Dinosauria Catalog - The Origins Museum Institute

Transcription

The Origins Museum Institute
presents
Dinosauria
From The Genesis Exhibit
THE LATE PALEOZOIC ERA
from 345 to 250 million
years ago
Inundated by the inland invasion of the seas throughout the
Mississippian (345 million years ago), the first division of the
Carboniferous period, immense tropical forest regions were fossilized
into deep carbon bands in the Earth’s crust. During the Pennsylvanian
(310 million years ago), the remaining division of the period, reptiles
diverged from their amphibious ancestors and began to proliferate on
the land.
By the Permian (280 million years ago), named for the discovery of
fossils near the region of Perm in western Siberia, mammal-like
reptiles (synapsids) had appeared, characterized by developments that
would ultimately distinguish them from their reptile ancestors and lead
to a new class of animals.
All of the continental land masses of the Cambrian collided during the
Permian, forming the supercontinent of Pangaea. A series of
devastating ice ages were triggered by the encroachment of the
supercontinent on both poles. The resulting widespread extinction that
ended the Permian period and the Paleozoic Era was of such massive
proportions that it has never been equaled, over 90 percent of all
species vanishing. The decimation of the once dominant multitudes of
mammal-like reptiles provided an ecological niche that favored the
surviving reptile groups.
71. Class Reptilia,
Subclass Synapsida
Aerosaurus wellesi
Early Permian, New Mexico
67. Subclass Labyrinthodontia,
Order Anthracosauria
Seymouria baylorensis
Early Permian, Texas
With a sturdy, terrestrial-type skeleton characteristic of reptiles and
a skull exhibiting prominent ear notches characteristic of
amphibians, Seymouria was long regarded as a primitive reptile
and the closest link to their amphibian ancestry. Because related
forms document the passage of a gilled larval stage, a
characteristic thoroughly eliminating them from the reptilian class,
Seymouria is now placed among the anthracosaurs (“Coal
Reptiles”) by most authorities, thus including this distinctly
terrestrial amphibian in the group of Permian labyrinthodont.
Although Seymouria (named for the town of Seymour, Texas
where it was discovered) differed very little from the
Pennsylvanian ancestors of the reptiles, it left no known
descendants. This exquisite skeleton is from the U.S. National
Museum.
The most primitive of the early synapsid reptile groups, the
pelycosaurs may have led a somewhat amphibious existence, similar
to that of alligators. Catching and killing its prey in jaws lined with
an extraordinary number of sharp teeth, Aerosaurus (“Air Lizard”)
was apparently an aggressive predator. Equipped with an unusually
long and flat swimming tail, this young pelycosaur probably preyed
on fish as well as on smaller, slower reptiles and amphibians.
Although undoubtedly cold-blooded, because of their specialized
bone structure the archaic synapsid reptiles are considered to be the
ancestors of the therapsids, the later and more advanced reptile group
that subsequently gave rise to warm-blooded mammals. Some
scientists have also noted affinities between the Early Permian
pelycosaurs and the later Permian freshwater mesosaurs, the possible
forerunners of the air-breathing, marine ichthyosaurs. Collected by
Charles Camp and Samuel Welles in 1928 and identified by Wann
Langston and Robert Reisz in 1981, this cluster of Early Permian
specimens also contains the dissociated bones of various other
reptiles and amphibians including an Eryops and an Edaphosaurus.
University of California at Berkeley.
70. Subclass Synapsida,
Order Pelycosauria
Dimetrodon limbatus
Early Permian, Texas
The aggressive, carnivorous Dimetrodon (“Dual Sized Tooth”),
distinguished by a prominent dorsal fin along its back, prowled the
upland regions of the swampy deltas of northern Texas along the
edge of a shallow, drifting sea. The dominant predator of this area,
Dimetrodon fed without competition on an abundant population of
large, defenseless amphibians. Belonging to the archaic order of
finback pelycosaurs, these early cold-blooded synapsids were
ancestral to the mammal-like reptiles of later Permian times.
Equipped with a ferocious arcade of palatine teeth (in addition to the
sharp teeth that lined their jaws). Incapable of sustaining an extended
chase, they probably hid in the lush vegetation, waiting for
unsuspecting prey to stray too close to escape a quick, surprise attack.
The creature’s impressive dorsal “sail” provided a large surface area
for warming the blood when exposed to sunlight and cooling it when
in the shade, although such spectacular features may evolve more
rapidly for the purpose of mating displays than for thermal functions.
By the Middle Permian, when the climate along the delta became too
dry to sustain them anymore, the Dimetrodons disappeared quite
suddenly from the fossil record. Brigham Young University.
THE TRIASSIC PERIOD
from 230 million to 195 million
years ago
There were no flowers or grasses at the beginning of the Triassic
period (named for a tri-layered sequence of strata first discovered in
southern Germany). Surrounded by a vast ocean, the supercontinent
of Pangaea almost entirely circled the globe at the equator. Identical
fossil remains found as far apart as Africa and North America
suggest that the fauna of this period roamed freely across vast
expanses o land that are now separated by the oceans. The Triassic
marked the dawning of the Mesozoic (“Middle Life”) Era, or the
Age of Dinosaurs.
Because much of Pangaea lay along the equator, climates were
generally tropical, and warm, ferny swamps teemed with primitive
amphibians and crocodiles. In the arid desert regions, reptiles
flourished with the extinction of mammal-like reptiles, producing the
highly successful archosaur group which gave rise to crocodiles,
pterosaurs, and a new kind of animal gradually appearing in the Late
Triassic fossil record: the “Dinosauria” (“Terrible Lizards”), which
continued appear in increasing varieties for the next 140 million
years. The gradual breakup of Pangaea beginning at the end of the
Triassic globally separated dinosaur populations along with the first
true mammals, tiny burrowing descendants of the mammal-like
reptiles.
76. Class Reptilia,
Subclass Archosauria
Euparkeria capensis
Early Triassic, South Africa
Crowding the archaic Permian protomammals out of their
dominant position in the competition for food, the rapidly evolving
Triassic reptiles known as thecodonts (“Socket Tooth”) were
distinguished by the development of remarkably open skulls,
hollow bones that were lightweight but very strong, and jaws lined
with individually socketed teeth. This group of ancestral
archosaurians (“Ruling Reptiles”) gave rise to the early
saurischians and ornithischians of the Late Triassic (collectively
known as the dinosaurs) as well as to crocodiles, birds, and the
extinct flying reptiles. Exemplifying this important parent group,
Euparkeria was a small creature that walked on 4 legs but, like the
modem crocodile, was capable of bipedal sprinting due to its
powerful hind leg muscles. A predator whose advantage over its
prey was its swiftness, Euparkeria was extremely close to the
immediate ancestry of the dinosaurs. This magnificent partial
skeleton is from the famous Karroo Formation. South African
Museum.
197. Class Reptilia,
Eoraptor lunensis
Triassic, Argentina
The earliest known dinosaur, the “dawn raptor” preyed on insects
and small 4-legged animals. Although it was an efficient, bipedal
predator, its primitive jaws lacked the “hinged” flexibility of its
carnivorous successors. The Argentine Museum of Natural Sciences.
Herrerasaurus
Triassic, Argentina
This early dinosaur was a primitive, bipedal carnivore with a flexible
jaw capable of entrapping its struggling prey. Argentine Museum of
Natural Sciences.
