Canada 2010 - Newcastle University

Transcription

The Paris Moraine, Canada, Expedition 2010
Emily Gascoyne-Richards
Abstract
During the deglaciation of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, end moraines developed when
ice was stagnant for considerable time and the glacier supplied sediment. The Paris
Moraine is one of the best examples of an end moraine in southern Ontario, Canada and
was deposited in a complex sequence in both subaerial and subaqueous settings. This study
focuses on the sedimentology and stratigraphy of the moraine as derived from 8 exposed
sections and a drilling log. Information was collected using standard sedimentology
logging techniques, geomorphological observations and bulk grain size analysis.
The Paris Moraine quantifies the maximum extent of the Port Huron Moraine
System, which occurred 13,300 years ago. This deposited the primary material of the
moraine, Wentworth Till. As the Port Huron ice retreated eastward, an ice contact
proglacial lake developed to the west named Lake Whittlesey. North of Paris, the moraine
was formed in a subaerial environment predominately by processes such as debris flows
and supraglacial meltout. The shores of Lake Whittlesey reworked the ice contact back
slope of the moraine. South of Paris, the moraine was built into Lake Whittlesey. Features
include a delta, a subaqueous fan and beach deposits.
2
Contents
Page(s)
Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 2
Contents .............................................................................................................................. 3-4
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... 5-6
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. 7
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Aims .................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................ 9
1.3 Significance ................................................................................................... 9-10
2. Literature Review .......................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Glacial History................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Regional Setting ........................................................................................... 12-13
2.3 Regional Geology and Stratigraphy ............................................................. 14-15
2.4 Relevant Facies Models ................................................................................ 15-18
2.4.1 Subglacial ................................................................................................ 16
2.4.2 Englacial .................................................................................................. 16
2.4.3 Supraglacial ........................................................................................ 17-18
2.4.4 Glaciofluvial ............................................................................................ 18
2.4.5 Glaciolacustrine ....................................................................................... 18
3. Methodology .............................................................................................................. 19-22
3.1 Section Logging and Sampling.......................................................................... 19
3.2 Geomorphological Observations ....................................................................... 19
3.3 Drilling ............................................................................................................. 20
3.4 Bulk Grain Size Analysis ................................................................................. 21
3.5 Site Location ................................................................................................ 21-22
4. Results ........................................................................................................................ 23-49
4.1 Site 1, Puslinch Quarry Pit ........................................................................... 23-25
4.2 Site 2, Puslinch Quarry Pit ........................................................................... 26-28
4.3 Site 3, McLinch Quarry Pit........................................................................... 29-31
4.4 Site 4, Maltby Road drilling ......................................................................... 32-33
4.5 Site 5, Tikal Quarry Pit ................................................................................. 34-37
4.6 Site 6, Brantford Quarry Pit .......................................................................... 38-42
4.8 Site 8, Brantford Quarry Pit.......................................................................... 46-47
5. Discussion .................................................................................................................. 50-57
5.1 Guelph Area.................................................................................................. 50-51
3
5.2 Brantford Area ............................................................................................. 52-53
5.3 Depositional History of the Paris Moraine ................................................... 54-56
7. Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 57
References ..................................................................................................................... 58-64
Appendix A – Site Maps ................................................................................................ 65-66
Appendix B – Sneed and Folk Classes ........................................................................... 67-69
Appendix C – Grain Size Distribution ........................................................................... 70-75
Appendix D – Risk Assessment Form............................................................................ 76-78
Appendix E – List of how all personnel spent their working time during the expedition... 79
Appendix F – names and addresses referring to people or organisations from whom I
obtained help .................................................................................................................. 80-81
Appendix G –Budgeting ................................................................................................ 82-83
Appendix H – Health and Medical advice .......................................................................... 83
Appendix I – Equipment List .............................................................................................. 83
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List of Figures
Figure
Title
Page
1.1
A swampy, closed depression on Starkey Hill
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1.2
Kettle Lake
11
2.1
Glacial lobes and sublobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the
12
Wisconsin Glaciation
2.2
Paris Moraine location
13
2.3
The frontal slope of the Paris Moraine
14
2.4
Till stratigraphy of the Paris Moraine
15
2.5
Temperate based glaciations
17
2.6
Examples of different structures from debris flows
18
3.1
Key for all sediment sections and logs
22
3.2
Map of Guelph
23
4.1
Architectural panel of site 1
24
4.2
Site 1 Puslinch Quarry Pit
25
4.3
“Stone lines” in the upper part of the boulder diamicton
27
4.4
Clusters of large boulders
27
4.5
Site 2 Puslinch Quarry Pit
28
4.6
The sand lens
30
4.7
Site 3 McLinch Quarry Pit
32
4.8
The different coarseness and structures of sand
33
4.9
Site 4 Maltby road drilling
34
4.10
Site 5 Tikal Quarry Pit
36
4.11
Sand lens and overlying diamicton
36
4.12
Sand lens
37
4.13
Site 5 sediment logs
37
4.14
Trough and laminated fine sand beds
38
4.15
Site 6 Brantford Quarry Pit
40
4.16
Site 6 vertical profile logs
41
4.17
44
4.18
45
4.19
48
5
4.20
50
5.1
The Paris Moraine depositional environment in the Guelph area
52
5.2
Transverse topographic profiles showing the morphology of the moraine
52
5.3
An ice contact delta
54
5.4
The position of Lake Whittlesey
56
5.5
The depositional environment of the Paris Moraine
57
Lithofacies coding
22
Tables
1
6
Acknowledgements
There are many people who I would like to thank who helped made this project possible.
Firstly, I would like to thank Heather and Geoff Glass who helped arrange my transport
and accommodation in Guelph as well as providing support for me whilst I was there. I
would also like to thank my mother, Rebecca Gascoyne-Richards, who helped organise my
trip to Canada and to my Father, John Gascoyne-Richards, for being my field assistant. I
would like to express gratitude to Emmanuelle Arnaud for allowing me to use her
laboratory at the University of Guelph. I would also like to thank David Passmore and
Andy Russell for all their useful input towards my project.
Thank you to the University Expedition Committee for endorsing my expedition to
Canada.
A special thanks to Michael McGill for all his help in collecting data in the field, collecting
maps, helping look for sites and allowing me to take part in obtaining the drilling log.
7
1. Introduction
When deciding which topic to undertake for my dissertation, I wanted something
that related to glaciology and involved interpreting the evolution of a landscape, as I have
always taken an interest in these two things. I have been to Canada twice before and found
the landscape untouched and thought-provoking. As I have family in Ontario, I thought
that this would be an ideal place to do some research for my dissertation. After extensive
research into the glacial history of the area, I came across the Paris Moraine and discovered
little research had been done on its sedimentology and stratigraphy. I had previously done
some sedimentology and stratigraphy work on river sediments in the Northumberland
National Park and so would be able to apply the techniques I had learnt.
This paper examines the sedimentology and stratigraphy of an end moraine in
Ontario, Canada and attempts to make a clear designation of its chronological
development. End moraines define the limit of a glacier at a particular moment in time and
show unique characteristics in terms of their geomorphology, sedimentology and internal
structures (Menzies, 2001). They can be deposited on land (subaerial) or in deep water
(subaqueous) (Krzyszkowski and Zielin´ski, 2002). The careful examination of their
composition can reveal shifting patterns of surface processes in time and allow researchers
to reconstruct past environments (Evans and Benn, 2004).
The Paris moraine is one of the largest end moraines from the Laurentide Ice Sheet
in the Great Lakes region, which covered North America during the Last Glacial
Maximum (LGM) (Sadura et al., 2006). Previous studies show the moraine to be formed
in both a subaerial and subaqueous environment. However, the scale and extent to which
these depositional environments formed the moraine has not been looked at as a whole.
The study was conducted in the Guelph and Brantford areas. Four sand and gravel pits,
located along the Paris Moraine, form the basis of the study. Further sedimentological data
is provided by a drill hole showing the vertical profile of the centre of the moraine near
Guelph. The geomorphology of the Paris Moraine area was characterised to provide a
context from which the sediment samples were taken (Goudie, 1990).
The sedimentology and stratigraphy information in this paper is important in terms
of better understanding the Quaternary evolution of the Great Lakes region. In addition, the
moraine affects the recharge rates of aquifers in the area and groundwater flow in
overburden sediments (Bocking, 2005). However, little research has been done in terms of
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sedimentology or hydrogeology; hence this paper attempts to fill in some „gaps‟ of
knowledge.
1.1 Aims

To characterise the extent and variety of depositional processes along the Paris
Moraine

To link the results gained to previous research to make a clear designation of the
moraines‟ chronological development
1.2 Objectives
1. To identify representative sites across the Paris Moraine that show the variety of
depositional environments
2. To survey the morphology of the Paris moraine by using photos, sketches and
general observations to help with the analysis of the sediment
3. To study the sedimentology and stratigraphy of the Paris moraine using standard
sedimentology logging techniques to identify key depositional processes
4. To relate the results gained to previous literature to determine the depositional
history of the Paris Moraine
1.3 Significance
The Paris Moraine is part of the „backbone‟ of the Grand River watershed. It is
described as a „rain barrel‟, which provides Guelph with a potable water supply (Pearson,
2007). This is due to the moderate to high relief of the moraine that has a higher
permeability than adjacent lowland areas (see Figures 1.1 and 1.2). The hummocky nature
of the moraine and closed depressions increases the infiltration of rainfall and snowmelt
during the spring. This recharges aquifers in the overburden and bedrock, ensuring a steady
flow of water (Russell et al., 2009; Sadura et al., 2006).
