Achieving Educational Success through Multimedia and Interactive

Transcription

Achieving Educational Success through
Multimedia and Interactive I nstallations
in Museums
By
Julia Wahl
i
Achieving Educational Success through Multimedia and
Interactive Installations in Museums
Thesis (Diplomarbeit) submitted August 2003
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Diplom-Informatiker (FH)
Media and Computer Science
Department of Digital Media
University of Applied Sciences, Furtwangen, Germany
Julia Wahl
[email protected]
Matriculation Number 910100
Thesis also available at:
http://www.juliechoice.com/thesis
1st examiner: Prof. Dr. Ullrich Dittler
2nd examiner: Prof. Dr. Günter Hentrich
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Abstract
We all have visited a museum at least once in our lifetime, but do we
really know what museums are all about? Of course we can look at
beautiful, amazing and interesting objects but do we ever think about a
museum as a learning environment?
Museums are , by definition, places for learning and this thesis
concerns itself with different ways museums can transfer information
and convey meaning and knowledge to their visitors. I focused my
research and analyses on the use of multimedia in museums, which has
become a trend in the last few years, especially in science centers and
children’s museums, but as this thesis will show not only there.
As a result of my research, which included observing museum exhibits
and interviewing exhibition designers as well as analyzing different
learning theories, I have created a useful guideline for exhibition design
companies and museums to develop successful multimedia and
interactive exhibits.
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Acknowledgments
I want to thank all of my co-workers at West Office Exhibition Design
and especially Andy Kramer, Mark Elliott, Steve Wiersema, Patti Colin
and Bill Smith, as well as Phillip Tefft from Ralph Appelbaum Associates,
London, for their help and advice.
Furthermore, I want to thank my two examiners, Prof. Dr. Ullrich
Dittler and Prof. Dr. Günter Hentrich for their cooperation.
I also would like to thank my boyfriend, Stewart Way, for his support
and for going over my thesis to check spelling and grammar.
Last, but not least, I would like to thank my parents for their support
during my studies, especially my studies and internships abroad.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS____________________________________________________ V
1.
2.
3.
4.
INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________________ 1
1.1.
FOCUS OF THIS T HESIS _____________________________________________ 2
1.2.
STRUCTURE ______________________________________________________ 2
1.3.
DEFINITIONS______________________________________________________ 3
MUSEUMS___________________________________________________________ 5
2.1.
FACTS AND NUMBERS ______________________________________________ 5
2.2.
HISTORY OF T RADITIONAL MUSEUMS __________________________________ 6
2.3.
HISTORY OF HANDS-ON EXHIBITS ___________________________________ 10
2.4.
MUSEUMS T ODAY_________________________________________________ 11
2.5.
VIRTUAL MUSEUMS _______________________________________________ 15
EXHIBITION DESIGN _______________________________________________17
3.1.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF EXHIBITION DESIGN ____________________________ 18
3.2.
CASE STUDY – DEVELOPING AN EXHIBITION ___________________________ 18
3.2.1.
Receiving the Commission ___________________________________ 19
3.2.2.
Master Plan Phase __________________________________________ 22
3.2.3.
Concept Phase _____________________________________________ 23
3.2.4.
Design Development Phase __________________________________ 24
3.2.5.
Final Design/Working Drawings Phase _______________________ 26
3.2.6.
Bidding/Fabrication Supervision _____________________________ 26
3.2.7.
Final Art/Computer/Video Production ________________________ 27
3.2.8.
Installation Supervision _____________________________________ 28
3.2.9.
Ongoing Consultation _______________________________________ 28
THEORIES OF LEARNING___________________________________________30
4.1.
EPISTEMOLOGY AND EARLY LEARNING THEORIES _______________________ 31
4.2.
INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES ______________________________________ 33
4.2.1.
Cognitive Controls __________________________________________ 33
4.2.2.
Cognitive Styles ____________________________________________ 34
4.2.3.
Learning Styles (in a narrower sense)_________________________ 35
4.3.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES__________________________________________ 37
4.4.
HYBRIDS ________________________________________________________ 40
4.5.
STAGES OF THE LEARNING PROCESS _________________________________ 41
4.6.
LEARNING IN MUSEUMS____________________________________________ 41
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5.
MULTIMEDIA IN MUSEUMS ________________________________________ 46
5.1.
DEVELOPING MULTIMEDIA APPLICATIONS FOR MUSEUMS ________________ 47
5.1.1.
5.1.1.1.
The Challenge ____________________________________________________ 47
5.1.1.2.
The Solution______________________________________________________ 48
5.1.1.3.
The Result________________________________________________________ 49
5.1.2.
The Challenge ____________________________________________________ 50
5.1.2.2.
The Solution______________________________________________________ 51
5.1.2.3.
The Result________________________________________________________ 52
World Music Gallery – Horniman Museum ____________________ 53
5.1.3.1.
The Challenge ____________________________________________________ 54
5.1.3.2.
The Solution______________________________________________________ 55
5.1.3.3.
The Result________________________________________________________ 56
CURRENT EXHIBITS AND THEIR INTERACTIVE ELEMENTS_________________ 57
5.2.1.
5.2.1.1.
5.2.2.
The Exploratorium, San Francisco ___________________________ 57
Change Blindness ________________________________________________ 58
The Tech Museum, San Jose ________________________________ 59
5.2.2.1.
ZapCam __________________________________________________________ 60
5.2.2.2.
Communication Gallery___________________________________________ 61
5.2.2.3.
The Scene of the Crime ___________________________________________ 62
5.2.3.
The ZKM, Karlsruhe ________________________________________ 63
5.2.3.1.
The Tables Turned________________________________________________ 64
5.2.3.2.
AML (Architectural Music Laboratory) _____________________________ 65
5.2.4.
Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe _______________ 66
5.2.5.
Haus der Geschichte Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart ___________ 67
5.2.5.1.
Deutsche Revolution (German Revolution) 1848 ___________________ 68
5.2.5.2.
Wirtschafts-Wunder (Economic Miracle) ___________________________ 69
5.2.6.
5.2.6.1.
5.2.7.
Ancient Egypt ____________________________________________________ 71
The Natural History Museum, London ________________________ 72
Impostors!________________________________________________________ 73
5.2.7.2.
Staying Alive _____________________________________________________ 75
5.2.8.1.
5.3.
The British Museum, London ________________________________ 70
5.2.7.1.
5.2.8.
6.
Blood Cell Ride – California Science Center ___________________ 50
5.1.2.1.
5.1.3.
5.2.
Bug Buster – Louisville Science Center _______________________ 47
The Science Museum, London _______________________________ 76
Digital Fish Tank _________________________________________________ 77
NETWORKING IN MUSEUMS ________________________________________ 78
THE IDEAL INSTALLATION _________________________________________ 81
6.1.
WHAT “INGREDIENTS” MAKE A GOOD EXHIBIT ?________________________ 81
6.1.1.
Graphics __________________________________________________ 81
6.1.2.
Multimedia ________________________________________________ 83
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6.1.2.1.
Human Interface Design __________________________________________ 85
6.1.3.
Hands-on exhibits __________________________________________ 87
6.1.4.
The Total Experience ________________________________________ 88
7.
OUTLOOK __________________________________________________________90
8.
REFERENCES ______________________________________________________93
9.
8.1
BOOKS AND ARTICLES _____________________________________________ 93
8.2
INTERNET RESOURCES ____________________________________________ 96
EIDESSTATTLICHE ERKLÄRUNG ___________________________________99
1
1.
Introduction
While we all have visited a museum at least once in our lifetime most of
us have visited numerous museums in various cities around the world. A
visit to one or more museums is often part of one’s schedule when
traveling or was part of a field trip when we were in school. Some visits
we remember as being exciting while others were extremely boring, the
latter probably being a visit to an art museum during middle or high
school. What made certain museums more interesting than others, and
why do we still remember some of them, even after several years have
passed?
After discussing museums with friends and family I realized that most
of them consider museums as places for visual entertainment and not for
learning. I wondered why that is because I think if presented in the right
way many different subjects that are covered in a museum can have an
educational effect.
After doing my internship at West Office Exhibition Design in Oakland,
California, last year, where I started to learn more about developing
museums, I decided to concentrate on this field in my diploma thesis.
I asked myself, how can I use multimedia and interactive installations
to make exhibitions better learning environments with a long term effect
on visitors? What kinds of different learning theories are there and could
I base my results on them? And, finally, do guidelines for exhibition
designers, who concentrate on the educational function of museums,
exist?
I will answer these and other questions, appearing in this context, in
my thesis. This will result in my providing a useful guideline for
developing educationally successful and exciting exhibits.
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1.1.
Focus of this Thesis
Many museums fascinate us because of their interesting architecture
and beautiful surroundings. However, the main reason we remember and
enjoy certain museums more than others are the most basic elements of
any museum; the exhibits. Exhibits can astonish, enchant, delight,
engage, inform and sometimes even shock the viewer. They have the
ability to make a lasting impression on their audiences.
There are many different ways to display and present objects or to
impart knowledge in a museum. In this thesis I will concentrate on a
relatively new development in exhibit presentation: the inclusion of
multimedia and interactive elements in order to convey knowledge and
understanding.
First, it is important to understand the varied ways of transferring
knowledge to visitors, each of whom have different preferences for
collecting and processing information. Because of this, one of the major
parts of this thesis discusses different learning theories and styles on
which I will base some of my analyses and suggestions.
Since most of my research and work on this thesis was done in the
United States, my examples are, for the most part, museums and
exhibition design there. After returning to Europe, however, I began to
include examples from Germany as well as the United Kingdom, where I
managed to contact and interview the director of a British exhibition
design company.
1.2.
Structure
To begin with, I will provide some history of museums and then focus
on the history of hands-on exhibitions. In addition to that, I will mention
another new development: the rise of virtual museums, and then
3
describe, step by step, the work of an exhibition designer using an actual
project of West Office Exhibition Design as an example.
Since one of the most important parts of this thesis is about learning
and learning styles, I have researched the history of epistemology and the
development of different learning theories until today, and looked more
closely at a few contemporary learning theories by educators and
psychologists.
I will show how some of these theories are intentionally, and sometimes
intuitively, translated into action by going through the development of
three separate exhibits, two of them developed by West Office Exhibition
Design and one developed by Ralph Appelbaum Associates, London. I will
end this chapter with my own observations made in various museums I
have visited in the Unites States, Great Britain and Germany and
introduce the Canadian Museum of Civilization as an example of a
museum with a useful and effective information network.
With the different theories and the working methods of exhibition
designers in mind I will provide a compendium and guideline for
designers and museums for creating educationally successful exhibits.
I will close with an outlook of what I think is to come in the near future
in museums and exhibition design.
1.3.
Definitions
I note here that when I’m using the term “exhibit” it can mean either a
single installation, like one painting in an art museum or one computer
terminal for a multimedia application, as well as the entire exhibit,
consisting of several installations. The term “exhibition” usually refers to
the gallery or rather galleries on their whole, including all the exhibits.
Depending on the size of a museum, it is usually divided into several
exhibitions with different themes, which are again divided into galleries,
where the specific theme of the exhibition is subdivided even more.
4
Some museums have their own in-house exhibition designers while
others commission the same exhibition design company to develop all of
their exhibits. Often, though, museums add or exchange exhibits in
several year intervals and allow se veral exhibition design companies to
compete for the project.
The full name of the company at which I wrote my Diploma thesis is
“West Office Exhibition Design,” but I will often refer to it simply as “West
Office.” In this same way I occasionally refer to another exhibition company mentioned in this thesis—Ralph Appelbaum Associates—as “RAA.”
Baden-Württemberg, a state in south-western Germany, referred to in
the 5th chapter, will be abbreviated as BW.
Two additional definitions I would like to give are those for multimedia
and interactivity. Multimedia refers to any combination of two or more
media used to present information. This means that even an artifact
accompanied with a text label can be seen as multimedia since each
represents a different communication medium. In the same way,
interactivity can be referred to as experiencing, in a non-linear way, such
as a visit to a museum and its exhibits, thus turning the visit to the
museum into an interactive experience.
In my thesis I will be talking about a different form of multimedia and
interactivity. I will be concentrating on the use of new media in
museums, such as computers, audio and video. Interactivity will refer to
the interactivity of a computer application used to convey meaning and
understanding in a museum or to the physical interaction with a handson exhibit.
5
2.
Museums
Since most of us have certainly visited a museum at least once before,
the word “museum” is not a foreign word to us. But even so, I find it
important to state several definitions I have collected, in order to describe
this institution later in this chapter, and also to give an overview of the
long history of museums. This will make the educational purpose and
mission of museums more clear and will show that there is still room for
improvement in the museum field.
2.1.
Facts and Numbers
A 1997 study of state museum associations revealed that there are
approximately 16,000 museums in the United States. A 1999 report by
Lake, Snell & Perry, which gathered infor mation from various groups
such as the Sustaining Museums Work Group, states that "American
museums average approximately 865 million visits per year or 2.3 million
visits per day."1 While working in exhibition design over the past two
years I have followe d the constant development of new museums and
exhibitions and am certain that the number of museums and museum
visits per year has been steadily increasing.
Considering that Germany is approximately 27 times smaller than the
United States, numbers there are comparably even higher. In 1999 the
“Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland” counted 4570 museums in
Germany2—over a hundred more than a year prior —and 96.2 million
visits per year—almost 1 million more visits than the year before.3
1
http://www.aam-us.org/resources/reference_library/faqs.cfm#5.
2
Included in this number are also so-called “Heimatmuseen”—literally translated home,
or native country museums—which are usually very small institutions that hold a
collection of a certain town, county or state of Germany displaying artifacts corresponding
to the area’s history and its traditions.
3
http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/biwiku/kult1a.htm
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Comparing the numbers of museums, and of visitors per year in the
United Kingdom, with the United States and Germany, show a slightly
different development. There are an estimated 2,500-3,000 museums in
the UK but research conducted during the 1990s indicated “a decrease in
the proportion of the UK population who visit all types of heritage
attractions.”4 But even though there might have been a decrease in
British visitors, the number of foreign tourists visiting museums in the
UK, especially in London and other larger cities, remains high and
continues to rise. It was amazing to see the masses of tourists during the
heat wave this summer exploring the, mostly, non-air-conditioned, and
thus, almost unbearably hot galleries of the British Museum and the
Natural History Museum.
2.2.
History of Traditional Museums
Derived from the Greek word “mouseion”, which describes a temple
dedicated to the nine Muses who served as sources of inspiration for
song, poetry, the arts and sciences5, museums have not always been
institutions open to the public.
As places for displaying objects of material, aesthetic or historic
importance or wealth, museums, up until the 16th century, were often
created for the pleasure and prestige of their owners. These owners were
mostly aristocrats and refused to share their collections of “masterpieces”
with anyone other than members of their own social class. Thus, the
scholarly study of these objects was left solely to the upper crust of
society. Along with these aristocrats, churches and monasteries
throughout Western Europe upheld the museum concept by collecting
religious relics and icons, but also kept them hidden from “unworthy”
eyes.
4
According to Katie Dawson, Information Officer at Museum Associates, London.
5
Koester, Stephanie E. (1993). Interactive Multimedia in American Museums . Archives and
Museum Informatics; Pittsburg, PA. p. 4.
7
Finally, as the number of individuals claiming the right to have access
to the collections grew, monasteries were overthrown, or opened to the
masses by the churches. Of course the operators of these new museums
soon saw the economic potential of this development and started to
charge fees for the privilege of viewing the artwork. The Imperial Gallery
in Vienna introduced this trend and many museums throughout Europe
have followed step.
Several decades passed, until, later in the 17th century, “museums
began to serve the public at large, starting with university museums at
Basel 1671 and at Oxford 12 years later.”6
At first the collections of these museums were rather random and
unorganized and were mostly run by autocrats who operated the
museum without consulting other resources.
As the public demand for museums continued to grow, new museums
all over Europe opened their doors through the 18th century. The Vatican
established several museums around 1750, and the British Parliament
opened the British Museum in 1753. A, now world famous, museum
opened its doors 40 years later in 1793: the Louvre in Paris, France was
hailed as the “Museum of the Republic.”7 Napoleon added to the Louvre’s
collections through his conquests and confiscations until his fall from
power in 1814.
Soon, curators became concerned with display techniques as a way of
attracting gr oups of visitors who were, perhaps, not as educated as many
of the museums’ initial visitors. It was felt that these people should also
have the opportunity to enjoy, admire and appreciate a museum’s
collections. As a result, information tools such as labe ls, docents and
guide -books became standard in museums.
