Tutorial on Digital Phase-Locked Loops

Tutorial on Digital Phase-Locked Loops

Tutorial on
Digital Phase-Locked Loops
CICC 2009
Michael H. Perrott
September 2009
Copyright © 2009 by Michael H. Perrott
Why Are Digital Phase-Locked Loops Interesting?
ƒ
Performance is important
ƒ
The standard analog PLL implementation is
problematic in many applications
- Phase noise can limit wireless transceiver performance
- Jitter can be a problem for digital processors
- Analog building blocks on a mostly digital chip pose
design and verification challenges
- The cost of implementation is becoming too high …
Can digital phase-locked loops offer
excellent performance with a lower
cost of implementation?
M.H. Perrott
2
Just Enough PLL Background …
What is a Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)?
ref(t)
ref(t)
out(t)
out(t)
e(t)
v(t)
ref(t)
Phase
Detect
e(t)
e(t)
v(t)
v(t)
Analog
Loop Filter
out(t)
VCO
ƒ
ƒ
de Bellescize
Onde Electr, 1932
VCO efficiently provides oscillating waveform with
variable frequency
PLL synchronizes VCO frequency to input reference
frequency through feedback
- Key block is phase detector
ƒ Realized as digital gates that create pulsed signals
M.H. Perrott
4
Integer-N Frequency Synthesizers
ref(t)
div(t)
e(t)
v(t)
Fout = N Fref
ref(t)
Phase
Detect
e(t)
v(t)
Analog
Loop Filter
out(t)
VCO
div(t)
Divider
Sepe and Johnston
US Patent (1968)
N
ƒ
Use digital counter structure to divide VCO frequency
ƒ
Use PLL to synchronize reference and divider output
- Constraint: must divide by integer values
Output frequency is digitally controlled
M.H. Perrott
5
Fractional-N Frequency Synthesizers
Kingsford-Smith
US Patent (1974)
ref(t)
Wells
US Patent (1984)
div(t)
e(t)
v(t)
Fout = M.F Fref
ref(t)
Phase
Detect
e(t)
v(t)
Analog
Loop Filter
out(t)
VCO
div(t)
Nsd[k]
ƒ
Divider
Σ−Δ
Modulator
N[k]
Riley
US Patent (1989)
JSSC ‘93
M.F
Dither divide value to achieve fractional divide values
- PLL loop filter smooths the resulting variations
Very high frequency resolution is achieved
M.H. Perrott
6
The Issue of Quantization Noise
ref(t)
div(t)
e(t)
v(t)
Fout = M.F Fref
ref(t)
Phase
Detect
e(t)
v(t)
Analog
Loop Filter
out(t)
VCO
div(t)
Nsd[k]
ƒ
ƒ
Divider
Σ−Δ
Modulator
N[k]
M.F
Σ−Δ Quantization Noise
Limits PLL bandwidth
Increases linearity requirements of
phase detector
M.H. Perrott
f
7
Striving for a Better PLL Implementation
Analog Phase Detection
ref(t)
1 D Q
reset
div(t)
1 D Q
Reg
ref(t)
phase error
error(t)
Phase
Detect
ref(t)
div(t)
error(t)
out(t)
Analog
Loop Filter
VCO
div(t)
ƒ
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Divider
Pulse width is formed according to phase difference
between two signals
Average of pulsed waveform is applied to VCO input
9
Tradeoffs of Analog Approach
ref(t)
div(t)
error(t)
ref(t)
Phase Detector
Characteristic
Average of
error(t)
Phase Detector Signals
phase error
Phase
Detect
out(t)
Analog
Loop Filter
VCO
div(t)
ƒ
ƒ
Divider
Benefit: average of pulsed output is a continuous, linear
function of phase error
Issue: analog loop filter implementation is undesirable
M.H. Perrott
10
Issues with Analog Loop Filter
error(t)
Charge
Pump
Vout
Icp
Cint
ref(t)
Phase
Detect
out(t)
Analog
Loop Filter
VCO
Divider
ƒ
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Charge pump: output resistance, mismatch
Filter caps: leakage current, large area
11
Going Digital …
ref(t)
Phase
Detect
out(t)
Analog
Loop Filter
VCO
Divider
ref(t)
Time
-toDigital
out(t)
Digital
Loop Filter
DCO
Divider
ƒ
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Staszewski et. al.,
TCAS II, Nov 2003
Digital loop filter: compact area, insensitive to leakage
Challenges:
- Time-to-Digital Converter (TDC)
- Digitally-Controlled Oscillator (DCO)
12
Outline of Talk
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Overview of Key Blocks (TDC and DCO)
Modeling & CAD Tools
High Performance TDC design
Quantization Noise Cancellation
DCO based on an efficient passive DAC structure
Divider Design
Loop Filter Design
Prototype with measured Results
13
Classical Time-to-Digital Converter
div(t)
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
div(t)
D Q
D Q
D Q
Reg
Reg
Reg
1
1
1
0
0
e[k]
e[k]
ref(t)
ref(t)
ref(t)
Time
-toDigital
div(t)
out(t)
Digital
Loop Filter
DCO
Divider
ƒ
Resolution set by a “Single Delay Chain” structure
ƒ
Corresponds to a flash architecture
M.H. Perrott
- Phase error is measured with delays and registers