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Figure 1.1 A swampy, closed depression on Starkey Hill.
43°32′27.3″N 80°09′13.3″W E=393m (Point 1 Figure 3.2)
Figure 1.2 Kettle Lake.
43o30‟53.8‟‟N 80o11‟20.4‟‟W E=345m (Point 2 Figure 3.2)
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2. Literature Review
2.1 Glacial History
Southern Ontario is a Quaternary continental terrestrial glacial environment. There
is extensive evidence of Quaternary glaciation across Canada (Barnett, 1992). The most
recent glaciation was known as the Wisconsinan (Chapman and Putnam, 1984). Any
Quaternary deposits older than this are unlikely to be preserved in Ontario. Chapman and
Putnam (1984) interpret the geologic history of the Wisconsinan ice retreat to be the
explanation of the origin of the landscape of Ontario. Deglaciation began in the Holocene
(10,000 years ago) when the Laurentide Ice Sheet developed lobate ice termini (see Figure
2.1). This occurred from west to east making the Paris Moraine the second youngest
moraine in the area (Taylor, 1913). Chapman and Putnam (1984) interpret the Paris
Moraine to be built by the Lake Ontario lobe. However, Barnett (1992) interprets it to have
been formed in the Mackinaw Interstadial, during a period of readjustment of the ErieOntario lobe.
Figure 2.1 Glacial lobes and sublobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Wisconsin
Glaciation (Mickelson and Colgan, 2004)
11
A
B
Figure 2.2 (A) A surficial geology map of the area surrounding the Paris Moraine.
(B) The location of the Paris Moraine in North America (Carey, 2010)
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2.2 Regional setting
The Paris Moraine runs for approximately 160km from Caledon to Gibraltar (see
Figure 2.2) (Karrow, 1968). It is split into seven segments ranging in length from 8-48km
and widths of less than 11km (Russell et al., 2009). The surface morphology of the
moraine is described as “hummocky” (Price, 1973). From Acton to Cambridge the
moraine is a high bouldery ridge; from Cambridge to Paris it becomes rolling hills and
from Paris to Gibraltar a continuous ridge (Sadura et al., 2006). The moraine has no
topographic expression approximately 10km from Lake Erie (Russell et al., 2009).
Figure 2.3 The frontal slope of the Paris Moraine (looking south-east)
43o31‟47.5‟‟N 80o10‟41.2‟‟W E=338m (Point 3 Figure 3.2)
Meltwater drainage along the ice front during the formation of the Moraine was
significant. An extensive outwash plain can be found in front of the Paris Moraine (see
Figure 2.3) as well as numerous kettles and kettle lakes, such as Puslinch Lake (see Figure
1.2). These outwash deposits often extend into major river valleys as narrow ribbon-like
masses, such as the Speed River (Karrow, 1968). The spillway between Caledon to
Brantford is one of the most extensively developed in south-western Ontario.
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2.3 Regional geology and stratigraphy
The unconsolidated Quaternary glacial materials that lie on the Palaeozoic bedrock
(Dolostone) were first mapped by Taylor (1913). Other work has been done by Chapman
and Putnam (first published in 1951) and Karrow (1968). Sadura et al. (2006) and Bajc
(2008) have further characterised these sediments in specific locations. It was found that
the dominant stratigraphy south of Paris is sand and to the north a bouldery loam including
coarse outwash. The source of this material is largely the Niagara escarpment. Deposits
associated with pre-Wisconsinan glaciation either do not exist or are poorly understood due
to poor exposure, the nature of glacial processes, and the limited amount of work done in
this area (McGill, 2010).
Karrow (1968) noted that drift thickness in the Guelph area ranges from 0 to 76m
mainly due to variations in underlying bedrock erosional features. However, Karrow‟s
work provides little detailed information on the glacial sediments and features of the area
surrounding Guelph and the Paris Moraine. This knowledge is vital in trying to make a
clear designation of the Paris Moraines‟ chronological development.
Traditionally moraines are thought to be composed of till which were deposited
directly by the glacier or coarsely stratified gravel and sand deposited at the ice margin by
meltwater (Benn and Evans, 2010). Work by Karrow (1968) has suggested that the Paris
Moraine is composed mainly of Wentworth Till with occasional kame deposits. Bajc‟s
(2008) research in the Brantford area suggests that the Paris Moraine is largely made up of
stratified and glaciofluvial deposits with occurrences of coarse textured Wentworth Till.
Bajc‟s (2008) and Sadura et al.‟s (2006) work will be looked at in further detail in the
discussion.
Figure 2.4 Till stratigraphy of the Paris Moraine (Sadura et al., 2006)
14
Karrow (1968) interprets Wentworth Till to be the youngest till sheet in the area
(see Figure 2.4). It is described as a “sandy to silty sand till usually buff in colour and often
bouldery or stony” (Sadura et al., 2006). This till is thought to be of Port Huron age or
slightly older. At St. George on the east side of the Galt Moraine, Wentworth Till has been
found overlying three fining downward sequences of gravel, sand and silt. In addition,
many gravel, subaqueous fan and delta deposits are observed throughout the segments
south of Paris. This raises questions about the composition of the northern segments of the
Paris Moraine and questions how the two different environments fit together (Russell et al.,
2009).
2.4 Relevant Facies Models
Glacial sediment can be deposited and reworked by a wide variety of processes to
include subglacial lodgement, melt out, subaerial and subaqueous mass movements. Many
researchers have attempted to classify each sediment type and incorporate many varieties
of „till.‟ These facies indicate the dominance of a specific sedimentary process of
deposition and sediment-landform associations, which can be used to reconstruct past
environments (Benn, 2009). Mechanisms of glacial flow include internal deformation,
basal sliding and bed deformation (Benn and Evans, 2010). The forces controlling the flow
are dependent on several factors such as the glaciers thermal regime, the debris content of
the ice, the composition and strength of the bed and water pressure (Eyles et al., 1983).
Glacial material can be transported in three zones: supraglacially, englacially and
subglacially. Typically in terrestrial continental glaciers, debris is transported subglacially
by being entrained within the ice or by traction along the bed (Martini et al., 2001). Less
debris is carried in the englacial zone and consequently clasts experience little
modification. Basal debris can enter the englacial zone along shear planes. Debris that
accumulates at the surface from shear planes is transported supraglacially (Barnett, 1992).
The following section will summarise models of deposition likely to be found in
terrestrial glaciated environments specific to the Paris Moraine area during the advance and
retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet.
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2.4.1 Subglacial
It is presumed that there were temperate ice conditions beneath the Laurentide Ice
Sheet. Typically under temperate glaciers, lodgement till is deposited with clasts orientated
parallel to flow (see Figure 2.5). Boulton (1972) divides subglacial sediment into two
categories: lodgement till and stratified deposits. Often these are discontinuous and may be
interbedded with fluvial facies (Eyles et al., 1983). This type of environment is expected in
the Guelph area. It is important to note that none of the limited number of other
investigations into the Paris Moraine in the Guelph area have looked for evidence of ice
thrusting and sediment deformation related to ice-contact processes.
Figure 2.5 Temperate based glaciation (Bennett and Glasser, 2009)
2.4.2. Englacial
Boulton (1972) describes a potential mechanism for englacial debris to be
preserved. This preservation process involves the downward melting of glacial ice forming
melt-out tills above the melting ice surface but below a confining overburden. The newly
released till is not a supraglacial deposit as overburden sediment is present. This
overburden sediment can be formed by glacial outwash or a supraglacial flow till. Boulton
(1972) also states that many flow tills will grade down into melt-out tills.
16
2.4.3 Supraglacial
Subaerial sediment flow is often one of the predominant processes depositing
diamicts at the terminus of ice sheets. These flows form where sediments overlie glacial
ice. Typically subaerial debris flows occur where englacial debris and debris from shear
planes are exposed at the ice surface by ablation (Boulton, 1972). Meltwater rich till is
unstable and flows down glacier surfaces where it gets deposited on low slopes or in
glacial surface depressions as well as on top of other proglacial or supraglacial sediments
(Bennett and Glasser, 2009). Flow tills are recognisable by laminated fine sand and silt and
frequently have lenses of differing grain size (see Figure 2.6) (Brodzikowski and van Loon,
1987). In pools or lakes, this process often results in a subaqueous slump. Boulton refers to
this as a „subaqueous flow till.‟ Lawson (1982) uses the term „sediment flows‟ to describe
flow till deposits. He defines till as a “sediment deposited directly from glacier ice which
has not subsequently undergone disaggregation and resedimentation”.
