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A Review of Dietary Intake Studies in Children and
Adolescents in Australia
Report prepared by M Neve, C Collins, J Watson, P McCoy & T Burrows, University of Newcastle in
consultation with members of the Dietary Intake SIG for ACAORN for the Australian Child
and Adolescent Obesity Research Network, March 2005
Introduction
The Dietary Intake SIG of the Australian Child and Adolescent Obesity Research Network
(ACAORN) wished to conduct a review of studies that have examined dietary intake in Australia.
This was to gain a greater understanding of what children and adolescents in the Australian
population consume and to determine whether food intake patterns are changing. As the levels
of overweight and obesity in Australian children and adolescents are increasing this is of
particular interest, in order to ascertain the contribution of the changing food supply.
Method
Objective
The objective of this review is to identify and present the available information on the dietary
intake of Australian children and adolescents.
Criteria for inclusion
Types of studies
Any study that has shown changes in dietary intake in children, that is experimental study
designs. This includes randomized control trials (RCT), case-control trials and pre and post
study designs. In the absence of experimental studies, longitudinal and cross sectional surveys
will be included.
Types of participants
Children or adolescents aged 18 years or under living in Australia or New Zealand
Types of outcome measures
-
Nutrient intake: macro and micronutrients
-
Food group intake
-
Intake of a particular food item
Search Strategy
1
The review will consist of both published and unpublished literature in the English language.
The following databases were searched:
-
Medline, Web of Science, PubMed, Cinahl and EBSCO MegaFiler premier
-
Government reports in Australia and its states and territories.
-
Hand search of Nutrition and Dietetics the Journal of the Dietitians Association of Australia.
Using the following search terms;
1.children.mp. or Child/
2. Diet/ or dietary intake.mp. or Energy Intake/
3. Nutrition Surveys/ or nutrient intake.mp.
4. Adolescent/
5. Australia.mp. or AUSTRALIA/
6. New Zealand.mp. or New Zealand/
7. 1 and 2 and 5
8. 1 and 2 and 6
9. 1 and 3 and 5
10. 2 and 4 and 5
11. 3 and 4 and 5
12. 2 and 4 and 6
13. 1 and 3 and 6
14. 3 and 4 and 6
along with the researchers names previously that were identified from the Australian Child and
Adolescent Obesity Research Network (ACAORN) survey of dietary intake studies in children
and adolescent (J Watson & C Collins, personal communication, 2004).
A message was sent to Nut-Net, an email discussion group for nutritional professionals
requesting information from any one who had previously or was currently conducting research
regarding dietary intake in children and adolescents. The aim was to identify any unpublished
data that may exist.
Additionally, a search of the reference list of all retrieved articles was conducted to identify
further relevant articles.
Data extraction
Data from included studies was extracted with respect to;
- Author/principal investigator
- Institution or affiliations of the investigators
2
- Study setting
- Sample size
- Study duration and/or time of data collection
- Information regarding participants including inclusion/exclusion criteria
- Study design
- Method of measuring dietary intake (dietary intake tool)
- Outcome measures
- Results
- Key findings
Studies were placed in chronological order to allow for the identification of trends in food intake
and gaps in data collection to be identified.
From the available information the aim was to answer the following questions;
1. What has been shown in Australia in terms of changes in dietary intake of children and
adolescents, over time?
2. Have there been any intervention studies in Australia that have demonstrated a positive
influence on dietary intake? And if so what are the characteristics of these interventions?
3. Have there been any studies that have linked children and adolescents dietary intake to
overweight and obesity?
Results
Published and unpublished data was deemed appropriate for inclusion in the literature review,
which included journal articles, government reports and data sets. From this information 30
separate studies were identified. The studies retrieved were conducted from 1959 to 2003.
Notably however not all studies revealed the year of data collection, therefore they have been
listed by year of publication. The data extraction regarding the investigators, institutions, setting,
sample size, details of participants, study duration/data collection, study design, dietary intake
tool, outcome measures, results and key findings (See Appendix I) revealed several trends and
gaps in studies measuring the dietary intake of children and adolescents in Australia.
Table 1. highlights that although the included studies ranged in years from 1959 to 2003, there
were many years in which no studies (marked with X) regarding dietary intake of children and
adolescents within Australia were conducted.
3
Table 1. The number of studies of the dietary intake of children and adolescents in Australia per
year
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1
X
1
X
X
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
X
X
X
X
3
2
1
1
2
X
X
X
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
X
X
5
X
X
X
2
1
X
1
1
X
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
4
X
X
1
1
X
1
1
1
X
X
Study design
The majority of studies retrieved (n= 19) were cross-sectional surveys. Two of the included
studies were experimental, one a randomised control trial (RCT) and the other a pre-post test
design. Five studies included longitudinal follow-up of cohorts and seven were secondary
analyses of other cross-sectional studies.
Dietary intake measurement
The included studies used several different methods to assess dietary intake in children and
adolescents. This included; food records, both weighed and unweighed, food frequency
questionnaires (FFQ) and various other questionnaires.
Weighed food records were used for 3 days in all included studies (1-14). Food records, which
were not weighed, ranged from 1 to 4 days. Those that were for one day were generally
retrospective recalls of the previous 24 hours intake (15-17), where as records for over 1 day
were prospective (18-23). Two studies used FFQ (24-26)
Three of the studies used parents and/or carers as a means of obtaining information. Of these 2
were based at long day care centres with participants less than 5 years and involved weighed
food records (13, 14), the other included participants aged 6-9 years with the completion of non
weighed food records (23).
4
Four studies used parents and/or carers and children as a means of obtaining information. This
included:
- a longitudinal cohort from birth to 15 years whereby the parents completed the weighed
food records up until 8 years and the children completed at data collection at ages 11, 13
and 15 years (1-12).
- a longitudinal cohort from 9-15 years, at age 9 a FFQ was completed by parents, where
as at 12, 15 and 18 years a 24 hour food record was completed by the adolescents (18,
27-29).
- The 1995 National Nutrition Survey, where 24 hour recalls were completed by parents or
carers for participants aged 2-4 years and by the participants themselves from 5 years
onwards (25, 26)
- Tooty Fruity Vegie health promotion program evaluation, where children in grades 4 to 6
completed there own 24 hour food record, whilst parents completed those in kindergarten
to grade 3.
The majority of studies used the participants as a means of obtaining dietary intake information.
Of these the youngest age a child completed the dietary intake tool was approximately 5 years,
which was a 24 hour recall (25, 26). For FFQ the youngest age this was self-completed by the
participants was approximately 12 years (24)
Participants
All studies (n=28) included both male and female participants. The age of participants in the
included studies ranged from 0 to 18 years. Table 2 highlights the number of included studies for
each age group, with 12 to 13 years the most frequent age in the included studies (n=16).
Table 2. Number of studies which include each age group (years)
Age
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-
10-
11-
12-
13-
14-
15-
16-
17-
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
5
4
8
7
7
7
10
10
12
9
12
13
16
13
10
10
6
6
18
5
Only a selection of studies (n=7) reported data on the socioeconomic status of the participants.
Of these one study aimed to look at the dietary intake of socio-economically disadvantaged
children and adolescents (17), whilst another aimed to explore the differences in dietary intake
between high and low socioeconomic groups (30, 31). The other studies that reported
socioeconomic status data aimed to present a population representative of the socioeconomic
differences within the Australian population (15, 24, 27, 32-35).
5
Four studies (17, 25, 26, 33, 34) included data regarding the ethnicity of the participants. Of
these one was aiming to explore the dietary intake of migrants to Australia (17) whilst another
explored the differences in the dietary intake of migrant children and adolescents compared to
non-migrant (36).
Setting
Included studies were conducted at the national, state and territory and local levels. Notably
national data was available in 1985 and 1995. State data was available in 3 states of Australia,
Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania. Studies at the local level were conducted in Adelaide,
Perth, Sydney, North Queensland, Townsville, Melbourne, Northern Rivers and South
Queensland. This represents a mainly metropolitan population, however some studies sought to
explore the dietary intake of urban and rural areas within Australia specifically (n=2) (37-39).The
settings for the studies included schools (n=14), study centers or hospital clinics (5), long day
care centers (n=2) and homes (n=6).
Studies in Australia and New Zealand that have demonstrated a positive impact on dietary
intake in children and adolescents.’
Two studies were identified that have demonstrated a positive influence on the dietary intake of
Australian children and adolescents.
Vandongen et al conducted a RCT including children aged 10-12 years in Western Australia. 6
groups were involved in the RCT which included a;
1. Physical fitness group,
2. Physical fitness and school nutrition group,
3. School nutrition group,
4. School nutrition and home nutrition group,
4. Home nutrition group and
5. Control group
The intervention period was 9 months. The study included 1147 participants of which data was
available at follow-up for 921 children. The key findings of the study included;
-
For boys in fitness group and home and nutrition group, sugar intake decreased significantly
compared to control group.
-
Girls showed no significant decreases in sugar intake in comparison to control group, but all
groups showed patterns of decrease.
-
A significantly greater decrease in total fat intake in girls compared to boys in both the school
and home nutrition group and the home nutrition group.
6
-
A significantly greater change in PUFA/SFA ratio in girls compared to boys in the school and
home nutrition group.
-
Nearly 90% of children exceeded recommendations for saturated fat
-
The percentage energy from fat increased in each treatment group for boys compared to
controls, but was not significant.
-
For girls the percentage energy from fat decreased in each treatment group except school
nutrition compared to controls but was only significant in the home nutrition group.
-
For girls the intake of saturated fat decreased significantly in all treatment groups compared
to control. Significant positive changes in P:S ratio in female participants shown in school
and home nutrition group compared to control
-
Energy intake was below recommendations in all groups and did not change significantly
following interventions.
-
Significant increases in boys intake compared to controls in the fitness and school nutrition,
school nutrition, and school and home nutrition groups
-
Participant’s intake of fibre was below recommendations in 50% of boys and 63% of girls.
-
Significant increase in fibre intake in girls in the fitness group and both boys and girls in the
school and home nutrition group, compared to controls.
-
31% of girls and 42% of boys’ intake of salt exceeded recommendations.
-
Salt intake decreased overall in boys in intervention groups compared to controls but was
only significant in the school nutrition group.
-
Girls intake of salt increased in all groups compared to control and was significant in the
fitness and school nutrition group (22).
The Tooty Fruity Vegie health promotion program was conducted in 10 primary schools within
the Northern Rivers Area Health Service during the 1999 and 2000 school year. The program
aimed to increase fruit and vegetable consumption among primary school children. This included
a whole school approach to implementation of the program which included; classroom, canteen,
family and community orientated activities. Project management teams were developed to
oversee implementation and included teachers, parents, children, canteen workers, community
nutritionist and aboriginal education assistants. Funding of $270 to 750 per year was available to
schools (40).
An evaluation of the program was conducted using a pre-test, post test controlled design. This
included an evaluation of the impact of the program on the intake of fruit and vegetables of
participants. Data from this study is currently still being analysed but primary data made
available suggests significant increases in fruit and vegetable intake in the intervention group
compared to the control group (Sally Newell Research & Evaluation Coordinator
7
Health Promotion Unit, North Coast Area Health Service, Unpublished data set)
Changes in the dietary intake of Children and Adolescents
One report identified compared the results of both national nutrition surveys in children and
adolescents (16). This involved comparison of the 1995 National Nutrition Survey and the 1985
National Dietary Survey of School Children. As the 1985 survey included only 10-15 years the
comparison is only for intake in children of these ages. Key findings of the study included;
- A significant increase in the dietary intake of the majority of nutrients from 1985 to
1995
- A significant increase in energy intake from 1985 to 1985
- Dietary intake of fat remained stable from 1985 to 1995
- Dietary intake of vitamin C decreased from 1985 to 1995
- Higher mean intakes of cereal-based foods, fish and fish-products, non-alcoholic
beverages and drinking water in 1995 to compared to 1985
- Significant increases in the mean intake and percentage of the population consuming
confectionary in 1995
- No significant differences in mean intake of fruit and fruit products from 1985 to 1995,
but the proportion of the population consuming them declined in 1995
- Mean intake of sugar products and dishes increased in 1995, whilst the proportion of
the population consuming the products decreased
- Insignificant increases in mean intake of vegetables and vegetable products from
1985 to 1995 (16)
The link between the dietary intake of children and adolescents and overweight and obesity
No included studies explored the causal relationship between the dietary intake of children and
adolescents or the intake of particular foods and overweight or obesity. However three crosssectional studies explored the relationship between dietary intake and overweight and obesity.
Bogaert et al found no significant correlations between BMI z-score and any dietary intake
variables (23). Wang et al in a secondary analysis of data from the 1995 National Nutrition
Survey found that the energy intake of 13 to 15 year old obese boys was lower than nonoverweight boys of the same age (P=0.03), and the percentage of energy contributed by dietary
intake of fat in obese girls aged 13 to 15 years was lower than the non overweight girls of the
same age (P=0.006), although neither of these relationships were found to be significant. The
study found no other significant differences between the energy intake or percentage energy
contributed by dietary intake of fat of overweight or obese children aged 7 to 15 years compared
8
to non-overweight. The Adelaide Nutrition Study, a longitudinal study of children from birth to 15
years, explored the relationship between dietary intake and body size at age 6 (1). In this study
Magarey et al found an inverse relationship between suprailliac skin-fold thickness and energy
intake, which was reported to suggest a greater energy intake from the thin children compared to
the fatter. The study was unable to show any relationship between BMI or tricep skin fold
thickness and dietary intake of energy, fat or carbohydrate (1). McNaughton et al found no
correlation between weight and calorie intake in a group of adolescents in Melbourne aged 1619 years (41).
Discussion
Twenty three studies of the dietary intake of children and adolescents in Australia were
identified. The available data provides valuable information regarding dietary intake at both the
food and nutrient level. However it also highlights several issues with respect to research in this
area.
It is possible that more unpublished data exists in the area. The Nutrition Network Project
Register of NSW Health (42) suggests that further studies may have or are being undertaken in
area health services without publication. Such studies were not unearthed as part of this review
(as the Nut-Net message had envisaged). Therefore further investigation to identify unpublished
studies is recommended.
There is a lack of data about trends in the dietary intake of children and adolescents. Only one
report retrieved explored changes in dietary intake and this only included a comparison of two
national cross-sectional surveys. It also only included the age group 10 to 15 years. This is an
issue that is true for the Australian adult population also. There are several reasons for this,
firstly because of the variety of methods used to measure dietary intake. To date there is no
‘gold standard’ method for assessment of the dietary intake of children and adolescents, with
respect to all nutrients. This is supported by the review of McPherson et al regarding the validity
and reliability of dietary assessment methods in school-aged children. This concluded that
although a review of such methods should result in a conclusion about which method is best
practice, no such conclusion was achievable (43). Such complexity is echoed by the dietary
intake studies that have been conducted in Australia to date, with vast differences in data
collection methods.
Secondly a variety of outcome measures were evident throughout the included studies,
particularly when associated with outcome measures related to food groups. Many researchers
classified food groups according to their own criteria, while others utilized the National Health
9
and Medical Research Councils Core Food Groups or the Commonwealth Department of Health
and Family Services’ Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. Examples of differences in
classifications of food include the inclusion or exclusion of fruit juice in the fruit group and potato
chips in the vegetable group. It may be because of this inconsistency with classifying foods into
food groups that the majority of studies used nutrient based outcome measures instead.
However this leaves us with little data regarding what foods are contributing to the varying
nutrient intakes in children and adolescents.
Therefore such differences in methods and outcome measures utilized in studies, results in little
comparable data regarding the dietary intake of children and adolescents in Australia. Also,
despite the fact that there is no golden standard with respect to which method to used, one must
assume that there are ‘better’ methods or measures. Due to this complexity, easily accessible
information regarding valid and reliable methods to assess dietary intake in children and
adolescents would be valuable to researchers. Another review being conducted by ACAORN is
aiming to provide such information.
Another issue raised by the review was the low number of studies that explore the dietary intake
of ‘at-risk groups’ such as Aboriginal and Torre Strait islanders and the socio-economically
disadvantaged. Both the Dietary Guidelines for Children and Adolescents and Eat Well Australia
highlight the nutritional issues associated with these groups, which suggests that studies
regarding dietary intake with such groups are important step in improving their nutritional status
(44). Additionally the majority of studies were conducted in metropolitan areas such as Sydney,
Melbourne and Perth, with little information on children and adolescents in rural and remote
areas being retrieved. The lack of data in these areas may be due to the first identify point, that
is, data not having been published, but it also possible that no data has been collected in such
areas.
There is also a nonexistence of national data for the previous ten years; this is true not only for
children and adolescents but also adults. Even apparent consumption data which can be used to
assess trends in consumption was ceased in 1998-1999. Notably however this data can not be
used to report dietary intake in children and adolescents specifically, as it is reported at a
population level and is unable to specify on age or gender. Therefore at a population level,
information regarding any changes in dietary intake of children and adolescents in the past 10
years is not available.
The review was unable to provide substantial evidence linking dietary intake and the increasing
levels of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents. In adults there is evidence to
10
suggest that there is a positive relationship between both fat and carbohydrate intake and
obesity in adults (45). However in children and adolescents there is limited evidence that links
dietary intake to overweight and obesity throughout the world. Klesges et al in a longitudinal
study of 146 children aged 3 to 5 years showed that the association between a child’s intake of
calories as fat and changes in BMI was stronger than with a family history of overweight (46).
Additionally two studies have shown an association between excessive sweetened beverage
consumption in children and increased weight gain (47, 48). Therefore further research is
required to establish the relationship between the dietary intake of children and adolescents and
the increasing levels of overweight and obesity.
The review also located only two studies that have been able to show a positive impact on the
dietary intake of children and adolescents. The ACAORN Survey of Dietary Intake Studies in
Children & Adolescents (J Watson, unpublished data 2004) suggests that this is an area where
research has recently occurred or is currently occurring therefore further published data in this
area may be able in the near future. Additionally it was found that many studies that include a
dietary intervention do not use dietary intake as an outcome, but instead biochemical or
anthropometric measures. This is finding is similar to that of a systematic review of best practice
dietetic management of overweight and obese children and adolescents which showed that very
few experimental studies measured the dietary intake of their participants, even when the main
component of the intervention was an alteration of the child’s food intake (Unpublished Report; P
McCoy & C Collins Best Practice Dietetic Management of Overweight and Obese Children and
Adolescents: A Systematic Review, 2005)
Finally the majority of studies included were set in schools. This left gaps in information about
the dietary intake of those aged less than 5 years and over 16 years. Whilst schools are a great
setting to recruit participants, due to their easy accessibility, in order to ensure data for all age
groups is available, separate studies in these age groups or different settings may be
appropriate in future research.
Conclusion
Implications for research
•
Greater research required regarding the;
- ‘possible’ association between dietary intake and overweight and obesity;
whether this be reanalysis of existing data or new studies,
- positive impact that interventions can have on the dietary intake of children and
adolescents in Australia,
- dietary intake of ‘at risk groups’ in Australia
11
•
Validated and reliable methods to assess dietary intake in children and adolescents are
required, along with guides for researchers on which are the most appropriate methods
for their study.
12
Appendix I
1959
Author(s)/ Principal
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Inclusion/Exclusion criteria
(age, gender, weight, etc)
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Key findings
Cahn A and Neal K
Department of Biochemistry and Growth Clinic, Department of Anatomy, University of Melbourne
Melbourne
n=120
Data collection 1 time per year for 3 years
60 girls and 60 boys
Longitudinal
7 day food record, recorded by mothers. Brought to interview with mother and child to clarify.
% of diets with low intakes of calories, protein, iron, vitamin A and carotene, thiamine, ascorbic acid, riboflavin and
nicotinamide
Results difficult to decipher as only recorded in graphs.
Appears to have found high percentage with low intake of iron, nicotinamide, thiamine and calcium. However each
of these percentages decreased with age.
(49)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Cahn A, Hepburn and McNaughton J
Department of Biochemistry and Department of Anatomy, University of Melbourne
Melbourne, Australia
1959;n=147
1966 n=89
Data collection in 1959 and June to November1966
In 1959: From Child Growth study where treatment group given dietary advice (exact advice given unclear)
Control group inclusion criteria: school children of comparable age to study group (6.5 to 7.5 years)
In 1966: Participants from Child growth study and control group from 1959 study (n=40) plus additional volunteers
aged 13 to 14 years. 48 boys and 41 girls
Longitudinal study.
1959;7 day food record kept by mother
13
Outcome Measures
Key findings
1966; 7 day food record kept by mother or child. An interview conducted at completion to confirm information
provided.
Mean energy, calcium, protein, thiamine, ascorbic acid, riboflavin and Vitamin A and carotene intake (1959)
Mean energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, iron, vitamin A activity, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin equivalents
and ascorbic acid divided into male and females
In 1959; Calcium intake within recommended levels
Vitamin A intake above recommended levels
Thiamine intake below recommended levels
Riboflavin intake higher in study group
Ascorbic acid intake higher in study group, but both groups mean intake above recommendations
Overall few differences between groups concluded that dietary advice did not result in marked changes in dietary
intake.
