning a page to find
answers rather than demonstrating deep comprehension (Interview, 2011, p. 1).
She also noticed that boys are ‘less patient’ in reading whole texts to discern information and
that, in her opinion, ‘boys’ attitudes appear to have changed’. This has implications for critical
literacy and the way in which technology is integrated into all subjects, not just English.
However, Kate also acknowledged that the curriculum provides:
a lot of room for us to develop ways we think best suit the boys. I think the
biggest quest it to find ways to engage them in media or doing things they are
interested in before you can go any further (Interview, 2011, p. 3).
Kara warned that incorporating technology is ‘fair enough’ and can be used to teach critical
literacy. However, she added:
I don’t think that because it’s on the net and it’s got colour pictures that makes it
superior to a discussion that you can sit around a table and have about texts
Alex remarked that boys have fewer English classes each week than when he first began
teaching at Red Hill, down from five lessons to only three lessons a week. This is on par with
Health and Physical Education lessons. Alex also noticed the curriculum has been expanded to
include the teaching of contemporary text types such as interactive websites, video and feature
articles, which means that the ‘generic skills of reading, writing and text analysis are not taught
as rigorously’. In his opinion, this affects boys’ ability to ‘master critical analysis, evaluation and
synthesis of new ideas with existing knowledge’. The significance of Alex’s comments is that he
has raised the issue of time spent in direct teaching and expansion of the curriculum to
incorporate digital texts as factors that influence his teaching of boys’ literacy.
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Carol, the Special Needs teacher at St John’s, has set up a school Ning, for the express purpose
of linking students to books, poetry and story writing through a digital medium. The tag line for
the Ning is ‘An online writing club where we share our writing’. She encouraged students of all
ages to post their stories, poetry and book reviews for others to read and comment upon. She
believes the satisfaction of instant online publishing, collaborative conversation and genuine
feedback from the school’s community of learners provides an authentic opportunity for
connecting books and prose to digital literacy. Carol has added videos, author websites and
poetry websites as writing stimuli. She made the observation that boys read more on the Ning
than they write.
In relation to integrating books and technology, Gail identified that the biggest change for
teacher librarians is to keep abreast of all the changes that are occurring, including ‘understand
how our students prefer to communicate and incorporate those into our teaching practices’. Some
strategies that are taught include using Google Scholar, Boolean logic and resources from the
National Library. She insisted there is still a place for good quality reference books. However,
she is aware that there may be a disconnection in learning styles exhibited by boys and some
staff.
It is apparent that teachers have the opportunity of connecting digital literacies practiced in the
home domain with at school literacies. This study found that boys in this age group are often
engaged with media literacy found in their everyday worlds (see Chapter 4). Some students can
be illiterate with academic texts, but highly engaged readers and users of new media; for
example, reading graphic novels, emailing, blogging and reading ‘cheats’ to enable them to play
online games. These same students may be disengaged from school reading requirements such as
textbooks, for example Nathan in Year 8 and Thomas in Year 5. It is apparent that teachers like
Carol, Veronica and Gail can include interesting and varied sources of information in both print
and media form to engage and motivate all students.
Research illustrates that technology is having an impact on the way in which English is being
taught, as well as on boys’ reading habits. The new literacies provide opportunities for
innovation and integration of both books and digital texts. What is significant is that, if the
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tension is embraced by teachers, they may be provided with an opportunity to think
simultaneously about the reality of the changing world of literacy learning and the aspirations of
the new literacies classrooms to engage more boys in reading. It was apparent that the way in
which teachers engaged with both books and digital texts in this study rested on their own
attitudes. The next section explores technology and literacy in relation to teacher practice.
6.2.8 Technology, Literacy and Teacher Practice
Each teacher interviewed was asked to describe their own journey into literacy. Their responses
indicated that 80 per cent, or 12 out of 15 teachers, considered themselves readers who had also
grown up with strong home literacy practices. The remaining teachers, Emma, William and Kate,
did not consider literacy or English as a strong suit or reading as a source of pleasure. This is
significant because it appeared that the teachers who considered themselves readers were more
likely to transfer their passion into their classroom practice, evidenced by the types of literacy
activities they privileged and the range of books in their classrooms. Teachers were also asked to
rate their own technology skills. Eight teachers identified their own technology skills as good to
very good, the remaining seven reported poor to average skills. This is significant because unlike
the strong correlation between reading and literacy practices, some teachers that rated their
technology skills highly did not use technology in the classroom, while others who reported
having average skills, used technology more often. The two school contexts are described
separately.
6.2.7.1. St John’s Primary
Observation occurred during the daily literacy block at St John’s, providing a context for
technology use in the classroom. There is great importance placed on a daily literacy block.
Caroline, the Curriculum Coordinator, has arranged the timetable to ensure that there is a
common time each day for literacy across the school. Typically in the upper primary, this time is
between 9 and 11am or between 12 and 1.30pm daily. The literacy block generally followed the
structure of beginning with direct teaching—for example, introducing a part of speech or writing
technique—followed by groups working through a series of four literacy rotations. Each teacher
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incorporated technology into one of the literacy rotations, using the six laptops situated in their
wirelessly networked classrooms. Guided reading with the teacher also occurred each day as a
literacy rotation. Emma differentiated her literacy groups on ability, while Paul and Linda
preferred mixed ability groups. There is an expectation that technology will be integrated into the
literacy block (English Curriculum Document St Johns’).
It is apparent that the teacher’s own attitude towards technology and reading was exhibited in
their classroom practice and this was most obvious in the primary classrooms. For example,
Linda loves to read, particularly nonfiction, and is an active member of the Australian Literacy
Educators Association (ALEA). She noticed that the boys in her class were keen nonfiction
readers and she provided a wide choice. She encouraged daily sharing and talking about books
and websites in groups of two or three. In contrast, Paul, although espousing the benefits of
teaching with technology, did not appear to put technology to significant use in literacy blocks.
Being a reader himself, he read to his Year 6 class every day. Paul’s classroom was not as text
rich as Linda’s, but was much more so than Emma’s. Emma, a digital native with confident
technology skills, confessed that she read her first novel at the age of 22 and reading for her was
still a low priority. Observation revealed that her literacy rotations included limited use of
technology and books, being very functional and skill-based, without the enthusiasm and passion
displayed by the other primary teachers. William, as an IT coordinator, demonstrated his
preference for technology using it extensively in his classroom and in his own reading. He
prefers to read online, explaining:
Do I like to read books? No I find them really hard. I read online because the
articles are short and I can skip bits and get to the punch line very quickly
William’s strengths lie in teaching technology skills and he admitted this is where his passion
lies. Field notes record his deep knowledge and enthusiasm when teaching with technology.
Following are examples from classrooms to demonstrate the links between teacher attitude and
practice concerning technology and literacy.
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6.2.7.1.1. Classroom Example: Emma
In contrast to Paul and Linda, Emma, a 4/5 teacher, did not consider herself a reader. Field notes
record that there were few books in the classroom from which her students could choose, and
artwork adorned the classroom walls. She revealed no particular observations on the literacy
interests or abilities of the boys in her class. Emma, unlike the other two classroom teachers
interviewed preferred same ability reading groups for guided reading rather than mixed ability
groups. Here is an excerpt from Emma’s transcript that demonstrates her attitude towards her
own literacy:
Yeah I never read. I only think I started reading the year after I finished school.
Any novel that I got given to read at school I never read it, pretended I read it; and
they were all boring. I think I just didn’t try very hard. I remember the first book I
read it was Marion Keyes Angels. And I'd just had a break up, I'd been
heartbroken for the first time, and it was like a girly chick-flick and I loved it
During her interview, Emma declared that she does not feel comfortable teaching literacy. She
does not enjoy reading herself and she ‘hates teaching text types’, but she was preparing her
Year 5 students for NAPLAN as she wants them to do well. Emma used direct teaching to
effectively convey her message and was confident and competent with technology use. She rated
herself as ‘very confident’ with technology. For example, she will scan and create a flipchart on
the IWB from the grammar handbook she used to teach the class prior to them completing the
black line master during literacy rotations or use Ziptales for whole class comprehension.
Despite her confidence in using technology herself, this did not transfer into her daily literacy
block. It also became apparent that her ability to create a passion for reading and writing among
her students may be affected by her own lack of confidence and enjoyment in reading. An
example from the field notes records this:
12.05 pm: Students settle quickly and read their books while Emma attends to
administration. A very quiet classroom. Literacy rotations are written on the
whiteboard:
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Green Group: Guided reading
Red Group: Spelling = antonym and synonym black line master
Yellow Group: Handwriting page 4 and 5 then DEAW (Drop everything
and write)
Blue Group: Touch typing on laptops: Typing tournament program (Learn
to type)
Emma quickly told each group their task. Each rotation lasted for 30 minutes
today. Children work in like ability groups at their desks in silence while Emma
listens to round robin reading on floor with the guided reading group. Children are
then encouraged to read silently followed by a discussion on the pros and cons of
school uniforms. The teacher is preparing the children for the forthcoming
NAPLAN tests in which persuasive texts are featured.
Spelling group is working in the passage outside the classroom with boys working
together and girls working together. Some conversation as they marked their
work. Handwriting group stayed on task; some moved onto DEAW. Touch typing
on the laptops quickly gave way to other games as children positioned the screen
away from the teacher’s gaze.
On completion of one rotation, the students returned to their desks. These students
are very clear about teacher expectations around behaviour as there were no
disruptions or talking. Once each child finished their activity they began to read or
write in silence. Recess bell and students filed out. I wonder what they enjoyed
about literacy today? Low energy, little discussion, very controlled activities
today—boys accepting? (Field notes, 15/3/11, Year 4/5).
This extract reveals a very ordered classroom with compliant students. Everyone was very clear
of teacher expectations around behaviour and appeared to be on task. An exception was the
students working on the laptops. They soon opened a game and neglected the touch typing
activity with which they had been tasked. It appeared on observation that on many levels this
was not a classroom in which literacy was encouraged or celebrated, with it instead seeming a
time to be endured. It was apparent that Emma’s need for control and order and her own lack of
passion for literacy dictated her planning, content and delivery. There appeared to be a lack of
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connection between Emma’s spoken confidence with technology and her confidence and practice
in using technology for teaching. This flowed onto a very functional rather than interactive use of
particularly the IWB and laptops for literacy learning.
6.2.7.1.2 Classroom Example: Linda
Linda had a strong culture of reading established in her classroom in the early stages of the
school year. Observation revealed that every child was expected to have a book for leisure
reading on their desk and they were given time to read silently each day. Linda’s classroom was
very well stocked with books of all genres; words and motivational literacy adorned the walls
and there were book displays to encourage and support aspiring readers (Field notes). Linda also
read to her students every day and often drew on her knowledge of books and online material to
suggest reading choices for her students. Field notes record:
This classroom is set up in groups of desks. The walls are colourfully adorned
with commonly used words; spelling and writing strategies; thinking hats and
thinking strategies; positive classroom rules such as ‘Do your best’, and
motivational posters. There are many and varied books available and displayed
prominently in the classroom. There is a wide variety of books on each child’s
desk and an interesting collection on the teacher’s desk. The class novel is Morris
Gleitzman’s Boy Overboard. There are two desktop and six laptop computers
available (February 2011).
9.20 am:
With the students sitting on the floor in front of the IWB, the teacher wrote two
words on the IWB: detailed and begining. The students were given time to decide
which was spelt incorrectly. Linda continued to write words on the IWB
explaining spelling rules as she went and giving students opportunity to highlight
or rewrite correct versions of words on the IWB. She asked how one could use the
word retained in a sentence and offered dictionaries so the students could look up
its meaning. There was a lot of teacher–student and student–student conversation
around words, sentences and meanings.
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Back at their desks, the students completed a table of words practicing the
spelling rules the teacher had covered on the IWB. Students had the choice to
work independently or in groups; teacher encouraged them to discuss meanings
with each other. Linda then reviewed the answers demonstrating the spelling
changes on the IWB as students corrected their own work. Teacher provided
spelling strategies such as ‘Does that look right?’ to assist children with spelling
cues. Lots of direct teaching this morning.
The feel and look of the literacy block in Linda’s classroom stands in stark contrast to both
Emma’s and Paul’s. It was apparent that Linda’s passion for and knowledge of her students and
their literacy needs was a key indicator to her planning, content and delivery of the literacy
block. Linda also provided the students with many opportunities to talk about words, spelling
strategies and meanings to assist their understanding and used the IWB as a collaborative,
interactive tool for teaching.
The following example occurred on the same day as the above and demonstrates the passion and
self-confidence that three of the boys displayed towards literacy that was not evident in the other
two classes:
10.10 am: The students moved onto gathering their spelling words and the teacher
checked them. Once they were finished, the children read their expositions’ that
they had been working on to a friend. This is a conversation between Jack, Liam
and Noah three Year 5 boys:
Jack read his exposition first on ‘Why Nuclear power should be banned’.
Liam: ‘What are we going to do for electricity if nuclear power is banned?’
Jack: ‘We will use solar and coal’.
Noah: ‘We should use water you know steam power. Let’s check’.
Two of the boys went and found a nonfiction text to check some facts and
continued their discussion arguing the pros and cons of nuclear power. Jack
fetched a laptop. After consulting their sources and animated discussion for eight
minutes, Jack added some points to his exposition. Liam and Noah read their
expositions on homework and the importance of family, respectively. Discussion
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continued with the boys being totally engaged for 40 minutes in a conversation
around their own writing (Field notes, 4/5B, 28/3/11).
Observation revealed that Linda and Emma follow a similar pattern of activities during the
literacy block as they both taught a Year 4/5 class and plan together. However, the delivery was
very different as evidenced in these examples.
In contrast to Emma’s classroom, the children in Linda’s class were engaged and active in their
own literacy learning through technology and books. Linda provided opportunities for the
students to write and share their work both online and in their books. She encouraged
conversation and used a combination of hands-on activities, such as using the IWB
collaboratively, and individual work. She encouraged the boys to work together and fostered
their love of nonfiction, novels and websites by providing plenty of opportunities for boys to
engage with their own interests. The boys had choice in a range of texts, were encouraged to talk
about their writing and learned from each other. The love of literacy and her confidence in
teaching with technology was clearly apparent, and this even spilt over into one of her student’s
home lives. For example, Thomas, one of the boys interviewed in Linda’s class and who has
experienced literacy difficulties (see Chapter 4), as a result of hearing Boy Overboard in class, is
reading to his mother each night at home from his own copy of the book, which he insisted that
his mother purchase.
From the teachers at St John’s, it is apparent that the attitude of the teacher is one of the most
important ingredients in the planning and execution of the literacy block. From these extracts it
became apparent that a teacher’s own personal literacy journey and confidence in teaching with
technology influences their attitude and delivery as well as their classroom setup. Emma’s
behaviour management was such that students were compliant in completing their activities, but
there was little evidence of the joy and passion the students in Linda’s class enjoyed. Paul’s easy
nature and leniency enabled the boys to be self-directed and task oriented, which was innate
rather than imposed, but this did not stimulate quite as much passion and engagement as Linda’s
students enjoyed. It is apparent that the role of the teacher and his or her attitude becomes critical
for creating enthusiasm for engaging boys in new literacies in the classroom.
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6.2.7.2. Red Hill College
The English teachers at Red Hill College were all motivated readers with a passion for English
teaching and their own love of literature. Kate, as Curriculum Coordinator did not classify
herself as a reader and reported her teaching area as History and Geography. However, while the
teachers were passionate about literature and reading, field notes record that there was a very
limited range of books available in classrooms for silent reading, which the English policy
document mandated for 10 minutes at the beginning of each lesson. A typical selection of books
in the English classrooms included a few dictionaries, two Bibles, one picture book, four
Mathematics textbooks and an anthology of poems printed in 1952 from which to choose, should
the boys be told to get a book to read. While boys in Year 7 were required to have their Shared
Literature book with them for each English lesson, approximately 25 per cent of a class
consistently did not have a book to read for silent reading (with the exception of David’s class).
This, together with inconsistent application of silent reading time each lesson, meant that boys in
Year 7 and 8 were not being encouraged to read for leisure at school. This was despite the
teacher’s own passion for reading. Some classroom examples follow.
6.2.7.2.1. Classroom Example: Kara
Observation about boys and reading in Kara’s classroom demonstrated her commitment to
developing comprehension and reading skills. For example:
The text being studied by Year 7 was Lois Lowry’s The Giver. Kara displayed
two copies of the book with different covers and asked the class to comment on
the visual imagery conveyed by each dust cover. Boys put up their hands and
gave their opinion. Kara asked the boys to follow in their own books while she
modelled reading aloud with expression, beginning at chapter one. She stopped
periodically to check for understanding, define vocabulary and choose a boy to
continue reading to the rest of the class. She used targeted questioning rather than
