Geografi Tanaman di Bioregion Wallace

Transcription

GEOGRAFI TANAMAN DI
BIOREGION WALLACE
Johny S. Tasirin & Martina A. Langi
TROPICAL PLANT CURRICULUM
PROJECT
Kerjasama
UNIVERSITAS SAM RATULANGI
Dan
TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY
2012
J. S. Tasirin: Suplemen Kuliah Ekologi Hutan Wallacea
1
DISCLAIMER
This module
is made possible by the generous
support of the American people through the United
States Agency for International Development (USAID).
The contents are the responsibility of Texas A&M University
and Sam Ratulangi University as the USAID Tropical Plant
Curriculum Project partners and do not necessarily reflect
the views of USAID or the United States Government.
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Terima kasih,
Penyusun
3
Deskripsi Ekoregion di Kawasan Wallacea
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Halmahera rain forests
Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests
Buru rain forests
Lesser Sundas deciduous forests
Seram rain forests
Sulawesi lowland rain forests
Sulawesi montane rain forests
Sumba deciduous forests
Timor and Wetar deciduous forests
Mindanao-Eastern Visayas rain forests
Mindanao montane rain forests
Mindoro rain forests
Luzon montane rain forests
Luzon tropical pine forests
Luzon rain forests
Palawan rain forests
Sulu Archipelago rain forests
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1. Halmahera rain forests
Halmahera, Indonesia
Photograph by Vincent Roelofs
Southeastern
Asia: Islands of
Halmahera,
Moratai, and Obi
in Indonesia
10,400 square
miles (26,900
square kilometers)
-- about the size of
Maryland
This ecoregion comprises the original "Spice
Islands." The tropical islands that constitute the
complex and mountainous terrain of the
Halmahera Rain Forests are an important part of
the region known as Wallacea, which contains a
very distinctive fauna representing a mix of
Asian and Australasian species. This small
ecoregion contains an astounding twenty-six
bird species, including four monotypic genera,
which are found nowhere else in the world.
Although there is some exploitation by logging
and mining companies, extensive blocks of
habitat still cover all the islands, and nearly 80
percent of its original forest still intact.
Location and General Description
This ecoregion represents the moist forests
on Halmahera, Morotai, Obi, Bacan, and
the other nearby Maluku Islands in the
Relatively
northeastern Indonesian Archipelago.
Tropical and
Stable/Intact
Subtropical Moist
Based on the Köppen climate zone system,
Broadleaf Forests
this ecoregion falls in the tropical wet
climate zone (National Geographic Society
1999). The geologic history of these islands is a very complex mixture of inner
volcanic island arcs, outer volcanic island arcs, raised coral reefs, and fragments
of continental crust. Halmahera is a product of a collision between two islands
approximately 1-2 million years ago. The eastern half of the island was part of an
outer arc on the Philippines tectonic plate and consists of sedimentary and
intrusive igneous rocks. The western half of Halmahera and Morotai was part of
an inner arc consisting of volcanic materials. Bacan is a mixture of volcanic inner
island arc and some crustal materials (Monk et al. 1997).
The natural vegetation of these islands was tropical lowland evergreen and semievergreen forest (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Most of the remaining habitat in this ecoregion
is semi-evergreen rain forest and includes eight characteristic dipterocarp species:
Anisoptera thurifera, Hopea gregaria, H. iriana, H. novoguineensis, Shorea assamica, S.
montigena, S. selanica, and Vatica rassak. Volcanic soils and good aspect combine to
produce almost optimal growth conditions. Most of the trees reach 30 m or more and
carry thick-stemmed lianas and woody and herbaceous epiphytes. Rattans that grow to
130 m and other epiphytes are common in old-growth forests. The most luxuriant rain
forests occur in northwest Morotai and north Halmahera, as opposed to the south arm of
Halmahera, which is in the rain shadow of north Halmahera and Bacan. Low, shrubby
vegetation is found in poor soil conditions on patches of ultrabasic rocks (Monk et al.
1997).
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Biodiversity Features
Overall diversity is low in this ecoregion, but overall endemism is moderate to
high when compared with that of other ecoregions in Indo-Malaysia. This
ecoregion falls within the Wallacean biogeographic zone, and thus exhibits a
mixture of Asian and Australian fauna. Together with Seram, Buru, and the
Banda Sea Islands, this island group forms part of a bioregion with perhaps the
highest levels of bird endemism for its size anywhere in the world and the highest
number of endemic birds of any area in Asia.
The mammal fauna is depauperate, containing only thirty-eight species with both Asian
and Australasian affinities (cuscuses), but includes eight ecoregional endemics (table 1).
The Obi cuscus (Phalanger rothschildi) is considered vulnerable (IUCN 2000).
Table 1. Endemic and Near-Endemic Mammal Species.
Family
Species
Phalangeridae
Phalanger ornatus*
Phalangeridae
Phalanger rothschildi*
Phalangeridae
Phalanger sp.*
Pteropodidae
Pteropus chrysoproctus
Pteropodidae
Pteropus personatus*
Pteropodidae
Nyctimene minutus
Muridae
Melomys obiensis*
Muridae
Rattus sp.*
An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.
The ecoregion supports approximately 223 bird species, including 43 ecoregional
endemic species (table 2). The ecoregion corresponds with the Northern Maluku EBA.
There are four endemic monotypic genera: Habroptila, Melitorgrais, Lycocorax, and
Semioptera. These species include the invisible rail (Habroptila wallacii), white-streaked
friarbird (Melitograis gilolensis), paradise-crow (Lycocorax pyrrhopterus), and the
standardwing (Semioptera wallacii). Of the forty-three restricted-range species found in
this ecoregion (and EBA), an astounding twenty-six are found nowhere else in the world.
Five vulnerable species, four of which are found nowhere else, are found in the
ecoregion: invisible rail (Habroptila wallacii), caranculated fruit-dove (Ptilinopus
granulifrons), chattering lory (Lorius garrulus), and white cockatoo (Cacatua alba)
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(Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Table 2. Endemic and Near-Endemic Bird Species.
Family
Common Name
Species
Accipitridae
Moluccan goshawk
Accipiter
henicogrammus*
Accipitridae
Rufous-necked sparrowhawk
Accipiter erythrauchen
Megapodiidae
Moluccan scrubfowl
Megapodius wallacei
Megapodiidae
Dusky scrubfowl
Megapodius freycinet
Rallidae
Invisible rail
Habroptila wallacii*
Scolopacidae
Moluccan woodcock
Scolopax rochussenii*
Columbidae
Scarlet-breasted fruit-dove
Ptilinopus bernsteinii*
Columbidae
Blue-capped fruit-dove
Ptilinopus monacha*
Columbidae
Grey-headed fruit-dove
Ptilinopus hyogastra*
Columbidae
Carunculated fruit-dove
Ptilinopus granulifrons*
Columbidae
White-eyed imperial-pigeon
Ducula perspicillata
Columbidae
Spice imperial-pigeon
Ducula myristicivora
Columbidae
Pink-headed imperial-pigeon
Ducula rosacea
Columbidae
Cinnamon-bellied imperial-pigeon
Ducula basilica*
Psittacidae
Moluccan hanging-parrot
Loriculus amabilis
Cacatuidae
White cockatoo
Cacatua alba*
Loriidae
Violet-necked lory
Eos squamata
Loriidae
Chattering lory
Lorius garrulus*
Cuculidae
Moluccan cuckoo
Cacomantis heinrichi*
Cuculidae
Pied bronze-cuckoo
Chrysococcyx
crassirostris
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Cuculidae
Goliath coucal
Centropus goliath*
Strigidae
Moluccan hawk-owl
Ninox squamipila
Aegothelidae
Moluccan owlet-nightjar
Aegotheles crinifrons*
Alcedinidae
Blue-and-white kingfisher
Todirhamphus diops*
Alcedinidae
Sombre kingfisher
Todirhamphus funebris*
Coraciidae
Purple roller
Eurystomus azureus*
Pittidae
Ivory-breasted pitta
Pitta maxima*
Meliphagidae
Olive honeyeater
Lichmera argentauris
Meliphagidae
White-streaked friarbird
Melitograis gilolensis*
Meliphagidae
Dusky friarbird
Philemon fuscicapillus*
Pachycephalida
Drab whistler
Pachycephala griseonota
Monarchidae
White-naped monarch
Monarcha pileatus
Monarchidae
Moluccan flycatcher
Myiagra galeata
Corvidae
Long-billed crow
Corvus validus*
Paradisaeidae
Paradise-crow
Lycocorax pyrrhopterus*
Paradisaeidae
Wallace's standardwing
Semioptera wallacii*
Oriolidae
Halmahera oriole
Oriolus phaeochromus*
Campephagidae
Moluccan cuckoo-shrike
Coracina atriceps
Campephagidae
Halmahera cuckoo-shrike
Coracina parvula*
Campephagidae
Pale-grey cuckoo-shrike
Coracina ceramensis
Campephagidae
Rufous-bellied triller
Lalage aurea*
Zosteropidae
Cream-throated white-eye
Zosterops atriceps*
Dicaeidae
Flame-breasted flowerpecker
Dicaeum erythrothorax
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The world's largest bee-the rare, 4-cm Wallace's giant bee Chalocodoma pluto-is also
found on Bacan, Tidore, and Halmahera. Wallace discovered this species in 1858, and it
was thought to be extinct until 1981, when it was recollected. This ecoregion also has
conservation importance for butterflies and includes Troides aesacus, which may be the
most primitive member of the T. priamus species group (Whitten and Whitten 1992; K.
Monk, pers. comm., 2000).
Current Status
The rich volcanic soils of Ternate, Tidore, and nearby islands have been
aggressively cultivated for cloves and other spices for centuries (Stattersfield et al.
1998). From the 1920s through the 1970s, commercial logging and enforced
cultivation depleted the forests of Halmahera and Morotai (Monk et al. 1997). On
Morotai, large tracts of lowland rain forest were cultivated with papaya (Carica
papaya) during World War II (Monk et al. 1997). Currently, the wet evergreen
lowland forests in the northwest of Halmahera are exploited by logging
companies, primarily for the valuable damar trees (Agathis) (Whitten and
Whitten 1992). The eastern forests are threatened by pulp plantations, especially
using local transmigrants.
Extensive habitat blocks still cover all the islands, with only small areas near the coast
cleared for human settlements (Monk et al. 1997). The seven protected areas cover 4,880
km2 (18 percent) of the ecoregion area (table 3). Three protected areas are greater than
1,000 km2 in area, and the average size is 697 km2.
Table 3. WCMC (1997) Protected Areas That Overlap with the Ecoregion.
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN Category
Waya Bula
830
PRO
Lolabata
1,210
PRO
Gunung Gamkonora
110
PRO
Ake Tajawi
1,200
PRO
Saketa
1,100
PRO
Gunung Sibela
300
PRO
Pulau Obi
130
PRO
Total
4,880
Ecoregion numbers of protected areas that overlap with additional ecoregions are listed in brackets.
9
Types and Severity of Threats
With nearly 80 percent of its original forest still intact, the Halmahera Rain
Forests [AA0106] ecoregion is largely free of intense habitat conversion threats.
However, as the forests are lost on other Indonesian islands, there is an
increasing potential for commercial forestry operations to move to Halmahera. A
mining company, PT Halmahera Mineral (NHM), has already obtained an
exploration license for Bacan and "neighboring islands" to look for gold and other
minerals. A Canadian mining company has a license to mine nickel near Ake
Tajawi on Halmahera (K. Monk, pers. comm., 2000).
Justification of Ecoregion Delineation
The Sula Islands were included within the Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests, and
the Aru islands in the Vogelkop-Aru Lowland Rain Forests. Buru Island,
identified as a distinct subunit (13c) by MacKinnon (1997) and as an EBA
(Stattersfield et al. 1998), was delineated as a distinct ecoregion, the Buru Rain
Forests. Seram, the larger island to the east of Buru, was also delineated as an
ecoregion: Seram Rain Forests. The larger Halmahera Rain Forests ecoregion
includes Obi Island, which MacKinnon (1997) recognized as a separate subunit
(13b) from Halmahera Island (subunit 13a). We created the Banda Sea Islands
Moist Deciduous Forests by combining the islands in the Kai and Tanimbar
archipelagos, which were distinguished as a biogeographic unit by Monk et al.
(1997). The primary vegetation on the islands in both these archipelagos is moist
deciduous forests and semi-evergreen forests, whereas the vegetation in the
other, nearby large islands (Seram and Aru) is evergreen rain forests (Monk et al.
1997).
References
References for this ecoregion are currently consolidated in one document for the
entire Indo-Pacific realm.
Indo-Pacific Reference List
This text was originally published in the book Terrestrial ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a conservation
assessment from Island Press. This assessment offers an in-depth analysis of the biodiversity and
conservation status of the Indo-Pacific's ecoregions.
For more general information on this ecoregion, go to the WildWorld version of this
description.
All text by World Wildlife Fund © 2001
2. Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests
10
Banda Islands, Indonesia
Photograph by Anasia-Cruise
Southeastern
Asia: Small
islands scattered
across the Banda
Sea in Indonesia
Tropical and
Subtropical Moist
Broadleaf Forests
2,900 square miles
(7,500 square
kilometers) -about half the size
of Hawaii
The Banda Sea Islands Moist Deciduous Forests
are found on small islands scattered across the
Banda Sea and are part of the region known as
Wallacea, which contains a distinctive fauna
representing a mix of Asian and Australasian
species. Active volcanoes are found on the Banda
Islands, whereas other parts of the ecoregion
represent portions of the Australian continent that
have been torn off. The islands contain a
remarkable twenty-one bird species found
nowhere else on Earth. The forests in this
ecoregion are still largely intact, but although
many of these islands are tiny and uninhabitable,
the bird populations are seriously threatened by
accidentally released rats and cats and by the
removal of their eggs for sale by fishers traveling
through this area.
Vulnerable
This ecoregion represents the moist
deciduous and limestone forests of Tanimbar, Kai, Banda, and smaller island
groups in the Banda Sea, part of the eastern Indonesian Archipelago. Based on the
Köppen climate zone system, this ecoregion falls in the tropical wet climate zone
(National Geographic Society 1999). Geologically, the islands have a mixed history.
The Banda Islands are part of the inner arc, whereas the rest of the ecoregion is part
of the outer arc. The inner arc islands are a result of the subduction and partial
melting of the Indo-Australian tectonic plate below the Eurasian plate. The inner
arc islands represent young volcanoes that have coalesced with lava and sediment.
The volcanically active Mt. Api is found in the Banda Islands, which represent the
ruins of a very large volcano that erupted in prehistory. The basement rock of the
outer islands, on the other hand, is composed of actual continental margin from the
Australian plate that has not been subducted. These outer islands are less than 4
million years old. The resulting surface geology consists of complex sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks: uplifted coral reefs over complex basement rocks (Monk et
al. 1997).
In the south the forest biogeography of the Moluccas differs from that associated with the
classic dipterocarp forests of Borneo or Sumatra. Northern Maluku has relatively similar
dipterocarp forests. Many of the dipterocarp species have been replaced by dominants more
typical of the Australo-Melanesian area. The forests of this ecoregion are varied but include
evergreen rain forest (Kepulauan Kai), semi-evergreen rain forest, moist deciduous forest,
and dry deciduous forest (Monk et al. 1997).
The mammal fauna consists of twenty-two species with both Asian and
11
Australasian affinities, and three species are endemic (table 1) (Flannery 1995). The
Moluccan mouse-eared bat (Myotis stalkeri) is endangered, whereas the dusky
pademelon (Thylogale bruinii) and brown-bearded sheathtail bat (Taphozous
achates) are considered vulnerable (IUCN 2000). The dusky pademelon is the only
macropodid (kangaroo) found in the Banda Sea islands (Kai), although it is also
found in the Aru Islands and the Trans Fly of New Guinea (Flannery 1995).
Family
Species
Macropodidae
Thylogale bruinii
Vespertilionidae
Myotis stalkeri*
Emballonuridae
Taphozous achates*
Together with Halmahera, Buru, and Seram islands, this ecoregion lies within an area with
perhaps the highest levels of bird endemism for its size anywhere in the world and the
highest number of endemic birds of any area in Asia. Even the smallest, uninhabitable
islands are significant as breeding sites for large numbers of seabirds such as frigatebirds,
tropicbirds, boobies, terns, and smaller species (Whitten and Whitten 1992). Manuk Island
and Mt. Api (north of Wetar), two nature reserves in the Banda Sea, are the breeding and
roosting sites for millions of seabirds. Active volcanoes, they are probably the greatest bird
islands left in all southeast Asia (Whitten and Whitten 1992; Monk et al. 1997). This
ecoregion contains more than 225 species of terrestrial birds, of which forty-three are
endemic or near endemic (table 2). This ecoregion corresponds with the Banda Sea Islands
EBA, which contains forty-one restricted-range species, and includes eighteen species that
are found nowhere else on Earth (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Only one of these species, the
Damar flycatcher (Ficedula henrici), is considered threatened.
Family
Common Name
Species
Megapodiidae
Tenimbar megapode
Megapodius
tenimberensis*
Megapodiidae
Forsten's scrubfowl
Megapodius forstenii
Columbidae
Dusky cuckoo-dove
Macropygia magna
Columbidae
Wallace's fruit-dove
Ptilinopus wallacii
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Columbidae
Ducula rosacea
Cacatuidae
Tanimbar cockatoo
Cacatua goffini*
Loriidae
Red lory
Eos bornea
Loriidae
Blue-streaked lory
Eos reticulata*
Loriidae
Olive-headed lorikeet
Trichoglossus euteles
Cuculidae
Green-cheeked bronze-cuckoo
Chrysococcyx rufomerus*
Cuculidae
Pied bronze-cuckoo
Chrysococcyx crassirostris
Cuculidae
Kai coucal
Centropus spilopterus*
Strigidae
Moluccan hawk-owl
Ninox squamipila
Tytonidae
Lesser masked-owl
Tyto sororcula
Alcedinidae
Cinnamon-backed kingfisher
Todirhamphus australasia
Acanthizidae
Rufous-sided gerygone
Gerygone dorsalis
Meliphagidae
White-tufted honeyeater
Lichmera squamata
Meliphagidae
Banda myzomela
Myzomela boiei*
Meliphagidae
Black-faced friarbird
Philemon moluccensis
Eopsaltriidae
Golden-bellied flyrobin
Microeca hemixantha*
Pachycephalida
Drab whistler
Pachycephalida
Wallacean whistler
Pachycephala
arctitorquis*
Rhipiduridae
Cinnamon-tailed fantail
Rhipidura fuscorufa*
Rhipiduridae
Long-tailed fantail
Rhipidura opistherythra*
Monarchidae
White-naped monarch
Monarcha pileatus
Monarchidae
Black-bibbed monarch
Monarcha mundus*
Monarchidae
White-tailed monarch
Monarcha leucurus*
13
Monarchidae
Moluccan flycatcher
Myiagra galeata
Oriolidae
Buru oriole
Oriolus bouroensis
Campephagidae
Kai cuckoo-shrike
Coracina dispar*
Turdidae
Slaty-backed thrush
Zoothera schistacea*
Turdidae
Orange-banded thrush
Zoothera peronii
Turdidae
Fawn-breasted thrush
Zoothera machiki*
Sturnidae
Tanimbar starling
Aplonis crassa*
Muscicapidae
Cinnamon-chested flycatcher
Ficedula buruensis
Muscicapidae
Damar flycatcher
Ficedula henrici*
Zosteropidae
Great Kai white-eye
Zosterops grayi*
Zosteropidae
Little Kai white-eye
Zosterops uropygialis*
Sylviidae
Timor stubtail
Urosphena subulata
Sylviidae
Tanimbar bush-warbler
Cettia carolinae*
Estrildidae
Tricolored parrotfinch
Erythrura tricolor
Dicaeidae
Ashy flowerpecker
Dicaeum vulneratum
Dicaeidae
Red-chested flowerpecker
Dicaeum maugei
Current Status
This ecoregion consists of a chain of small islands. The forests in this ecoregion are
still largely intact, with only about 20 percent of the habitat being lost. The island of
Yamdena in the Tanimbars represents a fairly large block of undisturbed habitat.
There are five protected areas that cover 1,500 km2 (27 percent) of the ecoregion
(table 3). However, the largest of the protected areas is still in a proposed state.
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN Category
14
Kai Besar
290
PRO
Pulau Nuswotar
40-75
I
Jamdena
1,130
PRO
Pulau Nustaram
30
I
Pulau Lucipara
20
?
Pulau Angwarmase
10
I
Gunung Api (north of Wetar)
1
?
Total
1,521
Although many of these islands are tiny and uninhabitable, the bird populations are
seriously threatened by predatory rats and cats that have been accidentally released
onto these islands and by the removal of their eggs for sale by fishers traveling
through this area (Whitten and Whitten 1992). On inhabited islands, such as
Manuk Island Nature Reserve, small-scale agriculture poses another threat as
farmers oust both tree-nesting and ground-nesting birds (Whitten and Whitten
1992).
The Sula Islands were included within the Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests and the
Aru Islands in the Vogelkop-Aru Lowland Rain Forests. Buru Island, identified as a
distinct subunit (13c) by MacKinnon (1997) and as an EBA (Stattersfield et al.
1998), was delineated as a distinct ecoregion, the Buru Rain Forests. Seram, the
larger island to the east of Buru, was also delineated as an ecoregion: Seram Rain
Forests. The larger Halmahera Rain Forests includes Obi Island, which MacKinnon
(1997) recognized as a separate subunit (13b) from Halmahera Island (subunit 13a).
We created the Banda Sea Islands Moist Deciduous Forests by combining the
islands in the Kai and Tanimbar archipelagos, which were distinguished as a
biogeographic unit by Monk et al. (1997). The primary vegetation on the islands in
both these archipelagos is moist deciduous forests and semi-evergreen forests,
whereas the vegetation in the other, nearby large islands (Seram and Aru) is
evergreen rain forests (Monk et al. 1997).
References
15
entire Indo-Pacific realm. Indo-Pacific Reference List
16
3. Buru rain forests
Satellite view of Buru Island,
Indonesia
Photograph by USGS
The Buru Rain Forests are located on the small
mountainous tropical island of Buru in the
Banda Sea, part of the region known as
species. There are ten bird species in this
ecoregion that are found nowhere else on Earth,
including a monotypic bird genus. Although the
northern portions of the island have been
degraded by repeated burning and the coastal
lowlands have been cleared, the remaining
forest forms two large, contiguous blocks,
current threats appear to be low, and the
conservation outlook is relatively stable.
This ecoregion represents the moist forests
in the island of Buru. Based on the Köppen
3,300 square miles
Southeastern
climate zone system, this ecoregion falls in
(8,600 square
Asia: Island of
kilometers)
-the tropical wet climate zone (National
Buru in
about
half
the
size
Indonesia
Geographic Society 1999). Buru is part
of Hawaii
remnant crustal fragment, probably from
Tropical and
the Australian continent, and part of the
Vulnerable
Subtropical Moist
volcanic Inner Banda Arc. Consequently,
Broadleaf Forests
the surface geology of Buru is complex,
consisting of older metamorphic schists and
gneiss, younger volcanics, and recent alluvium (Monk et al. 1997).
The natural vegetation of the island was tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen
rain forests (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The dominant tree species in this moist forest are
the dipterocarps, Anisoptera thurifera, Hopea gregaria, H. iriana, H. novoguineensis,
Shorea assamica, S. montigena, S. selanica, and Vatica rassak (Monk et al. 1997). In oldgrowth forests, the larger trees grow to more than 30 m in height and tend to be covered
with thick-stemmed lianas and other epiphytes. Open forest, woodland, and savanna are
also found in this ecoregion, with some being natural but most originating from human
activity (Flannery 1995). The fire-resistant paper bark tree (Melaleuca cajuputi) is
common and grows in nearly monotypic stands in dry areas (Whitten and Whitten 1992).
The steep limestone cliffs in the northwestern part of the ecoregion are covered by mixed
forests that include Shorea spp. (Monk et al. 1997). Exposed ridges between 1,800 and
2,000 m above sea level are characterized by stunted Dacrydium novo-guineense (Monk
et al. 1997).
17
Overall richness and endemism in this ecoregion are low to moderate when
compared with those of other ecoregions in Indo-Malaysia. Being in the
Wallacean biogeographic zone, the ecoregion contains a mixture of Asian and
Australian fauna. The mountainous areas of this island are largely unexplored
and may contain many undiscovered species (Flannery 1995).
The known mammal fauna of Buru consists of at least twenty-five species, including four
near endemics (table 1). Two of these species are globally threatened: the vulnerable
Seram flying-fox (Pteropus ocularis) and lesser tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene minutus)
(IUCN 2000).
