HOW TO WRITE A PAPER, REPORT, ESSAY, OR THESIS

Transcription

The University of Sydney
ITS
HOW TO WRITE A PAPER, REPORT, ESSAY, OR THESIS
AT THE INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORT STUDIES
Requirements and Guidelines for Structure, Layout, Attachments, Binding,
Referencing, and the Issue of Plagiarism
Institute of Transport Studies
November 2003
Synopsis
This document provides a set of requirements, guidelines, and suggestions to
help staff and students in the Institute of Transport Studies to prepare papers,
reports, essays, and theses. It covers content and structure, layout requirements,
headings, titles, lists, capitalisation, the referencing system, and binding. It also
provides some rules and hints on improving writing. The document also contains
a fairly complete treatment of exactly how to apply Harvard Referencing,
according to current standards.
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Table of Contents
1
INTRODUCTION
1
2
FORMAL REQUIREMENTS
1
2
2.1
Report Structure
1
2.2
Headings
3
2.2.1
Level 1 Heading
3
2.2.2
Level 2 Heading
4
2.2.3
Level 3 Heading
4
2.2.4
Level 4 Heading
4
2.2.5
Level 5 Heading
5
2.2.6
Level 6 Heading
5
2.2.7
Title
5
2.2.8
Appendices
5
2.2.9
Examples of Title and Headings
6
LEVEL 1 HEADING
2.1
Level 2 Heading
2.1.1
2.3
3
6
6
Level 3 Heading
6
Report Layout
7
2.3.1
Paper and Margins
7
2.3.2
Text
7
2.3.3
Pagination
8
2.3.4
Cross Referencing
8
2.3.5
Bullets and Numbering
8
2.3.6
Tables and Graphs
9
2.3.7
Spelling and Grammar
10
2.4
Unit of Study Cover Sheet and Other Attachments
10
2.5
Binding
11
REFERENCING
11
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4
3.1
Harvard Referencing System
11
3.2
Plagiarism
12
IMPROVING REPORT WRITING
12
4.1
Punctuation
12
4.2
Opening a Sentence
14
4.3
Constructing a Sentence
14
4.4
Some Specific Word Uses
14
4.5
Language
17
4.6
Latin Phrases
17
4.7
Numbers in Text
18
4.8
Metric Values
18
4.9
Use of Future and Past Tenses
18
5
SUMMARY
19
6
REFERENCES
19
APPENDIX 1: EXAMPLE OF A COVER SHEET
20
APPENDIX 2: EXAMPLE OF A MARKING CRITERIA SHEET
22
APPENDIX 3: EXAMPLE OF A FRONT COVER
24
APPENDIX 4: HARVARD REFERENCING SYSTEMHARVARD
REFERENCING SYSTEM
26
1
STEPS INVOLVED IN REFERENCING
27
2
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
27
2.1
Multiple Authors
28
2.2
More Than One Work by the Same Author
28
2.3
No Author
29
2.4
Secondary Sources
29
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2.5
Personal Communication and E-Mail
29
2.6
Websites
30
3
HOW TO CREATE A REFERENCE LIST
30
4
EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES
31
4.1
Books
31
4.1.1
Book with a single author
31
4.1.2
Book with two or three authors
31
4.1.3
Book with more than three authors
31
4.1.4
Book with an editor
31
4.2
Chapter in a Book
32
4.2.1
Article or chapter in a book
32
4.2.2
Article or chapter in a book (no author)
32
4.3
Journal Articles
32
4.3.1
Journal article in print
33
4.3.2
Electronic journal article
33
4.4
Government and Parliamentary Publications
33
4.4.1
Acts of Parliament
33
4.4.2
Australian Bureau of Statistics Bulletin
34
4.4.3
From AusStats
34
4.4.4
Census Information
34
4.4.5
Government Reports
34
4.5
E-Mail Discussion Lists and World Wide Web
35
4.5.1
E-Mail discussion list
35
4.5.2
World Wide Web
35
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1
INTRODUCTION
The layout and overall presentation of a paper, report, essay, or thesis in the
logistics and transport management programs, and in work in the Institute in
general, is an important component of the overall training process. We all know
that a report which is well set out adds value to the final product. In the marking
criteria in units of study, marks are awarded for presentation. Thus, marks will
be awarded for following these guidelines, and marks will be deducted for not
following them. It is, therefore, important to study and make use of what is
described herein.
For those who are preparing reports for research projects, papers to be submitted
for publication, and theses for examination, the material in this document will
assist you in preparing a clear and easily read document. Clear and unambiguous
writing is essential for all such documents. There are a number of style books
available, such as Turabian (1973) and A manual of style (1974). The rules and
recommendations herein are largely consistent with such sources.
The presentation used in these guidelines illustrates how all reports, papers,
essays, and theses should be prepared for any Unit of Study in Transport or
Logistics Management, any research project, or any research degree, with regard
to structure, attachments, and referencing. This does not apply to take-home
examinations, nor to papers for journals that specify their own manuscript
requirements. From time to time a lecturer may require some slight variations.
You will be advised in the Unit of Study outline for the course if this is to occur.
2
2.1
FORMAL REQUIREMENTS
Report Structure
In this section, the structure of all reports, papers, theses, and essays is outlined.
Items 1 and 2 are required for any reports, papers, or essays prepared for a Unit
of Study in the Institute. They are not relevant to theses, or to papers or reports
prepared as part of research work. Item 3 will normally be required for a thesis
(where the layout may be slightly different) and for ITS research reports. For
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papers being submitted to journals, the writer should follow the requirements of
the journal.
The required structure is as follows:
1. A cover sheet which should be the prescribed cover sheet of the Institute of
Transport Studies for all written assignments prepared for a Unit of Study
in the Institute. An example of a cover sheet is provided in Appendix 1 of
this document.
2. A marking criteria sheet which should be the marking criteria sheet
included in the Unit of Study outline materials for a Unit of Study in the
Institute of Transport Studies. An example is in Appendix 2.