14
Impact of Limited Resolution and Delay Mismatch
div(t)
1
1
1
0
0
e[k]
Phase Detector
Characteristic
detector
output
Delay varies due to mismatch
phase error
ref(t)
ref(t)
Time
-toDigital
div(t)
ƒ
Integer-N PLL
ƒ
Fractional-N PLL
out(t)
Digital
Loop Filter
DCO
Divider
- Limit cycles due to limited resolution (unless high ref noise)
- Fractional spurs due to non-linearity from delay mismatch
M.H. Perrott
15
Modeling of TDC
quantization
error
detector
output
Phase Detector
Characteristic
tq[k]
1
Δtdel
time error
ref(t)
T
reference
period
Time
-toDigital
div(t)
phase
error[k]
T
2π
TDC
Gain
1
Δtdel
e[k]
out(t)
Digital
Loop Filter
DCO
Divider
ƒ Phase error converted to time error by scale factor:
ƒ TDC introduces quantization error: tq[k]
ƒ TDC gain set by average delay per step: Δtdel
M.H. Perrott
T/2π
16
A Straightforward Approach for Achieving a DCO
ref(t)
Time
-toDigital
div(t)
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Varactor
Varactor
DAC
Analog
Control
out(t)
Digital
Loop Filter
DCO
Divider
Ferriss ISSCC 2007
Hsu ISSCC 2008
Use a DAC to control a conventional LC oscillator
- Allows the use of an existing VCO within a digital PLL
- Can be applied across a broad range of IC processes
17
A Much More Digital Implementation
Varactor
Varactor
ref(t)
Time
-toDigital
div(t)
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Digital
Control
out(t)
Digital
Loop Filter
DCO
Divider
Staszewski et. al.,
TCAS II, Nov 2003
Adjust frequency in an LC oscillator by switching in a
variable number of small capacitors
- Most effective for CMOS processes of 0.13u and below
18
Leveraging Segmentation in Switched Capacitor DCO
Varactor
Fine
Control
Varactor
Coarse
Control
Binary Array
1x
2x
4x
2 nx
Unit Element Array
1x
1x
1x
1x
ƒ
Similar in design as segmented capacitor DAC structures
ƒ
Coarse and fine control segmentation of DCO
- Binary array: efficient control, but may lack monotonicity
- Unit element array: monotonic, but complex control
- Coarse control: active only during initial frequency tuning
(leverage binary array)
- Fine control: controlled by PLL feedback (leverage unit
element array to guarantee monotonicity)
M.H. Perrott
19
Leveraging Dithering for Fine Control of DCO
out(t)
Varactor
Varactor
ref(t)
Tuning
Fine
Control
in[k] Digital
Loop
Filter
Digital Σ−Δ
Modulator
Divide-by-K
T c=T/M
ƒ
ƒ
T
Coarse
Initial
Control Frequency
DCO
TDC out
Increase resolution by Σ−Δ dithering of fine cap array
Reduce noise from dithering by
- Using small unit caps in the fine cap array
- Increasing the dithering frequency (defined as 1/T )
c
M.H. Perrott
ƒ We will assume 1/Tc = M/T (i.e. M times reference frequency)
20
Calculation of Noise Spectrum: Switched Cap DCO
Phase noise
- Same as for
conventional
VCO
(tank Q, etc.)
ƒ
Varactor
Varactor
ƒ
Digital
Control
Quantization
Noise
Hntf(z)
Quantization noise
from dithering
- See Section 3
of Supplemental
Slides
M.H. Perrott
f
Phase
Noise
qraw[k]
z=ej2πfTc
f
q[k]
in[k]
M
Tc
2πKv
s
Φout(t)
s=j2πf
21
Modeling
Overall Digital PLL Model
TDC
DCO
DCO-referred
Noise
S Φn(f)
TDC-referred
Noise
S tq(e j2πfT)
f
tq[k]
Φref[k]
T
2π
-20 dB/dec
f
TDC
Gain
1
Δtdel
Loop
Filter
DT-CT
e[k]
H(z)
T
z=ej2πfT
Φdiv[k]
Φn(t)
2πKv
s
s=j2πf
Φout(t)
Divider
CT-DT
1
N
ƒ
ƒ
1
T
TDC and DCO-referred noise influence overall phase noise
according to associated transfer functions to output
Calculations involve both discrete and continuous time
M.H. Perrott
23
Key Transfer Functions
tq[k]
Φref[k]
T
2π
TDC
Gain
1
Δtdel
Loop
Filter
DT-CT
e[k]
H(z)
T
z=ej2πfT
Φdiv[k]
Φn(t)
2πKv
s
Φout(t)
s=j2πf
CT-DT
1
N
ƒ
TDC-referred noise
ƒ
DCO-referred noise
M.H. Perrott
1
T
24
Introduce a Parameterizing Function
tq[k]
Φref[k]
T
2π
TDC
Gain
1
Δtdel
Loop
Filter
DT-CT
e[k]
H(z)
Φn(t)
T
2πKv
s
z=ej2πfT
Φdiv[k]
Φout(t)
s=j2πf
CT-DT
1
N
1
T
ƒ
Define open loop transfer function A(f) as:
ƒ
Define closed loop parameterizing function G(f) as:
- Note: G(f) is a lowpass filter with DC gain = 1
M.H. Perrott
25
Transfer Function Parameterization Calculations
ƒ
TDC-referred noise
ƒ
DCO-referred noise
M.H. Perrott
26
Key Observations
tq[k]
Φref[k]
T
2π
TDC
Gain
1
Δtdel
Loop
Filter
DT-CT
e[k]
T
H(z)
z=ej2πfT
Φdiv[k]
Φn(t)
2πKv
s
Φout(t)
s=j2πf
CT-DT
1
N
ƒ
1
T
TDC-referred noise
Lowpass with a DC
gain of 2πN
ƒ
DCO-referred noise
Highpass with a high
frequency gain of 1
How do we calculate the output phase noise?
