consequences and acclimatization strategies

Transcription

YOUMARES 3 a joint convention of the German Society for Marine Research and Fraunhofer EMB
3rd Young Marine Research network meeting 2012
“Between space and seafloor: Aqua vita est.”
Fishes, currents, waves and wind
do not refer to borders,
that human mind has come up with...
Elisabeth Mann-Borgese
Contents
Greetings
A warm welcome to our historical town Lübeck! Prof. Dr. Charli Kruse
A warm welcome… Prof. Dr. Oliver Zielinski
Welcome to the YouMaRes 3.0 convention of young marine researchers
Prof. Dr. Hildegard Westphal
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Interview
Between Science and Politics – A Trialogue between Bremen, Berlin and Lübeck von Essen
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Venue
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Glimpse Reviews
Water resources in coastal areas – scarcity and management implications
Máñez Costa, Schwerdtner Máñez, Einsporn, and Ferse
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Aliens from inner space: Where do they come from, what do they do and how can
we stop them? Suckow
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Respective abstract contributions for oral and poster presentations
Ballast water treatment using Ultra-Violet radiation
Ballast Water Treatment – Aspects of Retrofit
Mnemiopsis leidyi – A new competitor to native herring?
Effectiveness of overfishing as lionfish control management in the Caribbean
Omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acid ratio in the two alien species of Rhine river
Possible environmental contamination in consequence of the disinfection of ship’s
ballast water using UV
Effect of Aluminium sulphate on Caulerpa taxifolia and Posidonia oceanica
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Glimpse Review
Between Sea and Anthroposphere: marine socio-economics in an era of global change
Golz and Ferse
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Simulating climate- and nutrient changes in the Baltic Sea
Comparison of fisheries sectors of Japan and Turkey in production, consumption and trade
Influence of traditional values for conservation of animals in Fiji
Building bridges between conservation and socio-economics – Philippine cases.
Causes and Consequences of Eutrophication in the Zhoushan coastal region (East China)
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Glimpse Review
Environmental changes in the pelagic: consequences and acclimatization strategies - from
plankton to fish Geist, Schukat, and Werner
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Metabolic strategies of euphausiid species exposed to oxygen minimum zones
Is retention of herring larvae altered by climate change? A case study from the western Baltic.
Current patterns of genetic differentiation for the European anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus L.
Phytoplanktons as signatures for unrevalling dimethyl sulphide: a case study in cochin estuary
Ecological relationships between zooplankton and Vibrio cholerae in the coastal aquatic
environment of Bangladesh
Zooplankton Respiration in Relation to the Oxygen Minimum Zone
Identifying the spawning sites of herring in a lagoon of the Western Baltic Sea –
A model approach
Physiological responses of scyphozoan jellyfish stages to physico-chemical
environmental parameters
Nocturnal and diurnal emergence and recolonization of harpacticoid copepods in an
intertidal sandflat of the Island of Wangerooge (southern North Sea)
Nearshore or offshore?! What makes the difference for zooplankton communities?
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Glimpse Review
Integrated Aquaculture: Polyculture of plants, invertebrates and finfish A short review
Lorkowski, Hofmann, and Meyer
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Influence of algae and mussels on their microbial community in Aquaculture
Factors determining pumping activity and filter efficiency of the Mediterranean sponge
Chondrosia reniformis – with relation to extractive aquaculture and bioremediation intentions
Aquaponics – Hobby gardening or the future of aquaculture?
Utility of the Blue Mussel (Mytilus edulis) as a Replacement of Fish Meal
Imta in Norway with atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima) and blue
mussels (Mytilus edulis): a one year case study
Emission of wastes for IMTA from Norwegian salmon aquaculture
Integrated Egypt Desert Aquaculture- Agriculture A Major Step For Nile Delta Tilapia
Aquaculture Development: 1: Effects Of Stocking Densities and Daily Feeding Frequency on
Monosex Nile Tilapia Fry Over Wintering Development In Concrete Tanks Supplied With
Underground Water In Alexandria- Cairo Desert Road, Egypt.
The European Aquaculture Society Student Group (EAS-SG) – Opportunities for
young aquaculturists
Glimpse Review
Ocean Modelling: Theory & Concepts
Schwichtenberg, Brüggemann, and Brüdgam
From top to bottom or bottom to top – modelling the whole system
(with a slight focus on the top…)
Occurrence of cyclones and anticyclones in different dynamical regimes
The carbonate system in the Wadden Sea - implementation of the carbonate model from
ECOHAM within the Tidal Ecosystem Model
The ups and downs of winter phytoplankton in the North Atlantic
Modeling study the wind-induced summer blooms in the Bohai Sea
Parameterising Primary Production and Convection in a 3D Model
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Ambitions and reality – Validating a particle tracking model using field data
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Glimpse Review
Physical Oceanography – Between Measuring and Modelling
Freiwald, Garaba, and Grashorn
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Development and construction of a midget underwater glider
A hydrographical model of the Beibu Gulf
Design of an Underwater Glider for Education and Research
Monitoring and Research using Robust, Flexible, Autonomous and Cost-efficient Systems
The Baltic Sea Tracer Releaser Experiment: Mixing processes and mixing rates
Passive Acoustic Monitoring of ambient noise in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean
A 4DVAR Data Assimilation System for SWAN
GIS as a tool to aid hydrodynamic modelling activities
A comparison of bio-optical and oceanographic data in Greenland and Iceland fjords
Transport modelling of Marine Litter in the North Sea
Estimation of Turbulence in an East Frisian Tidal Channel
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Glimpse Review
Reefs from shallow to deep – environmental constraints and perspectives
Wall and Jantzen
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Acclimatization potential of the coral Pocillopora verrucosa to land-based pollution
Fast and easy detection of nutrient limitation in macroalgae
Calcification, photosynthesis and respiration of Halimeda opuntia at Racha island in the
Andaman Sea, Thailand
Organic carbon cycling by 3 species of coral excavating sponges
Effects of light on DOC production by benthic primary producers
Succession patterns in an upwelling-influenced Caribbean coral reef
Calcification, nutrition and metabolic fitness of a shallow cold-water coral
Growth and population structure of the recent brachiopod Magellania venosa
Deep-sea scavengers around cold-water corals in the Belgica Mound Province, NE Atlantic
Differences in phosphate uptake rates by benthic organisms on Curaçao
Growth rates and skeletal density of Desmophyllum dianthus – Effect of association
with endolithic algae
Nutrient interactions between sponges and corals
Primary production of dominant autotrophic organisms in a Caribbean reef
Bioengineers in the Fjords of Chilean Patagonia
Succession of benthic hard-bottom communities in the shallow sublittoral of Comau fjord, Chile
Distribution and expansion of corallimorpharians within coral reefs in Zanzibar
In-situ simulation of overfishing and eutrophication: Effects on algae growth and activity
Bioerosion rates of excavating sponges on Caribbean coral reefs
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Glimpse Review
The aquatic climate archive: tracking the rise and fall of ancient civilizations. Lessons
from the past, for the present and the future? Forke and Wizemann
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First steps towards structure determination of marine dissolved organic matter (DOM)
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Sub-seasonally resolved coral records of Caribbean sea surface conditions during the collapse of the
Maya civilization (~AD 800-1050)
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Glimpse Review
Marine Energy – Sustainable utilization of natural sources and forces
Jendersie, Oppitz, von Essen, and Einsporn
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Assessment of a Wave Energy Converter (WEC) and the Influences of its Mooring System
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Glimpse Review
Tools and techniques in Aquatic Sciences: From fish models to environmental approaches
Rakers
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Facing the challenge of next generation bioreactor systems for in vitro fish cell cultures
Pharmacological characterization of spontaneously contracting cell aggregates from
rainbow trout larvae
Analyses of gene expression levels in omega-3 fatty acid producing fish cell cultures for
cell biomass production in a novel bioreactor system
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Additional contributions
Interdisciplinary MSc and Doctoral Education in Integrated Climate System Science
at the University of Hamburg
Early career networks as seeds for sustainable professional collaboration: a meta
network example
Customized first aid training: a new approach to improve passive safety for research
in remote areas
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Network contribution
The Present status and future perspectives of the European Federation of Marine Science
and Technology Societies (EFMS) Dassenakis, Ducrotoy, Hamann, Danovaro, and Frost
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Historical contribution
Maritime Archaeology in the North Sea – From Stone Age Landscapes to Shipwrecks A Pilot
Project of the German Maritime Museum in Bremerhaven: “The North Sea – A Threatened
cultural Archive” Belasus and Warnke
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Communicating the ocean
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Acknowledgements and Outlook
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A warm welcome to our historical town Lübeck!
Lübeck was founded for the first time in 1143 by Earl Adolf von Schauenburg.
After a massive city-wide burst, it was new-founded in 1153 by Henry the Lion,
Duke of Saxony and brother in law of Richard Lionheart. In the later Middle
Age, until 1669, Lübeck was the center of an alliance of trading towns, the so
called “Hanseatic League”. Its members were many towns along and near the
Baltic Sea. If you find the time for sightseeing, you will discover many places
and buildings with a close relation to the “Hanseatic League”, for example the
Holstentor, the church St. Marien or the town hall. Enjoy this ambiance of
narrow alleys, old houses and all those stories from the past and today that Lübeck has to tell. This
year Lübeck has received the City of Science award and therefore we are very happy to be the host
institution for Youmares 3. The Fraunhofer Research Institution for Marine Biotechnology (EMB) is
part of the Fraunhofer Society which is the largest research organization for applied science in Europe.
Therefore, Fraunhofer institutes are mostly developer of new technologies. The EMB was founded in
2008, so compared to old Lübeck we are a very young institution. There are four main topics of our
research institution: the first one is the investigation of adult human stem cells to develop possible cell
based medical technologies like cell therapies or diagnostics as well as further stem cell technologies.
The second topic is the development of new cell technologies to produce and investigate new
apparatus, disposables or software for isolating, growing, manipulating and analyzing of cell cultures.
The third one is the aquatic cell technology. Here we investigate possibilities for isolating and
cultivating cells from marine and limnic organisms. Furthermore, we work on the development of new
applications and new technologies using these aquatic cells as for example test systems, research
models or as production tools for biomolecules or functional food. Finally we develop new
technologies for integrated multitrophic landbased aquacultures just as tools for their handling. The
Fraunhofer Research Institution for Marine Biotechnology, the youngest member of the Fraunhofer
Life Science Group, enjoys supporting Youmares, the innovative meeting of young marine researchers.
I wish you an interesting and pleasant meeting and I hope that you will enjoy the next days in our
beautiful town Lübeck. Take the chance to experience the pioneering spirit and a drive to research not
only at the EMB but also in this unique community.
Prof. Dr. Charli Kruse,
Local Head of the Fraunhofer Research Institution for Marine Biotechnology (EMB)
A warm welcome…
…to YOUMARES 3 on behalf of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Meeresforschung (DGM). The Hanseatic City of Lübeck, this
year also distinguished by the City of Science award, is an ideal
setting for our young marine research conference in 2012. The
conference is located at the EMB Fraunhofer Research
Institution for Marine Biotechnology -a most welcome and
competent local partner for this event, representing one of the
many facets marine science features. A well planned program is
offered during the two and a half days, opened up by an
icebreaker reception and followed by excellent keynote
addresses. A meet-up evening, open-ship events, post conference
clubbing … the program reads like a recipe for modern, community driven conferences and I am sure,
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you will enjoy all modules of the event. Yet, I would like to draw your attention to a classical element
of scientific communication that is often underestimated or even (falsely) considered of lower value:
poster sessions. Making up a good poster is like writing a gripping short story or painting a picture that
captures the spectator with its statement - or both of it at once. The poster constrains its creator to the
very core of its take-home-message. The receiver on the other hand is more than a passive consumer;
he can actively choose where to pass by and where to engage in conversation with the poster presenter.
This quality above quantity makes posters special and valuable. A final aspect of posters is their
sustainability (a buzz word that needs to be part of any welcome address): Back home in the institute,
office or university they provide an informative as decorative wallpaper. Therefore please feel
encouraged to provide a fascinating poster as well as paying attention to the poster efforts of other
attendees.
My highest esteem goes to the organizing committee, the local support from the EMB Lübeck, the
assistance from the DGM office in Hamburg, the sponsors and many supporters. YOUMARES is the
tasty fruit of many gardeners work, or sticking to the local specialties, the delicious marzipan loaf of
many skilled and passionate pastry cooks. Enjoy!
Prof. Dr. Oliver Zielinski,
President of the DGM
Welcome to the YouMaRes 3.0 convention of young marine researchers
Dear young marine researchers,
It is my pleasure to welcome all participants to the YouMaRes 3.0
Convention in Lübeck. It is only the third time that students and young
researchers in the marine science get together for this meeting, but already
the wider international community is taking notice and the meeting is
becoming a fixture of the marine scientists’ calendar. I congratulate the
organizers to the great success of the first two meetings, which made this
third one possible. We observe an increasing awareness in the media,
politics and the public mind, of the importance of the world’s oceans in
climate dynamics and protein resources, but also of the threats from the
sea. For all these topics with their high importance for the future, well-informed, well-connected and
enthusiastic young marine researchers obviously play an important role. This is one of the reasons why
the Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT) – in addition to doing science – is engaged in
capacity building in Germany as well as in our tropical partner countries. A strong network has formed
as a result of these activities that is an important asset for the future of an integrated and innovative
marine scientific community around the world. Performing research in and for itself today is not
enough to establish a career. Communicating the results to stakeholders is increasingly relevant.
Hence, beyond the actual training in scientific methods, it is essential to meet and exchange thoughts
and ideas. The YouMaRes-meeting provides a dynamic forum for networking and scientific exchange
in an atmosphere of trust and openness. The congenial exchange encourages young BSc, MSc, and
PhD students to present their research to their peers and form lasting contacts and friendships. In
future years you may be surprised how often you will see each other again. ZMT staff is happy to be
involved in organizing this meeting, and I am very pleased to see how ZMT’s mission for capacity
building is being developed and translated into action by our young research staff.
Have a great 3rd YouMaRes meeting, enjoy the exchange and take back home new ideas and great
memories!
Prof. Dr. Hildegard Westphal,
Director of the Leibniz Center of Tropical Marine Ecology
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Between Science and Politics – A Trialogue
between Bremen, Berlin and Lübeck
An interview by Liesa-Marlena von Essen
Marc Einsporn, YOUMARES initiator and marine scientist, and Wolfgang
Gründinger, environmentalist and political scientist, do not only share the same
regional origins. An interview revealed that both of them are also engaged in the
promotion of the young generation. Their different experiences, views and
approaches gave, however, reason enough for discussion. In several of his books,
Wolfgang already pointed to problematic topics like the conflict between generations,
lobbyism in climate protection and the energy crisis. Aiming at better results, he
always focused on connection and dialogue between young people. Also for Marc,
M.H. Einsporn
connection, network building and flow of information among the youngsters from
economy and natural sciences were the motivating aims to organise YOUMARES.
With their commitment, the two of them make a valuable contribution to sensitize
young people's awareness for active participation towards their environment. In
contrast to real assets, knowledge is only worthy if it is shared. Therefore, building
bridges, mutual understanding and generation of surplus
are central points, which are also essential in science and
politics.
W. Gründinger
In the course of her Master thesis the studied marine
ecologist Liesa-Marlena von Essen gave a talk at the first
network meeting “Young Marine Science” in Hamburg. She cleaved to the working
group of studies and education to help organising YOUMARES during the following
years. Besides her scientific focus on aquaculture, the twenty-six-year-old is engaged
in regional conservation. At the interface of science and politics she interviewed two
L.-M. von Essen
young academics, who will certainly attract our attention in the future.
Von Essen: Mr. Einsporn and Mr. Gründinger,
Lübeck or Berlin?
Einsporn: If Berlin shall represent the political work
at the basis, Lübeck is the better choice to make a
difference with my network and what I did previously.
An important part of a successful convention is,
besides the content itself, also an inspiring ambiance.
It was obvious to choose a city, where literature of
supreme amicability was produced and history of
seafaring and trade was made.
Gründinger: You are in good hands in Berlin, if you
want to make a difference in political terms. Day after
day, lobbyists, politicians and scientists debate the
translation of ideas and interests into actual policies –
at official hearings and committee meetings as well as
breakfeasts with lobbyists or receptions. Those who
are not participating personally are likely to fall
behind quickly. Being an activist and doing my
research in the field of democracy, I investigate how
the political business is working on the ground. At the
same time I strive to influence politics as a futureoriented lobbyist to pursue the interests of following
generations. However, without the big contribution
that scientists are doing on sea or in the Arctic, not a
single politician or policy advisor would have even a
mere idea of how “good” policy could look like.
Berlin needs Lübeck, so to say.
Einsporn: I totally agree! This is exactly the message
we try to spread via YOUMARES. In a resource-poor
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country, as Germany is, we rely on the creativity of
young masterminds. The moment we are again
debating about skills shortage and brain drain, it is
time to highlight the potential of early stage
researchers from Germany on the international
playhouses. Since its early days, marine science has
always been attracting students, who favoured the
prospect of an adventurous expedition and the
international projects. In the course of the Bolognaprocess, Bachelor and Master Students mix
intensively, so that their fields of interest and
specialization are multiplied. The modern marine
scientist has to be familiar with “legalese” for fundraising, as well as the rough conditions at sea. At the
same time this scientist has to communicate the
outcome of the studies to interested laymen, political
and economic decision maker. It is not the task of
YOUMARES to produce such a political
communication platform. Still, we want to make a
clear statement to Berlin, that we have young, creative
people in Germany, who are happy and motivated to
study basic science and realise technical applications.
This “constructionism” also reaches other countries,
so that YOUMARES already attracts international
young scientists, who come all the way to participate.
Von Essen: How do you rate the commitment of
young generations actively shaping their
environment?
Einsporn: I understand shaping one's environment as
participation and contribution to societal life. Since
years already, organisations and societies complain
about the loss of offspring. On the contrary lose
groups or virtual networks gain in importance. From
my point of view, it is the willingness to participate,
that has changed. Still, young people want to get
involved, but the inflexible structures and coupled
duties they would have to comply, are often not
compatible to their personal ideals any more. To
participate, socially, ecologically or other important
contexts is extremely vital. Therefore support and
acknowledgement of small projects would have to be
pushed much more. One of the big keys, stimulating
for participation, is education. No matter on which
level this takes place independent from graduation,
social background or financial support. Amongst the
multiple possibilities to engage, everyone should do
his or her part to make the day a little better.
Gründinger: Environment, climate and energy are the
hot topics the young generation has to deal with.
Thousands of young people fight for the health of their
planet, be it in a classical environmental NGO, be it in
a local student initiative. High-school graduates take a
gap year to volunteer in environmental projects;
students who live on less than “Hartz IV” but still buy
organic food and green electricity; vegetarians and
vegans, who refuse eating meat, based upon ethical
reasons. The sole number of party membership books
is an antiquated indicator for political commitment.
Instead of sham battles about the revolution, we are
practical visionaries with a hands-on approach - even
if this does not directly cause a revolution. Just have a
brief look at the Green Music Initiative that
encourages club owners to raise energy efficiency; the
“Carrot Mobs”, which reward shop owners for
environmental protection; or “Plant for the Planet”, an
initiative by kids planting millions of trees. This
generation is not sleeping. This generation rocks!
Einsporn: Indeed! This generation fights with
different means. Every individual possesses market
power, he can make use of. Some years ago, the use of
resources such as solar or wind energy, which were
frequently dismissed as “gimmick” belong nowadays
to the commonly used energy mix. Or think about the
organic-trend in our supermarkets. The current
generation sometimes shows a lack in patience. To
have great staying power to push ahead with an idea
until the actual implementation of a project or is
needed. However, practice makes perfect and little
success experiences strengthen the self-confidence.
Von Essen: Mr. Gründinger, you belong to the
„High Potentials“, who have already achieved a lot
at a young age. What do you advise young people
to do, who also want to effect society in a similar
manner and propose a career like you seeked?
Gründinger: Talking about “High potentials”, I must
stress that everyone bears a high potential for
changing the planet. We must look out for allies. We
are powerless if everyone works on his or her own.
Indeed, the first one who starts anything new and big
will receive all the recognition, but those who follow
and participate are much more important. Hence my
humble wish or advice: network, engage in NGOs and
political parties, dare stating your personal opinion
everywhere. Just start with small steps forward, even
if they do not save the entire world immediately.
Einsporn: I can confirm that. To speak from my own
experience, it is important to dare, as an individual
person, to take the first step; to develop an idea, to
form an opinion and to defend it against headwinds.
This is the function of the visionaries and men of
action. Along with stamina and a proper dose of
motivation, you can form and consolidate a group,
and inspire others in order to contribute to a joint aim.
Von Essen: Many experts say that environmental
conservation is being realized in the offices. Do you
agree?
Gründinger: In a political sense: yes. A law is being
created in offices. So, we need technicians and
engineers who are educated about the scientific basics
of any legal jurisdiction. Only a very few politicians
are natural scientists, and can refer to their personal
expertise when it comes to energy, climate or marine
policy. Experts are needed to consult them and protect
them from errors. Without science, politicians would
have no clue about the acidification and overfishing of
the ocean, nor about climate change. Finally,
politicians have to decide about what we can define as
the “common good”. That’s their job they are elected
for, and in a democracy, no one else has the
legitimation to decide what is good or bad, right or
wrong. How to push for sound climate protection – by
wind or solar power, bioenergy or energy efficiency –
is just one important question. In addition, technicians
are needed who also implement on the ground what
politicians have decided previously. Hence, there must
be someone who constructs energy storages, puts solar
panels on roofs and ensures that the entire energy
supply holds and does not break down.
Einsporn: The term ‘global environmental
conservation’ is difficult to grasp. Often environmental
protection means to safeguard the interests of parties,
associations and other institutions. It also gets
instrumentalised by sub groups to draw huge public
attention. For me, environmental conservation starts
in a tiny scale personal framework, at home. How do
you do your groceries? What do you buy? How do you
handle mobility and transport? Individual habits,
discussions and different group behaviors make the
overall picture quite complex. For national and global
improvement, a comprehensive and genuine
communication is most important to implement and
maintain activities for environmental conservation at
different social levels.
Von Essen: Your commitment began in your rural
homeland. How did this location affected your
work ?
Einsporn: My interest in the natural and social
environment was initiated in my hometown Mitterteich
(Bavaria). As a member in the the local German
scouting organisation Sankt Georg (DPSG), I learned
a lot about nature, group behavior and (self)
reflection. But that is, by far, not all. In the
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organisation, I also got to know Wolfgang when we
were teenagers. As our ways parted after graduation,
the DPSG gave me the opportunity to get involved in
different hierarchy levels and in leadership training
programmes. These days, I definitely learned to show
interest, learn, commit myself, establish networks and
maintenane them. From there, I was able to
participate in further programmes later on e.g. project
management or creative methods, which helped me a
lot during my studies as well as during the
organization of YOUMARES.
Gründinger: I am already old enough to remember
the times when you had to plug in the slow working
modem to connect it to the internet. To transform my
little hometown Tirschenreuth into the center of the
battle against the environmental crisis was quite
difficult since there were not enough ministers
available on the spot. And if you miss your friends’
birthday parties because you spend your weekends
saving the world, you need friends you can get
something going together and you can still hang out
with. But there is one good thing growing up in a rural
area: You are down to earth.
Von Essen: Quite frankly, Mr. Gründinger: Which
potential for improvements do you see for
YOUMARES, in order to increase the benefit for
young participants?
Gründinger: If you want to make a change, you need
like-minded fellows. We have to network and create
synergy effects, discuss together, party together. When
I have four or five beers with someone, I will also
trust him when reviewing any controversial study or
occupying the Bundestag. In addition: YOUMARES
organizes and bundles interests. This is important to
be heard. A single student by himself can hardly raise
his voice.
Einsporn: Exchange of experience and networking at
eye level. In science, we talk quite often about the so
called ‘peer review’. This is an assessment process
carried out by experts. Bound in daily lectures and
seminars, most people just know about the hierarchy
between students and professors, their assistants and
the student body. Also within an age group ther is
arrangement in groups. However, there is only a
minority of students, that depends on each other and
can freely operate. YOUMARES aims to an exchange
far beyond the borders of disciplines, hierarchical
levels and countries. In addition, we want to
encourage participants to a fair and sustainable
commitment in the field of science. The networks
improvements were developed by many ideas of
students, the Young Science Committee and further
suggestions of visitors. They development of result
from the annual suggestions for topics by the
researchers, as well as from the contacts to economy
and societies, who faithfully provide ongoing support.
Gründinger: YOUMARES should not stay a form of
floating science in an ivory tower. In the political
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scene, natural scientists are a rare species,
unfortunately. I hope that you dare to intervene in
political debates and to make your voice heard. If
politics fail, you will in 20 or 30 years only be able to
do research on the overfishing and acidification of the
ocean. That will not be of any fun.
Von Essen: ou both are 28 years old. Did you ever
had difficulties to prevail yourselves because of
your young age? And how can you get listeners,
attract attention and enforce?
Gründinger: Definitely yes. As youth, you are not
taken for serious. Young people are allowed to state
their opinion every now and then, but no one is
listening. However, their competence is not being
appreciated. Also on the voters’ market, their opinion
does not play a crucial role. Only with an academic
degree and some books in my publication list, people
start listening. We must fight to change this attitude of
ignorance towards the youth. An important step is to
extend the right to vote to all young people, also
below the age of 18 years. As a result, politicians
would be forced to respect young people.
Einsporn: I could not agree more. Additionally, the
academic degree plays an important role. Despite the
introduction of Bachelor's and Master's degree
programmes, as long as you do not have a PhD in
natural science, you are still considered as
'intraining‘. Experienced generations have always
been critical towards the attitudes and deeds of the
younger generation. However, life experience,
expertise and the strength of accomplishment mean
more than just age or walking the well-caved paths of
academia. To convince skeptics and critics of the
sustainable effectiveness of young people, will be
difficult to realize in the future and will only be able to
conquer by persuasion. Having ideas and thinking
through them, drawing up and discuss them, checking
and modification, carry them further and
implementing; this is exactly the motto of YOUMARES
and a possibility to be heard via several ways such as
the press conference on board of the ALDEBARAN.
Von Essen: Do you have some closing words?
Gründinger: I assume that I am the only political
scientist to speak at a marine conference. That’s really
something that does not happen to me every day. I
have a gigantic potential to learn here, indeed.
Einsporn: Personally, I am happy about these
crossing paths with my buddy Wolfgang. In my role as
YOUMARES-coordinator, I am really looking forward
to welcome a young, prominent key note speaker to
touch, who will hopefully state one or the other
critical question in order to discuss them in the follow
up.
Von Essen: Thank you very much for this
interesting discussion and I wish you both a
successful conference.
13
Venue
Youmares 3 is organized in close cooperation with
EMB Fraunhofer Research Institution for Marine
Biotechnology and its local head Prof. Dr. Charli
Kruse. The Institute concentrates on fields of cellular
technology, aquatic biotechnology and cell-based
medical techniques
14
The Hanseatic City of Lübeck is, situated at the river
Trave, Germany's gate to the Baltic. The Brick Stone
Gothic gives the Queen of the Hanse a unique flair of
maritime modernity with historical memory. Niederegger
Marzipan is probably as well known as Thomas Mann's
first novel "Buddenbrooks". In 2012 Lübeck is
celebrating having been elected as the German "City of
Science". The conference venue will be "Die
Gemeinnützige" in down-town Lübeck, Königstr. 5.
Water resources in coastal areas – scarcity and management implications
Maria Máñez Costa1*, Kathleen Schwerdtner Máñez2, Marc H. Einsporn2, and Sebastian C. A. Ferse2
1
Climate Service Center in Hamburg, Helmholtz Center Geesthacht, Climate Service Center (CSC), Chilehaus,
Eingang B, Fischertwiete 1, 20095 Hamburg
2
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstraße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
* corresponding author: [email protected]
Freshwater availability is of major importance for social ecological systems around the world. This
importance becomes evident on small islands and in populated coastal areas in which water resources
are not abundant or not usable. Especially in the tropics, where population growth often coincides with
decreasing resources, water scarcity is a pressing issue. Main growing cities around the world,
accounting for around 50% of world population, are also located in coastal areas and nowadays
experiencing challenges in freshwater management. Water scarcity already compels people to migrate
from coastal areas. For example in the Indus Delta in Pakistan many fishermen have migrated in the
last decade due to reduced water availability more than to any other causes. They might experience in
the near future additional severe water problems due to increasing human numbers and climate
change.
Water does not know political borders. The hydrologic cycle does not stop at borders. The seas and
rivers connect climatic regions to each other, enable trade and shipment. Rain transports urban
emissions to rural areas, and water brings pollution from industrialized to lesser-developed regions.
Irrespective of personal wealth, access to safe water concerns each person on the planet.
The freshwater problem is not a biogeographical one but also a problem of social justice, distribution
and power. Water scarcity affects differently diverse social groups and sectors and calls therefore for
multiple management measures. For example, already in many areas freshwater for human
consumptions is subsidizing freshwater for agriculture or aquaculture, since e.g. humans can consume
water that plants or fish do not tolerate. This situation makes that first water quality goes increasingly
to the agricultural sector for export crops.
Those concurring freshwater uses and mismanagement of freshwater resources will be aggravated by
climate change. According to IPCC-scenarios for the next decades in tropical areas, the impacts of
climate change will increasingly contribute to water scarcity: Salt water intrusion and beach erosion
might jeopardize groundwater aquifers; and changing rainfall patterns might endanger their
replenishment. It has been suggested that in the case of small islands many may soon become
uninhabitable, given their limited freshwater availability, the increasing water demand and climatic
changes. However, industrialized countries also face serious problems in striving to sustainably
provide freshwater.
But do we have a proper definition for water scarcity? Mainly definitions of water scarcity tend to be
based on the amount of water available per person and year (Barnharkt, 1986; Clarke, 1993;
Falkenmark, 1989). However, water scarcity has different dimensions. Physical water scarcity or
shortage is only one such dimension, and refers to the amount of water available for a given period of
time in a given area or for a particular crop. Water scarcity might also be a shortage in quality due to
pollution – in terms of anthropogenic or natural contamination. Another dimension of water scarcity is
the social or perceived scarcity, which refers to human-made scarcity (for example, driven by limited
access to the resource) and the way scarcity, is actually felt by people. Recently, more comprehensive
indicators for water scarcity have tried to capture economic and social factors as well (see Daniell,
2012; Rijsberman, 2006). Perceived scarcity provides the basis on which people will make their
decisions and act. An improved understanding of perceived water scarcity is thus needed in analyses of
water scarcity (Schwerdtner Máñez et al., 2012). Consequently, an understanding of the entire related
social perceptions around the resource water is extremely important for designing and implementing
future management initiatives.
As already expressed, scarcity of water tends to affect less-powerful and marginalized members of
society to a disproportionally large extent. For example in touristic areas, tourism has priority in water
use independently of the water needs of the region. This sector can noticeably increase freshwater use,
particularly during the peak holiday periods in regions already subject to significant water shortages.
Additionally in many parts of the world the provision of drinking water has become the domain of
15
private industries, making access to clean drinking water an expensive commodity that only the
affluent can enjoy.
New resulting conflicts for the water use arise when considering the dimension of water quality in
water management under water shortage conditions. Thus, there is a need to develop forward thinking
management options, which may depart from traditional ways of acceptance and planning and which
also have to include in particular the real local needs.
Where water is already scarce, any pollution reduces the amount of usable water resources, so water
scarcity mitigation options are not limited to the dimension of water quantity alone. Serious threats are
directly resulting from pathogens (associated with organic matter), endocrine disrupters, pesticides and
other hazardous substances (Máñez Costa et al, 2007). Insufficient water quality still is one of the
major threats to human health. Associated diarrhoeal diseases are still killing roughly 1.8 million
people a year, whereas up to 90 % of the victims are women and children (WHO, 2004).
Searching for the causative agents, water, the main source of all life, provides a perfect environment
for biological and chemical contaminants and a habitat to disease transmitters for viral, protozoal,
parasitic and bacterial infections (Lara et al., 2011 and references therein). Although currently, the
majority of waterborne diseases are confined to tropical, less-developed regions, global commodity
flows and tourism open pathways for these diseases to spread around the globe. Goods and inadequate
control mechanisms allow causative agents to be spread. Furthermore, global climatic changes lead to
the spread of disease vectors into regions where these previously were absent. Still nowadays 1.6
million deaths per annum result from unsafe water, sanitation and lack of hygiene. In the same time
period, 1.1 billion people were without access to safe drinking water, whereas 2.4 billion people
lacked access to sanitation. This burden has enormous implication for global human well-being, peace
and security. Making safe water accessible for everyone is fundamental for economic improvement
and poverty mitigation (Hutton and Haller, 2004).
On the other hand, the major water related problems in industrialized countries are flood and droughts.
They might affect and influence coastal areas in manifold ways, including decreases in water quality,
increase of connectivity, etc. For example, when water treatment plants are not able to cope with the
additional water masses, sewage and drinking water mix can cause fatal scenarios to wells and lakes
(Kistemann et al., 2002; Semenza et al., 2007). A British study showed that 30 % of disease outbreaks
were directly associated with rainfall events (Nichols et al., 2009). As rainfall is predicted to increase
in many regions of the industrialized world as a consequence of climate change (IPCC, 2012), this
might constitute an additional health threat in the affected regions.
But main problems of water scarcity are the problems arising from food supply around the world at the
local, national and international sphere. The agricultural sector consumes worldwide around 75 to 90
% of the water available and is the main sector for feeding the world. So any single problem affecting
this sector, affects as well the whole world population. Extreme examples of water stress like the longprolonged drought period in the Iberian Peninsula or in the US this year have caused the decrease of
food availability in the global markets and the increase of prices. In an era of high implications due to
climatic changes, good management practices are needed to combat water scarcity and situations like
that in which local effects of water scarcity affect the prices of global staple food. However, water
resources management in the past has often been derived from a perspective where the different
components of “environment-technology-human” systems were clearly separated and approached in a
sequential fashion (Pahl-Wostl, 2002). The mitigation of water scarcity at local scale depends not just
on technological innovations, but also on the development of new integrated water management tools
and decision-making practices.
References:
Clarke, R. (1993) Water: The International Crisis. The MIT
Press, Cambridge
Daniell, K.A. (2012) Co-engineering and Participatory
Water Management: Organisational Challenges for Water
Governance, Cambridge
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
(ECDC)
(2012)
Water-borne
diseases
http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/healthtopics/climate_change/h
ealth_effects/Pages/water_borne_diseases.aspx
(accessed
August 10, 2012)
16
Falkenmark, M. (1989) The massive water scarcity now
threatening Africa – why isn’t it being addressed? Ambio 18,
112–118
IPCC (2012) Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and
Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. A Special
Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V. Barros, T.F.
Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea,
K.J. Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M.
Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
UK, and New York, NY, USA, 582 pp.
Lara, R. J., Islam, M. S., Yamasaki, S., Neogi, S. B., Nair, G.
B., Eds.: Eric, W. & Donald, M. (2011) Aquatic Ecosystems,
Human Health, and Ecohydrology. Treatise on Estuarine and
Coastal Science. Waltham, Academic Press
Máñez Costa, M., Froebrich, J., Ferrand, N. and Silva. A.
(2007) Participatory dam systems modelling: a case study of
the transboundary Guadiana River in the Iberian Peninsula.
Water Science & Technology Vol 56 No 4 pp 145–156
Rijsberman, F.R. (2006) Water scarcity: fact or fiction?
Agricultural Water Management 80, 5–22
Schwerdtner Máñez K., Husain S., Ferse S.C.A. and Máñez
Costa, M. (2012) Water scarcity in the Spermonde
Archipelago, Sulawesi, Indonesia: past, present and future.
Environmental Science and Policy 23:74-84
Kistemann T., Classen T., Koch C., Dangendorf F, Fischeder
R, Gebel J, Vacata V, Exner M. (2005) Microbial load of
drinking water reservoir tributaries during extreme rainfall
and runoff. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68(5):2188-97
Semenza J., Nichols G. (2007) Cryptosporidiosis
surveillance and water-borne outbreaks in Europe. Euro
Surveill 12(5)[Epub ahead of print]. Available online:
http://www.eurosurveillance.org/em/v12n05/1205-227.asp
Nichols, G., Lane, C., Asgari, N., Verlander, N.Q., Charlett,
A. (2008) Rainfall and outbreaks of drinking water related
diseases in England and Wales. J Water Health;7(1):1-8
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2008)
Annual Epidemiological Report on Communicable Diseases,
2008. Stockholm: European Centre for Disease Prevention
of Control
Emch, M., Feldacker, C., Islam M.S., Ali, M. (2008)
Seasonality of cholera from 1974 to 2005: a review of global
patterns. Int J Health Geogr.;7:31
Hutton, G., Haller, L. (2004) Evaluation of the costs and
benefits of water and sanitation improvements at the global
level. Water, Sanitation and Health Protection of the Human
Environment.
Geneva.
WHO/SDE/WSH.04.04
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wsh0404.pdf
(accessed August 13, 2012)
Pahl-Wostl, C. (2002) Towards sustainability in the water
sector- the importance of human actors and processes of
social learning. Aquatic Sciences, 64, 394-411
.
Aliens from inner space: Where do they come from, what do they do and
how can we stop them?
Björn B. Suckow
ttz Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 6, 27568 Bremerhaven, Germany
*corresponding author: [email protected]
There is no such thing as a fixed definition of what Alien Species are. In literature a multitude is found
(Carlton, 2002). In general Alien Species can be referred to as species that have established a
population within a new geographic area or ecosystem and that have been introduced by human
activity (Global Invasive Species Programme, 2008). They can belong to any phyla. In the marine
environment the term Marine Invasive Species is used most commonly. Overall successful invasive
species are able to reproduce at high rates, have short generation times, tolerate a broad range of
abiotic conditions and often lack natural enemies in their new habitat. Because of this they can easily
adapt to new surroundings, spread extensively, thus displacing indigenous species and unbalancing the
ecosystem with a lasting effect. Apart from threatening biodiversity Marine Invasive Species cause
drastic impacts on local economies and human health. A prominent example is the comb jellyfish
Mnemiopsis leidyi which had a dramatic effect on the commercial fishery in the Black Sea (Knowler,
2005; Kideys, 2002), the Caspian Sea (Kideys, et al., 2001 a; Kideys, et al., 2001 b) and which is most
recently threatening Catalan fisherman and aquaculture enterprises (Murias, 2011). It is associated
with fishery crashes as it feeds on zooplankton, pelagic fish eggs and larvae. The total economic loss
to the fisherman was in the range of hundred millions of U.S. dollars (Kideys, 2002). Another example
is the Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis. Since 1912 it is believed to have caused a damage of
approximately 80 million Euros in Germany alone, mainly because of losses in commercial eel
fisheries (e.g. stealing of bait, damage to fishing gear) in estuaries and rivers. Mass migration of these
crabs lead to blockages of water intakes in irrigation and water supply schemes (Siegfried, 1999). Due
to their burrowing activity river banks throughout Europe haven been eroded and collapsed (Rudnick,
et al., 2005). Though no effects on human health in Europe have been reported it is known to act as an
intermediate host for human lung fluke parasite Paragonimus westermanii in Asia (Gollasch, 2006). A
serious threat is posed by toxic dinoflagellates. Their toxins can be accumulated by filter-feeding
shellfish and when eaten by humans cause paralysis and even death (GloBallast, 2012 a). While
definitive proof whether a species is a true alien or not is impossible, Bolch and de Salas (Bolch & de
Salas, 2007) found evidence indicating that Gymnodinium catenatum and strains of Alexandrium were
introduced to Australasia during the past 100 years.