3. A front cover which begins with the title of the report, followed by the
student's name, date of submission, and details of the module title, the
degree enrolled in and the author’s (nine digit) student ID number. The
front cover may contain or be followed by some words acknowledging for
instance your employer or other people's help in providing information. An
example is provided in Appendix 3. For written documents that are not
part of a Unit of Study, the title page should contain, in addition to the
title of the report, the name(s) of the author(s), the date of preparation and
the date of any revisions, for whom the document is prepared, the name of
the Institute of Transport Studies, the name of the University, and any
appropriate acknowledgements.
4. A synopsis page which is a summary of no more than one page outlining
the major theme and the structure of the report.
5. A Table of Contents containing chapter headings, section headings, and
subsection headings. In addition, if appropriate, there should be a list of
tables, and a list of figures. The Table of Contents, List of Tables, and List
of Figures should include the page numbers on which each entry is to be
found.
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6. The first section should be an introduction that introduces the reader to
the objectives of the report, paper, thesis, or essay, and a statement on how
the following sections are arranged.
7. The introduction is followed by the main text. See Section 2.2 on headings
for this and other sections.
8. The final section is the conclusion. The conclusion should highlight the
main points raised as well as suggest areas for further research if
applicable. Sometimes the conclusion can have two sub-sections, one for
findings and another for recommendations.
9. A list of references is then set out using the Harvard referencing system,
as illustrated in Chapter 3.1 and detailed in Appendix 4 for the various
types of documents which you are likely to consult during your studies.
10. Sometimes you will have appendices of statistical data or graphs or
matters of detail which you believe do not fit into the text. If you have
more than one appendix they will be numbered from 1 to how ever many
appendices are needed, and should each have a title included (see Section
2.2.).
2.2
Headings
A report, paper, or essay should not normally use more than three levels of
heading, although a thesis may use up to five or even six levels. There is also a
separate title format that should be used on the title page. These formats are
given in this section.
2.2.1 Level 1 Heading
The first level heading should be numbered with a single Arabic numeral, with
no full stop. It should be in bold and in the same font size as the body of the text.
The heading title is separated from the number by a tab of no more than 0.63
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cm., and is in all capitals. The heading is flush with the left margin. Refer to the
main section headings contained in this document. One blank line should be left
between the preceding text and the heading, and the text in the section should
begin immediately beneath the heading, with no blank lines.
The second level heading should be numbered with the section number, followed
by a full stop, and then the subsection number, as in 2.1 or 3.5, etc. It should be
in bold and in the same size font as the body text. The heading title is again
separated by one tab of not more than 0.63 cm. from the heading title, and the
title has all significant words capitalised, and the rest in lower case. The heading
is flush with the left margin, is preceded by one blank line, and the text of the
section follows immediately under the heading. If there is a first-level heading
immediately preceding the level 2 heading, then no blank line precedes the
heading.
The third level heading should be numbered as a sub-subsection, as in 2.2.3. It
should be in bold and italic, and of the same point size as the body text. The
heading title is again separated by one tab of not more than 0.63 cm. from the
heading title, and the title has all significant words capitalised, and the rest in
lower case. The heading is flush with the left margin, is preceded by one blank
line, and the text of the section follows immediately under the heading. If there is
a second-level heading immediately preceding the level 3 heading, then no blank
line precedes the heading.
This level of heading should normally not be used in papers, reports, or essays.
When it is required, it is numbered as a sub-sub-subsection, as in 2.3.1.1 and is
not italicised or in bold. The heading title is again separated by one tab of not
more than 0.63 cm. from the heading number, and the title has all significant
words capitalised, and the rest in lower case. The heading is flush with the left
margin, is preceded by one blank line, and the text of the section follows
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immediately under the heading. If there is a third-level heading immediately
preceding the level 4 heading, then no blank line precedes the heading
This is the same as a level 4 heading, except in italics and the title text is again
separated from the numbers by a tab of not more than 0.63 cm. from the left
margin. All other properties of the level 4 heading apply to the level 5 heading. It
is to be avoided whenever possible.
If a further heading level is required, it is not numbered, but appears as a bold
heading on the same line as the first line of the text in the sub-sub-subsubsection. It is followed by a full stop. Significant words in the heading are
capitalised.
2.2.7 Title
The title of a document is to be centred, in 16 point type, bold, and all in capitals.
It should have at least two blank lines beneath it, before any other text. It should
use the same typeface as the rest of the document.
2.2.8 Appendices
Each Appendix is to be numbered consecutively from 1. The Appendix must be
given a heading in uppercase letters, in 14 point size, using the same font as the
body of the document. Each appendix should have a title, which is also in the
same type as the word APPENDIX, and is preceded by a colon and one space. The
Appendix title is to be centred between the left and right margins and the top
and bottom margins on a separate page, with the text of the appendix following
on the next page. The Appendices to this document demonstrate this format.
Page numbers should NOT be re-started for each appendix, but should be
continuous through the document.
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2.2.9 Examples of Title and Headings
THIS IS A TITLE
2
LEVEL 1 HEADING
Your text begins here.
2.1
Level 2 Heading
2.1.1.1 Level 4 Heading
2.1.1.1.1 Level 5 Heading
Level 6 Heading. Your text begins here. This level should not generally be used.
APPENDIX 1: DETAILED SURVEY RESULTS
This shows how the title of the appendix is to appear. This completes the
demonstration of heading styles.
Make sure that headings do not fall at the bottom of the page. To ensure that this
does not happen, in MSWord, use Format – Paragraph and click on the tab that
says “Line and Page Breaks”. Make sure that the box for “Keep with Next” is
ticked for each heading.
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2.3
Report Layout
2.3.1 Paper and Margins
Make sure that the paper size in Page Setup is specified as A4. In addition, all
margins should be set at 2 cm., except that the left margin may be 3 cm. for
binding, when using a special binding (see also section 2.4 on binding).
2.3.2 Text
The text must in all cases have one and one half (1.5) spacing (no single spacing),
except for quotations from other material which can be single spaced. If you do
not have a word processing package capable of handling one and one half
spacing, then you may use double spacing. Do not use single spacing.