selecting boys who had raised their hands. Kara used literal and inferential
questions to check for understanding as the boys followed along using their own
copy. As the class read, Kara began to write themes on the board that were
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emerging, for example: ‘obedience to rules; orderly society’. The boys were then
given the remainder of the 55-minute lesson to write an answer to the question
‘What is this town like?’ The boys chatted quietly as they began the task, soon
settling to write in silence. Two minutes before the end of the lesson they were
told to write their homework in their diaries (Field notes).
Kara was well organised, focussed and clear on the aims of this lesson and communicated clearly
her expectations to the boys. Her passion and deep knowledge of reading and literature was
evident in her teaching and she was able to draw on other books that the boys had read to make
links to The Giver, and to engage boys in conversation around the emerging themes. The boys
responded well to this style of teaching and remained on task for 45 minutes out of the 55-minute
period. There was no digital technology available in this classroom.
6.2.7.2.2. Classroom Example: Brenda
Brenda’s teaching style was markedly different to her teaching contemporaries. Observation
revealed that her classes were not as well organised as the other teachers’ and her expectations of
the boys in terms of their behaviour were more lenient. Observation revealed that there was a
higher degree of off-task behaviour evidenced by boys fidgeting, swinging on their chairs,
unauthorised chatting to their partner, staring into space, yawning repeatedly, calling out,
throwing and catching a pen or poking their neighbour when the teacher was not looking (Field
notes). This was evident in both her Year 7 and 8 classes. Field notes record that:
Each class began with time for silent reading. However, Brenda never modelled
reading, instead used this time to complete administrative tasks and to set up the
IWB for the lesson. Approximately half of the boys did not bring a novel to class
and the classroom selection was very poor. Boys often chose to read their diaries
in pretence of reading or simply put their heads on the desks and rested. During
one lesson, three boys engaged in stabbing a novel with a pen to see who could
drive it the deepest. There was much hilarity, which Brenda appeared not to
notice. On average, the first 15 minutes of every lesson were given notionally as
silent reading time (Field notes, 31/5/11, Year 8).
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It was apparent that Brenda’s expressed belief about the importance of reading for boys in
middle school did not translate to her classroom practice consistently through silent reading.
However, owing to her time teaching in primary school, Brenda used the IWB and interactive
resources more effectively than did the other teachers who were observed in secondary school.
During this time, the boys were engaged and interacted positively. She admitted to being a ‘big
advocate of technology for teaching boys’ and expressed her frustration at not having her own
classroom to set up the IWB before the boys came to their lesson. This explained why she
needed the silent reading time at the beginning of each lesson.
At Red Hill College, students and teachers move from room to room for lessons and this
becomes a significant factor in resourcing. For example, teachers do not have control over the
range of books or technology available in the classroom in which they teach neither do they have
access to the room prior to the lesson to set up the technology they require. In contrast, teachers
in primary school ‘own’ their classroom space and like Linda can set up their classrooms to
reflect their digital and literacy philosophy. This is significant because teachers may have a
positive attitude towards teaching with technology or encouraging boys to read, yet physical
surroundings may not be conducive to supporting their philosophy. This will be more deeply
explored in the following section.
The data revealed that the attitude and aptitude of the teacher regarding technology use for
teaching and their own literacy has a marked impact on the delivery and type of activities in the
classroom. Of the 15 teachers interviewed, eight were very confident of their own technology
skills and seven expressed average skill in their own ability. However, Emma, Paul and David,
all self-confessed digital natives and confident users of technology, did not employ technology
beyond the perfunctory in their Literacy and English classes. Consequently, the same correlation
cannot be said to be true between those teachers who were confident with technology for their
own use and those that demonstrated confidence in teaching with technology. Of significance is
that a teacher’s confidence, skills, dispositions and the physical surroundings have a strong
influence on their teaching practice when engaging with technology. However, 80 per cent of the
teachers reported being passionate readers and in this study there was a greater correlation
between a teacher’s own passion for reading and their classroom practices to engage boys in
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reading. More classrooms examples are provided in the following section on teaching with
technology.
In summary, those teachers with many years’ experience have noticed a change in boys’ attitude
and aptitude with technology, reading and the skills they bring to the classroom. It appeared that
clear expectations, sound organisation, provision of a choice of texts and media, opportunities for
self-directed learning, working collaboratively and encouraging boys to pursue their interests
using books and technology are significant factors for developing skills for boys in the middle
school classroom, particularly through literacy activities.
The next section discusses the nature of teaching and learning with technology from the teacher’s
perspective.
6.3. The Nature of Teaching and Learning with Technology
The section is organized under two overarching headings namely the up-side and the down-side
of teaching and learning with technology in English literacy classrooms. This was the
terminology most used by the teachers in discussions. The diagram below depicts a summary
(see Figure 6.2).
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Force Field Diagram representing Teacher Attitudes
Forces For:
The Up-Side
Forces Against:
The Down-Side
Access to vast resources
Time
Critical and visual literacy
Reliability of access
Collaborative; Cooperative
Move to Mobile
Interactive; Motivational
Independent;Inquisitive
Teaching
and Learning
with
Technology
in Middle
School
Lack of teacher skill and
expertise
Lack of control
Social Interaction
Enable Differentiation
Foster creativity and
innovation
Behaviour management
tool
Figure 6.2: Force Field Diagram Representing Teacher Attitudes
6.3.1. School Resources
It is necessary to explain the technology available to teachers in the two research contexts, as this
had an impact on their responses.
In the classrooms in which observation took place at St John’s Primary, every classroom was
equipped with an IWB, a data projector, six laptops and two older desktop computers in good
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working order. The school is wirelessly networked and access to the Internet was mostly
available (only three instances were recorded during the 10 weeks of observation during which
the system was unavailable). There is one computer lab and one mobile trolley housing 30
laptops.
Red Hill College is nearly 90 years old, and like many institutions of its age, features solid brick
walls and multiple buildings, spread over a large campus. The average age of the college’s
teachers is 48 and Kate, the Curriculum Director, acknowledged the challenge of ‘skilling up’
teachers in relation to teaching and learning with technology. In the secondary classrooms in
which English classes were conducted, three out of five classrooms were equipped with an IWB
and data projector. One classroom had a data projector and screen. There were no laptops or
desktops in the English classrooms and the teachers used their own laptops to connect via the
data projector to the IWB for classroom use.
There were three computer laboratories routinely accessed by the Red Hill English department,
housing up to 30 desktop computers with access to the Internet. Each class was timetabled on a
rotational basis for one lesson in a lab during the 10 day cycle. Teachers were able to access a
booking sheet for the Resource Centre or one of the other computer labs if they required Internet
access or opportunity for students more often. David and Brenda availed themselves of this more
frequently than did Veronica and Kara. The Resource Centre is very well equipped with
computers, and boys are encouraged to make use of these facilities before, during and after
school. The school is currently in the process of upgrading its technology and installing better
wireless access. There are plans to remove the fixed technology labs and focus on the
implementation of mobile devices.
Teachers were quick to share both successes and failures when using technology for teaching and
learning. The nature of the subject being taught did not necessarily lend itself to either more or
less technology use. Rather, it appeared that it was the teacher’s confidence, aptitude and attitude
that determined how much technology was used in the literacy classroom and for what purpose
as previously discussed. Below, the benefits or up-side teachers identified for teaching and
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learning with technology is discussed first. The subsequent section deals with the barriers, fears
and concerns, or the down-side that teachers across the research sites identified.
6.3.2. The Up-Side
The table below summarises the benefits of teaching and learning with technology that teachers
identified during their in-depth interview. All teachers reported benefitting from access to the
vast and varied resources that the Internet affords them in their classroom. The majority (87 per
cent) nominated the opportunity to teach critical and visual literacy as being of large benefit to
their literacy classroom and developing these skills in their students. Two benefits, these being,
‘students becoming independent learners, inquisitive and internationally minded’ as well as
‘technology is providing the opportunity to foster creativity and innovation’ were unique to the
secondary teachers’ interview data. At the time of the research, Red Hill College was undergoing
a fundamental shift in policy around teaching and learning, with technology moving from
computer labs to mobile technology (predominantly the iPad) and from being inward focused to
being outward focused or ‘internationally minded’ as a result of a new Headmaster. This would
have influenced the secondary teachers’ answers, as these issues were at the front of their minds.
Table 6.1: The Upside of Teaching with Technology
The Upside of Technology
Access to vast and varied resources
Opportunity to teach critical and visual literacy
Collaborative teaching and learning
opportunities; e.g., Ning
Move to mobile (laptop; iPad; mobile phone)
Interactive lessons to motivate and engage
students; e.g., Glogster Edu
Students become independent learners,
inquisitive and internationally minded
Technology enables differentiation
Opportunity to foster creativity and innovation
Behaviour management tool
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Percentage of Teachers
Who Agreed
100%
87%
73%
67%
67%
60%
33%
33%
27%
6.3.2.1. Access to Vast and Varied Resources
Every teacher in this study mentioned the benefit of having vast and varied resources from which
to draw as a result of the Internet. All teachers attested to the belief that the Internet has ushered
in a new way of being literate, and as such has marked a change in the teaching of literacy, as is
consistent with the research (see Chapter 2). All confirmed that social media and Web 2.0
applications are having a transformative effect on education and the lives of the adolescents they
teach. However, 87 per cent of teachers, despite their enthusiasm, concede that they are still
struggling to come to terms with the pace of change and implications of ICT on learning and
teaching. It is apparent that there is a gulf between teachers identifying the benefits of teaching
with technology and the implementation of technology in their classrooms. The significance of
this gulf has as its basis the differences in learning preferences between digital learners and nondigital teachers.
6.3.2.2. Opportunity to Teach Critical and Visual Literacy
As discussed in Section 6.2, a significant finding of this study is that 87 per cent of teachers in
this study believed that the resources available in their respective schools largely support them in
their quest to teach critical and visual literacy. They all commented that students need to be
given the opportunity to access the vast resources available online and that teachers need to
facilitate exploration, analysis and practice with these resources. As we shall see in the next
section, this is not without difficulty. Despite their optimism and commitment, teachers
acknowledged that making the most of online resources has practical implications that they are
yet to master.
6.3.2.3. Collaborative Teaching and Learning Opportunities
Seventy-three per cent of teachers identified collaborative teaching and learning opportunities as
a major benefit that technology brings to literacy learning. Two examples from the primary
context, given below, illustrate this practice.
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6.3.2.3.1. Classroom Example 1: Paul
Observation in primary classrooms showcased the use of Ziptales, a website that
offers a wide range of engaging, interactive stories for primary aged children,
including comprehension, spelling and writing activities. Paul used a Ziptale to
illustrate a writing technique or to discuss genre as a whole class activity. Using
the IWB the class watched and listened to the story being read. The teacher
paused the story occasionally to highlight the featured writing technique and
asked questions to check for understanding. The whole class activity was
followed up during literacy rotations. Small group work included the writing of a
collaborative story practising the skill explicitly taught. Students could return to
the Ziptale for clarification or example at any time. Students published their
stories on the school Ning (Field notes).
The significance of collaborative teaching and learning is that all participants contribute and
learn from each other. However, at St John’s, of more significance is the opportunity students
have to post their writing on the school Ning. The Ning provides an authentic audience
comprising the wider school community for which the students can write. Online tools such as
Ning in Education facilitate authentic, collaborative literacy opportunities, which support the
skills required for new literacies.
6.3.2.3.2. Classroom Example 2: Carol
Carol, the Special Needs teacher at St John’s Primary, set up the school’s Ning to encourage
students to compose and publish their stories, poetry, book reviews and jokes for others to read
and comment upon, as part of a literate community in an authentic forum. Forum subjects
include pets; best book; movies I love; favourite title and pictures. The Ning provides an
opportunity for instant publishing, peer and teacher feedback and a stimulus for ideas for further
writing. It is the collaborative conversation about reading and writing that Carol is fostering
through this online interactive platform that is so significant.
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Carol explained that she runs regular writing workshops, competitions and a reading corner on
the Ning, where she features a book a fortnight and encourages students to add their choice and
book reviews. She encourages students to take photographs and write about their areas of interest
on the Ning. There are videos of authors discussing their work, websites, poetry and amusing
videos as writing stimuli for students to access. Students have been taught the protocol for
positive feedback of peer work. Carol reads all comments prior to publishing. Parents and
teachers have been included in the writing community, and have access to view and comment on
students’ work. Of the 13 boys interviewed at St John’s, seven made specific mention of their
enjoyment of the school Ning. Following is an example of original poetry from the Ning.
Sam in Year 5 has a younger brother with Down’s syndrome. Once this poem was published, it
received numerous positive posts and comments from all ages:
Sebbie by Sam (Year 5)
From physio to speech pathology
To doctors appointments to medical therapy
For this strong little boy doesn’t complain
Through sunshine and rain
He keeps soldiering on, through thick and thin
I’m definitely blessed to have him
He is always tough without a doubt
Here comes little Sebbie you better watch out!
(Field notes).
The significance of collaborative writing has been well documented. Carol is providing a forum
for students to work in a medium that is both authentic and enables students to network
simultaneously with others in their community, providing a larger audience and the instant
reward of feedback from peers, parents and teachers. The popularity of the Ning is testament to
the way in which digital learners are embracing writing out of choice, another key factor when
teaching boys.
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6.3.2.4. Move to Mobile
In both schools, teachers and executive staff were exploring the opportunities afforded by
mobile, wireless technology. Ten out of the 15 teachers interviewed or 67 per cent identified the
move to mobile technology as having distinct benefit for teaching and learning. This was
particularly evident at Red Hill College where there was a clear shift in emphasis on moving
from computer labs to mobile technology to enable boys to make a seamless transition for
learning with technology regardless of environment. For example, this school is committed to
running an iPad trial for Year 9 boys in 2012 to take advantage of access to excellent content
‘anywhere-anytime’.
On the other hand, St John’s Primary has recently been the recipient of BER funds and has
refurbished their library to include a technology lab housing 26 laptops. They also invested funds
from the Federal DER fund to purchase six laptops for each classroom and wirelessly network
the school. Carol has invested in iPads to assist teaching and learning for those students with
special needs. She believes that tablet technology is more intuitive and user-friendly. In this
study, two-thirds of teachers recognised the opportunities for enhancing learning using digital
tools. William, the school’s IT Coordinator at St John’s, summarises what most teachers
expressed:
It’s an exciting tool to use, students have a device on their desk, it’s theirs to
control, the children are in charge of their learning, rather than having to deal with
a book and a pencil, they can do it on the computer, and they can see an instant
reaction or result. Just doing something that’s really different to the person next
to them is a great thing. They’re in charge of their environment (Interview, 2011,
p. 6).
William raised some significant points regarding the benefits of technology that dovetail with
understandings of how boys learn best; this signalling the supportive nature of mobile
technology for boys’ learning (see Chapters 2 and 4). The idea that mobile technology is
collaborative yet the user has control and choice over the product they produce benefits the ways
in which boys learn. The instant feedback from their actions on screen is both motivating and
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instructional for boys and the choice and variety of tools available suits the hands-on, active and
exploratory nature of boys’ learning. Add to this access anywhere-anytime and it means that
boys can go on interacting and learning beyond the school bell.
6.3.2.5. Exciting Opportunities for Interactive Lessons
Two-thirds of the teachers interviewed identified the exciting opportunities for interactive
lessons that technology can provide to motivate and engage students. Their enthusiasm was
marginally tempered by some difficulties that have been experienced, but all held an optimistic
view that difficulties can be overcome. An example of the interactive nature of technology to
motivate boys to engage deeply with poetry is the use of Glogster Edu with Brenda’s Year 7
class.
6.3.2.5.1. Classroom Example: Brenda
Glogster Edu is an interactive poster display through which one Year 7 class engaged and
produced an assessment piece on a chosen ballad. This was a mixed ability class and the boys
had been studying poetry, particularly the structure and nature of Ballads, during the second
term. This Representing task required the boys to:
1. Imagine they lived in a small town from which emerged a well-known ballad, which all
Year 7 students of the town are required to study at school. This year, the town mayor has
created a competition seeking the best entry for a mural honouring the ballad. The
winning mural will be exhibited as an interactive digital display in the town centre.
Carefully consider the ideas, settings and character/s in the ballad and how these might be
valuable to the town.
2. Design a Glog that captures the essence of its narrative. For best marks, you must also
include images that show a connection between aspects of the ballad and the town,
townspeople or Year 7 students who study it.
3. Write one paragraph explaining what you were trying to convey through your Glog.
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The marking rubric provided clear guidelines for the boys, indicating that they would be marked
on their ability to:

Use appropriate processes for planning and composing

Explore ideas, settings and characters of the text through visual language

Use principles of design to compose an effective mural

Comment on the relationship between text and society (Year 7 task sheet Red Hill).
Instead of asking the boys to complete this task using traditional pen and paper, Brenda
introduced them to Glogster® (www.glogster.com). Glogster is an interactive poster display that
facilitates students in representing their thoughts and ideas creatively using online tools. Glogster
EDU is a Web 2.0 platform that allows teachers and students to easily upload photographs,
videos, text, audio and more to create an interactive online poster in a secure, safe and private
web environment. Brenda found the benefits to include: security, easy teacher control over
students’ online activities in Glogster, the creation of individual student portfolios, easy to mark
assessments, and provision of timely feedback. From the students’ point of view, the boys
demonstrated high engagement, interactive, imaginative and creative expression; participated in
positive peer relationships as boys helped and mentored each other; and became motivated
learners who were able to express themselves and their choice of ballad in a multisensory way.
There were many comments along the lines of ‘Glogster is so cool, how did you do that?’ and
‘The background you chose really represents the setting’ (Field notes, June 2011).
Brenda provided the boys with the opportunity to complete their Glog in three English lessons.
The first lesson involved playing with Glogster and finalising their choice of ballad. Once the
boys had decided on their ballad, they were given two lessons to complete their Glog. These
lessons took place in the computer lab in the English department.
The significance of using a Glog over traditional pen and paper methods were many. The
creation of a Glog facilitated real-time achievement for the boys and the provision of a rubric
ensured that any hidden inquiry processes were made apparent, and that the purpose of the
activity was clearly defined. All aspects of the representing task were addressed through the
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Glogs, and the level of engagement, excitement and achievement was markedly different to in
other paper-based assessments I had observed. This may well be attributed to the discovery of a
new interactive tool, which none of the boys had used before, and may well not have the same
impact in subsequent uses; although I suspect it will. Brenda enlisted the help of Gail, Head of
the Resource Centre, in entering a nickname for every student in the class, which was time
consuming, but worth the once-off effort as their security and privacy is now assured for further
Glog portfolio work. The Red Hill College ICT system worked effectively during this series of
lessons, so Brenda did not have to deal with some of the difficulties teachers can face when
incorporating and relying on computers for classroom use.
Field notes recorded that Brenda remarked very positively on the engagement with multimedia to
explore this element of poetry. She said:
It was as enjoyable and interesting to the boys as it was to me as their teacher. I took on
the role of a co-learner or guide rather than positioning myself as the expert because I
wasn’t. I had little experience of using a Glog and I learned along with the boys, some of
whom seemed to intuitively know how to embed complex items to make their Glogs
interactive. I was amazed at the boys’ creativity and insight in visually representing their
ballad. Their understanding of the emotional impact, their choice of image, colours and
words portrayed were truly remarkable (Field notes).
Beginning as an experiment to incorporate technology into Brenda’s English lessons, the
significance of this classroom example is that it has effectively reflected the social practices with
which our students are so familiar in their home lives; namely, processing pictures, sounds,
colour and text simultaneously. Additionally, it highlighted the interactive, collaborative nature
of teaching and learning with technology and positioned Brenda as a ‘guide on the side’ as she
learned along with the boys in her class (Carroll and Edwards, 2012).
6.3.2.6. Students become Independent Learners, Inquisitive and Internationally Minded
Secondary teachers identified the benefit of students becoming independent, inquisitive and
internationally minded learners exclusively (60 per cent). According to the school website, Red
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Hill College is continually looking for opportunities to develop the skills of ‘independence,
inquisitiveness and international mindedness’ in their boys. Through the use of technology, the
school plans to connect its own students with students from around the world, so that they may
together engage in collaborative learning. In addition, access is provided to world-class
educational institutions to deepen knowledge and broaden perspectives; for example, students
have access to resources from the Smithsonian Institute and National Libraries. While this was
often spoken about by staff, it was only evident through observation in the Resource Centre. Gail
worked with boys to develop these skills and supported some teachers to develop relationships
with external organisations and schools. It appeared most often to be teachers of History and
Geography that received the benefit of her teaching.
Kara and Veronica attempted to foster the skills of being an independent, inquisitive learner by
providing opportunities for research and development of background knowledge and the use of
contemporary culture to gain information and broaden perspectives. They encouraged the boys in
their classes to seek opportunities to share their knowledge and learn from others, including
those beyond the school gate.
6.3.2.7. Technology Enables Differentiation
One-third of teachers identified differentiation as a benefit of teaching and learning with
technology. Both of the curriculum coordinators interviewed identified the opportunities they
perceive to flow from integrating technology into the classroom to cater to individual needs.
Carol, the Special Needs teacher, particularly welcomed the use of iPad technology to engage her
students in an individualised education program. She provided the example of Riley, a student
who experienced encephalitis, missing a large part of Year 2, who now attends intensive literacy
sessions and uses an iPad to assist him in class. One primary and one secondary teacher
identified differentiation using technology as beneficial to the teaching and learning of English.
Observation revealed that both of these teachers are very confident users of technology in their
classrooms and employed methods to enable differentiation to cater to student needs.
Differentiation was more obvious in primary settings than in the secondary settings.
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6.3.2.8. Opportunity to Foster Creativity and Innovation
The teachers who explicitly mentioned the opportunity to foster creativity and innovation during
the interview were all secondary teachers. Their enthusiasm was based on the observation of the
skills their students bring to the classroom from their engagement with social media. Observation
and interviews confirmed that engagement in social media and creation of original content
through written and visual methods are a routine activity for most of the boys in this age group
(see Chapter 4). These teachers perceive opportunities to capitalise on the skills and attitudes that
boys bring with them to the classroom to engage and extend creativity using technology.
Veronica achieved this through using popular culture media. Brenda employed online tools such
as Glogster to facilitate creativity in assessment. Kate, the Director of Curriculum, identified the
imperative that the school has to provide opportunity for students to be creative, innovative and
work as part of a team to enable success in the workplace. For example, Red Hill College offers
a co-curricular activity, Code Cadets, in which boys are encouraged and supported to develop
and market apps for tablet and handheld devices.
The opportunity to develop creativity and innovation skills was also identified by parents as
important (see Chapter 5). Parents in this study placed this responsibility firmly at the feet of the
school as an expectation, believing that the skills of creativity and innovation particularly
relating to technology are sound currency in the world of work. It appears that some teachers are
supportive of parents’ views, but this is not consistently evident in classroom practice.
6.3.2.9. Behaviour Management Tool
Four teachers, or 27 per cent, identified one of the benefits of teaching with technology is its
value as a behaviour management tool. There was no relationship to teachers’ age or experience
in the classroom among those who identified this benefit. Each of the teachers based their
judgment on the premise that their students appeared to be quieter and more engaged when using
technology in the classroom. Observation revealed this was the case. However, I also noticed
that boys were not always on task. For some, the lure of the game was stronger than was the
satisfaction of completing the task set by the teacher. Observation in the English computer lab
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and the Resource Centre revealed that boys had very sophisticated methods of avoiding detection
and protecting each other from being caught by the teacher. For example: In the English
computer lab, during an English lesson gathering information on Shakespearean times, three
boys sat together each at their own computer. Two played Achtung die Curve, while the third
was the ‘lookout’. A swift kick to the ankle warned of the teacher’s arrival and immediately the
game was closed and work resumed. The boys democratically rotated the job of ‘lookout’
throughout the 55-minute lesson (Field notes, August 2011).
Veronica, a secondary teacher, remarked that there has been a ‘shift in our thinking’ with regards
to technology being used in classrooms as a motivator for learning. She perceived technology to
be an external motivator and one that is readily accessible to the boys at home. Therefore, in her
view, technology no longer holds the same currency in the classroom as it may have done even
five years ago:
My role is to focus on strengthening the boys’ intrinsic motivation and selfcontrol to use technology for learning; making the most of the opportunities the
Internet affords them (Classroom conversation, August 2011).
The significance of this quotation is that it reflects the changing dynamic of technology as an
external motivator or reward, to the use of technology for learning and an intrinsic motivation to
achieve at school. Kara held a similar opinion, saying:
There are those boys who see technology as a tool and there are those boys who
see technology as entertainment (Interview, 2011, p. 3).
The way in which boys perceive technology has implications for how they engage with it in the
classroom. What is significant for teachers is the need to create a digital culture for learning in
which the technology, be it mobile or static, is viewed as a tool for learning, in the same way as
are textbooks and writing implements. Boys in middle school are old enough to appreciate the
difference, and it is apparent that if the task at hand is engaging, collaborative, interactive and
relevant, then boys will use the technology for learning and remain on-task.
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In summary, the teachers in this study were optimistic about the potential uses for technology to
enhance, motivate and encourage literacy learning in the middle years. The range, variety and
opportunity to draw on a number of resources provided by the Internet on a number of platforms
had implications for engaging boys in critical and creative literacy. Teachers clearly believed that
technology has the potential to capture and amplify the skills that boys bring with them from
home, as well as to enhance differentiation and create independent, inquisitive learners.
Identifying and believing in the opportunities or up-sides of technology for teaching and learning
is significant as a beginning step for teachers to create a digital culture at school. However,
barriers or down-sides were also reported by teachers as making technology adoption in
classrooms a fraught journey for many.
6.3.3. The Down-Side
Teachers in this study identified the barriers, fears and concerns that they experienced when
teaching with technology. There is an underlying apprehension between wanting to embrace the
possibilities of new ways of teaching and simultaneously feeling ‘forced into the changes’ that
technology (and school management) is demanding. Both schools were in the process of
implementing organisational and structural changes to support teaching and learning with
technology.
Analysis revealed that there was no marked distinction between primary and secondary teachers
in relation to their attitudes towards technology in the classroom as potentially disadvantageous.
There was no distinctive correlation between the age of teachers and the type of concerns they
expressed. Nor was there any measurable link between the way in which teachers rated
themselves in terms of their own technology expertise and their perception of the barriers to
implementing technology in teaching and learning. Secondary teachers were more likely to
express concern over the requirements of the exit credential and assessment as a key influencing
factor to teaching and learning with technology. This was not mentioned at all by primary
teachers. Discussion follows on each of the key themes. The following table provides a summary
based on frequency analysis.
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Table 6.2: The Down Side of Teaching with Technology
The Down Side of Technology
Time
Reliability and access
Percentage of Teachers
Who Agreed
100%
100%
Lack of skill and technical expertise
Control
Social interaction
66%
53%
33%
6.3.3.1. Time
The main hurdles encountered in the use of technology for teaching and learning as found in the
teacher’s interviews in relation to time were: time searching for appropriate, educational sites;
collecting digital resources; learning to use new digital tools and devices; and time lost when
technology does not function according to plan. All teachers reported time as the biggest barrier
preventing them from using technology for teaching and learning more consistently. Comments
included:
‘Technology just creates more work for teachers who have limited time’
‘I never have time to develop my own technology skills’
‘I find it hard to have time to adapt my lessons to include technology’
‘Too much time is lost when technology does not function as I expect’
‘There’s not enough time for professional development in using technology’
(Interview, 2011).
The teachers at St John’s Primary each mentioned that they would like to include more
innovative technology use in their daily literacy rotations. Field notes record that students used
the laptops in the classrooms to publish work, learn how to touch type or to play games on
Funbrain.com, a collection of literacy and numeracy games online. Paul identified finding
‘quality, appropriate literacy resources as my major issue’. He expressed ongoing frustration that
lack of time prevented him from syncing his personal philosophy of integrating technology
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seamlessly into his classroom with his actual teaching methods. Being in his mid-20s, he is very
confident of his abilities to use and access technology in the classroom, but he is lacking the time
and opportunity to find quality educational experiences and information for his students that
challenges and inspires them. Observation and field notes record that the time taken for students
to log on and begin work using the laptops took, on average, seven minutes out of a possible 20minute rotation at the beginning of a lesson. Paul finds this very frustrating because it reduces
the amount of time that students have on the laptops for learning as part of a literacy rotation.
Observation also revealed that the literacy sites Paul included in his literacy rotations lacked
depth and relevance for Year 6 and failed to capture boys’ attention for longer than five minutes
(Field notes).
Emma, in her interview, was more direct in expressing her frustration of not feeling as if she has
enough time to find digital resources. ‘I spend a lot of time trying to filter out what is actual crap
and what is good’. This leaves Emma with the residual belief that, ‘I do not get much from the
Internet at all’. Add to this Emma’s frustration that many of the laptops are missing keys and that
students forget their log in and password on a regular basis. ‘In a typical lesson with the laptops I
reckon I get 10 minutes of actual work time because of the issues you have’. This was borne out
through observation in each of the three primary school classrooms. It was apparent that this
resulted in high levels of frustration for the upper primary teachers.
Linda also mentioned time to find resources as an issue, but now in her third year of teaching
upper primary, she has collected a number of good literacy sites, which has reduced her
frustration. She was also very positive about the fast download speed she experiences at St
John’s in comparison to the school at which she taught previously. She addressed the issue of
logging students in and setting up the laptops prior to the start of a lesson, rather than waiting for
the laptops to become functional during teaching time. She does this by appointing two
‘technology managers’ from her class each week whose role it is to set up the laptops prior to the
start of a lesson. This appeared to be an effective strategy in making the most use of teaching and
learning time during literacy blocks.
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Carol, the Special Needs teacher agreed with her colleagues that time is a limiting step when
using technology for teaching and learning. She added that in her experience, students are not
given enough time to use and play with technology. She expressed this, saying:
School does not allow students’ time to explore, play and discover with
technology as there is always the pressure of time, sharing resources or technical
issues that prevent this free exploration which students need to construct learning
and knowledge (Field notes, February 2011).
Among the secondary teachers, Kara, Veronica, Alex, Phillip, Gail and Kate listed time as a
major barrier to their use of technology for teaching and learning. The ‘crowded curriculum’ was
a phrase often used and time and individual skill was often linked to that idea. For example, Alex
and Phillip listed their own lack of technological skill and confidence as a stumbling block to
their efficient use of the Internet and digital devices. It appeared that teacher willingness to
engage with digital resources, set time aside to improve individual skills and search for resources
are significant factors to becoming more efficient when teaching and learning with technology.
6.3.3.2. Reliability and Access
During the semi-structured interviews, which focussed on an individual teacher’s experience
regarding access to technology, every teacher commented on the unreliability of the Internet or
some other technology failure as a barrier to teaching and learning with technology. For example
Kara said:
When the IT system fails, that’s clearly a problem. An inefficient system leads
you to be cautious about relying on technology (Interview, 2011, p. 6).
Technology failure resulting in lack of access is a problem every teacher had experienced on
more than one occasion. For David, a first-year teacher, this caused ‘unnecessary stress’, as he
always had to plan a ‘backup’ lesson. He had a very clear expectation that ‘because we are living
in the digital age, the technology needs to work all the time as I rely on it more and more’.
Emma, also an early career teacher, reported her own ICT skills as being above average, but she
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was very quick to point out the limitations in terms of reliability and access when using ICT in
her classroom: ‘My worst fear is that the Internet dies!’ Classroom observation revealed that
more experienced teachers displayed the same frustration when technology did not function as
planned. However, perhaps experience had taught them to be circumspect in their expectation
and equipped them to improvise easily and quickly should such an incident occur.
Teachers in the secondary setting, particularly those engaged by the researcher in casual
conversations in the staff room, spoke of their frustration when trying to access sites that are
routinely blocked by school fire walls. Examples were provided of Twitter, Facebook and some
video and music sharing sites. Those in the History department had their own set of challenges
when trying to access sites relating to issues and events in history considered unsuitable for
students and therefore blocked by security settings. This was not the experience of the English
teachers interviewed. Security settings and legal requirements are a necessary part of the school’s
responsibility to its students and their parents. However, these can also prevent full access to the
offerings of the Internet. An emphasis on educating students about Internet usage and allowing
students to shoulder the responsibility for their actions may enable schools to remove filters
which at present block genuine sites for learning.
A further consideration, raised particularly by the school leaders in the research sites, was the
significant challenge and practical implication of providing access to technology for all students.
Integrating rapidly changing technological devices such as IWBs or allocating space to computer
laboratories in existing classrooms became a design issue as well as a cost. Using differing types
of technology in traditional classrooms demands a new way of thinking about the use of
classroom space for teaching and learning. Traditional classroom set up, shape, size and function
need to be taken into account to provide best access for the particular type of technology being
considered. With technology developing so quickly, this becomes a considerable challenge for
schools. Add to this the decision of which technology to provide to satisfy learning outcomes for
all grade levels and the complexity increases exponentially.
Less than half of the classroom teachers expressed concern over access to the latest technology
for teaching and learning, fearing that ‘If I don’t have access to the latest gadget I will slip
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behind [my students]’. This was more evident in the secondary setting in which boys come to
school bearing diverse forms of technology with which the staff were not familiar. It was
apparent that teachers in this study felt the tension of keeping up with their students while
delivering sound pedagogy in a relevant and timely manner (Field notes, 2011).
6.3.3.3. Lack of Technical Skills and Knowledge
During the course of the semi-structured interviews and informal conversations, there was a
perceived gap identified between teachers and their students in terms of knowledge, expertise,
attitude and confidence when engaging with technology. Following are typical statements from a
range of teachers which expressed this:
‘I will be left behind and won’t be able to harness digital tools for education’
‘I don’t know how best to use technology to teach effectively’
‘I fear missing opportunities to connect with my students due to my own
ignorance’
‘I worry about being able to keep up with the pace of change’
‘I lack the skills to convert my teaching into teaching with technology’
‘I worry that I can’t keep up with my students, the gap is widening’
‘I have always taught this way and it works, why do I need to use technology?’
‘Unless the Internet is used incredibly wisely, with very sound pedagogy
underlying it, I think it’s a very dangerous tool’ (Interview and Field notes, 2011)
The significance of these statements exists in the underlying feelings of anxiety that some
teachers in this study expressed which are influencing their engagement with technology as a
teaching and learning tool. Research reveals that teachers’ skills, disposition, motivation and
aptitude when using technology have a strong influence on the pedagogy employed in the
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classroom (see Chapter 2). Caroline, the Curriculum coordinator at St John’s summarised it this
way:
I think the use of technology is dependent on one’s experience of it, but also one’s
motivation for it (Interview, 2001).
The relationship between teachers and technology can be problematic and complex which has
implications for pedagogy. It was apparent that younger teachers (David, Linda, Emma, Paul)
while adept with technology themselves, were also having difficulties implementing technology
effectively for teaching and learning. This may largely be because their school and university
experience was based on twentieth century thinking and dominated by traditional, book-based,
lecture-style instruction.
6.3.3.4. Control
For approximately half of the teachers, entwined with their fears and concerns about their own
lack of skill, reliability and access was the issue of control in the classroom. There were
perceptions, borne out of experience, expressed by the teachers in this study that related to the
issue of control in the following areas:

Lack of control over what students can access on the Internet

Classroom misbehaviour if technology does not work

Students can use technology against teachers, for example cyber baiting

Student ICT skills are greater than the teacher’s skill which leads to teachers feeling
disempowered and vulnerable

The screen on laptops acts a barrier and teachers cannot see what boys are working on
(control of the environment)
To stay in control, teachers reported doing ‘what they know works’. Observation revealed that
each teacher had their own strategies to overcome some of these control issues. For example,
Kara, sent an email to each student listing the Internet sites she wanted them to access to
complete their piece on Shakespearean times in class time to ‘avoid unnecessary searching and
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time wasting’. Veronica, set the searching of a hip hop song for homework and boys were
expected to come fully prepared to her English classroom. William asked students to switch off
their screens when he was teaching and constantly patrolled his classroom to ensure students
stayed on task. Tim, a veteran Mathematics teacher of 40 years, during our conversation in the
staffroom, told me he chooses not to use technology apart from a whiteboard marker as ‘too
much time is lost and misbehaviour happens’ when technology fails (Field notes, 2011).
6.3.3.5. Social Interactions
Web 2.0 applications, examples of which are social networking sites, like Facebook, weblogs,
wikis and a plethora of educational applications such as Edmodo (a Facebook look-alike for
educators), have created opportunities for social connections across continents and capitals in
more ways than any other form of technology in history. Teachers held differing views on the
use of Web 2.0 applications and the broader context of using technology for teaching and
learning. A third of teachers expressed a fear of technology taking the place of interacting
personally with students. Technology may in greater measure distance teachers from getting to
know their students in the physical domain of the classroom if students could complete more
tasks online with limited face-to-face contact. For one primary teacher and three secondary
teachers their belief is that the digital world is being given greater value than it warrants or that it
is worth. For example, Kara challenged the assumption that because it is on the Internet it is
better:
I don’t think that because it is on the net and it’s got colour pictures that it makes
it superior to a discussion that you can sit around a table and have (Interview,
2011, p. 4).
For four very experienced teachers that I chatted to in the staff room at Red Hill College, their
fear is that technology will make teachers ‘obsolete’. For them the building of a working
relationship and getting to know their students before they could really ‘reach and teach the boys
in their care’ is the key to effective teaching and learning and a mutually beneficial experience.
They reported having achieved this for the many decades of their combined service ‘without
technology’.
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A third of teachers also raised concerns over the way in which technology, and in particular the
Internet, is impacting their students as future citizens. These concerns revolved around two main
issues: safety and ignorance. Teaching safe and responsible behaviour online is a role all teachers
in this study willingly participated in. However, their concerns lie in their students becoming
vulnerable due to inappropriate content on the Internet; student’s ignorance over the long-term
impact of their actions in cyber space; and the emotional damage to students of other people’s
actions in the cyber world. Raising digital citizens that lack awareness of the implications of their
online behaviour has ramifications not only for the child concerned, but for their peers, family,
school and society. It was apparent that teachers, just like the parents of the boys they teach, take
this seriously.
One-quarter of teachers identified that, in their opinion, students will be ill prepared to deal with
people and situations in the real world based on their high engagement in vicarious experiences
through online behaviour, such as gaming and online chat, which provides the safety of engaging
online rather than face-to-face. Parents agreed (see Chapter 5). Kara commented that applications
such as ‘Facebook and Twitter dumb everything down’ to the lowest common denominator and
‘people say things they never would in person’. This may have implications for students
becoming internationally minded to a greater or lesser degree, which may affect their
effectiveness as global citizens.
Thus, it was clear that teachers carry many concerns about the functionality of using technology
for positive pedagogy. The key factors preventing their uptake of the new technologies include
the squeeze on their time, access, control and their lack of technical ability. However, it is
apparent that deeper than this, and at the heart of their concerns, lies the change that they feel is
being forced upon them by technology. The change may result in undermining or minimising
their relationships with their students. This is what they fear most, as each of the teachers held
their relationships with the boys in their care as dear and took this as the starting point for their
teaching.
On balance, it appeared that the benefits of teaching with technology outweighed the barriers.
This is significant because for the digital learners in our classrooms their interactions with
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technology outside the classroom are integral to shaping who they are and what they will
become. Teaching with technology is both desirable and essential to prepare students for the
future. It is apparent that, for the most part, teachers in this study were willing to accept the
benefits and work around the barriers to become effective in the digital classroom. The
significance of acceptance is that it becomes the common ground upon which a rationale for
integrating ICT rests to connect students to the world, promote new literacies and foster
autonomous and integrated learning.
Fifteen teachers were observed over three school terms across two research sites for this study.
Their views on boys, technology and literacy were observed and recorded through surveillance
of classroom practice and in-depth interviews. Many informal and anecdotal conversations
occurred in classrooms, staff rooms and school corridors with teachers across middle school
grades, all of which contributed to an understanding of the data presented in this chapter. Both
great optimism and great fear was reported regarding the rapid changes that technology is
bringing to teaching, and many of the teachers in this study felt uncomfortable with, yet hopeful
of, the opportunities brought by change. There appears to be great potential in harnessing the
skills, attitudes and knowledge that boys bring with them to the classroom, learned from
engaging with technology in their own time. However, boys’ attitudes towards literate activities
are still most influenced by the passion or otherwise of their teachers, as well as the opportunities
that teachers can provide them for expressing their learning through technology.
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7. Conclusion: A Confluence of Perspectives
This study investigated boys’ interactions with technology at home and at school. The study’s
main purpose was to provide an account of boys’ interactions and engagement with many and
varied forms of technology across the domains of home and school in the context of literacy
learning. The study drew on three participant groups: the boys themselves, their parents and their
teachers, to understand the actions, attitudes and expectations of each in relation to technology
and literate practices. Key findings are summarised from comparing and contrasting the
participants’ views, which emerged from the data analysis, drawing implications for middle
school classrooms.
This case study utilised the views of 27 boys who were interviewed and observed at home and at
school, 405 boys who were surveyed only, in-depth interviews with 45 parents, and classroom
observation and in-depth interviews with 15 teachers. These data provided multiple perspectives
on technology and literacy. The outcomes relate to the research questions in the middle school
context and are summarised in the diagram below (see Figure 7.1).
Following is a discussion of the perspectives in relation to the questions related to this study.
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Teachers
Parents
Boys
Perspectives on Technology and Literacy
Source of fun and
entertainment
Gaming is social,
challenging and creative
Unity of perception,
action, speech and
choice
Not detrimental to
reading
Instant feedback
Purposeful, engaging,
motivating
Choice to pursue
interests
Teachers need to utilise
better
Provision necessary for
success
Access leads to
advantage
Drive and Drag of new
versus old
Moral panic
Expectations high
Source of Conflict
Concerns vs,
Opportunities
Collaborative, creative
and innovative
Opportunity for effective
pedagogy
Interactive teaching and
learning
Fosters independence,
creativity
Collaborative
community of learners
Technology forcing
change
Resources, mobile
opportunities
Time, access, lack of
skill, control are barriers
Bridge home-school
divide
Figure 7.1: Perspectives on Technology and Literacy
Research has confirmed that our contemporary model of schooling is influenced by our
understandings of society and culture. There is agreement that we are at a point in time at which
rapid technological change is exerting pressure on existing models of schooling and forcing a
change, not only in the traditional role that teachers play, but also in the curriculum, resources
and students’ expectations.
This study sought to chronicle the perspectives and attitudes of boys, their parents and their
teachers to understand boys’ in- and out-of-school literacies, to add to a recorded gap and
contribute to the conversation on boys’ literacy in Australia.
This chapter summarises the study’s findings from the perspectives of the participant groups
answering the research questions. It urges teachers and parents to work collaboratively with boys
to take advantage of the enthusiasm, skills and knowledge that boys bring with them to the
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literacy classroom. The chapter further considers how this thesis contributes to current research
in the field and recommends a future research agenda.
7.1. Boys’ Interactions with Technology at Home and at School
The popularity of gaming reflects what it is to be a teenager in the twenty-first century and
games constitute an influential cultural industry through which teenagers are being socialised.
Each generation is marked by certain social, cultural, political and economic events. Online
games are a reflection and an artefact represented in the social and cultural world in which the
boys in this study are maturing. Online gaming through a variety of interfaces, such as gaming
consoles, handheld devices or laptops, are simply media through which these boys engage in the
popular activities of their generation. It is apparent that online gaming is one of the symbols that
define this generation.
However, they are more than this. Within the discourse around online games, we find ideas,
beliefs and values that represent childhood and the teenage years. For example, the boys’
motivated actions and animated conversations became part of the stories they told, defined their
status on the playground, gave them kudos in the real, adult world and delivered a level of
confidence that added to their self-esteem. They felt better about themselves once they had
achieved a certain status in the game. They encouraged and goaded each other to do better, to
level up and to achieve a goal. They challenged each other to embark on a difficult mission to
test themselves and cheered each other on regardless of the outcome. They offered advice, they
teased and they commiserated, but most of all they shared the passion and excitement of the
game together.
We can seek to put educational frameworks around the benefits of online gaming, of which there
are many. Researchers have established the connections quite clearly and these include the
affective and cognitive domains as discussed in Chapters 2 and 4. Some of these were clearly
evident in this study, others did not manifest in a measurable way. The passion with which boys
interacted with each other, their fathers or other players in the online world is what I noticed to
be the defining factor. Their passion and drive to keep trying and eventually succeed encouraged
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them to collaborate with others; to engage in literate activities such as reading and contributing
writing to gaming wikis; learning complicated directions; remembering and learning from
previous mistakes; memorising and utilising game-related jargon; and using critical literacy
skills to analyse and implement lessons from video clips. It is this passion that motivated their
engagement with the online world. This world is one in which literate behaviour is required for
success.
A valuable insight from this study lies in the conversations that boys shared with me. They do
not perceive the way in which they engage with their games on a variety of devices to be literacy
as teachers and parents view it. The interweaving of literate practices such as reading, writing,
talking, viewing and listening are simply the tools boys require to achieve the entertainment
value of their game. Often what they can ‘do’ is modelled by siblings, peers or parents. If this is
just what boys ‘do’, then there exists a wonderful opportunity for teachers to engage with boys as
co-researchers to understand what it is that boys do in their online worlds.
It is easy to problematise the behaviour of boys in schools, particularly around technology. It is
harder for teachers to find opportunity to understand and enter into the world of online
enjoyment and sit alongside boys. We also cannot neatly compartmentalise literate practices
according to venue. It became apparent through this research that there is an ebb and flow
between and among the contexts in which boys engage and learn literacy. Therefore there is a
rich vein of opportunity in the teaching experience that can be enhanced if we can find a way to
bridge the gap between the type of literacy indulged in at home and how teachers use similar
technology for literacy learning in the classroom.
The joy and enthusiasm that I observed in the family rooms of boys as they played their choice
of online game was infectious. Opinions on the ‘usefulness’ of all these hours spent engaging
with online worlds differed between parents, teachers and indeed among the boys themselves.
For the vast majority of the boys interviewed and or surveyed in this study, the benefits or pay
off they received from techtivity far outweighed the nagging and negativity endured primarily
from parents. Interestingly, parents and teachers represented as wide a range as one would find in
general society, with opinions on gaming ranging from complete disdain, indifference, curiosity,
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fascination to total engagement. Based on their experiences, the players that passionately
indulged at every opportunity and for whom gaming was a part of their everyday lives contrasted
most markedly in their perception of gaming from their parents and some teachers.
It was apparent that boys love playing games on digital devices. In this study, boys demonstrated
and articulated with passion their skills and attitudes towards online gaming. They spoke of
perseverance, logical thinking, learning through consequences and others, creative thinking, eye–
hand coordination, fast reflexes and collaboration. Key motivators for playing games were the
creative accomplishment, competition, clear rules, current and immediate feedback and the
detailed narrative inherent in a good game. The significance of game play is that boys are
engaging in hard and complicated work voluntarily and frequently as they experience ‘flow’ and
success with their peers in the online world. Central to success are sound literate practices in
reading, writing and critical literacy.
While engaging in game play across a range of genres and on multiple platforms, boys are
performing the technical skills required for living and succeeding in the twenty-first century.
Game-like skills can enhance cognition, and skills can be transferred to learn capabilities
recognised as important in educational settings. Significantly, boys are able to transfer the
benefits of game play to their future actions and there exists an opportunity to capture the
infectious wonder and engagement boys demonstrated and articulated for classroom practice.
However, technology is merely one tool to be used in dynamic ways to engage students and
augment effective teaching and learning opportunities in the classroom. It may be argued that
when boys engage in gaming they are learning mechanical literacy of how to operate the games
console and level up. The benefit of games in the classroom may well provide the opportunity to
teach about culture, genre and literacy, by drawing on the skills, passion and excitement boys
bring to the classroom from their ‘third space’ experience (Moje et al., 2004).
Less than 10 per cent of the boys interviewed in this study owned a digital reading device such as
a Kindle or iPad, which means that the minority used such devices for reading on a regular basis.
However, research reports that digital devices such as the iPad or Kindle can assist and support
readers who struggle with the mechanics of reading. Of those boys who scored themselves less
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than three on the Likert scale of enjoyment of reading (survey question 3) in this study, the
majority quoted the mechanical aspects of reading, such as speed and comprehension, as factors
that reduced their enjoyment of reading as a leisure activity. Digital devices such as the Kindle
may assist the reader to master the mechanical aspects of reading in ways that an overreliance on
book-based reading has not allowed them to achieve. This is fertile ground for ongoing research.
Boys who preferred to read from digital sources were also in the minority in this study, although
the trend towards a greater preference for online reading was more evident the older the students
became. This is thought to refer to the increased access secondary students had to their own
laptop, whereas younger boys often had to share with their siblings or use the family computer.
Respondents in Year 7 and 8 were more likely to be active on social media sites such as
Facebook, which requires reading and writing online, than those in primary school. Online
advocates cited their main preference for reading online as being the control they can exercise
over the choice of sites they visit, as well as their choice to customise their online sites. Once
again, choice was identified as a key factor in boys’ learning.
This study found that boys are engaging with writing online outside school as they pursue their
own interests. These interests foster writing online to socialise with friends and discover
information from others to assist in game play or special interests. Facebook, special interest
blogs and online gaming sites provide the platform on which to write and publish work for a
worldwide audience. Boys reported the social aspect of writing online as being positive and
motivating, and were likely to write on game wikis or blogs to share their experiences in the
game or to ask questions to improve their standings in the game world.
7.2. Findings on Boys from this Study
i.
Boys who come from homes in which parents provide access to digital tools and
engage with their sons through, for example, gaming, are at an advantage.
ii.
Boys who have firm boundaries in terms of time and access as well as high
parental expectations also appear to be more engaged with using technology for
learning.
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iii.
Boys in this study reported enjoying reading more than NAPLAN statistics would
indicate.
iv.
Boys in this study were more likely to choose to read a physical book rather than
an e-reader, despite their passion for all things technical.
v.
Boys were fully aware of the literate practices they engage with and require to
achieve mastery in a game.
vi.
Boys were easily able to transfer their learning across spaces or domains on
technologies with which they were familiar.
vii.
Boys enjoyed sitting shoulder-to-shoulder alongside each other to discuss,
demonstrate and decide on strategies for success in the digital world.
7.3. Benefits of Online Engagement for Literacy Learning
The pedagogic dimension in relation to this study was demonstrated by the boys themselves as
they engaged in exploratory, discovery learning and guided investigations, most often with their
peers and in some cases with their fathers. Learning occurred through observation, trial and
error, collaboration and multiple practice opportunities. The boys utilised every available
resource to learn to play their game more efficiently. They engaged with, for example, video in
the form of YouTube clips, digital text and image in the form of wikis, articles in specialist
magazines, and animated conversations with their peers. According to Jewitt and Kress (2003),
this is an example of multimodal literacy, in which the boys used different modalities fluidly,
implicitly and collaboratively to make meaning. Boys in this study developed their own metalanguage to expand meaning across the domains and build their own multiliterate capabilities, as
they deployed a multimodal meta-language and design in the creation, understanding and
employment of a variety of texts. The ways in which the boys interacted to play their games
required each boy to understand a variety of modes requiring different skills depending on the
genre and format of the text. The significance of multimodal literacy lies in the potential skill
transference demonstrated by boys in this study from home to school literate practices.
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The table below mirrors some of the earlier mentioned work of Gee (2003), Prensky (2006,