Sharovipteryx mirabilis
Triassic, Kyrgyzstan
Formerly known as Podopteryx, this small gliding animal soared
from tree to tree like a flying squirrel. Its name means “Sharov’s
Wings.” It lived during the early Triassic period about 245 million
years ago in Asia. With hind legs supporting a flight membrane, it
appears to be an ancestor of the pterosaurs. From the Russian
Paleontological Institute.
77. Class Amphibia,
Order Temnospondyli
Thoosuchus
Triassic, Russia
Still dependent on laying its eggs in water and undergoing a
larval stage with gills for breathing (as its fishlike ancestors did
when they first appeared during the Devonian Period), this small,
bottom-dwelling amphibian, its skull deeply grooved with nervebearing canals, was only partially adapted to terrestrial life. Private
collection.
78. Class Amphibia,
Suborder Stereospondyla
Aphaneramma
Late Triassic, Arizona
As a group, the Triassic stereospondyls, with their flat heads and
upward gazing eyes, were primarily bottom-dwelling predators.
Their weakly-limbed skeletons show an enigmatic regression in
development compared to those of their more sturdily-limbed
ancestors. Collected in the Moenkoepi Formation of Meteor Crater
by Charles Camp, Samuel Welles, and Frank Peabody in 1938.
University of California, Berkeley.
79. Class Amphibia,
Hadrokkosaurus bradyi
This large amphibian from the Moenkoepi Formation has the
superficial appearance of a large frog. The pronounced indentation
between the eyes, the pineal opening, sensitive to light and shade,
was used as a “third eye” by early bottom-dwelling fish and
amphibians. Derived from an ancient lineage of marine ancestors,
the once photosensitive pineal body is still retained as a vestigial
organ within the brains of all modern vertebrates. University of
California, Berkeley.
80. Class Amphibia,
Cyclotosaurus
Resembling a giant salamander, this amphibian spent most of its life
lying motionless on the murky bottoms of ancient lakes and rivers of
southwestern North America, its tiny limbs useless for support on
land. Often victims of drought, the fossilized remains of whole
populations are sometimes found desperately crowded together in
dried ponds. Derived from the labyrinthodonts of the Permian, they
were extinct by the end of the Triassic. University of California,
Berkeley.
81. Subclass Archosauria,
Order Thecodontia
Aetosaurus ferratus
Late Triassic, Germany
Resembling the armored dinosaurs of a later age, Aetosaurus
(“Eagle Lizard”) actually belonged to the prolific thecodont group.
Although some of these archosaurs were small, bipedal carnivores,
others were broad, 4-legged herbivores with heavily armored
bodies for protection against predators. Sporting an ominous
battery of spikes and bony plates, the well-known Aetosaurus lived
along the fringes of the Triassic marshes of Central Europe.
Although closely related to the ferocious aquatic crocodilians and
phytosaurs of its time, as evidenced by this mummified skeleton
with a perfectly preserved hide, Aetosaurus was probably a passive
animal, devoted mostly to uprooting vegetation with its blunt,
upturned snout. Widespread throughout the northern hemisphere,
aetosaurs are also found in Triassic formations of North America.
Humboldt Museum.
82. Dinosaur trackway
Grallator
Late Triassic, Connecticut
Pachypleurosaurus edwardsi
Triassic, Switzerland
This perfectly preserved in-situ skeleton belonged to a small
nothosaur, a marine reptile originally descended from terrestrial
stock, and direct ancestor of the giant plesiosaurs of the Jurassic.
Private collection.
Left in the mud by one of the earliest dinosaurs, this footprint of an
ancient Triassic coelurosaur (“Hollow-Tailed Lizard”) gives no hint
of the gigantic proportions of its descendants which were to follow.
Ranging up to 10 feet in length, it ran on its hind legs
counterbalanced by a long tail. This little theropod (“Beast Foot”),
with its serpentine neck and lightweight, hollow bones, is believed to
have been swift and agile, chasing prey and tearing it with sharp
claws and teeth. Such behavior strongly suggests a warm-blooded
metabolism, a theory popularized by the revolutionary paleontologist
Robert Bakker. Among the first tracks to be found in North America,
they were discovered in the Connecticut Valley during the early 19th
Century by Edward Hitchock, who died convinced that he had found
evidence of prehistoric birds. When later compared to verified
Coelophysis tracks, they proved to be remarkably similar. Private
collection.
83. Subclass Archosauria,
Suborder Theropoda
Coelophysis bauri
Late Triassic, New Mexico
Among the earliest of the dinosaurs to appear in the fossil record,
Coelophysis (“Hollow Form”) was a long-legged, 3-fingered
predator armed with long, slender jaws lined with sharp, serrated
teeth. With grasping claws freed by its upright posture,
Coelophysis was a formidable hunter, suspected of cannibalistic
tendencies due to the presence of young skeletons found within the
body cavities of some adult individuals that evidently fed on their
own young. Inhabiting the Late Triassic coniferous forests, this
graceful forerunner of the giant theropod dinosaurs of later ages (as
well as the first birds) appears to have lived in wandering herds
throughout northern New Mexico. Ranging from 3 to 10 feet in
length and weighing up to 65 pounds, these sleek, swift creatures
are known primarily from the remains of what appears to have
been an entire herd that perished together, possibly in a sandstorm
or during a flood. This spectacularly exposed in-situ skeleton, with
the remains of a devoured juvenile, is from the famous Chinle
Formation of Ghost Ranch. American Museum of Natural History.
84-85. Order Crossopterygii,
Family Coelacanthidae
Whitea
Triassic, British Columbia
For nearly 400 million years, these sluggish, passive creatures have
survived virtually unchanged. Derived from the primordial group
of freshwater fishes that produced the first terrestrial vertebrates
and distinguished by its primitive limblike fins, this ancient
carnivorous fish shows the preliminary bone structure that led to
amphibious walking on land. Well-known from ancient freshwater
and marine deposits, no fossil coelacanths (“Hollow Spine”) dating
less than 60 million years have been found. Formerly believed to
be long extinct, a rare extant species was discovered in 1938 off
the Comoro Islands in the Indian Ocean.
Inhabiting the ocean at depths exceeding 500 feet, these bright
bluefish swim with a peculiar synchronized rotation of the pelvic
and pectoral fins, which are capable of assuming nearly any
position. Possessing an elastic notochord instead of a segmented
backbone, the coelacanth, unlike most fish, bears its young live
rather than by laying eggs. Although their deep habitat appears to
be devoid of prey, dissected specimens reveal that they feed on fish
and squid, perhaps surviving between feedings by slowing their
metabolisms in the cold waters. Royal Tyrrell Museum of
Palaeontology.
86-87. Order Therapsida,
Infraorder Cynodontia
Thrinaxodon liorhinus
Early Triassic, South Africa
The transition from synapsid reptiles to mammals was gradual rather
than a quantum leap. Replacing gorgonopsids as the dominant
predators of the Early Triassic, cynodonts were small, fox-like
creatures with fewer reptilian characteristics than their ancestors.
Although exhibiting tiny pits in their skulls which appear to have
held whiskers and possessing a palate separating the nasal passages
from the mouth, distinctly mammalian features, the primitive
reptilian jaw structure of cynodonts retained certain prominent bones
that became greatly reduced in mammals and incorporated into the
inner ear.