Family
Species
Pteropodidae
Pteropodidae
Pteropus ocularis
Pteropodidae
Nyctimene minutus
Suidae
Babyrousa babyrussa
The bird fauna consists of 178 species, including twenty-nine endemic or near-endemic
species (table 2). The ecoregion corresponds with the Buru EBA and contains twentyeight restricted-range bird species, ten of which are found nowhere else on Earth. Six of
these species are considered vulnerable: Moluccan scrubfowl (Megapodius wallacei),
blue-fronted lorikeet (Charmosyna toxopei), black-lored parrot (Tanygnathus gramineus),
Buru cuckoo-shrike (Coracina fortis), streaky-breasted jungle-flycatcher (Rhinomyias
addita), and rufous-throated white-eye (Madanga ruficollis), which represents a
monotypic genus (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Family
Common Name
Species
Accipitridae
Megapodiidae
Forsten's scrubfowl
Megapodiidae
Moluccan scrubfowl
Megapodius wallacei
Columbidae
18
Columbidae
Long-tailed mountain-pigeon
Gymnophaps mada
Psittacidae
Buru racquet-tail
Prioniturus mada*
Psittacidae
Black-lored parrot
Tanygnathus gramineus*
Loriidae
Red lory
Eos bornea
Loriidae
Blue-fronted lorikeet
Charmosyna toxopei*
Strigidae
Moluccan hawk-owl
Ninox squamipila
Tytonidae
Lesser masked-owl
Tyto sororcula
Meliphagidae
Buru honeyeater
Lichmera deningeri*
Meliphagidae
Wakolo myzomela
Myzomela wakoloensis
Meliphagidae
Black-faced friarbird
Philemon moluccensis
Pachycephalida
Drab whistler
Rhipiduridae
Cinnamon-backed fantail
Rhipidura superflua*
Monarchidae
White-naped monarch
Monarcha pileatus
Monarchidae
Black-tipped monarch
Monarcha loricatus*
Monarchidae
Moluccan flycatcher
Myiagra galeata
Oriolidae
Buru oriole
Oriolus bouroensis
Campephagidae
Buru cuckoo-shrike
Coracina fortis*
Campephagidae
Coracina ceramensis
Turdidae
Moluccan thrush
Zoothera dumasi
Muscicapidae
Streaky-breasted jungleflycatcher
Rhinomyias addita*
Muscicapidae
Ficedula buruensis
Zosteropidae
Buru white-eye
Zosterops buruensis*
Zosteropidae
Rufous-throated white-eye
Madanga ruficollis*
19
Sylviidae
Chestnut-backed bush-warbler
Bradypterus castaneus
Dicaeidae
Flame-breasted flowerpecker
Dicaeum erythrothorax
Buru's butterflies include a large number of endemics and are therefore accorded highest
conservation priority. Pifridae has 25 percent of the local species unique to Buru, and
Papilionidae 7 percent (Vane-Wright and Peggae, in press).
Current Status
The coastal lowland forests have been cleared, and the northern and northeastern
portions of the island now contain monsoon forest, gallery forest, and savannas
as a result of repeated burning (Stattersfield et al. 1998). However, the remaining
upland forest forms two large, contiguous blocks. Most of this forest is a mosaic
of primary and secondary forest as a result of shifting cultivation (Monk 1997;
Stattersfield et al. 1998).
The two protected areas-of which one is greater than 1,000 km2-cover 17 percent of the
ecoregion (table 3). Commercial logging on Buru intensified during the 1970s, but much
of the island is still under extensive forest cover.
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Gunung Kelpat Muda
1,380
PRO
Waeapo
50
PRO
Total
1,430
Current threats to this ecoregion are low, causing its conservation status to
remain vulnerable. Commercial logging and shifting cultivation are the primary
threats to the remaining habitat.
The Sula Islands were included within the Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests and
20
the Aru Islands in the Vogelkop-Aru Lowland Rain Forests. Buru Island,
ecoregion: Seram Rain Forests. The larger Halmahera Rain Forests includes Obi
Island, which MacKinnon (1997) recognized as a separate subunit (13b) from
Halmahera Island (subunit 13a). We created the Banda Sea Islands Moist
Deciduous Forests [AA0102] by combining the islands in the Kai and Tanimbar
archipelagos, which Monk et al. (1997) distinguished as a biogeographic unit. The
primary vegetation on the islands in both these archipelagos is moist deciduous
forests and semi-evergreen forests, whereas the vegetation in the other, nearby
large islands (Seram and Aru) is evergreen rain forests (Monk et al. 1997).
References
21
4. Lesser Sundas deciduous forests
Rinca Island, Indonesia
Photograph by © WWF-Canon/Michel
TERRETTAZ
Southeastern
Asia: Lesser
Sundas Islands,
Indonesia
15,200 square
miles (39,400
square kilometers)
-- about twice the
size of
Massachusetts
The Lesser Sundas Deciduous Forests are found
on a string of volcanic islands. They stretch
across the Java Sea between Australia and
Borneo. It is part of a unique biogeographic
region known as Wallacea, which contains a
Asian and Australasian species. These
distinctive seasonal dry forests harbor unique
species, including the Komodo dragon, the
largest lizard in the world, and seventeen bird
species found nowhere else on Earth. A
combination of shifting agriculture and humancaused fires has significantly reduced the
amount of natural forest in this ecoregion.
This ecoregion represents the semievergreen dry forests in the Lesser Sunda
Islands. It extends east from the islands of
Tropical and
Lombok and Sumbawa to Flores and Alor in
Subtropical Dry
Critical/Endangered
Broadleaf
the Indonesian Archipelago. Rinjani
Forests
volcano on Lombok is the highest mountain
in the ecoregion, at 3,726 m. The Lesser
Sundas are an inner volcanic island arc, created by the subduction and partial
melting of the Australian tectonic plate below the Eurasian plate. The islands
represent tertiary and quaternary volcanoes that have coalesced with lava and
sediment. There is actually a geologic discontinuity between Lombok and
Sumbawa, on the Sunda Arc, and the rest of the islands, part of the Banda Arc.
With the exception of Komodo, which is Mesozoic, most of the islands were built
during two pulses in the Tertiary (Mio-Pliocene) and Quaternary (recent) (Monk
et al. 1997). This ecoregion is separated from Bali and Java to the west by
Wallace's Line, which marks the end of the Sunda Shelf. With an average annual
rainfall of 1,349 mm, this region is the driest but also the most seasonal in
Indonesia. Based on the Köppen climate system, this ecoregion has a tropical dry
climate zone (National Geographic Society 1999). This distinctive climate has
given rise to a vegetation that is strikingly different from that of the rest of the
archipelago. Much of the natural habitat is composed of monsoon forests and
savanna woodlands (Whitten and Whitten 1992).
The monsoon forests consist of several forest subtypes, notably moist deciduous forest,
dry deciduous forest, dry thorn forest, and dry evergreen forest. Moist deciduous forests
also occur as a band of lowland forest at the base of the hills and as gallery forests along
streams, especially on Komodo Island. Dominant trees include Tamarindus indica and
Sterculia foetida (Monk et al. 1997). The dry deciduous forest at altitudes below 200 m is
22
dominated by Protium javanicum, Schleichera oleosa, and Schoutenia ovata, whereas at
medium altitudes, from 200 to 800 m, the dominant tree is Tabernaemontana floribunda.
At these altitudes, lianas and climbers become common, especially the white-flowered
liana Bauhinia. Above 1,000 m, Euphorbiaceae tend to become common and well
represented (Monk et al. 1997).
Dry thorn forest is another type of monsoon forest in this ecoregion, although little is left
because it has been cleared by setting fires. This forest formation still exists along the
southeast coast of Lombok and the southwest coast of Sumbawa but is being cleared in
the latter region for road building, mine development, and a transmigration site (Monk et
al. 1997).
Dry evergreen forest occurs above dry deciduous forest and below the true evergreen
montane forest, at 1,000 m above sea level on Mt. Batulante in northwest Sumbawa.
Below 1,200 m on the north slopes, Albizia chinensis is a characteristic species. Other
common species include Chionanthus, Prunus, and two Cryptocarya species. On many
islands, drier areas in steep-sided valleys contain gallery forest. On Sumbawa, for
instance, gallery forest is found from sea level to 2,000 m above sea level and is also
present in lower montane forests (Monk et al. 1997). By contrast, the southern hill slopes
along the southern coasts are kept moist during the dry season by the southeast trade
winds, and dipterocarp rain forest occurs on the southwest hills of both Lombok and
Sumbawa. Lombok also contains one of the few remaining patches of tropical semievergreen rain forest, at volcanic Mt. Rinjani, which acts as the major water catchment
area for the whole island (Monk et al. 1997).
Twenty-meter-high mixed montane forests of Podocarpus and Engelhardia are found
from about 1,200 to 2,100 m, with lianas, epiphytes, and orchids such as Corybas,
Corymborkis, and Malaxis very much in evidence. At higher elevations of up to 2,700 m,
Casuarina junghuhniana forests occur. Toward the summit, from 3,300 to 3,400 m, the
rocky ridges were once covered with lichens, mosses, grasses, herbs, and some ferns but
are now being eroded. On Sumbawa, the south slopes of Mt. Batulante above 1,000 m are
covered with a Cryptocarya-Meliaceae montane forest, although species composition
varies with moisture. This forest is dominated by two species of Cryptocarya, one in the
drier and usually lower forest (from 1,000 to 1,500 m above sea level) and the other at
higher or moister sites. Drier, stonier slopes in poorer forest are the only places where
lianas are common. Further east, from the eastern part of Flores to Alor, the forests are
dominated by Pterocarpus indicus (Monk et al. 1997).
There are also two types of savanna in this ecoregion: a Borassus flabellifer savanna that
occurs from sea level to 400 m on Komodo, Rinca, and the north and south coasts of
Flores; and the Ziziphus mauritiana savanna, which occurs on more sandy clay alluvial,
and sometimes water-logged, soil. The dominant grasses are Eulalia leschenaultiana,
spear grass (Heteropogon contortus, Themeda frondosa), and Themeda triandra (Monk et
al. 1997).
23
This area, part of the Wallacean sub-region, includes a mix of Asian and
Australian fauna, and because of the long years of isolation from the mainland it
harbors many endemic mammals and birds. Most of the endemic mammals occur
on Komodo and Flores eastward, rather than Lombok and Sumbawa. One of the
important and better-known endemic species in this ecoregion is the Komodo
dragon (Varanus komodoensis), the largest lizard in the world.
The mammal faunal in this ecoregion consists of fifty species, including five ecoregional
endemics, including the critically endangered Flores shrew (Suncus mertensi) and the
vulnerable Komodo rat (Komodomys rintjanus) (table 1) (IUCN 2000). With the
exception of the New Caledonia dry forests, with six endemic mammals, the five
endemic mammals in this ecoregion are more than are found in any other dry forest
ecoregion in the Indo-Pacific.
Family
Species
Soricidae
Suncus mertensi*
Pteropodidae
Pteropus lombocensis*
Vespertilionidae
Nyctophilus heran*
Muridae
Bunomys naso*
Muridae
Komodomys rintjanus*
This ecoregion also harbors about 273 bird species, of which 29 are endemic or near
endemic (table 2). The ecoregion is consistent with the Northern Nusa Tenggara EBA
(Stattersfield et al. 1998). Of the twenty-nine restricted-range species in the EBA,
seventeen are found nowhere else in the world. Three are endemic and threatened,
including the endangered Flores monarch (Monarcha sacerdotum) and the vulnerable
Wallace's hanging-parrot (Loriculus flosculus) and Flores crow (Corvus florensis). In
addition, the white-rumped kingfisher (Caridonax fulgidus) is the sole representative of
an endemic monotypic genus.
Family
Common Name
Species
Columbidae
Dusky cuckoo-dove
Macropygia magna
24
Columbidae
Flores green-pigeon
Treron floris*
Columbidae
Ducula rosacea
Columbidae
Dark-backed imperial-pigeon
Ducula lacernulata
Psittacidae
Wallace's hanging-parrot
Loriculus flosculus*
Loriidae
Strigidae
Flores scops-owl
Otus alfredi*
Strigidae
Wallace's scops-owl
Otus silvicola*
Alcedinidae
Alcedinidae
White-rumped kingfisher
Caridonax fulgidus*
Meliphagidae
Sunda honeyeater
Lichmera lombokia*
Pachycephalida
Bare-throated whistler
Pachycephala nudigula*
Rhipiduridae
Brown-capped fantail
Rhipidura diluta*
Monarchidae
Flores monarch
Monarcha sacerdotum*
Corvidae
Flores crow
Corvus florensis*
Campephagidae
Sumba cuckoo-shrike
Coracina dohertyi
Campephagidae
Flores minivet
Pericrocotus lansbergei*
Turdidae
Chestnut-backed thrush
Zoothera dohertyi
Muscicapidae
Flores jungle-flycatcher
Rhinomyias oscillans
Zosteropidae
Yellow-spectacled white-eye
Zosterops wallacei
Zosteropidae
White-browed white-eye
Lophozosterops
superciliaris*
Zosteropidae
Dark-crowned white-eye
Lophozosterops dohertyi*
Zosteropidae
Flores white-eye
Heleia crassirostris*
Sylviidae
Russet-capped tesia
Tesia everetti*
25
Sylviidae
Timor leaf-warbler
Phylloscopus presbytes
Dicaeidae
Golden-rumped flowerpecker
Dicaeum annae*
Dicaeidae
Black-fronted flowerpecker
Dicaeum igniferum*
Dicaeidae
Dicaeum maugei
Nectariniidae
Flame-breasted sunbird
Nectarinia solaris
The Komodo dragon deserves special mention. It is the largest lizard species in the world.
Varanus komodoensis occupies five islands: Komodo, Padar, Rinca, Gili Motang, and
Flores. These animals range from sea level to approximately 450 m in elevation, mainly
in tropical deciduous monsoon forest, tropical savanna, and grassland. They feed on a
wide variety of animal food, including insects, lizards, snakes, birds, deer, wild boar,
monkeys, and bird eggs; they also feed on carrion. Adults may have a foraging range of
500 ha. There are approximately 4,000 protected individuals in Komodo National Park
(Monk et al. 1997).
Current Status
During World War II, logging and cultivation destroyed much of the forest cover
of Lombok, east Flores, and the small islands of Adonara, Solor, Lomblen,
Pantar, and Alor (Monk et al. 1997). The Lombok dipterocarp forest is almost
depleted by commercial logging, and the forest of Sumbawa is partially covered
by a mining concession (Monk et al. 1997).
More than half of this ecoregion's natural habitat has been cleared, mainly for agriculture.
Except for the island of Sumbawa, which still contains a large block of intact forest, most
of the islands in this group have only fragments of natural habitat remaining. The twentyeight protected areas include about 10 percent of the ecoregion area, but most of the
protected areas are small, with the average size being only 144 km2 (table 3). Komodo
National Park, the most famous wild area in the Lesser Sundas, a World Heritage Site,
and an important tourist destination, is only one of two reserves that is greater than 500
km2, but most of this park is marine. The park harbors the Komodo dragon. Lowlands are
underrepresented in the protected areas system even though this habitat supports most of
the ecoregion's species; for instance, most of Sumbawa's endemic birds are associated
with lowland monsoon forest (Monk et al. 1997).
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN Category
26
Pulau Sangiang
150
PRO
Pulau Moyo
160-222
VI
Tambora Utara GR
480
PRO
Tambora Selatan
150
VI
Gunung Rinjani
830 + 760 ext.
II
Pulau Panjang
200
PRO
Hutan Dompu Complex
110
PRO
Gunung Olet Sangenges NR
280-350
PRO
Suranadi
5
V
Pulau Rakit
20
PRO
Batu Gendang Forest
150
PRO
Pantai Palolowaru
5
PRO
Selahu Legini Complex
320-500
VI
Kurung Baya/Varanus
40
PRO
East Timor
210
PRO
Tanjung Kerita Mese
300
PRO
Danau Rana Mese
2
PRO
Danau Kelimutu
20
DE
Danau Sano
8
PRO
Gunung Ambu Lombo
40
PRO
Tuti
60
V
Tanjung Watupayung
90
PRO
Hadekawa-Labelakang
250
PRO
Gunung Muna
100-150
PRO
27
Adonara NR
20
PRO
Pulau Rusa
10
PRO
Egon-Iliwuli
30
PRO
Lewotobi
8
VI
Total
4,048+
Increasing population pressure has also resulted in high rates of deforestation (WWFIndonesia n.d.). In the dry season, fires often are set to clear the understory and to
encourage new growth as forage for domestic animals. This has been done since
prehistoric times-not for domestic animals, but for attracting game (introduced) into areas
of new grass growth. This practice has resulted in the proliferation of fire-resistant trees
such as Casuarina junghuhniana and formation of grassland over an extensive area of
these islands. Most of the remaining forest is confined to the steepest slopes and the tops
of mountains (Whitten and Whitten 1992). Poorly managed tourism, especially in the
Komodo National Park and on Lombok, has also caused environmental degradation
(WWF-Indonesia n.d.).
The future threats will continue to be deforestation, an increasing population and
their demands on the environment, intentionally set fires, and agricultural land
development.
The drier forests in Nusa Tenggara were placed in three ecoregions that
corresponded to the biogeographic units identified in Monk et al (1997). These
are Lesser Sundas Deciduous Forest, which includes the chain of islands
extending from Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Flores, and the smaller satellite
islands corresponding to the Flores biogeographic unit; Timor and Wetar
Deciduous Forests, corresponding to the Timor biogeographic unit; and the
Sumba Deciduous Forests, corresponding to the Sumba biogeographic unit. All
three ecoregions belong to the tropical dry forests biome.
References
28
5. Seram rain forests
The Seram Rain Forests are part of the region
known as Wallacea, which contains a very
distinctive fauna representing a mix of Asian
and Australasian species. This small island
ecoregion contains sixteen bird species,
including a monotypic bird genus, that are found
nowhere else on Earth. Nearly a fifth of the
original forest cover has been cleared, mostly
along the northern coast. However, large areas
of contiguous, intact forest still exist, and the
conservation status of this ecoregion is
relatively stable.
Seram Island, Indonesia
Southeastern
Asia: Island of
Seram in
Indonesia
7,500 square miles
(19,400 square
kilometers) -about the size of
New Jersey
Tropical and
Relatively
Subtropical Moist
Stable/Intact
Broadleaf Forests
This ecoregion represents the semievergreen and moist forests of Seram and
associated islands in the easternmost
section of the Indonesian Archipelago.
Based on the Köppen climate zone system,
this ecoregion falls in the tropical wet
climate zone (National Geographic Society
1999). Seram is part remnant crustal
fragment, probably from the Australian
continent, and part of the volcanic Inner
Banda Arc. Consequently, the surface
geology of Seram is complex, consisting of
older metamorphic schists and gneiss,
younger volcanics, and recent alluvium
(Monk et al. 1997). The interior of the island
is mountainous, with several ranges
reaching more than 1,000 m. The highest
point on the island is the 3,027-m Merkele
ridge (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
The natural vegetation of Seram is tropical lowland evergreen, semi-evergreen, and
montane rain forest (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Semi-evergreen rain forest with trees that
reach 30 m or more is a predominant forest type in this ecoregion. Rattans that exceed
100 m can be found in mature forests. The middle and lower layers include
representatives of the Amaryllidaceae, sedges, and large ferns Angiopteris and Marattia,
as well as climbers such as Freycinetia, Gnetum, Mucuna, Bauhinia, Piper, and Smilax.
Most of the remaining dipterocarp forests are dominated by the endemic Shorea selanica,
which can represent about 30 percent of the individual trees and 76 percent of the basal
area in the forest. Also common are Anisoptera thurifera, Hopea gregaria, H. iriana, H.
novoguineensis, Shorea assamica, S. montigena, S. selanica, and Vatica rassak (Monk et
29
al. 1997).
This ecoregion also contains patches of ultrabasic rocks. The forests on these soils
generally are poor in species, low, and shrubby. Tertiary limestone outcrops occur in the
lowlands and on many mountains such as the Murkele Ridge and the top ridge of the
central Mt. Binaiya, Seram's highest mountain (Monk et al. 1997).
In Seram's montane forests, the Fagaceae are represented by only two species.
Castanopsis buruana dominates between 400 and 1,400 m above sea level, where
individuals tend to clump together, and Lithocarpus celebicus is found along ridges.
Above 2,400 m on Mt. Binaiya, a low, open scrubby woodland contains Dacrydium spp.,
Myrica spp., Rapanea spp., Rhamnus spp., Rhododendron spp., and Vaccinium spp. Tree
ferns are also important and include Cyathea binayana and C. pukuana, which form
distinctive groves that support many epiphytic ferns. Pockets of this tree-fern savanna
extend to the summit along with low Vaccinium woodland. At the highest points, from
2,700 to 3,000 m above sea level, grassland dominates and is characterized by several
endemic herbs such as Viola binayensis, Pterostylis papuanum, and Euphrasia
ceramensis (Monk et al. 1997).
The overall richness and endemism of this ecoregion are low to moderate when
compared with those of other ecoregions in Indo-Malaya. The islands are part of
Wallacea, a unique region that supports a mixture of Asian and Australian fauna.
The montane area of Seram supports the greatest number of endemic mammals of any
island in the region (Flannery 1995). The ecoregion harbors thirty-eight mammal species
and includes nine species that are endemic or near endemic (table 1), several of which are
limited to montane habitats (Flannery 1995). The Seram flying-fox (Pteropus ocularis)
and spiny Seram rat (Melomys feliceus) are considered vulnerable (IUCN 2000). The
mammals found on Seram include Asian species (Murid rodents) as well as Australasian
marsupials.
Family
Species
Perorictidae
Rhyncholemes prattorum*
Pteropodidae
Pteropodidae
Pteropus ocularis
Pteropodidae
Pteropus argenatatus*
Muridae
Rattus feliceus*
30
Muridae
Melomys fulgens
Muridae
Melomys aerosus*
Muridae
Melomys fraterculus*
Muridae
Stenomys ceramicus*
The ecoregion harbors more than 213 bird species (Wikramanyake et al. 2001), of which
33 are endemic or near endemic (table 2). The ecoregion corresponds to the Seram EBA.
The EBA contains thirty restricted-range species, including fourteen that are found
nowhere else on Earth. Five species are threatened. The vulnerable Moluccan scrubfowl
(Megapodius wallacei) is also found on Buru and Halmahera. The remaining four species
are found nowhere else: the endangered black-chinned monarch (Monarcha boanensis)
and vulnerable salmon-crested cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis), purple-naped lory
(Lorius domicella), and lazuli kingfisher (Todirhamphus lazuli). The bicoloured whiteeye (Tephrozosterops stalkeri), the sole member of its genus, is also found only on
Seram. The fourteen endemic restricted-range birds can be divided into three groups: five
species found generally in lowland forests (below 1,000 m), three species found in
montane forests above 1,000 m, and six species found in both lowland and montane
habitats (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The ecoregion also harbors the largest bird in the
Moluccas, the two-wattled cassowary (Casuarius casuarius) (Whitten and Whitten
1992).
Family
Common Name
Species
Accipitridae
Megapodiidae
Forsten's scrubfowl
Megapodiidae
Moluccan scrubfowl
Megapodius wallacei
Columbidae
Columbidae
Long-tailed mountain-pigeon
Gymnophaps mada
Cacatuidae
Salmon-crested cockatoo
Cacatua moluccensis*
Loriidae
Red lory
Eos bornea
Loriidae
Blue-eared lory
Eos semilarvata*
31
Loriidae
Purple-naped lory
Lorius domicella*
Cuculidae
Pied bronze-cuckoo
Chrysococcyx crassirostris
Strigidae
Moluccan hawk-owl
Ninox squamipila
Tytonidae
Lesser masked-owl
Tyto sororcula
Alcedinidae
Lazuli kingfisher
Todirhamphus lazuli*
Meliphagidae
Olive honeyeater
Lichmera argentauris
Meliphagidae
Seram honeyeater
Lichmera monticola*
Meliphagidae
Seram myzomela
Myzomela blasii*
Meliphagidae
Wakolo myzomela
Myzomela wakoloensis
Meliphagidae
Seram friarbird
Philemon subcorniculatus*
Pachycephalida
Drab whistler
Rhipiduridae
Streaky-breasted fantail
Rhipidura dedemi*
Monarchidae
Black-chinned monarch
Monarcha boanensis*
Monarchidae
Moluccan flycatcher
Myiagra galeata
Oriolidae
Seram oriole
Oriolus forsteni*
Campephagidae
Moluccan cuckoo-shrike
Coracina atriceps
Campephagidae
Coracina ceramensis
Turdidae
Moluccan thrush
Zoothera dumasi
Sturnidae
Long-crested myna
Basilornis corythaix*
Muscicapidae
Ficedula buruensis
Zosteropidae
Ambon white-eye
Zosterops kuehni*
Zosteropidae
Bicoloured white-eye
Tephrozosterops stalkeri*
Zosteropidae
Grey-hooded white-eye
Lophozosterops pinaiae*
Sylviidae
32
Dicaeidae
Ashy flowerpecker
Dicaeum vulneratum
Current Status
Nearly a fifth of the original forest of this ecoregion has been cleared, mostly
along the northern coast. However, large areas of contiguous, intact forest still
exist. Therefore, the conservation status of this ecoregion is relatively stable.
Seven protected areas cover 3,121 km2 (16 percent) of the ecoregion area, and
one-Manusela National Park-is more than 2,000 km2 (table 3). This last reserve,
with a wide range of forest types, conserves the cassowary (Casuarius casuarius).
However, wildlife trade has been strong since historical times, and it may
threaten some bird species such as the salmon-crested cockatoo (Cacatua
moluccensis). The Trans-Seram Highway also threatens forest habitat by illegal
logging, land clearance, and soil erosion.
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Sabuda Tataruga
10
IV
Manusela
2,340
II
Wae Bula
600
PRO
Gunung Sahuai
120
PRO
Pulau Kassa
1
IV
Pulau Pombo
20
I
Laut Banda
30
I
Pulau Manuk
1
?
Total
3,122
Seram's moist lowland forests are being exploited by logging companies, primarily for
their valuable damar trees (Agathis) (Whitten and Whitten 1992). The best dipterocarp
stands were depleted by commercial loggers before the 1950s, and many other species
33
were overexploited by intensive logging in the 1970s (Monk et al. 1997).