All paragraphs must begin flush to your left-hand side margin, with no
indentation. The only indentation allowed is for quotes, which must be centred on
the page. The remaining text will be in normal typeface, preferably a
proportional font such as Garamond, but other commonly used fonts such as
Times New Roman or Arial. Twelve (12) point is preferred for size, and certainly
no smaller than 10 point. This document is typed in Century Schoolbook 12 point,
which is a good typeface for camera ready copy, and other professional
applications.
All paragraphs should be left aligned and not justified, so that each line adjusts
its length according to the words in the line. Within a paragraph, leave only one
space after any punctuation marks (comma, full stop, colon, semi-colon,
exclamation mark, question mark). In times past, when documents were
prepared on typewriters, with non-proportionally spaced typefaces, it was correct
to leave two spaces between the end of a sentence and the beginning of the next
sentence. With proportionally-spaced fonts on word processors, this is no longer
correct.
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You should leave a line between paragraphs, and one line between the end of a
section and the heading of the next section. No line is left between a heading and
the commencement of the text within a section.
2.3.3 Pagination
All pages must be numbered commencing with the first page after the cover.
Pages between the cover and the main section should be numbered using roman
numerals (ii, iii, iv etc.). The cover counts as page i, but its number should not
appear on it. From the main section onwards Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4 etc.) are
appropriate, with numbering restarting at 1 for the first page of text following
the front matter.
2.3.4 Cross Referencing
Cross referencing relates to references to tables, figures, appendices, chapters,
and sections of the document. In all cases, when reference is made to a specific
part of the document, the name of that part should have an initial capital letter.
Thus, reference to a specific table would appear in the text as “as shown in Table
2.2…”, while reference to another section would appear as “This is discussed in
more detail in Section 3.3…”. NEVER refer to “…the Table below…” or “…the
previous Figure…”. ALWAYS refer to tables, figures, appendices, chapters, and
sections by number.
2.3.5 Bullets and Numbering
Bullet lists should use one of the standard bullets available in the word
processing software that you are using. Each bulleted phrase should end in a
semi-colon, except the last one and the one before it. The penultimate (last-butone) bullet should end with a semi-colon and the word “and”. The last bullet
should end in a full stop. The exception to this is where there are multiple
sentences for some or all bullets. In this case, all bullets must be at least one
complete sentence and must end in a full stop. Bullets should be indented by 0.63
cm. from the left, and the text should start 1.27 cm. from the left margin. There
should be no blank lines between bulleted items, but there should be one blank
line before the first bullet and one after the last bullet. If you require multiple
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levels of bullets, the bullets at each level should be distinctly different from one
another, e.g., using ●, ○, ▪ , for successive levels. This is an example:
•
First-level bullet;
o Second-level bullet;

Third-level bullet; and
•
Fourth-level bullet.
Numbered lists should follow a similar format. Numbers should be Arabic
numerals, beginning with “1” for the first item. Each number should be followed
by a full stop. Numbers should be 0.63 cm. from the left margin, and the text
should begin at 1.27 cm. from the left margin. There should be no blank lines
between numbered items, but there should be a blank line before the first item
and after the last one. Punctuation at the end of each numbered item follows the
same rules as for bullets. The numbered list in Section 2.1 shows an example of
this layout. For numbered lists that involve multiple levels, the format is to use
Arabic numbers for the first level, lower case letters for the second level, lower
case Roman numerals for the third level, etc. An example is shown here:
1. First-level number;
a. Second-level number;
i. Third-level number; and
1. Fourth-level number.
2.3.6 Tables and Graphs
Diagrams, graphs and tables must be labelled with their title and number
according to the section number. For example, Table 3.1 Evidence on Elasticity of
Demand and Table 3.2 Fare Statistics for Public Transport. Tables must fit
entirely on a page. They should not generally go over two pages (although there
may be exceptions). All table captions must be above the table. All figure captions
must be below the figure. All captions must be left justified and should be in
boldface. In captions, capitalise the initial letter of each significant word, as
shown in the examples above.
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Reference MUST be made in the text to each table or figure included in the
document. The text reference must ALWAYS PRECEDE the table or figure. In
referring to a table or figure by number, capitalise the initial letter of the word
“Table” or “Figure” (see 2.3.4 Cross-Referencing).
Graphs and pictures must be in black and white or greyscale. Colour pictures are
expensive to print and may not display clearly. Convert colour illustrations to
greyscale.
2.3.7 Spelling and Grammar
Make sure that all documents you produce, unless specifically for publication in
another country, have the default language set as “English (Australia)”. Please
use Australian spelling, unless specifically told to do otherwise. All reports must
either be put through a word processing speller or carefully hand checked for
spelling or typographical errors. It may be useful to get someone else to proofread
the document before submitting the assignment.
ALWAYS read through your paper, report, essay, or thesis before giving it to
someone else. You will be surprised how many errors you will find.
2.4
Unit of Study Cover Sheet and Other Attachments
All reports, essays, and papers for Units of Study must include a cover sheet as
well as a marking criteria sheet. These may be found in the Unit of Study
outline. Among other things, the cover sheet requires a statement that the
student does not violate the plagiarism policy of the Faculty of Economics and
Business (see Section 3.2). REPORTS THAT DO NOT INCLUDE A COVER
SHEET MAY NOT BE MARKED. If such a report is marked, the mark will only
be recorded if a signed and completed cover sheet is submitted prior to the
marking deadline. Otherwise, no mark will be recorded for the assignment.
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Additionally, if the student includes a stamped, self-addressed A4 envelope, the
assignments will be posted to the student once marked. Always keep a copy
yourself of your assignment.
2.5
Binding
Unless otherwise advised, reports should be bound, preferably spiral or
equivalent or fitted in a suitable proprietary binder. Reports may be stapled in
the top left corner if the report, including all front matter and appendices is no
more than 10 pages in length. Longer reports and papers must be bound. DO
NOT USE the types of bindings that enclose each page or the entire report in a
plastic sleeve or a manila folder. Also, DO NOT USE spring clips, “nail” clips, or
paper clips to keep the pages together – these do not constitute “binding”.
