MOTION, FORCE, AND MODELS Overview

Transcription

MOTION, FORCE, AND MODELS
–
Overview
Contents
Introduction ............................ 1
Module Matrix ........................ 2
FOSS Conceptual Framework... 4
Background for the Conceptual
Framework in Motion, Force,
and Models ............................. 6
FOSS Components ................ 18
FOSS Instructional Design ..... 20
FOSSweb and Technology ...... 28
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California.
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Universal Design for
Learning................................ 32
INTRODUCTION
The Motion, Force, and Models Module has four investigations
that focus on the physical science concepts of force and motion
and provide students with in-depth experiences with scientific and
engineering practices. In this module, students will
•
Ask questions about systems in the natural and designed
worlds, including pendulums, springs, and ramps and balls.
•
Design and conduct controlled experiments to find out what
variables affect the transfer of energy.
•
Use data and logic to construct and communicate reasonable
explanations about forces and motion.
•
Work with others as scientists and engineers to create
conceptual and physical models to explain how something
works.
•
Plan designs, select materials, construct products, evaluate,
and improve ideas to meet specific criteria.
Full Option Science System
Working in Collaborative
Groups .................................. 34
Safety in the Classroom
and Outdoors ........................ 36
Scheduling the Module .......... 37
FOSS K–8 Scope
and Sequence ....................... 38
1
Students are introduced to motion, force, and
gravity. They build and observe the motion of a
standard pendulum made of string and a penny.
Using controlled experiments, students test the
variables to see how each variable affects the
number of swings the pendulum completes in a
given amount of time. Students use the graphs to
identify the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables in the system.
Inv. 3: Springs
and Energy
Students conduct structured investigations with
steel balls and ramps to discover how the variables
of ball size and starting position on the ramp affect
the speed of the rolling ball. Using controlled
experiments, students test the variables of mass
and release position to find out how these variables
affect energy transfer; students measure the force
involved using spring scales. After gathering data
and viewing a momentum animation, students
discuss how a concussion is related to the concept
of momentum.
Students are introduced to a model catapult,
called a flipper system. They explore the system
to find out how the parts function together. They
design controlled experiments to test the effects of
variables that change the force applied to an object.
After graphing the relationships, students discuss
how the amount of bend in the spring affects the
amount of potential energy in the system.
Inv. 4:
Models and Design
Inv. 2:
Balls, Ramps, and Energy
Inv. 1:
Motion and Variables
Module Summary
Students make multisensory observations of sealed
black boxes in an effort to determine what is inside.
They develop models and try to reach consensus
with other students who investigated the same
boxes. Students construct physical models of black
boxes in an effort to replicate the behaviors of the
original black boxes. To end the module, students
use engineering practices to construct a device that
meets certain parameters.
2
–
Overview
Focus Questions
What variables might affect the number of cycles a
pendulum makes in 15 seconds?
How does changing the mass, length, or release
position of a pendulum affect the number of swings the
pendulum completes in a unit of time?
How can we use graphs to predict results?
What happens to balls on ramps?
What happens when objects collide?
What is the relationship between the starting position on
the ramp and the amount of force a ball can apply when
it collides with an object?
What variables affect the momentum of an object?
How do the parts of a flipper system work together to
launch an object?
What is the relationship between the length of the flip
stick and the distance the object moves?
What is the relationship between the compression
of the spring and the amount of energy transferred
to an object?
What is the process to develop a model of the black box?
How does a drought stopper work?
What do engineers do when they create a product to
solve a problem?
Module Matrix
Content
• Any change of motion requires a force.
• Gravity is the force that pulls objects toward
Earth’s center.
• A variable is anything you can change that might
affect the outcome of an experiment.
• Pendulum experimental data can be graphed to
•
•
energy is energy of position. For identical objects
at rest, the objects at higher heights have more
potential energy than the objects at lower heights.
The total balance of energy in any system is always
equal to the total energy transferred into and out
of the system.
Momentum helps maintain an object’s motion.
• Any change of motion requires a force. Each force
•
•
has a strength and a direction. An object at rest
typically has multiple forces acting on it, but they
add to give a zero net force (they are balanced).