With no airport and only rudimentary ground transport, Seram is remote. Although this
promotes conservation in many ways, it also prevents conservation employees from
guarding boundaries, enlisting the support of local people, and conducting biological
surveys (Whitten and Whitten 1992).
The north Seram dipterocarp forests are still dominated by the endemic Shorea
selanica and therefore are especially vulnerable to logging (Monk et al. 1997).
The commercial wildlife trade is another significant threat. Parrots are captured
and exported for the pet trade, with many casualties (Whitten and Whitten 1992).
The Sula Islands were included within the Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests and
the Aru Islands in the Vogelkop-Aru Lowland Rain Forests. Buru Island,
ecoregion: Seram Rain Forests. The larger Halmahera Rain Forests ecoregion
includes Obi Island, which MacKinnon (1997) recognized as a separate subunit
(13b) from Halmahera Island (subunit 13a). We created the Banda Sea Islands
Moist Deciduous Forests by combining the islands in the Kai and Tanimbar
archipelagos, which were distinguished as a biogeographic unit by Monk et al.
(1997). The primary vegetation on the islands in both these archipelagos is moist
deciduous forests and semi-evergreen forests, whereas the vegetation in the
other, nearby large islands (Seram and Aru) is evergreen rain forests (Monk et al.
1997).
References
34
6. Sulawesi lowland rain forests
Dumoga National Park, Sulawesi,
Indonesia
Photograph by © WWF-Canon/William F.
RODENBURG
Indonesia: Island 44,900 square
miles (116,300
of Sulawesi
square kilometers)
Tropical and
Pennsylvania
Subtropical Moist
Broadleaf Forests
Relatively
Stable/Intact
The Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests harbor
some of the most unique animals on Earth. The
islands are located in the region known as
species. A fruit-eating pig with huge tusks, a
dwarf buffalo, endemic macaques, and cuscuses
exemplify a truly unique mammal community.
Sulawesi, like the hub of a wheel, is surrounded
by a variety of exotic ocean basins, including
the Flores Sea, the Banda Sea, the Molucca Sea,
the Java Sea, and the Straits of Makassar, as
well as the diverse islands of Borneo, Java,
Flores, Halmahera, and the Philippines. More
than half of the original forest has been cleared,
and most of the remaining forests have been
reduced to fragments.
This ecoregion represents the lowland
forests (less than 1,000 m) on Sulawesi and
the surrounding islands of Banggai and Sula
to the east and Talaud and Sangihe to the
north. Sulawesi is almost completely mountainous. There are no extensive
lowlands on Sulawesi, with large areas above 1,000 m and the highest elevation
at 3,455 m on Mt. Rantemario. Sangihe is mountainous, reaching an elevation of
1,784 m, whereas Talaud is low-lying. The physiography of the Sula Islands is
hilly, with mountains over 800 m only on the island of Taliabu (Stattersfield et al.
1998).
The upland areas (more than 1,000 m) of Sulawesi form a separate ecoregion, the
Sulawesi montane rain forests. Based on the Köppen climate zone system, this ecoregion
falls in the tropical wet climate zone (National Geographic Society 1999). Sulawesi has a
complex geologic history and is composed of three geologic provinces based on that
history. West and East Sulawesi form two of the geologic provinces, separated by the
Palu-Koro fault, which runs from the town of Palu to the Gulf of Bone. The third
geologic province consists of the Tokala region on the northeast peninsula, the Banggai
Islands, Butung Island, and the Sula Islands. East and West Sulawesi collided
approximately 13-19 million years ago, and ultrabasic rocks were exposed as East
Sulawesi overrode the western portion. The forces that caused the collision are still at
work, and Sulawesi is being torn apart today. The surface geology of Sulawesi is a
diverse patchwork of ophiolites, Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, Tertiary sedimentary and
igneous rocks, and Quaternary volcanics and sediments. Active volcanoes are located on
35
the northern arm of Sulawesi (Whitten et al. 1987).
The lowland forest is predominantly tropical lowland evergreen and semi-evergreen rain
forest, with some monsoon forests at the tip of the southeast peninsula and small areas of
freshwater and peat swamp forest (Whitten et al. 1987; Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Distinctive forest types on limestone are distributed around southern Sulawesi and on
ultrabasic soils in scattered locations all around the island. The lowland and hill forests
contain the most tree species, although these forests are not dominated by any one tree
family; only seven dipterocarp species are found in Sulawesi (compared with 267 and
106 in Borneo and Sumatra, respectively). The dipterocarps include Anisoptera costata,
Hopea celebica, H. gregaria, Shorea assamica, Vatica rassak, and V. flavovirens.
Distinctive ebonies (Diospyros spp.) were common in dense clumps in the lowland
forests. Palms are common in the lowland forest, including Oncosperma horridum,
Liculala celebensis, Pinanga, Areca, Caryota, and Livistona rotundifolia (Whitten et al.
1987).
The isolated Sula Islands, just off Sulawesi's east coast, receive rain from both the
northwest and the southeast and have volcanic soils that create excellent growth
conditions (Monk et al. 1997).
Aopa Swamp, 100 km west of Kendari, is a major area of peat swamp that varies
seasonally in extent from about 150 to 314 km2. The dominant tree species in this forest
include Casuarina spp., Eugenia spp., Geunsia paloensis, Premna foetida, Metroxylon
sagu, Pholidocarpus spp., Licuala spp., Arenga spp., Oncosperma spp., and Corypha
spp. Sedges such as Scleria spp. also occur along with 5-m tall Pandanus spp., at least
two species of climbing rattan, and epiphytic Lecanopteris ant-ferns (Whitten et al.
1987).
Freshwater swamp forest is characterized by grassy areas near open water, with palms
and pandans on firmer ground and ubiquitous pitcher plants (Nepenthes). Riverine forest
dominated by tall Eucalyptus deglupta is found in the Sopu Valley northeast of Lake
Lindu and Mt. Nokilalaki (Whitten et al. 1987).
This ecoregion also includes karst (limestone) areas that have a relative paucity of trees
and tree species because of their shallow soils and steep slopes, resulting from the high
solubility of limestone rocks. High calcium levels in the soil give rise to distinctive
tolerant plant communities but support certain snail species limited to limestone forest as
well as the large swallowtail butterfly (Graphium androcles) (Whitten et al. 1987).
Infertile ultrabasic substrates, with serpentine and peridotite rocks, contain unique forests
with a high degree of plant endemism. Common species include ironwood
(Metrosideros), Agathis, Calophyllum, Burseraceae, Sapotaceae, and dipterocarps
(Vatica and Hopea celebica). Myrtaceae (Eugenia, Kjellbergiodendron, and
Metrosideros) are dominant in the low and regular canopy. There is little marketable
timber in such forests (Whitten et al. 1987).
36
Wallace's Line, running from between Bali and Lombok and between Sulawesia
and Borneo, marks the location of a deep oceanic trench and the point over which
land animals and plants could not cross easily. Similarly, Lydekker's Line,
running from between Timor and the Australian shelf to between Halmahera,
Seram, and New Guinea, marks the point where Australasian flora and fauna
could not easily pass. Sulawesi lies between these two lines. Sulawesi's location,
geologic history, and long geographic isolation have created Sulawesi's distinctive
fauna. There is variability, different among various animal and plant groups, in
the amount of interchange between other biogeographic areas in the region,
which led to the evolution of a large number of species endemic to the island.
Although not species-rich relative to Borneo or Java, Sulawesi is high in
endemicity because of its long isolation from Asia and Australia in Wallacea. This
ecoregion exhibits high plant endemism, and the several distinct forest types
provide habitat for the highest number of endemic mammals in Asia and several
endemic birds (Whitten et al. 1987).
Of the 104 mammal species in the ecoregion, 29 are endemic or near endemic (table 1).
Whereas the two cuscuses have Australasian affinities (i.e., the Peleng cuscus [Phalanger
pelengensis] and dwarf cuscus [Strigocuscus celebensis]), the remainder of Sulawesi's
mammals have Asian origins, including the crested macaque (Macaca nigra), moor
macaque (M. maura), booted macaque (M. ochreata), lowland anoa (Bubalus
depressicornis), spectral tarsier (Tarsius spectrum), and babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa)
(Flannery 1995). The crested macaque, moor macacque, and lowland anoa are considered
endangered (IUCN 2000).
Family
Species
Phalangeridae
Phalanger pelengensis*
Sorcidae
Crocidura elongata
Sorcidae
Crocidura lea
Sorcidae
Crocidura levicula
Pteropodidae
Acerodon humilis*
Pteropodidae
Neopteryx frosti*
Pteropodidae
Nyctimene minutus
Rhinolophidae
Hipposideros inexpectatu
37
Vespertilionidae
Pipistrellus minahassae
Vespertilionidae
Hesperoptenus gaskelli
Tarsiidae
Tarsius pelengensis
Cercopithecidae
Macaca maura*
Cercopithecidae
Macaca ochreata*
Cercopithecidae
Macaca nigra
Suidae
Babyrousa babyrussa
Bovidae
Bubalus depressicornis*
Muridae
Rattus koopmani*
Muridae
Rattus xanthurus
Muridae
Rattus bontanus*
Muridae
Rattus elaphinus*
Muridae
Maxomys hellwaldii*
Muridae
Haeromys minahassae*
Muridae
Margaretamys beccarii*
Muridae
Taeromys celebensis*
Muridae
Taeromys punicans*
Muridae
Taeromys taerae*
Muridae
Echiothrix leucura*
Muridae
Melomys fulgens
Muridae
Melomys caurinus*
Sulawesi contains a depauperate bird fauna but with high levels of endemicity
(Stattersfield et al. 1998). The origin of Sulawesi's birds is predominantly Asian (Whitten
et al. 1987). The bird fauna consists of about 337 species, of which 70 are endemic or
38
near-endemic species (table 2). The ecoregion also overlaps the lowland portions of the
Sulawesi EBA and completely overlaps both the Sangihe and Talaud and Banggai and
Sula Islands EBAs and the Salayar and Bonerate Islands Secondary Area (Stattersfield et
al. 1998). Of the seventy restricted-range birds in these three EBAs, thirty-two bird
species are found nowhere else in the world but this lowland ecoregion. Thirteen
additional species are found only in this ecoregion and the adjacent montane ecoregion
(and nineteen more species are found only in the uplands of Sulawesi) (Stattersfield et al.
1998). One species found on Sangihe, the cerulean paradise flycatcher (Eutrichomyias
rowleyi), is critically endangered, and the red-and-blue lory (Eos histro), Sangihe
hanging-parrot (Loriculus catamene), and elegant sunbird (Aethopyga duyvenbodei), all
found on Sangihe and Talaud, are endangered (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Family
Common Name
Species
Accipitridae
Small sparrowhawk
Accipiter nanus
Megapodiidae
Sula scrubfowl
Megapodius bernsteinii*
Megapodiidae
Maleo
Macrocephalon maleo
Rallidae
Platen's rail
Aramidopsis plateni
Rallidae
Bare-faced rail
Gymnocrex rosenbergii
Rallidae
Isabelline waterhen
Amaurornis isabellinus
Columbidae
Dusky cuckoo-dove
Macropygia magna
Columbidae
Sulawesi ground-dove
Gallicolumba tristigmata
Columbidae
Maroon-chinned fruit-dove
Ptilinopus subgularis*
Columbidae
White-bellied imperial-pigeon
Ducula forsteni
Columbidae
Pink-headed imperial pigeon
Ducula rosacae
Columbidae
Grey-headed imperial-pigeon
Ducula radiata
Columbidae
Grey imperial-pigeon
Ducula pickeringii
Columbidae
Silver-tipped imperial-pigeon
Ducula luctuosa*
Psittacidae
Yellowish-breasted racquet-tail
Prioniturus flavicans*
Psittacidae
Moluccan hanging-parrot
Loriculus amabilis
39
Psittacidae
Sangihe hanging-parrot
Loriculus catamene*
Psittacidae
Pygmy hanging-parrot
Loriculus exilis*
Loriidae
Red-and-blue lory
Eos histrio*
Loriidae
Yellow-and-green lorikeet
Trichoglossus flavoviridis
Cuculidae
Sulawesi hawk-cuckoo
Cuculus crassirostris
Cuculidae
Bay coucal
Centropus celebensis*
Strigidae
Ochre-bellied hawk-owl
Ninox ochracea
Strigidae
Speckled hawk-owl
Ninox punctulata
Tytonidae
Minahassa owl
Tyto inexspectata
Tytonidae
Taliabu owl
Tyto nigrobrunnea*
Tytonidae
Sulawesi owl
Tyto rosenbergii
Caprimulgidae
Diabolical nightjar
Eurostopodus diabolicus
Caprimulgidae
Sulawesi nightjar
Caprimulgus celebensis*
Alcedinidae
Sulawesi kingfisher
Ceyx fallax*
Alcedinidae
Lilac kingfisher
Cittura cyanotis*
Alcedinidae
Black-billed kingfisher
Pelargopsis
melanorhyncha*
Alcedinidae
Talaud kingfisher
Todirhamphus enigma*
Alcedinidae
Green-backed kingfisher
Actenoides monachus*
Alcedinidae
Scaly kingfisher
Actenoides princeps
Meropidae
Purple-bearded bee-eater
Meropogon forsteni
Coraciidae
Purple-winged roller
Coracias temminckii
Bucconidae
Sulawesi hornbill
Penelopides exarhatus*
Bucconidae
Knobbed hornbill
Aceros cassidix
40
Acanthizidae
Rufous-sided gerygone
Gerygone dorsalis
Pachycephalida
Sulphur-bellied whistler
Pachycephala sulfuriventer
Pachycephalida
Drab whistler
Rhipiduridae
Rusty-flanked fantail
Rhipidura teysmanni
Monarchidae
Cerulean paradise-flycatcher
Eutrichomyias rowleyi*
Monarchidae
White tipped monarch
Monarcha everetti*
Dicruridae
Sulawesi drongo
Dicrurus montanus
Corvidae
Banggai crow
Corvus unicolor*
Campephagidae
Cerulean cuckoo-shrike
Coracina temminckii
Campephagidae
Pied cuckoo-shrike
Coracina bicolor*
Campephagidae
White-rumped cuckoo-shrike
Coracina leucopygia
Campephagidae
Sula cuckoo-shrike
Coracina sula*
Campephagidae
Slaty cuckoo-shrike
Coracina schistacea*
Campephagidae
White-rumped triller
Lalage leucopygialis*
Turdidae
Rusty-backed thrush
Zoothera erythronota*
Sturnidae
Pale-bellied myna
Acridotheres cinereus
Sturnidae
Sulawesi myna
Basilornis celebensis
Sturnidae
Helmeted myna
Basilornis galeatus*
Sturnidae
White-necked myna
Streptocitta albicollis
Sturnidae
Bare-eyed myna
Streptocitta albertinae*
Sturnidae
Fiery-browed myna
Enodes erythrophris
Sturnidae
Finch-billed myna
Scissirostrum dubium*
Muscicapidae
Henna-tailed jungle-flycatcher
Rhinomyias colonus*
Muscicapidae
Rufous-throated flycatcher
Ficedula rufigula*
41
Zosteropidae
Sulawesi white-eye
Zosterops consobrinorum*
Zosteropidae
Black-ringed white-eye
Zosterops anomalus
Sylviidae
Sulawesi leaf-warbler
Phylloscopus sarasinorum
Dicaeidae
Crimson-crowned flowerpecker
Dicaeum nehrkorni
Dicaeidae
Dicaeum maugei
Dicaeidae
Grey-sided flowerpecker
Dicaeum celebicum*
Nectariniidae
Elegant sunbird
Aethopyga duyvenbodei*
Four of Sulawesi's amphibians have Sundaland affinities, and two have Australasian
roots. Thirty-eight of Sulawesi's sixty-three snake species are found on both sides of
Wallace's Line. There are large reptiles of conservation significance: the sailfin lizard
(Hydrosaurus amboinensis), saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), and reticulated
python (Python reticulatus) (Whitten et al. 1987).
Sulawesi's flora is most closely related to the floras of dry areas in the Philippines,
Moluccas, Lesser Sundas, and Java. The lowland forests have affinities to New Guinea,
whereas the upland areas are more related to Borneo (Whitten et al. 1987). Three Centres
of Plant Diversity are located in lowland Sulawesi: Dumoga-Bone National Park,
Limestone Flora of Sulawesi, and Ultramafic Flora of Sulawesi (Davis et al. 1995).
Current Status
More than half of the original forest has been cleared, and the remaining forests
have been reduced to fragments except for a few fairly large blocks that are still
intact. There are thirty-eight protected areas that cover 9,460 km2 (8 percent) of
the ecoregion area (table 3). Seven of these reserves are more than 500 km2, but
none are more than 1,100 km2.
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Karakelang Utara
260
VI
Karakelang Selatan
80
VI
42
Gunung Sahendaruman
100
PRO
Dua Saudara
120
I
Pulau Taliabu
700
PRO
Pulau Seho
20
I
Pati-Pati
20
IV
Lombuyan I, II
1,070
IV
Gunung Lokon
20
VI
Gunung Manembo-Nembo
50
IV
Dumoga [AA0124]
940
?
Mas Popaya Raja
40
I
Tanggale
10
PRO
Panua
410
I
Marisa
30
PRO
Pulau Una-una
70
PRO
Tanjung Api
50
I
Bangkiriang
390
PRO
Morowali [AA0124]
870
I
Mamuja/Tapalang
150
PRO
Danau Towuti
560
V
Lamiko-miko
280
PRO
Lasolo-Sampara
320
PRO
Lamedae
30
I
Rawa Aopa Watumohai
1,030
II
Tanjung Batikolo
30
IV
43
Lampoko Mampie
30
IV
Danau Tempe
310
PRO
Bontobahari
50
IV
Tanjung Peropa
300
IV
Polewai
100
PRO
Tanjung Amelango
10
IV
Kaya Kuku
40
PRO
Buton Utara
700
IV
Napabalano
10
I
Kokinawe
30
PRO
Lambu Sango NR
200
PRO
Tirta Rimba
30
V
Total
9,460
Sulawesi still supports some lowland moist forests on steep slopes that are unsuitable for
agriculture. However, large areas in the south and some parts of the center and north of
the island have been cleared for permanent and shifting cultivation (IUCN 1991). The
lowland peneplain dry forest is completely gone because of large-scale agricultural
plantations, transmigration, logging, and local clearance. The riverine forest in the
Dumoga Valley is now the site of a major irrigation scheme, and some of the limestone
vegetation has been destroyed by quarrying to supply the Tonasa cement factories.
During the dry season, cattle farmers set fires to encourage the growth of young grass,
and repeated burnings have resulted in a persistent grassland vegetation in some areas
and a savanna with fire-resistant trees in others. Uncontrolled exploitation for the oil in
its heartwood has depleted stands of the sandalwood tree Santalum album, even in
protected areas such as Paboya Reserve (Whitten et al. 1987; Whitten, pers. comm.,
2000).
Sangihe and Talaud were largely deforested by 1920, and there is minimal natural forest
remaining on these islands. A survey has been proposed to determine appropriate
locations for additional protected areas around remaining forest (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
44
Most of Taliabu, the largest island in the Sula Islands, is still forested, but there has been
large-scale logging in the lowlands. The other main Sula Islands, Sanana and Mangole,
have been heavily degraded. Extensive lowland forest still remains on the Banggai
Islands (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Uncontrolled and illegal logging will continue to be the biggest threat to the
integrity of the remaining forests. This situation has been and will be exacerbated
by lack of authority and implementation of existing environmental laws.
There have been several attempts to divide the bioregion into biogeographic units
(MacKinnon 1997; Stattersfield et al. 1998; van Balgooy 1971, cited in Monk et al.
1997; MacKinnon and Artha 1981; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986; MacKinnon
et al. 1982; van Steenis 1950; Udvardy 1975). Because many of the islands have
distinct natural faunal communities and a high degree of endemism (Monk et al.
1997), the more recent attempts have used faunal dissimilarities-especially birdsto identify distinct biogeographic units (MacKinnon 1997; Stattersfield et al.
1998; MacKinnon and Artha 1981; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986). Because
detailed floral data are largely unavailable across most of the bioregion, we
followed these authors in delineating ecoregions based on distribution of biomes
and vertebrate communities.
On Sulawesi Island we delineated two ecoregions: the Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests
and Sulawesi Montane Rain Forests. These represent the tropical lowland and montane
tropical moist forests, respectively. The small patch of monsoon forests on the southwest
peninsula of Sulawesi and on Butung Island (Whitmore 1984) were included in the
Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests but should be considered a distinct habitat type in an
ecoregion-based conservation assessment to ensure representation.
References
45
7. Sulawesi montane rain forests
Sulawesi, Indonesia
Photograph by David Olson
The Sulawesi Montane Rain Forest harbor some
of the most unique animals on Earth. The
islands are located in the region known as
species. A fruit-eating pig with large curly
tusks, a dwarf buffalo, four monkey species, and
cuscuses exemplify a truly unique mammal
community. Like the hub of a wheel, Sulawesi
is surrounded by a variety of exotic ocean
basins, including the Flores Sea, the Banda Sea,
the Moluccas Sea, the Java Sea, and the Straits
of Makassar, as well as the diverse islands of
Borneo, Java, Flores, Halmahera, and the
Philippines. Although more than half of the
original forest has been cleared, Sulawesi still
supports tracts of montane moist forests in areas
of steep slopes that are unsuitable for
agriculture.
This ecoregion represents these montane
forests above 1,000 m, whereas the
lowlands constitute a separate ecoregion.
Most of Sulawesi lies above 500 m, and
about 20 percent of the total land areaTropical and
mostly the central region-is above 1,000 m
Subtropical Moist
Broadleaf Forests
(Whitten et al. 1987). Based on the Köppen
Relatively
climate zone system, this ecoregion falls in
Stable/Intact
the tropical wet climate zone (National
Geographic Society 1999). As might be
surmised from its shape, Sulawesi has a complex geologic history and is
composed of three geologic provinces based on that history. West and East
Sulawesi form two of the geologic provinces, separated by the Palu-Koro fault,
which runs from the town of Palu to the Gulf of Bone. The third geologic province
consists of the Tokala region on the northeast peninsula, the Banggai Islands,
Butung Island, and the Sula Islands. East and West Sulawesi collided
approximately 13-19 million years ago, and ultrabasic rocks were exposed as East
Sulawesi overrode the western portion. The forces that caused the collision are
still at work, and Sulawesi is being torn apart today. The surface geology of
Sulawesi is a diverse patchwork of ophiolites, Mesozoic sedimentary rocks,
Tertiary sedimentary and igneous rocks, and Quaternary volcanics and
sediments. Active volcanoes are located on the northern arm of Sulawesi
(Whitten et al. 1987).
Southeastern
Asia: Island of
Sulawesi in
Indonesia
29,300 square
miles (75,800
square kilometers)
West Virginia and
Connecticut
combined
46
Above 1,000 m, forest trees become shorter and less massive, and epiphytes such as
orchids become more common. Whereas the forests of Sulawesi's lowlands are not
dominated by any particular tree family, the forests in the lower montane region are
dominated by oaks (four species of Lithocarpus) and chestnut (two species of
Castanopsis). An example association includes Phyllocladus, Agathis dammara, and
Eugenia dominated by Castanopsis. Upper montane forest contains conifers (pines and
related Gymnosperms such as Podocarpus spp., Dacrycarpus spp., Dacrydium spp.,
Phyllocladus spp.) and the magnificent and commercially important Agathis spp.
(Whitten et al. 1987). The highest peaks have sub-alpine forests with yet smaller trees
whose branches bear epiphytic lichens and a ground cover of shrubs, colorful herbs, and
grasses (Whitten et al. 1987).
Wallace's Line, running from between Bali and Lombok and between Sulawesia
and Borneo, marks the location of a deep oceanic trench and the point over which
land animals and plants could not cross easily. Similarly, Lydekker's Line,
running from between Timor and the Australian shelf to between Halmahera,
Seram, and New Guinea, marks the point where Australasian flora and fauna
could not easily pass. Sulawesi lies between these two lines. Sulawesi's location,
geologic history, and long geographic isolation have created Sulawesi's distinctive
fauna. There is variability, different among various animal and plant groups, in
the amount of interchange between other biogeographic areas in the region,
which led to the evolution of a large number of species endemic to the island.
Although not species-rich relative to Borneo or Java, Sulawesi is high in
endemicity because of its long isolation from Asia and Australia in Wallacea. This
ecoregion exhibits high plant endemism, and the several distinct forest types
provide habitat for the highest number of endemic mammals in Asia and several
endemic birds (Whitten et al. 1987).
The ecoregion harbors 102 mammal species, of which 33 species are endemic or near
endemic (table 1). Together with the lowland forests, the montane forests of Sulawesi
have the highest recorded number of endemic mammals among the Indo-Pacific
ecoregions. These endemic species include the endangered mountain anoa (Bubalus
quarlesi) and crested macaque (Macaca nigra) and the vulnerable babirusa (Babyrousa
babyrussa) and Sulawesi montane long-nosed squirrel (Hyosciurus heinrichi) (Flannery
1995; IUCN 2000).