When reports are to be bound, leave a 3 cm margin on the left hand side (2 cms
on the right hand side). All reports should be printed single sided. Coloured front
and back covers and dividers for appendices make reports look better and make
them easier to read.
3
3.1
REFERENCING
Harvard Referencing System
There will be no footnotes for references or notes at the end. They are
unnecessary. You certainly do not need them for referencing once the Harvard
referencing system is adopted. Referencing must be of the Harvard referencing
style. Details of this referencing style are provided in Appendix 4.
Quotes, which should be kept to a minimum, should also be in italics and should
finish with reference to the source and page number(s). For example
The evidence strongly supports the view that the price elasticity of
demand for public transport is of the order of -0.25. (Hensher and
Bullock 1975, p. 54)
The references in the reference list must be listed alphabetically. Each reference
must be listed once only. Only those references that are cited in the text must be
listed, other than in a separate bibliography, when one is called for. A more
detailed treatment of this is provided in Appendix 4.
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3.2
Plagiarism
Broadly speaking, plagiarism can be defined as knowingly presenting another
person's ideas, findings or written work as one’s own, by copying or reproducing
them without due acknowledgment of the source. Plagiarism may involve copying
the work of another student, or it may involve paraphrasing or copying a
published author’s text or argument without giving a reference or due
acknowledgment. Plagiarism constitutes an offence and will be treated as such. It
is strongly recommended that students familiarise themselves with the
Plagiarism policy of the University of Sydney (see
http://policy.rms.usyd.edu.au/000007x.pdf) .
While it is important to fully acknowledge all sources that were used in the
preparation of the report, at the same time excessively listing references of only
marginal value is not desirable. All references which have been used to obtain
quotes must be cited. You should be reminded that excessive quoting is not
desirable, nor is excessive reproducing of material from other sources, either as a
direct copy or a paraphrase. Plagiarism is easily detected.
4
IMPROVING REPORT WRITING
The following will improve the clarity and ease of reading documents that are
produced as part of the project completion process. In some cases, there is no
right or wrong, grammatically or otherwise, and these rules are often based on
personal preference. However, adhering to these will often make writing clearer
and easier to comprehend, and will avoid ambiguity.
4.1
Punctuation
There seems to be a great unwillingness to use commas. These should be used to
separate thoughts in a sentence, and to put into sentences places where one
would normally pause, if saying the sentence aloud. It is also important to put
commas around phrases that modify a noun. A comma is not used before the
word “and” when it is used to connect two thoughts, or two items in a list. If there
are three or more items in a list, or three or more ideas in a sentence, then there
should be a comma preceding the final “and”. An exception is when “and” is used
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in two different ways, as in: “models of behaviour, and land use and transport.”
In this case, there should be a comma preceding the first “and”, but not the
second, so that it is clear that we are talking about “models of behaviour” and
“models of land use and transport”. A good test on correct use of commas is to
read the sentence without a section that is marked off by commas. If the sentence
still makes sense, then the comma use is correct.
Don’t forget semi-colons. These should be used to separate two or more somewhat
disjoint thoughts that are included in one sentence, or where commas might be
used in a list, but there are subordinate phrases with commas separating them
within the list members. Generally, “and” should not be used following a semicolon, although occasionally this will be necessary in a list.
Such words as “however” should usually be followed by a comma, and may often
be preceded by a comma. For example, the word “but” should not be used to start
a sentence, however, the word “however” may be so used.
Words and phrases used to introduce a sentence, as in “Generally”, “Therefore”,
“In effect”, “As a result”, etc. should be followed by a comma. This also applies to
words like “To date”, or phrases like “In a global context”.
Abbreviations should normally include full stops. Of particular note in this
regard are e.g., and i.e., both of which should contain two full stops and be
followed by a comma. Each of these is an abbreviation of two Latin words, the
first of which means “for example” and the second of which means “that is”. If
written out in their English form, there would normally be a comma, following
the two-word phrase.
Remember that etc. is an abbreviation. It is from the Latin, et cetera, meaning
“and the rest”. It should always be followed by a full stop, but only one, even if it
is the end of the sentence. Also, it should be preceded by a comma, because it is
almost always the last in a list. Do not use both e.g., and etc. in the same phrase.
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If you use e.g., then it is clear that this is only an example, so we do not need to
be exhaustive and include all the rest.
Questions should not usually be used in a report or paper, as in “How would one
design a survey?” Instead, if it is necessary to pose a question, it should be
transformed to a statement as in “It may be asked how one would design a
survey” or as in “The following describes how one would design a survey.” Thus,
question marks should rarely, if ever, occur in a technical document. Similarly,
exclamation marks should rarely, if ever, be used in a technical document. Their
use is primarily in novels, dramatic renderings, and personal communications,
such as e-mails and letters.
One-sentence paragraphs should be avoided. They are frequently used in
journalistic writing, but are unacceptable in other formats. Exceptions may be
the sentence preceding or following a list.
4.2
Opening a Sentence
Do not use “and”, or “but”, or “so” at the beginning of a sentence. In place of
“But”, the word “However” may be used; in place of “So”, the word “Thus” may be
used. If “And” seems to be called for, then reassess if this should be a new
sentence, or consider using “In addition” or “Also”, both of which should be
followed by a comma. Another sentence opening that should be avoided is “As
well”, which should rather be “In addition” or “Also”.
4.3
Constructing a Sentence
With probably almost no exceptions, a sentence must have a subject, a verb, and
an object. A sentence that fails this test is not a sentence, but may be a phrase.
Such a phrase must be part of a longer sentence.
4.4
Some Specific Word Uses
a. Data – this is a plural Latin word and should be followed by a plural verb.
