Orienteering Merit Badge handbook

Orienteering Workbook
Vulcan Orienteering Club
http://home.earthlink.net/~ciza/voc.html
United States Orienteering Federation
www.us.orienteering.org
Revised January 18, 2004
Joey Ciza
Vulcan Orienteering Club
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ORIENTEERING MERIT BADGE REQUIREMENTS: (JAN 1, 2004) ..................................................... 3
SECOND CLASS SCOUT RANK REQUIREMENTS ................................................................................. 4
FIRST CLASS SCOUT RANK REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................................... 4
DIRECTIONS WITHOUT A COMPASS...................................................................................................... 5
DAY.............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
General..................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Analog Watch Method.............................................................................................................................................. 5
Stick Method - Quick Version .................................................................................................................................. 5
Stick Method - Long Version.................................................................................................................................... 5
NIGHT........................................................................................................................................................................... 5
NIGHT........................................................................................................................................................................... 6
General..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Pole Star/North Star................................................................................................................................................. 6
Star Movement ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
HEIGHT/SIZE ESTIMATE:.......................................................................................................................... 7
ROUGH ESTIMATE......................................................................................................................................................... 7
LOGGER’S ESTIMATE .................................................................................................................................................... 7
SHADOWS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 7
ORIENTEERING HISTORY......................................................................................................................... 8
U.S. HISTORY ............................................................................................................................................................... 8
THE SPORT EVOLVES .................................................................................................................................................... 9
CHAMPIONSHIP COMPETITORS ...................................................................................................................................... 9
THE MAP...................................................................................................................................................... 10
ORIENTEERING MAP SYMBOLS:........................................................................................................... 12
COMPASS ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
TYPES OF ORIENTEERING COMPASSES:........................................................................................................................ 13
The baseplate (sometimes called protractor compass or map) ................................................................................ 13
The thumb compass................................................................................................................................................ 14
USING A COMPASS FOR ORIENTING THE MAP ............................................................................................................... 14
TAKING A BEARING ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
HOW IMPORTANT IS THE COMPASS? ............................................................................................................................ 14
DECLINATION ............................................................................................................................................................. 15
ORIENTEERING CLUE SYMBOLS .......................................................................................................... 17
ORIENTEERING TERMS........................................................................................................................... 18
MEASURING DISTANCE ........................................................................................................................... 22
LOCAL MEET COURSE PLANNER'S NOTES ........................................................................................ 23
LOCAL MEET COURSE DESIGN GUIDELINES .................................................................................... 24
ROUTE CHOICE IN ORIENTEERING ..................................................................................................... 25
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Orienteering Merit Badge
Orienteering Merit Badge requirements: (Jan 1, 2004)
1.
Show that you know first aid for the types of injuries that could occur while orienteering, including cuts, scratches,
blisters, snakebite, insect stings, tick bites, heat and cold reactions (sunburn, heatstroke, heat exhaustion, hypothermia),
and dehydration. Explain to your counselor why you should be able to identify poisonous plants and poisonous animals
that are found in your area.
_____
2.
Explain what orienteering is.
_____
3.
Do the following:
a. Explain how a compass works. Describe the features of an orienteering compass.
b. In the field, show how to take a compass bearing and follow it.
_____
_____
Do the following:
a. Explain how a topographic map shows terrain features.
Point out and name five terrain features on a map and in the field.
b. Point out and name 10 symbols on a topographic map.
c. Explain the meaning of declination.
Tell why you must consider declination when using map and compass together.
d. Show a topographic map with magnetic north-south lines.
e. Show how to measure distances using an orienteering compass.
f. Show how to orient a map using a compass.
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
4.
5.
Set up a 100-meter pace course. Determine your walking and running pace for 100 meters.
Tell why it is important to pace-count.
6.
Do the following:
a. Identify 20 international control description symbols. Tell the meaning of each symbol.
_____
b. Show a control description sheet and explain the information provided.
_____
c. Explain the following terms and tell when you would use them:
_____
attack point, collecting feature, aiming off, contouring, reading ahead, handrail, relocation,
rough versus fine orienteering.
7.
Do the following:
a. Take part in three orienteering events. One of these must be a cross-country course. _____ _____ _____
b. After each event, write a report with
1. A copy of the master map and control description sheet ,
_____ _____ _____
2. A copy of the route you took on the course,
_____ _____ _____
3. A discussion of how you could improve your time between control points, and _____ _____ _____
4. A list of your major weaknesses on this course.
Describe what you could do to improve.
_____ _____ _____
8.
Do ONE of the following:
a. Set up a cross-country course of at least 2,000 meters long with at least five control markers. _____
Prepare the master map and control description sheet.
_____
b. Set up a score-orienteering course with 12 control points and a time limit of at least 60 minutes._____
Prepare the master map and control description sheet.
_____
9.
Act as an official during an orientation.
(This may be during the running of the course you set up for requirement 8 )
10. Teach orienteering techniques to your patrol, troop or crew.
_____
_____
_____
Note to the Counselor:
While orienteering is primarily an individual sport, BSA Youth Protection procedures call for using the buddy system.
Requirement 7a can be completed by pairs or groups of Scouts.
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Second Class Scout Rank Requirements
(compass / orienteering related)
1. a. Demonstrate how a compass works and how to orient a map. Explain what map symbols mean.
b. Using a compass and a map together, take a 5-mile hike (or 10 miles by bike) approved by
your adult leader and your parent or guardian.*
* If you use a wheelchair or crutches, or if it is difficult for you to get around, you may substitute "trip"
for "hike" in this requirement.
First Class Scout Rank Requirements
(compass / orienteering related)
1. Demonstrate how to find directions during the day and at night without using a compass.
2. Using a compass, complete an orienteering course that covers at least one mile and requires measuring the
height and/or width of designated items (tree, tower, canyon, ditch, etc.).
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Directions without a compass
Day
General
Everyone knows the sun rises in the East, sets in the West and the sun is due South at local noon (or North if
you are in the Southern hemisphere).
Analog Watch Method
If you have an analog (non digital) watch, the following method of finding the North line works well. (If yours
is digital, draw an analogue watch face showing the time on your digital in a piece of paper and use this). Hold
the watch horizontally with the hour hand pointing at the sun. Bisect the angle between the hour hand and 12 to
give the South line.
Stick Method - Quick Version
The quick method can be used on the move, takes about 15 - 20 minutes as you take a rest, but is not terribly
accurate: Stick the pole upright in the ground and mark where the tip of its shadow falls. Wait at least 15
minutes, then mark where the tip of the shadow now falls. Join the two points to give your East/West line. Your
North/South line naturally bisects this at right angles.