Figure 2.6 Examples of different structures from debris flows in subaerial (a, b) and
subaqueous (c, d) environments (Benn and Evans, 2010)
17
Chaotic morainal topography defined by kettle basins and hummocks are the result
of irregular ablation of supraglacial and subglacial ice (Price, 1973). Underlying this,
complex deformed strata is typically found due to the downward collapse of buried ice as
well as poorly-sorted sediments formed by flow tills or melt-out till (Marren, 2002). Eyles
et al. (1983) uses the term „ablation till‟ as a generic name for sediments that are a result of
surface melting. Sediments become enriched with large boulder and cobble sized clasts as
finer grained material is removed by meltwater (Brodzikowski and van Loon, 1987). It is
debatable to whether these deposits are effectively preserved.
2.4.4 Glaciofluvial
There are many similarities between proglacial fluvial systems and models of
braided river systems in non-glaciated environments (with a few exceptions where there
are highly seasonal discharges and sediment supply) (Miall, 1985). Work by Marren
(2002) shows the importance of how processes with varying magnitude and frequency
regimes interact with and contribute to the sedimentary record of the fluvial and lacustrine
proglacial environment.
2.4.5 Glaciolacustrine
Fluvial and lacustrine processes are closely associated (Bennett et al., 2002).
During the LGM of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, glaciers terminated into proglacial lakes,
which were partially formed by glacio-isostatic depression of the crust in front of the ice
margin (Ashley, 1995). This depression of the crust was caused by the weight of the ice
sheet creating topographic bulges (forebulges) where proglacial lakes formed between the
bulges and ice margin (Bennett and Glasser, 2009; Edwards, 1978). As tills and
supraglacial deposits from the glaciers flowed into these proglacial lakes, accumulation
occurred on the lakebed and were often interbedded with laminated lacustrine sands, silts,
and clays (Boulton, 1972). Other common glaciolacustrine facies include subaqueous fans,
beaches and delta deposits (Russell et al., 2009). This type of environment is most likely to
be found south of Paris.
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3. Methodology
3.1 Section Logging and Sampling
Standard sedimentology logging techniques were used with detailed sketches and
vertical profile logs being drawn for each section (see Figure 3.1). Lithofacies associations
were assigned to individual sediment units according to sediment composition, grain size,
fabric and distribution. Lithofacies codes by Miall (1978) developed for braided rivers and
Eyles et al. (1983) developed for glacial diamict were used (see Table 1). Where
accessible, the clast orientation was gathered. The a-b plane imbrication was measured to
show the paleo-current direction (Marren, 2002). Where possible, 25 clasts were measured
using random sampling techniques (Briggs, 1977). With some of the sites, the section was
inaccessible due to health and safety. Consequently fewer clast measurements were taken
or none at all, hence this had its limitations on the interpretation. Clast imbrications are
presented using rose diagrams, dips and orientations of clasts on scatter graph plots and
clast shape on Triangular diagrams and Sneed and Folk tables (Benn and Evans, 2004).
3.2 Geomorphological Observations
Geomorphological information was gained through examining the topography of
the Paris moraine and of the surrounding area. This was carried out at each site by field
surveying to draw sketches, a GPS to locate key features along as well as photographs
being taken (Ashley et al., 1985; Goudie, 1990). The location of each observation point can
be seen in Figures 2.2 and 3.1. Although there is no section in the results dedicated
specifically to geomorphology observations, the results are interbedded within the
interpretation of each site.
3.3 Drilling
Drilling by Aardvark Drilling inc. obtained a 3.25-inch diameter core to a depth of
33m through the centre of the northern part of the Paris moraine. This was done by a 3.25inch split spoon, hollow stem sampler. Standard sedimentology analysis was conducted on
each 1.5m core to give a detailed profile of the centre of the moraine. Preliminary depth
profiles, descriptions, and photographs were made in the field.
19
Lithofacies code
Description
Dmm
Massive diamict
Dcm
Clast-rich diamict
Bmg
Boulder gravels, massive, graded
Bms
Boulder gravels, massive, ungraded
Gm
Gravel, massive
Massive cobble and pebble gravel in laterally persistent units.
Gms
Matrix-supported
Gsi
Matrix-supported, imbricated
Sh
Horizontally stratified sand
Sr
Rippled sand of all types
Sp
Planar cross-stratified sand
Sm
Massive sand
Sfo
Deltaic forests
Fr
Silt, mud. Rootless
Fm
Silt, massive
Table 1 Lithofacies coding. Diamicts are defined as a mixture of a wide range of grain
sizes. Boulders are defined as particles > 256mm (b-axis)
Lithology
Internal structures
Fines
Cross-stratification
Sand
Horizontal bedded
Gravel
Laminated
Contacts
Sharp
Matrix-supported diamicton
Ripples
Clast-supported diamicton
Foresets
Miscellaneous
Scree
Vegetation
Gradational
Abbreviations
Roots
Cl - Clay
Fs - Fine sand
Si - Silt
Ms - Medium sand
Gr - Gravel
Cs - Coarse sand
Figure 3.1 Key for all sediment sections and vertical profile logs
20
3.4 Bulk Grain Size Analysis
Sieving sediment samples was used to gain information on the grain size of sand,
silt and diamict in the range c. 0.045mm to 2mm. (Gale and Hoare, 1991). Representative
samples were taken from each lithofacies unit where accessible. Once again this has its
limitations as not all sections could be accessed safely. Sample size was between 50-250g
depending on grain size (Benn and Evans, 2004). Samples were dried and sieved in a
laboratory in Guelph. The Gradistat programme (specifically the Folk and Ward method)
was used to determine the sorting, skewness and kurtosis (Tucker, 1988).
3.5 Site Location
Sites were chosen on the basis of their location in relation to the Paris Moraine as
well as if they were accessible and safe. The locations of the pits can be seen in Figures 2.2
and 3.2 and were all CBM owned. General sketches outlining the quarry pits showing the
position of each site can be found in Appendices A. Each site is individually interpreted
and drawn together in the discussion. Sites 1 to 5 are interpreted in the discussion as being
in the Guelph area, whereas sites 6 to 9 are in the Brantford area.
21
1
3
2
Frontal slope
Ice contact slope
Figure 3.2 Map of the Guelph area. The arrows show the orientation of the sites
4. Results
4.1 Site 1, Puslinch Quarry Pit
Description
In the lower part of the succession, a 36-50cm gravel unit is exposed (see Figure
4.2). Above this is a coarse sandy gravel bouldery diamicton unit with inverse grading. The
upper part is very poorly sorted with a maximum particle size of 460mm and average
particle size of 26mm. Clasts are subrounded to subangular and the lithofacies association
is matrix-supported throughout. The lower part consists mainly of coarse sand with very
fine gravel. The Sneed and Folk analysis indicates that that the lower part of this section
consists mainly of compact-bladed and bladed shaped clasts which grades up to compactbladed, bladed and elongated shaped clasts.
The upper unit is a coarse sandy gravel diamicton unit, which is poorly sorted. The
maximum particle size is 300mm and the average particle size is 9mm. Clasts are
subrounded to subangular, and are matrix-supported. No overall clast imbrication was
visible. It consists of fine pebbles to small boulders that are mainly compact, compactbladed and very bladed in shape. Although the stony nature of the diamicton makes
compactness difficult to measure, it was generally stiff at the bottom of the section and
became looser towards the top.
It is presumed that this succession is laterally continuous for several tens of metres.
A thin band (approximately 15cm) of dark gravel is visible between the main units (see
Figure 4.1). However, the section that was exposed did not show this. It is presumed that
this band is only several centimetres thick and marks a different period of deposition.
Figure 4.1
Architectural panel
of site 1. The white
dashed line indicates
a band of gravel
Figure 4.2. Site 1 Puslinch Quarry Pit. Face looking
N
east. 43o26’15.0’’N 80o09’08.6’’W. E=305m
S
Depth (m)
1m
Dmm
Height (m)
Dmm Clast shape
Bmg
Bmg Clast shape
Gm
Scree
Width (m)
24
Interpretation
The little or no preferred orientation of the clasts, lack of striations and the variable
sphericity of the clasts in this section suggest that the material was most likely transported
supraglacially and was “dumped” (Domack et al., 1980; Edwards, 1978). The sharp
contact between the upper two units and the difference in characteristics indicates a
different period of deposition and hence different debris bands (Karrow, 1983).
