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Crusades
Crusades
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Crusades were religious conflicts in the High
Middle Ages through to the end of the Late Middle
Ages conducted under sanction of the Latin
Catholic Church. Pope Urban II proclaimed the
first crusade in 1095 with the stated goal of
restoring Christian access to the holy places in and
near Jerusalem. There followed a further six major
Crusades against Muslim territories in the east and
numerous minor ones as part of an intermittent
200-year struggle for control of the Holy Land that
ended in failure. From the fall of Acre, the last
Christian stronghold in the Holy Land, in 1291
The Byzantine Empire and the Sultanate of Rûm before the First Crusade
Catholic Europe mounted no further coherent
response in the east . Many Historians, and
medieval contemporaries such as Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, also give equal precedence to comparable and Papal
blessed military campaigns against pagans, heretics, and people under the ban of excommunication, undertaken for a
variety of religious, economic, and political reasons such as the Albigensian Crusade, the Aragonese Crusade, the
Reconquista and the Northern Crusades.
While some historians see The Crusades as part of a purely defensive war against the expansion of Islam in the near
east many see them forming a part of long running conflicts at the frontiers of Europe including the Arab–Byzantine
Wars, the Byzantine–Seljuq Wars and loss of Anatolia by the Byzantine's after defeat by Seljuk Turks at Manzikert
in 1071. When Urban II looked to take advantage of the opportunity to reunite the Christian church under his
leadership by providing Emperor Alexios I with military support several hundred thousand soldiers became
Crusaders by taking vows and receiving plenary indulgences.[1][2] These crusaders were Christians from all over
Western Europe under feudal rather than unified command and the politics were often complicated even to the point
of intra-faith competition leading to alliances between combatants of different faiths against their coreligionists, such
as the Christian alliance with the Islamic Sultanate of Rûm during the Fifth Crusade. The impact of the Crusades was
profound. Jonathan Riley-Smith identifies The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Crusader States as the first
experiments in “Europe Overseas”. These reopened the Mediterranean to trade and travel enabling Genoa and Venice
to flourish. The collective identity of the Latin Church was consolidated under the Pope’s leadership. They were the
source of heroism, chivalry and medieval piety that grew medieval romance, philosophy and literature. However,
they reinforced the nexus between Western Christendom, feudalism and militarism that ran counter to the Peace and
Truce of God that Urban had promoted. The chance of ending the East–West Schism and reuniting the church was
ended by the conflict between the Latin Crusaders and the Orthodox Christians leading to the ultimate weakening
and fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans. The conduct of the Crusaders was shocking not only to modern
sensibilities but also to contemporaries such as Bernard of Clairvaux. They pillaged the countries in transit including
the massacre of 8,000 Jews in the Rhineland in the first of Europe's pogroms, sacked Constantinople, 70,000 citizens
were said to have killed in the fall of Jerusalem and the nobles carved up the territory gained rather than return it to
the Byzantines. However, the majority of the crusader numbers were the poor trying to escape the hardships of
medieval life in an armed pilgrimage leading to Apotheosis at Jerusalem.
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Crusades
Terminology
The term crusade (from the French croisade and Spanish cruzada) is modern, and was applied to the medieval
military expeditions only in retrospect. The French form of the word first appears in the L'Histoire des Croisades
written by A. de Clermont and published in 1638. By 1750, the various forms of the word "crusade" had established
themselves in English, French and German.[3] The Oxford English Dictionary records its first use in English as
occurring in 1757 by William Shenstone.[4] Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a votus), to be fulfilled on
successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (crux) to be sewn into their clothes. This
"taking of the cross", the crux, eventually became associated with the entire journey.[5]
The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original crusaders were known by various
terms, including fideles Sancti Petri (the faithful of Saint Peter) or milites Christi (knights of Christ). They saw
themselves as undertaking an iter, a journey, or a peregrinatio, an armed pilgrimage. The inspiration of this
“messianism of the poor “ was the expected mass apotheosis at Jerusalem.
Historiography
... The lives and labours of millions who were buried in the East, would have been more profitably employed in the improvement of
their native country
Edward Gibbon in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
... Arguably, the only fruit of the Crusades kept by the Christians was the Apricot
Jacques Le Goff in La Civilisation medieval de l’Occident
During the Reformation and Counter-Reformation of the 16th centuries, historians saw the Crusades through the
prism of their own religious beliefs. Protestants saw the crusades as a manifestation of the evils of the papacy, while
Catholics viewed the crusading movement as a force for good.[6] During the Enlightenment, historians tended to
view both the Crusades and the entire Middle Ages as the efforts of barbarian cultures driven by fanaticism.[7] By the
19th century, with the dawning of Romanticism, this harsh view of the Crusades and its time period was mitigated
somewhat,[8] with later 19th-century crusade scholarship focusing on increasing specialization of study and more
detailed works on subjects.[9]
The 18th century Enlightenment thinkers and modern historians in the West expressed moral outrage at the conduct
of the Crusades. In the 1950s, Sir Steven Runciman wrote that "High ideals were besmirched by cruelty and greed ...
the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the name of God".[10]
The 20th century saw three important works covering the entire history of the crusades – those of Rene Grousset,
Steven Runciman, and the multi-author work edited by K. M. Stetton.[11] The 20th century also saw the development
of the pluralist view of crusading, that saw the Crusades as not just confined to the Holy Land but inclusive of all
papal-led efforts whether in the Middle East or in Europe.[12] Historian Thomas Madden has made the contrary
arguement that "The crusade, first and foremost, was a war against Muslims for the defense of the Christian
faith....They began as a result of a Muslim conquest of Christian territories." Madden says the goal of Pope Urban
was that, "The Christians of the East must be free from the brutal and humiliating conditions of Muslim rule."
Background
Byzantium & The Near East
From 636 when Muslim forces defeated the Eastern Roman/Byzantines at the Battle of Yarmouk, the control of
Palestine passed through the Umayyad Dynasty,[13] the Abbasid Dynasty [14] and the Fatimids.[15] Toleration, trade
and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe ebbed and flowed until 1072 when
the Fatimids lost control of Palestine to the rapidly expanding Great Seljuq Empire.[16] For example the Fatimid
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Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre only for his successor to
allow the Byzantine Empire to later rebuild it.[17] The Muslim rulers allowed pilgrimages by Christians to the holy
sites, resident Christians were considered people of the book so tolerated as Dhimmi and inter-marriage was not
uncommon. Cultures and creeds coexisted as much as competed but the frontier conditions were not conducive to
Latin Christian pilgrims and merchants.[18] The disruption of pilgrimages prompted support for the Crusades in
Western Europe. Exaggerated propaganda prompted resentment toward Muslims and negative and defamatory
information made this a key justification.