17
Once an organism has successfully invaded an ecosystem it can be extremely labor- and cost-intensive
to eliminate it. The measures taken for Eradication are as diverse as nature itself and often take years
to succeed if they succeed at all. As consequences are irreversible in many cases Marine Invasive
Species are recognized as one of the greatest threats to the world’s oceans along with land-based
sources of marine pollution, over-exploitation of living marine resources and destruction of marine
habitats
(Global Invasive Species Programme, 2008). The vectors of distribution are numerous.
These included, inter alia, species being intentionally introduced to escapees from aquaria and
aquaculture, stowaways in ships’ ballast water tanks and on ships’ hulls with the latter two being
identified as the main pathways (Minchin & Gollasch, 2002). Shipping is by far the most important
means of transportation for commodities worldwide transferring around three to five billion tons of
ballast water internationally each year (GloBallast, 2012 a). Former studies have proven that ballast
water still contains a considerable amount of marine organisms (Gollasch, et al., 2002) and that
commercial ships and recreational vessels carry them as part of their hulls’ biofouling community
(Ruiz & Reid, 2010). Faster ships and a steadily increasing world merchant fleet (UNCTAD
secretariat, 2011) are exacerbating the risk of successful invasions. Initially this cuts down the time for
intercontinental voyages, increasing the probability of a higher and fitter number of marine organisms
being discharged at the ports of destination. In addition, the growing numbers of vessels offer more
chances for invasions to happen.
To prevent further ecological and economic damage different international frameworks and
management plans have been set up from the 1990’s onwards. One of the first ideas was a ballast
water exchange (BWE), i.e. the replacement of 88-99% of the original water. In the process coastal
organisms that have been sucked into the ballast water tanks while loading and unloading the ship at
the port are exchanged with oceanic species. The intention is that population densities are less in the
open ocean and that once the water is released at the destination port the organisms are less likely to
adapt to the ports’ environment and suffer from salinity shock. Furthermore the open ocean is believed
to be less susceptible to invasions. By this method a reduction of 80-95% of organisms can be
achieved (Ruiz & Reid, 2010). BWE has some limitations. A certain number of coastal organisms will
always remain. According to the sea state it can be dangerous to ships and incidents have happened.
Though it is rare and less likely to be recognized, oceanic systems can be invaded too. An example is
the king crab Paralithodes camtschatica, which is native to North Pacific and can nowadays be found
in the Barents Sea (Carlton, 2002). There is no reliable data basis on the effect of BWE on waterborne
viruses, bacteria and protists (Ruiz & Reid, 2010) but it is known that especially heterotrophic protists
are favored in ballast tank conditions with a high turnover of ballast water (Hülsmann & Galil, 2002).
This is particularly critical as some of them can act as parasites, produce toxins or carry pathogenic
bacteria and once introduced may modify or trigger changes in ecosystems. Hülsmann and Galil even
propose that they may account indirectly for many successful invasions, as protists serve as food for
filter-feeders and bio-film grazing metazoans (Hülsmann & Galil, 2002).
As there is currently no way to foresee the impact of a nonindigenous species in a new habitat,
Leppäkoski et al. denote treating all of them as “guilty until proven innocent” is the only
environmental sound approach (Leppäkoski , et al., 2002). This is reflected in another attempt to tackle
the problem made by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), a specialized agency of the
United Nations responsible for improving maritime safety and preventing pollution from ships. In
2004 they adopted the Convention on the Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments. With its
"Ballast Water Performance Standard" it is limiting the amount of organisms being allowed to be
released into the environment. It can only be met by active treatment systems because the required
reduction of organisms is above 99% making BWE inadequate. According to article 18 of the
convention it will enter into force 12 months after the date on which at least 30 states, representing
35% of the gross tonnage of the world's merchant shipping, have ratified it (International Maritime
Organization, 2009). From that day on it will bind ship-owners to treat their ballast water to minimize
the mentioned risks. Currently (February 2012), the 33 contracting parties represent 26.46% of the
world tonnage (GloBallast, 2012 b). Despite the fact that it has not become mandatory yet to have a
working ballast water management system (BWMS) on board a ship various companies have been
putting efforts into the development of such systems. So far an estimated 15-20 BMWS are ready for
series production and a total of 50-60 BMWS are being tested (Köster, 2011). A number of different
methods are used: mechanical filters or membranes in combination with UV irradiation / plasma /
ultrasound / cavitation / oversaturation with gases or chemical systems using biocides, chlorine or its
18
derivate as well as electrochemical disinfection methods (Hochhaus & Mehrkens, 2007). The largest
market shares have electrolysis/electro-chlorination and UV Systems in combination with mechanical
filtration units. Apart from the IMO different countries have set up distinct regulatory frameworks with
some of them applying even harsher standards like the United States or Canada. One of the challenges
for BWMS is that they must eliminate nearly all organisms in 1000’s of tons of ballast water and yet
be able to discharge it free of disinfection byproducts (DBP). Current treatment systems using active
substances generate and release a large number of DBP (Banerji, et al., 2012). Contradictory
statements were made concerning UV-Systems (Liltved, et al., 2011; Schories, 2011; Veldhuis, 2011).
As some DBP are carcinogenic, others are poorly characterized in regard to their long-term toxicity
and impact on marine environments (Werschkun, 2011). Nevertheless more research is still needed.
Additionally the current practices for the approval of BWMS as well as upscaling issues are being
questioned among the “ballast water community”. A way to assure a systems’ feasibility in all possible
conditions at any time has not been found yet (Köster, 2011). Another problem that still has to be
addressed is the gap in the regulatory framework of both BWE and BWMS (Ruiz & Reid, 2010).
Empty ballast water tanks still contain viable organisms on their inner surfaces and in residual, nonpumpable waters and sediments (Ruiz & Reid, 2010). All of these are least likely to be affected by
BWE and most of the BWMS approaches but need to be treated as well.
In the case of biofouling the risk of introducing non-native species derives not only from the adult
organisms themselves, but also from the planktonic life stages of most biofouling species and the fact
that changes in abiotic conditions can trigger spawning events (Minchin & Gollasch, 2003). To prevent
the attachment of organisms anti-fouling paints are used to coat the bottoms of ships. They make use
of metallic compounds that slowly leach into the water thus killing the attached marine fauna. Due to
its exceptional effectiveness the organotin tributyltin (TBT) was the most widely used reagent until
scientist found out about its persistency in seawater and effect on marine life. TBT has been proven to
cause deformations in oysters and sex changes in whelks. Human health may also be at risk as a result
of the consumption of affected seafood. Since 2008 the use of harmful organotins in anti-fouling paints
is prohibited by the IMO (International Maritime Organization, 2011). A substantial amount of
research has been undertaken in order to find non-harmful substitutes like natural chemicals derived
from algae or bacteria that act like “living paint” (De Nys & Steinberg, 2002) and other ways to
prevent the settlement of biofilms. Promising is the approach to copy the natural physical defense
mechanisms of different marine species like pilot whales (Baum, et al., 2002), Mytilus spp. (Scardino,
et al., 2003; Scardino & de Nys, 2004; Bers & Wahl, 2004; Bers, et al., 2006), brittle stars (Ophiura
texturata), the crab Cancer pagurus (Bers & Wahl, 2004) and tropical sea stars (Guenther & de Nys,
2007; Guenther, et al., 2007) translated into micro- and nanostructured surfaces that either deter
organisms from settling or reduce their adhesion strength (fouling-release coatings) (Global Invasive
Species Programme, 2008). As far as vessels are concerned the focus of research in this area was and
still is mainly driven by decreasing fuel consumption due to the extra weight of the unwanted
passengers like barnacles, mussels and algae. Although it is beneficial to prevent organisms from
being spread through this pathway, standards like those used for ballast water by the IMO are missing
and have to be developed. Today’s initiatives could provide the basis for this (Global Invasive Species
Programme, 2008).
References:
Banerji, S., Werschkun, B. & Höfer, T., 2012. Assessing the
Risk of Ballast Water Treatment to Human Health.
Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 62(1).
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Bers, A. V. & Wahl, M., 2004. The influence of natural
surface microtopographies on fouling. Biofouling, Volume
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evidence for ballast water introduction of the toxic
dinoflagellates Gymnodinium catenatum and the
Alexandrium tamarensis complex to Australasia. Harmful
Algae, 6(4), pp. 465-485.
Carlton, J. T., 2002. Bioinvasion Ecology: Assessing
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De Nys, R. & Steinberg, P. D., 2002. Linking marine
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Guenther, J. & de Nys, R., 2007. Surface microtopographies
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Guenther, J., Walker-Smith, G., Waren, A. & de Nys, R.,
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2001 b. Monitoring Mnemiopsis in the Caspian waters of
Azerbaijan, Baku, Azerbaijan: s.n.
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invasion: Mnemiopsis leidyi in the Black sea. Ecological
Economics, 25 1, 52(2), pp. 187-199.
Köster, E., 2011. UV Treatment of ballast water:
Requirements, challenges and benefits – an overview.
Hamburg, 22.11.2011, s.n.
Leppäkoski , E., Gollasch, S. & Olenin, S., 2002. Alien
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22.11.2011, s.n.
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Academic Publishers, pp. 183-192.
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how Changing Circumstances and Spawning Events may
Result in the Spread of Exotic Species. Biofouling, Volume
19, pp. 111-122.
20
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Rudnick, D. A., Chan, V. & Resh, V., 2005. Morphology and
Impacts of the burrows of the Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir
sinensis H. Milne Edwards (Decapoda Grapsoidea).
Crustaceana, 78(7), pp. 787-807.
Rudnick, D. A. & Resh, V. H., 2002. A survey to examine
the effects of the Chinese mitten crab on commercial
fisheries in northern California. Interagency Ecological
Program Newsletter, 15(1), pp. 19-21.
Ruiz, G. M. & Reid, D. F., 2010. Current State of
understanding about the Effectivness of Ballast Water
Exchange (BWE) in reducing aquatic nonondigeneous
Species (ANS) Introductions to the Great Lakes Basin and
Chesapeake Bay, USA: Synthesis and Analysis of Existing
Information. In: Ballast Water Managment: Combating
Aquatic Invaders. s.l.:Nova Science Publishers, pp. 25-58.
Scardino, A. J. & de Nys, R., 2004. Fouling deterrence on
the bivalve shell Mytilus galloprovincialis: A physical
phenomenon?. Biofouling, Volume 20, pp. 249-257.
Scardino, A. J. et al., 2003. Microtopography and antifouling
properties of the shell surface of the bivalve molluscs
Mytilus galloprovincialis and Pinctada imbricate.
Biofouling, Volume 19, pp. 221-230.
Schories, G., 2011. Water Analytics in Ballast Water
Treatment. Hamburg, 22.11.2011, s.n.
Siegfried, S., 1999. Notes on the invasion of the Chinese
mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) and their entrainment at the
Tracy Fish Collection Facility. Interagency Ecological
Project Newsletter, 12(2), pp. 24-25.
UNCTAD secretariat, 2011. Review of Maritime Transport
2011. New York and Geneva, United Nations.
Veldhuis, M., 2011. Sensitivity of aquatic Organisms to UVRadiation as applied in BWT Systems: Facts and Fiction.
Hamburg, 22.11.2011, s.n.
Werschkun, B., 2011. DBP formation during ballast water
treatment. Berlin, 19-21.10.2011,
Ballast water treatment using UltraViolet radiation
Peter Paul Stehouwer*1, Viola Liebich1,2, Louis Peperzak1
1
Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ),
Landsdiep 4, Den Hoorn, Texel, The Netherlands
2
Current address: WWF Germany, Hafenstrasse 3, Husum,
Germany
Invasive species are a major ecological and economical
threat. The main vector for aquatic invasive species is ballast
water. Because of this the International Maritime
Organization set limits on the amount of organisms allowed
to be in ballast water on discharge. To ensure compliance
with these limits ballast water treatment systems were
developed. One of the disinfection techniques used in these
systems is UV-radiation. UV systems have proved to be
capable of meeting the D-2 standards for organism numbers
as set by the IMO. Detection of viable cells is important for
UV treatment systems because they show a delayed effect,
the UV radiation kills the cells but leaves them intact. This
delayed effect is stronger when the phytoplankton is kept in
the dark; not only do the cells stay intact, but they even
show as viable for several days. Re-growth experiments
have shown that under optimal conditions phytoplankton can
grown back in 5-7 days, both for single (intake) and double
(discharge) UV treatment. The re-growing phytoplankton is
strongly reduced in diversity. Species of the Thalassiosira
group are the most common re-growers. These species
should be considered in future management strategies, since
they are potential invaders despite UV ballast water
treatment.
Ballast Water Treatment – Aspects
of Retrofit
MARTIN BÜNGER1*
1Winter 3D Konstruktions GmbH, Reepschläger Str. 10c,
23556 Lübeck, Germany
Key words: Ballast Water Treatment, Implementation,
Retrofit, 3D Design
In the year 2004 the International Maritime Organization
IMO elaborated guidelines to counteract the problem of
migration of so called invasive species via ballast water
transport by international shipping which include maximum
permissible numbers of individual organisms in the ballast
water. These rules soon will be ratified and ship owners have
to equip their vessels with some proper and certified
treatment system to fulfill the upcoming standards. To
estimate the effort of implanting a new system into an
existing ship with its densely packed engine room a detailed
3D-design of a container vessel was taken to virtually
implement three different Ballast Water Treatment Systems.
First the fourteen at that time offered systems with
certifications according to the IMO guidelines have been
studied and assorted respectively to their specifications and
advantages. Distinctive features were worked out for the
treatment systems but also for ships with their various
purposes, requirements and structural conditions. Then three
systems with sufficient data were integrated in detail into the
given vessel's design of its engine room. This re-design so
called Retrofit still has to meet all the regulations of the
ship's Classification and many things have to be considered
e.g. passageways, maintenance and working space,
manholes, required slope of several pipe systems and so on.
In all three variants the the necessary changes were very
complex because of the limited space available to the
components, fundaments and additional piping – the
difficulties were listed. Finally for one system a calculation
of the pressure loss of the newly changed piping was
compared to the original one and the additional energy
needed was estimated to give a hint to emerging costs
caused by the new design.
Mnemiopsis leidyi – A new
competitor to native herring?
FLORIAN KELLNREITNER1*, MORITZ
POCKBERGER1, RAGNHILD ASMUS1 AND HARALD
ASMUS1
1Alfred-Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research,
Hafenstrasse 43, 25992 List/Sylt, Germany
Key words: Mnemiopsis leidyi; Clupea harengus; food
overlap; competition; invasive species
We analysed feeding interactions between
introduced Mnemiopsis leidyi and juvenile Clupea harengus
in the Wadden Sea. Biomass, diet overlap, prey selectivity,
predation impact and stable isotope composition (15N, 13C)
of both species were assessed from June to September 2010.
High biomass of C. harengus was found in June and July
(wet weight 3.0±1.8 g m-3) followed by a steep decline from
August to September (wet weight 0.01±0.01 g m-3),
coinciding with a dramatic increase in M. leidyi biomass
(wet weight 18.3±16.1 g m-3 during August). These two
species showed a high overlap in their respective diets
(copepods, meroplankton) during the study period. Predation
impact of C. harengus on calanoid copepods was highest in
June and July where 84 and 41% of the standing stock were
eaten per day in June and July, respectively. Predation
impact of M. leidyi on calanoid copepods was highest in
September (16%). Based on stable isotope analysis C.
harengus and M. leidyi were assigned to a trophic level of
3.08 and 2.47, respectively. Furthermore, we assessed the
potential of competition between M. leidyi and C. harengus
in a mesocosm experiment. Results indicated that at present
zooplankton densities intraspecific competition in C.
harengus seemed to be greater than interspecies competition
with M. leidyi. Due to the low predation impact of M. leidyi
and the reduced temporal overlap, competition between M.
leidyi and C. harengus during the study period was
estimated as low. Nevertheless, considering the high dietary
overlap and the inter-annual variation in biomass and
occurrence of both species and their zooplankton prey,
competition in the Wadden Sea area cannot be excluded.
Effectiveness of overfishing as
lionfish control management in the
Caribbean
Kim Vane1, Ramón de Leon2, Mark Vermeij1, Paulo
Bertuol2 and Fernando Simal2
1CARMABI, Caribbean Research & Management of
Biodiversity, P.O. Box 2090 Willemstad, Curaçao
2STINAPA Bonaire, Bonaire National Marine Park, P.O.
Box 368 Bonaire, Dutch Caribbean
Key words: Lionfish, Pterois volitans, spearfishing, control
efforts, overfishing
The invasive red lionfish (Pterois volitans),
originally from the Indo-Pacific, became established in the
Atlantic Ocean after multiple releases from private and
public aquaria since 1985. This generalist consumer has
well-known negative effects on recruitment and abundance
of native fish populations in the Caribbean. Potential native
predators seem to largely avoid consuming lionfish, so
Caribbean lionfish populations increased 13 to 15 fold
relative to those in its native range. Consequently, concerns
exist that the invasive lionfish potentially causes irreversible
declines of Caribbean fish populations. Control management
strategies have been proposed and implemented Caribbean
wide to reduce local lionfish populations. These strategies
21
generally rely on local recreational divers using some form
of underwaterspear or –harpoon.
We quantified the effectiveness of lionfish control
management on the nearby islands Bonaire and Curaçao
(Southern Caribbean). The first official sighting of lionfish
on both islands occurred in October 2009 and within 6
months it spread around the two islands. Active reduction
efforts were immediately started on Bonaire by training
local divers to use small modified spearguns designed to kill
only lionfish. On Curaçao, a similar program was
implemented in July 2011 on a smaller scale.
Between June and August 2011, we compared the
abundance of lionfish on Bonaire and Curaçao, i.e. just
before official removal efforts began on Curaçao. Lionfish
abundance was estimated at several locations of both islands
using 50x4 m transects at 15, 25 and 35 m depth. Results
showed that after two years of active lionfish removal on
Bonaire compared to an unfished Curaçao, lionfish biomass
on Bonaire was on average 4.2 times lower than on Curaçao.
Secondly, a shift to smaller lionfish sizes could be observed
on Bonaire indicating overfishing effects. Therefore,
effective control of invasive lionfish in areas that have an
active diving community, is possible through involvement of
this community in local management efforts.
Omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty
acid ratio in the two alien species of
Rhine river
MOHAMMAD R. GHOMI1,2*, ERIC VON ELERT1, JOST
BORCHERDING3, PATRICK FINK1
1
Cologne Biocenter, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Str.
47b, 50674 Cologne, Germany
2
Department of Fisheries Sciences, Islamic Azad UniversityTonekabon Branch, 46817, Tonekabon, Iran
3
General Ecology and Limnology, Zoological Institute,
University of Cologne, Ecological Research Station
Grietherbusch, Cologne, Germany
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Key words: Fatty acid profile, Round goby, Monkey goby,
Rhine River
The balance of n-6/n-3 fatty acids is an important
factor in human health. High contents of n-6 fatty acid in
diet along with high n-6/n-3 ratio lead to development of
many chronic diseases. On the other hand, higher levels of
n-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (C20: 5, EPA)
and docosahexaenoic acid (C22: 6, DHA) and lower n-6/n-3
ratio is desirable for human health. The fatty acid (FA)
profiles of two species of goby from Rhine River (Germany)
were investigated. Palmitic acid (C16:0), palmitoleic acid
(C16:1), stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1),
docoesahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicoesapentaenoic acid
(EPA) were the main fatty acids in both goby. The
percentages of EPA and DHA were 3448.02 and 2124.53 ng
FA/mg dry weight in round goby and 3682.09 and 1395.91
in monkey goby, respectively. Fatty acid profile of both
species was characterized by higher content of n-3 FA than
n-6 FA, giving an n-6/n-3 ratio of 0.28 and 0.34 for round
goby and monkey goby, respectively. The ratio of DHA/EPA
in round goby and monkey goby were 0.61 and 0.37,
respectively.
22
Possible environmental
contamination in consequence of the
disinfection of ship’s ballast water
using UV
Sabrina N Kalita1, 2*, Erik Köster2 and Björn B. Suckow2
Hochschule Bremerhaven - University of Applied Sciences,
An der Karlstadt 8,
27568 Bremerhaven, Germany
2
ttz Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 6, 27568 Bremerhaven,
Germany
1
Key words: ballast water, biodiversity, disinfection byproducts, invasive species, UV-treatment
Maritime shipping is a determining factor for the
global economy as well as for the introduction of invasive
species worldwide. Approximately three to twelve billion
tons of seawater are moved in ballast tanks of commercial
operating ships per year. This water contains all kinds of
species that are present at the intake harbour. Most of these
organisms will not endure the
conveyance due to poor conditions in the tank. Likewise,
most of them cannot adapt to the new environment and will
not survive after the discharge. But those few that are able to
readapt may pose an ecological and an economic threat.
Consequently the International Maritime Organization
ratified the International Convention for the Control and
Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments.This
settlement contains fourteen guidelines, which provide
information on how to deal responsibly with the abovementioned conflict of the shipping industry and
requirements for type approvals of ballast water treatment
systems, whereas the approval proceedings differentiate
between those without the need to use chemicals (G8) and
those with the intentional application of active substances
(G9). Among those chemical free treatments and therefore
eminently environmental sound, UV-disinfection is growing
in popularity. Thus not yet proven, laboratory scale tests
shall verify the efficacy of the method with focus on
resulting hazards, like:
•
potential generation of disinfection by-products by
varied hydro chemistry of the treated water to
simulate different usage sites
•
regrowth-tests indicating lasting impacts of the
disinfection for environment
Samples taken throughout the test series will immediately
be analysed with methods as i.e. gas chromatography with
headspace technique (DIN EN ISO 10301:1997-08) and
titration (DIN EN ISO 7393-1:2000-04).
Effect of Aluminium sulphate on
Caulerpa taxifolia and Posidonia
oceanica
LORENZO A. CHESSA1*, SIMONE
DEMELAS2,ANDREA COSSU2
1
Dipartimento Agraria Laboratorio di Idrobiologia ed
Ecologia Marina, Università di Sassari via Enrico de
Nicola 9,- 07100 Sassari (Italy)
2
Dipartimento Scienze della Natura e del Territori
Università di Sassari, via Piandanna 4 - 07100 Sassari
(Italy)
Key words: Caulerpa taxifolia, Aluminium sulphate,
calcareous substrate, eradication method
Caulerpa taxifolia is a non indigenous green alga
of tropical origin. Since its introduction in 1984 the alga has
spread steadily in the Mediterranean coasts. In 2002 was
discovered for the first time in Sos Aranzos Bay, a place
located in the N. E. of Sardinia (Italy), between a National
Park and a Marine Protected Area. In order to avoid or at
least reduce the spread of the alga towards these two
sensible sites, various eradication solutions were analyzed.
Cores of C. taxifolia and P. oceanica were collected with
their own sediments from Sos Aranzos Bay and transferred
to aquarium for the acclimatization. The same was done
with the controls. C. taxifolia and P. oceanica cores with
their original calcareous substrate were then removed from
the aquarium and placed in 30 small aquaria with 3 different
solutions: seawater, seawater + 1 mM Al2(SO4)318H2O and
seawater + 2 mM Al2(SO4)318H2O. After 12 hours 5 cores
of each species at 1 e 2 mM Al2(SO4)318H2O were removed
from the solutions, rinsed and transferred to the seawater
aquarium. The cores were left for 24 hours before starting to
test the vitality of the organisms through the oxygen
measurements; pH measurements were taken before and
during the treatments.
C. taxifolia showed to be sensitive to 1 mM
Al2(SO4)318H2O; its vulnerability to Aluminium is due to
the low internal pH. The evolution of oxygen production
before and after the treatments clearly showed the negative
trends of Aluminium salt addition. The seagrass P. oceanica
proved to be less sensitive
This study could demonstrate that Al2(SO4)318H2O is a
selective herbicide on calcareous substrate. The low
concentration of salt in the water and the short time needed
for the treatment, together with its selectivity, make
Aluminium sulphate a possible candidate for future
experiments in the field.
Between Sea and Anthroposphere: marine socio-economics in an era of
global change
Vera Golz and Sebastian C. A. Ferse*
1
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheitstraße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
The session “Between Sea and Anthroposphere” sheds a light on the socio-economic aspects of marine
systems and discusses actions to adapt to changes. It reflects the current challenges faced in an era of
rapid global changes and their consequences for coastal inhabitants.
The sea provides many services that directly benefit humans. More than half of the world’s population
inhabits coastal zones, and hundred millions of people depend on marine resources for their
livelihoods (Samonte et al. 2010). Additionally, shoreline wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs provide
nursery areas for all sorts of marine and coastal organisms and protect the populated coastal zones
from flooding. The ocean also offers recreational opportunities such as swimming, diving, or
enjoyment of the coastline. It plays an important role in regulating the world's climate. According to
estimates, the oceans sequestered almost half of the human-generated carbon dioxide in the past 200
years (Metz et al. IPCC 2005). The ocean provides fuel and energy. It is estimated to provide habitats
for hundreds of thousands of species, only a small percentage of which has been discovered so far
(Samonte et al. 2010). Marine organisms secure the nutrition of more than 1 billion people, who
depend on seafood proteins to survive (FAO 2008).
Our planet has now entered the anthropocene (Crutzen 2002), an epoch where anthropogenic drivers
have begun to outweigh natural factors in influencing global processes. Particularly over the past 50
years, a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on earth has happened: Humans
have changed their environment more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of time
in human history, largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fiber, and
fuel (MEA 2005). These changes have been a by-product of economic development. But a general
23
improvement in human well-being has not happened, since these gains have been achieved at growing
cost: The degradation of many ecosystems and an increased risk of nonlinear changes. Poverty in
some places has even increased. Economically, the ocean and coastal zones play an important role in a
changing world, as they both mitigate and are impacted by the effects of these global changes:
temperature and water chemistry are influenced by the effects of anthropogenic CO2-emissions. At
least since the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) (MEA 2005) it has become clear that human
well-being is intrinsically connected to the health and resilience of ecosystems. Our world is
undergoing rapid economic developments that integrate even previously remote areas into a network
of markets and trade in the process of globalization, which entails changes in resource use patterns
throughout the world. As a result, the future of our resources is currently uncertain.
The global changes bring risks and threats like sea-level rise to inhabitants of coastal zones, and its
consequences will similarly be felt by global industries such as tourism and commercial fisheries. The
MEA stresses that according to available assessments approximately 35% of the world’s mangrove
area has been lost during the last decades. As these mangroves have protected the inland from storms,
storm surges and flooding, their loss means that alternative protective measurements have to be taken.
In numbers: The frequency and impact of floods have increased significantly in the last 50 years;
annual economic losses from extreme events, such as floods, fires, storms, droughts, earthquakes, 84%
of which were natural catastrophes, increased tenfold from the 1950s to approximately 70 billion USD
in 2003. Furthermore, marine food webs change due to overfishing or temperature rise, with
subsequent impacts on the fishing industry and small-scale fisheries. As stated in the MEA,
approximately 20 % of the world´s coral reefs are already lost beyond recovery, and an additional 20
% have been degraded in the last several decades of the twentieth century. Since coral reefs provide an
important habitat for a variety of fishes, their loss also means losing important fishing grounds (MEA
2005).
The management of the world’s fisheries is one of the biggest challenges in our changing world. Fleets
of major fishing nations such as Japan are roaming the planet in search of fish stocks to target. The
unsustainable use of commons like marine resources and its devastating consequences are already
described in Hardin´s “Tragedy of the Commons” (Hardin 1968) and the often quoted “Fishing down
marine food webs” by Pauly et al. (1998). At first glance, industrial fishing seems obviously
responsible for overfishing and destruction of marine habitats. However, an recently established
extensive research network, coordinated by Dr. Ratana Chuenpagdee at Memorial University in
Canada, tries to draw the attention to small-scale fisheries since they are “Too big to ignore”,
according to the name of the network. Referring to the researchers, about 90% of the 560 million
people who depend on fisheries are engaged in small-scale fisheries. The network decries the lack of
information and statistics for this vast economic field. It therefore aims to develop an information
system on small-scale fisheries for New Foundland and Labrador (Canada). The data is planned to be
freely available as an online database, which will serve to increase the visibility of small-scale
fisheries to policy makers at the national and global levels (toobigtoignore.net). End-users
consequently are governments, businesses, fishing industry and civil society organizations. The project
hopes to offer new business opportunities for the fishery in an era of globalization and revitalize the
fishery in Newfoundland and Labrador. In other regions, recreational fishing constitutes an increasing
income source for locals, like in the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador, and Baja California, Mexico
(Hernandez-Trejo et al. 2012). The recreational fishery can be seen as an alternative income source for
local fishermen; hence the fishing grounds are set under less pressure and have a chance to recover.
However the coast and its people are not only associated with fisheries. Tourism is another important
source of income and an option to sustain livelihoods. With global change, the tourism industry faces
upcoming challenges of unknown consequences. For example, rapid coastal development is resulting
in augmented eutrophication and algal blooms in coastal zones. For the tourism industry this results in
economic loss.
24
Managing coastal zones has therefore become more important than ever. During the last two decades
in particular, a range of marine management strategies, such as participative management, comanagement or pro-active management, have been developed and implemented to meet the demands
in a multi-stakeholder environment. Within the frame of sustainable resource management, solutions
have to be found to sustain livelihoods in coastal areas. A variety of terms have evolved from the
management of coastal zones, which are often not clearly demarcated. Continuously, new terms are
found to describe similar approaches. Hence, it is difficult to gain comparability between the managed
zones. Another challenge is the evaluation of these strategies. Community-based management of
marine protected areas (MPAs) has a long and mostly successful tradition in the Philippines. This has
provided valuable lessons for the factors contributing to management success (Pollnac et al., 2001;
Pomeroy et al., 2001).
Still, differences in cultural and socio-political settings may limit the transferability of results between
countries and regions. For example, customary marine tenure (CMT) has played a particularly strong
role in the management of marine resources throughout Melanesia as in Fiji (Johannes, 2002). Yet, in
places where a history of resource use is absent, such arrangements may not provide a feasible basis
for management (Ferse et al., 2010). Large-scale, cross-regional studies are thus needed to assess more
general factors contributing to management success. Cinner et al. (2012) have tried to evaluate 42 comanaged small-scale fisheries. They found that co-management is largely successful at meeting social
and ecological goals, but that the success is strongly correlated to the wealth of a community.
Furthermore, they identified that the overexploitation of resources is influenced by market access and
users dependence. Institutional characteristics influence the compliance and livelihood outcomes even
though they have only little direct influence on ecological conditions. One major problem in the
implementation of management strategies is that the justification for regulations is not made
comprehensible for all stakeholders. Compliance is not always given. Thus, while management
approaches may be considered successful when viewed from an ecological perspective, they can at the
same time be a failure in social and economic terms, which undermines their long-term sustainability
(Christie, 2004). In some cases this may be due to the fact that participation is indoctrinated from
higher governmental institutions and is not supported by some stakeholders. Regions where
traditionally the population is more integrated in local decision making are known to be more
successful. In regional small-scale approaches, most management strategies aim to include
stakeholders in the decision making process. With a transdisciplinary approach it is hoped to gain a
better compliance of restrictions. Known problems that are undermining the compliance are an
absence of facilitators and visible short-term benefits (Muehlig-Hofmann, 2007).
The seas, and especially the coastal zones, are important for various stakeholders. This often leads to
conflicts between fair access to the resource and conservation of marine life. In order to sustain coastal
and marine ecosystem services in the long run, it is important to find management strategies that are
successful, economic efficient, feasible and just. Managed areas not only in coastal zones but also the
open ocean would help to protect the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs. Global
change is a dynamic process and so is sustainable development; therefore it is necessary to also adapt
management strategies continuously. Most important is to keep the number of those that lose as a
result of these changes vanishingly little.
In this session, a broad range of case studies from around the world are presented. They deal with
climate change effects in the Baltic Sea, give an overview of the fisheries sectors in Turkey and Japan,
show anthropogenic impacts in the form of eutrophication in Chinese coastal seas, and provide
examples of the role of local communities in coastal management in the Philippines and Fiji.
References:
Cinner, J. E. T. R. McClanahan, M. A. MacNeil, N. A. J.
Grahama, T. M. Daw, A. Mukminin, D. A. Feary, A. L.
Rabearisoa, A. Wamukota, N. Jiddawi, S. J. Campbell, A. H.
Baird, F. A. Januchowski-Hartley, S. Hamed, R. Laharil, T.
Morove, and J. Kuangel 2012. Comanagement of coral reef
25
social-ecological systems. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences USA. Doi: 10.1073/pnas.1121215109
Crutzen PJ, 2002. Geology of mankind. Nature 415:23.
FAO. 2005. Report of the FAO/WorldFish Center Workshop
on Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Assessment of SmallScale Fisheries, Rome, 20-22 September.
FAO 2008 The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture.
Food and Agriculture Organization, The United Nations,
Rome,
Italy
http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0250e/i0250e00.htm
Ferse, S. C. A., M. Máñez Costa, K. Schwerdtner Máñez, D.
S. Adhuri, and M. Glaser 2010. Allies, not aliens: increasing
the role of local communities in marine protected area
implementation. Environmental Conservation 37:23-34.
Hardin, G. 1968. The Tragedy of the Commons. Science
162:1243-1248
Hernandez-Trejo V. A., G. Ponce-Diaz German, D. LluchBelda, and L. F. Beltran-Morales 2012. Economic benefits of
sport fishing in Los Cabos, Mexico: is the relative
abundance determinant? WIT Transections of ecology and
the environment Vol161, 2012, Wit Press, 165
Johannes, R. E. 2002. The renaissance of community-based
marine resource management in Oceania. Annual Review of
Ecology and Systematics 33:317-340.
Metz B., O. Davidson, H. de Coninck, M. Loos, and L.
Meyer (Eds.): IPCC, 2005 Cambridge University Press, UK.
pp 431.
MEA 2005. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005.
Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press,
Washington, DC.
Muehlig-Hofmann, A. 2007. Traditional authority and
community leadership: Key factors in community-based
marine resource management and conservation. SPC
Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge
Information Bulletin 21:31-44.
Pauly D., V. Christensen, J. Dalsgaard, R. Froese, and F.
Torres Jr. 1998. Fishing down marine food webs. Science
279:860-863.
Pollnac, R. B., R. Pomeroy, and I. H. T. Harkes 2001.
Fishery policy and job satisfaction in three southeast Asian
fisheries. Ocean & Coastal Management 44:531-544.
Pollnac, R. B., B. R. Crawford, and M. L. G. Gorospe 2001.
Discovering factors that influence the success of
community-based marine protected areas in the Visayas,
Philippines. Ocean & Coastal Management 44:683-710.
Pomeroy, R. S., B. M. Katon, and I. Harkes 2001.
Conditions affecting the success of fisheries comanagement: lessons from Asia. Marine Policy 25:197-208.
Samonte G, et al. 2010. People and Oceans. Science and
Knowledge Division, Conservation International, Arlington,
Virginia, USA.
Simulating climate- and nutrient
changes in the Baltic Sea
René Friedland1*
Leibniz-Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde,
Seestraße 15, 18119 Rostock, Germany
1
Key words: hydrographical modelling, climate change,
nutrient reduction scenario, ecosystem changes
On the basis of the modular ocean model MOM a
hydrographical model coupled with a bio-geo-chemical
26
ecosystem model of the Baltic Sea was set up and run on a
supercomputer. To simulate how the Baltic ecosystem reacts
to future changes two climate change scenarios were
combined with eutrophication cases. Therefore the 21st
century was simulated with the IPCC-scenarios A1B and B1.
In both scenarios a warming takes place, but at A1B it is
stronger and faster (up to 3K at the end of the century). This
warming alone will have strong impacts on the ecosystem
due to the lower solubility of oxygen or the longer growth
phases for temperature dependent nitrogen fixing algae (like
cyanobacteria, which can build up toxic blooms). But the
Baltic ecosystem is much stronger influenced by the manmade eutrophication. To examine this effect we set up two
nutrient input scenarios: one, where it was fixed on the level
of the late nineties and one, where the nutrient input
reduction according to the Baltic Sea Action Plan is
proceeded. At this reduction scenario a dramatic change of
the ecosystem takes place, since the limiting nutrient is no
longer nitrogen but phosphorus, what has strong effects, e.g.
the nitrogen fixing algae loose their advantage at lownitrogen conditions and are clearly reduced. Furthermore the
summer biomass and chlorophyll a concentrations are
halved, what leads to a higher secchi depth and therefore
better settling conditions for macrophytes. In addition the
reduced oxygen solubility due the warmer water can be
balanced by the nutrient input reduction, what means that
the anoxic areas do not increase in this case. To round up the
talk, some implications on tourism will be discussed.
Comparison of fisheries sectors of
Japan and Turkey in production,
consumption and trade
Mahmut Munir Guzel2*, Kazuhiko KAMEDA1, Naotoshi
YAMAMOTO1
1
* Graduate School of Fisheries Science and Environmental
Studies, Nagasaki University 1-14 Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki
852-8521, JAPAN
*2 Corresponding author: [email protected]
Key words: Turkey, Japan, fisheries, trade, potential
This compares between Japan and Turkey in terms
of fisheries production, consumption and trade and the
economical potential by using various sources of
international data and interview. The comparison will show
some view-points such as the expansion of the mutual trade
scale in fish and/or marine products, the opportunity for
breaking new market and newly effective use of edible
marine bio-resources in each country.
Historically, Japan and Turkey have kept their mutual trust
and cooperation through couple of century, creating such as
friendship-atmosphere for further development and
diversification at all fields. So, now in the East Asian region,
Japan is Turkey’s third largest trade partner behind China
and South Korea. Furthermore in fisheries business, Japan
has many species which have possibility for expanding her
export to Turkey. Simultaneously, Turkey’s four sea-areas
could find effective/profitable/suitable species for export to
Japan.
Turkish amount of trade was more than 101 million US $ in
2009, in 2000 was just over 14 million US $. In 2010, due to
the effect of the global economic crisis and Japan’s tuna
commercial-stock-problem, Turkey’s international trade
dropped approximately to 34 million US $. As shown up
before in our interview Japan and Turkey have good relation
and positive for each other. However, others interesting
points were shown up in our interview; 78 % of participant
survey slightly accepted that Japan and Turkey fisheries
relation is slightly positive, 14 % were positive and 8 %
were not positive.