A slower “but more democratic”8 development of the museum concept,
in the United States, brought forward its first museum in 1773: the
public Charleston Museum, in Charleston, South Carolina. Soon after,
6
Alexander Edward P. (1979).
Museums in Motion. American Association for Adult
Education; Nashville, TN. p. 8.
7
Koester, Stephanie E. (1993). p. 5.
8
8
other
museums,
such
as
the
Peale
Museum
in
Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, in 1782, and the Salem Museum, in Salem, Massachusetts,
in 1799, opened their doors to the public.
In 1846 the Smithsonian Institution was founded in Washington D.C.
and its foremost goal was “the increase and diffusion of knowledge.”9
About 25 years later, three of the greatest American museums opened,
one shortly after the other: the American Museum of Natural History and
the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and the Museum of Fine Arts
in Boston.
After the successes of the world fairs and of the Great Exhibition in
London in 1851, it became even more apparent that it was necessary to
display objects and information in a way that would attract visitors.
Museums were now seen as “commercial ventures”10 and had become
socially, as well as politically, important. Governments began to consider
information about the sciences and the arts important for the citizens of
their countries.11 As a consequence of their growing importance,
museums had to start competing with each other for visitors and were
thus forced to find ways to make their exhibits more attractive.
Until this point, curators believed that it would be enough to display as
many artifacts as possible in a “cafeteria style” display, a phrase coined
by T.R. Adam. He stated that this display style was one in which, “you
serve yourself to the information contained in the artifact.”12 But it was
soon realized that this form of “open-education”13, where the visitors were
supposed to educate themselves just by looking at the objects displayed,
was not enough. To simply provide an opportunity for learning to occur,
by collecting and displaying objects during scheduled hours, was not the
only educational responsibility of the museums. The goal of the curators
9
Alexander Edward P. (1979). p.11.
10
11
Hudson, Kenneth. (1977). Museums for the 80’s. UNESCO, London England.
12
Adam, T.R. (1939). The Civic Value of Museums . American Association for Adult
Education, New York, NY. p. 32.
13
Hudson, Kenneth. (1975). A Social History of Museums . Humanities Press, Atlantic
Highlands, NJ.
9
became “to increase public appeal of the artifacts by making the past
understandable in relation to the present.”14
After World War II, museums began to hire professional designers to
assist curators in improving display techniques and to add more
informative elements to the exhibitions.
Recent research indicates that an increasing number of museums,
especially science centers and children’s museums, use more and more
elements of entertainment in their exhibits, which seems to have
increased these museums’ ability to attract visitors. In this context it is
important to mention the term “edutainment,” a concept practiced in
many museums today. This term represents a museum’s simultaneous
goals of education and entertainment. Some educators are convinced
that in order to learn effectively, a certain level of entertainment is
required.
Stephanie Koester, who published a report on interactive multimedia in
American museums, believes that “combining learning and enjoyment
helps define the museum as an alternative form of public entertainment
that competes with a trip to the movies or other weekend leisure
activities.”15
After such a long history, museums have evolved to the point were they
are “increasingly being recognized as offering a unique opportunity for
people of all ages and cultures to gain information that may not be
accessible to them through traditional school channels and practices.”16
14
Booth, J.H., Krockover, G.H. & Woods, P. (1982). Creative Museum Methods and
Evaluation Techniques. Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield, IL. p. 10.
15
16
Kelly, Robert F. (1992). Museums as status symbols: A speculative examination of
motives among those who love being in museums, those who go to and those who refuse to
go. In A. Benefield, S. Bitgood & H. Shettel, (eds.) Visitor studies: Theory, Research, and
Practice. Center for Social Design, Jacksonville, AL. vol. 4, p. 24-31.
10
2.3.
History of Hands-On Exhibits
Every year, around the world, new museums are built, while average
attendance rises. Consequently, museums have begun to compete with
each other for visitors and are now focusing much of their efforts on
making exhibits more interesting and appealing, thereby creating a more
memorable museum going experience.
At the beginning of the 20th century museum directors and curators
discovered that, in order to keep visitor interest, exhibits needed to
entertain an audience, as opposed to simply educating them.
So called “hands-on” or “interactive” exhibits were developed where the
visitor not only experienced an exhibit piece visually, but also took part
in it so as to gain a better understanding of certain contexts. Tim
Caulton writes that, “a hands-on or interactive museum exhibit has clear
educational objectives which will encourage individuals or groups of people
working together to understand real objects or real phenomena through
physical exploration which involves choice and initiative.”17
This hands-on development took place primarily in science museums
in the early 20th century, where it was considered essential to actually
show what was happening in an exhibit, an improvement over simply
explaining it. Therefore, in 1925, the Deutsches Museum in Munich
began displaying large operating industrial machines and, in 1937, the
Palais de la Découverte, in Paris, began staging chemical demonstrations.
In the United States, in 1933, the Chicago Museum of Science and
Industry simulated a coal mine into which visitors could descend, while,
in 1935, the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia built a two-story walkthrough beating heart.
Another museum, which was one of the forerunners of today’s handson science centers, was the Children’s Gallery in the Science Museum in
London, which opened in 1935. With its push able buttons and wind able
handles it was said to have had more resemblance to a “technological
17
Caulton, Tim (1998). Hands-on exhibitions: managing interactive museums and science
centres. London; New York: Routledge, p. 2.
11
amusement arcade”18 than a traditional museum. When later asked,
adults attributed a lifetime interest in science and technology to a visit to
the Children’s Gallery during their childhood.
Inspired by the Children’s Gallery and the
Deutsches
Museum,
Frank
Oppenheimer
founded the Exploratorium in San Francisco
in 1969. It was the first institution with a
truly hands-on approach.
It was so successful that soon other science
centers throughout North America followed in
Oppenheimer’s
clones
of
footsteps
Exploratorium
by
constructing
exhibits
whose
“recipes” where provided by the Exploratorium
Frank Oppenheimer
in so called “cookbooks.” Those types of
exhibits have since become commonplace in museums throughout the
United States and around the world.
2.4.
Museums Today
Currently, there are many different approaches to defining what a
museum is; here are a few of the more common ones:
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the
English Language defines a museum as:
“A building, place, or institution devoted to the
acquisition, conservation, study, exhibition,
and
educational
interpretation
of
objects
having scientific, historical, or artistic value.”19
18
19
Caulton, Tim (1998). p.3.
Editors of The American Heritage Dictionaries (ed.) (2000). The American Heritage®
Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition; Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston,
MA.
12
More detailed definitions are the following:
The International Council of Museums
(ICOM ) defines a museum as:
“A non-profit making, permanent institution in
the service of society and of its development,
and open to the public, which acquires,
conserves,
researches,
communicates
and
exhibits, for purposes of study, education and
enjoyment, material evidence of people and
their environment.”20
The federal government in the Museum
and Library Services Act defines a museum
as:
"A public or private nonprofit
agency
or
institution organized on a permanent basis for
essentially educational or aesthetic purposes,
which, utilizing a professional staff, owns or
utilizes tangible objects, cares for them, and
exhibits them to the public on a regular
basis."21
Cleary, all of these definitions demonstrate that museums definitely
have an educational purpose. Thus, museums have a responsibility to
teach their visitors about their collections. Museums, therefore, need to
provide ways for their visitors to learn something from their museum
visit.
Even though I am mostly concentrating on Science Museums and
Centers, where the use of multimedia is the highest, there are many
exhibit topics for which multimedia exhibits would be well suited. These
topics include art, history, natural history, culture, science, technology,
20
http://icom.museum/definition.html.
21
http://www.aam-us.org/resources/reference_library/1whatis.cfm.
13
maritime and children’s. In fact, any topic people might find interesting
would benefit from the use of a multimedia exhibit.
While at West Office I assisted in the development of the National
Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in Fort Worth, Texas. This museum
honors “Women of the West”—important pioneers, artists, cowgirls in
movies and television, ranch women, cattle raisers and rodeo champions
in United States history—displays cowgirl fashion, various cowgirl
equipment and covers the history of country music. Set in Texas, where
the “Western Tradition” is still very much alive, the museum was well
received upon its opening, in June of 2002, and has since become well
known throughout the country.
Besides the National Cowgirl Museum, which, to Germans, might sound
a little unusual, I discovered, during my research, museums that are
even more unique:
•
The Folter Museum in Freiburg, Germany, a museum about the
history of torture, specifically dur ing the middle ages, which
exhibits numerous torture devices.
•
The Osterhasen Museum tells the history of the Easter Bunny.
This museum is housed in the ZAM, which is a center for unusual
museums in Munich; it also houses other museums, such as a
“Potty” museum and a museum about guardian angles.
•
The International UFO Museum and Research Center in Roswell,
New Mexico, tells the story of the “Roswell Incident,” which
occurred in July 1947, when a UFO was believed to have crashed
near the city. This museum attracts large crowds of tourists,
including many UFO “freaks,” every year.
•
The Sulabh International Museum of Toilets in New Delhi, India, is
a museum that, according to its website, displays “the evolution of
toilets and their various designs.”22 For those who are interested in
this exhibit, but who can’t make the trek to New Delhi, there is
22
http://www.sulabhtoiletmuseum.org
14
also
a
virtual
exhibition
available
online
at
http://www.
sulabhtoiletmuseum.org.
•
The Glore Psychiatric Museum in St. Joseph, Minnesota, located in
a former mental hospi tal, tells the history of the treatment of
mental illness. Described as “unsettling”, by its visitors, and titled
a “Museum of Madness” in an article in the Washington Post, the
museum displays, along with more modern methods of treatment,
“replicas of 500-year-old devices—a dunking booth, a cage and a
giant hollow wheel in which patients were forced to outrun their
insanity.”23
•
The Museum of Hoaxes, in San Diego, California, is a museum
devoted to uncover “bizarre things that people have been talked
into be lieving over the years.”24
•
The Museum of Questionable Medical Devices, located at the
Science Museum of Minnesota, in St. Paul, displays—as the
museum title already suggests—medical devices which in the past
were believed to have all kinds of different positive effects on the
human body. These methods known as “medical quackery” can be
viewed and explored more closely in this museum.
•
The National Museum of Funeral History in Rock Falls, Illinois, “the
home of rare artifacts and interesting historical information about
one of our most important cultural rituals.”25
Only to name a few…
Also very popular are museums that contain a collection of
memorabilia of a deceased celebrity.
At the Liberace Museum in Las Vegas, for example, visitors can admire
the outrageous costumes and jewelry, antiques, 18 of 39 pianos owned
23
http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=
A99208- 1999Apr4&notFound=true
24
http://www.museumofhoaxes.com/aboutmuseum.html
25
http://www.nmfh.org/historyframe.htm
15
by the eccentric musician26, his numerous awards and his custom car
collection.
Memphis, Tennessee, the hometown of Elvis Presley, is the sight of a
museum honoring this “King of Rock ‘n Roll”, his music, life and legacy.
The city of Liverpool, England would be incomplete if there wasn’t a
museum for their most famous musical export, The Beatles.
2.5.
Virtual Museums
Another new development in the museum field is the rise of virtual or
online museums and exhibitions. They can exist as either completely
independent institutions or as additions to an already existing museum.
The websites of the Tech Museum in San Jose or the Exploratorium in
San Francisco, as well as many other well known museums—and not
only science museums—have scores of permanent as well as constantly
changing online exhibits.
Completely virtual museums are, for example, the Virtual Museum
Canada
(http://www.virtualmuseum.ca)
about
Canada’s
history,
heritage and its traditions, or the Virtual Diego Rivera Web Museum
(http://www.diegorivera.com) making pictures of paintings and murals,
as well as some of the films of the great Mexican artist, available online.
Special aspects of the online exhibits of the Tech Museum, as well as
several other leading science centers in the United States, are the realtime experiments one can conduct, through the internet, as well as
classroom activities that teachers can download from the website. They
provide another learning experience outside the museum and can even
bring the museum into the classroom, thus excellently connecting these
two learning environments.
26
Wladziu Valentino Liberace, who lived from 1919 to 1987, started his career as a
pianist in the 1940s in New York and became increasingly famous over the following four
decades as the musician and entertainer known as Liberace. His unusually glittery
costumes, oversized grand pianos and his trade mark glittering candelabra, made him a
pop icon to many Americans.
16
Another advantage of virtual museums and exhibits is that people who
are interested in visiting a certain museum, but don’t have the time or
money to travel there, have the opportunity of viewing pictures of a
majority of the artifacts or paintings, or some of the multimedia exhibits
from the comfort of their home. Some museum websites even offer virtual
tours of their galleries.
17
3.
Exhibition Design
“Exhibition
Design
involves
a
blend
of
architecture, interiors, graphics, photo graphy,
audio-visual media, and theatre. But exhibition work is not primarily about design. It is
about communication. For it is content that
drives the organization of the space, the
selection of media, and the design of the total
experience.”27
Albert Woods
Larry Klein, the author of “Exhibits: Planning and Design”, writes that
exhibition design “can involve the use of virtually every kind of
communication technique and appeal to all of the senses” 28. Therefore it is
very complex and involves many different fields of design. Besides being
good graphic designers, with skills in typography and photography
manipulation, exhibit designers must have knowledge of architecture,
interior and exterior design, traffic planning, crowd control, furnishings,
lighting and acoustics, all types of audio-visual presentation and
computer technology. Knowledge about material, construction, and
installation methods is also important. An exhibit designer should also
have a sense of timing, drama and fantasy so as to imagine what it would
be like for a visitor of the museum to experience the exhibit for the first
time.
Surely, there are not many people who excel in such a wide variety of
fields. Therefore, exhibition design companies usually consist of graphic
designers, product designers, architects, interior and exterior designers,
stage and environmental designers, multi-media specialists, journalists
or writers and research personnel.
27
Klein, Larry (1986). Exhibits: Planning and Design. Madison Square Press; New York; p. 8.
28
Klein, Larry (1986). p. 14.
18
3.1.
Different Forms of Exhibition Design
Even though I will be focusing on exhibitions in museums, exhibition
design is practiced in countless other areas. Many exhibition design
companies specialize in trade shows, which have become a large and
profitable business. More and more companies are employing exhibit
designers to help present their company as well as possible. For years
trade show booths, such as Apple Macintosh, have been designed by
well-known exhibition designers like Eight Inc. in San Francisco.
Besides trade shows, other corporate projects, like visitors centers,
entrance halls of company buildings, retails stores and even restaurants,
are being designed by exhibition design firms. Along with developing
museums, West Office Exhibition Design has worked on many corporate
projects, such as the visitor’s center for the Levi Strauss & Co.
headquarters in San Francisco, as well as retail installations for Levi’s.
Furthermore, the expertise of exhibition designers is in demand when
developing visitor tours, signage and master plans. In Napa Valley,
California’s “Wine Country,” several wineries commissioned West Office
to design their master plans and winery tour exhibits.
3.2.
Case Study – Developing an Exhibition
I will use the development of the exhibition “The World Within Us” for
the Louisville Science Center in Louisville, Kentucky, to show how
exhibition designers work and what phases a project goes through before
the actual opening of the museum or exhibition.
The World Within Us, which opened its doors to the public in March
2001, consists of three separate but related galleries, which “reveal the
mysteries of the human body’s system, introduce health science careers
and
professionals,
and
provide
visitors
with
information
and
encouragement for their own lifestyle choices.”29 This exhibit was
developed by West Office Exhibition Design.
29
http://www.louisvillescience.org/
19
3.2.1.
Receiving the Commission
Before they commission an exhibition design company with the
development of an exhibit, most large museums ask several leading
design firms to compete for the project.
Along with West Office Exhibition Design four other companies
submitted proposals for the project, each handing in a booklet describing
how they would present the exhibit. A competition booklet usually
includes floor plans, design directions, ideas for individual exhibit pieces
and a price proposal and is often accompanied by a miniature model of a
company’s vision of the exhibit.
Since the market is very competitive, exhibi tion design companies,
such as West Office, invest a lot of work and money into the competition
phase and West Office’s efforts in this area have been rewarded with
exhibit commissions many times.
West Office’s booklet for The World Within Us divided the exhibition into
three galleries: “BodyWatch,” “BioLab” and “TimeZone.” While the
BodyWatch gallery offered visitors a closer look inside human physiology,
the BioLab gallery enabled them to reach (sometimes literally) inside the
body and look into the future of biotechnology. The TimeZone gallery
focused on lifestyle choices made at key points in our lives.30
In addition to the three galleries, the plan included a time element,
introduced by the atrium’s “Body Clock”, which was linked to growth and
change and was an underlying theme throughout the exhibit.