The Byzantine Empire was resurgent from the end of the 10th-century with Basil II spending most of his 50-year
reign on campaign and conquering a massive amount of territory. He left a burgeoning treasury but at the expense of
neglecting domestic affairs and ignoring the cost of incorporating his conquests into the Byzantine Ecumene. None
of Basil’s successors had any particular military or political talent and the governing of the Empire increasingly fell
into the hands of the civil service. Their efforts to spend the Byzantine economy back into prosperity only resulted in
burgeoning inflation and to balance the increasingly unstable budget, Basil’s large standing army was seen as
unnecessary. The native thematic troops were cashiered and replaced by foreign mercenaries. Following the defeat at
the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 the Seljuq Turks had taken over almost all of Anatolia and the Empire descended
into frequent civil wars.[19]
The Latin Church
In the West an aggressive and reformist Papacy came into conflict with
both the Eastern Empire and Western secular monarchs leading to the
East-West Schism in 1054[20] and the Investiture Controversy, which
had started around 1075 and was still on-going during the First
Crusade. The papacy began to assert its independence of secular rulers
and marshalled arguments for the proper use of armed force by
Christians. The result was intense Christian piety, interest in religious
affairs and religious propaganda advocating "Just War" in order to
The Seljuq dynasty at its greatest extent, in 1092.
retake Palestine from the Muslims. Taking part in such a war was seen
as a form of penance, which could remit sins.[21] In Northern Europe, the Germans were expanding at the expense of
the Slavs.[22] while Sicily was conquered by the Norman adventurer Robert Guiscard in 1072.[23]
In 1074, Emperor Michael VII sent a request for military aid to Pope Gregory VII, but although Gregory appears to
have considered leading an expedition to aid Michael, nothing reached the planning stage.[24] The Eastern Empire
faced difficulties in the Danube river area, as the Petchenegs had allied with the Seljuks and threatened the Empire
until 1091 when they were defeated by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. In 1095 Emperor Alexios I Komnenos asked
Pope Urban II for help against the Turks. Alexius l needed to reinforce his tagmata, so the embassy to Piacenza in
March 1095 was likely to be concerned with recruiting mercenaries and may have exaggerated the dangers facing the
Eastern Empire in order to secure the needed troops.[25]
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Council of Clermont
In 1095 the Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus sent envoys to the
west requesting military assistance against the Seljuk Turks. The
message was received by Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza. In
November of that year Urban called the Council of Clermont to discuss
the matter further urging the bishops and abbots whom he addressed
directly, to bring with them the prominent lords in their provinces. The
Council lasted from 19 to 28 November, attended by nearly 300 clerics
from throughout France. Urban discussed Cluniac reforms of the
Church and extended the excommunication of Philip I of France.
Urban spoke for the first time on 27 November about the problems in
the east, promoting Western Christians' fight against the Muslims who
had occupied the Holy Land and were attacking the Eastern Roman
Empire. There are six main sources of information about this: the
anonymous Gesta Francorum ("The Deeds of the Franks" dated c.
Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, given a
late Gothic setting in this illumination from the
1100/1101), which influenced all versions of the speech except that by
Livre des Passages d'Outre-mer, of c 1490
Fulcher of Chartres, who was present at the council; Robert the Monk,
(Bibliothèque National)
who may have been present; Baldric, archbishop of Dol; and Guibert
de Nogent, who were not present at the council. All the accounts were
written much later following different literary traditions and differ widely.[26] More important than these five sources
coloured by the authors' own views of crusading, is a letter that was written by Urban himself in December of 1095
referring to the council.[citation needed]
Robert the Monk in Historia Iherosolimitana written in 1106/7 reports Urban called for orthodoxy, reform and
submission to the Church. Robert records that the pope asked western Christians, poor and rich, to come to the aid of
the Greeks in the east because "Deus vult," ("God wills it"). Robert records that Urban promised remission of sins for
those who went to the east, although the 'Liber Lamberti', a source based on the notes of Bishop Lambert of Arras,
who attended the Council, indicates that Urban offered the remission of all penance due from sins, what later came to
be called an indulgence. Robert makes Urban deliver a classical battle speech; he emphasizes reconquering the Holy
Land more than aiding the Greeks; the intervening decades, and the events of the First Crusade had certainly shifted
the emphasis. According to Robert, Urban listed various gruesome offenses of the Muslims. and more alleged
atrocities expressed in inflammatory images that were derived from hagiography. Perhaps with the wisdom of
hindsight, Robert makes Urban advise that none but knights should go, not the old and feeble, nor priests without the
permission of their bishops, "for such are more of a hindrance than aid, more of a burden than advantage ... nor ought
women to set out at all, without their husbands or brothers or legal guardians". A later version by Baldrick,
archbishop of Dol, reported the sermon focusing on the offenses of the Muslims and the reconquest of the Holy Land
and that Urban deplored the violence of the Christian knights of Gaul. The violence of knights he wanted to see
ennobled in the service of Christ, defending the churches of the East as if defending a mother. Guibert, abbot of
Nogent also made Urban emphasize the reconquest of the Holy Land more than help to the Greeks or other
Christians there. This may, as in the case of Robert and Baldric, be due to the influence of the Gesta Francorum's
account of Jerusalem's reconquest. Urban's speech, in Guibert's version, emphasized the sanctity of the Holy Land,
which must be in Christian possession so that prophecies about the end of the world could be fulfilled.[citation needed]
A general call was sent out to the knights and nobles of France. Urban apparently knew in advance of the day that
Raymond IV of Toulouse was prepared to take up arms. Urban himself spent a few months preaching the Crusade in
France, while papal legates spread the word in the south of Italy, during which time the focus presumably turned
from helping Alexius to taking Jerusalem. The general population probably understood this to be the point of the
Crusade in the first place.[citation needed]
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Urban's letter to the faithful "waiting in Flanders," laments that Turks, in addition to ravaging the "churches of God
in the eastern regions," have seized "the Holy City of Christ, embellished by his passion and resurrection—and
blasphemy to say it—have sold her and her churches into abominable slavery." Yet he does not explicitly call for the
reconquest of Jerusulem. Rather he explicitly calls for the military "liberation" of the Eastern Churches, and appoints
Adhemar of Le Puy to lead the Crusade, to set out on the day of the Assumption of Mary, 15 August.[27] Pope
Urban's speech ranks as one of the most influential speeches ever, launching holy wars that occupied the minds and
forces of western Europe for 200 years before ultimate failure.[28]
Role of women, children and class
Women were intricately connected with the crusades, aiding the recruitment of crusading men, taking on
responsibility in their absence and providing financial and moral support.[29][30] Historians argue the most significant
role that women played in the West during the crusades was maintaining the status quo.[31] Landholders left for the
Holy Land leaving control of their estates with regents, often wives or mothers.[32] The Church recognised that risk
to families and estates might discourage crusaders so special papal protection formed part of the crusading
privilege.[33] A few women took the cross themselves to go on the crusade.[34] For example, Eleanor of Aquitaine
joined her husband, Louis VII and some non-aristocratic women were involved in tasks considered feminine like
washerwoman.[35] More controversial was women taking an active part, which threatened their femininity with
accounts of women fighting coming mostly from Muslim historians with the aim to portray Christian women as
barbaric and ungodly because of their acts of killing.[36] Christian accounts portray women fighting only in
emergency situations for the preservation of their camps and lives.