In 1960
Majority of subjects consumed dietary intake that meets recommended intakes of protein, calcium, vitamin A,
riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid.
Considerable number had energy intake below recommendations
(50, 51)
1961
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
McNaughton JW and Cahn AJ
Russell Grimwade School of Biochemistry, University of Melbourne
Melbourne; participants recruited from schools, retail stores, colleges and factories
n=278
Data collection June to October 1961
Inclusion criteria: volunteers aged 16 to 19 years living in Melbourne
Cross-sectional survey
7-day food diary, using household measures
Mean (SD) energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, iron, vitamin A activity, thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid
equivalents and ascorbic acid
% of subjects who met the dietary allowances for Australians (1965 revision) divided into 16-17, 18-19years;
14
schoolboys, schoolgirls, employed girls, employed boys and trainee teachers (female)
Results
Intakes
Energy (kcal)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Carbohydrate
(g)
Calcium (g)
Iron (mg)
Vitamin A
activity (iu)
Thiamine (mg)
Riboflavin (mg)
Nicotinic acid
equivalents
(mg)
Ascorbic acid
(mg)
16-17 years Male
Key findings
16-17 years female
School (n=62)
Employed
(n=9)
School (n=12)
Employed
(n=9)
School
(n=113)
Employed
(n=32)
3038 (535)
93 (17)
131 (26)
377 (71)
2733 (521)
85 (26)
119 (29)
330 (45)
3106 (553)
97 (17)
133 (19)
386 (90)
2699 (170)
96 (12)
117 (14)
321 (50)
2137 (422)
68 (14)
93 (20)
263 (59)
1910 (311)
60 (11)
83 (15)
231 (42)
1.0 (0.32)
13.5 (2.5)
4702 (1853)
1.0 (0.32)
13.5 (2.5)
4702 (1853)
1.0 (0.32)
13.8 (2.9)
4077 (1088)
1.0 (0.43)
13.3 (2.4)
4374 (1666)
0.8 (0.3)
10.3 (2.4)
3879 (1554)
0.6 (0.22)
8.8 (1.6)
2642 (1219)
1.3 (0.36)
2.1 (0.51)
31 (5.5)
1.3 (0.36)
2.1 (0.51)
31 (5.5)
1.2 (0.35)
2.1 (0.63)
33 (6.1)
1.2 (0.27)
2.0 (0.69)
32 (5.1)
1.0 (0.32)
1.6 (0.49)
23 (4.8)
95 (38)
59 (28)
89 (40)
93 (53)
97
94
73
67
78
55
100
100
92
95
79
94
100
78
55
78
89
94
78
%meeting
allowances
Protein
Calcium
Iron
Vitamin A
activity
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Nicotinic acid
equiv
Ascorbic acid
18-19 years Male
18-19 years female
School
(n=4)
Trainee
teacher
(n=15)
2400(442 2016 (327
71 (6)
63 (11)
100 (15) 87 (14)
322(49) 248(54)
Employed
(n=22)
0.8 (0.22)
1.2 (0.43)
21 (4.5)
0.8(0.17)
11.7 (1)
5721
(1189)
1.2(0.23)
1.6 (0.43)
23 (3.2)
0.6 (0.17)
9.,2 (2.5)
2695
(1295)
0.8 (0.26)
1.3 (0.53)
21 (5.6)
92 (36)
62 (32)
160 (49) 63 (26)
68 (46)
100
100
89
75
83
23
63
54
0
100
100
100
73
93
40
45
86
32
92
58
83
100
100
67
89
100
85
83
90
100
47
41
72
97
100
100
100
100
40
67
80
87
55
68
72
100
92
89
91
59
100
100
91
0.6 (0.19)
9.4 (1.8)
2877(720)
0.9 (0.24)
1.4 (0.28)
21 (4.2)
2028 (440)
62 (16)
89 (22)
247 (47)
The majority of dietary intakes met the recommendations, notably however iron intake in females particulary
employed females was very low.
No correlation between weight and calorie intake in any groups.
No significant differences in intake of age groups.
(41)
15
1967
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Hankin ME
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Adelaide
Adelaide, South Australia
n=38/108
Data collection at 6 weeks, three months, six months, nine months and one year
Subjects recruited from post-natal clinic at < 6 weeks of age.
Longitudinal
‘Dietary record’ taken by dietitian
Mean calorie, protein, carbohydrate, fat, calcium, iron, carotene vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, ascorbic acid
16
Results
Key findings
Iron and vitamin C intake was most commonly below recommendations.
(52)
17
1975
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary intake tool
Magarey A,
Boulton, J
Department of Paediatrics, Adelaide Children’s Hospital, South Australia, Australia
Discipline of Paediatrics, University of Newcastle NSW, Australia
Adelaide
n= 1975-76 (baseline; 0 months)
@ 6months n= 325
n= 289 1976-77
n=198 1977-78
n= 183 1979-80
n=152 1981-82
n=141 1983-84
n=245 1986-87 (new recruits added- selected from age-matched cross-sectional sample)
n= 250 1988-89
n= 235 1990-91
15 years
1976-77:
1977-78; 88 boys, 65 girls mean age and range unavailable
1979-80; 88 boys mean age 4.4 (0.13), 67 girls mean age 4.5 (0.12) mean age all 4.5, age range 4.2-4.8 years
1981-82; 88 boys mean age 6.0 (0.6), 64 girls mean age 6.0 (0.6)
1983-84; 78 boys mean age 8.0 (0.7), 65 girls mean age 8.0 (0.7)
1986-87; 130 boys mean age 11.1 (0.1) 113 girls mean age 11.1 (0.1) Total mean age 11.1, age range 10.9-11.3
years
1988-89; 121 boys mean age 13.0 (0.1) 116 girls mean age 13.0 (0.1) Total mean age 13.0 age range 12.9-13.6
years
1990-91; 114 boys mean age 14.9 (0.1) 104 girls mean age 14.9 (0.1) Total mean age 14.9 age range 14.7 to 15.6
years
Longitudinal prospective cohort
6 months and 1 year: parental interview
2 years: Weighed food record
4 years: 3-day weighed food record (commenced on Sunday). Mothers trained at nutrition research centre in
groups and supplied with written instructions and dietary record sheets. Standard measures were to be used and
equipment was provided if unavailable at home. Dietitian met with mother after completion and checked records.
6: 3-day food record as above, but invitation to participate, recording sheet and instructions mailed to participants.
18
Checked by dietitian with parent.
8 years- 4-day food record starting on Sunday; invitation, recording sheet and instructions mailed to participants,
shortly before participants’ birthday. Parent and child met with dietitian 2-weeks after completion to check.
11, 13. 15 years- 4 day food record starting on a Sunday; detailed instructions and invitation sent prior to child’s’
birthday. 2-4 weeks later parent and child met with dietitian (at this stage children completing record) to check.
Outcome measures
Energy intake
Protein intake
% energy from
protein
Fat intake
% energy from
fat
CHO intake
% energy from
CHO
MJ/kg
Protein/kg
SFA
MUFA
PUFA
Cholesterol
P:S ratio
Sugar
Starch
CHO/kg
% sugar
% starch
Fibre
Sugar from
drinks
Sugar from
sweets
Sodium
Calcium
Iron
Zinc
Folic acid
Thiamine
Riboflavin
Nicotinic acid
Potential
nicotinic acid
Vitamin c
Vitamin B6
2 years
4 years
6 years
8 years
11 years
Mean intake
(SD)
Mean (SD)
rd
th
Median 3 , 50
th
and 97
percentile
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
th
th
th
10 50 90 percentiles
Not measured
13 years
15 years
Not measured
Mean (SD)
th
th
th
Not measured
Mean (SD)
th
th
th
Not measured
rd
Median 3 97
percentile
th
rd
Median 3 97
percentile
th
Mean (SD)
th
th
th
% below 0.7 RDI
Not measured
rd
th
Median 3 97
percentile
Not measured
rd
Not measured
Median 3 97
percentile
th
Not measured
Mean (SD)
th
th
th
19
Vitamin B12
Retinol
Carotene
Vitamin D
Not measured
rd
Median 3 97
percentile
Cholecalciferol
Potassium
Not measured
rd
th
Median 3 97
percentile
Vitamin A
Vitamin E
Results
th
Not measured
Not measured
% below 0.7 RDI
Not measured
Mean (SD)
th
th
th
% below 0.7 RDI
Not measured
Mean (SD)
th
th
th
% below 0.7 RDI
2 years
4 years
6 years
8 years
11 years
13 years
15 years
B
5.03 (0.88)
6.64 (1.2)
7.4 (1.3)
G
4.63 (0.99)
5.96 (1.13)
6.5 (1.5)
Protei
n
intake
(g)
%
energy
from
protein
B
41.0 (9.2)
5.94 (3.98, 5.83,
7.89)
5.44 (3.55, 5.23,
7.50)
50 (31,48,72)
47 (26,46,69)
55.0 (12.5)
64 (15)
G
38.3 (10.6)
51.1 (12.2)
57 (13)
B
13.9 (2.1)
14.1
15%
G
14.1 (2.4)
14.6
15%
8.5 (1.6)
66, 10.6
7.4 (1.30)
5.9, 9.0
75 (16)
(56, 74, 98)
62 (13)
(48, 61, 81)
15.0 (2.4)
(12.2,14.8, 18.3)
14.4 (2.1)
(12, 14.2, 16.8)
9.0 (1.8)
7.0, 11.3
7.2 (1.4)
5.9,9.3
82 (19)
(61,81, 105)
64 (16)
(46, 62, 87)
15.8 (2.5) (12.7,
15.5, 19.0)
15.1 (2.6)
(11.8, 15.1,
18.2)
Fat
intake
(g)
B
52.3 (12.2)
64.7 (14.5)
71 (16.3)
G
47.9 (13.4)
56.8 (12.9)
62 (17.8)
%
energy
from
fat
B
38.4 (5.8)
36.1
35
G
38.1 (13.4)
35.1
34
CHO
intake
(g)
B
150 (34)
Not measured
232 (47)
G
B
138 (34)
47.7 (7.4)
50%
206 (47)
50%
G
47.9 (7.4)
50%
50%
81 (21)
(59,78,108)
72 (17) (51, 81,
91)
34.8 (4.4)
(28.9, 35.1,
40.0)
35.0 (4.9) (30.6,
35.8, 41.5)
265 (51) (200,
267, 331)
230 (48)
(159, 230, 290)
50 (2.4)
(12.2, 14.8,
18.3)
49.6 (5.1) (43.7,
49.3, 56.5)
83 (21)
(57,82,108)
70 (18)
(49,67,95)
34.3 (5.2) (27.6,
33.8, 40.7)
35.6 (5.1)
(29.7, 35.3,
42.8)
278 (65)
(207, 277, 356)
220 (50)
(155, 216, 287)
49.7 (5.3)
(43.2, 49.6,
55.9)
49.0 (5.7 (41.3,
48.7, 56.6)
9.9 (2.3)
7.0, 12.8
6.9 (1.5)
5.0, 8.6
93 (25)
(67,88,124)
63 (14)
(46, 61, 81)
15.9 (2.7)
(12.4, 15.8,
19.3)
15.9 (2.5)
(12.8, 15.5,
19.6)
89 (26)
(56,87, 124)
64 (19)
(40,62,91)
33.2 (5.6) (26.3,
32.8, 40.3)
34.4 (5.6)
(26.5, 34.9,
41.0)
315 (83)
(203, 312, 413)
212 (54) (155,
208, 262)
50.5 (5.8)
(43, 51.3, 57.2)
49.5 (5.8)
(42.1, 48.9,
57.4)
Energ
y
intake
(MJ)
%
energy
from
CHO
14 (10,14,20)
15 (11,14,19)
57 (34,57,79)
52 (24,48,81)
35 (25,35,45)
35 (20,35,45)
187 (106,185,
260)
170 (105,170,
233)
Not measured
20
CHO/k
g
MJ/kg
Protei
n/kg
B
G
B
G
B
G
Fat/kg
SFA
(g)
B
G
B
10.4 (6.7,9.9,
15.2)
9.6 (5.9,9.5,
14.1)
0.33 (0.23,0.32,
0.48)
0.31 (0.19, 0.29,
0.44)
2.8 (1.6, 2.7,
4.1)
2.7 (1.3, 2.6,
4.1)
3.2 (1.7,3.1, 4.8)
2.9 (1.5, 2.7,
4.8)
23 (11,22,37)
21 (9, 19, 37)
G
%
energy
from
SFA
MUFA
%
energy
from
MUFA
PUFA
%
energy
from
PUFA
Chole
sterol
(mg)
P:S
ratio
B
G
B
N/A
18 (9, 17, 27)
16 (8, 15, 27)
9.84 (2.5)
8.8 (1.9)
8.75 (2.13)
Kj/kg 314 (75)
7.6 (2.1)
0.28 (0.06)
282 (61)
2.6 (0.6)
0.24 (0.06)
2.4 (0.6)
2.4 (0.6)
2.1 (0.6)
3.1 (0.8)
2.7 (0.7)
2.7 (0.6)
26.9 (7.3)
2.3 (0.7)
29.0 (7.4)
23.0 (5.9)
24.5 (7.5)
41 (total fat)
41
(total fat)
41 (total fat)
21.4 (5.1)
40 (total fat)
23.4 (5.9)
G
B
N/A
18.4 (4.6)
33 (total fat)
20.5 (6.9)
33 (total fat)
G
B
10 (3, 9, 22)
33 (total fat)
10.2 (5.3)
33 (total fat)
11.5 (4.9)
G
B
10 (3, 9. 20)
N/A
9.9 (4.1)
16% total fat
10.7 (4.2)
16% (total fat)
17% (total fat)
16% of total fat
G
B
210 (73, 194,
369)
216 (96)
229 (92)
G
210 (53, 184,
434)
0.5 (0.15, 0.41,
1.15)
193 (80)
209 (74)
0.41 (0.24)
0.41 (0.19)
0.53 (0.13,0.48,
0.97)
0.45 (0.21)
0.46 (0.18)
B
G
N/A
36 (11)
(23,35,50)
25 (8) (15,24,36)
32 (9)
(22,31,45)
29 (8)
(19,28,38)
13.9 (2.4)
(10.8,13.9, 17.0)
14.4 (2.6)
(11.6, 14.5, 17)
28 (8) (19,26,39)
25 (6) (17,24,31)
34 (9)
(23,33,46)
28 (8)
(18,26, 40)
14.0 (2.6)
(10.4,14.1, 17.7)
14.1 (2.5)
(10.7,14.1, 17.7)
28 (7) (19,26,40)
23 (7) (16,22,32)
11.9 (1.9) (9.1,
12.1, 14.2)
12.2 (1.9) (9.8,
12.3, 14.5)
13 (6) (7,12,19)
11 (2)
(7,11,17)
5.5 (1.9)
(3.3,5.4,7.7)
5.7 (1.9)
(3.5,5.2,8.1)
247 (97)
(146,225, 359)
215 (83)
(123, 203, 329)
11.4 (2.1)
(8.8, 11.3, 14.3)
11.9 (2.3) (8.9,
11.4, 14.8)
14 (6)
(8,14,22)
13 (6) (8,12,18)
6.0 (2.1)
(3.6,5.7,8.3)
6.5 (2.5)
(4.3,6.0,9.9)
253 (100)
(149, 234, 391)
190 (73)
(96, 187, 286)
13.3 (2.8)
(9.8,13.0, 17.0)
13.5 (2.8)
(9.8, 13.5, 17.1)
31 (10)
(20,30, 42)
22 (7) (13,22,31)
11.5 (2.3)
(8.9, 11.4, 14.3)
11.8 (2.3, (8.4,
12.0, 14.6)
16 (6) (8,14,25)
12 (5)
(6,11,18)
5.7 (1.8)
(3.7,5.4,8.2)
6.3 (2.1)
(3.7,6.2,9.0)
268 (118)
(138, 249, 388)
201 (88)
(102, 196, 340)
0.41 (0.17)
(0.21,0.39, 0.62)
0.41 (0.17)
(0.24, 0.42,
0.62)
0.44 (0.18)
(0.24,0.4, 0.64)
0.48 (0.21)
(0.26, 0.44,
0.74)
0.45 (0.17)
(0.27, 0.45,
0.68)
0.49 (0.2) (0.29,
0.46, 0.76)
21
Sugar
(g)
B
109.7 (32)
120 (32)
G
106 (53, 105,
160)
90 (43, 91, 149)
96 (29)
105 (31)
%
energy
as
sugar
B
29 (15,29,39)
26.4
26
25.6
26
Starch
(g)
B
97 (25)
112 (32)
91 (23)
99 (25)
23.5
24%
24.5
24%
12.1 (4.3,11.8,
20.8)
12.0 (5.0, 10.7,
19.6)
13 (5)
Median 15
12 (4)
12
15.1 (1.0, 12.0,
47.0)
11.7 (1.0,
12.0,47.0)
N/A
Median 5.6
Median 17
6
15
Median 16
11
Median 17
15
1706mg (1020,
1645,2636)
1680
(848,1659,2508)
81 (45,132)
(B+G)
91 (53,152)
742 (343,708,
1270)
712 (359,
682,1232)
765 (429,1350)
(B+G)
B
7.3 (4.4,7.0,
11.6)
8.1 (4.7, 12.3)
(B+G)
G
7.2 (4.7, 6.6,
10.1)
28 (16,28,39)
G
81 (44,79,126)
74 (43,73,112)
G
%
energy
as
starch
B
Fibre
B
22 (13,22,33)
G
G
Sugar
from
drinks
(g)
Sugar
from
sweet
s (g)
Sodiu
m
(mmol
)
B
Calciu
m
(mg)
B
G
B
G
G
Iron
(mg)
22 (13,22,29)
78 (42,125)
809 (480,1600)
750 (217-1310)
10 (6.3,15.8)
8.9 (4.9, 14)
135 (37)
(84,135,191
114 (36)
(66,110,160
25.2 (5.1)
(17.9, 25.4,
32.1)
24.3 (6.1)
(16, 24.1, 31.9)
129 (321)
(88,125,174
116 (30)
(80,111,163
24.5 (4.7)
(17.6,24.1, 31.1)
25.1 (4.8)
(30.6, 35.8,
41.5)
17 (6)
(10,16,26)
137 (48)
(87,129,196
105 (37)
(64,101,160
24.4 (6.3)
(16.4, 24.6,
32.2)
23.2 (6.3) (14.9,
22.7, 31.7)
139 (38)
(95,135,203
115 (31)
(80,111,160
24.9 (5.2)
(18.5, 24.5,
30.8)
25.6 (5.2) (18.6,
25.5, 33.5)
19 (7)
(10,18,28)
149 (58)
(76,146,214
102 (39)
(55,98,143)
23.6 (6.1) (15.7,
23.4, 31.6)
23.6 (6.6) (14.4,
23.8, 31.5)
15 (5)
(8,14,21)
15 (6)
(8,15,22)
15 (6)
(8,13,23)
110 (30)
(77, 107, 146)
95 (22)
(68, 94, 125)
116 (31) (78,
112, 159)
92 (26)
(62,87,127)
128 (39)
(80,124, 178)
87 (26)
(58, 86, 119)
1038 (351)
(639, 985, 1518)
870 (269)
(577, 816, 1267)
1080 (422)
(592, 999, 1698)
762 (313)
(373, 718, 1176)
11.9 (3.0)
(8.5, 11.4, 15.9)
9.9 (2.3)
(6.8, 9.7, 12.7)
12.6 (3.4) (9.1,
12.5, 17.3)
9.9 (2.6)
(6.9, 9.4, 13.2)
1159 (500)
(603, 1095,
1883)
729 (299)
(347, 692, 1183)
14.9 (4.8)
(9.5,13.8, 21)
9.6 (3.4)
(6.2, 9.1, 13.6)
163 (43) (11
8,160,227)
109 (29)
(71,105,153
26.5 (5.1) (19.6,
26.3, 33.5)
25.76 (5.5)
(18.5, 25.2,
33.3)
21 (8)
(11,21,32)
22
Zinc
(mg)
6.6 (3.5, 10)
(B+G)
B
6.3 (3.6, 6.2,
9.7)
G
6.1 (3.3, 6.0,
9.5)
142 (65,133,
235)
144 (75, 138,
228)
150 (77,288)
(B+G)
1.0 (0.5,0.9,1.7)
1.0 (0.4,0.9,1.7)
1.1 (0.5, 1.9)
(B+G)
1.5 (0.7, 1.4,
2.4)
1.5 (0.7,1.4, 2.4)
1.6 (0.7, 2.6)
(B+G)
9.4 (2.5)
(7.2, 9.8, 13.4)
7.9 (2.0)
(5.4, 7.6, 10.6)
10.0 (2.5) (7.2,
9.8, 13.4)
7.9 (2.0) (5.3,
8.0, 10.7)
11.2 (3.0) (7.5,
10.9, 15.2)
7.7 (2.0) (5.3,
7.7, 10.0)
194 (60)
(123, 186, 280)
164 (56)
(92,162, 236)
215 (92)
(126, 200, 324)
194 (102) (96,
169, 305)
243 (93) (142,
228, 371)
188 (84) (103,
168, 294)
1.2mg/kj
(0.6,1.8)
1.1 mg/kJ
(0.6,1.9)
1.9 mg/kJ
(0.71,2.7)
1.5 mg/KJ
(0.72, 2.7)
29 mgKJ
(16,44)
25mg/KJ
(13,41)
1.4 (0.6)
(0.9,1,3,2.0)
1.3 (1.1) (0.7,1,
1.5)
2.1 (0.7)
(1.1,2.0,3.2)
1,6 (0.5)
(0.9,1.6,2.3)
33 (7.0)
(24,32,43)
27 (6)
(19,27,33)
1.6 (0.7)
(0.9,1.5,2.5)
1.3 (0.7)
(0.6,1.1,2.0)
2.5 (0.9)
(1.5,2.4,3.6)
1.8 (0.8)
(0.9,1.7,2.7)
35 (8.5)
(25,34,45)
28 (8)
(17, 26,41)
1.9 (1.2)
(1.0,1.6,2.7)
1.2 (0.5)
(0.7,1.0,2.0)
2.8 (1.0)
(1.7,2.7,4.0)
1.7 (0.7)
(1.0,1.5,2.7)
41 (10.6)
(28,39,53)
27 (6.9)
(19, 26, 37)
78 (12,240)
107 (67)
(29,93,187)
99 (67)
(29,83,194)
1.2 (0.9)
(0.7,1.1,1.5)
0.9 (0.3)
(0.6,0.9,1.3)
3.3 (1.3)
(1.7,2.9,5.2)
3.0 (2.2)
(1.6,2.7,4.4)
2.5 (1.9)
(0.8,2.1,4.1)
2.4 (1.0)
(1.0,2.0,4.1)
73 (18)
(50,71,96)
62 (15)
(44,61,84)
110 (73)
(30,94, 215)
102 (72)
(23,92,205)
1.2 (0.4)
(0.8,1.2,1.7)
1.0 (0.3)
(.6,1.0, 1.5)
3.6 (2.3)
(2.1,3.2,5.0)
2.6 (1.3)
(1.2,2.5,3.7)
2.6 (2.0)
(0.8,2.0,5.3)
2.3 (2.0)
(0.7,1.7,4.1)
76 (20)
(53,73, 101)
60 (17)
(39,61,85)
119 (84)
(36,85,246)
122 (98)
(37,93,230)
1.4 (0.5)
(.9,1.3, 1.9)
1.0 (0.3)
(0.7,0.9, 1.5)
4.2 (3.2)
(2.2,3.7,5.7)
2.7 (1.1)
(1.4,2.5,4.1)
2.8 (3.3)
(0.7,2.2,5.1)
2.1 (1.7)
(0.4,1.6,4.7)
84 (24)
(36,85,246)
61 (17)
(41, 59,84)
7.9 (4.8, 12.6)
6.9 (3.4, 11)
Folic
acid
(μg)
B
G
Thiami
ne
(mg)
B
Riboflavin
(mg)
B
Niacin
(mg)
B
G
G
G
Potent
ial
nicotin
ic acid
Vitami
nC
(mg)
B
Vitami
n B6
(mg)
B
Vitami
n B12
(μg)
B
Vitami
nD
(μg)
B
Potass
ium
(mmol
)
B
G
B
11.2 (4.8, 10.7,
17.9)
11.2 (5.5,11.1,
17.2)
10.6 (6.5,10.3,
15.7)
10.2 (5.3, 9.7,
14.8)
77(10, 62, 189)
81 (15, 73, 192)
11 (6.8, 17)
(B+G)
76 (16,265)
(B+G)
G
71 (12, 308)
0.83 (0.42, 1.49)
(B+G)
1.0 (0.5, 1.5)
0.9 (0.l4, 1.3)
2.4 (0.9, 9.3)
(B+G)
2.7 (1.2,6.3)
G
G
2.5 (0.8,4.5)
1.6 (0.3, 5.2)
(B+G)
1.6 (0.4,3.4)
G
G
1.6 (0.4,4.3)
54 (31, 84)
(B+G)
64 (34,90)
54 (26,88)
23
Vitami
nA
(μg
retinol
equiv)
Vitami
nE
(mg)
Key findings
864 (449)
(405,760, 1463)
777 (526)
(367,636, 1204)
893 (587)
(412, 753, 1512)
760 (423) (315,
684, 1352)
985 (859)
(374,813, 1610)
734 (504, 267,
613, 1304)
B
5.2 (1.9)
(3.5,5.0,7.4)
5.2 (1.8)
(2.8,5.0,7.6)
G
4.6 (1.7)
(2.8,4.4,6.4)
4.4 (2.0)
(2.4,4.0,6.6)
7.9 (3.9)
(3.9,7.0,12.7)
5.9 (2.9)
(2.7,5.3, 9.0)
B
G
Potency
340 (72,1340)
310 (88,1231)
At age 4
Mean daily energy intake lower than other similar studies, but range of responses similar.
