Testing and assessing

Testing and assessing
Contents
What is a test?
Reasons for testing
Requirements for a good test
Kinds of tests
Types of test techniques
Designing a test
Test on testing
Test administration
Testing vocabulary
Testing listening
Testing reading
Testing speaking
Testing writing
Correction symbols
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Testing
Definition - What is a test?
Whether we realize it or not, we test every day in virtually every cognitive effort we make.
When we read a book, listen to the news on TV, or prepare a meal, we are testing hypotheses
and making judgments. Anytime we "try" something — a new recipe, a different tennis
racquet, a new pair of shoes — we are testing. We are formulating a judgment about
something on the basis of a sample of behaviour. Language learners are testing their newly
acquired forms of language almost every time they speak. They devise hypotheses about how
the language forms are structured and how certain functions are expressed in forms. On the
basis of the feedback they receive, they make judgments and decisions. Language teachers
also test, informally and intuitively, in every contact with learners. As a learner speaks or
writes or indicates either aural or reading comprehension, the teacher makes a judgment about
the performance and from that judgment infers certain competence on the part of the learner.
Classroom-oriented informal testing is an everyday and very common activity in which
teachers engage almost intuitively.
A test, in plain, ordinary words, is a method of measuring a person's ability or
knowledge in a given area.
The definition captures the essential components of a test.
A test is first a method. There is a set of techniques, procedures, test items, that constitute an
instrument of some sort. And that method generally requires some performance or activity on
the part of either the testee or the tester or both. The method may be quite intuitive and
informal, as in the case of judging offhand someone's authenticity of pronunciation. Or it may
be quite explicit and structured, as in a multiple-choice technique in which correct responses
have already been specified by some "objective" means.
Next, a test has the purpose of measuring. Some measurements are rather broad and inexact
while others are quantified in mathematically precise terms. The difference between formal
and informal testing exists to a great degree in the nature of the quantification of data.
Informal tests, the everyday intuitive judging that we do as laypersons or teachers, are
difficult to quantify. Judgments are rendered in rather global terms. For example, it is
common to speak of a "good" tennis player, "fair" performance by an actor in a play, or a
"poor" reader. In formal testing, in which carefully planned techniques of assessment are
used, quantification is important, especially for comparison either within an individual (say, at
the beginning and the end of a course) or across individuals.
A test measures a person's ability or knowledge. Care must be taken in any test to understand
who the testees are. What is their previous experience— their entry behaviour? Is the test
appropriate for them? How are scores to be interpreted for individuals?
Also being measured in a test is ability or knowledge — that is, competence. A test samples
performance but infers certain competence. A driving test for a driver's license is a test
requiring a sample of performance, but that performance is used by the tester to infer
someone's general competence to drive a car. A language test samples language behaviour
and infers general ability in a language. A test of reading comprehension may consist of some
questions following one or two paragraphs, a tiny sample of a second language learner's total
reading behavior. From the results of that test the examiner infers a certain level of general
reading ability.
Finally, a test measures a given area. In the case of a proficiency test, even though the actual
performance on the test involves only a sampling of skills, that area is overall proficiency in a
language — general competence in all skills of a language. Other tests may have more
specific criteria. A test of pronunciation might well be a test only of a particular phonemic
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minimal pair in a language. One of the biggest obstacles to overcome in constructing adequate
tests is to measure the criterion and not inadvertently something else.
Reasons for testing
a) Austrian curriculum
Zweiter Teil: Allgemein didaktische Grundsätze
Pkt. 9. Sicherung des Unterrichtsertrages und Rückmeldungen;
Leistungsbeurteilung
Für die Sicherstellung des Unterrichtsertrages sind im Unterricht ausreichende und gezielte
Wiederholungen und Übungen vorzusehen, sodass im Regelfall eine außerschulische
Lernunterstützung nicht nötig ist. Zur Festigung des Gelernten ist beizutragen, indem
Zusammenhänge zwischen neu Gelerntem und bereits Bekanntem hergestellt werden und
indem – soweit möglich – Neues in bekannte Systeme und Strukturen eingeordnet wird.
Hausübungen sollen durch besondere Intentionen, wie zB Sammeln von Materialien und
Informationen, Erkundungen, zusätzliche Übung und Festigung die Unterrichtsarbeit
ergänzen. Dabei ist auf die Belastbarkeit der Schülerinnen und Schüler zu achten (siehe auch
§ 17 Abs. 2 des Schulunterrichtsgesetzes).
Eine detaillierte Rückmeldung über die erreichte Leistung ist wichtig und soll auch bei der
Leistungsbeurteilung im Vordergrund stehen. Klar definierte und bekannt gemachte
Bewertungskriterien sollen Anleitung zur Selbsteinschätzung sein und Motivation, Ausdauer
und Selbstvertrauen der Schülerinnen und Schüler positiv beeinflussen.
Für die Bestimmung des Wesentlichen für die Leistungsbeurteilung sind bei den
Lehrstoffangaben jedes Faches auch die jeweiligen Beiträge zu den Bildungsbereichen, zu
den Aufgabenbereichen der Schule und zu den Leitvorstellungen zu beachten.
Im Rahmen der Bestimmungen über die Leistungsbeurteilung (Leistungsbeurteilungsverordnung) sind auch Methodenkompetenz und Teamkompetenz in die Leistungsbeurteilung
so weit einzubeziehen, wie sie für den Unterrichtserfolg im jeweiligen Unterrichtsgegenstand
relevant sind.
Die Schülerinnen und Schüler sind in die Planung und Gestaltung, Kontrolle und Analyse
ihrer Arbeitsprozesse und Arbeitsergebnisse in zunehmendem Maße aktiv einzubeziehen,
damit sie schrittweise Verantwortung für die Entwicklung ihrer eigenen Kompetenzen
übernehmen können.
Dritter Teil: Schul- und Unterrichtsplanung
4. Leistungsfeststellung
Die Lehrerinnen und Lehrer haben ihr Gesamtkonzept der Rückmeldung und
Leistungsfeststellung den Schülerinnen und Schülern sowie den Erziehungsberechtigten in
geeigneter Weise bekannt zu geben.
In der 1. bis 4. Klasse beträgt in jenen Unterrichtsgegenständen, für welche im sechsten Teil
Schularbeiten vorgesehen sind, der Zeitrahmen für deren Durchführung pro Schuljahr
insgesamt vier bis fünf Unterrichtseinheiten und die Anzahl der Schularbeiten vier bis sechs.
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Im ersten Lernjahr einer Fremdsprache stehen für drei bis vier Schularbeiten drei bis vier
Unterrichtseinheiten zur Verfügung.
Die Festlegung der Anzahl der Schularbeiten erfolgt – vorbehaltlich einer Regelung durch
schulautonome Lehrplanbestimmungen – durch die jeweilige Lehrerin oder den jeweiligen
Lehrer.
b) more REASONS FOR TESTING
Tests may be used as a means to:
1. give the teacher information about where the students are at the moment, to help decide
what to teach next;
2. give the students information about what they know, so that they also have an awareness
of what they need to learn or review;
3. assess for some purpose external to current teaching (a final grade for the course,
selection);
4. motivate students to learn or review specific material;
5. get a noisy class to keep quiet and concentrate;
6. provide a clear indication that the class has reached a 'station' in learning, such as the end
of a unit, thus contributing to a sense of structure in the course as a whole;
7. get students to make an effort (in doing the test itself), which is likely to lead to better
results and a feeling of satisfaction;
8. give students tasks which themselves may actually provide useful review or practice, as
well as testing;
9. provide students with a sense of achievement and progress in their learning.
Task:
1. How do these ideas compare with the results of your own ideas?
2. Are there any ideas here that you did not find or think of before?
3. Would you reject any of them as not significant, or irrelevant to your situation?
4. Which of the list of reasons for testing are the most important for you personally?
5. How far are these offset by the disadvantages of testing you have just listed?
Reservations
Reasons for not testing:
• the tension and negative feelings tests cause learners,
• the fact that they are very time-consuming.
• ……………………………
Requirements of a “good” test
Practicality
A test ought to be practical — within the means of financial limitations, time constraints, ease
of administration, and scoring and interpretation. A test of language proficiency that takes a
student 10 hours to complete is impractical. A test that requires individual one-to-one
proctoring is impractical for a group of 500 people and only a handful of examiners. A test
that takes a few minutes for a student to take and several hours for the examiner to correct is
impractical for a large number of testees and one examiner if results are expected within a
short time. A test that can be scored only by computer is impractical if the test takes place a
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thousand miles away from the nearest computer. The value and quality of a test are dependent
upon such nitty-gritty, practical considerations.
Teachers need to be able to make clear and useful interpretations of test data in order to
understand their students better. A test that is too complex or too sophisticated may not be of
practical use to the teacher.
Reliability
A reliable test is a test that is consistent and dependable. Sources of unreliability may lie in
the test itself or in the scoring of the test, known respectively as test reliability and rater (or
scorer) reliability. If you give the same test to the same subject or matched subjects on two
different occasions, the test itself should yield similar results; it should have test reliability. I
once witnessed the administration of a test of aural comprehension in which a tape recorder
played items for comprehension, but because of street noise outside the testing room, some
students in the room were prevented from hearing the tape accurately. That was a clear case of
unreliability. Sometimes a test yields unreliable results because of factors beyond the control
of the test writer, such as illness, a "bad day," or no sleep the night before.
Scorer reliability is the consistency of scoring by two or more scorers. If very subjective
techniques are employed in the scoring of a test, one would not expect to find high scorer
reliability. A test of authenticity of pronunciation in which the scorer is to assign a number
between one and five might be unreliable if the scoring directions are not clear. If scoring
directions are clear and specific as to the exact details the judge should attend to, then such
scoring can become reasonably consistent and dependable. In tests of writing skills scorer
reliability is not easy to achieve since writing proficiency involves numerous traits that are
difficult to define.