Stick Method - Long Version
The more time consuming, though more accurate, method uses the same stick upright in the ground, but can
take all day. Mark the first shadow in the morning at its tip, then draw a perfect arc (use string tied to the base
of the pole for best results) with the pole as the center point. When the tip of the shadow falls reaches the arc
again in the afternoon, mark this spot exactly. Join the morning and evening marks to give the East/ West line,
and, again, the North/South line bisects this at right angles. In both methods the first mark is West
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Night
General
As a rule of thumb, stars and moon rise in the East and set in the West
Pole Star/North Star
In the Northern hemisphere, we are lucky to have the Pole Star sitting over the North Pole with a variation of
only about 2 degrees. This star is extremely useful for navigation, and can be found using the obvious
constellations of the Big Dipper (A), Cassiopeia (B), and Orion (C)
Star Movement
In the Northern Hemisphere: if the star seems to fall, you are facing West; if the star seems to curve flatly to the
right, you are facing South; if the star seems to curve flatly to the left, you are facing North. Although this is a
rough and ready system, it can be made to work with any star other than the Pole Star.
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Height/Size Estimate:
Rough Estimate
Work in groups of two. Measure the height of one person and record. That person then stands straight against
the tree. The second person stands at a distance and estimates how many "heights" of that person make up the
tree height. Walk farther back and repeat. Do until you are getting a consistent estimate.
Logger’s Estimate
Work in groups of two. One person stands at a distance from the tree and extends their arm to full arm’s length.
Bracket the tree height between the thumb and forefinger. If the tree is too big, walk farther away from the tree.
Without changing the distance between the fingers, rotate the hand so the distance runs along the ground from
the base of the tree outward. The second student should locate the spot on the ground identified by the first
student’s forefinger. (Note: It is important that the first student keep their arm fully extended throughout this
exercise.) The distance on the ground equals the height of the tree. The distance on the ground can be estimated
by pacing.
Shadows
Work in groups of two. Measure the height of one person and the measure their shadow. Record. Measure the
shadow length of the tree and record. The tree height can be calculated by the following proportion:
height of tree
=
length of tree’s shadow
height of person
length of person’s shadow
height of tree = (height of person) X ( length of tree's shadow )
length of person's shadow
example:
height of person = 5 ft
length of person's shadow = 3 ft
length of tree's shadow = 60 feet
height of tree = 5 x 60
3
=
300
3
=
100 feet
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What is Orienteering?
Orienteering is a sport in which orienteers use an accurate, detailed map and a compass to find points in the
landscape. It can be enjoyed as a walk in the woods or as a competitive sport.
A standard orienteering course consists of a start, a series of control sites that are marked by circles on a map,
connected by lines and numbered in the order they are to be visited, and a finish. The control site circles are
centered around a feature that is to be found. This feature is also defined by control descriptions (sometimes
called clues). On the ground, a control flag marks the location that the orienteer must visit. To verify a visit, the
orienteer uses a punch hanging next to the flag to mark his or her control card. Different punches make different
patterns of holes in the paper.
The route between "controls" (refers to the flag or the site) is not specified, and is entirely up to the orienteer.
This element of route choice and the ability to navigate through the forest are the essence of orienteering.
Most orienteering events use staggered starts to ensure that each orienteer has a chance to do his or her own
navigating, but there are several other popular formats, including relays and events in which the orienteer must
find as many controls as possible within a specified time.
Orienteering History
Orienteering began in the late 1800's in Sweden as a military exercise. Major Ernst Killander, a Swedish scout
leader is credited with making the sport popular. In order to spark interest in track and field, he decided to use
the natural Swedish countryside to encourage young runners. He set courses in the forest and issued maps and
compasses to competitors. The first races were so successful that he extended orienteering to the general
public. The first major orienteering contest was in March 1919 with 155 participants on a 15kilometer course
near Stockholm, Sweden. A monument marks the site as the birthplace of orienteering. The early days of
orienteering required a high level of fitness because runners were the checkpoints were set up on large and
obvious land features. This was mainly due to the poor quality of maps available in those days. By the 1930's,
the quality of maps improved and map reading skills became more important. This meant that the winners had
to know the technical aspects of orienteering as well as be physically fit. Orienteering quickly spread
throughout Scandinavia and beyond.
During the 1960's, orienteering grew quickly. The International Orienteering Federation (IOF) was established
in 1961. Within three years, eleven European countries were affiliated with the IOF. The first European
championships were held in Norway in 1962. Today the largest orienteering event is the O-Ringen - a five day
orienteering festival held in Sweden. As many as 25,000 orienteers gather from all over the world to compete
on over 100 courses.
U.S. History
The first orienteering events in North America started on November 10, 1941, and continued until 1943 at
Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, organized by Finnish army officer Piltti Heiskanen.
Bjorn Kjellstrom, the co-inventor in Sweden in the early 1930's of the protractor type, liquid-damped magnetic
compass, moved to the U.S. in 1946 and remained an ever-present supporter and sponsor of orienteering well
into the 1990's. In 1946 Bjorn put on orienteering events for Boy Scouts, in 1948 held events in Canada, and
supported or organized compass events and some orienteering events throughout the fifties and sixties. A
greater awareness of topographic map and compass use was developed, however there were no known cases of
orienteering catching on for good.
In the 1965 to 1968 period, Kjellstrom organized compass and map game activities at Ward Pound Ridge
Reservation just North of the New York City area, with Wibye adding a competitive orienteering course upon
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his arrival there in 1968. Apparently, orienteering activity at Pound Ridge did not resume until the 1972 U.S.
Championships held by Hans Bengtsson of Massachusetts and his fledgling New England Orienteering Club.
Beginning in March 1970, Alex "Sass" Peepre, a physical education professor orienteering since 1965 in
Guelph, Ontario, Hank Schafermeyer, cartographer Lowell Solterman, Paul Yambert, and Andy Marcec
succeeded in starting orienteering at Southern Illinois University. The first U.S. Orienteering Championships
was held there on October 17, 1970.
The Sport Evolves
After fading away around 1971-72, West Point orienteering was rejuvenated in 1975 by U.S. Army orienteering
founder Bud Fish. The cadets have dominated U.S. intercollegiate competition from 1978 to the present except
for 1983-85 when Gene Wee's University of Kansas orienteers won. Bill Gookin has been an orienteering
organizer in the San Diego area since 1969. The San Francisco Bay area club with the leadership of Joe
Scarborough and the clubs around the Seattle, Washington, area grew rapidly as the top western orienteering
areas in the 1980's.