The „Bmg‟ unit shows inverse grading. This may be due to mechanical sorting in
certain types of mass flow (Briggs, 1977; Lawson, 1982) or suggests an increase in flow
energy or change in sediment supply conditions of the glacier (Jones, 1999). The bladed
and compacted-bladed shapes of the clasts indicate fluvial action (Dobkins and Folk,
1970). The „Dmm‟ unit can be interpreted as Wentworth till, as the composition is very
similar to that of previous work by Dreimanis and Karrow (1965), who indicated that
Wentworth till composed of an average of about 50% sand, 35% silt, and 15% clay in
texture and that compactness became stiffer with depth (Cowan, 1972). The fewer clasts in
the „Dmm‟ unit compared to „Bmg‟ unit indicates that the deposition of material decreased
with time. This was possibly because of the decreasing exposure of ice and debris flows
becoming thicker and more viscous (Johnson and Menzies, 1996). The „Dmm‟ unit can be
interpreted as a supraglacial meltout till due to the dominant composition of the sediment
being of high level transport that is not striated or faceted; the size distribution being
coarse and trimodal; the clast fabric not correlating to ice flow; the till being poorly
consolidated; clast lithology being variable and the section being massive (Bennett and
Glasser, 2009). The poor clast fabric further indicates disturbance whilst melting (Bennett
et al., 1999).
Alternatively, the section can be interpreted as being deposited by an ice-marginal
debris flows or a supraglacial subaerial mass-transport flow, which have subsequently been
reworked by abundant supplies of meltwater (Russell et al., 2009). The characteristic
fluvial shapes of the clasts support this theory. However, the preferred interpretation is
supraglacial meltout till. This is due to the distinct line indicating different debris bands.
This is further supported by the morphology of the surrounding area, which is hummocky
terrain.
25
4.2 Site 2, Puslinch Quarry Pit
Description
Figure 4.5 shows the succession of sediments at site 2. It is important to note that
the quarry site placed the upper silt units (Fr) and so this will not be included in the
interpretation, despite them showing some structure. The lower unit is a boulder gravel,
which is poorly sorted. It contains small pebbles to small boulder size clasts (b-axis of up
to 400mm, average 7mm). The clasts are subrounded to subangular, and the lithofacies
association is matrix-supported throughout. Clast shape is mainly bladed and very platy.
Clast clusters occur of larger boulders, which are often inclined in one another (see Figure
4.4). Smaller pebbles gather around these. Faint stone lines can be identified in the upper
part of the boulder diamict (marked as A in Figure 4.5 and highlighted in Figure 4.3). The
clasts are not imbricated on one another but have a clear gap of 2-8cm of matrix between
them. Above the „Bms‟ unit is a band of moderately sorted small pebbles (approximately
20cm thick). The average particle size is 8mm, clasts are subangular to subrounded and
compact-bladed and very platy in shape.
Figure 4.3
“Stone lines” in the upper
part of the boulder gravel
(highlighted by the white
dashed lines). The red
dotted circles highlight
clustering.
Figure 4.4
Clusters of large boulders
were found further round to
the south side of the
observed section.
26
Figure 4.5. Site 2 Puslinch Quarry Pit. Face looking west 43 o26’06.8’’ N 80o09’19.5’’W. E=315m
Grass
Fr
Depth (m)
Height (m)
Gm
A
Bms
Sc
re
e
1m
Gm Clast shape
Bms Clast shape
Width (m)
Bms
c:a
b:a
(a - b) / (a - c)
b:a
c:a
(a - b) / (a - c)
27
Interpretation
The composition of the boulder gravel shows similar characteristics to that of the
diamicton in site 1 and so can also be interpreted as a supraglacial meltout till (Bennett and
Glasser, 2009). As sites 1 and 2 were in the same pit and were approximately 400m apart,
they are likely to have been formed from the same deposition process. However, the bladed
and platy shapes of the clasts indicate beach action at this site (Dobkins and Folk, 1970).
This suggests that the deposits were possibly reworked by lakeshore waves.
Clast clusters indicate that the ice melted out with minimum disturbance and that
the sediment was deposited gradually (Bennett et al., 1999). However, the coarseness of
the particles shows rapid sedimentation, most likely from a high-energy environment being
dispersed into a low energy environment (Hubbard and Glasser, 2005). The two stone
lines indicate localised erosion and reworking of the upper surface of the till (Benn and
Evans, 2010). The gravel unit at the top of the succession may have been deposited in a
surface depression by meltwater (Brodzikowski and van Loon, 1987).
28
4.3 Site 3, McLinch Quarry Pit
Description
Three distinct sediment units are exposed in the McLinch pit (see Figure 4.7). The
diamicton units consist of gravely sand, which is poorly sorted. The maximum particle size
is 100mm and average particle size 43mm (small cobbles to very coarse cobbles). This is
substantially smaller to that of the Puslinch sections. The clasts are subangular to
subrounded, and the lithofacies association is clast-supported. The clast shape is mainly
compact, compact-bladed and compact-elongate. Clast clustering occurs throughout the
section with clasts imbricated on one another. A very fine, silty sand wave separates the
two diamicts. This is within a coarser sand unit, which are “flame” shaped. A weak line of
pebbles can be seen above it (see Figures 4.6 and 4.8). The fine sand wave is discontinuous
(approximately 10m) but the coarser sand unit runs for tens of metres. The upper two
sections consist of a gravely sand unit with sporadic small clasts. The top unit is silt with
roots.
68 o
Figure 4.6 The sand lens. The pencil is 15cm long.
29
Figure 4.7. Site 3 McLinch Quarry Pit. Face looking north. 43o26’50.2’’N 80o09’13.9’’W. E=312m
W
E
Fr
Sr/Sh Clast shape
Height (m)
Sm
c:a
b:a
Dcm
(a - b) / (a - c)
Sr/Sh
Dcm
1m
Width (m)
Depth (m)
Sr/Sh
30
Line of pebbles
Medium to coarse sand
with scattered pebbles
“Flames” of sand
40cm
Finely
laminated sand
Coarse sand
60cm
Figure 4.8 The different coarseness and structures of sand
Interpretation
Flames of sand are a sediment deformation structure, which form by rapid loading
of water into saturated sediment. This type of feature is common where massive, coarsegrained sand beds overlie ripple cross-laminated sand (Patterson and Cheel, 1997).
However, ripple cross-laminated sand was not seen here. The line of pebbles also indicates
soft sediment deformation. Meltwater drainage from subglacial meltwater can form intertill stratified lenses and dewatering structures (Price, 1973).
The discontinuous sand layer between the diamicton units indicates reworking of
meltwater and suggests that this section is a flow till (Benn and Evans, 2010). The stronger
clast fabric compared to sites 1 and 2 reflects the downward movement of sediment
(Lawson, 1982). Other evidence for this includes the angularity of the particles and their
non-spherical shape; the size distribution being coarse and unimodal; and is poorly
consolidated. In addition, the sorted sand and silt layers are associated with reworking by
meltwater (Bennett and Glasser, 2009). The clast shape also indicates fluvial activity as
Dobkins and Folk (1970) state “the forms most indicative of fluvial action are compact,
compact-bladed and compact-elongate”. There is evidence of clast clustering, which can
occur in a fast, thin debris flow (Bennett et al., 1999).
31
4.4 Site 4, Maltby Road drilling
Description
Full descriptions of the sediment core can be seen in Figure 4.9, which divides it up
into four sections. It is important to note that the orientation of clast could not be
determined and that the maximum particle size could only be measured up to 80mm due to
the width of the core.
Interpretation
The sandy gravels at the top of section 1 can be interpreted as outwash gravels. The
thin fine silt interbedded between the gravel could have been deposited during a period of
quiescence. The underlying diamictons are supraglacial meltout tills. The interbedded
sands and gravels at the bottom of section 1 and at the top of section 2 are interbedded
outwash (glaciofluvial sands).
Section 2 can also be interpreted as supraglacial meltout till. The gradational
boundary between sections 2 and 3 shows no indication of erosion. This suggests that the
diamict of section 2 was deposited straight onto the ice surface and the underlying till was
released by interface melting possibly due to the presence of a lake of relatively high
thermal capacity (Price, 1973).
The diamicton of section 3 can be interpreted as Port Stanley Till. Port Stanley Till
is composed of silt to very fine-grained sand with a wide spread distribution of striated,
bullet-shaped clasts and boulders (Sadura et al., 2006). These characteristics reflect the
basal till found in this section.
The matrix composition of the diamicton in section 4 is finer than that of the other
sections. This suggests wet-based glaciation. The lower units of sands could be
glaciofluvial sediment deposited in subglacial channels. The lower diamicton unit resting
directly on bedrock of section 4 is most likely Wentworth Till. This correlates with
findings of Bajc (2009).
The interbedded sands and gravels in sections 1, 2 and 4 show an abundant supply
of meltwater. It is difficult to determine the deposition process due to the thin width of the
core. However, from the evidence gained it can be suggested that the succession was
formed by a series of meltout tills (Bennett and Glasser, 2009).