The following table shows the price proposal submitted by West Office
Exhibition Design for “The World Within Us.” It was tailored to the
estimated available budget that the Louisville Science Center had for this
exhibit and was part of the competition booklet. It is not the final budget
plan for the exhibit but it gives an idea of the cost of such a project.
30
West Office Exhibition Design (1998). Competition Booklet for “The World Within Us” an
exhibit for the Louisville Science Center, Louisville, Kentucky.
20
Phase I: Design Research
Role
Staff
Hourly Rate
Hours
Total
a.
Project Director
Andy Kramer
$100
120
$12,000
b.
Design Director
Bill Smith
$ 85
160
$13,600
c.
Senior Project Designer
Mark Elliot
$ 75
480
$36,000
d.
Researcher/Developer
Nancy Olexo
$ 65
240
$15,600
e.
Staff Designer/Modelmaker
Wendy Ong
$ 55
160
$ 8,800
$86,000
Phase I: Expenses
Item
Frequency
Cost
Total
Travel to LSC
8 person trips
$450
$3,600
Per diem expenses
16 days
$ 50
$ 800
Rental Car
4 trips
$ 50
$ 200
Communication
4 months
$100
$ 400
Reproduction
4 months
$ 50
$ 200
Research Materials
4 months
$ 50
$ 200
$150
$ 150
$ 50
$ 200
Model Materials
Shipping
4 months
$5,750
Phase II: Detailed Design Services
Design Development – 5 Month Stage
Role
Staff
Hourly Rate
Hours
Total
a.
Project Director
Andy Kramer
$100
176
$17,600
b.
Design Director
Bill Smith
$ 85
200
$17,000
c.
Mark Elliot
$ 75
800
$60,000
d.
Multi-media Designer
Morgan Schmidt
$ 75
200
$15, 000
e.
Researcher/Developer
Nancy Olexo
$ 65
400
$26,000
f.
Sr. Graphic Designer
Henni Aengenendt
$ 65
200
$13,000
g.
Staff Designer
Wendy Ong
$ 55
800
$44,000
h.
Modelmaker
Jim Magee
$ 45
200
$ 9,000
$201,600
21
Final Design/Working Drawings – 4 Month Stage
Role
Staff
Hourly Rate
Hours
Total
a.
Project Director
Andy Kramer
$100
128
$12,800
b.
Design Director
Bill Smith
$ 85
160
$13,600
c.
Mark Elliot
$ 75
480
$36,000
d.
Morgan Schmidt
$ 75
160
$12,000
e.
Sr. Graphic Designer
Henni Aengenendt
$ 65
640
$41,600
f.
Staff Designer
Wendy Ong
$ 55
640
$35,200
g.
Staff Designer II
John Seeley
$ 55
640
$35,200
h.
Staff Graphic Designer
Alexandra Donlan
$ 55
640
$35,200
$221,600
Fabrication and Installation Monitoring – 6 to 8 Month Stage
Role
Staff
Hourly Rate
Hours
Total
a.
Project Director
Andy Kramer
$100
112
$11,200
b.
Design Director
Bill Smith
$ 85
110
$ 9,350
c.
Mark Elliot
$ 75
320
$24,000
d.
Morgan Schmidt
$ 75
120
$ 9,000
$53,550
Phase II: Expenses
Item
Frequency
Cost
Total
Travel to LSC
30 person trips
$450
$13,500
Per diem expenses
60 days
$ 50
$ 3,000
Rental Car
16 trips
$ 50
$
Communication
15 months
$100
$ 1,500
Reproduction
15 months
$150
$ 2,250
Research Materials
15 months
$ 50
$
750
$500
$
500
$100
$ 1,500
Model Materials
Shipping
15 months
800
$23,800
22
Summary of Costs:
Design Fees
Expenses
A. Phase I:
Design Research
B. Phase II:
Detailed Design Services
1. Design Development
$201,600
2. Final Design/Working Drawings
$221,600
3. Fabrication and Installation Monitoring
$ 53,550
TOTAL
$562,750
A. Phase I:
Design Research
$
B. Phase II:
Detailed Design Services
$ 23,800
TOTAL
3.2.2.
$ 86,000
5,750
$ 29,550 31
Master Plan Phase
For West Office, the master plan phase lays the groundwork for
everything that follows by establishing the project storyline and
identifying the overall organization of the museum. The goal is to develop
a conceptual approach that will push the museum experience and design
beyond existing creative boundaries. Master planning begins with a
workshop that allows key personnel from West Office to meet with the
client and discuss design parameters, such as project goals, target
audience and architectural issues. Exhibit parameters, the location of
the exhibits, technical feasibility and cost implications and the general
circulation plan are also developed.
Time Frame:
2-3 months
Deliverables:
Workbook, master plan document outlining blueprint
for development
Meetings:
Workshop and 1-2 subsequent meetings
Approval:
Client signs off on initial concept
31
West Office Exhibition Design (1998). Competition Booklet for “The World Within Us”.
23
The figure to the right shows
a so called “Bubble Plan,” a
preliminary space plan of one
of
the
during
galleries
the
developed
master-planning
phase. It shows how the space
will be divided into different
areas
of
subject-matter.
It
gives the client an idea of
which subjects are going to be
addressed and shows expec-
Bubble Plan of the BodyWorks gallery
ted traffic flow through the gallery. In this case, guiding the visitors from,
for example, “Creating Life”, though “Controlling Life” to “Defending Life.”
3.2.3.
Concept Phase
During this phase, West Office becomes one big research lab/think
tank where ideas are bounced off the walls and concepts are nurtured.
The concept phase begins with a fact-gathering workshop that includes
West Office and the client team. Following this meeting, exhibit topics
and possible artifacts are identified, ideas are elicited, exhibit guidelines
and criteria are established and a research/acquisition process is
initiated. Exhibit development begins with the production of concept
drawings, created to document preliminary exhibit ideas and to provide a
sense of what visitors will encounter as they move through the exhibit
spaces. If included, front-end evaluation or informal visitor surveys
commence during this phase.
Time Frame:
5-6 months
Deliverabl es:
Content outlines, concept book with sketches of
exhibit ideas, organizational diagrams, exhibit vocabulary studies, rough scale model
Meetings:
2-3, regular conference calls in the interim
24
Approval:
Formal Concept Development Content & Design
Review. Client sign-off required
Concept sketch for Bone Gym exhibit
The drawing above shows a concept sketch for the “Bone Gym” exhibit
in the BodyWatch Gallery. The skeleton in the glass case will mimic the
visitor’s motions showing how one’s bones move when working out.
3.2.4.
Design Development Phase
The design development phase involves the fleshing out of the
exhibition storyline and turning each of the accepted preliminary concept
ideas into a three-dimensional form, from modeling to space planning.
This phase moves the process from concept to preliminary design
drawings, incorporating the architectural elements of the museum space.
These drawings are then utilized to obtain cost and fabrication feasibility
reviews. Selected exhibits are mocked up and presented as samples to
the target audience. Preliminary exhibit text is also written and
submitted for review. All computer/video and film programs, if required,
are story boarded for design review prior to production. Exhibit artifacts
are identified, gathered and integrated into the design. Outside
25
consultants or “experts” may be drawn into the process to assist with
specialized content development and to respond to technical questions.
Time Frame:
5-6 months
Deliverables:
Design
Development
book
with
an
exhibition
narrative, elevation drawings and descriptions of
exhibits, organizational plan showing all exhibition
components, exhibit text, artifact list
Meetings:
2-3, regular conference calls in the interim
Approval:
Formal Design Development Content & Design
Review. Client sign-off re quired
The graphic below shows a concept drawing for the “Freeze Frame”
exhibit. It is a rotating sculpture serving as the focal point of the
BodyWatch gallery. The sculpture consists of molded “action figures”. An
LCD monitor is embedded in each figure disclosing one of the seven
featured body systems. A monitor embedded in a skateboarder’s knee
reveals his skeletal-muscular system; a pregnant woman’s reproductive
system is shown in a monitor on her belly while the other systems are
disclosed on various other figures, molded into the sculpture.
Concept drawing for Freeze Frame exhibit
26
3.2.5.
Final Design/Working Drawings Phase
In this phase West Office completes a final set of drawings providing
fabrication specifications for each exhibit and planning drawings that
integrate the exhibits with the building. These drawings are used as
documents to bid on the project and serve as a basis for fabrication.
Certain exhibits are bench-tested for mechanical functionality in the
Fabricator’s shop. Designs are adjusted in response to cost estimates. All
exhibit text, storyboards, accompanying images, and scripts for graphics,
computer/video, audio and film programs are finalized and submitted for
review.
Time Frame:
6-7 months
Deliverables:
Regular shipments of construction drawings and
final text
Meetings:
As required, regular conference calls
Approval:
Formal Final Content & Design Review. Client signoff required
3.2.6.
Bidding/Fabrication Supervision
When final design drawings and specifications are complete, the project
is sent out for competitive bid. West Office coordinates the work of the
fabricators, assisting in developing fabrication contracts, approves fabricator shop drawings and reviews pr ogress as the project develops.
Time Frame:
6-8 months
Deliverables:
Periodic reports on fabricator selection, progress
Meetings:
As required, fabrication site visits as necessary,
regular conference calls
Approval:
Formal Final Content & Design Review. Client signoff required
27
West Office sent out the World Within Us project for bidding and
received bids from roughly 15 firms for exhibit fabrication, A/V and
software production and hardware integration. Some firms submitted
bids for various combinations of the three. Design Craftsmen, Inc. of
Midland, Michigan got the contract for exhibit fabrication; Chedd-Angier
of Watertown, Massachusetts got A/V and software production and Video
Solutions of Louisville, Kentucky got Hardware Integration.32
3.2.7.
Final Art/Computer/Video Production
This stage in the design process includes graphic design and
production of exhibit panels as well as the completion of image and
artifact acquisition. All of these tasks will take place simultaneously as
the exhibit is being built. A/V programming is usually done internally or
is developed in consultation with the client.
Time Frame:
6-8 months
Deliverables:
Regular shipments of graphic panels (hard copies or
digital files)
Meetings:
As required, fabrication site visits as necessary,
regular conference calls
Approval:
Formal Final Graphics Review w/clients – sign-off
required. WOED and client review any contracted
A/V programs.
As mentioned earlier the A/V production for this particular project was
not done internally by West Office but by Chedd-Angier of Watertown,
MA, who was commissioned to do A/V and software production after
bidding successfully for the project.
32
According to Mark Elliott, Project Manager for the World Within Us from West Office
28
3.2.8.
Installation Supervision
During final installation, West Office assists in coordinating the
installation of the various exhibit components, helps the fabricator with
on-site difficulties and reviews and approves the final installation.
After the installation process
was complete it was discovered
that some graphics had been
installed incorrectly, a problem
that was taken care of quickly.
The
photograph
to
the left
shows the completed installation
of the Freeze Frame exhibit in the
BodyWatch gallery shown earlier
Freeze Frame exhibit in the BodyWatch gallery
3.2.9.
as a concept drawing
Ongoing Consultation
After completing a project, exhibition design firms, like West Office,
often offer to make periodic inspections and/or consultations in order to
monitor operations and revise or update exhibit elements based upon the
needs of the museums.
Often unexpected problems occur even after an exhibit’s opening; a
monitor or a projector might blow after only a few weeks of use or parts
of the hands-on exhibits break and need to be replaced. The Bone Gym,
shown earlier in a concept drawing, worked well in the shop and on
opening day but later broke and had to have all of its joints upgraded. In
another area of the exhibit a microscope slide didn't have adequate
resolution and had to be replaced as well. So there typically are some
design modifications that need to be done to address issues that come up
after opening.
29
Overall the people in charge at the Louisville Science Center were very
pleased with how the exhibition turned out, it has actually won several
local awards. Mark Elliot, from West Office, the project manager for the
World Within Us says that the project director of the museum was an
unusually gracious client and was much more appreciative of West
Office’s work than many of their other clients. Due to their good
cooperation with the Louisville Science Center, West Office has won the
competition for another project at the museum, the development of the
exhibit “The World Around Us” which will open in 2004 and will address
the external influences on human beings, animals and the environment.
It is always wise to make sure that the museum is happy with the
result of the exhibit and to stay in contact with them even after the
opening to make sure everything works as planned. Often, like in this
case, it results in the procurement of future projects at the museum for
an exhibition design company.
30
4.
Theories of Learning
In order to formulate an idea for an interactive application which will
effectively convey meaning and knowledge, in other words an application
from which the user will learn something, we need to know more about
the process of learning itself.
One of the first scholars to occupy himself with Epistemology, “a
branch of philosophy that is concerned with the nature of knowledge,”33
was Plato (427-347 B.C.) and was followed, a few years later, by his
student Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). Plato was a so-called “nativist” and
“rationalist,” believing that knowledge was strictly innate and that to
draw out this knowledge “possessed by the soul in previous existences”34
was a major function of learning. He also believed that the soul of a
human being knows everything before entering the body and he
considered sensory information misleading. Aristotle had a so-called
“empiricist” point of view, because he saw sensory experience as
resulting in knowledge.
Most
learning
theories
developed
later,
especially
theories
of
“behaviorism,” are based on Aristotle’s point of view and agree that one
can learn from experience.
All of our senses, our eyes, ears, nose, sense of taste and touch, can be
used to collect information. Each individual, though, has a different
preference for which sense organ or organs to use while learning.
Consequently, different people learn better in different ways and can
learn more than others while processing information under the same
conditions. Lesser reasons for this difference are motivation, previous
knowledge, and the personal intellectual skill one has. Theories about
different learning styles and the different needs of an individual in order
to learn effectively have long been debated. In this chapter I will first
33
Hergenhahn, B.R., (1976), An introduction to Theories of Learning . Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. p. 32.
34
Warren, H.C.A. (1921). A History of Association Psychology. Scribner, New York, NY.
p. 24.
31
summarize the development of epistemology and learning theories since
Plato and Aristotle and then cover more current learning theories,
including those of David Jonassen & Barbara Grabowski, David, A. Kolb
and Howard Gardner. I will then show how these theories can be applied
to learning in museums.
4.1.
Epistemology and Early Learning Theories
After Aristotle’s death, Plato remained one of the most important
influences on early Christian thought. It was believed, at this time, that
the use of human beings for scientific investigation was immoral, making
the study of human behavior, such as learning, impossible. Since human
beings and, thus, the human body could not be experimented with,
anatomical misconceptions remained unresolved until many years later.
“Plato’s views concerning the nature of knowledge were incorporated into
Christian dogma, they could not be challenged.” 35
It was more than 1,500 years before Aristotle’s writings were rediscovered, an event which led to the beginning of modern psychology.
One of the first philosophers to occupy himself with the subject of
knowle dge and learning in this period was René Descartes (1596-1650),
who saw the human body as a machine controlled by the mind, a belief
that finally made the human body accessible for scientific study. Other
philosophers were Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), who “speculated on the
function of associative factors in learning,”36 John Locke (1632-1704),
George Berkeley (1685-1753) and David Hume (1711-1776), who took
Hobbes’ and Aristotle’s points of views even further, and Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804), who tried to “correct the impractical feature of both
rationalism and empiricism.”37
35
Hergenhahn, B.R., (1976), p. 38.
36
Howe, Michael, J.A. (1980). The Psychology of Human Learning. Harper & Row,
Publishers, Inc., New York, NY p. 31.
37
Hergenhahn, B.R., (1976), p. 40.
32
During the following century the most famous influences on psychology
were Charles Darwin (1809-1882), Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909), known for his “nonsense syllable s,”
showing how the memory works.
Over the next hundred years, some of the major learning theorists were
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1939), who won a Nobel prize in 1904 for his
well known behavior experiments with dogs, Edward Lee Thorndike
(1874-1949), who also studied “learning in animals systematically, using
an apparatus that he called a puzzle -box,”38 and Burrhus Frederic
Skinner (1904-1990), probably one of the most celebrated psychologist
since Sigmund Freud.
One other learning theorist of the last century I would like to look at
more closely, is Jean Piaget (1896-1980). He had earned his Ph.D. in
biology by the age of 21, but after observing and analyzing the behavior
of sparrows and molluscs for many years, the “intellectual abilities of
children”39 began to interest him and he later helped to standardize
intelligence tests at Binet Testing Laboratory in Paris, where he worked
for several years. He started to study the behavior and development of
children by observing his own children. In his theories he tried to
describe the processes that children go through to comprehend their role
in society and their environment, which eventually makes them gain
resemblance to adults. Piaget’s theory basically explains the cognitive
development of human beings40.