Less historically certain was a movement in France and Germany in 1212 which attracted large numbers of peasant
teenagers and young people, with few under age 15. They were convinced they could succeed where older and more
sinful crusaders had failed: the miraculous power of their faith would triumph where the force of arms had not. Many
parish priests and parents encouraged such religious fervor and urged them on. The pope and bishops opposed the
attempt but failed to stop it entirely. A band of several thousand youth and young men led by a German named
Nicholas set out for Italy. About a third survived the march over the Alps and got as far as Genoa; another group
came to Marseilles. The luckier ones eventually managed to return home, but many others were sold as lifetime
slaves on the auction blocks of Marseilles slave dealers.[37]
Three crusading efforts among the peasants appeared in the middle 1250s and again in the early 1300s. The first, in
1251, was preached in northern France and after meeting with Blanche of Castile became disorganized and had to be
disbanded by the government. The second, in 1309, occurred in England, northeastern France, and Germany, and
had as many as 30,000 peasants arriving at Avignon before being disbanded.[38] The last one, in 1320, had similar
origins as the first shepherds' crusade, but quickly turned into a series of attacks on clergy and Jews, and was forcibly
dispersed.[39]
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Legacy
Politics and culture
Crusades continued to take place against the Christian Greeks who had
been expelled from Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade. With their
recapture of the city in 1261, crusades were called by the papacy from
1262 through 1281 to drive the Greeks back out of Constantinople,
with little result.[40] The Crusades influenced the attitude of the
western Church and people towards warfare. The frequent calling of
crusades habituated the clergy to the use of violence. The crusades also
sparked debate about the legitimacy of taking lands and possessions
from pagans on purely religious grounds that would arise again in the
20th-century depiction of a victorious Saladin
15th and 16th centuries with the Age of Discovery.[41] The needs of
crusading warfare also stimulated secular governmental developments,
although this was not always a totally positive development. The resources collected for crusading could have been
used by the developing states for local and regional needs instead of in far away lands.[42] The crusades impacted the
papacy in a number of ways. Although they did raise the prestige of the papacy, the sheer effort required to support
the crusaders took away resources that might have been better employed elsewhere. The crusades did increase the
control of the papal curia over the entire western Church, by extending the system of papal taxation throughout the
whole ecclesiastical structure of the west. The crusades also stimulated the development of the indulgence system
that grew greatly in extent in late medieval Europe, later to spark the Protestant Reformation in the early 1500s.[43]
The military experiences of the crusades had a limited degree of influence on European castle design; for example,
Caernarfon Castle, in Wales, begun in 1283, directly reflects the style of fortresses Edward I had observed while
fighting in the Crusades. The crusades otherwise seem to have had little effect on military tactics or organization,
mainly because it was difficult to transfer the lessons that were learned in the Holy Land to the different terrain and
fighting styles of Europe.[44] The Northern Crusades caused great loss of life among the pagan Polabian Slavs, and
they consequently offered little opposition to German colonization (known as Ostsiedlung) of the Elbe-Oder region
and were gradually assimilated by the Germans, with the exception of Sorbs.[citation needed] The First Crusade ignited
a long tradition of organized violence against Jews in European culture.[45] The Albigensian Crusade was initiated by
the Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar heresy in Languedoc. The violence led to France's acquisition of lands
with closer cultural and linguistic ties to Catalonia. The Albigensian Crusade also had a role in the creation and
institutionalization of both the Dominican Order and the Medieval Inquisition.[46]
The Crusades were criticised by some contemporaries such as Roger Bacon who felt the Crusades were not effective
because, "those who survive, together with their children, are more and more embittered against the Christian
faith."[47] Nevertheless the movement was widely supported in Europe long after the fall of Acre in 1291.[48]
One aspect of the crusades that shocked some easternersWikipedia:Avoid weasel words was the formation in the
west of military religious orders.[49]
The Orthodox Christian Byzantine Greeks complained that the Crusaders broke their promise to return lands that had
once belonged to Byzantium.[50]
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7
Trade
The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of trade throughout Europe between Europe
and the Outremer. Genoa and Venice flourished through profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the
Holy Land and later in captured Byzantine territory.[51]
Middle Eastern Crusades
People's Crusade (1096)
Urban inspired the preaching of Peter the Hermit who eventually led perhaps as many as 20,000 people, mostly
peasants, towards the Holy Land just after Easter 1096.[52] When they reached the Byzantine Empire, Alexios urged
them to wait for the western nobles, but the "army" insisted on proceeding and was ambushed outside Nicaea by the
Turks, with only about 3000 people escaping the ambush.[53] This crusade is considered a part of the First Crusade.
First Crusade (1095–1099) and immediate aftermath
Among the leaders of the First Crusade were Godfrey of Bouillon,
Robert Curthose, Hugh of Vermandois and Stephen, Count of Blois.