32
Figure 4.9. Site 4 Maltby Road drilling
43o30’21.3’’N 80o08’54.7’’W. E=354m
Section 1
Gmm
Sandy gravel (Gmm) - poorly sorted, average particle size
6mm, subangular
Fm
Gmm
Sandy silt (Sm)– moderately sorted, average particle size 3mm,
no large clasts, sharp contacts
Dmm
Gravelly diamicton (Dmm) - very poorly sorted, maximum
particle size 80mm, average particle size 15mm, angular clasts
Gmm
Dmm
Gmm
Sm
Gmm
When a gravel overlies a diamicton unit, the contact is
generally gradational, whilst the contact at bottom of the
diamicton unit is sharp
Section 2
Sm
Dmm
Gmm
Depth (m)
Dmm
Silty sand (Sm) – moderately sorted, maximum particle size
50mm, average particle size 3mm
Sandy gravel (Gmm)- poorly sorted, maximum particle size
50mm, average particle size 32mm, clasts subangular to
subrounded,
Gravelly diamicton (Dmm) - very poorly sorted, maximum
particle size 80mm, average particle size 30mm, angular clasts.
matrix-supported
Dmm
Section 3
Dmm
Gm
Dmm
Sm
Silty sand diamicton (Dmm) - very poorly sorted, maximum
particle size 80mm, average particle size 15mm, clasts
subangular to subrounded, clast-supported matrix, lots of sandy
silt wedged between clasts, matrix very stiff and moist, clast
content increases with depth
Section 4
Gravel (Gm) - sorted, maximum particle size 34mm, average
particle size 20mm, subangular.
Dmm
Very fine silt and sand (Sm) - well sorted, no pebbles, waterlogged
Dmm
Sm
Sm
Silty sand diamicton (upper Dmm) - poorly sorted, maximum
particle size 80mm, average particle size 30mm, clasts subangular,
clast-supported matrix.
Gravelly diamicton (lower Dmm) - poorly sorted, maximum
particle size 80mm, average particle size 50mm, clasts subangular
to subrounded, clast-supported matrix.
Dmm
Palaeozoic bedrock
33
4.5 Site 5, Tikal Quarry Pit
Description
With reference to Figures 4.10 to 4.13, at the bottom of this section, a trough crossstratified fine sand lens is visible. There is a distinctive line between the two parts of the
sand lens. Very coarse pebbles (<50mm) also in a trough shape were found to the SWW of
the sand lens. Coarse sand is present between the two.
Above this, the unit is a poorly sorted, coarse sandy gravel diamicton. The
maximum particle size was 195mm and an average particle size was 77mm, indicating
small boulders to small cobbles. Clasts are subangular to subrounded and the lithofacies
association is clast-supported. Clasts are compact-bladed and very platy in shape. Some
pink granite was found in the unit. This is not common lithology of the area (see section
2.3) and so is assumed to be erratic. The rose diagram indicates that the orientation could
be either 22.5o or 202.5o and that the flow was from the SWW. At the top of this section, a
cluster of gravel is visible. The upper part of the section consists of a sandy silt. Very few
pebbles were found within this. The top two units consist are sand and silt respectively,
both containing roots.
34
Figure 4.10. Site 5 Tikal Quarry Pit. Face looking SSE. 43 o29’19.0’’N 80o07’36.5’’W E=327m.
SWW
NEE
Fm
Height (m)
Sm
Dcm
Sp
Scree
1m
Width (m)
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
orientated 290o and dip 30o
Sand lens and
Sand lens. The pencil
overlying diamicton.
points out the boundary
Trowel is 25cm in
between the two troughs.
length.
The pencil is 15cm in
length.
orientated 230o
and dip 11o
35
4.13 Site 5 Grain size, shape and orientation
Dcm
Depth (m)
Fm
Sm
Dcm
Sp
Sp
Dcm Rose diagram
Dcm Scatter graph
Dcm Clast shape
36
Interpretation
The diamicton unit can be interpreted as being deposited supraglacially as a debris
flow with meltwater deposits occurring between fall events (identified by the presence of
the sand lens). The orientations of the clasts indicate the ice flow direction to be to the
NEE. According to Lawson‟s (1984) classification of sediment flows, this is a „Type 1‟ – a
gravely, sandy sediment flow with clasts distributed in a massive finer matrix. This is
further supported by clast clustering, which can form during a fast, thin debris flow as well
as erratics (Bennett et al., 1999). Once again the diamicton unit is similar in composition to
that of Wentworth Till as described by Karrow (1968). Another explanation of the origin
of the fine sand lens is a subglaciofluvial deposition at the ice bed interface. The
dominance of glaciofluvially deposited material is also shown by the intermediate
roundness characteristics (subangular and subrounded) of the diamicton and the sorted
gravel (Johnson and Menzies, 1996). However, the bladed and platy shapes of the clasts
suggest beach action (Dobkins and Folk, 1970).
This section displays a bimodal bed. Streams commonly have a bimodal size
distribution when the bed sediment is composed of a mixture of sand and gravel. This
shows a distinct threshold between sand and gravel bed states and is formed by an abrupt
downstream change (Kuhnle, 1993). The gravel cluster at the top of the section may have
been formed by postglacial fluvial activity. This could be part of an outwash deposit from
fluvial activity after the recession of the Laurentide ice sheet or depression in the
topography caused the gathering of pebbles (Bennett and Glasser, 2009).
37
4.6 Site 6, Brantford Quarry Pit
Description
The bottom unit consists of a coset of planar cross-stratified medium to coarse sand
(see Figure 4.15). Individual beds strata are between 15 cm and 90 cm thick and show
high-angle bedding with primary dips of 13-15o. These are thinly laminated (1mm apart)
and winnow to the NWW. Bed contacts are mainly sharp erosional. Overlying this is a
cross-bedded gravely sand with pebbles, which is up to 2.5m thick. This is laminated and
in foresets of ~30cm thick in the middle of the section. However, the beginning and ending
of these are not distinctive. A planar cross-stratification of medium textured sand can be
seen to the NWW. At the top of the section a „peak‟ shows wedges of sand with overlying
laminated sand and gravel layers. 7 distinct bands are visible each being approximately 1015cm thick. The changes in the sediment profile from NWW to SEE can be seen in Figure
4.16.
Figure 4.14 Trough cross-stratification capped by horizontally bedded sands associated
with shallow, waning-stage sheet flows
38
4.15. Site 6 Brantford Quarry Pit
43o07’25.5’’N 80o19’34.2’’W E=251m. Face looking NNE
NWW
SEE
Sm/Gm
Sp
Height (m)
Gms/
Gsi
Sfo
Scree
13-15o
Width (m)
1m
39
Height (m)
4.16
Width (m)
Sm/Gm
Gms
Sp
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Sfo
Gms
Gsi
Sfo
Sfo
40
Interpretation
The massive structure of the sand cosets and the coarseness of the material suggest
that this section was formed by a series of debris flows (Menzies, 1995). These can be
generated from either underflow or slumping of the delta front or lake margin (Bennett and
Glasser, 2009). The flow direction can be determined to come from the NEE due to wedge
shape of the sand cosets and the inclination of the cross-stratified sand and gravel units.
The dips are all similar indicating the same stream velocity, fall velocity and depth ratio
(Saunderson, 1973).
The cross-stratified sand could have been formed by the migration of bedforms
under flowing water (Bennett and Glasser, 2009; Nichols, 2009). The slight decrease in
angularity of the coset of planar cross-stratified sand indicates the waning of currents
(Evans and Benn, 2004). The partially stratified pebbly sand could have been deposited
from a sandy debris flow. The intercalation of pebbles indicates deposition from “sustained
turbulent density turbidity flows or thin diluted sandy debris flows, generated from
cohensionless subaqueous debris flows by surface flow transformation” (Winsemann et al.,
2007).
At the top point of the section, the interlaminated sand and gravel can be
interpreted as rhythmites. This shows variations of sediment supply in terms of the lower
and upper fluvial regime (Bennett and Glasser, 2009). The sharp contact between the
coarse and finer sediment indicates an influx of new underflow of coarse material. As the
section is relatively small (less than 1m) it is attributed to an individual event (Winsemann
et al., 2007).
The large-scale planar cross-stratified sand and pebbly sand can be interpreted to
represent a 2-D dune, migrating down-slope and driven by turbulent density flows
(Winsemann et al., 2007). This deposition requires currents that are sustained at a relatively
constant discharge for longer periods of time. Approximately 20m to the southeast of the
section lay trough and laminated sand beds in the same sequence (see Figure 4.14). This
supports the interpretation that that a train of dunes may have been moving across the
topset of a delta.
41
Description
Figures 4.17 and 4.18 show that the lower unit of the northwestern half of this
section consists of well sorted pebbly gravely unit. The pebbles have an average particle
size of 8mm are and rounded. The bottom half of the southeastern half contains a
diamicton unit below which bends upwards. Overlying this is a 1.1m thick sand unit with a
15cm-winnowing layer of cross-laminated sand. The succession curves up towards the
southeast and a thin diamicton unit split the sand into two.
Above the cross-laminated sand is a poorly sorted gravely diamicton unit with
rounded clasts. The maximum particle size is 40mm and the average particle size of 20mm,
and is clast supported. Within this unit there is a thin sand dike protruding from the
underlying sand unit. Clasts are gathered around this. A cluster of small rounded pebbles is
also present within the lower middle section of the unit.
The next succession is a horizontal, planar-bedded medium to coarse sand unit.
This is up to 1.4m thick with foresets 10-25cm thick. The lower north-western half of the
section consists of a finely laminated sand layer, which is wedge shaped. The upper
diamicton unit is up to 0.5m thick. The composition of this is identical to that of the lower
diamicton unit. This diamicton is overlain by 0.15m thick gravel unit that is well rounded
and sorted.