Piaget’s extensive work, he wrote about 30 books and 200 articles, “has
greatly helped to sensitize and improve our perceptions of the ways in
which children think.”41
38
Lieberman, David A. (1993). Learning Behavior and Cognition (2n d Edition). Brooks/
Cole Publishing Company, Pacific Grove, CA. p. 59.
39
40
Hergenhahn, B.R., (1976), p. 267.
Lefrancois, Guy R. (1972). Psychologie des Lernens . Springer Verlag, Berlin
Heidelberg. p. 122.
41
Skemp, Richard R. (1979). Intelligence, Learning, and Action. Unwin Brothers Ltd.,
The Gresham Press, Old Woking. p.221.
33
I will return to Piaget later in this chapter after I have discussed
theories about different learning styles which should be paid attention to
when developing a museum exhibit.
4.2.
Individual Learning Styles
Personal characteristics and preferences while learning are often called
“individual learning styles”. David Jonassen and Barbara Grabowski42,
professors in Learning Technologies and Education, describe individual
differences in:
•
Cognitive Controls
•
Cognitive Styles
•
Learning Styles (in a narrower sense)
While cognitive controls and cognitive styles are considered unique to
each individual, learning styles are thought of as different types of
people’s preferred ways of learning.
4.2.1.
Cognitive Controls
Cognitive controls refer to the regulation of behavior and thought. They
are personal characteristics, which control and influence the perception
of our environment. They have a more direct effect on learning than
cognitive styles and are closely connected to one’s individual mental
capabilities.
The
environment
can
influence
the
perception
and
understanding of information to different degrees. Herman Witkin
distinguishes between field dependence and field independence. Witkin
defines field dependence as “a tendency for the organization of the field,
42
Jonassen, D.H., Grabowski, B.L. (1993). Handbook of Individual Differences, Learning,
and Instruction. Lawrence Erlbaum; Hillsdale NJ.
34
as a whole, to dominate perception of its parts,” and field independence
as “a tendency for items to remain discrete from the organized field in
which they are contained.”43
Field dependent learners are more willing to accept the facts they are
presented with. They need to be directed, often have problems locating
information in a complex environment and prefer working with facts
provided for them. Social interaction is much more important to them
than it is to field independent learners, therefore they are externally
oriented.
Field independent learners tend to need less direction and are able to
reorganize and restructure information that they have received for
themselves. Social interaction is not that important to them, they require
less direction while working conceptually and are more willing to
experime nt.
Children are predominantly field dependent and tend to become more
field independent as they grow older.
4.2.2.
Cognitive Styles
Cognitive styles are more general characteristics than cognitive controls
and describe typical approaches to collecting and organizing information.
It is assumed that each learner adopts a certain learning style and will
continue using this style whenever he or she learns something new.
When defining the method of information collection we differentiate
between an individual’s preference for visual or tactile extraction of
information (visual/haptic). Education psychologists also categorize such
information collecting into two groups: visual and verbal receptiveness
43
Witkin, H.A., Moore, C.A., Goodenough, D.R. and Cox, P.W. (1977) Field-Dependent
and Field-Independent Cognitive Styles and their Educational Research. Review of
Educational Research.
35
(visualizer/verbalizer). The “visualizer” is more visually oriented while the
“verbalizer” focuses more on spoken or written information.
The actual organization of information is often categorized based upon
the degree of detail orientation. “Serialists” concentrate at first on details
and then construct a general concept using the so-called “bottom-up”
method. A serialist uses a linear approach to organizing received
information and tends to overlook important interconnections. The
“holist” is more globally oriented and usually looks at different aspects
simultaneously. Holists use a “top-down” method when organizing
received information and do not look much into details.
Dr. Chaomei Chen and Roy Rada also distinguish between an “active”
or “passive” cognitive style.44
4.2.3.
Learning Styles (in a narrower sense)
David A. Kolb’s well known theory of learning styles differentiates
between the understanding and the transformation of information45. Kolb
sees people as abstract, concrete, active or reflective learners. Abstract
learners primarily develop understanding through conceptual information while concrete learners do that through direct, hands-on
experience. Active learners are experimental while reflective learners tend
to be more passive and observant.
According to Kolb a mix of these styles results in four groups of
learning types:
44
Chen, C., Rada, R. (1996). Interacting with Hypertext: A Meta-Analysis of
Experimental Studies. in: Human-Computer Interaction; Vol. 11; Lawrence Erlbaum;
Hillsdale NJ, p. 140.
45
Kolb, David A. (1981). Learning Styles and Disciplinary Differences. In Chickering,
A.W. and Associates, The Modern American College, San Francisco, Washington,
London: Jossey- Baß Publishers, pp. 232-305.
36
•
Diverger (concrete/reflective),
•
Assimilator (abstract/ reflective),
•
Converger (abstract /active) and
•
Accomodator (concrete/active)46.
Visualization of Kolb’s Learning Styles
As visualized above Kolb also showed that learning styles could be seen
on a continuum:
•
concrete experience: being involved in a new experience;
•
reflective observation: watching others or developing observations
about the own experience;
•
abstract conceptualization: creating theories to explain observations;
•
active
experimentation:
make decisions.
46
Kolb, David A. (1981). p. 238.
using
theories
to
solve
problems,
37
Kolb associates a series of characteristics, as well as weaknesses and
strengths, with these four types. He also found a close connection
between a person’s learning style and his or her chosen profession.
The Diverger learns through practical experience and reflective
observation. He comes up with new ideas, is emotional and he is
interested in other people. Divergers often become philosophers, advisors
or staff executives.
The Converger prefers abstract understanding and trying things out
actively. He likes to get clear and precise answers for his questions and is
interested in Technology. Convergers often become engineers or
technicians.
The Assimilator also leans towards the abstract, but prefers
observation to hands-on experience. He often constructs theoretical
models for a problem to which he seeks the answer. He enjoys natural
sciences and mathematics. Assimilators often work in the field of
research or strategic planning.
The Accomodator likes to realize plans and experiments. He likes
taking risks and gets impatient easily. We often find Assimilators in the
practical and technical business field, for example in Marketing or
Sales.47
4.3.
Multiple Intelligences
In addition to the earlier mentioned theories we find the different
cognitive or learning styles classified in the following groups:
47
•
the visual type
•
the auditory type
•
the haptic type
http://www.stangl-taller.at/ARBEITSBLAETTER/LERNEN/Lernstrategien.shtml.
38
•
the olfactory type
•
the abstract verbal type
•
the media-oriented type
•
the interpersonal type
•
the intrapersonal type
Similar to this classification Howard Gardner divided the groups into
seven different “Intelligences”. Gardner defines intelligence as "the
capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or
more cultural setting."48
Basically Gardner expanded the concept of intelligence to include such
areas as music, spatial relations, and interpersonal knowledge in
addition to mathematical and linguistic ability.
In his “Multiple Intelligence Theory”, he proposes these seven
intelligences to be:
•
Visual/Spatial Intelligence = ability to perceive the visual
These learners tend to think in pictures and create vivid mental
images in order to retain information. They enjoy looking at maps,
charts, pictures, videos, and movies.
•
Verbal Intelligence = ability to use words and language
These learners have highly developed auditory skills and are
generally eloquent speakers. They think in words rather than
pictures.
•
Logical/Mathematical Intelligence = ability to use reason, logic
and numbers
These learners think conceptually in logical and numerical
patterns making connections between pieces of information.
48
Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational
implications of the theory of multiple intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4-9.
[http://www.ericfacility.net/ericdigests/ed410226.html].
39
Always curious about the world around them, these learners ask
many questions and like conducting experiments.
•
Musical Intelligence = ability to produce and appreciate music
Musically inclined learners think in sounds, rhythms and
patterns. They immediately respond to music, either appreciating
or criticizing what they hear. Many of these learners are extremely
sensitive to environmental sounds (e.g. crickets, bells, dripping
taps).
•
Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence = ability to control body movements and handle objects skillfully
These learners express themselves through movement. They have
a good sense of balance and hand-eye coordination. (e.g. ball play,
balancing beams). Through interacting with the space around
them they are able to remember and process information.
•
Interpersonal Intelligence = ability to relate and understand others
These learners try to see things from other people's point of view in
order to understand how they think and feel. They often have an
ability to sense feelings, intentions and motivations. They are good
organizers. Generally, they try to maintain peace in group settings
and encourage cooperation. They use both verbal (e.g. speaking)
and non-verbal language (e.g. eye contact, body language) to open
communication channels with others.
•
Intrapersonal Intelligence = ability to self-reflect and be aware of
one's inner state of being
These learners try to understand their inner feelings, dreams,
relationships with others, and strengths and weaknesses.49
Bernice McCarty suggested another classification for different learning
styles. Her so-called “4MAT system” describes four different types of
learners:
49
http://www.ldpride.net/learningstyles.MI.htm.
40
•
The imaginative learner learns by feeling, watching, listening and
sharing ideas. These learners try to make connections by seeking
personal associations. The key question they ask is “Why.”
•
The analytic learner learns by listening to information and
thinking through ideas sequentially. These learners are interested
in learning what experts think and then try formulating their own
ideas. The key question they ask is “What.”
•
The common sense learner learns by testing out theories. These
learners gain understanding by conducting experiments, which
results in them being able to apply their own ideas. The key
question they ask is “How.”
•
The experimental/dynamic learner learns by trial and error and
self discovery. These learners are explorer types and seek hidden
possibilities. The key question they ask is “If.”50
Even though Gardner, McCarthy and other psychologists may disagree
on the number of existing learning types or intelligences, comparing the
different theories shows that they are actually not that different from
each other.
4.4.
Hybrids
All of the scientists and scholars whose theories I have presented so far
agree that no person is ever solely “one type ” or “one intelligence.” Every
individual is a hybrid of several types with one type dominating the
others.
Therefore exhibit designers don’t necessarily have to keep every single
learning type in mind when developing an exhibit, but should cater to
two or three learning types per exhibit and trust that this hybridism will
also address a dominantly different learning type.
50
http://www.aboutlearning.com/aboutlearning/4MATsys.html
41
4.5.
Stages of the Learning Process
Another theory that is important to know is that of the three stages of
the learning process: introductory learning, advanced learning and expert
learning.51
Introductory Learning occurs when one is confronted with easy to
understand key information and is able to memorize this information
well. This means that the learner will have a general orientation to the
subject presented.
For Advanced Learning a certain amount of previous knowledge and
practice is necessary to be able to handle the presented information. It
“emphasizes the context-dependency of information.”52
Expert Learning is the highest stage of the learning process, requiring
extensive experience and leading to wisdom.
4.6.
Learning in Museums
Many of the theories I have covered so far can be applied when
developing exhibits for a museum and I believe that it is possible to learn
some things better from a museum visit, than through other channels
like school or books. In addition to that, I found that people are
beginning to have different expectations from a museum visit, in that
they want to either learn something new or learn more about a subject
that interests them. This can’t really happen just by looking at a
displayed artifact. Tim Caulton writes, that museum visitors “are no
longer satisfied simply gazing at worthy displays of exhibits in glass
cases. They expect to be actively involved, to learn informally and to be
51
Spiro, R.J., Feltovich, P.J., & Anderson, D.K. (1988) Cognitive Flexibility Theory:
Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains (Techn. Rep. No. 441).
University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading. p. 357-377.
52
Alsford, Stephen (1991) Museums as Hypermedia – Interactivity on a Museum-wide
Scale. In D. Bearman (ed.) Hypermedia and Interactivity in Museums – Proceedings of
an International Conference. Archives and Museum Informatics; Pittsburg, PA. p. 9.
42
entertained simultaneously.”53 If they haven’t done it yet, museums have
to become aware of these expectations from their visitors and must begin
to redefine their role in society by accommodating the needs of their
visitors.
Alfred Bork writes in an article, that learning should be interesting and
active, as well as individually paced.54 He was referring to the advantages
of CBTs (Computer Based Training Programs), but all three attributes of
effective learning—interesting, active and individually paced—can apply
to learning in a museum as well. The subjects covered in a museum
should be interesting to the visitor, by using hands-on and interactive
exhibits the visitor can be actively involved, and he or she can spend as
much time as needed with the exhibits.
Piaget, who also agrees that learning should be an active process,
argued that “learning occurs as a result of direct interaction with the
environment,” 55 and that learning happens through actions rather than
passive observation. Of course, he was mostly referring to the learning
processes of children, who were the subjects of his research and,
naturally, children are the target audience of most of the hands-on
interactive museums.
An interesting metaphor coming up in this context is the idea of seeing
“children as scientists,”56 which refers to children as being active
learners, that like to learn by exploring, and thus act like little scientists.
Museums, especially science museums, can support this behavior
perfectly, by providing interactive and hands-on exhibits, where children
can conduct experiments to understand certain contexts of, for example,
physics, like at the Exploratorium in San Francisco.
53
54
Bork, Alfred (1992). Learning in the Twenty-First Century Interactive Multimedia
Technology. In M. Giardina (ed.) Interactive Multimedia Learning Environments – Human
Factors and Technical Considerations on Design Issues. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
New York. p. 2-18.
55
56
diSessa, Andrea A. (2000). Changing Minds – Computers, Learning, and Literacy. A
Bradford Book. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. p. 254.
43
Another learning theory, the “Taxonomy of Learning” by Benjamin
Bloom, is applicable to learning in museums. Bloom suggested, that
there were three areas, or domains, of learning: Cognitive learning, for
developing mental skills like knowledge and understanding, affective
learning, for developing feelings such as attitudes, interest and
motivation, and psycho-motor learning, for developing physical skills of
manipulation and coordination.57 Applying this theory to museums and
its elements, Tim Caulton writes, that interactive exhibitions provide “a
framework that meets the three areas of learning identified in Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Learning” 58
In order to motivate their visitors to learn something, museums also
have the ability to make their audiences curious about the subjects
covered in the museum. For many psychologists, curiosity is also the
basis for the development of intrinsic learning motivation.59
The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky wrote that “a young child will
make connections when facilitated by peer groups, group interaction,
hands-on practice, and by means of "scaffolding," a process by which a
new concept is linked to one just mastered, with degrees of difficulty
ascending in stair-step fashion.”60 This means, learning requires social
interaction and is “culturally mediated”61 by contact to people and media.
Again, this group interaction and hands-on practice that Vygotsky finds
necessary for effective learning can be made available at museums.
A positive effect that museums as learning environments have, when
compared to schools, is that the visitors, especially children, don’t feel as
though they “have” to learn or study something in the museum and are
not tested on their knowledge later, as they would be in school.62
57
http://academic.udayton.edu/health/syllabi/health/lesson01b.htm
58
59
Seel Norbert M. (2000). Psychologie des Lernens. Ernst Reinhardt Verlag München
Basel. P. 81.
60
http://www.xplana.com/whitepapers/archives/mind_makes_meaning_part1
61
62
Hense, Heidi (1985). Das Museum als gesellschaftlicher Lernort – Aspekte einer
pädagogischen Neubestimmung. Extrabuch Verlag in der pädex Verlags GmbH, Frankfurt.
p. 166.
44
Museum visitors are usually not engaging in purposeful learning
behavior, but I believe a museum visit can still have an indirect learning
effect. This learning process usually happens more playfully and
indirectly, but is still effective, since learning about things that are of
interest to oneself is often easier than tryi ng to comprehend subjects,
covered in school, that may seem boring.
In the next chapter I will concentrate on the use of multimedia in
museums. Most literature about learning with multimedia analyzes and
evaluates learning with CBTs and there is not much literature on the
specific use of multimedia in museums. But, as I mentioned earlier, some
theories that apply to learning with learning software also apply to
multimedia applications in museums that are supposed to convey
meaning and understanding. Max Giardina writes that multimedia
environments “can increase our ability to process information in the field
of education”63
At the end of this chapter about Learning Psychology, I would like to
briefly mention a relatively new and somewhat amusing learning theory.
Even though it doesn’t apply to my thesis I still would like to mention it
because I thought the idea was very interesting.
Theories about music, being able to enhance learning, have been
discussed for several years, but Gordon Shaw of the University of
California in Irvine, claims that listening to Mozart’s Sonata for Two
Pianos in D Major “could make you smarter.”64 This theory was the result
of the so-called “Mozart Effect Experiment”65 he conducted in 1993 with
psychology students at U.C. Irvine, which showed that students
improved their scores on spatial-temporal tests after listening to a
recording of this Sonata.
63
Giardana, Max (1992). Interactivity and Intelligent Advisory Strategies in a Multimedia
Learning Environment. In M. Giardina (ed.) Interactive Multimedia Learning Environments –
Human Factors and Technical Considerations on Design Issues. Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg New York. p. 48.