By March 1973, over 300 competitors attended the annual nationally sanctioned meet by the Ohio University
club in Athens, Ohio, where the USOF office was operated by Eric Wagner. Joannie Gunther and Cindy Fuller,
USOF leaders into the mid-1980's, began orienteering here. The growing St. Louis Orienteering Club's Bob
Defer handled the USOF office from 1978-85. USOF membership rose to 1150 by 1975, 1900 with 80 clubs by
1978, then declined as ROTC withdrew military support in colleges and college clubs, both ROTC and others,
began disappearing especially in the South and Midwest.
As the 1980's progressed, the New England club remained the largest club with over 700 members. The Hudson
Valley Orienteers, led first by Linda and Larry Crane and later by tireless orienteering promoter Jon Nash,
began hosting the lion's share of major international events including the first World Cup event in the United
States in 1986. An equally effective leader and promoter, Mark Frank of Pennsylvania, coordinated the 1982
and 1992 U.S. Championships at French Creek State Park, with 705 orienteers attending the 1982 event.
Other than scout events, the 1982 Championships still holds the record for the most U.S. orienteers
participating. There have been only five different larger events in the U.S. The Sept.-Oct. 1997 Veterans World
Cup in Minnesota had over 2200 orienteers on a single day. Mappers and scout leaders, Dave Linthicum in
Maryland and Ed Scott in Pennsylvania, have both had over 1000 orienteers on a single day at their annual
scout events. The October 1993 World & U.S. Orienteering Championships in New York also cleared 1,000
orienteers. The August 1990 Aisa-Pacific Orienteering Carnival had almost 900 orienteers.
In spite of such efforts as the Seattle area successful interscholastic league starting in 1983 and the work with
educators by Hicks of New York, youth participation reached lows in the late 1980's and 1990's. These
programs are good examples of the slow trend, even with schools, scouts, and park services away from the
peculiar American orientation toward compass games that are unfortunately sometimes labeled as
"orienteering."
Championship Competitors
Marines won the first six U.S. men's orienteering titles. In the early and mid-1980's, five-time U.S. elite
champion Peter Gagarin of Massachusetts founded and coached the U.S. Team which has represented the
United States at every World Orienteering championships since 1974. Gagarin's personal results in masters
categories in the 1980's and 1990's place him at the very top of all-time non-European orienteering results
regardless of category.
Amongst the women, none have achieved the success of Sharon Crawford of Massachusetts, who was the top
U.S. woman at seven straight World Championships and in 1989 at the age of 45 won her eleventh U.S.
Championship in the elite category. In the late 1980's and the 1990's, Peggy Dickison of Kansas and then
Maryland won numerous titles and coordinated the U.S. Team.
Eric Weyman of Pennsylvania, the top U.S. ranked orienteer for eight straight years in the 1980's, and Pat
Dunlavey of Massachusetts were the pre-eminent national orienteering mappers of the decade, raising the
quality of U.S. maps to world standard. Mikell Platt, a 1980 West Point graduate and many-time U.S.
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Champion, moved his orienteering mapping efforts to the central Rockies and began holding summer
orienteering festivals there in 1992.
The Map
Although it is possible to orienteer on almost any map, it is much more enjoyable to use maps made specifically
for orienteering. Such maps are accurate and detailed, and are prepared on a human scale - terrain and features
are mapped so that what appear on the map are the features that a human, moving through the area, sees readily.
For example, boulders that are waist high appear on orienteering maps.
The orienteering map has evolved substantially over the last 50 years. In the 1940s, events in Scandinavia used
1:100,000 (1 cm =1 km) government issue maps, often in black and white and without contour lines to show the
shape of the land. Nowadays, most orienteering events are held on five-color maps that have 5 meter contour
intervals (16.5 feet) and have a scale of 1:15,000 (preferred) or 1:10,000 (1 cm = 100 meters).
Most of the characteristics of orienteering maps are related to those found on hiking and general use maps
produced by the government. However, one feature of orienteering maps is specific to the sport: the north lines.
North lines are parallel lines drawn running from magnetic south to magnetic north, and are normally spaced
500 meters apart on the map. Why aren't north lines on orienteering maps drawn pointing to true north? Because
the angle between magnetic north and true north (the declination) varies widely in different parts of the world,
and because orienteers use compasses to orient themselves (to magnetic north, not true north), it has become the
standard to provide a series of reference lines on the map so that it is easy to use an orienteering compass to take
a bearing.
There are international specifications for map symbols, and these have been successful in their aim of making
orienteering map symbols standard throughout the world.
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Land Features
Water Features
Linear Features
Other Man-Made Features
Vegetation
Rock Features
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Orienteering map symbols:
Black symbols are used for rock features (for example, boulders, cliffs, stony ground) and for linear features
such as roads, trails and fences as well as for other man-made features (for example, ruins and buildings)
Brown symbols are used for landforms such as contour lines, small knolls, ditches, earth banks.
Blue is used for water features: lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, marshes.
Yellow is to show vegetation - specifically for open or unforested land. The density of the yellow color shows
how clear the area is: brightest yellow for lawns, pale yellow for meadows with high grass.
Green is used to show vegetation that slows down the passage of an orienteer. The darkest green areas, called
"fight", are almost impassably overgrown.
White on an orienteering map signifies forest with little or no undergrowth - forest that an orienteer can run
through.
Purple (or red) is used to mark the orienteering course on a map. Conditions that are specific to an event (such
as out-of-bounds fields in which crops are growing) are also designated in red or purple.
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Compass
Good compasses have a fluid-filled housing; the fluid dampens the motion of the needle, so that you can use the
compass without holding it perfectly still. Avoid inexpensive compasses that do not have fluid-filled housings.
The compass needle is painted in two colors. Assuming that the compass is held flat, the red end points to north,
and the white end to south. An interesting detail is that there are northern- and Southern Hemisphere compasses.
This has to do with the fact that the magnetic field lines, to which a compass needle aligns, point into the earth
at the north and south magnetic poles. In the Northern Hemisphere the north end of the needle is pulled
downwards, and the south end is counterweighted to balance the needle.
When you use a northern hemisphere compass in, say, Australia, the south end of the magnet is pulled
downwards by the magnetic field, and is also heavier than the north end - resulting in a needle that catches and
drags on the bottom of the compass housing when the compass is held horizontal.
A good compass will last a long time. However, some things can go wrong with a compass: the plastic
components can break, or the housing can develop a leak. Over time, the fluid within the housing may turn an
opaque blue-green. And, very rarely, the magnetization of the compass needle may reverse, so that the south
end now points to north.