Both the King of France and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor were in
conflict with the Papacy and did not take part.[54]
Route of the First Crusade through Asia
Urban inspired the preaching of Peter the Hermit who eventually led
perhaps as many as 20,000 people, mostly peasants, towards the Holy
Land just after Easter 1096 in the so-called People's Crusade.[52] When
they reached the Byzantine Empire, Alexios urged them to wait for the
western nobles, but the "army" insisted on proceeding and was
ambushed outside Nicaea by the Turks, with only about 3000 people
escaping the ambush.[53]
The official crusader armies set off from France and Italy at different times in August and September 1096 with
Hugh of Vermandois departing first and the bulk of the army dividing into four parts which travelled separately to
Constantinople.[55][56] In all, the western forces may have totaled as much as 100,000 persons, counting both
combatants and non-combatants.[57] The armies journeyed eastward by land toward Constantinople, where they
received a wary welcome from the Byzantine Emperor.[58] Pledging to restore lost territories to the empire,[59] the
main army, mostly French and Norman knights under baronial leadership—Godfrey of Bouillon, Baldwin of
Bouillon, Tancred de Hauteville, Raymond of Toulouse, Robert Curthose, Stephen of Blois, Bohemond of Taranto,
and Robert II, Count of Flanders—marched south through Anatolia.[60][61]
Crusades
8
The Crusader armies fought the Turks, at first at the lengthy Siege of
Antioch that began in October 1097 and lasted until June 1098. Once
inside the city the Crusaders massacred the Muslim inhabitants and
pillaged the city.[62] However, a large Muslim relief army under
Kerbogha immediately besieged the victorious Crusaders within
Antioch. Bohemond of Taranto led a successful rally of the crusader
army and defeated Kerbogha's army on 28 June.[63] Bohemond and his
men retained control of Antioch, in spite of his pledge to the Byzantine
emperor.[64] Most of the surviving crusader army marched south,
moving from town to town along the coast, finally reaching the walls
of Jerusalem on 7 June 1099 with only a fraction of their original
forces.[]
... Wonderful sights were to be seen. Some of our men (and this was more
merciful) cut off the heads of their enemies; others shot them with arrows, so
that they fell from the towers; others tortured them longer by casting them into
the flames. Piles of heads, hands and feet were to be seen in the streets of the
The crusader states after the First Crusade
city. It was necessary to pick one's way over the bodies of men and horses. But
these were small matters compared to what happened at the Temple of Solomon, a place where religious services are normally
chanted ... in the temple and the porch of Solomon, men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins. Indeed it was a just and
splendid judgement of God that this place should be filled with the blood of unbelievers since it had suffered so long from their
blasphemies
Raymond D'Aguilers in Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem
The Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem against the invading Franks. They were unsuccessful
though and on 15 July 1099 the crusaders entered the city. They proceeded to massacre the remaining Jewish and
Muslim civilians and pillaged or destroyed mosques and the city itself.[65] As a result of the First Crusade, four main
Crusader states were created: the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli and Kingdom
of Jerusalem.[66]
Following this crusade there was a second, less successful wave of crusaders, known as the Crusade of 1101, in
which Turks led by Kilij Arslan defeated the Crusaders in three separate battles in a response to the First Crusade.[67]
Sigurd I of Norway was the first European king to visit the Crusading states, as well as the first European king to
take part in a crusading campaign, although his expedition was as much pilgrimage as crusade. His fleet helped at the
Siege of Sidon. Also in 1107, Bohemond I of Antioch attacked the Byzantines at Avlona and Dyrrachium, in what is
occasionally called Bohemond's Crusade, which ended in September 1108 with a defeat for Bohemond and his
retiring to Italy.
Further efforts in the 1120s included a crusade preached by Pope Calixtus II around 1120 which became the
Venetian Crusade of 1122–1124,[68] a pilgrimage of Count Fulk V of Anjou in 1120, an effort by Conrad III of
Germany in 1124 of which little details are known, and the Damascus Crusade of 1129 by Fulk V which resulted in
the recognition of the Knights Templar by Pope Honorius II in January 1129. Some historians have seen Pope
Innocent II's grant in 1135 of the same crusading indulgences to those who opposed papal enemies as the first of the
politically motivated crusades against papal opponents, but other historians do not agree.[69]
Initially, Muslims did very little about the Crusader states due to internal conflicts.[citation needed] Eventually, the
Muslims began to reunite under the leadership of Imad ad-Din Zengi, who was appointed governor of Mosul in
1127. He began to retake territory from the Christians, beginning with Aleppo in 1128. He retook Edessa in 1144.[70]
These defeats led Pope Eugenius III to call for another crusade on 1 March 1145.
Crusades
On a popular level, the preaching of the First Crusade unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt pious
Christian fury that was expressed in the massacres of Jews that accompanied and preceded the movement of the
crusaders through Europe,[71] as well as the violent treatment of the "schismatic" Orthodox Christians of the east.[72]
Second Crusade (1147–1149)
The new crusade was called for by various preachers, most notably by Bernard of Clairvaux.[73] French and South
German armies, under the Kings Louis VII and Conrad III respectively, marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed to
win any major victories, launching a failed pre-emptive siege of Damascus.[74] On the other side of the
Mediterranean, however, the Second Crusade met with great success as a group of Northern European Crusaders
stopped in Portugal, allied with the Portuguese King, Afonso I of Portugal, and retook Lisbon from the Muslims in
1147.[75] A detachment from this group of crusaders helped Count Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona conquer the
city of Tortosa the following year.[76]Wikipedia:Citing sources In the Holy Land by 1150, both the kings of France
and Germany had returned to their countries without any result. Bernard of Clairvaux, who in his preachings had
encouraged the Second Crusade, was upset with the amount of misdirected violence and slaughter of the Jewish
population of the Rhineland. A followup to this crusade was the pilgrimage of Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, in
1172 that is sometimes labeled a crusade.[77]
Third Crusade (1187–1192)
The Muslims had long fought among themselves, but they were finally united by
Saladin, who created a single powerful state.[78] Following his victory at the
Battle of Hattin he easily overwhelmed the disunited crusaders in 1187 and
retook Jerusalem on 29 September 1187. Terms were arranged and the city
surrendered, with Saladin entering the city on 2 October 1187.[79]
Saladin's victories shocked Europe. On hearing news of the Siege of Jerusalem
(1187), Pope Urban III died of a heart attack on 19 October 1187.[80] On 29
October Pope Gregory VIII issued a papal bull Audita tremendi, proposing the
Third Crusade. To reverse this disaster Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa (r.
1152–1190) of Germany, King Philip II of France, (r. 1180–1223), and King
Richard I (r. 1189–1199) of England all organized forces for the crusade.
A statue of king Richard I of
Frederick died en route and few of his men reached the Holy Land. The other
England
(Richard the Lionheart),
two armies arrived but were beset by political quarrels. Philip returned to France,
outside the Palace of Westminster in
but left most of his forces behind. Richard captured the island of Cyprus from the
London.
Byzantines in 1191. After a long siege, Richard recaptured the city of Acre. The
Crusader army headed south along the Mediterranean coast. They defeated the
Muslims near Arsuf, recaptured the port city of Jaffa, and were in sight of Jerusalem, but supply problems prevented
them from taking the city and the crusade ended without the taking of Jerusalem.[77] Richard left the following year
after negotiating a treaty with Saladin. The treaty allowed trade for merchants and unarmed Christian pilgrims to
make pilgrimages to Jerusalem, while it remained under Muslim control.[81]
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German Crusade (1195–1198)
Emperor Henry VI took the cross in 1195. Henry's health did not allow him to lead the forces in person, and
leadership devolved on Conrad of Wittelsbach, the Archbishop of Mainz. The forces landed at Acre in September
1197 and captured some towns, including Sidon and Beirut, but Henry's death in late 1197 meant that most of the
crusaders returned to Germany in the middle of 1198.