64
Shaw, Gordon L. (2000). Keeping Mozart in Mind. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
p. 163.
65
Shaw, Gordon L. (2000). p. 162.
45
Certainly I wouldn’t suggest that museums, except for perhaps music
museums, play Mozart as ambient sound in their galleries in order to
improve the learning effect of their exhibits. However, I think that the
positive effect music can have on people should not to be scoffed at.
46
5.
Multimedia in Museums
When I visited the American Museum of Natural History in New York a
couple of years ago with a friend of mine’s five and seven year old sons, I
was unable to get them away from the computer terminals which allowed
them to navigate through the earth’s history. Even though they didn’t
quite understand, at first, how the computers worked, these programs
held a strong attraction for them and they soon figured out how to use
the interface to navigate. For the five year old it was more like a game
and he was interested in seeing things move on the screen after he hit a
button. His older brother, who was already able to read, was actually
able to extract some information, from the application about dinosaurs,
that interested him very much.
For most people, especially children, multimedia installations in
museums hold a strong attraction and it is not unusual to see museum
visitors waiting in line to use them.
In this chapter I will first describe the development of three separate
interactive multimedia exhibits in three different museums that I,
unfortunately, was unable to visit myself, but had the chance to talk to
the exhibition designers about. I will first discuss the “challenge” each
exhibit presented for the designers because of the educational goals they
were required to follow. The ideas the designers came up with will be
explained in the “solution” part and then I will present the “result”—the
finished exhibit and how it was received—at the end.
In addition to these three exhibits I will also cover some visits I made to
several museums in the United States, Germany and Great Britain and
describe and analyze the observations I made of a number of interactive
exhibits.
47
5.1.
Developing Multimedia Applications for Museums
With almost 20 years of experience in exhibition design, the designers
of West Office began, early on, to include interactive exhibits in the
museum experiences they created. They have begun to use more and
more multimedia installations in their exhibitions over the past few
years, thus it was easy to find two examples of West Office’s work with
which to analyze the development of successful multimedia exhibits.
The third example is an exhibition developed by the London branch
office of another acclaimed exhibition design company, Ralph Appelbaum
Associates.
5.1.1.
Bug Buster – Louisville Science Center
The Louisville Science Center in Louisville, Kentucky, was founded in
1871 as a natural history collection. Since then it has grown to become
Kentucky’s largest hands-on science center, serving more than 550.000
people annually. To affirm its role as the region’s leading resource for
hands-on science education, the Louisville Science Center is currently
undergoing a complete transformation called “The World of Wonder,”
which includes three new permanent exhibits: “The World We Create,”
which opened in 1997, “The World Within Us,” which opened in 2001
and “The World Around Us,” which will open in 2004.
As mentioned in Chapter 3, West Office Exhibition Design was
commissioned to design the World Within Us exhibition at the Science
Center.
5.1.1.1. The Challenge
The “Bug Buster” exhibit was developed for the BodyWatch gallery and
is part of a group of exhibits about the body’s immune system.
48
The communication goal desired by the museum for this specific
exhibit was as follows: “Many types of cells in your immune system work
together to protect you from disease causing microbes that slip through
other body defenses.”
The task was now, to create an exhibit that shows which of the cells in
the body are responsible for keeping the immune system running and
how they work. Of course the subject had to be simplified so that even
children could understand the basic concept of the immune system.
5.1.1.2. The Solution
There are many different ways to explain the functions of the body’s
immune system, but since mostly children were the target audience of
the museum, everything needed to be, as I mentioned before, simplified
and made easy for every visitor to understand.
As the communication goal already suggests it is a very active process
that happens in our body when our immune system is at work. The
designers of West Office thought that an interactive computer game
would be suited best for explaining this context. Visitors would be
engaged in a multi-player game, since there are different cells in the body
working together to protect our body, and take on different roles—
“Macrophage,” “Helper T-cell,” “Killer T-cell” and “B-cell”—to prevent
outside attacks from diseases.
West Office’s headline for this exhibit in their concept book, which they
handed over to the museum to review, was: “Players join forces to kick
some microscopic butt!”66 The people in charge at the museum were
delighted.
For the design development book, the exhibit and its functions and
goals needed to be developed further and explained in more detail. The
description read: “Take part in a multi-player game to see how your body
uses white blood cells to stave off disease-bearing alien invaders. Using a
66
West Office Exhibition Design (1998), Concept Book for “The World Within Us”.
49
joystick and push-buttons, send your bacteria-busting T- and B-Cells
and macrophages into the fray. Learn how the different invaders work
together to provide the last line of defense.”67
The concept for Bug Buster along with most other exhibits in the
concept design book for the World Within Us was accepted by the
museum, allowing the fabrication to begin.
5.1.1.3. The Result
After final installation, the game is down-projected onto a round screen
around which three players can stand, operating joysticks to control their
T-cell, B-cell or macrophage.
Enlarged models of these “defense systems” of our body are attached to
the wall and text panels near the exhibit explain the functions of our
immune system further.
The exhibit was well received by the museum as well as the visitors,
who enjoy playing this action-packed computer game.
Bug Buster at the Louisville Science Center
67
West Office Exhibition Design (1999), Design Development Book for “The World
Within Us”.
50
5.1.2.
Blood Cell Ride – California Science Center
The roots of the California Science Center go back to the beginning of
the 20th century and it has played an important role in the history of Los
Angeles ever since. Formerly known as the State Exposition Building it
displayed agricultural and natural resources. Renamed the California
Museum of Science and Industry, in 1951, the California Science Center is
now aspiring to become the largest science center in the western United
States. In 1987, a master plan was developed to turn the museum into a
state -of-the-art science education facility, designed to respond to the
needs of diverse communities and a state that continues to grow and
evolve. Once again, the museum was renamed the California Science
Center, a change which was intended to reflect the redesign and
ambitious goals. The master plan was divided into three phases, with
phase two currently underway.
As part of phase one, West Office was commissioned to design the
permanent exhibit “World of Life” for the California Science Center.
As one of four major theme areas of the California Science Center, the
World of Life explores the life processes shared by all living things, from
single -celled organisms to 100-trillion-celled human beings. One highlight of the World of Life is a 15-minute production in the, so-called,
“Bodyworks Theater,” starring a 50-foot long, anatomically correct
dummy called “Tess”, who demonstrates how the body maintains
homeostasis.
The Blood Cell Ride exhibit is located in the “Supplying Life” gallery,
one of five life process galleries at the World of Life exhibition. The overall
communication goal given by the museum for this specific gallery was to
show that every living thing takes in nutrients—like food, oxygen, water
and minerals—and gets rid of waste. By exploring the gallery, visitors
51
learn about this supply process and what keeps these nutrients moving
through the body.
The “Key to Life”, which included additional communication goals that
led to the development of the Blood Cell Ride, was provided by the
museum as follows:
•
Materials move in and out of a cell by diffusion and carriermediated transport; these processes are too slow to move
materials between the environment and the cells inside complex
organisms.
•
Complex organisms developed bulk-flow systems to deal with
these limitations. Respiratory systems deliver oxygen into the
organism, excretory systems remove wastes, and circulatory
systems provide the transport system that ties these and other
organ systems into an integrated whole.
With these educational goals in mind the designers of West Office had
to come up with an idea for an exhibit that would communicate this
information in a way that was both fun and easy to understand. The
development of the exhibit was a joint project between West Office and
the museum’s curator, who provided most of the content. In order to
make the subject easy to understand for the average visitor this content
needed to be simplified by West Office.
Since supplying life and energy to our body is a very active process the
idea of adding a kinesthetic element to the exhibit was decided upon.
This life supplying process would be best explained by a video or
animation, which would be controlled by visitors, thereby allowing them
to become active in the exhibit.
The idea the designers had was to build a navigation station in front of
the video screen with which the visitor could control the application. This
application was supposed to become an animated ride, on a blood cell,
through the human body with hot spots such as the heart, where more
information about what exactly was going on there could be accessed by
52
the user. The navigation station for the application should look like a
huge red bl ood cell, which was to be a tipping platform on which the
visitor could stand and ride like it was a wakeboard. By leaning forwards,
backwards and sideways the visitor would control the movement on the
screen, going up, down, right or left in the body. Hand railings should
support the users balance and there should also be a button that could
be pressed when one of the hotspots was reached to provide more
information on the screen.
Design Development drawing of the Blood Cell Ride
5.1.2.3. The Result
The concept was realized as planned and in the finished gallery the
Blood Cell Ride represents the centerpiece for the circulatory systems
area and is accompanied by other interesting exhibits, including life
animals and life plants, exhibits about the blood and heart relationship,
blood pressure and other subjects in this context.
The Blood Cell Ride has been very well received by the museum and its
visitors and especially attracts kids because of its fun and unusual
navigation technique.
53
5.1.3.
World Music Gallery – Horniman Museum
The Horniman Museum in Forest Hill, London, opened in 1901 after
the private collection of historical artifacts of Victorian tea trader
Frederick John Horniman had gotten too large to continue to be
displayed in a part of his family’s house that he had opened to the
public. The museum’s construction had been arranged and paid for by
Mr. Horniman and this, plus the land surrounding the museum, was his
gift to the people of London.68
Over the last 100 years the collection of the museum has expanded
immensely and several new additions to the original building have been
built. In 1999 some of these additions were demolished to make way for a
larger extension. This new, so-called, “Centenary Development” opened in
June 2002.
Some of the current exhibitions at the Horniman Museum are: African
Worlds, which is the “first permanent exhibition in Britain dedicated to
African art and culture,”69 the Aquarium, a vast fascinating underwater
world accompanied by the so-called Vivarium, housing reptiles and
amphibians, the Hands On Base, a hands-on center with over 3,700
objects to handle and the Music exhibition, a collection with over 7,000
musical instruments, including a collection of the sounds that most of
the collected instruments make.
Altogether, the collections of the museum include approximately
135,000 objects that are displayed in the World Culture, Natural History
and Music galleries. Besides those collections there is also an education
handling collection, and a library collection with text and items related to
the main colle ction.
According to the museum’s website “the collections have been
recognized as being of national importance with the Ethnography and
Music collections having designated status.”70
68
http://www.horniman.ac.uk/more/history.cfm
69
http://www.horniman.ac.uk/exhibitions/current.cfm
70
http://www.horniman.ac.uk/collections/index.cfm
54
Besides the exhibitions the museum also offers events and activities
such as story telling and art and craft sessions for children.
In contrast to my discussion of the first two exhibitions, in which I
focused on a single exhibit in a gallery, I will first examine the World
Music Gallery as a whole and then concentrate on one of the multimedia
elements in the exhibit.
The Horniman Museum commissioned Ralph Applebaum Associates to
redevelop the Musical Instruments exhibit that they were planning to
move to a new addition in the museum.
In the original exhibit, 1,500 of the 7,000 instruments in the collection
were on display. They had electronic labels and visitors could learn more
from a small touch screen. However, the information about the
instruments was narrow and not very animated. In addition to that,
visitors could listen to the sound of some of the instruments over
headphones and occasionally were provided with live presentations
where musicians would show and play some of the instruments.
Besides wanting to be able to display as many instruments as they
could in the new gallery the museum also wanted RAA to find a way to
connect the instruments to the people that made and played them, as
well as allowing visitors to hear and touch as many instruments as
possible. This accessibility posed a problem to the conservators, one of
the stakeholders of the project, whose task is the conservation of the
collections, who would rather lock the artifacts away from daylight than
make them available for everyone to look at and touch. But, of course,
other stakeholders of the museum, like the directors, educators and
curators welcomed some of the ideas of accessibility as a way of engaging
the visitors with the exhibition.
55
So, at first, it was important to find a balance and a way to make all
the stakeholders happy and satisfied while still creating a successful
exhibit and a memorable experience for the visitors.
Another thing the designers of RAA had to keep in mind was that the
Horniman Museum’s historically valuable collection attracts many
academics in addition to the regular museum crowd. This made it
important to create a balance between formality and playfulness so as to
engage both parties in the museum experience.
Ralph Appelbaum Associates decided to try a new approach of
providing information and knowledge in this exhibit. Instead of
developing separate exhibits about the same subject, each geared for a
different learning type, they came up with the idea of dividing the gallery
into so-called “experiential bands.” This meant that the exhibits would be
organized by way of experiencing. While one wall would only use videos
that show some of the instruments being played in their own culture,
another area of the gallery would be reserved for hands-on experiences,
where the visitors could touch some of the instruments and even attempt
to play them. In yet another area of the gallery, live performances and
talks with musicians would be held.
To fulfill the museum’s desire to show as many instruments as possible
RAA designed a 28 meter long glass wall, behind which about 1,000 of
the collection’s instruments would be displayed, organized typologically
by the curator.
A multimedia exhibit was developed to bring the different instruments
closer to the visitors and to help them learn more about their use and the
sounds they make. Tables on which the multimedia application could be
projected were designed, with each being responsible for an area
consisting of approximately 300 instruments.
56
5.1.3.3. The Result
The multimedia pr ogram turned into a very elegant, yet easy to use
application. What seem to be floating pictures show the instruments as
they are organized on the wall and can be scanned through by pressing
right or left buttons and selected by pressing another button. A screen
provides further information about the instruments and, if available,
plays the sound the instrument makes. Instruments whose sounds are
available are marked with a different color label so the visitor can
systematically search for different sounds. User tests showed that the
navigation of the application is very clear and easy to understand and
use by people of all ages.
Other parts of the gallery, especially the “Walk through life,” an area
with videos about instruments and their use during different stages of
life in five different cultures, show what an important role music plays in
every culture and during our whole life.
Today the World Music Gallery provides a place where different kinds of
interest groups, scholars as well as amateurs, can spend a lot of time
studying the collections, listen to their sounds, touch and try to play
them and learn more about their history and use.
71
World Music Gallery, Horniman Museum and Gardens, London
71
Credits for the picture: Exhibition and Media Design : Ralph Appelbaum Associates
Photograph: Peter Cook at View
57
5.2.
Current Exhibits and their Interactive Elements
I will now go over a number of exhibits I analyzed in museums I visited
in three different countries.
Interestingly enough, the style of today’s exhibits, especially in science
museums, is very similar in all three countries. Since I only visited
museums of the Western culture it is hard to say if this trend includes
the rest of the world, but I would say it probably applies to the larger
museums in any other culture.
A majority of the museums I visited were discussed in Chapter 2
because they played an important part in the history of museums.
Since I believe that all three exhibits I talked about in the past few
pages were educationally successful and very well designed, it is also
important to describe, besides other educationally successful exhibits, a
few, that failed in my opinion to provide a learning effect and explain why
I think that is.
5.2.1.
The Exploratorium, San Francisco
As mentioned in an earlier chapter, the Exploratorium was founded by
Frank Oppenheimer in 1969 and was the first truly hands-on science
center in the world.
I have visited the Exploratorium many times and each time I have found
new things to see and explore. The facility has a permanent exhibition
where interesting and unusual aspects of basic physics are explained.
The visitor is encouraged to conduct experiments and to try out all kinds
of different things, either by themselves, or in pairs or even groups. The
multimedia use, though, in the permanent exhibition is very limited.
But, there is also a space for constantly changing temporary exhibits
where the use of multimedia has become more common.
58
The last exhibit I saw there was the “Seeing Exhibit,” which was about
how humans perceive things visually, optical delusions and tricks our
eyes and mind play on us.
One of the exhibits using multimedia, however only basic multi-media,
is an exhibit called “Change Blindness” in the “Seeing & Attention”
section of the Seeing gallery.
5.2.1.1. Change Blindness
In this exhibit a photograph projected onto a large screen on the wall
shows a street with shop fronts, parked cars, a couple of trees and a
trashcan. Every few seconds, a black screen disrupts the picture for a
fraction of a second. The picture seems the same as before but a panel
with text and three buttons on it reveals that the picture has changed
slightly and explains why most viewers won’t notice that change. With
one of the buttons I could see the
last change that had been made to
the picture: the small trashcan on
the
sidewalk
was
suddenly
a
different one. And now, without the
disruption
to
the
photo,
that
change was quite obvious. Another
button would make the picture go
through all the changes without
disruption and the third button
showed
the
picture
before
all
Change Blindness exhibit at the Exploratorium
changes.
The exhibit explains in a simple and easy to understand way, that a
blink of our eyes can prevent slight changes that occur in that instant
from attracting our attention.
The use of multimedia is, as I mentioned, very basic: there is only one
graphic, no audio, three buttons to push and some text. But, since this
exhibit is visually based, I don’t believe that audio or other media are
59
necessary to make even non-visual learning types understand the simple
principle that is explained here.