M.H. Perrott
27
Spectral Density Calculations
x(t)
CT
CT
y(t)
H(f)
x[k]
DT
y[k]
H(ej2πfT)
DT
y(t)
x[k]
DT
ƒ
CT
CT
ƒ
DT
DT
ƒ
DT
CT
M.H. Perrott
CT
H(f)
28
Phase Noise Calculation
TDC-referred
Noise
S tq(e j2πfT)
DCO-referred
Noise
S Φn(f)
-20 dB/dec
f
tq[k]
fo
ƒ
f
Φn(t)
2πN G(f)
TDC noise
- DT to CT calculation
- Dominates PLL phase
noise at low frequency
offsets
1-G(f)
fo
ƒ
Φout(t)
DCO noise
- CT to CT calculation
- Dominates PLL phase
noise at high frequency
offsets
2
1
2πN G(f) S tq(e j2πfT)
T
2
1- G(f) S Φn(f)
dBc/Hz
fo
M.H. Perrott
f
29
Example Calculation for Delay Chain TDC
ƒ
Ref freq = 1/T = 50 MHz,
Out freq = 3.6 GHz
2
Δtdel
12
S tq(e j2πfT)
f
tq[k]
ƒ
Inverter delay = Δtdel = 20 ps
fo
S Φout(f)
2πN G(f)
1
2πN G(f)
T
2
2 Δtdel
12
tdc
fo
ƒ
f
Note: G(f) = 1 at low offset frequencies
M.H. Perrott
30
CAD Tools
Closed Loop PLL Design Approach
Closed-Loop
Performance
Specifications
{f o, type, order}
Open-Loop
Design
Approach
Open-Loop
Characteristics
|A(f)|
A(f)
{K,f p,f z, ...}
G(f) =
A(f) =
A(f)
1+A(f)
G(f)
1-G(f)
Proposed Closed Loop Design Approach
ƒ
Classical open loop approach
ƒ
Proposed closed loop approach
Closed-Loop
Transfer
Function
G(f)
Lau and Perrott,
DAC, June 2003
- Indirectly design G(f) using bode plots of A(f)
- Directly design G(f) by examining impact of its
specifications on phase noise (and settling time)
- Solve for A(f) that will achieve desired G(f)
Implemented in PLL Design Assistant Software
http://www.cppsim.com
M.H. Perrott
32
Evaluate Phase Noise with 500 kHz PLL Bandwidth
ƒ
Key PLL parameters:
- G(f): 500 kHz BW, Type II, 2 order rolloff
- TDC noise: -94.7 dBc/Hz
- DCO noise: -153 dBc/Hz at 20 MHz offset (3.6 GHz carrier)
nd
M.H. Perrott
33
Calculated Phase Noise Spectrum with 500 kHz BW
Output Phase Noise of Synthesizer
-60
Detector Noise
VCO Noise
Total Noise
-70
GSM Mask
(Referenced to
3.6 GHz carrier)
-80
L(f) (dBc/Hz)
-90
Overall PLL
Phase Noise
TDC Noise
-100
-110
-120
-130
DCO Noise
-140
-150
-160
3
10
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
Frequency Offset (Hz)
TDC noise too high for GSM mask with 500 kHz PLL bandwidth
M.H. Perrott
34
Change PLL Bandwidth to 100 kHz
ƒ
Key PLL parameters:
- G(f): 100 kHz BW, Type = 2, 2 order rolloff
- TDC noise: -94.7 dBc/Hz
- DCO noise: -153 dBc/Hz at 20 MHz offset (3.6 GHz carrier)
nd
M.H. Perrott
35
Calculated Phase Noise Spectrum with 100 kHz BW
Output Phase Noise of Synthesizer
-60
Detector Noise
VCO Noise
Total Noise
-70
-80
Overall PLL
Phase Noise
-90
L(f) (dBc/Hz)
GSM Mask
(Referenced to
3.6 GHz carrier)
TDC Noise
-100
-110
DCO Noise
-120
-130
-140
-150
-160
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
Frequency Offset (Hz)
GSM mask is met with 100 kHz PLL bandwidth
M.H. Perrott
36
Loop Filter Design using PLL Design Assistant
ƒ
PLL Design Assistant allows fast loop filter design
- See Section 4 of Supplemental Slides
ƒ Assumption: Type = 2, 2nd order rolloff
- Where:
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
PLL Design Assistant provides the
values of K, wp = 2πfp, wz = 2πfz
37
Example Digital Loop Filter Calculation
ƒ
Assumptions
- Ref freq (1/T) = 50 MHz, Out freq = 3.6 GHz (so N = 72)
- Δt = 20 ps, K = 12 kHz/unit cap
- 100 kHz bandwidth, Type = 2 , 2 order rolloff
del
v
nd
M.H. Perrott
38
Verify Calculations Using C++ Behavioral Modeling
1
1
D Q
R
CppSim Module
Description
R
D Q
Name
Inputs, Outputs
Parameters
Code
PFD
Charge
Pump
ƒ
ƒ
- Hierarchical
description of
system
topology
ƒ
Loop
Filter
Divider
Σ−Δ
Modulator
Schematic
CppSim Module
Description
Name
Inputs, Outputs
Parameters
Code
Code blocks
- Specification
of module
behavior
using
templated
C++ code
Behavioral environment allows efficient architectural
investigation and validation of calculations
- Fast simulation speed is essential for design investigation
M.H. Perrott
39
CppSim – A Fast C++ Behavioral Simulator
http://www.cppsim.com
M.H. Perrott
40
How Do We Improve TDC Performance?
Two Key Issues:
• TDC resolution
• Mismatch
Motivation
TDC-referred
Noise
S tq(e j2πfT)
DCO-referred
Noise
S Φn(f)
-20 dB/dec
f
tq[k]
f
Φn(t)
2πN G(f)
fo
ƒ
fo
PLL bandwidth
dramatically influences
relative impact of TDC
and VCO noise
Want high PLL
bandwidth?