42
4.17. Site 7 Brantford Quarry Pit. Face looking SW 43 o07’15.3’’N 80o19’42.6’’W. E=250m
SE
NW
Gm
Dcm
Height (m)
Sh
Dcm
Sp
Gms
Scree
Width (m)
1m
43
Height (m)
4.18 Site 7 vertical profile logs
Gm
Dcm
Sh
Gm
Dcm
Sh
Sp
Dcm
Sp
Gms
Dcm
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
Width (m)
Sp
Gms
44
Interpretation
The two planar-bedded sands deposited in thin, horizontal sheets indicate an upper
flow regime into shallow water (Saunderson, 1973; Maizels, 1995). Typically, linear
groves and ridges on the bedding surface are indicative of an upper flow regime. However,
these were not observed, as they are difficult to detect in unconsolidated sands (Bennett
and Glasser, 2009). These laterally continuous, sheet-like sands, which also separate the
diamicton, can be associated with an ice-contact delta (Ashley, 1995).
The matrix-supported diamictons indicates that deposition could be by a mass
movement, such as a creep, slump or debris flow (Ashley, 1995). The upper diamicton unit
may be remnants from a supraglacial debris flow. The lower diamicton unit is not a
uniform thickness suggesting possibility of it being flow till (Price, 1973). This could also
be interpreted as being deposited subaqueously during a re-advance of the glacier into a
lake and subsequently reworked by lacustrine processes (May, 2008). The thin line of sand
in the middle diamicton layer can be interpreted as a dike and indicates over-pressuring
(Evans and Benn, 2004). Later sedimentation most likely involved fluvial activity in a
supraglacial position, which is indicated by the sorted small rounded pebbles at the top of
the succession.
An alternative explanation is that this is a „tripartite‟ sequence caused by several ice
advances and retreats. The first ice advance deposited a lodgement till. As the ice retreated,
glaciofluvial sands and gravels were deposited from outwash streams. As the ice retreated
again, outwash streams were cut off and the glaciofluvial deposits covered by a flow till
from adjacent ice cored ridges (Bennett and Glasser, 2009). However, the lower till unit
does not show the characteristics of a lodgement till. This theory can be modified
alongside knowledge of a „cut and fill‟ sequence (Saunderson, 1973). During an ice
advance a hollow was in filled with gravely sand (Gms). A highly competent stream then
fed into the glaciolacustrine environment, which deposited sandy material, which slumped
into the hollow followed by a flow till. As the upper contact of this flow till is straight,
truncation most likely occurred due to the re-advance of the moraine. Site 7 shows
“evidence of an ice marginal environment where sediments have been deposited and
reworked several times as the local topography is altered by ice melting and oscillations of
the glacier margin” (Benn, 2009).
45
Description
Site 8 (see Figure 4.19) consists primarily of a very poorly sorted, medium sand
diamicton unit. Clasts range in size from very coarse cobbles to large cobbles and are
subangular to subrounded. The lithofacies association is matrix-supported with clasts being
bladed very platy and very bladed in shape. The centre of the unit gradually changes to a
predominately more clast diamicton and is darker in colour. A small gathering of pebbles
can be seen to the upper part of the section. Above the diamicton lies a thin band (~20cm)
of silty gravel.
Interpretation
This section has characteristics similar to that of supraglacial meltout till (see site
1). This unit could be considered as an overlying „cap‟ of Wentworth diamicton. This is
described by previous investigations as a “thin, discontinues veneer of loose, substratified
diamicton” (Russell et al., 2009). The thin band of silty gravel shows characteristics of an
outwash gravel (Menzies, 1995).
46
Dmm Clast shape
4.19. Site 8 Brantford Quarry Pit. Face looking SWW
43o07’15.1’’N 80o19’53.5’’W. E=245m.
c:a
Gs
(a - b) / (a - c)
Depth (m)
Height (m)
Dmm
Width (m)
1m
47
b:a
Description
Figure 4.24 shows the unit to consist of well-sorted fine sand. The lower section of
the unit consists of an upward, inclining, climbing ripple unit (<50mm thick) that increases
in number with height. Above this is horizontally bedded fine sand. A fracture is visible to
the NEE of the section but the sand beds can still be followed through.
Interpretation
The dominance of rippled and horizontally bedded sands indicates a low-energy
depositional environment (Jones, 1999). Horizontally bedded sands can be associated with
low-density turbidity currents and suspension, while rippled sands are deposited by lowenergy tractional currents or density underflows (Aitkin, 1995). This sequence is typical in
deltaic bottomset beds. A similar sequence has been seen at Malaspina Lake in Alaska by
Gustavson et al. (1975).
48
4.20. Site 9 Brantford Quarry Pit. Face looking NW
43o07’23.4’’N 80o19’47.1’’W. E=242m
NEE
Height (m)
SWW
Sp
Sh
Bmg Grain size distribution
Scree
Depth (m)
Width (m)
1m
49
5. Discussion
5.1. Guelph Area
Hummocky moraine is commonly formed by the ablation of stagnant debriscovered dead ice (see Figure 5.1) (Ham and Attig, 1996). Sites 1, 2 and 4 indicate the
presence of supraglacial meltout till but each has different compositions. This reflects the
difference in ice geometry and the amount of disturbance, which occurred at each site
when the material was being deposited (Bennett et al., 1999). Hummocky moraine can also
be attributed to the upward movement of subglacial sediment (Johnson and Mickelson,
1993). This is associated with the extensive deformation of the subglacial layer. Although
no evidence of thrusting or folding-in of older sediment was found in this investigation,
research with ground penetrating radar by Sadura et al. (2006) show that stratified deposits
on the back slope of the moraine near Guelph were partly deformed by ice push due to a
re-advance of the Laurentide Ice Sheet.
Supraglacial till is unstable and therefore tends to slump (Bennett and Glasser,
2009). This can be associated with steep slopes and high bedload meltwater discharge
events due to elevated pore water pressures (Price, 1972). This enables a fluid, viscous,
sediment water slurry to flow down slope (Edwards, 1978). Sites 3 and 5 show evidence of
flow tills. Sediment deformation features at site 3 further indicate elevated pore water
pressures. Site 3 is located on the ice contact slope of the Paris Moraine (see Figures 2.2
and 5.2) and so this depositional process is plausible. However, site 5 in located in the
centre of the moraine. An explanation for this is that the uppermost till flowed into a
depression. Further problems include the lack of a massive pebbly silt unit, as these tend to
occur where the lithofacies association has a more steeply dipping geometry (Marren,
2002).
It is presumed that after melt out, high volumes of meltwater reworked the debris.
As the ice of the glacier terminus was thinning out, the slope of the ice terminus and the
depositional surface of the moraine decreased. The presence of sand lenses at various
elevations suggests that meltwater flowed between the thinning ice and the crest of the
moraine (Sadura et al., 2006; Russell et al., 2009). This is supported by evidence in sites 3,
4 and 5 where discontinuous lenses of interbedded sands and gravels are present (Johnson
and Menzies, 1996). The scale of the meltwater is evident from the large outwash plain and
outwash gravels at the top of sections 2, 3 and 4 (Karrow, 1968).
50
NW
Ice
Debris band
(seen at site 1)
Meltwater outflow
SE
Ice marginal meltwater stream
Hummocky terrain
Frontal slope
Meltwater and
fluvial deposition
Deformation by
ice push
(seen in work by
Sadura et al.,
2006)
Supraglacial meltout till
(seen at sites 1, 2 and 4)
Flow till
(seen at sites 3 and 5)
Small proglacial
lake
Buried stagnant ice
Outwash plain
Figure 5.1 The Paris Moraine depositional environment in the Guelph area
Modified from Edwards (1986)
Figure 5.2 Transverse topographic profiles showing the morphology of the moraine
(A) Profile of the area with a high frontal hill. (B) Profile in an adjacent area with no high
frontal hill (Sadura et al., 2006).
51
5.2. The Brantford Area
The sedimentology and stratigraphy clearly indicate that all the sediments in the
Brantford area were deposited in a glaciolacustrine environment. Previous research
indicates that the sediments were deposited into a proglacial environment (Russell et al.,
2009).
The Paris Moraine was formed at a temperate ice margin where water discharges
would have been high (Johnson and Menzies, 1996). The interbedding of coarse textured
Wentworth Till with finer grained glaciofluvial sands and gravels suggest that
sedimentation was dominated by subaqueous outwash (Bajc, 2008). However, as the ice
margin conditions of the Laurentide Ice Sheet were unstable, it can be suggested that the
subaqueous fans would have developed at the water line where they would develop into
ice-contact deltas (see Figure 5.3) (Benn, 2009). These have a threefold internal
stratigraphy: (1) low angle topsets of sands and gravels (2) Dipping foresets at the
foreslope (3) Low gradient bottom sets deposited from more dilute, finer grained material
from turbidity currents (Benn, 2009). Cross-bedding (seen at site 6) indicates the initial
flow of the sediment into the lake as a turbidity current (Edwards, 1978). As the delta
continued to flow into the lake, the ratio of suspended load and bed load would have
increased. This caused the delta-front sands to change to a less dynamic facies. The field
observations showed that the delta-front sands change distally to horizontally bedded fine
sands and climbing ripples, as seen at site 9. The rhythmites at the top of site 6 indicate
local acceleration in the flow, possibly in a relatively shallow zone (Saunderson, 1973).