Extremely close to the ancestry of the mammals, this group included
Thrinaxodon, an advanced therapsid of the forests of Antarctica and
the South African Karroo. Equipped with prominent canine teeth as
well as other dental features characteristic of early mammals,
Thrinaxodon is widely regarded as the original stock from which
they arose. In-situ skeleton and 2 skulls from the Karroo Formation.
University of California at Berkeley.
THE JURASSIC PERIOD
from 195 million to 140 million years ago
The Jurassic period, with its lush rainforests, derives its name from
an abundantly fossiliferous sequence of chalky deposits discovered
in the Jura Mountains bordering Switzerland and France. For the
70 million year duration of the Jurassic period, the supercontinent
of Pangaea was gradually being wrenched into 2 separate masses,
Gondwanaland (Africa, South America, Australia, India, Arabia,
and Antarctica) and Laurasia (Europe, Asia, Greenland, and North
America). Among the survivors of the Triassic extinction, tiny
primitive mammals began to diversify during the Early Jurassic.
By the dawning of the Late Jurassic (150 million years ago), the
Atlantic Ocean had formed and the drifting continents had barely
begun to resemble their present shapes. Gigantic dinosaurs that
cared for their young had evolved from their smaller Late Triassic
ancestors. Land bridges between the continents allowed the
thriving herds of dinosaurs to migrate across great distances. Palmlike plants appeared and flourished throughout the warm, swampy
landscapes of the period, nourishing the largest creatures that ever
walked the Earth.
89. Suborder Theropoda,
Infraorder Coelurosauria
Compsognathus longipes
Late Jurassic, Germany
Of all the known fossils of adult dinosaurs, Compsognathus
(“Elegant Jaw”) has the distinction of being the smallest. Running
upright on its strong hind legs and stalking the underbrush for
smaller Reptiles along the forested seashores of Jurassic Germany
and France, Compsognathus was a swift and capable hunter, armed
with sharp claws and teeth. This tiny coelurosaur was a relative of
such giant creatures as the Tyrannosaurus rex of a later age. More
closely related to Archaeopteryx (the bird-dinosaur), this skeleton
shows that they shared a very recent common ancestor, suggesting
that birds may have inherited their warm-blooded metabolisms
from their dinosaur forebears. The smaller bones exposed within
the rib cage of this well-known specimen have been identified as
the undigested skeleton of Bavarisaurus, a tiny lizard that was
devoured just before the predator died. With its neck and tail bent
backwards, this Compsognathus (discovered in 1861) was long
thought to have died in agony, although its posture is now
attributed to the tightening of tissues as the carcass dried out prior
to fossilization. From the famous lithographic limestone of
Solnhofen. Bavarian State Institute for Paleontology and Historical
Geography.
These small, feathered dinosaurs inhabited the Late Jurassic forests
of Central Europe 150 million years ago. Although adapted for
gliding and presumably for limited flight, these primitive ancestral
birds still retained efficient, grasping claws on each wing, as well as
a long bony tail and jaws lined with sharp archosaurian teeth.
perhaps the most famous fossil in the world, the spectacular “Berlin
specimen” was found in 1877. Owing to the faint preservation of its
flight feathers (overlooked for many years), the juvenile specimen,
known as the “Eichstatt specimen,” was long misidentified as a
Compsognathus.
90-92. Class Aves,
Subclass Archaeornithes
Archaeopteryx lithographica
The mounted skeleton, cast from the “London specimen” and
featured in a PBS Nova program, was discovered in 1861. These rare
specimens, the most complete ever found, are spectacular evidence
of an intermediate stage between Reptiles and birds. Because its
remains have only been found in deposits of shallow marine lagoons
rich in fossilized fish and squid, some believe Archaeopteryx
(“Ancient Wing”) was capable of diving for aquatic prey. Others
envision it darting along the ground bipedally, using its wings as
spoilers to increase its speed while chasing insects and small
Reptiles or for soaring from tree to tree. From the famous
lithographic limestone of Solnhofen. Berlin specimen from the
Humboldt Museum. Mounted specimen from the British Museum.
Juvenile specimen from the Jura Museum.
201. Class Aves,
Confusciusornis sanctus
Jurassic, China
194. Class Aves,
Cathayornis yandica
Jurassic, China
Roughly contemporary with the European Archaeopteryx, this
feathered theropod dinosaur from Asia more closely resembled
modern birds. Beijing Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology.
Possessing no tailbones, these early ancestors of modern birds lived
in Asia . About the size of ravens, their discovery revolutionized
long held concepts about the origins of birds. Beijing Institute of
Vertebrate Paleontology.
Capable of sustained flight as well as aerial acrobatics,
Rhamphorynchus was probably furry and warm blooded. The
leathery wing membrane, extraordinarily preserved in this specimen,
was reinforced with a lacing of special tissue. From the lithographic
limestone of Solnhofen. Humboldt Museum.
93. Superorder Archosauria,
Suborder Pterosauria
Rhamphorynchus gemmingi
The first vertebrate creatures capable of flight, the ancient pterosaurs
(“Winged Reptiles”), were not on the evolutionary path that led to
birds. Descended from early Triassic archosaurs and divided into 2
distinct groups by certain physical characteristics, the older genera
were Distinguished by their long tails. Among the most primitive,
Rhamphorynchus (“Beak Snout”) had a slender tail that ended in a
kite- shaped membrane which presumably served as a rudder.
Growing to lengths of up to 2 feet, its average wingspan was about 4
feet. With an elongated, flexible neck and extended jaws lined with
sharp, forward- slanting teeth, this predator hunted along the same
reefs and shorelines as Pterodactylus. Coiling its neck for diving and
lunging at fish and squid, Rhamphorynchus speared its prey in the
intermeshing barbs of its teeth, which allowed for no escape.
hollow, lightweight bones enabled them to venture significant
distances over the shallower waters of the ancient German seas,
where a number of the remains have been recovered, exquisitely
preserved along with impressions of their furry coats. From the
lithographic limestone of Solnhofen. Humboldt Museum.
Pterodactylus elegans
Once presumed to have been limited to gliding from high perches,
they are now believed to have been thoroughly agile in flight. They
were quite vulnerable to marine predators, judging by the numerous
pterosaur bones found in the stomachs of ichthyosaurs. The long,
narrow snout of Pterodactylus may have been an adaptation to
probing in the sand for burrowing worms. From the lithographic
limestone of Solnhofen. Humboldt Museum.
Pterodactylus kochi
Throughout the Jurassic, leathery-winged pterodactyls (“Wing
Finger”) would have been a common sight gliding on the tropical
breezes of the European coastal regions, catching up insects, small
fish, and squid in their long, sharply-toothed beaks. Pterosaurs
belong to the archosaur order, which also includes dinosaurs and
crocodiles. The first flying Reptiles to be discovered, the raven-sized
Pterodactylus, like all pterosaurs, was distinguished by its elongated
fourth finger which supported a powerful flight membrane. Their
95. Superclass Chelicerata,
Subclass Xiphosura
Mesolimulus walchi
Related to arachnids and the extinct eurypterids, the xiphosurans
range from the Cambrian to the present. Derived from trilobites that
had invaded estuaries and streams and lost their antennae (along with
other specialized modifications), they are today represented by
“living fossils” known as horseshoe crabs. Virtually unchanged since
the Permian, these arthropods dig along the beaches for worms and
other small prey, often burying themselves in the sand. Possessing a
pair of compound eyes (as well as a pair of simple ones) and
equipped with a spiny telson for correcting its position when
overturned, horseshoe crabs undergo periodic molting. Reflecting
their ancient ancestry, in fetal form they resemble trilobites. During
the spring mating season, males cling to the telsons of the females as
they crawl along the sandy shores. Dramatic evidence of this same
behavior in ancient forms is provided by the well-documented
Jurassic Mesolimulus, whose trails sometimes lead to the remains of
the individuals that left them. From the lithographic limestone of
Solnhofen. Private collection.