The heavier an object is, the greater the force
needed to achieve the same change in motion.
For a given object, a greater force causes a greater
change in motion.
• Models are explanations of objects, events, or
systems that cannot be observed directly.
• Models are representations used for
communicating and testing.
• Developing a model is an iterative process, which
•
may involve observing, constructing, evaluating,
and revising.
Engineers plan designs, select materials, construct
products, evaluate results, and improve ideas.
Motion, Force, and Models Module
Assessment
Science Resources Book
Embedded Assessment
“What Causes Change of
Motion?”
“Galileo and Pendulums”
Science notebook entries
Response sheet
Scientific practices
Benchmark Assessment
Survey
Investigation 1 I-Check
reveal patterns; length determines the number of
cycles a pendulum completes in a unit of time.
Patterns of motion can be observed and can be
used to predict motion.
• Objects in motion have energy. The faster an
object is moving, the more kinetic energy it has.
• When objects collide, energy can transfer from
one object to another, changing their motion.
• Kinetic energy is energy of motion; potential
•
Reading
Embedded Assessment
“Bowling”
“Force and Energy”
“Potential and Kinetic Energy
at Work”
“Coming to a Stop”
“Concussion Discussion”
Science notebook entries
Response sheet
Media
All about Motion and Balance
Embedded Assessment
“Springs in Action”
“Graphing Data”
Science notebook entry
Response sheet
Media
Springs
Embedded Assessment
“Scientists and Models”
“Beachcombing Science”
“The Path to Invention”
“Creative Solutions”
Science notebook entry
Response sheet
Posttest
3
–
Overview
FOSS CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
In the last half decade, a significant amount of teaching and learning
research has focused on learning progressions. The idea behind a
learning progression is that core ideas in science are complex and
wide-reaching, requiring years to develop fully—ideas such as the
structure of matter or the relationship between the structure and
function of organisms. From the age of awareness throughout life,
matter and organisms are important to us. There are things students can
and should understand about these core ideas in primary school years,
and progressively more complex and sophisticated things they should
know as they gain experience and develop cognitive abilities. When we
as educators can determine those logical progressions, we can develop
meaningful and effective curriculum for students.
FOSS has elaborated learning progressions for core ideas in science
for kindergarten through grade 8. Developing a learning progression
involves identifying successively more sophisticated ways of thinking
about a core idea over multiple years. “If mastery of a core idea in a
science discipline is the ultimate educational destination, then welldesigned learning progressions provide a map of the routes that can
be taken to reach that destination” (National Research Council, A
Framework for K–12 Science Education, 2011).
The FOSS modules are organized into three domains: physical science,
earth science, and life science. Each domain is divided into two strands,
as shown in the table below for the FOSS Elementary Program. Each
strand represents a core idea in science and has a conceptual framework.
• Physical Science: matter; energy and change
• Earth Science: dynamic atmosphere; rocks and landforms
• Life Science: structure and function; complex systems
The sequence in each strand relates to the core ideas described in
the national framework. Modules at the bottom of the table form
the foundation in the primary grades. The core ideas develop in
complexity as you proceed up the
FOSS Elementary Module Sequences
columns.
P H YS I C A L S C I E N C E
6
EARTH SCIENCE
LIFE SCIENCE
M AT T E R
ENERGY AND
CHANGE
DYN A M I C
AT M O S P H E R E
ROCKS AND
LANDFORMS
Mixtures and
Solutions
Motion, Force,
and Models
Weather on
Earth
Sun, Moon, and
Planets
Measuring Matter
Energy and
Electromagnetism
Water
Soils, Rocks,
and Landforms
Structures of Life
Environments
Solids and
Liquids
Balance and
Motion
Air and Weather
Pebbles, Sand,
and Silt
Plants and
Animals
Insects and
Plants
Materials in Our
World
K
4
Trees and Weather
STRUCTURE/
FUNCTION
CO M P L E X
S YS T E M S
Living Systems
Animals Two by Two
Information about the FOSS learning
progression appears in the conceptual
framework (page 8), which shows
the structure of scientific knowledge
taught and assessed in this module, and
the content sequence (pages 12-13),
a graphic and narrative description
that puts this single module into a K–8
strand progression.