Fourth Crusade (1202–1204)
The Fourth Crusade never reached the Holy Land. Instead,
it became a vehicle for the political ambitions of Doge
Enrico Dandolo and the German King Philip of Swabia
who was married to Irene of Byzantium. Dandelo saw an
opportunity to expand Venice's possessions in the near east
while Philip saw the crusade as a chance to restore his
exiled nephew, Alexios IV Angelos to the throne on
The Latin Empire and the Partition of the Byzantine Empire
Byzantium. Pope Innocent III initiated recruitment for the
after the Fourth Crusade. (c. 1204)
crusade in 1200 with preaching taking place in France,
England, and Germany, although the bulk of the efforts were in France.[82] The Crusaders lacked the funds to pay for
the fleet and provisions from the Venetians so agreed in payment to share what could be looted and restore Alexius.
As collateral for this the crusade seized the Christian city of Zara on 24 November 1202. Innocent was appalled and
excommunicated the crusaders.[83] The crusaders met with limited resistance in their initial siege of Constantinople,
sailing down the Dardanelles and breaching the sea walls. However, Alexius was strangled after a palace coup
robbing them of their success and they had to repeat the siege in April 1204. This time the city was ransacked,
churches pillaged and large numbers of the citizens butchered. The crusaders took their rewards; dividing the Empire
into Latin fiefs and Venetian colonies. The crusade was halted by the Bulgars and remaining Greeks at Adrianople
where the army was largely annililated.[84][85] While deploring the means, the papacy initially supported this
apparent forced reunion between the Eastern and Western churches.[86] The Fourth Crusade effectively left two
Roman Empires in the East, one Latin "Empire of the Straits" until 1261 and a Byzantine rump ruled from Nicea
which later regained control in the absence of the Venetian fleet. Venice was the sole beneficiary in the long run.
In the Enlightenment, historians criticized the misdirection of the crusading movement. In particular they pointed to
the Fourth Crusade which instead of attacking Islam attacked another Christian power – the (Eastern) Roman
Empire. David Nicolle says the Fourth Crusade has always been controversial in terms of the "betrayal" of
Byzantium.[87]
Eight hundred years after the Fourth Crusade, Pope John Paul II twice expressed sorrow for the events of the Fourth
Crusade. In 2001, he wrote to Christodoulos, Archbishop of Athens, saying, "It is tragic that the assailants, who set
out to secure free access for Christians to the Holy Land, turned against their brothers in the faith. The fact that they
were Latin Christians fills Catholics with deep regret."[88] In 2004, while Bartholomew I, Patriarch of
Constantinople, was visiting the Vatican, John Paul II asked, "How can we not share, at a distance of eight centuries,
the pain and disgust."[89] This has been regarded as an apology to the Greek Orthodox Church for the terrible
slaughter perpetrated by the warriors of the Fourth Crusade.[90]
In April 2004, in a speech on the 800th anniversary of the city's capture, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I
formally accepted the apology. "The spirit of reconciliation is stronger than hatred," he said during a liturgy attended
by Roman Catholic Archbishop Philippe Barbarin of Lyon, France. "We receive with gratitude and respect your
cordial gesture for the tragic events of the Fourth Crusade. It is a fact that a crime was committed here in the city 800
years ago." Bartholomew said his acceptance came in the spirit of Pascha. "The spirit of reconciliation of the
resurrection... incites us toward reconciliation of our churches."[91]
10
Crusades
11
Fifth Crusade (1217–1221)
Pope Innocent III declared a new crusade to commence in 1217, along
with his summoning of the Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215. The
majority of the crusaders came from Germany, Flanders, and Frisia,
along with a large army from Hungary led by King Andrew II and
other forces led by Duke Leopold VI. The forces of Andrew and
Leopold arrived in Acre in October 1217 but little was accomplished
and Andrew returned to Hungary in January 1218. After the arrival of
Dirham struck by Christians between 1216 and
1241 with Arabic inscriptions.
more crusaders, Leopold and the king of Jerusalem, John of Brienne,
[92]
laid siege to Damietta in Egypt,
which they captured finally in
November 1219. Further efforts by the papal legate, Pelagius, to invade further into Egypt led to no gains.[93]
Blocked by forces of the Ayyubid Sultan Al-Kamil, the crusaders were forced to surrender. Al-Kamil forced the
return of Damietta and agreed to an eight-year truce and the crusaders left Egypt.[94]
Sixth Crusade (1228–1229)
Emperor Frederick II (left) meets al-Kamil
(right), from a manuscript of the Nuova Cronica
by Giovanni Villani
Emperor Frederick II had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live
up to his words,[95] for which he was excommunicated by Gregory IX
in 1228. He nonetheless set sail from Brindisi in June 1228 and landed
at Saint-Jean d'Acre in September 1228, after a stopover in Cyprus.[96]
There were no battles as Frederick made a peace treaty with Al-Kamil,
the ruler of Egypt. This treaty allowed Christians to rule over most of
Jerusalem and a strip of territory from Acre to Jerusalem, while the
Muslims were given control of their sacred areas in Jerusalem. In
return, Frederick pledged to protect Al-Kamil against all his enemies,
even if they were Christian.[97]
A followup to this crusade was the effort by King Theobald I of
Navarre in 1239 and 1240 that had originally been called in 1234 by
Pope Gregory IX to assemble in July 1239 at the end of a truce. Besides Theobald, Peter of Dreux and Hugh, Duke
of Burgundy and other French nobles took part. They arrived in Acre in September 1239 and after a defeat in
November, Theobald arranged a treaty with the Muslims that returned territory to the crusading states, but caused
much disaffection within the crusaders. Theobald returned to Europe in September 1240. Also in 1240, Richard of
Cornwall, younger brother of King Henry III of England, took the cross and arrived in Acre in October. He then
secured the ratification of Theobald's treaty and left the Holy Land in May 1241 for Europe.[98]
Seventh Crusade (1248–1254)
In the summer of 1244 a Khwarezmian force summoned by the son of al-Kamil, al-Salih Ayyub, stormed Jerusalem
and took it. The Franks allied with Ayyub's uncle Ismail and the emir of Homs and the combined forces were drawn
into battle at La Forbie in Gaza. The crusader army and its allies were completely defeated within forty-eight hours
by the Khwarezmian tribesmen.[99]
King Louis IX of France organized a crusade after taking the cross in December 1244, with preaching and
recruitment taking up the time between 1245 and 1248.[100] Louis' forces set sail from France in May 1249 and
landed near Damietta in Egypt on 5 June 1249. Waiting until the end of the Nile flood, the army marched into the
interior in November and by February were near El Manusra. But they were defeated near there and King Louis was
captured on the retreat towards Damietta that resulted.[101] Louis was ransomed for 800,000 bezants and a ten-year
truce was agreed. Louis then went to Syria where he remained until 1254, working to solidify the kingdom of
Crusades
12
Jerusalem and constructing fortifications.[102]