96. Order Ornithischia,
Family Hypsilophodontidae
Othnielia rex
Late Jurassic, Utah
Possibly the smallest of the horny-beaked hypsilophodonts (“High
Crest Tooth”) of Late Jurassic Colorado and Utah, Othnielia,
formerly known as “Nanosaurus rex” (“Dwarf Lizard King”) only
grew to a length of 3 to 4 feet. Agile sprinters when threatened or
chasing prey, the omnivorous hypsilophodonts possibly flourished
for longer than any other dinosaurs, about 100 million years. After
depositing their eggs in the sand, the females appear to have
carefully manipulated them into spiral clutches of regular depths and
even spacing. Although they probably remained with their herds
throughout adulthood, these dinosaurs (owing to their welldeveloped limbs) apparently left their nests immediately upon
hatching, probably feeding first on adult feces, rich in fermentative
bacteria, and later progressing to plants and insects. As adults they
fed on everything from plants to small Reptiles and mammals.
“Nanosaurus” was renamed Othnielia in 1977, on the centennial of
its discovery by the great pioneer paleontologist Othniel C. Marsh.
Featured in the 1993 Universal Studios film Jurassic Park, this
spectacularly exposed in-situ skeleton is from the Morrison
formation of Emery County, Utah. Brigham Young University.
97. Subclass Ichthyopterygia,
Order Ichthyosauria
Stenopterygius quadricissus
Jurassic, Germany
98. Class Reptilia,
Subclass Ichthyopterygia
Ichthyosaurus megacephalus
Jurassic, Germany
Flourishing throughout the Mesozoic, the ichthyosaurs (“Fish
Reptiles”) appeared during the Early Triassic. Growing up to 15 feet
in length, they apparently evolved from land-dwelling creatures,
possibly the pelycosaurs. From the limbs of their terrestrial ancestors,
the ichthyosaurs evolved their strong, broad paddles. Stenopterygius
was Distinguished by its paddles, which contained more joints and
fewer digits than those of other species. This magnificent specimen
is preserved with an epidermal silhouette. Humboldt Museum.
Typifying these classic marine Reptiles, Ichthyosaurus was
Distinguished by the presence of extra digits with fewer joints in its
paddle. From other fossils, these air-breathing, dolphin-like creatures
are known to have fed on pterosaurs and fishes and, rather than
laying eggs, gave birth to live young. This rare and extremely young
Ichthyosaurus appears to have died at birth, although the
displacement of its vertebra could easily have occurred after its death.
Private collection.
fossilized remains of bacterial parasites that inhabited the digestive
tracts of the hosts millions of years ago. From the Jurassic of
Chihuahua, Mexico. Private collection.
99. Coprolites
Ichthyosaur
Jurassic, Mexico
Found in deposits rich in ichthyosaur remains, these coprolites
(“Dung Stones”) are the fossilized excrement of large, dolphin-like
marine predators. When examined microscopically, coprolites can
reveal not only the fibers of the digested matter, but also the
100. Subclass Euryapsida,
Order Sauropterygia
Plesiosaurus macrocephalus
Jurassic, Scotland
Derived from small Triassic nothosaurs similar to Mesosaurus, these
gigantic marine Reptiles, ranging from 6 to 40 feet in length,
flourished throughout the Jurassic Period in the oceans of Europe
and North America. Their small heads were equipped with a battery
of needle-like teeth for catching fish, with elegantly long, serpentine
necks capable of darting and striking. Adapted for “underwater
flight”, these formidable predators glided through the water by
flapping their winglike paddles up and down in the manner of
penguins. Originally descended from terrestrial stock, plesiosaurs
(“Ribbon Reptiles”) were air-breathing and had to haul their heavy
bodies onto the beaches to lay their eggs. First appearing in the Late
Triassic, plesiosaurs gradually tapered to extinction by the end of the
Cretaceous. This rare, in-situ juvenile specimen is from the Jurassic
of Lyme-Regis, England and was found by Mary Anning. Royal
Scottish Museum.
101. Order Saurischia,
Suborder Sauropodomorpha
Apatosaurus ajax
Late Jurassic, Utah
The regal, long-necked sauropods were by far the largest land
animals that ever lived. With a long, sloping skull and a single
nostril situated on top of its skull, Apatosaurus (“Mystery Lizard”)
was a member of the diplodocid family, shorter in length but much
heavier than the closely related Diplodocus. Measuring 70 ft. in
length and weighing 33 tons, these gigantic herbivores possessed
long, serpentine necks and even longer whiplike tails.
Because the first skeletons discovered were not found associated
with any skulls, this dinosaur was originally described as
“Brontosaurus” (“Thunder Lizard”), a name which persisted until the
genus was finally correctly identified as Apatosaurus, previously
known only from a skull that had been named before the discovery
of the headless Brontosaurus skeletons, hence its name prevails. For
a long time some museums continued to traditionally exhibit their
Apatosaurus skeletons with the heads of Camarasaurus. Known
only from North American specimens, they lived in vast herds that
ranged throughout Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, and Oklahoma. This
classic leg bone was recovered from the famous Morrison Formation.
Brigham Young University.
Camarasaurus lentus
Late Jurassic, Utah
Herds of Camarasaurus (“Chamber Lizard”), a heavy sauropod
(“Lizard Foot”), with a shorter neck and tail and a blunter snout than
Apatosaurus, thrived in the Late Jurassic Colorado, Oklahoma, Utah,
and Wyoming. Unique among the sauropods, the large nasal cavities
on top of its head, similar to those found in elephants and tapirs,
suggest the possibility o a flexible trunk. They grew to 60 feet in
length and weighed about 20 tons. Discovered ill 1877 by the
pioneer palaeontologist Edward Drinker Cope, these giant animals
were once presumed to have been semi-aquatic swamp dwellers, too
heavy to walk about on dry land. Camarasaurs and other sauropods
are now believed to have avoided such murky places in favor of the
drier plains, possibly migrating across vast distances. Sauropod
footprints indicate that these gentle herbivores cared for their young,
guarding them on all sides as they wandered together, feeding on the
highest tree branches. Found in the famous Cleveland Lloyd Quarry.
Carnegie Museum.
Hypselosaurus priscum
Cretaceous, France
This 40 foot long sauropod, characterized by its short, blunt head
and small teeth, laid the largest eggs known, about 12 inches in
length. The folded embryo within would have hatched to a size
twice the length of the egg. Larger eggs probably would have
required a shell too thick for hatching. Hypselosaurus (“High
Crested Lizard”) is the only sauropod dinosaur that has ever been
found in association with its eggs. Private collection.