Density underflows can be generated by inflowing meltwater by quasi-continuous
currents (seen at sites 6 and 9). Meltwater streams, which flowed of the surface of dead ice
and into the lake, would have fed the delta from the north (Ashley, 1995). The streams
feeding the supraglacial lake could have been easily dammed-off, especially by ice, which
would have influenced the water supply and the sedimentary infilling (Brodzikowski and
van Loon, 1987). The changes from coarse to fine grained material (seen at site 7) indicate
this change in discharge into the lake particularly when the ice margins that fed the
tributary retreated (Bennett and Glasser, 2009).
A predominant diamicton is present on the top upper section, which is seen at site
8. This shows characteristics of supraglacial sediment (Hansel and Johnson, 1999).
Moraines in southern Ontario are commonly capped by diamicton, deposited during the
last retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet.
52
Tiny clay and silt particles were not found in any of the sections. This is unusual as
clays and silts are dominant and indicate of a glaciolacustrine environment and research by
Bajc (2009) observed massive to rhythmically laminated silts and clays up to 69 m thick.
These were not observed in the sites of this research. However, an explanation for this is
that the particles were deposited into shallow glaciolacustrine waters, which were
subsequently reworked by glaciogenic deposits and ice contact stratified sediment, causing
the particles to be washed away (Shaw, 1988; Russell et al., 2008). An alternate reason is
that the Brantford site was on the edge of the lake and the suspended load would be carried
out further into the lake beyond the edge of the gravel (Saunderson, 1973).
In summary, south of Paris, the moraine was built into the margin of a high
standing shallow proglacial lake. The glaciolacustrine deposits were subsequently
reworked from primary glacigenic deposits, such as Wentworth till, to an ice-contact
stratified sediment (Russell et al., 2009). At a later stage, an overlying till flowed.
N
S
Figure 5.3 An ice contact delta (Ashley, 1995)
53
5.3. Depositional History of the Paris Moraine
The first major retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet after the Nissouri Stadial
occurred 16,000 years ago. Ice advanced in the Port Bruce Stade and deposited Port
Stanley Till, which is found as the basal layer of the Paris Moraine (see site 4). 13,500
years ago the ice once more retreated, although Lake Ontario remained ice covered
(Menzies, 2001). A short Interstadial (Mackinshaw Interstade) occurred in the uncovered
ice areas at this time. Following this, ice re-advanced to a new frontal position during the
Port Huron Stade (13,300 years ago). This reworked the upper layers of the Port Stanley
till and deposited Wentworth Till (Menzies, 2001). The Paris Moraine quantifies the
maximum extent of the Port Huron Moraine System (Chapman and Putnam, 1984).
In the Niagara Peninsula following the Port Huron Stade, an eastward then
northward retreat of ice occurred which was interrupted by periodic standstills (Menzies,
2001). This explains why the Wentworth Till is thicker in composition to north of Paris
(Bajc, 2009). The temperate conditions of the area caused abundant supplies of meltwater
to run southward along the glacier front. Abandoned drainage channels can be seen to the
west of the Paris Moraine (see Figure 2.2) (Cowan, 1972). This outwash plain contains
sand and gravel deposits, which have a characteristic of a braided stream (Sadura et al.,
2006). The ice-marginal channel reflects a compromise between the slope of the
topography and the ice margin (Johnson and Menzies, 1996). These braided channels
established the Eromosa-Speed spillway and hence the Eromosa-Speed River adopted its
current position during the recession of the Port Huron ice (Straw, 1988). These meltwaters
deposited outwash sediments, such as the gravels seen at site 2, 4 and 9, which were
subsequently reworked when water levels dropped.
As the Port Huron ice retreated eastward, an ice contact proglacial lake developed
to the west named Lake Whittlesey (see Figure 5.3) (Russell et al., 2009). The water depths
at the ice margin of Lake Whittlesey have been difficult to estimate as the ice thickness,
topographic variation and the input of lake water at the time varied greatly (Menzies,
2001). However, an estimate of 274m has been calculated from abandoned shorelines near
Paris (Cowan, 1972). The Nith River was an outwash stream, which entered Lake
Whittlesey. It had its highest discharge when ice was standing to the west of the Paris
Moraine, as this blocked the Grand River drainage. Meltwater later drained via the Grand
River. Drainage of ponded water between the ice margin and moraine hillcrest produced
erosional gaps as the channels incised into the moraine (Russell, 2009). These deposited
54
outwash and lacustrine sediments (Karrow, 1983). Evidence of this is stratified
glaciofluvial sediment between successive tills seen at site 3 (Cowan, 1972). The waters of
Lake Whittlesey probably reworked the back slope of the moraine. This is an explanation
for why the clast shape of the deposits ate site 2 are beach like. However, there is a lack of
evidence elsewhere.
Laurentide Ice Sheet
Lake
Ontario
Lake Erie
Figure 5.3 The position of Lake Whittlesey (W) (Sommers, 1977)
The deposits generally become finer to the south where they become deltaic and
lacustrine in nature (Bajc, 2009). The Brantford pit quantifies the maximum extent of Lake
Whittlesey. A high stand delta marks the edge of the lake where material was rapidly
deposited due to a high sediment load and the high velocity of meltwater (see site 6). As
water levels dropped, gravel terracing occurred along the major stream valleys. These can
be traced from Guelph, through Paris to the western side of Brantford (Chapman and
Putnam, 1984). The coarse nature of the Wentworth till and the large quantities of
meltwater caused the deposition of advance and recessional outwash gravels. This was
formed when meltwater flowed south down the Grand River into a broad area north of
Paris. This explains why the Paris Moraine is missing in this area as it was eroded away
(see Figure 2.2) (Cowan, 1972).
55
The retreat of the Wentworth ice caused the Great Lake levels to fluctuate. The
most significant lake level fluctuation was of Lake Erie where postglacial rises were over
40m (Coakley et al., 1998; Pengelly et al., 1997). This resulted in the erosion or burial of
shoreline positions. This provides an explanation to why shoreline features are poorly
developed and difficult to distinguish (Cowan, 1972), as well as the moraine having no
topographic expression approximately 10km from Lake Erie.
Ice movement
Outwash channels
Lake shore
reworking
Outwash plain
Lake Ontario
Lake Whittlesey
Brantford Quarry Pit
High stand delta
Edge of Lake
Whittlesey
Lake Erie
Figure 5.4 The depositional environment of the Paris Moraine
56
6. Conclusions
1. This paper highlights the extent and variety of depositional environments of the
Paris Moraine and its complex chronological development. The character of the
Paris moraine reflects a shift in depositional environment from a subaerial to
glaciolacustrine environment. This echoes the range of different processes that
were active in these environments specifically fluvial, lacustrine and mass wasting.
2. During the Port Bruce Stade, Port Stanley Till was deposited, which is found as the
basal layer of the Paris Moraine. The majority of the moraine was formed during
the re-advance of ice in the Port Huron Stade when Wentworth Till was deposited.
The recession of the Port Huron Stade led to the development of Lake Whittlesey, a
shallow high standing proglacial lake.
3. North of Paris, the moraine was deposited in a subaerial environment. The frontal
slope of the moraine was deposited by ice-marginal debris flows with abundant
reworking of meltwater. The back slope was modified by waves on the shoreline of
Lake Whittlesey.
4. South of Paris, the sediment is predominantly glaciolacustrine and was built into
the margin of Lake Whittlesey by sediment flows. This was fed predominantly by
the Nith River and streams in the outwash plain. Other features include a delta,
beach deposits and a subaqueous fan.
5. There are many limitations to the interpretation of the section logs. Many of these
rise in the lack of clast size and shape data. The large size of the moraine means
that additional research should be done to make more robust conclusions. A larger
number of sites should be investigated and in more detail to include the age of the
deposits, as so to clarify when they were deposited.
57
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64
Appendices A – Site Maps
Key for all site
maps
N
X
Site 1
Gradual
slope
Site 2
Steep
slope
Lake
X
Road /
Track
Road
X
Lake
Puslinch Quarry Pit
Figure 3.6. A sketch of Puslinch Quarry Pit
Scale
1.5cm to every 100m
showing the locations of the sites.