Types of Orienteering compasses:
There are two main types of orienteering compasses:
The baseplate (sometimes called protractor compass or map)
This type of compass was invented by the Kjellstrom brothers during the World War II era. It consists of a
rectangular baseplate, which is marked with a red arrow pointing along the long axis, and a rotating compass
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housing marked in degrees (360 degrees for the full circle in most of the world, but 400 on some European
compasses). Marked on the floor of the rotating compass housing are an arrow and a set of lines parallel to that
arrow. Additional features may include a lanyard for attaching the compass to the wrist, scale bars for
measuring map distances along one or more edges of the baseplate, a magnifying glass for reading fine map
detail, and templates of a circle and triangle for marking orienteering courses on the map.
The thumb compass
In the mid 1980s, a top Swedish orienteer developed an alternative to the baseplate compass by reshaping the
baseplate and adding a strap for attaching the compass to his thumb. This compass is then placed on the thumb
of the left hand, which holds it on the map. The advantage of this system is that the map and compass are
always read as a unit, the map is aligned more easily and quickly, plus one hand is left free; the disadvantage is
that running very accurately on a bearing is more difficult. Personal preference usually determines the type of
compass that is used; world championships have been won using both types.
Using a compass for orienting the map
This is a simple skill, and is probably the most important use of the compass:
1. Hold your map horizontally.
2. Place the compass flat on the map.
3. Rotate the map until the "north lines" on the map (a series of evenly spaced parallel lines drawn across the
map, all pointing to magnetic north) are aligned with the compass needle.
The map should now be oriented to the terrain. This makes it much easier to read, just as text is easier to read
right side up than upside down.
Taking a bearing
Every direction can be expressed as an angle with respect to north. In the military and the boy scouts, this is
called an "azimuth", and bearings are expressed as a number of degrees. Orienteers take the easy way out, just
setting the angle on their compass and keeping the needle aligned, which in turn keeps them going in the right
direction. A simple set of step-by-step instructions for setting a bearing on a baseplate compass are:
1. place the compass on the map so that the direction of travel arrow is lined up with the way you want to go
2. turn the compass housing so that the arrows engraved in its plastic base are parallel to the north arrows
drawn on the map (make sure the arrowhead points north and not south)
3. take the compass off the map and hold it in front of you so that the direction of travel arrow points directly
ahead of you
4. rotate your body until the compass needle is aligned with the arrow on the base of the compass housing
5. pick out a prominent object ahead of you along the direction of travel, go to it, and repeat the process (this
way you can detour around obstructions but still stay on your bearing)
How important is the compass?
The most important navigational aid used in orienteering is the human brain. One other navigational device is in
allowed and in general use: the compass. Compasses are useful for taking bearings and for orienting the map so
that it is aligned with the terrain - but it is possible, in most areas, to complete a course quite easily and
efficiently without a compass (an exception: it would be difficult to navigate flat areas poor in prominent
features without a compass).
The compass is the only legal navigational aid that can be used in orienteering. Altimeters are specifically
prohibited and GPS units are implicitly prohibited by the rules. It has been stated that GPS units could be very
useful and helpful aids, but when the question of how an everyday orienteer would use a GPS unit to defeat the
reigning US champion in a race was raised, the only valid reply was: "I would wait at the first control for him,
14
use the GPS unit to knock him out, and then proceed on to victory". Technology, however powerful, is no
match for basic navigational ability - even in the hands of a good orienteer who is also a technological wizard.
Beginning orienteers should learn basic compass skills and work on mastering map reading.
Declination
Unfortunately, true north and magnetic north are not located at the same place. A compass needle points to
magnetic north; the number of degrees East or West that magnetic north and true north are separated by is
known as declination. Many compasses have built-in declination adjustments; others do not. For accurate
compass readings, it is necessary to account for declination. The isogonic chart at right roughly shows
declination for the United States.
If, for example, you are in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, you will have a west declination of about
16 degrees, meaning that magnetic north is 16 degrees west of true north. By aligning your magnetic needle 16
degrees west of true north (360 degrees minus 16 degrees, or 344 degrees), the azimuth ring will then be
correctly oriented for true north. For compasses that do not have built-in declination adjustments, it is common
practice to place a small piece of tape at the declination point of the azimuth ring. In other words, if you are in
an area with a westerly declination, align the magnetic end of your compass needle to 360 minus the
declination. If, however, you are in an area with an easterly declination, align the magnetic end of your compass
needle to the number (degree) on your dial that is the declination.
15
The Earth's magnetic field is actually a composite of several magnetic fields generated by a variety of sources.
These fields are superimposed on each other and through inductive processes interact with each other. The most
important of these geomagnetic sources are:
a. the Earth's conducting, fluid outer core (~90%);
b. magnetized rocks in Earth's crust
c. fields generated outside Earth by electric currents flowing in the ionosphere and magnetosphere
d. electric currents flowing in the Earth's crust (usually induced by varying external magnetic fields)
e. ocean current effects
These contributions all vary with time on scales ranging from milliseconds (micropulsations) to millions of
years (magnetic reversals). More than 90% of the geomagnetic field is generated by the Earth's outer core. It is
this portion of the geomagnetic field that is represented by the Magnetic Field Models.
Location: Birmingham, AL
Latitude: 33d 22m North, Longitude: 86d 41m West
Year
1900
1905
1910
1915
1920
1925
1930
Declination
3d 39m E
3d 39m E
3d 37m E
3d 38m E
3d 39m E
3d 35m E
3d 35m E
Year
1935
1940
1945
1950
1955
1960
1965
Declination
3d 38m E
3d 43m E
3d 45m E
3d 39m E
3d 35m E
3d 12m E
2d 53m E
16
Year
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Declination
2d 14m E
1d 34m E
0d 48m E
0d 7m E
0d 30m W
1d 5m W
1d 44m W
2d 19m W
Orienteering Clue Symbols
Although clues are always written out in English (or the local language) for beginners' courses, clues for
intermediate and advanced courses are given as symbols in a table format. To the uninitiated, this can look like
hieroglyphics, but the system is quite simple to master and is more compact and specific than a written
description - and has the advantage of being easily understood the world over.