1-G(f)
Need low
TDC Noise
Φout(t)
Low PLL Bandwidth
High PLL Bandwidth
DCO
Noise
dBc/Hz
dBc/Hz
TDC
Noise
fo
M.H. Perrott
TDC
Noise
f
DCO
Noise
fo
f
42
Improve Resolution with Vernier Delay Technique
div(t)
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
div(t)
D Q
D Q
D Q
Reg
Reg
Reg
e[k]
ref(t)
1
1
1
0
0
e[k]
1
1
1
0
0
e[k]
ref(t)
Delay
div(t)
Vernier
div(t)
ref(t)
M.H. Perrott
Delay
Delay
Delay
D Q
D Q
D Q
Reg
Reg
Reg
Delay2
Delay2
Delay2
ref(t)
Effective
resolution:
Delay-Delay2
e[k]
Delay2
43
Issues with Vernier Approach
ƒ
ƒ
Mismatch issues are more severe than the single delay
chain TDC
- Reduced delay is formed as difference of two delays
Large measurement range requires large area
- Initial PLL frequency acquisition may require a large range
Delay
div(t)
Vernier
div(t)
ref(t)
M.H. Perrott
Delay
Delay
1
1
1
0
0
Delay
D Q
D Q
D Q
Reg
Reg
Reg
Delay2
Delay2
Delay2
e[k]
ref(t)
Effective
resolution:
Delay-Delay2
e[k]
Delay2
44
Two-Step TDC Architecture Allows Area Reduction
Single Delay Chain
Vernier
Delay
div(t)
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
Mux
D Q
D Q
D Q
Reg
Reg
Reg
ref(t)
D Q
D Q
D Q
Reg
Reg
Reg
Delay2
Delay2
Delay2
Logic
Ramakrishnan, Balsara
VLSID ‘06
ƒ
ƒ
Single delay chain provides
coarse resolution
(Folded) Vernier provides
fine resolution
M.H. Perrott
Coarse
e[k]
Fine
e[k]
Delay - Delay2
Delay
45
Two-Step TDC Using Time Amplification
Single Delay Chain
div(t)
Delay
Delay
Single Delay Chain
Time
Amplifier
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
Mux
D Q
D Q
D Q
D Q
D Q
D Q
Reg
Reg
Reg
Reg
Reg
Reg
ref(t)
Logic
Simplified view of: Lee, Abidi
VLSI 2007
ƒ
ƒ
Single delay chain provides
coarse and fine resolution
Time amplification is used
to improve resolution
M.H. Perrott
Coarse
e[k]
Fine
e[k]
Delay
Delay
Amplification
of Time
46
Leveraging Metastability to Create a Time Amplifier
in(t)
ref(t)
in(t)
ref(t)
Time
Amplifier
out(t)
Δtin
D Q
out(t)
Latch
Δtin
ref(t)
ref(t)
in(t)
in(t)
out(t)
out(t)
Δtout
Δtout
Simplified view of: Abas, et al., Electronic Letters, Nov 2002
(note that actual implementation uses SR latch)
ƒ
Metastability leads to progressively slower output
transitions as setup time on latch is encroached upon
M.H. Perrott
- Time difference at input is amplified at output
47
Interpolating time-to-digital converter
Tq
Start
Delay
Delay
Delay
1
Start
1
1
1
Stop
Tstop
Registers
Out
1
1
0
Out
Henzler et al., ISSCC 2008
ƒ
ƒ
Stop
Tin
Interpolate between edges to achieve fine resolution
Cyclic approach can also be used for large range
M.H. Perrott
48
An Oscillator-Based TDC
Ring Oscillator
Vdd
Phase Error[1]
Phase Error[2]
3
3
div(t)
ref(t)
Osc(t)
Reset
ref(t)
Counter
Logic
div(t)
Count[k]
Register
e[k]
ƒ
ƒ
Count[k]
e[k]
Output e[k] corresponds to the number of oscillator
edges that occur during the measurement time window
Advantages
- Extremely large range can be achieved with compact area
- Quantization noise is scrambled across measurements
M.H. Perrott
49
A Closer Look at Quantization Noise Scrambling
Phase Error[1]
Ring Oscillator
Vdd
Phase Error[2]
div(t)
ref(t)
Osc(t)
Reset
ref(t)
Counter
Logic
div(t)
Count[k]
Register
e[k]
ƒ
ƒ
Count[k]
q[1]
Quant.
Error[k]
-q[0]
e[k]
q[3]
-q[2]
3
3
Quantization error occurs at beginning and end of each
measurement interval
As a rough approximation, assume error is uncorrelated
between measurements
- Averaging of measurements improves effective resolution
M.H. Perrott
50
Deterministic quantizer error vs. scrambled error
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
Deterministic TDC do not provide inherent scrambling
For oversampling benefit, TDC error must be scrambled!
Some systems provide input scrambling (ΔΣ fractional-N PLL),
while some others do not (integer-N PLL)
M.H. Perrott
51
Proposed GRO TDC Structure
A Gated Ring Oscillator (GRO) TDC
Phase Error[1]
Ring Oscillator
Phase Error[2]
div(t)
Enable
ref(t)
Osc(t)
Reset
ref(t)
Counter
Logic
div(t)
Count[k]
Register
e[k]
Count[k]
q[1]
Quant.
Error[k]
-q[0]
e[k]
q[2]
-q[1]
3
4
ƒ
Enable ring oscillator only during measurement intervals
ƒ
Quantization error becomes first order noise shaped!
- Hold the state of the oscillator between measurements
- e[k] = Phase Error[k] + q[k] – q[k-1]
- Averaging dramatically improves resolution!
M.H. Perrott
53
Improve Resolution By Using All Oscillator Phases
Phase Error[1]
Ring Oscillator
Phase Error[2]
div(t)
Enable
ref(t)
Osc.
Phases(t)
Reset
ref(t)
Counters
Logic
div(t)
Count[k]
Register
Count[k]
e[k]
Helal, Straayer, Wei,
Perrott VLSI 2007
Quant.
Error[k]
e[k]
q[1]
q[2]
-q[1]
-q[0]
11
10
ƒ Raw resolution is set by inverter delay
ƒ Effective resolution is dramatically improved by averaging
M.H. Perrott
54
GRO TDC Also Shapes Delay Mismatch
Enable
Measurement 1
Enable
Measurement 2
Enable
Measurement 3
Enable
Measurement 4
ƒ
Barrel shifting occurs through delay elements across
different measurements
- Mismatch between delay elements is first order shaped!