2010), Browne, Collins and Duguid (1989) and Wilhelm (2010) on the value of computer games
for learning (see Chapter 2) and the practice of new literacies facilitated by online engagement
by boys in the out-of-school context. This study also found that the benefits as described below
are beneficial for literacy classrooms and can be drawn on to encourage literacy in middle school
classrooms.
Table 7.1: Benefits to Literacy Learning from Game Play
Cognitive Benefits
Affective Benefits
Hypothesising and problem solving
Strong identity as a reader
Taking risks and approximating
Clear, fast feedback
Substantive learning
Real learning
Authentic learning
Belonging through social learning
Liminal learning
Collaborative, relational and social learning
Evaluating and analysing
Sense of ownership and control
Concentration
Choice
7.4. Disadvantages of Online Engagement for Literacy Learning
The disadvantages of online engagement in this study were identified by boys, parents and
teachers. Common across the three participant groups in this study were issues related to social
networking sites. Key concerns raised by all participants related to the amount of time spent on
Facebook as well as the potential for cyber bullying that social networking sites can bring. This
was the only common ground. However, parents and teachers identified more disadvantages of
online engagement than did the boys themselves.
7.4.1. Parents
All parents identified time spent on technology as a potential source of conflict and a major
disadvantage to online engagement. This was based on parental perceptions that other more
valuable activities could be taking place, such as reading a book, physical activity or
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conversation in place of online engagement. Parents also reported the type of material accessed;
the integrity of online sources; privacy and safety, in particular in relation to cyber bullying and
vicarious experiences, as being of concern to them when their sons engaged in online activities.
Despite their concerns, all parents believed the benefits outweighed the disadvantages of online
engagement. This is significant as parents provide access to technology in the home environment
with a view to advantaging their sons at school and in the future world of work. Yet there is still
a level of apprehension and nostalgia as parents navigate parenting in a digital world.
7.4.2. Teachers
All teachers identified the amount of time required and reliability of technology as being of most
concern when teaching with technology. Teachers also identified their own lack of skill and
technical expertise as having a negative impact on using online resources for literacy learning.
The fear of losing control and the possible reduction in social interaction between themselves
and their students as well as between students were of lesser concern to teachers. Significantly,
despite their reported concerns about using technology for teaching, on balance, the teachers
identified more up-sides than down-sides when facilitating literacy learning through online
engagement to accommodate the learning needs of the digital generation.
7.5. Harnessing Boys’ Positive Responses to Techtivity
An understanding of the skills, attitudes and practices that boys bring with them to the English
classroom provides a starting point for teachers to harness the positive attributes of techtivity.
7.5.1. Skills
This study found that boys adapt their gaming skills to be able to attend to technology no matter
the place/domain; for example, at friends’ houses or at school. The development of skills is
chiefly dependent on the technology available to boys at home, and the provision of technology
at home is principally based on parental attitudes towards technology as a means for future
success. Parental provision of technology is also based on father’s involvement in gaming with
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their son and this also influences the choice of games boys are given. It is the combination of
hardware, that is games console, laptop or mobile device, plus parental philosophy on technology
and gaming plus the provision of games that supports boys’ skills. For example, some games
such as Lego and Portal were perceived as having more value educationally than others.
However, there was an assumption by teachers that all boys have skills on technology which
assists their literacy learning, which was not always the case. Firstly, boys are not homogenous,
and secondly, the home environment is not identical for all boys. This was evidenced by the
concerns teachers held of some boys in Years 7 and 8 who did not have mastery over basic skills
such as word processing and critical literacy skills for use in English classes. This same concern
was voiced by parents, who identified that the skill of critical literacy had not yet manifested in
their sons.
7.5.2. Attitudes
Not surprisingly, parents tend to hold different points of view in relation to boys’ digital literate
practices or techtivity to their sons. The affective and cognitive benefits to engaging with
technology have been previously discussed and indeed one cannot escape its pervasive influence
and usefulness. Parents largely agreed and are motivated to provide their son with every
opportunity to participate in the online world, especially as relates to their success in the
workplace. This assisted their justification of the expense of investing in the latest technology.
Along with the skills and prospect for success in the world beyond school comes the opportunity
for entertainment on these same devices. In some homes, parents engaged with their sons in
gaming; while in others, for the most part, parents had little idea of the skill, determination and
joy that can be derived from playing a computer game. Whatever the parents’ experience, their
attitudes are influenced by their sons’ activities and this shapes their discourse and in many cases
results in ‘moral panic’.
From the boys’ perspective, it appeared that their attitude towards technology and literacy was
for the most part shaped by their parents, secondly by their peers, and lastly by their teachers.
This pattern was particularly strong for boys in Years 5 and 6, where parents provided and
encouraged a range of resources relating to technology and literacy. It appeared that as boys
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grew older, the influence of peers became stronger as the balance changed for boys towards more
gaming than reading. It appeared that the collaborative nature of playing online games with
friends had a greater call on some boys than the solitary activity of reading a book. This is
consistent with theories of adolescent development, but was only true for approximately half the
boys in this study. Key studies in the area of adolescent reading have been undertaken by
Thomson (1987), Whitehead (1977), Smith and Wilhelm (2002), Manuel and Robinson (2002)
and Broughton and Manuel (2007), and have focused on the types of reading that adolescents
undertake and the leisure activities that compete with reading time in the lives of young people
(see Chapter 2). This study echoes the work of these authors and adds the dimension of how
much many boys in this study enjoyed reading as a leisure activity.
7.5.3. Practices
Dede (2005) identified that there is a division between the technology that students use in
everyday life and the technology used in many classrooms. This might be considered another
digital divide. Kervin and Mantei (2009) report that what is valued as ‘literacy’ has been keenly
impacted by the range of ICT found in the broader community, which increases the opportunity,
volume and sources of information available to students outside school literacy. Cope and
Kalantzis (2000) recognised that what it means to be literate is being constantly challenged by
the opportunities that ICT presents. This study confirms previous research.
Further, in this study, the practice of engaging in techtivity rested predominantly on two factors:
‘house rules’ and school opportunities for boys. House rules were discussed in Chapter 5 and
relate to the regulations parents placed around digital game play on a variety of devices.
Examples included a set rule being ‘an hour on an hour off’ or for others the boys’ behaviour
may have signalled an end to game play for a while. The significance of house rules relating to
techtivity is that parents felt anxiety about the length of time their sons were engaged in online
gaming at the expense of other more desirable activities. Interestingly, there were no house rules
relating to reading books, which suggests that this activity was fully sanctioned by parents and
more desirable than techtivity.
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In this study, boys took every opportunity to engage with technology at school. However, their
use of it was not always to further educational outcomes. This was most evident when boys were
working on laptops or in computer labs with the screen able to act as a barrier preventing teacher
monitoring. Some boys had developed sophisticated methods to avoid detection from teachers as
they engaged in gaming rather than working at school. However, boys were also aware that all
teachers did not use technology for teaching in ways that they felt was productive. The main
complaint by boys of all ages in this study was that teachers use the IWB as a ‘glorified
television’. This is significant as there are benefits to teachers modelling good practice when
teaching with technology as an example to boys to enhance their learning.
7.6. Boys’ Use of Technology and the Curriculum
This question will be addressed firstly from the teachers’ perspective then from the parents’
perspective, both of whom had strong opinions.
7.6.1. Teachers’ Perspective
Technology in the classroom is now a fact of life or in other words, ‘it’s not going away’ (Alex,
secondary teacher). This implies that there is an expectation and imperative that teachers are
required ‘to live and deal with it’. The danger is that the focus will become too heavily directed
towards the technological tool itself. The focus could become such that, because teachers have
the tool, there is a compulsion to employ it, despite this potentially running counter to sound
pedagogy. This can lead teachers to force the technology into teaching and learning. Such force
breeds poor pedagogy and resentment, robbing both the student and teacher of an enjoyable
learning experience. It is a better solution to find a natural fit, an authentic integration.
According to Hattie (2003, 2005), teachers account for the greatest difference in within-school
student achievement when compared to other factors (for example, class size). Therefore, if
teachers’ view technology, in its various and multiple forms, as merely a tool, and begin to view
schools as communities of learners, we begin from a better place. It is the combination of
parents, teachers, boys and technology that embodies learning in the digital age. The shift we see
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in learning moves from students being passive receivers of knowledge to active co-constructors
of learning. This suits boys especially well. Boys who become more active in their learning are
more able to apply and own their knowledge, thereby becoming researchers, synthesisers and
problem solvers.
From the teacher’s point of view, most in this study were willing to travel the research journey
within the community of learners that technology facilitates. However, they acknowledged that
this journey is not always a comfortable one. Teachers described the surface as ‘slippery’. For
example, the way in which they may prepare for a traditional lesson may include writing in their
day book, visiting the photocopying room and collecting a range of books for use in the
classroom. When one begins to rely more on technology, the road map and packing list for
preparation and teaching changes. Other teachers described the feeling of the ‘walls becoming
wobbly’. Further discussion revealed that by this they meant that the boundaries between
teachers and students were becoming blurred, with traditional lines of engagement softening.
Some teachers interpreted this as a feeling of ‘dangerous excitement’, an adventure into a land of
promise and surprise and admitted that they may not have packed the correct equipment to deal
with the conditions. This dangerous excitement comes from departing from standard practice, yet
holds the promise of creative detours, which enthuse and encourage all who find themselves on
the research journey. For teachers in this study, not all were at the same point of departure and
some did not even want to purchase a ticket. The result of this is that students, in the absence of a
tour guide, have and will continue to find their own way. It was apparent that schools and homes
have a choice to become journey makers or vacuous spaces in the personalising of a boy’s
literacy learning journey. The boundaries were blurry and differed from home to home, yet it
was clear that techtivity is profoundly influenced by the cultural and social capital that each boy
inherits from their home environment and carries with him into the classroom.
7.7. Findings from the Teachers’ Perspective
7.7.1. Technology
i.
Teachers believe and attest to the opportunities that technology can bring to the
classroom to create more effective pedagogy especially for boys. The teachers in this
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study welcomed the opportunity to teach with technology, and especially to utilise the
many and varied resources for English teaching that are available. Teachers were in
agreement that technology enables differentiation to a much greater degree. Further,
technology provides boys the opportunity to access the vast resources available to them
and lets them explore their own interests under the guidance of the teacher. This is
significant as technology appears to be forcing a change in both pedagogy and
relationships within the classroom.
ii.
The teachers in this study were excited about the interactive nature of teaching and
learning afforded by technology. All teachers identified that it is the hands-on, practical
nature of technology that so appeals to boys. They reported that motivation and
engagement increased and disruptive behaviour decreased when the boys were able to use
technology in the classroom themselves to search, express and create.
iii.
Teachers identified the opportunities that teaching and learning with technology brings to
their students’ generic skills, and which can be applied in future settings such as tertiary
study and work. These include fostering independence, creativity and innovation; the
ability to communicate and present knowledge, ideas and opinions effectively; the ability
to gather information and critically evaluate sources; and the ability to work
collaboratively with others, nationally and internationally.
iv.
The data presented demonstrates that not all teachers are embracing technology in their
classrooms despite the many opportunities identified by their colleagues. Varying rates of
adoption and use of technology for teaching and learning were reported in this study.
There was no clear relationship between age and experience and technology use in
classrooms among the teachers in this study. Teachers that are resisting felt that they
were being ‘forced’ to change their teaching by the implementation of technology, and
commented that this makes them uncomfortable. Some reasons for lower adoption and
practice are lack of time to learn new skills and search for useful resources; impacts on
student learning from technology failure; change in locus of control in the classroom; the
home–school divide and access; and a change in the relationship between student and
teacher.
v.
There appeared to be a disparity between teachers’ desire to embrace all that technology
has to offer and the constraints of formal assessment, such as the exit credentials of Years
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11 and 12. This was primarily the view of secondary teachers as they struggle to include
innovative teaching practices using technology, yet feel the constraints of preparing their
students for pen and paper assessment.
vi.
There appeared to be a gap between students and teachers in terms of knowledge, attitude
and confidence towards technology, identified as the home–school divide. In some
schools, length of service qualifies a teacher as an expert, even though they may be using
‘outdated methods’. Despite boys love for all things technical, in some cases students
prefer these teachers because they are engaging, they present in traditional ways and the
results students achieve are assured, because these teachers know how to prepare their
students well for formal assessment. Unless there is a change in formal assessment,
younger teachers who have innovative ideas for using technology are not going to be able
to use their skills in a creative and useful way for literacy teaching and assessment.
vii.
Leading, innovative schools have the characteristics of embracing the latest technology to
try to match the home–school divide that teachers in this study identified. However, this
is risky, expensive and not all teachers are convinced that the benefits outweigh the
potential negatives of moving away from traditional pedagogy if indeed it can be
considered as an ‘either-or’ scenario. Innovative teaching with mobile technology enables
a seamless transition for learning no matter the environment. It has the potential to
engage a wider community of learners using technology to access other schools and
educational institutions, to build collaboration and engagement.
In summary, the digital skills that boys prefer include interactivity rather than individual work;
taking risks and using pictures, sound and video before text; transferring skills learned in the
game world to a diversity of resources in the classroom; and learning that is relevant, active,
motivating and engaging. The new literacies classroom needs to encompass daily, not occasional
work in multiple forms of representation that involves practice and reflection in the new forms of
‘reading’ and ‘writing’. However, it is also significant that more technology is not necessarily the
answer and that a balance of sound pedagogy and appropriate technology creatively utilised to
meet the needs of twenty-first century boys will be required.
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7.7.2. Literacy
i.
It was apparent that a strong culture of reading, provision of a wide variety of books and
ample opportunities for literate activities with peers, together with overt teacher passion
for literacy, is the best combination for engaging boys in reading. It was evident that the
attitude of the teacher determined their aptitude both with engendering a love of literacy
and in the use of technology for literacy learning. According to research, it appears that it
is the teacher’s attitude and skill that makes the critical difference in the classroom
(Hattie, 2003). In classrooms in this study in which the teacher was passionate about
literacy, the students shared the same values and demonstrated their active engagement.
ii. Teachers recognised that boys demonstrated a preference for engrossing themselves in a
series of books by the same author such as the Cherub series (Muchamore) or the Alex
Rider series (Horowitz), rather than in standalone novels. Perhaps this is why many boys
expressed the need to read standalone texts for school-based English as ‘boring’ or ‘a
chore’. There may be scope to give boys the choice of studying an author rather than a
standalone text as part of the English curriculum in the future. The element of choice was
often repeated by boys as a key motivator for reading or not reading. I found that the
element of choice facilitates control for boys over their learning and that this is very
highly valued by boys in this age group.
iii. In linking to school literacy practices, programs such as the Shared Literature program,
implemented at Red Hill College for the Year 7 cohort, were instrumental in increasing
the number of books being read and discussed in high school. The boys became peer
advocates for books read, which had links to English curriculum outcomes such as text
analysis. Choice was a key factor in enjoyment.
iv. There is much that teachers can do to foster a love of writing, and other research has
covered these strategies extensively. This study found that because boys’ online writing
preference increases with age, the role of teachers may need to expand to explore more
deeply the ethics, social responsibility and opportunities of writing online. Further, what
boys write online for enjoyment and in pursuit of their own interests may be a rich source
of material to act as a springboard for teachers in the classroom in the teaching of writing.
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v. Findings suggest that boys’ use of online writing opportunities increases with age. This is
thought to be attributed to increased opportunity for engagement with technology through
sites such as Facebook and game-related wikis and forums, as well as school-related
requirements. Further, students in the middle grades had a better understanding of the
writing process than did those in lower primary, as confidence with writing conventions
improves each year. The opportunity to publish one’s work for a global audience is also a
favourable outcome that comes from writing online and one that teachers could exploit.
Like reading, choice and purpose are motivators for boys to engage more deeply in
writing, and this has significance for school literacy.
In conclusion, teachers are presented with many opportunities to embark on a digital learning
journey with the boys in their classes. Boys in this study were generous in their attitude of
showing others the way and this included their teachers. An example of this can be seen in
Brenda’s side trip into poetry through the interactive web-based tool, Glogster. It is apparent that
schools that embrace the middle school philosophy may be in a better position to make use of the
digital skills boys bring with them from home at this crucial juncture in their literacy
development.
7.8. Findings from the Parents’ Perspective
The data revealed that the home–school partnership is especially significant in setting boys up