Eighth and Ninth Crusade (1270–1272) and aftermath
Ignoring his advisers, in 1270 Louis IX again attacked the Arabs in
Tunis in North Africa. He picked the hottest season of the year for
campaigning and his army was devastated by disease. The king himself
died, ending the last major attempt to take the Holy Land.[103] The
Mamluks, led by Baibars, eventually drove the Franks from the Holy
Land. During 1265 through 1271, he had driven the Franks to a few
small coastal outposts.[104] The future Edward I of England undertook
to crusade with Louis IX, but was delayed and did not arrive in North
Africa until November 1270. After the death of Louis, Edward went to
Sicily, but then went on to Acre in May 1271. His forces were too
small to make much difference, and he was upset at the conclusion of a
truce between the king of Jerusalem, Hugh, and Baibars. Although
Edward learned of his father's death and his succession to the throne in
December 1272, he did not return to England until 1274, although he
accomplished little in the Holy Land.[105] With the fall of Tripoli in
1289,[106] and Acre in 1291, the mainland Crusading states
disappeared.[107]
Christian states in the Levant
Further crusading efforts lingered into the 14th century. The Alexandrian Crusade of October 1365 was a minor
seaborne crusade against Muslim Alexandria led by Peter I of Cyprus. His motivation was at least as commercial as
religious. It succeeded in capturing and sacking Alexandria, although the crusaders did not stay in Alexandria.[108]
The Mahdian Crusade of Summer 1390 was a French-Genoese enterprise against Muslim pirates in North Africa and
their main base at Mahdia led by Louis II, Duke of Bourbon. After a ten week siege, the crusaders lifted their siege
with the signing of a ten-year truce.[109]
European Crusades
Political Crusades
Popes called frequent crusades for political reasons and conflict resolution amongst fellow Christians. Pope Innocent
III declared a crusade against his political opponent Markward of Anweiler in Sicily. Only a few people took part,
and the need for the crusade ended in 1202 when Markward died. This is generally considered the first "political
crusades"[] Between 1232 and 1234 there was a crusade against the Stedingers, peasants who refused to pay tithes to
the Archbishop of Bremen. The archbishop excommunicated them, and Pope Gregory IX declared a crusade in 1232.
The peasants lost the Battle with Altenesch on 27 May 1234 and were destroyed.[110] Emperor Frederick II was the
object of several political crusades called by a number of popes. In 1240 Pope Gregory IX deposed and preached a
crusade against him for his opposition in Italy. In 1248 Pope Innocent IV's [111] crusade against him was transferred
in 1250 to his son, Conrad IV when he died to little effect. Crusades were called against Frederick's illegitimate son
Manfred, King of Sicily, from 1255 through 1266,[] and Conrad's son, Conradin, in 1268 with the urging of Charles
of Anjou.[112] Two crusades appear to have been called against opponents of King Henry III of England – one from
1215 to 1217 and the other from 1263 to 1265 with the first enjoying the same privileges as those given to crusaders
on the Fifth Crusade. The second got as far as having papal legates being dispatched to England with the power to
declare crusade against Simon de Montfort, but Montfort's death in 1265 ended this.[113] The Norwich Crusade of
1383, also called Despenser's crusade, which was a military expedition that aimed to assist the city of Ghent in their
struggle against the supporters of Antipope Clement VII and was really an extension of the Hundred Years War,
Crusades
rather than a purely religious enterprise.[114]
Reconquista (718–1492)
Although the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula
from Muslims began in the 8th century and
reached its turning point around 100 years before
the preaching of the First Crusade in 1095,[115]
with the recapture of Toledo in 1085,[116] Urban II
also tied in the ongoing wars in Iberia in the
preaching of the First Crusade and the crusading
effort. It was through a papal encyclical of 1123 by
Pope Calixtus II that these wars attained the status
of crusades.[117] After this, the papacy declared
Iberian crusades in 1147, 1193, 1197, 1210, 1212,
1221 and 1229. Crusading privileges were also
given to those helping the military orders – both
The Reconquista, 790–1300
the traditional Templars and Hospitallers as well as
the specifically Iberian orders that were founded and eventually merged into two main orders – that of the Order of
Calatrava and the Order of Santiago. From 1212 to 1265, the Iberian kingdoms drove the Muslims into the far south
of the Iberian Peninsula, confining them to a small Emirate of Granada. In 1492, this remnant was conquered and
Muslims and Jews expelled from the peninsula.[118]
Wendish (1147–1162)
Contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, Saxons and Danes fought against Polabian Slavs in the Wendish
Crusade or First Northern Crusade. The Wends defeated the Danes and the Saxons did not contribute much to the
crusade.[119] The Wends did acknowledge the overlordship of the Saxon ruler, Henry the Lion. Further crusading
actions continued although no papal bulls were issued calling new crusades.[120] Efforts to conquer the Wends began
again in 1160 under Henry the Lion,[121] continuing until 1162, when the Wends were defeated at the Battle of
Demmin.[122]
Northern crusades (1193–1290)
Pope Celestine III called for a crusade against pagans in Northern Europe in 1193. Bishop Berthold of Hanover
arrived with a large contingent of crusaders in 1198 but was killed in battle and his forces defeated. To avenge
Berthold's defeat, Pope Innocent III issued a bull declaring a crusade against the Livonians. Albrecht von
Buxthoeven, consecrated as bishop in 1199, arrived the following year with a large force, and established Riga as the
seat of his bishopric in 1201. In 1202 he formed the Livonian Brothers of the Sword to aid in the conversion of the
pagans to Christianity and, more importantly, to protect German trade and secure German control over commerce.
13
Crusades
14
[123]
The Livonian Crusade was proclaimed by Pope Innocent III against the
Livonians who were mostly still pagan.[124] The Livonians were conquered and
converted between 1202 and 1209. A crusade against the Prussians was called by
Pope Honorius III in 1217.[125] Konrad of Masovia gave Chelmno to the
Teutonic Knights in 1226 to serve the knights as a base for crusades against the
Prussians,[126] In 1236 the Livonian Sword Brothers were defeated by the
Lithuanians at Saule, and in 1237 Pope Gregory IX merged the remaining Sword
Brothers into the Teutonic Knights.[127] In 1240 the Battle of the Neva was
fought, where the Swedes, attempting to extend the northern crusades to the
Russians, were defeated.[128] By 1249, the Teutonic Knights had completed their
conquest of the Prussians, which they ruled as a fief of the German emperor. The
Livonian Brothers of the Sword
Knights then moved on to conquer and convert the pagan Lithuanians, a process
that lasted into the 1380s.[129] The Teutonic Order's attempts to conquer
Orthodox Russia (particularly the Republics of Pskov and Novgorod), an enterprise endorsed by Pope Gregory IX,
can also be considered as a part of the Northern Crusades. One of the major blows for the idea of the conquest of
Russia was the Battle of the Ice in 1242.