Calcium and iron intakes comparable to recommendations, other micronutrients intake greater than recommendations.
At age 6
The reported results were similar to other studies in similar populations for carbohydrate, but lower for total energy, protein and fat intake.
Micronutrient intake met RDIs for each. Intake of sodium was high.
At age 8
14% of girls and 21% of boys below the RDI for calcium
31% of boys had sodium intakes above the RDI
18% of boys and 33% of girls had potassium intakes lower than the RDI.
At age 11-15years
Mean daily macro and micronutrient intake increased in boys from age 11 to 15, but decreased in girls.
At age 11 5% of boys and 17% of girls had an intake <0.7 of the RDI for calcium and age 13 this increased to 29% in boys and 47% in girls
and at age 15 years 29% in boys and 52% in girls
At age 11 0% of boys and girls had an intake <0.7 of the RDI for iron, this increased to 7% in boys and 22% of girls at age 13 and 4% in
boys and 31% of girls at age 15 years
At age 11 7% of boys and 20% of girls had an intake <0.7 of the RDI for zinc, this increased to 27% for boys and 63% for girls at age 13 and
then decreased to 15% in boys and 56% in girls at age 15.
At age 11 6% if boys and 7% if girls had an intake <0.7 RDI for Vitamin A, this increased to 17% in boys and 28% in girls at age 13 and 20%
in boys and 36% in girls at age 15
At age 11 1% of girls had an intake of <0.7 RDI for thiamin, at age 13 this increased to 3% of boys and 14% of girls and at age 15 to 3% of
boys and 13% of girls
At age 11 4% of boys and 9% of girls had an intake <0.7 RDI for riboflavin, at age 13 this decreased in boys to 2% but increased in girls to
17%, at age 15 this remained stable in boys at 2% but increased again in girls to 24%
At no age group were boys or girls intakes <0.7RDI for niacin.
At age 11 27% of boys and 43% of girls intake <0.7 RDI for vitamin B6, at age 13 this increased to 50% of boys and 59% of girls, at age 15
this decreased to 35% in boys and increased to 66% in girls.
At age 11 1% of boys and 2% of girls had an intake <0.7 RDI vitamin b12, at age 12 this remained stable at 1% in males and increased to
13% in females, at age 15 years this increased in boys and girls to 9% and 10%b respectively.
At age 11 2% of boys and 16% of girls intake <0.7 RDI for folate, this increased at age 13 in both girls and boys to 17% and 30%
respectively, at age 15 this decreased in boys to 10% but increased in girls to 32%
4% of boys and 6% of girls had intakes <0.7 RDI for vitamin C at age 11, at age 13 this decreased in boys to 2% and increased in girls to
8%, at age 15 years this increased in boys to 4% and decreased to 1% in girls.
At age 11 66% of boys and 75% of girls had an intake <0.7 RDI for vitamin E this increased at age 13 for both girls and boys to 83 and 84%
24
respectively, at age 15 this decreased to 52% in boys and 63% in girls.
Cereal products were the main source of energy at age 11-15 years (22%), followed by dairy products, (14%), cakes and desserts (12%),
meats and eggs (11%)
Age 2-15 years
Whilst boys had greater intakes of macronutrients at all ages, however the percentage contribution of each macronutrient was similar in
boys and girls.
Weak relationship between adiposity and fat intake shown
At most ages energy adjusted macronutrient intakes from the year prior were not associated with BMI score at that age.
At age 6 fat intake positively associated with BMI and at age 8 protein intake was negatively associated to BMI
(1-12, 32)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Langelann SG and Odgers TW
Public Health Department of Western Australia
Graylands Teachers College, Perth Western Australia
Western Australia
n= 357
Data collection in 1975
4th grade school children. Aged 9 years
24 hour dietary intake taken by Home Economics Students
Mean energy, protein, calcium, iron, retinol activity, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid and the percentage
of participants below the Australian Dietary Allowances for 7-11 years for each of these nutrients
25
Results
(53)
1976
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Steel JE
Department Conservative Dentistry
Victoria- metropolitan Melbourne and 2 country areas
n=1050
Children aged 0-17 years (part of larger study of persons aged 0-70 years)
Cross sectional survey
24 hour dietary intake records; recorded by parents for those age <12 years
Divided into breakfast, the midday meal, the evening meal and between meals
% of participants consuming particular foods at each of these meals
26
Results
BREAKFAST
27
MIDDAY MEAL
28
EVENING MEAL
29
BETWEEN MEALS
30
Key findings
(35, 54-56)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Owles EN
Princess Margaret Hospital for Children, Perth
Perth, Australia
n=333
Unclear
Inclusion criteria; children aged 1 to 6 years. Australian group: those born in Australia, Migrant group: children of
parents born outside Australia.
24 hour recall. Completed by mother or person who fed participant
Mean energy, protein, calcium, iron, retinol activity, thiamine, riboflavin, riboflavin, niacin, ascorbic acid intake
divided into Australian and migrant group aged 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 5-6 and 6 years
% of participants with nutrient deficiency; energy, protein, calcium, iron, retinol, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin,
ascorbic acid divided into Australians, southern Europeans, Spanish and Portuguese, northern European and
Burmese.
Results
Key findings
All nutrients (except niacin in the migrant 1-2 years group) met RDA (1970)
Energy intake higher ion migrant groups aged 1 to 2 and 4 to 5
Calcium intake of Australian group higher
Burmese children had the greatest number of nutrient deficiencies
Excessive energy intake among southern European, Spanish, Portuguese and northern European
Australian and northern European children had greater protein intakes
(36)
1977
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Hitchcock NE and Gracey M
Princess Margaret Children’s Medical Research Foundation Perth
Schools in Perth, Western Australia
31
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
Key findings
n=85
Data collected April and May 1977 and 1978
Inclusion criteria: boys and girls aged 6-12 years attending 1 of 2 primary schools; a small independent primary
school in metropolitan Perth (higher socioeconomic status) or state primary school in Perth metropolitan area
(lower socioeconomic status)
Cross-sectional
7-day food record (consecutive days) using household measures recorded by mothers and child. Mothers received
instructions on how to complete
Mean intake (SD) of protein, fat, carbohydrate, energy, calcium, iron, retinol equivalents, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin
equivalents, ascorbic acid divided into boys and girls aged 6-7, 8-10 and 11-12 and socioeconomic status.
Nutrient Intake
6-7 Years
Energy (kJ)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Retinol activity (μg)
Thiamin (μg)
Riboflavin (mg)
Niacin (mg)
Ascorbic acid (mg)
Boys n=12
7070 (1059)
59. (8.3)
72.3 (11.5)
206.1 (41.3)
801 (222)
11.0 (2.8)
984 (508)
1043 (369)
1.8 (0.6)
20.9 (4.6)
55.5 (27.3)
8-10 years
Girls n=10
6430 (883)
53.6 (8.6)
69.3 (10.8)
187.3 (29.9)
597 (244)
9.8 (2.3)
767 (325)
1094 (322)
1.6 (0.6)
21.4 (5.2)
74.5 (49.5)
Boys n=25
8217 (1264)
66.9 (14.7)
88.1 (25.0)
225.9 (60.2)
783 (272)
11.7 (2.6)
967 (551)
1277 (341)
2.0 (0.6)
25.1 (6.3)
63.4 (40.2)
11-12 years
Girls n=10
6848 (791)
57.4 (14.8)
71.2 (13.0)
197.5 (34.6)
601 (282)
10/4 (2.1)
733 (504)
1119 (321)
1.7 (0.7)
23.1 (6.2)
49.1 (22.7)
Boys n=13
8606 (1460)
78.3 (21.3)
90.0 (15.6)
239.9 (42.7)
864 (415)
14.2 (3.9)
1344 (1117)
1400 (477)
2.3 (0.8)
30.0 (8.4)
73.3 (45.2)
Girls n=15
7321 (1590)
59.4 (16.7)
80.3 (22.3)
207.5 (40.9)
672 (292)
10.3 (2.7)
842 (540)
1054 (293)
1.7 (0.6)
21.4 (5.6)
72.0 (35.0)
Protein intake of all age groups met the RDA
All micronutrients in all age groups met RDAs except for iron intakes in females age 11-12 years
Mean energy intake did not meet the RDAs
13% of boys and 39% of girls from higher socioeconomic status and 32% of boys and 45% of girls from lower
socioeconomic status consumed less than the RDA for iron.
14% of lower socioeconomic status group and 8% of the higher socioeconomic status group did not reach the
RDAs for 2 or more nutrients
(30)
1978
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Hitchcock NE and Gracey M
Princess Margaret Children’s Medical Research Foundation Perth
Busselton, Western Australia (Rural town)
32
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
n=121 (children aged 3-18 years)
Unclear
41 families selected on the basis of their cholesterol levels for subsequent study (only children aged 3-18 years
included in review)
Results
Nutrient intake
24 hour record completed by participant or parent/carer in the home (for younger participants)
Mean (SD) daily consumption of protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, iron, retinol activity, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin
equivalents, ascorbic acid. Results divided into males and female, ages 3 to 7, 7 to 11, 11 to 15, 15 to 18 years.
Up to 3 years
7 to 11 years
11 to 15 years
15 to 18 years
Females
(n=11)
6961
(2997)
54.3 (32.6)
75.0 (48.1)
198.5
(57.9)
590 (500)
8.5 (4.3)
880 (480)
Females
(n=2)
6497 (9054)
Males
(n=15)
7790 (1599)
Females
(n=22)
7434 (1319)
Males
(n=28)
9598 (2574)
Females
(n=20)
8447 (1917)
62.3 (51.5)
64.2 (79.7)
198.3
(311.1)
602
10.4
1234
60.6 (15.4)
84.5 (26.7)
218.6 (53.4)
61.2 (16.9)
73.7 (18.5)
224.9 (39.3)
79.8 (28.8)
95.7 (30.7)
292 (83.3)
65.3 (19.4)
88.0 (249.4)
249.4 (56.0)
674 (296)
11.3 (3.7)
797 (294)
640 (330)
12.5 (3.8)
770 (380)
910 (430)
14.8 (6.3)
1186 (468)
783 (456)
12.8 (4.9)
1195 (620)
Males
(n=15)
11859
(4194)
93 (39.6)
123.4 (52)
348.5
(136.7)
868 (408)
18.6 (7.3)
1670 (774)
Energy (kJ)
5287 (1340)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
49.1 (17.5)
58.8 (14.6)
139.7 (16.5)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Retinol activity
(μg)
Thiamine (mg)
Riboflavin (mg)
Niacin Equiv
(mg)
Ascorbic acid
(mg)
720 (255)
7.2 (4.0)
813 (424)
Males
(n=8)
6212
(1921)
48.1 (13.2)
64.1 (19.7)
184.3
70.1)
490 (230)
8.7 (3.4)
806 (287)
0.9 (0.5)
1.5 (0.5)
17.3 (9.1)
0.9 (0.4)
1.2 (0.5)
18.1 (7.9)
0.9
1.4
20.1
1.3 (0.3)
1.9 (0.8)
23.5 (6.1)
1.2 (0.4)
1.9 (0.9)
23.6 (7.4)
1.6 (0.7)
2.6 (1.2)
31.6 (11.7)
1.3 (0.5)
2.2 (1.2)
24.7 (8.2)
1.7 (0.7)
2.7 (1.2)
37.1 (17.3)
1.0 (0.5)
1.4 (0.8)
19.8 (9.8)
47 (38)
43 (24)
43
49 (46)
59 (34)
68 (63)
65 (47)
95 (54)
43 (42)
N=5
Key findings
3 to 7 years
For participants aged 11 years and under there was no significant difference in dietary intake of protein, fat and
carbohydrate between boys and girls. After 11 years significant differences were observed.
The energy intake of children aged 1-3 years were found to be similar to the Australian Dietary Allowances
For both males and females energy intake was below RDAs from age 3 onwards.
Iron intake in females aged 15 to 18 years was below the RDAs
(57)
1979
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Hitchcock NE, Owles EN and Gracey M
Princess Magaret Children’s Medical Research Foundation
Perth WA
33
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
n=205
Began in 1979 at birth with measurements at 6 weeks, 3,6,9 and 12 months, 1. 5 years, 2 years and 3 years
104 boys and 101 girls mainly from middle class
Inclusion criteria: second generation Australian born from 2 parent families excluding Australian Aborigines, full
term singletons from normal pregnancies and deliveries weighing 2500g or more at birth
Longitudinal cohort
At 6 weeks: recall of recent intake
Other measurements- 7 day food record
Mean (SEM) energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin C intake at 9
and 12 months of those never breast fed
Estimated energy intake at 6 weeks, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, 1.5 years, 2 years and 3 years
9 months Boys n=46
9 months Girls n=52
895 (23)
865 (24)
Energy (kilocalories)
33.8 (1.2)
32.8 (1.4)
Protein (g)
42.7 (1.8)
39.6 (1.5)
Fat (g)
103.4 (3.3)
95.0 (2.8)
Carbohydrate (g)
790 (39)
838 (34)
Calcium (mg)
7.0 (0.7)
7.5 (0.7)
Iron (mg)
786 (49)
691 (31)
Thiamine (μg)
1.6 (0.07)
1.7 (0.07)
Riboflavin (mg)
6.4 (0.6)
6.2 (0.5)
Niacin (mg)
62.9 (6.3)
55.3 (4.7)
Vitamin C (mg)
Energy intake
At 6 weeks; 550 kcal for boys and 510 kcal for girls
At 3 months; 615 kcal for boys and 580 kcal for girls
At 6 months; 740 kcal for boys and 700 kcal for girls
At 12 months; 4145 (108) for boys and 3975 (105) for girls
At 1.5 years; 4955 (105) for boys and 4470 (120) for girls
At 2 years 5350 (117) for boys and 4850 (138) for girls
At 3 years 5740 (117) for boys and 5553 (111) for girls
12 months Boys n=62
990 (26)
38.5 (1.4)
42.5 (1.6)
115.9 (3.1)
781 (38)
5.7 (0.3)
822 (41)
1.6 (0.07)
7.0 (0.6)
65.8 (5.0)
12 months Girls n=63
950 (25)
38.1 (1.3)
42.4 (1.5)
103.5 (3.5)
797 (34)
5.7 (0.4)
760 (34)
1.6 (0.05)
5.9 (0.3)
45.8 (3.8)
(58, 59)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Woodward DR, Lynch PP, Waters MJ, Maclean AR, Ruddock WE, Rataj JW and Lemoh JN
University of Tasmania, Hobart; Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Education and Department of Psychology
Tasmanian schools (7 government, 4 district schools, 2 catholic schools, and 1 other non-government)
n=1055/1302
Surveys completed in different schools over a one week period
34
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
Key findings
Inclusion criteria: Year 7- 10 students at selected schools (cluster randomisation).
50% boys, 50% girls
Grade 7 26%
Grade 8 26%
Grade 9 25%
Grade 10 23%
24 hour diet records- completed by children in class time.
Pre-divided into breakfast, lunch, dinner and other foods eaten, with food types listed (total 200) with space for
other foods. Children had to record amount consumed.