Validity
By far the most complex criterion of a good test is validity, the degree to which the test
actually measures what it is intended to measure. A valid test of reading ability is one that
actually measures reading ability and not previous knowledge in a subject, or some other
variable of questionable relevance. To measure writing ability, one might conceivably ask
students to write as many words as they can in 15 minutes, then simply count the words for
the final, score. Such a test would be practical and reliable; the test would be easy to
administer, and the scoring quite dependable. But it would hardly constitute a valid test of
writing ability unless some consideration were given to the communication and organization
of ideas, among other factors.
How does one establish the validity of a test? Validity can only be established by observation
and theoretical justification. There is no final, absolute, and objective measure of validity. We
have to ask questions that give us convincing evidence that a test accurately and sufficiently
measures the testee for the particular purpose, or objective, or criterion, of the test.
In tests of language, validity is supported most convincingly by subsequent personal
observation of teachers and peers. The validity of a high score on the final exam of a foreign
language course will be substantiated by "actual" proficiency in the language (if the claim is
that a high score is indicative of high proficiency). A classroom test designed to assess
mastery of a point of grammar in communicative use will have validity if test scores correlate
either with observed subsequent behavior or with other communicative measures of the
grammar point in question.
How can teachers be somewhat assured that a test, whether it is a standardized test or one
which has been constructed for classroom use, is indeed valid? The technical procedures for
validating tests are complex and require specialized knowledge. But two major types of
validation are important for classroom teachers: content validity and construct validity.
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Content Validity
If a test actually samples the class of situations, that is, the universe of subject matter about
which conclusions are to be drawn, it is said to have content validity. The test actually
involves the testee in a sample of the behaviour that is being measured. You can usually
determine content validity, observationally, if you can clearly define the achievement that you
are measuring. If you are trying to assess a person's ability to speak a second language in a
conversational setting, a test that asks the learner to answer paper-and-pencil multiple-choice
questions requiring grammatical judgments does not achieve content validity. A test that
requires the learner actually to speak within some sort of authentic context does.
A concept that is very closely related to content validity is face validity, which asks the
question: does the test, on the "face" of it, appear to test what it is designed to test? Face
validity is very important from the learner's perspective. To achieve "peak" performance on a
test, a learner needs to be convinced that the test is indeed testing what it claims to test. Face
validity is almost always perceived in terms of content: if the test samples the actual content
of what the learner has achieved or expects to achieve, then face validity will be perceived.
Construct Validity
A second category of validity that teachers must be aware of in considering language tests is
construct validity. One way to look at construct validity is to ask the question: does this test
actually tap into the theoretical construct as it has been defined? "Proficiency" is a construct.
"Communicative competence" is a construct. "Self-esteem" is a construct. Virtually every
theoretical category is a theoretical construct. A teacher, then, needs to be satisfied that a
particular test is an adequate definition of a construct.
Kinds of tests
There are many kinds of tests, each with a specific purpose, a particular criterion to be
measured.
Proficiency Tests
If your aim in a test is to tap global competence in a language, then you are, in conventional
terminology, testing proficiency. A proficiency test is not intended to be limited to any one
course, curriculum, or single skill in the language. Proficiency tests have traditionally consisted of
standardized multiple-choice items on grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, aural
comprehension, and sometimes of a sample of writing.
A rather typical example of a standardized proficiency test is the Test of English as a Foreign
Language (TOEFL) produced by the Educational Testing Service. It is used by nearly 1000
institutions of higher education in the United States as an indicator of a prospective student's
ability to undertake academic work in an English medium. The TOEFL consists of the following
three sections:
Section 1, Listening Comprehension, measures the ability to understand English as it is spoken in
the United States. The oral aspects of the language are stressed. The problems tested include
vocabulary that is more frequently used in spoken English, structures that are primarily peculiar to
spoken English, and sound and intonation distinctions that have proven to be difficult for
nonnative speakers. The stimulus material is recorded in standard American English; the response
options are printed in the test books.
Section 2, Structure and Written Expression, measures mastery of important structural and
grammatical points in standard written English. The language tested is formal, rather than
conversational. The topics of the sentences are of a general academic nature so that individuals in
specific fields of study or from specific national or linguistic groups have no particular advantage.
When topics have a national context, they refer to United States history, culture, art, or literature.
Section 3, Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension, tests the ability to understand the meanings
and uses of words in written English as well as the ability to understand a variety of reading
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materials. So that there is no advantage to individuals in any one field of study, the questions
based on reading materials do not require outside knowledge of the subject matter.
Proficiency tests sometimes add sections that involve free writing (e.g., ETS's Test of Written
English) and/or oral production (e.g., ETS's Test of Spoken English), but these responses diminish
the practicality of scoring on a high-volume basis. The TOEFL and virtually every other largescale proficiency test is machine scorable; when scorers must either read writing samples or judge
audiotapes of spoken proficiency, a great deal of administrative cost and time are involved.
Diagnostic and Placement Tests
A diagnostic test is designed to diagnose a particular aspect of a particular language. A diagnostic
test in pronunciation might have the purpose of determining which particular phonological
features of the language pose difficulty for a learner. Prator's (1972) Diagnostic Passage, for
example, is a short written passage that a student of English as a second language reads orally; the
teacher or tester then examines a tape recording of that reading against a very detailed checklist of
pronunciation errors. The checklist serves to diagnose certain problems in pronunciation. Some
proficiency tests can serve as diagnostic tests by isolating and analyzing certain sets of items
within the test. An achievement test on a particular module in a curriculum might include a number of items on modal auxiliaries; these particular items could serve to diagnose difficulty on
modals.
Certain proficiency tests and diagnostic tests can act in the role of placement tests whose purpose
is to place a student in a particular level or section of a language curriculum or school. A
placement test typically includes a sampling of material to be covered in the curriculum (that is, it
has content validity), and it thereby provides an indication of the point at which the student will
find a level or class to be neither too easy nor too difficult but to be appropriately challenging.
Achievement Tests
An achievement test is related directly to classroom lessons, units, or even a total curriculum.
Achievement tests are limited to particular material covered in a curriculum within a particular
time frame.
Aptitude Tests
Finally, we need to consider the type of test that is given to a person prior to any exposure to the
second language, a test that predicts a person's future success. A foreign language aptitude test is
designed to measure a person's capacity or general ability to learn a foreign language and to be
successful in that undertaking. Aptitude tests are considered to be independent of a particular
foreign language, predicting success in the acquisition of any foreign language. Two standardized
aptitude tests have been used in the United States—the Modern Language Aptitude Test (Carroll
and Sapon 1958) and the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (Pimsleur 1966). Both of these are
English language tests and require students to perform such tasks as learning numbers, listening,
detecting spelling clues and grammatical patterns, and memorizing.
The importance of these four different kinds of language tests lies in the fact that different tests
serve different purposes. In order to select tests adequately and to interpret their results
accurately, teachers need to be aware of the ultimate purpose of the testing context.
Within each category of test above there is a variety of different possible techniques and
procedures. These range from objective to subjective techniques, open-ended to structured,
multiple-choice to fill-in-the-blank, written to oral. Moreover, language has been viewed
traditionally as consisting of four separate skills; therefore language tests have attempted to
measure differential ability in speaking, listening, reading, and writing. It is not uncommon to be
quite proficient in reading a foreign language but not in speaking, or of course for aural
comprehension to outstrip speaking ability.
Beyond such considerations, tests of each of the modes of performance can be focused on a
continuum of linguistic units, from smaller to larger: phonology and orthography, words,
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sentences, and discourse. In interpreting a test it is important to note which linguistic units are
being tested. Oral production tests can be tests of overall conversational fluency or pronunciation
of a particular subset of phonology, and can take the form of imitation, structured responses, or
free responses. Similarly, listening-comprehension tests can concentrate on a particular feature of
language or on overall listening for general meaning. Tests of reading can cover the range of
language units and can aim to test comprehension of long or short passages, single sentences, or
even phrases and words. Writing tests can take on an open-ended form with free composition, or
be structured to elicit anything from correct spelling to discourse-level competence.
Types of test techniques
Formal and informal testing:
Formal testing:
testees are told in advance what they need to know,
what the criteria are for success,
and so on.
Informal testing
a homework assignment
questions asked during the routine give-and-take of classroom interaction
textbook exercises.
Elicitation techniques
ELICITATION TECHNIQUES
1. Questions and answers.
Simple questions, very often following reading, or as part of an interview; may require short
or long answers:
What is the (family) relationship between David Copperfield and Mr. Murdstone?
2. True/false.
A statement is given which is to be marked true or false. This may also be given as a question,
in which case the answer is yes or no.
Addis Ababa is the capital of Egypt. Is Addis Ababa the capital of Egypt?
3. Multiple-choice.
The question consists of a stem and a number of options (usually four), from which the testee
has to select the right one.
A person who writes books is called
a) a booker.
b) an editor.
c) an author.
d) a publisher.
4. Gap-filling and completion.
The testee has to complete a sentence by filling a gap or adding something. A gap may or may
not be signalled by a blank or dash; the word to be inserted may or may not be given or hinted
at.
They (go) to Australia in 1980. Or
They ________ to Australia in 1980. (go) Or
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A ________ is someone who writes books. Or
I've seen that film, (never)
5. Matching.
The testee is faced with two groups of words, phrases or sentences;
each item in the first group has to be linked to a different item in the second.
large
small
unhappy
many
a lot
big
little
sad
6. Dictation.
The tester dictates a passage or set of words; the testee writes them down.
7. Cloze.
Words are omitted from a passage at regular intervals (for example, every seventh word).
Usually the first two or three lines are given with no gaps.
The family are all fine, though Leo had a bad bout of flu last week. He spent most of it lying
on the sofa watching ________ when he wasn't sleeping!
His exams ________ in two weeks, so he is ________ about missing school, but has managed
to ________ quite a lot in spite ________ feeling ill.
8. Transformation.
A sentence is given; the testee has to change it according to some given instruction.
Put into the past tense: I go to school by bus.
9. Rewriting.
A sentence is given; the testee rewrites it, incorporating a given change of expression, but
preserving the basic meaning.
He came to the meeting in spite of his illness. Although ....
10. Translation.
The testee is asked to translate expressions, sentences or entire passages to or from the target
language.