I.e., data are used to describe the situation, not data is used to describe the
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situation. However, note that the word “information” is singular. Thus,
“information is provided”.
b. Since – although this word can be used to indicate a lapse of time and also
“for the reason that”, it is preferred that it is used only for time lapse and
is avoided in cases where it means “for the reason that”. In these cases,
“because” is preferred.
c. As – like since, this word has multiple meanings. When used meaning “for
the reason that”, it is preferable to use “because”. This makes it clearer,
and the sentence usually reads better.
d. Possessive forms – generally, inanimate objects should not have possessive
forms, e.g., “the road’s slope”. It should be “the slope of the road”. Only
people and animals for the most part can possess things.
e. Contractions – forms like wasn’t, isn’t, don’t, can’t, etc. should not be used
in scientific writing. Spell out the full form, as in was not, is not, did not,
cannot, etc.(Note, also, that cannot is one word.)
f. Split infinitives – this is placing an adverb between “to” and the rest of the
verb, as in “to better understand”, or “to boldly go”. Please avoid this – it is
grammatically incorrect. These two should be “to understand better” and
“to go boldly”. Sometimes, the adverb can be moved even further away
from the verb, to make the sentence read comfortably and clearly. It is a
good principle to attempt to avoid putting adverbs between the subject and
the verb, because this often leads to confusion as to which word is being
modified.
g. That and Which – whenever possible, use “that” in preference to “which”.
There are many instances where “which” appears to work quite well, but
where “that” makes the sense clearer. Use “which” only where “that”
cannot be used.
h. Transport and Transportation – it is an Americanism to add “ation” on the
end of words that are perfectly acceptable without it. Let us stick to the
British version of such words. Here, in Australia, transportation has a very
specific meaning, and should be used only in that context. Everything else
is “transport”!
Edited @ 25/11/2003
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i. Past and Last – “last” means the ultimate. Therefore, “the last year”
means there will never be another year. If this is not the intended
meaning, then the word “past” should be used, as in “the past year”.
j. In order to – this can generally be replaced with “to”.
k. Both – the issue here is that when the word “both” is used, it must be
followed with an “and”, but not an “as well as”. So, it is correct to say “Both
my bother and my sister…” but incorrect to say “Both my brother as well
as my sister…”. It would, however, be acceptable to say “My brother, as
well as my sister, …”
l. Alternative and Alternate – the word “alternate” is often misused where
“alternative” is meant. Alternate is a verb meaning to occur by turns, or is
an adjective (generally before a plural noun) meaning every other or
alternating, as in alternate days (meaning every other day) or alternate joy
and misery (meaning changing between these two emotions). Alternative
means availability as another choice, offering a different approach, or any
of two or more possibilities. The two words are NOT interchangeable, and
it is incorrect to use the word ALTERNATE when meaning a choice among
two or more possibilities.
m. Between – it is incorrect to say “between 20 to 100”, but correct to say
“between 20 and 100”. Do not shorten this to “between 20-100” which
would be read as “between 20 to 100”.
n. Hyphens and Dashes – these are frequently misused or not used at all. It
is useful to use a hyphen when using two or more words to make a
compound adjective, as in “a highly-regarded expert”. However, remember
that you would not hyphenate these words when they stand alone as in
“He was highly regarded in his field.” Also, numbers that are spelled out
should be hyphenated, as in “twenty-four hour day”. Dashes, on the other
hand, can be used in place of brackets or two commas, or in place of a
colon. These should be typed as two hyphens “--”, with spaces either side,
and MSWord will normally replace these two dashes with a long dash,
known as an “en-dash”. Use of this – two hyphens – as a replacement for
brackets or commas is shown in this sentence. It is used throughout this
section in place of a colon.
Edited @ 25/11/2003
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o. Therefore, however, and hence – these are useful words to connect the
thought of one sentence to another, and to qualify a phrase in a sentence.
However, they cannot substitute for “and”. “Therefore” and “hence” must
be used with and, when occurring at the beginning of a phrase in a
sentence, unless they follow a semi-colon. For example, “Contents of both
these standards are very similar however, the former standard is more
difficult to comprehend at first glance.” is incorrect. It can be written
correctly as either: “Contents of both these standards are very similar;
however, the former standard is more difficult to comprehend at first
glance.” or as “Contents of both these standards are very similar. However,
the former standard is more difficult to comprehend at first glance.” An
example with “hence”, where “and” could be used is, incorrectly:
“Nowadays, the public are more involved in decision making processes
hence, the public requests transport data from specific agencies.”
Correctly, this could be written: “Nowadays, the public are more involved
in decision making processes, especially in terms of new transportation
infrastructure and, hence, the public requests transport data from specific
agencies.” A semi-colon could also have been used following the word
“infrastructure”.
4.5
Language
MSWord has the language “English (Australian)”. This should be the standard
for all documents we create, unless specifically requested otherwise. A paper
prepared for a British publisher should use “English(U.K.)”, while a publication
being sent to a U.S. publisher should use “English (U.S.)”. You may need to re-set
the default language on your computer.
4.6
Latin Phrases
In general, it is preferred to use italics for Latin phrases, such as ceteris paribus,
or et al. Please note, with the latter (which is an abbreviation of et aliter,
meaning and the rest), that there is a full stop after “al”, but not after “et”.
Abbreviations, such as e.g., i.e., and etc. although derived from Latin are NOT
italicised.
Edited @ 25/11/2003
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4.7
Numbers in Text
Numbers under ten should ALWAYS be written out in full in text, except when
they are used as names, e.g., “…in Section 5…”, or in reference to “person 4”.
Decimal numbers should ALWAYS be shown in numerals. Numbers between ten
and one hundred should also normally be written out in text, however, there are
different opinions about this. If a number is used as the first word in a sentence,
it MUST be written out in words. It is incorrect to begin a sentence with a
number in numerals. The alternative is to rephrase the sentence so that the
number is no longer the first word. For example:
“Twelve point is preferred for size, and certainly no smaller than 10 point.”
OR
“The preferred size is 12 point, and certainly no smaller than 10 point.”