M.H. Perrott
55
Simple gated ring oscillator inverter-based core
Enabled Ring Oscillator
Disabled Ring Oscillator
(a)
(b)
Delay Element
Enable
Gate the oscillator by switching
the inverter cores to the
power supply
Enable
Vo n-1
Vo n
Vo 5
Vo 3
M.H. Perrott
M3
Vo i-1
Vo 1
Vo 4
Vo 2
M4
Vo i
M2
Enable
M1
56
GRO Prototype
enable
15 Stage Gated Ring Oscillator
En
Dis
S Q
R
enable(t)
enable
Straayer,
Perrott
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Logic
error[k]
GRO implemented as a custom
0.13 μm CMOS IC
57
Measured GRO Results Confirm Noise Shaping
enable
15 Stage Gated Ring Oscillator
Variable
Delay
enable(t)
S Q
R
enable
40
30
Input variable
delay signal
Amplitude (dB)
20
Harmonics due
to nonlinearity of
variable delay
Logic
error[k]
10
0
-10
Noise shaped
quant. noise
-20
-30
0.01
M.H. Perrott
0.1
1
Frequency (MHz)
10
100
58
Measured deadzone behavior of inverter-based GRO
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
Deadzones were caused by errors in gating the oscillator
GRO “injection locked” to an integer ratio of FS
Behavior occurred for almost all integer boundaries, and
some fractional values as well
Noise shaping benefit was limited by this gating error
M.H. Perrott
59
Next Generation GRO: Multi-path oscillator concept
Single Input
Single Output
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
Multiple Inputs
Single Output
Use multiple inputs for each delay element instead of one
Allow each stage to optimally begin its transition based on
information from the entire GRO phase state
Key design issue is to ensure primary mode of oscillation
M.H. Perrott
60
Multi-path inverter core
Lee, Kim, Lee
JSSC 1997
Mohan, et. al.,
CICC 2005
M.H. Perrott
61
Proposed multi-path gated ring oscillator
Hsu, Straayer, Perrott
ISSCC 2008
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
Oscillation frequency near 2GHz with 47 stages…
Reduces effective delay per stage by a factor of 5-6!
Represents a factor of 2-3 improvement compared to previous
multi-path oscillators
M.H. Perrott
62
A simple measurement approach…
N-Stage Gated Ring Oscillator
Enable
Reset
Start
Counters
Logic
Stop
Count[k]
Register
e[k]
ƒ
ƒ
Helal, Straayer, Perrott
VLSI 2007
2 counters per stage * 47 stages = 94 counters each at 2GHz
Power consumption for these counters is unreasonable
Need a more efficient way to measure the multi-path GRO
M.H. Perrott
63
Count Edges by Sampling Phase
ƒ
Calculate phase from:
ƒ
1 counter and N registers Æ much more efficient
- A single counter for coarse phase information (keeps track of
phase wrapping)
- GRO phase state for fine count information
M.H. Perrott
64
Proposed Multi-Path Measurement Structure
ƒ
ƒ
Multi-path structure leads to ambiguity in edge position
Partition into 7 cells to avoid such ambiguity
ƒ Requires 7 counters rather than 1, but power still OK
M.H. Perrott
65
Prototype 0.13μm CMOS multi-path GRO-TDC
Start
Timing
Generation
Stop
Enable
CLK
47-stage
Gated Ring
Oscillator
Z1-47
State
Register
Start
Stop
Enable
CLK
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Measurement
Cells
Adder
Out
Straayer et al., VLSI 2008
ƒ
Two implemented versions:
ƒ
2-21mW power consumption depending on input duty cycle
- 8-bit, 500Msps
- 11-bit, 100Msps version
M.H. Perrott
66
Measured noise-shaping of multi-path GRO
65,536 pt. FFT
-50
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
279.2
Input of
1.2pspp
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
TDC Output after 1MHz LPF
(Hanning window + 20x averaging)
Filtered TDC Output
Power Spectral Density
(dB ps2/Hz)
-40
Ideal variance of
50-Msps quantizer
with 1ps steps
Noise of 80fsrms in 1MHz BW
104
105
106
107
279.0
278.8
1.2ps
278.6
0
40
80
120
Frequency (Hz)
Time (µ
µs)
(a)
(b)
160
200
Data collected at 50Msps
More than 20dB of noise-shaping benefit
80fsrms integrated error from 2kHz-1MHz
Floor primarily limited by 1/f noise (up to 0.5-1MHz)
M.H. Perrott
67
Measured deadzone behavior for multi-path GRO
ƒ
Only deadzones for outputs that are multiples of 2N
ƒ
Size of deadzone is reduced by 10x
- 94, 188, 282, etc.
- No deadzones for other even or odd integers, fractional output
M.H. Perrott
68
The Issue of Quantization Noise Due to
Divider Dithering
The Nature of the Quantization Noise Problem
Ref
Loop
Filter
PFD
Out
Div
N/N+1
1-bit
Frequency M-bit
ΔΣ
Selection
Modulator
Quantization
Noise Spectrum
Output
Spectrum
Noise
Frequency
Selection
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Fout
ΔΣ
PLL dynamics
Increasing PLL bandwidth increases impact of ΔΣ
fractional-N noise
- Cancellation offers a way out!