Form previously pre-tested on n=60 students and revised
Median intake of nutrients (10th and 90th percentile); energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, iron, thiamin,
riboflavin, niacin equivalents, ascorbate, vitamin A divided into age groups and boys and girls
Nutrients
Energy (MJ) Boys
Girls
Protein (g)
Boys
Girls
Fat (g)
Boys
Girls
Carbohydrate (g) Boys
Girls
Calcium (g) Boys
Girls
Iron (mg)
Boys
Girls
Thiamin (mg) Boys
Girls
Riboflavin (mg) Boys
Girls
Niacin equivalents (mg)
Boys
Girls
Ascorbate (mg) Boys
Girls
Vitamin A (mg) Boys
Girls
12 years
9.9 (6.4, 15.8)
8.9 (5.3, 13.5)
80 (48, 132)
62 (32, 117)
98 (58, 169)
84 (44,146)
291 (176, 492)
268 (147, 414)
0.81 (0.29, 2.00)
0.64 (0.26, 1.57)
13.8(9.0, 21.9)
10.9 (5.9, 19.3)
1.50 (0.82, 2.85)
1.31 (0.71, 2.47)
2.6 (1.1, 5.2)
2.0 (0.9, 4.6)
13 years
11.7 (6.5, 18.6)
9.0 (5.2, 13.7)
98 (54, 162)
74 (41, 119)
124 (68, 169)
89 (51, 146)
327 (189, 492)
279 (134, 414)
1.09 (0.33, 1.99)
0.70 (0.25, 1.57)
16.4 (8.8, 28.4)
12.3 (7.4, 19.3)
1.78 (1.11, 3.49)
1.43 (0.68, 2.87)
3.1 (1.6, 7.1)
2.1 (1.1, 4.8)
14 years
12.1 (8.3, 21)
9.2 (6.0, 14.0)
95 (63, 173)
76 (46, 121)
124 (74, 229)
97 (57, 146)
356 (233, 603)
270 (162, 414)
1.09 (0.49, 2.21)
0.72 (0.29, 1.43)
16.5
13.1
2.0
1.47
3.4
2.5
31 (19, 57)
27 (15, 47)
79 (12, 286)
96 (14, 258)
0.90 (0.46, 1.76)
0.79 (0.39, 1.38)
39 (22, 67)
30 (15, 50)
93 (23, 349)
103 (24, 298)
1.12 (0.46, 2.20)
0.81 (0.43, 1.79)
39
31
122
91
1.20
0.92
15 years
The majority of both males and females were found to have energy intakes below the recommended intake.
40% of females did not meet the recommended intake for iron and calcium.
(15)
35
1985
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration/season
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Key findings
(33, 34)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Department of Community Services and Health
As above
Australia- all states and territories schools, in urban and rural locations
n=5224
Data collection May to October 1985
School children aged 10 to 15 years
24 hour dietary intake, children assisted by trained staff
Mean consumption by age group of food groups and % consuming each food
Mean nutrient intake (SEM)
Outlined by Cook et al
Cook T, Rutishauser I and Seelig M
The Australian Food and Nutrition Monitoring Unit
Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care
All Australian states and territories
N=5224 (1985 National Dietary Survey of School Children)
N=
1985; May to October 1985
1995; February 1995 to March 1996
1985: Inclusion criteria; school students in 8 states and territories aged 10-15 years
1995: Inclusion criteria; household based collection from those aged 2 years and over
1985; 24 hour dietary record, children assisted by trained staff
1995: 24 hour recall interview, completed by parents for children aged 2-4. For children aged 5-11 years intake
self-reported with assistance from adult household member if required. All recalls completed with assistance
36
Analysis
Outcome Measures
Results
by a trained nutritionist.
To allow comparability of the 2 surveys the 1985 dietary analysis was updated using Nuttab 91/92 and
standardised for differences in migrant groups within the Australian population.
Mean (CI) median intake Estimated 24 hr intake of energy, protein, carbohydrate, starch, sugars, fats,
cholesterol, dietary fibre, vitamin A retinol equivalents, thamin, riboflavin, niacin equivalents, vitamin C, iron,
calcium, zinc, magnesium by male female aged 10-15 years
Estimated 24 hour intake of food groups; cereal and cereal products, cereal based products and dishes,
confectionery, egg products and dishes, fats and oils, fish and seafood products and dishes, fruit products and
dishes, legumes and pulse products, meat, poultry and game products, milk products and dishes, nonalcoholic beverages, plain drinking water, seed and nut products, snack foods, soup,sugar products and
dishes, vegetable products and dishes by male female aged 10-15 years
Sample size
Mean intake ( 95% CI
Nutrient intake
mean)
Energy (kJ)
Boys 1985
2619
9670 (9532, 9808)
1995
544
11, 088 (10754, 11422)
Girls 1985
2519
7586 (7494, 7678)
1995
488
8488 (8244, 8731)
15% increase in boys and 11% increase in girls estimated intake
Protein (g)
83.8 (82.4, 85.1)
2619
Boys 1985
95.8 (92.5, 99.0)
544
1995
64.5 (63.6, 65.4)
2591
Girls 1985
72.8 (70.2, 75.4)
488
1995
Median Intake
9154
10644
7378
8048
78.7
88.0
61.2
67.8
Test of significance
p 0.01
p 0.01
p 0.01
p 0.01
14% increase in boys and 13% increase girls estimated intake
Carbohydrate (g)
2919
283 (279, 287)
269
Boys 1985
p 0.01
544
345 (334,356)
322
1995
2591
224 (221, 227)
215
Girls 1985
p 0.01
488
264 (256, 272)
258
1995
~20% increase in boys and girls intake, which represents an increase of ~3% in carbohydrate intake as % of total energy intake
Starch (g)
131
142 (139, 144)
Boys 1985
2619
p 0.01
160
170 (164, 176)
1995
544
103
109 (107, 110)
Girls 1985
2591
p 0.01
124
126 (121, 130)
1995
488
~ 18% increase in intake in both boys and girls
Sugars (g)
2619
142 (139, 145)
132
Boys 1985
544
174 (166, 182)
158
p 0.01
1995
2591
115 (113, 117)
109
Girls 1985
488
137 (131, 143)
129
p 0.01
1995
~ 20% increase in intake in both boys and girls, ,which represents an increase of ~3% in sugar intake as % of total energy intake
37
Fat (g)
2619
96 (94, 97)
88
Boys 1985
544
101 (97, 105)
94
1995
2591
75 (74, 76)
72
Girls 1985
488
77 (74, 80)
72
1995
No significant change in total intake. But % of energy from fat decreased for both boys (37%) and girls (34%)
Cholesterol (mg)
2619
289 (281, 297)
237
Boys 1985
544
295 (279, 311)
245
1995
2591
226 (219, 233)
188
Girls 1985
488
230 (216, 243)
192
1995
No significant change
Dietary fibre (g)
18.9
Boys 1985
2619
20.6 (20.2, 21.1)
20.5
1995
544
23.2 (22.2, 24.1)
15.5
Girls 1985
2591
16.8 (16.5, 17.1)
16.8
1995
488
18.2 (17.5, 18.9)
~10% increase in boys and girls intake
Vitamin A Retinol
equivalents (mg)
Boys 1985
2619
1103 (970, 1236)
797
1995
544
1199 (991, 1407)
904
Girls 1985
2591
861 (794, 928)
664
1995
488
1074 (838, 1309)
734
No significant differences in intake in boys or girls
Thamin
2619
1.75 (1.71, 1.79)
1.52
Boys 1985
544
2.26 (2.13, 2.38)
1.91
1995
2591
1.40 (1.36, 1.43)
1.21
Girls 1985
488
1.56 (1.48, 1.65)
1.34
1995
Proportional increase of intake of ~ 29% in boys and 11% in girls
Riboflavin (mg)
2.17
2.47 (2.41, 2.53)
Boys 1985
2619
2.47
2.88 (2.71, 3.05)
1995
544
1.64
1.86 (1.82, 1.91)
Girls 1985
2591
1.72
2.01 (1.90, 2.13)
1995
488
Significant increase in intake in boys (17%) but not in girls
31.7
34.2 (33.7, 34.8)
2619
Boys 1985
40.3
43.6 (42.0, 45.2)
544
1995
25.3
26.9 (26.5 , 27.3)
2591
Girls 1985
30.8
32.8 (31.6, 34.0)
488
1995
Significant increase in boys (27%) and girls (22%)
Vitamin C (mg)
2619
98
136 (131, 141)
Boys 1985
544
91
121 (110, 132)
1995
2591
96
129 (125, 134)
Girls 1985
488
84
116 (106, 125)
1995
NS
NS
NS
NS
p 0.01
p 0.01
NS
NS
p 0.01
p 0.01
p 0.01
NS
p 0.01
p 0.01
NS
p 0.01
38
Significant decrease in girls intake only
Iron (mg)
12.2
13.3 (13.1, 13.5)
2619
Boys 1985
14.2
15.4 (14.7, 16.1)
544
1995
9.5
9.9 (9.8, 10.1)
2591
Girls 1985
10.2
11.0 (10.5, 11.4)
488
1995
Significant increases in girls (11%) and boys (16%) intake
Calcium (mg)
Boys 1985
2619
1007 (984, 1030)
888
1995
544
1054 (1002, 1106)
934
Girls 1985
2591
753 (737, 768)
690
1995
488
794 (752, 836)
722
No significant changes in intake
Zinc (mg)
9.9
11.0 (10.8, 11.2)
2619
Boys 1985
10.8
12.1 (11.6, 12.6)
544
1995
7.8
8.4 (8.3, 8.6)
2591
Girls 1985
8.3
9.1 (8.7, 9.4)
488
1995
10% increase in boys and 8% increase in boys intake
Magnesium (mg)
256
276 (272, 281)
2619
Boys 1985
288
311 (300, 322)
544
1995
206
215 (212, 219)
2591
Girls 1985
231
240 (233, 248)
488
1995
13% and 12% increase in intake respectively in boys and girls
Sample size
Mean intake (mean
Median Intake
% n consuming
Cereal and cereal
95% CI)
products (g)
Boys 1985
2619
214 (207, 221)
162
97
1995
544
237 (219, 255)
180
98
Girls 1985
2591
159 (153, 164)
125
96
1995
488
176 (162, 190)
128
96
No significant difference between years
Cereal-based
products and dishes
2619
110 (104, 115)
60
75
Boys 1985
544
161 (144, 178)
84
76
1995
2591
85 (81, 89)
46
75
Girls 1985
488
124 (110, 138)
74
73
1995
Significant increase in overall intake, but no increase in proportion of population consuming.
Confectionery (g)
Boys 1985
2619
16 (15, 18)
0
34
1995
544
25 (21, 28)
0
50
Girls 1985
2591
15 (14, 17)
0
42
488
21 (18, 25)
2
50
1995
Significant increase in amount consumed and in percentage of population consuming confectionery for both girls and boys.
p 0.01
p 0.01
NS
NS
p 0.01
p 0.01
p 0.01
p 0.01
Test of significance
NS
NS
p 0.01
p 0.01
p 0.01
p 0.01
39
Egg products and
dishes (g)
2619
13 (11, 14)
0
19
Boys 1985
544
11 (7, 14)
0
13
1995
2591
11 (9, 12)
0
17
Girls 1985
488
8 (5,10)
0
10
1995
No significant change in the amount consumed but a decrease in the percentage of the population consuming.
Fats and oils (g)
Boys 1985
2619
19 (18, 20)
14
82
1995
544
12 (11, 13)
10
78
Girls 1985
2591
15 (15, 16)
14
83
488
9 (8, 10)
6
75
1995
Significant decrease in intake for both boys and girls, as with the percentage of the population consuming.
NS
NS
p 0.01
p 0.01
Fish & seafood
products&dishes (g)
9 (8, 10)
0
10
Boys 1985
2619
17 (13, 22)
0
12
p 0.01
1995
544
8 (7, 9)
0
11
Girls 1985
2591
15 (10, 20)
0
11
p 0.01
488
1995
Significant increase in intake for both girls and boys, which appears not to be solely to an increase in the percentage of the population
consuming.
Fruit products &
dishes (g)
Boys 1985
2619
126 (120, 133)
85
60
1995
544
125 (109, 141)
43
52
NS
Girls 1985
2591
123 (118, 128)
86
69
1995
488
128 (115, 142)
97
NS
59
Whilst there was no significant difference in total intake, the proportion of the population consuming decreased.
Legumes & pulse
products&dishes (g)
Boys 1985
2619
7 (5,9)
0
3
1995
544
11 (6, 16)
0
6
NS
Girls 1985
2591
3 (2, 4)
0
3
1995
488
6 (3, 8)
0
5
NS
No significant increase in overall intake but an increase in the proportion of the population consuming,
Meat,poultry, game
product&dishes (g)
Boys 1985
2619
138 (132, 144)
104
85
1995
544
139 (127, 150)
111
79
NS
Girls 1985
2591
106 (102, 110)
80
83
1995
488
107 (97, 117)
78
78
NS
No significant differences in overall intake, but decreases in both boys and girls in the proportion of the population consuming.
40
Milk products &
dishes
Boys 1985
2619
542 (525, 558)
455
95
1995
544
484 (451, 518)
392
92
p 0.01
Girls 1985
2591
372 (360, 383)
312
95
1995
488
349 (319, 378)
281
91
NS
Significant decrease in intake in boys but not girls, for both sexes the proportion of the population consuming decreased.
Non-alcoholic
beverages (g)
Boys 1985
2619
490 (474, 506)
438
83
1995
544
724 (670, 779)
626
87
p 0.01
Girls 1985
2591
459 (445, 474)
429
84
1995
488
592 (551, 633)
521
86
p 0.01
Significant increases in both the total amount and proportion of population consuming in both girls and boys
Plain drinking water
(g)
Boys 1985
278 (262, 293)
125
54
p 0.01
2619
1995
715 (654, 777)
500
83
544
Girls 1985
60
260 (246, 273)
125
p 0.01
2591
1995
727 (665, 788)
500
86
488
Results show a marked increase in plain drinking water consumption in both boys and girls
Seed&nut products
and dishes (g)
Boys 1985
3 (3, 4)
0
2619
17
1995
544
3 (2, 4)
0
11
NS
Girls 1985
2591
3 (2, 3)
0
16
1995
488
3 (2, 4)
0
11
NS
A decrease in consumption in both girls and boys, but neither significant
Snack foods
Boys 1985
2619
12 (11, 13)
0
27
1995
544
12 (9, 14)
0
29
NS
Girls 1985
2591
12 (11, 13)
0
33
1995
488
12 (10, 14)
0
36
NS
Marginal increase percentage consuming in both girls and boys
Soup
36 (31, 41)
Boys 1985
2619
0
9
30 (19, 41)
1995
544
0
7
NS
35 (31, 40)
Girls 1985
2591
0
11
20 (12, 28)
1995
488
0
6
p 0.01
Mean intake and proportion decreased in both girls and boys, but mean intake difference only significant in girls
41
Sugar products and
dishes
Boys 1985
2619
17 (16, 18)
9
75
1995
544
27 (20, 34)
6
61
p 0.01
Girls 1985
2591
11 (11, 12)
6
68
1995
488
26 (21, 31)
3
55
p 0.01
Proportion consuming decreased in both girls and boys, but the mean intake increased significantly in both girls and boys
Vegetable products
& dishes
Boys 1985
2619
194 (187, 201)
165
82
1995
544
203 (186, 221)
157
79
NS
Girls 1985
2591
161 (156, 166)
145
84
1995
488
181 (166, 196)
150
84
NS
Insignificant increase in mean intake in both girls and boys. Decrease in proportion of boys consuming, whilst girls remained stable.
(16)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Gliksman MD, Lazarus R, Wilson A.
Epidemiology and Biostatistics Unit, Department of Community Medicine, University of Sydney, Westmead
Hospital, Westmead
Australian schools
N=9000 of which 5211 gave complete dietary information
May and October 1985
Inclusion criteria: aged 7-15 years (only 10-15 years for dietary component)
Secondary analysis of the National Dietary Survey of Australian School Children 1985
24 hour diet record
Children trained on practical measures for recording (in groups of 5)
Each student interviewed individually 24 hours later to clarify information
Mean (SD) intake energy/day, % energy as protein, carbohydrate, sugar, fat, SFA, MUFA and PUFA, P:S ratio
and fibre for each age group divided into male and female.
42
Results
Nutrients
10 years
11 years
12 years
13 years
14 years
15 years
Energy (Kj)
M 8035 (2323)
F 7034 (1940)
M 8516 (2639)
F 7397 (2107)
M 8835 (3169)
F 7688 (2432)
M 9864 (3649)
F 7662 (2378)
10752 (3881)
7921 (2709)
11705 (4238)
7592 (2653)
M 14.9 (3.6)
F 14.7 (3.6)
M 49.1 (7.8)
F 49.3 (6.7)
M 24.0 (8.7)
F 24.7 (8.3)
M 35.8 (7.1)
F 35.7 (5.9)
M 15.5 (3.5)
F 15.3 (3.2)
M 12.7 (2.9)
F 12.7 (2.5)
M 5.0 (2.3)
F 5.1 (2.1)
M 0.34 (0.19)
F 0.36 (0.19)
M 2.24 (0.99)
F 2.21 (0.86)
M 15.1 (3.7)
F 14.5 (3.4)
M 48.1 (7.2)
F 49.5 (7.6)
M 23.2 (7.9)
F 24.5 (7.8)
M 36.6 (6.6)
F 35.6 (6.6)
M 15.5 (3.4)
F 15.3 (3.6)
M 13.1 (2.7)
F 12.6 (2.7)
M 5.3 (2.3)
F 5.1 (2.0)
M 0.37 (0.21)
F 0.36 (0.19)
M 2.21 (0.89)
F 2.18 (0.86)
M 14.6 (3.5)
F 14.3 (3.5)
M 48.9 (7.7)
F 48.9 (7.6)
M 24.3 (9.0)
F 25.3 (0.3)
M 36.3 (6.9)
F 36.6 (6.9)
M 16.0 (3.9)
F 15.9 (3.6)
M 12.9 (2.7)
F 13.0 (2.8)
M 4.9 (2.5)
F 5.1 (2.4)
M 0.34 (0.23)
F 0.34 (0.20)
M 2.15 (0.97)
F 217 (0.99)
M 14.9 (4.0
F 14.2 (3.5)
M 48.5 (8.1)
F 49.0 (8.0)
M 23.8 (8.7)
F 25.0 (8.4)
M 36.3 (6.9)
F 36.6 (7.1)
M 15.7 (3.8)
F 15.6 (3.9)
M 13.O (2.8)
F 12.9 (2.9)
M 4.9 (2.2)
F 5.2 (2.4)
M 0.34 (0.20)
F0.37 (0.26)
M 2.16 (0.89)
F 2.24 (0.97)
14.6 (3.5)
14.7 (4.0)
48.7 (7.5)
48.6 (8.2)
24.6 (8.4)
25.1 (8.4)
36.5 (6.4)
36.3 (7.1)
15.9 (3.6)
15.8 (3.9)
13.0 (2.7)
12.9 (3.0)
4.9 (2.2)
5.0 (2.3)
0.34 (0.21)
0.34 (0.20)
2.10 (0.82)
2.34 (1.10)
15.0 (3.5)
15.0 (4.0)
48.5 (7.1)
48.9 (8.8)
24.3 (7.4 )
25.2 )9.3)
36.0 (6.3)
36.0 (7.7)
15.7 (3.7)
15.4 (4.2)
12.8 (2.6)
12.8 (3.1)
4.9 (2.1)
5.1 (2.3)
0.34 (0.21)
0.36 (0.22)
2.16 (0.98)
2.36 (1.08)
% energy as:
Protein
Carbohydrate
Sugar
Fat
SFA
MUFA
PUFA
P:S ratio
fibre
Key findings
(60)
No analysis of findings against recommendations
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Jenner DA, English DR, Vandongen R, Beilin LJ, Armstrong, BK, Miller MR, Dunbar D.
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Department of Medicine, University of Western Australia, Perth WA
Health Promotion Services, Health Department of Western Australia, Perth WA
Perth metropolitan area public schools
n=1066 in 1985
n=1311/1565 in 1988 (further recruitment)
n= 555/941 in 1991
n= 583 in 1994
April and August 1985
April and August 1988
April and September 1991
July and September 1994
43
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Analysis
Outcome Measures
1985; Boys n=434 Mean age 9.0 (0.4) Range 7.5-10.5 years. Girls n=450 Mean age 9.0 (0.3) Range 8.3-10.6
years
INLCUSION CRITERIA: Year 4 students from 26 schools in metropolitan Perth.
1988; Mean age 12.0 years (0.4)
INCLUSION CRITERIA: participated in 1985, or in year 7 classes at one of the original schools
1991; Boys n=289 Mean age 15.07 Age Range 15.00-15.08 years. Girls n=266 Mean age 15.04 Range 15.0415.11 years
INCLUSION CRIETRIA: Year 10 students who had participated in either or both of the 1985 and 1989
surveys.
1994; Boys n=301 Girls n=282 Mean age 18.0 years (CI 18.0-18.1)
INLCUSION CRITERIA: 18 year olds who had participated in all or any of the surveys in 1985, 1989 and 1989.
Cohort- cross-sectional survey every 3 years (with some further recruitment at each year)
1985: FFQ questionnaire completed by parents; 160 food items, referring to how many times they had been
eaten in the previous week
1988:2 consecutive day 24 hour diet records completed by children. Type, brand and amount of each food
item consumed. Children provided with standard measuring cups and spoons. Dietitian reinforced instructions
day prior to completion of 2-day record and returned on completion to go over record with each child
individually, where food models were used.