The example shown here begins with a course designation (in North America, Orange refers to the intermediate
level course). The second entry in the heading is the length of the course (in kilometers or meters), which is
always measured as the minimum distance an orienteer would have to travel to complete the course (in other
words, along the straight line except where an obstacle such as a lake or out-of-bounds area forces a deviation
from the line. The third entry in the heading is the climb, in meters, as measured along the "ideal" route (as
determined and measured by the course setter). Each succeeding line in the clue list describes the location of a
control, and the final line describes the approach to the finish from the final control
For example:
column a:
column b:
column c:
column d:
column e:
column f:
column g:
column h:
The control number (in this case, the fourth control)
The control code appearing at or near the flag (49)
Which of several similar features (the middle one)
The feature (the boulder)
Details of the feature's appearance (none given)
Dimensions of the feature
(1.5 m high)
Location of the control marker (the north side)
Other information (drinks available)
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2003
IOF SYMBOLS
Vulcan Orienteering Club
http://home.earthlink.net/~ciza/voc.html
USOF
United States Orienteering Federation
www.us.orienteering.org
A B C D E F G H
class
length climb
RED
7250m 300m
1 304
3x1
2 326
3 312
5x1
D - Control Features
Landforms
Description of the Control
A - control number
B - control code
C - which (of any similar features)
D - the control feature
E - details of the feature appearance
F - dimensions of the feature
G - location of the marker
H - other information
meters
Funnel tape to the finish
meters
Taped to the finish
meters
No tape
meters
Tape from control
meters
Tape to map exchange
terrace
field
spur
semi-open land
deep
overgrown
reentrant
forest corner
open
earth bank
clearing
rocky
quarry
thicket
marshy
Earth wall
linear thicket
sandy
Erosion gully
vegetation
boundary
Needle leaved
Small erosion
gully
tree cluster
deciduous
hill
single tree
ruined,
collapsed
knoll
Root stock
F - dimensions
saddle
small
depression
Northern
Southeastern
Upper
Lower
Middle
Man-made
road
pit
trail
ride
broken ground
bridge
Rocks & Boulders
cliff, rock face
Rock pilar
cave
boulder
powerline
pylon - pole
1
2x2
Height (meters)
Size (meters)
Combinations
junction
crossing
G - Location
Northeast side
Tunnel
Southeast edge
Stone wall
West part
Fence
East corner (inside)
boulder field
Crossing point
South corner (outside)
Boulder cluster
building
Southwest tip
Ruin
on a bend
Pipeline
Northwest end of
Tower
upper part
Boundary stone
lower part
Fodder rack
on top of
Stony
ground
bare rock
Narrow passage
Water & Marsh
lake
pond
waterhole
River, watercourse
Minor water channel
C - Which Feature
shallow
Vegetation
depression
200m
E - appearance
narrow marsh
Stairway
Special features
spcial item
spcial item
Country Specific
Foot (no direction)
Northeast foot
Beneath
Between
marsh
Shooting
platform
firm ground in
marsh
salt lick
well
charcoal
burning
refreshment
spring
Platform
radio control
Water tank,
water trough
anthill
control check
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Other Information
first aid
Orienteering Terms
Aiming Off (also called offset technique) - to deliberately aim to one side of a control or feature so that you know which
way to turn upon hitting the feature before seeing the control. (see dotted line from 2 to 3 in map figure above)
Attack Point - an obvious feature near the control point from which the control can be located by navigating carefully with
map and compass.
Bearing - the direction of travel as indicated by the compass.
Catching Feature (also called a Collecting Feature or Backstop) - an obvious feature on the map and ground located
beyond a control or other sought after feature which indicates that the target feature has been over-shot.
Check Point - an obvious feature on the map or ground which can be used to check that you are keeping to your chosen
route.
Contour - a line on a topographic map that connects points of equal elevation.
Control/ Control Marker/ Marker- a trapezoid-shaped marker (usually orange or red and white) used to mark features on
an orienteering course, usually with clipper or control punch attached to mark a control card as proof of arrival.
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Control Card (Punch Card)- a card carried by each participant, which is punched at each control feature to verify the visit.
Control Circle - a circle drawn around a feature on the map to indicate the location of a control marker. The feature
should be in the exact center of the circle.
Control Code - letters (or numbers) on a control marker which enable participants to verify that it is the correct one.
Control Description - a list given to each participant which briefly describes each control feature in order. It also gives
the control code.
Control Feature - a natural or man-made feature on or next to which the control is hung.
Control Marker - see control.
Control Number - a number drawn beside each control circle on a map. On a cross-country course, they indicate the
order in which the controls must be visited. The top of the number should point to North.
Control Punch - a small plastic clipper with different designs of pins. Used to verify each control feature has been visited.
Course - a sequence of control points marked on the map which are to be visited by the orienteer.
Cross Country Course - the classic course used for all major competitions. Control features must be visited in the
prescribed order.
Dog-Leg - positioning of a control which favors approaching and leaving a control by the same route, thereby leading
other competitors to the control. Course design which results in a dog-leg should be avoided.
Fine Orienteering - precision navigation in detailed terrain usually demanding careful use of map, compass and pace
counting, and usually involving short course legs.
Finish Symbol - If it shares the same location as the start:
If its location is separate from the start
Folding the Map - orienteers fold their maps to aid concentration on the leg being run, and to facilitate thumbing their
position.
Handrail - A linear feature which closely parallels your route and acts as a handrail to the next control.
Knoll - a small hill
Leg - a section of a course between two control points.
Legend or Key - a list of the symbols represented on the map.
Linear Feature - a feature that extends in one direction for some distance e.g., paths, fences, stonewalls, and streams.
Used as handrails.
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Line Event - event where maps are marked with a line indicating the exact route to be followed. Participants mark the
precise location of each of the controls they find along the route.
Master Map - a map displayed near the start from which competitors copy their courses onto their blank map. More
experience orienteers will copy the course onto their map while the clock is running. Novices should be allowed to do this
before being given a start time. In bigger events, the courses are pre-printed on the maps.
Offset Technique - see Aiming Off
Orienting the Map - matching the orientation of the map to the features on the ground. This is one of the fundamental
skills in orienteering, and leads to successful navigation. The map can be oriented either by comparing the map directly
with the terrain or by using a compass to orient to north.
Pace Counting/ Pacing - a system of counting double-paces (every time the left or right foot hits the ground) to measure
distance covered. An orienteer would measure the distance between two points using the scale on the compass and then
count his/her paces until the distance was covered. Pacing allows an orienteer to know when he or she has perhaps gone
too far and missed the feature they were looking for.
Point Feature - a feature in the terrain that only occupies a small area. Frequently mapped examples are boulders, pits
and mounds, stumps, and root mounds. They are not suitable as control sites for novice courses unless they are on a
handrail.
Precision Bearing - some compasses can be used to take a precise bearing (direction clockwise from north) which can
then be followed in the terrain
Punching - the act of marking the control card with the punch.