11. Essay.
The testee is given a topic, such as 'Childhood memories', and asked to write an essay of a
specific length.
12. Monologue.
The testee is given a topic or question and asked to speak about it for a minute or two.
Which you will choose to use for a certain testing purpose will probably depend mainly on the
following considerations:
1) What will it tell me about the testee's knowledge? In other words, for what type of
knowledge might it be a valid test?
2) How easy is it to compose?
3) How easy is it to administer?
4) How easy is it to mark?
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Task:
Try applying the above considerations to the set of elicitation techniques.
Critical study of elicitation techniques
1. Questions and answers
These can be used to test almost anything. The more 'closed' the question is (that is, the fewer
the possible options for correct answers), the easier the item will be to mark. It is fairly easy
to compose and grade closed-ended questions; more open, thought-provoking ones are more
difficult, but may actually test better.
2. True/false
This does not directly test writing or speaking abilities: only listening or reading. It may be
used to test aspects of language such as vocabulary, grammar, content of a reading or listening
passage. It is fairly easy to design; it is also easy to administer, whether orally or in writing,
and to mark.
3. Multiple-choice
This may be used for the same testing purposes as true/false items; it does test rather more
thoroughly since it offers more optional answers and is obviously very easy to mark. It is
administered more conveniently through writing; but note that since the reading of the
question-and-options is fairly time-consuming, the process of comprehension of the actual
question items may take more time and effort than the point ostensibly tested, which raises
problems of validity. Another important problem is that good multiple-choice questions are
surprisingly difficult to design: they often come out ambiguous, or with no clear right answer,
or with their solutions over-obvious. They are to be approached with caution!
4.Gap-filling and completion
This usually tests grammar or vocabulary, as in the examples. It is tedious to compose, though
not so difficult as multiple-choice; it is more easily administered in writing than in speech; the
marking is usually simple. You may need to be aware that there is more than one possible
right answer.
5. Matching
This usually tests vocabulary, and is rather awkward to administer orally: thus it is best
presented written on the board or on paper, though responses may be either oral or in writing.
Items can be time-consuming and difficult to compose, and again, there may be alternative
'right' answers to any particular item. Answers are fairly easily checked.
6. Dictation
This mainly tests spelling, perhaps punctuation, and, perhaps surprisingly on the face of it,
listening comprehension: people can only usually write words down accurately from dictation
if they understand them. It does not, however, test other writing skills or speech, and involves
very little reading. It may supply some information on testees' passive knowledge of
pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. It is very easy to prepare and administer; it is
relatively easy to mark, though there may be a problem deciding how much weight to
attribute to different mistakes.
7. Cloze
This tests (intensive) reading, spelling, and to some extent knowledge of vocabulary and
grammar. It can be adapted to 'target' specific language items, by, for example, omitting all
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the verbs (in which case it is not, strictly speaking, 'cloze', but rather 'gap-filling'). It is fairly
easy to prepare and administer. Marking can be tricky: you may find it difficult sometimes to
decide if a specific item is 'acceptable' or not.
8. Transformation
This item is relatively easy to design, administer and mark, but its validity may be suspect. It
tests the ability of the testee to transform grammatical structures, which is not the same as
testing grammar: a testee may perform well on transformation items without knowing the
meaning of the target structure or how to use it in context. Marking is fairly straightforward.
9. Rewriting
This tests the same sort of thing as transformation, but is likely to reflect more thorough
knowledge of the target items, since it involves paraphrasing the entire meaning of a sentence
rather than transforming a particular item. It is, however, more difficult to compose, and the
marking may be more subjective. It is, as its name suggests, usually done in writing.
10. Translation
A technique which, at the time of writing, is for various reasons rather unpopular, but in my
opinion undeservedly so. In a monolingual class whose teacher also speaks the learners'
mother tongue, the translation of a 'bit' of language to or from the target language can give
very quick and reliable information on what the testee does or does not know, particularly
when it involves entire units of meaning (phrases, sentences) within a known context.
Translation items are also relatively easy to compose - even improvise, in an informal test and administer, in either speech or writing. Marking may sometimes be more difficult, but not
prohibitively so.
11. Essay
This is a good test of general writing abilities. It is relatively easy to provide a topic and tell
the class to write an essay about it but marking is extremely difficult and time-consuming. It
must be clear in advance, both to you and to the students, how much emphasis you are going
to lay on language forms, such as spelling, grammar, punctuation, and how much on aspects
of content, such as interest and originality of ideas, effectiveness of expression, organization
12. Monologue
This tests oral fluency in 'long turns' - something not everyone can do in their mother tongue!
It also tests overall knowledge of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. To choose a topic
and allot it is not so difficult; to assess is very difficult indeed, demanding concentration and a
very clear set of criteria and weighting system.
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Designing a test
Stage 1: Preparation
Prepare your test. It is a good idea to list in writing all the material that you want your test to
cover: you can then refer back to the list during and after the test-writing to see if you have
included all you intended.
Stage 2: Performance
If possible, administer your test to a class of learners; if not, ask colleagues to try doing it
themselves.
Stage 3: Feedback
Look at how your test was done, and ask the testees how they felt about it.
GUIDELINES FOR TEST PREPARATION
Validity. Check that your items really do test what they are meant to!
Clarity. Make sure the instructions for each item are clear. They should usually include a
sample item and solution.
'Do-ability'. The test should be quite do-able: not too difficult, with no trick questions. Ask a
colleague to read through it and answer the questions before finalizing.
Marking. Decide exactly how you will assess each section of the test, and how much
weighting (percentage of the total grade) you will give it. Make the marking system as simple
as you can, and inform the testees what it is: write in the number of points allotted after the
instructions for each question.
Interest. Try to go for interesting content and tasks, in order to make the test more motivating
for the learners.
Heterogeneity. The test should be such that lower-level students can feel that they are able to
do a substantial part of the test, while the higher-level ones have a chance to show what they
know. So include both easy and difficult items, and make one or more of the difficult ones
optional.
Test administration
The actual design of a test, whether oral or written, formal or informal is, of course,
important, but it is not the end of the story. How the test is actually administered and returned
can make a huge difference to motivation and performance; in particular, sensitive
presentation of a test can significantly reduce learner anxiety.
QUESTIONS ON TEST ADMINISTRATION
Before the test
How far in advance do you announce the test?
How much do you tell the class about what is going to be in it, and about the criteria for
marking?
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How much information do you need to give them about the time, place, any limitations or
rules?
Do you give them any 'tips' about how best to cope with the test format?
Do you expect them to prepare at home, or do you give them some class time for
preparation?
Giving the test
How important is it for you yourself to administer the test?
Assuming that you do, what do you say before giving out the test papers?
Do you add anything when the papers have been distributed but students have not yet
started work?
During the test, are you absolutely passive or are you interacting with the students in any
way?
After the test
How long does it take you to mark and return the papers?
Do you then go through them in class?
Do you demand any follow-up work on the part of the students?
Before the test
The tests are announced at least a week in advance in order to give them plenty of time to
prepare and details are given of when, where and how long the test will be. The class is also
told as precisely as possible what material is to be tested, and what sort of items will be used.
Giving the test
It is quite important for me to administer the test myself, and more pleasant for my students.
Thus, I will be able, if I wish to remind them about the test content, and format before giving
out the papers; and sometimes run through the instructions with them after doing so in order
to make sure that everything is clear - as well as wishing them good luck!
During the test, I may help students who still have difficulty with instructions; I do not
normally help with the content itself.
After the test
The tests are marked and returned as quickly as possible (within a week) so that we can
discuss specific points while the test is still fresh in the students’ minds. Usually I go through
the answers in class. I tell them how I assessed this item and ask them if they agree with my
scoring. (It sometimes happens that I counted the points the wrong way or just missed a
correct answer).
TEST ON TESTING
1. What is a 'valid' test?
2. What is a 'reliable' test?
3. What is 'backwash'?
4. What is the difference between an 'achievement' test and a 'proficiency' test?
5. What is the difference between a 'diagnostic' test and a 'prognostic' test?
6. Can you give an example of a 'discrete-point' test?
7. Can you give an example of an 'integrative' test?
8. Are Questions 1-7 above examples of 'objective' or 'subjective' test items? Why?
9. Give examples of:
a) a multiple-choice item
b) an extract from a cloze test.
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10. Within the multiple-choice item you have given, can you identify:
a) the stem?
b) the options?
c) the distractors?
Test on testing:
1. A 'valid' test is one which actually tests what it is designed or intended to.
2. A 'reliable' test is one that produces consistent results when administered on different
occasions.
3. 'Backwash' is the effect, positive or negative, that a test has on the teaching and learning
that precede it.
4. An 'achievement' test measures how much of the material taught in a given course, or part
of one, has in fact been learned; a 'proficiency' test measures the overall language
proficiency of testees, without reference to a particular course.
5. A 'diagnostic' test reveals the strong and weak points of a learner's knowledge; a
'prognostic' test predicts how well he or she is likely to do in a language course.
6. 'Discrete-point' tests consist of separate items. For example, the following set of items
testing vocabulary:
Another word for 'sea' is _________.
The opposite of 'proud' is _____________.
Apples, pears and bananas are ____________________.
7. An 'integrative' test involves whole pieces of discourse and tests a relatively broad
command of the language: writing an essay for example, or doing a cloze test.
8. Questions 1-7 above are, strictly speaking, 'subjective' test items: the exact way you
express your answers may vary, and therefore there is an element of subjective judgment
in the way the tester will assess their correctness.
9. (a) An example of a multiple-choice item:
Many people these days _________ have enough to eat.
(1) doesn't (2) isn't (3) don't (4) aren't
(b) An extract from a cloze test:
A cold front is approaching from _________ west and we can therefore expect lower
________ tomorrow throughout the country. There is _____________________ to be
some rain in the morning, ___________________ it will become brighter later in the
________________________.
Guidelines for test preparation
• Validity. Check that your items really do test what they are meant to!
• Clarity. Make sure the instructions for each item are clear. They should usually include a
sample item and solution.