Influence of traditional values for
conservation of animals in Fiji
Anna Bertram1,2*, Annette Breckwoldt3 and Joeli Veitayaki4
University of Bremen, Bibliotheksstrasse 1, 28359 Bremen,
Germany
2
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology,
Fahrenheitstraße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
3
Independent researcher, Fellendsweg 33, 28279 Bremen,
Germany
4
The University of the South Pacific, School of Marine
Studies, Laucala Bay Road, Suva, Fiji
1
Key words: marine turtles, sharks, Fiji petrel, conservation,
community-based management
The threatened marine turtles, sharks and the Fiji
petrel are all of crucial importance in the Fijian culture, daily
life and as totem of indigenous Fijians. While turtles get
caught and are used as chiefly food and for traditional
ceremonies, sharks symbolise the vu (god) of Fiji, protecting
Fijian people in the sea. Since the establishment of
conservation 20 years ago, the Fiji petrel has gained some
attention. This study examined the level of awareness, the
strength of the traditional bonds and the willingness of local
people to protect these animals. Furthermore, it investigated
whether the fishery laws of not harvesting turtles is accepted
by the indigenous people. Fieldwork was done by
interviewing local people in eight villages on three different
islands of Fiji, where each was associated with one of the
animals for traditional reasons. It can be concluded that
nowadays turtles are not only used for traditional reason, it
also presents a daily protein source. The tradition is
disappearing and the law is disregarded or not established in
the rural regions. The shark is protected through the legend
but the increasing business of shark finning is entering Fiji
and harms the populations. The Fiji petrel shows how good
community based management can work and that this type
of management should also be involved in other
conservation projects. In order to improve conservation, the
rise of awareness, education and to evoke pride among
indigenous people of their natural resources is essential.
Building bridges between
conservation and socio-economics –
Philippine cases.
MARTINA KELLER-FILIPOVIĆ1 & MATTHIAS
WOLFF1
1
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT) /
University of Bremen (UB), Fahrenheitstrasse 6, 28359
Bremen, Germany
Key words: marine protected areas, artisanal fisheries,
socio-economics, overfishing
Philippine small-scale fisheries provide critically important
food & income for the Filipino people. Overexploitation,
habitat degradation & poor or non-existent management
mean that many small-scale, artisanal fisheries are in
decline.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are advocated widely as a
management option for multi-species tropical fisheries as
well as a potential solution to the loss of marine biodiversity,
ecosystem structure and to overfishing.
In order to find out how to reconcile biodiversity
conservation with socio-economic development in the future
and to measure MPA efficacy in protecting biodiversity &
enhancing fisheries, various socio-economic, biophysical
and fisheries indicators connected to fisheries & MPA
management were quantitatively and qualitatively measured
via UVCs, fish catch monitoring, MPA rating & socioeconomic surveys in two Philippine coastal munici-palities.
Preliminary results of the ~300 socio-economic interviews
presented here show clearly positive effects of MPA
establishment on education, new skills, health and
vulnerability, whereas governance, social cohesion as well
as rights and ownership are influenced negatively. The roles
of men, women and children changed tremendously.
When people are hungry, their need for food necessarily
comes before their willingness to protect the environment,
even in the long run conservation will provide them with
more food. So any attempts to protect the coasts, the oceans
& marine life must also provide a process “accompanying”
the different stakeholder groups as well as clear & clearly
understood benefits – including more food & alternative
customized livelihoods – to coastal people.
Causes and Consequences of
Eutrophication in the Zhoushan
coastal region (East China)
Yixin Wu1*, Christiane Eschenbach2, Michael Bischoff3
1
ECUST, Meilong Road 130, 200237 Shanghai, China
2
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Max-Planck-Strasse 1,
21502 Geesthacht│Germany
3
University of Applied Sciences, Moenkhofer Weg 239,
23562 Luebeck, Germany
Key words: DPSIR, eutrophication, nutrient, Zhoushan
region
Eutrophication is one of the main factors to affect
the ecological environment of the Zhoushan Region (near
Yangtze estuary). Human beings take actions on
environment in order to meet their own requirements, and
then those actions increase pressures on the environment and
cause changes of states. These changes lead to impacts on
social-economy, ecology and even human health. An
27
overview of present status and future direction can be
figured out by applying the DPSIR framework and this
approach can help policy makers, government and
stakeholders to take responses with regard to sustainable
development.
Although previous studies have obtained many
valuable results, a comprehensive version on various
parameters (drivers to responses) of eutrophication is
lacking. The objective of this study is to collect various
parameters of eutrophication and analyze the interactions by
using DPSIR framework. DPSIR includes 5 categories
(Drivers, Pressures, States, Impacts and Responses), and is
able to classify almost all the factors in Zhoushan coastal
region.
In addition to internet and literature research,
information was collected from interviews and
questionnaires with representatives of regional and local
authorities. Geography, agriculture, fishery, aquaculture,
tourism and urbanization were found to be the main driving
forces. Eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) is a pressure.
The state is indicated by acid rain components, distributions
and concentrations of nutrient and Chlorophyll-a and
biomass of plankton. Ecosystems are impacted by the
occurrence of toxic and non-toxic red tides, depletion of
dissolved oxygen, and death of marine organisms.
Consequently, several social impacts occur, such as
economic loss of aquaculture and manufactory products,
human health, and job loss. The responses mainly focus on
reducing the nutrient load and include improvement of
monitoring measurements, strengthen environmental
education and cooperation. The DPSIR framework proved to
be very useful in analyzing interactions between
anthropogenic activities and of environmental status
(eutrophication).
Environmental changes in the pelagic: consequences and acclimatization
strategies - from plankton to fish
Simon J. Geist1, Anna Schukat2 and Thorsten Werner3
1
2
Fisheries Biology, Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, 28359 Bremen, Germany
Marine Zoology, BreMarE - Bremen Marine Ecology, University of Bremen, 28334 Bremen, Germany
3
Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar- and Marine Research, 27515 Bremerhaven, Germany
Environmental conditions determine the occurrence, distribution and survival of species in the pelagic
(Bakun and Broad, 2003). The most prominent and usually interacting physical factors to mention are
climatic events and temperature changes (Lehodey et al., 2006, Pörtner and Farrell, 2008),
eutrophication and hypoxia (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008, Breitburg et al., 2009) and in the future
possibly also ocean acidification (Orr et al., 2009, Munday et al., 2010). Changes in the environmental
conditions may lead to alterations in species abundance, community composition and the food web of
pelagic ecosystems at all trophic levels (Kraberg et al., 2011). At the individual level the physiological
plasticity determines the success of a species and the most important abiotic drivers to mention are
temperature, salinity, pH, oxygen and nutrient concentration. The relation of metabolic activity and
temperature was the earliest investigated response of organisms to a single abiotic factor (Krogh,
1914). Numerous studies on many species and different abiotic factors have been conducted in the last
100 years. Pörtner (2010) theoretically outlined the interaction of the thermal tolerance window of an
organism with tolerances to other abiotic and biotic key factors that influence the physiological
performance and thus the distribution of a species, their ‘bioclimate envelope’ or its ‘environmental
window’.
Recent studies indicate that climate change, caused by rapidly rising greenhouse gas concentrations
may have fundamental and irreversible ecological transformations of marine ecosystems (HoeghGuldberg and Bruno, 2010). The impacts of anthropogenic climate change include decreased ocean
productivity, altered food web dynamics, reduced abundance of habitat-forming species, shifting
species distributions, and a greater incidence of disease (Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno, 2010, Kraberg et
al., 2011). Climate change effects on fish and fisheries from the individual to ecosystem level were
reviewed by Pörtner and Peck (2010). These changes can be classified according to their temporal and
spatial extent. In the context of ecological responses to climatic change, regional changes, are more
relevant than approximated global averages to which populations and ecological communities do not
28
respond (Walther et al., 2002). It is generally agreed that climatic regimes influence species
distribution, often through species-specific thresholds of temperature tolerance. For instance, with
general warming trends, ‘climatic envelopes’ become shifted towards the poles or higher latitudes and
species are expected to track the shifting climate and likewise shift their distributions (Walther et al.,
2002). The most widespread effects of climate on dynamics in marine systems appear to be indirect.
The persistence of positive anomalies of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) has, for instance,
modified marine primary and secondary production (Fromentin and Planque, 1996, Walther et al.,
2002). This may affect the availability of planktonic food for fish larvae, which determines the
recruitment success and consequently the size of fish populations (Cushing, 1995). Another example
for indirect climate effects are fish populations in upwelling systems. These appear to be controlled by
enrichment, concentration and retention processes, which are themselves governed by climatic factors
(Bakun et al., 2010). Furthermore, changes in lower trophic levels will affect higher trophic levels and
accordingly, may seriously influence mankind. Responses by individual species to climate change may
disrupt their interactions with others at the same or adjacent trophic levels. When closely interacting or
competing species display divergent responses or sensibilities to changes, the outcome of their
interactions may be altered (Fromentin and Planque, 1996, Walther et al., 2002). Regime shifts, which
can occur on basin scales as well as on much smaller scales, e.g. overfishing or the introduction of
alien species, are mostly driven by climatic changes. Several definitions of ‘regime shift’ have been
proposed in the literature. The regime shift concept was first applied to freshwater and terrestrial
systems (May, 1977, Scheffer et al., 2001) and is now used in similar way for marine systems
(Petersen, et al. 2008) to describe rapid shifts between two alternate stable environmental states and
shifts in biological systems as a response to physical drivers (Kraberg, et al. 2011). Range shifts are
often episodic. For instance, in regions under the influence of El Niño/Southern oscillation (ENSO)
changes may happen rapidly during warm episodes and are reversed during cool periods (Walther et
al., 2002). Responses at the ecosystem level have been observed for several marine ecosystems and are
described for some ecosystems in the following:
Temperate regions
Baltic Sea
In the Baltic Sea, a sudden disappearance of diatoms from the spring blooms and replacement by
dinoflagellates, induced by temperature and circulation changes, is observed since 1989 (Wasmund
and Uhlig, 2003). Atmospheric forcing has been shown to have a pronounced influence on the spring
population of mesozooplankton species in the central Baltic (Mölllmann et al., 2000). The copepods
Temora longicornis and Acartia spp. showed positive biomass anomalies in the 1990s with a dramatic
increase in the late 1980s (Alheit, 2009). This shift has caused long lasting and self stabilizing food
web alterations and may have negatively affected cod recruitment success together with lowered
salinity and hypoxic conditions in deeper waters (Köster et al., 2003).
North Sea
Regime shifts in the North Sea in the late 1980s have been related to changes in the index of the NAO,
induced by increasing temperatures (Reid et al., 2003, Weyerman et al., 2005). Species composition
and abundance had changed with an increase of dinoflagellates and a general shift to warmer water
species. The copepod Calanus helgolandicus showed high positive anomalies in abundance, whereas
negative anomalies were determined for C. finmarchicus (Alheit, 2009). In addition, changes in the
spatial distribution of fish species were observed (Reid et al., 2001, Perry et al., 2005).
Upwelling regions
Benguela Current
In the Northern Benguela Current the occurrence of extended oxygen minimum zones, periodically
elevated water temperatures induced by the intrusion of Angolan tropical water and the impact of
unsustainable fisheries in the past decades caused a species shift in the biological community: Fish
stocks of small pelagic species (sardine and anchovy) declined (Cury and Shannon, 2004, Ekau et al.,
29
2010), pelagic goby became more important for the food-web (Utne-Palm et al., 2010) and jellyfish
abundance increased (Lynam et al., 2006).
Humboldt Current
Environmental perturbations of the El Niño Southern Oscillation caused periodical regime shifts,
which restructured the whole ecosystem from phytoplankton to top-predators (Alheit and Niquen,
2004). The different regimes are characterized by the dominance of either sardines or anchovies as key
species in the ecosystem. Oxygen concentration and temperature were identified as the key factors
triggering these shifts (Bertrand et al., 2011).
Polar regions
Arctic
The Arctic has changed drastically during the last decades, a warming of winter temperatures and a
loss of sea ice were observed (Smetacek and Nicol, 2005). The changing physical environment is
forcing changes in the current primary production regime, the timing of phytoplankton blooms and
sea-ice communities (Soreide et al., 2010). Algae of poor food quality became dominant and krill
species composition and spawning sites may have changed (Buchholz et al., 2010, Buchholz et al.,
2012). Furthermore, the species composition of Arctic ecosystems is altering as species shift
northward. For example, a northward movement of cod spawning sites was observed and temperature
was identified as the main environmental factor (Pörtner et al., 2008).
Antarctic
Compared to the Arctic the Antarctic is a much older and more secluded system and its ecosystem is
well adapted to present climate conditions. Changes in ocean temperatures and sea ice coverage are
the most obvious physical indicators of a changing environment. Both short and long time scale
changes can significantly impact the Antarctic ecosystem structure, e.g. by disrupting the evolved lifehistory strategies of key species (Rhodes and Odum, 1996). The abundance, distribution and life cycle
of the Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba), a pivotal component of the Antarctic ecosystem, is most
likely negatively affected by a decline in sea ice and warming of water temperatures (Flores et al.,
2012). Changes in krill distribution and abundance are known to significantly impact food-web
interactions (Atkinson et al., 1999, Murphy and Reid, 2001) and affect predator foraging ecology
(Fraser and Hoffmann, 2003). However, while some species may suffer from climate induced changes
others, e.g. salps, may benefit from these changing conditions (Pakhomov et al., 2002, Atkinson et al.,
2004).
Even if emissions of greenhouse gases stop to increase, the air (and water) temperatures would
continue to warm up because the ocean's response takes several decades (IPCC 2007). Therefore,
changes in the physical environment in all areas of the world will most likely affect individual
performance and ecosystem functioning and structure. Based on the knowledge of the
ecophysiological needs and ecological interactions of key organisms, modelling approaches were
developed to describe these relationships and predict future developments. Cury and Roy (1989) used
‘environmental windows’ to model the recruitment success of small pelagic fish. Oceanographic and
biological data were linked in an ecosystem model of the Baltic Sea (Fennel, 2010) and the Northern
California Current (Field et al., 2006). Recently, ‘bioclimate envelope’ models attempted to predict
global changes in biodiversity patterns (Cheung et al., 2009) and fisheries catch (Cheung et al., 2010)
under climate change scenarios. However, exact predictions of future scenarios are challenging due to
the high climatic variability and the uncertainty of anthropogenic emissions and other factors. In this
regard, improving our ability to understand ecological and physiological processes is vital to estimate
climate induced changes and to be capable to ‘adapt’ to these changes.
30
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Metabolic strategies of euphausiid
species
exposed
to
oxygen
minimum zones
NELLY TREMBLAY AND DORIS ABELE*
Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research,
Functional Ecology, Am Handelshafen 27570,
Bremerhaven, Germany
Key words: respiration, critical PO2, lactate, krill,
regulation index
Oxygen minimum zones (OMZ) occur at an
intermediate depth in most of the oceans, but are
remarkably shallows in the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP),
in the Humboldt Current system (HCS), and in the
northern California Current system (NCCS). The
expected expansion of OMZ related to global warming
would affect marine organisms, particularly daily vertical
migrators like euphausiids, which occupy a central
position in the most productive ecosystems. Our aim is to
compare the physiological robustness of five euphausiid
species that avoid, inhabit or are distributed in the margin
of expanding OMZ, in order to predict their response.
Respiration is an accurate indicator of aerobic
metabolism, mainly influenced by oxygen partial
pressure (PO2), temperature, and salinity. Critical PO2
(PC) marks the PO2 at which an oxyregulating marine
invertebrate shifts to oxyconforming respiration and is
often used to define the response of aerobic organisms to
hypoxia. The regulation index (RI) with values between 0
(no regulation) and 1 (perfect regulation) can also be
calculated. Oxygen consumption rates (MO2), PC, RI, and
lactate concentration at PC (as an indicator of anaerobic
metabolism) were measured and calculated in five
euphausiid species collected in surface layer (0-40 m)
during cold and warm season of 2011 and 2012 in the
ETP, HCS and NCCS. Species from ETP and HCS, that
inhabit permanently OMZ, showed ability to supress their
metabolism when exposed to lower oxygen
concentrations. In the NCCS, the same strategy was
found in Thysanoessa spinifera at the onset of summer
season, when OMZ is present. However, the most
productive species in the same region, Euphausia
pacifica, reduced drastically its MO2 at a PC of ~48 μM
O2 corresponding to what is found at 100 m depth in its
habitat. In an expanding OMZ scenario, T. spinifera
could benefits of its metabolic strategy on E. pacifica.
Is retention of herring larvae
altered by climate change? A case
study from the western Baltic.
ROBERT K. BAUER1, ULF GRÄWE2, DANIEL
STEPPUTTIS1, CHRISTOPHER ZIMMERMANN1
AND CORNELIUS HAMMER1
1
Thünen-Institute of Baltic Sea Fisheries, Alter Hafen
Süd 2, 18069, Rostock, Germany
2
Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde,
Seestraße 15, 18119, Rostock, Germany
Key words: larval retention, recruitment, herring, spring
spawners; Baltic Sea, bio-physical modelling,
Greifswalder Bodden
During 2004-2008, recruitment success of
Western Baltic Spring-Spawning herring (WBSSH) has
shown an unprecedented decline. The reasons for this
development are currently unknown but are likely linked
to environmental changes in the spawning habitats,
affecting early life stage survival.
WBSSH spawn in semi-enclosed waters, mainly the
Greifswalder Bodden, a shallow lagoon at the south of
Rügen Island. Larval retention within this lagoon is
assumed to favor larval survival due to its high
productivity, contrary to the larval drift to the lower
productive surrounding deeper waters of the Baltic Sea.
With a lack of tides and only limited freshwater runoff
into the lagoon, its water circulation and water exchange
depend mainly on the prevailing wind conditions.
Significant changes in the wind fields are a known
consequence of climate change, leading to the question
whether the recent decline in WBSSH recruitment can be
linked to climate induced changes in the retention
performance of the lagoon.
To answer this, larval retention during 2003-2009 was
analyzed using a Lagrangian particle tracking model.
Simulating larval dispersal, this model was forced by
depth-integrated flow fields, provided by a highly
resolved, three-dimensional circulation model. Weekly
cohorts of virtual larvae were released in the lagoon over
the entire spawning period (>16 weeks). The fraction of
retained larvae per cohort was examined and related to
real larval abundances, obtained by larvae surveys
conducted in this area. On this basis, a new retention
index was defined to evaluate the annual larval retention.
The results demonstrate that larval retention is high and
constant throughout the investigated model years and
could therefore not explain the observed recruitment
decline. Moreover, they suggest that although only a
short time period was examined, larval retention is not
(yet) affected by climate change but still a stable feature
of the life strategy of this herring stock.
Current patterns of genetic
differentiation for the European
anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus L.
Yaisel Juan Borrell a*, Jorge Alvarez Piñera a, José
Antonio Sánchez Pradoa and Gloria Blancoa
a
Laboratorio de Genética Acuícola, Departamento de
Biología Funcional, Universidad de Oviedo, 33071
Oviedo, Spain
Key words: microsatellite markers, mitochondrial DNA,
multiplex PCR, genetic differentiation, clades
The European anchovy E. encrasicolus is
currently one of the principal target species for
commercial fisheries in Europe, and most stocks are
currently overfished. In this work, specimens were
sampled in the Bay of Biscay (Cantabrian, Basque
Country and French coasts) in 2009 and also in the
Mediterranean (Adriatic Sea). Mitochondrial DNA
(Cytochrome B and 16S) was sequenced, and 14 nuclear
microsatellites, showing high and low levels of
polymorphism, were arranged in three multiplex PCR
systems and genotyped. Two main mitochondrial ancient
clades were found that are separated by 15 mutational
steps and a 1.7 % of sequence divergence and that had
diverged about 0.5 millions years ago. Our results using
both, mtDNA and microsatellites, suggest the presence of
at least three genetically differentiated groups: the
Cantabrian/Celtic Sea, the rest of the populations in the
Biscay Bay and the Mediterranean. Although it has been
known that western Iberian Atlantic populations may be
genetically different from the Bay of Biscay populations
of E. encrasicolus, the results suggest that the transition
between these groups may be as close as a hundred
kilometres and also that a recent genetic homogenization
process in the eastward area of the Bay of Biscay have
occurred.
Phytoplanktons as signatures for
unrevalling dimethyl sulphide: a
case study in cochin estuary
Jose Mathew, Dayala V.T. and * Sujatha. C.H
Department of Chemical Oceanography, School of
Marine Science, Cochin University of Science and
Technology, Cochin-16, Kerala, India
Keywords:
Dimethyl Sulphide,
Phytoplankton, Chlorophylls, Diatoms
Hydrography,
Climatic upheavals are frequent syndrome that
had created unsteadiness among topography. With
reference to this concern data anthologies on Dimethyl
Sulphide (DMS) were congregated for first time in
Cochin estuary. Dimethyl sulphide, a marine gas released
by algae is found to take part in global radiation budget
through the formation of sulphate aerosols. This link was
endorsed in connection with distribution of
phytoplankton profusion. Moreover hydrographical
parameters and nutrient distribution were also extensively
anticipated to establish an amalgamation with
phytoplankton. The distribution and dynamics of DMS
vary in all seasons showing highest in monsoon season.
DMS levels fluctuate from non detectable levels to
19.5nM (monsoon), while in premonsoon (0.2 to 1.8nM)
33
and post monsoon (0.2 to 1.1nM). Elevated levels of
DMS were observed in saline regions and correlation
between salinity was observed in monsoon and post
monsoon. The phytoplankton analysis reveals that Cochin
estuary is a diatom dominated estuary.
Ecological relationships between
zooplankton and Vibrio cholerae in
the coastal aquatic environment of
Bangladesh
PRONOB KUMAR MOZUMDER1*, M. NIAMUL
NASER1, MUNIRUL ALAM2, ANWAR HUQ3, R.
BRADLEY SACK4 AND RITA R. COLWELL5
1
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Biological Sciences,
University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh.
2
Enteric and Food Microbiology Laboratory, ICDDR, B.
Dhaka.
3
Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of
Maryland, USA.
4
Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health,
Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
5
Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology,
University of Maryland, College Park, USA.
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Key words: Vibrio cholera, zooplankton, association,
physico-chemical parameters.
The present work aims to study the ecological
relationships between Vibrio cholerae and zooplankton in
the six coastal aquatic environments of Mathbaria and
Bakerganj for the period of two years from January 2008
to December 2009. Physico-chemical parameters, water
samples, zooplankton and phytoplankton samples were
collected at 30 days intervals from each location. A total
of 48 taxa were recorded from Mathbaria: 36 rotifers, 6
protozoans, 3 copepods, 2 cladocerans and 1ostracods.
But, a total of 47 taxa were recorded from Bakerganj: 29
rotifers, 5 protozoans, 5 copepods, 5 cladocerans and 2
ostracods. Present study revealed that zooplankton
species richness (R1 and R2) was comparatively higher
(R1: 1.73 ± 0.13; R2: 0.68 ± 0.04) in Mathbaria bazaar
pond. The zooplankton species diversity (Shanon –
Weaver) was higher in the Kachisory pond ( H’ = 1.14 ±
0.04; eH’ = 3.2 ± 0.13) of Mathbaria as compared to other
aquatic environments. The zooplankton and the V.
cholerae O1 and V. cholerae O139 counts by DFA
methods of the studied aquatic environments showed to
maintain a steady population level throughout the season.
Three dominant zooplankton groups were found to be
consistently associated with detection of V. cholerae
namely, rotifers, copepods and cladocerans. By using the
DFA detection method attachment of V. cholerae O1 and
V. cholerae O139 were observed. Zooplankton species
such as, Brachionus spp., Cyclops spp., Diaptomus sp.,
Diaphanosoma sp., worked as a harbor of V. cholerae O1
and V. cholerae O139 in both Mathbaria and Bakerganj.
Among zooplankton and phytoplankton species, only
zooplankton showed attachment with V. cholerae O1 and
V. cholerae O139 in all sites. The zooplankton showed
positive correlation with physico-chemical parameters
like water temperature, air temperature and water depth,
whereas negatively correlated with pH, DO, TDS,
34
conductivity and salinity in both the Mathbaria and
Bakerganj with some exception.
Zooplankton Respiration in
Relation to the Oxygen Minimum
Zone
Lena Teuber1*, Anna Schukat, Wilhelm Hagen,
Holger Auel
1
BreMarE - Bremen Marine Ecology, University of
Bremen (FB2), P.O. Box 330 440, 28334 Bremen,
Germany
Key words: Hypoxia, respiration, zooplankton, enzyme
activity, tropical Atlantic
Oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) pose an
eminent threat to many marine organisms and may affect
metabolic processes, distribution patterns, community
structures and trophic pathways. Due to the prominent
role of zooplankton for the marine carbon cycle and the
predicted intensification and expansion of OMZs, it is
crucial to understand the effects of hypoxic conditions on
zooplankton ecophysiology. Here we present respiration
rates and enzyme activities of zooplankton in relation to
its distribution patterns and the extent of the OMZ in the
tropical Atlantic. Zooplankton was sampled during three
research cruises in the eastern tropical Atlantic in 2010
and 2011. Respiration rates of 54 epi- and mesopelagic
zooplankton species, mainly abundant copepods, were
measured by optode respirometry. Measurements were
conducted at different ambient temperatures (4.6 to
20.2°C) and at different oxygen concentrations to asses
the effects of temperature and hypoxic conditions on
metabolic rates. Enzyme activities of the electron transfer
system (ETS) and lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) were
measured, which are good indicators of aerobic and
anaerobic respiratory processes, respectively. Respiration
ranged from 1.4 µmol O2 g-1 DM h-1 in the copepod
Valdiviella sp. at 4.7°C to 735 µmol O2 g-1 DM h-1 in the
copepod Candacia pachydactyla at 20°C. Oxygen
consumption was mainly determined by body mass and
temperature and respiration was highest in surfacedwelling organisms and decreased with increasing depth.
Physiological results are analysed in the context of
expanding OMZs and their ecological implications for
future zooplankton distribution and community structure,
are assessed.
Identifying the spawning sites of
herring in a lagoon of the Western
Baltic Sea – A model approach
ROBERT K. BAUER1, ULF GRÄWE2, DANIEL
STEPPUTTIS1, CHRISTOPHER ZIMMERMANN1
AND CORNELIUS HAMMER1
1
2
Key words: identifying spawning sites; bio-physical
modeling, herring, Baltic Sea, Greifswalder Bodden.
Coastal ecosystems are particularly affected by
environmental changes. Therefore, it is expected that
global change has the most immediate influence on a
local and regional scale. For fish stocks spawning at the
coasts, environmental changes are likely to influence the
recruitment success. An analysis of changes in the
spawning habitats might therefore help to detect the
effect of environmental changes on stock development.
Western Baltic Spring-Spawning herring (WBSS) mainly
spawn in semi-enclosed waters, most prominently the
Greifswalder Bodden, a shallow lagoon at the south of
Rügen Island. Due to this importance, recruitment of
WBSS has been recorded by conducting weekly larval
surveys within this area since 1992.
However, the specific spawning sites of WBSSH within
the lagoon have not been identified entirely since the
1980s. A recent decline in the recruitment of WBSSH has
increased the need to fill this lack of knowledge,
especially since the bottlenecks in the recruitment seem
to be located shortly after or even before hatching.
Within this study, the position and relative importance of
specific spawning sites of WBSSH during 2003-2009 in
the Greifswalder Bodden area were identified. Instead of
using common techniques such as diving operations and
underwater-videography which are costly and seldom
suitable to map large areas, a model approach was
applied. Larvae found during the larval surveys of 20032009 were tracked back to their spawning/hatching sites
by a Lagrangian particle tracking model.
Results obtained were compared to those of earlier
investigations and the known distribution of macrophytes
which could be used as spawning substrate. The results
are promising, in good agreement to the macrophyte
coverage but indicate inter-annual changes in the
utilisation of spawning locations. The knowledge gained
within this study forms the basis for further field
investigations and will thus help to clarify area-specific
factors influencing the recruitment success of WBSSH.
Physiological responses of
scyphozoan jellyfish stages to
physico-chemical environmental
parameters
JOSEPHINE GOLDSTEIN1*, CHRISTINA B.
AUGUSTIN1, STEFFEN BLEICH2 AND SABINE
HOLST3
1
Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research, Warnemünde,
Seestraße 15, 18119 Warnemünde, Germany
2
Institute of Biological Sciences - Marine Biology,
University of Rostock, Albert Einstein Straße 3, 18059
Rostock, Germany
3
Senckenberg am Meer, German Centre for Marine
Biodiversity Research, c/o Biozentrum Grindel und
Zoologisches Museum, Martin-Luther-King Platz 3,
20146 Hamburg, Germany
Key words: scyphozoan polyps, temperature, pH,
salinity, Baltic Sea
Serious concerns exist regarding the increasing
global frequency of jellyfish blooms and their impacts on
pelagic food webs. Predictions of the occurrence of such
jellyfish outbreaks are particularly difficult, as cnidarian
life cycles are often complex and undergo alternating
bentho-pelagic generations. Of particular concern is the
effect these species will have on enclosed and sensitive
ecosystems such as the Baltic Sea. Little is known about
the distribution of sessile polyp stages of the two
abundant jellyfish species Aurelia aurita and Cyanea
capillata (Scyphozoa, Cnidaria).
This study aimed to investigate the effects of
major physico-chemical parameters on the physiology
and population dynamics of scyphozoan polyps. In
laboratory experiments, development and asexual
reproduction of polyp colonies of A. aurita and C.
capillata was studied at different levels of temperature,
salinity and pH.
Investigated polyp species showed a high
degree of tolerance towards fluctuating environmental
factors. Reduced temperature, salinity and pH levels
affected early life stages more than long-term established
polyp colonies, increasing numbers of settled larvae and
polyp mortality shortly after settlement. Population
growth of both species was supported by increased water
temperatures, whereas lowered pH levels reduced the rate
of asexual reproduction by budding significantly. Low
salinities revealed a strong potential to limit polyp
distribution and the release of indigenous medusae in the
Baltic Sea. Results indicated that inflow events of saline
water masses from the North Sea could particularly
promote the development of jellyfish from settled polyp
colonies. However, predicted increases in temperature,
pCO2 and precipitation as a consequence of global
climate change appeared rather unlikely to strengthen
jellyfish abundance in the future Baltic Sea.
35
Nocturnal and diurnal emergence
and recolonization of harpacticoid
copepods in an intertidal sandflat
of the Island of Wangerooge
(southern North Sea)
Alexandra Segelken-Voigt1, Klaas Gerdes1, Pedro
Martinez Arbizu1, 2, Achim Wehrmann3, 4 & Thomas
Glatzel1*
1
Biodiversity and Evolution, Department of Biology and
Environmental Science, Carl von Ossietzky University
Oldenburg, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
2
Senckenberg am Meer, German Centre for Marine
Biodiversity, Suedstrand 44, 26382 Wilhelmshaven,
Germany
3
Senckenberg am Meer, Marine Research Department,
Suedstrand 40, 26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany
4
Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Georg Voigt
Strasse, 60325 Frankfurt, Germany
Keywords: meiofauna, diurnal rhythm, trophic link,
population structure, species composition
Nocturnal and diurnal emergence and
recolonization of
harpacticoid copepods were
investigated in the intertidal sandflat of the Island of
Wangerooge. Therefore special traps were designed and
applied in field. This experimental investigation was
conducted to determine the diversity and abundance of
harpacticoid copepods emigrating and recolonizing
during a nocturnal and a diurnal high tide and to get a
general view of energy exchange between benthos and
the pelagic zone within the intertidal area. Five
emergence and recolonization traps were randomly
deployed at the intertidal sandflat and additional sediment
samples were taken.
Copepodids are more sediment bound than
adults. Males and females did not differ significantly in
the relative proportion of emergent individuals despite
the female biased occurrence inside the sediment. The
most abundant harpacticoid copepods were Arenosetella
tenuissima (Klie, 1929) and Tachidius discipes
Giesbrecht, 1881. This investigation figured out that
migration patterns of organisms living in other
ecosystems could not easily be transferred to the
individuals of the intertidal area. The high emergence
frequency within the intertidal zone indicates an
important way of energy transfer between benthos and
the pelagic zone. Suggested migration cues of individuals
are permanent sediment reworking and low food
availability.
36
Nearshore or offshore?! What
makes the difference for
zooplankton communities?
JANA WEGBROD1*, CHRISTINA B. AUGUSTIN2,
ULRICH BATHMANN1,2, 3
1
University of Rostock, Faculty of Mathematics and
Natural Science, Institute of Biology, Albert-Einstein Str.
3, 18059 Rostock, Germany
2
Leibniz Institute of Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde,
Section of Biological Oceanography, Working Group
Zooplankton Ecology, Seestraße 15, 18119 Rostock,
Germany
3
University of Rostock, Interdisciplinary Faculty –
Marine Systems, Albert-Einstein Str. 3, 18059 Rostock,
Germany
* [email protected]
Key words: Zooplankton, Baltic Sea, abundance,
nearshore, offshore
Zooplankton communities are clearly structured
by the predominating hydrographical conditions in their
habitat. Factors like water temperature, salinity or content
of chlorophyll a can possess large gradients from near the
shore to offshore waters and can result in a different
composition of zooplankton communities.
Over the time period of three months in spring 2012,
samples were taken weekly by means of a WP2-net at
Heiligendamm and the Warnow River outflow,
representing nearshore sampling stations. Additionally,
data from two offshore monitoring stations in the western
Baltic Sea and from an intermediate station are used for
comparison. Two indices, the Shannon-Wiener and
Species-Richness, are used to determine the biodiversity
and show a greater variability in nearshore zooplankton
communities.
The main objectives of this study were to compare the
spatial distribution and variability in zooplankton
abundance as well as abiotic factors of selected nearshore
and offshore situated stations in the western Baltic Sea.
Alterations in species abundance, biomass and density as
well as the distribution of zooplankton communities are
discussed in relation to higher temperatures,
eutrophication, higher primary production and influences
by fresh water inputs, which characterise Baltic coastal
waters.
First results show a constant increase in water
temperatures but a huge variability of the level of salinity
for the nearshore sampling stations. Further analyses of
cause-effect relationships on zooplankton communities
will be presented.
Integrated Aquaculture: Polyculture of plants, invertebrates and finfish
A short review
Kai Lorkowski1, Jan Hofmann2, and Stefan Meyer3*
1
Institute for Marine Resources – IMARE GmbH, Bussestraße 27, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany,
2
Mosaiques Diagnostics GmbH, Mellendorfer Strasse 7-9, 30625 Hannover, Germany,
3
Gesellschaft für Marine Aquakultur (GMA) mbH, Hafentörn 3, 25761 Büsum, Germany,
Abstract
Compared to conventional single species finfish aquaculture practices, polyculture, i.e. the
integration of plants and other extractive organisms, creates a wealth of ecological and economic
advantages for sustainable seafood production. These benefits range from a reduction of dissolved and
particulate nutrient discharge to the environment to the creation of added-value by-products.
In open aquaculture systems, like sea cages and flow-through farms, untreated discharge of organic
particles and nutrients can cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem by eutrophication and oxygen
depletion. In closed systems, accumulation of particles and nutrients poses a direct threat to fish
welfare and performance and therefore has to be counteracted by means of energy-intense water
treatment.
Integrated aquaculture opens up an effective and sustainable way to overcome these problems of
conventional production systems. Extractive organisms, like shellfish, polychaetes or echinoderms,
and plants, like seaweeds and micro- and macroalgae, remove these harmful albeit valuable
compounds (bioremediation) and eventually lead to a reduced impact to the ecosystem and the
creation of a secondary high-value product. Shellfish, fruits, vegetables and algae can be used for
direct human consumption. Some species of micro- and macroalgae contain raw materials that can be
used for pharmaceutics or other biotechnical processes, e.g. the production of biogas and biofuels.
Polycultures can be implemented in diverse systems: off-shore and land-based, cages, ponds and
recirculated aquaculture systems, fresh-, brackish and marine water. Examples for integrated systems
are aquaponics, wetlands and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA). In order to design and
operate integrated aquaculture systems it is essential to have a sound knowledge of nutrient cycles,
sources and sinks, biology of candidates, their specific requirements and interaction between different
species.
Introduction
Diminishing fish stocks and unsustainable fisheries management practices are threatening the
supply of a growing human population. It has long been realized that sustainable aquaculture practices
will be of pivotal importance to secure our future supply with healthy, high quality sea food. At the
forefront of production techniques that are likely to tackle the most commonly referenced points of
criticism against conventional and potentially unsustainable aquaculture practices, are the so called
integrated forms of aquaculture.
Integrated Aquaculture is described as aquaculture systems sharing resources, e.g. water, feeds,
management, with other activities; commonly agricultural, agro-industrial or infrastructural (FAO
2008). In this definition the term "agriculture" describes the land-based production of plants and
animals, groceries or other resources.
In the following sections, we will give a small overview about integrated aquaculture and some
examples on the current state-of-the-art. We will conclude with a short outlook on the projected future
of this production type and how it will address future limitations and threats to our stable sea food
supply. In integrated aquaculture, the species of main interest for the culturist, usually fish or shrimp,
can be reared in almost any of the conventional production containments (ponds, tanks, net cages).
The production of other species will then be set up in such a way, that nutrient and energy fluxes of the
main production can easily be channeled to it. This might happen by passive means of advection (e.g.
by water currents around a net cage) or active transport (e.g. by pumping water from one tank to
another). The secondary species will then use this flux of nutrients and energy to grow and/or
proliferate, eventually becoming a marketable product itself or providing another type of added-value
service to the integrated culture system.
37
The economic viability of these integrated aquaculture productions largely depends upon the targeted
output, which might either be the daily fish supply for a small (coastal) community or the mega-ton
output of high quality fish-fillets and high-value mollusk and algae species for export.
Integrated aquaculture adds a whole new dimension of complexity to what we nowadays call
established forms of production and these sophisticated integrated processes require a wealth of
knowledge and understanding.
History
However, integrated aquaculture is not a new approach. In ancient Egypt, tilapia, a freshwater
cichlid species, was raised in integrated ponds with ducks and weeds, providing different types of food
and raw materials to the population. In China, land resources for crop farming and aquaculture
development are limited due to an ever increasing population. The integration of fish culture into
traditional forms of rice culture has been realized for millennia and still nowadays shows to be an
effective way of land utilization for fish production with minimal competition with other agriculture
activities for land and water resources (NEORI ET AL. 2004).
Central European freshwater fish ponds, like the 4.89 km² Rožmberk pond in Czech Republic, were
continuously managed by fish culturists since the 16th century, following sophisticated stocking
schemes determining the optimal time and place to insert and/or to harvest a species. These pond
systems are nowadays not only considered integrated aquaculture production systems, but also
important wildlife habitats for threatened species of fish, birds and others. Their economic relevance
exceeds the marketing of fish by further aspects of eco-system services, including the protection of
biodiversity and promotion of (green) tourism (BEKEFI AND VARADI 2007). These historic examples of
successful integrated aquaculture productions raise the question: Why is this common-sense solution
not more widely implemented in Europe?
Systems
TROELL (2009) classifies existing integrated aquaculture systems into four main categories:
a) Polyculture, which is the simultaneous co-culture of multiple species of finfish,
invertebrates and/or algae/plants co-cultured in a pond, tank or cage. An existing widespread
system is the polyculture of rice and fish in Asia. The polyculture of shrimp fish and
agricultural plants in brackish-water ponds can be found in China, Indonesia, Ecuador, India,
the Philippines, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, Japan and more recently in Vietnam (DE
LA CRUZ, 1995; BRZESKI AND NEWKIRK, 1997; BINH, PHILLIPS AND DEMAINE, 1997; ALONGI,
JOHNSTON, AND XUAN, 2000; HAMBREY AND TANYAROS ,2003; NEORI ET AL., 2004).
b) Sequential integration (PAS, Partitioned aquaculture systems) on land and in open waters.