1991:24 hour diet records completed by children (as above)
1994: As above
1985: Nutrient intake estimated using CSIRO Human Nutrition Dividsion Freqhew computer program
1988: Nutrient intakes computed using CSIRON Diaryan program
1991: NUTTAB (1991-1992) program used for nutrient analysis
1994: As above
Energy
Protein
Carbohydrate
Simple sugar
Complex carbohydrate
Total Fat
SFA
MUFA
PUFA
Cholesterol
Fibre
1985
Mean intake/day (SD)
Range
Divided into boys and girls
1988
th
th
10th, 50 and 90
percentile.
Boys and girls
1991
Mean intake/day (CI) girls
and boys
Not measured
1994
Mean intake (CI) Male and
female
Not measured
Mean intake (CI) Male and
44
% energy from:
Fat
Carbohydrate
Sugar
SFA
PUFA
MFA
P:S ratio
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Zinc
Riboflavin
Thiamin
Vitamin C
Vitamin A
frequency consumption of
particular food stuffs
Results
Key findings
Not measured
Mean intake/day (CI) girls
and boys
female
Not measured
Range
Divided into boys and girls
Not measured
Mean intake (CI) divided
into girls and boys (higher
and lower cardiovascular
risk
Not measured
Not measured
Mean (CI) males and
females
1985
Nutrient (mean intake (SD) (range))
Boys
Girls
Energy (MJ)
Protein (g)
Total carbohydrates (g)
Simple carbohydrates (g)
Complex carbohydrates (g)
Fibre (g)
Total fat (g)
Saturated fat (g)
Monounsaturated fat (g)
Polyunsaturated fat (g)
Cholesterol (mg)
Sodium (g)
Potassium (g)
Calcium (g)
Magnesium (g)
7.45 (1.8) (3.33-17.8)
62.7 (15.0) 25-157
233.5 (61.7) (104-569)
100.6 (38.0) (25-289)
132.9 (37.8) (57-295)
19.2 (5.9) (6.8-56.4)
72.9 (19.4) (32-166)
28.7 (8.2) (9.6-68.8)
24.0 (7.1) (8.5-61.9)
13.3 (5.1) (2.5-34.8)
0.22 (0.09) (0.08-0.84)
2.64 (0.71) (1.05-6.25)
2.37 (0.67) (1.09-6.79)
0.86 (0.29) (0.27-2.23)
0.23 (0.07) (0.11-0.63)
6.92 (1.85) (2.63-20.4)
58.0 (15.5) (20-212)
215.7 (58.6) (96-613)
94.3 (35.5) (22-324)
121.4 (36.6) (43-353)
18.1 (5.4) (6.54-60.69)
68.3 (21.0) (20-212)
27.1 (9.0) (5.1-84.7)
22.8 (7.6) (4.8-73.7)
12.0 (5.0) (2.6-43.7)
0.20 (0.09) (0.01-0.82)
2.41 (0.71) (1.02-7.35)
2.25 (0.66) (1.03-7.62)
0.77 (0.30) (0.18-2.54)
0.21 (0.06) (0.09-0.68)
No analysis against recommendation only blood pressure
1988
45
Energy (MJ)
Protein (g)
Fibre (g)
Total fat (g)
Saturated fat (g)
Cholesterol (mg)
Sodium (g)
Potassium (g)
Calcium (g)
Magnesium (g)
% energy from :
fat
SFA
Carbohydrates
Sugar
Key findings
Results
GIRLS
7.5 (2.1)
60 (16)
111 (45)
120 (36)
17 (6)
75 (28)
30 (12)
25 (10)
13 (9)
200 (111)
2.3 (0.9)
2.3 (0.7)
0.83 (0.38)
0.22 (0.07)
36.1 (6.6)
14.3 (3/1)
49.6 (6.8)
23.0 (7.6)
36.5 (6.2)
14.4 (3.1)
49.5 (6.2)
23.4 (7.0)
Mean nutrient intake consistently higher in boys
Both boys and girls intake of fat and saturated fat above recommendations
1991
Energy (mJ)
% energy from:
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Sugar
SFA
MUFA
PUFA
Key findings
BOYS
8.6 (2.3)
71 (21)
124 (52)
140 (48)
19 (8)
84 (30)
34 (13)
29 (11)
14 (9)
228 (124)
2.7 (1.1)
2.6 (0.9)
0.99 (0.43)
0.26 (0.09)
BOYS
11.5 (11.1, 11.9)
GIRLS
7.5 (7.3, 7.8)
47.0 (46.3, 47.6)
15.9 (15.5, 16.2)
34.8 (34.2, 35.4)
20.9 (20.3, 21.6)
15.5 (15.1, 15.9)
11.8 (11.6, 12.1)
4.8 (4.6, 5.1)
46.8 (46.0, 47.6)
15.4 (15.0, 15.8)
35.3 (34.5, 36.0)
20.8 (20.0, 21.6)
15.4 (14.9, 15.8)
12.0 (11.7, 12.3)
5.3 (5.1, 5.6)
51.1 % of girls and 59.5% of boys intake above protein requirements
66.9% of girls and 65.7% of boys intake above recommendations for fat
52.3% of girls and 53.6 % of boys intake above recommendations for sugar
94.0 of girls and 94.8% of boys intake above recommendations for saturated fat
79.3 % of girls and 81.0% of boys above recommendations for monounsaturated fat
2.6% of girls and 1.7% of boys above recommendations for polyunsaturated.
46
Results
1994
DAILY INTAKE
Energy (mJ)
% energy from:
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Sugar
Fibre (g)
SFA
MUFA
PUFA
P:S ratio
Calcium (mg/MJ)
Magnesium (mg/MJ)
Iron (mg/MJ)
Zinc (mg/MJ)
Potassium (g/mJ)
Sodium (g/MJ)
Niacin equiv (mg/MJ)
Riboflavin (mg/MJ)
Thiamin (mg/MJ)
Viitamin C (mg/MJ)
Vitamin A Eq (μg/MJ)
DAILY FREQUENCY OF CONSUMPTION
OF FOODS (per day)
Cereals
Convenience foods
Dairy foods
Non-alcoholic beverages
Eggs
Fats
Fish
Fruit
Ice-cream
Meat
Nuts and seeds
Sugary foods
Vegetables
Low-fat foods
Key findings
Boys
11.6 (11.2, 12.0)
Girls
7.5 (7.1, 7.7)
45.9 (44.9, 46.9)
16.7 (16.1, 17.2)
35.3 (34.5, 36.2)
23.9 (19.5, 21.4)
23.2 (21.8, 24.6)
14.8 (14.4, 15.3)
11.8 (11.6, 12.1)
4.7 (4.5, 5.0)
0.34 (0.32, 0.36)
90 (87, 93)
27 (26, 28)
1.4 (1.3, 1.4)
1.2 (1.1, 1.2)
2.9 (2.8, 3.2)
3.5 (3.6, 3.9)
3.8 (3.6, 3.9)
0.2 (0.2, 0.3)
0.2 (0.2, 0.2)
10 (9, 11)
84 (78, 90)
45.6 (44.7, 46.5)
16.3 (15.9, 16.8)
35.2 (34.4, 36.1)
24.3 (20.6, 22.7)
16.9 (15.9, 17.9)
14.8 (14.4, 15.3)
11.8 (11.6, 12.1)
4.7 (4.5, 5.0)
0.34 (0.32, 0.36)
98 (93, 102)
29 (28, 30)
1.3 (1.3, 1.4)
1.2 (1.1, 1.2)
3.3 (3.2, 3.4)
3.3 (3.4, 3.4)
3.9 (3.8, 4.1)
0.3 (0.2, 0.3)
0.2 (0.2, 0.2)
12 (13, 16)
99 (92, 106)
3.4 (3.2, 3.6)
1.7 (1.5, 1.8)
2.2 (2.1, 2.5)
3.2 (3.0, 3.5)
0.4 (0.3, 0.5)
1.4 (1.3, 1.5)
0.2 (0.1, 0.3)
0.9 (0.8, 1.1)
0.4 (0.3, 0.4)
1.4 (1.3, 1.5)
0.3 (0.2, 0.3)
2.4 (2.2, 2.6)
2.6 (2.3, 2.8)
0.7 (0.6,0.8)
3.0 (2.9, 3.1)
1.6 (1.5, 1.7)
2.4 (2.2, 2.6)
3.6 (3.4, 3.8)
0.3 (0.2, 0.4)
1.3 (1.2, 1.4)
0.2 (0.3, 0.4)
1.2 (1.0, 1.3)
0.3 (0.2, 0.4)
1.1 (1.0, 1.2)
0.3 (0.2, 0.4)
1.9 (1.8, 2.1)
3.1 (2.8, 3.4)
0.9 (0.8, 1.1)
Fat intake exceeding recommendations (i.e 30% of energy intake) in approximately 80% of participants
Saturated fat intake was above recommendations (i.e <10% of energy intake) in more than 90% of participants
47
93% of women and 77% of men ate less fibre than recommendations (30g/day)
2.5% of men and 4.1% of women consumed the recommended amounts of fruit and vegetables (5 serves
vegetable and 2 serves of fruit.
(18, 27-29, 61)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Soanes R, Miller M and Begley A
Setting
Sample size
Long day care centres and playgroups in the Perth metropolitan area
LDCC attendees- 10 long day care centres in metropolitan areas in Perth (randomly chosen by postcode to
allow for representation across socioeconomic scale)
n= 47 children
LDCC non-attendees- 9 playgroups n=32
3 days
Inclusion- attendees: Age 2 or 3 years, attending long day care for 3 consecutive days for eight hours or more
per day
Non-attendees- aged 2 or 3 years, do not attend long day care for 3 consecutive days
Cross-sectional comparison study
No intervention
3 day weighed food record (consecutive days- weekdays)
Analysed using computer analysis program SERVE
Mean daily intake (1) and % of RDI (2) as mean amount: energy (kJ), fat (g), Protein (g), carbohydrate (g),
fibre (g), Vitamin c (mg), Thiamin (mg), calcium (mg), iron (mg), zinc (mg)
Mean daily intake (3) and % of RDI (4) during hours spent @ LDCC: energy (kJ). Fat (g), protein (g),
carbohydrate (g). fibre (g), Vitamin C (mg), thiamine (mg), calcium (mg), iron (mg), zinc (mg)
% of total daily nutrient intake consumed during LDC hours (5) : energy, fat, protein, carbohydrate, fibre,
vitamin C, Thiamin, Calcium, Iron, zinc
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Intervention
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
Eastern Perth Public and Community Health Unit Perth WA
School of Public Health, Curtin University of Technology. Perth WA
Average daily micronutrient intake as mean amount (SD)
48
LDCC attenders (n=33)
LDCC non-attenders
4505 (1054)
4863 (700)
Energy (KJ)
38.8 (11.6)
45.1 (9.8)
Fat (g)
43.5 (12.9)
43.2 (8.2)
Protein (g)
140.4 (34)
148.1 (23.4)
Carbohydrate (g)
11.8 (4.2)
11.1 (3.3)
Fibre (g)
64.3 (41.1)
75.0 (55.4)
Vitamin C (mg)
0.9 (0.5)
1.0 (0.5)
Thiamin (mg)
601.9 (238.8)
681.5 (281.9)
Calcium (mg)
6.6 (2.5)
7.1 (4.6)
Iron (mg)
5.3 (1.6)
5.0 (1.1)
Zinc (mg)
Average daily micronutrient intake as percentage of RDI
311- 242 (RDI 14-18g)
309-240
Protein (g)
231 (RDI 18.8)
230
148
139
Fibre (g)
214
250
Vitamin C (mg)
180
200
Thiamin (mg)
86
97
Calcium
83-110
89-118
Iron (mg)
118
111
Zinc (mg)
Average nutrient intake during hours spent @ LDCC as mean intake
1645 (615)
2014 (645)
Energy (KJ)
13.9 (6.8)
18.6 (8.2)
Fat (g)
14.9 (1.4)
14.5 (1.4)
Protein (g)
51.9 (18.9)
64.1 (20.4)
Carbohydrate (g)
5.1 (1.6)
5.1 (1.7)
Fibre (g)
20.9 (10.3)
36.5 (33.3)
Vitamin C (mg)
0.3 (0.2)
0.4 (0.2)
Thiamin (mg)
173.3 (81.6)
212.3 (112.6)
Calcium 9mg)
2.0 (0.6)
2.3 (1.7)
Iron (mg)
2.0 (0.6)
1.9 (0.7)
Zinc (mg)
Average nutrient intake during hours spent @ LDCC as % of recommended intake for day care (50% of RDI)
166-213 (7-9 g)
161-207
Protein (g)
159 (9.4g)
154
128
128
Fibre (g)
139
243
Vitamin C (mg)
120
160
Thiamin (mg)
50
61
Calcium 9mg)
50-67
58-77
Iron (mg)
89
84
Zinc (mg)
Percentage of total daily nutrient intake consumed during LDCC hours
49
Energy (KJ)
Fat (g)
Protein (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
Fibre (g)
Vitamin C (mg)
Thiamin (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
Zinc (mg)
Key findings
37.8 (15.2)
37.9 (18.2)
38.6 (16.1)
38.4 (15.0)
46.2 (16.2)
42.5 (24.8)
31.4 (19.2)
32.7 (18.6)
33.2 (14.3)
39.6 (15.3)
41.6 (11.6)
41.1 (13.8)
35.7 (10.8)
43.7 (13.1)
48.0 (16.9)
50.3 (28.8)
41.1 (29.0)
34.2 (15.3)
35.4 (13.4)
38.5 (14.0)
Participants unable to meet 50% of RDIs during LDC hours
Mean energy intake 6-14% lower than in other Australian studies and 12 to 21% lower than the NNS
Similar results regarding energy intake to other Australian studies in LDCC
Average daily calcium intakes lower than RDIs and findings of NNS (but similar to findings in other LDCC
centre studies)
Average iron intake lower than RDI, with only 1/3 consumed in LDCC hours
Fibre intake higher than recommended levels in both groups
LDCC attenders consumed less energy and fat than non attenders
(13)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Sciberras M, Darnton-Hill I.
New South Wales Department of Health, Southern Metropolitan Health Region
Nutrition subsection, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine and Human Nutrition Unity, University of
Sydney
3 public schools in inner city Sydney
n=203
Unclear
Year 5 and 6 students
51% boys
Mean age 10.75years, age range 9.3-12.9 years
77% born in Australia
50% of the families in lower socioeconomic strata
24 hour recall (via interview with community health care workers), with the use of food models to estimate
50
serving size.
Outcome Measures
Mean intake (SD) of boys and girls: energy, protein, calcium, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, ascorbic acid, retinol
equivalents, niacin equivalents, sodium
Mean intakes as % of Australian RDIs by ethnicity, boys and girls (10-12 years) Results only in graph
Mean intake as % of Australian RDIs by socioeconomic status Results only in graph
Mean intake as % of Australian RDIs by weight category (underweight, normal, overweight, obese) Results
only in graph
Results
Mean apparent nutrient intake
Energy (MJ)
Protein (g)
Calcium (g)
Iron (mg)
Thiamine (mg)
Riboflavin (mg)
Ascorbic Acid (mg)
Retinol equiv (μg)
Niacin equiv (mg)
Sodium (g)
Key findings
6% of the sample (12/203) did not eat breakfast on the day of the survey
26% of the total energy intake was provided by snacks, 17% by breakfast, 22% lunch and 35% evening meal
Very minor relationship between nutrient intake and ethnicity, despite varying dietary intake
Higher socioeconomic status (managers/professionals) associated with higher intakes (with exception of
calcium and riboflavin)
Unskilled group second highest nutrient intake
Lower socioeconomic status (unemployed/pensioners) associated with lower nutrient intakes
Inverse relationship between nutrient intake and weight category
Boys (n=93) Mean (SD)
8.8 (3.2)
69 (32)
0.6 (0.7)
10.7 (5.3)
0.9 (0.4)
1.9 (1.4)
151 (214)
823 (539)
26.2 (11.8)
2.3 (1.7)
Girls (n=90) Mean (SD)
8.7 (3.4)
69 (35)
0.6 (0.6)
10.9 (5.2)
0.9 (0.5)
1.7 (1.0)
122 (180)
832 (942)
24.8 (11.5)
2.5 (3.2)
(17)
1989
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Gelissen IC, Wall P, Liburne A-M, Truswell AS
Human Nutrition Unit, Department of Biochemistry, The University of Sydney, NSW
15 long day care centres (LDCC) in inner city Sydney (2 centres from each of the 7 municipalities areas)
n=15 LDCC, n=112 children
2 consecutive years; September-October 1989 and June-July 1990
Inclusion criteria: LDCC’s defined as; preschool school child care centres open from 7.30am to 5.30pm. Age
of children 3-5 years, children included must be present for morning snack, lunch and afternoon snack.
51
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
Exclusion criteria: LDCC’s affiliated with universities and hospitals
3-day weighed food record undertaken by trained assistants
Analysed using NUTTAB food composition database
Mean (SD) daily intake: energy, protein, fat, cholesterol, carbohydrate, sugar, starch, fibre, retinol
equivalents, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin equivalents, vitamin C, zinc, iron, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus,
sodium and potassium.