• 'Do-ability'. The test should be quite do-able: not too difficult, with no trick questions.
Ask a colleague to read through it and answer the questions before finalizing.
• Marking. Decide exactly how you will assess each section of the test, and how much
weighting (percentage of the total grade) you will give it. Make the marking system as
simple as you can, and inform the testees what it is: write in the number of points allotted
after the instructions for each question.
• Interest. Try to go for interesting content and tasks, in order to make the test more
motivating for the learners.
14
• Heterogeneity. The test should be such that lower-level students can feel that they are
able to do a substantial part of the test, while the higher-level ones have a chance to show
what they know. So include both easy and difficult items, and make one or more of the
difficult ones optional.
The actual design of a test, whether oral or written, formal or informal is, of course,
important, but it is not the end of the story.
How the test is actually administered can make a huge difference to motivation and
performance.
QUESTIONS ON TEST ADMINISTRATION
Before a test
• How far in advance do you announce the test?
• How much do you tell the class about what is going to be in it, and about the criteria for
marking?
• How much information do you need to give them about the time, place, any limitations or
rules?
• Do you give them any “tips” about how best to cope with the test format?
Giving the test
• How important is it for you yourself to administer the test?
• What do you say before giving out the test papers?
• Do you add anything when the papers have been distributed but students have not yet
started work?
• During the test, are you absolutely passive or are you interacting with the students in any
way?
After the test
• How long does it take you to mark and return the papers?
• Do you then go through them in class?
• Do you demand any follow-up work on the part of the students?
How can you assess the value of a test?
There are six factors that need to be taken into account when assessing the value of a test:
Match these factors with the questions:
1 practicality
2 reliability
3 validity
4 face validity
5 Backwash
6 Spin-off
a. Does it give consistent results, e.g. do the results tally with those
of similar students, and when marked by different people?
b. Do the students recognize it as a fair test, and will they therefore
perform to their ability?
c. Can the test be used subsequently for review and remedial
teaching?
d. Does it positively influence the teaching that will be done in
preparation for it?
e. Does it test what we want to test, and not something else?
f. How easy is it to set up, administer, and mark?
1___ 2___ 3___ 4___ 5___ 6___
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Testing vocabulary
For each example, define for yourself what aspects of the item(s) are being tested, and – just
as important – what is not being tested!
VOCABULARY-TESTING TECHNIQUES
Example 1
Choose the letter of the item which is the nearest in meaning to the word in italics:
He was reluctant to answer.
a) unprepared
b) unwilling
c) refusing
d) slow
Example 2
Choose the letter of the definition which comes closest in meaning to the word elated.
a) ready and willing b) tense and excited c) tending to talk a lot
d) in high spirits
Example 3
Draw lines connecting the pairs of opposites.
A
B
brave
female
cheap
asleep
fail
awake
expensive
succeed
cowardly
male
Example 4
Which of the prefixes in Column A can combine with which of the words in Column B?
Write out the complete words.
A
B
over
human
trans
national
super
flow
dis
form
inter
infect
Example 5
Underline the odd one out:
goat, horse, cow, spider, sheep, dog, cat.
Example 6
For each of the following words, write a sentence that makes its meaning clear.
1. wealth
2. laughter
3. decision
4. brilliant
Example 7
(The teacher dictates the words from Example 6, the students write them down.)
Example 8
(The teacher dictates the mother-tongue equivalents of the words in Example 6, the students
write down the target-language versions.)
16
Example 9
Fill in the gaps:
In the seventeenth ________________ Spanish ships sailed ______________to Central and
________________. America to fetch gold for the Spanish _______________ The ships were
often attacked by __________________,who infested the 'Spanish Main' (the sea __________
north-east of Central and South America).
Example 10
Complete the passage using the words from the list:
area, century, pirates, government, regularly, South
In the seventeenth_________________Spanish ships sailed ____________________to
Central and ___________________America to fetch gold for the Spanish_______________.
The ships were often attacked by_______________, who infested the 'Spanish Main' (the sea
___________________north-east of Central and South America).
Example 11
(Students are given sentences in the mother tongue to translate into the target language; or
vice versa.)
Example 12
Finish the following sentences:
1.1 feel depressed when...
2.1 never have an appetite when...
3. It was a great relief when...
Example 13 Words and phrases
Taken from: http://schulen.asn-noe.ac.at/arge/eltnoe/nym/
Unit 06
When I think of the future, I'm _________________.
_________________ we should not use the car so much, but
_________________ we like to travel around a lot.
I think we _________________ start working together.
We ought to help the _________________.
They want to ________________ the public transport system.
In 1950, only twenty-nine _________________ of the people in the world
lived in a town or a city.
Large cities need ________________ amounts of water.
Cities often don't ________________ what people need.
Angst haben
einerseits ...
andererseits
sollte(n)
Entwicklungs-land
verbessern
Prozent
enorm, riesig
(an) bieten
Comments
Denotation: the literal meaning of a word
Connotation: In everyday usage, connotation has a different meaning. To explain this meaning, it is helpful to
explicate the partial theory or meaning that it presupposes. The theory goes like this: every word or phrase has
two kinds of meaning: primary, literal meanings (sometimes called denotations), and secondary meanings known
as connotations. Connotations are thought to colour what a word "really means" with emotion or value
judgments.
For example, a stubborn person may be described as being either strong-willed or pig-headed. Although these
have the same literal meaning (i.e. stubborn), strong-willed connotes admiration for someone's convictions,
while pig-headed connotes frustration in dealing with someone.
Childish means like a child, usually applied to an adult’s behaviour with negative connotations.
17
Examples 1 and 2: Multiple-choice
Multiple-choice questions are tricky and time-consuming to compose, but, if the answers are
clear, very quick and easy to mark. Note that a testee who does not know the answer has a 25
per cent chance of being right by guessing!
The second example allows for more careful and subtle distinctions in meaning.
Example 3: Matching
As in the previous examples, only meaning is tested; and is knowledge of an opposite a proof
that the testee knows the meaning of the original word? Matching items are quicker and easier
to compose than multiple-choice; but note that the last option - if the learner has all the others
right - becomes obvious. This problem can be corrected by the provision of more items in
Column B than in A.
Example 4: Matching
Here the only thing that is being tested is whether the testee is aware of the existence of the
(combined) word! Which probably means they also know its meaning, but this fact is not
actually being tested.
Example 5: Odd one out
Again, only meaning is being tested, and you have no way of being sure that all the items are
known. But this is at least more interesting to do, and usually easy to mark.
Example 6: Writing sentences
Spelling and pronunciation of the items are not tested, but most other aspects are. This is a bit
boring to do, and difficult to mark objectively, but does check the testee's knowledge fairly
well.
Example 7: Dictation
Dictation tests aural recognition and spelling only. However, if learners can recognize and
spell an item correctly they probably also know what it means: it is extremely difficult to
perceive, let alone spell, words you do not know. A relatively easy test to administer and
check.
Example 8: Dictation-translation
This checks if students know meaning and spelling only. There is the problem that the
mother-tongue translation may be inexact or misleading; but if it is a reasonable equivalent,
then this is a very quick, easy and convenient test to administer and check.
Example 9: Gap-filling
This tests meaning, spelling, to some extent grammar and collocation. But testees may write
down possibly acceptable items that are not in fact the originals, or what you intended; will
you accept them?
Example 10: Gap-filling with a 'pool' of answers
Meaning is tested here, also to some extent grammar and collocation. This version is easier to
do and mark than Example 9.
Example 11: Translation
Translation can test all aspects of an item. But there are better ways of testing.
Example 12: Sentence completition
18
This tests meaning only; but is “personalised” and interesting to do and read!
Example 14: Words and phrases
Words in context. To make it a bit more challenging for the students the words on the right
might be listed in a different order.
Task: Which of the above mentions techniques do these examples match?
1) Read the letter and fill in the missing words.
Dear Sue,
Italy was wonderful. Mum, Dad, Christine and I_______________ there by car and we
_________at a small hotel near Ancona. The food _______ wonderful. You know how
I love good food. I __________ spaghetti every day. We __________ swimming in the
morning and in the afternoon. There _________just one problem. We only ________for
ten days.
Frank
2) Write down the opposites of the following words.
long
_________
hot
_________
old
_________
black
_________
bad
_________
beautiful
_________
day
_________
difficult
_________
happy
_________
3) Circle the correct word.
Does John have a mascot? - Yes, he does.
He always ______ it to school when he has a test.
turns
takes
Where's your mascot? - In my room.
I always _____ it there on my bookshelf.
keep
get
Do you have a mascot? No, I don't _______ a mascot can help.
make
know
think
miss
Do you have a mascot, Sue? I don't______ a mascot, but I've got a wristband.
know
worry
melt
need
What happened when the man saw the snakes? - He
______ and ran away.
showed shouted built
What did the two men do? They _______ down to the lake and parked their car.
stopped drove
tried
swam
Why did the man stop? He wanted to ________ the girl home.
go
put
take
find
What happened when they got to the house? The man ________ out of the car.
went
found
took
got
stays
work
puts
do
took
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4) Match the verbs in the box with the pictures below.
1 light
2 drive
3 cut off
4 knock
5 wipe
6 watch
7 listen
8 bite
9 buy
10 put in
11 build
12 wait
13 take out
14 shout
15 collect
16 laugh at
5) Write down the words.
6) Fill in the correct word with each definition.
a little bit red: ______________________________
a person who steals things: _________________________________
a place where, for example, plastic is made: ________________________
a pet name for a cat: ____________________________________
a place where you can buy and sell things: __________________________
a place where many trees grow: __________________________________
to go away in a car: _______________________________
20
7) What did Peter have to do last week?
Write sentences and use the verbs from the box.
cook
wash the dishes
(Geschirr abwaschen)
help
clean
go to bed
go shopping
8) Write the sentences.
things, painted the castle
and worked
for the King
in the mountains.
a lot of things
but nothing happened.
teacher.
in a cave
Kra, his old
in the garden.
his magic words,
went to see
Melric did
He cooked meals, repaired ______________________________________
_____________________________ .
One morning he said __________________________________________ .