This differs from polyculture by the need to direct a flow of wastes sequentially between
culture units with different species.
c) Temporal integration, which is distinguished by a replacement of species within the same
holding site. One cultured species benefits from the wastes generated by preceding cultured
species. An example can be found in Bangladesh where shrimps are cultured in the summer
and rice in the winter (rainy season).
d) Mangrove integration (aquasilviculture). This system can be practiced like the categories a
and b but mangroves are used as biofilters. In the past deforestation occurred to get space for
intensive shrimp farms. A case study in Vietnam with a mixed shrimp-mangrove culture
showed that an integration of mangroves can be an alternative to protect this ecosystem.
Nowadays renowned systems for integrated aquaculture are integrated multi-trophic aquaculture
(IMTA) and aquaponics.
IMTA is the combination of fed aquaculture species with extractive (organic and inorganic)
aquaculture species (CHOPIN, 2006; RIDLER ET AL., 2006; NEORI ET AL., 2007) and multi-trophic refers
to the incorporation of species from different trophic or nutritional levels in the same system (CHOPIN
AND ROBINSON, 2004; CHOPIN, 2006). Systems can be open water systems, ponds, semi-closed up to
closed land-based, marine, brackish- or freshwater (NEORI ET AL., 2004; BARRINGTON ET AL. 2009;
TROELL 2009). Canada, Chile, South Africa, the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States of
America and China, have ongoing IMTA systems near or at commercial scale (BARRINGTON ET AL.
38
2009). In the Bay of Fundy (Atlantic coast, Canada) since 2001 a project for integrating blue mussels
(Mytilus edulis) and kelps (Saccharina latissima) to a salmon-culture has been realized (Chopin and
Robinson, 2004). In Norway the same organisms are examined for the development of an IMTASystem. In Chile the effluent of an intensive trout culture (Oncorhynchus mykiss) has been used for the
cultivation of oysters (Crassostrea gigas) and the alga Gracilaria chilensis (Troell et A. 1997).
Additionally the following combinations of organisms are imaginable: shellfish/shrimp, fish/shrimp
and seaweed/shrimp (TROELL ET AL., 2003; HAMBREY AND TANYAROS, 2003), fish/ sea urchin,
fish/polychaetes. In closed systems similar combinations, like described for open systems, are
theoretically possible. Additionally there is a possibility to integrate microalgae by photo-bioreactors.
In Völklingen (Germany) different species of algae and two photo-bioreactors are tested for the
capability of integration (Bauer et al. 2012a). Another project deals with halophytes which are
connected as wetlands to a closed recirculating aquaculture system (Bauer et Al. 2012b).
In closed freshwater systems another possible polyculture are aquaponics.
Aquaponics are defined as a recirculation aquaculture system (RAS) for production of aquatic
organism combined with hydroponics. Plant roots remove nutrients (fundamentally nitrates) of the
water body, thus toxicity for fish is reduced and supply for plants is provided. (KUNZ, 2007). Several
systems are available from small scale over pilot-systems to commercial system. In Germany the
Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries in Berlin developed a pilot-system with
Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) (IGB 2007).
In open aquaculture systems, like sea cages and flow-through farms, untreated discharge of organic
particles and nutrients can cause damage to the surrounding ecosystem by eutrophication and oxygen
depletion. In closed systems, accumulation of particles and nutrients poses a direct threat to fish
welfare and performance and therefore has to be counteracted by means of energy-intense water
treatment. Compared to conventional single species finfish aquaculture practices, integrated systems
described before, e.g. the integration of plants and other extractive organisms, creates a wealth of
ecological and economic advantages for sustainable seafood production. These benefits range from a
reduction of dissolved and particulate nutrient discharge to the environment to the creation of addedvalue by-products (TROELL 2009). CHOPIN ET AL. (2001) points out, that IMTA is considered more
sustainable than the common monoculture systems; monocultures tend to have an impact on their local
environments due to their dependence of high exogenous feed supplementations. This exogenous input
can have a substantial impact on marine coastal areas, affecting the sediments beneath the culture sites
by discharged particles leading to oxygen depletion. The additional input of nutrients causes large
variations in the nutrient composition of the water column eventually leading to eutrophication
(GOWEN AND BRADBURY, 1987; FOLKE AND KAUTSKY, 1989; CHOPIN ET AL., 1999; CROMEY, NICKELL
AND BLACK, 2002). Integration of different species in one culture unit can reduce these impacts
because the culture of the species that does not require exogenous feeding may balance the system
outputs through energy conversion, whereby the waste of one species becomes the food for another
(CHOPIN ET AL, 2001). Feed is one of the core operational costs of finfish aquaculture. Through IMTA,
parts of the feed, dissolved nutrients and energy intended for the fish which is lost in monoculture are
recaptured and converted into crops of commercial value, while biomitigation takes place.
For example, the wastes given off from the culture of salmon, e.g. lost fish food, fish faeces and
excreted nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), can be assimilated by shellfish (organic processors) and
seaweed (inorganic processors), thereby reducing the amount of waste given off from a fish farm and
turning it into fodder for another species which is also of commercial value.
In this way all the cultivation components have an economic value, as well as a key role in services
and recycling processes of the system, the harvesting of the three types of crops participating in the
export of nutrients outside of the coastal ecosystem (BARRINGTON ET AL. 2009). Byproducts like
shellfish, fruits, vegetables and algae can be used for direct human consumption. Some species of
micro- and macroalgae contain raw materials that can be used for pharmaceutics or other biotechnical
processes, e.g. the production of biogas and biofuels.
Beside the advantages of environmental sustainability IMTA can provide economic diversification and
help to reduce economic risks (BARRINGTON ET AL. 2009). Therefore economic analyses need to be
inserted in the overall modeling of IMTA systems, economic impact for coastal communities is an
important question. Reaching a commercial scale with IMTA systems will add profitability and
economic impacts to the comparison of the environmental impacts of monoculture settings.
Characteristics which would help for establish commercial scale of IMTA are the value of
39
biomitigation services, the savings due to multi-trophic conversion of feed and energy which would
otherwise be lost, the reduction of risks by crop diversification and the increase in social acceptability
of aquaculture including food safety, food security and consumer attitudes towards buying sustainable
seafood products (BARRINGTON ET AL. 2009).
Conclusion
The overall aim of new techniques integrating aquaculture and agriculture will be to maximize the
synergistic and minimize the antagonistic interactions between these two sectors. Synergistic
interactions like recycling of nutrients arising in the course of agricultural, livestock and fish
production processes, integrated pest management (IPM) and optimal use of water resources are
powerful pros of integrated systems. Antagonistic interactions between agriculture and fisheries occur
where these two sectors compete for land and water, and where intensive agricultural production can
alter fish habitats or stocks (FAO 2012). Because of this integrated aquaculture opens up an effective
and sustainable way to overcome these problems of competing monocultures.
In order to design and operate integrated aquaculture systems it is essential to have a sound knowledge
of nutrient cycles, sources and sinks, biology of candidates, their specific requirements and interaction
between different species. To achieve a balanced system fed aquaculture should be combined with
organic extractive and inorganic extractive species. In theory there are endless possible combinations
of organism which can be deployed this way in integrated systems. Interplay in ecosystems deliver
still best template for a functional community of species in aquaculture. Maybe in future there will be
systems with more than only three trophic levels in only one self-sustaining aquaculture system.
However, the overall design will depend on the specific aims for integration. These could be to
improve production by second product value desired or to reduce wastes for sustainable products.
IMTA and other integrated systems nowadays are being practiced in larger scales at a few places. But a
lot of more research and experience are needed before these production techniques can be applied in
agriculture more generally.
References:
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(INTAQ) as a tool for an ecosystem approach to the
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Alongi, D.M., Johnston, D.J. & Xuan, T.T. 2000. Carbon
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shrimp-mangrove forestry farms in the Mekong delta,
Vietnam. Aquaculture Research, 31(4): 387-399.
Bauer J., Bergmann P., Braun G., Ernst A., Faupel B.,
Hanke V., Pulz O., Kulakowski A., Sander M., Schmitt
B., Ripplinger P., Waller U., Wecker B., 2012a,
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Saarbrücken, Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft des
Saarlandes , Saarbrücken, pp. 11-13
Bauer J., Braun G., Buck B.H., Buhmann A., Ernst A.,
Faupel B., Hanke V., Meng I., Papenbrock J., Schmitt B.,
Waller U., Wecker B., 2012b, KEPHALOS in: Waller U.
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Wirtschaft des Saarlandes, Saarbrücken, pp 14-15
Binh, C.T., Phillips, M.J. & Demaine, H. 1997.
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Mekong delta of Vietnam. Aquaculture Research, 28: 599610.
Barrington, K., Chopin, T. and Robinson, S. 2009.
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mariculture: a global review. FAO Fisheries and
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Bekefi, E. and L. Varadi (2007). "Multifunctional pond
fish farms in Hungary." Aquaculture International 15(3):
227-233.
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Brzeski, V. & Newkirk, G. 1997. Integrated coastal food
production systems - a review of current literature. Ocean
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Chopin, T., Yarish, C., Wilkes, R., Belyea, E., Lu, S. &
Mathieson, A. 1999. Developing Porphyra/salmon
integrated aquaculture for bioremediation and
diversification of the aquaculture industry. Journal of
Applied Phycology 11: 463-472.
Chopin, T., Buschmann, A.H., Halling, C., Troell, M.,
Kautsky, N., Neori, A., Kraemer, G.P., ZertucheGonzalez, J.A., Yarish, C. & Neefus, C. 2001. Integrating
seaweeds into marine aquaculture systems: a key towards
sustainability. Journal of Phycology 37: 975-986.
Chopin, T. & Robinson, S. 2004. Defining the
appropriate regulatory and policy framework for the
development of integrated multi-trophic aquaculture
practices: introduction to the workshop and positioning
of the issues. Bulletin of the Aquaculture Association of
Canada 104 (3): 4-10.
Chopin, T. 2006. Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture.
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Berggebiet. Hochschule Wädenswil |Umwelt und
Natürliche Ressourcen, Fachstelle Ökotechnologie,
Neori, A., Chopin, T., Troell, M., Buschmann, A.H.,
Kraemer, G.P., Halling, C., Shpigel, M. & Yarish, C.
2004. Integrated aquaculture: rationale, evolution and
state of the art emphasizing seaweed biofiltration in
modern mariculture. Aquaculture 231: 361-391.
Neori, A., Troell., M., Chopin, T., Yarish, C., Critchley,
A., & Buschmann, A.H. 2007. The need for a balanced
ecosystem approach to blue revolution aquaculture.
Environment, 49(3): 36-43.
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M. (2006), Recirculating aquaculture tank production
systems: Aquaponics — integrating fish and plant
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Ridler, N., Robinson, B., Chopin, T., Robinson, S. &
Page, F. 2006. Development of integrated multi-trophic
aquaculture in the Bay of Fundy, Canada: a socioeconomic case study. World Aquaculture, 37(3): 43-48.
Troell, M., Halling, C Nilsson, A., Buschmann, A.H.,
Kautsky, N., Kautsky, L., Integrated marine cultivation of
Gracilariachilensis (Gracilariales, Rhodophyta) and
salmon cages for reduced environmental impact and
increased economic output Aquaculture 156: 45-61.
Troell, M., Halling, C., Neori, A., Chopin, T.,
Buschmann, A.H., Kautsky, N. & Yarish, C. 2003.
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Influence of algae and mussels on
their microbial community in
Aquaculture
Anna-Lucia Buer12*, Yvonne Rößner13, Tim
Staufenberger1
1
Coastal Research and Management (CRM), Tiessenkai
12, 24159 Kiel, Germany
2
University of Applied Science, An der Karlstadt 8,
3
Gesellschaft für Marine Aquakultur (GMA) mbH,
Hafentörn 3, 25761 Büsum, Germany
* E-mail: [email protected]
Key words: marine microorganisms, Saccharina
latissima, Mytilus edulis, antibacterial activity, IMTA
Sustainable seafood production like Integrated
Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is one of the most
promising approaches to face the problems of stagnating
fishery with a concurrently rising demand for seafood.
The combination of different trophical levels in IMTA
enhances growth in the cultured organisms and lowers
nutrient input into the surrounding habitat.
As most of the biochemical reactions take place on a
microscopical scale, the interactions of micro- and
macroorganisms within the IMTA are of substantial
interest. One the one hand, mussels filter the water and
excrete ammonia, thereby enhancing the growth of algae
and probably of bacteria as well. On the other hand,
seaweed species generate oxygen, deplete dissolved
nutrients and are known to exhibit antimicrobial activity.
For these reasons, we believe that the combined
cultivation of mussels and algae creates a mutual
synergistic effect.
In this study the influence on the microbial communities
of algae (Saccharina latissima), mussels (Mytilus edulis)
and the surrounding water was investigated.
Due to the antibacterial activity of S. latissima in
combination with eutrophication by mussels, we expect a
change in germ number and the composition of the
respective associated microbial communities. Therefore
we utilized bacterial colony counts and denaturing
gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) in mussel, algae and
seawater samples. A decrease of cell numbers (cfu) in
mussels was detected when cultured with algae.
Furthermore, the algal anti-microbial potential was tested
using seven different bacteria strains including human
(Staphylococcus
lentus)
and
algal
(Algicola
bacteriolytica) pathogens.
The results of this study will be used to optimize the farm
design thereby increasing production yield and the
quality of both organisms.
41
Factors determining pumping
activity and filter efficiency of the
Mediterranean sponge Chondrosia
reniformis – with relation to
extractive aquaculture and
bioremediation intentions
Holger Kühnhold1*, Mert Gokalp1, 2 and Ronald Osinga1, 2
1
Wageningen University, Aquaculture & Fisheries, P.O.
Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, The Netherlands
2
Porifarma BV, Poelbos 3, 6718 HT Ede, The
Netherlands
*corresp. author: [email protected]
Key words: Sponges, aquaculture, bioremediation,
Chondrosia reniformis
Sponges produce bioactive compounds, which
carry in multiple cases a high potential for new drug
discoveries. Furthermore, sponges are known to naturally
remediate the water by filtration, which makes sponges a
prospective candidate for integrated multitrophic
aquaculture (IMTA) applications. By culturing sponges in
the vicinity of fish farms two advantages may evolve:
The sponges show increased growth as a result of
enhanced organic food availability and the pollution
caused by the fish farm is reduced by the bioremediation
service provided by the sponges. Being sessile
suspension feeders, a crucial physiological feature of
sponges is their ability to pump water through their body.
This actively generated flow supplies the organism with
vital nutrients (organic materials that are filtered out of
the water) and washes out waste products. Therefore,
sponge growth as well as remediation efficiency is
directly related to pumping activity. The pumping activity
of the Mediterranean sponge Chondrosia reniformis (a
candidate for commercial sponge aquaculture) was
evaluated by calculating the flow rate of the water
leaving the exhalant opening (oscules) of naturally
growing sponges in the South-East Aegean Sea. SCUBA
divers measured the exhalent flow velocity from sponge
oscules by monitoring floating particles accelerated by
the oscular flow in relation to different environmental
conditions (temperature, water depth, dissolved organic
matter (DOM) concentration and ambient flow), using a
HD video analysis (Sony PMW EX-1 HD camcorder). To
evaluate the effect of varying DOM concentrations, the
pumping activity at pristine locations was compared to
the activity present in the vicinity of fish farms. Filter
efficiency was quantified by analyzing the DOM level in
water samples taken at different distances from sponge
colonies. For a more fundamental understanding, the
pumping activity of ex situ cultured specimens of the
sponge Suberites domuncula was artificially enhanced
and analyzed for pump-related gene expression. The aim
of both studies, which are currently in progress, is to
extend the knowledge about crucial factors determining
pumping activity and filtration efficiency in sponges.
42
Aquaponics – Hobby gardening or
the future of aquaculture?
Hendrik Monsees1*, Sven Wuertz1
Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland
Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany
1
Key words:
greenhouse
aquaponics,
RAS,
nitrate,
Tilapia,
Aquaponics combines the production of aquatic
animals, predominantly fish, in a recirculating
aquaculture system (RAS) with hydroponic production
(soilless culture) of crop plants. Plants (e.g. tomatoes) in
a hydroponic system remove nutrients, mainly nitrate
(end product of nitrification), from RAS that would
otherwise accumulate in these systems.
The advantages of linking fish production to the
production of plants are numerous, ranging from the
reduction of nutrients and water discharge to savings due
to shared operating and infrastructural costs (e.g. heaters,
control systems), resulting in an added value as well as
simultaneously producing two cash crops. To date,
several systems are available, ranging from small scale
backyard systems to larger commercial facilities. Still
large-scale activities are rare and only a few systems
operate economically.
In an aquaponic pilot-system at the Leibniz-Institute of
Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), RAS and
hydroponics were combined in a greenhouse. A one-way
valve was integrated to separate the two systems,
allowing for the adjustment of individual requirements
for fish and plants (e.g. pH and temperature) separately.
An additional cold-trap was used for collecting the
transpired water. In this way, 150-200 L of water were
recycled to the RAS daily. Within nine months, around
600 kg of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and 1010
kg tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum) were produced in
the system. This and other research projects, as well as
private producers, showed that these systems work
efficiently, sustainably and even economically.
New developments and ongoing research will further
increase their efficiency, thus decreasing the costs of
these systems, which will enhance the attractiveness for
investors to spend money on larger aquaponic systems in
the future.
Utility of the Blue Mussel (Mytilus
edulis) as a Replacement of Fish
Meal
1,5*
1,2, 3
KATHRIN STEINBERG , BELA H. BUCK
,
PETER KROST4 AND STEFAN J. WITTKE1
1
University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der
Karlstadt 8, 27568 Bremerhaven, Germany
2
Institute for Marine Resources GmbH, Bussestraße 27,
3
Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven
4
Coastal Research & Management GbR, Tiessenkai 12,
24159 Kiel, Germany
5
Present Address: Institute of Aquaculture, University of
Stirling, Scotland
Key words: mussel meal, fatty acids, tocopherol,
glycosaminoglycanes
Global aquaculture production increases
intensely. However, for the cultivation of some
carnivorous species it is still not sustainable as wild fish
are caught to be used as feed ingredients. Blue mussels
(Mytilus edulis) could be a possible substitution for fish
meal while at the same time lowering the impact on fish
meal fishery. They can be produced sustainable in
integrated aquaculture systems and mussels condemned
to be unfit for consumption could also be used.
The aim of the research was to find out if mussel meal
could be a useful substitution for fish meal considering
the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), vitamin E as
well as glycosaminoglycanes (GAGs).
When producing mussel meal the mussel should be
cooked initially for separating shell and flesh prior to
freeze drying. Cooking degraded the GAGs useful
polysaccharides in feeds for the transformation from the
larvae to juvenile fish. Vitamin E and PUFAs were not
affected by cooking. All analyzed ingredients decreased
while storing.
GAGs were measured photometrically with the dye 1.9dimethylmethylene blue. The average content of GAGs in
blue mussel from the North Sea was slightly higher than
those originating from the Baltic Sea. The antioxidant
vitamin E was extracted with Isopropanol and analyzed
via HPLC. Matters of 0.66±0.19 mg/100g could be
reached but decreased to 50% after freeze drying. The
analysis of the lipids gave evidence that PUFAS are
affected by storage. Noticeable was the differences in the
composition in the North Sea mussel (14.7% DHA,
22.6% EPA) compared to the Baltic blue mussel (19.8%
DHA, 15.1% EPA). The investigation indicated that
mussel meal is a reasonable alternative to fish meal.
North Sea mussels seemed to be slightly more suitable.
Further research regarding feeding trials and growth
measurements has to be done.
mussels (Mytilus edulis): a one
year case study
Kristine Braaten Steinhovden*ˡ, Lars Ganselˡ,
Aleksander Handåˡ, Silje Forbordˡ, Ole Jacob Brochˡ,
Xinxin Wang², Yngvar Olsen², Kjell Inge Reitan ˡ, Jorunn
Skjermoˡ
ˡ SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture, P.box. 4762
Sluppen, N-7465 Trondheim, Norway.
²Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Department of Biology Trondheim Biological Station, N7491 Trondheim, Norway.
The Norwegian aquaculture industry uses
approximately 1.15 million tonnes of feed per year for
Salmon production, with the associated nitrogen and
phosphorous release at about 60% of feed-N and 70% of
feed-P. To investigate the potential for integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA), growth of sugar kelp
(Saccharina latissima) and blue mussels (Mytilus edulis)
were measured monthly for one year in close proximity
to a salmon farm in Norway, and at one reference station
4 km away from the farm. Carbohydrate content of S.
latissima and incorporation of fish feed in M. edulis was
also measured.
The cultivation of S. latissima was successful during
autumn, winter and spring, while growth conditions were
poor during summer. The mean sporophyte length of
plants close to the fish farm was significantly higher than
at the reference station. The carbohydrate content
increased during the spring and peaked at ~60% in June,
which is an important result when considering S.
latissima for sustainable biofuel production.
Fatty acid analysis clearly demonstrated the incorporation
of fish feed com ponents in digestive gland and mantle
tissue of M. edulis. At the fish farm stations the dry
weight of mussels was positively correlated to the feed
use and significantly higher than the dry weight of
mussels at the reference station in five months during
autumn and winter.
The results suggest a faster growth of S. latissima and a
higher soft tissue content of M. edulis in autumn and
winter when cultivated in IMTA with S. salar.
The nutrient release and transport from fish cages is
variable in time and space. Therefore, models predicting
suitable locations and sizes of IMTA components will
also have to consider management routines and
distribution patterns of nutrients and particles, which
depend on factors like ambient current, farm design, nets,
biofouling and fish biomass and behaviour.
Imta in Norway with atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar), sugar kelp
(Saccharina latissima) and blue
43
Emission of wastes for IMTA from
Norwegian salmon aquaculture
XINXIN WANG1,*, LASSE MORK OLSEN1, KJELL
INGE REITAN2AND YNGVAR OLSEN1
1
Trondheim Biological Station, Department of Biology,
Norwegian University of Science and
technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
2
SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture, 7465 Trondheim,
Norway
Key words: Cage aquaculture · Atlantic salmon ·
Nutrient wastes · FCR · IMTA – Seaweed Blue mussels
Intensive cultivation of salmonids produces
large amounts of solid and dissolved nutrients wastes that
potentially may cause negative environmental effects in
farming intensive areas. The wastes may alternatively
support integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) of
organisms on lower trophic levels.
The objectives of the present study were to quantify the
release rate of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus from
Norwegian salmon aquaculture and to make a
preliminary evaluation of the theoretical potential of
salmon driven IMTA. The release rates of wastes from
cage aquaculture were estimated using a simple mass
balance method based on feed use and fish production,
combined with information on the rate of feed losses, C,
N and P contents in feed and fish, and the digestibility of
C, N and P components in feed. The total amount of
salmon feed supplied to Norwegian salmon farms in 2009
was 1.17 million tonnes and the total salmon production
was 1.02 million tonnes of wet weight , giving a food
conversion ratio (FCR) of 1.15 (dw feed per ww fish).
Our estimates showed that about 70% C, 62% N and 70%
P of the total feed input were lost to the environment,
corresponding to approximately 404,000 tonnes C,
50,600 tonnes N and 9,400 tonnes P per year. Around
48% of feed C and 45% of feed N were predicted to be
respired as CO2 and excreted as dissolved inorganic N,
respectively, and approximately 44% of the feed P was
predicted to be solids wastes. The released dissolved
inorganic nutrient wastes can be taken up by extractive
species such as seaweeds, while small particles
originating from faeces or feed can be captured by filter
feeding species such as mussels. If 10 - 30% of the total
DIN are assumed to be available for cultured seaweed
and 3 – 9% of the total POC, with appropriate size, are
available for blue mussels, respectively, the potential
biomass of seaweed will be 2 orders of magnitude higher
than that of blue mussels, suggesting a far higher
potential for seaweed production than for
mussel, mostly because of the smaller initial waste
resource and higher metabolic losses for mussel than for
seaweed.
Integrated
Egypt
Desert
Aquaculture- Agriculture A Major
Step For Nile Delta Tilapia
Aquaculture Development: 1:
Effects Of Stocking Densities and
44
Daily Feeding Frequency on
Monosex Nile Tilapia Fry Over
Wintering
Development
In
Concrete Tanks Supplied With
Underground
Water
In
Alexandria- Cairo Desert Road,
Egypt.
Ahmed. Md. Salem*
National Institute of Oceanography & Fisheries (NIOF),
Aquaculture Division, Fish Reproduction & Spawning
Labratory, Anfoshy, Quiet Bay Castle, Alexandria, Egypt.
Email: [email protected]
*
World aquaculture production according to the
2010 FAO report divided in the principle of production to
64.40% fish production, 24.9% mollusks and 9.5%
crustacean of the total world aquaculture production.
China is the world leading aquaculture producer and had
produced 62.30% of the world aquaculture production,
Asia had produced 88.80% of the world aquaculture
production and the rest of the world shares were 11.20%
of the world aquaculture production, Egypt is the 11th
biggest world aquaculture producer., also Egypt is the
first Aquaculture producer in Mediterranean Sea, Africa
and Medial East regions. Also Egypt is the 2nd Tilapia
aquaculture world producer although Egypt tilapia
aquaculture season in the Nile Delta governorates is only
7 months a year. developing Egypt Nile Delta by
integrating desert tilapia hatcheries, nurseries and
fingerlings over wintering production as first user of
underground water that already used for fruit and
vegetables irrigation will enrich fruit productivity and
quality and double Egypt tilapia production in few years
without current risks of cold season mass tilapia
mortalities and transferring GIFT and YY tilapia
technologies without assumed biodiversity risks that will
be the key of Egypt tilapia export development.
Applied experiment were conducted to explore
some factors affecting Nile tilapia, Oreochromis
niloticus, production; the experiment was aimed to
investigate the effect of stocking densities (75 and 175
fish/m3) and daily feeding frequency (2 and 4 times a
day) on the over wintering Nile tilapia fry. Concrete tanks
of 50 m3 of water were used for the experiment in
duplicate groups. Underground water was used
throughout the experiment using diesel pump, with
nightly aeration of 8 hours. Fish were fed on commercial
diet of 25 % crude protein with daily feeding rate of 4 %
of live body weight for the experiment. The results of
feeding frequency revealed insignificant (P > 0.05)
differences between fish receiving their diets 2 and 4
times a day for final biomass (g/m3), biomass gain (g/m3),
growth performance, feed intake (FI) and feed conversion
ratio (FCR). Fish stocked with 75 fish/m3 had a
significantly (P < 0.05) better growth performance, FI
and FCR compared to that stocked with 175 fish/m3. On
the other hand, the stocking density of 175 fish/m3
resulted in a significantly (P < 0.05) higher final biomass
and biomass gain compared to that of 75 fish/m3. Values
of interaction among different factors were put into
consideration. The study suggested that feed frequency of
4 times a day and stocking density of 75 fish/m3 gave
better growth performance of fish. The economic
evaluation showed that the best values of total return,
operating ratio, return on sales, return on costs, payback
period and return on equity were obtained for 175 fish/m3
and four times feeding frequency (1039.25 L.E, 50.36%,
49.64%, 198.56%, 1.12 year and 0.268% respectively)
and the worst values were obtained for 75 fish/m3 and
two times feeding frequency (291.25 L.E, 76.28%,
23.72%, 131.09%, 4 years, 0.055% respectively).
Therefore the treatment containing 175 fish/m3 stocking
density and fed four times daily was more profitable than
the other tested treatments.
The European Aquaculture
Society Student Group (EAS-SG)
– Opportunities for young
aquaculturists
Fabian J. Schäfer*
Leibniz Institute for Freshwater Ecology and Inland
Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin,
Germany
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Key words: Aquaculture, network, early carrier
In every thematic field young researchers face
the need of establish an individual network in order to
exchange and develop ideas and knowledge, improve
carrier opportunities and finally to meet new people, who
share the same interests. In the field of aquaculture the
European Aquaculture Society Student Group (EAS-SG)
offers a simple and informal way to get started with such
a network. The EAS-SG is an integral part of the EAS
and represents all its young and student members.
Furthermore, we are a recognized platform for
networking and exchange with the worldwide
aquaculture community. Our aims are:
•
to increase the participation of students and
young professionals in activities of the
European Aquaculture Society;
•
to gather and exchange information related to
the diverse fields of research;
•
to convey and provide networking and
professionalization services.
The EAS-SG organizes a student workshop at the annual
Aquaculture Europe conferences, where we offer student
topics, networking and job opportunities. It acts as a link
between universities, companies, national coordinators
and aquaculture students via newsletters, our website and
our ever growing facebook community.
So if you like to…
•
become a member of a fast growing network of
young aquaculturists and students,
•
join us at our various meetings and events all
over Europe
•
and gather and exchange information and
experiences related to the diverse fields of
aquaculture,
then find out more about the EAS-SG in a brief
presentation.
Ocean Modelling: Theory & Concepts
Fabian Schwichtenberg*, Nils Brüggemann, and Michael Brüdgam
Institut für Meereskunde, Bundesstraße 53, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
The ocean is one of the key components in the climate system: it has taken up about 50% of
anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Sabine et al., 2004), heat is transported from the equatorial regions to
the poles (Kuhlbrodth et. al., 2007), the sea surface temperature influences the rate of evaporation and
therefore also the precipitation above land masses and the supply of nutrient rich water masses is
mandatory for the fishing industry. Changes in the ocean circulation therefore imply large changes on
the local and global climate and on many other aspects which are important for the life on earth
(Visbeck, 2002). Consequently, an understanding of the ocean system is fundamental for us human
beings.In the last decades much effort was taken to observe and understand the ocean. Nowadays also
complex numerical ocean models help to complete our knowledge about the ocean system.
Additionally, simple conceptual models are a powerful tool to understand many features of the ocean
circulation. The rate of complexity of these conceptual models is very broad. It reaches from highly
simplified box models over two dimensional layer models to full three dimensional models whose
simplifications are only due to a reduction of considered processes. Results of these simplified models
can hardly be used for an exact forecast of the ocean system but they are fundamentally important for
the understanding of different processes and their interactions between each other. Therefore, these
models help to build up parameterizations for ocean models with coarse resolution, they help to
interpret many features of the ocean circulation and they are useful to obtain qualitative forecasts of
different features of the ocean circulation (Olbers and Zhang, 2008). Theoretical oceanography tries to
further improve existing conceptual ocean models or to build up completely new ones. The knowledge
45
gained by these conceptual models is taken on the one hand to improve numerical ocean models or on
the other hand to understand observed ocean features.
Numerical models that are used for forecasts of the ocean system, e.g. for the climate projections of
the IPCC, are much more complex. These models are either coupled to an atmospheric model or they
need accurate data sets which supply the boundary conditions for the ocean. The high complexities of
these models demand state of the art super computers to provide solutions of the ocean systems within
an appropriate time. Nowadays, these models are able to simulate many of the observed ocean features
and are necessary to gain information about the ocean circulation in regions where observations are
scarce. Much of our knowledge about the past, actual or future state of the ocean which is necessary
for future climate projections is gained by these numerical ocean models (IPCC, 2007).
The large-scale ocean circulation acts as an important driver of biogeochemical cycles in the ocean,
also contributing to the global CO2 budget. It supplies nutrients to the sunlit surface ocean, where the
subsequent primary production leads to a significant part of the biomass on earth. The ocean
circulation distributes the continuous sinking of dead and excreted organic material from the surface to
the deep ocean. There, the organic matter gets remineralised by bacteria and could eventually resupply
the surface with nutrients (IPCC, 2007).
Ecosystem and biogeochemical modelling deal with the development and application of numerical
models for marine ecosystems. These models help to understand the functioning of marine ecosystems
by providing a tool to investigate and quantify the transfers and transports of e.g. carbon and nutrients
through the plankton system.
Especially in shelf and coastal areas reactions of marine ecosystems on anthropogenic activities are
much more pronounced than in the open ocean (Provoost et al, 2010; Hunter et al, 2011). The
shallowness of these areas often amplifies the response to climate change driven alterations like an
increase in temperature and a decrease in pH (Thomas et al, 2009). These environmental changes may
have severe biological impacts on all trophic levels, so that also fish stocks are affected. This influence
of climate change on fisheries can be investigated by ecological economical modelling which
investigates the impact of climate change especially on early life stages of fish (Voss et al, 2012).
Another important aspect is the decline of CO2 uptake capacity of shelf-sea water due to its warming
and acidification. Considering that shelf and marginal seas make a contribution of about 20% to global
oceanic uptake of atmospheric carbon, their fate during climate change is of special interest. However,
the estimation of CO2 uptake is very complex because many chemical and biological processes have to
be considered. Biogeochemical models can therefore help to understand the underlying processes and
budget the amount of CO2 that could potentially be taken up in these highly dynamical environments
(Lorkowski et al, 2012). For this purpose different scenarios of climate change and anthropogenic
activity are analysed.
Trait-based models are special tools in ecological science. These models integrate principles derived
from evolutionary biology and quantitative genetics to produce appropriate parameterisations of
community behaviour. The use of traits enables predictions of community compositions and their
reorganisation in changing environments (Merico et al, 2009). These models are able to describe an
ecosystem as a whole entity also with regard to studies of feedbacks between life and its environment
on evolutionary time scales. Thus, it is also possible to analyse the adaptive capacity of an ecosystem
to climate change.
All physical, biogeochemical, ecological and economical examples we have mentioned here give only
a brief glimpse of the possibilities of models in ocean sciences. They are an important and
indispensable tool especially with regard to climate system science and allow us to gain insights into
complex and highly nonlinear systems.
References:
Hunter, K. A., Liss, P. S., Surapipith, V., Dentener, F.,
Duce, R., Kanakidou, M., Kubilay, N., Mahowald, N.,
Okin, G., Sarin, M., Uematsu, M., Zhu, T. (2011),
‘Impacts of anthropogenic SOx, NOx and NH3 on
acidification of coastal waters and shipping lanes’,
Geophysical Research Letters (38), No. 13, L13602
IPCC, 2007: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science
Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z.
46
Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L.
Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
Kuhlbrodt, T., Griesel, A., Montoya, M., Levermann, A.,
Hofmann, M. and Rahmstorf, S. (2007), ‘On the driving
processes of the Atlantic meridional overturning
circulation’, Reviews of Geophysics 45(1).
Lorkowski, I., Pätsch, J., Moll, A., Kühn, W. (2012),
’Interannual variability of carbon fluxes in the North Sea
from 1970 to 2006-Competing effects of abiotic and
biotic drivers on the gas-exchange of CO2’, Estuarine
Coastal and Shelf Science (100)
Merico, A., Bruggeman, J., Wirtz, K. W. (2009), ’A traitbased approach for downscaling complexity in plankton
ecosystem models’, Ecological Modelling (220), 3001 –
3010
Olbers, D., Zhang, J. (2008), 'The global thermohaline
circulation in box and spectral low-order models. Part 1:
single basin models',Ocean Dynamics 58
Provoost, P., van Heuven, S., Soetaert, K., Laane, R. W.
P. M., Middelburg, J. J. (2010), ‘Seasonal and long-term
changes in pH in the Dutch coastal zone’, Biogeoscience
(7), 3869 - 3878
Sabine, C., Feely, R., Gruber, N., Key, R., Lee, K.,
Bullister, J., Wanninkhof, R., Wong, C., Wallace, D.,
Tilbrook, B., Millero, F., Peng, T., Kozyr, A., Ono, T. and
From top to bottom or bottom to
top – modelling the whole system
(with a slight focus on the top…)
Jörn Schmidt1*
Department of Economics, Christian-AlbrechtsUniversität zu Kiel, Wilhelm-Seelig-Platz 1, 24118 Kiel,
Germany
1
Marine modelling (not only) is an increasingly
conducted art of the recent decades due to an immense
increase in computational power. Thus the number of
models and applications has increased tremendously. The
development went different ways, i) from higher
resolution of e.g. ocean circulation models to such
resolutions that processes in lagoon systems can be
analysed to ii) higher complexity with respect to
processes involved, e.g. ecosystem models. The latest
models are end-to-end models, comprising climate to
ocean circulation to primary production to secondary
(tertiary etc.) production up to top predators and even
humans. This link to the human system directly through
interactions and feedback from the ecosystem will be the
focus of this presentation. Some questions, which are
posed but not necessarily answered, include: Do we need
multiple models or the one “embracing-all-model”?
Where are the limits to models and have we reached the
limit already? And what will be the weather on June 15th
next year?
Occurrence of cyclones and
anticyclones in different
dynamical regimes
Hannah Kleppin*1, Carsten Eden1 and Nils Brüggemann1
1
Institut für Meereskunde, Bundesstraße 53, 20146
Hamburg, Germany
*corresponding aut
hor: [email protected]
Key words: cyclones, submesoscale, mesoscale
Rios, A. (2004), ‘The oceanic sink for anthropogenic
CO2’, Science 305(5682), 367–371.
Thomas, H., Schiettecatte, L.-S., Suykens, K., Kone, Y. J.
M., Shadwick, E. H., Prowe, A.E.F., Bozec, Y., De Baar,
H.J.W., Borges, A.V. (2009), ‘Enhanced ocean carbon
storage from anaerobic alkalinity generation in coastal
sediments’, Biogeosciences (6), 267-274
Visbeck, M. (2002), ‘Climate - The ocean’s role in
Atlantic climate variability’, Science 297(5590), 2223–
2224.
Voss, R, Petereit, C, Schmidt, J., Lehmann, A.,
Makarchouk, A., Hinrichsen, H.-H. (2012), ‘The spatial
dimension of climate-driven temperature change in the
Baltic Sea and its implication for cod and sprat early life
stage survival’, Journal of Marine Systems (100-101)
Turbulence manifests itself in the ocean on very
different length and timescales. Due to improvements in
model resolution and observations, a recent focus is on
turbulence on the order of few kilometers, called the
submesoscale regime, which lies in between the more
intensively investigated mesoscale and small scale
regimes.
An asymmetry between anticyclones and cyclones is
observed in the submesoscale regime. The predominant
cyclonic rotation sense, reported e.g. by Munk et al.
(2000), is not fully understood yet and contrasts with a
more symmetric balance between cyclones and
anticyclones observed for mesoscale regimes.
Such differences are due to different importance of
various forces on the different scales, as e.g. the
importance of earth rotation, which is negligible on small
scales.
To study the different dynamical behaviours we use
numerical simulations of the idealised python Ocean
Model (pyOM, Eden (2011)). Different experiments,
corresponding to mesoscale and submesoscale regimes,
are realised. For these simulations we will present and
discuss dynamical properties at different stages of the
evolving turbulent flow field. In the submesoscale case
the dominance of cyclonic rotation is confirmed.
The carbonate system in the
Wadden Sea - implementation of
the carbonate model from
ECOHAM within the Tidal
Ecosystem Model
Julius Lensch*1, Johannes Pätsch1 and Cora Kohlmeier2
Institut für Chemie und Biologie des Meeres, Carl-vonOssietzky Str. 9-11, 26111 Oldenburg, Germany
1
Institut für Meereskunde, Bundesstraße 53, 20146
Hamburg, Germany
2
Key words: biogeochemistry, ecosystem modelling,
carbonate system
The three main species of dissolved inorganic
carbon are an essential part of total alkalinity (TA) in
seawater. Due to rising atmospheric and oceanic
concentrations of carbon dioxide the impact of changing
TA on buffering capacity and biology is investigated.