Albigensian Crusade (1208–1241)
The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1208 to
eliminate the heretical Cathars of Occitania (southern
modern-day France). It was a decades-long struggle that
had as much to do with the concerns of northern France to
extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In the
end, the Cathars were driven underground and the
independence of southern France was eliminated.[130] Pope
Honorius III called a crusade against supposed Cathar
Pope Innocent III excommunicating the Albigensians (left),
Massacre against the Albigensians by the crusaders (right)
heretics in Bosnia. There were rumors that there was an
anti-pope of the Cathars named Nicetas, although whether
such a figure ever existed is unclear. Hungarian forces responded to the papal calls in two efforts in 1234 and 1241,
with the second one ending because of the Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241. The Bosnian church was Catholic
in theology but continued in schism with the Roman Catholic Church well past the end of the Middle Ages.[131]
Crusades
15
Aragonese Crusade (1284-1285)
The Crusade of Aragón, was declared by Pope Martin IV against King Peter III of Aragon, in 1284 and 1285. Peter
was supporting the anti-Angevin forces in Sicily following the Sicilian Vespers, and the papacy supported Charles of
Anjou. Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed a crusade against Frederick, the younger brother of Peter, in 1298, but was
unable to prevent Frederick's crowning and recognition as King of Sicily.[132]
Crusades of the 15th century
Several crusades were launched in the 15th century to counter the
expanding Ottoman Empire starting in 1396 with Sigismund of
Luxemburg, king of Hungary. Many French nobles joined Sigismund's
forces, including John the Fearless, son of the Duke of Burgundy, who
was appointed the military leader of the crusade. Although Sigismund
advised the crusaders to adopt a defensive posture once they reached
the Danube, the crusaders instead besieged the city of Nicopolis. The
Ottomans met the crusaders in the Battle of Nicopolis on 25 September
1396, defeating the Christian forces and capturing 3,000 prisoners.[133]
Execution of Christian prisoners after the Battle
of Nicopolis in 1396.
The Hussite Crusade(s), also known as the "Hussite Wars," or the "Bohemian
Wars," involved the military actions against the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia
in the period 1420 to around 1431. Crusades were declared five times in that
period – in 1420, 1421, 1422, 1427 and in 1431. The net effect of these
expeditions was to force the Hussite forces, which disagreed on many doctrinal
points, to unite to drive out the invaders. The wars were brought to a conclusion
in 1436 with the ratification of the Compactata of Iglau by the Church.[134] In
April 1487, Pope Innocent VIII called a crusade against the Waldensian heretics
of Savoy, the Piedmont, and the Dauphiné in southern France and northern Italy.
The only efforts actually undertaken were against heretics in the Dauphiné, and
resulted in little change.[135]
The Polish-Hungarian king, Władysław Warneńczyk invaded Ottoman territory
and reached Belgrade in January 1444. Negotiations over a truce eventually led
to an agreement, that was repudiated by Sultan Murad II within days of its
ratification. Further efforts by the crusaders ended in the Battle of Varna on 10
November 1444 which, although resulting in a draw between the two forces, led to the crusaders withdrawing. This
withdrawal led to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, as it was the last Western attempt to help the Byzantine Empire.
The battle between the Hussite
warriors and the Crusaders, Jena
Codex, 15th century
In 1456 John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano organized a crusade to lift the Ottomon siege of Belgrade.[136]
Crusades
References
Notes
[1] Nelson Byzantine Perspective of the First Crusade p. 40
[2] Asbridge Crusades p. 1
[3] Lock Routledge Companion p. 258
[4] Hindley Crusades pp. 2–3
[5] American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009
[10] Runciman History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre p. 480
[13] Wickham Inheritance of Rome p. 280
[15] Hindley Crusades p. 14
[17] Pringle "Architecture in Latin East" Oxford History of the Crusades p. 157
[19] Asbridge, First Crusade p. 97
[20] Mayer Crusades pp. 2–3
[21] Riley-Smith Crusades pp. 8–10
[22] Housley Contesting the Crusades p. 31
[24] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 306–308
[26] Georg Strack, The sermon of Urban II in Clermont 1095 and the Tradition of Papal Oratory, in: Medieval Sermon Studies 56 (2012), S.
30-45.<http://www.mag.geschichte.uni-muenchen.de/downloads/strack_urban.pdf>.
[27] Quotes from Urban's letter in
[28] Munro "Speech of Pope Urban II" American Historical Review
[29] Hodgson Women, Crusading and the Holy Land pp. 39–44
[30] C.T. Maier, "The roles of women in the crusade movement: a survey" Journal of medieval history (2004). 30#1 pp 61–82
[31] Susan B. Edgington and Sarah Lambert, eds., Gendering the Crusades (2002)
[32] Riley-Smith First Crusaders p. 99
[33] Hodgson Women, Crusading and the Holy Land pp. 110–112
[34] Owen Eleanor of Aquitaine p. 22
[35] Edington and Lambert Gendering the Crusades p. 98
[36] Nicholson "Women on the Third Crusade" Journal of Medieval History p. 337
[37] Zacour "Children's Crusade" Later Crusades pp. 330–337
[41] Housley Contesting the Crusades pp. 146–147
[46] Strayer Albigensian Crusades p. 143
[47] Quoted in Rose Order of the Knights Templar p. 72
[48] Rose "Order of the Knights Templar p. 72
[49] Kolbaba Byzantine Lists p. 49
[50] Vasilʹev History of the Byzantine Empire p. 408
16
Crusades
[56]
[57]
[58]
[59]
[60]
[61]
[62]
[63]
[64]
[65]
[66]
[67]
[68]
[69]
[70]
[71]
[72]
[73]
[74]
[75]
[76]
[77]
17
Lock Routledge Companion pp. 20–21
Hindley Crusades pp. 30–31
Tyerman God's War pp. 106–110
Ashbridge Crusades pp. 50–52
Ashbridge Crusades p. 46
Riley-Smith Crusades pp. 32–36
Nicholle First Crusade p. 56
Mayer Crusades pp. 60–61
Housley Contesting the Crusades p. 42
Villegas-Aristizábal "Anglo-Norman involvement" Crusades
Lock Routledge Companion p. 151
[78] Holt "Saladin and His Admirers" Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies pp. 235–239
[79] Ashbridge Crusades pp. 343–357
[80] Ashbridge Crusades p. 367
[82] Tyerman God's War pp. 502–508
[87] Nicolle Fourth Crusade p. 5
[88] In the Footsteps of St. Paul: Papal Visit to Greece, Syria & Malta – Words (http:/ / www. ewtn. com/ footsteps/ words/
CHRISTODOULOS_5_4. htm). EWTN.