So Melric ___________________________________________________
________________________ .
Kra lived _______________________________________________ .
21
9) Fill in the correct words from the box.
Note: there are more words in the box than you can fill in!
time
pet
her
sing
their
know
cow
families
goldfish
flowers
dogs
buy
it
steal
minute
us
About fifty per cent of all the __________ in the United Kingdom have some sort
of_____________. There are about eight million dogs and seven million cats in England,
Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland! Do you also want to ______________ a pet? Then
you must _____________ how to look after it. Too many people buy a pet and then after a
short ____________ want to get rid of it because they don't like looking after ___________.
So every year, about fifty thousand people get rid of ____________ pet dogs. There are over
four hundred thousand stray______________ in the United Kingdom.
10) Look at the pictures and fill in the words from the box.
put
open fridge walk put
wait
bowl
lead
your
finished tin
call
food
Open the _____________ .
Take out a _______________ of dog __________ .
_____________________ the tin.
_____________________ your dog.
_________________ the meat in a _____________ .
___________ until your dog has_______________.
Get the ______________________ .
___________________ your dog on the lead.
Go for a ___________
with ______________
dog.
22
11) Picture dictionary
12) Wordfield
23
Testing listening
Three people were on a train in England. As they approached what appeared to be Wemberly
Station, one of the travelers said, "Is this Wemberly?" "No," replied a second passenger, "it's
Thursday." Whereupon the third person remarked, "Oh, I am too, let's have a drink!"
The importance of listening in language learning can hardly be overestimated. Through reception,
we internalize linguistic information without which we could not produce language. In
classrooms, students always do more listening than speaking. Listening competence is universally
"larger" than speaking competence. Is it any wonder, then, that in recent years the language
teaching profession has placed a concerted emphasis on listening comprehension?
In an interactive, four-skills curriculum, make sure that you don’t overlook the importance of
techniques that specifically develop listening comprehension competence.
Include both bottom-up and top-down listening techniques.
Speech processing theory distinguishes between two types of processing in both listening and
reading comprehension.
Bottom-up processing proceeds from sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical
meanings, etc., to a final "message."
Top-down processing is evoked from "a bank of prior knowledge and global expectations"
and other background information that the listener brings to the text.
Bottom-up techniques typically focus on sounds, words, intonation, grammatical structures,
and other components of spoken language.
Top-down techniques are more concerned with the activation of schemata, with deriving
meaning, with global understanding, and with the interpretation of a text. It is important for
learners to operate from both directions since both can offer keys to determining the meaning
of spoken discourse. However, in a communicative, interactive context, you don't want to
dwell too heavily on the bottom-up, for to do so may hamper the development of a learner's
all-important automaticity in processing speech.
Exercise Types for Beginning-Level Listeners
This list is taken fromTeaching by Princioples; H. Douglas Brown; Prentice Hall Regents
1994)
Bottom-Up Exercises
1) Goal: Discriminating between Intonation Contours in Sentences
Listen to a sequence of sentence patterns with either rising or falling intonation. Place a check
in column I (rising) or column 2 (falling), depending on the pattern you hear.
2) Goal: Discriminating between Phonemes
Listen to pairs of words. Some pairs differ in their final consonant (stay/steak), and some pairs
are the same (laid/laid). Circle the word "same" or "different," depending on what you hear.
3) Goal: Selective Listening for Morphological Endings
Listen to a series of sentences. Circle "yes" if the verb has an -ed ending, and circle "no" if it
does not.
Listen to a series of sentences. On your answer sheet are three verb forms. Circle the verb
form that is contained in the sentence that you hear.
4) Goal: Selecting Details from the Text (Word Recognition) Match a word that you hear
with its picture.
24
Listen to a weather report. Look at a list of words and circle the words that you hear. Listen to
a sentence that contains clock time. Circle the clock time that you hear, among three choices
(5:30, 5:45, 6:15).
Listen to an advertisement, select out the price of an item, and write the amount on a price tag.
Listen to a series of recorded telephone messages from an answering machine. Fill in a chart
with the following information from each caller: name, number, time, and message.
5) Goal: Listening for Normal Sentence Word Order
Listen to a short dialog and fill in the missing words that have been deleted in a partial
transcript.
Top-Down Exercises
6) Goal: Discriminating between Emotional Reactions
Listen to a sequence of utterances. Place a check in the column that describes the emotional
reaction that you hear: interested, happy, surprised, or unhappy.
7) Goal: Getting the Gist of a Sentence) Listen to a sentence describing a picture and select
the correct picture.
8) Goal: Recognize the Topic
Listen to a dialog and decide where the conversation occurred. Circle the correct location
among three multiple choice items.
Listen to a conversation and look at a number of greeting cards that are pictured. Decide
which of the greeting cards was sent. Write the greeting under the appropriate card.
Listen to a conversation and decide what the people are talking about. Choose the picture that
shows the topic.
9) Goal: Build a Semantic Network of Word Associations
Listen to a word and associate all the related words that come to mind.
10) Goal: Recognize a Familiar Word and Relate It to a Category
Listen to words from a shopping list and match the words to the store that sells it.
11) Goal: Following Directions
Listen to a description of a route and trace in on a map.
Exercise Types for Intermediate-Level Listeners
Bottom-Up Exercises
12) Goal: Recognizing Fast Speech Forms
Unstressed function words. Listen to a series of sentences that contain unstressed function
words. Circle your choice among three words. Circle your choice among three words on the
answer sheet—for example: "up," "a," "of.
13) Goal: Finding the Stressed Syllable
Listen to words of two (or three) syllables. Mark them for word stress and predict the
pronunciation of the unstressed syllable.
14) Goal: Recognizing Words with Reduced Syllables
25
Read a list of polysyllabic words and predict which syllabic vowel will be dropped. Listen to
the words read in fast speech and confirm your prediction.
15) Goal: Recognize Words as They Are Linked in the Speech Stream
Listen to a series of short sentences with consonant/vowel linking between words. Mark the
linkages on your answer sheet.
16) Goal: Recognizing Pertinent Details in the Speech Stream
Listen to a short dialog between a boss and a secretary regarding changes in the daily
schedule.
Use an appointment calendar. Cross out appointments that are being changed and write in new
ones.
Listen to announcements of airline arrivals and departures. With a model of an airline
information board in front of you, fill in the flight numbers, destinations, gate numbers, and
departure times.
Listen to a series of short dialogs. Before listening, read the questions that apply to the
dialogs.
While listening, find the answers to questions about prices, places, names, and numbers.
Example:
"Where are the shoppers?" "How much is whole wheat bread?"
Listen to a short telephone conversation between a customer and a service station manager.
Fill in a chart which lists the car repairs that must be done. Check the part of the car that needs
repair, the reason, and the approximate cost.
Top-Down Exercises
17) Goal: Analyze Discourse Structure to Suggest Effective Listening Strategies
Listen to six radio commercials with attention to the use of music, repetition of key words,
and number of speakers. Talk about the effect these techniques have on the listeners.
18) Goal: Listen to Identify the Speaker or the Topic
Listen to a series of radio commercials. On your answer sheet, choose among four types of
sponsors or products and identify the picture that goes with the commercial.
19) Goal: Listen to Evaluate Themes and Motives
Listen to as series of radio commercials. On your answer sheet are listed four possible
motives that the companies use to appeal to their customers. Circle all the motives that you
feel each commercial promotes: escape from reality, family security, snob appeal, sex appeal.
20) Goal: Finding Main Ideas and Supporting Details
Listen to a short conversation between two friends. On your answer sheet are scenes from
television programs. Find and write the name of the program and the channel. Decide which
speaker watched which program.
21) Goal: Making Inferences
Listen to a series of sentences, which may be either statements or questions. After each
sentence, answer inferential questions, such as: "Where might the speaker be? " "How might
the speaker be feeling?" "What might the speaker be referring to?"
Listen to a series of sentences. After each sentence, suggest a possible context for the sentence
(place, situation, time, participants).
26
22) Goal: Discriminating between Registers of Speech and Tones of Voice
Listen to a series of sentences. On your answer sheet, mark whether the sentence is polite or
impolite.
23) Goal: Recognize Missing Grammar Markers in Colloquial Speech
Listen to a series of short questions in which the auxiliary verb and subject have been deleted.
Use grammatical knowledge to fill in the missing words: ("Have you) got some extra?" Listen
to a series of questions with reduced verb auxiliary and subject and identify the missing verb
(does it/is it) by checking the form of the main verb. Example: '"Zit come with anything else?
'Zit arriving on time?"
24) Goal: Use Knowledge of Reduced Forms to Clarify the Meaning of an Utterance
Listen to a short sentence containing a reduced form. Decide what the sentence means. On
your answer sheet, read three alternatives and choose the alternative that is the best paraphrase
of the sentence you heard. Example: You hear, "You can't be happy with that." You read: "(a)
Why can't you be happy? (b) That will make you happy, (c) I don't think you are happy".
25) Goal: Use Context to Build Listening Expectations
Read a short want-ad describing job qualifications in the employment section of a newspaper.
Brainstorm additional qualifications that would be important for that type of job.
26) Goal: Listen to Confirm Your Expectations
Listen to short radio advertisements for jobs that are available. Check the job qualifications
against your expectations.
27) Goal: Use Context to Build Expectations. Use Bottom-Up Processing to Recognize
Missing Words. Compare Your Predictions to What You Actually Heard
Read some telephone messages with missing words. Decide what kinds of information are
missing so you know what to listen for. Listen to the information and fill in the blanks.
Finally, discuss with the class what strategies you used for your predictions.
28) Goal: Use Incomplete Sensory Data and Cultural Background Information to
Construct a More Complete Understanding of a Text
Listen to one side of a telephone conversation. Decide what the topic of the conversation
might be and create a title for it.
Listen to the beginning of a conversation between two people and answer questions about the
number of participants, their ages, gender, and social roles. Guess the time of day, location,
tern perature, season, and topic. Choose among some statements to guess what might come
next.