47
Compared to the global trend the German Wadden Sea of
the back barrier system of Spiekeroog is a very
interesting area because of high TA concentrations. To
answer the question whether the Wadden Sea sediment is
a source of TA we use the coastal Ecological Tidal Model
(EcoTiM) and implement a carbonate system module
from the open North Sea Ecosystem Model ECOHAM.
The pelagic carbonate system is forced by atmospheric
carbon dioxide uptake which depends on atmospheric
partial pressure of carbon dioxide, climatological data
and biogeochemical processes like calcite production and
dissolution. The benthic system is simulated by fluxes
between the water column and the sediment and said
calcite dynamics. The next step towards more precise TA
modelling would be the inclusion of remineralisation
products and exudation of bacteria and benthos as well as
redox processes in the sediment, like sulfate reduction.
The ups and downs of winter
phytoplankton in the North
Atlantic
CHRISTIAN LINDEMANN1*, MICHAEL ST.JOHN1
AND JAN BACKHAUS2
1
DTU Aqua, Technical University of Denmark,
Jægersborg Allé 1, 2920 Charlottenlund, Denmark
2
Institute of Oceanography, University of Hamburg,
Bundestrasse 53, 20146, Hamburg, Germany
Key words: phytoplankton, deep convection, individualbased-model, North Atlantic
In the northern North Atlantic during winter
observations have indicated high phytoplankton biomass
and increased primary production in the absence of
stratification. Several mechanisms and hypotheses have
been put forward to explain different aspects of these
findings. Here we investigate the effects of deep
convection on phytoplankton dynamics using a biological
Individual-Based-Model (IBM), coupled to a nonhydrostatic convection model.
It has been suggested that deep convection can sustain
low primary production during winter, by frequently
returning plankton cells to the euphotic zone, which has
gained support from model studies and field
measurements.
For this mechanism to work the convective vertical
velocities have to superimpose the sinking rate to
maintain phytoplankton cells within the convective
mixed layer, while photosynthesis has to compensate for
respiratory and other losses. To enhance the
understanding about this bio-physical interplay, the
biological model simulates phytoplankton cells with
variable growth, respiration and sining rates.
Under realistic forcing the model results showed a
homogeneous phytoplankton distribution within the
mixed layer but also indicated the possibility that smaller
blooms can form in the absence of stratification. The total
phytoplankton biomass in the mixed layers did not show
a clear trend in relation to the mixed layer depth. The
larger volume of the deeper mixed layer often
compensated for the lower concentration in comparison
to the higher concentrations in the shallower mixed layer
later in the year.
48
These findings underline the importance of deep
convection for phytoplankton winter dynamics in the
North Atlantic and demonstrated its connection to other
concepts.
Modeling study the wind-induced
summer blooms in the Bohai Sea
1
FEIFEI LIU1,2*
Institute of Oceanography, Ocean University of China,
Songling Road. 238, 266100 Qingdao, China
2
Bundesstr. 53, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
*corresponding author:[email protected]
Key words: Bohai, Phytoplankton, Nutrient, Wind,
Stratification
Occasional phytoplankton blooms are always
found following strong wind events in the Bohai Sea in
summer. To investigate the potential mechanisms caused
by the strong wind events that may contribute to the
bloom development, we apply a 3-D physical-biological
model, coupled with the Mellor-Yamada level 2.5
turbulence closure scheme in the Bohai Sea. The
biological model involves interactions between the
inorganic nitrogen, phytoplankton, zooplankton and
detritus. Given a knowledge of physical forcing under the
conditions of a strong wind event which lasts 2 days, the
model reproduces a phytoplankton bloom 4 days after the
event. According to the model simulation, strong
turbulence is induced in the upper layer of the water
column during the wind event period. The evolution of
the vertical characteristic of the temperature indicates the
destruction and reformation of the stratification, which
leads to the vertically redistribution of the nutrient. The
model simulation indicates that the occasional summer
phytoplankton blooms may be triggered by the
supplement of the nutrient in the upper layer due to the
breaking of the stratification caused by the strong winds.
Parameterising Primary
Production and Convection in a
3D Model
FABIAN GROSSE1*, JOHANNES PÄTSCH1 AND JAN
O. BACKHAUS1
1
Bundesstrasse 53, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Key words: primary production, deep convection,
parameterisation, three-dimensional model, Northeast
Atlantic Ocean
In the recent past few observational and
modelling studies showed that the vertical displacement
of water parcels and particles in regions of deep reaching
convection plays a key role in winter primary production.
Most ocean models applied on large spatial areas use
parameterisations of convection which neglect this
influence.
This study presents a parameterisation for primary
production which includes the effect of convective
upward and downward motion on phytoplankton and
hence primary production. This parameterisation is
implemented in the primary production part of a
biogeochemical model. A three-dimensional physicalbiogeochemical model system using this new
parameterisation is applied on the north-western
European continental shelf and areas of the adjacent
Northeast Atlantic. A detailed one-dimensional analysis
in the eastern Rockall Trough is conducted to investigate
the implications of the changed primary production for
the ocean biology, the nutrients, the carbon flux from the
atmosphere into the ocean and the export of carbon into
the deep ocean. Furthermore, the three-dimensional
model is used to consider the transferability of the onedimensional results on different regions to demonstrate
the importance of the relation between primary
production and deep convection during winter on a global
scale.
The simulations show that the applied
parameterisation produces reasonable winter distributions
of phytoplankton during winter in regarding the vertical
structure which has a strong impact on the nutrient and
zooplankton distributions and significantly increases the
export of carbon to the deep ocean. Even though the
applied parameterisation overestimates the winter
phytoplankton concentrations compared to observational
data, the results show the strong influence of deep
convection on winter primary production and
consequently on the export and the storage of carbon in
the deep ocean. Hence, the great importance of deep
convection during winter for the global climate is
emphasised by the presented study.
Ambitions and reality – Validating
a particle tracking model using
field data
NIKO STEIOF1*, ROBERT K. BAUER1, ULF
GRÄWE2 AND DANIEL STEPPUTTIS1
1
2
Key words: bio-physical modeling, model validation,
larval drift, herring, Baltic Sea, Greifswalder Bodden.
Bio-physical-models are gaining importance as research
tools in many fields of marine sciences with particle
tracking models being one important type.
For the latter, the underlying circulation models are
usually verified by numerous oceanographic data (e.g.
sea level, salinity, temperature & currents), while field
data to validate the transport models are commonly rare.
As a consequence, modeling studies are challenged by
discussions regarding the reliability of their results.
This study aims to validate a larval transport model,
which has been recently applied to investigate herring
larval retention in the Greifswalder Bodden, a shallow
lagoon of the Western Baltic Sea.
Although being relatively small (514km2), this lagoon is
considered as the main spawning area of Western Baltic
Spring-Spawning herring. Due to this importance, larval
surveys are weekly conducted during the spawning
period of herring (March-June) since 1992 covering up to
35 sampling stations in the lagoon, accounting 350-500
samples per year.
This outstanding data availability, combined with highly
resolved flow fields, derived from a 3-dimensional
hydrodynamic model, provides an excellent setup to
validate particle tracking model results, by comparing
simulated and observed larval distributions.
To do this, interpolated high-contrast larval distribution
fields of subsequent weeks were obtained from the
survey data. These fields were drifted for one week, using
a particle tracking model, driven by the hydrodynamic
conditions of the respective time. Finally, the predicted
distributions were compared with the associated
distribution fields of larvae derived from the survey data.
So far, model results are showing a good resemblance of
field measurements. This encourages us to further use
this modelling environment to get more insights in the
early life history of the Western Baltic Spring-Spawning
herring.
Physical Oceanography – Between Measuring and Modelling
Grit Freiwald1, Shungudzemwoyo Garaba2, and Sebastian Grashorn2
1
2
Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, University of Oldenburg, Carl-von-OssietzkyStr. 9-11, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
The oceans are an important part of the Earth’s climate system since more than 97% of the Earth’s
water lies in the ocean (see Garrison, 2007). To understand the ongoing climate change effects
including predicted global mean sea level changes up to 50cm within the next 100 years (see IPCC
2007 and Core Writing Team and R.K Pachauri and A. Reisinger (eds.), 2007) and to invent mitigation
strategies, a thorough knowledge of the physical processes in the oceans is mandatory. However,
ocean dynamics are far too complex to be captured either by measurements or by numerical modelling
alone. In this review some applications dealing with ocean monitoring and modelling shall be
presented.
49
In-situ measurements can give a deep insight into local phenomena and provide reliable ocean model
validation information (see e.g. Badewien et al., 2009; Lettmann et al., 2009). Direct sample taking
(see e.g Badewien et al., 2009) or a number of seaborne platforms namely ships (see e.g. Howarth and
Proctor, 1992), pile stations (see e.g. Reuter et al.,2009), drifters (see e.g. Poulain et al., 2005) and
bouys (see e.g. Voorrips et al., 1997) equipped with ADCP and CTD (see e.g. Orvik et al., 2001) are
widely used to obtain in-situ information. The observed physical quantities are used to derive or
determine local conditions such as sea levels and steady-state sea level anomalies, sea level pressures,
current velocities, sediment concentrations, sea surface temperatures and salinities. The first ship
cruise measurements that contributed to the modern oceanography, were performed in the 19th
century. In 1872, the HMS Challenger set sail on a four-year voyage around the world and in this
context the term oceanography was first used to describe the background of this enterprise (see
Garrison, 2007). Ship cruises are still one of the most important approaches to obtain ocean data.
Nowadays, automated and unmanned observation of seawater constituents and properties has seen a
increasing interest, e.g. the use of a FerryBox. A FerryBox is a combination of instruments integrated
into a single system to obtain real-time or logged oceanographic and biological quantities such as
salinity, temperature, fluorescence, turbidity, oxygen, pH, and nutrient concentrations. An example of
application is the FerryBox installed on a ferry boat servicing the route between Cuxhaven (Germany)
and Harwich (Great Britain). It is aimed at understanding the seawater changes and processes taking
place through the English Channel into the Souhern North Sea bight (see Petersen et al., 2008).
Since the late 70’s remote sensing has become a major revolutionary and indispensable scientific
tool that is integrated in comprehensive high quality information systems. In coastal areas, it is used to
identify shoreline changes (see e.g. Boak and Turner, 2005), to track the transport of sediments (see
e.g. Ruhl et al., 2001) or to map different coastal features (see e.g. Malthus and Mumby, 2003). On a
global scale, satellite remote sensing is used to monitor the ocean circulations (see e.g. Fu et al., 2010)
and to measure the ocean temperatures and wave heights (see Lindstrom and Maximenko, 2010).
Furthermore, hazards such as tsunamis, erosion and flooding can be tracked (see e.g. Liu et al., 2007).
The Landsat data series, begun in 1972 with the launch of the Earth Resources Technological Satellite
(ERTS-1), is the longest continuous record of changes in Earth’s surface as seen from space and the
only satellite system designed and operated to repeatedly observe the global land surface at moderate
resolution. Freely available Landsat data provide a unique resource for people who work in
agriculture, geology, forestry, regional planning, education, mapping, and global change research (see
Landsat, 2012).Bourassa et al. (2010) look at ocean winds and turbulent air-sea fluxes inferred from
remote sensing to determine the exchange of momentum, heat, fresh-water and gas between the
atmosphere and the ocean. These fluxes are essential for the development of high-quality global
climate analyses (see Lindstrom and Maximenko, 2010).
Willis et al. (2010) present an overview in recent progress of understanding the problem of present-day
sea level rise. They think that many important research questions will hinge on the continuation and
ongoing improvement of satellite observations. These publications show the importance of remote
sensing to the effort of understanding today’s hot topics like e.g. climate change.
Ocean models, first used in the late 60’s (see Bryan and Cox, 1967; Bryan, 1969), can provide
information in areas where in-situ measurements are impossible such as those of harsh environments.
There are different approaches in ocean modelling, ranging from structured (e.g. GETM (see e.g. Stips
et al., 2004), ROMS (see e.g. Haidvogel et al., 2000)) and curvilinear grids (e.g. DELFT3D (see
Deltares, 2012)) for coastal applications to unstructured grid models (e.g. FVCOM (see Chen et al.,
2003), TELEMAC-3D (see e.g. Cheviet et al., 2002)). Nowadays, these models can also be coupled
with wave models (e.g. SWAN (see Booij et al., 1999)) or sediment models (e.g. the U.S.G.S. national
sediment transport model (see USGS, 2012)). With the usage of supercomputing systems, ocean model
simulations can take advantage of hundreds of processors, allowing the computation of models with
very high spatial and temporal resolution. Wang et al. (2005) observed a gain of speedup with
superlinear scalability on up to 200 processors for the ROMS model. The ocean models are calibrated
by comparing modelled results with the measured data (see e.g. Justic and Wang, 2009). Also, the
reliability of these results can be tested (see e.g. Lettmann et al., 2009). The results of these models
can be used to produce hindcasts or forecasts of ocean conditions.
Pleskachevsky et al. (2009) used a coupled wave-current modelling system to do scenario runs with
increased sea level and higher wind speeds in a German coastal area. They found out that a slight
increase of the forcing parameters (10% stronger wind, 50 cm higher sea level) results in 30% higher
50
(of the already high) wave energy input on the seaside of Sylt island. Therfore, they concluded that a
considerable increase of the risk of loss of land can be expected.
Gräwe and Burchard (2011) did four 100-year ocean model experiments for the Western Baltic Sea.
They used the General Estuarine Transport Model (GETM) as a high-resolution local model (spatial
resolution ≈ 1 km), nested into a regional atmospheric and regional oceanic model in a fully baroclinic
downscaling approach to simulate storm surges in this region. The two greenhouse-gas emission
scenarios A1B and B1 for the period 2000–2100, each with two realisations, were used for these
experiments. For validation purposes they used two control runs from 1960-2000. The results show
that using a high-resolution local model an improvement in surge heights of at least 10% compared to
the coarser global driving model can be observed. Their results also show that the sea level rise has
greater potential to increase surge levels than increased wind speeds.
These two publications indicate that ocean models are capable of investigating of changing future
conditions, especially changing sea level and wind conditions. Therefore, they are powerful tools to
evaluate different adaption strategies to climate change.
Finally, a combination of these methods (in-situ measurements, remote sensing and modelling)
creates an information system that assimilates in-situ and remote sensing data into physical ocean
models. Lettmann et al. (2009) used measured data to demonstrate that their modelling system
captures wave heights, current velocities and SPM concentrations in the right order of magnitude.
Pleskachevsky et al. (2005) used a synergy of satelliteborne ocean color data with numerical models to
derive the vertical exchange coefficients due to currents and waves. The resulting models are able to
reproduce the temporal and spatial evolution of the intensity of a plume, which is caused by the
scattering of light at SPM in the upper ocean layer of the North Sea. Ouillon et al. (2004) combined
field measurements, satellite data and model results to study fine suspended-sediment transport. These
combined systems enable scientists to estimatethe past, present or future state and changes of the
ocean.
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Lindstrom, E. J. and Maximenko, N. (2010), ‘The Future
of Oceanography from Space: Introduction to the Special
Issue’, Oceanography 23(4), 12–13.
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and Shieh, C.-L. (2007), ‘Image processing of
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of the coastal zone: An overview and priorities for future
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957.
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Schroeder, F. (2008), ‘Ferry- Box and MERIS e
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Dynamics 59(3), 451–461.
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Rosenthal, W. (2005), ‘Synergy of satellite remote
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Lübben, A. and Rullkötter, J. (2009), ‘A hydrographic
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Sea)’, Ocean Dynamics 59(2), 195–211.
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Lindsay, C. L. (2001), ‘Combined Use of Remote
Sensing and Continuous Monitoring to Analyse the
Variability of Suspended-Sediment Concentrations in San
Francisco Bay, California’, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf
Science 53(6), 801–812.
Stips, A., Bolding, K., Pohlmann, T. and Burchard, H.
(2004), ‘Simulating the temporal and spatial dynamics
of the North Sea using the new model GETM (general
estuarine transport model)’, Ocean Dynamics 54(2), 266–
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in a North Sea wave model’, Journal of Geophysical
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‘Parallel Computation of the Regional Ocean Modeling
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52
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K. (2010), ‘Global sea level rise: Recent progress and
challenges for the decade to come’, Oceanography 23(4),
26–35.
Development and construction of a
midget underwater glider
Diego I. Arango Ortiz1 and Karsten Breddermann2*
University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 2, 18059
Rostock, Germany
2
University of Rostock - Chair of Ocean Engineering,
Albert-Einstein-Str. 2, 18059 Rostock, Germany
1
Key words: midget underwater glider, density-stratified
water
Underwater gliders are small autonomous
underwater vehicles designed to glide from the water
surface to a programmed depth and back, sampling
oceanographic data. In this paper the development and
construction of a small microcontroller-operated glider
for experiments in a stratified flow test tank is presented.
Design parameters originated from the dimensions of the
test tank and from the difference in density of the
stratified water. Following these design parameters, the
work involved the development and construction of a
glider with a displacement of approx. 1 kg and a
maximum wingspan of 250 mm. To overcome the
halocline, the buoyancy engine is capable of changes in
mass as large as 5% of the displacement. This capacity of
the buoyancy engine is tenfold of common values.
A hydrographical model of the
Beibu Gulf
René Friedland1*
1
Key words: hydrographical modelling, physical
oceanography, model results compared to measurements
On the basis of the modular ocean model MOM
a hydrographical model of the Beibu Gulf (also known as
Tonkin Bay) and the surrounding South Chinese Sea was
set up and run on a supercomputer. The Beibu Gulf is
located at the border of China and Vietnam and has two
openings to the ocean. To reduce the influence of the
open boundaries on the east and the south the model area
was chosen larger than the Beibu Gulf. The Gulf is highly
dynamical, mainly driven by tides with a difference of
low and high tide of up to seven meters. Further it is
driven by a yearly cycle with two monsoon phases
(winter: NE-monsoon & low precipitation, summer: SWmonsoon & rain period). The sea surface height was
prescribed as hourly values along the open boundaries,
where it has been computed with the tidal model
FES2004. The model runs covered the time span from
2000 – 2009 and were forced with ERA40 weather and
wind speeds from the QuikSCAT-satellite. For the
evaluation of the simulation results several reference
datasets were used:
•
ADCP-,
RCMand
CTDmeasurements from two ship cruises in 2009 &
2011
•
SST-data from TMI & MODIS
•
yearly cycle of temperature, salinity
and the mixed layer depth from the CSIRO
Atlas of Regional Seas
•
salinityand
temperature
measurements of the World Ocean Database
•
sea surface height from local
measurements and WXTide
The comparison with the measurements showed that the
model was able to reproduce all main processes, but
some problems occurred (e.g. the tidal model had a time
lag of 74 hours compared with the measured sea surface
heights). Furthermore the model was not able to fully
reproduce the measurements from the ship cruise in 2009,
which took place after a huge typhoon.
Design of an Underwater Glider
for Education and Research
ALEXANDRA K. GOTTSCHALL
Florida Institute of Technology, 150 West University
Boulevard, Melbourne, FL 32901, USA
Key words: underwater glider, AUV, buoyancy control
device
The last decade has established the underwater
glider as an important platform for oceanographic
research. To further the capabilities of glider research
three Florida Institute of Technology students have been
actively designing a glider that is considerable cheaper
than the commercial gliders. This vehicle, using state-ofthe-art off-the-shelf computer and electronic components,
also introduces external wing control surfaces for steering
and a mechanical buoyancy engine.
The aim of the work in progress is to develop a
fully functional underwater glider as a platform for
oceanographic research and design of underwater
navigation and control algorithms. This goal is to be
reached through a complete redesign and unification of
the control components of both systems and the
implementation of device driver libraries. Mechanical
components such as the buoyancy engine will be
reviewed and field tested off the Atlantic coast of Florida
during the summer of 2012.
Designed for a maximum depth of 100m the
glider’s payload bays will enable the usage of various
instruments in the coastal shelf region. The low weight
(less than 20 kg) and small size (150 cm in length) allows
deployments from small boats. GPS navigation, radio
frequency and satellite communication (when surfaced)
will make the glider an excellent vehicle for student
research. Completion is expected for December 2012.
Monitoring and Research using
Robust, Flexible, Autonomous and
Cost-efficient Systems
Saskia Heckmann1*, Stefan Marx1
1 SubCtech GmbH, Gettorfer Straße 1, 24251 Osdorf,
Germany
*[email protected]
Key words: Autonomous Measurement Systems, CO2,
Measurement Technology
During the last couple of years the awareness of
global changing and related topics changed. Nowadays
words like ocean acidification and Carbon Dioxide
Storage (CCS) are well known to many people. Linked to
these topics is always carbon dioxide, which makes this
parameter especially interesting for scientists around the
world (especially the partial pressure pCO2). Even if
many models regarding CO2 exchanges between the
ocean and seafloor, ocean and atmosphere as well as
within the ocean for a huge area exist, there is still a need
for real data to improve the models or compare the
results.
To get these data on an area-wide and continuous basis
different types of platforms (ships, buoys, ROV) are
used. Some of the ships operate on a regular basis like
ferries; some of them face very harsh conditions while
travelling around the world through the southern oceans
(racing yachts). For each ship the system needs to be
adjusted to the given conditions. However, all of these
systems have in common that they need to run
autonomous, to be low on power consumption, to be low
on maintenance and easy to handle.
For this instant the company SubCtech used their long
lasting experience to develop the modular OceanPack
System which is nowadays used by public authorities,
science and industry. These AUMS’s (Autonomous
Underway Measurement System) are developed to be
used in difficult conditions such as high sediment yield,
growing bio-fouling (the Wadden Sea), waves and spray
(e.g. 27kn Racing Yacht). In additions complex systems
using different parameter, for example CO2 in water and
air, turbidity and telemetry, should be as easy to handle as
a single sensor.
Due to the modular set up these OceanPack systems can
be adjusted to the specific needs. Like a very small
system to fit on a racing yacht (context of the
OceanoScientific® Programme), a large system
containing a lot of sensors on a research vessel (e.g. RV
BELGICA), a sensor system for ROV’s and even to
measure, especially CO2, in an aquaculture system (e.g.
GMT Büsum or EMB Fraunhofer Lübeck).
The distribution of CO2 is not only of interest in large
scale systems but although in aquaculture to monitor the
water quality and improve the breeding.
53
The Baltic Sea Tracer Releaser
Experiment: Mixing processes and
mixing rates
PETER L. HOLTERMANN1*, HANS BURCHARD1 ,
GREGOR REHDER1, OLIVER SCHMALE1,TOSTE
TANHUA2, LARS UMLAUF1 AND JOANNA J.
WANIEK1
1
2
Leibniz-Institute for Marine Sciences, Wischhofstraße 13, 24148 Kiel, Germany
Key words: please, provide, up to, five, keywords
During the Baltic Sea Tracer Release
Experiment (BaTRE) deep-water mixing rates and
mixing processes in the central Baltic Sea were
investigated by an injection of the inert tracer gas
CF3SF5 in September 2007 at approximately 200 m
depth into the anoxic/sulfidic deep layers. The subsequent
spreading of the tracer was observed during 6 surveys
until February 2009 and was used to infer diapycnal and
lateral mixing rates. One main result is the dramatic
increase of the vertical mixing rates after the tracer had
reached the lateral boundaries of the basin. This suggests
boundary-mixing as the key process for basin-scale
vertical mixing. Basin-scale vertical diffusivities were of
the order of 10-5 m2 s-1 (about one order of magnitude
larger than interior diffusivities) with evidence for a
seasonal and vertical variability. By applying a onedimensional diffusion model it was found that the basin
geometry (hypsography) has a crucial impact on the
vertical tracer spreading and leads to highly skewed
concentration profiles. The time scale for horizontal
tracer homogenization was of the order of 6 months.
Analysis of long-term moored instrumentation and shipbased turbulence microstructure measurements showed
that basin-scale topographic waves, a deep-rim current,
and near-inertial waves are the most important energy
sources for turbulence. The importance of boundary
mixing processes for overall vertical mixing seen from
the tracer spreading correlates with increased dissipation
rates in the bottom boundary layer, which were inferred
from shear-microstructure observations. Varying bottom
boundary layer (BBL) heights indicate the generation and
the subsequent intrusion of the BBLs into the center of
the basin. An Ekman transport induced by the deep-rim
current has been identified as the source for the measured
slightly unstable water-columns reaching up to 40 m
height from the bottom.
The role of the identified physical processes responsible
for mixing are further investigated using a high resolution
numerical model calibrated with the BaTRE dataset.
Having a horizontal grid size of 600 m, the model can
reproduce the subinertial topographic waves as well as
the near-inertial internal wave spectrum. A tracer release
experiment within the model is performed to shed more
light on the evolution of the isopycnal distribution of the
tracer in the basin. It is furthermore used to study the
transition time between interior mixing processes and the
basin wide mixing, since this transition time could not be
explained by the 1-dimensional models used to derive the
54
interior respectively the basin-scale mixing rates based on
the measured tracer profiles.
Passive Acoustic Monitoring of
ambient noise in the Atlantic
sector of the Southern Ocean
Sebastian Menze1,2, Lars Kindermann1, Stefanie Rettig1,
Annette Bombosch1, Ilse van Opzeeland1, and Olaf
Boebel1
1
Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
2
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Key words: ocean acoustics, ambient noise,
anthropogenic noise, Antarctic, soundscape, good
environmental status indicators, Southern Ocean
With increasing marine traffic, the global level
of anthropogenic noise is likely to rise. This might induce
further stress to already endangered marine mammals,
which rely on their acoustic senses for foraging,
orientation and communication. The Southern Ocean
provides an important habitat for marine mammals, both
residential and migratory. To study its cetacean and
pinniped populations as well as the ambient soundscape,
autonomous underwater recorders were deployed on
moorings in the Atlantic section of the Southern Ocean.
Natural ambient noise is generated by the interaction of
wind, waves, ice, biological and geological sources and
subject to seasonal variations. Transient sounds such as
whale and seal vocalisations strongly influence the
acoustic spectra. Due to limited marine traffic and
industrial activity the Southern Ocean contrasts regions
with anthropogenic noise pollution on the northern
hemisphere. This rather uninfluenced soundscape is
analysed according to indicators as proposed under the
European Union marine strategy frameworks directive. In
this way a useful reference to the northern hemisphere
oceans is given. The scope of anthropogenic and natural
noise as well as sound examples will be presented.
A 4DVAR Data Assimilation
System for SWAN
MARK D. ORZECH1*, JAYARAM VEERAMONY1,
HANS E. NGODOCK1, AND STYLIANOS
FLAMPOURIS1,2
1
Naval Research Lab, Code 7322, Stennis Space Ctr, MS,
39529, USA
2
Dept of Marine Science, University Of Mississippi,
Oxford, MS, 38677, USA
Key words: SWAN, wave, assimilation, numerical
adjoint
The wave model SWAN solves the spectral action
balance equation to estimate nearshore wave spectra and
associated statistics. It is widely used by the coastal
ocean modelling community. Boundary conditions for
local model domains are generally obtained from regional
or global simulations with WAVEWATCH III™ and
WAM. Inaccuracies in meteorological forcing and overly
coarse grid resolutions for global models can lead to
significant errors in SWAN’s spectral estimates,
particularly in shallow water.
To improve model
performance, we have developed a 4DVAR data
assimilation system based on a numerical adjoint to fully
nonlinear, nonstationary SWAN. When provided with
wave spectra measured at different times and locations on
a structured grid, the assimilation system minimizes a
cost function (representing overall model error) and
generates corrected boundary conditions that optimize the
fit of SWAN’s output to the measurements. In addition to
time dependence, the system accounts for nonlinear triad
and quadruplet interactions, depth-limited breaking, wind
forcing, bottom friction, and whitecapping. For best
results, background spectra must be reasonably
representative of actual wave conditions, some
observations should be from locations outside the surf
zone, and observed spectra should all be from
“functionally equivalent” instruments (i.e., generated in
the same manner). Questions of interest include: How
can we best assimilate spectral data from two or more
distinct instrument types? What is the optimal weighting
for instruments separated in space and time? How can
one determine if background spectra are “representative
enough”? Can we improve our data assimilation in the
shallower surf zone? This presentation will address some
of these questions and review the most recent test results,
including simulations with data from Duck, North
Carolina, and the July 2012 RIMPAC experiment in
Hawaii. Examples will be provided from tests using
“good” versus “bad” backgrounds, “equivalent” versus
“distinct” spectral sources, and surf-zone versus offshore
assimilation locations.
GIS as a tool to aid hydrodynamic
modelling activities
NADIIA BASOS1*, FLAVIO MARTINS2 AND JOSE I.
RODRIGUES2
1
Universidade do Algarve, Campus da Penha, 8005-139
Faro, Portugal.
2
CIMA-Universidade do Algarve, Campus da Penha,
8005-139 Faro, Portugal.
Key words: GIS, hydrodynamic model, curvilinear grid,
model calibration, estuaries
Estuarine hydrodynamic models usually require
management of large quantities of georeferenced
information. A Geographic Information System (GIS) can
help to prepare, manage, analyze and display all these
data, during the input and the output phases. The main
objective of this work is to develop GIS based techniques
that aid the setup of hydrodynamic models in a real
domain (Guadiana Estuary, Portugal).
Hydrodynamics and salinity of the Guadiana
Estuary were simulated in 2D in MOHID Water
Modelling System using boundary fitted curvilinear grid.
The GIS tools were used to prepare the model inputs. The
water domain was extracted from an orthophoto map
using unsupervised classification of the image after
principal component analysis on the spectral bands. The
large amount of bathymetric measurement points was
decreased using a spatial regular pattern. Missing
bathymetry data in some very shallow parts of the estuary
were estimated from the orthophoto map using
correlation between existing data and spectral band
values. The bathymetry data were interpolated into the
grid by several different methods.
The model results were calibrated and validated
using field measurements of water level and current
velocity in different points of the estuary. The use of GIS
tools to produce curvilinear grids and accurate
bathymetric data proved to be a valuable aid to
modelling, improving the model results when compared
with techniques used in previous simulations.
A comparison of bio-optical and
oceanographic data in Greenland
and Iceland fjords
Lars Holinde1*, and Oliver Zielinski1
Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine
Environment, University of Oldenburg, Carl-vonOssietzky-Str. 9-11, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
1
Key words: high latitude, fjords, under water light field,
oceanography
Water masses in Fjords are highly influenced
by ocean and land boundaries. Especially the presence of
glaciers and the resulting freshwater runoff is of interest
for global warming scenarios. During an expedition of
the research vessel Maria S. Merian in summer 2012
transects in different fjords in Greenland and Iceland
were conducted. Measurements were performed at
different stations during the transects to obtain results
from clear marine water at the ocean side to turbid melt
water at the glaciers. For the measurements of the water
masses a radiation profiler and a CTD were used.
Supplemental water samples were taken for further
laboratory analysis. Additional meteorological data was
collected for analyses of the ocean-atmosphere
interactions.
In this work a first overview of the observed
oceanographic and bio-optical properties will be
presented. Special interest will be shown for temperature
and salinity gradients from ocean to glaciers as well as
between the different water layers. Additional
information of their influence on the underwater light
field will be provided.
Transport modelling of Marine
Litter in the North Sea
Daniel Neumann1,2*, Ulrich Callies1, Michael Matthies2
1
Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum
Geesthacht, Max-Planck-Str. 1, 21502 Geesthacht,
Germany
2
Institute of Environmental Systems Research, University
of Osnabrück, Barbarastr. 12, 49076 Osnabrück,
Germany
55
Key words: North Sea, marine litter, transport modelling,
plastic, monitoring
The continuous input of marine litter, in particular plastic
debris, poses a serious threat to marine and coastal
environments due to slow decomposition and associated
long residence times at sea. Plastic fragments with
diameter down to the micro scale are found in stomachs
of fishes, seals and seabirds. In this study, Lagrangian
passive tracer simulations were conducted to model longrange transport and accumulation of marine litter in the
southern North Sea. Areas of high ship density and river
estuaries were assumed to be source regions of litter. A
2D particle tracking algorithm was used to calculate halfa-year forward trajectories based on hourly surface
current and wind fields available from Bundesamt für
Seeschifffahrt und Hydrography (BSH) and the
Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD), respectively. Ensemble
simulations were evaluated with respect to the
spatiotemporal variability in particle transport, abundance
and residence times at coast lines and at the open sea. The
aim was to estimate differences in the origin of litter at
regularly monitored German beaches. The results show
that the majority of items affected by wind drift – as a
plastic bottle swimming atop the sea surface – is
transported nearshore with a high probability of being
washed ashore. Land-based litter in particular affects
coastal regions close to its sources. In contrast, sea-based
submerged litter not exposed to winds often remains at
considerable distance to the coast. Seasonal trends in the
pollution of monitored beaches by marine litter can be
expected according to these simulation results. We
conclude that ensemble simulations of weather-driven
transport provide valuable information for the proper
evaluation of operational marine litter monitoring.
Estimation of Turbulence in an
East Frisian Tidal Channel
Anne-Christin Schulz, Thomas H. Badewien, Oliver
Zielinski
Environment, University of Oldenburg, Carl-vonOssietzky-Str. 9-11, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
Key words: mixing, tidal channel, turbulent kinetic
energy, ADCP
Turbulence is important for mixing processes in
the ocean. Especially in shallow water regions with high
current velocities, e.g. in a tidal channel, vertical mixing
is strong. In order to determine the available energy for
turbulent mixing of the water column, the equation of
turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), with its production rate P
and its dissipation rate ε is needed.
In the work presented, production rate P and
dissipation rate ε were estimated using current
measurements from an Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler
(ADCP). In addition, the dissipation rate ε was also
derived from density estimations obtained by a
Conductivity Temperature Depth probe (CTD). Both
measurements were conducted aboard the Research
Vessel Senckenberg which was positioned next to a Time
Series Station in an East Frisian tidal channel in the
southern North Sea. Data was collected during one tidal
period in November 2010.
Here, the results of the different methods are
compared and discussed. Comparison between the
production rate P and dissipation rate ε shows that always
more kinetic energy of the turbulent current is supplied
than dissipated. Hence we reason that the remaining
kinetic energy is used for mixing and the continuation of
turbulence.
Reefs from shallow to deep – environmental constraints and perspectives
Marlene Wall and Carin Jantzen*
Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Alten Hafen 26, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
In contrast to mariners who classify reefs as hazardous shoals scientists denote them as permanent
hard structure of biological origin distinctly elevated from the substrate. Reefs may be built by a
variety of organisms such as corals, coralline algae, mussels or sponges. Since Darwin’s monography
on coral reefs we usually associate reefs with the tropics, there known as “oasis in the sea”. Thriving
in nutrient poor waters coral reefs are highly productive featuring a diverse community on various
trophic levels. This ‘Darwin paradox’ can be explained by the close coupling and the comprehensive
matter and nutrient fluxes between individuals, functional groups and compartments. Studies on
tropical coral reefs started in the early 40ies of the last century with the work of Hans Hass and
Thomas F. Goreau and provided first insight in coral reef ecosystem functioning and services.
The distribution of (sub-) tropical coral reefs is mainly limited by temperature and light; further factors
controlling reef development may be nutrients, salinity, oxygen concentration and aragonite saturation
state (Kleypas et al., 1999). The most vigorous reef growth can be found within the tropic of
Capricorn and the tropic of Cancer with minimum mean winter seawater temperature of 18°C
(Schuhmacher, 1988) The most divers coral reef communities can be found in the ‘coral triangle’ the
56
area between the Solomon Islands, Indonesia and the Philippines. At the regional scale physical forces
(e.g. waves, currents and storms) and biological factors (e.g. larvae supply, diversity) determine reef
morphology and zonation (Kleypas et al., 1999).
Scleractinian corals build up coral reefs with their calcareous skeletons and form the reef framework.
Encrusting coralline algae are the reef’s cement by binding and stabilizing the reef structure (Perry et
al., 2008). Simultaneously, reef framework structures are subjected to bioerosion by organisms (e.g.
boring sponges) and physical forces (e.g. water movement undermining reef formation) (Tribollet et
al., 2011). Under optimal conditions construction exceeds destruction and the reef grows. It may
develop from a patch reef or fringing reef into a barrier reef. Its hard 3D-structurealters currents and
provides a variety of microhabitats (e.g. concerning light and flow regimes) for numerous organisms
(Achituv & Dubinsky, 1990, Riegl & Piller, 2000).
Most tropical corals live in a symbiosis with algae, their zooxanthellae. These autotrophs provide the
coral host with sun light derived assimilates and are a crucial factor for the high growth and
productivity rate of coral reefs in shallow areas. A tight coupling of symbionts and host may promote
calcification and therefore reef growth. Nevertheless as definite dependencies and relationships are
still elusive, the ‘concept of light enhanced calcification’ (Goreau & Goreau, 1959) continues to be
controversially discussed (Allemand et al., 2011). Hence, the most fundamental process – the creation
of the calcareous skeletons – still bears a lot of secrets.
Tropical coral reefs are often called the rain forests of the sea as they harbor numerous species and are
highly productive (Sorokin, 1990, Wood, 2001). They have important commercial relevance by
supplying goods and services to people (e.g. tourism, coastal protection, food) (Moberg & Folke,
1999). One third of the worlds human population depend – at least to some part - on tropical coral
reefs for their livelihood. Today coral reefs decline as a result of pollution, overfishing, tourism, coral
bleaching and diseases (Hughes et al., 2003). The ongoing global climate change and the related
alterations in seawater chemistry pose additional threats (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007, Kleypas et al.,
2001). The fate of coral reefs, their adaptation potential to cope with rising seawater temperature and
ocean acidification cannot be clearly answered with our current knowledge.
Reefs in higher latitudes – subtropical reefs - may face relatively low minimum temperatures (e.g. Iki
Island in Japan with minimum temperature values of 13.3 °C, Yamano et al., 2001) and a huge yearly
temperature ranges (e.g. Arabian Gulf with yearly temperature ranges from 14°C to 37°C, Riegl 2003).
Borderline conditions and strong environmental gradients can as well be found within the tropics in
upwelling regions (Schmidt et al., 2012) or close to CO2 vent system such as the Gulf of Chiriqui or
Papua Neu Guinea, respectively (Fabricius et al., 2011, Manzello, 2010). In those areas coral growth
and reef functioning can be studied beyond optimal conditions. Adaptation potential and associated
costs of living in these extreme environments may give further insight on the fate of coral reefs
(Fabricius et al., 2011, Manzello, 2008). High-latitude reefs and reefs in upwelling regions that are
exposed to generally lower temperatures are regarded as refuge areas for rising temperature and more
frequently occurring heating events in the future (Riegl, 2003).
Reefs in deeper regions are recently discussed as a source of larvae that may replenish threatened
shallow water reefs. This connectivity may potentially improve shallow reef resilience in a changing
environment (Lesser et al., 2009). The so called mesophotic reefs extend down to 150 m and comprise
symbiont and non-symbiont-bearing corals, macroalgae and reef forming sponge communities.
In the deep sea cold water corals thrive till depth of over thousands of meters. They face cold and
light-less conditions nevertheless forming likewise divers and productive reefs and providing crucial
structures on the otherwise vast sea floor (Roberts et al., 2009). Cold water corals - and temperate
water corals - are not restricted to the abyss. They may be found in shallower water in fjord regions or
in the Mediterranean covering a global distribution (Freiwald et al., 2004, Tsounis et al., 2010).