Mean % of energy from protein, fat and carbohydrate
Mean daily intake whilst at LDCC as percentage of recommended dietary intakes (RDI)
78 children completed 3 weighed records, 20 completed 2 weighed records. Therefore 274 record days of 98
children included
52
Energy (kJ)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Cholesterol (mg)
Carbohydrate (g)
Sugar (g)
Starch (g)
fibre (g)
retinol equivalents
(μg)
Thiamin (mg)
Riboflavin (mg)
Niacin equivalents
(mg)
Vitamin C (mg)
Zinc (mg)
Iron (mg)
Magnesium (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Sodium (mg)
Potassium (mg)
% Energy
- Fat
- Protein
- Carbohydrate
Ratio
polyunsaturated/
saturated fat
2 years
2.7 (2.5-2.8) n= 7
1762 (363)
15 (3)
18 (5)
55 (42)
51 (14)
26 (11)
25 (7)
5.2 (2.6)
962 (1359)
3years
3.4 (3.0-3.9) n=28
2100 (505)
18 (5)
20 (6)
62 (38)
62 (15)
34 (11)
28 (9)
5.4 (1.7)
601 (1082)
4 years
4.3 (4.0-4.9) n=54
2459 (619)
22 (7)
23 (7)
91 (74)
73 (17)
44 (13)
29 (9)
6.1 (2.2)
445 (675)
5 years
5.1 (5.0-5.2) n=9
2519 (670)
21 (8)
21 (6)
119 (117)
82 (20)
55 (16)
27 (9)
6.5 (2.0)
686 (1107)
All ages
4.0 (2.5-5.2) n=98
2312 (613)
20 (6)
22(7)
83 (7)
69(18)
41 (15)
28 (9)
5.9 (2.1)
549 (901)
0.35 (0.18)
0.60 (0.43)
6.4 (1.9)
0.44 (0.2)
0.66 (0.44)
7.5 (2.4)
0.44 (0.17)
0.67 (0.32)
7.8 (2.3)
0.44 (0.15)
0.71 (0.28)
7.5 (2.6)
0.43 (0.18)
0.67 (0.36)
7.6 (2.3)
42 (20)
2.0 (0.6)
2.5 (0.5)
54 (11)
142 (54)
256 (53)
524 (187)
594 (80)
68 (31)
2.3 (0.7)
2.7 (0.5)
67 (16)
212 (104)
316 (102)
583 (206)
751 (182)
85 (37)
2.8 (0.9)
3.0 (0.8)
78 (21)
302 (131)
384 (111)
626 (228)
933 (243)
117 (42)
2.7 (0.9)
3.3 (1.0)
77 (21)
265 (70)
364 (96)
470 (84)
1038 (259)
80 (38)
2.6 (0.9)
2.9 (0.7)
73 (20)
261 (125)
353 (110)
592 (213)
867 (249)
37 (8)
15 (3)
51 (14)
35 (4)
15 (3)
50 (5)
35 (4)
15 (2)
49 (5)
31 (3)
14 (3)
55 (5)
35 (5)
15 (3)
49 (6)
0.37 (0.11)
0.40 (0.14)
0.32 (0.13)
0.31 (0.14)
0.34 (0.14)
% RDI
Energy (kJ)
Protein (g)
retinol equivalents (μg)
Thiamin (mg)
Riboflavin (mg)
Vitamin C (mg)
Zinc (mg)
Iron (mg)
Magnesium (mg)
Calcium (mg)
35 (9)
113 (35)
168 (284)
82 (34)
68 (37)
72 (22)
268 (127)
48 (15)
48 (12)
74 (20)
39 (18)
53
Phosphorus (mg)
Sodium (mg)
Potassium (mg)
Key findings
57 (17)
40 (16) (upper limit)
65 (18) (lower limit)
Whilst at LDCC most nutrients consumed in quantities recommended by NSW Health i.e. at least half of the
RDI
Energy, calcium. Zinc and iron intake below recommended 50% of RDI
Retinol and vitamin C intake above 100% of RDI from LDC meals
(14)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Jenner DA , Neylon K, Croft S, Beilin LJ, Vandongen
Dietary Intake Tool
(1) Food frequency questionnaire (FFQ)- including 175 food items. Referred to the number of times during the
previous week the food had been eaten completed by children in class time (twice; at beginning and
ending of study) N=224
(2) FFQ (as above) completed by parents via post at same time as children completed in class N=209
(3) 24-hour diet record (2 consecutive days) completed by children. Children asked to provide details on type,
brand and amount of food and were given plastic measuring cups and spoons. Checked by dietitian with
child present. Completed a few days after initial FFQ, and 6 times during the next 3 months. Aimed to
cover each day of the week 2 times. (n=118)
Outcome Measures
Department of Medicine, University of Western Australia, Perth WA
State primary schools Perth, WA
n=225
3 months
Year 7 students
Inclusion: South Eastern Perth metropolitan area. Schools with two or more year 7 classes
Analysis done using Diaryn (for 24-hr records) and Freqan (FFQ) dietary analysis programs
Mean (SD) nutrient intake: energy, protein, carbohydrate, simple carbohydrates, complex carbohydrates, fibre,
total fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, cholesterol, potassium, calcium (results for
n=111)
54
Results
Key findings
Mean (SD)
14 24-hr records
2 24hr records
3 24 records
Energy (MJ)
Protein (g)
Total carbohydrates (g)
Fibre (g)
Total fat (g)
Saturated fat (g)
Cholesterol (mg)
Potassium (g)
Calcium (g)
8.0 (1.9)
66 (14)
242 (60)
111 (39)
130 (34)
17 (5)
81 (23)
36 (16)
27 (7)
11 (4)
218 (71)
2.6 (0.7)
0.8 (0.3)
8.2 (2.5)
70 (19)
250 (77)
116 (50)
134 (46)
17 (7)
81 (33)
35 (22)
27 (9)
12 (7)
239 (138)
2.6 (1.1)
0.9 (0.4)
8.2 (2.3)
69 (17)
251 (74)
118 (49)
133 (40)
17 (6)
82 (30)
36 (20)
27 (9)
11 (6)
235 (107)
2.5 (0.9)
0.9 (0.4)
FFQ (children)
10.9 (5.1)
89 (45)
313 (145)
142 (79)
171 (84)
28 (13)
121 (63)
48 (26)
42 (23)
19 (11)
314 (189)
3.3 (1.6)
1.2 (0.6)
FFQ (parents)
9.7 (2.3)
81 (20)
273 (70)
122 (41)
151 (45)
24 (7)
110 (29)
43 (13)
38 (11)
18 (7)
282 (104)
2.9 (0.8)
1.0 (0.4)
‘Poor agreement between the reference method and the FFQ methods. Agreement between the reference
methods and methods based on two or three diet records in the series was good’
(24)
1990
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Intervention
Williams H, Woodward D, Ball P, Cumming F, Hornsby H, Boon J
Department of Biochemistry & Department of Psychology, University of Tasmania
Department of Human Nutrition, Deakin University Geelong, Victoria
Tasmanian schools
n= 2082/2099 (17 students excluded mainly due to unreliable data)
Unclear
50% male, 25% in each of the 4 grades studied
21% aged 12 or less
25% aged 13
26% aged 14
28% aged 15 or more
79% of students from government schools
50% of participants from southern region of Tasmania
The participants were deemed representative of the student population grades 7-10 in Tasmania
Inclusion: students in grade 7 (age 12), 8 (age 13), 9 (age 14), 10 (age 15)
No intervention
55
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
Notes
Printed 12 page booklet able to be completed in 30 minutes
Questions were concerning 22 ‘commonly available’ foods and the students like/dislike, perceived
healthiness, how often eaten by adults, how often eaten by friends, own frequency of consumption (days of
usage in an average week)
Tested for reliability using test-retest format with 2 week interval (n=41)- mean within-individual across items
correlation was 0.72 (p<0.01)
% usage at all in average week for 22 common foods
Median usage (days/week) of common foods
Mean consumption frequency (days/week) (SD)
Foods
Using at all in average week
Median usage (days/week)
Bread
Breakfast cereal
Biscuits
Cake
Apple
Orange juice
Potato
Tomato
Chicken
Lamb
Sausages
Steak
Cheese
Ice cream
Milk, full fat
Milk, low fat
Butter
Margarine, polyunsaturated
Margarine, other
Soft drink
Hot chips
Meat pie
100
87
92
82
94
83
96
67
92
90
83
89
90
86
86
39
60
68
47
93
81
63
7
5
3
1
4
3
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
4
0
1
3
0
5
1
1
Mean consumption frequency
(SD)
5.9 (1.6)
4.6 (2.6)
3.5 (2.2)
1.8 (1.6)
3.8 (2.2)
3.3 (2.5)
4.0 (1.9)
1.7 (1.6)
1.5 (1.1)
1.6 (1.1)
1.3 (1.1)
1.7 (1.2)
2.8 (1.9)
2.4 (1.9)
4.0 (2.7)
1.8 (2.6)
2.7 (2.8)
3.6 (3.9)
2.1 (2.7)
4.4 (2.4)
1.5 (1.3)
1.1 (1.2)
Results also explored for urban and rural differences in consumption, whereby there were significant
differences in consumption (37)
(39, 62)
1992
Nowak M
56
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Intervention
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
Department of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville
Australia
North Queensland private high schools; Townsville, Cairns and Charters Towers
n=791 students (n=12 schools)
Survey administered between May and November 1992
Year 8 students
370 girls and 413 boys
Mean age 12.9, Age range 12-15 years
No intervention
Self-completed questionnaire based on NEAT food intake questions
- 8 demographic questions
- 15 weight behaviour questions
- 15 questions related to perception of weight or body shape
- 18 questions regarding weight related beliefs and attitudes
- 27 questions food intake
- food habits 8 questions
- food and nutrition related beliefs 11 questions
- attitudes 5 questions
- concerns 7 questions
- sources of information about food and nutrition 8 questions
- nutrition knowledge 10 questions
Administered by teachers and completed anonymously during a single school period
No. of times particular food/drink consumed the previous week (% of n)
Food/drink
Sex (N)
0-1 times (%)
2-4 times (%)
5-6 times (%)
7 times (%)
Bread
Male (n=403)
Female (n=366)
Male (n=381)
Female (n=346) Male
(n=403)
Female (n=367) Male
(n=395)
Female (n=361) Male
(n=396)
Female (n=367) Male
(n=400)
3.7
6.8
26
24.9
40.9
40.6
16.0
7.5
5.6
3.3
16.0
12.9
18.9
51.7
49.7
30.8
32.2
28.1
31.6
12.6
9.8
39.5
16.9
17.5
12.1
11.6
9.4
7.9
21.0
19.7
12.6
7.1
25.5
66.5
57.1
10.2
13.9
18.9
19.4
34.9
41.3
69.1
79.8
19.0
Rice or pasta
Wholemeal/whole
grain products
Fruit (inc. juice)
Green or yellow
vegetables
Potatoes
57
Dairy products
Low fat milk
Meat/fish/chicken
High fat savoury
foods
High fat sweet foods
High sugar drinks
Key findings
Notes
Female (n=362) Male
(n=391)
Female (n=359) Male
(n=402)
Female (n=367) Male
(n=384)
Female (n=350) Male
(n=387)
Female (n=344) Male
(n=396)
Female (n=358) Male
(n=403)
Female (n=364)
13.5
2.6
3.1
74.4
70.3
4.7
2.6
6.0
10.5
12.4
11.2
5.5
7.4
39.2
9.0
8.6
9.2
9.0
20.3
16.0
25.8
39.5
25.7
27.1
19.6
30.8
24.3
6.4
12.8
3.0
4.1
20.8
21.7
16.3
19.8
18.2
19.0
14.6
17.0
22.9
82.1
75.5
13.4
16.6
54.2
59.7
51.9
30.3
43.7
42.7
60.3
44.8
The results showed few gender differences between consumption.
Green vegetables consumed daily by more girls
Girls ate significantly less fat on meat, skin on chicken, sausages, fried foods and takeaways
Girls ate significantly more fruit than boys
Boys consumed more breads and cereals, soft drinks and cordials than girls
Dairy products: milk or cheese or yoghurt
High fat savoury foods: sausages, meat fat, chicken skin, fried foods, takeaways
High fat sweet foods: ice cream, muesli bars, cakes
High sugar foods; soft drink, lollies or chocolate
(63-65)
1993
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Nowak M, Crawford D, Buttner P
School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville
Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, Deakin University Victoria
4/6 private high schools in Townsville (Queensland, Australia)
902
High school students in year 8, 10-12
Year 8: n=254 (144 males, 110 females), Mean age 12.9 (0.5)
Year 10 n=254 (123 males, 131 females), Mean age 15.0 (0.7)
Year 11 n=251 (135 males, 116 females) mean age 15.9 (0.7)
Year 12 n=143 (85 males, 58 females) Mean age 17.1 (0.8)
Cross-sectional
Self-completed questionnaire based on NEAT food intake questions
58
Outcome Measures
Results
- 8 demographic questions
- 15 weight behaviour questions
- 15 questions related to perception of weight or body shape
- 18 questions regarding weight related beliefs and attitudes
- 27 questions food intake
- food habits 8 questions
- food and nutrition related beliefs 11 questions
- attitudes 5 questions
- concerns 7 questions
- sources of information about food and nutrition 8 questions
- nutrition knowledge 10 questions
Administered by teachers and completed anonymously during a single school period
% of students who consumed core foods on each day during the week prior to the study (total and school
year groups): cereal, fruit, vegetable, dairy, meat, all 5 core foods, fruit (including dried. excluding fruit), all
core food excluding fruit juice.
Median of the number of days during the previous week that some non-core foods were consumed: soft
drinks, ice cream, muesli bars, lollies or chocolates, cakes and biscuits, chips or twisties, sausages, fried
food, other take-away,
Core food gp
Cereal M
F
Fruit M
F
Vegetable M
F
Dairy
M
F
Meat
M
F
All 5 core foods M
F
Fruit (incl dried) M
F
All 5 core foods
excluding fruit juice
M
F
Year 8 (% who
consumed)
92.9
94.2
61.2
78.3
82.1
93.4
83.0
85.1
74.0
81.9
32.1
55.2
26.3
36.1
Year 10
Year 11
Year 12
Total
98.3
92.0
76.0
77.5
89.2
96.9
87.6
76.4
88.4
75.2
56.7
50.9
40.2
36.4
93.7
87.8
63.9
73.0
86.4
92.1
85.4
69.3
80.6
72.9
44.5
36.1
23.1
36.9
93.8
92.6
63.9
81.5
90.5
94.8
85.4
65.5
75.0
60.3
47.4
33.3
20.5
29.8
94.7
91.5
66.2
77.0
86.6
94.4
85.3
75.1
79.7
74.2
44.9
45.6
28.0
35.6
18.9
29.6
32.4
22.9
16.8
19.6
21.8
15.1
22.3
22.7
None coreFood or
drink median
days/week consumed
59
Soft drinks M
F
Ice-cream M
F
Muesli Bars M
F
Lollies or M
chocolates F
Cakes & M biscuits
F
Chips or M
Twisties F
Sausages M
F
Fried food M
F
Other take- M
Away
F
4 (2-7)
3 (1-5)
2 (1-5)
2 (1-4)
0 (0-2)
0 (0-3)
3 (1-5)
3 (1-5)
2 (1-4)
3 (1-4)
2 (1-4)
2 (1-4)
1 (0-2)
1 (1-3)
2 (1-4)
1 (1-3)
1 (1-3)
1 (1-2)
5 (3-7)
3 (2-6)
2 (0-5)
1 (0-2)
0 (0-3)
0 (0-1)
2 (1-4)
3 (1-4)
3 (1-4)
3 (1-4)
2 (1-4)
2 (1-3)
1 (0-2)
1 (0-2)
2 (1-3)
1 (0-2)
1 91-3)
1 (1-2)
5 (3-7)
3 (1-6)
2 (1-4)
1 (0-2)
0 (0-3)
0 (0-0)
2 (1-4)
2 (0-3)
3 (2-4)
2 (0-3)
2 (1-4)
1 (0-2)
1 (0-2)
1 (0-1)
2 (1-3)
1 (0-2)
2 (1-3)
1 (0-2)
4 (2-7)
2 (0-3)
2 (1-3)
1 (0-2)
0 (0-3)
0 (0-0)
2 (0-3)
2 (1-3)
3 (1-4)
2 (1-4)
2 (0-4)
0 (0-1)
1 (0-2)
1 (0-1)
2 (1-3)
1 (1-2)
2 (1-3)
1 (0-2)
4 (3-7)
3 (1-5)
2 (0-4)
1 (0-3)
0 (0-3)
0 (0-1)
2 (1-4)
2 (1-4)
3 (1-4)
2 (1-4)
2 (0-4)
1 (0-3)
1 (0-2)
1 (0-2)
2 (1-3)
1 (1-2)
2 (1-3)
1 (0-2)
Boys ate breakfast cereal (median=6 IQR 3-7), and drank milk (median= 7 IQR 6-7) more than girls (median=3 IQR 0-6, median=7
IQR 3-7)
Girls ate fruit, excluding juice (median=5 IQR 3-7), green vegetables (median=7, IQR 5-7), yellow vegetables (median=5 IQR 3-7),
potatoes (median =7 IQR 3-7) on more days than boys: (median=4 IQR 2-7), (median =5 IQR 3-7) (median=4 IQR 2-6), (median= 4
IQR 3-6)
Key findings
The dietary intake of the majority of participants did not meet Australian dietary recommendations. Less than
half (45%) consumed foods from all 5 core food groups and this was including fruit juice. If fruit juice was
excluded only 22% of participants consumed foods from all 5 core food groups in the past week.
Many participants consumed non-core foods frequently
(66-69)
1995
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Participant:
McLennan, W and Podger A
Australian Bureau of Statistics
All states and territories of Australia, including urban and rural areas.
n=3007
February 1995 and March 1996
Inclusion criteria: Australians aged 2 years and over who were residents of private dwellings
60
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Key findings
National cross-sectional survey
3 components:
- 24 hour recall questionnaire; participants interviewed by trained nutritionists on intake day prior to the
interview (from midnight until mignight) Completed by parents or carers for those aged <5 years. Those
aged 5-11 years provided information with assistance from parents/carers.
- Qualitative food frequency questionnaire in participants aged >12 years. Completed by parents or carers
for those aged <5 years. Those aged 5-11 years provided information with assistance from parents/carers.
This was left with participants to return via mail, written instructions were provided regarding completion.
- Questions on food habits and attitudes
Mean daily intake of major food groups in males and females aged 2-3, 4-7, 8-11, 12-15 and 16-18 years
% participants consuming each of the major food groups in males and females aged 2-3, 4-7, 8-11, 12-15 and
16-18 years. (results recorded)
Mean daily energy, macronutrient and micronutrient intake in males and females aged 2-3, 4-7, 8-11, 12-15
and 16-18 years
Mean contribution of macronutrients to energy intake in males and females aged 2-3, 4-7, 8-11, 12-15 and 1618 years
Outlined in Cook et al
(25, 26)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participants:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Magarey A, Daniels LA, Smith A
National Health and Medical Research Council
Department Public Health, School of Medicine, Flinders University South Australia
Eat Well SA, Women’s and Children’s Hospital South Australia
n=3007
Secondary analysis of the 1995 National Nutrition Survey dataset
3 components:
61
Outcome Measures
Results
interview (from midnight until midnight) Completed by parents or carers for those aged <5 years. Those aged
5-11 years provided information with assistance from parents/carers.
- Qualitative food frequency questionnaire in participants aged >12 years. Completed by parents or carers for
those aged <5 years. Those aged 5-11 years provided information with assistance from parents/carers. This
was left with participants to return via mail, written instructions were provided regarding completion.
Questions on food habits and attitudes
% consuming any fruit and vegetable
% of n (who consumed any) consuming particular fruit and vegetable on the day prior to the survey
% contribution of particular fruit/vegetable to total fruit/vegetable intake
Median (interquartile range) serves of fruit and vegetable consumed on the day prior to the survey (comparison
with recommendations of the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating)
Proportion of participants reporting no, poor or adequate intake of fruit and vegetables
% consuming any fruit and vegetables
73% boys (1126) and 75% (1097) girls consumed some fruit.
79% boys (1211) and81% ( 1203) girls consumed some vegetable
Contribution to total
% consuming (boys)
Food sub-category
intake
45
54
Fruit juice
25
44
Pome
8
25
Tropical
8
19
Citrus
7
12
Other
4
7
Stone
1
5
Dried
1
4
Berry
1
3
Mixtures
<1
1
Fruit based-dish
49
65
Potato
7
36
Root
4
29
Leaf and stalk
7
28
Other vegetable &
combination
7
27
Peas and beans
7
25
Other fruiting vegetables
6
Tomato and tomato products 22
6
18
Cruciferous vegetables
1
1
Vegetable dishes
5
6
Legume dishes
1
2
Legumes
% consuming (girls)
54
44
25
20
13
11
7
3
4
<1
60
40
32
28
Contribution to total
intake
45
24
8
8
7
6
1
1
2
<1
42
9
5
8
28
31
27
16
3
5
1
7
10
9
6
2
3
1
62
Median serves
FRUIT
Boys
Girls
2-3 years
4-7 years
8-11 years
12-15 years
16-18 years
1.3 (0.5-2.4)
(n=183)
1.4 (0.6-2.4)
(n=174)
1.3 (0.5-2.2)
(n=367)
1.3 (0.5-2.3)
(n=345)
1.0 (0.1-2.5)
(n=364)
1.1 (0.3-2.3)
(n=348)
0.9 (0.0-2.3)
(n=362)
1.1 (0.0-2.2)
(n=342)
0.9 (0.0-1.7)
(n=269)
0.7 (0.0-1.9)
(n=255)
VEGETABLES
Boys
Key findings
Notes
0.8 (0.0-1.9)
1.2 (0.0-2.2)
1.8 (0.2-3.2)
2.4 (0.8-4.6)
3.0 (1.2-5.5)
(n=183)
(n=367)
(n=364)
(n=362)
(n=269)
Girls
0.8 (0.3-2.0)
1.3 (0.3 -2.5)
1.8 (0.2-32.)
1.1 (0.0-2.2)
2.2 (0.8-3.6)
(n=174)
(n=345)
(n=348)
(n=342)
(n=255)
All ages (%)
2-3 years (%)
4-7 years (%)
8-11 years (%)
12-15 years (%)
16-18years (%)
BOYS
N=1535
n=183
n=367
n=364
n=367
n=269
No intake
6.9
8.4
5.3
6.9
8.0
6.5
Poor intake
76.5
72.8
68.7
73.4
81.1
87.4
Adequate intake
16.7
18.8
26.0
19.7
10.9
6.0
GIRLS
n= 1472
n=174
n=345
n=348
n=342
n=345
No intake
4.5
1.5
3.8
4.9
4.2
7.4
Poor intake
78.5
75.7
68.1
75.5
88.1
86.0
Adequate intake
17.0
22.8
28.1
19.5
7.7
6.6
47% of boys and 49% of boys and girls had adequate fruit intake and 34% of boys and 32% of girls had adequate vegetable intakes
17% of all surveyed had adequate fruit and vegetable consumption
Adequate consumption: lower end of Australian Guide to Healthy Eating recommendation
(70)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participants:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Magarey, A and Bannerman E
Nutrition Unit, School of Medicine, Flinders University of South Australia Adelaide
n=3007
Secondary analysis of the 1995 National Nutrition Survey data set (and comparison with 1985 data)
3 components:
interview (from midnight until midnight) Completed by parents or carers for those aged <5 years. Those
63
Qualitative food frequency questionnaire in participants aged >12 years. Completed by parents or carers
for those aged <5 years. Those aged 5-11 years provided information with assistance from
parents/carers. This was left with participants to return via mail, written instructions were provided
regarding completion.
Percentage of participants with nutrient intakes <0.7 recommended dietary intakes (RDI) by sex and age for;
vitamin A, thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, folate, vitamin C, calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc, potassium,
phosphorus.