Reentrant - a small valley running down a hillside. A stream cut into a hillside would create a reentrant-type feature. On a
map, the contour lines which describe a reentrant point uphill.
Relocating Feature is an unmistakable feature, such as a large lake or hilltop, junction of roads, trails, streams, etc
At all levels, it is possible to become disoriented and lost. When you realize you are lost, you must relocate. This means
giving up the search for your control and instead, finding some big obvious feature to again find yourself on the map. Then
you can choose to abandon the course or have another attempt at your control.
Safety Bearing - a compass bearing which, if followed, will bring a lost orienteer to a road or other major, recognizable
feature. It maybe added to the control description list as a safety measure.
Safety Whistle - a whistle which can be used if a participant is injured or lost. The International Distress Signal is six (6)
short blasts repeated at one (1) minute intervals.
Score Event - participants visit as many controls as possible within a fixed time, e.g., 30 minutes. More distant or difficult
controls are often allotted a higher point value. Points are deducted for each amount of time the orienteer arrives after the
allotted time is up, say 5 points for every minute. The person with the most points wins.
Spur - a small ridge.
Star Event - an event in which participants must return to the start between each control. This can be used for relay
events or for keeping close contact with novices.
Start Symbol -a triangle used to locate the start on the map. It should be centered exactly over the starting point, and one
apex should point toward the first control.
String Course - a course marked with a continuous string line. These courses are often used with very young children to
give them familiarity with the forest.
Thumbing - a technique for holding the map, using with your thumb to indicate your present location. To do this properly,
it is often necessary to fold the map
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Measuring Distance
There are three main techniques of measuring distance:
1. Pace counting
2. Timing
3. Visual estimation
Pace counting is probably the most precise of the three, and visual estimation is probably the least
precise.
To pace count, you need to know how many paces (a pace is two strides) it takes you to cover a fixed
distance, like 100 meters. Find this out by measuring a 100 meter stretch of terrain, then counting the
number of paces you take to traverse it. Try to simulate the speed and form you have when you are
actually doing a course. You will get a pretty reliable number if you do this several times and take the
average. Then when you are on the course, for every 100 meters you have to travel between an
attack point and the next control, go that many paces. For example, I take about 35 paces to go 100
meters at Magnuson Park, so if I wanted to go 160 meters, then I would take 1.6 * 35 = 56 paces.
Keep in mind that pace length depends on the terrain; it is longer on roads and down hills and shorter
in thick vegetation and up hills.
Timing is a favorite method of estimating distance. It requires that you know how long it takes you to
cover a fixed distance. (Again, 100 meters is convenient.) Then, you multiply that time by the number
of hundreds of meters you want to go. Let's say it takes you 45 seconds to go 100 meters over
competition terrain. If you want to cover 220 meters, then you run for 2.2 * 45 = 99 seconds, or 1:39.
One weakness of this technique is that it only works when you go at a constant pace without
stopping, so if you make a mistake and stop to figure out where you are without looking at your watch
right away, then you can't tell how far you've gone. An advantage of timing is that you don't need to
count like you do when pacing; your watch does it for you, so you can concentrate on the map and
compass.
Visual estimation. There are two ways you can do this: in increments or all at once. The incremental
method is similar to pacing and timing: You figure out how many of a given distance you need to go to
travel your desired distance. For instance, Alain Berger of the Swiss national team uses 30 meter
segments--he knows how far 30 meters looks. So if he wants to travel 165 meters from his attack
point to the control, he counts off 165/30 = 5.5 30 meter blocks. The other (all at once) timing method
is only useful for short distances or where the visibility is very good. If you need to go 110 meters,
then you look in the direction of travel and pick a point that looks about one football field with
endzones away. In open terrain, you can sometimes see the control feature from a considerable
distance if you know where to look. Some advantages of visual estimation are that it encourages you
to look far ahead (which helps you pick out map features you recognize and decide where the running
is best) and that it doesn't depend on the runnability of the terrain. A drawback is that it's really
imprecise, unless you have a very good eye; the perception of distance changes with different light
conditions, topography, and vegetation.
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Standard Orienteering Course Colors (United States)
The most important thing to remember: courses are NOT set by length, but by the skills they test
White (2-3 km) beginners - all on trails, roads or marked routes for learning the logistics of the sport (punching
etc) start learning the map colors and symbols
Yellow (3-5 km) advanced beginner - Close to trails and other handrails (fences. streams). Use this course to
learn all the map symbols and colors, don't just go from control to control as fast as you can
Orange (4.5-7 km) intermediate - where you first go cross-country. It is very challenging, sometimes as long
as Green, but still with safe navigational features. i.e. a strong attack point within 100m of a control. It is
planned to help you learn all your advanced skills. Stay with the Orange course until you know all the
advanced techniques. This is a good course for those with navigational skills honed by backpacking etc,
but no specific "Orienteering, the sport", skills
Brown (3-5 km), Green (4.5-7 km), Red (6-10 km) and Blue (8-14 km) all equally technically advanced
- very subtle control points. The navigational techniques required are quite complex and you should be able to
really 'read the map' at a detailed level and have all the O techniques mastered. Brown is the least physical and
for older, experienced orienteers (F60+, M65+), and Blue being a long tough haul(M21+). These advanced
courses are NOT for you, even with (topo) backpacking or other navigational experience, until you have
tried the ORANGE and been successful several times. We urge you to respect this for your own safety
and enjoyment, and in consideration for the event organizers.
LOCAL MEET COURSE PLANNER'S NOTES
Easy Courses (WHITE and YELLOW):
1. Points should be on two features with linear route between, for example, points might be a stream
and road junction or a trail at vegetation boundary.
2. Controls should be highly visible, usually hung 3-4 feet high.
Medium Courses (Orange):
1. Points should be on major terrain features with a close attack point. example: a boulder 100 meters
from a trail junction.
2. Controls should be visible when at the feature, usually hung 3-4 feet high.
Hard Courses (Brown, Green, Red and Blue):
1. Points on minor terrain features with no convenient attack point. example: the foot of a one meter
cliff in a complicated re-entrant system.