Family
Species
Sorcidae
Crocidura elongata
Sorcidae
Crocidura lea
47
Sorcidae
Crocidura levicula
Rhinolophidae
Hipposideros inexpectatu
Vespertilionidae
Pipistrellus minahassae
Vespertilionidae
Hesperoptenus gaskelli
Tarsiidae
Tarsius pumilus*
Tarsiidae
Tarsius dianae*
Cercopithecidae
Macaca nigra
Suidae
Babyrousa babyrussa
Bovidae
Bubalus quarlesi*
Sciuridae
Hyosciurus heinrichi*
Sciuridae
Prosciurillus weberi*
Sciuridae
Prosciurillus abstrusus*
Muridae
Rattus mollicomulus*
Muridae
Rattus xanthurus
Muridae
Rattus marmosurus*
Muridae
Maxomys dollmani*
Muridae
Maxomys wattsi*
Muridae
Crunomys celebensis*
Muridae
Bunomys coelestis*
Muridae
Bunomys prolatus*
Muridae
Bunomys fratrorum*
Muridae
Bunomys heinrichi*
Muridae
Bunomys penitus*
Muridae
Eropeplus canus*
48
Muridae
Margaretamys elegans*
Muridae
Margaretamys parvus*
Muridae
Taeromys hamatus*
Muridae
Taeromys arcuatus*
Muridae
Melasmothrix naso*
Muridae
Melasmothrix rhinogradoi*
Muridae
Melasmothrix macrocercus*
There are approximately 168 bird species listed as resident in the ecoregion, of which 44
species are endemic or near endemic (table 2). The ecoregion also overlaps the montane
portions of the Sulawesi EBA (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Of the fifty-four restricted-range
bird species found in the EBA, fourteen species are found in both lowland and montane
Sulawesi, and twenty-two species are only found in the uplands of Sulawesi. Nineteen of
these montane species are found nowhere else on Earth. Two montane bird species are
classified as threatened: the endangered Lompobattang flycatcher (Ficedula bonthaina)
and the vulnerable Matinan flycatcher (Cyornis sanfordi) (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Family
Common Name
Species
Accipitridae
Small sparrowhawk
Accipiter nanus
Megapodiidae
Maleo
Macrocephalon maleo
Rallidae
Platen's rail
Aramidopsis plateni
Rallidae
Bare-faced rail
Gymnocrex rosenbergii
Rallidae
Isabelline waterhen
Amaurornis isabellinus
Scolopacidae
Sulawesi woodcock
Scolopax celebensis*
Columbidae
Sulawesi ground-dove
Gallicolumba tristigmata
Columbidae
Red-eared fruit-dove
Ptilinopus fischeri*
Columbidae
White-bellied imperial-pigeon
Ducula forsteni
49
Columbidae
Grey-headed imperial-pigeon
Ducula radiata
Columbidae
Sombre pigeon
Cryptophaps
poecilorrhoa*
Loriidae
Yellow-and-green lorikeet
Trichoglossus flavoviridis
Cuculidae
Sulawesi hawk-cuckoo
Cuculus crassirostris
Strigidae
Ochre-bellied hawk-owl
Ninox ochracea
Tytonidae
Minahassa owl
Tyto inexspectata
Caprimulgidae
Diabolical nightjar
Eurostopodus diabolicus
Alcedinidae
Scaly kingfisher
Actenoides princeps
Meropidae
Purple-bearded bee-eater
Meropogon forsteni
Coraciidae
Purple-winged roller
Coracias temminckii
Meliphagidae
Dark-eared honeyeater
Myza celebensis*
Meliphagidae
Greater streaked honeyeater
Myza sarasinorum*
Pachycephalida
Olive-flanked whistler
Hylocitrea bonensis*
Pachycephalida
Maroon-backed whistler
Coracornis raveni*
Pachycephalida
Sulphur-bellied whistler
Pachycephala sulfuriventer
Rhipiduridae
Rusty-flanked fantail
Rhipidura teysmanni
Dicruridae
Sulawesi drongo
Dicrurus montanus
Campephagidae
Cerulean cuckoo-shrike
Coracina temminckii
Campephagidae
Pygmy cuckoo-shrike
Coracina abbotti*
Turdidae
Geomalia
Geomalia heinrichi*
Turdidae
Sulawesi thrush
Cataponera turdoides*
Turdidae
Great shortwing
Heinrichia calligyna*
Sturnidae
Pale-bellied myna
Acridotheres cinereus
50
Sturnidae
Sulawesi myna
Basilornis celebensis
Sturnidae
Fiery-browed myna
Enodes erythrophris
Muscicapidae
Lompobattang flycatcher
Ficedula bonthaina*
Muscicapidae
Matinan flycatcher
Cyornis sanfordi*
Muscicapidae
Blue-fronted flycatcher
Cyornis hoevelli*
Zosteropidae
Black-ringed white-eye
Zosterops anomalus
Zosteropidae
Streak-headed white-eye
Lophozosterops
squamiceps*
Sylviidae
Sylviidae
Sulawesi leaf-warbler
Phylloscopus sarasinorum
Timaliidae
Malia
Malia grata*
Dicaeidae
Crimson-crowned flowerpecker
Dicaeum nehrkorni
Fringillidae
Mountain serin
Serinus estherae
Two Centres of Plant Diversity are found in the uplands of Sulwesi: Dumoga-Bone
National Park and Pegunungan Latimojong. The montane forests of Dumoga-Bone
National Park contain a rich gene pool of timber trees and rattans and are dominated by
Eugenia, Shorea, and Agathis, with an abundance of rattans in the understory. The lower
montane forests of Pegunungan Latimojong and contain Lithocarpus, Phyllocladus
hypophyllus, Podocarpus steupi, and Taxus sumatrana, whereas the upper montane areas
contain Vaccinium and Rhododendron vanvuurenii, Hypericum leschenaultii, and Drimys
piperata. The area extends to 3,455 m and contains extensive sub-alpine vegetation above
3,200 m (Davis et al. 1995).
Current Status
This ecoregion is still largely intact, with about three-quarters of the original
habitat remaining. Most of the habitat destruction has occurred in the
southwestern portion, and large blocks of forest remain in the northern and
eastern montane areas of the island. The twenty-nine protected areas cover 23
percent of the ecoregion (table 3). The average size of a protected area in this
ecoregion is 602 km2, and there are five protected areas that exceed 1,000 km2.
51
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Gunung Kelabat
30
DE
Gunung Soputan
120
VI
Gunung Simbalang
270
PRO
Dumoga
1,890
?
Dolongan
1
IV
Pinjan/Tanjung Matop
6
IV
Kelompok Hutan Buol Toli-toli
3,920
PRO
Kelompok extension
630
PRO
Gunung Sojol
690
PRO
Palu Mountains
3,190
PRO
Wera
4
V
Lore Lindu
2,220
II
Palu Mountains
320
PRO
Palu Mountains
130
PRO
Morowali [AA0123]
1,150
I
Rompi
170
PRO
Rangkong
310
PRO
Lamiko-miko
280
PRO
Mambuliling
110
PRO
Pegunungan Latimojong
510
VI
Lampoko Mampie
20
IV
Peg. Feruhumpenai
860
I
52
Danau Matano
290
V
Bulu Saraung
50
I
Sungai Camba
10
IV
Karaenta
4
I
Bantimurung
5
I
Gunung Lompobatang
180
PRO
Tirta Rimba
90
V
Total
17,460
The steep slopes and the relative lack of commercially valuable tree species help
to discourage logging activity. However, the logging that has occurred has had
devastating effects on the landscape and the ecosystems; for instance, extensive
erosion on surrounding deforested slopes has clogged the irrigation systems of
the once fertile rice fields of Palu Valley (Whitten et al. 1987). Hunting and
anthropogenic fires are also serious threats to the wildlife assemblages and
habitat. Hunters set fires to facilitate hunting of anoa, creating montane
meadows. Upper montane and sub-alpine forests are subject to periods of
drought, during which the oil-rich leaves of Rhododendron, Vaccinium, and
Gaultheria easily catch fire. With repeated burning, alang-alang grass (Imperata
cylindrica) may become dominant. Other threats include transmigration and
local clearance (Whitten et al. 1987).
There have been several attempts to divide the bioregion into biogeographic units
(MacKinnon 1997; Stattersfield et al. 1998; van Balgooy 1971, cited in Monk et al.
1997; MacKinnon and Artha 1981; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986; MacKinnon
et al. 1982; van Steenis 1950; Udvardy 1975). Because many of the islands have
distinct natural faunal communities and a high degree of endemism (Monk et al.
1997), the more recent attempts have used faunal dissimilarities-especially birdsto identify distinct biogeographic units (MacKinnon 1997; Stattersfield et al.
1998; MacKinnon and Artha 1981; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1986). Because
detailed floral data are largely unavailable across most of the bioregion, we
followed these authors in delineating ecoregions based on distribution of biomes
and vertebrate communities.
53
On Sulawesi island we delineated two ecoregions: the Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests
and Sulawesi Montane Rain Forests. These represent the tropical lowland and montane
tropical moist forests, respectively. The small patches of monsoon forests on the
southwest peninsula of Sulawesi and on Butung Island (Whitmore 1984) were included in
the Sulawesi Lowland Rain Forests but should be considered a distinct habitat type in an
ecoregion-based conservation assessment to ensure representation.
References
54
8. Sumba deciduous forests
Sumba Island, Indonesia
Photograph by © WWF-Canon/Edward
PARKER
The Sumba Deciduous Forests are found on the
single island of Sumba and are part of the region
known as Wallacea, which contains a distinctive
fauna representing a mix of Asian and
Australasian species. Although vertebrate
diversity is low, the ecoregion contains seven
bird species found nowhere else in the world
and several other birds with very limited ranges.
As a result of forest clearance and repeated
burning for grazing and agriculture, the forested
area of Sumba has declined significantly over
the last century.
This ecoregion represents the semievergreen forests on the island of Sumba, in
the eastern Indonesian Archipelago. The
surface geology of Sumba is composed
primarily of sandstone and mudstone, with
Tropical and
Critical/Endangered
some igneous intrusions overlain by recent
Subtropical Dry
Broadleaf
limestone (Whitten and Whitten 1992).
Forests
Sumba is believed to be a fragment of the
Australian continental crust that was
separated some 20 million years ago, well before the neighboring outer arc island
of Timor (Monk et al. 1997). The island is quite rugged, consisting of deeply
dissected plateaus. There is very little area above 1,000 m, and the highest point
on the island is 1,225 m (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Precipitation in Sumba is
seasonal, and based on the Köppen climate zone system, this ecoregion falls in
the tropical dry climate zone (National Geographic Society 1999).
Southeastern
Asia: Island of
Sumba in
Indonesia
4,200 square miles
(10,800 square
kilometers) -about twice the
size of Delaware
The naturally dominant vegetation of the island was deciduous monsoon forest
(Stattersfield et al. 1998). However, the southern hill slopes along the southern coasts,
which remain moist during the dry season, are covered with lowland evergreen rain
forest. The most extensive and important of these rain forest areas is the Mt.
Wanggameti-Laiwanga forest complex in East Sumba, a major water catchment. In East
Sumba there are extensive gallery forests in ravines and along rivers that form riparian
corridors across open grasslands or savannas. The savanna understory includes an
endemic insectivorous sundew (Drosera indica) (Monk et al. 1997).
The ecoregion harbors seventeen mammal species, but none are considered to be
endemic or even near endemic.
55
The avifauna of this ecoregion is highly distinctive, with both Asian and Australian
influences, although the total diversity is low. There are approximately 180 bird species
on the island, and 12 of these species are endemic or near endemic (table 1). The
ecoregion corresponds to the Sumba EBA. The Sumba EBA contains twelve restrictedrange bird species, seven of which are found nowhere else on Earth. Four of these species
are considered vulnerable: Sumba buttonquail (Turnix everetti), red-naped fruit-dove
(Ptilinopus dohertyi), Sumba boobook (Ninox rudolfi), and Sumba hornbill (Aceros
everetti). These threatened species have specific habitat needs that make them susceptible
to forest clearance (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Family
Common Name
Species
Turnicidae
Sumba buttonquail
Turnix everetti*
Columbidae
Sumba green-pigeon
Treron teysmannii*
Columbidae
Red-naped fruit-dove
Ptilinopus dohertyi*
Strigidae
Sumba boobook
Ninox rudolfi*
Alcedinidae
Bucconidae
Sumba hornbill
Aceros everetti*
Campephagidae
Sumba cuckoo-shrike
Coracina dohertyi
Turdidae
Zoothera dohertyi
Muscicapidae
Flores jungle-flycatcher
Rhinomyias oscillans
Muscicapidae
Sumba flycatcher
Ficedula harterti*
Zosteropidae
Yellow-spectacled white-eye
Zosterops wallacei
Nectariniidae
Apricot-breasted sunbird
Nectarinia buettikoferi*
Current Status
Almost three quarters of the ecoregion area has been burnt for hunting or
cleared, mostly for agriculture or firewood extraction. A few small, intact patches
exist but are scattered in isolated fragments. Most of the original monsoon forests
have been replaced by savanna and grassland (Monk et al. 1997). The four small
(average size 83 km2) protected areas include about 3 percent (330 km2) of the
56
ecoregion area (table 2).
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Watu Manggota
20
VI
Manupeu
180
VI
Luku Meloto
60
PRO
Laiwangi-Wanggameti NP
?
?
Gunung Wanggameti
70
DE
Manupea-Tanadaru NP
?
?
Total
330
Pressures from the rapidly increasing, poor population are intense in this ecoregion
(WWF-Indonesia n.d.), and nearly three-quarters of this ecoregion has been deforested,
with only isolated fragments of natural habitat remaining.
Threats include deforestation, burning of grasslands to establish agricultural
fields, livestock grazing, and poaching (WWF-Indonesia n.d.). Much of the forest
has already been replaced by fire-resistant casuarinas or eucalypts and extensive
deciduous scrub. For instance, the ecoregion's dry thorny forest, which is
especially vulnerable to clearance by fire, has almost completely disappeared
(Monk et al. 1997).
corresponded to the biogeographic units identified in Monk et al (1997): Lesser
Sundas Deciduous Forests, which includes the chain of islands extending from
Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Flores, and the smaller satellite islands
corresponding to the Flores biogeographic unit; Timor and Wetar Deciduous
Forests, corresponding to the Timor biogeographic unit; and the Sumba
Deciduous Forests, corresponding to the Sumba biogeographic unit. All three
ecoregions belong to the tropical dry forests biome.
57
References
58
9. Timor and Wetar deciduous forests
Wetar Island, Indonesia
Southeastern
Asia: Islands of
Timor and Wetar
in Indonesia
12,900 square
miles (33,500
square kilometers)
-- about twice the
size of Hawaii
The Timor and Wetar Deciduous Forests are
found on both inner and outer island arcs at the
collision point of the Eurasian and Australian
tectonic plates. The seasonally dry forests found
in this dynamic geologic setting are part of the
region known as Wallacea, which contains a
Asian and Australasian species. Nearly twothirds of the original extent of forest has been
cleared, and the ecoregion contains only
fragments of natural habitat, which are
themselves threatened.
This ecoregion represents the semievergreen dry forests of Timor, Wetar, and
some smaller islands in the provinces of
Nusa Tenggara and Maluku in the eastern
Indonesian Archipelago. This ecoregion has
a dry climate, with the most xeric being the mountains of Timor. Moa, in the Leti
Islands, receives an average of 1,329 mm rainfall spread over just sixty-six days of
the year. Based on the Köppen climate zone system, this ecoregion falls in the
tropical dry climate zone (National Geographic Society 1999). The geology of the
islands is a combination of inner and outer volcanic island arcs. Wetar, Romang,
Damar, and the Banda Islands are part of the inner arc, and Timor, the Leti
Islands, Sermata, and Babar are part of the outer arc. The inner arc islands are a
result of the subduction and partial melting of the Australian tectonic plate below
the Eurasian plate. With the exception of Wetar, the inner arc islands represent
young volcanoes that have coalesced with lava and sediment. The basement rock
of the outer islands, on the other hand, is composed of actual continental margin
from the Australian plate that has not been subducted. These outer islands are
less than 4 million years old. The resulting surface geology consists of complex
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks: uplifted coral reefs over complex basement
rocks (Monk et al. 1997).
Tropical and
Subtropical Dry
Broadleaf
Forests
Critical/Endangered
The forest types in the ecoregion are dry deciduous, dry evergreen, and thorn forests.
Below 1,000 m the common tree species include Sterculia foetida and Calophyllum
teysmannii (both of which produce oil-bearing seeds) and Aleurites moluccana. The
lowland monsoon forests are dominated by Pterocarpus indicus, especially in the
lowland monsoon forest remnants of West Timor and in the well-drained, dry soils north
of Oebelo on the Bena coastal plain in south Timor (Monk et al. 1997). Semi-evergreen
rain forest is found on southern hill slopes at Buraen, which are kept moist by southeast
trade winds, and on the Damar Islands (Monk et al. 1997). East Timor's few remaining
forest patches contain the last natural stands of Eucalyptus urophylla (now widely used in
59
plantations) and Santalum album, the sandalwood tree (Whitten and Whitten 1992). The
shrub layer in these forests includes Verbenaceae, Rubiaceae, and Euphorbiaceae, and the
herbs include Acanthaceae, Tacca palmata, the root parasite Balanophora fungosa, and
ground orchids such as Corymborkis (Monk et al. 1997). Four types of savanna are found
here, each characterized by palm, Eucalyptus, Acacia spp., and Casuarina spp. On
Timor's larger coastal plains, the vegetation ranges from grassland to open stands of
deciduous trees, with increasing forest cover toward the moister southern mountains.
This ecoregion has the greatest number of bird species of any tropical dry forest
ecoregion in the Indo-Pacific region. Because of the long isolation with the
mainland communities, there are several endemic species from several
taxonomic groups.
The ecoregion has thirty-eight mammal species, five of which are endemic or near
endemic (table 1). Both Asian species and an Australasian cuscus (Phalanger orientalis
timorensis) are found on the islands. Crocidura tenuis (Soricidae), possibly introduced by
man, and the Flores giant rat (Papagomys armandvillei) are considered vulnerable (IUCN
2000).
Family
Species
Sorcidae
Crocidura tenuis*
Pteropodidae
Rhinolophidae
Rhinolophus canuti
Muridae
Papagomys armandvillei*
Muridae
Rattus timorensis*
The bird fauna consists of about 229 species. The bird fauna also represents a mix of
mostly Asian species with some Australasian birds. Endemism is extremely high for
these islands, with thirty-five species that are endemic or near endemic (table 2). The
ecoregion encompasses with the Timor and Wetar EBA (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Thirtyfive restricted-range bird species are found in the Timor and Wetar EBA, twenty-three of
which are found nowhere else on Earth. Five of these species are considered vulnerable:
black cuckoo-dove (Turacoena modesta), Wetar ground-dove (Gallicolumba hoedtii),
Timor green-pigeon (Treron psittacea), Timor imperial-pigeon (Ducula cineracea), and
iris lorikeet (Psitteuteles iris).
60
Family
Common Name
Species
Columbidae
Dusky cuckoo-dove
Macropygia magna
Columbidae
Black cuckoo-dove
Turacoena modesta*
Columbidae
Wetar ground-dove
Gallicolumba hoedtii*
Columbidae
Timor green-pigeon
Treron psittacea*
Columbidae
Ducula rosacea
Columbidae
Timor imperial-pigeon
Ducula cineracea*
Psittacidae
Olive-shouldered parrot
Aprosmictus jonquillaceus*
Loriidae
Loriidae
Iris lorikeet
Psitteuteles iris*
Alcedinidae
Acanthizidae
Plain gerygone
Gerygone inornata*
Meliphagidae
White-tufted honeyeater
Lichmera squamata
Meliphagidae
Yellow-eared honeyeater
Lichmera flavicans*
Meliphagidae
Black-chested honeyeater
Lichmera notabilis*
Meliphagidae
Crimson-hooded myzomela
Myzomela kuehni*
Meliphagidae
Black-breasted myzomela
Myzomela vulnerata*
Meliphagidae
Streak-breasted honeyeater
Meliphaga reticulata*
Meliphagidae
Timor friarbird
Philemon inornatus*
Pachycephalida
Fawn-breasted whistler
Pachycephala orpheus*
Oriolidae
Timor oriole
Oriolus melanotis*
Oriolidae
Timor figbird
Sphecotheres viridis*
Oriolidae
Wetar figbird
Sphecotheres hypoleucus*
61
Turdidae
Zoothera dohertyi
Turdidae
Orange-banded thrush
Zoothera peronii
Muscicapidae
Black-banded flycatcher
Ficedula timorensis*
Muscicapidae
Timor blue-flycatcher
Cyornis hyacinthinus*
Muscicapidae
Timor bushchat
Saxicola gutturalis*
Zosteropidae
Timor white-eye
Heleia muelleri*
Sylviidae
Timor stubtail
Urosphena subulata
Sylviidae
Timor leaf-warbler
Phylloscopus presbytes
Sylviidae
Buff-banded bushbird
Buettikoferella bivittata*
Estrildidae
Tricolored parrotfinch
Erythrura tricolor
Estrildidae
Timor sparrow
Padda fuscata*
Dicaeidae
Dicaeum maugei
Nectariniidae
Flame-breasted sunbird
Nectarinia solaris
Timor also harbors the endemic and rare Timor python (Python timoriensis) (Whitten and
Whitten 1992).
Current Status
Other than one remaining large block of forest near the center of Timor Island,
this ecoregion contains only fragments of natural habitat. Nearly two-thirds of
the original extent of forest has been cleared, mostly for agriculture. Most of the
original monsoon forest on these islands has been replaced by savanna and
grassland. On East Timor, the south escarpment of the Fuiloro limestone plateau
originally was covered by primary rain forest, but in the 1950s this area was
degraded to secondary forest. Wetar is threatened by poorly managed gold mines
that have been passed from company to company, causing major environmental
damage. There are twenty-four protected areas that include roughly 10 percent
(3,661 km2) of the ecoregion area, but all are small, with the average size being
only 152 km2 (Monk et al. 1997) (table 3).
62
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Gunung Api
1
I
Pulau Damar
200
PRO
Pulau Babar
620
PRO
Gunung Arnau
420
PRO
Pulau Kambing
20
PRO
Danau Ira Lalora-Pulau Yaco
120
PRO
Lore
110
?
Gunung Futumasin
30
PRO
Gunung Diatuto
40
PRO
Gunung Talamailu
200
?
Sungai Clere GR
300
?
Tilomar
160
PRO
Gunung Mutis
330
PRO
Gunung Timau
340
PRO
Maubesi
80
I
Keluk Kupang
730
I
Baun Forest
80
PRO
Dataran Bena
100
VI
Manipo
50
V
Teluk Pelikan
30
PRO
Watu Panggota/Bondokapu
30
PRO
Bakau Perhatu
20
PRO
63
Tanjung Pukuwatu
60
PRO
Pulau Dana
10
PRO
Total
4,081
Deforestation is occurring very rapidly as people burn the forests for hunting,
shifting cultivation, and fodder production (Whitten and Whitten 1992; Monk et
al. 1997; WWF-Indonesia n.d.). Logging has also grown in importance; for
instance, Damar Island was densely forested until the late 1980s, when logging
began on a large scale to supply timber to the outer arc islands, where the forests
had already been more heavily exploited. As a result, fire-resistant Casuarina
junghuhniana grows in pure stands in cleared areas, and Mt. Mutis, on West
Timor, is covered almost exclusively by Eucalyptus urophylla (Monk et al. 1997).
This problem is worsening as the human populations expand. Savanna areas are
especially prone to erosion. This ecoregion is highly threatened. In previous
centuries, many forest resources such as sandalwood were depleted through
uncontrolled exploitation (Monk et al. 1997).
corresponded to the biogeographic units identified in Monk et al (1997). These
are Lesser Sundas Deciduous Forests, which includes the chain of islands
extending from Lombok, Sumbawa, Komodo, Flores, and the smaller satellite
islands corresponding to the Flores biogeographic unit; Timor and Wetar
Deciduous Forests, corresponding to the Timor biogeographic unit; and the
Sumba Deciduous Forests, corresponding to the Sumba biogeographic unit. All
three ecoregions belong to the tropical dry forests biome.
References
64
10. Mindanao-Eastern Visayas rain forests
This ecoregion features lowland and hill forests
on a number of large Philippine islands that,
though currently disconnected, were part of one
island during the height of the last ice age.
These islands harbor Philippine warty pigs,
Philippine deer, the Philippine tarsier, flying
lemurs, and some of the last strongholds of the
charismatic Philippine eagle. Most lowland
forest has been cleared from the islands, but
some large patches of hill and montane forest
remain (the montane forest is a separate
ecoregion). Tiny Camiguin Island, with two
strictly endemic mammals of its own, is a
unique feature of this ecoregion.
Mt. Konduko, Biliran, Phillippines
Photograph by L. Heaney
This ecoregion includes the lowland (less
than 1,000 m elevation) on the main islands
of Mindanao, Samar, Leyte, Bohol, and
40,600 square
Southeastern
numerous smaller satellite islands,
Asia: Philippines miles (105,100
square kilometers)
including Biliran and Basilan. The climate
Tropical and
of the ecoregion is tropical wet (National
Ohio
Subtropical Moist
Geographic Society 1999). The northern
Broadleaf
Critical/Endangered
Visayas (northern portions of Samar and
Forests
Leyte) are in the main typhoon track that so
strongly influences the more northerly
Philippine islands. These typhoons typically occur from July to November: As
much as one-third of an island's total annual precipitation may be collected
during typhoon events. Mindanao is south of the main typhoon track (Dickinson
et al. 1991).
Mindanao and the Visayas were transported across the western Pacific to their present
location during the last 25 million years. Most of these islands have been uplifted above
water only in the last 15 million years or less (Hall and Holloway 1998). During the
Pleistocene, Mindanao, Samar, Leyte, and Bohol were all one island-Greater Mindanaoand their faunal affinities to each other persist to this day (Heaney 1986; Heaney and
Regalado 1998).
