Cover Sheet Student Name: Elena Lanigan

1
Cover Sheet
Student Name:
Elena Lanigan
Student Number:
N00114682
Lab Group:
Loftus
Date:
25/02/2013
Subject:
Developmental and Lifespan Psychology Year 2
Elena Lanigan
N00114682
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Table of Contents
Page 1.
Cover Sheet
Page 2.
Table of Contents
Page 3.
Autism - Applied Behaviour Analysis Summary
Page 4.
Autism - Applied Behaviour Analysis and Floortime
Page 5.
Autism References
Page 6.
Self-Esteem and Anxiety Method
Page 7.
Self-Esteem and Anxiety Results
Page 8.
Self-Esteem and Anxiety References
Page 9.
Bullying – Olweus Anti-Bullying Program Summary
Page 10.
Bullying Essay
Page 11.
Bullying References
Page 12.
Appendices
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Applied Behaviour Analysis Summary
Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) is the use of behavior manipulation techniques such as
positive reinforcement to address problems of behavior and communication by bringing
about meaningful behavioral change. ABA examines behaviour as a science and relies on
objectively defined, observable behaviours. It helps children with autism to develop basic
skills such as listening and complex skills such as reading.
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Applied Behaviour Analysis and Floortime
Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) has become one of the most effective empirically based
strategies of intervention of persons with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (Simpson, 2001).
The best known ABA-based instructional strategy for ASD children is discrete trial training.
A trial consists of a cue, the opportunity to respond and a reward. Other known methods
include video modelling and social stories. A number of completed studies have shown that
ABA techniques can produce improvements in behaviour, communication and cognitive
development in children with ASD (Keenan, 2006).
ABA has been successful in helping ASD children establish better eye contact and promote
better and more functional communication while also reducing undesirable behaviours. ABA
encourages learning and staying on task (Keenan, 2006). In a study done by Eikeseth, Smith
and Eldevik (2007) over 4 years of ABA treatment, children displayed fewer aberrant
behaviours and social problems at follow-up. Matson, Benavidez, Compton, Paclawskyj and
Baglio, (1996) completed a review of over 250 studies which showed that ABA consistently
offers positive outcomes in terms of educating children with ASD and enhancing life skills.
Greenspan and Greenspan (1989) developed a different treatment approach to ABA called
floortime, which was more interested in emotional connection than in behaviour. Floortime is
a specific form of play therapy based on the Developmental Individual Difference
Relationship Model (DIR) (Solomon, Necheles, Ferch & Bruckman, 2007). Floortime is child
focused with the parent or therapist engaging the child at a level the child enjoys while
entering the child's activities and following the child’s lead. Using floortime as an
intervention can help an ASD child develop emotionally and intellectually by enhancing selfregulation, interest in the world, intimacy, social relations and two-way communication
(Solomon et al., 2007).
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References
Eikeseth, S., Smith, T., & Eldevik, S. (2007). Outcome for children with autism who began
intensive behavioural treatment between ages 4 and 7 a comparison controlled
study. Behaviour Modification, 31(3), 264-278.
Greenspan, S. & Greenspan, N. (1989). The essential partnership: how parents and children
can meet the emotional challenges of infancy and childhood. New York: Viking.
Keenan, M. (2006). Applied Behaviour Analysis and Autism: Building A Future Together.
London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Matson, J.L., Benavidez, D.A., Compton, L.S., Paclawskyj, T. and Baglio, C. (1996)
Behavioral treatment of autistic persons: a review of research from 1980 to the
present. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 17, 433– 465.
Simpson, R.L. (2001). ABA and Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Issues and
Considerations for Effective Practice. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental
Disabilities, 16(2), 68-71.
Solomon, R., Necheles, J., Ferch, C., & Bruckman, D. (2007). Pilot study of a parent training
program for young children with autism: The PLAY project home consultation
program. Autism: the international journal of research and practice, 11(3), 205-224.
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Self-Esteem & Anxiety Method
Design
This study was a Correlational Design. The independent variable was the self-esteem and
anxiety levels. The dependent variable was the scores of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale
(TMA; Taylor, 1953) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965).
Participants
Eight participants took part in this experiment: 2 were male and 6 were female. Participants
were undergraduate students from a third level institution ranging from the ages of 18 to 21
years (M = 19.6, SD = 0.92). Participants were selected by convenient sampling.
Materials/Apparatus
What was needed to carry out this experiment was: the TMA Scale which is used to test
anxiety as a personality trait; the RSES which is a test used to measure self-esteem, a study
conducted by Robins, Hendin and Trzesniewski (2001) examined the validity of the SingleItem Self-Esteem Scale and the RSES. The study showed both measures had almost identical
correlations, thus providing support for the validity of the RSES; a data collection sheet to
collect results; IBM SPSS Statistics version 20 which is a statistical analysis programme that
was used to calculate the Pearson Correlation Co-Efficient.
Procedure
Firstly, the participants were informed that the present study was interested in researching the
relationship between self-esteem and anxiety. Consent for this study was not needed as
students were participating as part of a continuous assessment. Participants were then given
the RSE scale to complete followed by the TMA scale. They were given as much time as they
needed to complete both scales. Data from this study was gathered on IBM SPSS version 20.
The experiment took place in a computer room setting and took approximately 40 minutes.
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Self-Esteem and Anxiety Results
The hypothesis of this study was testing to determine if an inverse relationship exists between
self-esteem and anxiety.