2. Controls should be visible when at the feature, usually hung 1-3 feet high.
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LOCAL MEET COURSE DESIGN GUIDELINES
General Course Design -- All Courses
1. Beginners are equally important people.
2. The time it takes to complete courses is more important than the length.
3. White, Yellow, and Orange courses should not share legs.
4. Every leg on Orange, Brown, Green, Red, and Blue should have route choices.
5. Direct line by compass should only rarely be the best way to go.
6. Streamers should be used on White and Yellow whenever there can be confusion.
7. Legs should get longer as the difficulty increases.
8. In hot weather and dense vegetation, make everything a bit shorter and easier to find.
Course Design -- WHITE
1. Stay on obvious handrails 100% of the time, preferably trails.
2. Controls should be hanging on the near side of the feature.
3. Controls should be very easy to find, especially the first few.
4. The first control should be visible from the Start
5. Later legs can have two route choices, both on handrails.
6. Use positional controls to keep runners on the handrails.
7. Don't hang the controls too high for kids to reach.
8. Avoid putting controls from other courses where White course people can see them.
Course Design -- YELLOW
1. The Yellow should follow handrails but points are off handrails.
2. Handrails may have short gaps or be subtle (fences, streams).
3. Attack points should be on the handrail. The feature can be visible from the handrail but should be off the
handrail to encourage map reading.
4. Have various types of features for variety.
5. There should be a some route choice alternatives.
6. Have good catch features behind points to stop overshooters.
7. Use positional controls to keep runners near handrails.
8. There should be very little contour reading necessary.
Course Design -- ORANGE
1. Orange should bridge the gap between attack points on handrails and difficult-to-find attack points.
2. Err on the side of too easy.
3. Use features of medium difficulty:
a. easy-to-find features less than 200m from attack point
b. very large re-entrants and ponds
4. more difficult points near easy to find attack points
5. easy to find points with many route choices
6. Some legs should be almost Yellow, others almost Red.
7. Have some handrails but emphasize cross country.
8. Always have catching features beyond the feature.
Course Design -- BROWN, GREEN, RED, and BLUE
1. Test navigation and route choice skills, not compass ability.
2. Use intricate areas of the map as much as possible.
3. Make the competitor concentrate on navigation all the time.
4. Offer difficult-to-decide-between route choices on every leg.
5. There must be some variety in the features.
6. The most difficult navigational route should be the fastest, easy routes should take longer.
7. Avoid poorly mapped areas or make the legs easier in these areas.
8. Controls should be easily found once at the feature.
9. Map must be good in the area of the control or you must give good map corrections before the runners start.
10. Best route choices should not be the most miserable physically-avoid swamps/fight except as route choice.
11. Trail running should be only about 10% of the total distance.
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Route Choice in Orienteering
Navigation in orienteering can be reduced to two factors:
1. Choosing one of the many possible routes to the control
2. Finding your way along that route
Once you have learned some basic techniques and rules of navigation, it should always be possible to find the
control - given that the map is accurate. Therefore, much of the variation among individuals' times may come
from their choice of routes. This is particularly true when speed through the terrain varies dramatically in
different places, which can occur for any number of reasons:
1. A trail is faster than the woods
2. Vegetation mapped as green may be very slow going
3. Going uphill and then down may be slower than going the long way around
4. A potentially faster route may offer no navigational aids, while a longer/slower route may provide a
navigationally easy approach to the control site.
Each individual may have particular strengths.
one may run very fast on a trail, but slow down dramatically in the forest
another may have no great turn of speed, but chug away steadily uphill
still another may have no confidence in her ability to follow a compass bearing, but may
be able to read contours very well.
What is the effective distance in terms of effort added by climb?
A common rule of thumb is to add ten meters to the distance for each meter of climb. Climbing 4
contour lines (5 meters each x 4 = 20 meters) would be equivalent to adding 200 meters to your route.
The best route for a beginner may not be the best route for an advanced orienteer.
Hence the choice of a route on a given leg between controls may have many possible "best" solutions. But, in
turn, the true best solution may not be immediately apparent to orienteers who don't plan carefully.
As an example, the map shown here gives the route choices and variations taken by the top orienteers at the
Swedish National Championships some years ago (recall that there are about as many Swedish orienteers as all
other countries combined). Each orienteer's route is shown as a single red line, and at places where several
individuals went the same way, red numbers show how many orienteers followed that portion of the route.
Some fields (yellow) were out of bounds because crops were growing and are marked with red cross-hatching.
Although this is perhaps an extreme example, it does show the variety of routes (and combinations of subsets of
routes) that may be possible on a single leg.
25
After running an orienteering Course
Requirement 7 of the Orienteering Merit badge requires you to write a report after each orienteering course.
Most orienteers will mark their route on the map after they finish their course. Sometimes they share this info
with others to help them improve their ability to choose good routes. Here is a partial example of what should
be done to meet the requirement:
Include a copy of the map with the course and control descriptions:
Draw your actual route on the map. In this case it is shown with purple dots. You may want to use a
highlighter, marker or a pencil.
START – CONTROL 1
Arrived at the start about 15 minutes ahead of scheduled start time. Took a few minutes to stretch and warm up.
The start was on a trail. Before the start got a compass bearing for the trail. When the whistle blew, turned over
26
the map and began to look at control one as I was jogging down the trail. Control 1 was just a little to the left of
the compass bearing for the trail. The trail made a 90 degree turn to the right. Left the trail and proceeded
straight to the control. Stayed to the left of the reentrant and worked my way through the deadfall at a very
slow pace. Should have traveled about 50 meters farther to the west to avoid the deadfall. This would have
save a few minutes of time. As I came over a small spur, I saw the shallow reentrant and the 1st control.
CONTROL 1 – CONTROL 2
After punching control #1, I quickly looked for routes to the next control. One option was to continue down the
reentrant to the stream, follow the stream to the stream junction and then proceed almost due north crossing the
trail to control #2. This was the first time I had run on this map, so I opted to be more conservative and take a
compass bearing and go straight from #1 to #2. As I made it down the stream, the vegetation was a little more
dense along the stream than seamed to be indicated on the map, so going straight seamed to be a good option
except for the extra climb. Since this was very early in the race and I was still fresh, the climb was not too bad.
The climb from the stream to the top of the spur was 18 meters. Down the spur to the next stream, up 12 meters
to the ridge of the next spur crossing a small trail just before the top. Continued on the compass heading aiming
off slightly to the east. Dropped down to the ditch, turned left and quickly found the junction with the 2nd
control. Since the contour interval was only 3 meters, the climb was not as bad as indicated by a glance at the
contour lines.
CONTROL 2 – CONTROL 3
A straight line seemed to be a very easy to navigate way to control #3. Down the spur to the stream, up over the
next spur down the next stream. The vegetation was a little more dense as indicated by the green near the
streams on the map.
……
LESSONS LEARNED
Avoid the deadfall areas where possible on this map(the green vertical lines), especially the ones indicated by
the closely spaced green vertical lines. The 3 meter contour intervals reveal a lot of terrain detail, but you can
still cross quite a few contour lines without tiring out. There are a lot of features on this map to use to navigate
with. I was able to easily keep up with my exact location by counting crossings of spurs, streams, trails…..