The percent sign (%) should be used in tables, but the word percent or percentage
should be spelled out in text. When referring to monetary values, such as,
$100,000, the dollar sign should precede the number, and the number should be
written in Arabic numerals. The word “dollar” is not spelt out.
4.8
Metric Values
According to the standards adopted in Australia, speeds should be shown as
km/h, not as kmh or kph. Note, also, that convention requires no full stops in
this, even though it is two abbreviations.
4.9
Use of Future and Past Tenses
It is incorrect to refer to sections of the paper that follow in the future tense.
Thus, to say “…the models developed in this research will be discussed in the
next section of this paper…” is incorrect. By the time the reader is reading this,
the discussion has already been written. Therefore, the correct tense should be
the present tense, as in “… the models developed in this research are discussed in
the Section 5 of this paper…”
Edited @ 25/11/2003
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The only time that a future tense would be appropriate is if the writer is
describing something that is anticipated to be done in the future, but, as of the
time that the reader will receive the document to read, has not been
accomplished. For example, it may be appropriate to use a future tense in
describing research that might be done in some future, but not yet initiated,
research project.
In the same way, it is not correct to refer to an earlier section of the paper in the
past tense, as in “…this theory was discussed earlier in Section 2 of this paper…”
Again, the discussion is now there and should be referred to in the present tense,
as in “…this theory is discussed in Section 2 of this paper…”
5
SUMMARY
A well presented and structured report adds a great deal of value to the final
product, because it shows the author has taken the effort to organise his or her
thoughts, and develop a coherent and logical analysis of the subject. A product is
only as good as it is perceived – a conceptually sound and pleasing paper, with
correct spelling, word usage, and grammar, is the most persuasive evidence of
quality.
6
REFERENCES
See Appendix 3 for details on how reference lists are formatted and structured.
A manual of style, 1974, Fifth Impression, The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.
Turabian, K.L. 1973, A manual for writers of term papers, theses, and
dissertations, Fourth Edition, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
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APPENDIX 1: EXAMPLE OF A COVER SHEET
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UNIT OF STUDY
TPTM
STREAM
STUDENT’S SID NUMBER
INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT COVER SHEET
Please complete ALL sections in CAPITAL LETTERS and attach to the front of your assignment.
LECTURER
ASSIGNMENT NAME
DATE SUBMITTED
STUDENT’S DETAILS
FAMILY NAME
GIVEN NAME(S)
EMAIL ADDRESS
@mail.usyd.edu.au
CERTIFICATION
Please confirm that your assignment meets with ALL of the following requirements by ticking each box and
signing below. Assignments that do not comply with the following requirements MAY NOT BE MARKED.
I have read and understood the Unit of Study outline for this course and How to Prepare a Paper, Report,
Essay or Thesis at the Institute of Transport Studies. This assignment has been prepared and submitted in
accordance with the guidelines for preparation and submission of assignments set out in these documents. I
understand that failure to meet any of these requirements will lead to a reduction in the marks awarded for
this assignment.
I have attached a signed copy of the relevant marking criteria sheet for this assignment (as provided in the
Unit of Study outline for this course). I have read and understood these marking criteria and understand that
these criteria will be applied in the assessment of this assignment.
I certify that this assignment is my own work, based on personal study and research, and that all material
and sources in the preparation of this assignment have been appropriately acknowledged. I have read and
understood the policy on plagiarism set out in the Unit of Study outline for this course and understand that
any student found to be plagiarising will be penalized.
I have submitted an electronic version of this assignment to the email address specified in the Unit of Study
outline for this course and understand that a mark for this assignment will not be assigned unless this
electronic version is submitted. I understand that the electronic version of this assignment may be tested for
evidence of plagiarism.
SIGNATURE ______________________________________________ DATE________________________
IMPORTANT: Your assignment should be placed in the Assignment Box at ITS or posted to: Institute of
Transport Studies, C37, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006. Assignments will be available for collection
from the ITS office. If you wish your assignment to be returned to you by post please attach a stamped, selfaddressed A4 size envelope.
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APPENDIX 2: EXAMPLE OF A MARKING CRITERIA SHEET
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UNIT OF STUDY TPTM
STREAM
LECTURER
STUDENT ID NUMBER
MARKING CRITERIA
ASSIGNMENT: INDIVIDUAL WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
CATEGORY
Relevance and
Completeness
Organisation
Research and
Synthesis
TOTAL MARK
CRITERIA
WEIGHT MARK
All issues are addressed
10%
Arguments and discussion are
relevant throughout
5%
References to literature are
included
5%
There is logic and coherent
argument
5%
There is a clear conceptual
structure
5%
Headings and subheadings are
used correctly
5%
Referencing system is consistent
and appropriate
5%
Report is well presented
5%
ITS forms and format are used
5%
Evidence of creative thinking /
synthesis / argument
10%
Evidence of adequate reading
5%
Evidence of careful thought about
the topic
5%
Relevant concepts are well
researched
5%
Arguments and assertions are
supported by evidence / references
5%
Evidence of understanding of the
topic
10%
Application of reading to analysis
5%
Additional literature researched
5%
100%
COMMENTS
GRADE:
Comments
STUDENT’S SIGNATURE _____________________________________________________ DATE________________________
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APPENDIX 3: EXAMPLE OF A FRONT COVER
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HOW TO PREPARE A REPORT FOR UNITS OF STUDY AT THE
INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORT STUDIES
Guidelines for Structure, Layout, Attachments, Binding, Referencing, and the
Issue of Plagiarism
Peter R. Stopher
Submission Date:
Wednesday, 5 November 2003
Unit of Study:
TPTM 6245, Survey Design and Management
Degree Enrolled In:
Master of Transport Management (MTM)
Student No:
200256789
Acknowledgements:
We thank all members of the Institute of Transport Studies for their advice in preparing this
report.
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APPENDIX 4: HARVARD REFERENCING SYSTEM
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HARVARD REFERENCING SYSTEM1
1
STEPS INVOLVED IN REFERENCING
The following steps should be followed to develop a list of references for any
paper, report, article, thesis, etc.