Vegetation types on Mindanao and in the Eastern Visayas originally included beach
forest, mangroves, lowland rain forest, and more open forest at higher elevations up to
1,000 m (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
The stunted beach forest contains Casuarina and Barringtonia mixed with other lowland
species. Palms, vines, bamboo, and Pterocarpus indicus are present only in rare backJ. S. Tasirin: Suplemen Kuliah Ekologi Hutan Wallacea
65
beach swamps. This habitat type is extremely rare because of coastal habitation (Heaney
and Regalado 1998).
The dominant forest type in the Mindanao lowlands and the rest of the Philippines was
dipterocarp forest. This group of trees is known as Philippine mahogany in the timber
trade. This forest type occurred from sea level to elevations of 400 m or higher.
Individual dipterocarps occur to 1,500 m. Philippine dipterocarp forest is quite tall (45-65
m) and dense, with three canopy layers. Lianas and bamboo are rare in mature forest but
common in poorly developed evergreen forest. Ferns, orchids, and other epiphytic plants
are found on the larger trees. At higher elevations there are only two canopy layers, tree
stature is lower, and there are more epiphytes. Upper hill dipterocarp forest is found at
elevations of 650 to about 1,500 m and contains dominant Shorea polysperma and oaks,
chestnuts, and elaeocarps (Heaney and Regalado 1998).
Mindanao and its neighbor, Basilan, situated adjacent to the Sulu Archipelago,
have been influenced by immigration from Borneo, although in recent millennia
movement has been primarily in the other direction (Dickinson et al. 1991).
During the most recent ice ages, the Mindanao faunal region has developed its
own unique fauna, with a large number of endemic vertebrates.
Tiny Camiguin Island (ca. 265 km2) contains two strictly endemic and as yet undescribed
mammal species: a small forest mouse (Apomys sp.) and a large moss-mouse (Bullimus
sp.) (Heaney and Tabaranza 1995), in addition to an endemic frog. Several taxa found on
Mindanao, only a short distance away, are absent from Camiguin, including squirrels,
some murid rodents, flying lemurs, tarsiers, and deer. Camiguin is the smallest island in
the Philippines known to have unique mammal species. Consisting of a series of active
volcanic cones reaching a maximum elevation of 1,713 m, the island is surrounded by
deep water. Fortunately, the island still has good forest cover (Heaney et al. 1998).
There is also variation within the island of Mindanao. Thirty-one bird species are
polytypic on the island. Sixteen of these variations are based on differences between
isolated mountain ranges, and seven species have races associated with the Zamboanga
Peninsula and Basilan Island. There are three species that vary between the uplands and
lowlands (Dickinson et al. 1991).
Approximately 80 percent of Greater Mindanao's nonvolant mammal species are found
nowhere else in the world. Whereas flying lemurs, tree shrews, tree squirrels, and tarsiers
are found on the islands of Greater Mindanao, they are not found on the other large
Philippine island, Luzon, just 25 km from the northern tip of Samar (Heaney and
Regalado 1998). More than 30 percent of nonvolant mammals in the ecoregion are
endemic to Mindanao only, but the other islands in the ecoregion generally share their
species with Mindanao. However, tiny Dinagat island, located just north of Mindanao,
contains three of its own endemic mammals (Heaney 1986), including the endangered
Dinagat Island cloud-rat (Crateromys australis). There are sixteen endemic or nearendemic mammal species in the ecoregion (table 1).
66
Family
Species
Erinaceidae
Podogymnura aureospinula*
Soricidae
Crocidura beatus
Tupaiidae
Urogale everetti
Cynocephalidae
Cynocephalus volans
Pteropodidae
Ptenochirus minor
Rhinolophidae
Hipposideros coronatus*
Sciuridae
Sundasciurus philippinensis
Muridae
Bullimus bagobus
Muridae
Batomys salomonseni
Muridae
Batomys russatus* (Dinagat only)
Muridae
Crateromys australis*(Dinagat only)
Muridae
Crunomys melanius*
Muridae
Apomys sp. D*(Camiguin only)
Muridae
Bullimus sp. A*(Camiguin only)
Muridae
Tarsomys echinatus*
Sciuridae
Exilisciurus concinnus
An endemic subspecies of Philippine deer (Cervus mariannus nigricans) is limited to
Mindanao. Philippine deer are widespread (though patchily distributed) in the
Philippines, being found on Luzon, Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao, and the Basilan
Islands. The subspecies is threatened by habitat loss and hunting (Wemmer 1998). It has
been reported that the endangered Visayan or Philippine spotted deer (Cervus alfredi)
was potentially found on Bohol Island, but it seems likely that these reports refer to
Cervus mariannus. Cervus alfredi is not found on Bohol (Oliver et al. 1991; Wemmer
1998).
67
The kagwang (Cyanocephalus volans), or Philippine flying lemur, is also endemic to
Greater Mindanao; the only other species of this unique order of mammals is found in
Malaysia and Indonesia. These small nocturnal mammals glide between trees for
distances up to 135 m. Fortunately, the kagwang actually prefers second-growth forests to
old growth, so they are more secure than other Philippine mammals (Heaney and
Regalado 1998). However, the species is still considered vulnerable (IUCN 2000).
The ecoregion also supports a population of the Philippine warty pig (Sus philippensis),
which the IUCN considers rare and declining. The Philippine warty pig is widely but
patchily distributed in the still-forested areas of Luzon, Mindoro, Samar, Leyte,
Mindanao, and some of the smaller satellite islands. Many of these forested areas are
found in existing national parks. The Philippine warty pig is closely related to Sus
barbatus of the Greater Sundas and was once thought to be a subspecies, analogous to the
Palawan bearded pig (Sus barbatus ahoenobarbus). This species is still threatened by
hunting and habitat loss (Oliver 1993).
Greater Mindanao is also home to an endemic primate, the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius
sychrita), which is found on Samar, Leyte, Dinagat, Siargao, Bohol, Mindanao, and
Basilan. Although they are also found in primary forests and mangroves, these highly
charismatic small mammals seem to prefer second-growth forests, and they are not
considered threatened by the IUCN (Nowak 1999a).
The Philippine tree shrew (Urogale everetti), in the order Scandentia, which is found on
Mindanao, Dinagat, and Siargao Islands, represents an endemic, monotypic genus.
Worldwide there are sixteen species of tree shrew, a diurnal animal that resembles a
squirrel but whose dentition, circulatory system, and large braincase are more like those
of primates (Nowak 1999a). This species is considered vulnerable (IUCN 2000).
Greater Mindanao also supports an endemic genus of Erinaceidae, Podogymura. There
are two moonrat species in this genus, both of which are found in Greater Mindanao. One
species is found in the adjacent montane ecoregion of Mindanao (P. truei), and the other
(P. aureospinula) is found in the lowland forest of Dinagat, Siargao, and the Bucas
Grande Islands (Heaney et al. 1998).
Lowland Greater Mindanao is home to endangered mammals also found in other parts of
the Philippines, including the golden-capped fruit bat (Acerodon jubatus) and the mottlewinged flying-fox (Pteropus leucopterus) (found on Luzon and Dinagat) (Heaney et al.
1998; IUCN 2000).
This ecoregion overlaps with the Mindanao and Eastern Visayas EBA, with the exception
of the montane areas above 1,000 m, which have been given their own ecoregion. The
EBA contains fifty-one restricted-range birds, twenty-four (or possibly twenty-five) of
which are lowland and hill forest specialists and are thus resident in this ecoregion. All
the restricted-range birds are forest species. The ecoregion contains thirty-six endemic or
near-endemic bird species (Kennedy et al. 2000; table 2). Nine of these species are
threatened, including the endangered Mindanao bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba criniger).
68
The remainder of the threatened species are considered vulnerable. This situation should
be contrasted with the adjacent upland Mindanao montane rain forests ecoregion.
Although the upland ecoregion contains more restricted-range species, only one of these
is considered threatened (Stattersfield et al. 1998; Collar et al. 1999).
Family
Common Name
Species
Rallidae
Brown-banded rail
Lewinia mirificus
Columbidae
Mindanao bleeding-heart
Gallicolumba criniger*
Columbidae
Mindanao brown-dove
Phapitreron brunneiceps
Columbidae
Ducula pickeringii
Cuculidae
Black-faced coucal
Centropus melanops*
Strigidae
Mindanao eagle-owl
Mimizuku gurneyi
Apodidae
Philippine needletail
Mearnsia picina
Alcedinidae
Silvery kingfisher
Alcedo argentata*
Alcedinidae
Blue-capped kingfisher
Actenoides hombroni
Bucconidae
Mindanao hornbill
Penelopides affinis
Bucconidae
Samar hornbill
Penelopides samarensis*
Bucconidae
Writhed hornbill
Aceros leucocephalus
Pittidae
Azure-breasted pitta
Pitta steerii*
Eurylaimidae
Wattled broadbill
Eurylaimus steerii*
Eurylaimidae
Visayan wattled broadbill
Eurylaimus samarensis*
Rhipiduridae
Blue fantail
Rhipidura superciliaris*
Monarchidae
Short-crested monarch
Hypothymis helenae
Monarchidae
Celestial monarch
Hypothymis coelestis
Muscicapidae
Little slaty flycatcher
Ficedula basilanica*
69
Muscicapidae
Cryptic flycatcher
Ficedula crypta
Pycnonotidae
Zamboanga bulbul
Ixos rufigularis*
Pycnonotidae
Yellowish bulbul
Ixos everetti
Sylviidae
Long-tailed bush-warbler
Bradypterus caudatus
Sylviidae
Rufous-headed tailorbird
Orthotomus heterolaemus
Sylviidae
Yellow-breasted tailorbird
Orthotomus samarensis*
Sylviidae
White-browed tailorbird
Orthotomus nigriceps*
Sylviidae
White-eared tailorbird
Orthotomus cinereiceps*
Timaliidae
Striated wren-babbler
Ptilocichla mindanensis*
Timaliidae
Pygmy babbler
Stachyris plateni
Timaliidae
Rusty-crowned babbler
Stachyris capitalis
Timaliidae
Brown tit-babbler
Macronous striaticeps
Timaliidae
Miniature tit-babbler
Micromacronus leytensis
Paridae
White-fronted tit
Parus semilarvatus
Dicaeidae
Whiskered flowerpecker
Dicaeum proprium
Dicaeidae
Olive-capped flowerpecker
Dicaeum nigrilore
Dicaeidae
Flame-crowned flowerpecker
Dicaeum anthonyi
In addition to the restricted-range species, several widespread threatened species are
found in the ecoregion, including the critically endangered Philippine eagle
(Pithecophaga jeffreyi) and Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia). Four
additional widespread but vulnerable species are also found in the ecoregion (Stattersfield
et al. 1998; Collar et al. 1999).
The critically endangered Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) was historically
found on Jolo, Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Samar, Negros, Busuanga, and Mindanao, but
the only remaining populations are found on Mindoro, Negros, Mindanao, and Busuanga.
The current wild population may be approximately 100 nonhatchlings (Ross 1998).
70
Mt. Apo, on Mindanao, is considered a Centre of Plant Diversity (Davis et al. 1995). This
spectacular mountain in the southern portion of the Central Cordillera contains primary
lowland forest and lower montane forests as well as montane forests found in the
Mindanao Montane Rain Forests [IM0128] ecoregion. Much of the lowland forest below
1,000 m has been cleared, but dipterocarp forest is found from 1,000 to 1,600 m.
Current Status
All the islands in the ecoregion were once completely forested, but there is little
forest left on most islands, and especially little lowland forest left. The dire
situation in the lowlands of Mindanao and Eastern Visayas is highlighted by the
contrast in conservation status between the lowland ecoregion and the adjacent
upland Mindanao Montane Rain Forests [IM0128] ecoregion. Although the
upland ecoregion contains more restricted-range species, only one of these is
considered threatened. In fact, the Mindanao and Eastern Visayas EBA contains
more threatened birds than any other EBA in the southeast Asian island region,
and all but one of these are found in the lowlands (Stattersfield et al. 1998; Collar
et al. 1999).
Bohol is heavily deforested, and almost all of the island's natural forest is to be found in
Rajah Sikatuna National Park (RSNP). The conditions in this 9,023-ha area are good,
however, and the Philippine Department of Natural Resources is actively reforesting the
edges of the park. Both of the Eastern Visayan endemic birds and all four of Bohol's
endemic bird subspecies can be found in RSNP. Problems of firewood and rattan
collection, hunting and trapping, and slash-and-burn agriculture are effectively limited to
the eastern portions of the park (Brooks et al. 1995).
Samar and Leyte each have two areas of closed-canopy forest remaining. The largest
blocks are found on Samar. Three of these patches are found in areas of suspended timber
license agreements and the remaining forest block, on Leyte, is found in the Philippine
National Oil Company Tungonan Forest Reserve (Development Alternatives 1992).
By 1988, approximately 29 percent of Mindanao's forest remained, including both
primary and secondary forests (Stattersfield et al. 1998). There is much less today. The
Zamboanga Peninsula on southwest Mindanao contains a number of isolated fragments,
the largest of which is found in the watershed of Zamboanga City. The remaining patches
are scattered in hill and montane areas around the peninsula. These patches contained
evidence of recent logging in 1992. In southern Mindanao, some large areas of forest
remain in hill and montane areas. Political instability, lack of access, and poor
commercial values have helped protect some of these areas. Ironically, some of the areas,
which had been under now-suspended timber license agreements, are threatened by
encroaching agriculture and fire. There are other large blocks of forest in the rest of
Mindanao, but they are similarly limited to hill and montane areas; there is very little
lowland dipterocarp forest remaining on Mindanao (Development Alternatives 1992).
Southern Mindanao is faced with political instability that poses a challenge for active
conservation.
71
Aerial surveys of Basilan in 1992 revealed less than 2 percent natural forest remaining.
Unfortunately, Basilan is also subject to political insurgency that makes active
conservation efforts quite difficult (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Both the Philippine warty pig and Philippine deer suffer from intense hunting pressure
and fragmentation of their remaining habitats. The pigs are in an especially poor situation
because they tend to raid crops and are regarded as pests; consequently, no protections
are in place for them (Oliver 1993). Table 3 details the existing protected areas on the
island.
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Mado Hot Spring
20
III
Sohoton Natural Bridge
40
III
Imelda Lake
40
II
Mahagnao Volcano
30
II
Lake Danao
5
IV
Rajah Sikatuna
110
II
Rizal
10
III
Initao
10
V
Mt. Malindang [IM0302]
160
II
Mt. Apo [IM0302]
130
II
Lake Butig
6
V
Liguasan March GRBS
410
IV
Lake Buluan
80
IV
Agusan Marsh
810
PRO
Basilan
90
II
Total
1,951
72
Many of the factors that have contributed to the loss of habitat in the past still
present threats to the future of these forests. They include firewood and rattan
collection, hunting and trapping, slash-and-burn agriculture, and commercial
forestry (Brooks et al. 1995).
MacKinnon (1997) identified seven subunits in the Philippines, and the
Philippine Biodiversity Action Plan (Philippine BAP 1997) demarcated fifteen
biogeographic units. Udvardy (1975) identified the Philippines as a single
biogeographic province. We delineated nine ecoregions in the Philippine islands,
including Palawan. We deviated from Udvardy (1975), MacKinnon (1997),
Stattersfield (1998), and the Philippine BAP (1997) in varying degrees and based
our delineation of the Philippine ecoregions on Heaney (1993), with the
exception of Camiguin, which Heaney separated.
The islands of Leyte, Samar, Dinagat, and Bohol were combined with the lowland rain
forests of Mindanao island to form the Mindanao-Eastern Visayas Rain Forests. We also
included the Basilan Islands off the southwest peninsula of Mindanao in this ecoregion,
based on Heaney (1993). In Mindanao we used the 1,000-m contour from the DEM
(USGS 1996) to delineate the montane forests from the lowland forests. The montane
forests of Mindanao were placed into their own ecoregion, the Mindanao Montane Rain
Forests. In our delineation of the Mindanao-Eastern Visayas Rain Forests and Mindanao
Montane Rain Forests ecoregions, we deviated from MacKinnon (1997). MacKinnon
placed both of Mindanao's lowland and montane forests in a single subunit (26c). The
Basilan Islands were part of subunit 26d, and the islands of Leyte and Samar made up
subunit 26e.
References
73
11. Mindanao montane rain forests
This ecoregion features the montane forests on
the island of Mindanao. This disjunct ecoregion
harbors Philippine warty pigs, Philippine deer,
and some of the last strongholds of the
charismatic Philippine eagle. Because most of
the lowland forest on Mindanao has been
cleared, the remaining montane forests are some
of the last vestiges of wild Mindanao.
Mt. Kataglad, Mindanao, Philippines
Photograph by Tom Brooks
7,000 square miles
(18,200 square
kilometers) -Tropical and
about the size of
Subtropical Moist
Delaware and
Broadleaf
Rhode Island
Forests
combined
Indo-Malay
The climate of the ecoregion is tropical wet
(National Geographic Society 1999), with
temperature and rainfall modified by the
elevation, which reaches up to 2,700 m.
There are extensive, disjunct areas of the
island above 1,000 m. Mindanao generally
is south of the typhoon track of the storms
that usually hit the northern Philippines
from July to November (Dickinson et al.
1991).
Critical/Endangered
Mindanao and the Visayas have been
transported across the western Pacific to their present location during the last 25 million
years. Most of these islands have been uplifted above water only in the last 15 million
years (Hall and Holloway 1998). During much of the Pleistocene, Mindanao and the
Eastern Visayas (Samar, Leyte, and Bohol) were all one island-Greater Mindanao
(Heaney 1986)-but the higher elevations of this larger island generally were limited to
what is now Mindanao.
Vegetation types in the montane forests of Mindanao consist of hill dipterocarp forests,
lower and upper montane forest, elfin woodland (mossy forest), and summit grasslands
(Davis et al. 1995). The dominant forest type in Mindanao and the rest of the Philippines
was dipterocarp forest. Whereas upper hill dipterocarp forest is found at elevations of
650-1,000, individual dipterocarps occur to 1,500 m, and on Mt. Apo, primary
dipterocarp forest occurs from 1,000 to 1,600 m. Upper hill dipterocarp forest on Mt. Apo
is dominated by the dipterocarps Hopea plagata, Shorea guiso, and Dipterocarpus
grandiflorus and species of Cinnamomum, Lithocarpus, Homalanthus, and Musa. There
are many epiphytes, mostly ferns and orchids. Tree ferns (Cyathea) and palms (Areca)
are also found in the understory (Davis et al. 1995; Heaney and Regalado 1998).
The transition zone between dipterocarp forest and montane forest includes increasing
numbers of tree ferns, pandans, rattans, and Angiopteris; the dipterocarps Shorea almon,
S. polysperma, and Lithocarpus spp.; and Agathis philippensis (Davis et al. 1995).
74
On Mt. Apo, montane forest occurs above approximately 2,000 m. Dominant genera
include Lithocarpus, Cinnamomum, Melastoma, Caryota, Calamus, Ficus, Agathis, and
numerous Lauraceae (Davis et al. 1995). The mossy upper montane forest generally is
found at elevations from 1,200 m to 1,500 m (Davis et al. 1995; Lewis 1988), where
humidity is constantly high. This stunted, single-story, moss- and epiphyte-covered forest
contains tree ferns up to 10 m high (Dickinson, Kennedy, and Parkes 1991). All surfaces
are covered or draped with lichens, bryophytes, begonias, orchids, aroids, Selaginella,
and Nephrolepis ferns (Davis et al. 1995).
Mindanao and its neighbor, Basilan, situated adjacent to the Sulu Archipelago,
have been influenced by animal dispersal from Borneo, although in recent
millennia movement has been primarily in the other direction (Dickinson et al.
1991). Over the course of the most recent ice ages, the Mindanao faunal region
has developed its own unique fauna, with a number of endemic vertebrates.
There is also variation within the island of Mindanao. Thirty-one bird species are
polytypic on the island. Sixteen of these variations are based on differences between
isolated mountain ranges, and seven species have races associated with the Zamboanga
Peninsula and Basilan Island. There are three species that vary between the uplands and
lowlands (Dickinson et al. 1991).
Approximately 80 percent of Greater Mindanao's nonvolant mammal species are found
nowhere else in the world. Although flying lemurs, tree shrews, tree squirrels, and
tarsiers are found on the islands of Greater Mindanao, they are not found on the other
large Philippine island of Luzon, just 25 km away from the northern tip of Samar
(Heaney and Regalado 1998). More than 30 percent of nonvolant mammals in the
ecoregion are endemic to Mindanao only, but the other islands share their species with
Mindanao. However, tiny Camiguin and Dinagat islands, located north of Mindanao,
contain two and three, respectively, of their own endemic mammals (Heaney 1986;
Heaney et al. 1995). Fourteen mammal species are endemic or near endemic to the
ecoregion (table 1)
Family
Species
Erinaceidae
Podogymnura truei*
Soricidae
Crocidura beatus
Soricidae
Crocidura grandis*
Tupaiidae
Urogale everetti
75
Pteropodidae
Alionycteris paucidentata*
Sciuridae
Petinomys crinitus*
Sciuridae
Sundasciurus philippinensis
Sciuridae
Exilisciurus concinnus
Muridae
Bullimus bagobus
Muridae
Limnomys sibuanus*
Muridae
Tarsomys apoensis*
Muridae
Batomys salomonseni
Muridae
Crunomys suncoides*
Muridae
Limnomys sp. B*
An endemic subspecies of Philippine deer (Cervus mariannus nigricans) is limited to
Mindanao. Philippine deer are widespread (though distributed patchily) in the
Philippines, being found on Luzon, Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao, and the Basilan
Islands. The subspecies (and species) is threatened by habitat loss and hunting (Wemmer
1998).
The Philippine tree shrew (Urogale everetti), which is found on Mindanao, Dinagat, and
Siargao islands, represents an endemic, monotypic genus. There are sixteen species of
tree shrews, a diurnal animal that resembles a squirrel but whose dentition, circulatory
system, and large braincase are more like those of primates (Nowak 1999a). This species
is considered vulnerable (IUCN 2000).
The ecoregion also supports a population of the Philippine warty pig (Sus philippensis),
which the IUCN considers rare and declining. The Philippine warty pig is widely
distributed in the still-forested areas of Luzon, Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao, and
some of the smaller satellite islands. Many of these forested areas are found in existing
national parks. The Philippine warty pig is closely related to Sus barbatus of the Greater
Sundas and was once thought to be a subspecies, analogous to the Palawan bearded pig
(Sus barbatus ahoenobarbus). The Philippine warty pig is still threatened by hunting and
habitat loss (Oliver 1993).
Greater Mindanao also supports an endemic genus of Erinaceidae, Podogymura. There
are two moonrat species in this genus, both of which are found in Greater Mindanao and
one of which is found in the montane regions of Mindanao. The exclusively montane
76
species P. truei, or Mindanao moonrat, is common in montane and mossy forest at
elevations from 1,400 m to 2,800 m. Contrary to the IUCN listing, it is not threatened
(Heaney et al. 1998; Heaney, pers. comm., 2000).
Montane Mindanao is also home to the endangered Greater Mindanao shrew (Crocidura
grandis) and the widespread (within the Philippines) but endangered golden-crowned
fruit bat (Acerodon jubatus) (Heaney et al. 1998).
This ecoregion overlaps with the Mindanao and the Eastern Visayas EBA, but only the
montane portions of it. The EBA contains fifty-one restricted-range birds, twenty-six (or
possibly twenty-seven) of which are montane and mossy forest specialists and are thus
resident in this ecoregion. All of the restricted-range birds are forest species. There are
thirty-four endemic or near-endemic bird species in the ecoregion (Kennedy et al. 2000;
table 2). Only one of these species is considered threatened: the vulnerable blue-capped
kingfisher (Actenoides hombroni). This situation should be contrasted with the adjacent
lowland Mindanao and Eastern Visayas rain forests. Although it supports fewer restricted
range species, the lowland ecoregion contains nine threatened species (Stattersfield et al.
1998; Collar et al. 1999).
Family
Common Name
Species
Columbidae
Mindanao brown-dove
Phapitreron brunneiceps
Psittacidae
Mindanao racquet-tail
Prioniturus waterstradti*
Loriidae
Mindanao lorikeet
Trichoglossus johnstoniae*
Strigidae
Mindanao scops-owl
Otus mirus*
Strigidae
Mindanao eagle-owl
Mimizuku gurneyi
Apodidae
Whitehead's swiftlet
Aerodramus whiteheadi
Apodidae
Mearnsia picina
Alcedinidae
Blue-capped kingfisher
Actenoides hombroni
Bucconidae
Mindanao hornbill
Penelopides affinis
Bucconidae
Writhed hornbill
Aceros leucocephalus
Rhipiduridae
Black-and-cinnamon fantail
Rhipidura
nigrocinnamomea*
77
Campephagidae
McGregor's cuckoo-shrike
Coracina mcgregori*
Sturnidae
Apo myna
Basilornis miranda*
Muscicapidae
Mindanao jungle-flycatcher
Rhinomyias goodfellowi*
Muscicapidae
Cryptic flycatcher
Ficedula crypta
Laniidae
Mountain shrike
Lanius valdirostris
Zosteropidae
Mindanao white-eye
Lophozosterops
goodfellowi*
Zosteropidae
Cinnamon white-eye
Hypocryptadius
cinnamomeus*
Sylviidae
Sylviidae
Rufous-headed tailorbird
Orthotomus heterolaemus
Timaliidae
Bagobo babbler
Trichastoma woodi*
Timaliidae
Pygmy babbler
Stachyris plateni
Timaliidae
Rusty-crowned babbler
Stachyris capitalis
Timaliidae
Brown tit-babbler
Timaliidae
Miniature tit-babbler
Micromacronus leytensis
Estrildidae
Red-eared parrotfinch
Erythrura coloria*
Dicaeidae
Whiskered flowerpecker
Dicaeum proprium
Dicaeidae
Olive-capped flowerpecker
Dicaeum nigrilore
Dicaeidae
Dicaeum anthonyi
Nectariniidae
Grey-hooded sunbird
Aethopyga primigenius*
Nectariniidae
Mt. Apo sunbird
Aethopyga boltoni*
Nectariniidae
Linas sunbird
Aethopyga linaraborae*
Fringillidae
Mountain serin
Serinus estherae
Fringillidae
White-cheeked bullfinch
Pyrrhula leucogenis
78
In addition to the restricted-range species, the critically endangered Philippine eagle
(Pithecophaga jeffreyi) and vulnerable spotted imperial-pigeon (Ducula carola) are
found in the ecoregion (Stattersfield et al. 1998; Collar et al. 1999).