Research on cold water corals is young and due to their mostly deep water occurrence research is often
elaborate and expensive. Still, we learned a lot about cold water corals within the last two decades and
therefore they may be still ‘out of sight but no longer out of mind’ (Freiwald et al., 2004). They may
have a great adaptation potential as they could grow close to the oxygen minimum zone (Dodds et al.,
2007) and in low aragonite saturation (Maier et al., 2012, McCulloch et al., 2012). Their calcification
is regarded as slow, but newer observations indicate an underestimation of their growth potential (Bell
& Smith 1999).
57
References:
Achituv Y, Dubinsky Z (1990) Evolution and
zoogeography of coral reefs, Amsterdam, PAYS-BAS,
Elsevier.
Allemand D, Tambutté É, Zoccola D, Tambutté S,
Dubinsky Z, Stambler N (2011) Coral Calcification, Cells
to Reefs. In: Coral Reefs: An Ecosystem in Transition.
pp 119-150. Springer Netherlands.
Bell N, Smith J (1999) Coral growing on North Sea oil
rigs. Nature 402: 601.
Dodds LA, Roberts JM, Taylor AC, Marubini F (2007)
Metabolic tolerance of the cold-watercoral Lophelia
pertusa (Scleractinia) to temperature and dissolved
oxygen change. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology
and Ecoloy, 349, 205–214.
Fabricius Ke, Langdon C, Uthicke S et al. (2011) Losers
and winners in coral reefs acclimatized to elevated
carbon dioxide concentrations. Nature Clim. Change, 1,
165-169.
Freiwald AJH, Fosså SJH, Grehan A, Koslow A, Roberts
JM (2004) Cold-water coral reefs, Out of sight – no
longer out of mind. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge.
Goreau T, Goreau NI (1959) The physiology of skeleton
formation in corals. II. Calcium deposition by
hermatypic corals under different conditions. Biological
Bulletin, 117, 239-250.
Hoegh-Guldberg O, Mumby PJ, Hooten AJ et al. (2007)
Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean
acidification. Science, 318, 1737-1742.
Hughes TP, Baird AH, Bellwood DR et al. (2003)
Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of
coral reefs. Science, 301, 929-933.
Kleypas JA, Buddenmeier RW, Gattuso J-P (2001) The
future of coral reefs in an age of global change.
International Journal of Earth Science (Geologische
Rundschau), 90, 426-437.
Kleypas JA, Mcmanus JW, Meñez LAB (1999)
Environmental limits to coral reef development: where do
we draw the line? American Zoologist, 39, 146-159.
Lesser MP, Slattery M, Leichter JJ (2009) Ecology of
mesophotic coral reefs. Journal of Experimental Marine
Biology and Ecology, 375, 1-8.
Manzello DP (2008) Reef development and resilience to
acute (El Nino warming) and chronic (high-CO2)
disturbances in the eastern tropical Pacific: a real-world
climate change model. Proc 11th Int Coral Reef Symp, 1,
1299-1303.
Manzello DP (2010) Ocean acidification hot spots:
Spatiotemporal dynamics of the seawater CO2 system of
eastern
Pacific
coral
reefs.
Limnology
and
Oceanography, 55, 239-248.
Maier C, Watremez P, Taviani M, et al. (2012)
Calcification rates and the effect of ocean acidification on
Mediterranean cold-water corals. Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences,,
279: 1716-1723
McCulloch M, Trotter J, Montagna P, et al. (2012)
Resilience of cold-water scleractinian corals to ocean
acidification: Boron isotopic systematics of pH and
saturation
state
up-regulation.
Geochimica
et
Cosmochimica Acta, 87: 21-34
Moberg F, Folke C (1999) Ecological goods and services
of coral reef ecosystems. Ecological Economics, 29, 215233.
Perry CT, Spencer T, Kench PS (2008) Carbonate
budgets and reef production states: a geomorphic
perspective on the ecological phase-shift concept. Coral
Reefs, 27, 853-866.
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Riegl B (2003) Climate change and coral reefs: different
effects in two high-latitude areas (Arabian Gulf, South
Africa). Coral Reefs, 22, 433-446.
Riegl B, Piller WE (2000) Reefs and coral carpets in the
northern Red Sea as models for organism-environment
feedback in coral communities and its reflection in
growth fabrics. In: Carbonate Platform Systems:
components and interactions. (eds Insalaco E, Skelton
Pw, Palmar Tj) pp Page, Geological Society, London, The
Geological Society London.
Roberts J, Wheeler AJ, Freiwald A, Cairns S (2009)
Cold-Water Corals. Cambridge, UK,Cambridge Univ
PressSchuhmacher H (1988) Korallenriffe, München,
BLV.
Schmidt GM, Phongsuwan N, Jantzen C, et al. (2012)
Coral community composition and reef development at
large amplitude internal wave affected coral reefs in the
Andaman Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 456,
113-126.
Sorokin Y, I (1990) Aspects of trophic relations,
productivity and energy balance in coral-reef ecosystems.
In: Ecosystems of the World 25 Coral Reefs. (ed
Dubinsky Z) pp 401-410. Amsterdam, Elsevier Science
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Tribollet A, Golubic S, Dubinsky Z, Stambler N (2011)
Reef Bioerosion: Agents and Processes. In: Coral Reefs:
An Ecosystem in Transition. pp 435-449. Springer
Netherlands.
Tsounis G, Orejas C, Reynaud S, et al. (2010) Prey
capture rates in four Mediterranean cold water corals.
Marine Ecology-Progress Series, 398: 149-155
Wood R (2001) Biodiversity and history of reefs.
Geology, 36, 251-263.
Yamano HY, Hori KH, Yamauchi MY, et al. (2001)
Highest-latitude coral reef at Iki Island, Japan. Coral
Reefs, 20, 9-12.
Acclimatization potential of the
coral Pocillopora verrucosa to
land-based pollution
Kolja Beisiegel*, Yvonne Sawall
Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel,
Düsternbrooker Weg 20, 24105 Kiel, Germany
Key words: photoacclimatization, photosynthesis,
eutrophication, Pocillopora verrucosa
Urbanization of coastal areas increases the
exposure of coral reefs to elevated nutrient and
sediment concentration and a suite of other landbased pollutants. Biotic responses of corals,
including symbiotic dinoflagellates, differ greatly in
style and magnitude among coral species and
depend on their acclimatization potential and stress
resistance. Spatial variation and acclimatization
processes in metabolic rates and photophysiology
of the widely distributed reef-building coral
Pocillopora verrucosa were examined at highly
polluted and non-polluted reefs in front of the
seaport Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. In situ experiments
including coral transplantation between two near-
(polluted) and two offshore (pristine) reefs and
metabolism studies were carried out in 3 to 5 m
water depth. After 3 and 6 weeks, photosynthesis,
respiration and calcification were measured in light
and dark chambers on transplanted and control
fragments. Chlorophyll a, protein and maximum
quantum yield of photosystem ΙΙ (Fv/Fm) were
measured of zooxanthellae, supplemental to host
tissue protein and biomass. While water quality
improved from near- (eutroph and turbid) to
offshore reefs (oligotroph and clear), metabolic
rates (photosynthesis, respiration, calcification) and
nutritional status of P. verrucosa (zooxanthellae
density, concentration of chlorophyll a, host
biomass and protein) were higher nearshore. Within
only 3 weeks, transplanted corals displayed
significant acclimation in metabolic rates and
nutritional status to new water quality and almost
attained performance of local populations. Higher
photosynthetic rates and photochemical efficiency
was attributed to higher areal zooxanthellae and
chlorophyll a concentration, suggested a high
photophysiological acclimation potential when
exposed to turbid nearshore waters. Higher host
biomass and protein content suggested a higher
nutritional supply in eutrophic nearshore waters
possibly due to heterotrophic feeding. The present
analysis identified the fast compensation ability of a
common reef building coral to human land-based
sources of pollution and raised hopes for
persevering coral reefs in anthropogenic affected
coastal zones.
Fast and easy detection of nutrient
limitation in macroalgae
Joost den Haan1*, Amanda K. Ford1, Friso Dekker1,
Mark J.A. Vermeij1,2,
Jef Huisman1, and Petra M. Visser1
1Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics,
University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH
Amsterdam, the Netherlands
2Carmabi Foundation, Piscaderabaai z/n, Willemstad,
Curaçao
Keywords: Nutrient limitation · macroalgae ·
NIFT · PAM · coral reef
Rapid determination of which nutrients
limit the growth of macroalgae can be of
considerable importance for understanding the
trophic status of coral reef ecosystems. Detection of
nutrient limitation using the NIFT technique
(Nutrient-Induced Fluorescence Transient) has been
widely applied to pelagic phytoplankton. We
developed an experimental set-up by which this
technique can be extended to benthic macroalgae
on coral reefs. As a first test, a macroalga (Ulva
lactuca) was cultured in the laboratory and
provided with all nutrients except nitrogen or
phosphorus. Addition of the limiting nutrient
resulted in a characteristic change in the
fluorescence signal using a Pulse Amplitude
Modulated (PAM) fluorometer. Subsequently, we
applied the NIFT technique to the smothering
macroalga Lobophora variegata collected from
coral reefs at Curaçao, and found that this alga is
more nitrogen limited (NO3 and NH4) at healthy
reefs, versus less nitrogen limited at polluted, more
degraded reefs. No differences between phosphate
limitation was found, which could be explained by
similar amounts of phosphate found in the water
column at both reefs. Compared to other methods
assessing the limiting nutrient in macroalgae, the
NIFT technique is a very easy and fast method
(approximately 45 min per sample). While we
worked on coral reefs, we foresee a wider
application of this method to benthic algae of other
marine and freshwater ecosystems.
Calcification, photosynthesis and
respiration of Halimeda opuntia at
Racha island in the Andaman Sea,
Thailand
Hante L.1*, Schmidt G. M.1, Khokiattiwong S.2, Richter
C.1
1
Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine
Research, Am Alten Hafen 26, 27570
Bremerhaven, Germany
2
Phuket Marine Biological Center, 51 Saktidet Road,
83000 Phuket, Thailand
Key words: internal waves, Halimeda opuntia,
temperature- and pH fluctuations
The western coasts of coral islands facing
the open Andaman Sea are exposed to large
amplitude internal waves (LAIW) during winter to
spring (January to April). LAIW entrain cold
subpycnocline waters into shallow reef areas
causing frequent (several events per day) and
severe drops in temperature (up to 9 °C) and pH (up
to 0.5 units) and increases in nutrients. The present
study explored a possible impact of LAIW on the
distribution, calcification, photosynthesis and
respiration of the calcifying macroalgae Halimeda
opuntia. The study was conducted at Racha island
about 18 km south of Phuket in the Andaman Sea.
Belt transect observations along the island revealed
that H. opuntia occurs only at the east side of
Racha. A combined transplant and incubation
experiment was performed. The temperature at the
west and east side of Racha was recorded for 6
months (October till March). These records
indicated no difference in LAIW intensity between
west and east coasts of Racha which is in contrast
59
to other offshore islands in this region. The
experiments showed that H. opuntia calcified faster
and revealed higher photosynthetic rates after being
transplanted for 2 months to the western side in
contrast to their eastern counterparts. The higher
rates in calcification and oxygen production of the
west-transplanted algae were maintained as well
under simulated LAIW-conditions with reduced
temperature and/or pH during the incubations.
Despite the natural absence of H. opuntia along the
western side of Racha island, this algae seemed to
benefit from the natural conditions at west in
contrast to its common eastern environment. It may
be concluded that factors other than LAIW such as
less sedimentation and possibly higher light
intensities at west favored the development of the
algae which are naturally restricted to the east due
to the lack of suitable settling substrate in west.
measured over time in the dark. Additional
incubations were run using GF/F-filtered seawater
enriched with algal amino acids to exclude POM
and to test the ability of the sponges to take up
DOC. After the experiments limestone of the
sponge cores was dissolved with 1.5 M HCl to
determine the biomass of each sponge.
Oxygen consumption (ΔO2 / Δt) of C. delitrix was
significantly higher than in controls (Bonferroni,
p<0.002), however no significant difference
between C. aprica or C. laticovicola and controls
was found (Bonferroni, p>0.5). Resulting mean
respiration rates (±SD) for C. aprica, C. delitrix and
C. laticovicola were 0.55±13.60, 5.36±1.31 and 8.56±2.50 µmol O2 g-1 (dry weight) L-1 h-1,
respectively. Preliminary results of organic carbon
uptake and respiration of the 3 sponges will be
presented and discussed.
Organic carbon cycling by 3
species of coral excavating sponges
Effects of light on DOC
production by benthic primary
producers
YANNICK MULDERS3,1*, BENJAMIN MUELLER1,2,
ESTHER VAN DER ENT3,1, FRANCESCA
SANGIORGI3 AND FLEUR C. VAN DUYL1,2
1
1790 AB Den Berg, P.O. Box 59, Texel, The Netherlands
2
The CARMABI Foundation, Caribbean Research &
Management of Biodiversity, P.O. Box 2090, Willemstad,
Curaçao
3
Institute of Environmental Biology, Laboratory of
Palaeobotany and Palynology, Utrecht University,
Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD Utrecht, The Netherlands
Key words: Dissolved Organic Carbon, coral reef,
BENJAMIN MUELLER1,2*, MARK J. A. VERMEIJ2,3,
FLEUR C. VAN DUYL1,2
1
1790 AB Den Berg, P.O. Box 59, Texel,
The Netherlands
2
Curaçao
3
University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Achtergracht 127,
1018 WS Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Carbon cycling, Caribbean, excavating sponges
Key words: Dissolved organic carbon, coral reef,
benthic algae, scleractinian corals, Curaçao
Classically sponges are considered to filter
exclusively particulate organic matter (POM,
bacteria and phytoplankton) from the surrounding
water. However, recent studies show that dissolved
organic carbon (DOC) comprises a large part of the
diet of various reef sponges (up to 90%) and that
POM has only a minor contribution. Whether this
also holds for the diet of the common Caribbean
coral excavating sponges Cliona aprica, Cliona
delitrix and Cliona laticavicola, was studied on the
coral reefs of Curaçao and Bonaire. This study aims
to determine the contribution of organic carbon of
different size classes to the diet of excavating
sponges, as well as the rates at which they are being
consumed.
Cores with excavating sponges and control cores
(without sponge) were extracted from the reef
framework using an air-driven drill, and transported
to the research station. After a recovering period of
approx. 2 weeks, sponges of each species (n=8) and
controls (n=3) were incubated in 1L chambers in
raw sea water. The decline of phytoplankton,
bacteria, DOC and oxygen concentration was
Benthic primary producers such as
scleractinian corals and benthic algae are known to
release
a
significant
amount
of
their
photosynthetically fixed carbon as dissolved
organic carbon (DOC) into their surroundings.
Although the availability of light is one of the most
ecologically limiting factors that structures coral
reef, the effect of depth-mediated light reduction on
DOC production is still poorly understood. With a
combination of controlled lab experiments under 3
different light intensities (no, reduced, full light)
and measurements of in situ DOC concentrations
around primary producers we demonstrate the
prominent effect of light on DOC production.
In our incubations scleractinian corals
displayed either a minimum DOC release or a net
uptake, irrespective of light intensity. Benthic algae
displayed significantly higher release rates under
full than under reduced light conditions
(Bonferroni, p<0.05), ranging between 15.5±0.2
and 1.1±0.2 µmol C g-1 (dry weight) h-1. No
significant DOC release occurred below a threshold
60
of 80-120 µE m-2 s-1 which corresponds to a depth
of 10-20 m on Curaçaon coral reefs.
Yet incubation experiments performed
under lab conditions always include a certain
degree of manipulation and therefore results must
be extrapolated to the natural environment with
some caution. In order to overcome this limitation
we decided to sample the substrate-water interface
of benthic primary producers on the reef slope
between 10-20 m. As expected from our lab
experiments, we did not find significant differences
in DOC concentrations between different substrates
and/or the reef overlying water. In contrast, Van
Duyl and Gast (2001) successfully used this
technique to show differences in in-situ DOC
concentrations in different reef bottom water types.
However, they sampled shallower on the reef
terrace between 6-8 m depth. Our results suggest
that primary producers on the reef slope do not
significantly contribute to the DOC pool of a
Caribbean coral reef.
Succession
patterns
in
upwelling-influenced
Caribbean coral reef
an
JULIAN T. RAU1*, CORVIN P. EIDENS2, ELISA
BAYRAKTAROV1, CHRISTIAN WILD1, VALERIA
PIZARRO3
1
Coral Reef Ecology Group, Leibniz Center for Tropical
Marine Ecology (ZMT), Bremen, Fahrenheitstr. 6, 28395
Bremen, Germany
2
Department of Animal Ecology & Systematics, Justus
Liebig University Giessen, Ludwigstraße 23, 35390
Gießen, Germany
3
Jorge Tadeo Lozano University of Bogota, Carrera 4 #
22-61, Bogota D.C., Colombia
Key words: upwelling, succession, exclusion
experiment, nutrients, Caribbean
At the Caribbean coast of Colombia
seasonal upwelling occurs. During this event
nutrient enriched deep sea waters are transported to
lower depths and change environmental conditions
in favor of algal growth. We studied succession of
fouling on bare substrate with the focus on
changing nutrient concentrations and exclusion of
herbivores. For this we immersed terracotta tiles in
caged and un-caged treatments at 10m water depth
in Tayrona National Park (no-take zone),
Colombian Caribbean. Succession on tiles was
monitored for six months (including the whole
upwelling period). Every month successional stages
were analyzed by percentage cover of functional
groups and carbon ( C ) and nitrogen ( N ) contents
of the fouling communities. We found that tiles in
caged treatments showed higher cover of fleshy
macroalgae in most of the successional stages.
Cover of crustose coralline algae was mostly higher
in un-caged treatments. C content was positively
correlated with phosphate concentrations and N
contents showed positive correlation with nitrate
concentration in the ambient seawater. C/N ratios
did not differ between treatments. Results showed
that in this area succession of fouling is affected by
seasonal upwelling. Further it was shown that there
are differences in composition of fouling cover
when herbivores are excluded.
Calcification, nutrition and
metabolic fitness of a shallow coldwater coral
Stefanie Sokol 1,2 *, Carin Jantzen1, Claudio Richter1
1
Research, Am Alten Hafen 26, 27568 Bremerhaven,
Germany
2
Present Address: GEOMAR | Helmholtz Centre for
Ocean Research Kiel Duesternbrooker Weg 20, 24105
Kiel, Germany
*
corresponding author: [email protected]
Key Words: cold-water corals, calcification,
metabolic fitness, heterotrophy, flow
The scleractinian cold-water coral
Desmophyllum dianthus, commonly known as
deep-sea species, shows an unusual shallow (< 25
m) and dense occurrence (up to 1500 individuals
m2) within the northern Patagonian fjord region.
This study investigated these shallow living D.
dianthus specimens under exposure to their natural
environmental gradients and examined the
influence of heterotrophy and flow regime on
calcification rates and metabolic fitness.
Buoyancy weight measurements revealed highest in
situ short-term (~ 2 weeks) calcification rates know
for D. dianthus so far with a mass increase of 5.44
± 3.45 mg CaCO3 cm-2 d-1 and a corresponding
weight gain of 0.25 ± 0.18 % d-1. Corals that were
simultaneously maintained under flow-through
conditions on-site showed significantly lower rates
of 1.86 ± 1.37 mg CaCO3 cm-2 d-1 and 0.09 ± 0.08
% d-1.
Capture rates and prey-size selectivity were
ascertained under supply of their natural food
spectrum. Corals captured most (55 ± 16 prey items
cm-2 h-1) under low flow speeds of 1.7 cm s-1 with
declining trends towards stagnant and stronger flow
regimes. Prey items greater 1000 µm covered
approximately half of their diet.
In general, food availability appeared to
significantly influence key physiological processes
of D. dianthus. This was examined via laboratory
long-term experiments (3 month) with corals
maintained in re-circulating flow-chambers.
Calcification rates and metabolic fitness increased
61
most notably under high food and strong flow
conditions.
Growth and population structure
of the recent brachiopod
Magellania venosa
SEBASTIAN BAUMGARTEN1*, and JÜRGEN
LAUDIEN1
1
Am Alten Hafen 26, 27568 Bremerhaven, Germany
*corresponding author:
[email protected]
Key words: Magellania venosa, brachiopoda, growth,
production, Comau Fjord
The largest recent brachiopod, Magellania
venosa, occurs in high abundances of up to 416 Ind m-2 in
the fjord Comau, Chile. On some sites it numerically
dominates the subtidal benthic community below 15 m
depth where the bivalve Aulacomya atra also competes
for space. Growth and production were investigated in
situ from February 2011 to March 2012 by SCUBA
diving on five stations located along the fjord axis. Test
individuals were either marked mechanically by parallel
notch marks placed perpendicular to the actual shell’s
edge or chemically by the fluorescent stain Calcein.
Recruitment tiles, installed in the fjord in 2009 allowed
analysing settlement behaviour and juvenile growth
covering 24 months. Growth of Magellania venosa is
best described by a Von Bertalanffy Growth Function
with an asymptotic shell length of L∞=71.53 mm and a
growth constant of K=0.336 yr-1. The presently recorded
subtidal (from 15 m to 25 m depth) biomass ranges from
1.94 g ash-free dry mass (AFDM) m-2 to 134 g AFDM m2
. Maximal production is 0.29 g AFDM ind-1 yr-1 at
42 mm shell length and annual production ranges from
1.04 g AFDM yr-1 m-2 to 71.9 g AFDM yr-1 m-2.
Growth rates are the highest recorded for a
rynchonelliform brachiopod, suggesting Magellania
venosa to be a competitive filter-feeder in the competition
for space in a benthic cold water ecosystem. Magellania
venosa settled as a pioneer on the recruitment tiles with
very low juvenile mortality indicating an overall low
predation pressure. The brachiopod-bivalve association in
the fjord Comau indicates that even on a fine spatiotemporal scale, neither the presence of potential
brachiopod predators nor space competitors necessarily
affect the survival of the brachiopod population.
Deep-sea scavengers around coldwater corals in the Belgica Mound
Province, NE Atlantic
Matthias F. Biber
1, 2, *
1
, Gerard C.A. Duineveld , Marc
S.S. Lavaleye 1,
Magda J.N. Bergman 1, Inge M.J. van den Beld 1
1
Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, PO Box
59, 1790 AB Den Burg, Texel, The Netherlands
62
2
School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai
Bridge, Anglesey LL59 5AB, UK
Cold-water coral reefs, one of the hotspot
ecosystems, play a detrimental role for maintaining
biodiversity in the deep sea. They are thought to maintain
a higher fish abundance and biomass than non-coral
areas, however quantitative data of these communities is
still very scarce, despite the increasing exploitation of
these areas. We studied the fish community structure of
four different areas in the Belgica Mound Province, NE
Atlantic. Using echo-sounder, in-situ baited lander video
and tethered video systems, we compared two cold-water
coral mounds (Belgica Mound & Therese Mound) with
two non-coral areas (Poseidon Mound, Off-Mound).
Tethered videos showed higher fish abundances in the
two coral areas compared to the non-coral areas. Galway
Mound showed a significantly higher biomass than the
other three regions. However, Poseidon Mound showed a
higher fish biomass than Therese Mound or the OffMound region. Therese Mound showed the lowest fish
species richness, while Poseidon Mound showed the
highest fish species richness. The most abundant fish
species was Lepidion eques. Baited lander videos mainly
recorded 2 scavenging megafaunal species (Lepidion
eques & Chaceon affinis). A first analysis of long-term
baited lander deployments showed a strong variation in
megafaunal abundance over time, although no seasonal
trend was visible.
Differences in phosphate uptake
rates by benthic organisms on
Curaçao
Henry Goehlich1*, Hannah J. Brocke2,3, Maggy Nugues4,5,
Ulf Karsten1, Mark Vermeij5,6, Petra Visser6, and Joost
den Haan6
1
University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3, 18059
Rostock, Germany
2
Coral Reef Ecology group (CORE), Leibniz Center for
Marine Tropical Ecology (ZMT), Fahrenheit Str. 6, 28359
Bremen, Germany
3
Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology.
Celsiusstrasse 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
4
Laboratoire d’Excellence ‘CORAIL’ and USR 3278
CRIOBE CNRS-EPHE, CBETM de l'Université de
Perpignan, 58 Av. Paul Alduy, 66860 Perpignan cedex,
France
5
Carmabi Foundation, Piscaderabaai z/n, Willemstad,
Curaçao
6
University of Amsterdam, IBED, Science Park 904, 1090
GE Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Key words: eutrophication, nutrient uptake, phosphate,
coral reef
Anthropogenic eutrophication from sewage and
land runoff results in increased nutrient loading onto
coral reefs, notably in the form of nitrogen and
phosphorus. This can alter competitive relationships
among benthic organisms in favour of opportunistic algae
and cyanobacteria with fast nutrient uptake rates. Since
PO4 is thought to be the most limiting nutrient for
autotrophic growth on Curaçao, we investigated its PO4
uptake rates (µmol g-1 DW h-1) by five species of
macroalgae, filamentous turfalgae, six types of benthic
cyanobacteria, and one species of hard corals at depths of
5 and 20m. After adding PO4 at [50x ambient seawater],
the uptake of dissolved PO4 was followed through time.
At 5 m depth, the macroalga Cladophora sp. had the
highest uptake rate of all studied organisms (13.11±5.39
SD), followed by filamentous turfalgae (5.84±1.14),
benthic cyanobacteria (6.45±0.87), and the macroalgae
Dictyota menstrualis (5.30±1.91) and Halimeda opuntia
(0.24±0.05). At 20 m depth, benthic cyanobacteria had
the highest uptake rate (11.47±5.35), followed by
filamentous turfalgae (7.32±5.01), and the macroalgae
Dictyota pulchella (3.57±1.49), Lobophora variegata
(1.78±0.76), and Halimeda opuntia (0.13±0.04). At both
depths, the coral Madracis mirabilis had the slowest
uptake rate (0.11±0.02). Differences in uptake rates
between functional groups (benthic cyanobacteria –
macroalgae – turfalgae – corals) were highly significant
(Tukey HSD test, p<0.01), however depth did not affect
uptake rates of species (One Way ANOVA, p=0.42). The
opportunistic macroalga Cladophora sp. and benthic
cyanobacteria are superior competitors for PO4 on the
reef. Irrespective of depth, increased PO4 availability
leads to an increased algal domination on coral reefs
through an increase of small filamentous algal species
and benthic cyanobacteria, rather than macroalgae.
Growth rates and skeletal density
of Desmophyllum dianthus – Effect
of association with endolithic algae
1
1
Christiane Hassenrück* , Carin Jantzen , Günther
Försterra2,3 and Verena Häussermann2,3
1
Alfred Wegener Institute of Polar and Marine Science,
2
Huinay Scientific Field Station, Casilla 462, Puerto
Montt, Chile
3
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Facultad
de Recursos Naturales, Escuela de Ciencias del Mar,
Avda, Brazil 2950, Valparaíso, Chile
Keywords: Cold-water corals, endolithic algae,
calcification, skeletal density
It has been suggested that endolithic algae inside the
skeleton of cold-water corals might have a symbiotic
relationship with the coral host and would positively
affect coral calcification. However, so far this hypothesis
has not yet been further explored. This study investigated
the effect of endolithic algae on the growth performance
and skeletal density of the cold-water coral
Desmophyllum dianthus at Fjord Comau, southern Chile.
The fluorescent staining agent calcein was used to
document coral growth by measuring the upward linear
extension of septa for a period of one and a half years.
Observations on skeletal density were recorded using xray computed tomography. The results of this study show
a severe reduction of growth rates associated with the
presence of endolithic algae. Infested individuals grew
about half as fast as non-infested polyps with median
value of 1.18μm/day compared to 2.76μm/day. Data on
skeletal density revealed a similar – although not
statistically significant – trend displaying mean values of
2.160g/cm³ compared to 2.294g/cm³, respectively. These
results point towards a parasitic relationship between D.
dianthus and its endolithic algae refuting the hypothesis
of a mutually beneficial association. However, although
this study appears to conclusively indicate a negative
effect of the association of D. dianthus with endolithic
algae, controversial evidence has been discovered
regarding the mode of the relationship. Despite the
decrease in growth performance, the coral host seems to
benefit from a low transfer of metabolites from the
endoliths to the coral tissue. Further research will be
necessary to fully resolve the matter.
Nutrient interactions between
sponges and corals
Helber S.B.1*, Schmidt G.M.1, Dittmar T.2,
Khokiattiwong S.3 and Richter C.1
1
Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research
(AWI), Am alten Hafen 26, 27568 Bremerhaven,
Germany
2
Environment (ICBM), Max Planck Research Group for
Marine Geochemistry, Carl-von-Ossietzky-Str. 9-11,
26111 Oldenburg, Germany
3
Phuket Marine Biological Center (PMBC), Sakdidet
Road 51, 83000 Phuket, Thailand
Key words: sponge-coral interaction, nutrient recycling,
nitrogen
Corals are able to conserve and recycle inorganic
nutrients due to their photosynthesizing symbionts, the
zooxanthellae. However it has been demonstrated that
sponges are the main producers of considerable amounts
of ammonium, nitrate and nitrite in coral reefs
contributing to a far greater extent to the recycling of
nitrogenous nutrients than corals. The present study
examined if sponges and corals are competing for
nutrient sources or if sponges support corals in terms of
nutrient supply. The study investigated if sponges have an
influence on the “well-being” of corals by releasing
additional nutrients. For this purpose corals and sponges
were incubated separately and together in either artificial
seawater or artificial seawater enriched with
cyanobacteria and nutrients (ammonium and nitrate).
Changes in dissolved inorganic nutrients, in total nitrogen
(TN) and in dissolved and total organic carbon
(DOC/TOC) were measured and compared between the
different treatments. Before and after each incubation, the
photophysiological response of the coral symbionts was
measured with pulse amplitude modulated (PAM)
fluorometry. An accumulation of nitrate was detected
when sponges alone were incubated in water enriched
with cyanobacteria and nutrients. This accumulation was
not found in incubations of corals alone or corals and
sponges together. Besides, the maximum quantum yield
(MQY) of the coral symbionts was significantly higher in
the presence of a sponge. These results indicate that
corals may directly benefit from the additional nutrients
released by the sponges.
63
Primary production of dominant
autotrophic organisms in a
Caribbean reef
PHILIPP KUTTER1*, CARLA SARDERMANN2*,
HANNAH BROCKE3,4,
MAGGY NUGUES5,6, MARK VERMEIJ6,7, PETRA
VISSER7
and JOOST DEN HAAN7
1
Institute of Biological Sciences - Marine Biology,
University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3, 18059
Rostock, Germany
2
University of Oldenburg, Ammerländer Heerstraße 114118, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
3
Coral Reef Ecology Group (CORE), Leibniz Center for
Tropical Marine Ecology, Fahrenheitstrasse 6, 28359
Bremen, Germany
4
Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology.
Celsiusstrasse 1, 28359 Bremen, Germany
5
Laboratoire d’Excellence ‘‘CORAIL’’ and USR 3278
CRIOBE CNRS-EPHE, CBETM de l'Université de
Perpignan, 66860 Perpignan Cedex, France.
6
Carmabi Foundation, Piscaderabaai z/n, Willemstad,
Curaçao
7
University of Amsterdam, IBED, Science Park 904, 1090
GE Amsterdam, the Netherlands
*corresponding authors: [email protected]
& [email protected]
Key words: primary production · 13C isotope · coral reef
· light · nutrient
Eutrophication on coral reefs is thought to
affect the competitive balance among benthic organisms
and generally cause opportunistic algae and
cyanobacteria to outcompete long-lived corals for space.
The predominance of a given organism is assumed to be
closely related to its ability to quickly capitalize on scarce
resources once they become available and use them to
increase in abundance. Here, we investigated the effects
of nutrient enrichment and light intensity on the primary
production of 14 common autotrophic organisms on the
coral reefs of Curaçao (Southern Caribbean).
Photosynthetic rates (mg C g-1 DW h-1), measured as the
uptake of stable carbon isotopes (13C), were used as a
proxy for primary production rates (PPR). PPRs of all
benthic taxa were measured across a depth (i.e., light)
gradient (5, 10, 20 and 30 m depth) and under three
nutrient conditions (i.e., ambient seawater, runoff water
after rainfall and artificially enriched seawater [100x
ambient]). Benthic cyanobacteria (Lyngbya majuscula)
had the highest photosynthetic rates of all studied
organisms (4.56 ± 1.93), followed by the macroalga
Dictyota spp. (2.05 ± 0.37) and filamentous turf algae
(1.28 ± 0.59). PPRs of non-calcifying algae and
cyanobacteria were always higher per unit biomass than
that of symbiontic animal taxa (the coral Madracis
mirabilis (0.74 ± 0.52) and the sponge Scopalina
ruetzleri (0.02 ± 0.03)) and the calcifying red alga
Hydrolithon boergenesii (0.17 ± 0.05). In contrast to
species-specific differences, nutrient conditions and light
availability at certain depths did not significantly
influence the observed photosynthetic rates. These results
suggest that benthic cyanobacteria are superior when
competing with neighboring autotrophs for available
nutrients, which in turn could explain their recent
increase on Caribbean reefs.
64
Bioengineers in the Fjords of
Chilean Patagonia
Emma Plotnek1*, Verena Häussermann2, Carin Janzen3,
Ulrich Pörschmann1, Daniel Genter1, David Bellhoff1,
Gunter Försterra2
1
Huinay Foundation, Casilla 462, Puerto Montt, Chile
2
Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Avda. Brazil 2950,
Valparaíso, Chile
3
*Emma Plotnek: [email protected]
Key words: Magellania venosa,
dianthus, Eurobathy, Chile, Fjord
Desmophyllum
Chilean Patagonia is made up of a complex
network of fjords and channels that conceal a wealth of
marine life, but due to a harsh climate and inhospitable
terrain it is one of the least studied coastal areas in the
world.
Situated in the Northern Patagonia Zone are the
neighbouring Comau and Reñihue fjords. Explorations of
these fjords by scientists from the Huinay Scientific
Fields Station uncovered remarkable unknown
communities of large banks of brachiopods and
scleractinian corals. These banks form large 3D structures
and work as habitat bioengineers for a diversity of marine
life.
Mass occurrences of brachiopods is a rare
phenomenon in current benthic communities, but banks
of the terebratulid brachiopod Magellania venosa were
found to accumulate in densities exceeding 200
individuals/m2. The scleractinian coral Desmophyllum
dianthus is generally abundant with a cosmopolitan
distribution. But in these fjords it forms exceptional
dense aggregations on steep walls, reaching densities
exceeding 1500 individuals/m2. Due to the phenomenon
of deep water emergence (eurybathy), that occurs in fjord
environments worldwide, these communities present
themselves at depths that allow in situ studies by scuba
divers.
Rapid and poorly regulated economic
development is changing the face of Chilean Patagonia.
The fjords are densely packed with environmentally
devastating salmon farms, causing dead zones directly
below the installations, and threatening eutrophication,
oxygen depletion, and habitat destruction. We will
present a proposal on how scientifically guided coastal
management could help to avoid major loss of ecosystem
functioning.
Succession of benthic hard-bottom
communities in the shallow
sublittoral of Comau fjord, Chile
Lisa Reichel1*, Martin Wahl2, Verena Häussermann3,
Günther Försterra3, Daniela Henkel4, Jürgen Laudien1
1
Research, Am Alten Hafen 26, 27568 Bremerhaven,
Germany
2
GEOMAR, Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel
Düsternbrooker Weg 20, 24105 Kiel, Germany
3
Huinay Scientific Field Station. Casilla 462,
Puerto Montt, Chile
4
Integrated School of Ocean Sciences (ISOS), ChristianAlbrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Leibnizstr. 3, 24118 Kiel,
Germany
Keywords:
succession, hard-bottom community,
community structure, Chilean fjord, recruitment plates
Marine life of the southern Chilean fjord region
has been rarely investigated until now. So far, existing
studies have mainly focused on single species. However,
a taxonomic study of Chilean Patagonia is still in
progress in order to get a more extensive insight into the
species inventory. Generally there is a lack of knowledge
about community structure and succession in this area.
In 2009, ten blank recruitment plates were
installed at two studies sites (inner fjord and mouth of the
fjord Comau) at a depth of approximately 18 m. The
evolving sessile community was subsequently
documented by using photo identification and groundtruthing via SCUBA diving. Research questions that will
be addressed are the species composition and their
transition over time, the type of succession process and
the time it takes until the investigated community reflects
the surrounding natural community. In addition, it will be
examined how the abiotic parameters of the two study
sites influence the structure of the hard-bottom
community.
Distribution and expansion of
corallimorpharians within coral
reefs in Zanzibar
Stolberg K.1*, Reuter H.1, Muhando C.2
Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT),
Fahrenheitstr. 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
2
Institute of Marine Sciences (IMS), Mizingani Rd.,
P.O.Box 668 Zanzibar, Tanzania
1
Key words: corallimorpharia, Rhodactis rhodostoma,
coral reefs, nutrients, Zanzibar
Corallimorpharians are known to be strong
competitors for space within the coral reef environment
with the ability to extensively spread under stressed and
nutrient enriched conditions. The marine environment
within the Zanzibar Channel is suffering from both,
natural as well as human pressures. Especially the
wastewater pollution from Zanzibar Town is a main
threat which influences adjacent coral reefs. A diminution
of reefs close to Zanzibar Town is noticeable and in
addition to this, an increase of corallimorpharians has
been observed in the last years. In this study the
percentage cover of corallimorpharians within coral reefs
in a distance gradient to Zanzibar Town was evaluated
via Line Intercept Transects. Furthermore, the expansion
rate of the common corallimorpharian species Rhodactis
rhodostoma was investigated applying a Permanent
Quadrat Method. Besides, a nutrient analysis was
conducted determining phosphate, nitrate and ammonium
levels in order to evaluate the nutrient pollution
expansion into the Zanzibar Channel. Current analyses
revealed that corallimorpharians are the second most
abundant living sessile organisms after corals and that
their percentage cover is significantly lower in healthy,
non-stressed coral reefs. This study reveals that in the
reef closest to Zanzibar Town the expansion rate of
Rhodactis spp. was highest, supporting the hypothesis
that their expansion rate is positively related to stressed
reefs. From all nutrients investigated, nitrate levels were
found to positively correlate with the percentage
coverage of corallimorpharians while none of the
nutrients investigated seems to be statistically correlated
with the extension rate of Rhodactis rhodostoma.
In-situ simulation of overfishing
and eutrophication: Effects on
algae growth and activity
INES D. STUHLDREIER1* AND CHRISTIAN WILD1
1
University of Bremen and Coral Reef Ecology Group
(CORE), Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology
(ZMT), Fahrenheitstr. 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
*
corresponding author: [email protected]
Key words: Algae, Phase-shift, Herbivory, Overfishing,
Eutrophication
Phase shifts from corals to macroalgae are
reported globally, but mechanisms and the relative role of
driving factors are still controversially discussed. This
study therefore aims to assess the relative importance and
synergistic effects of top-down and bottom-up controls
on benthic algae growth and activity through in situ
simulation of overfishing and eutrophication in a coral
reef of Koh Phangan, Thailand, over a period of 12
weeks. Anthropogenic impacts overfishing and
eutrophication were simulated using nets excluding
herbivores >2 cm and/or bags with slow-release fertilizer.