for success in literacy and techtivity. Parents have very strong opinions on the role of the school,
teachers and resources, identifying both opportunities and barriers very articulately. Parents in
this study had expectations that technology applications would rest on a strong foundation in
literacy and that there was an opportunity to use technology to teach creativity and innovation.
Literacy, creativity and innovation are considered by parents to be the building blocks of strong
tertiary entrance scores and success in the workforce. Findings are discussed under the headings
of techtivity and literacy:
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7.8.1. Techtivity
i.
Parents who provide opportunity and access to technology at home are advantaging their
children, especially in the case of fathers who engage in gaming with their sons. This was
evidenced in the skill, expertise and confidence with which the boys were observed
engaging with technology in the school environment. There was a clear and intuitive
transfer of skills learned in the home environment to the classroom. In all cases in which
the boys were observed engaging in gaming with their fathers in the home environment,
the child was observed as somewhat of a ‘technology expert’ in their classroom. This was
true in the primary setting, but it was not as clearly evident in the secondary setting, as
the boys experienced fewer opportunities to use technology in the classroom during my
observation.
ii.
Parents strongly believed that techtivity is essential to literacy and a child’s wider
education. Technology is seen to nurture creative capacity despite the significant and
varied concerns that parents discussed during our interviews. Providing opportunity for
and teaching creativity and innovation is the most important role of the school in the
parents’ view.
iii.
Parents were insistent that without a clear vision of the purpose, pedagogy and practice
related to spending money, time and training on technology, schools would be less likely
to achieve sound educational outcomes. The perceived gap between what parents provide
in terms of access to technology at home and that provided by the school was
acknowledged and accepted as the new digital divide.
iv.
The perceived gap between home and school as well as the ways in which teachers could
utilise technology to ensure consistency across grade levels was identified by parents.
However, parents were also sceptical of using technology for technology’s sake,
preferring to use tried and true sources for research, such as books. This was expressed as
the ‘drive and drag of new and old technologies’ and manifested in feelings of nostalgia
and apprehension in many parents as they navigate the raising of digital natives.
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7.8.2. Literacy
i.
Parents who deliberately institute strong home literacy reading practices support their
sons in the acquisition of literate behaviours, but perhaps more importantly, they instil a
love of reading that becomes part of the child’s identity, self-perception and heritage.
ii. Many parents identified that their sons give preference to series of books in the genres of
fantasy, action and crime over standalone books.
iii. Despite the proliferation of digital texts, an overwhelming number of boys still prefer
books as a source of reading for enjoyment. Parents are supportive in supplying books to
foster the love of reading. Boys provided as their reasons for preferring books over digital
devices as the practical nature of books as more portable, less breakable, more durable,
more reliable and more accessible in comparison to digital texts. It is thought that as more
books become available and accessible on a greater variety of user friendly devices, the
momentum may begin to swing more towards digital access of books in this age group. A
feature of this age group however is that 10 to 14 year olds are still very much
constrained by parental and economic factors, which affect and influence their access to
digital and book-based texts.
In summary, findings suggest that despite their concerns parents are supportive of technology use
both at home and at school. Parents also stressed that a clear vision of technology use for
effective teaching and learning needs to be communicated by schools. It is clear that parents
support their sons’ literacy development through implementing home reading practices,
provision of books and their own enthusiasm for reading. Parents also support their sons’ literacy
and technology development through the provision of technology to support learning and
entertainment in the home context. It is the combination of provision together with parental
attitude that has the potential to harness the skills, attitudes and enthusiasm boys display for both
reading and techtivity that assists boys’ literacy attainment.
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7.9. Recommendations: Future Research
This study shed some light on boys’ literate practices at home and highlighted the ‘home–school
mismatch’ (Bulfin, 2009). The commissioned reports and international research discussed in the
literature review add much to the pedagogical canon of how boys learn best, and most have
proven particularly effective. However, there is still much to learn about the literate practices of
online engagement that boys encounter and passionately indulge in out of school.
Further research is required to evaluate the assumptions that educators tend to make based on a
student’s postcode, family structure and cultural background. We need to discover what is
actually going on in boys’ homes and within their peer cultures. It is an ethical challenge to
explore these rich fields. However, it is both necessary and worthwhile to overcome the highly
researched binaries of lack and privilege. To walk a mile in the shoes of another assists in
overcoming assumptions and opens a new world of understanding. The boys in this study loved
to demonstrate, share and boast of their achievements. They were mostly articulate in their
responses and appreciated the opportunity to ‘have their say’. There is much potential in this type
of research. It may not be easily accessible, and indeed there are many obstacles; but the rewards
of a more permeable discourse between home and school will be mutually beneficial for all
involved (Dyson, 1997).
The partnership between digital texts, books and children’s enthusiasm for multimedia is an
opportunity for teachers to spark a love of reading in boys, and to bridge the traditional and new
literacies in their classrooms through enhancing the critical, analytical and social abilities of their
students. Many researchers have begun this journey with great effect. However, the very nature
of multimedia is its changeability, which will continue to result in fruitful ground for future
research.
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7.10. Concluding Thoughts
Among the participants in this study, there were those who were pining over the thought of
losing physical books and age was not a predictor. In fact, the overwhelming majority of the
boys surveyed, over 85 per cent, would choose a book to read over an e-reader. Underneath this
concern over the potential phasing out of physical books, lay the idea that reading with another is
about the building of a relationship, not only with the person who is reading with you, but also
with the characters and the story. This was manifested among the boys and parents in this study
in the precious ritual of bedtime stories. The advent of stories to be read digitally may open up
new opportunities, and corresponding excitement, for readers. We may yet see this reflected in a
renewed enthusiasm for reading.
Generations have always viewed things differently, especially as regards unique factors defining
the generations as is the case for this new generation of digital natives. What I learned from
viewing and speaking with the boys in this study was their sense of joy, inquisitiveness and
excitement about the discoveries they make when engaging with technology. It is their sense of
intuitive inquiry that keeps them coming back to enjoying techtivity; for example, the joy of
learning new tricks, which brings satisfaction; of playing with their friends; of wanting to share
their discoveries and learning with others; and their wanting to do better than they did the last
time. These boys were always looking for the solution to the next clue, seeking to overcoming
the next obstacle and win the next challenge; all the time, anticipating being able to tell their
mates about their latest accomplishments. Their animated conversations were enhanced by what
they saw others doing and what they themselves were doing alongside others as they used
technology. The joy of discovery together fuelled their enjoyment and perpetuated their desire
for self-improvement in their virtual game worlds.
As parents and teachers, entering this world is tantamount to understanding this generation.
Doing so would grant some degree of access into these boys’ heads, such that together we can
engage with the universally social aspect of technology, be inquisitive, have the will to fail, take
risks and learn from our mistakes alongside our boys; indeed to reach out to boys. Instead of
focussing on the generation gap and that which is different, perhaps starting from a point of
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commonality, sitting shoulder-to-shoulder and allowing ourselves to become as inquisitive and
intuitive as our boys will provide us some insight into what we can achieve together (Carroll,
2011).
Thus, understanding boys’ techtivity is more than about harnessing the skills that boys bring with
them to the classroom; it is about learning and understanding, reaching out and drawing in the
enthusiasm and intuition that boys display when playing with technology. It is about embracing
the attitude of openness with which boys encounter a new game or app, bringing what they know
and what their friends have demonstrated and discussed, instead of the need to achieve and to be
right.
I observed generations learning from each other in the homes that I visited. The beauty of the
generations is that we all have something to contribute and learn from each other. In some cases
we need to unlearn to move forward, to put aside our repetitive practices, our prejudices and
what we perceive to be right, so that we may see in a new way. Seeing in a new way demands a
change in attitude, motivation and practice, but we do not have to look far for guides to the
technological world—the boy in your classroom or in your living room will happily show you
the way.
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Appendices
Appendix A: Interview Questions for Boys
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What do you think of yourself as a reader?
What do you think of yourself as a writer?
How would you describe your reading ability?
What do you like to read?
Tell me about the websites you most like to visit or play on when you have Internet
access.
6. Why do you like those sites?
7. Think of your favourite game site.
8. Describe what this game is about and what the challenge is.
9. What do you like most about playing this particular game?
10. Tell me about the skills you need to play the game well.
11. How many players does this game have?
12. Who do you most often play the game with?
13. How many hours a week do you estimate you play games online?
14. What other activities do you do online?
15. Do you prefer to read a book or do you prefer to read online? Why?
16. How do you think teachers can use the Internet to teach you how to read and write better?
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296
Appendix B: Student Questionnaire on Reading and Writing Practices
1. Give yourself a score out of 5 for how much you enjoy reading (1 is low; 5 is high) ____
2. Circle the types of things you like to read:
chapter books
picture books
nonfiction books
cartoons
graphic novels
instruction manuals
cheats for a game
magazines
newspaper
autobiographies
recipe books
books about sport
3. Give yourself a score out of 5 for how much you like writing (1 is low; 5 is high) ________
4. Do you ever write for fun? Yes/ No. If Yes, what do you like to write?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Do you write online? Yes/No. If Yes Where? Blogs, Twitter, Facebook, Myspace,
Other: ______________________________
6. What do you think of yourself as a reader?
_________________________________________________________________________
7. What do you think of yourself as a writer?
_________________________________________________________________________
8. What types of electronic devices do you use? E.g., Xbox
DS PlayStation
iPhone
Internet Mobile phone iPod Other: ________________________________________
9. Which of these do you use most often?
__________________________________________________________________________
10. What is your favourite game to play using this technology? (For example: I play COD on my
PS3 or I play Flash games on the Internet or games on Facebook).
_________________________________________________________________________
11. Where do you most often play this game? At home
at a friend’s house
at school
at the library Other: _______________________________________________________
12. How did you find out about this game?
_________________________________________________________________________
13. Describe the challenge or problem you have to solve when playing this favourite game.
_________________________________________________________________________
14. What skills do you need to play this game well?
_________________________________________________________________________
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15. How often do you play this game?
________________________________________________________________________
16. Is this game a multiplayer game or single player game? ____________________________
17. Give yourself a score out of 5 for how good you think you are at playing your favourite game
(1 = not good: 5 = excellent) _____
18. What do you think you do well when you are playing this game?
_________________________________________________________________________
19. When you cannot figure out a problem in your game, what do you do?
_________________________________________________________________________
20. Do you prefer to read a book or do you prefer to read online? Why?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
21. How would you describe how you feel when you are playing a computer game?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Thanks for completing this survey
298
Appendix C: Interview Questions for Parents Selected for In-depth Case
Study
Tell me about your son’s literacy learning through school.
How would you rate your son’s reading ability?
How would you describe reading practices in your home?
How do you support your child in literacy at home?
List some factors that you believe have either helped or hindered your child’s reading
progress.
6. What is the most helpful thing that the school can do to support your child’s literacy
learning?
7. What have you noticed about your son’s interests and when he is most engaged?
8. How many computers do you have in your home?
9. How would you rate your son’s computing ability?
10. Where is the computer your son uses most of the time located in your home?
11. How often does your son access the Internet at home?
12. How many hours per week do you estimate that your son plays games online?
13. What types of games does your son play on the Internet?
14. Do you have any ‘house rules’ about duration and access regarding Internet use in your
home?
15. What concerns do you have about your son accessing the Internet?
16. What other electronic games or devices does your son use on a regular basis?
17. How do you think schools can harness the benefits of the Internet to engage boys in
literacy?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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300
Appendix D: Interview Questions for Teachers
1.
2.
3.
4.
As a teacher, what subject areas do you enjoy teaching the most and why?
Tell me about your own journey into literacy.
How would you rate yourself in terms of your ability to use technology in the classroom?
As a middle years’ teacher, what observations can you make regarding boys’ literacy and
their use of technology?
5. What opportunities do you see the Internet bringing to the literacy curriculum?
6. How often do you access the Internet in your classroom for literacy activities?
7. Tell me how you currently integrate technology into your literacy program.
8. Who are your most competent readers in this class?
9. Who are the most competent users of technology in this class?
10. What skills do you believe your students require when using the Internet for literacybased activities?
11. What are some of the problems you face when integrating technology into your
classroom teaching and learning?
12. What role does technology play in motivation in your classroom?
13. What do you know about the ‘fourth grade slump’ (RAND Reading Study Group, 2002)?
14. How do you address the literacy learning needs of boys in your classroom? Is this
different to girls?
15. What role do you see parents playing in literacy development in the middle years?
16. What else would you like to comment on in relation to boys’ literacy and technology use?
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Appendix E: Participant Information Form—Parents/Carers for
School/Home Consent
Project Title: Boys’ Literacy and Technology: A qualitative study research project.
Name of Principle Investigator:
Mrs Janet Carroll
Faculty of Education, University of Canberra, ACT, 2601
Ph: 0417 445 121
Email: [email protected]
Project Aim: This study aims to investigate the role technology can play in supporting boys’
literacy learning in middle school.
Benefits of the Project: The combination of reading, writing and technology presents the
possibility of there being opportunities to improve and address the contemporary literacy needs
of boys. This study will investigate how boys engage and achieve in literacy, drawing on the
skills and attitudes they possess from engaging with technology. This has implications for
teaching and learning and student outcomes, particularly in the middle years of schooling.
General Outline of the Project: Case study research will be used to identify and explore the
literacy practices of boys and their use of technology in the school and home context, using the
perspectives of the student, the teacher and the parent/carer. Following observation in the
classroom, seven boys will be selected for further study in their home context. If your child
participates in the home study, parents/carers will be asked to participate in an in-depth interview
with the researcher of one hour’s duration. The researcher may request perusal of school
artefacts such as previous school reports. Data will be collated, analysed and presented in the
form of a thesis dissertation.
Participant Involvement: As a parent or carer of a child in middle school, you are being asked
to allow the researcher to observe your child in the classroom undertaking literacy and computerrelated activities as part of their normal daily routine in classroom. The class teacher will be
present at all times and school work will not be interrupted.
Participation in the research is completely voluntary and parents/carers may, without any
penalty, decline to take part or withdraw at any time without providing an explanation, or refuse
to answer a question. Potential risks to participation relate to privacy and confidentiality. Please
be assured that all of the data collected from parents/carers and students will be stored securely
and only accessed by the researcher. Great care will be taken to ensure that any reports of the
data do not identify any individual or their circumstances.
Confidentiality: Your child’s identity and school and will be kept confidential. The information
collected will be kept private. All interviews and surveys will be given a number instead of a
name and kept securely. Once the research findings have been written up using pseudonyms, the
303
raw data will be destroyed. You will have access to the findings of this research in the form of
the submitted thesis.
Anonymity: Only the researcher will have access to the individual information provided by
parents/carers and students. Privacy and confidentiality will be assured at all times. The research
outcomes will be provided in a report to your school executive and may be presented at
conferences and written up for publication. However, in all of these reports, the privacy and
confidentiality of individuals will be protected. Please be assured that all reports of the research
will contain no information that can identify any individual and all information will be kept in
the strictest confidence.
Possible Risks: This voluntary study has been designed to not present any undue risk to
participants. If stress or anxiety are experienced please notify the researcher, class teacher,
principal or school counsellor. You have the right to withdraw your consent, terminate the
interview, refuse to answer a question or change your responses without penalty.
Data Storage: Participant data will be securely stored in the Faculty of Education at the
University of Canberra during the research phase. Once the data has been analysed and the
project completed, all data will be disposed of securely.
Ethics Committee Clearance: This project has been approved by the Committee for Ethics in
Human Research of the University of Canberra, the Principal of your school and the Catholic
Education Office, Canberra-Goulburn Diocese. Should you have any queries regarding this
research project please contact:
Dr Kaye Lowe
Director of the National Capital Centre for Literacy Research, University of Canberra
Ph: 6201 5056
Fax: 6201 2104
304
Consent Form—Parents: School Consent
I have read and understood the information about this research. I am not aware of any condition
that would prevent my child’s participation, and I agree to allow him to participate in this
project. I have had the opportunity to ask questions about his participation in the research. All
questions I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction.
Please indicate whether you agree to participate in each of the following parts of the research
(please indicate you agree by putting a cross in the relevant box):