70
Previous Analog Quantization Noise Cancellation
ƒ
ƒ
Phase error due to ΔΣ is predicted by accumulating
ΔΣ quantization error
Gain matching between PFD and D/A must be precise
Matching in analog domain limits performance
M.H. Perrott
71
Proposed All-digital Quantization Noise Cancellation
Hsu, Straayer, Perrott
ISSCC 2008
ƒ
ƒ
Scale factor determined by simple digital correlation
Analog non-idealities such as DC offset are completely
eliminated
M.H. Perrott
72
Details of Proposed Quantization Noise Cancellation
ƒ
Correlator out is accumulated
and filtered to achieve scale factor
- Settling time chosen to be around
10 us
ƒ
See analog version of this
technique in Swaminathan et.al.,
ISSCC 2007
M.H. Perrott
73
Proposed Digital Wide BW Synthesizer
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Gated-ring-oscillator (GRO) TDC achieves low in-band
noise
All-digital quantization noise cancellation achieves low
out-of-band noise
Design goals:
- 3.6-GHz carrier, 500-kHz bandwidth
- <-100dBc/Hz in-band, <-150 dBc/Hz at 20 MHz offset
74
Overall Synthesizer Architecture
Note: Detailed behavioral simulation model available at
http://www.cppsim.com
M.H. Perrott
75
Dual-Port LC VCO
ƒ
Frequency tuning:
- Use a small 1X varactor to minimize noise sensitivity
- Use another 16X varactor to provide moderate range
- Use a four-bit capacitor array to achieve 3.3-4.1 GHz range
M.H. Perrott
76
Digitally-Controlled Oscillator with Passive DAC
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Goals of 10-bit DAC
1X varactor minimizes
noise sensitivity
16X varactor provides
moderate range
A four-bit capacitor
array covers 3.3-4.1GHz
- Monotonic
- Minimal active circuitry and no transistor bias currents
- Full-supply output range
77
Operation of 10-bit Passive DAC (Step 1)
ƒ
ƒ
5-bit resistor ladder; 5-bit switch-capacitor array
Step 1: Capacitors Charged
- Resistor ladder forms V = M/32•V and V = (M+1)/32•V ,
where M ranges from 0 to 31
- N unit capacitors charged to V , and (32-N) unit capacitors
L
M.H. Perrott
charged to VL
DD
H
DD
H
78
Operation of 10-bit Passive DAC (Step 2)
ƒ
Step 2: Disconnect Capacitors from Resistors, Then
Connect Together
- Achieves DAC output with first-order filtering
- Bandwidth = 32• C /(2π•C )•50MHz
u
M.H. Perrott
load
ƒ Determined by capacitor ratio
ƒ Easily changed by using different Cload
79
Now Let’s Examine Divider …
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Issues:
-
GRO range must span entire reference period during
initial lock-in
80
Proposed Divider Structure
Divide value
=N0+N1+N2+N3
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Resample reference with 4x division frequency
-
Lowers GRO range to one fourth of the reference period
81
Proposed Divider Structure (cont’d)
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Place ΔΣ dithered edge away from GRO edge
-
Prevents extra jitter due to divide-value dependent delay
82
Dual-Path Loop Filter
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
Step 1: reset
Step 2: frequency acquisition
-
Vc(t) varies
Vf(t) is held at midpoint
Step 3: steady-state lock conditions
-
M.H. Perrott
Vc(t) is frozen to take quantization noise away
ΔΣ quantization noise cancellation is enabled
83
Fine-Path Loop Filter
ƒ
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Equivalent to an analog lead-lag filter
-
Set zero (62.5kHz) and first pole (1.1MHz) digitally
Set second pole (3.1MHz) by capacitor ratio
First-order ΔΣ reduces in-band quantization noise
84
Linearized Model of PLL Under Fine-Tune Operation
Accumulator
Gain
K2
first-order
IIR
1-α
1-αz-1
1
1-z-1
Gain
K1
Φref[k]
Φdiv[k]
T
2π
TDC
Loop
Gain
Filter
e[k]
1
H(z)
Δtdel
M.H. Perrott
1
V
2B
DT-CT
VCO
T
2πKv
s
z=ej2πfT
divider
1
Nnom
ƒ
ΔΣ
DAC
Gain
Φout(t)
s=j2πf
CT-DT
1
T
Standard lead-lag filter topology but implemented in
digital domain
- Consists of accumulator plus feedforward path
85
Same Technique Poses Problems for Coarse-Tune
ƒ
DAC thermal noise impacts
performance due to the
higher coarse VCO gain
-
M.H. Perrott
Can we somehow lower
the DAC bandwidth?
86
Fix: Leverage the Divider as a Signal Path
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Bypass to divider for feedforward path allows coarse
DAC bandwidth to be
dramatically reduced!
87
Linearized Model of PLL Under Coarse-Tune Operation
Φref[k]
T
2π
first-order
TDC
IIR
Gain
1 e[k] 1-α
Δtdel
1-αz-1
DAC
Gain
Accum.
4
1
1-z-1
1
64
V
2B
DT-CT
VCO
T
2πKvc
s
Φout(t)
s=j2πf
Φdiv[k]
Divider
Kc
2π
z-1
1-z-1
CT-DT
1
T
1
Nnom
ƒ
Routing of signal path into Sigma-Delta controlling
the divider yields a feedforward path
- Adds to accumulator path as both signals pass back
through the divider
- Allows reduction of coarse DAC bandwidth
ƒ Noise impact of coarse DAC on VCO is substantially
lowered
M.H. Perrott
88
Die Photo of Prototype
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
0.13-μm CMOS
Active area: 0.95 mm2
Chip area: 1.96 mm2
VDD: 1.5V
Current:
-
26mA (Core)
7mA (VCO output
buffer at 1.1V)
GRO-TDC:
-
M.H. Perrott
2.3mA
157X252 um2
89
Power Distribution of Prototype IC
Divider
DAC
VCO
21.0mW
(46%)
1.4mW
(3%) 2.8mW
Ref. Buffer
(6%)
3.0mW
(7%)
3.4mW GRO-TDC
(7%)
6.8mW
(15%)
Digital
7.7mW
(17%)
VCO Pad Buffer
Total Power: 46.1mW
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Notice GRO and digital quantization noise
cancellation have only minor impact on power
(and area)
90
Measured Phase Noise at 3.67GHz