Cover, biomass and oxygen fluxes of the algal
community growing on terracotta settlement-tiles were
investigated every week. Findings revealed that tile cover
was dominated by turf algae in all treatments. Single
individuals of macroalgae, most frequently of the genus
Padina sp., were identified on caged tiles from week 7,
while crustose coralline algae were not observed. Algae
dry weight increased in all experimental plots, but algae
biomasses were highly variable and no significant
differences between treatments occurred. Only oxygen
consumption was significantly higher on caged tiles
compared to uncaged tiles (Mann-Whitney-Test,
p=0.0001). The observed lack of pronounced differences
between controls and treatments indicate that the
65
investigated reef was likely already heavily affected by
overfishing and sewage pollution. This conclusion is
supported by the low herbivore abundance and biomass
in the reef. Also, analyses confirm that inorganic nutrients
were discharged into the bay via a river that exhibited
phosphate water concentrations ten times higher than
those in the reef. Although macroalgae cover in the reef
was low, the relatively low coral cover of 20 ± 4 %,
together with the observed lack of reef algal response to
simulated impacts, demands effective management of
resources in the region in order to prevent phase shifts or
further reef degradation.
Bioerosion rates of excavating
sponges on Caribbean coral reefs
ESTHER VAN DER ENT1,2*, BENJAMIN
MUELLER2,3, YANNICK MULDERS1,2, FRANCESCA
SANGIORGI1, FLEUR C. VAN DUYL2,3
1
Utrecht University, Faculty of Biomarine Sciences,
Budapestlaan 4, 3584 CD Utrecht, The Netherlands
2
1790 AB Den Berg, P.O. Box 59, Texel, The Netherlands
3
Curaçao
Key words: Excavating sponges, dissolved organic
carbon, coral reef, Caribbean reefs
The balance between reef-building and reeferoding processes defines the future state of a coral reef.
In the Caribbean, coral-excavating sponges are the main
bioeroders. Recent studies suggest an increase in the
abundance of excavating sponges in the Caribbean. One
explanation is their possible ability to take up dissolved
organic carbon (DOC) as part of their diet, as proven for
several cavity and open reef sponges. Macroalgae exude
more DOC then hermatypic corals per surface area reef.
Therefore, a phase-shift from coral- to algal-dominated
reefs, may supply those sponges with additional food. An
increase in the abundance of coral-excavating sponges
would most likely lead to higher bioerosion rates, which
in turn would result in further degradation of Caribbean
reefs. Incubation experiments have been conducted to
quantify chemical and mechanical bioerosion rates of the
two Caribbean coral-excavating sponges Cliona aprica
and Cliona laticavicola, using the alkalinity-anomaly
technique and counting of chips under a microscope. In a
long-term in situ experiment, sponges in limestone cores
were placed in the vicinity of algae and corals and
bioerosion rates were determined using weight loss of
limestone cores with and without (controls) sponges over
time. Preliminary results imply that there is no significant
difference in bioerosion rates between algal and coral
treatments for neither of the two tested coral-excavating
sponges. In situ weight loss of cores with sponges was
higher than that of cores without sponge. Also, the
bioerosion rates of the two species didn’t significantly
differ. Our results combined with the average abundance
of excavating sponges on Curaçao (pers. obs. Mueller)
leads to a mean bioerosion rate (±SD) of 13.24±0.75 g m2
reef area y-1. Our preliminary results do not support the
hypothesis that the vicinity of algae stimulates bioerosion
rates of excavating sponges.
The aquatic climate archive: tracking the rise and fall of ancient
civilizations. Lessons from the past, for the present and the future?
Sven Forke* and André Wizemann
Geology and Biogeochemistry, Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, 28359 Bremen, Germany
Until the end of the last Ice Age, around 11,500 B.C., nearly all peoples in all continents were huntergatherers, organized in small nomadic families or grouped family bands (Flannery, 1972; Diamond,
2005). A major climate shift to more advantageous conditions for agriculture took place at c. 10,000
B.C. and launched an “agricultural revolution” in the region of Southwest Asia, known as the Fertile
Crescent. At widely different times, there is only a little number of other societies all over the world
which invented farming techniques by their own like in China, the Sahel (still uncertain),
Mesoamerica and the eastern U.S. Other peoples followed by adapting techniques from neighbors or
through transfer of knowledge by immigrants and/or conquerors.
The early importance of the Fertile Crescent is one of the central facts in human history (Diamond,
2005). The earliest archeological evidence for plant and animal domestication (8,500 B.C. and 8,000
B.C. respectively) was found at sites in a zone stretching from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates.
That is not surprising because the Fertile Crescent benefited from the so-called Mediterranean climate
with mild, wet winters and long, hot and dry summers and its very diverse morphology. These
distinctive differences in season and heights gave rise to several annual plants which were able to
survive long-lasting droughts by putting much energy into producing big long-lasting seeds with high
protein contents. These edible plants were ideal for early cultivation experiments as well as for storage
66
due to their durability. Beneath big-seeded plants, the Fertile Crescent benefited from four of the five
most important species of animals perfect for domestication, namely sheep, goat, pig and cow.
To assure their subsistence, it is necessary for farmers to form communities and to become sedentary
next to their crop growing. Furthermore, many started to store crops in times of high yields to abate
devastating famines. The combination of settledness and nearly constant food submission led to
increased birth rates, decreased death from starvation and therefore to accelerated population. The
resulting higher population density in concert with production of food surpluses promoted
technological and cultural advancements by allowing the support of nonfarming specialists like
craftsmen, artists, priests and chiefs. Very soon, Fertile Crescent food production was followed by
further innovations originating in or near the Fertile Crescent including the wheel, writing,
metalworking techniques, milking, fruit trees, beer and wine. The same run could be observed in other
food producing societies around the world. But it was alongside Mesopotamia (east of the Fertile
Crescent) where first complex societies emerged during the succeeding Bronze Age (around 5,500
B.C.) with early evidence for writing and the formation of empires. Therefore, the climate
amelioration nearly 11,000 years ago and the resulting environmental change can be seen as a
promoter for the evolution from non-literate hunter-gatherer bands to first complex, stratified statelevel societies.
Soon after food production arose in
Southwest Asia the first so-called Neolithic
founder crops (wild progenitors of emmer
wheat, einkorn, barley, flax, chick pea, pea,
lentil, bitter vetch), knowledge of farming
techniques as well as domesticated animals
spread to adjacent western and eastern
regions reaching Greece, Cyprus, and the
Indian subcontinent around 6,500 B.C.,
Egypt soon after 6,000 B.C., central Europe
by 5,400 B.C., southern Spain by 5,200
B.C., and Britain around 3,800 B.C. (Fig. 1;
Diamond, 2005). The adoption of Fertile
Crescent domesticates enabled many other Figure 1 The spread of Fertile Crescent crops across western Eurasia.
agricultural based kingdoms and empires Symbols show early radiocarbon-dated sites where remains of Fertile
Crescent founder crops have been found. The Fertile Crescent itself is
to establish following the Mesopotamian marked by open boxes. Map is based on Zohary and Hopf (1993),
example (e.g. Egypt, the Indus Valley uncalibrated radiocarbon dates are substituted by calibrated dates (taken
Culture, Greece, and Rome). Their times of from Diamond, 2005; modified by Geographic Arizona Alliance).
florescence differ partly immensely and there are different hints that climate and environmental
changes affected worldwide dramatic social and cultural alterations and even collapses of civilizations.
The archeological and historical record is full of evidence for prehistoric to premodern societal
alterations and collapses. Collapses occurred quite suddenly and frequently involved regional
abandonment, replacement of one subsistence base by another (e.g. agriculture by pastoralism), or
conversion to a lower energy sociopolitical organization (e.g. interregional empire to local state)
(Weiss and Bradley, 2001). Recent intensive discussions of these episodes by the archeological
community commonly led to the conclusion that combinations of social, political, and economic
factors were the root causes. But what is about the influence of abrupt climatic and environmental
changes on human societies? Many geological records advertise abrupt dramatic changes in Holocene
climate which persisted for decades to centuries. Couldn’t these unfamiliar, highly disruptive stresses
have accounted to social collapses? Or couldn’t they have been the prime reason?
In 1903, the geologist-archeologist Pumpelly led an archeological expedition to the arid lands of
Turkmenistan in Central Asia. The remains of a prosperous Neolithic farming society of the oasis site
of Anau led Pumpelly to develop fundamentals for the idea of humans, plants and animals converging
in rich localities as resources began to diminish in an increasingly degrading environment (Pumpelly,
1908). In 1915, the geographer Huntington published a highly influential book called “Civilization and
Climate” (Huntington, 1915, rev. ed. 1924). It defined the extreme philosophy that since has been
labeled “climatic determinism”, implicating a climatic and natural environmental cause for many
characteristics of human societies and culture change. Pumpelly and Huntington had a notable
67
influence in their time inspiring great anthropological thinkers like Childe, who developed the climatic
deterministic oasis theory for his models of agricultural origins (Childe, 1953).
The climatic deterministic view lost his popularity in the 1960s, when cultural ecology and system
theory were introduced to archeology and many archeologists realized that monocausal explanations
for major social changes were far too simplistic. They saw an acknowledged need for in-depth
research into the interactions of many segments of a given social system with an equally complex and
changing environment (Flannery, 1972; Butzer, 1982; Rosen and Rosen, 2001; Rosen, 2007).
Nowadays, many archeologists suppose that especially human perceptions of nature, environment and
climate are the key to how societies adjust to the impact of environmental change (Rosen, 1995;
McIntosh et al., 2000; Crumley, 2001). Rosen (2007) complemented that, beneath the perception of
environmental change and its cause, social organization, technology, and political and economic
factors are important keys for success or failure of community’s ability to endure severe environmental
change. Furthermore, scientists with intellectual orientations like historical and political ecologies
mention conflicts in goals and agendas set out by ruling classes versus those of other society segments
as another major key to understand societal responses to environmental stresses (McIntosh et al.,
2000). The latter meaning has resonance with our own current struggles to come to grips with the
concept of global warming and the prospects of secular climatic change and its impact on the modern
world (Rosen, 2007).
To understand climate change and its likely impact on human culture, it is essential to obtain accurate,
reliable climate proxy data with high temporal resolution. For the reconstruction of paleoclimate,
modern geoscientists use a wide range of (micro-)paleontological, (bio-)geochemical, mineralogical
and sedimentological proxies extracted for example from ice cores, cave speleothems, paleosols,
corals and different kinds of sediments and soils. Marine and limnic (e.g. lakes and peat bogs) loose
sediments represent a major source of information by providing well-preserved climate archives with
high temporal resolution through Earth´s history. Element ratios, stable isotopes and trace element
analysis combined with atmospheric and cosmic parameters gained from ice cores give good insights
on how the global and regional climate patterns evolved and altered with time. High-resolution
paleoclimatic data that accumulated during the last decades provide an independent measure of the
timing, amplitude, and duration of past climate events and increasingly demonstrate that during the
past 11,000 years climate was dominantly instable, and not that uneventful as it was long believed.
Weiss and Bradley (2001), representing the more climatic deterministic position, argue that if
compared to historical and archeological data, paleoclimatic data points to climate forcing as the
primary agent in repeated inevitable social collapse (example is given in fig. 2). Multidecadal- to
Figure 2 Mesoamerican paleoclimate and the Classic Maya collapse near 750 to 909 A.D. (Lowe, 1985; Coe, 1987). Sediment cores
from Lakes Chichancanab (Hodell et al., 1995) and Punta Laguna (Mexico)(Curtis et al., 1996) document abrupt onset of more arid
conditions between 800 and 1000 A.D. as evidenced by more evaporative (higher) 18O values and increases in gypsum precipitation
(elevated sulfur content) (see red box through all panels). A century-long dry period coincides with Maya Hiatus near 580 A.D., a
period (530 to 650 A.D.) of marked reduced monument construction (Lowe, 1985; Coe, 1987; Gill, 2001). Wind-borne particle
concentrations from annually dated Quelccaya ice core in the Peruvian altiplano are also shown (Thompson et al., 1994). Taken from
deMenocal (2001).
68
multicentury-length coolings and droughts started abruptly and were highly disruptive to agricultural
foundations. The authors consider that social and technological innovations were not available to
counteract the rapidity, amplitude, and duration of changing climatic conditions. That would mean that
ancient human civilizations had always relied on the stability of the regional climate, the occurrence of
certain climatic patterns, and alternating weather phenomena.
An example for the opposition is given by Rosen (2007) who argues that the climatic impact on
societies can be highly variable depending on available technological development, social
organization, and the perception of this change and its causes by ruling classes. She notes that many
collapses might have been avoided if a chosen society had decided to choose another way to cope with
severe dry and/or cool periods. As an example, she quotes McGovern’s work of 1994 on medieval
Norse which colonized Greenland during the so called “Medieval Climatic Optimum” (tenth
century A.D.) and which declined in the following “Little Ice Age” (beginning in the late thirteenth
century A.D.). During this colder period, the pastoral productivity continual decreased and the
economic conditions became worse on Greenland. Instead of exploiting new technologies or adapting
survival techniques of the neighboring Inuit communities, the Norse ruling elite tightened their control
on the population by stressing cultural conservatism. They wasted resources by constructing cathedrals
and other religious manifestations and there were far more witch trials than there had ever been before.
By the end of the fifteenth century A.D. the Norse population had completely vanished from
Greenland. Both considerations raise the question of the accuracy of our politician’s judgements,
choices and decisions to cope with recent climate change. Is it generally possible to deal with such
severe climate change or are societies just “[…] monolithic bodies that roll and flow with
environmental tides, sometimes succumbing when forces of nature exceed a society’s ability to
maximize its resources and to adapt” (Issar and Zohar, 2004)?
Past climatic changes were more natural in origin and to a lesser extent affected by human activities as
today. Never in Earth´s history not even one single species had the ability to alter knowingly the
biogeochemical cycles and therefore to modify the global climate like human civilization does
nowadays. Human activities of today are influencing the composition of the atmosphere, the ocean and
the land in an unprecedented way. Today the major impact of human civilization on the global climate
is caused by the release of greenhouse gases, namely carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). The
amount of CO2 gas in Earth´s atmosphere rose constantly faster over the last 100 years, from ~280
ppm in pre-industrial times to even ~400 ppm today (IPCC, 2007; Fig.3).
A high atmospheric greenhouse gas
concentration results in a warming of the land
and the ocean. Global warming holds also a
rise in sea level by the melting of Earth´s big
ice shields, “carbonation” of oceans (better
known as “ocean acidification”; Caldeira and
Wickett, 2003) and changes in atmospheric
circulation leading to a redistribution of
rainfall that is difficult to predict (Weiss and
Bradley, 2001). The warming and melting of
the polar and sub-polar wetlands give a
positive feedback effect on the climate
systems warming by further release of large
CH4 amounts from thawing “perma-frost
soils”. CH4 is an even stronger greenhouse gas
than CO2 and thus increases the process of
Figure 3 Monthly average atmospheric CO2 concentration (in ppm)
global warming distinctively (Zimov et al., measured at Mauna Loa Observatory (Hawaii)
from the year 1960 to
2006). The modern human civilization also 2012 (Scripps CO2 Program 2012; http://co2now.org/Currentalters the regional climate systems by huge CO2/CO2-Now/scripps-co2-data-mauna-loa -observatory.html).
terraforming activities (Allenby, 2002). As
more and more native land is transformed into living grounds and farmland, with the world´s
population exceeding 7 billion people today and about 9 billion by 2050 (UNFPA, 2011), the resulting
consequences of these anthropogenic processes for the global climate system become now clearly
visible all over the world. Some examples are:
69
-
-
-
Rapidly increasing land deforestation, farming and sealing of land by construction changes the
water cycle and water runoffs, nutrient and sediment flows. Especially in the tropics and subtropics this is causing changes in the Monsoon seasons leading to floodings or droughts (e.g.
Fu, 2003; Sen et al., 2004).
Human activities also permanently modify the microclimate of regions making them
inhospitable and infertile (desertification) or more threatened by natural hazards (Schlesinger
et al., 1990; Xuejie et al., 2003).
The occurrence and strength of storms significantly increased worldwide. Hurricanes and
tornados are extreme weather events, which largely profit from land warming and rising sea
surface temperature (e.g. Mann and Emanuel, 2006; Karl et al., 2008).
The melting of inland ice, like glaciers and the polar sea ice is well documented and already
causes a rise in sea level in certain regions (reviewed by Shepherd and Wingham, 2007).
The thermohaline ocean circulation, which is driven by the polar sea ice, weakens what can be
measured in the decrease of water-mass movement of the Gulf Stream causing stronger
winters in Western Europe (Stocker and Schmittner, 1997; Gregory et al., 2005).
The erosion rate of mountains increased by the melting of pore ice in the summit region,
causing heavy sediment runoffs and destructive landslides (reviewed by Beniston, 2003;
Haeberli et al., 2009).
Ocean warming alters wind direction and ocean currents leading to a change in the occurrence
of coastal upwelling and increases water stratification, which can cause oxygen-free “dead
zones” in the ocean. As upwelling regions normally are hotspots for biomass in the ocean, any
change directly impacts regional food security (e.g. Timmermann et al., 1999; Keeling et al.,
2010).
Overall, human activities have greatly altered the look of our planet and therefore a name for this
incomparable “new age” in Earth´s history is now discussed. The proposed name, “the Anthropocene”
(“the Age of Man”), was coined by ecologist Eugene F. Stoermer and popularized by the Nobel Prizewinning atmospheric chemist Paul Crutzen. It covers the period when human civilization began to
influence world´s biogeochemical cycles and as a mostly “unintended” result the global climate
system. The start date of the Anthropocene is still not precise, but may be considered to start with the
Industrial Revolution and thus the release of the greenhouse gas CO2 to the atmosphere in the last
quarter of the eighteenth century (Crutzen and Will, 2003; Zalasiewicz et al., 2008; Zalasiewicz et al.,
2010; Dupont, 2012). Some authors link the start date to earlier events, such as the rise of agriculture
or the beginning of human landscape modifications about 5,000 to 8,000 years B.P. (e.g. Ruddiman,
2003). There is no doubt that, if these anthropogenic activities continue to increase with the same rate
as they do today, the climate system of the world will be witnessed greater changes than it has ever
been witnessed since humans populated planet Earth.
The raise in greenhouses gases is the fastest Earth has ever witnessed causing unpredictable changes in
atmospheric and biogeochemical cycles, and biodiversity in ecosystems of land and sea. In spite of
technological changes, most of the world’s population will continue to be subsistence or small-scale
agriculturists similarly vulnerable to climatic fluctuations as the late prehistoric to early historic
societies (Weiss and Bradley, 2001). In this increasingly crowded world, habitat-tracking as adaptive
response will not be an option making nowadays climate change possibly the biggest mankind ever
faced. There is no direct comparable event in Earth´s long history, but however there are some major
extinction events, most of them caused by changes in the global climate system (e.g. Thomas et al.,
2004). Today we would have the possibility and the knowledge to keep the world´s climate system in a
preferable state, at least for us. But is our modern civilization really able to handle this upcoming
events and did or will we really learn the lessons from the past in time?
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First steps towards structure
determination of marine dissolved
organic matter (DOM)
1,2*
1
MAREN STUMM , THORSTEN DITTMAR
AND JENS CHRISTOFFERS2
1
Max Planck Research Group for Marine Geochemistry,
Carl von Ossietzky University, ICBM,
Carl von Ossietzky-Straße 9-11, 26111 Oldenburg,
Germany
2
Institute for Pure and Applied Chemistry, Carl von
Ossietzky University,
Carl von Ossietzky-Straße 9-11, 26111 Oldenburg,
Germany
Key words: Dissolved organic matter, Tandem
Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass
spectrometry
Dissolved organic matter (DOM) occurs
ubiquitously distributed in aquatic environments
and represents one of the largest carbon pools on
Earth’s surface. Its composition is very complex
and the concentration of each component low.
Surprisingly, most of the DOM is refractory and
almost not utilized by organisms. It is an analytical
challenge to reveal its overall chemical structure
which remains largely unknown up to the present.
In this study, tandem electrospray ionization
Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass
spectrometry (ESI FT-ICR MSn) was used to
characterize DOM on a structural molecular level.
Samples from two different marine environments,
deep sea water from the Pacific and sea surface
water from the North Sea, were compared to a
terrestrial water sample from a eutrophic freshwater
lake. The molecular formulae of many thousand
compounds were identified in all samples. The MS
fragmentation patterns showed a large number of
neutral losses. Carbon dioxide losses from carboxyl
groups and water losses from alcohols were
observed in all samples. Relative fragment ion
intensities were calculated and plotted against the
number of oxygen and the double bond equivalents.
The results indicate a large number of structural
isomers per detected molecular formula. Mass
peaks from all three samples formed an
72
intersection, which indicates the presence of an
identical major fraction in DOM from very
different environments. Overall, the results provide
evidence for an extreme molecular complexity of
refractory DOM and a surprising similarity of
DOM from different aquatic systems on a structural
molecular level.
Sub-seasonally resolved coral
records of Caribbean sea surface
conditions during the collapse of
the Maya civilization (~AD 8001050)
Henry C. Wu1*, Thomas Felis1, Denis Scholz2, Martin
Kölling1, Cyril Giry1, and Sander Scheffers3
1
MARUM-Center for Marine Environmental Sciences,
University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
2
Institute for Geosciences, Johannes Gutenberg
University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
3
Marine Ecology Research Centre, Southern Cross
University, Lismore, Australia
Key words: corals, Sr/Ca, δ18O, sea surface
temperature, Terminal Classic Period
We present a unique collection of annually
banded fossil Montastraea coral colonies that grew
between ∼AD 870 -950 from Bonaire in the
southern Caribbean Sea. This time interval was also
known for the demise of the classic Maya
civilization in the lowlands of the Yucatán
Peninsula termed the Terminal Classic Period
(TCP; ~AD 750-1050). Recent paleoclimatic
evidence suggests the downfall was primarily
influenced by climate change such as prolonged dry
cycles and decrease in precipitation. The Bonaire
corals provide the first sub-seasonally resolved
proxy records of surface ocean conditions in the
Caribbean region during the TCP.
One modern and six fossil Montastraea
colonies with age verification by precision 230Th/U
dating were analyzed for Sr/Ca and δ18O at
bimonthly resolution as proxies of sea surface
temperature (SST), sea surface salinity (SSS), and
hydrological changes. The modern colony recorded
coupled and in-phase variability between the two
proxies indicating a similar source of influence
predominantly driven by SST over seasonal to
interannual timescales providing the baseline
conditions for comparison to the TCP fossil corals
in the southern Caribbean Sea. However, the TCP
fossil coral records display distinct interannual
variability and longer-term decadal variability in
both Sr/Ca and δ18O that are decoupled from each
other indicating deviations in SSS and differences
in primary drivers of proxy variability. Additionally,
interannual variability of the annual δ18O
amplitudes were consistently higher in the fossil
records than the modern coral while interannual
variability of annual Sr/Ca amplitudes remained
relatively uniform indicating changes in the
intensity of the seasonal SSS cycle. We were able to
deconvolve and reconstruct relative δ18O of
seawater (proxy of SSS) from the δ18O and Sr/Ca
records that demonstrate significant positive
anomalies of multiple 2-5 year periods representing
high SSS events or drought conditions in the
surface waters of Bonaire during the TCP.
Marine Energy – Sustainable utilization of natural sources and forces
Franz Jendersie1, Johannes Oppitz1*, Liesa-Marlena von Essen2, and Marc Einsporn3
1
Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 2, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
Technologie-Transfer-Zentrum Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, D-27568 Bremerhaven, Germany
3
Leibniz-Center for Tropical Marine Ecology GmbH, Fahrenheitstraße 6, D-28359 Bremen, Germany
2
Thinking about life, water is ubiquitous! Far beyond all ecological and medical purposes,
water stands for power. All water bodies on earth offer plenty of possibilities to produce electricity
from extracting chemically bound, kinetic and potential energy. The power of water has been used for
a long time. Crop mills have been utilizing rivers or wind as sources of power for hundreds of years.
However, the harnessing of the ocean is relatively new. Generally speaking, the different types of
energy stored in the water are continuously resupplied by solar radiation and gravitation; but the
exploitation as well as the degree of efficiency is not very well. There are hundreds of patents and
versatile prototypes of systems, but only the minority of innovations made it to the market. During the
oil crisis in the early 1970s, the ocean drew attention as an energy source for large-scale use.
Nowadays, the climate change and declining resources of fossil fuel led to the urge of finding further
options to make use of renewable energy. More and more countries recognize the need for alternatives
to nuclear power, coal-fired power stations and gasoline-driven cars but still don not fully trust the
potential of the marine environment to meet future energy demands (Shields et al. 2010).
Above the water surface, the sea offers a space for free movement of air masses. The Coreolis
effect, different capacities of land and water masses to store heat and many other phenomenons lead to
constant winds in coastal areas. Although wind provides a significantly lower energy density than
water, offshore wind energy is, by far, the biggest player in the currently restructured energy market.
With respect to the installed capacities as well as the land-based experiences since the 1970s, wind
industry is more developed and has an advance of approximately 15 years compared to the marine
renewable energy industry. The challenge of the century is to harvest the oceans’ energy. Recently,
scientific curiosity and advances in the industrial sector of this field are fast-growing, showing high
commitment for the development and implementation of new technologies to generate energy from
various marine sources. Significant research in the UK in the field of technology has been done in the
last five years only. However, the strong governmental willingness to bring the development of marine
technologies forward has led to a booming branch as it was forecasted by Mueller and Wallace (2008).
While renewables are challenging the marine engineering community today, also deep sea mining will
attain an increasingly important role in the near future. Natural gas hydrates, e. g. methane clathrate,
show a high potential to access a densely packed energy source. The exploitation of this ‘fire ice’
brought hype for science but is just on the way to be considered as an alternative for commercial use.
The following paragraphs give a brief overview of current methods to gain marine energy being partly
implemented in large-scale already, others still need a lot of research and development to be further
improved.
Wind
Wind energy has been utilized for thousands of years. After a long period of mechanical exploitation
for sailing or in land-based windmills, the production of electrical energy started 120 years ago. In
recent decades, the advances in technology allowed wind energy converters to move from the main
land to offshore areas. As the general wind speed is higher and more uniform at sea, its kinetic energy
can be converted to electrical energy. The design looks quite simple, as the same aerodynamic
73
principles which apply to an airscrew of a plane are applicable. Air passes the airfoil and induces a
force perpendicular to the turbine axis.
In Denmark, the very first offshore wind park was established in 1991. It took another ten years until
offshore wind power began to play a substantial role for the future energy supply due to rising prices
of oil and gas (Arapogianni et al. 2011). Since the early 1990s, the wind turbine technology advanced
tremendously in order to build larger systems that are suitable for deeper water and more resistant
against ocean spray. By the end of 2011, there were 1,371 turbines connected to the electrical network
in Europe. Ten European countries command 53 parks with the installed power of 3,813 MW (3,813 x
106 Watt). Most of these installations were established in Great Britain (87 %) and in Germany (13 %,
EWEA 2011). It was predicted that 5 % of the world energy supply will be captured by wind in 2020
(Joseline Herbert 2007). For the future, the distance between wind parks and their nearest shore will
grow. Increasing water depth will require larger and deeper reaching platforms or even floating
turbines. Parks far off the coast will be realized, though imposing the additional problem of electricity
transport over large distances.
Waves
Around 3 TW (3 x 1012 Watt) are estimated to be the energy resource of wave power, worldwide
(Moerk et al. 2010). To extract wave power from the ocean and seas, several different technologies
exist. The most important difference is the installation site of a converter, either onshore or offshore.
An example for a shoreline converter is the LIMPET (Land Installed Marine Powered Energy
Transformer) at Islay, Scotland. At LIMPET the oscillating water column continuously presses air over
a turbine, which generates electrical power. A commercial offshore system converter is Aguçadoura I,
located 5 km off the coast of Porto. The motion of joints between segments floating on the sea surface
drives hydraulic power systems (Drew et al. 2009). Further prototypes have been developed currently,
but til date Aguçadoura I, LIMPET and a similar version installed at the harbour mole of Mutriku in
the Basque Country are the only wave power plants connected to the electrical network. The main
challenges of wave power extraction are the varying temporal and spatial characteristics of waves. It is
difficult to harvest the different frequencies, heights and speeds using one converter while staying
efficient at the same time. Strong seasonality and fast-changing weather conditions are responsible for
this challenging initial situation. The device has to work with small waves in summer as well as
massive, storm generated swells during winter. For the shoreline concepts, it is ecological questionable
to destroy coastal habitats. In order to avoid locking of entire coast sections with power plants, the
development of offshore solutions is essential.
Tidal energy and ocean current power
Tidal forces induce oscillating currents into estuaries, sounds and bays. There are two different ways to
extract their kinetic energy. One way is to build a barrage between a bay and the sea. At high tide, the
barrage gates close and subsequently cause a potential between the enclosed water level and the
occurring low tide outside and vice versa. In that case, the potential energy can be converted to
electricity by turbines. The second option is to tap tidally induced ocean currents directly. Analogous
to wind turbines, water streams pass the turbine blades and cause them to rotate. An example for the
barrage type tidal power converter is the La Rance Barrage in Brittany, France, operating since 1981
(Bryden 2004). Since 2008, a plant called ‘SeaGen’ has been the first commercial tidal stream
generator being installed at Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland. Many more ideas, concepts and
suitable locations exist, but systems still lack cost-efficiency. The great advantage of tidally driven
projects is the independency of unreliable weather events such as wind and sun. In contrast, tides are
predictable and reliable. In Europe, the tidal stream generators might show best performances in
countries like the UK or Norway due to the abundance of sounds and sea gates. However, an
inescapable disadvantage is the huge impact on ecosystems. The subsequent hydrological changes, for
example, lead to changes in nutrient dynamics which do have tremendous consequences on the whole
food web of benthic and pelagic organisms.
Algae
According to Schenk et al. (2008) remarkable 66 % of the world’s energy consumption is realized by
fossil fuels and not electricity. Algae are seen as an interesting feedstock for bio fuels, though they are
not commercially used yet. Products such as diesel, gasoline, jet fuel or even hydrogen could be
74
produced by algae as an alternative to the fossil resources. Existing alternatives like crop plants e. g.
corn compete with food production. With the growing demand for food and energy, this approach is
not a sustainable option. So far, the algae production for research purposes is realized in bioreactors
and confined ponds, but not in the open ocean. At the moment, no commercial application is operating
and the existence of a cost and energy effective way to use algae for energy production remains to be
proven.
Offshore Oil and Gas
Fossil fuels like crude oil and natural gas are still the main sources to feed the world’s hunger for
energy (Jadhav and Kale 2005). Natural oil and gas deposits are significantly decreasing (Bohrmann
and Suess 2004) while the global demand is increasing rapidly. Groth estimated the world’s oil
consumption in 2030 to be 17.7 billion of barrels of oil equivalent (2010). By the end of 2008, the
World Energy Council estimated the total recoverable crude oil and natural gas reserves to be 1,239
billion barrels (World Energy Council 2010). The oil industry released slightly more optimistic
statistics. BP (2011) supposed the global oil reserves to be 1,383 billion barrels. However, the world
has to make the step from fossil fuels to renewable energies. Since the oil and gas industry is a
multibillion dollar business, the offshore technology has evolved massively. This advanced technology
and the experience in offshore engineering is highly suitable to support the transformation to a more
sustainable, especially environmental friendly marine energy conversion (Bedard et al. 2010).
Methane Hydrates
As a result of growing energy demand and increasing fuel prices, methane (CH4) has become a
supposable resource in addition to renewables. Methane hydrates are methane molecules which are
embedded in a grid of water ice. These structures are stabile under high pressures and low
temperature. Those conditions occur below a water depth of about 300 m and in arctic regions from
150 to 100 m (Groth 2010, Bohrmann and Suess 2004, Wallman 2007). According to carbon content
of methane, the world’s overall amount of methane was estimated to be up to 10,000 Gt (1 Gt = 109
tons), which is considerably more than coal (675 Gt), oil (160 Gt) and natural gas (96 Gt) together
(Bohrmann and Suess 2004, Groth 2010, Wallmann 2007). Thus, combusting methane adds significant
amounts CO2 to the atmosphere. Methane mining inevitably causes emissions, too. It has to be
considered that methane is a greenhouse gas and by far worse than CO2. Worldwide, several research
projects are already in progress, especially in northern America and Asia (Groth 2010, Wallmann
2007). Methane hydrates can be detected by ascending columns of gas bubbles, so called 'flares', and
seismological exploration methods (Wallmann 2007). Even though no major industrial projects have
been launched yet, the applicability of mining and transport methods are already evaluated (Wallmann
2007). Nontheless, several aspects have to be taken into account: Main risks of methane hydrate
mining are increased greenhouse effect, acidification and destabilization of shelf slopes (Groth 2010).
However, it is supposed that atmospheric CO2 can be captured to substitute methane for stabilizing the
shelf slopes and reduce emitted CO2, respectively (Groth 2010, Wallmann 2007).
Thermal Gradient Power Generation
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is based on the well-known Rankine-Cycle, a basic
thermodynamic process (Bedard et al. 2010, Finney 2008). First proposed by the French Engineer
Jacques Arsene d’Arsonval in 1881, the OTEC process became more and more evolved through
several Japanese projects in the late 20th century (Finney 2008). OTEC utilizes a thermodynamic
potential in ocean water. The necessary temperature gradient, required, being not less than 20 °C, is
mainly found in the tropics along the equator. According to these circumstances, OTEC could be a
suitable solution for developing countries as well as for island states.
To achieve this high temperature gradient, cold water has to be pumped from a depth of about 1000 m
(Bedard et al. 2010, Finney 2008, Jadhav and Kale 2005, World Energy Council 2010). Depending on
regional conditions like sea state and weather, an OTEC power plant could be a floating structure or
set up on land. Land based plants can be easily connected to the grid. However, cold water lines have
to be very long, which causes higher power demand of the pumps. Floating structures can use
relatively short pipelines, but appropriate mooring systems and grid connections are much more
complex (World Energy Council 2010). Furthermore, adequate insulation belongs to the critical topics.
Two basic cycles, closed or open, can be used (Bedard et al. 2010, Finney 2008, World Energy
75
Council 2010). While the closed cycle usually uses ammonia or difluorodichloromethane as working
fluid, the open cycle uses sea water. The working fluid expands in a turbine, which is situated between
an evaporator stage and a condenser stage. A generator converts the circular motion of the turbine into
electrical power. The World Energy Council (2010) predicted that OTEC could play an important role
to meet the world’s future energy demand. Various power plants generating between 50 and 120 KWs
were already constructed and successfully tested in the late 20th century (Finney 2008). The major
advantage is the virtually unlimited supply of thermal energy and it is assumed that there are 107 MW
available worldwide (Jadhav and Kale 2005). Additionally, OTEC does not emit CO2 to the
atmosphere. OTEC plants could also be combined with desalination facilities for the production of
potable water (Finney 2008). Besides the high energy consumption for running pumps, further
challenges are the bio fouling and corrosion. Furthermore, OTEC plants are estimated to be very
expensive (Bedard et al. 2010, Finney 2008).
Conclusion
The marine renewable energy industry faces a number of challenges such as resource assessment and
predictability, which can only be improved by advanced resource analysis as well as weather
forecasting and modelling approaches. Further challenges are to find suitable near shore and offshore
areas, developing the engineering design and manufacturability, installation, operation and
maintenance, operational life, reliability and cost reduction (Mueller and Wallace, 2008). However,
priority has to be given to the upgrading of the power grid infrastructures and storage capacities
worldwide. In Germany, for example, the electricity must be transported from the generating sites in
the North to the industrial regions in the South, preferably non-dissipative. A 'Smart Grid' will solve
the problems of spatial and temporal divergence between power generation and consumption. Apart of
these described technical challenges ecological aspects have to be taken into consideration. There is a
need for further research, how the removal of kinetic energy of the marine environment affects the
ecology, i. e. organisms which cannot resist the hydrodynamic forces, effects of reduced wave energy
and the resulted wetting level as well as changes in the sediment resuspension patterns as a result of
anthropogenic influence. Therefore, broad investigations of locally existing species and their specific
ecosystems are needed (Shields et al. 2010). Last but not least, environmental effects cannot be
predicted in detail. Even though, the intervention to nature might have manifold positive aspects in the
very beginning, reliability and environmental safety should be the main issues irrespective of
promising monetary short-term wins.
References:
Arapogianni A., Moccia J., Williams D. and Phillips J.
(2011) Wind in our Sails The coming of Europe’s
offshore wind energy industry; A report by the European
Wind
Energy
Association,
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nts/publications/reports/23420_Offshore_report_web.pdf,
18.07.2012
Anonymous (2009). Marine Energy Resource Allocation
Regimes. Review of the Issues and Options. MERA
Report. For the Energy Efficiency and Conservation
Authority by Power Projects Limited on behalf of the
Aotearoa Wave and Tidal Energy Association
Bedard, R. Jacobson, P. T. P., M. Musial, W. and Varley,
R. (2010). An Overview of Ocean Renewable Energy
Technologies. Oceanography Vol. 23, No. 2, 22-31
Bohrmann, G. Suess, E. (2004). Gashydrate der
Meeresböden: Ein dynamischer Methanspeicher im
Ozean , 68. Physikertagung Müchen, 113 -151
British Petroleum (2011). Statistical Review of World
Energy,
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gy_review_2011/STAGING/local_assets/pdf/statistical_r
eview_of_world_energy_full_report_2011.pdf
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ENERGY RESOURCES 20, 391 – 400. 2004 World
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Drew B., Plummer A. R., Sahinkaya M. N. (2009) A
review of wave energy converter technology; Journal of
Power and Energy, 887 - 902
European Wind Energy Association (2012) The European
offshore wind industry key 2011 trends and statistics.
http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/docume
nts/publications/statistics/EWEA_stats_offshore_2011_0
2.pdf, 18.07.2012
Finney, K. A. (2008). Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion.
Guelph energy Journal (1), 17-23
Groth, M. (2010). Potentiale und Risiken der Nutzung
von Methan und Methahydraten als Energieträger, Z.
Energiewirtsch. 34, 129-137
Jadhav, S.M. and Kale, R.G. (2005). Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion. National Seminar on Alternative
Energy
Sources,
August
27-28,
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Joselin Herbert G.M., Sreevalsan E., Iniyan S. and
Rajapandian S. (2007) Review of wind energy
technologies; Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 11 S. 1117–1145
Mørk G., Kabuth A., Pontes T., Barstow S. (2010)
ASSESSING THE GLOBAL WAVE ENERGY
POTENTIAL; Proceedings of OMAE2010; 447- 454
Mueller, M. & Wallace, R. (2008).Enabling science and
technology for marine renewable energy. Energy Policy
36: 12, 4376–4382.