Percentage of participants with 0, 1, 2 and 3 or more nutrient intakes <0.7 RDI by sex and age
Median (interquartile range) total weight of food consumed
Median (interquartile range) calcium and iron density (mg/100g food)
-
Outcome Measures
Results
% of participants with
nutrient intake <0.7
RDI
Vitamin A(μg)
Male
Female
Thiamin (mg)
Male
Female
Niacin (mg)
Male
Female
Riboflavin (mg)
Male
Female
Folate μg
Male
Female
Vitamin C (mg)
Male
Female
Calcium (mg)
Male
Female
Iron (mg)
Male
Female
Magnesium (mg)
Male
Female
Zinc (mg)
Male
Aged 16-18
(n=268 M 254 F)
Aged 12-15
(n=362 M 342 F)
Aged 8-11
(n=364M 348 F)
Aged 4-7
(n=367 M 346 F)
Aged 2-3
(n= 183 M 174F)
2.6
0.6
3.2
0.5
5.8
4.5
15.2
18.6
268
254
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15.7
22.8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5.4
2.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.4
1.0
4.4
7.8
11.9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.8
1.3
12.3
22.4
6.0
21.2
29.9
22.5
9.2
31.7
4.4
11.0
0.2
2.8
0
1.2
4.1
21.7
2.6
24.2
0
0
0
0
0.2
0.8
3.3
7.8
7.4
19.5
0
0
0
0
0.4
1.5
0
43.4
0
39.0
64
Female
Potassium (mg)
Male
Female
Phosphorus (mg)
Male
Female
% of subjects with n
nutrient intakes <0.7
RDI
0
0
0.9
0
0.7
0.8
0
1.0
0
5.0
0
0
0.3
0
0
0.4
0.8
13.6
1.2
10.2
Aged 8-11
(n=364M 348 F)
Aged 4-7
(n=367 M 346 F)
Aged 2-3
(n= 183 M 174F)
Aged 12-15
(n=362 M 342 F)
Aged 16-18
(n=268 M 254 F)
0
Male
Female
91.5
89.0
87.1
75.9
88.7
78.2
64.8
46.7
76.3
43.4
Male
Female
3 or more
Male
Female
8.5
10.7
12.0
23.9
10.9
20.5
28.4
32.1
20.5
30.8
0.0
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.4
1.3
6.4
21.2
2.0
25.9
1604 (131—1907)
1368 (1113-1782)
1663 (1313-2012)
1456 (1184-1820)
1863 (1471-2251)
1604 (1267-2051)
2218 (1710-2800)
1840 (1399-2247)
2789 (2099-3820)
1991 (1377-2392)
50.3 (34.7-71.4)
53.1 (38.8-69.8)
47.2 (36.6-61.6)
44.9 (31.6-57.9)
44.4 (32.9-65.6)
46.2 (31.4-64.2)
47.4 (32.3-57.6)
40.4 (27.8-54.5)
39.7 (28.1-56.1)
36.5 (26.2-54.8)
0.44 (0.34-0.63)
0.51 (0.39-0.65)
0.59 (0.46-0.76)
0.57 (0.45-0.72)
0.65 (0.49-0.83)
0.59 (0.47-0.78)
0.67 (0.51-0.87)
0.57 (0.45)
0.56 (0.42-0.79)
0.54 (0.40-0.73)
1 or 2
Grams of food
Male
Female
Calcium density
Male
Female
Iron density
Male
Female
Key findings
Significant differences between the percentage of participants with RDI <0.7 for 5 of the 12 nutrient for males and 9 of the 12
nutrients for females
Significant differences in the % of participants with each number category of nutrient intakes <0.7 RDI for sex and age
Absolute amount food consumed increased with age. Males at each age consumed significantly more (absolute amount) than
females
In both males and females nutrient density was found to be greater in 8-11 and 12-15 years and least in 2-3 and 16-18 years.
Nutrient density, total food intake and food intake per kg body weight greater in participants with RDI >0.7
When compared to the National dietary survey of 1985 (data for 10-15 year olds); for most nutrients the percentage of participants
with intakes <0.7 RDI was greater in 1985 (but not significantly different)
(71)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Radcliffe BC, Cameron CV, Baade PD
Queen Elizabeth II Hospital Health Service District, Queensland
65
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Public Health Services, Queensland Health
Health Information Centre, Queensland Health
n=3007
3 components:
Mean total intake of energy (95% confidence interval), vitamin A, thiamine, niacin, zinc, iron and calcium over
24 hour period
Mean intake from lunch and snacks of energy, vitamin A, thiamine, niacin, zinc, iron and calcium
Contribution of lunch and snack intake to nutrient intake (% of RDI)
AGE (years)
2-3 (n=383)
Results
Mean intake
(24hrs)
% of total
mean intake
contributed
by lunch and
snacks
4-5 (n=410)
2-3 (n=383)
4-5 (n=410)
2-3 (n=383)
% of RDI met
in 24hrs
ENERGY (Kj)
6350
(6144-655)
7053
(6851-7256)
ZINC (MG)
7.8
(7.5-8.1)
8.9
(8.5-9.2)
CALCIUM
(MG)
834
(790-877)
777
(738- 817)
40 (39-42)
46 (44-48)
44 (42-45)
IRON (MG)
40 (39-42)
44 (42-46)
42 (40-44)
111
119
140
2-3 (n=383)
61
4-5 (n=410)
50
43 (41-45)
44 (42-47)
44 (42-45)
42 (40-44)
245
235
200
202
106
107
233
118
98
VITAMIN A
(MG)
707
(657-756)
707
(665-750)
41 (40-43)
51 (50-53)
4-5 (n=410)
THIAMIN
(MG)
1.2
(1.2-1.3)
1.4
(1.3-1.5)
43 (41-44)
51 (50-53)
218
122
% of RDI met
at lunch &
snacks
6.7
(6.4-7.6)
7.2
(6.9-8.2)
NIACIN (MG)
23.3
(22.4-24.2)
26.2
(25.2-27.2)
111
120
96
43
57
65
89
66
48
Key findings
50
50
90
79
The results support the notion that 50% of the RDI for children should be provided by long-day care centres
in the form of one meal and 2 snacks
(72)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
Somerset SM
Nutrition Unit, School of Health Science, Griffith University
n=3007
3 components:
Mean daily intake of refined sugar (grams & kJ)
Mean % energy as refined sugar per day
Mean intake of Refined sugar as a proportion of total sugar
All outcomes reported as boys and girls, for each age from 2-18 years
AGE/SEX
RS intake (g)
RS intake (kJ)
% energy as added RS
2 (M) n= 93
2 (F) n= 114
3 (M) n= 114
3 (f) n= 86
4 (m) n=96
4 (f) n=114
5 (m) n=94
30.4
26.9
27
28.9
35
35.7
41
486.4
430.4
432
462.4
560
571.2
656
9.1
6.59
7.6
10.56
9.3
11.61
10.4
RS as proportion of total
sugar
0.32
0.23
0.25
0.36
0.32
0.40
0.34
67
5 (F) n= 102
6 (M) n= 112
6 (f) n= 81
7 (M) n= 97
7 (F) n= 81
8 (m) n= 93
8 (F) n= 89
9 (m) n= 106
9 (F) n= 81
10 (m) n=89
10 (F) n=103
11 (M) n=73
11 (F) n=85
12 (M) n=113
12 (F) n=81
13 (m) n= 76
13 (F) n= 78
14(M) n= 87
14 (f) n= 60
15 (m) n=85
15 (F)n=70
16 (M)n=65
16 (F) n=78
17 (M) n=65
17 (F) n=70
18 (M) n=59
18 (F) n=76
Key findings
42.4
38.9
35.8
43.2
41.5
41.7
44
50.1
41.6
53.2
46.2
43.9
41.1
58.4
49.9
67.1
66.1
54.4
43.7
68.8
69.7
74.1
57.9
81.6
78.3
76.3
73.3
678.4
6224
572.8
691.2
664
667.2
704
801.6
665.6
851.2
739.2
702.4
657.6
934.4
798.4
1073.6
1057.6
870.4
699.2
1100.8
1115.2
1185.6
926.4
1305.6
1252.8
1220.8
1172.8
12.7
9.9
7.77
10.0
10.45
9.7
8.54
10.6
8.17
11.0
8.53
8.1
7.43
10.6
9.73
11.8
12.98
9.9
7.9
12.8
13.71
11.9
10.26
14.1
14.8
13.1
13.74
0.46
0.35
0.26
0.36
0.42
0.36
0.32
0.41
0.30
0.38
0.35
0.32
0.29
0.41
0.35
0.44
0.49
0.39
0.56
0.47
0.57
0.44
0.43
0.51
0.59
0.26
0.54
Estimates of intake made using top 100 sources of total sugar which made up 85% of boys and 82% of girls
total sugar intake- therefore the results are an underestimate of true consumption.
Recommendations that refined sugar should be limited to <10% of energy often exceeded
(73)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Giskes K, Turrel G, Patterson C and Newman B
Centre for Public Health Research
n=793
Inclusion criteria: Australians aged 13 to 17 years and over who were residents of private dwellings
68
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
3 components:
interview (from midnight until mignight)
- Qualitative food frequency questionnaire in participants aged >12 years. This was left with participants to
return via mail, written instructions were provided regarding completion.
Mean intake of total fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, vitamin A, folate and vitamin
C, compared by socioeconomic status.
Significant differences between intake via socioeconomic status; total fat, saturated fat, vitamin A, folate and vitamin C- but
differences small. I.e. does not suggest that that those from disadvantaged backgrounds have less optional intakes of nutrients.
(31)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Wang Z, Patterson CM, Hills AP
Centre for Health and Research, Queensland Univeristy of Technology, Brisbane
School of Human Movement Studies, Queensland University of Technology Brisbane
All Australian states and territories
n=1581
Inclusion criteria: Boys and girls aged 7 to 15 years
Secondary data analysis of the National Nutrition Survey 1995
3 components:
Mean, 95% CI % percentage energy from fat
Geometric mean, 95% CI energy intake
Geometric mean, 95% CI fat intake all for boys and girls aged 7-9, 10-12 and 13-15 years.
69
Results
Key findings
(74)
7-9 years
10-12 years
13-15 years
Nutrient
% fat
Boys
32.9 (32.2, 33.6)
33.2 (32.4, 34.0)
33.5 (32.7, 34.2)
Girls
34.0 (33.2, 34.8)
33.3 (32.4-34.2)
32.8 (31.8, 33.8)
Energy (MJ)
Boys
8.8 (8.5, 9.1)
10.1 (9.7, 10.5)
11.5 (11.0, 12.0)
Girls
7.7 (7.4, 8.0)
8.3 (8.0, 8.7)
8.1 (7.8, 8.5)
Fat (g)
Boys
78.5 (75.1, 81.9)
89.9 (85.3, 94.5)
103.0 (97.7, 108.4)
Girls
70.8 (67.2, 74.5)
74.8 (70.9, 78.9)
71.8 (67.4, 76.4)
A one-way ANOVA did not show a significant difference in energy and fat intake between overweight and non-overweight children
Investigator(s)
Campain AC, Morgan MV, Evans RW, Ugoni A, Adams GG, Conn JA, Watson MJ
Institution(s)
School of Dental Science, University of Melbourne
Community Oral Health and Epidemiology, University of Sydney
Department of General Practice and Public Health, University of Melbourne
Murdoch Children’s Research Institute
Public secondary schools North West Region of metropolitan Melbourne
920 invited
645 responded
504 completed
2 years (1995-1997)
Mean age @ baseline 12.5
Inclusion criteria: year 7 students aged between 12 and 13 years
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Intervention
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Prospective cohort study
No intervention
4-day record with estimation portion sizes (series of total 8-16 day records, spread over weekdays, weekends
and seasons)
Analysed using System for Online Dietary Analysis (SODA V7)
If 4-day record incomplete, supplemented by 24 hour recall.
4-day records clarified by nutritionist if required
Mean energy intake
Mean sugar intake
% energy from sugar and starch
70
Mean daily intake of high sugar-low starch, medium sugar-medium starch, medium sugar-low starch, low
sugar-low starch, low sugar-medium starch, low sugar-high starch food groups
Results
Mean energy intake (MJ/day)
Mean sugar (g/day)
Mean starch (g/day)
% energy from sugar
% energy from starch
FOOD GROUPS
High sugar-low starch
Medium sugar-medium starch
Medium sugar-medium starch
Low sugar-low starch
Low sugar-medium starch
Low sugar-high starch
8.4 (2.6)
113.4 (44)
146.8 (56.2)
21.5 (5.3)
27.9 (4.9)
Mean daily intake Sugar (g)
20.1 (14.8)
7.0 (6.8)
67.2 (31.6)
11.5 (8.4)
4.3 (2.7)
3.29 (2.04)
Mean daily intake starch (g)
1.57 (1.38)
9.0 (9.0)
1.62 (1.45)
3.88 (3.50)
77.3 (41.1)
53.3 (38.1)
(19)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Intervention
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
Kay L. Gibbons, Eleanor H. Wertheim, Susan J. Paxton, Janice Petrovich and George I. Szmukler
Unclear
5 High schools Melbourne, Victoria ( girls private, boys private, 3 coeducational public)
n=183
Unclear
Age range 12=17
Female n=105 mean age 14.17 (1.38)
Male n=78 mean age 14.06 (1.3)
Cross-sectional
No intervention
Diet diary. Students trained how to complete diaries, using standard food models.
4-day diary completed (2 weekdays, 2 weekend days)
Checklist of general foods included with diary
Mean (SD) nutrient intakes/day for boys and girls: energy, protein, fat, sugar, vitamin A (retinol equivalents),
thaimin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, calcium, iron, zinc and fibre
Nutrient
Energy (mJ)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Sugar (g)
vitamin A (mg retinol equivalents)
thaimin (mg)
Girls
7.8 (3.7)
67 (31)
74 (42)
119 (62)
762 (606)
1.0 (0.6)
Boys
11.0 (3.7)
90 (27)
101 (37)
178 (98)
825 (584)
1.5 (0.7)
71
riboflavin (mg)
niacin (mg niacin equivalents)
vitamin C (mg)
calcium (mg)
iron (mg)
zinc (mg)
fibre (g)
Key findings
1.7 (1.0)
24 (11)
121 (91)
738 (476)
10.4 (4.7)
8.3 (3.7)
17 (8)
2.5 (1.2)
33 (11)
110 (101)
987 (480)
13.7 (4.5)
10.7 (3.5)
19.0 (8)
Girls results showed significantly lower intakes of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, calcium, iron and
zinc than the results of the National Dietary Survey.
Boys results showed significantly lower intakes of fat, sugar, vitamin A, thiamine, niacin, vitamin C, calcium,
iron, zinc and fibre,
(20)
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participants:
Study design
Intervention
Vandongen R, Jenner DA, Thompson C, Taggart AC, Spickett EE, Burke V, Beiline LJ, Milligan RA, Dunbar RN
Department of Medicine, University of Western Australia
Department of Physical Education and Health, Edith Cowan University
Western Australia
n=1147
Dietary intake data n= 1047 at baseline, n=921 at follow up. n=869data available for matched pairs
9 months
Year 6 classes at selected school, children aged 10 to 12 years
Randomised control trial
6 groups
Group 1: physical fitness. Group 2 physical fitness & school nutrition. Group 3 school nutrition. Group 4 school
nutrition & home nutrition. Group 5 home nutrition. Group 6 control
Physical fitness: 6 x 30 minute classes to provide children with a ‘rational basis for their activity programs. The
fitness program was divided into preplanned lessons and included a range of fitness activities increasing in
intensity and duration throughout the intervention. The teachers were trained in a 2 ½ day inservice regarding the
program. The program was to be conducted for 15 minutes each day.
Aim of program; encourage children to select physical rather than passive activities, for children to include daily
fitness activities adequate enough to increase their heart rate to 150-170 beats/min for at least 15 minutes each
day and improve fitness levels (Leger test and 1.6km run)
School based program: 10 1 hr sessions. Teachers trained in 1 ½ day inservice. Sessions aimed to improve
72
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
knowledge attitudes and eating habits.
Home-based nutrition program: 5 nutrition messages using comic delivered through the schools. Comics contained
educational information for both children and parents. Parents encouraged to take part by helping with homework
exercises and helping to prepare healthy recipes.
Control group: no additional nutrition or physical activity programs introduced other than those already being taught
2 day food diary (with set of measuring cups and spoons)
Students trained in how to do diary by dietitian
Mean (95% CI) intake sugar, fat, polyunsaturated fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat and protein (% energy
intake) @ baseline and follow-up.
Mean (95% CI) intake fibre, sodium and energy @ baseline and follow-up
Results divided into boys and girls for each group.