[89] " Pope sorrow over Constantinople (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 3850789. stm)". BBC News. June 29, 2004.
[90] Phillips. The Fourth Crusade, p. xiii.
[91] In Communion » News – issue 33 (http:/ / www. incommunion. org/ articles/ issue-33/ news-issue-33)
[93] Riley-Smith Crusades pp. 179–180
[97] Ashbridge Crusades p. 569
[103] Strayer "Crusades of Louis IX" Later Crusades p. 487
Crusades
[114]
[115]
[116]
[117]
[118]
[119]
[120]
[121]
[122]
[123]
[124]
[125]
[126]
[127]
[128]
[129]
[130]
[131]
[132]
[133]
[134]
[135]
18
Tyerman England and the Crusades p. 336
Barber Two Cities pp. 341–345
Bull "Origins" Oxford History of the Crusades pp. 18–19
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The Later Crusades, 1189–1311. pp. 325–342.
Further reading
Introductions
• Andrea, Alfred J. Encyclopedia of the Crusades. (2003)
• Asbridge, Thomas. The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam
(2005)
• France, John. Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000–1300 (1999)
• Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives. (2000)
• Holt, P.M. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. (1986)
• Phillips, Jonathan. Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades (2010)
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. The Atlas of the Crusades (1991)
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades, Christianity, and Islam (2011)
Specialized studies
• Boas, Adrian J. Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape, and Art in the Holy City under
Frankish Rule (2001)
• Bull, Marcus, and Norman Housley, eds. The Experience of Crusading Volume 1, Western Approaches. (2003)
• Edbury, Peter, and Jonathan Phillips, eds. The Experience of Crusading Volume 2, Defining the Crusader
Kingdom. (2003)
• Florean, Dana. "East Meets West: Cultural Confrontation and Exchange after the First Crusade." Language &
Intercultural Communication, 2007, Vol. 7 Issue 2, pp. 144–151
• Folda, Jaroslav. Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre (2005)
• France, John. Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (1996)
• Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades. (2003)
• Hillenbrand, Car. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (1999)
• Housley, Norman. The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (1992)
• James, Douglas. "Christians and the First Crusade." History Review (Dec 2005), Issue 53
• Kagay, Donald J., and L. J. Andrew Villalon, eds. Crusaders, Condottieri, and Cannon: Medieval Warfare in
Societies around the Mediterranean. (2003)
• Maalouf, Amin. Crusades Through Arab Eyes (1989)
• Madden, Thomas F. et al., eds. Crusades Medieval Worlds in Conflict (2010)
• Peters, Edward. Christian Society and the Crusades, 1198–1229 (1971)
• Powell, James M. Anatomy of a Crusade, 1213–1221, (1986)
• Queller, Donald E., and Thomas F. Madden. The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople (2nd ed.
1999)
• Riley-Smith, Jonathan.The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. (1986)
• Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades: Volume 2, The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East
(1952) vol 2 online free (http://www.archive.org/details/historyofcrusade02runc); A History of the Crusades:
Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (1954); the classic 20th century history
• Setton, Kenneth ed., A History of the Crusades. (1969–1989), the standard scholarly history in six volumes,
published by the University of Wisconsin Press
Includes: The first hundred years (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?id=History.
CrusOne) (2nd ed. 1969); The later Crusades, 1189–1311 (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/
History-idx?type=header& id=History. CrusTwo) (1969); The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (http:/ /
digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=header& id=History. CrusThree) (1975); The
Crusades
21
art and architecture of the crusader states (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/
History-idx?type=header& id=History. CrusFour) (1977); The impact of the Crusades on the Near East (http:/
/ digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=header& id=History. CrusFive) (1985); The
impact of the Crusades on Europe (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/
History-idx?type=header&id=History.CrusSix) (1989)
• Smail, R. C. "Crusaders' Castles of the Twelfth Century" Cambridge Historical Journal Vol. 10, No. 2. (1951),
pp. 133–149.
• Stark, Rodney. God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades (2010)
• Tyerman, Christopher. England and the Crusades, 1095–1588. (1988)
Historiography
• Constable, Giles. "The Historiography of the Crusades" in Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. The Crusades from the
Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World (2001) Extract online. (http://www.doaks.org/resources/
publications/doaks-online-publications/byzantine-studies/crusades/cr01.pdf)
• Illston, James Michael. 'An Entirely Masculine Activity'? Women and War in the High and Late Middle Ages
Reconsidered (MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2009) full text online (http://hdl.handle.net/10092/2915)
• Madden, Thomas F. ed. The Crusades: The Essential Readings (2002)
• Maier, C.T. "The roles of women in the crusade movement: a survey" Journal of medieval history 2004.
• Powell, James M. "The Crusades in Recent Research," The Catholic Historical Review (2009) 95#2 pp 313-19 in
Project MUSE (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/catholic_historical_review/v095/95.2.powell.html)
• Rubenstein, Jay. "In Search of a New Crusade: A Review Essay," Historically Speaking (2011) 12#2 pp 25-27 in
Project MUSE (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/historically_speaking/v012/12.2.rubenstein.html)
Primary sources
• Barber, Malcolm, Bate, Keith (2010). Letters from the East: Crusaders, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th–13th
Centuries (Crusade Texts in Translation Volume 18, Ashgate Publishing Ltd)
• Housley, Norman, ed. Documents on the Later Crusades, 1274–1580 (1996)
• Krey, August C. The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eye-Witnesses and Participants (1958)
• Shaw, M. R. B. ed.Chronicles of the Crusades (1963)
• Villehardouin, Geoffrey, and Jean de Joinville. Chronicles of the Crusades ed. by Sir Frank Marzials (2007)
External links
• The Crusades (http://crusades.boisestate.edu/), a virtual college course through Boise State University ed. by
E. L. Knox.
• Crusades: A Guide to Online Resources (http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/crusades/crusade.html),
Paul Crawford, 1999.
• The Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East (http://www.staff.u-szeged.hu/~capitul/sscle/
)—an international organization of professional Crusade scholars
• De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History (http://www.deremilitari.org)—contains articles and
primary sources related to the Crusades
• Resources > Medieval Jewish History > The Crusades (http://www.dinur.org/resources/
resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=453&rsid=478) The Jewish History Resource Center – Project of the
Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Crusades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=576268831 Contributors: (aeropagitica), -Midorihana-, 1029384k, 10987sa, 1812ahill, 192.146.101.xxx, 1mike12, 99of9, A Child
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Crusades - Compuserve

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crusaders

A Brief History of the Crusades