1. Note down the full bibliographic details, including the page number(s)
from which the information is taken.
a. In the case of a book, “bibliographic details” refers to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Author/editor;
Year of publication;
Title;
Edition;
Volume number;
Place of publication; and
Publisher as found on the front and back of the title page.
(Not all of these details will necessarily be applicable.)
b. In the case of a journal article, the details required include:
i. Author of article;
ii. Year of publication;
iii. Title of the article;
iv. Title of the journal;
v. Volume and issue number of the journal; and
vi. Page numbers.
c. For all electronic information, in addition to the above, you should
note the date that you accessed the information, and the data base
name or web address (URL).
2. Insert the citation at the appropriate place within the text of the document
(see examples below).
3. Provide a reference list at the end of the document, in alphabetical order of
the first authors’ last names (see examples below).
2
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
When citing references within the text of an assignment, use only the name of
the author, followed by the year of publication. Page numbers MUST ALWAYS
be included for quotations in the text, but should not otherwise be included.
Otherwise, only the author name and date should appear.
Adapted from Curtin University of Technology website on Harvard Referencing,
http://lisweb.curtin.edu.au/reference/harvard.html .
1
Edited @ 25/11/2003
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…The theory was first propounded in 1993 (Hensher, 1993)…
OR
…The theory was first propounded by Hensher (1993)…
BUT
…The theory
“…was first propounded by Hensher in 1993…” (Stopher, 1997, p.46)
When referring to two or more texts by different authors, separate them with a
semicolon (;):
(Hensher, 1993; Stopher, 1997).
2.1
Multiple Authors
If there are two or three authors on the title page, cite the names in the order in
which they appear and place the word “and” between the last two names:
(Hensher and Stopher, 1998)
(Hensher, Bullock, and Stopher, 1999)
If there are more than three authors, the in-text citation only shows the name of
the first, followed by et al. (meaning “and others”). For example, a work by
Hensher, Stopher, Bullock, Alsnih, and Jiang is cited as follows:
(Hensher et al., 2001)
OR
Hensher et al. (2001) have found that …
2.2
More Than One Work by the Same Author
If the works are all published in different years:
(Hensher, 1996; 1997)
OR
Hensher (1996; 1997) has shown that …
If the same author has published two or more works in the same year, then they
are distinguished by attaching a lower case letter of the alphabet to the
publication date. The order is determined by the alphabetical order of the titles,
ignoring words such as “the”, “an”, and “a”. For example:
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Stated preference models (Hensher, 1996a) are increasingly…
The use of nested logit models (Hensher, 1996b) is common…
2.3
No Author
When a work has no author (including legal materials or materials found on the
internet), or if the author is anonymous, the in-text citation consists of the first
few words of the title, followed by the year. Do not use Anon or Anonymous.
However, you should italicise the title:
This survey technique is considered superior (Guide to good survey
practice, 1999) …
OR
In the Guide to good survey practice (1999), it is stated that …
2.4
Secondary Sources
A secondary source is one where one author refers to the work of another. It is
generally preferred that you consult the original source and cite it. However,
there are times when the original cannot be accessed for various reasons,
requiring citation of the secondary source. In this case, provide both authors’
names. For example:
Stopher (cited in Hensher, 2001) reported …
OR
(Stopher, cited in Hensher, 2001)
However, in such cases, only the reference to Hensher would be included in the
reference list. The details about the publication by Stopher, in this case, should
not be included in the reference list.
2.5
Personal Communication and E-Mail
Personal communications may include letters, memos, conversations (in person
and telephonic), faxes, and personal e-mails. Do not include these in the reference
list, because they cannot be traced by the reader. Be sure to obtain permission to
use them first.
When interviewed on 24th April 2003, Professor David Hensher stated …
OR
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It has been stated that these models are useful (D. Hensher 2003, pers.
comm., 24th April).
If the e-mail is from an electronic discussion list, the citation will be similar;
however, a reference to the archive location or to the e-mail of the discussion list
should be included, as indicated in the next section.
2.6
Websites
If you cite a specific document on the web or page of a web document, then follow
the author/date conventions presented in this appendix, and provide a complete
reference in the list of references, as discussed in the following section.
In order to cite an entire website in the text of your paper, give the address in
brackets:
Metacrawler (http://www.metacrawler.com) is a meta search tool used for
conducting …
When your statement does not refer to any specific page or part of the site, no
entry in the list of references is required.
3
HOW TO CREATE A REFERENCE LIST
A reference list contains only those books, articles, etc. that are cited in the text.
A list that contains relevant sources of information on the topic of the paper, that
are not cited in the text, is a bibliography. A bibliography is normally included
only when specifically requested for a particular assignment.
The reference list is arranged alphabetically by author. When multiple works by
the same author are referenced, these should appear in date order, beginning
with the oldest references and progressing to the most recent. If more than one
reference with the same author and year is included, a lower case letter of the
alphabet is attached to each year of publication, with the order of reference being
determined by the alphabetical order of the titles, not by the order in which these
are referenced in the text.
Where an author appears both alone and with co-authors, all references to singleauthored works appear first, and then are followed by those with co-authors,
arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author. The same rule
applies with respect to co-authored papers with the same set of authors and
Edited @ 25/11/2003
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published in the same year, as for the case with a single author with multiple
works in the same year.
Where an item has no author and is cited by the opening words of the title, it will
appear in the alphabetical list, based on the first significant word of the title (i.e.,
ignoring words such as “The”, “A”, and “An”).
The Harvard style requires the second and subsequent lines of the reference to be
indented, so as to highlight the alphabetical order. Entries in a reference list are
NOT numbered.
4
EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES
4.1
Books
Bibliographic details are arranged in the following order:
1. Author/editor(s);
2.
3.
4.
5.
Title of book;
Edition of book;
Publisher; and
6. Place of publication.
For books, only capitalise the first word of the title.