105. Gastroliths
Sauropod
Late Jurassic, Utah
Because their teeth were adapted for cropping but not for chewing
the tons of plants they required daily, sauropods and other dinosaurs
deliberately swallowed stones to help grind food to a digestible pulp
in their gizzards. Smoothly polished gizzard stones have been found
to originate from rock sites as much as 15 miles from their final
resting place among the bones of a dead dinosaur, suggesting that
these creatures, were somewhat particular about the types of rocks
they ate. Private collection.
Aiding in the precision of the movement of the enormous hindquarters and spiked tail, an enlargement of the spinal cord at the
pelvis, much larger than the creature’s brain, was long believed to be
its “second brain.” For its bulk, Stegosaurus had the smallest skull of
any dinosaur, with a brain no larger than a walnut. Its front legs, only
half the length of its back legs, indicate that it probably evolved from
a 2-legged ancestor and could easily have reared on its strong hind
limbs to feed on the higher tree branches. The deadly spikes attached
to the tip of its powerful tail were used as a defense against predators
in Late Jurassic Colorado, Oklahoma, Utah, and Wyoming. Found in
the Cleveland Lloyd Quarry. U.S. National Museum.
Suborder Stegosauria
Stegosaurus stenops
Late Jurassic, Utah
Discovered in Colorado in 1877, Stegosaurus (“Plate Lizard”) grew
to a length of up to 30 feet and weighed up to 2 tons. The bony
armored plates guarding the neck, back, and tail of the huge Jurassic
herbivore were attached to powerful skin muscles, and were
probably capable of being raised and lowered to protect the spine or
the flanks. Honeycombed with capillaries, they may also have
served as a heat exchange for warming (or perhaps cooling) the
animal’s bloodstream, although their actual placement and function
remain an enigma.
Suborder Theropoda
Allosaurus fragilis
Late Jurassic, Utah
Its massive, yet open, lightweight skull a marvel of engineering,
the fearsome Allosaurus (“Different Lizard”) was the predominant
carnivore in North America during the Late Jurassic, and probably
fed on such herbivorous dinosaurs as Apatosaurus (Brontosaurus)
and Stegosaurus, its flexible skull capable of expanding to
accommodate oversized chunks of food. While some believe that
they were too huge and clumsy to hunt, scavenging on carrion
instead, others believe them to have been agile runners and
swimmers, capable of hunting in packs for large prey. Trackways
found in Texas indicate that such predators indeed chased herds of
much larger dinosaurs, and Apatosaurus vertebrae, scarred by the
teeth of an Allosaurus, have been unearthed.
Sporting strong, 3-fingered claws at the ends of its short arms, this
creature grew to 36 feet or more in length and weighed 1 to 2 tons,
possibly reaching full maturity in as little as 5 years. Although they
have been found in Africa, Australia, and perhaps even Asia,
Allosaurus are most common in North America, some 40 individuals
coming from a single quarry (possibly having perished together).
Found in the Cleveland Lloyd Quarry.
“Ultrasaurus”
Late Jurassic, Utah
This massive vertebra of a giant brachiosaur is from the upper neck
of one of the largest sauropod dinosaurs ever found, a gentle
herbivore. Brigham Young University.
Family Camptosauridae
Camptosaurus browni
Late Jurassic, Utah
A primitive ornithopod (“Bird Foot”), ranging in length from 12 to
23 feet and weighing up to 1000 pounds, Camptosaurus (“Bent
Lizard”) was much larger and less agile than its hypsilophodontid
ancestors. Short but sturdy, its 5-fingered forelimbs were adapted to
bearing weight, although fossilized footprints indicate that it was
also thoroughly capable of walking bipedally on its 4-toed hind legs.
Family Camptosauridae
Camptosaurus browni
Late Jurassic, Utah
Cropping low plants with its beaked jaws, this peaceful grazer lived
in western North America and Europe from the Late Jurassic to the
Early Cretaceous, suggesting a former connection of the 2 continents.
The ancestor of the famous Iguanodon, this important animal is
believed to have given rise to the diffuse groups of duckbilled
dinosaurs which spread throughout the world in Cretaceous times.
THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD
from 140 million to 65 million
years ago
Marking the appearance of flowers, the fertile Cretaceous period was
named for vast deposits of chalk (creta in Latin), rich in fossils and
widely distributed throughout the
world. The distribution of the continents was beginning to resemble
that of the present, although a great shallow sea flowing from
Canada to the Gulf of Mexico separated the supercontinent of
Laurasia into Asiamerica (East Asia and Western North America)
and Euramerica (Europe and Eastern North America). Marked by a
rich emergence of advanced dinosaurs, the Late Cretaceous, 75
million years ago, was a time of tremendous volcanic upheaval as
mountain ranges and new islands were being formed.
The drifting of the continents toward the polar regions brought on
significant changes in the seasonal weather. No longer able to roam
between the continents, many of the later dinosaurs evolved
exclusively in Asiamerica. The dominant creatures of the period,
most species lasted no more than 5 million years before disappearing
from the fossil record, often followed by more advanced descendants.
This period lasted until 65 million years ago, ending with a
catastrophic mass-extinction second only to that of the Permian.
Nearly half of all the Cretaceous plants and animals, both marine and
terrestrial, suddenly vanished. Among them were the dinosaurs.
110. Infraclass Teleostei,
Order Leptolepiformes
Cearana
Early Cretaceous, Brazil
The appearance in the fossil record of the heterogeneous group of
leptolepids marks the arrival of the modern teleost, or bony, fishes,
which now dominate the world’s aquatic environments. Armed with
a mouthful of small, sharp teeth, these elongate, tapering fish became
widespread throughout the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous.
Spectacularly preserved in mud concretions, Cearana is a welldocumented variety known to have preyed on its own species, some
individuals having died in the process b):: choking on prey too large
to swallow. Unlike more primitive fish with primarily cartilaginous
skeletons, such as sharks and lobe-fins, the early teleosts possessed
fully ossified internal skeletons. From the famous Santana Formation
of Brazil. Private collection.
111. Phylum Mollusca,
Class Cephalopoda
Texanites texanum
Late Cretaceous, Texas
Gregarious creatures, the ammonoids lived in large schools near
the bottom of deep seas, avoiding areas occupied by seaweed,
clams and snails. Preying on fishes and invertebrates (including
other ammonoids) captured with their tentacles, they fed through a
beak resembling that of a parrot. Related to octopus and squid,
their chief defense against predation was to squirt ink in the faces
of their predators, which included large crabs, fish, and marine
reptiles. In the deeper seas that once extended westward from the
Gulf of Mexico, ammonoids were plentiful, although gigantic
fossil forms such as Texanites and even larger varieties are
extremely rare. These long enduring creatures disappeared abruptly,
along with the dinosaurs, at the end of the Cretaceous Period 65
million years ago. From the famous Austin Chalk of Texas. Private
collection.
1914 by Barnum Brown, this rare and highly specialized group of
theropods was not fully understood until the discovery by John
Ostrom in 1964 of Deinonychus, an early dromaeosaur succeeded in
the Late Cretaceous by Dromaeosaurus (the first such dinosaur to be
discovered), and the Mongolian Velociraptor. Because
Dromaeosaurs (“Running Reptiles”) display a striking affinity to
birds, particularly the Jurassic Archaeopteryx, there is little doubt
that they were warm-blooded. Its brain had unusually large cerebral
hemispheres for a dinosaur, suggesting complex behavior more
birdlike than reptilian. Of the few fossilized battles between
dinosaurs that have ever been found, two involved Dromaeosaurs,
providing spectacular evidence of their behavior. One find in
Montana indicates that they hunted in packs, while a one-on-one
battle to the death with a Protoceratops was discovered in the Gobi
Desert. Their combination of intelligence, swiftness, and the sickle
claw places these creatures among the most dangerous of the
dinosaurs. Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology.