Even though it seems to be an older exhibit, the idea still works and
even visitors who are used to more dazzling multimedia experiences stop
to check out the exhibit and are amazed when they realize they didn’t
notice that the car in the front of the picture has been swapped and
spend a good five more minutes concentrating, attempting to notice any
of the other changes.
The only negative thing I noticed about this exhibit, and most other
exhibits at the Exploratorium, is the lighting conditions in the museum.
The building, which looks like a hangar, has extremely high ceilings,
making effective lighting almost impossible. Several areas in the museum
are, in my opinion, too dark. Dark exhibit halls are not always bad,
especially if you want to emphasize a specific artifact or object by
spotlighting it, but in such hands-on museums it is necessary to provide
enough light for the visitors to be able to at least read all the explanatory
text panels and carry out the experiments without any problems.
5.2.2.
The Tech Museum, San Jose
Located in San Jose, in the heart of Silicon Valley, the exhibits on
display in this museum, as the name might suggest, focus on technology.
Even though the idea for the Tech Museum was born in 1978 it took 12
more years before a prototype of the museum was opened in a 20,000
square -foot space in the city’s old convention center.
Today, the new building of the Tech Museum holds 132,000 square feet
of exhibition space with more than 250 exhibits; it includes an IMAX
Dome Theater, an educational center with media and science and
technology labs, a retail shop and a cafeteria.
The exhibits are subdivided into four major theme galleries—
Communication, Exploration, Innovation and Life Tech. There is also an
area for changing exhibits where new technologies can be explored, thus
the name for this area: “The Center of the Edge .”
60
According to the museum’s website “the projected annual attendance is
650,000.”72
There are several exhibits of the Tech Museum worth mentioning and I
will begin with a temporary exhibit in the Center of the Edge area called
“Zap! Surgery Beyond the Cutting Edge,” which explores and explains
new, less invasive technologies used in a hospital’s operating room.
5.2.2.1. ZapCam
“ZapCam” is a 15 person cabin simulator ride, common to those in
amusement parks, which takes the visitors on a journey through a
human being’s body. Before entering the cabin a video explains what is
going to happen: similar to the 1987 movie “Innerspace” with Dennis
Quaid and Meg Ryan, the visitors will be going on the “first manned test
mission” inside the body and will be shrunk to fit in the tiny ZapCam, a
remote-controlled camera that can travel through the body and can
record surgeries that are taking place from vantage points inside the
body.
During the exhilarating ride through the body’s arteries the visitors
observe the different surgeries that are going on in the body at that
moment: a kidney stone is broken up through the use of ultrasound, an
eye undergoes laser surgery to correct its vision, while a tumor in the
brain is treated with cryosurgery.
After leaving the cabin, I recovered from my mild nausea and thought,
“Boy, this guy had some pretty big health issues!” I then had the
opportunity to apply what I had just learned on various interactive
hands-on exhibits, like, an exhibit called Endoscopes – Virtual O.R. were I
could use a high frequency scalpel in a virtual operation. In addition to
that I learned even more about the different new less invasive surgical
technologies by reading about them on numerous text panels around the
72
http://www.thetech.org/
61
gallery as well as watching the videos that each hands-on exhibit was
equipped with.
ZapCam is the centerpiece of the Center of the Edge and rounds out the
total experience of this gallery well, by providing a good knowledge base
for the various hands-on exhibits throughout the gallery and by making
it easier to understand these new operating technologies by visualizing
them and showing when and where they are used.
The fun and entertainment factor of ZapCam is for visitors very high
since it reminds them of amusement parks but on the other side it has
high educational value as well. Even though the rough ride might not be
suitable for every visitor, since it could make some of them feel sick, it is,
in my opinion, a very successful exhibit and proves that by having been
well received by its visitors.
5.2.2.2. Communication Gallery
This interesting and up-to-date gallery exhibits hardware and software
to capture, manipulate, and network sound, images and text and makes
work stations and computer programs accessible and easy to use for
visitors of all ages. The gallery includes a local area network, which
connects the different workstations for video capture, video editing,
sound editing, animation, a photo studio and a printing station. The
work stations can be accessed by bar code cards provided at the entrance
of the gallery. An additional exhibit explains binary basics and a visitor
can also get an insight of a studio network by peaking through glass
walls that reveal the extensive network behind the exhibition.
With the bar code cards, each visitor can create a personalized virtual
world, in which he or she can add pictures, sound, an animation and a
video by using the specified workstations. Before leaving the gallery it is
even possible to print out some of one’s creations, for example a digitally
manipulated picture of oneself at the supplied printing stations, which
are providing a good opportunity to take home a souvenir and to
remember the visit to the Tech Museum later.
62
Only basic computer knowledge is necessary to make use of this
exhibit. An avatar leads the visitor through the programs and additional
text panels offer more information.
Different
addressed
senses
by
the
are
different
elements of this exhibit: the
eyes by the pictures, video
and animation, the ears by
the soundtrack of the video
and animation, and the sense
of touch when creating the
animation through a motion
capture method. Thus, many
different learning types are
addressed at the CommuniVideo Editing Station in the Communication Gallery
cation Gallery.
Upon observing this gallery I found nothing negative to say about it
and feel it is a good example for including elements for various learning
types, who will all be able to extract certain knowledge from a visit to this
exhibit.
5.2.2.3. The Scene of the Crime
In this exhibit the visitor is confronted with an unsolved murder that
needs to be solved by using classic forensic techniques.
The police have two suspects and the visitor can examine evidence
from the crime scene and compare fingerprints, clothing fibers, and a
hair that has been found near the body with those of the suspects’. In
addition to that there is a video of an eyewitness account available that
shows a janitor who, it turns out, hasn’t really seen anything worth
mentioning.
63
In the end the visitor has to decide whether or not the deceased had
actually been murdered, and if so name the killer, or had simply died of
natural causes.
Although this exhibit uses little multimedia it is still an interactive
exhibit and I felt it was important to mention because it’s a good example
of a “bad exhibit.”
It is interesting to see how the police work and to be able to apply some
of these forensic techniques yourself, but the insufficient lighting made it
almost impossible to compare the three fingerprints provided. As well,
since the exhibit seems to be comparatively old, the magnifier was full of
scratches, thereby compounding the fingerprint viewing problems. Even
the fiber samples of the two suspects’ clothes, and the ones found at the
scene of the crime looked the same to me and the DNA samples left me
guessing. As mentioned earlier, it was also hard to extract any
information from the eyewitness account.
What was most frustrating, though, was the final video, which is
supposed to show what really happened, but still doesn’t make it clear to
the visitor. Was the victim murdered or did he die of a heart attack?
5.2.3.
The ZKM , Karlsruhe
The ZKM, the Center for Art and Media, in Karlsruhe, Germany housed
in a former munitions factory, opened its doors in 1997 after the idea for
the center had been born over 16 years prior and had been developed
and supported by the state of Baden-Württemberg and various other
resources since then.
The Center is unique because it “responds to the rapid deve lopments in
information technology and today's changing social structures. Its work
combines production and research, exhibitions and events, coordination
and documentation.”73
73
http://www.zkm.de/
64
Consisting of seven departments: the Museum for Contemporary Art,
the Media Museum, the Institute for Visual Media, the Institute for Music
and Acoustics, the Institute for Basic Research, the Institute for Net
Development and the Institute for Media and Economics the ZKM is
constantly developing and evolving by staging in-house tests and
experiments and by working closely with the State Academy for Design in
Karlsruhe as well as other institutes.
Even before it opened in 1997 the ZMK drew attention to itself and its
work by staging events series such as “ZKM in the Factory” and the
“Multimediale,” a media art festival with the Siemens Media Arts Award.
Even though most of the exhibits at the ZKM are multimedia art
installations and, thus, have a more aesthetic as opposed to educational
purpose, I was still able to find two installations of educational value.
5.2.3.1. The Tables Turned
The Tables Turned is an installation made up of two parts placed in two
different areas in the museum—upstairs and downstairs—and is
connected by a headset with an attached microphone with which the
visitors can communicate.
The installation in both areas consists of a table with chairs, a headset,
a fixed camera and three monitors. The upstairs installation has a blue
screen behind it, is carpeted blue, has a blue table and blue chairs.
Visitors in this area can try on blue gloves or a blue coat and see the
effect on the monitors: the parts of their body that are covered in blue are
invisible on the screen.
The downstairs table is a regular brown table with no blue
surroundings, but with several objects on the table, such as a plastic
hand. The camera records what is happening on both tables from the
same angle and the two pictures are overlapped on the screens making it
look as though the people using the installation upstairs are sitting at a
65
table with the people downstairs. With the help of the headset they are
able to interact with each other.
This exhibit not only has a strong artistic value, but also makes some
of the principles used for special effects in movies understandable and
comprehensible.
5.2.3.2. AML (Architectural Music Laboratory)
AML is an audio-visual computer application that shows what certain
sounds played in different rooms sound like.
The user can choose a certain
sound, for example a human
voice, an orchestra playing, or a
sound of nature, such as fire or
water drops, a mechanic sound,
or can record his own voice. Then
the room in which the sound
should be played can be selected.
Some of the rooms available are a
Architectural Music Laboratory at the ZKM
church, a theater, a philharmonic
hall, a stairway, a roman theater or a bathroom. In addition to that, it is
also possible to choose between different forms like a sphere or cube, in
which the sound can be played. Through headphones it is possible to
listen to the result. With a slider in the middle of the screen the user can
also change the distance to the sound source or the size of the selected
form.
Scientific room measurements were adapted for the AML in order to
imitate the sonic room properties. According to the info obtainable from
the application, the goal of this installation is not an accurate room
simulation, but rather to experience the specific sonic properties of the
rooms in relation to the sounds.
66
Like the other exhibits at the ZKM the foremost goal of this exhibit is
not an educational one, but, like The Tables Turned, it does have some
educational value. It makes clear that we perceive a sound differently
depending on what type of room it is played in as well as the distance we
are from the sound source.
5.2.4.
Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe
The Natural History State Museum in Karlsruhe dates back to the 18th
century when the nobles of Germany used to collect curious objects and
minerals and other natural resources. In this case it was the effort of
Countess Caroline Luise, between the years 1752 and 1783, that helped
the collection expand to a considerable and valuable scientific collection.
In 1784 the collection was moved to the court library and was opened
as a museum to the townsfolk for the first time. About one hundred
years later the museum, including the library, was moved, once more, to
a new building.
During World War II the building housing the museum was partly
destroyed by bombs in 1942 and a large portion of the valuable collection
was lost. In 1972 the museum was rebuilt and is today one of the largest
institutions of its kind in Germany.74
Today the museum houses permanent exhibitions about geology, the
history of the Earth, mineralogy, fossils found in southern Germany,
insects, native plants and animals, Africa, polar regions and it has a
large “vivarium” with numerous life animals, mostly fish, insects,
amphibians and reptiles.
Even though none of the galleries in the museum has a multimedia
element I wanted to mention this particular museum be cause it still has
some educational interactive aspects and offers a variety of children’s
activities, including children’s birthday parties, as well as guided tours
where the visitors are allowed to touch and handle some of the artifacts
74
Historical information was taken from the museum’s flyer
67
on display. The museum has its own pedagogic department responsible
for these activities.
At the entrance to the museum, parents and teachers can purchase
work sheets that have questions about the museum’s collection as well
as little quests on them that the children can solve while exploring the
galleries. Some of the quests include reading, on small chalkboards,
about different birds native to Germany and then trying to figure out
which footprints imprinted on a clay surface belong to which of the
mentioned birds. By pulling out a drawer beneath the clay plate the right
answers can be revealed.
Another good thing that the museum provides is a variety of children’s
science books that are available to read in designated reading areas
throughout the museum.
5.2.5.
Haus der Geschichte Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart
In December 2002, approximately 15 years after the idea to create a
museum about southwest Germany’s history was born, the “Haus der
Geschichte BW,” literally translated “House of History BW,” opened its
doors, in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg’s state capital.
The museum covers the dramatic history of Baden-Württemberg during
the past 200 years.
I would first like to mention that my visit to this museum was one of
the most exciting and interesting I have ever had. Because this museum
is brand new it is thoroughly modern in every respect. I was amazed by
Atelier Brückner’s innovative exhibition design, which is used in the
various galleries throughout the museum.
The museum presents topics on three separate floors including, the
territorial revolution from 1790 to 1815, the years leading to the German
Revolution in 1848, the Revolution itself, the formation of the German
National State, the two World Wars, and the development of BadenWürttemberg and its political system up to the present.
68
Other galleries introduce innovations and inventions in science and
technology made in Baden-Württemberg as well as the economic
potential of the state. They also cover the largest cities in BW, religion,
the stories of emigrants and immigrants, relations with the state’s
western neighbor, France, and the people of Baden-Württemberg who are
introduced through an interesting collage of old and new photographs of
weddings, christenings and families.
The exhibit that fascinated me the most was one in which visitors can
literally explore the Black Forest, a national forest in BW. The
“Kunststück Schwarzwald” gallery (in English: Masterpiece: Black Forest)
is filled with real tree trunks that have been cut up into slices and put
back together again to house display cases. The displays are revealed by
opening up secret doors in the trunks. Some of the wooden slices are
used for text panels and can be pulled out and viewed. Some of the
trunks also have embedded monitors that show videos, or have tree holes
through which the visitor can peek at old slides of the Black Forest.
Throughout the museum, the history of Baden-Württemberg is
presented in an appealing and extremely interesting manner. The
exhibition also includes various multimedia installations that support
the facts presented and which add to making a visit to the Haus der
Geschichte Baden-Württemberg, a memorable experience.
5.2.5.1. Deutsche Revolution (German Revolution) 1848
In almost every gallery of the museum, the visitor can find a computer
terminal with general information about the subject covered in that part
of the gallery. The terminal consists of a touch screen monitor embedded
in a wall and is equipped with a slider adjacent to it that can be use d for
further navigation.
One of these terminals covers the events during the German Revolution
between 1848 and 1849, which began in Mannheim located in the
northern part of Baden-Württemberg.
69
The user can retrieve general information about the German Revolution
from the “Info” screen and then can select different cities of BadenWürttemberg by typing in the name of the city or by selecting one from a
scroll down menu. He or she can then read about what happened there
during this two year period.
The user can also view a map of Baden-Württemberg and can move an
arrow on the screen along a timeline by moving a slider next to the
screen. This movement highlights the areas and cities where revolutionary activities occurred depending on where on the timeline the arrow
is placed.
It took me a while to figure out what the sliders were actually for, but
once I did I was able to access information at all the other terminals.
A tremendous amount of information can be retrieved from these
applications. At the terminal about the German Revolution for example, a
visitor could spend hours going through every single city’s historical
account of events between 1848 and 1849.
5.2.5.2. Wirtschafts-Wunder (Economic Miracle)
The Economic Miracles gallery introduces the many products that
Baden-Württemberg exports. These exports play an important part in the
state’s as well as the entire country’s economy.
Behind two opposing glass walls the visitor can view a display of the
various products that have been and are currently being produced and
those that were invented in Baden-Württemberg. Some of the objects
displayed are devices made by Bosch in Stuttgart, artifacts from DaimlerBenz in Stuttgart, an accordion by Hohner in Trossingen, clocks by
Junghans in Schramberg, a model railway by Märklin in Göppingen,
Teddy Bears by Steiff in Giengen and many other products from well
known BW companies.
Attached to a rail in front of each wall is a small computer monitor that
can be pulled along and up and down the wall. It has a camera on it’s
back which faces and records the displayed objects in front of it. A
70
window on the right side of the screen shows what the camera sees. Once
the camera focuses on an object in front of it information, and
occasionally a video, about the product and the company that distributes
it pops up on the screen.
Even though the information content may be interesting without
having much educational value, I found this method of information
retrieval very innovative and fun to use. Growing up in BadenWürttemberg, I had no idea that all these products, including some that
are distributed and well known throughout the world, actually originated
in my home-state.
5.2.6.
The British Museum, London
Celebrating its 250th anniversary this year, the British Museum is one of
the oldest operating museums in the world. According to the museum’s
website “the collection is one of the finest in existence, spanning two
million years of human history.”75
Upon his death the physician, naturalist and collector, Sir Hans Sloane
(1660-1753) bequeathed his large collection of approximately 71,000
objects, his library and herbarium to King George II with the wish that
his collection be kept together and made available for study and
observation. A body of trustees was appointed to manage the collection
and the idea for the British Museum was born.