Exercise Types for Advanced-Level Learners
Bottom-Up Exercises
29) Goal: Use Features of Sentence Stress and Volume to Identify Important Information
for Note Taking
Listen to a number of sentences and extract the content words, which are read with greater
stress. Write the content words as notes.
30) Goal: Become Aware of Sentence Level Features in Lecture Text
27
Listen to a segment of a lecture while reading a transcript of the material. Notice the
incomplete sentences, pauses, and verbal fillers.
3 I) Goal: Become Aware of Organizational Cues in Lecture Text
Look at a lecture transcript and circle all the cue words used to enumerate the main points.
Then listen to the lecture segment and note the organizational cues.
32) Goal: Become Aware of Lexical and Suprasegmental Marker for Definitions
Read a list of lexical cues that signal a definition; listen to signals of the speaker's intent such
as rhetorical questions; listen to special intonation patterns and pause patterns used with
appositives.
Listen to short lecture segments that contain new terms and their definitions in context. Use
knowledge of lexical and intonational cues to identify the definition of the word.
33) Goal: Identify Specific Points of Information
Read a skeleton outline of a lecture in which the main categories are given but the specific
examples are left blank. Listen to the lecture, and find the information that belongs in the
blanks.
Top-Down Exercises
34) Goal: Use the Introduction to the Lecture to Predict Its Focus and Direction
Listen to the introductory section of a lecture. Then read a number of topics on your answer
sheet and choose the topic that best expresses what the lecture will discuss.
35) Goal: Use the Lecture Transcript to Predict the Content of the Next Section
Read a section of a lecture transcript. Stop reading at a juncture point and predict what will
come next. Then read on to confirm your prediction.
36) Goal: Find the Main Idea of a Lecture Segment
Listen to a section of a lecture that describes a statistical trend. While you listen look at three
graphs that show a change over time and select the graph that best illustrates the lecture.
37) Goal: Use incoming Details to Determine the Accuracy of Predictions about Content
Listen to the introductory sentences to predict some of the main ideas you expect to hear in
the lecture. Then listen to the lecture as it is played. Note whether or not the instructor talks
about the points you predicted. If she/he does, note a detail about the point.
38) Goal: Determine the Main Ideas of a Section of a Lecture by Analysis of the Details
in that Section
Listen to a section of a lecture and take notes on the important details. Then relate the details
to form an understanding of the main point of that section. Choose from a list of possible
controlling ideas.
39) Goal: Make Inferences by Identifying Ideas on the Sentence Level That Lead to
Evaluative Statements
Listen to a statement and take notes on the important words. Indicate what further meaning
can be inferred from the statement. Indicate the words in the original statement. Indicate the
words in the original statement that serve to cue the inference.
28
40) Goal: Use Knowledge of the Text and the Lecture Content to Fill In Missing
Information
Listen to a lecture segment to get the gist. Then listen to a statement from which words have
been omitted. Using your knowledge of the text and of the general content, fill in the missing
information. Check your understand by listening to the entire segment.
41) Goal: Use Knowledge of the Text and the Lecture Content to Discover the Lecturer's
Misstatements and to Supply the Ideas That He Meant to Say
Listen to a lecture segment that contains an incorrect term. Write the incorrect term and the
term that the lecturer should have used. Finally, indicate what clues helped you find the
misstatement.
Examples taken from YOU&ME
1) Listen to the interviews and tick the correct answer.
Brian went to
Chicago
Italy
Austria
He went with his
dad
mother
sister
They went by
plane
car
train
They played
badminton
football
golf
They stayed for
one week
two weeks
three weeks
Christine went to
Chicago
Italy
Austria
They went by
She went with her
They played
plane
dad
car
mother
train
sisters
badminton
golf
They stayed for
one week
with the cats
and the dogs
two weeks
brother
table tennis
brothers
three weeks
2) Listen and take notes. Find out the following.
Where did Brian go?
Where did Christine go?
Who went with him?
Who went with her?
How did they get there?
How did they get there?
Where did they stay?
Where did they stay?
How long did they stay there?
How long did they stay there?
What did they do all day?
What was the weather like?
What did they do all day?
29
3) Listen to Sylvia, Steven and Pam talking about how they get home
from their school. Mark the routes on the map and write the children's
names in their houses.
4) Sandra, Jim and Lucy are talking about mascots.
Listen and tick true or false.
T
F
Sandra has three mascots.
Two of her mascots are toy animals, a turtle and a mouse.
Sandra got the mouse from her brother James.
Her mother bought Sandra's necklace in Italy.
Jim likes mascots very much.
He thinks mascots can help you when you have a test.
Lots of children in his class have mascots.
Lucy doesn't have a mascot, but her friend Sarah has one.
Lucy's lucky number is thirty-two.
Lucy's birthday is in December.
30
5) Listen to the story and put the pictures in the correct order.
Write 1 to 10 in the pictures.
6) Listen to the text and complete the sentences.
Archibald was very unhappy because ________________
One day Archibald was able to get out of the chains because he ________________
Archibald went back ________________
The people in the castle said, "Now the ________________
The people in the castle brought Archibald ________________
One Saturday Archibald ________________
At midnight Archibald ________________
After the dance Archibald ________________
Dee put ________________
Dee screamed,"________________
Archibald said to Dagobert," ________________
31
7) First read through the sentences below. Then listen to the story "How
Melric helped a girl at school". Finally, put the sentences into the
correct order.
The magic words were, "I can do it. I can do well in tests."
She was smiling and said, "It works! It works! I can really do it! I can do well in tests!"
Melric asked her what was wrong.
Melric looked at the girl and said, "I told you. It's easy."
Melric said to her, "I can help you. You must say some magic words to yourself every
night before you close your eyes."
One day, Melric was in the park behind the King's garden.
The girl said the magic words to herself six times every night.
She said, "I'm crying because I'm so bad at school."
Suddenly he saw a girl. She was very sad.
Three weeks later, Melric saw the girl in the park again.
8) Barbara, Paul and Hannah are talking about sports.
Listen to the cassette twice and take notes on a piece of paper.
Then write down at least two sentences about each of the children.
Barbara: _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Paul:_________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Hannah:______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
9) Listen to the story of how Melric helped a girl and write a summary.
32
10) Listen and find out where American children Kathleen, George,
Jessica and David live. Write the name below the correct picture.
______________
______________
______________
______________
11) Listen to Richard, Sue and Jamie talking about pets.
Then match the sentence halves below.
Richard has got
got them from his grandparents.
His budgies' names
brown and black guinea pig.
Pit and Pat are four. He
but Richard and his sister like it.
Richard's sister's got a
are Pit and Pat.
It's a lot of work to clean out the cages,
two budgies.
Sue would like to have a dog, but she
in a house with a big garden.
Her parents say she can keep fish,
lives in a small flat.
In her dreams she lives
but she thinks they are boring.
Jamie's friend Sandra's got a little cat. Her
name
on holiday, Jamie looked after
Patches.
The cat's eyes are green and her
is Patches.
When Sandra and her parents went
fur is brown and white.
12) Fill in numbers to put the lines into the correct order.
and feed on tropical fruit and insects.
jungles of South and Central
America
holes high up in the trees. They usually
live for about twenty years.
The toucan is one of the most beautiful
birds in the world. Toucans live in
the
in groups. They build their nests in
They are very noisy and like to
stay
33
Testing reading
Setting questions to answer, whether before or after the text, is not, of course, the only way to get
learners to engage with the meaning of a reading passage, and find out, whether they have understood
the text.
Task: Have a look at the reading tasks below. Try to group / categorize them:
1) Read the text and answer the questions.
When is Barbara's birthday?
________________________________
How old is she?
________________________________
What does she do in the morning?
________________________________
How many cards does she get?
________________________________
What does she get from her family?
________________________________
What does the boys and girls do at four
o'clock?
________________________________
________________________________
How does she feel at eight o'clock?
________________________________
________________________________
2) Read the text. There are four sentences in the text that do not belong
in it. Cross them out
34
3) Insert the following sentences into the text below.
(Write the correct numbers in the boxes.)
"But this man has stolen it.
And he knew he could not feed his family without him.
She had an idea.
In the group of people, there was also a magician.
He became (wurde) very angry.
Patrick worked all day with his donkey to feed his family. Then one day his donkey died.
Patrick was very unhappy. He knew he could not work without his donkey.
Patrick spoke
to his wife about the problem.
The next day, they walked into town. They saw a rich man.
He was pulling a donkey behind him. Patrick's wife took the donkey and put the rope round
Patrick's neck. The rich man did not notice that. But when Patrick stopped, the man saw that
he did not have a donkey any longer.
"You have stolen my donkey," he shouted. When
people heard this, they stopped and came closer.
"What's the problem?" the magician
asked. "I had a donkey on this rope," the rich man said.
I want my donkey back." "That is
not a problem," the magician said and changed Patrick into a donkey.
4) Read the story and tick true or false.
T
F
The two boys were five and six.
Their parents said, "There's a dark man in the cupboard."
The boys often opened the cupboard.
One evening the boys saw a hole in the cupboard.
A black head looked out of the hole.
One evening they opened the cupboard and there were some very
strange noises.
The next time the parents heard the screams they didn't want to get
up.
The mother went to the children's room and found only one boy.
35
5) Read the four letters. Then match them with the answers.
6) Find the correct answers to the questions.
Who wants to steal the painting?
We heard the man in the telephone box
talking about it.
How do you know about this
burglary?
Let's go to the police.
When are they going to break into
the house?
We saw it on television.
What shall we do?
The man in the telephone box.
Where did you get this idea from?
Tonight at midnight.
36
7) Read the summary of "The bullies" and complete the sentences.
When Henry went home from school, he had to use the f__________ over the motorway.
One day Alec and Richard f___________ 3C stopped Henry. They w___________50p.
The next day Henry gave t___________ the 50p. A week
I___________
Alec and Richard were at the footbridge again, but Henry had no
p___________ money left.
Alec held Henry's coat and Richard p___________
They took Henry's pencil case and t___________
him in the face.
it from the footbridge onto
the motorway.
The next day Henry wanted to b___________
50p from Vanessa, a girl in his class.