Schenk P., Thomas-Hall S., Stephens E., Marx U.,
Mussgnug J., Posten C., Kruse O., Hankamer B.; Second
Generation Biofuels: High-Efficiency Microalgae for
Biodiesel Production 2008; 20 - 43
Shields, M., Woolf , Grist, E.P.M, Kerr, S.A., Jackson,
A.C., Harris, R.E., Bell, M.C., Beharie, R., Want, A.,
Osalusi, A., Gibb, S.W., Side, J. (2011). Marine
renewable energy: The ecological implications of altering
the hydrodynamics of the marine environment. Ocean &
Coastal Management, 54: 2-9.
Wallmann,
K.
(2007).
Submarine
GashydratLagerstätten: Erkundung, Abbau und Transport,
Eingereicht beim Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und
Technologie im Juli 2007
Ward, J., Schultz, D., Woodruff, D., Roesijadi, G.,
Copping, A. (2010). Assessing the Effects of Marine and
Hydrokinetic Energy Development on Marine and
Estuarine Resources. Pacific Northwest National
Laboratory. Marine Sciences Laboratory, 1529 West
Sequim Bay Road, Sequim, WA 98382.
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Zhang, Z., Wang, Y., Gao, L., Zhang, Y., Liu, C.
(2012).Marine Gas Hydrates: Future Energy or
Environmental Killer?. Energy Procedia, 16: 933-938.
Assessment of a Wave Energy
Converter (WEC) and the
Influences of its Mooring System
Anne Knappmann1*, Nuno Fonseca2 and M. Paschen3
1
Universität Rostock, Lehrstuhl für Meerestechnik,
Albert-Einstein-Straße 2, 18059 Rostock, Germany
2
Instituto Superior Técnico, Avenida Rovisco Pais, 1049001 Lisbon, Portugal 3Universität Rostock, Lehrstuhl für
Meerestechnik, Albert-Einstein-Straße 2, 18059 Rostock,
Germany
Key words: Wave Energy Converter, Mooring System,
Non-Linearities, Frequency Domain, Time Domain
A huge change in the energy sector is aspired.
Renewable energies should remove fossil fuels. A large
energy density in oceans gives hope for a successful
energy supply change. Thus, research groups work on
investigations of wave energy converters (WEC).
The influence of mooring line on those is a significant
factor to consider in WEC´s use for station keeping.
Changing values of damping and line stiffness lead to
varying power output results. Due to cable´s inertia and
viscous drag forces, non-linear behaviour is observed for
the device´s motions and loads. Those non-linearities are
just observable while using a time domain analysis.
However, investigations are done in the frequency and in
the time domain in this work. Besides the transfer
functions for the added mass, the power-take-off (PTO)
damping and the exciting wave forces, results for the
body motions in surge and heave are stated in the
frequency and time domain. To present the most realistic
solutions for the buoy´s hydrodynamic behaviour and out
of this the resulting power output analyses are presented
for regular and irregular waves. Special attention is paid
to the study of non-linear effects in the time domain in
horizontal and vertical motion directions.
Investigations are introduced on the influences of
changing values of the PTO damping and the mooring
line´s stiffness in the time averaged power output in
regular waves of a 3-D plot. Furthermore, effects of those
are analysed on the annual absorbed energy in a specific
Portuguese sea state, as well.
Investigations for hydrodynamic forces are
done with the WAMIT programme (Wave Analysis from
Massachusetts Institute of Technology). Further codes
have been written in MATLAB.
Tools and techniques in Aquatic Sciences: From fish models to
environmental approaches
Sebastian Rakers*
1
Fraunhofer Research Institution for Marine Biotechnology, Paul-Ehrlich-Straße 1-3,
D-23562 Lübeck, Germany
*corresponding author: [email protected]]
Two thirds of the Earth is covered by water, and oceans, lakes and rivers are a crucial source of food
and jobs. On a global scale, it is increasingly important to utilise marine and freshwater ecosystems in
a sustainable way, to maintain their biodiversity and to reduce the negative impact of human activities.
New test systems have to be developed for the security of both, human health and aquatic ecosystem
health. These might use new materials, new devices, new measurements or new model organisms.
During the last years, significant progress has been made in the development of new tools and
techniques that could be used in and for Aquatic Science. Is it the development of small passive
intebrated transponders to track small fishes [Roussel et al.2009], the increasing research activities on
fish models as tools for medicine or the improvements on fish ecotoxicology, there are plenty of new
concepts in Aquatic Sciences that have been established.
Ecotoxicology.
77
Aquatic ecosystems around the world face serious threats from anthropogenic contaminants [Ostrach
et al., 2008].The increasing worldwide contamination of freshwater systems and oceans with
thousands of industrial and natural chemical compounds is one of the key environmental problems
facing humanity. Although most of these compounds (such as metals) are present at low concentrations
and much is known about their concentration effects, many of them raise considerable toxicological
concerns, particularly when present as components of complex mixtures. And still little or nothing is
known about the majority of the chemical compounds. Therefore, tools to assess the impact of these
pollutants on aquatic life and human health must be further developed and refined. Most aquatic
organisms will be exposed, to varying degrees, to the contaminations. The number of species exposed
could be thousands, and quite possibly tens of thousands. Little is known about whether or not these
species are adversely affected by the chemicals present in their environment. Often it is not even
known what species are present, let alone whether they are affected by the chemicals present.
Examples of tributyl tin causing imposex in molluscs and oestrogens ‘feminizing’ male fish showed
that chemicals have undoubtedly adversely affected aquatic species, occasionally leading to population
crashes. That is why cost-effective and appropriate remediation and water-treatment technologies must
be explored and implemented and the introduction of critical pollutants into the aquatic environment
should be minimized [Schwarzenbach et al. 2011]. Here, the aquatic ecosystem health is strongly
dependend on new tools and techniques.
Model organisms.
Small multicellular organisms such as nematodes, fruit flies, clawed frogs, and zebrafish are emerging
models for an increasing number of biomedical and environmental studies. They provide analyses
under normal physiological milieu of the whole organism [Wlodkowic et al., 2011]. The use of simple
animal models such as Ascidians and sea urchins have facilitated the understanding of e.g. several
biochemical mechanisms underlying Alzheimer's disease (AD), one of the most diffuse
neurodegenerative pathologies [Cossins and Crawford, 2005]. Other, like the fish models zebrafish or
rainbow trout are used in developmental research and toxicology since a long time, but now they are
gaining more and more attention as important tools for human biomedical research, too. Moreover,
fish in general offer important advantages to define the organism–environment interface and responses
to natural or anthropogenic stressors. Genomic approaches using fish promise increased investigative
power, and have already provided insights into the mechanisms that underlie short-term and long-term
environmental adaptations [Cossins and Crawford, 2005].
Zebrafish is a powerful new model for understanding toxicological effects, mechanisms, and health
impacts of environmental estrogens in vertebrates [Lee et al., 2012], and also as a model for apoptosis
[Krumschnabel and Podabsky, 2009] Technological innovation has helped the zebrafish embryo gain
ground as a disease model and an assay system for drug screening.advances in imaging, in culture
techniques (including microfluidics), and in drug delivery (including new techniques for the robotic
injection of compounds into the egg) [Ali et al., 2011].
Other aquatic organisms could be used as very interesting tools, too. Especially for environmental or
toxicological research these models are needed. And surely the oceanic diversity offers even more, in
terms of the aforementioned medical applications.
Aquatic cell cultures.
Since cellular and molecular biology are essential for a better understanding of marine organisms and
the oceanic processes, cell cultures of marine and freshwater animals offer new possibilities to study
these processes. Aquatic cell cultures under in vitro conditions are exceptionally important tools in a
variety of biological and medical fields, even more cellular models serve as interesting tools to study
human diseases. Recently, scientists found that the electrophysiology of fish cardiomyocytes largely
resembles that of humans. Another study established an in vitro spontaneously, long-term beating heart
model generated from rainbow trout, with the potential to be used as a new human heart model system
because of its electrophysiology. They could show that contracting cardiomyogenic aggregates from
fish surprisingly started to function as heart cells in culture eventhough their ecological niche was not
present [Grunow et al., 2011]. Spontaneously contracting cardiomyogenic cell aggregates from
rainbow trout generated in vitro are suitable for human heart research and pharmacology. This offers
huge potentials for the pharmaceutical industry. Furthermore, fish might also help human
dermatologists to find new antibiotics or provides perspectives for human wound healing [Rakers et
78
al., 2010]. However, a lot more has to be learned about aquatic cell cultures. While numerous cell
cultures from vertebrates and from >300 species of terrestrial invertebrates (insects, ticks, snails) have
been developed, long lasting proliferating cell cultures from marine invetebrates are still not
established. Here, there might doze an unknown potential for human medical applications.
In the future, new techniques and multidisciplinary approaches will enable us to gain deeper insight
into the exciting field of oceanic life, they may help to solve complex practical and theoretical
problems in ocean and freshwater science and technology and help us to use the ocean in a sustainable
way for our own purposes.
References:
Ali, S., Champagne, D. L., Spaink, H. P., and Richardson,
M. K. (2011). Zebrafish embryos and larvae: a new
generation of disease models and drug screens. Birth
Defects Res C Embryo Today, 93(2):115–133.
Carlo, M. D. (2012). Simple model systems: a challenge
for alzheimer's disease. Immun Ageing, 9(1):3.
[Cossins and Crawford, 2005]
Cossins, A. R. and
Crawford, D. L. (2005). Fish as models for
environmental genomics. Nat Rev Genet, 6(4):324–333.
Grunow, B., Wenzel, J., Terlau, H., Langner, S., Gebert,
M., and Kruse, C. (2011). In vitro developed
spontaneously contracting cardiomyocytes from rainbow
trout as a model system for human heart research. Cell
Physiol Biochem, 27(1):1–12.
Krumschnabel, G. and Podrabsky, J. E. (2009). Fish as
model systems for the study of vertebrate apoptosis.
Apoptosis, 14(1):1–21.
Lee, O., Takesono, A., Tada, M., Tyler, C. R., and Kudoh,
T. (2012). Biosensor zebrafish provide new insights into
potential health effects of environmental estrogens.
Environ Health Perspect, 120(7):990–996.
Ostrach, D. J., Low-Marchelli, J. M., Eder, K. J.,
Whiteman, S. J., and Zinkl, J. G. (2008). Maternal
transfer of xenobiotics and effects on larval striped bass
in the san francisco estuary. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
105(49):19354–19359.
Rakers, S., Gebert, M., Uppalapati, S., Meyer, W.,
Maderson, P., Sell, A. F., Kruse, C., and Paus, R. (2010).
'fish matters': the relevance of fish skin biology to
investigative dermatology. Exp Dermatol, 19(4):313–24.
Rakers, S., Niklasson, L., Steinhagen, D., Kruse, C.,
Schauber, J., Sundell, K., and R., P. (2012). Antimicrobial
peptides (amps) from fish epidermis: Perspectives for
investigative dermatology. submitted.
Roussel, J., Haro, A., and RA, C. (2000). Field test of a
new method for tracking small fishes in shallow rivers
using passive integrated transponder (pit) technology.
Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 57
(7):1326–1329.
Schwarzenbach, R. P., Escher, B. I., Fenner, K.,
Hofstetter, T. B., Johnson, C. A., von Gunten, U., and
Wehrli, B. (2006). The challenge of micropollutants in
aquatic systems. Science, 313(5790):1072–1077.
Wlodkowic, D., Khoshmanesh, K., Akagi, J., Williams,
D. E., and Cooper, J. M. (2011). Wormometry-on-a-chip:
Innovative technologies for in situ analysis of small
multicellular organisms. Cytometry A, 79(10):799–813.
Facing the challenge of next
generation bioreactor systems for
in vitro fish cell cultures
Luellwitz, L*., Schultze-Jena, A., Hoffmann, D., Wendt,
D., Gebert, M., Kruse C.
Fraunhofer Research Institution for Marine
Biotechnology, Aquatic Cell Technology,
Paul-Ehrlich-Str. 1-3, 23562 Luebeck, Germany
Keywords: fish cell culture, bioreactor, omega-3 faty
acids, EPA and DHA
Humans worldwide have been using the marine
ecosystem as a source for regional food products for a
long time. Since fish and fish products became a globally
traded commodity, the intensive fishing industry
increased their catches up to or above the limits of some
fish species. Trying to compensate these limited fish
stocks and the demand of a permanently growing
population, the aquaculture industry continues to increase
fish production. However, fish produced in aquaculture –
especially predatory species of high trophic levels – is
depending on fish meal and fish oil for optimal growth
and health. Thus, both overfishing and fish production
threaten the natural life stocks in the marine ecosystem.
The Fraunhofer EMB is developing a novel technique to
produce fish meal and fish oil without influencing the
natural life stocks. We established a long-term in vitro
fish cell culture derived from Atlantic sturgeon
(Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) which converts short
chain polyunsaturated fatty acids into long chain highly
unsaturated fatty acids during cell cultivation. After
addition of alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) to the cell culture
medium and temperature decrease during cultivation, the
amount of omega-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) increased
in the cells. EPA and especially DHA have positive health
effects in many respects. However, biomass production of
adherently growing fish cell cultures performed on 2D
surfaces is currently time consuming and requires a lot of
disposable materials. Thus, an industrial production is not
yet feasible. One of our main challenges is to develop
new bioreactors suitable for fish as well as other valuable
cell cultures. These shall allow cost-effective production
of cell biomass and enable access to cell derived products
like fish meal and fish oil with low ecological impact.
79
Pharmacological characterization
of spontaneously contracting cell
aggregates from rainbow trout
larvae
Julia Mehnert1*, Matthias Brandenburger1
Biotechnology, Paul-Ehrlich-Str. 1 – 3, 23562 Luebeck,
Germany
[email protected]
1
Key words: model system, electrophysiology, safety
pharmacology, cardiomyocytes, action potential
Spontaneously contracting cell aggregates
(SCCs) from rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss
represent a novel model system for cardiac safety
pharmacology.
Safe detection of potential cardiac side effects is a basic
requirement in safety pharmacology. SCCs provide
properties of an efficient and reproducible model system
and need to be characterized thoroughly for prospective
industrial use.
SCCs obtained from rainbow trout larvae exhibit
contraction rates about 1 Hz and provide the possibility
of being kept in culture for several weeks.
Electrophysiological
characterization
with
multi
electrode arrays revealed significant prolongation of field
potential duration upon administration of common hERG
potassium channel blockers. During measurements SCCs
were continuously perfused with L-15 medium at room
temperature. Field potentials were detected by
extracellular recordings via 60 electrodes. Infusion of 1
µM Dofetilide and 10 µM Terfenadine prolonged field
potentials 10 fold and 2 fold respectively. Corresponding
concentrations of DMSO did not affect field potential
duration.
In addition SCCs enabled analyses of contraction
frequencies and stimulus propagation.
Further studies will reveal if SCCs offer any more
beneficial features for safety pharmacology and if costs
for preclinical drug development could be reduced using
the novel model system.
Analyses of gene expression levels
in omega-3 fatty acid producing
fish cell cultures for cell biomass
production in a novel bioreactor
system
Luellwitz, L*. Gottwald, J., Schultze-Jena, A.,
Gebert, M.
Biotechnology, Aquatic Cell Technology,
Paul-Ehrlich-Str. 1-3, 23562 Luebeck, Germany
* corresponding author:
[email protected]
Key words: fish cell culture, qRT-PCR, omega-3 fatty
acids, bioreactor, EPA and DHA
80
Several fish species as well as algae are able to
convert short chained fatty acids into long chain highly
unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs). HUFAs, particularly
omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 FAs) extracted from wild or
cultured fish have beneficial properties for human health
and are widely used as food supplements. However, the
capacity of different fish species to synthesize HUFAs is
highly variable and often under investigated. In an
attempt to produce HUFAs in vitro using fish cell
cultures, we are screening cell cultures regarding their
HUFA synthesis capabilities and simultaneously
engineering a cultivation process in a novel bioreactor
system.
Two different long-term fish cell cultures were analyzed
concerning their ability to produce n-3 FAs during in
vitro cultivation. It was shown, that after addition of
alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) and thermal stimulation the
content of long chain HUFAs, especially EPA and DHA,
in the cells increased.
In order to analyze the specific mechanism that led to the
observed increase of n-3 FAs, genes from the fatty acid
metabolism pathway were analyzed on their expression
level. Desaturase mRNA production was measured with
qRT-PCR in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) skin
derived cells. The thermal treatment resulted in a direct
increase in desaturase mRNA levels. Interestingly, both
the addition of ALA alone as well as ALA addition plus
thermal treatment resulted in a decrease. Aiming at
cultivating selected fish cell lines for n-3 FA production,
a newly designed bioreactor system is currently being
developed. Cells are cultivated on polyamide gauze with
minimal culture media volumes. The surface properties
allow contact inhibited cell lines a controlled threedimensional growth, resulting in higher cell numbers per
surface area.
Interdisciplinary
MSc
and
Doctoral Education in Integrated
Climate System Science at the
University of Hamburg
Nils Brueggemann, Fabian Schwichtenberg, Carsten
Eden, Hermann Held, Matthias Hort, Berit Hachfeld,
Oliver Dilly*
School of Integrated Climate System Sciences,
KlimaCampus, University of Hamburg, Germany
Key words: biogeochemistry, climate-related economics
and social sciences, doctoral program, graduate school,
master program, physics of the climate system
Modern research and education in climate
system sciences is based on the combination of
disciplines
such
as
meteorology,
geophysics,
oceanography, geosciences but also economics and social
sciences. Knowledge across these disciplines is required
to address key climate issues in an integrated way.
Therefore, the School of Integrated Climate System
Sciences (SICSS), part of the Hamburg Cluster of
Excellence „Integrated Climate System Analysis and
Prediction“ (CliSAP) of the University of Hamburg
which collaborates with the Max Planck Institute for
Meteorology, the Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht and the
German Climate Computing Centre, aims at linking these
disciplines and offers a research-driven and
interdisciplinary 2-yr MSc program in Integrated Climate
System Sciences with 120 ECTS credit points and a 3-yr
structured doctoral program. Each doctoral student is
guided by an advisory panel (AP), which meets at least
bi-annually. The AP consists of a Principal Advisor, a CoAdvisor and a Chair of the panel from a neighboring
discipline. The structured doctoral program from which
each doctoral student needs to gather a minimum of 12
credit points includes interdisciplinary compulsory
courses and also tailor-made eligible expert courses. In
addition, SICSS funds summer schools, conferences and
language courses. Twenty-five MSc students and 90
doctoral students have been enrolled since 2009 and the
first 10 students already graduated. More international
students than national students are enrolled in the MSc
program, while in the doctoral program; the number of
international students ranges presently at 36 % but is
continuously increasing.
More information can be found on the SICSS
website: www.klimacampus.de/sicss.html
Early career networks as seeds for
sustainable
professional
collaboration: a Meta network
example
Marc Einsporn1,2, Stefan Meyer2,3,4 , and Tsjerk Terpstra4
1 Leibniz-Zentrum für Marine Tropenökologie (ZMT)
GmbH, Fahrenheitstrasse 6,
D-28359 Bremen, Germany
2 German Society for Marine Research (DGM),
Grindelberg 7,
D-20144 Hamburg, Germany
3 Gesellschaft für Marine Aquakultur, Büsum, Germany
4 European Aquaculture Society - Students Group,
Slijkensesteenweg 4, Oostende, B-8400, Belgium
[email protected]
Conventions and symposia belong to science ever since.
However, it has been difficult to enter the stages of wellknown conferences for PhD candidates and hardly
possible for undergraduates. Within the last years, the
importance of fresh, sometimes unorthodox ideas was
recognized by many scientific associations. The German
Society for Marine Research (DGM) has founded a
working group for studies and education in 2007,
whereas the European Aquaculture Society (EAS) formed
their students group in 2005. Many other societies formed
student groups as well, but stay within the limits of one
(sub-) discipline. In 2009, the heads of EAS-SG and
respective DGM working group set up a new format of
Meta network. YOUMARES offers a stage to young
scientists, who do neither belong to one distinct discipline
nor to a special region or institute. With its concept of the
Young Science Committee, freshmen were able to offer
their session topics to the broad public of the loose
YOUMARES network. For 2012, ten different scientific
sessions dealing with marine science and engineering will
be held. In addition, a public event, where science meets
economy is planned and last but not least, time to
socialize and party.
The goal of the EAS-SG, “Bringing students and young
aquaculturists together” provides the opportunity to
exchange information between students and young
people in the field of aquaculture, concerning education,
research and the industry. Besides that the EAS-SG is
involved in the Aqua-TNET project which is a European
Thematic Network in the field of aquaculture, fisheries
and aquatic resource management funded by the
European Commission. This year a workshop about
Student professionalism and Development will be held
together with the World Aquaculture Society (WAS) in
Prague during AQUA 2012.
Due to the Bologna-Process which attempts to create a
European Higher Education Area, the German university
degrees are being changed from the traditional
“Diploma” to Bachelor and Master courses. The current
coexistence of these different programmes leads to
scepticism of students, lecturers and private enterprises.
Nevertheless, the new modularly-arranged courses offer a
big potential in the case of innovative lectures and a new
permeability between universities. The working group
“Studium und Lehre” of the German Society for Marine
Research (DGM) generates a network between
experienced scientists, newbies and potential students
interested in the marine sector. As information and
interchange pool we want to show perspectives as well as
links between research and the commercial application of
marine studies. It is planned to carry out two meetings
per year, where ideas can be discussed and interchange
can take place.
Beyond the national frameworks, EAS as well as DGM
are involved in further European and international
networks.The idea of young, sustainable networks should
be spread and implemented to the European level via the
European Federation for Marine Sciences and
Technology Societies (EFMS) as well as the International
Council for Exploration of the Seas (ICES). Nonetheless,
networks can survive from virtual contacts only. A
strategy to keep momentum amongst the groups of high
fluctuation has to be developed further…
Customized first aid training: a
new approach to improve passive
safety for research in remote areas
Jürgen Laudien2,3* and Marc Einsporn1,3
1
Leibniz-Zentrum für Marine Tropenökologie (ZMT)
GmbH, Fahrenheitstrasse 6,
D-28359 Bremen, Germany
2
Research, Am Handelshafen 12,
D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
3
German Lifesaving Society, subdivision Wehdel, Brink
6, 27619 Wehdel, Germany
Field-based research campaigns, especially in
marine environments, often target remote areas where
rescue networks are neither well established nor quickly
available. Being aware of that can create additional
insecurity. Most researchers and technicians have passed
a general first aid seminar years ago, e.g. to achieve their
driving license. Most are no longer aware of proper first
aid methodology in their homeland, and being sent to
remote areas of foreign countries makes it even more
81
complicated. Therefore, experienced marine scientists
and first aid instructors created a tailor-made solution for
first aid training in tropical coastal regions. Within the
last two years, more than 50 scientists and technicians
were taught how to behave and react properly in hot and
humid areas. Initiated by the Leibniz-Center for Tropical
Marine Research, the German Lifesaving Society Wehdel
developed a course, which has been customized as useful
for all stakeholders. Amongst others, the German
Lifesaving
Society
(Deutsche
Lebens-RettungsGesellschaft e.V., DLRG) offers practical training courses
providing the respective competence. The nongovernmental organisation is the largest voluntary water
rescue organisation worldwide and its mission is to
increase water safeness. Annually, six million hours of
voluntary work are carried out in more than 2,000 local
sub-divisions in Germany and abroad. Its key tasks are i)
education in swimming, lifesaving and first aid, ii)
increasing public awareness of risks at and in the water,
and iii) the national onshore water rescue service. In total
40,000 qualified voluntary lifeguards are active to confer
security for bathers and aquatic sportspersons and since
1950 more than 21 million swim certificates and over
four million lifeguard certificates have been issued.
During the last year 457 people were saved from
drowning in more than 5.000 guarded areas in Germany
including the coasts of the Baltic and North Seas. Given
that worldwide app. 500,000 people drown per year the
German Lifesaving Society is strongly engaged in
increasing international safety standards through an
active collaboration in the international umbrella
organisation, the International Life Saving Federation
(ILS) and the International Life Saving Federation –
Europe (ILS-E).
The Present status and future perspectives of the European Federation of
Marine Science and Technology Societies (EFMS)
M. Dassenakis, J.P. Ducrotoy, I. Hamann, R. Danovaro, M. Frost
European Federation of Marine Science and Technology Societies (EFMS) University of Athens, Department of
Chemistry, Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, Panepistimioupolis Zografou, 15771 Athens, Greece
It was in 1992, on the initiative of Union des Oceanographes de France (UOF) that a first contact was made
with three European Associations, the Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Meeresforschung (DGM), the Challenger
Society for Marine Science (CSMS) and the Associazione Italiana di Oceanografia e Limnologia (AIOL). This
initiative was ratified by UOF during its General Assembly, and the idea of a federation was thus launched. In
1996 the CSMS invited European Scientists to its biennial conference in Bangor and the discussions between the
CSMS and DGM led to an agreement on supporting the development of a Federation. In 1997 at the general
assembly of the DGM in Hamburg, the UOF and the Challenger Society agreed to launch the new European
Federation of Marine Science and Technology Societies the following year (1998) which was appropriately
designated as the UN Year of the Oceans. The concept of the federation was advertised to the participants of
MAST days in Lisbon, in 1998. Finally the official foundation of the federation took place in Paris on December
1998. European Federation of Marine Science and Technology Societies (EFMS) is constituted by nongovernmental Societies of Marine Science and Technology within the European Union. According to its statute
the objectives of the Federation are:
a. to contribute to the advancement of research and education in Marine Science and Technology;
b. to disseminate information about Marine Science and Technology in Europe.
c. to contribute to the improvement of study, protection and management of the European Marine environment
For these purposes the Federation aims to:
a. address jointly European scientific and education issues of common interest;
b. disseminate the ideas and needs of its members;
c. promote the development of Marine Science and Technology;
d. promote the contribution of Marine Science and Technology to the European Union research programs;
e. assist the policy makers to obtain scientific and technological advice from the members of the
Federation;
f. provide a permanent network between the Marine Science and Technology Member and Associated
Societies and a common, but not unique, gateway to each of the Marine Science and Technology
Societies and their national networks.
Today, during the growing globalisation process, Marine Sciences have to play a key role in the holistic study,
effective protection and sustainable management of oceans and seas. The global unified sensitive marine system
is in danger, because of the increasing human interventions and its sustainability must be considered as a target
of high priority. European Marine Scientists, through their National Societies and the EFMS, other International
Organizations but mostly through their everyday work in any field, have to provide an important contribution in
this direction. EFMS has managed to have a significant presence in the field of Marine Science in the European
82
Union. In order to contribute to the advancement of research and education in marine science and technology in
Europe and to promote their dissemination, the EFMS is called to be more active in a period in which:
• Significant problems concerning marine pollution, biodiversity, fisheries, climate change etc. exist in all
the seas and oceans that surround Europe.
• There is no overall integrated policy for the protection and effective sustainable management of the
marine environment. The EU is attempting the introduction of new policies for the marine environment,
such as the Marine Strategy Directive, the Green Paper etc.
• The European Marine Research Area is not well established; it is under development but not at the rate,
which is needed. In the 7th Framework Programme the budget for the Environment, which includes
marine research,is only 5.5% of the total Cooperation Program.
• The realization of a European Higher Education Area is underway. This will certainly affect marine
science education, which has to remain both proficient and attractive to prospective students.
The Federation aims to integrate experiences from different countries, connect associations and stimulate
politicians and public opinion to appreciate that the oceans are still largely unexplored and that enormous
benefits can be gained through investing in improving our knowledge and understanding of the sea. The EFMS
has already participated in the discussions concerning the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive, Good
Environmental Status of Marine Environment, Marine Spatial Planning etc. and shall continue this type of
contribution in the future.
EFMS Conferences - Workshops
The 1st EFMS Scientific Conference took place in Athens, Greece, in 2002 organized by the Hellenic
Oceanographers Association. The conference subject was ‘‘Oceanographical Aspects for a Sustainable
Mediterranean’’ and had four main topics:
1. Biodiversity: Emphasis in mapping of ecosystems and bio-communities
2. Fishing and aquacultures: Emphasis in the local problems of Mediterranean areas and in the future trends.
3. Pollution: Emphasis in organic pollution (Persistent Organic Pollutants etc), its sources and influence in
marine environment.
4. Sustainable coastal management: Emphasis in Tourism Ports and Marinas
In September 2006, in Paris, on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the ‘‘Foundation Albert 1st, Prince of
Monaco - Institute océanographique”, the EFMS and the UOF organized a workshop entitled “One Century of
Marine Research in Europe”. The presentations in this workshop provided the attendants with an overview of the
experiences of the different national scientific communities.
As an ideal continuation of that initiative and as a joint event of the national Congress of the Italian Association
of Limnology and Oceanography organized an international workshop dedicated to the history of oceanography
‘’History of Marine Science in Europe’’ in Ankona, Italy on 20th September, 2007.
The 2nd Conference of EFMS took place again in Athens in October of 2010 and its subject was: The
Significance of Marine Science and the Role of Marine Scientists in Present-day Europe. The four main topics
addressed topics were:
1. Linking European Marine Research to Education and Employment
2. Climate Change and the Marine Environment: Priorities for European Seas
3. Operational Oceanography and Sustainability in Europe
4. The EU Marine Strategy Directive and the European Marine Community
The EFMS Working Group CEMSE (Comparison of European Marine Science Education) has held several
international workshops whose topics included employment options, young marine researchers professional
networking, the brain drain pehenomenon and possible measures to reverse that trend.
The members of the EFMS Executive Committee therefore recommend that the EFMS will
1) Help marine science and technology societies to understand how they can influence the strategic science
direction at the European and international level. Most of us see EU Framework calls and see Europe setting a
research agenda but are unsure as societies how we can be involved in this at an early stage. EFMS can help with
this by providing a route by which societies could achieve some influence that would be useful.
2) Advertise the important role that the marine societies play and promote them at a high level, which would be a
real benefit. For example, when EFMS people are going to European meetings they could/should/might/will say
to their conversation partners ‘if you are a marine biologist you should know about the MBA, if you are an
oceanographer then you should be involved in the Challenger Scoiety etc.’ then that is a good service.
3) Arrange a forum for European marine science societies to meet and discuss ideas. The membership fees could,
for example, be used to pay for a venue, help the committee organize – possibly involving and paying for a
junior scientist helping in this - and maybe for one key speaker. A precedence for such a procedure exists in the
UK, where all learned societies pay to go to the House of Lords once a year. It is quite expensive to attend but
there is a single keynote speaker and the opportunity to learn from other societies and network is invaluable.
4) The EFMS will proactively approach marine scientists in ALL European countries and discuss possibilities for
them to get involved/join the EFMS.
83
Maritime Archaeology in the North Sea – From Stone Age Landscapes to
Shipwrecks A Pilot Project of the German Maritime Museum in
Bremerhaven: “The North Sea – A Threatened cultural Archive”
Mike Belasus and Ursula Warnke*
Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum, Hans-Scharoun-Platz 1, D-27568 Bremerhaven, Germany
The North Sea is among the German coastal waters under the greatest utilization pressure. Only
relatively few areas of the North Sea are not exploited for fishery, maritime traffic, or the construction
of wind parks, pipelines and the like. These intrusions therefore threaten to destroy the cultural assets
preserved in the bed of the North Sea.
The state monument protection laws are not valid in the EEZ (exclusive economic zone), and in the
context of archaeological monument preservation Germany has no national authority which would
also apply to federal territorial waters. The underwater cultural assets outside the twelve-mile zone can
accordingly not be placed under monument protection. What is more, to this day the German
government has not signed the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural
Heritage. For this reason, in a project to be carried out between 2011 and 2014 in close cooperation
with the Bundesamt für Seeschifffahrt und Hydrographie (BSH; Federal Maritime and Hydrographic
Agency), the shipwrecks known to lie on the floor of the North Sea are to be charted and their heritage
value assessed. A selection of shipwrecks acutely threatened by construction measures are to be
investigated as representative cases. In the process, cooperation with other Leibniz Institutes will
ensure a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach (Senckenberg Institut, Wilhelmshaven; Institut für
Baltische und Skandinavische Archäologie, Schleswig; Institut für Ostseeforschung, Warnemünde;
Deutsches Bergbaumuseum, Bochum; Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz and the
Forschungsallianz Kulturguterhalt FALKE). The area of investigation will initially be confined to the
EEZ of the German North Sea. In collaboration with the respective state agencies, however, the
Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum (DSM; The National Maritime Museum of Germany) will also be able
to document and recover wrecks outside the twelve-mile limit if necessary. The DSM has already
successfully carried out cooperative projects with the state archaeological agencies several times in the
past. The files of the BSH – with which the DSM has had a cooperation agreement for many years –
will be analyzed with a view to these purposes. At the same time, a data base with the newly derived
archaeological data will be set up at the DSM. The museum can also collect further data with its own
geophysical prospection equipment, making use of the BSH infrastructure in certain individual cases.
With this equipment the DSM will also create a basis for future projects.
The German Maritime Museum – A research museum within the Leibniz Association
The Leibniz Association
The Leibniz Association comprises 87 research institutions which address scientific issues of
importance to society as a whole. They provide infrastructure for science and research and perform
research-based services – liaison, consultation, transfer – for the public, policy makers, academia and
business. They conduct research ranging from natural science, engineering and environmental science
via economics, social science and infrastructure research to the humanities.
Characteristic of the Leibniz Association is the enormous diversity of themes addressed by the
institutes as well as its decentralised organisational structure: by far the majority of institutes are
scientifically and organisationally independent. They conduct strategic, theme-based research and
constantly strive for academic excellence and social relevance.
In this way, the Leibniz Association makes direct reference to its eponym, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,
who was the epitome of a great universal scholar. It is in this spirit that the non-university research
institutes and the service facilities adopt an interdisciplinary approach. They provide scientific services
and the relevant infrastructure and cooperate with universities, institutions belonging to other science
organisations and commercial enterprise.
The German Maritime Museum
84
The Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum (DSM)/ The National Maritime Museum of Germany) was
established in Bremerhaven in 1971. It is Germany’s national museum in the field of maritime history
and maritime archaeology.The DSM’s remit encompasses the contextual study of German maritime
history, the collection, recording and documentation of associated objects and the mediation of
research results to the public. The remit also expressively states that German maritime history has to
be examined and evaluated within an international maritime context.The main exhibit and attraction is,
undoubtedly, the Hanse Cog of Bremen, a medieval shipwreck dating from 1380 AD, which was
discovered and raised in 1962 and which is still being conserved, exhibited and studied today. It is the
best preserved example of a late medieval ship connected to the Hanseatic League. The DSM houses a
special competence in the conservation of water-logged wood and in the restoration of archaeological
artefacts.Further research is undertaken on the following periods: prehistory, preindustrial and
medieval times, early modern time and the 19th to 21st centuries. The research results are regularly
presented to the public by means of permanent and temporary exhibitions, publications and events,
and all galleries are regularly redesigned.In the years 2012 to 2017 the DSM plans in accordance to a
masterplan, accepted by the Governing Board in 2009, the restoration and modernization of its
existing buildings, the addition of three new buildings and the total overhaul of the galleries.
Figure 1: Coastline reconstruction from approx. 10.000
years showing the connective mainland called ‘Doggerland’
Figure 2: Borders of teritorial waters in the North Sea.
Figure 3: Distribution of known ship wrecks in the german
North Sea
Figure 4: Relation of exclusive economic zone and depth
reconstructed tot he coastline of 8.700 BC.
85
Communicating the ocean
The Hamburg Research and Media Vessel ALDEBARAN
ALDEBARAN technical data
Type
Sonate Ovni 43
Length
13,50 m
Width
4,50 m
Draught
0,80 m - 2,40 m (for shallow waters)
Propulsion
Sails, 47kW diesel engine
On-board power
12 V, 230 V, 380 V (max 5kW)
Drinking water supply
800 l warm or cold water
Zodiac dinghy
Suzuki 10 kW outboard motor
Crew
Ship's crew 1-2 people
scientific/editorial staff: 4 - 6 people
TV
Final Cut Pro editing suit, processing in DVCProHD
Radio studio
Live satellite transmission and mini studio
Unterwater TV
5 HD digital Underwater Camera Sets including Light and 5 Oceanic diving
gears
Laboratory
Leica microscope, binocular with 3 chip CCD photo and video caps each,
(LUMIX GH1/GH2 & Canon EOS 7D), fishfinder, echo sounder, van Veen
soil scooper, plankton net, water scoop, WTW measuring station for pH,
oxygen, salinity and water temperature, fixed and dragged camera for
unterwater monitoring, weather station, hydrophone.
Furuno GPS 32, Furuno Navnet, on board computer with MAX SEA
Navigation, GSM, UMTS, Inmarsat C, Inmarsat Fleet 33, Internet, e-mail, WLAN, shortwace PACTOR, shortwave & FM wireless, marine radio.
Communication
ALDEBARAN is suited for shallow waters and the high seas and has already sailed around the world
twice.
Crossmedia for environmental and climate communication
Since 1992 the Hamburg Research and Media Vessel ALDEBARAN has set tail to successfully
connect science, media and the public. We simplify complex environmental issues in an appealing
way, inspiring people to protect and conserve the delicate ecosystem of the ocean.
Technology & Production
Live news is broadcasted via satellite from the vessel to the world: The latest radio, video and
multimedia technology can be found on board. The latest high-resolution underwater cameras and the
on board laboratorty can be used by scientists, journalists and divers to capture the fascinating
microcosmos of the ocean with spectacular pictures.
Delivering science directly
Campaigns organized by ALDEBARAN have reached up to 25 million TV viewers and numerous
newspaper readers all over Germany on a daily basis.
Integration
Scientists and journalists are “in the same boat”, working together on ALDEBARAN. Relevant
information regarding the ocean, climate change and biodiversity is distributed quickly through
various kinds of media in a comprehensive and professional way.
86
Acknowledgements and Outlook
Our special thanks go to the executive committee of the German Society for Marine Research (Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Meeresforschung, DGM), its president Prof. Dr. Oliver Zielinski, vice president Prof. Dr. Angelika Brandt, third president
Dr. Hauke Bietz, executive secretary Dr. Ilse Hamann and former treasurer Maren Geldmacher for providing the chance
to set up another conference, always giving a fair-minded feedback and the financial support. Additionally, we would like to
say thank you for the provided support.
We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Charli Kruse for providing staff and monetary resources to let YOUMARES 3 take place
in Lübeck.
Furthermore, we thank the whole Working Group on Studies and Education as well as steering committee and the young
science committee of YOUMARES 3 for their huge support to fulfil the original plans.
Our appreciation also goes to our sponsors, partners and all other backers, who supported the initiative ideally, financially
and substantially.
Last, but not least, we personally want to pay tribute to all participants and guests of honour, who made YOUMARES 3
the unique convention it has become.
...and the story goes on:
“From coast to deep sea – Multiscale approaches to marine sciences”
is the title for YOUMARES 4, taking place from 11.09. – 13.09.2013, at the University of Oldenburg.
The local organization team of the Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment (ICBM) welcomes you!
Team members are Adriana Alzate, PhD student, Mathematical Modelling Group, Franziska Preuß, PhD student,
Paleomicrobiology Group, Heidi Wichmann and Dr. Ferdinand Esser, Scientific Coordinator of the Integrated Research
Training Group of the CRC Roseobacter. Sincerely,
Johanna Wiedling, Sebastian Rakers and Marc H. Einsporn
87
Notes
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consequences and acclimatization strategies

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