Over the next few years many more objects and other collections were
added and King George II donated the “Old Royal Library” to the
museum. First housed in the 17th century mansion Montagu House,
which was later demolished and on whose grounds today’s building was
built, the British Museum opened its doors to the public on January 19th
1759. Since the collections belonged to the nation, the admission to the
museum was to be free and open to all.
75
http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/aboutus/about.html
71
“With the exception of two World Wars, when parts of the collection
were evacuated, it has remained open ever since, gradually increasing its
opening hours and moving from an attendance of perhaps 5,000 a year
to today's 5 million.”76 Today the British Museum is one of the most
visited public buildings in London.
The extensive library in the museum’s reading room also attracts a
large number of scholars and students doing research. Many objects in
the collection have played a role in allowing scholars to learn more about
history and assisted them in making new discoveries. After acquiring the
Rosetta Stone from the French in 1802, scholars at the museum
successfully unlocked Egyptian hieroglyphic script by studying this
artifact.77
In the galleries of the museum itself one hardly finds any multimedia
exhibits save for some videos and general information computer
terminals. But, in addition to the extensive Egyptian exhibition, the
computer terminals provide the visitor with a virtual exhibit about
Ancient Egypt, which is also available through the museum’s website at
http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk.
5.2.6.1. Ancient Egypt
Through this virtual exhibit the user can learn more about life,
geography, gods and goddesses, mummification, pharaohs, pyramids,
temples, time, trades and writing in ancient Egypt.
By clicking on these links the user can go deeper into each subject and
can choose again between three more links: story, explore and challenge.
The story link leads to a page that tells a story of a person in ancient
Egypt—such as a person that performs mummifications if you chose the
mummification link before. The explore link lets the user find out more
about the subject, for example, by looking at a timeline after choosing the
76
http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/visit/history.html
77
http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/visit/history.html
72
time link, while the challenge link is usually a game the visitor can play
by using the knowledge acquired through the other links. These games
are usually very easy to solve but are, nonetheless, entertaining and, to a
certain degree, educational.
In my opinion, this virtual
exhibit is a useful addition to
the rather “dry” collection of
mummies, Egyptian jewelry and
other
objects
from
ancient
Egypt. It engages the younger
audiences more by involving
them in enjoyable activities, like
Ancient Egypt application of the British Museums
5.2.7.
computer games.
The Natural History Museum, London
Originally part of the British Museum, the Natural History Museum of
London became independent after separating from the British Museum in
1963.
Its roots trace back to the middle of the 18th century when the
collection of Sir Hans Sloane was housed in the British Museum. The
collection included a variety of paleontological objects, dried plants,
animal specimens, skeletons, rocks and minerals, books and other
historical objects that Sloane had collected over the years.
Over the next hundred years this natural history collection grew after
acquiring specimens and artifacts from other “private collectors, voyagers
and explorer-scientists.”78 Another addition was the Banks Herbarium,
which was donated by Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied Captain
Cook on his voyages on board the Endeavour.
In 1856 talks began to move the natural history collection to its own
building and land for the new museum was bought in London’s South
Kensington district.
78
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/info/history/begin.html
73
After many difficulties with a variety of architects, the German
Romanesque style building faced with terracotta finally opened its doors
to the public in 1881 and two years later the move of the remaining
collection was complete. The blue and buff terracotta into which
numerous animals and plants are molded “contributes to making the
Museum one of the most striking buildings in London.”79
Current permanent exhibitions include the Life Galleries, the Earth
Galleries and the new Darwin Centre, which offers free talks and
discussions with scientists and guided tours through the collections.
An interesting part of the Life Galleries is called “Investigate” in the
Clore Education Centre in the basement of the museum. It is a small
hands-on gallery containing several workstations and scientists’ tools,
like magnifying and measuring tools. School groups and, in the afternoon
and on weekends, regular visitors with children can use the facilities to
examine and explore hundreds of specimen provided by the museum.
The collection of the Tring Zoological Museum is also part of the Natural
History Museum, but most of the collection remains housed in its old
building in Hertfordshire. A Wildlife Garden, next to the Natural History
Museum’s building, was landscaped and planted with native British
flowers in 1995 and, since then, “has developed into a haven for wildlife,
from dragonflies to foxes.”80
5.2.7.1. Impostors!
Impostors! is a multimedia exhibit in the form of a computer game in
the Human Biology section of the Life Galleries. It explains the first rules
of genetic inheritance, showing that there are always genetic instructions
from both the father and mother that control features such as our eye
and hair color.
79
80
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/info/history/build.html
The Natural History Museum (2002). Souvenir Guide (6 th Edition). Printed by
Witherbys, London. p. 51.
74
The visitor helps a girl named Amber from planet “Zell” find her real
parents from whom she’d been separated from at birth.
Before being able to play the game the
visitor has to click through several screens
which explain that similar rules of human
genetic inheritance apply to the inhabitants
of Zell: their skin color for example can be
either blue, yellow or green. A pair of blue
Explanatory screen for Impostors!
instructions make blue skin color, a pair of
yellow instructions make yellow skin color and a mix of one blue and one
yellow instruction make green skin color. During the course of the game
the user also learns that similar rules apply to the shape of the Zellnian’s
ears—pointy, pin or round—as well as their hair—straight, curly or wavy.
At the beginning of the game, the user learns that Amber, who is green,
has pointy ears and straight hair, has offered a reward to anyone who
helps her find her real parents. Five different couples with various hair,
ear and skin color characteristics claim to be her parents and the goal of
the game is to find Amber’s actual parents and expose the impostors
after ruling them out by using the rules of genetic inheritance just
learned.
Even though it looks like an older computer game, it is still applicable,
fun and easy to use. It may be a bit boring for adults though, because
most are already familiar with the principles of genetic inheritance and
would like to play the game straight away without reading the detailed
instructions. However, it explains these principles well to children and
forces them to use their new knowledge immediately by comparing the
different couples and their characteristics with those of Amber.
After finding the real parents, an additional screen explains more about
the principles of genetic inheritance with human beings, showing DNA
strings and explaining that often it is not only one but several
instructions that control one characteristic like the shape of our nose.
An additional text panel next to the computer terminal explains these
principles even further.
75
The graphics of the application could be worked over a little bit, which
is only an aesthetic suggestion, but I think this exhibit is very valuable
and certainly serves the educational purpose of the Natural History
Museum well.
5.2.7.2. Staying Alive
Staying Alive is also a computer game in the Human Biology section. It
is made up to look like an arcade game with a small cabin to sit in, which
adds to the game’s attraction for its visitors. Sitting inside the little cabin
with a compute r screen, the visitor learns that, in order to function, the
body needs to keep the proper level of oxygen, the right temperature and
the proper level of water. If these levels get too high or too low your
virtual body may collapse and possibly die.
In the game the user has to control these vital body systems and keep
the right levels by adding water, sweating more or sweating less and
breathing more or breathing less. The user controls these functions by
pressing appropriate buttons below the screen. There are three different
stages of difficulty in the game; the user can choose to either walk, stride
or run, with running being obviously the hardest to control the body
systems.
When playing the game I started with the easiest and chose to control
the body systems while walking. Constantly checking all three figures
showing the progress of the different levels on the screen while
alternately pressing five different buttons below turned out to be a
difficult task. I made it through the 10 to 15 seconds of walking, though,
without letting the levels get too low or too high. Striding, however,
turned out to be much harder to handle, and controlling the levels while
running was impossible, resulting in my runner’s death from overheating within just a few seconds.
At first it seemed frustrating that it was so hard to play the game,
because it is almost impossible to concentrate on all the different things
that are going on and the different tasks that need to be completed
76
simultaneously. But, a screen at the end poses an interesting question:
“Imagine what it would be like, if you had to think about keeping these
systems running all the time?” and it makes it very clear to the visitor
how amazing it is that the body can handle all these tasks by itself
making sure it doesn’t, for example, overheat too easily.
So, in a way it can be useful, and may even have a learning effect to
make the visitors frustrated. Visitors may spend more time with the
exhibit, trying to see if they can keep their runner alive . I’m sure some of
the more experienced computer game players might succeed, after a
while, but they will still take with them the knowledge of some of their
body’s functions and may even respect and appreciate the daily
performance of their body more.
5.2.8.
The Science Museum, London
The Science Museum’s roots date back to the middle of the 19th
century. Today it is, together with the National Railway Museum and the
National Museum of Photography, Film & Television, part of the National
Museum of Science and Industry. In the mid 19th century a movement to
improve scientific and technical education was started, largely supported
by Prince Albert, which also resulted in the Great Exhibition in 1851.
Six years later the South Kensington Museum was established. The
museum housed a large art collection and a growing science collection.
Some of the objects in the science collection were taken from the Great
Exhibition, while many others were drawn form various other sources.
Some of the most interesting and valuable objects are from the stock of
patent models of the Patent Museum, which passed these artifacts on to
the Science Museum in 1884.
In 1909 the two collections were divided into the Science Museum,
housing the science collection and the Victoria & Albert Museum, housing
the art collection. In 1928 a new building to house the Science Museum
was opened by King George V.81
81
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/visitors/history.asp
77
Since then the collection of the Science Museum has grown steadily and
today the museum sees its function as displaying objects to “represent
the development of western science, technology and medicine from
around 1700 to the present day.”82 Over the past 20 years more galleries,
especially interactive and hands-on galleries, which are housed in the
new Wellcome Wing of the building, have been added to the museum and
contribute to a memorable experience for visitors from around the world.
5.2.8.1. Digital Fish Tank
The Digital Fish Tank is an exhibit in the Digitopolis gallery in the
Wellcome Wing of the museum. Its goal is to explain the principles of
programming code.
On the screen, an avatar, in
the form of a little fish, explains
that it has built its own Digital
Fish Tank. The fish in the tank
are only virtual and are programmed by a certain computer
code and their color, size and
speed as well as what they are
doing can be manipulated by
Digital Fish Tank in the Digitopia Gallery
changing the computer code.
The user gets to choose between five different fish swimming around in
the tank and can manipulate different parameters, such as the size, color
and speed of the fish and how many times it swims, eats and sleeps. The
program code on the touch screen is always visible and the fish tank
remains on standby until the user has changed the parameters and run
the code to view how his or her fish looks after having changed it. On the
bottom of the screen there are sliding scales for each parameter and the
user can change these parameters by hitting plus or minus.
82
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/collections/about/what_we_collect.asp
78
Every time the user changes anything the code lights up and shows
which part of the code has been changed. The little fish avatar also
makes suggestions as to which parameters to change, but leaves the user
to choose for himself after a while.
After changing a few parameters the user can hit the “Run Code”
button and can look at the changed fish in the tank and compare the
code with the fish’s actions.
The basic idea of the exhibit is very good because many people have
never seen actual computer code before and don’t know what it is or
does. I doubt, though, that a visitor will have a much stronger
understanding of this subject after using this application. No more hard
information is provided and this fact also applies to every other
application in the gallery; there is no textual information available
anywhere. The gallery is more like a digital playground, where the visitors
can try out different things without really knowing what they are doing.
Another problem this specific exhibit has is its hard handling. Of
course almost everybody has used a touch screen before and should feel
comfortable using one, but the buttons I hit only reacted after I pressed
my finger on the screen for several seconds, if at all. An application that
should have taken me a couple of minutes to go through turned into a
frustrating 10 minutes. As I mentioned earlier, I doubt anyone will learn
much from this exhibit. This is because I don’t believe anyone will spend
the time to use this application without walking off in frustration due to
the slow reaction time of the buttons.
5.3.
Networking in Museums
In order to provide a good flow of information through the museum it
needs to have an effective and well working network.
Certainly, most of the installations I have mentioned in this chapter are
stand-alone applications and are not controlled by a museum-wide
network. Howe ver, many museums are beginning to see the need for
such a network. It would not only control certain multimedia elements,
79
such as information terminals or interactive exhibits, but would also
connect the staff of the museum with each other.
A museum equipped with such a network is the Canadian Museum of
Civilization in Gatineau, Quebec, just across the river from Ottawa.
Derived from the Museum of Man, whose history began with the
foundation of the Geological Survey of Canada in 1841, the Museum of
Civilization opened in 1989.83 The museum is concerned with the history
of Canada and addresses the different cultural groups making up the
population of Canada.
According to Stephen Alsford, of the Canadian Museum of Civilization,
it is important to first establish “the infrastructure for information
delivery,”84 meaning an intelligent, wide-bandwidth network, instead of
devoting time to creating stand-alone multimedia systems. For this
reason, in the 1980’s, as the building in which the collection of the CMC
was going to be housed was under construction, it was wired with
coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic cables, arranged in a star topology.
More than 1,200 outlets are distributed throughout the building and
are linked to high-speed switching equipment at the Infocomm Centre, a
room that houses file servers, laser disc players, computer-controlled
VCRs, and a CATV system.
This network provides the means to connect every area of the museum,
from staff computers to multimedia terminals throughout the building,
and information can be exchanged and distributed effectively and
quickly.
Another museum following CMC’s example is the National Museum of
American History, part of the Smithsonian Institute, in Washington D.C.
The highly interactive exhibition, Information Age: People, Information &
Technology, is also controlled by a museum-wide network. In this
exhibition the network also helps the museum learn about their visitor’s
behavior. It monitors visitor activities by making them log-in at different
83
http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/ihisteng.html
84
Alsford, Stephen (1991). p. 10.
80
computer terminals throughout the galleries. This happens through a
bar-code on the “interactive brochure” the visitors receive when they
enter the museum.85
As I said earlier, museums are beginning to see the need for such
museum-wide networks and I am certain they will be common in most
large museums in the future.
85
Allison, David K. & Gwaltney, Tom (1991). How People Use Electronic Interactives –
“Information Age – People, Information & Technology”. In D. Bearman (ed.) Hypermedia
and Interactivity in Museums – Proceedings of an International Conference. Archives and
Museum Informatics; Pittsburg, PA. p. 62-73
81
6.
The Ideal Installation
Looking at a single exhibit, such as the Blood Cell Ride or the Bug
Buster, you can always think of a learning type that was not considered
during the development of the exhibit. But, looking at a gallery as a
whole, I think you can call some of them ideal, for there needs to be
diversity in the group of exhibits covering a specific subject. While a
verbal learning type may have had problems learning about his body’s
immune system while playing the Bug Buster game, he or she has the
option of reading about it on panels alongside the exhibit.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to develop an exhibit that truly
addresses every single learning type. The exhibit would be so overloaded
with text, sound, visual images, buttons to press, handles to turn etc.
that the visitor would encounter sensory overload, causing the loss of the
learning effect.
6.1.
What “Ingredients” Make a Good Exhibit?
On the following pages I have put together some guidelines for
developing a successful exhibit. I will cover the development of a single
exhibit and its components as well as the role of the exhibit in context to
the overall museum experience.
I have collected these “ingredients” for my “cookbook for successful
exhibition design” through evaluating my own observations, interviewing
several exhibition designers, as well as researching books on the subject.
6.1.1.
Graphics
Even though I have focused on the use of multimedia and its effect in
museums, graphics also contribute much to the success of an exhibition
82
and can play an important role in the development of a user interface for
a multimedia exhibit.
Graphic text panels alongside the different exhibits are, in my opinion,
important because they can provide additional information on the
subject. While a verbal learning type may have problems learning about a
certain subject by using a predominantly kinesthetic method, he or she
has the opportunity to read about it on the accompanying text panels.
This results in easier information processing by the learner and leads to
a more complete understanding of the subject.
These graphic panels also act as advertisements for the exhibits, since
they are one of the first things visitors notice when walking through a
gallery. Therefore, the panels are considered indispensable in creating
initial visitor interest in an exhibit. Often, a catchy title or interesting
picture, seen from afar, can also help to create spectator curiosity.
The design of these graphics, which are usually accompanied by text,
needs to be clear-cut, appealing and should not be too “funky” or crazy,
even though occasionally this style may be used when appropriate.
Since graphic and text panels will be placed throughout the museum,
each exhibition should have a clear design concept, meaning that a
specific design or style should be applied throughout the entire
exhibition, or at least each individual gallery room. An effective way of
distinguishing between different galleries is to color code them, keeping
in mind, however, that their design concept should mesh with the overall
concept of the exhibition.
The basic rules of graphic design also apply to graphics in exhibition
design—meaning graphics on panels, as well as the graphics in a
multimedia application. For example, the rules to keep it simple, to not
use more than three different colors at the same time, to use
harmonizing colors, and not to use more than two different fonts on one
text panel etc. are also valid in exhibition design.
Many design guidelines for multimedia development, especially those
for human interface design, can also be applied to graphic design.
83
6.1.2.