Vanessa asked Henry what he needed the 50p for. So Henry t___________
her
about Alec and Richard, and Vanessa went home with him after school.
Alec and Richard were at the f___________ . They were angry
b___________ Vanessa was there. At home the children told Henry's mother
a___________ Alec and Richard. Henry's mother p___________
the headmaster. The n___________
They said, "We're very s___________
day Alec and Richard came into Henry's class.
, and here's the money we
took from you."
8) Below is the beginning of the story "Patrick's new donkey". Write the
text. Note: There are eight sentences.
Patrickworkedalldaywithhisdonkeytofeedhisfamilyonedayhisdonkeydiedpatrickwasve
ryunhappyhecouldnotworkwithoutadonkeythenhiswifehadanideatheywalkedintotownt
heysawarichmanhewaspullingadonkeyalongonarope.
9) Read the beginning of the text. Then write an ending.
37
10) Read the following story. Then write a summary of not more than
100 words.
38
Testing speaking
Of all four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing)), speaking seems intuitively the
most important: peole who know a language are referred to as „speakers“ of that langiage, as
if speaking included all other kinds of knowing.
ORAL TESTING
When testing the oral proficiency of learners we may simply interview them and assess their
responses; or use other techniques like role play, group discussion between learners,
monologie, picture-description and so on.
But choosing an appropriate elicitation technique is only one part of the problem; there are
many other difficulties associated with design, admonistration and assessment.
Penny Ur (A Course in Language Teaching, p 135) suggests a scale of oral testing criteria.
The candidates are tested on fluency and accuracy, and may get a maximum of five points on
each of these two aspects, ten points in all.
Accuracy
Little or no language produced
Poor vocabulary, mistakes in basic
grammar, may have very strong
foreign accent
Adequate but not rich vocabulary,
makes obvious grammar mistakes,
slight foreign accent
Good range of vocabulary,
occasional grammar slips, slight
foreign accent
Wide vocabulary appropriately
used, virtually no grammar
mistakes, native-like or slight
foreign accent
Fluency
1
Little or no communication
1
2
Very hesitant and brief utterances,
sometimes difficult to understand
2
3
Gets ideas across, but hesitantly and
briefly
3
4
Effective communication in short
turns
5
Easy and effective communication,
uses long turns
4
5
TOTAL SCORE OUT OF 10: __________________
WRITTEN TESTING
Task : Look at the examples below and try to group / clasify them.
39
1) Put the sentences of the dialogue into the correct order.
The white one, please. It looks so sweet.
How much is it?
Which one would you like?
£8.50? OK, I'll buy it for you.
The little cat, please.
Mum, can I have a little soft toy?
The white one or the black one?
£8.50.
2) Complete the following dialogue.
In a shop
Francis: Mum, can I have that T-shirt?
Mother: ________________ ?
Francis: The blue one.
Mother: Why _________________________________? It's £8.
The red _____________________ only £5
Francis: It has got my ______________________ on it.
Mother: Where?
Francis: On the back. See!? It says SEVEN.
Mother: Alright.
40
3) In the box there are questions from the dialogue below.
Where do they belong?
What about her?
And what do I say?
Who is it?
You mean now?
What's wrong, my dear?
Do you like the new girl?
Mum:
____________________________________________?
Angela: Nothing.
Mum:
But you look really sad, dear.
Angela: Oh well, it's just because .. .
Mum:
What?
Angela: Oh, it's Clare.
Mum:
____________________________________________?
Angela: She says she doesn't want to be my best friend any more.
Mum:
You mean another girl is her best friend now?
Angela: Yes.
Mum:
____________________________________________?
Angela: There's this new girl, Cathy, you see .. .
Mum:
And Clare wants to be best friends with her?
Angela: That's what she said.
Mum:
____________________________________________?
Angela: Yes, I think she's very nice.
Mum:
Well, why don't you phone her and Clare?
Angela: ____________________________________________?
Mum:
Yes, why not?
Angela: ________________________________________ ?
Mum:
Well, ask them to meet you in the park.
Angela: OK. Good idea. I'll phone them.
Mum:
Good.
Angela: Thanks, Mum.
Mum:
That's OK, dear. Have a nice day.
41
4) The day after the burglary, a newspaper reporter asked Mark lots of
questions. Write Mark's answers.
Reporter:
How did you find out about the burglary?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
Reporter:
Where did you go first?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
Reporter:
Did they believe your story?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
Reporter:
What did you do the next day?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
Reporter:
Who opened the door?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
Reporter:
Was he afraid when you told him?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
Reporter:
What did you do then?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
Reporter:
What plan?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
___________________________________________________ .
Reporter:
Why did you dress up as ghosts?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
Reporter:
And did you frighten them?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
Reporter:
And what happened then?
Mark:
___________________________________________________ .
5) Complete the dialogue. Add five more sentences.
A:
Have you got a pet?
B:
Yes, a _____________________ .
A:
What colour is it?
B:
_______________________________________ .
A:
_______________________________________ ?
B:
_______________________________________ .
A:
_______________________________________ ?
B:
_______________________________________ .
42
6) Can you write the dialogue?
It's
____________________________________________.
Julie:
Look, Mark, a man
Mark:
__________________________________ .
What shall we do?
Julie:
Run over to the
______________________________________ and
____________________ the
_______________________.
________________________________________later .
Policeman:
Which
_____________________________________?
Mark:
_______________________________________ .
Policeman:
But there are
(Goes over.)
Where's the
Man:
______________________________ on.
________________________________? Ah.
Yes. What is it?
Policeman:
Is this your
Man:
____________________________?
Yes, it is.
Policeman:
Well, why did you
_______________________in through the
______________________?
Man:
I didn't have my
Policeman
__________________________.
Why not?
Man:
Because it's in my
____________________________.
And where is your
___________________________?
Policeman
Man:
I don't know.
Policeman
You don't know?
43
Man:
No, I went to a
my
:Policeman
__________________________. And when I got up to go home,
_________________wasn't there.
And what did you do then?
Man:
I went to the
______________________________. And I told you.
Policeman:
Me?
Man:
Yes, you. An hour ago. You wrote everything down. My name is Cooper.
Policeman:
I'm sorry, Mr Cooper. I remember now.
7) Fill in the speech bubbles.
Mum, Mum, I've hurt my knee.
Dad, Dad, ________________ the
_________________ .
Hi, Simon, Look, ____________________ a
___________________ .
__________________ the ________________,
Mum.
__________________ the ________________, Dad.
Can I have my two pounds, please?
________________ a lovely big ________________
for you!
44
8) Write Frederick’s dialogue with his dad.
Frederick:
Dad?
Dad:
Yes, what is it?
Frederick:
Mum said I should ask you about it?
Dad:
About what?
Frederick:
_______________________________________________________________
Dad:
_______________________________________________________________
Frederick:
_______________________________________________________________
Dad:
_______________________________________________________________
Frederick:
_______________________________________________________________
Dad:
_______________________________________________________________
Frederick:
_______________________________________________________________
Dad:
______________________________________________________________
9) Write about your mascot
Schreib, dass du einen Glücksbringer hast,
dass es ein Kuscheltier ist.
Schreib, dass du es von deiner Oma
bekommen hast.
Schreib, dass du es manchmal mit in die
Schule nimmst.
Schreib, dass du denkst, dass es dir
manchmal hilft
45
TESTING WRITING
Task: Have a look at the examples below and try to group / categorize them
1) Look at the following pictures and write down the story (past tense).
2) Read the beginning of the story and then write an ending.
3) Write the text.
Wh ____ l'_ nerv____ l ta____ t___ m__ sis____ .
Sh__ i__ nev__ nerv____ .
l'__ nerv____ wh___ l ha__ a Fre____ te____ beca____ l'__ no__ ve____ go____ a____
Fre____ .
l al____ ge__ nerv____ wh____ th__ Fre____ teac____ as____ m__ a ques____ an__ I
do__'__ kn____ th__ ans____ .
Th__ l bi____ m__ finge__ .
l'm sca____ o__ bi____ do____ an____ somet______ I'__ sca____ wh___ I'__ alo__ a__
ho____ .
Wh____ l'__ ang____ l g__ t__ m__ ro____ an__ pl____ mus____ .
46
4) Write about your/your friend's lousy week.
5) Write down six sentences.
6) Use the words in the box to write a story.
spaceship
land
garden
present
chicken
two heads
spaceman
fly away
two eggs
every day
breakfast
eat egg
grow bigger
build new
house
two years
later
present box
of
chocolates
eat
grow smaller
47
7) Think about next week. Write about four things that you'll probably
do. ´Start like this:
On Monday I'll ......
8) Imagine that this is a letter to you from your pen friend in California.
Write an answer of about 80 words.
9) Write five sentences about what you had to do last week (use five
different verbs).
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
10) Look at the picture and then read the text. Find the mistakes and
write the correct text.
Start like this: Ken lives in Beech Street. It's a nice house with a small garden.
Ken lives in Beech Street. It's a nice house with a big
garden around it. To the left of the front door there is
a flowerbed in the lawn. There is a swimming pool
between the house and the garage. There are four
windows on the first floor and three on the second.
There are curtains at all the windows. On the roof
there is a satellite dish. The house has two
chimneys. The garden does not have a fence. The
mailbox is in front of a big tree to the left of the
house.
48
11) Look at the picture story below. Use the sentence starters from box A
and words from box B and write the story of Steve's dream.
Start like this:
A
B
In his dream he ...
Steve didn't ....
One night ...
Steve's parents liked ....
Last August Steve's family moved into a new house. It was ....
He wanted ....
The next morning, their house was gone.
"What can ... "
To the right and to the left of ....
"I'd like ... "
in the city
lots of other houses
in the country (auf dem
Land)
big building
dream
in its place (an seiner
Stelle)
tree house
magician
49
12) Write your own ending to the story of Michael and the little brown
dog.
Use some of the words from the box.
went
downstairs
name
happy
afternoon
played
old man
father
Start like this:
Two weeks later, when Michael looked out of the window of his room, he saw the little
brown dog in their garden. Michael quickly ...