4.1.1 Book with a single author
Kish, L. 1967, Survey sampling, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
4.1.2 Book with two or three authors
Louviere, J.J., Hensher, D.A., and J.D. Swait. 2000, Stated choice methods:
analysis and application, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
4.1.3 Book with more than three authors
Include all of the authors in the reference list, in the order in which they appear
on the title page. There is no other difference from the previous case.
4.1.4 Book with an editor
Hensher, D.A. (ed), 2001, Travel behaviour research: the leading edge,
Pergamon, Elsevier Science Ltd., Amsterdam.
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4.2
Chapter in a Book
Bibliographic details are arranged in the sequence:
1. Author of article/chapter;
2. Year of publication;
3.
4.
5.
6.
Chapter or article title;
Editor(s) of the book;
Title of book (first word only capitalised);
Publisher;
7. Place of publication; and
8. Article or chapter page numbers.
4.2.1 Article or chapter in a book
Stopher P. and Zmud, J. 2001, “SP applications”, in D. Hensher (ed),
Travel behaviour research: the leading edge, Pergamon, Elsevier
Science Ltd., Amsterdam, pp. 299-308.
4.2.2 Article or chapter in a book (no author)
“Solving the Y2K problem” 1997 in D. Bowd (ed), Technology today and
tomorrow, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, p. 27.
4.3
Journal Articles
Bibliographic details are arranged in the following order:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Author of the journal article;
Article title;
Title of journal;
5. Volume;
6. Issue number; and
7. Article pages.
If electronic: “Retrieved” statement, giving the day, month, year, and then the
name of the database or the URL.
For journal titles, capitalise every significant word. For the article title, capitalise
only the first word.
Edited @ 25/11/2003
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4.3.1 Journal article in print
Kitamura, R. 1990, “Panel analysis in transportation planning – an
overview”, Transportation Research A, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 401-416.
For a journal article in print with no author – enter under the article title. Note
that this journal has no issue number.
“Anorexia nervosa” 1969, British Medical Journal, vol. 1, pp. 529-530.
4.3.2 Electronic journal article
The rules for citing electronic journal articles are the same as for print; simply
add a “retrieved” statement, in this format:
Retrieved: day month, year, from database name.
4.3.2.1 Full text from an electronic database:
Madden, G. 2002, “Internet economics and policy: an Australian
perspective”, Economic Record, vol. 78, no. 242, pp. 343-358.
Retrieved: 16 October, 2002, from ABI/Inform database.
4.3.2.2 Full text from a CD-ROM (BPO):
La Rosa, S.M. 1992, “Marketing slays the downsizing dragon”, Information
Today, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 58-59. Retrieved: 16 October, 2002, from
UMI Business Periodicals on Disc, CD-ROM.
4.3.2.3 Full text from the Internet (not from a scholarly electronic database)
Sopensky, E. 2002, “Ice rink becomes hot business”, Austin Business
Journal, 11 October, 2002. Retrieved: 16 October, 2002 from
http://www.bizjournals.com/austin/stories/2002/10/14/smallb1.html .
4.4
Government and Parliamentary Publications
4.4.1 Acts of Parliament
Most Acts have a short formal title that can be used for citation purposes. The
first time you cite the Act, give this short formal title, in italics, exactly and in
Edited @ 25/11/2003
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full. In subsequent references, give the title in roman type and omit the date. For
example:
The Environmental Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 … [later
referred to as] the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act …
Specify the jurisdiction either in the text, (e.g., Victoria’s Equal Opportunity Act
1995 prohibits…) or place an abbreviation of the jurisdiction in brackets after the
date, (e.g., the Equal Opportunity Act 1995 (Vic) prohibits…).
4.4.2 Australian Bureau of Statistics Bulletin
Print copy of the bulletin:
Australian Bureau of Statistic 1999, Disability ageing and cares: summary
of findings, cat. no. 4430.0, ABS, Canberra.
Note, when the author and publisher are the same (as is often the case with
government publications), you can abbreviate the organisation in the publisher
section of the reference. In the above example, “Australian Bureau of Statistics”
becomes “ABS”.
4.4.3 From AusStats
Australian Bureau of Statistic 1999, Disability ageing and cares: summary
of findings, cat. no. 4430.0. Retrieved 14 October, 2002, from
AusStats database.
4.4.4 Census Information
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001, Census of population and housing:
B01 selected characteristics (First release processing) postal area
6050. Retrieved: 20 November, 2002, from AusStats database.
4.4.5 Government Reports
Resource Assessment Commission 1991, Forest and timber enquiry: draft
report, vol. 1, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
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4.5
E-Mail Discussion Lists and World Wide Web
4.5.1 E-Mail discussion list
Remember, if this is a personal communication, you only need to reference it in
the text. This is described under personal communications in section 2.5. If
available from an archive on the Web:
Little, L. 2002, “Two new policy briefs”, ECPOLICY discussion list, 16
April. Retrieved: 13 November, 2002, from
http://www.askeric.org/Virtual_Listserv_Archives/ECPOLICY/2002/Apr_20
02/Msg0003.html
If from a list without a web archive, add the e-mail address:
Lawton, K. 2003, “HH Trip Rates”, TMIP discussion list, 6 November,
2003. Retrieved 17 November 2003, from [email protected]
4.5.2 World Wide Web
As far as possible, direct the reader to the exact source of the information. Be
sure to get the URL (web address) correct – try copying and pasting from your
browser into your word processing program to avoid making typographical errors.
4.5.2.1 World Wide Web page:
Dawson, J., Smith, L., Deubert, K. and Grey-Smith, S. 2002, “S” Trek 6:
Referencing, not Plagiarism. Retrieved: 31 October, 2002, from
http://lisweb.curtin.edu.au/guides/studytrekk/strek6.html
4.5.2.2 World Wide Web page (no author):
Leafy seadragons and weedy seadragons 2001. Retrieved: 13 November,
2002, from http://www.windspeed.net.au/~jenny/seadragons/ .
4.5.2.3 World Wide Web page (no date):
University of Sydney, (n.d.) Retrieved: 16 October, 2002, from
http://www.usyd.edu.au .
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