27
It's only a briar wound......
By Nancy Ferguson (Georgia Orienteering Club)
"It's only a briar wound," those were the first words out of my father's mouth when he came home from an O-meet one evening. I
looked at him like he was crazy; I saw all the scrapes and cuts on his legs. It looked like he had thrown himself into a cheese grater.
His next meet would be at Pickets Mill State Park on the following weekend. He had invited me to go before. I guess this time
someone had hit me with a stupid stick because this time, I agreed to travel along. Little did I know what waited for me in those
woods.
We got there early to see if we could help out any with setting things up, and dad introduced me to some of the people there. I met
Sam Smith, and Laurie Searle, and Bill Farrell, later on I would meet the rest at different meets. Since this was my first time running, I
ran a white course. I found it to be easy; all I really had to do was follow a trail. Besides the fact I picked up poison ivy along the way,
and almost got trampled on by deer, I thought it was great. Dad decided I should run a yellow course next meet- we were going to Joe
Kurz State Park (briar central). When you get to Joe Kurz State Park you see pretty pastures and trees, but when you start the course
you realize what you thought was a grassy pasture is one big BRIAR PATCH! I think I lost at least a pint of blood that day, not to
mention falling down in a ditch (it was suppose to be a creek).
Okay, I recovered just in time to go to Red Top Mtn. State Park. This would be my first meet where JROTC would be there (the
demented ones). I don't know if they think its funny or if they think it's finders keepers, but they like to move and take controls. I was
lucky enough to find my controls, but only after finding the person who was running with it (the clue on the map did not indicate a
moving control). After I punched my third control, I found a lovely rock face. Somewhere on this rock face was my control. The clue
was boulder (ha ha ha). For anyone who could not find the boulder, I am truly sorry, I got mad and tossed it over my shoulder. Well, at
least I got through the course; I only had a few briar cuts and a few bruises. I was ready to take on the next meet.
Welcome to Mistletoe State Park. If you come to this meet bring a bathing suit, you will need it. Guess who came to this meet: JROTC
(yippee I get to chase controls). I was once again running orange. After my second control I had enough misquito bites on me, that I
was pretty sure all my blood had been drained from my body. Fourth control is missing (go figure). I heard someone saying "hey
you!" it was one of the fisherman on the lake. He was holding my control- he had caught it on his hook because someone had thrown
it in the lake (as if the course was not hard enough). Needless to say I had to go swimming. Okay, I tied the control back onto number
five reentrant (try a ditch or at least that's where it was hanging). Somewhere after that I lost hope of finding controls. They had all
magically disappeared, yet they showed up at the finish line. Bill and Sam had been catching people left and right with the bags.
Recently I decided to help Dad and Bill Farell set up a course at Joe Kurz (briar ville). It was June 9th and the rain was out to get me.
Bill took 12 controls, dad and I took 16. We went our serparate ways to set up a course for the next day's meet. First step into the field
and we saw a deer; Dad started hissing at it (the deer looked at him like he was some idiot human then ran off). We had to set the
control between two trees behind boulders on the north end (which onesssssss?!!). Okay, we got that one set. At the third control it
started pouring down rain (monsoon was the word of the day). I was drenched and it rained the rest of the time we were there. Control
four, the deer are stalking us. So far we have seen three so we are on the look out for number four. Low and behold a turkey comes
running out of the grassy, briar filled clearing, and through a road-like clearing with a canopy of trees hovering over it. (Dad just had
to gobble.) Okay, we are running again. The only thought in my head is "bathroom". Dad leaves me beside a creek while he goes to
find control six (my eyes are floating) shhhhh, I hear something, oh its just dad (really wild man running through woods).
We are on control 13 now, dad has gone to find it while I try to fix my gaiters. Unfortunately I sat in an area that was being occupied
by Mr. Snake at the moment. We made small talk that consisted of me saying "take the spot it's yours," and running away. Dad of
courses thinks its time to play games, so while running he hits me with every tree limb in the woods, only saying "watch out" after he
has hit me with it (he so sweet). Well, I am cut up bruised and wet, wet, wet! Why must it rain today?!!!
Well, we did make it, through I still have not recovered, I am progressing slowly. We added up all the deer we saw- there were only
twelve plus one live turkey, one dead turkey, and one hissy snake. We had fun though and hopefully I get to do it again.
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Orienteering Quiz
1) To do orienteering, all you need is:
a - a map
b - a compass
c - curiosity
d - common sense
e - all of the above
2) Offset technique, or aiming off, involves:
a - map printing
b - how to relieve yourself in the woods
c - deliberately aiming to one side of your control point d - firing a rifle into the air to get attention
3) A pace is:
a - one step
b - two steps
c - three steps
d - a hop, a skip, and a jump
4) When you climb 20 feet, you expend as much effort as running or walking:
a - 20 meters b - 40 meters c - 60 meters d - 80 meters e - you can't equate meters with feet
5) In a topographic map, items in black are:
a - the work of humans b - metal objects
c - roads
d - the work of elves
e - irrigation ditches
6) In a topographic map, contours, or shapes of hills and valleys, are indicated by:
a - green lines
b - red lines
c - brown lines d - blue lines
e - black lines
7) Declination is:
a - the word that means where you want to go
c - the direction to the South Pole
b - the difference between magnetic north and true north
d - Exactly zero if you live in California
8) Taking a bearing means:
a - using a compass to find the direction of a landmark b - oiling your dad's Trans Am
c - sniffing the wind to sense if a bear attack is imminent d - licking your finger to decide where the wind is coming from
e - what you do in an auto supply store
9) The following are the parts of an Orienteering course, except for:
a - the assembly area b - the start
c - the master map area
d - the hint area
10) Types of Orienteering competitions include:
a - score orienteering b - cross-country or free orienteering
e - all the above are types of Orienteering competitions
11) A compass needle is magnetized.
True
c - line orienteering
d - relay orienteering
False
12) The red part of the compass needle points to Earth's magnetic South Pole.
13) A compass works best when held flat.
e - the pace course
True
True
False
False
14) Since a compass is affected by magnetic fields, it needs to be used away from iron and steel objects.
15) The compass housing cannot be turned or rotated.
True
False
18) The compass needle is painted two colors (Red - North, White - South.)
True
19) Good compasses have fluid filled housing that allows the needle to move slowly.
20) The parallel lines inside the dial are known as orienting lines.
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True
False
True
False
False
True
False