Descriptive Statistics
As shown in Figure 1., the mean and standard deviation calculations for self-esteem and
anxiety are presented (see Appendix A). The number of participants (N) is 8 in each level.
30
21.5
20
20
Mean
10
4.811
Standard Deviation
6.928
0
Self-Esteem
Anxiety
Figure 1. Summary of the mean and standard deviation among study variables.
Inferential Statistics
A Pearsons Correlation Coefficient was conducted to investigate the relationship between
self-esteem and anxiety (see Appendix A). As shown in Table 2., there was a strong negative
correlation between the two variables [ r = -.574, n = 8, p < .005 ] with high levels of selfesteem (M = 21.50, SD = 4.81) associated with low levels of anxiety (M = 20, SD = 6.93).
These results suggest that there is an inverse relationship between self-esteem and anxiety.
Table 2. Pearsons Correlation Coefficient Statistics.
Self-Esteem
Anxiety
Elena Lanigan
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Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Self-Esteem
1
8
-.574
.136
8
Anxiety
-.574
.136
8
1
8
8
References
IBM Corp. (2012). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 21.0. Armonk, NY: IBM
Corp.
Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem:
Construct validation of a single item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 151–161
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Taylor, J. (1953). A personality scale of manifest anxiety. The Journal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 48(2), 285–290.
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Olweus Anti-Bullying Program
The Olweus program is a comprehensive multi-level school based program designed and
evaluated for use in elementary, middle, junior high and high schools (students aged from
five to fifteen years old). The programs goals aim to reduce existing bullying problems
among students and prevent the development of new bullying techniques among school kids
while also improving peer relations.
The Olweus program is not a classroom curriculum. It is a whole-school, systems change
program at four different levels: school wide level, which involves components such as
establishing a bullying prevention co-ordinating committee, staff training and staff meetings;
classroom level which involves enforcing school wide rules against bullying, holding regular
class meetings and meetings with parents; individual level which involves supervising
student activities, intervening on the spot and developing individual intervention plans and
finally community level which involves helping to spread anti-bullying messages and
principles of best practice in the community and involving community members in the
Bullying Prevention Coordinating Committee.
There are many outcomes of the Olweus program. Students have reported 50% or more
reductions in of bullying and bullying others in school and also improvements in social
relations. Teachers have reported more positive attitudes in the classroom from children and
reductions in reports of general antisocial behaviour such as vandalism, fighting, theft and
truancy. There is also greater support for students who are bullied and more effective
interventions for students who bully.
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Olweus and KiVa Anti-Bullying Programs
Intervention programs such as the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP) and the
KiVa Anti-bullying Program (KAP) are effective in reducing bullying and victimization, with
an average decrease of about 20% in the prevalence of these problems (Farringtonand and
Ttofi, 2010). OBPP was set up in Norway in the mid 1980s (Olweus, 1993) and the KAP was
set up in Finland in 2006. KAP is a research-based antibullying program that has been
developed with a strong emphasis on influencing the onlookers, who are neither bullies nor
victims, to make them show that they are against bullying and to make them support the
victim, rather than encourage the bully (Kärnä, 2012).
The OBPP and the KAP both strive for the same goal; to reduce and prevent bullying in
schools. Although both programs share the same goal, implementations of the programs are
different. The OAPP restructures the child’s social environment at school. The restructuring
is intended to reduce both opportunities and rewards for engaging in bullying behaviour and
to build a sense of community among students and adults within the school environment.
(Olweus, 1993). The KAP works in a more systematic and structured way and works to
influence the behaviour of classmates who can reduce the rewards gained by the bullies and
consequently, their motivation to bully in the first place (Kärnä, Voeten, Little, Alane,
Poskiparta, & Salmivalli, 2012)
The OBPP and the KAP have both been found to be highly effective from an age range of 5
to 15. Kallestad and Olweus (2003) conducted a study and found that the OBPP to be most
effective in schools with children at elementary and middle school level. The findings from a
study done by Kärnä et al. (2012) and from a previous study for Grades 4–6 (Kärnä, Voeten,
Little, Poskiparta, Kaljonen, Salmivalli, 2011) indicate that the KAP is effective in reducing
bullying and victimization in Grades 1–6, but the results are more mixed in Grades 7–9.
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References
Farrington, D. P., & Ttofi, M. M. (2009). School-based programs to reduce bullying and
victimization. Campbell Systemic Reviews, 6, 1-148.
Kärnä, A. (2012). Effectiveness of the KiVa Antibullying Program. Turun yliopiston
julkaisuja. Turku: Turun yliopisto.
Kärnä, A., Voeten, M., Little, T. D., Alanen, E., Poskiparta, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2012).
Effectiveness of the KiVa Antibullying Program: Grades 1–3 and 7–9. Journal of
Educational Psychology.
Kärnä, A., Voeten, M., Little, T. D., Poskiparta, E., Kaljonen, A., & Salmivalli, C. (2011). A
large-scale evaluation of the KiVa antibullying program: Grades 4–6. Child
Development, 82, 311–330
Kallestad, J. H., & Olweus, D. (2003). Predicting teachers’ and school’s implementation of
the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program: A multilevel study. Prevention &
Treatment, 6(21).
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. NY: Blackwell.
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Appendices
Appendix A
Descriptive Statistics
Mean
Std. Deviation
N
SelfEsteem
21.50
4.811
8
Anxiety
20.00
6.928
8
Correlations
SelfEsteem
Pearson Correlation
SelfEsteem
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Anxiety
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
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Anxiety
-.574
.136
8
8
-.574
1
.136
8
8