112. Infraorder Deinonychosauria,
Family Dromaeosauridae
Dromaeosaurus albertensis
Late Cretaceous, Canada
Popularly known as a “Raptor”, this ferocious creature was armed
with one lethal, sickle-shaped claw on each foot, held in a retracted
position when it walked and extended for slashing the bellies of its
victims with multiple kicks of its powerful hind legs. Discovered in
Velociraptor mongoliensis
Late Cretaceous, Mongolia
This small but extremely vicious Chinese dromaeosaur, armed
with the lethal sickle-claw, has been found preserved in deathlock
combat with the early ceratopsian dinosaur Protoceratops. From
the Polish-Mongolian Expedition and From the Russian
Paleontological Institute.
Family Hadrosauridae
Prosaurolophus maximus
Late Cretaceous, Alberta
Deinonychus antirrhopus
These large, swift, dinosaurs slashed their prey with sharp, sicklelike toe claws. The small Mongolian Velociraptor was followed
by the larger North American Deinonychus. From the Harvard
Museum.
This Late Cretaceous duckbilled dinosaur, with its broad, flat
muzzle and its small nasal crest, is presumed to have been an
ancestor of Saurolophus (“Crested Reptile”), the forerunner of the
prominently crested Parasaurolophus (“Beside Saurolophus”) of
North America. These skull crests, both large and small, might
have served as resonators for bellowing and honking during mating
competition. Living in herds, the 26 foot long Prosaurolophus
(“Early Crested Reptile”) was herbivorous and may well have fed
and looked after its young. Royal Ontario Museum.
Parasaurolophus walkeri
Unlike the earlier hadrosaurs, whose skulls were distinguished by
small crests of solid bone, this advanced duckbill sported a
prominent hollow crest extending from the back of its head by as
much as 6 feet. This tubular crest, which may have been connected
to the creature’s back by a fleshy frill, is believed to have functioned
as a resonating chamber for mating calls and warnings. With
chambers connecting to the nasal passage, the crest was long
regarded as a snorkel for the storage of air while the animal was
submerged, however a better understanding of the habitats of
Parasaurolophus, a forest-dwelling dinosaur, has dispelled its
popular image as a swamp dweller. Although the function of its
spectacular crest is not fully understood, It is unlikely to have been
used for defense due to its hollow structure. Ranging up to 33 feet in
length, Parasaurolophus was indigenous to New Mexico, Utah, and
Alberta. Royal Ontario Museum.
Edmontosaurus regalis
This classic hadrosaur, with its massive skull, was among the
largest of the duckbilled dinosaurs. Royal Ontario Museum.
Anatosaurus annectens
Late Cretaceous, Montana
There were numerous species of Anatosaurus (“Duck Reptile”), also
known as Edmontosaurus and Trachodon, that flourished up until
the very end of the Cretaceous Period. Rare mummified hides of
some of these classic duckbilled dinosaurs have preserved parts of
their skin in minute detail. An unprecedented discovery in Alaska
yielded the frozen, unfossilized remains of a related variety long
buried in the permafrost, providing possible DNA samples as well as
evidence that the present tundra region was once a subtropical,
swampy home to these gentle dinosaurs. This rare skin impression of
the underbelly from the mummified remains of an Anatosaurus was
found in the famous Hell Creek Formation. American Museum of
Natural History.
Anatosaurus annectens
This fibular fragment with a splendidly preserved skin impression is
from a partially mummified duckbilled dinosaur found in the Hell
Creek Formation. Private collection.
times than they are now. Known for protecting and feeding their
young, these duckbills may have relied upon their prominent head
crests for recognition during their mating season.
Although they possessed no significant defense against predators,
their keen senses of vision, hearing, and smell served to warn them
of approaching danger. Females and immature individuals had
smaller crests. Like other crested duckbills, when Corythosaurus
called to each other the sound resonated through the long air
passages of their nostrils (which extended into their hollow crests)
producing a far-reaching, bugle-like honk. Lined with blood
vessels, such extended nasal passages also may have evolved for
the purpose of warming the arctic air before its arrival into the
lungs. From the Royal Ontario Museum.
Corythosaurus casuarius
The crested Corythosaurus (“Helmet Lizard”), with its short muzzle
and tall, hollow crest, lived in herds throughout the forests of
western Canada where it browsed on tree leaves and pine cones.
Equipped with strong, bulging cheeks, it was capable of chewing a
mouthful of food while storing another. Growing to lengths of 33
feet and weighing over 4 tons, these peaceful herbivores ranged
north of the Arctic Circle in search of food and migrated south
during the long winters, which were less cold in Late Cretaceous
119. Coprolites
Hadrosaur
Cretaceous, Canada
These coprolites were discovered in association with the fossilized
remains of duck-billed dinosaur nests in Saskatchewan. Private
collection.
Maiasaura peeblesorum
These gentle duckbilled dinosaurs left in the fossil record a very
detailed picture of their way of life. Herds of Maiasaura (“Mother
Lizard”) appear to have nested together in vast colonies along the
shores of Cretaceous rivers of Montana. Juveniles and hatchlings of
varying ages have been found in these nests, exhibiting evidence of
prolonged parental care. The eggs were carefully arranged in regular
patterns in large, dug-out mounds, each an adult body length from
the next. Adults, which grew to lengths of 30 feet, appear to have
returned to these nesting sites year after year.
Browsing on their hind legs among the tree branches or cropping the
undergrowth on all fours, these peaceful herbivores were defenseless
against the ferocious weapons of their predators. Migratory
hadrosaurs such as Maiasaura appear to have fed and protected their
young until they were old enough to join the herd. In situ juvenile
skeleton. Private collection. Nestling discovered in 1978 by John R.
Homer. Museum of the Rockies.
Family Ornithomimidae
Struthiomimus altus
Late Cretaceous, Canada
Prowling along the Cretaceous riverbanks of Southern Alberta and
New Jersey, herds of predacious Struthiomimus (“Ostrich Mimic”)
may have hunted everything from fruit and insects to eggs and small
animals. Its toothless beak resembling that of a bird, Struthiomimus
had sharp 3-fingered claws that were capable of grasping as well as
digging. Although large, it was slender and built for swift running on
its powerful hind legs, balanced by a long tail. Commonly known as
ostrich dinosaurs, the ornithomimids ranged from North America to
Mongolia. Equipped with unusually large brains, these creatures
were among the more intelligent of the dinosaurs. Their particularly
large eyes imply that they were highly adapted to hunting at night,
when the small rodentlike mammals emerged from their hiding and
other dinosaurs were hampered by the darkness. The ostrich
dinosaurs are exemplified by Struthiomimus, whose strong hands
appear to have been the most powerful of this widespread group.
Because of their formidable digging abilities they are largely
regarded as nest-robbers, feeding on the buried eggs of other
dinosaurs and occasionally on tender hatchlings. Royal Ontario
Museum.