Multimedia
Even though most people have used a computer before, not everybody
has a lot of practice or a strong grasp of how computers actually work.
Consequently, it is important to make multimedia applications in
museums as simple and easy to use as possible, taking care not to
confuse the user with complex navigation techniques or structures.
Based on my earlier discussion of different learning stages a
multimedia installation in a museum should certainly be on the
introductory learning level. Many visitors, though, are experienced
computer users, or already have a basic knowledge of the subject
presented and may want to obtain further information through the use of
an advanced learning technique. In this case it would be useful to install
a certain amount of depth to the computer application. This can be done
either by simply adding a button, through which further information can
be retrieved, or by adding additional levels if the installation is, for
example, in the form of a game.
Sometimes museums offer deals, such as family tickets good for a
whole year, in order to motivate visitors into making a return trip. The
chance of guest revisits is another reason for providing options for
advanced learning. Further information that perhaps wasn’t looked into
during the first visit, could be explored more, leading to the possibility of
one learning more about a subject, thereby enhancing the excitement of
a return visit.
I believe that the Communication Gallery at the Tech Museum in San
Jose is popular, because designers make the exhibits personally relevant
to visitors. The creation of a personalized virtual world engages a visitor
because it is something unique and something they created themselves
that has a personal relevancy. It is not always possible, when designing a
multimedia application for a museum, to make it as personal for the
visitor as this specific exhibit does, but I feel that this should be a goal of
exhibition designers. Another way of making a multimedia exhibit more
relevant to the user is to provide some sort of reward for using the
application. Steve Wiersema, a designer at West Office, states, “a reward
84
can be anything as long as the visitor values it.” In the case of the
Communication Gallery it is the print out of the pictures created at one of
the stations, which the visitor can take home. In the case of the
Impostors! exhibit at the Natural History Museum in London, it is the
reception of additional information regarding the subject of genetic
inheritance after successfully playing the game.
It is important, when developing a multimedia application, to not
overload it with too many different media and impressions, such as
audio, video, images and action. As I mentioned at the beginning of this
chapter, too many simultaneous impressions overwhelm the visitors,
causing the possible loss of the learning effect.
As with regular computer applications, multimedia exhibits for
museums also have to go through a thorough debugging and test phase.
Many people with different degrees of knowledge of computers applications should test the appl ications to see if they can be used intuitively,
without instruction. This also helps to rule out programming mistakes
and possible misconceptions leading to an inability to understand the
functionality of the application or the content that it is meant to convey.
Since computer illiterates will be among an application’s users, it is more
important to make it foolproof than when developing a computer program
that requires a high level of computer literacy.
I have stated that multimedia applications should be able to be used
intuitively. Some exhibits I have seen, though, seemed really modern and
unusual and used new methods of navigation. However, they still had
parts to them that were familiar to me and I soon figured out how to use
them. Andrea diSessa writes about multimedia applications, that
“showing some familiar functional aspects is a classic way of making a
device initially comprehensible, no matter how new or exotic it may be.”86
It is modern and “cool” to use multimedia in museums, but an
exhibition shouldn’t be overloaded with too many different multimedia
exhibits. In a gallery, or exhibit, “stuffed” with multimedia or a computer
86
diSessa, Andrea A. (2000). p. 143.
85
terminal that offers several useful possibilities, the attention of the
visitors can be drawn away from other exhibits, or multimedia elements
in the same area. The evaluation of user activities at the National
Museum of American History in Washington D.C., showed, that “the most
and least popular items were on the same station.”87 It is necessary to
find a balance in the museum’s galleries of multimedia and information
provided by other means.
Multimedia applications should be practical and easy to understand,
but that doesn’t mean they can’t be aesthetic. Phillip Tefft, from Ralph
Appelbaum Associates, mentioned that his goal when developing any
exhibit, not just a multimedia exhibit, is always to make it beautiful. By
beautiful he means that it has to have an elegant design as well as the
ability to create a memorable, beautiful experience for visitors during
their museum visit. The exhibits should have, as I would call it an
“Ahhh-effect,” meaning that the visitors walk away from the exhibit with
a sense of wonderment.
6.1.2.1. Human Interface Design
The rules for human interface design for multimedia applications used
in museums are not too different from other computer applications. Most
of the principles of human interface design that Apple has come up with
may be applied to the development of a multimedia exhibit and its
graphics in museums as well:
•
Simple design is good design
•
People deserve and appreciate attractive surroundings. A mess is
acceptable only if the user makes the mess.
•
Good design must communicate, not just dazzle.
•
Objects should look like what they do so that the user can
recognize them.
87
Allison, David K. & Gwaltney, Tom (1991). p. 65.
86
•
Consistency should be valued over idiosyncratic cleverness.
•
The transfer of skills is one of the most important benefits of a
consistent interface.
•
The environment should appear to remain stable, understandable
and familiar.
•
There should be little or no difference between what the user sees
and what the user gets.
•
The user, not the computer, should control the action.
•
The interface should stimulate the feeling that the user is in
charge of the system, and it should be fun to use.
•
The user should be kept informed of what’s going on via messages
(presented in dialog boxes).
•
The user should be allowed to do anything reasonable and be
forgiven if a mistake is made.
•
Generally the interface should use metaphors.
•
These metaphors should be supported with audio and visual
effects.
•
Animation, when used sparingly, is one of the best ways to draw a
user’s attention to a place on the screen.
•
There should always be a way out.88
It is a good idea to take a look at these principles when developing a
multimedia exhibit for a museum in order to exclude potential mistakes
and misconceptions. Andy Kramer, the director of West Office Exhibition
Design, says about human interface design for multimedia exhibits: “the
best interfaces are those that once you understand how they operate,
they disappear into the background.”
88
Iuppa, Nicholas V. (1997). Designing interactive digital media. Focal Press, Butterworth-
Heinemann; Woburn, MA; pp. 65-66.
87
6.1.3.
Hands-on exhibits
Since hands-on exhibits, as the name suggests, are handled a lot by
visitors, they have to be built for use. This means that they have to be
sturdy and a little harder to break than regular installations and should
be easily replaceable in case they are broken. It is also very helpful to
build a model of the hands-on exhibits and have them tested by persons
of different ages prior to the exhibit’s opening. These tests not only show
whether or not the exhibit is sturdy enough to withstand repeated use,
but also if the concept of the exhibit is clear and if the test person
thoroughly understands how it works.
Like multimedia applications, hands-on exhibits should also be able to
be used intuitively. If they are not, it is necessary to accompany them
with clear directions, such as directions on a text panel or a video or an
audio recording. Often, it can also be useful to have a person of the
museum staff, ideally a trained educator, stationed in the gallery, to
supervise the hands-on exhibits and to help the visitors use them. As I
mentioned earlier, in chapter 4, contact with a trained staff member can
also have an educational effect for the visitors, if they are a learning type
that understands a context better, such as when someone else explains
how something works and when they can ask questions.
Mark Elliot, from West Office also stated that when he develops an
exhibit, hands-on as well as any other exhibit, he always tries to put
himself into the position of the viewer. He asks himself what he would
find interesting and fun and starts designing from there. While
developing the exhibit, he tries to see things about it that may confuse
the visitor and then attempts to rule out these problems.
While it is nice to have exhibits that dazzle and engage visitors in fun
and entertaining ways, designers must never forget that an exhibit’s first
priority should be its educational value.
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6.1.4.
The Total Experience
When looking at the gallery as a whole it is more important to provide
several smaller exhibits tailored to different learning types than one large
exhibit that may attract only one or two types. This can either happen
through mixing the exhibits for the different types throughout the gallery,
or, as I have shown in the World Music Gallery at the Horniman Museum,
through developing “experiential bands,” and basically reserving different
areas of the gallery for each learning type.
As done in the exhibition Zap! Surgery Beyond the Cutting Edge, at the
Tech Museum in San Jose, it is useful to first provide a basic overview of
the subject, such as that given by the ZapCam exhibit, and then explain
it further, as was done for different surgical technologies. This can also
be done through the use of videos, such as the ones employed at the
hands-on exhibits surrounding ZapCam. At the end, giving the visitor the
opportunity to apply what they have just learned, such as is done at the
Endoscope – Virtual O.R. exhibit, reinforces the new information. William
Kessen and George Mandler suggested, that it would be advantageous to
have the opportunity to practice newly learned activities.89 A museum
can easily provide an opportunity to learn something new and then apply
this fresh knowledge.
Another thing I found very important when I visited museums was the
general atmosphere they provided. It is imperative to feel comfortable in
order to learn something, thus the museum should have a nice,
comfortable atmosphere. Some museums I visited were either too dark or
too bright causing me to feel less relaxed than I otherwise would have.
Something else that contributes to the atmosphere is the placement of
the exhibits. It is better to use less exhibits in a gallery, than to make it
feel confined. On the other hand, the exhibits shouldn’t be scattered
across the gallery. It is important to find a balance in between.
89
Kessen, W. & Mandler, G. (1961). Anxiety, pain and the inhibition of distress.
Psychological Review, 68. p. 396-404.
89
Many museums offer live -presentations, such as speeches or forums
with scientists, and display and allow the actual use of new technologies.
The Darwin Center at the Natural History Museum in London often invites
scientists or makes the in-house scientists available for presentations
and talks with visitors. Most of these talks are taped and can later be
downloaded from the museum’s website. The Tech Museum in San Jose
often has life-presentations where they show the functionality of certain
objects, for example a robot or the newly invented Segway™ Human
Transporter, corresponding to the body movements. Visitors usually get
the chance to try out these new technologies while supervised by the
museum staff.
Museums,
especially
science
and
children’s
museums,
definitely offer live-presentations to actively involve the visitors.
should
90
7.
Outlook
An increasing number of museums, especially science centers and
children’s museums, have already transformed, or are on the verge of
transforming, into mostly hands-on educational institutions. Personally, I
think this is a good development, since hands-on experience, in addition
to visual and verbal information, is essential for learning and
understanding certain aspects of history, nature, science, and many
other things we come across in our lives or simply have interest in.
It is not unusual, that, today, in the 21st century, multimedia plays an
important role in these new hands-on interactive museums. The usability
of multimedia applications is becoming easier and more comfortable and
museum visitors, especially kids, are not afraid, and usually have the
basic knowledge, to use them. I am sure that the usage of multimedia in
museums will continue to increase because many people, especially
younger generations, have come to e xpect it.
Through the increasing use of multimedia in museums, as well as the
increasing computer literacy of the curators and museum staff, I believe,
as I mentioned in chapter 5, that an information system network, like the
network at the Canadian Museum of Civilization, will be an integral part
of most museums in the future. It will make the work of the curators and
museum staff easier and most applications could be controlled from a
central unit.
Paleontologists are continuing to make new discoveries, history is
constantly revised and new technologies are developed, which is creating
seemingly never-ending opportunities for the development of new
exhibitions. It is important to engage the public in these subjects and to
instill an interest in history and the sciences in younger generations.
Through my research and work I realized that museums are a source of
knowledge that, at times, cannot be obtained as well through institutions
like schools. A class about dinosaurs can never put students in as much
awe as standing in front of a skeleton of a T-Rex does. Reading a book
about anatomy may be too hard for a child to comprehend, but looking at
91
the anatomically correct model of “Tess” at the World of Life helps to
understand what our body actually looks like inside. The functions of the
body’s systems can also be effectively explored further in the different
galleries.
I believe that many of the museums today understand their role as
“edutainer” and are taking their educational duties very seriously. They
hire museum educators and attempt to connect activities offered at the
museum with activities in the classroom. They invite school classes to
take closer looks on guided tours or to conduct experiments in specially
equipped rooms, like the Investigate Gallery at the Natural History
Museum in London, thus turning part of the museum into a classroom.
This development of including the visitors and, especially, children into
the museum experience contributes to a broader general knowledge as
well as to a greater scientific interest. Therefore, I believe that occasional
museum visits should be part of a child’s upbringing and education.
As the history of museums continues to evolve I am sure that we will
see more new developments as well as more fascinating results of
research conducted in this field.
92
93
8.
8.1
References
Books and Articles
Adam, T.R. (1939). The Civic Value of Museums. American Association for
Adult Education, New York, NY.
Alexander Edward P. (1979). Museums in Motion. American Association
for Adult Education; Nashville, TN.
Allison, David K. & Gwaltney, Tom (1991). How People Use Electronic
Interactives –
“Information Age –
People, Information &
Technology”. In D. Bearman (ed.) Hypermedia and Interactivity
in Museums – Proceedings of an International Conference.
Archives and Museum Informatics; Pittsburg, PA. p. 62-73
Alsford, Stephen (1991). Museums as Hypermedia – Interactivity on a
Museum-wide Scale. In D. Bearman (ed.) Hypermedia and
Interactivity in Museums – Proceedings of an International
Conference. Archives and Museum Informatics; Pittsburg, PA.
p. 7-16
Booth, J.H., Krockover, G.H. & Woods, P. (1982). Creative Museum
Methods and Evaluation Techniques. Charles C. Thomas
Publisher, Springfield, IL.
Bork, Alfred (1992). Learning in the Twenty-First Century Interactive
Multimedia
Technology.
In
M.
Giardina
(ed.)
Interactive
Multimedia Learning Environments – Human Factors and
Technical Considerations on Design Issues. Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York.
Caulton,
Tim
(1998).
Hands-on
exhibitions:
managing
interactive
museums and science centres. London; New York: Routledge .
Chen, Chaomei & Rada, Roy (1996). Interacting with Hypertext: A MetaAnalysis
of
Experimental
Studies.
in:
Human-Computer
Interaction; Vol. 11, 1996; Lawrence Erlbaum; Hillsdale NJ.
Compania Media (Hg.) (1998). Neue Medien in Museen und Ausstellungen
— Einsatz – Beratung – Produktion — Ein Praxis-Handbuch.
transcript Verlag, Bielefeld.
94
diSessa, Andrea A. (2000). Changing Minds – Computers, Learning, and
Literacy. A Bradford Book. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Editors of The American Heritage Dictionaries (ed.) (2000) . The American
Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition;
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA.
Falk, John H. & Dierking, Lynn D. (2000) . Learning from Museums –
Visitor Experiences and the Making of Meaning. Altamira Press;
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Internet Resources
24 Hour Museum, the National Virtual Museum
http://www.24hourmuseum.org.uk/
About Learning
http://www.aboutlearning.com/
American Association of Museums
http://www.aam-us.org
Ausstellungsmedium Computer (AMC)
http://ausstellungsmediumcomputer.de
Bildungsbörse
http://www.111er.de
California Science Center, Los Angeles, CA
http://www.casciencectr.org/
Canadian Museum of Civilization
http://www.civilization.ca/
Educational Resources Information Center
http://www.ericfacility.net/
Exhibit Builder
http://www.exhibitbuilder.net/index.asp
97
The Exploratorium
http://www.exploratorium.edu/
Haus der Geschichte
http://www.hdgbw.de
Horniman Museum
http://www.horniman.ac.uk
Humboldt Universität Berlin (Museum Pedagogic)
http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/museumspaedagogik/
The International Council of Museums
http://icom.museum/definition.html
LD Pride Online
http://www.ldpride.net
Liberace Museum Las Vegas
http://www.liberace.com
Louisville Science Center
http://www.louisvillescience.org/
The Museum of Hoaxes
http://www.museumofhoaxes.com/
National Museum of Funeral History
http://www.nmfh.org/Index.html
Natural History Museum, London
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/
Science Museum London
http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk
Staatliches Muse um für Naturkunde Karlsruhe
http://www.smnk.de
Stangl, Werner
http://www.stangl -taller.at
Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland
http://www.destatis.de/
Sulabh International Museum of Toilets
http://www.sulabhtoiletmuseum.org
Tech Museum
http://www.thetech.org/
Unusual Museums and Strange Collections
http://www.museumstuff.com/museums/unusual.html
98
University of Dayton
http://academic.udayton.edu
Virtual Diego Rivera Web Museum
http://www.diegorivera.com
Virtual Museum Canada
http://www.virtualmuseum.ca
The Washington Post
http://www.washingtonpost.com
XPlana
http://www.xplana.com
Zentrum für Kunst und Medientechnologie
http://www.zkm.de/
99
9.
Eidesstattliche Erklärung
Ich erkläre hiermit an Eides statt, dass ich die vorliegende Diplomarbeit
selbständig und ohne unzulässige fremde Hilfe angefertigt habe. Alle
verwendeten Quellen und Hilfsmittel sind angegeben.
Pforzheim, den 27.8.2003
Julia Wahl

Achieving Educational Success through Multimedia and Interactive

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