Mt. Apo on Mindanao is considered a Centre of Plant Diversity (Davis et al. 1995). This
spectacular mountain in the southern portion of the Central Cordillera contains primary
lowland forest and lower montane forests as well as montane forests found in the
Mindanao Montane Rain Forests [IM0128] ecoregion. Much of the lowland forest below
1,000 m has been cleared, but dipterocarp forest is found from 1,000 to 1,600 m.
Current Status
Although the remaining forest is found in isolated patches, most forest remaining
on the island of Mindanao is contained in this upland ecoregion. This is in
contrast to the largely deforested lowlands of Mindanao and the Eastern Visayas.
The conservation status of restricted-range birds is illustrative in this respect:
although the upland ecoregion contains more restricted-range species than the
lowlands, only one of the upland species is considered threatened, compared with
nine threatened species in the lowlands (Stattersfield et al. 1998; Collar et al.
1999).
By 1988, approximately 29 percent of Mindanao's forest, including both primary and
secondary forests, remained (Stattersfield et al. 1998). There is less today (Development
Alternatives 1992). The Zamboanga Peninsula on southwest Mindanao contains a
number of isolated fragments, the largest of which is found in the watershed of
Zamboanga City. The remaining patches are scattered in hill and montane areas around
the peninsula. These patches contained evidence of recent logging in 1992. In southern
Mindanao, some large areas of forest remain in hill and montane areas. Political
instability, lack of access, and poor commercial values have helped protect some of these
areas. Ironically, some of the areas, which had been under now-suspended timber license
agreements, are threatened by encroaching agriculture and fire. There are other large
blocks of forest in the rest of Mindanao, but they are similarly limited to hill and montane
areas (Development Alternatives 1992).
Varying levels of protection have been accorded to the protected areas in the ecoregion;
by 1988, approximately 50 percent of Mt. Apo National Park had been deforested. In
addition to the classic sequence of logging, invasion by kaingineros, and associated
hunting and burning, the park is administered by more than one Bureau of Forest
Development office and is sometimes occupied by rebel groups (Lewis 1988). Table 3
details the existing protected areas in the ecoregion.
79
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Sacred Mountain
10
III
Rungkunan
10
V
Pantuwaraya Lake
8
V
Salikata
10
V
Lake Dapao
20
V
Mt. Kitanglad
250
II
Mt. Apo [IM0156]
420
II
Mainit Hot Spring
30
PRO
Mt. Malindang [IM0156]
300
II
Total
1,058
Habitat destruction is the main threat to biodiversity in the Philippines. Logging
and shifting cultivation (kaingin) are cited as the primary forces of habitat
conversion. Logging takes many forms, from industrial scale to smaller-scale
operations that use water buffalo to haul logs out of the forest (Davis et al. 1995).
Both the Philippine warty pig and Philippine deer suffer from intense hunting pressure
and fragmentation of their remaining habitats. The pigs are in an especially poor situation
because they tend to raid crops and are regarded as pests; consequently, there are no
effective protections in place for them (Oliver 1993).
Stattersfield et al. (1998), and the Philippine BAP (1997) to varying degrees and
based our delineation of the Philippine ecoregions on Heaney (1993).
80
The islands of Leyte, Samar, Dinagat, and Bohol were combined with the lowland rain
forests of Mindanao Island to form the Mindanao-Eastern Visayas Rain Forests. We also
included the Basilan Islands off the southwest peninsula of Mindanao in this ecoregion,
based on Heaney (1993). In Mindanao we used the 1,000-m contour from the DEM
(USGS 1996) to delineate the montane forests from the lowland forests. The montane
forests of Mindanao were placed into their own ecoregion, the Mindanao Montane Rain
Forests. In our delineation of the Mindanao-Eastern Visayas Rain Forests and Mindanao
Montane Rain Forests ecoregions, we deviated from MacKinnon (1997). MacKinnon
placed both of Mindanao's lowland and montane forests in a single subunit (26c). The
Basilan Islands were part of subunit 26d, and the islands of Leyte and Samar made up
subunit 26e.
References
81
12. Mindoro rain forests
Called the dark island by outsiders because of a
virulent strain of malaria, Mindoro is located
between the large islands of Luzon and the Sundaaffiliated Palawan, and it shares faunal attributes
of both islands. However, Mindoro was isolated
from Luzon and Palawan throughout the
Pleistocene and retains its own unique character,
including an endemic water buffalo species
(Heaney 1986). Unfortunately, Mindoro is one of
the most severely deforested islands in the country
(Heaney and Mittermeir 1997). Only the most
rugged portions of the island's central spine has
been spared from commercial logging, and the
forest is still under pressure.
Mindoro, Philippines
Photograph by Tom Brooks
This ecoregion includes the island of Mindoro
and the Semirara Islands. The climate of the
ecoregion is tropical wet (National
3,900
square
miles
Geographic Society 1999). The western coast
Philippines:
(10,100 square
Island of
of Mindoro experiences a wet season during
kilometers) -Mindoro
the southwest monsoon of June to October
about half the size
and a dry season during the November to
of Massachusetts
Tropical and
February northeast monsoon because of the
Subtropical Moist
Critical/Endangered
central mountains (High Rolling Mountains)
Broadleaf
Forests
(Collins et al. 1991). The High Rolling
Mountains dominate the central portions of
the island and rise to a maximum elevation of approximately 2,500 m at Mt.
Halcon and Mt. Baco.
Mindoro (along with Palawan and the Calamianes) was rifted (below water) from the Asian
mainland approximately 32 million years ago, transported through seafloor spreading across
the growing South China Sea, added to the growing Philippine Archipelago approximately
17 million years ago, and uplifted above water approximately 5-10 million years ago (Hall
and Holloway 1998; Dickinson, Kennedy, and Parkes 1991). Mindoro is separated from
Palawan to the south and Luzon to the north by deepwater channels and has not been
connected to those islands during the recent past (Pleistocene) (Heaney 1986).
Vegetation types on Mindoro include lowland evergreen rain forest to approximately 400 m
or higher, open forest from about 650 to 1,000 m, and mossy forest above. Only small
patches remain of the lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest that would have dominated
the lowland eastern portions of the island. Semideciduous forest would have predominated
on the western half of the island. Limited stands of Mindoro pine (Pinus merkusii) are
82
found at elevations of 600 m or less in the northern portions of the island (Stattersfield et al.
1998; Development Alternatives 1992).
Of the forty-two indigenous mammal species found on Mindoro, close to 20 percent
endemic or near endemic (table 1). The nonendemic mammals are also found on
Luzon. An endemic rat (Rattus mindorenis) is closely related to Rattus tiomanicus,
and the endemic genus Anonomomys is most closely related to the genus
Haeromys, from Palawan and some of its satellite islands. Thus colonization of
Mindoro has occurred from both Luzon and Palawan (Heaney 1986).
Family
Species
Sorcidae
Crocidura mindorus
Bovidae
Bubalus mindorensis*
Muridae
Rattus mindorensis*
Muridae
Anonymomys mindorensis*
Muridae
Crateromys paulus*
Muridae
Apomys gracilirostris*
Muridae
Apomys sp. E*
Pteropodidae
Pteropus sp. A*
The most unique animal feature of Mindoro must be the tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), or
dwarf water buffalo. There were perhaps 10,000 living at all elevations on the island at the
turn of the century. The tamaraw, like the anoas of Sulawesi (Anoa spp.), are wary forest
animals, just over 1 m tall at the shoulder (Heaney and Regalado 1998; Nowak 1999a).
Tamaraws sometimes are placed in the same genus as anoas. They should not be confused
with the carabao of the Philippines, which is a small variety of domesticated Asian water
buffalo (B. bubalus). The tamaraw needs both dense vegetation for resting and open grazing
land. It is unclear whether tamaraws need wallows. Unfortunately, they are confined to
areas of grassland that have taken the place of the native forest. Adult bulls are largely
solitary and aggressive toward each other. Young males (up to five years) form bachelor
groups. Females are found alone, with a bull, or with up to three young of differing ages.
Young are born during Mindoro's June-November rainy season and stay with their mother
83
until the age of 1.5 to 4.5 years (Nowak 1999a).
Mindoro also supports a population of the Philippine warty pig (Sus philippensis), which
the IUCN considers rare and declining (IUCN 2000). The Philippine warty pig is widely
distributed in the still-forested areas of Luzon, Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao, and
some of the smaller satellite islands. Many of these forested areas are found in existing
national parks. The Philippine warty pig is closely related to Sus barbatus of the Greater
Sundas and was once thought to be a subspecies, analogous to the Palawan bearded pig (Sus
barbatus ahoenobarbus). This species is still threatened by hunting and habitat loss (Oliver
1993).
An endemic subspecies of the Philippine deer (Cervus mariannus barandanus) is found on
Mindoro. Although Philippine deer are native to Luzon, Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao,
and the Basilan Islands, C. m. barandanus is found only on Mindoro. The population of this
subspecies is considered to be at risk over its limited range on the island (Wemmer 1998).
Greater Mindoro is home to the critically endangered Illin hairy-tailed cloud rat
(Crateromys paulus), the endangered Mindoro shrew (Crocidura mindorus), and the more
widespread (within the Philippines) but endangered golden-crowned fruit bat (Acerodon
jubatus) (IUCN 2000).
This ecoregion corresponds exactly with the Mindoro EBA. The Mindoro EBA contains ten
restricted-range birds, six of which are threatened. The Mindoro ecoregion contains eleven
endemic or near-endemic bird species (Kennedy et al. 2000; table 2). Two bird species, the
Mindoro bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba platenae) and the black-hooded coucal (Centropus
steerii), are considered critically endangered, and four species are considered vulnerable:
Mindoro imperial-pigeon (Ducula mindorensis), ashy thrush (Zoothera cinerea), Luzon
water-redstart (Rhyacornis albiventris), and scarlet-collared flowerpecker (Dicaeum
retrocinctum). Three of these species, the Mindoro bleeding-heart, the Mindoro imperial
pigeon, and the black-hooded coucal, are strict island endemics (Collar et al. 1999;
Stattersfield et al. 1998). Mindoro's endemic birds can be split into montane and lowland
species. Although both are in urgent need of conservation, the situation for the lowland
species is particularly dire because the lowland forests are almost entirely gone (Dutson et
al. 1992). Mindoro is also an important wintering and staging area for ducks and other
waterbirds (Bagarinao 1998).
Family
Common Name
Species
Columbidae
Mindoro bleeding-heart
Gallicolumba platenae*
Columbidae
Mindoro imperial-pigeon
Ducula mindorensis*
Cuculidae
Black-hooded coucal
Centropus steerii*
84
Strigidae
Mindoro scops-owl
Otus mindorensis*
Strigidae
Mantanani scops-owl
Otus mantananensis
Bucconidae
Mindoro hornbill
Penelopides mindorensis*
Pachycephalida
Green-backed whistler
Pachycephala albiventris
Laniidae
Mountain shrike
Lanius validrostris*
Turdidae
Ashy thrush
Zoothera cinerea
Muscicapidae
Luzon redstart
Rhyacornis bicolor
Dicaeidae
Scarlet-collared flowerpecker
Dicaeum retrocinctum
The type specimen of the critically endangered Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus
mindorensis) was collected in Mindoro's Naujan Lake (Bagarinao 1998). They were
historically found on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Samar, Jolo, Negros,
Busuanga, and Mindanao, but the only remaining populations are found on Mindoro,
Negros, Mindanao, and Busuanga. The only protected population of Philippine crocodiles is
in Lake Naujan National Park on Mindoro. Whereas the decline of the species initially was
driven by overexploitation, habitat loss and human persecution are now the principal threats
to the Philippine crocodile. Surveys in 1980-1982 revealed a total wild population of
approximately 500-1,000 individuals, but current wild populations may be approximately
100 nonhatchlings. Captive breeding efforts are being led by the Crocodile Farming
Institute, an entity of the Philippine government (Ross 1998; IUCN 2000).
Lubang Island, near Mindoro and Luzon, is a poorly known island surrounded by deep
water channels; it may well represent a small but distinct center of endemism (L. Heaney,
pers. comm., 2000).
Current Status
The only remaining intact forests in Mindoro are found along the top of the
mountain ridge that divides the island. On the eastern side of the ridge commercial
logging ended long enough ago that the remaining intact forests are buffered by
secondary forests that have reestablished a closed condition, yet these same forests
are again under threat from poaching and kaingin (slash-and-burn) agriculture. On
the western side of the ridges, however, perennial fires in adjacent grasslands used
for pasture are eating into the forest (Development Alternatives 1992). Only 8.5
percent of Mindoro was forested in 1988 (SSC 1988).
Several reserves have been established in Mindoro, beginning in 1936, but these have
85
proved to be less than effective (Heaney and Regalado 1998). Table 3 details the existing
protected areas on the island.
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Lake Naujan
90
IV
Mts. Iglit-Baco
790
II
F.B. Harrison
1,800
IV
Total
2,680
The largest protected area on Mindoro is Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park, which is one of
two ASEAN Natural Heritage Sites in the Philippines (the other is Mount Apo National
Park on Mindanao). The park covers the east-west divide and includes several
physiographic regions and an important tamaraw population. Small patches of dipterocarp
and mossy forest can be found in the park. The park is inhabited by the Mangyan tribal
people, and much of the reserve consists of fire-maintained grassland with Imperata
cylindrica and Sacchareum spontaneum. The combination of burning to maintain pasture
for domestic cattle, ranching, and uncontrolled hunting activities leaves this protected area
substantially altered, and the park is an insecure refuge for the endangered tamaraw (Collins
et al. 1991).
Lake Naujan National Park is the only protected area in the Philippines that protects the
critically endangered Philippine crocodile (Ross 1998).
The tamaraw numbered approximately 10,000 animals at the turn of the century and
approximately 1,000 by 1949, and today estimates range from 100 to 200 animals (Collins
et al. 1991; Heaney and Regalado 1998).
A well-funded conservation program aimed at captive breeding of tamaraws has been an
expensive failure (Heaney and Regalado 1998).
Hunting by local people is a threat to all large mammals in the ecoregion, including
the tamaraw, Philippine deer, and Philippine warty pig (Hedges, in press). Forestry
activities and kaingin (slash-and-burn) agriculture continue to fragment and
destroy the remaining habitat.
86
Although it is smaller and not as rich as some of the larger Philippine islands, Mindoro
faces high levels of faunal endangerment because a larger proportion of its fauna is
endangered; this level of endangerment is well-correlated with the degree of deforestation
on the respective islands (Heaney 1993).
MacKinnon (1997) identified seven subunits in the Philippines, and the Philippine
Biodiversity Action Plan (Philippine BAP 1997) demarcated fifteen biogeographic
units. Udvardy (1975) identified the Philippines as a single biogeographic province.
We delineated nine ecoregions in the Philippine islands, including Palawan. We
deviated from Udvardy (1975), MacKinnon (1997), Stattersfield (1998), and the
Philippine BAP (1997) in varying degrees and based our delineation of the
Philippine ecoregions on Heaney (1993). MacKinnon (1997) designates Mindoro
island as subunit 26f and includes the Lubang Islands. We delineated the island of
Mindoro as the Mindoro Rain Forests.
References
87
13. Luzon montane rain forests
The ecoregion has suffered from human
exploitation but still contains some of the most
extensive forests left in the Philippines.
Therefore, the montane forests are extremely
valuable for the wide range of endemic species
they support and for their role in preventing soil
erosion and protecting water quality. It is one of
the biologically least known ecoregions in the
Philippines.
Sierra Madre Mountains, Philippines
Photograph by Jorgen Thomsen/
Conservation International
3,200 square miles
(8,300 square
about half the size
Subtropical Moist
of Hawaii
Broadleaf
Forests
Critical/Endangered
Philippines
Luzon is located in the western Pacific
Ocean. It is the largest island in the
Philippines and lies at the northern end of
the island group. The Luzon Montane Rain
Forests ecoregion comprises the high
elevations of several mountain ranges
including the Northern and Southern Sierra
Madre, which parallels the northeastern
coastline of Luzon. Also included in this
ecoregion are Mt. Sapocoy, Mt. Magnas,
and Mt. Agnamala in the northern Central
Cordillera and the Zambales Mountains in
the west.
The geologic history of the Philippines is very complex and has had tremendous
influence on the biota found there. Luzon has developed many unique species of plants
and animals as a result of its long-standing isolation from other landmasses. Parts of the
Luzon highlands were established as a result of volcanic activity and the friction of the
Australian and Asian plates at least 15 million years ago. The highlands began to take
their current form over the next 10 million years. Luzon is therefore oceanic in character,
having never been connected to mainland Asia. Even during the Pleistocene, as world sea
levels fell 120 m, Luzon expanded to become a larger island including the modern islands
of Polillo, Marinduque, and Catanduanes but never connected to other regions of the
Philippines or to mainland Asia (Heaney and Regalado 1998).
Annual rainfall in the ecoregion can be as high as 10,000 mm in some areas, or about
quadruple what the Luzon Rain Forests [IM0123] receive. When the rain falls, varies
with the mountain ranges. The Sierra Madres are only mildly seasonal, with a dry period
occurring from December to April. The mountains of the northern Central Cordillera and
the Zambales Mountains are more strongly seasonal, receiving a bit less rainfall and
having a longer dry period. These forests are also affected by typhoons that sweep across
the South China Sea, hitting the western side of Luzon every few years. These typhoons
are a major element of disturbance.
88
The montane forests of this ecoregion begin at about 1,000 m and are characterized by
the appearance of oak and laurel species. These trees gradually replace the dipterocarp
trees that dominate at lower elevations. The oaks and laurels do not have the wide
buttresses of lower-elevation trees. Montane forests in general are shorter in stature than
lowland forests and have less undergrowth. Epiphytes and vines (particularly pandans of
the genus Freycinetia) and moss-covered branches are very common in the montane
forests. The decreased temperature that accompanies increasing elevation slows the
decomposition of debris (Heaney and Regalado 1998). This makes the forest floor thick
with humus.
The highest elevations of the montane forests sometimes are called upper montane forest
or elfin forest. These forests are not treated as a separate ecoregion; rather, they are
considered montane forests in extreme. Trees branches appear to be many times thicker
than they actually are because the moss covering the branch is so thick. Tree height may
be only a few meters, and plants that are not typically epiphytes become aerial because of
the thick moisture and abundant organic material on and around trees here. Many of the
endemic animal species of the Philippines are found as burrowers in the matty soil of this
high-elevation forest (Heaney and Regalado 1998).
The Luzon Montane Rain Forests [IM0122] ecoregion has eight species of nearendemic mammals and one species that is strictly endemic (table 1). The strictly
endemic Palanan shrew-mouse, Archboldomys musseri, is known only from two
specimens taken at about 1,650 m from Mt. Cetaceo in the northern Sierra
Madres (Danielsen et al. 1994; Heaney et al. 1998). Species listed as threatened
(VU or above) include three near-endemic species: Luzon pygmy fruit bat
(Otopteropus cartilagonodus), Luzon short-nosed rat (Tryphomys adustus), and
long-nosed Luzon forest mouse (Apomys sacobianus).
Family
Species
Pteropodidae
Otopteropus cartilagonodus
Muridae
Apomys abrae
Muridae
Apomys datae
Muridae
Apomys microdon
Muridae
Apomys sacobianus
Muridae
Archboldomys musseri*
89
Muridae
Bullimus luzonicus
Muridae
Phloeomys pallidus
Muridae
Tryphomys adustus
Five relatively large mammals inhabit the ecoregion: long-tailed macaque (Macaca
fascicularis), Philippine warty pig (Sus philippensis), Philippine brown deer (Cervus
mariannus), Malay civet (Viverra tangalunga), and common palm civet (Paradoxurus
hermaphroditus). All are fairly widespread, and none are listed as threatened by IUCN
(2000). However, habitat destruction affects all these species, and hunting affects all but
the civets (Heaney et al. 1998). Additionally, the Philippine brown deer is said to be
declining and is listed as data deficient by IUCN, although the species is not uncommon
in appropriate habitat (Heaney et al. 1998; Wemmer 1998).
The ecoregion contains twenty-eight near-endemic bird species and no strict endemics
(table 2). At least eleven threatened bird species (IUCN categories VU and above) occur
in the ecoregion, and two others may be present, but their distributions are poorly known
(brown-banded rail [Lewinia mirificus] and Luzon buttonquail [Turnix worcesteri])
(Collar et al. 1999). Whiskered pitta (Pitta kochi) is a species typical of mossy montane
forests (Dickinson et al. 1991) and is listed as vulnerable (Collar et al. 1999). Whiskered
pittas usually are found above 1,000 m in the Sierra Madre and Central Cordillera among
oaks, 5-12 m high, with a fern and rhododendron understory. They hunt for invertebrate
prey on the ground and are known to regularly forage where Philippine warty pigs have
rooted over the soil and exposed prey (Poulsen 1995). The bird is sometimes described as
uncommon to rare (Dickinson et al. 1991; Kennedy et al. 2000), although in appropriate
habitat it may actually be quite common (Poulsen 1995). This discrepancy probably
results from undersampling (and general lack of knowledge) of habitat throughout the
pitta's range.
Family
Common Name
Species
Turnicidae
Spotted buttonquail
Turnix ocellata
Turnicidae
Luzon buttonquail
Turnix worcesteri
Rallidae
Brown-banded rail
Lewina mirificus
Columbidae
Luzon bleeding-heart
Gallicolumba luzonica
Columbidae
Flame-breasted fruit-dove
Ptilinopus marchei
90
Columbidae
Cream-breasted fruit-dove
Ptilinopus merrilli
Psittacidae
Luzon racquet-tail
Prioniturus montanus
Cuculidae
Scale-feathered malkoha
Phaenicophaeus cumingi
Cuculidae
Rufous coucal
Centropus unirufus
Strigidae
Luzon scops-owl
Otus longicornis
Bucconidae
Luzon hornbill
Penelopides manilloe
Pittidae
Whiskered pitta
Pitta kochi
Laniidae
Grey-capped shrike
Lanius validirostris
Turdidae
Ashy thrush
Zoothera cinerea
Muscicapidae
Luzon redstart
Rhyacornis bicolor
Timaliidae
Golden-crowned babbler
Stachyris dennistouni
Timaliidae
Chestnut-faced babbler
Stachyris whiteheadi
Sylviidae
Philippine bush-warbler
Cettia seebohmi
Sylviidae
Muscicapidae
Rusty-flanked jungle-flycatcher
Rhinomyias insignis
Muscicapidae
Ash-breasted flycatcher
Muscicapa randi
Muscicapidae
Blue-breasted flycatcher
Cyornis herioti
Pachycephalida
Rhabdornithidae
Long-billed rhabdornis
Rhabdornis grandis
Dicaeidae
Dicaeum anthonyi
Fringillidae
Pyrrhula leucogenis
Estrildidae
Green-faced parrotfinch
Erythrura viridifacies
Oriolidae
White-lored oriole
Oriolus albiloris
91
Another vulnerable species, typical of montane forests, is the flame-breasted fruit-dove
(Ptilinopus marchei), a beautiful bird with a crimson orange breast and matching crown.
It is the largest fruit-dove in the Philippines, and although it has probably always been
uncommon and local, it appears to be particularly sensitive to the threats facing much of
the ecoregion's biodiversity. The fruit-dove is not found in areas highly susceptible to
habitat destruction, found in neither logged nor selectively logged areas (Poulsen 1995).
The fruit-dove is also hunted for food and the pet trade (Collar et al. 1999).
Current Status
There are no recent estimates of primary forest cover for the Philippines. If one
adds the total forest cover for the provinces containing the bulk of the ecoregion,
about 482,000 ha of forest remained in 1992 (Development Alternatives 1992). A
small portion of the ecoregion's montane forest occurs outside these provinces,
yet the overall figure is still too high because much of the forest is below 1,000 m.
More importantly, the figure is too high because the amount of forest has
declined a great deal since 1992. We know this because forest cover for the same
provinces totaled more than a million hectares in the early to mid-1980s, for a
decline of 55 percent since 1992, and deforestation has continued, with some
slowdown since 1994 (figures based on 1981 and 1984 data, depending on the
particular province) (Development Alternatives 1992).