Suborder Theropoda
Oviraptor philoceratops
In Mongolia in 1922, an Expedition from the American Museum
of Natural History led by Roy Chapman Andrews set out to find
remnants of early humankind. Instead they discovered Museum.
several nests of Oviraptor (“Egg Thief”) eggs, the first dinosaur
eggs ever located, in what must have been a large nesting ground.
Because skeletons of the small, frilled dinosaur Protoceratops
were found in association with the nests, the eggs were long
attributed to them. More recent expeditions have uncovered a fossil
female Oviraptor (a small, beaked, and toothless theropod)
actually sitting on a clutch of unhatched eggs, revealing that
Protoceratops was the intruder. From the historic Roy Chapman
Andrews Gobi Expedition. Alf Museum.
Suborder Ceratopsia
Psittacosaurus
This small, swift plant eater had a narrow beak and short horn-like
bumps on its cheeks.
The name of this primitive, early
ceratopsian meant “Parrot Lizard.” Ancestral to the giant horned
dinosaurs, it lived in Mongolia during the early Cretaceous period
between 120 and 98 million years ago. From a private collection.
Suborder Ceratopsia
Protoceratops andrewsi
This in-situ egg nest was found in association with the small frilled
dinosaur, a social, sharply-beaked herbivore ancestral to the giant
horned dinosaurs. From the Polish-Mongolian Expedition.
Suborder Ceratopsia
Protoceratops andrewsi
Regarded as the earliest known horned dinosaur (although it only
possessed small crests where the great horns of its giant descendants
would be), this adult skull and exquisite mounted skeleton of a rare
nestling are from the Polish-Mongolian Expedition.
Suborder Ceratopsia
Chasmosaurus belli
Of the long-frilled ceratopsian dinosaurs of the Late Cretaceous,
Chasmosaurus (“Ravine Reptile”) is the earliest known. Extending
from the back of the creature’s head, a sturdy, spiked frill protected
its neck and part of its back. Large openings in the frill reduced
the weight of the bone mass. It had 2 small horns over the brows and
one on its parrot-beaked snout. Living in large, migrating herds and
measuring over 16 feet in length, these herbivorous grazers have
been found in Alberta, New Mexico, and Texas. Though not as wellequipped as its descendant, Triceratops (“Three Horned Face”),
Chasmosaurus was capable of warding off attacks by fierce
tyrannosaurs. Females of the genus are distinguished by their
diminutive horns. This impressive creature was one of the first
dinosaurs to be found along with an impression of its skin, the
patterns of its large mosaic scales suggesting contrasting color
patterns.
Despite their obvious abundance throughout the Late Cretaceous, the
ceratopsians, along with the rest of the dinosaurs, disappeared
entirely at the end of the Cretaceous Period, 65 million years ago.
Colossal skull from the Royal Ontario Museum.
Distinguished by thickly domed skulls rimmed with bony spikes,
rival males are believed to have established dominance over their
herds through fierce contests of head-butting. This supposition is
further evidenced by their neck and backbones, which were specially
reinforced with strong ligaments for absorbing and distributing
severe shocks to the head. Ancestral to the larger and more advanced
Pachycephalosaurus of North America, Stegoceras may have
evolved from an ancestor of such horned dinosaurs as Triceratops
and migrated from Mongolia before the continents divided. Royal
Ontario Museum.
Family Pachycephalosauridae
Stegoceras validus
Among the rarest of dinosaur remains, the enigmatic boneheads are
known mostly from fragments of skulls and skeletons, making their
relationships to other ornithischian groups difficult to prove.
Growing to lengths of over 6 feet and weighing up to 120 pounds,
Stegoceras (“Horny Roof”) had keen vision and an acute sense of
smell. Possessing sharp teeth, this slow-moving bipedal creature is
believed to have fed on insects, fruits, and leaves. Roaming in herds
that ranged throughout the hills of eastern Asia and western North
America, the boneheads apparently had lifestyles similar to those of
modern sheep and goats.
Suborder Ceratopsia
Triceratops horridus
Late Cretaceous, Wyoming
These horn cores belonged to a Triceratops, the last and the largest
of the many frilled, horned dinosaurs. Private collection.
Family Tyrannosauridae
Albertosaurus sarcophagus
Sometimes known as Gorgosaurus, Albertosaurus (“Alberta
Lizard”) was a smaller, slender tyrannosaur (“Tyrant Lizard”) that
only grew to a length of about 26 feet and a weight of 2 tons.
Despite its size in comparison to its larger relatives, it was a
ferocious predator that probably hunted the herbivorous horned
and armored dinosaurs of the Late Cretaceous lowland forests of
Alberta. Presumably descended from a small, Late Triassic
theropod and named for the province in Canada where it was
discovered, Albertosaurus was also common in Montana just
before the end of the Mesozoic Era.
Various names have been given to the dozens of Albertosaurus
skeletons discovered during the past century, but only recently has
their relation to each other been recognized. Like all tyrannosaurs,
Albertosaurus only had 2 fingers on each claw, the vestigial third
finger a useless remnant of its 3-fingered Jurassic ancestors.
Spectacularly complete in-situ skeleton of an extremely rare
juvenile individual. Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology.
Quetzalcoatlus northropi
Late Cretaceous, Texas
Named for the ancient Mexican feathered serpent-god Quetzalcoatl,
the giant Quetzalcoatlus was estimated at twice the size of the largest
pterosaurs known at the time, the Pteranodons of the Kansas Chalk.
Only one wing was found, indicating a wingspan of 36 to 39 ft. with
a weight of 190 to 220 lbs., making it the largest known flying
creature. With a low, narrow crest and a long, sharp, toothless beaks,
this giant is better known from smaller, more revealing specimens
found in the same region, which were either younger individuals or a
smaller species.
Although they were dynamically suited for fishing over the sea, their
remains are not found in marine deposits or even near any sizable
freshwater lakes, but are instead found in the silts of the vast
floodplain of an ancient inland system of stream channels over 250
miles from the nearest sea, suggesting the possibility of their having
been scavengers of carrion instead. Similar discoveries in Canada
and Israel indicate the possibility of a wide distribution. This
colossal humerus, discovered in 1971 by Douglas A. Lawson and
Wann Langston Jr., belonged to one of the last of the flying reptiles.
Texas Memorial Museum.
Pteranodon sternbergii
Late Cretaceous, Kansas
Among the last of the pterosaurs, this small-crested female
individual had a 12-foot wingspan. Gliding over the inland sea,
these creatures were adapted for fishing. This mounted skeleton is
from Lane County, Kansas. Private collection.
129-132. Suborder Theropoda,
Tyrannosaurus rex
One of the largest known predators to have walked the Earth (the
females distinctly larger than the males), this invincibly massive,
ferocious carnosaur of Late Cretaceous western North America and
Asia was discovered in 1902 by the adventurous collector Barnum
Brown.
Surpassed in size only by the South American carnosaur
Giganotosaurus, Tyrannosaurus rex (“Tyrant Lizard King”) grew to
lengths of as much as 50 feet, towering 20 feet high and weighing 5
to 7 tons. Their heads alone measured 4 to 5 feet, sporting jaws lined
with long, saw-edged teeth, each one supported by ranks of
replacements. Reaching maturity within 5 years, the life spans of
these enormous creatures may have surpassed 100 years.
Fossil evidence of their actual metabolism is magnificently
preserved in the sequential rings of growth-spurts which scar the
teeth. While strictly regarded by some as nothing more than
scavengers, owing to their greatly reduced forelimbs which could
not even reach their mouths, others consider these creatures the
most fearsome hunters ever to have existed, balanced for swift
running by their long tails.