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Suppresses
quantization
noise by
more than
15 dB
Achieves
204 fs
(0.27 degree)
integrated
noise (jitter)
Reference
spur: -65dBc
91
Calculation of Phase Noise Components
−40
VCO Noise
Finepath ΣΔ Quantization Noise
Fine−tune DAC Thermal
Coarse−tune DAC Thermal
Divider Noise (1% left)
GRO Noise
Ref Noise
Close−loop Noise
−60
dBc/Hz
−80
−100
−120
−140
−160
−180
3
10
4
10
5
6
10
10
7
10
foffset
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
See wideband digital synthesizer tutorial available at
http://www.cppsim.com
92
Measured Worst Spurs over Fifty Channels
-50
Spur (dBc)
Integer boundary
-55 (50MHz•73)
-60
-65
-70
16.2us
-75
3.62
ƒ
ƒ
3.63 3.64 3.65 3.66
frequency (GHz)
3.67
Tested from 3.620 GHz to 3.670 GHz at intervals of 1 MHz
-
Worst spurs observed close to integer-N boundary
(multiples of 50 MHz)
-42dBc worst spur observed at 400kHz offset from boundary
M.H. Perrott
93
Conclusions
ƒ
ƒ
Digital Phase-Locked Loops look extremely promising
for future applications
- Very amenable to future CMOS processes
- Excellent performance can be achieved
Analysis of digital PLLs is similar to analog PLLs
- PLL bandwidth is often chosen for best noise performance
ƒ TDC (or Ref) noise dominates at low frequency offsets
ƒ DCO noise dominates at high frequency offsets
ƒ
ƒ
Behavioral simulation tools such as CppSim allow
architectural investigation and validation of calculations
TDC structures are an exciting research area
- Ideas from A-to-D conversion can be applied
Innovation of future digital PLLs will involve joint
circuit/algorithm development
M.H. Perrott
94
Supplemental Slides
Section 1: Digital Fractional-N Frequency
Synthesizers
A First Glance at Fractional-N Signals (Fout = 4.25Fref )
5
N[k] 4
out(t)
div(t)
ref(t)
e[k]
ref(t)
out(t)
Time e[k]
Digital
-toLoop Filter
Digital
DCO
div(t)
Divider
N[k]
ƒ
Constant divide value of N = 4 leads to frequency error
- Phase error accumulates in unbounded manner
M.H. Perrott
96
TI Approach to Fractional Division
out(t)
div(t)
ref(t)
e[k]
cnt[k]
ref(t)
5
4
e[k]
Time
Phase
-to- Reg
Unwrap
Digital
Reg
Re-time
ref(t)
signal
ƒ
ƒ
cnt[k]
div(t)
Reg
out(t)
Digital
Loop Filter
DCO
count
reset
Staszewski
et. al.,
TCAS II, Nov
2003
Wrap e[k] by feeding delay chain in TDC with out(t)
Counter provides information of when wrapping occurs
M.H. Perrott
97
Key Issues
ref(t)
e[k]
Time
Phase
Reg
-toUnwrap
Digital
Reg
Re-time
ref(t)
signal
ƒ
ƒ
cnt[k]
div(t)
Reg
out(t)
Digital
Loop Filter
DCO
count
reset
Counter, re-timing register, and delay stages of TDC
must operate at very high speeds
- Power consumption can be an issue
Calibration of TDC scale factor required to achieve
proper unwrapping of e[k]
- Can be achieved continuously with relative ease
ƒ See Staszewski et. al, JSSC, Dec 2005
M.H. Perrott
98
Fractional-N Synthesizer Approach (Fout = 4.25Fref )
5
N[k] 4
out(t)
div(t)
ref(t)
e[k]
ref(t)
DCO
div(t)
4.25
ƒ
out(t)
Time e[k]
Digital
-toLoop Filter
Digital
Accum
Divider
N[k]
Accumulator guides the “swallowing” of VCO cycles
- Average divide value of N = 4.25 is achieved in this case
M.H. Perrott
99
The Accumulator as a Phase “Observer”
ƒ
ƒ
Accumulator residue corresponds to an estimate of the
instantaneous phase error of the PLL
- Fractional value (i.e., 0.25) yields the slope of the residue
Carry out signal is asserted when the phase error
deviation (i.e. residue) exceeds one VCO cycle
- Carry out signal accurately predicts when a VCO cycle
should be “swallowed”
ref(t)
out(t)
Time e[k]
Digital
-toLoop Filter
Digital
div(t)
N.Frac = 4.25
Accum
DCO
Divider
Carry Out
Residue
Frac
=0.25
Carry
Out
M.H. Perrott
100
Improve Dithering Using Sigma-Delta Modulation
ƒ
ƒ
Provides improved noise performance over
accumulator-based divide value dithering
- Dramatic reduction of spurious noise
- Noise shaping for improved in-band noise
- Maintains bounded phase error signal
Digital Σ−Δ fractional-N synthesizer architecture is
directly analogous to analog Σ−Δ fractional-N synth.
ref(t)
DCO
div(t)
Nsd[k]
out(t)
Time e[k]
Digital
-toLoop Filter
Digital
Σ−Δ Modulator
Divider
Σ−Δ Quantization
Noise
N[k]
M.F
f
M.H. Perrott
101
Model of Digital Σ−Δ Fractional-N PLL
TDC
DCO
TDC-referred
Noise
S tq(e j2πfT)
f
tq[k]
Φref[k]
T
2π
DCO-referred
Noise
S Φn(f)
-20 dB/dec
f
TDC
Gain
1
Δtdel
Loop
Filter
DT-CT
e[k]
H(z)
T
z=ej2πfT
Φdiv[k]
Divider
f
2πKv
s
s=j2πf
Φout(t)
CT-DT
1
Σ−Δ Quantization
Noise
j2πfT
n[k]
S q(e
)
Φn(t)
Nnom
1
T
-1
2π z
1-z-1 z=ej2πfT
ƒ
Divider model is expanded to include the impact of
divide value variations
M.H. Perrott
102
Transfer Function View of Digital Σ−Δ Fractional-N PLL
TDC-referred
DCO-referred
Noise
Noise
S Φn(f)
S tq(e j2πfT)
-20 dB/dec
ƒ
f
tq[k]
Σ−Δ Quantization
Noise
j2πfT
S q(e
)
fo
f
n[k]
-1
z
2π
1-z-1
z=ej2πfT
f
Φn(t)
2πNnomG(f)
fo
Φout(t)
bandwidth will
increase its
impact
ƒ
2
1
2πNnomG(f) S tq(e j2πfT)
T
2
1- G(f) S Φn(f)
dBc/Hz
2
1 2πT G(f) S (e j2πfT)
T 1-e -j2πfT q
fo
M.H. Perrott
- High PLL
1-G(f)
T G(f)
fo
f
Σ−Δ quantization
noise now
impacts the
overall PLL phase
noise
Digital PLL
implementation
simplifies
quantization noise
cancellation
See: Hsu, Straayer, Perrott
JSSC Dec 2008 for details
103
For More Information on Digital Fractional-N PLLs
ƒ
Check out the CppSim tutorial:
- Design of a Low-Noise Wide-BW 3.6GHz Digital Σ−Δ Fractional-N
Frequency Synthesizer Using the PLL Design Assistant and CppSim
www.cppsim.com
M.H. Perrott
104