Allow the researcher to observe your son in his classroom undertaking literacy- and
technology-related activities according to the school timetable.

I do not want my child to participate in this research.

Allow the researcher to observe your son in your home undertaking literacy- and
technology-related activities.

Participate in a one-hour interview with the researcher.

Allow the researcher access to your son’s school reports and student work samples.
Name: _______________________________________________
Child’s Name and Class: _________________________________
Signature: ________________________ Date: _______________
A summary of the research report can be forwarded to you when published. If you would like to
receive a copy of the report, please include your mailing address below:
Address: ____________________________________________________________________
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306
Appendix F: Participant Information Form—Teachers
Project Title: Boys’ Literacy and Technology in the Middle years: A qualitative study.
Researcher
Mrs Janet Carroll
Faculty of Education, University of Canberra, ACT, 2601
Ph: 6161 7073
Project Aim
This study aims to investigate the role technology can play in supporting boys’ literacy
learning in middle school.
Benefits of the Project
The combination of reading, writing and technology presents the possibility of there being
opportunities to improve and address the contemporary literacy needs of boys. This study
will investigate how boys engage with and achieve in literacy, drawing on the skills and
attitudes they possess from engaging with technology. This has implications for teaching
and learning and student outcomes, particularly in the middle years of schooling.
General Outline of the Project
Case study research will be used to identify and explore the literacy practices of boys and
their use of technology in the school and home context, using the perspectives of the
student, the teacher and the parent/carer. Data will be collected through observation in
classrooms, in-depth interviews with 10 classroom teachers and collection of school
artefacts such as English and ICT curriculum documents and student assessment data. Data
will be collated, analysed and presented in the form of a thesis dissertation.
Participant Involvement
As a class teacher, you will be asked to allow the researcher to observe your students in the
classroom undertaking literacy-related activities twice a week for a period of one, and no
longer than two, school terms. You will also be asked to undertake a one-hour interview,
which will be audio taped and transcribed. Transcripts will be provided for your perusal
before the analysis is finalised.
Participation in the research is completely voluntary and teachers may, without any penalty,
decline to take part or withdraw at any time, or refuse to answer a question without
providing an explanation. The potential risks to participation relate to privacy and
confidentiality. Please be assured that all of the data collected from teachers will be stored
securely and only accessed by the researcher. Great care will be taken to ensure that any
reports of the data do not identify any individual or their circumstances.
307
Confidentiality
Your identity and school location will be kept confidential. The information collected will
be kept private. All interviews and surveys will be given a number instead of a name and be
kept securely. Once the research findings have been written up using pseudonyms, the raw
data will be destroyed. You will have access to the findings of this research in the form of
the submitted thesis.
Anonymity
Only the researcher will have access to the individual information provided by teachers.
Privacy and confidentiality will be assured at all times. The research outcomes will be
provided in a report to your school executive and may be presented at conferences and
written up for publication. However, in all of these reports, the privacy and confidentiality
of individuals will be protected. Please be assured that no research reports will contain
information that might identify any individual, and all information will be kept in the
strictest confidence.
Data Storage
Participant data will be securely stored in the Faculty of Education at the University of
Canberra during the research phase. Once the data has been analysed and the project
completed, all data will be disposed of securely.
Ethics Committee Clearance
This project has been approved by the Committee for Ethics in Human Research of the
University of Canberra, [the Canberra Grammar School] or [St Jude’s Primary School and
the Catholic Education Office, Canberra-Goulburn Diocese]. Should you have any queries
regarding this research project please contact:
Dr Kaye Lowe
Director of the National Capital Centre for Literacy Research, University of Canberra
Ph: 6201 5056
Fax: 6201 2104
308
Consent Form—Teachers
I have read and understood the information about this research. I am not aware of any
condition that would prevent my participation, and I agree to participate in this project. I
have had the opportunity to ask questions about my participation in the research. All
questions I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction.
Please indicate whether you agree to participate in each of the following parts of the
research (please indicate which parts you agree to by putting a cross in the relevant box):

Allow the researcher to observe the students in your classroom undertaking literacyand technology-related activities within your normal teaching program.

Participate in a one-hour interview with the researcher.