The two largest remaining forested areas in the ecoregion are in the montane portions of
the northern Sierra Madres, which have remained inaccessible, and the northern Central
Cordillera. The Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park (also known as the Palanan complex
or wilderness) is the main focus of conservation in the region, although the park covers
only the lowland portions of the forest and should be extended to incorporate the higher
elevations as well (Mallari and Jensen 1993; Poulsen 1995) (table 3). Other sites in the
northern Sierra Madres that have been identified as important areas for biodiversity
include Mt. Cetaceo and Mt. Los Dos Cuernos. Neither of these sites receives any formal
protection, and both are being cleared (Collar et al. 1999). Recent field work in the
northern Central Cordillera has documented extensive forest managed by the traditional
cultural groups. Nearly unknown biologically until recently, it is now suspected of being
one of the biologically richest and most important areas in the country (Heaney and
Mallari in press).
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN Category
PNOC 1636 [IM0123]
200
?
92
Habitat conversion is the primary threat to the ecoregion. Commercial logging
(both legal and illegal) continues to have a devastating effect on biodiversity.
Conversion of highland areas to "large-scale plantations is currently expanding,
causing both displacement of subsistence farmers (who then move further
upslope) and increased erosion, which is already a serious problem" (Heaney et
al. 1999: 314).
New roads and mining projects directly threaten forests but also make forests more
susceptible exploitation as a result of increased accessibility. Subsistence hunting and
capture of species for a growing wildlife pet trade adversely affect many of the
ecoregion's species.
based our delineation of the Philippine ecoregions primarily on Heaney (1993).
In Luzon we delineated three ecoregions, which correspond to MacKinnon's subunit 26a.
First, we used the 1,000-m contour from the DEM (USGS 1996) to delineate the montane
forests from the lowland forests. The Luzon Montane Rain Forests are made up primarily
of the montane moist evergreen forests along the Sierra Madre, northern Central
Cordillera, and Zambales mountain ranges. MacKinnon (1997) showed an area of
freshwater swamp forests as part of the original vegetation of Luzon Island, which we
combined with the remaining lowland forest of Luzon to form the Luzon Rain Forests.
These freshwater swamps, in the valley to the east of the Zambales Mountain Range and
in the Cagayan River plains, have been converted to rice fields (D. Madulid, pers. comm.,
1999). Following Stattersfield et al. (1998) and Dickinson et al. (1991), we placed the
Lubang Islands with the Luzon Rain Forests. The Banguet pine Pinus insularis (also
known as P. kesiya)-dominated conifer forests in the Central Cordillera were designated
as the Luzon Tropical Pine Forests.
References
93
14. Luzon tropical pine forests
Bontoc, Mountain Province,
Philippines
Photograph by Larry Heaney
The mountainous, often cloudy Luzon Pine
Forests are a unique habitat in the Philippines.
Regular fires have led to a parkland structure of
grass with widely dispersed trees and prevented
broadleaf trees from establishing over large
areas. However, more typical montane forest
covers so much of the ecoregion that some
experts would lump the pine forests with the
Luzon Montane Rain Forest ecoregion. The
ecoregion has been exploited for its trees and
mineral resources in the past; shifting
agriculture and mining are the greatest current
threats.
Southeastern
Asia: Island of
Luzon in the
Philippines
2,700 square miles
(7,100 square
Delaware and
Rhode Island
combined
the island group. The Luzon Pine Forests
[IM0302] ecoregion is entirely within the
Tropical and
Subtropical
Central Cordillera Mountain Range of
Coniferous
northwestern Luzon and includes all
Critical/Endangered
Forests
regions above 1,000 m, except a large tract
of montane forest at the northern end (see
ecoregion 102). Included in this ecoregion are some of Luzon's highest mountain
peaks: Mt. Puguis, Mt. Polis, Mt. Data, and Mt. Pulog.
influence on the biota currently found there. Luzon has developed many unique species
of plants and animals as a result of its long-standing isolation from other landmasses.
Parts of the Luzon highlands were established as a result of volcanic activity and the
friction of the Australian and Asian plates at least 15 million years ago. The highlands
began to take their current form over the next 10 million years. Luzon is therefore
oceanic in character, having never been connected to mainland Asia. Even during the
Pleistocene, as world sea levels fell 120 m, Luzon expanded to become a larger island
including the modern islands of Polillo, Marinduque, and Catanduanes but never
connecting to other regions of the Philippines or to mainland Asia (Heaney and Regalado
1998).
The ecoregion receives about 2,500 mm of rain a year (even more than 4,000 mm on Mt.
Pulog in some years), but this rain is highly seasonal. Often the pine forests of Luzon are
categorized as monsoon forests because of the pronounced dry period (November-April)
between rain (May-August, with July and August being the wettest). The temperature of
94
the pine forests averages about 20°C and rarely exceeds 26°C. The forests are affected by
typhoons that sweep across the South China Sea, hitting the western side of Luzon every
few years. These typhoons are a major element of disturbance.
Most of the ecoregion's area is covered by grassland that is interspersed with trees. The
pronounced dry periods and periodic fires favor the Benguet pine or saleng (Pinus
insularis, also known as P. kesiya). This species ranges in elevation between 1,000 and
2,500 m and is also present in mainland Asia. However, montane forest interdigitates
with the pine forests and covers much of the ecoregion's surface area. This is particularly
true in Balbalasang-Balbalan protected area, which is nearly all montane forest. Species
lists for the ecoregion therefore include many animals that are limited to montane forests
within the ecoregion and are not even found in pine forests.
The ecoregion is inhabited by nine near-endemic mammal species and seven
strictly endemic mammals (table 1). All but one of these species belongs to the
mouse and rat family, Muridae, which has undergone extensive adaptive
radiation on Luzon. Cloud rats (genera Crateromys and Phloeomys) occur only
in the northern Philippines and are perhaps the most unique and characteristic of
mammals here. These large, bushy-tailed creatures look more like squirrels than
typical rats (Heaney and Regalado 1998). All are subject to heavy hunting
pressures (Heaney et al. 1998). Three relatively large mammals occur in the
ecoregion: long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), Philippine warty pig (Sus
philippensis), and Malay civet Viverra tangalunga). All are fairly widespread,
and none are listed as threatened by IUCN (IUCN 2000). However, habitat
destruction affects all three species, and hunting affects all but the Malay civet.
Family
Species
Pteropodidae
Muridae
Abditomys latidens
Muridae
Apomys abrae
Muridae
Apomys datae
Muridae
Apomys sacobianus
Muridae
Batomys dentatus*
Muridae
Batomys granti
95
Muridae
Bullimus luzonicus
Muridae
Carpomys melanurus*
Muridae
Carpomys phaeurus*
Muridae
Celaenomys silaceus*
Muridae
Chrotomys whiteheadi*
Muridae
Crateromys schadenbergi*
Muridae
Phloeomys pallidus
Muridae
Rhynchomys soricoides*
Muridae
Tryphomys adustus
The Luzon Pine Forests [IM0302] are home to twenty-three near-endemic birds, none of
which are strictly limited to the ecoregion (table 2). Perhaps the bird species most
characteristic of the ecoregion is also one of its most widespread worldwide. Red
crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), known primarily from high-latitude coniferous forests,
reaches its southernmost extent in the Old World in the mountains of the Central
Cordillera (the populations in Central America, notably Nicaragua, are further south).
Dickinson et al. (1991) listed eleven other bird species that typify the pine forests,
including one tit (Parus elegans), a nuthatch (Sitta frontalis), and thrush (Turdus
poliocephalus). These groups of birds are familiar to many people of northern latitudes
and are indicative of the unique habitat this ecoregion represents within the Philippines.
Family
Common Name
Species
Turnicidae
Luzon buttonquail
Turnix worcesteri
Rallidae
Brown-banded rail
Lewina mirificus
Columbidae
Columbidae
Ptilinopus marchei
Psittacidae
Luzon racquet-tail
Cuculidae
96
Strigidae
Luzon scops-owl
Otus longicornis
Apodidae
Whitehead's swiftlet
Aerodramus whiteheadi
Pittidae
Whiskered pitta
Pitta kochi
Laniidae
Grey-capped shrike
Lanius validirostris
Turdidae
Ashy thrush
Zoothera cinerea
Muscicapidae
Luzon redstart
Rhyacornis bicolor
Timaliidae
Timaliidae
Sylviidae
Cettia seebohmi
Sylviidae
Muscicapidae
Rusty-flanked jungle-flycatcher
Rhinomyias insignis
Muscicapidae
Muscicapa randi
Pachycephalida
Rhabdornithidae
Rhabdornis grandis
Dicaeidae
Dicaeum anthonyi
Fringillidae
Pyrrhula leucogenis
Oriolidae
White-lored oriole
Oriolus albiloris
Current Status
The status of the ecoregion is hard to assess from published sources. Pines from
the ecoregion have been exploited for a long time. Resin from the pines provided
an important commercial source of turpentine during the Spanish colonial period
(Heaney and Regalado 1998).
One of the protected areas in the ecoregion, Mt. Pulog, is the highest peak in Luzon (table
3). Mt. Pulog is important globally as a center of plant diversity with many local
endemics (Davis et al. 1995) and as a key site for threatened birds, with six (Collar et al.
1999). The mountain, like much of the ecoregion, is valuable for water quality in Luzon.
97
The size of the park (11,500 ha) may be adequate, although there was initial difficulty in
demarcating the park boundary when it was established in 1987 (Davis et al. 1995). The
park continues to have problems with agricultural encroachment and wildlife exploitation
(Collar et al. 1999). Mt. Polis is also listed as a key site for threatened birds, with six
species having been recorded. Unfortunately, little forest remains on Mt. Polis, and it
receives no legal protection (Collar et al. 1999).
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Balbalasang-Balbalan
160
VI
Mt. Data
300
V
Bessang Pass
10
III
Mts. Pulog, Nueva Vizcaya, Ifugao, Benguet
80
II
Total
550
The population growth of the Philippines and the extreme poverty of many has
forced people to cultivate land at increasingly high altitudes. Population growth
and rural poverty are definitely threats to the ecoregion. More typical threats to
the biodiversity of the ecoregion exist but are perhaps symptoms of these
overarching problems.
Fire and habitat conversion are the greatest threats, and they are in some ways the same
problem. Fire is a natural process in the ecoregion, but human-induced fire is being used
to clear extensive areas for growing vegetables and cut flowers. The increased number of
fires limits regeneration of some forest plants; it also makes the region susceptible to
invasive grasses (Davis et al. 1995). Logging (both legal and illegal) is a threat
everywhere in the Philippines and is another means of habitat destruction.
Mining is an ever-present threat. The Central Cordillera is famous for its mineral wealth,
including copper and gold. In fact, most of the mountain range is included within mining
application and exploration areas. Wildlife exploitation is also a serious problem in many
parts with species being sought for trade and consumption.
98
Philippine BAP (1997) demarcated fifteen biogeographic units. Udvardy (1975)
identified the Philippines as a single biogeographic province. We delineated nine
ecoregions in the Philippine islands, including Palawan. We deviated from
Udvardy (1975), MacKinnon (1997), Stattersfield et al. (1998), and the Philippine
BAP (1997) to varying degrees and based our delineation of the Philippine
ecoregions primarily on Heaney (1993).
Cordillera, and Zambales mountain ranges. MacKinnon (1997) shows an area of
in the Cagayan River plains, have been converted to rice fields (D. Madulid, pers. comm.,
Lubang Islands with the Luzon Rain Forests. The conifer forests in the Central Cordillera
dominated by Banguet pine (Pinus insularis, also known as P. kesiya) were designated as
the Luzon Tropical Pine Forests.
References
99
15. Luzon rain forests
The Luzon Rain Forests ecoregion is rich in
endemic species and also contains one of the
largest populations of the Philippine eagle
Pithecophaga jefferyi. A high proportion of the
ecoregion was originally forested, but now very
little of this forest remains. However, the
ecoregion has managed to retain one of the
largest remaining tracts of primary forest in the
Philippines.
Near Sierra Madre Mountains,
Philippines
Photograph by Jorgen Thomsen/
Conservation International
the island group. The lowland rain forests
ecoregion comprises all the areas below
1,000 m on Luzon and a few isolated
36,900
square
Southeastern
volcanic mountains in the south of the
miles (95,500
Asia: Luzon
island that exceed 1,000 m: Mt. Maquiling,
square kilometers)
Island in the
Mt. Banashaw, Mt. Isarog, Mayon Volcano,
Philippines
Indiana and Rhode
and Bulusan Volcano. The broad Cagayan
Island combined
River valley to north is sheltered from
Tropical and
Subtropical Moist
typhoons lying between the two north-south
Critical/Endangered
Broadleaf
mountain ranges: the Cordillera Central in
Forests
the west and the Sierra Madre to the east.
The fertile soil of the Cagayan Valley is the
biggest rice-growing region in the country. Southern Luzon is also agricultural
but is subject to typhoons and comprises less area as Luzon narrows southward.
Several neighboring island groups are also part of the ecoregion, including the
Batanes and Babuyan Islands to the north (rather isolated but placed here for
convenience), Polillo and Catanduanes to the east, and Marinduque to southwest.
influence on the biota currently found there. Luzon has developed many unique plant and
animal species as a result of its long-standing isolation from other landmasses. Parts of
the Luzon highlands were established as a result of volcanic activity and the friction of
the Australian and Asian plates at least 15 million years ago. The highlands began to take
their current form over the next 10 million years. Luzon therefore is oceanic in character,
having never been connected to mainland Asia. Even during the Pleistocene, as world sea
levels fell 120 m, Luzon expanded to become a larger island including the modern islands
of Polillo, Marinduque, and Catanduanes but never connecting to other regions of the
Philippines or to mainland Asia (Heaney and Regalado 1998).
Temperatures in Luzon vary greatly with elevation, but within the lowlands temperatures
100
are fairly uniform at about 25-28°C. Rainfall in the lowlands is seasonally variable, with
four distinct types. Southwestern Luzon and Marinduque Island receive rain uniformly
throughout the year. The Cagayan valley and the eastern portion of the Bataan Peninsula
do not have pronounced seasons but are dry from November to April. The southeastern
portions of Luzon and Polillo and Catanduanes Islands have no dry season but do have a
period of increased rainfall from May to January. Northwestern Luzon has two distinct
seasons, being wet from May to October and dry November to April.
Lowland vegetation of Luzon is dominated by dipterocarp trees with wide buttresses at
the base. These massive trees are 1-2 m in diameter and up to 60 m high. The canopy
height of mature lowland forests tends to be uneven. In areas of disturbance, rattans and
lianas receive the light they need to flourish in the understory. There tends to be an
abundant herbaceous undergrowth, and ferns and orchids are prevalent on large branches
of tall trees. Other natural habitats in the ecoregion include mangrove forests and beach
forests (consisting of Casuarinas and Barrintonia) near the coasts. There also were
natural grasslands in valley bottoms and on plateaus, as evidenced by the presence of
several endemic buttonquail taxa needing grasslands (Collar et al. 1999).
In terms of mammalian endemism, perhaps the most significant area of
endemism in the ecoregion is Mt. Isarog, but this has only recently become
apparent. Mt. Isarog is an extinct volcano and the second highest peak in
southern Luzon at 1,966 m (Mt. Mayon is higher at 2,462 m). The unique
character and geographic isolation of Isarog make it difficult to lump with the
other two montane ecoregions of Luzon [IM0122], [IM0302], so it is considered
here as part of the Luzon rain forests. The Luzon rain forest ecoregion as a whole
has ten species of near-endemic mammals and five strictly endemic species (table
1). Three of the five strict endemics are found only on Mt. Isarog, and none was
been described before 1981: Isarog shrew-mouse (Archboldomys luzonensis),
Isarog striped shrew-rat (Chrotomys gonzalesi), and Isarog shrew-rat
(Rhynchomys isarogensis). All three consume earthworms, and the latter two are
strongly vermivorous. The southern Luzon giant cloud rat (Phloemys cumingi) is
another of the ecoregion's strict endemics found on Isarog, but it is also found at
other locations. The fifth strict endemic is the northern Luzon shrew-mouse
(Crunomys fallax), known from a single specimen collected at about 300 m in
the northern Sierra Madres.
Family
Species
Pteropodidae
Muridae
Abditomys latidens
101
Muridae
Apomys abrae
Muridae
Apomys datae
Muridae
Apomys microdon
Muridae
Apomys sacobianus
Muridae
Archboldomys luzonensis*
Muridae
Batomys granti
Muridae
Bullimus luzonicus
Muridae
Chrotomys gonzalesi*
Muridae
Crunomys fallax*
Muridae
Phloemys cumingi*
Muridae
Phloemys pallidus
Muridae
Rhynchomys isarogensis*
Muridae
Tryphomys adustus
The ecoregion has thirteen mammal species that are listed by IUCN as threatened
(categories VU and above) (IUCN 2000). One of these species is the golden-crowned
flying-fox (Acerodon jubatus). It is probably the largest bat in the world (at more than 1.2
kg, perhaps reaching 1.5 kg) and is widespread in the Philippines but has undergone a
precipitous decline because of heavy hunting and habitat destruction (Heaney and
Regalado 1998).
Five large mammals inhabit the ecoregion: long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis),
Philippine warty pig (Sus philippensis), Philippine brown deer (Cervus mariannus),
Malay civet (Viverra tangalunga), and common palm civet (Paradoxurus
hermaphroditus). All are fairly widespread, and none are listed as threatened by IUCN
(IUCN 2000). However, habitat destruction affects all these species, and hunting affects
all but the civets. Additionally, the Philippine brown deer is said to be declining and is
listed as data deficient by IUCN, although the species is not uncommon in appropriate
habitat (Heaney et al. 1998; Wemmer 1998).
The lowland forests of Luzon contain thirty-four near-endemic bird species and six strict
endemics (table 2). Only two of the strict endemics are threatened (IUCN categories VU
102
and above): green racquet-tail Prioniturus luconensis and Isabela oriole Oriolus isabellae
(Collar et al. 1999). Researchers in Luzon feared that Isabela oriole was extinct (Mallari
and Jensen 1993; Poulsen 1995) until two recent reports of its existence in northern
Luzon (Gamauf and Tebbich 1995; van der Linde 1995). Although these observations are
encouraging, some doubt has been raised about the level of scrutiny the records were
subject to (Collar et al. 1999). The green racquet-tail's decline is thought to be similar to
that of many other parrots of the Philippines: it was common several decades ago but has
become very rare recently as a result of deforestation and collection for the pet trade
(Poulsen 1995; Snyder et al. 2000). However, Kennedy et al. (2000) stated that the
decline of green racquet-tail may be less straightforward because it appears not to be
heavily subject to the pet trade or to deforestation. The parrot pet trade in the Philippines
has had a tremendous negative impact on certain species. The most notable example is
the Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), which at one time was widespread
throughout the Philippines but is now scarce (if not extinct) in Luzon, an enormous
decline caused almost entirely by the pet trade (Snyder et al. 2000).
Family
Common Name
Species
Turnicidae
Spotted buttonquail
Turnix ocellata
Turnicidae
Luzon buttonquail
Turnix worcesteri
Rallidae
Brown-banded rail
Lewina mirificus
Columbidae
Columbidae
Whistling green-pigeon
Treron formosae
Columbidae
Ptilinopus marchei
Columbidae
Cream-breasted fruit-dove
Ptilinopus merrilli
Psittacidae
Luzon racquet-tail
Psittacidae
Green racquet-tail
Prioniturus luconensis*
Cuculidae
Red-crested malkoha
Phaenicophaeus superciliosus*
Cuculidae
Cuculidae
Rufous coucal
Centropus unirufus
Strigidae
Luzon scops-owl
Otus longicornis
103
Strigidae
Ryukyu scops-owl
Otus elegans
Bucconidae
Luzon hornbill
Penelopides manilloe
Pittidae
Whiskered pitta
Pitta kochi
Campephagidae
Blackish cuckoo-shrike
Coracina coerulescens
Turdidae
Ashy thrush
Zoothera cinerea
Timaliidae
Luzon wren-babbler
Napothera rabori*
Timaliidae
Timaliidae
Timaliidae
Luzon striped-babbler
Stachyris striata*
Sylviidae
Cettia seebohmi
Sylviidae
Sylviidae
Grey-backed tailorbird
Orthotomus derbianus
Muscicapidae
Rusty-flanked jungleflycatcher
Rhinomyias insignis
Muscicapidae
Muscicapa randi
Muscicapidae
Furtive flycatcher
Ficedula disposita*
Muscicapidae
Blue-breasted flycatcher
Cyornis herioti
Muscicapidae
Luzon redstart
Rhyacornis bicolor
Monarchidae
Short-crested monarch
Hypothymis helenae
Monarchidae
Celestial monarch
Pachycephalidae
Paridae
White-fronted tit
Parus semilarvatus
Rhabdornithidae
Rhabdornis grandis
Dicaeidae
Flame-crowned
flowerpecker
Dicaeum anthonyi
104
Zosteropidae
Lowland white-eye
Zosterops meyeni
Estrildidae
Green-faced parrotfinch
Erythrura viridifacies
Oriolidae
White-lored oriole
Oriolus albiloris
Oriolidae
Isabela oriole
Oriolus isabellae*
The Philippine eagle is the national bird of the Philippines and the most famous animal in
the country. Unfortunately, the eagle is critically endangered, existing in primary lowland
forests of Samar, Leyte, Mindanao, and Luzon. The large area needs of the eagle coupled
with the bird's low reproductive rate have made it highly susceptible to deforestation. The
two largest remaining populations are in Luzon and Mindanao, although precise numbers
of individuals are still speculative. Population numbers are estimated mainly by
assumptions of remaining forest cover, range size, percentage occupancy, and the number
of immature birds that territories include. Luzon is thought to have between 52 and 104
eagles, but probably around 78 (Collar et al. 1999). The survival of the Philippine eagle is
being watched as a benchmark of the health of the Philippines environment as a whole.
The survival of the species is largely tied to the protection of the few remaining large
tracts of forest. Such protection would benefit many other forest-dwelling species.
Current Status
The largest remaining forested area in the ecoregion is in the lowlands of the
northern Sierra Madres, which have remained inaccessible. The Northern Sierra
Madre Natural Park (also know as the Palanan complex or wilderness) has
recorded most of the ecoregion's endemic bird species and is a stronghold for the
long-tailed macaque, Philippine warty pig, and Philippine brown deer. Luzon's
population of Philippine eagles is joined by thirteen other threatened bird
species. The park receives funding and attention from the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), several conservation
organizations, the Global Environment Facility, and the European Commission.
However, the park is threatened by plans to construct roads that would transect
the park and is subject to high levels of encroachment (several towns are within
the park boundary). Other sites, which include lowlands in the northern Sierra
Madres and have been identified as important areas for biodiversity, include Mt.
Cetaceo and Mt. Los Dos Cuernos. Neither of these sites receives any formal
protection, and both are being cleared (Collar et al. 1999).
As noted earlier, Mt. Isarog National Park (table 3) is of major importance for endemic
mammals. Mt. Isarog also contains four threatened bird species. The national park status
of the Mt. Isarog has not effectively protected it thus far. Encroachment on the park has
led to a population of several hundred people who live in the park. Also, deforestation
continues at the hands of "well-financed commercial ventures" (Collar et al. 1999, p. 57;
105
see also Heaney et al. 1999 and Heaney and Regalado 1998). However, the Haribon
Foundation does have an active conservation program at Mt. Isarog that is again gaining
strength.
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Paoay Lake
7
III
Cassamata Hill
40
V
Northern Luzon Heroes Hill
110
III
Lake Malimanga
6
IV
Subic-Bataan Extension
90
PRO
Bataan
310
II
Roosevelt
20
V
Biak-na-Bato
60
V
Hinulugang Taktak
2
III
Quezon National Park
30
III
Mts. Palay-Palay-Mataas Na Gulod
40
II
Fugo Island
140
V
Palaui
90
V
Magapit
90
IV
Penablanca
120
V
Callao Cave
8
V
Northern Sierra Madre
260
II
Fuyot Spring
30
III
PNOC 1636 [IM0122]
1,060
?
106
Mts. Banahaw San Cristobal
30
II
Taal Volcano
20
III
Bicol
30
II
Quezon National Park
10
III
Libmanan Cave
20
III
Catanduanes
270
PRO
Caramoan
30
III
Bulusan Volcano
50
II
Manlelung Spring
5
III
Minalungao
1
V
Capas Death March Monument
1
III
Mt. Arayat
80
V
Aurora Memorial
120
V
Mt. Isarog
150
II
Mayon Volcano
80
III
Total
3,410
The smaller islands in the ecoregion have not fared well. Marinduque contained only 317
ha of primary forest in 1992, compared with 813 ha in 1984, for a loss of 61 percent
(Development Alternatives 1992). The current amount of primary forest on the island is
unknown. Early this century, Polillo was so forested that McGregor wrote that "he had
never seen an island with 'so large a proportion of the area covered with trees,'" but today
no forest remains (McGregor 1910 quoted in Collar et al. 1999, p. 55). Forest cover maps
from 1992 showed that Catanduanes contained some forested areas. Central Catanduanes
is listed as an important area for biodiversity, but it currently receives no protection
(although it is a proposed watershed reserve) (Collar et al. 1999).
There are no recent estimates of primary forest cover for the Philippines.
107
Originally 95 percent of the Philippines was covered by rain forest (Heaney and
Regalado 1998). Intact lowland forest made up less than 6 percent of the total
land area of the country about a decade ago, with another 12 percent being
classified as degraded (Collins et al. 1991). From these figures, the state of the
forest in the Philippines could be the poorest in all of tropical Asia (Poulsen
1995). In the intervening decade, more forest has been cleared as a result of
unsustainable shifting agricultural practices, legal logging, and illegal logging.
These threats are still present and are the main future threats to biodiversity,
followed by unsustainable hunting and collection for trade.