Site entrance
Brantford Quarry Pit. Scale 2cm to every 100m
N
Site entrance
Site 6
X
Site 9
X
X
Site 7
Site 8
X
65
Sample
location
Site 3
N
X
N
Site 5
X
Lake
Site entrance
Site entrance
Tikal Quarry Pit. Scale 2.5cm to every 100m
McLinch Quarry Pit. Scale 2cm to every 100m
66
Appendices B – Sneed and Folk Classes
Site 1 Bmg
Count
2
Compact
5
Compact-Platy
5
Compact-Bladed
3
Compact-Elongate
0
Platy
4
Bladed
4
Elongate
1
Very-Platy
0
Very-Bladed
0
Very-Elongate
Percent
8.33
20.83
20.83
12.50
0.00
16.67
16.67
4.17
0.00
0.00
Site 1 Dmm
Count
4
Compact
2
Compact-Platy
5
Compact-Bladed
2
Compact-Elongate
1
Platy
2
Bladed
2
Elongate
0
Very-Platy
6
Very-Bladed
0
Very-Elongate
Percent
16.67
8.33
20.83
8.33
4.17
8.33
8.33
0.00
25.00
0.00
Site 2 Gm
Compact
Compact-Platy
Compact-Bladed
Compact-Elongate
Platy
Bladed
Elongate
Very-Platy
Very-Bladed
Very-Elongate
Count
0
1
2
1
0
1
1
3
0
0
Percent
0.00
11.11
22.22
11.11
0.00
11.11
11.11
33.33
0.00
0.00
67
Site 2 Bms
Compact
Compact-Platy
Compact-Bladed
Compact-Elongate
Platy
Bladed
Elongate
Very-Platy
Very-Bladed
Very-Elongate
Count
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
2
0
1
Percent
10.00
0.00
10.00
10.00
10.00
20.00
10.00
20.00
0.00
10.00
Count
2
0
3
2
0
0
0
1
0
1
Percent
22.22
0.00
33.33
22.22
0.00
0.00
0.00
11.11
0.00
11.11
Count
2
3
4
1
1
3
2
5
2
1
Percent
8.33
12.50
16.67
4.17
4.17
12.50
8.33
20.83
8.33
4.17
Site 3 Dcm
Compact
Compact-Platy
Compact-Bladed
Compact-Elongate
Platy
Bladed
Elongate
Very-Platy
Very-Bladed
Very-Elongate
Site 5
Compact
Compact-Platy
Compact-Bladed
Compact-Elongate
Platy
Bladed
Elongate
Very-Platy
Very-Bladed
Very-Elongate
68
Site 8
Compact
Compact-Platy
Compact-Bladed
Compact-Elongate
Platy
Bladed
Elongate
Very-Platy
Very-Bladed
Very-Elongate
Count
0
0
1
1
2
5
2
7
5
1
Percent
0.00
0.00
4.17
4.17
8.33
20.83
8.33
29.17
20.83
4.17
69
Appendices C – Grain Size Distribution
Site 1 ‘Dmm’
Very Coarse Sand, Poorly Sorted, Fine Skewed, Very Platykurtic
Polymodal, Poorly Sorted, Sandy Very Fine Gravel
Site 1 ‘Bmg’
Coarse Sand, Very Poorly Sorted, Very Fine Skewed, Very Platykurtic
Trimodal, Very Poorly Sorted, Very Coarse Silty Sandy Very Fine Gravel
70
Site 2 ‘Bms’
Coarse Sand, Poorly Sorted, Very Fine Skewed, Platykurtic
Polymodal, Poorly Sorted, Very Coarse Silty Sandy Very Fine Gravel
Site 3 ‘Sr/Sh’
Very Fine Sand, Poorly Sorted, Very Coarse Skewed, Leptokurtic
Polymodal, Poorly Sorted, Slightly Very Fine Gravelly Very Coarse Silty Very Fine Sand
Site 4 ‘Gmm’ at 1-3m
Bimodal, Poorly Sorted, Very Coarse Silty Sandy Very Fine Gravel
71
Site 4 ‘Dmm’ at 4-6m
Polymodal, Very Poorly Sorted, Very Coarse Silty Sandy Very Fine Gravel
Site 4 ‘Dmm’ at 6.5-7.5m
Polymodal, Very Poorly Sorted, Very Coarse Silty Sandy Very Fine Gravel
72
Site 4 ‘Dmm’ at 12m
Site 4 ‘Dmm’ at 12.5m
Very Coarse Sand, Moderately Well Sorted, Very Fine Skewed, Mesokurtic
Bimodal, Moderately Well Sorted, Sandy Very Fine Gravel
73
Site 4 ‘Dmm’ at 16m
Coarse Sand, Very Poorly Sorted, Very Fine Skewed, Platykurtic
Bimodal, Very Poorly Sorted, Very Coarse Silty Sandy Very Fine Gravel
Site 4 ‘Dmm’ at 17-26m
74
Site 4 ‘Sm’ at 28m
Very Coarse Sand, Moderately Sorted, Fine Skewed, Leptokurtic
Trimodal, Moderately Sorted, Very Fine Gravelly Very Coarse Sand
Site 8 ‘Dmm’
Bimodal, Well Sorted, Well Sorted Fine Sand
Fine Sand, Well Sorted, Symmetrical, Very Leptokurtic
75
Appendices E – List of how all personnel spent their working time during the
expedition
Date
What personnel did
5/7/10
Meet with Emmanuelle Arnaud, Mike McGill and other relevant people at the
University of Guelph and discussed equipment use and quarry site locations
6/7/10
Got library books and photocopied relevant maps
7/7/10
Puslinch quarry pit research – site 1
8/7/10
Puslinch quarry pit research – site 2
9/7/10
Day in laboratory sieving sediments from sites 1 and 2
12/7/10 Drilling at Maltby road
13/7/10 Drilling at Maltby road and research at McLinch quarry pit - site 3
14/7/10 Drilling at Maltby road and sieving sediment samples
15/7/10 Site reconnaissance at Brantford quarry pit
16/7/10 Brantford Quarry site research – sites 5-9
22/7/10 Site reconnaissance at other quarry pits in the Guelph area
26/7/10 Drilling at Maltby road and site reconnaissance at other quarry pits in the Guelph
area
All research at each site involved the methods as seen in section 3. This was done
individually with my field assistant watching to make sure I was safe. Site reconnaissance
involved researching the locations of quarry pit in the area, travelling to them to see if they
showed any decently exposed sections and gaining permission to access these sites.
Drilling at Malthby road took a long time as the first hole collapsed and the drill broke
many times.
76
Appendices F - names and addresses referring to people or organisations from whom
I obtained help
Emmanuelle Arnaud
Assistant Professor in glacial geology
School of Environmental Sciences- Axelrod Building
University of Guelph
Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
Let me use her laboratory facilities, introduced me to relevant people in the glacial
geology department at the University of Guelph, gave access to relevant maps and books.
Rebecca and Johnny Gascoyne-Richards
Helped organise my trip and aided me in the field.
Heather and Geoff Glass
43 Wilsonview avenue
Guelph, Ontario
Helped organise accommodation in Guelph, allowed me to use their car, and lent cooking
equipment.
Anne-Sophie Meriaux
Daysh Building
Claremont Road
Newcastle Upon Tyne
NE1 7RU
United Kingdom
Gave advice into how to go about organising the project as well as health and safety.
Michael McGill
Masters student in Environmental Sciences
School of Environmental Sciences- Axelrod Building
University of Guelph
Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
77
Accompanied me to all the sites, allowed me to gain data from his drilling core, gave me
relevant maps and books.
David Passmore
Room: 4.9
Geography
Daysh Building
University of Newcastle
Newcastle upon Tyne
NE1 7RU
Gave advice whilst writing up the report.
Andy Russell
Room 2.23 (4.18)
Daysh building
Claremont Road
Newcastle Upon Tyne
NE1 7RU
United Kingdom
Gave advice whilst preparing for the expedition and whilst writing up the report.
Appendices G – Budgeting
Estimated budget
78
International flights from Stansted to Toronto with Air Canada–£800
Living costs:
Housing - £0 for one person staying at family‟s house
Food –£200 for one person
Washing - £20
Other (such as entertainment) - £100
Sediment samples:
Sampling bags - £10
If can use labs in the University of Guelph - £0
Petrol:
Care hire - £0
Petrol - £150
TOTAL: £1280 (for one person)
Actual budget
Flights - £820 (return for one person)
Living costs:
Housing - $1527 for 2 people for 4 weeks ($25 plates, etc hire) (£957)
Food –$650 (£407) for 2 people
Washing - $19 (£12)
Other - $94 (£59)
Sediment samples:
Sampling bags - £0
Use labs in the University of Guelph - £0
Petrol:
Care hire - £0
79
Petrol - $75 (£46)
TOTAL: £2301 (for two people, £1570 for one)
Received £1200 from the University Expeditions Committee
Appendices H – Health and medical advice
As Canada is a well developed country, there is no need to have additional vaccinations.
However, as I was working with sediment, I was advised to have a booster of tetanus.
Appendices I – Equipment list
From Newcastle University:
Meter ruler
30m measuring tape
3m measuring tape
Rubble bags
Trough
Sorting charts
Roundness Index
Compass
GPS
Soil colour chart
High visibility Jackets
Hard hat
From the University of Guelph:
Sieving equipment
Steel point boots
80

Canada 2010 - Newcastle University

Transcription

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