13) Write a story of about 100 words. Choose one of the following titles
for your story.
The day the cats went missing again
The case of the missing dogs
The animal detectives
50
A) Correction Symbols
Art Article
Frag Sentence Fragment
Prep Preposition error
Quant Quantifier error
I ate apple for lunch.
Because I was so tired.
I live on Buxton Hall.
I have only met a few of Americans.
RO
Run-on sentence (too
long)
When we arrived in Portland, the weather was beautiful, it
was sunny
but not too hot it seemed like there wasn't very much
pollution in the air.
S/P
S/V
Sp
VF
VT
WF
WM
WO
WW
??
Singular/Plural error
Last night I read fifteen page.
Subject/Verb error
All of my classes is interesting.
Spelling error
What time does the movey start?
Verb Form error
I was arrived here on Sept. 10th.
Verb Tense error
If I have any money, I would loan you some.
Word Form error
What's worng? You look sadness.
Word Missing
What are you going write about?
Word Order error
I play basketball at Dixon every night Thursday.
Wrong Word
You should wear an umbrella if you go out.
Difficult to understand
It makes that I believes kind.
B)
Content, Organization and Logic:
focus
¶
org
coh
trans
or tr
weak
?
or
+
Paragraph or section lacks a clear focus
Problems with paragraphing
Organization problems
These sentences are not well connected. These ideas do not seem to be related.
A transition is needed here. Transitions include the following: nevertheless, in
addition, in fact, then, furthermore, as a result, consequently.
Sentence is vague or general or states the obvious.
Something has been left out here.
Point is unclear.
Excellent beginning, ending, use of detail, word choice
51
Sentence Structure:
frag
NS
RO
AWK or
K
The sentence is not complete. This group of words is a fragment.
Not a sentence. Words are left out; syntax is ungrammatical.
Two sentences are punctuated as one. This is a run-on sentence.
This sentence does not sound right; it lacks smoothness.
//
comb
coord/sub
Ref
T
DM
MM
Chop
Wordy
()
Shift
Awk
passive
or pass
Similar ideas or elements are not expressed in identical grammatical
constructions. Sentence contains an error in parallelism. (e.g., The report
revealed a growth in sales but that sales had dropped.)
These sentences should be combined.
Coordination/Subordination problem - Connect ideas by using connectives
which express the ideas exactly. (e.g., My grandfather took a long vacation, and
his health did not improve.)
A pronoun must refer clearly to the right antecedent. Sentence contains an
example of ambiguous reference, general reference, or weak reference.
(AMBIGUOUS: The partnership between Bob and Dave ended when he drew
the firm's money from the bank and flew to Brazil.
GENERAL: Macbeth's mind was constantly imagining horrible things and that
frightened him.
WEAK: When we boarded the plane for Texas, we learned it would take four
hours.)
Verb tense is incorrect or has shifted.
Modifier is dangling (e.g., Carrying a heavy pile of books, her foot caught on the
steps.).
Modifier is misplaced (e.g., I bought a computer for the staff, which gave us
trouble.).
Sentences are too short and choppy.
Sentence contains unnecessary repetition or superfluous words.
Specific words to be removed.
Shift in person. (e.g., If a person studies hard in high school, you will have no
trouble in college.)
Awkward use of passive voice. Use passive voice when the actor is unknown
(e.g., The door had been closed before we arrived.) or when it is not desirable to
disclose the actor (e.g., A mistake was made in this order.) Awkward: The game
was won when a goal was kicked by Jim.
Usage:
Agree
or ag
V
T
Mood
Sentence contains errors in agreement between noun/pronoun, (e.g., The city has
their own parade.); noun/verb (There's three choices for lunch.); pronoun/pronoun
(e.g., Each of the students brought their own skates.); pronoun/verb (e.g., Neither of
your answers were correct.)
Verb is incorrect (e.g., The puppy is laying down.).
Verb is incorrect in tense (e.g.,Suddenly she remembered she promised to meet him
at eight.).
Verb form is incorrect, mood (e.g., I wish I was a farmer.).
52
Case
Mod
Case of pronoun is incorrect. (e.g., Come skiing with Becky and I.)
Modifier is incorrect. (e.g., Which of the ten photos is more attractive?) (e.g., I feel
badly about the broken glass.)
Diction (Word Choice):
Ch or WW
Red
Dic or D
Trite/cliche
Word chosen is not the best in this context.
Redundant (e.g., descend down the stairs).
Inappropriate word choice; shift from one level of diction to another. (e.g.,
formal English to informal or to slang.)
The expression is overused. (e.g., His hands are as cold as ice. They should
bury the hatchet.)
Mechanics:
cap
P
P
P
sp
Capitalization error.
Punctuation omitted.
Punctuation incorrect
Punctuation unnecessary.
Spelling error
C) UCI Correction Symbols
Symbol Meaning
agr
agreement
cs
dm
comma splice
dangling
modifier
fragment
idioms /
set expressions
mixed
constructions
punctuation
redundancy
frag
id
mixed
p
red
ref
ro
sp
s-v
unclear
pronoun
reference
run-on
t
vb
spelling
subject-verb
agreement
tense
verb form
wf
word form
Example
Between you and I, each one of us needs their own
job.
I had a question, I asked the professor.
After talking to him, the information was clear.
Advice
If you were a scientist.
He was involved on the engineering projects.
He decided to go to school is because he felt better.
Though odd this story is true.
This class seems easy, so I'm going to take this
class.
My essay is in my car and my keys are under the
seat. Will you please bring it?
No one knows the answer it is hard to solve each
problem.
Acheiving dreams is importent.
Everybody have traditions.
I will be in class yesterday.
He is enroll in French, and he is try to added
another class. He will has to spend more time study.
We will become independence thinkers and writers.
53
ww
^
wrong word
insert
delete
He was very tired that he left.
She will be enrolled just time.
He fell off of his bicycle.
¶
paragraph
-//
#
parallelism
add a space
move here
transpose
Researchers have found evidence of insecticides in
our ocean.
One of the first studies was completed two years
ago.
Winning and lose is part of playing the game.
It's infront of the building.
The boy revised his work who was sitting next to
me.
She's on time usually.
rephrase
He hasn't got a clue.
??
D)
Not
It's like which that you need.
understandable
Standard Correction Symbols
ab
Abbreviation: Either the abbreviation is not appropriate, or the abbreviation is
wrong.
agr
Agreement: An error in agreement of subject and verb or of pronoun and
antecedent (the word to which the pronoun refers) has occurred.
cap
Capital Letters: Either a capital was omitted or used when it was not needed.
cont
Contractions: Either the contraction is not appropriate, or it is incorrect.
cs
Comma Splice: A comma has been used to join two complete sentences. This
is a more specific type of run-on sentence. See “Common Errors” for help.
d or wc
Diction: poor or wrong word choice has been used.
ds
Dummy Subject: A sentence starts with the word there.
frag
Sentence Fragment: A group of words has be punctuated as a sentence.
k or awk
Awkward Sentence Structure: The sentence is clumsy. Restructure it.
m
Messy
nc
Not Clear: Rewriting is necessary.
no ¶
No paragraph is needed.
^
A word(s) has been omitted
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//
Parallel structure is missing. See “Common Problems” for help.
¶
Paragraph is needed.
p
An error in punctuation has occurred.
ref
The reference is unclear.
rep
Repetition: A word, a phrase, an idea, something written in a preceding
sentence has been unnecessarily repeated.
rs or ro Run-on Sentence: Two sentences have been run together without proper punctuation.
sp
A spelling error has occurred.
ss
Sentence structure is poor.
trans
Transition is weak or lacking.
vt or tense
Verb tense is inconsistent or incorrect.
w
Wordy: Unnecessary words are clouding the point.
E) CORRECTION SYMBOLS
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F) Correction Symbols & Abbreviations
Acc = Accuracy! Your quotation is inaccurate in some detail, perhaps by omitting an
initial capital letter at the start of a line. If your quotation is run into your own text (as
opposed to being indented and typed line for line), indicate line breaks by using a
slash.
Agr = Agreement: the subject and verb are not in agreement as to number. Plural
subjects take plural verbs. The mere presence of a plural noun in between the subject
and verb does not justify changing the verb to the plural if the grammatical subject is
singular. Watch out for constructions like "Shakespeare's use of imagery and
connotation adds to the powerful effect of his characters' speeches." The grammatical
subject there is "use"; the fact that two other nouns intervene doesn't change this; the
verb must be singular.
CF = Comma fault: you are using a comma here to separate independent clauses or
sentences. Substitute either a semicolon, if the items are closely related, or a period.
Dict = use your dictionary: look up the word and figure out what's wrong with the way
you used it.
Frg = Fragment: this is not a sentence, because it lacks a subject and/or a predicate.
(Look these terms up in your dictionary if they seem obscure.) However, if you've
earned your reader's confidence, an occasional fragment used for rhetorical effect will
be acceptable.
Huh? = An expression of your reader's befuddlement or incredulity. See "Obsc"
below.
Obsc = A more polite equivalent of "Huh?" Your meaning is unintelligible. (The fact
that your instructor may be perfectly well able to guess at what you meant to say
doesn't matter here. It's your job to actually say what you mean.
Poss = a more long-winded way of drawing your attention to misuse (or absence) of
the apostrophe in a word in the posessive case
R = Rewrite the paper.
S or SP = spelling error (often involving the misuse of the apostrophe). Favorite
horrible examples result from confusion between "its" and it's" and between "to" and
"too." Errors like this are generally taken by educated readers as signs of semi-literacy.
That sounds harsh, but it's true.
W = wrong word, fault of diction.
# = the "space" mark (called the pound mark on the telephone keypad) as used by
proofreaders. Leave a space where this mark is inserted. You'll find it if you write "for
awhile" instead of "for a while" or "eventhough" instead of "even though".
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¶ = the "paragraph" mark. Probably means "Begin a new paragraph here" but may also
mean "You call this a paragraph?"
= the "dele" or delete symbol.
Correction Symbols Used
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Correction Symbols
58
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