The Luzon Rain Forests [IM0123] ecoregion has been greatly modified by human
activities. This is probably unavoidable given the high rate of population increase and the
size of the population as a whole. Three of the country's largest cities are in this
ecoregion: Manila, Quezon City, and Caloocan City. Many of the lowland areas were
converted into agriculture long ago, but recent forest clearing is a tremendous problem.
Still, Luzon's estimated 24 percent total forest cover was and probably is better than that
of the Philippines as a whole. This is probably because Luzon has smaller trees than the
rest of the country because of increasingly frequent typhoons in the northern Philippines
(Collar et al. 1999), rugged mountains, and independent ethnic communities.
based our delineation of the Philippine ecoregions primarily on Heaney (1993).
Cordillera, and Zambales mountain ranges. MacKinnon (1997) shows an area of
in the Cagayan river plains, have been converted to rice fields (D. Madulid, pers. comm.,
Lubang Islands and Batanes and Babuyan groups with the Luzon Rain Forests. The
Banguet pine (Pinus insularis, also known as P. kesiya)-dominated conifer forests in the
Central Cordillera were designated as the Luzon Tropical Pine Forests.
References
108
16. Palawan rain forests
Palawan represents a bridge between the Sunda
Shelf and Philippine bioregions and contains
faunal elements from both, as well as it own
unique elements. This ecoregion, though more
intact than any other region in the Philippines, is
under great pressure from logging interests.
Coron Island, Philippines
Photograph by Sterling
Zumbrunn/Conservation International
Philippines:
Islands of
Palawan,
Balabac, Ursula,
and the
Calamain Group
5,500 square miles
(14,300 square
Connecticut and
Rhode Island
combined
Tropical and
Critical/Endangered
Subtropical Moist
Broadleaf
Forests
This ecoregion includes the island Palawan plus
Balabac, Ursula Island, and the Calamian
Group. Palawan itself is the sixth largest of the
Philippine Islands. The climate of the ecoregion
is tropical wet (National Geographic Society
1999). In northwest Palawan, a dry season lasts
from November to May while the wet season
lasts from June to October; the rest of the island
experiences a short, one- to three-month dry
season. The east coast becomes progressively
drier than the west coast from north to south
(Davis et al. 1995).
Palawan (along with the Calamianes and the island of Mindoro) was rifted (below water)
from the Asian mainland approximately 32 million years ago, transported through
seafloor spreading across the growing South China Sea, added to the growing Philippine
Archipelago approximately 17 million years ago, and uplifted above water approximately
5-10 million years ago (Hall and Holloway 1998; Dickinson, Kennedy, and Parkes 1991).
Metamorphic rocks are found in the northern portion of the island north of Mt. St. Paul.
Volcanic rocks are found in the vicinity of Cleopatra's Needle, just south of Mt. St. Paul.
Mt. St. Paul itself and the El Nido Cliffs are karst landscapes. The southern third of the
island, south of the Quezon-Aboabo Gap, is dominated by ultramafics mixed with
volcanic rocks and Tertiary limestone. Tertiary sandstones and shales occur along the
southwest coast (Davis et al. 1995).
The channel between Palawan and Borneo is about 145 m deep. During the middle
Pleistocene, sea levels were 160 m lower than today, and the islands were connected.
During the last ice age (late Pleistocene), sea level was approximately 120 m below
current levels, and Palawan was separated from ice age Borneo by a narrow channel.
Palawan has always remained separated from the rest of the Philippines. Palawan is long
109
and narrow, consisting of a steep mountain range whose highest point is 2,085 m (Mt.
Mantalingajan). More than 45 percent of Palawan consists of mountains with slopes
greater than 30 percent (Davis et al. 1995).
Vegetation types on Palawan are diverse and include beach forest, tropical lowland
evergreen dipterocarp rain forest, lowland semi-deciduous forest, montane forest, and
ultramafic and limestone forest. Beach forest merges with other forest types away from
the coast and includes Calophyllum inophyllum, Canarium asperum var. asperum,
Pometia pinnata, Palaquium dubardii, and Ficus spp. (Davis et al. 1995).
The lowland evergreen dipterocarp rain forest, which naturally occupies 31 percent of the
island, is dominated by Agalai spp., Dipterocarpus gracilis, D. grandiflorus, Ficus spp.,
Tristania spp., Exocarpus latifolius, and Swintonia foxworthyi. Sygium spp.,
Dracontomelon dao, and Pongamia pinnata are emergent. Lianas and cycads are
common. In southern Palawan, a Casuarina sp. dominates in the lowland forests (Davis
et al. 1995).
The eastern half of the island is in a rain shadow and contains moist semi-deciduous
forests. Soils are thin on the steeper slopes and support medium-sized trees (up to 15 m
tall), which shed their leaves during the March-May dry season. The rainy season is JuneJuly. Common tree species include Pterocymbium tinctorium, Pterospermum
diversifolium, Hymenodictyon spp., and Garuga floribunda (Davis et al. 1995).
Montane forests, found between 800 and 1,500 m, are dominated by Tristania spp.,
Casuarina spp., Swietenia foxworthyi, and Litsea spp. in the lower elevations. Upper
montane forest trees include Agathis philippinensis, Dacrydium pectinatum, Podocarpus
polystachyus, Gnetum latifolium, Cycas wadei, Cinnamomum rupestre, Nepenthes
philippinensis, and Angiopteris spp. (Davis et al. 1995).
Limestone forests are found on the islets surrounding Palawan and over large areas in the
southern portions of the island. Represented are Euphorbia trigona, Aglaia argentea, and
Antidesma, Drypetes, Gomphandra, Sterculia, Pleomele, and Begonia spp. (Davis et al.
1995).
Victoria Peak, in south-central Palawan, contains the largest region of ultramafic forest
on the island. Although many of the ultramafic tree species are shared with semideciduous forest, several species, including Scaevola micrantha, Brackenridgea palustris
var. foxworthi, Exocarpus latifolius, and Phyllanthus lamprophyllus are believed to be
heavy metal indicators (Davis et al. 1995).
Relative to the size of Palawan, the ecoregion contains a rich fauna, including
several groups that are not found in the rest of the Philippines (carnivores,
pangolins, porcupines, and some insectivores) (Heaney 1986).
110
There are many endemic mammals in Palawan, but nearly all the genera (96 percent) are
also found in Borneo. Of twenty-five indigenous nonvolant mammal species, eleven (44
percent) are endemic to Palawan, and the remainder are shared with Borneo. Therefore,
the greater Palawan region is rightly considered part of the Sunda Shelf bioregion rather
than that of the Philippines. The large number of endemic species but few endemic
genera of Palawan are consistent with a separation of Borneo and Palawan of
approximately 160,000 (since the middle Pleistocene) (Heaney 1986). There are fifteen
endemic or near-endemic mammals in greater Palawan (table 1).
Family
Species
Pteropodidae
Acerodon leucotis*
Cervidae
Axis calamianensis*
Sciuridae
Sundasciurus steerii*
Sciuridae
Sundasciurus moellendorfi*
Sciuridae
Sundasciurus rabori*
Sciuridae
Hylopetes nigripes*
Muridae
Chiropodomys calamianensis*
Muridae
Maxomys panglima*
Muridae
Palawanomys furvus*
Hystricidae
Hystrix pumila*
Sorcidae
Crocidura palawanensis*
Muridae
Haeromys sp. A*
Sciuridae
Sundasciurus hoogstraali*
Sciuridae
Sundasciurus juvencus*
Tupaiidae
Tupaia palawanensis*
The Calamian deer (Axis calamianensis) is found only in the Calamian Islands, where it
survives in low densities on Busuanga, Calauit, and Culion Islands. The only protected
111
area for this species was established to protect free-ranging African ungulates on Calauit
Island (Wemmer 1998).
Balabac, Palawan, and the Calamian Islands also provide habitat for an endemic
subspecies of the bearded pig (Sus barbatus ahoenobarbus), another subspecies of which
is widely distributed in the Greater Sundas. The IUCN considers this species to be rare
and declining. This species naturally inhabits tropical evergreen rain forest but is able to
use a wide variety of habitats within forests. They are quite dependent on fruit supplies
but consume a wide variety of foods. Directional large-scale population movements in
scattered or condensed herds lasting days, weeks, or even months are reported for other
subspecies in Borneo and Sumatra; this is generally associated with the mast fruiting of
dipterocarps. Such movements have not been reported from the Philippines (Oliver
1993).
Several of Palawan's endemic mammals are considered threatened. Three endemic
mammal species are considered endangered, including the Calamian deer, a Sunda tree
squirrel (Sundasciurus juvencus) (recommended for delisting; Heaney et al. 1998), and
the Palawan rat (Palawanomys furvus), which was collected only four times in 1962. A
subspecies of mouse deer, the Balabac chevrotain (Tragulus napu nigricans), which is
confined to Balabac Island, is also considered endangered. Five endemic mammal species
are considered vulnerable, including Acerodon leucotis, the Palawan treeshrew (Tupaia
palawanensis), the Palawan stink badger (Mydaus marchei), the Palawan binturong
(Arctictis binturong whitei), and a Sunda tree squirrel (Sundasciurus rabori) (IUCN
2000).
As with mammals, Philippine birds in general show a strong Bornean affinity, and it is
clear that the main pathway of Asian immigration to the Philippines was through
Palawan; of 395 Philippine breeding species, 137 (35 percent) also breed in Borneo.
Palawan birds exhibit strong differentiation at the subspecific level when compared with
its nearest Philippine neighbor, Mindoro. This is in contrast to the other partial land
bridge between Borneo and the Philippines, the Sulu Islands, which have not
differentiated significantly from Mindanao. Borneo and Palawan share twenty-three bird
species that are not found in the rest of the Philippines. The Asian genera Polyplectron,
Malacocincla, Malacopteron, Dinopium, Aegithina, Criniger, Seicercus, and Gracula are
found only in Palawan within the Philippines (Dickinson et al. 1991). The island forms an
important bird migration route between Borneo and the rest of the Philippines for
southern migrants (Davis et al. 1995).
This ecoregion corresponds exactly with the Palawan EBA (Stattersfield et al. 1998). The
EBA contains twenty restricted-range birds, seventeen of which are found nowhere else
on Earth and five of which (Palawan peacock-pheasant [Polyplectron emphanum], grey
imperial-pigeon [Ducula pickeringii], blue-headed racquet-tail [Prioniturus platenae],
falcated wren-babbler [Ptilocichla falcata], and Palawan flycatcher [Ficedula platenae])
are considered vulnerable (Collar 1999). All these vulnerable birds are dependent on
lowland and hill forest (Collar et al. 1999; Stattersfield et al. 1998). There are twenty
endemic or near-endemic bird species in the Palawan ecoregion (Kennedy et al. 2000;
112
table 2).
Family
Common Name
Species
Phasianidae
Palawan peacock-pheasant
Polyplectron emphanum*
Columbidae
Ducula pickeringii
Psittacidae
Blue-headed racquet-tail
Prioniturus platenae*
Strigidae
Mantanani scops-owl
Otus mantananensis
Strigidae
Palawan scops-owl
Otus fuliginosus*
Apodidae
Palawan swiftlet
Aerodramus palawanensis*
Bucconidae
Palawan hornbill
Anthracoceros marchei*
Monarchidae
Blue paradise-flycatcher
Terpsiphone cyanescens*
Irenidae
Yellow-throated leafbird
Chloropsis palawanensis*
Muscicapidae
Palawan flycatcher
Ficedula platenae*
Muscicapidae
Palawan blue-flycatcher
Cyornis lemprieri*
Muscicapidae
White-vented shama
Copsychus niger*
Pycnonotidae
Sulphur-bellied bulbul
Ixos palawanensis*
Timaliidae
Ashy-headed babbler
Malacocincla cinereiceps*
Timaliidae
Palawan babbler
Malacopteron palawanense*
Timaliidae
Falcated wren-babbler
Ptilocichla falcata*
Timaliidae
Palawan striped-babbler
Stachyris hypogrammica*
Paridae
Palawan tit
Parus amabilis*
Paridae
White-fronted tit
Parus semilarvatus
Dicaeidae
Palawan flowerpecker
Prionochilus plateni*
113
found on the islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Samar, Jolo, Negros, Busuanga, and
Mindanao. Busuanga contains one of the only remaining populations (others are found on
Mindoro, Negros, and Mindanao). Whereas the decline of the species was initially driven
by overexploitation, habitat loss and human persecution are now the principal threats to
the Philippine crocodile. Surveys in 1980-1982 revealed a total wild population of
approximately 500-1,000 individuals, but current wild populations may be approximately
100 nonhatchlings. Captive breeding efforts are being led by the Crocodile Farming
Institute, an entity of the Philippine government (Ross 1998).
A total of 1,522 (Davis et al. 1995) to 1,672 (Quinnell and Balmford 1988) vascular
plants have been identified on Palawan, and it is estimated that more than 2,000 species
are present on the island. As detailed earlier, Palawan has an extremely diverse range of
vegetation types for the Philippines. A small number of dipterocarps, an important timber
tree group, are present on the island, as well as a variety of medicinal plants used by
ethnic tribes and plants used in ceremony and as ornamentals (Davis et al. 1995).
Current Status
Almost all of the Philippines was once completely forested (Dickinson et al. 1991).
As of 1988, Palawan contained 7,410 km2 (54 percent) of total forest remaining
(SSC 1988). At the time this was the highest percentage of any of the Philippines'
large islands.
Later aerial surveys (Development Alternatives 1992) indicated that significant
reductions in closed-canopy forest cover had occurred since 1988 as a result of recent
logging. As seen from the air, the lowlands and hillsides consist of slash-and-burn
agriculture up to the edges of natural forest in the highlands. Closed-canopy forest caps
only the highest areas on the island.
Palawan's forests are of low commercial value because of the small number of
dipterocarps, and until the last twenty years Palawan's forests were ignored in favor of the
more valuable forests of Luzon and Mindanao. Government logging regulations setting
guidelines for minimum diameter, minimum rotation length, and replanting have been
largely ignored (Quinnell and Balmford 1988).
Because of a generally high population density in other parts of the Philippines, large
numbers of shifting cultivators (kaingineros) are attracted to Palawan to eke out a living
on the hillsides of the island, and their cumulative impact is enormous (Quinnell and
Balmford 1988).
All of Palawan was declared a Fauna and Flora Watershed Reserve, and this includes a
variety of protected areas, including national parks, wilderness areas, experimental
forests, forest research reserves, game refuges, wildlife sanctuaries, museum reservations
and research sites, tourist zones, and marine reserves.
114
Recent reports in the international press indicate (and have been confirmed, L. Heaney,
pers. comm., 2000) that the situation in Palawan has stabilized, that large-scale logging
has been halted, and that a balance is being achieved between economic development and
conservation; future monitoring will determine whether this is remains true.
Habitat destruction is the main threat to biodiversity in the Philippines, and
Palawan, though currently in better condition, is no different. Logging and
shifting cultivation (kaingin) are cited as the primary forces of habitat
conversion. Logging takes many forms, from industrial scale to smaller-scale
operations that use water buffalo to haul logs out of the forest. Mangroves are
used locally for firewood, dyes, and tannins (Davis et al. 1995), and they are
sometimes removed to make way for fishponds (Quinnell and Balmford 1988).
Hunting and the wild pet trade are also significant threats in Palawan. Leopard cats have
been hunted for their pelts and are sold when kittens as pets (Heaney and Regalado
1998). The Palawan binturong is hunted for meat and as pets, and the pangolin is hunted
for its hide (Quinnell and Balmford 1988). The Palawan peacock-pheasant (Dickinson et
al. 1991; Collar et al. 1999), blue-headed racquet-tail (Collar et al. 1999), Philippine
cockatoos (Cacatua haematuropygia), and blue-naped parrots (Tanygnathus lucionensis)
(Quinnell and Balmford 1988) apparently are suffering greatly from the pet trade. The
final destination for these birds often is the United States (Quinnell and Balmford 1988).
Ornamental plant collecting, especially for the orchids (Phalaenopsis amabilis and
Paphiopedilum argus), pitcher plants (Nepenthes spp.), palms (Veitchia merrillii), and
aroids (Amorphophallus spp. and Alocasia spp.) threatens some plant populations (Davis
et al. 1995).
A valuable resin, known as Manila copal, is collected from Agathis dammara trees. This
collection weakens the trees, and slackening production and disease combined with
overexploitation are threatening the species (Davis et al. 1995; Quinnell and Balmford
1988).
Currently, Palawan's mineral wealth (chromite, copper, iron, manganese, mercury, and
nickel) has not been extensively exploited, but the possible future extraction of these
minerals represents a potential threat (Quinnell and Balmford 1988).
based our delineation of the Philippine ecoregions on Heaney (1993).
115
We placed Palawan, Calamian Islands, and Cuyo Islands into a single ecoregion, the
Palawan Rain Forests. Palawan has closer zoogeographic affinities to Borneo.
References
116
17. Sulu Archipelago rain forests
Although these islands represent transitional
stepping stones from the island of Borneo to
Mindanao in the Philippines, they have evolved
their own distinctive faunas. Almost no forest
remains on Sulu, and only the eastern portion of
Tawitawi is forested. The islands are extremely
politically unstable, which exacerbates a
difficult conservation situation.
Tawitawi Island, Sulu archipelago,
Philippines
Photograph by Arvin Diesinos
900 square miles
(2,300 square
about the size of
Subtropical Moist
Rhode Island
Broadleaf
Forests
Critical/Endangered
Indo-Malay
This ecoregion includes the main islands of
Jolo (Sulu) and Tawitawi and the
surrounding smaller islands from Sibutu up
to but not including Basilan Island. The
climate of the ecoregion is tropical wet
(National Geographic Society 1999). There
are apparently short (two-week) dry
seasons in January and May on Tawitawi
(Allen 1998). The Sulus are located south of
the main typhoon track that so strongly
influences the more northerly Philippine
islands (Dickinson et al. 1991).
The Philippines are essentially accreted terrains, an accretion of previously isolated island
archipelagos that were brought together during the collision and partial subduction of
large oceanic tectonic plates.
The precursors of the Sulu Islands were an arc of submarine volcanoes that have existed
for at least 25 million years. However, the Sulus were not clearly above-water islands
until within the last 15 million years (Hall and Holloway 1998). The islands are low-lying
and coralline (limestone). Bongao Peak, on Bongao, reaches 300 m, and Mt. Sibangkok,
the highest point on the central ridge that divides Tawitawi, reaches 532 m (Allen 1998).
During the Pleistocene, the majority of the present Sulu Archipelago was one island,
separated from Basilan-Mindanao to the north and greater Sibutu (and Borneo) to the
south by deepwater channels of 205 m and 290 m depths, respectively. The distances
between these ice age islands were not great, however (Heaney 1986).
Vegetation types in the Sulu Archipelago originally included beach forest, lowland rain
forest, scrub forest, and mangroves (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Beach forest is composed
of Barringtonia, Caesalpinia, and Terminalia. A small patch of this forest type may be
found on Simunul, but this is generally an endangered habitat because of coastal
development (human habitation and cultivation, coconut plantations). Formerly the most
prevalent forest type on the islands (as with the rest of the Philippines), lowland rain
117
forest, or dipterocarp forest, is now mostly cleared. Represented dipterocarp genera
include Anisoptera, Dipterocarpus, Hopea, and Shorea. Little information is available
about the native scrub forest, which has been extensively cleared as well. Mangroves are
found on the coasts throughout the Archipelago but are especially extensive on Tawitawi;
mangroves around Bongao have been cleared. The principal mangrove genera include
Rhizophora, Ceriops, Brugueira, Sonneratia, Avicennia, and Nypa (palms) (Allen 1998).
Unlike that of Palawan, which is located between Borneo and the Philippines, the
Sulu Archipelago's fauna is not Sundaic (Allen 1998) and, though rather small, is
poorly known biologically (L. Heaney, pers. comm., 2000). Palawan was the
main pathway for immigrants from Borneo to the Philippines, and the Sulus have
many taxa that are identical to or derived from taxa in Mindanao. Even Sibutu,
close to Borneo and separated from the rest of the Sulus by the Sibutu Passage,
contains an avifauna more closely related to the Sulus than to Borneo (Dickinson
et al. 1991). Although there are some Sulu birds with Sundaic distributions, the
avifauna of the Archipelago is essentially Philippine (Dutson et al. 1992). The
Sulu hornbill (Anthracoceros montani) is one example of an animal whose likely
closest relative, the black hornbill (Anthracoceros malayanus), is from Borneo.
There is a cline of relatedness to Borneo as one moves north among the islands.
Sibutu contains birds of Bornean origin that are not found on Tawitawi (Allen
1998). The Sulus (Sangasanga, Bongao, Simunul, Tawitawi) also support a
population of slow loris (Nycticebus coucang), a Sundaic primate that is not
found in the remainder of the Philippines (Heaney 1986). There is one endemic
mammal in the ecoregion (table 1). The Tawitawi Island rat (Rattus taitawiensis)
is considered vulnerable (IUCN 2000).
Family
Species
Muridae
Rattus tawitawiensis*
A new pig species, Sus spp. nov., is being described from the Sulus on the basis of
MtDNA and skull measurements from a dead specimen (Rose and Grubb, in prep.). The
same subspecies of bearded pig found on Borneo (Sus barbatus barbatus) is also found in
the southwestern Sulus (Sibutu and Tawitawi), and this species can still be observed
crossing open water to reach these islands from Borneo. It is unknown whether these
over-water migrations are related to periodic eruptions on the Bornean mainland (Oliver
1993).
This ecoregion overlaps exactly with the Sulu Archipelago EBA. The EBA contains nine
restricted-range birds, four of which are limited to the Sulus. All the restricted-range
118
birds are forest species. Ten bird species qualify as endemic or near endemic to this
ecoregion (Kennedy et al. 2000; table 2). Included in the ecoregion are the critically
endangered Sulu bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba menagei), Tawitawi brown-dove
(Phapitreron cinereiceps), and Sulu hornbill (Anthracoceros montani) and the
endangered blue-winged racquet-tail (Prionoturus verticalis). Several endemic bird
subspecies may warrant elevation to species status upon detailed review (Stattersfield et
al. 1998; Collar et al. 1999).
Family
Common Name
Species
Columbidae
Sulu bleeding-heart
Gallicolumba menagei*
Columbidae
Dark-eared dove
Phapitreron cinereiceps*
Columbidae
Ducula pickeringii
Psittacidae
Blue-winged racquet-tail
Prioniturus verticalis*
Strigidae
Mantanani scops-owl
Otus mantananensis
Apodidae
Mearnsia picina
Bucconidae
Sulu hornbill
Anthracoceros montani*
Monarchidae
Celestial monarch
Pycnonotidae
Yellowish bulbul
Ixos everetti
Timaliidae
Brown tit-babbler
Several widespread but threatened species also occur on the islands, including the
critically endangered Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia) and vulnerable
rufous-lored kingfisher (Todirhamphus winchelli) (Collar et al. 1999; Stattersfield et al.
1998).
found on Jolo (as well as Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Samar, Negros, Busuanga, and
Mindanao), but the only remaining populations are found on Mindoro, Negros,
Mindanao, and Busuanga. The current wild population may be approximately 100
nonhatchlings (Ross 1998).
Current Status
119
There is almost no forest remaining on Jolo (Sulu) Island, and only the eastern
and north-central portions of Tawitawi are forested (Stattersfield et al. 1998;
Allen 1998). The majority of Tawitawi was selectively logged in the 1960s and
early 1970s (Allen 1998). Apparently, there were plans to replace the remaining
forests of Tawitawi with oil palm plantations. The situation on the smaller islands
is mixed. Sibutu and Simunul have been largely cleared (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Simunul has some patches of forest remaining that support populations of
Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), blue-naped parrot
(Tanygnathus lucionensis), and blue-backed parrot (T. sumatranus) (Dutson et
al. 1992). Sibutu has considerable secondary forest, and the island supports
numerous Sulu subspecies. The last forests of Sangasanga were cleared in 19921993. The island of Bongao still supports forests; an unidentified jungle flycatcher
collected in 1973 has not been observed since (Dutson et al. 1992). Small islands
in the Tandubas group (which also includes Tawitawi and Sangasanga) still have
small forest tracts that reportedly maintain populations of the endemic Sulu
bleeding-heart and Sulu hornbill (Stattersfield et al. 1998).
The main population center is on Bongao, where a busy port exists. Tawitawi is not
heavily populated, but future economic development on the island is a concern (Allen
1998; Stattersfield et al. 1998). Table 3 details the existing protected area on the islands.
Protected Area
Area (km2)
IUCN
Category
Mt. Dajo
40
IV
In general, habitat loss is the main threat to wildlife, but hunting is also a
problem. Small-scale logging continues to destroy the remaining habitat
(Stattersfield et al. 1998).
Philippine BAP (Philippine DENR & UNEP 1997) demarcated fifteen
Stattersfield et al. (1998), and the Philippine BAP (Philippine DENR & UNEP
1997) to varying degrees and based our delineation of the Philippine ecoregions
120
on Heaney (1993).
The islands of the Sulu Archipelago were delineated as a separate ecoregion, the Sulu
Archipelago Rain Forests. This ecoregion includes the Tawitawi Group, Tapul Group,
Jolo Group, and Samales Group of islands. These islands, with a lowland moist or semievergreen moist forest vegetation (Whitmore 1984), are also an EBA (Stattersfield et al.
1998) and have been identified as a distinct biounit by MacKinnon (1997) and a
biogeographic zone by the Philippine BAP (Philippine DENR & UNEP 1997)
References
121

Geografi Tanaman di Bioregion Wallace

Transcription

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