Allow the researcher access to your literacy curriculum, published student
assessment data and student work samples.
Name: __________________________________ Position: ________________________
Signature: _______________________________ Date: ________________
A summary of the research report can be forwarded to you when published. If you would
like to receive a copy of the report, please include your mailing address below:
Address: ___________________________________________
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310
Appendix G: Vignettes St John’s Boys
Year 5 Boys
Jackson
Jackson is the elder of two boys. He achieves well academically and reads above grade level.
Our interview took place while he was playing WWE Smack Down vs. Roar, a simulated
wrestling game on the Wii. He enjoys RPGs and often plays these games collaboratively with his
brother. Jackson shares a bedroom with his brother, freeing up a bedroom in which the games
consoles, television, Lego, board games and books are stored. There is a substantial collection of
each. He particularly enjoys watching wrestling and playing the RPG, in which the cycle of
reward is strong and clear. He plays every day for an hour and, afterwards, he is allowed to
watch television. He enjoys reading, particularly Harry Potter and Star Wars. Given the choice,
he would play WWE on the Wii rather than reading a book. He gives as his reason that he prefers
action and engagement to the passive nature of reading a book or watching a DVD. The
exception is reading the Pokémon Pokedex, a thick volume that carries information, descriptions,
strategies and advice on Pokémon and that directly improves his success in playing DS games.
Andrew
Andrew is the elder of two boys whose parents waited a while to have the boys. He is a very
articulate, intelligent child who takes his learning very seriously. He achieves very well at school
and is a conscientious and capable child. He enjoys reading and writing and shows aptitude in
both, and he is often found engrossed in his book or drawing and annotating a comic strip based
on a Star Wars or Lego theme. He is an avid reader and is passionate about anything to do with
Star Wars; he has read every book and graphic novel on Star Wars and has seen all of the movies
and television episodes. His favourite games include Lego and Star Wars combined. There are
numerous Lego models, books and toys in his room and he speaks with authority about Star
Wars and Lego. He reads widely, but is currently enjoying the Horrible History series,
particularly the titles The Frightful First World War and the Woeful Second World War. Andrew
demonstrated his latest Star Wars Lego game in his family room, eloquently explaining the
purpose, aim and actions required to succeed in the game. He was clearly in the flow and spoke
passionately about what he was doing; for example, ‘I just love zooming in on these kind of
bikes and see them flying? So it’s just like, Woohoo!’
Wayne
Wayne is a quiet boy and considered a gentle giant by his classmates. His passions are rugby
league and watching television. He achieves well at school but does not consider himself a
particularly strong reader or writer. He comments that, unless he has to read or write, he does not
readily engage in these activities. His preference is to play games on his Wii, with Rugby League
3, Pokémon, WWE and games in which he can blow things up being his favourites. Although he
has the capacity to play online with other players, he prefers to play alone against the computer.
There is a reciprocal relationship between the skills he uses to play rugby league on the field to
those he uses in his game and vice versa. Wayne’s father describes himself as a ‘technogeek’
who enjoys gaming with his son and tinkering with computers and consoles. He does not see
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himself as a reader and has never been a reader, remarking that he has only read 20 books in his
life and that was because he had to. Wayne’s mother is a reader of ‘frivolous chick lit stuff’. The
family has three computers: a desktop in a public area, and two laptops. The children are not
allowed to take the laptops into their bedrooms and they do not have televisions in their
bedrooms either.
Jeremy
Jeremy is an intelligent, deep-thinking boy with a wide range of interests. His passions are
computer games, videos, history, Lego, guns and his dog, Gypsy. He finds school boring, as he is
a self-motivated learner. He reads widely, which fuels his creativity and imagination. He creates
his own epic narratives, based on game play, with Lego, combining his love of history, fantasy
and all things military. His room reflects his interest in Lego and War hammer games, and he has
piles of books and magazines as well as toy guns covering every available space. He spoke
authoritatively and articulately about his interests and the history books he reads. Jeremy
demonstrated the game Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, a CD-ROM game, which is an example of an
epic fantasy narrative in which the player completes a number of quests to level up and earn gold
coins. His father is also a gamer and introduced Jeremy to this particular game. As Jeremy did
not know how to play it, he explored and used trial and error and the online tutorial to teach him
how to play. This is enquiry-based learning at its best. He estimates that he plays computer
games for at least two hours a day and a lot more on the weekends and holidays.
Year 6 Boys
Oscar
Oscar is the eldest child with two younger siblings and is a talented amateur actor and singer in
children’s productions around town. He is a sensitive, deep-thinking boy who sees himself as an
avid reader and a good writer. His genre of choice is fantasy and ancient mythology, and he cites
the Harry Potter, The Hobbit and Percy Jackson series as his favourites. He would rather read
than do anything else and was very proud of his book collection, which dominates his bedroom.
He prefers to read and collect whole series of books, and values and rereads his favourites. He
sees playing on the computer as a way to fill in some time, ‘if I can’t think of anything to do’. He
lives on a rural property outside Canberra so has limited computer time, as he is allocated only
two hours of download time per week.
Quade
Quade is the current school captain who takes his role very seriously. He is a bright, diligent,
articulate boy and a keen sportsman. He achieves very well academically. His reading preference
includes autobiographies and he is currently reading Long Walk to Freedom by Nelson Mandela,
his role model. He has a younger sister in Year 5. He is of West Indian and Indian descent, and
education, hard work, service and academic achievement are highly valued in his family. Quade
ably demonstrated his prowess on the Wii and proudly showed me all the titles he has in his
collection. He loves to play Super Mario Bros and Super Mario Galaxy as well as sports games
on the Wii. His other love is airplanes and trains. He plays an online game called TU95 in which
the single player engages in aeroplane missions to refuel other planes in mid-air, or to fly and
land at airports in a variety of weather conditions. It is a simulation game involving the laws of
312
physics, flying and navigation. He plays these games because ‘I have been gradually wanting to
learn more about airplanes and stuff, especially the A380 Airbus’ (Interview). He goes on to say,
‘without me being fascinated, I wouldn’t be playing games like that’. He remarks that there is a
lot of reading in TU95 and that mathematical literacy is required to succeed.
Lachlan
Lachlan is the younger of two boys. His passions are gaming, soccer and reading, especially
really long fantasy books. He struggled at first with learning to read and only after intervention
from the school’s Learning Support teacher and outside tutoring in Year 4 did ‘the penny drop’
for him, as reported by his parents. He is a personable boy who achieves well. He lists as his
favourite online activities Halo Reach, Minecraft, Fifa 11, Facebook and YouTube. He has been
playing Halo for 4 years and loves the ongoing challenge, which he says makes him feel excited,
annoyed and then happy when he has completed the challenge. He prefers to play online with
friends and says that ‘helping each other out and working a puzzle together so I don’t have to
think as hard’ is one of his key motivators for playing online games such as Halo Reach and
Minecraft. He is beginning to experiment with his own game design using Scratch to code and
create his own games. He draws on the inspiration of his older brother and one of the other boys
in his class.
Joseph
Joseph is a quiet, diligent student and a very good sportsman who plays AFL, soccer and cricket.
He has attended St John’s since Kindergarten and his grandmother, who is a Learning Support
assistant at the school, is his primary carer during the school week. Joseph approaches life
seriously and with quiet confidence. He sees himself as a keen reader and good writer of fictional
stories. He loves to begin and read a series of books and his favourite is the Selby series by
Duncan Ball. Even though he loves technology, he would still chose to read the physical book as
it is portable, will not break in his bag and he never loses his place. He is a talented artist and
loves to draw creatures to relax. Joseph plays Club Penguin most days and interacts with, and
plays against, players from all over the world. He enjoys the variety of game challenges that he
plays as his avatar penguin, as well as the social interaction with other Club Penguin players. It
provides a high element of creativity and he enjoys that about it.
Simon
Simon is of Asian descent. His mum is from Thailand and his dad is from Malaysia so English is
the language spoken at home. He is the youngest child of three, having two older sisters. He is an
intelligent, introverted child with considerable computer skills. He enjoys playing basketball,
soccer, cycling and squash. His father is a computer programmer who works from home. His dad
is an avid reader and it is predominantly his influence that has made Simon and his sisters to
value reading. He takes them to the library on a regular basis, reads to them and tutors them from
home. Simon loves to read J. K. Rowling and John Marsden books. He often writes stories,
draws and animates comics, and plays logical thinking and strategy games. Simon has his own
laptop, DS, Wii and he uses the family iPad. He has a technologically rich literate home life.
When Simon is not playing computer games, he is using Scratch or Game Maker to create
simple online games himself. On these sites, one can create his or her own game, and test and
comment on others’ games. He has learned these skills from his father.
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314
Appendix H: Vignettes Red Hill College Boys
Year 7 Boys
Brody
Brody is the youngest of three children, with two older sisters aged 17 and 19. He is a talented
sportsman who enjoys basketball, soccer and Tai Kwon Do. He remarked that he is a good
reader, preferring the action and thriller genres and that he remembers the first series of books he
read from start to finish—Emily Rodda’s Deltora Quest in Year 2. He admits that he does not
read every day. The family’s philosophy on reading is one of reading for enjoyment and
pleasure. There has never been a forced reading routine, but rather a provision of the opportunity
to read what each child enjoys. His mother is an avid reader, as are Brody’s two older sisters, but
his father says he can count the number of books he has read on two hands. The parents observe
that Brody used to read a lot more than he does now. They have noticed a definite move towards
iPad use at the expense of reading. This is a flashpoint. They also note that the pressure of school
work and co-curricular activities reduces the time Brody has for reading. Brody prefers the iPad
or his iPod touch to the computer for entertainment. He uses the computer for homework and for
downloading music. He gives as his reasons for preferring mobile technology that the games or
apps are cheaper and the device is more portable. He achieves well at school and is a quiet
member of the class.
Hugo
Hugo describes reading as one of his very best activities. He takes every opportunity to read and
‘often gets punished for reading in the morning when I am not supposed to be’. He is currently
reading the Alex Rider series by Anthony Horowitz, which he describes as brilliant. He also
reads Top Gear magazine from cover to cover each month. He is an articulate, engaging boy who
is clearly enthusiastic about reading. He has a younger sister. When he is not reading, Hugo
enjoys playing driving games on his Xbox. His Xbox is in his room and he loves the challenge of
harder levels to improve his skills and the imagination that is ignited through the vicarious
experience. His other great passion is cars and he is very knowledgeable about vehicles. He
describes himself as not really keen on writing and as needing lots of time to think of a ‘decent
strong idea’. He adds that, ‘once I get a good idea I just write something and then write another
thing and before you know it it’s like being in a river, just letting it take you’. There is a family
history of valuing reading with Hugo’s mother, who said that losing herself in a book is one of
her favourite activities but that, since nothing else gets done when she reads, she has to limit
herself to holiday reading. Hugo’s father is also an avid reader as are his parents, who kept all of
his books from childhood to give to their grandchildren. There is a rich heritage of reading in
Hugo’s text-rich environment.
Michael
Our interview with Michael was brief as he is a man of few words. He lists as his favourite
activities music, sports and reading. He is a shy, self-effacing boy who has a passion and aptitude
for the creative arts. He named visual arts as the subject he most enjoys at school. He is the
middle child of four, with an older brother in Year 9, a younger sister in Year 6 and his youngest
315
brother in Kindergarten. On entering this home on a very chilly winter school night, two things
struck me. Firstly, the large, lived-in family room was occupied by four children of varying ages
lying on the floor or lounging on couches reading and interacting with books. There were picture
books and board books and young adult novels strewn across the floor and sitting in untidy piles
on the coffee tables among sporting equipment, musical instruments and music scores. The three
younger children were in their pyjamas and were totally engrossed in reading or sharing the joy
of a picture book with each other. It was a scene that any book lover would have relished—
wanting to be enveloped in this warm and comforting scene in which books were valued and
reading embraced. There was also an incomplete, and what looked like an ongoing, game of
Monopoly set up on a table. The other thing that struck me was that this was one of the very few
homes that I was privileged to be invited into that was not dominated by electronic equipment, a
massive flat screen television and bookshelves overflowing with DVDs and video games. This
large room was dominated by one wall of built-in bookshelves that housed complete sets of
classic literature from floor to high ceiling. There were red, green and navy leather-bound series
and a whole section of what appeared to be the complete set of Penguin classics with their
distinctive white and orange spines. This family is totally immersed in literature and literate
activities. They describe reading practises in their home as ‘obsessional’.
Jake
Jake spoke articulately and confidently during our interview in a soft American accent. He is in
Canberra with his family on a posting with the American Embassy. He is the third of four
siblings and the only boy. He has lived in Australia for two and a half years and there is much
that he enjoys about the lifestyle here. One of Jake’s favourite activities is to lie on his bed and
read a book. He describes himself as loving reading and cannot remember a time when he could
not read. He enjoys action books like the Redwall series, Keys to the Kingdom by Garth Nix and
the Inkheart series. His first memories of reading a series are the Hardy Boys and The Boxcar
Children, which his parents encouraged him to read. His Dad has read the Chronicles of Narnia
out aloud to the family and this is a special memory around books for Jake. Not surprisingly, he
would choose a book rather than an e-reader to curl up on his bed with, as he felt this is more
relaxing and easier on his eyes. Jake’s parents were both formally teachers and have always
encouraged their children to read, reading with them when they were younger, introducing each
child to a range of books and genres and privileging reading as a pastime over screen time.
Reading is of high importance in this family, as is their Christian faith, which guides their
parenting and life style.
Lincoln
Lincoln began at Red Hill College in Year 7 and found it very different to the system he attended
in primary school. He has settled in well. His mother, Veronica is an English high school teacher
at his school and his dad is a chef. He has a younger sister. Lincoln spends a lot of his time
playing on the computer and watching television. Reading is highly valued in his home, and he is
always encouraged to read. He gave himself 7 out of 10 for his reading ability, often relying on
his mother to assist with comprehension to maintain meaning. He confesses to being a slow
reader so he can enjoy the book, as he does not like to rush. He is surrounded by good quality
books, both fiction and nonfiction, and is often encouraged to read the classics such as The
Hobbit and Lord of the Rings. He enjoys fantasy, action and mystery. His favourite websites are
YouTube, Google and Minecraft. The latter is a favourite because of his love of Lego, and it
316
provides him with the opportunity for creating, imagining and building. Given the choice,
Lincoln would choose to read books online on a device such as an iPad or Kindle so that he does
not have to store the books and they are more accessible.
Year 8 Boys
Ethan
Sociable is the best description of Ethan who chats easily and is very comfortable within himself.
His best friend lives a couple of houses up the road and they are often found skating, scootering
or socialising in a large group at the local skate park or shopping mall. He is the younger of two
brothers by 4 years. Despite growing up in a very literate household, he reports that he used to
read a great deal, but that last year when he began secondary school he received a laptop and
now freely acknowledges that he spends more time online than reading books. However, he
estimates that he reads just as much when accessing online gaming blogs, forums and wikis,
Facebook, Google and YouTube as he did when he read more books. He describes himself as a
good reader with a wide vocabulary and has recently reread the Cherub series by Robert
Muchamore. Favourite websites are Facebook, Google, Funny Junk and Minecraft. The
attraction of Minecraft is that he plays on a multiplayer server with his friend Charlie using
Skype. He and Charlie team up to defeat others and capture their treasure. Together they
collaborate to talk through tactics, work together to gain advantage and laugh. He says the reason
he plays games is to be both collaborative and competitive and he notes that gaming requires a
lot of patience. He and Charlie do not play every day, as school and co-curricular schedules
come first. Ethan’s first choice on the weekends is to socialise with his friends rather than to play
online games. He is a Facebook user, but says, ‘I haven’t stooped that low to have Facebook as
my home page’. He suggests that teachers could engage boys like him much more if the boys had
more access to computers for lessons at school. He prefers to discover knowledge under the
guidance of a teacher rather than to take notes of the teacher talking. He is competent with
searching and finds that teachers do not often give boys enough credit for finding their own sites
for information. He would also choose to type everything on a laptop in class.
Nathan
Nathan is a likable rogue. He is often in trouble for non-compliant behaviour in class and does
not take himself or anyone in authority seriously. As a result, Nathan often misses lessons, as he
visits the school Principal for correction. He attends a learning support group instead of attending
mainstream English classes for 8 periods a cycle. He is a classic case of a square peg in a round
hole. He is well liked by the boys in his year and his house due to his ready smile, sharp wit and
willingness to push the boundaries. Nathan’s parents explain that he has had a lot of trouble
learning to read and they have tried every program possible. He has been diagnosed with
dyslexia and a working memory problem, which incorporates visual and auditory processing
problems. Nathan’s father, a successful lawyer, admits to having a similar problem. For Nathan,
school is something to be endured. He is a bright and capable boy in many ways, but book-based
learning defeats him. For example, he is a gifted wood worker, he reads about and constructs
projects of interest to him and he draws and designs inventions. Minecraft, YouTube and
Facebook are his most frequently visited sites. Each day, he downloads the latest mod
(modification) from YouTube for potential use in his Minecraft game. Unlike many other boys
interviewed who enjoy the creativity and building opportunities that Minecraft presents, Nathan
317
was not a Lego fan as a young boy. He preferred working with wood in his Dad’s workshop. He
plays Call of Duty when his brother is home from boarding school.
Oliver
Oliver is a bright, friendly, sociable boy with a quick and easy smile. He is the only child of an
older mother and younger father and shares a mixed heritage as his mother is from Brazil and her
second language is English. Oliver sees himself as a reader and a writer. He thinks reading is
cool and would like more time to read but cites too much homework as a barrier to reading. He
does enjoy the 10 minutes his teacher gives the class each English lesson to read and would like
more of that. His choice of genre is science fiction and nonfiction and he recently discovered
Sherlock Holmes, which he is thoroughly enjoying. Oliver thinks of himself as a good writer and
especially enjoys writing poetry, which he does for pleasure. He prefers writing freehand rather
than on the computer. Oliver chooses not to have a Facebook account during the school term as
he finds it too distracting when accessing the Internet for homework. He reactivates his account
during the holidays, but admits that ‘Facebook can be good but it can also be really bad’. He
adds, ‘some of the stuff on there is weird and pointless ... instead of messaging them you can just
talk to them in real life or phone the girl’. Oliver’s technology use is closely monitored and
controlled by his mother. He owns a laptop, a phone and an iPod touch, but has to hand them in
to his mum by 9.30 each night.
Elliott
Elliott is a good all-rounder, a talented sportsman and good musician who achieves very well
academically. He is the younger of two siblings, with an older sister. He is well spoken and
polite and lives with very high expectations from his parents. This family values academic
achievement very highly and support their children to ‘reach their potential’ (Interview, p. 4). He
is diligent and hard working at school. Reading is a highly valued activity in this home and
Elliott declares himself a very competent reader who likes to read action and adventure novels.
Elliott enjoys playing computer games on his Xbox 360 or the Internet, with favourites being
Call of Duty Black Ops and Halo, as well as quest games such as Fable. His comments on first
person shooter games such as Call of Duty are that ‘they can be a bit pointless after you have
finished all the missions. What is exciting is when you play online and verse people from around
the world and work together to complete the missions. It has a totally different feel to it because
it is a bit harder’ (Interview, p. 6).
318
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341
342
Games Mentioned by Boys
Call of Duty Black Ops; MW3
Fable
Halo and Halo Reach
Assassins Creed
Medal of Honour
FIFA 11
WWE
Portal 1 and 2
World of Warcraft
Cut the Rope
Mario Kart
Back Breaker
Stick Sports
Wii Games
Lego; Lego Star Wars; Lego Harry Potter
Club Penguin
League of Legends
Poptropica
Achtung die Kurve
Angry Birds
343

Boys` Use of Technology in the Middle Years

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