Supplemental Slides
Section 2: DCO Modeling
Leveraging Dithering for Fine Control of DCO
out(t)
Varactor
Varactor
ref(t)
Tuning
Fine
Control
in[k] Digital
Loop
Filter
Digital Σ−Δ
Modulator
Divide-by-K
T c=T/M
ƒ
ƒ
T
Coarse
Initial
Control Frequency
DCO
TDC out
Increase resolution by Σ−Δ dithering of fine cap array
Reduce noise from dithering by
- Using small unit caps in the fine cap array
- Increasing the dithering frequency (defined as 1/T )
c
M.H. Perrott
ƒ We will assume 1/Tc = M/T (i.e. M times reference frequency)
106
Time-Domain Modeling of the DCO
Digital Σ−Δ
Upsampler
Modulator
inq[m]
insd[m]
in[k]
Σ−Δ
M
Zero-Order
Hold
incap(t)
1
0
insd[m]
in[k]
Tc
inq[m]
k
m
Kv
t
Frequency
to Phase
Φout(t)
fcap(t)
2π
Φout(t)
incap(t)
1
t
m
Tc
t
Tc
ƒ
Input to the DCO is supplied by the loop filter
ƒ
Switched capacitors are dithered by Σ−Δ at a higher rate
- Clocked at 1/T (i.e., reference frequency)
- Clocked at 1/T = M/T
- Held at a given setting for duration T
c
ƒ
c
Fine cap element value determines Kv of VCO
M.H. Perrott
- Units of K
v
are Hz/unit cap
107
Frequency Domain Modeling of DCO
Digital Σ−Δ
Upsampler
Modulator
insd[m]
inq[m]
in[k]
Σ−Δ
M
Zero-Order
Hold
incap(t)
1
0
Tc
t
Kv
Frequency
to Phase
Φout(t)
fcap(t)
2π
qraw[k]
Digital Σ−Δ Hntf(z)
Modulator
Upsampler
by M
in[k]
M
f
Hstf(z)
0 1/Tc
z=ej2πfTc
ƒ
Conversion
to Phase
Tc
0 1/MTc
ƒ
Zero-Order
Hold
f
2πKv Φout(t)
s
s=j2πf
Upsampler and zero-order hold correspond to discrete and
continuous-time sinc functions, respectively
Σ−Δ has signal and noise transfer functions (Hstf(z), Hntf(z))
- Note: var(q
M.H. Perrott
raw[k])
= 1/12 (uniformly distributed from 0 to 1)
108
Simplification of the DCO Model
Tc
M
Digital Σ−Δ qraw[k]
Modulator
Upsampler
by M
in[k]
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Hntf(z)
Zero-Order
Hold
Conversion
to Phase
Tc
M
0 1/MTc
ƒ
1
f
Hstf(z)
0 1/Tc
f
2πKv Φout(t)
s
z=ej2πfTc
s=j2πf
Focus on low frequencies for calculations to follow
- Assume sinc functions are relatively flat at the low
frequencies of interest
ƒ Upsampler is approximated as a gain of M
ƒ Zero-order hold is approximated as a gain of Tc
Assume Hstf(z) = 1
- True for Σ−Δ structures such as MASH (ignoring delays)
109
Further Simplification of DCO Model
Quantization
Noise
Hntf(z)
f
Phase
Noise
qraw[k]
z=ej2πfTc
f
q[k]
in[k]
M
Tc
Φout(t)
2πKv
s
s=j2πf
ƒ
Proper design of DCO will
yield quantization noise
that is below that of the
intrinsic phase noise (set
by tank Q, etc.)
- Assume q[k] = 0 for
simplified model
ƒ
M.H. Perrott
Note that T = MTc
DCO-Referred
Noise
S Φn(f)
Φn(t)
DT-CT
in[k]
T
2πKv
s
f
Φout(t)
s=j2πf
110
Supplemental Slides
Section 3: Derivation of VCO Quantization Noise
Due to Capacitor Dithering
Calculation of Quantization Noise from Cap Dithering
Quantization
Noise
Hntf(z)
f
Phase
Noise
qraw[k]
z=ej2πfTc
f
q[k]
in[k]
M
Tc
2πKv
s
Φout(t)
s=j2πf
ƒ
DT to CT spectral calculation:
-S
-H
= 1/12 since qraw[k] uniformly distributed from 0 to 1
-1
-1 2
ntf(z) is often 1-z (first order) or (1-z ) (second order)
qraw(f)
M.H. Perrott
112
Example Calculation for DCO Quantization Noise
ƒ
Assumptions (Out freq = 3.6 GHz)
- Dithering frequency is 200 MHz (i.e., 1/T = 200e6)
- Σ−Δ has first order shaping (i.e., H (z) = 1 - z )
- Fine cap array yields 12 kHz/unit cap (i.e., K = 12e3)
c
-1
ntf
v
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At a frequency offset of f = 20 MHz:
Below the phase noise (-153 dBc/Hz at 20 MHz) in the example
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Supplemental Slides
Section 4: Derivation of Discrete-Time Loop Filter
Parameterization based on Continuous-Time
Specifications
Transfer Function Design using PLL Design Assistant
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PLL Design Assistant assumes continuous-time open
loop transfer function Acalc(s):
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Above parameters are calculated
based on the desired closed loop
PLL bandwidth, type, and order of
rolloff (which specify G(s))
For 100 kHz bandwidth, type = 2,
2nd order rolloff, we have:
- K = 3.0x10
- w = 2π(153 kHz)
- w = 2π(10 kHz)
10
p
z
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Continuous-Time Approximation of Digital PLL
tq[k]
Φref[k]
T
2π
TDC
Gain
1
Δtdel
Loop
Filter
DT-CT
e[k]
H(z)
z=esT
Φdiv[k]
1
N
Φn(t)
T
CT-DT
2πKv
s
Φout(t)
s=j2πf
1
T
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At low frequencies (i.e., |sT| << 1), we can use the first
order term of a Taylor series expansion to approximate
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Resulting continuous-time approximation of open
loop transfer function of digital PLL:
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Applying PLL Design Assistant to Digital PLL Design
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Given the continuous-time approximation of A(s), we
then leverage the PLL Design Assistant calculation:
- Also note that:
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Given the above, we obtain:
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Simplified Form for Digital Loop Filter (Type II PLL)
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From previous slide:
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Simplified form with type = 2 (assume order = 2)
- Where:
Note:
Tdco= T/N
*
* Typically implemented by gain normalization circuit
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