Fitness group
(n=75)
Results
Sugar (% Energy)
MALE Baseline
Follow-up
FEMALE Baseline
Follow-up
Total fat (% energy)
MALE Baseline
Follow-up
FEMALE Baseline
Follow-up
PUFA (% Energy)
MALE Baseline
Follow-up
FEMALE Baseline
Follow-up
SFA (% energy)
MALE Baseline
Follow-up
FEMALE Baseline
Follow-up
MUFA (% energy)
MALE Baseline
Follow-up
FEMALE Baseline
Follow-up
PUFA/SFA ratio
MALE Baseline
Follow-up
FEMALE Baseline
Follow-up
23.6 (21.8, 25.3)
21.1 (19.4, 22.8)
23.1 (21.6, 23.6)
20.4 (18.8, 22.0)
32.5 (31.3,33.7)
33.6 (32.3, 35.0)
33.5 (32.7, 34.7)
34.6 (33.4, 35.8)
4.6 (4.2, 5.0)
4.8 (4.4, 5.3)
4.7 (4.3, 5.0)
4.8 (4.4, 5.3)
13.7 (13.2,14.3)
14.2 (13.6, 14.9)
14.3 (13.6, 14.9)
14.7 (13.9, 15.4)
11.6 (11.1, 12.1)
12.0 (11.4, 12.6)
11.9 (11.4, 12.4)
12.5 (11.9, 13.2)
0.35 (0.32, 0.38)
0.36 (0.32, 0.39)
0.35 (0.31, 0.38)
0.36 (0.32, 0.40)
Fitness and school
nutrition (n=72)
20.3 (21.3, 25.3)
20.9 (18.9, 22.8)
24.3 (22.3 (26.2)
20.9 (18.9, 22.8)
33.8 (32.4, 35.2)
34.3 (32.8, 35.8)
33.2 (32.0, 34.3)
34.2 (32.8, 35.6)
5.1 (4.7, 5.5)
5.0 (4.4, 5.5)
4.8 (4.4, 5.3)
5.2 (4.7, 5.7)
13.8 (13.1, 14.6)
14.4 (13.7, 15.2)
14.1 (13.4 , 14.7)
14.0 (13.3, 14.6)
12.2 (11.6, 12.9)
12.3 (11.7, 13.0)
11.9 (11.4, 12.4)
12.5 (11.9, 13.2)
0.40 (0.36, 0.44)
0.37 (0.32, 0.42)
0.36 (0.32, 0.41)
0.39 (0.35, 0.43)
School nutrition
(n=73)
21.7 (20.1, 23.2)
22.5 (20.8, 24.2)
23.7 (21,9 (25.5)
21.5 (29.9, 23.1)
34.8 (33.6, 35.9)
33.6 (32.3, 34.9)
33.6 (32.3, 34.9)
34.8 (33.3, 36.3)
5.4 (5.0, 5.8)
5.1 (4.4, 5.5)
5.1 (4.8, 5.5)
4.9 (4.5, 5.3)
14.0 (13.4, 14.6)
13.9 (13.3, 14.5)
14.0 (13.3, 14.6)
14.6 (13.9, 15.3)
12.7 (12.2, 13.1)
12.1 (11.6, 12.7)
11.9 (11.4, 12.5)
12.6 (12.0, 13.2)
0.41 (0.37, 0.44)
0.38 (0.34, 0.43)
0.38 (0.35, 0.42)
0.39 (0.35, 0.43)
School and home
nutrition (n=54)
24.3 (22.5, 26.1)
21.5 (19.7, 23.3)
25.2 (23.4, 27.1)
23.2 (19.7, 23.1)
31.7 (30.4, 32.9)
34.2 (32.3, 36.1)
31.4 (30.0, 32.7)
33.7 (32.4, 35.0)
5.0 (4.6, 5.5)
4.9 (4.6,5.6)
4.8 (4.4, 5.2)
5.3 (4.5, 5.9)
12.9 (12.3, 13.6)
14.2 (13.4, 15.0)
13.1 (12.3, 13.8)
13.6 (12.9, 14.3)
11.3 (10.8, 11.8)
12.4 (11.5, 13.2)
11.2 (10.6, 11.8)
12.1 (11.4, 12.8)
0.42 (0.37, 0.46)
0.36 (0.32, 0.40)
0.39 (0.35, 0.44)
0.43 (0.34, 0.52)
Home nutrition
(n=86)
Control (n=63)
22.6 (21.0, 24.1)
22.4 (20.7, 24.1)
23.9 (22.2, 25.7)
23.9 (21.6, 25.9)
21.7 (20.0, 23.3)
23.3 (21.3, 25.3)
22.6 (21.0, 24.4)
21.1 (19.5, 22.6)
33.4 (32.2, 34.5)
33.4 (31.9, 34.9)
33.0 (31.6, 34.3)
31.8 (30.2, 33.4)
33.2 (32.7, 33.7)
33.2 (31.5, 34.9)
33.8 (32.5 (35.1)
35.0 (33.5, 34.6)
5.3 (4.9, 5.7)
4.7 (4.3, 5.0)
5.0 (4.5, 5.4)
4.7 (4.3, 5.1)
5.0 (4.6, 5.4)
4.7 (4.3, 5.2)
5.0 (4.5, 5.1)
4.9 (4.4, 5.4)
13.6 (13.0, 14.2)
14.1 (13.4, 14.8)
13.8 (13.1, 14.5)
13.3 (12.5, 14.1)
13.6 (12.9, 14.2)
14.2 (13.3, 15.0)
14.4 (13.6, 15.1)
15.0 (14.3, 15.7
11.9 (11.4, 12.4)
12.0 (11.4, 12.7)
11.6 (11.0, 12.1)
11.2 (10.5, 11.9)
11.6 (11.1, 12.2)
11.8 (11.1, 12.6)
12.1 (11.6, 12.6)
12.6 (11.9, 13.2)
0.42 (0.38, 0.46)
0.36 (0.32, 0.40)
0.40 (0.35, 0.45)
0.38 (0.33, 0.43)
0.39 (0.35, 0.44)
0.36 (0.31, 0.40)
0.37 (0.32, 0.41)
0.33 (0.30, 0.37)
73
Protein (% energy)
MALE Baseline
Follow-up
FEMALE Baseline
Follow-up
Fibre (g/day)
MALE Baseline
Follow-up
FEMALE Baseline
Follow-up
Sodium (g/day)
MALE Baseline
Follow-up
FEMALE Baseline
Follow-up
Energy (MJ/day)
MALE Baseline
Follow-up
FEMALE Baseline
Follow-up
Key findings
15.3 (14.6, 16.0)
15.4 (14.6, 16.2)
15.1 (14.3, 16.0)
16.0 (15.1, 16.8)
16.6 (15.0, 18.1)
14.7 (13.3, 16.0)
13.8 (12.6, 15.0)
15.6 (14.0, 17.2)
2.7 (2.3, 3.1)
2.5 (2.2,2.7)
2.2 (2.0, 2.4)
2.2 (2.0, 2.5)
7.8 (7.4,8.3)
7.6 (7.1, 8.1)
6.8 (6.4, 7.3)
6.9 (6.4, 7.3)
15.0 (14.3, 15.6)
16.5 (15.6, 17.4)
14.7 (14.0, 15.4)
15.7 (15.0, 16.4)
15.0 (13.9, 16.2)
16.0 (14.5, 17.5)
13.6 (12.0, 15.3)
13.2 (12.1, 14.4)
2.3 (2.1, 2.5)
2.4 (2.2, 2.6)
2.0 (1.8, 2.2)
2.3 (2.1, 2.5)
7.1 (6.7, 7.5)
7.5 (6.9, 8.1)
6.8 (6.3, 7.3)
7.0 (6.6, 7.5)
15.6 (15.0, 16.3)
15.8 (14.9, 16.8)
15.1 (14.5, 15.8)
15.8 (15.1, 16.5)
15.2 (14.0, 16.5)
16.9 (15.4, 18.5)
14.4 (13.2, 15.3)
14.7 (13.4, 16.0)
2.3 (2.1, 2.5)
2.2 (2.0, 2.4)
1.9 (1.7, 2.1)
2.2 (2.0, 2.3)
7.4 (6.9, 7.8)
7.5 (7.0, 8.0)
6.4 (6.0, 6.7)
6.9 (6.5, 7.3)
15.8 (15.0, 16.6)
15.9 (15.1, 16.7)
15.0 (14.3, 15.9)
15.6 (14.5, 16.4)
16.7 (14.5, 19.0)
18.8 (16.9, 20.9)
13.8 (12.4, 15.2)
15.7 (14.2, 17.1)
2.2 (2.0, 2.4)
2.3 (2.1, 2.6)
2.1 (1.9, 2.3)
1.9 (1.7, 2.1)
7.4 (6.9, 8.0)
7.9 (7.2, 8.6)
6.4 (5.9, 6.8)
6.6 (6.2, 7.1)
15.8 (15.1, 16.5)
15.3 (14.7, 15.7)
15.2 (14.5, 16.0)
15.3 (14.0, 15.8)
15.8 (15.1, 16.4)
14.7 (13.9 (15.4)
15.2 (14.4, 16.0)
14.9 (14.0, 15.8)
16.4 (14.8, 17.9)
16.2 (14.7, 17.7)
15.1 (13.3, 16.8)
14.7 (13.2, 16.2)
15.9 (15.3, 16.6)
15.5 (14.0, 17.0)
13.1 (11.8, 14.5)
13.6 (12.3, 14.8)
2.2 (2.1, 2.4)
2.5 (2.3, 2.7)
2.1 (1.9, 2.3)
2.0 (1.8, 2.1)
2.2 (2.0, 2.4)
2.4 (2.0, 2.8)
2.2 (19.4, 2.4)
1.9 (1.7, 2.1)
7.6 (7.1, 8.1)
8.0 (7.5, 8.6)
6.9 (6.4, 7.3)
6.8, 7.5)
7.2 (6.8, 7.7)
8.0 (7.5, 8.6)
6.8 (6.4, 7.2)
6.5 (6.1, 6.9)
SUGAR; at baseline the majority of boys (63%) and girls (66%) exceeded recommendations (20% of daily energy
intake). Boys in fitness group and home and nutrition group, sugar intake decreased significantly compared to
control group. Girls showed no significant decreases in comparison to control group, but all groups showed
patterns of decrease.
FAT: Significantly greater decrease in total fat intake in girls compared to boys in both the school and home
nutrition group and the home nutrition group.
Significantly greater change in PUFA/SFA ratio in girls compared to boys in the school and home nutrition group.
Nearly 90% of children exceeded recommendations for saturated fat
For boys; The percentage energy from fat increased in each treatment group for boys compared to controls, but
was not significant. No significant differences compared to controls for saturated fat intake.
For girls; percentage energy from fat decreased in each treatment group except school nutrition compared to
controls but was only significant in the home nutrition group. Also intake of saturated fat showed a significant
decreased in all treatment groups compared to control. Significant positive changes in P:S ration shown in school
and home nutrition group compared to control
ENERGY: intake was below recommendations in all groups and did not change significantly following interventions.
PROTEIN: Significant increases in boys intake compared to controls in the fitness and school nutrition, school
nutrition, and school and home nutrition groups
FIBRE: intake below recommendations in 50% of boys and 63% of girls
Significant increase in fibre intake in girls in the fitness group and both boys and girls in the school and home
nutrition group, compared to controls.
74
SALT: 31% of girls and 42% of boys intake exceeded recommendations.
Overall decrease in boys in intervention groups compared to controls, which was only significant in the school
nutrition group.
Girls intake of salt increased in all groups compared to control and was significant in the fitness and school nutrition
group
Notes
NOTE all nutrition components aimed to increase fruit and vegetable, wholegrain breads and cereals consumption
and decrease fatty, sugary and salty food consumption
(21, 22)
1998
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Intervention
Tool
Outcome Measures
Results
O'Connor J, Ball EJ, Steinbeck KS, Davies PSW, Wishart C, Gaskin KJ, Baur LA
Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Sydney
James Fairfax Institute of Paediatric Nutrition
The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Australia
Metabolism and Obesity Services Royal Prince Alfred Hospital Camperdown
Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove Australia
Western Sydney
n=47
Unclear
Mean age 7.4 (0.8). Age range 6.1-8..9 years
Inclusion criteria: Aged 6-9 years. Recruited from local primary schools within 10km radius of study centre.
Exclusion criteria: chronic illness (other than asthma), or acute illness at time of recruitment.
Comparison of methods
No intervention
3-day food record (including 1 weekend day). Household measures to be used where applicable. Instructions
given to parents, child to assist with recording.
Compared to measurement of total energy expenditure by doubly labeled water method
Mean (SD) total energy intake/day
Energy intake (% of current recommendations)
Mean protein intake and % of total energy intake
Mean carbohydrate intake and % of total energy intake
Mean fat intake and % of total energy intake
Mean (SD) (Range)
Total group (n=47)
Boys (n=22)
Girls (n=25)
75
Energy intake (kj/day)
% of current recommendations
Protein (g/day)
% of energy
Carbohydrate (g/day)
% of energy
Fat (g/day)
% of energy
Key findings
7514 (1260)
(5282-10211)
91 (16) (61-129)
7737 (1474)
(5306-10211)
90 (16) (67-129)
7318 (1028)
(5282-9542)
92 (15) (61-126)
65 (15) (38-100)
15 (2) (10-21)
237 (49) (138-339)
52 (7) (31-61)
67 (16) (35-106)
34 (5) (25-49)
70 (15) (43-100)
16 (2) (13-21)
238 (63) (138-339)
50 (7) (31-61)
70 (17) (35-106)
35 (7) (25-49)
61 (13) (38-97)
14 (2) (10-19)
236 (33) (177-298)
53 (5) (41-61)
64 (15) (39-94)
33 (4) (26-42)
No significant relation between reported energy intake and measured total energy expenditure (r=0.10
P=0.51).
55% of children reported an energy intake greater than the measured total energy expenditure.
1/3 reported energy intake within 10% if TEE
(75, 76)
1999
Author(s)/ Principal Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant: Inclusion/Exclusion
criteria (age, gender, weight, etc)
Study design
Intervention
Dietary Intake Tool
Analysis
Outcome Measures
Newell S, Huddy A, Adams J, Holden L, Dierich U, Miller M
Health Promotion Unit, Northern Rivers Area Health Service; Lismore Australia.
Northern Rivers, NSW
N=2166 (1174 intervention and 992 control)
1999 and 2000 school year (18-20months)
Pre test data collected: March 1999
Post test data March 2001
Primary school children
Pre-test Post-Test Control Trial
Tooty Fruity Vegie Program implemented in 10 schools, which aimed to increase fruit and vegetable
consumption among primary school children. This included a whole school approach to
implementation of the program which included; classroom, canteen, family and community orientated
activities. Project management teams were developed to oversee implementation and included
teachers, parents, children, canteen workers, community nutritionist and aboriginal education
assistants. Funding of $270 to 750 per year was available to schools.
24 hour food record completed by parents or children (in years 4-6 only)
Fruit and vegetable coding tool: vegetable consumption was classified as solo, mixed meal, as hot
chips, in a highly processed form. Fruit consumption classified as; solo or mixed.
Mean serve of fruit and vegetable
% of participants it no fruit or vegetables
76
% eating 1+ serves of fruit
%eating 2+ serves of vegetables
%eating 3+ serves of vegetables
For pre post (total) and post for only those children exposed to 2 years of intervention in intervention
and control
Change in fruit an vegetable intake (pre and post)
Change in adequacy of fruit and vegetable intake (pre and post)
Results
Outcome
Fruit Intake
(pre-test)
Fruit Intake
(post-test)
Change in Fruit Intake
(post-test – pre-test)
Vegetable Intake
(pre-test)
Vegetable Intake
(post-test)
Sub-group
Control Group
Intervention Group
n
mean
n
mean
All children
609
1.184
791
1.290
Boys
316
1.071
376
1.243
Test used
p = 0.056
Girls
293
1.307
415
1.333
Wilcoxon
Rank Sum
Tests
Years K – 2
221
1.167
333
1.251
(2-sided)
Years 3 – 6
388
1.195
458
1.318
All children
581
1.036
701
1.426
Boys
296
0.996
336
1.348
Girls
285
1.079
365
1.498
Wilcoxon
Rank Sum
Tests
Years K – 2
242
0.992
279
1.368
(1-sided)
Years 3 – 6
339
1.068
422
1.464
All children
240
-0.197
308
0.143
Boys
120
-0.084
142
0.122
120
-0.310
166
0.162
128
-0.283
184
0.206
(1-sided)
112
-0.098
124
0.050
1.718
791
1.919
Boys
316
1.742
376
1.925
Girls
293
1.692
415
1.912
Years K – 2
221
1.537
333
1.736
Years 3 – 6
388
1.821
458
2.051
All children
581
1.630
701
2.069
Boys
296
1.645
336
2.045
Girls
285
1.613
365
2.091
Years K – 2
242
1.490
279
1.917
p = 0.980
p < 0.0001
p < 0.0001
p < 0.0001
p < 0.0001
p = 0.002
Years K – 2
609
p = 0.355
p < 0.0001
Girls
Years 3 – 6
p = 0.011
p = 0.079
Independent
t-tests
All children
p value
p = 0.083
p = 0.0006
p = 0.003
p = 0.202
p = 0.039
Wilcoxon
Rank Sum
Tests
p = 0.100
(2-sided)
p = 0.112
Wilcoxon
Rank Sum
Tests
p < 0.0001
p = 0.226
p = 0.089
(1-sided)
p = 0.0004
p = 0.0004
p = 0.0003
77
Change in Vegetable Intake
(post-test – pre-test)
2001
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
Outcome Measures
Years 3 – 6
339
1.729
422
2.170
p = 0.0006
All children
240
0.020
308
0.336
p = 0.035
Boys
120
0.102
142
0.378
Girls
120
-0.063
166
Years K – 2
128
0.125
184
Years 3 – 6
112
-0.100
124
0.452
p = 0.138
0.301
Independent
t-tests
0.258
(1-sided)
p = 0.286
p = 0.067
p = 0.018
NSW Child Health Survey 2001
NSW Health
NSW
n=8500 (n=500 from each of the 17 area health services)
March and September 2001
Inclusion criteria: NSW residents aged 0-12 years living in households with private telephones
Survey sample did not fully represent NSW population; female children were slightly over-represented
therefore making males. In both males and females children aged 5–7 years were
under-represented whilst children aged 8–12 years were over-represented. After weighting, the age and
sex distribution of the survey sample reflected that of the population.
Indigenous children were represented similarly to their representation in the NSW population. Children born
in Australia were slightly over-represented in the weighted survey sample.
Questionnaire including the 7 questions regarding usual consumption of particular foods
Usual daily consumption of; fruit and vegetables and milk by age group, children aged 2-12 years, NSW
2001
Usual consumption of fruit juice and soft drinks, cordials and sport drinks, hot chips or french fries.
78
Results/ Key finding
Fruit: 95.5% of 2-4 years and 91.6% of 5-12 years consumed the recommended quantity of fruit (including fruit juice)
78.3% of 204 years and 70.2% of 5-12 years consumed the recommended quantity of fruit (excluding fruit juice)
Vegetables:14.9% of 2-4 years and 12.1% of 5-12 years consumed the recommended quantity of vegetables.
Milk: 5.9% of 2-4 years and 6.0% of 5-12 years did not drink milk
4.9% of 2-4 years and 7.3% of 5-12 years consumed less than 1 cup
25.5% of 2-4 years and 30.4% of 5-12 years consumed 1 cup
30.8% of 2-4 years and 32.2 % of 5-12 years consumed 2 cups
33.0% of 2-4 years and 24.0% of 5-12 years consumed 3 or more cups.
63.8% of children aged 2-4 years and 56.2% of 5-12 year olds reported consuming the recommended amount of dairy products
from their milk intake alone.
Fruit juice: 75.5% of 2-4 years and 70.4% of 5-12 years consumed at least 1 cup of fruit juice per day
28.3% of 0-4 years consumed 1 cup of fruit juice per day, 23.4 % 2 cups per day, 24.0% 3 or more cups per day.
33.2% of 5-12 years consumed 1 cup of fruit juice per day, 21.8% 2 cups/day and 15.5% 3 or more cups per day
Soft drinks, cordials and sports drinks:
28.3 % of 2-4 years consumed at least 1 cup of soft-drink, cordial or sports drink and 12.9% 2 or more cups per day
42.5% of 5-21 years consumed at least 1 cup per day and 22.1% consumed 2 or more cups per day.
Hot chips or french fries
7.4% of children aged 2-4 years and 7.4% of 5-12 year olds consumed no hot chips or french fries
65.6% of 2-4 years and 68.8% of 5-12 years consumed at least one sere per week
26.9% of children aged 2-4 years and 30.8% of 15-12 years consumed 2 or more serves per week/
Notes
Recommended serves of :
Fruits; 2-7 years 1 serve, 8-11 years 1 serve and 12 years 2 serves
Vegetables; 2-7 years 2 serves, 8-11 years 3 serves, 12 years 4 serves
Milk: 4-11 years 2 serves, 12 years 3 serves
(77)
2002
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Radcliffe BC, Ogden C, Coyne T, Craig P
Community Nutrition Unit, QEH Hospital Health Service District Brisbane
Queensland Association of School Tuckshops
School Population Health, Epidemiology Services Unit, University of Queensland and Queensland Health
School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales
14 schools in urban and rural locations in Southern Queensland (13 state, 1 independent)
832 students
Data collection February to April 2002
414 boys, 414 girls (4 surveys excluded as information on gender not included)
Inclusion criteria: Upper primary school children aged 11 to 12 years
79
Study design
Dietary Intake Tool
17 item self completed questionnaire and recall of all foods and beverages consumed for breakfast on the day
of the survey.
Multiple choice questions, 12 minutes to complete.
Developed from 35 focus groups in urban, rural and remote school communities in Southern Queensland.
Piloted in 3 schools
Outcome Measures
Food and beverages reported consumed for breakfast
% of children reported consuming energy dense, micronutrient poor food or beverage choices
Location of breakfast consumption
Persons preparing breakfast
Foods purchased on the way to school
Classification of foods purchased according to the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating
Results
Response rate (useable) 99.5% (828/832)
97% consumed some breakfast on day of survey
Most common breakfast items consumed as a beverage
Cereal: Girls 48% Boys 63%
Milk: Girls 42% Boys 54% Total 35% (of which 17% flavoured, milkshake or smoothie 4% plain and flavoured)
Toast: Girls 42% Boys 47%
Juice: Girls 35% Boys 29%
Fruit: Girls 16% Boys 10%
Water: 46% total
Energy dense micronutrient poor foods/beverages
22% consumed atleast one
5% confectionary
4% chips and crisps or high fat savoury snacks
3% sweet biscuits, cookies or muesli bars
4% high fat savoury items
5.3% cordial
3.5% soft drink
% of subjects in each of the Food Group Score categories
FGS=5 34%
FGS= 4 50%
FGS=3 12%
FGS=2 1%
FGS=1 3%
Foods purchased on the way to school
20% of students had purchase food in the week prior to the survey (n=145) of which
39% purchased Confectionary
26% soft drinks
20% crisps and savoury takeaways
10% bakery goods
6% ice cream
3 healthy tuckshop food
80
-
Key findings
Notes
other 12%
Breakfast foods/beverages consumed varied greatly among children
Ready to eat cereal consumption consistent with 1995 NNS
The consumption of breakfast cereal or a high FGS score breakfast did not protect against the intake of
energy dense micronutrient poor foods
FGS score
1- no food or drink or water only
2- only food/drink from ‘extra food’ (as defined by Australian Guide to Healthy Eating (AGHE))
3- food or drink from only one AGHE food group
4- food or drink from only 2 AGHE food group
5- food or drink from at least 3 AGHE food group
(38)
2003
Investigator(s)
Institution(s)
Setting
Sample size
Study duration
Participant:
Study design
Dietary Intake tool
Outcome Measures
Bogaert N, Steinbeck KS, Baur LA, Brock K, Bermingham MA
Department of Endocrinology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown, Australia
Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney
Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, University of Sydney
Children’s Hospital at Westmead, NSW
Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Biomedical Science, University of Sydney, Lidcombe Australia
University teaching hospital (within the Central Sydney Area Health Service)
N= 43 families
59 children, 41 mothers, 29 fathers
69% (41/59) followed up
12 months
30 female, 29 males
Children’s Mean age @ baseline 8.6 (0.2)
Inclusion criteria: prepubertal children aged 6.0-9.0 years with one biological parent agreeable to participate.
Intention to recruit subjects with varying body fatness
Prospective descriptive study
3 day food record, recorded by parents with assistance from children
3 consecutive days, including 1 weekend day
Diet 1 version 4.0 used for analysis
Mean Energy intake, % protein, CHO, fat, SFA, MUFA, PUFA divided into males and females, <8 and >8
81
years
Results
Key findings
(23)
Energy intake (MJ)
% protein
%CHO
% fat
%SFA
%MUFA
%PUFA
Male <8 n=13
6.8 (0.32)
16.1 (0.7)
50.1 (0.9)
33.5 (0.8)
15.9 (0.36)
13.1 (0.2)
4.5 (0.25)
Female <8 n=9
6.4 (0.35)
16.5 (0.8)
50.7 (3.3)
31.7 (2.7)
15.9 (0.58)
11.8 (0.20)
4.1 (0.45)
Males 8+ n=14
8.1 (0.52)
17.1 (1.0)
45.0 (1.8)
37.5 (1.2)
17.8 (0.88)
14.7 (0.36)
5.1 (0.47)
Females 8+ n=15
7.0 (0.58)
16.8 (0.8)
48.7 (1.8)
33.6 (1.7)
17.1 (0.82)
12.5 (0.32)
4.6 (0.54)
The reported daily dietary intake was 10% lower than the findings of the national nutrition survey.
82
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