Presumed to have dealt mostly with the animal’s senses, the brain
of Tyrannosaurus rex was not small for a dinosaur although
compared to the size of the creature’s body it was remarkably
diminutive. This cranial
endocast preserves the size and shape of the brain of a
Tyrannosaurus rex. This gigantic foot, discovered in the famous
Hell Creek Formation, is from the Natural History Museum of Los
Angeles County. This isolated maxilla, once the largest known, is
from the University of California, Berkeley. This spectacular skull,
from one of the largest skeletons ever found, is from the Museum
of the Rockies.
Tarbosaurus, but owing to the minimal differences between its
features and those of Tyrannosaurus rex, its name has frequently
been assigned to that genus instead. Because of the immense size of
these creatures, paleontologists also disagree about whether these
fierce dinosaurs were active predators or strictly scavengers.
Defending her nest of eggs (exceedingly rare fossils discovered in
association with the species) this spectacular mounted skeleton is
from the Polish-Mongolian Expedition.
Tarbosaurus bataar
(Tyrannosaurus bataar)
First appearing in Central Asia around 74 million years ago, the
tyrannosaurid family subsequently spread to North America where
they flourished until the end of the Mesozoic Era. Smaller and more
ancient than Tyrannosaurus rex, the Asian species is often assigned
its own genus Tarbosaurus (“Alarming Reptile”). Discovered in
1955 in the Bataar region of Mongolia, it was immediately named
contain only impressions of the decomposed remains of insects,
amber in fact contains the actual preserved remains of its hapless
victims. In 1992 revolutionary researchers at the University of
California, Berkeley and the American Museum of Natural History
in New York successfully recovered and cloned DNA from 30million-year-old insects preserved in amber. Suspended in amber for
over 20 million years, these termites and tiny flies are from the
Miocene of Colombia and the Domenican Republic. Private
collection.
152. Insects in Amber
Early Miocene,
Kenya, Colombia,
Domenican Republic
Trapped in resin that oozed from the trunks of ancient conifer trees
before hardening into amber, fossil insects are found throughout the
world, preserved to the tiniest bristles, including their last
exhalations and excretions. Related to the petroleums, amber is
usually clear and yellow in color. Lumps containing insect inclusions
provide an important record of the prehistoric faunas of the locales
and geological periods in which they are found. Formerly thought to
Cretaceous deposits and those of the Tertiary period, apparently the
global fallout from a devastating collision with a large
extraterrestrial body. Heat trapped on the planet’s surface by the
dense atmospheric debris may have raised global temperatures,
killing off the majority of land and sea organisms in a single
catastrophic event. The gigantic Xixulub crater in Yucatan, Mexico
was blasted by such an impact around the time of the Cretaceous
extinction.
133. Dinosaur footprint
Carnosaur
Late Cretaceous, Utah
This foot impression of a Cretaceous carnivore was found in the
ceiling of a Utah coal mine. By measuring the height of the leg and
the length of the stride, paleontologists are able to calculate from
trackways of such footprints the speed at which the creatures may
have been traveling, often indicating high, warm-blooded,
metabolisms. Private collection.
134. Meteorite
Meteor Crater, Arizona
Since 1978, the extinction of the dinosaurs has largely been
attributed to cosmic intervention in the form of an enormous
meteorite impact on the Earth 65 million years ago. Discovered by
scientists Walter and Luis Alvarez, Frank Asaro, and Helen Michel,
a thin layer of the exceedingly rare element iridium (commonly
found in meteorites) forms a boundary worldwide between
Most meteorites come from the vicinity of the asteroid belt, the
orbiting fragments of metal and rock which are the remnants of a
failed planet and of the actual creation of our solar system some 4.6
billion years ago. About 22,000 years ago this meteorite, composed
of 95% pure iron, left a crater over 3,600 feet wide and 525 feet deep.
A fragment of the original meteorite, this pristine relic of the
formation of the solar system was found in the famous depression of
Meteor Crater, Arizona. Private collection.
The Genesis Exhibit
The Great International Fossil Collection
is proud to include casts of important fossils
housed in the following venerable collections
UNITED STATES
National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian
Institution)
American Museum of Natural History
Carnegie Museum
Natural History Museum of
Los Angeles County
University of California, Berkeley
University of California, Los Angeles
Brigham Young University
University of Texas, Austin
University of
Nebraska State Museum
Harvard University
Peabody Museum, Yale University
Monroe Community College
Page Museum
Alf Museum
Museum of the Rockies
CANADA
Royal Ontario Museum
Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology
National Museum of Natural Science
EUROPE AND GREAT Britain
Musee deL’Homme
University of Bonn
Humboldt Museum
Bavarian State Institute of
Geology and Paleontology
Vienna Natural History Museum
Swedish Museum of Natural History
British Museum of Natural History
Royal Scottish Museum
AS1A~ Australia~ AND THE MIDDLE EAST
Beijing Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and
Paleoanthropology
University of Adelaide
Geological Survey of Pakistan
AFRICA
Kenya National Museum
South African Museum
Transvaal Museum
National Museum of Tanzania
Cairo Geological Museum
National Museum of Ethiopia
PRAISE FOR
The Genesis Exhibit
“After 65 million years, they’re back. In a BIG way.”
BOSTON HERALD
“Now underway at the World Trade Center in Boston... the
entire story of life on Earth as represented by the fossil
record.” THE TAUTON GAZETTE
“This fascinating presentation...has educated and enthralled
all who have been fortunate enough to view it.”
MASSACHUSETTS GOVERNOR WILLIAM F. WELD
“The only exhibit of its kind in the world... The Genesis
Exhibit makes no bones about theatrical approach... when it
comes to drama, intrigue and excitement, it’s tough to beat
the theater of life.” AUSTIN AMERICAN STATESMAN
“A window with a view into the most remote prehistory of
man and animals...the unique feature of The Genesis Exhibit
is that the casts are displayed as sculpture...quite different
from the paleontological exhibits one usually sees in
museums...response from the public continues to be surprise
and pleasure from lay people and scientists alike.” HILL
COUNTRY LIVING
“To see the originals you would have to travel allover the
world... an unprecedented collection of dinosaur fossil
casts!” DISTINCT MAGAZINE
“A new breed of both art and science... it’s amazing to see...”
WESTLAKE PICAYUNE
“It’s thrilling to see children get an idea of how really big...
some of these creatures were... wonderful creations, almost
works of art, because that’s what they look like at first
glance.” HILL COUNTRY NEWS
“Without a doubt, this exhibit provides unmatched
educational opportunities for its visitors. Children and adults
alike have a unique chance to learn about the history and
development of life on our planet, and to place themselves
within the awesome scope of that development... a testament
to what can be accomplished when public and private entities
work together for the benefit of everyone.”
TEXAS
GOVERNOR ANN RICHARDS
“This collection contains some very important finds which
have added tremendously to our knowledge...from June until
the Labor Day weekend. 200,000 people visited Atlanta’s
Fernbank Museum of Natural History to view the highly
acclaimed collection... such a remarkable presentation... so
readily accessible.” GEORGIA GOVERNOR ZELL
MILLER
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Copyright 2010 by Marty Martin

Dinosauria Catalog - The Origins Museum Institute

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