Conceptual Framework
In addition to the science content development, every module providess
opportunities for students to engage in and understand the importance
of scientific practices, and many modules explore issues related to
engineering practices and the use of natural resources.
Asking questions and defining problems
• Ask questions about objects, organisms, systems, and events in thee
natural and human-made world (science).
TEACHING NOTE
A Framework for K–12 Science
Education describes these
eight scientific and engineering
practices as essential elements of
a K–12 science and engineering
curriculum.
• Ask questions to define and clarify a problem, determine criteria
for solutions, and identify constraints (engineering).
Planning and carrying out investigations
• Plan and conduct investigations in the laboratory and in the
field to gather appropriate data (describe procedures, determine
observations to record, decide which variables to control) or to
gather data essential for specifying and testing engineering designs.
Analyzing and interpreting data
• Use a range of media (numbers, words, tables, graphs, images,
diagrams, equations) to represent and organize observations (data)
in order to identify significant features and patterns.
Developing and using models
• Use models to help develop explanations, make predictions, and
analyze existing systems, and recognize strengths and
limitations of proposed solutions to problems.
Using mathematics and computational thinking
• Use mathematics and computation to represent physical variables
and their relationships and to draw conclusions.
Constructing explanations and designing solutions
• Construct logical explanations of phenomena, or propose
solutions that incorporate current understanding or a model that
represents it and is consistent with available evidence.
Engaging in argument from evidence
• Defend explanations, develop evidence based on data, examine
one’s own understanding in light of the evidence offered by
others, and challenge peers while searching for explanations.
Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information
• Communicate ideas and the results of inquiry—orally and
in writing—with tables, diagrams, graphs, and equations—in
collaboration with peers.
5
–
Overview
TEACHING NOTE
Crosscutting concepts, as
identified by the national
framework, bridge disciplinary
core ideas and provide an
organizational framework for
connecting knowledge from
different disciplines into a
coherent and scientifically based
view of the world. The Motion,
Force, and Models Module
addresses these crosscutting
concepts: cause and effect;
scale, proportion, and quantity;
systems and system models;
energy and matter (flows, cycles,
and conservation).
B
BACKGROUND
FOR THE
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
C
iin Motion, Force, and Models
TThe Variable Universe
S
Science
is an unending quest for knowledge about the universe
aand all the objects in it. Sometimes the quest simply looks at the
pproperties and patterns of individual objects; sometimes the quest looks
fo
for relationships between the objects. One of the characteristics of
sscience that distinguishes it from other fields of study is the established
pprocedures used by scientists to derive the truest explanations of the
eevents they observe.
O
One of the most important of these procedures is experimentation.
F
For example, an engineer designing a car for maximum fuel efficiency
would have several hundred factors to consider in the overall design.
She will have to think about body size and shape, tire size and shape,
weight, fuel type, surface, and numerous other details. Everything that
might contribute to the overall efficiency of the car is a variable.
After identifying a variable, such as front-end shape, the scientist must
systematically investigate how the car behaves with every possible
front-end design. Such an investigation is called an experiment.
Furthermore, while investigating the effect of front-end shape, all
other variables (weight, rear-end design, tires, etc.) must be held the
same, or controlled. When she conducts a controlled experiment, the
engineer can conclude that any change in efficiency that is observed
after an experimental trial can be attributed to the one variable that was
changed—in our example, front-end shape.
A car is a fairly complex array of interacting parts. Any association of
objects, as complicated as a car, radio, or town, or as simple as a pencil,
hammer, or paper cup, can be thought of as a system. A system can be
thought of as isolated from the rest of the universe for the sake of study.
With practice, elementary-school students can develop a fairly
sophisticated ability to identify variables in a system. Designing
experiments that control all of the variables except for one is more
difficult. With guidance and experience, however, students will start to
develop a functional understanding of this most important concept.
6
Graphing
Scientists organize the results of their experiments in order to
communicate with others as well as to reveal patterns or
relationships in the data. Often the organization is some form of a
graph. The first graphs that most students make are bar graphs. Bar
graphs are useful for making comparisons. Polls (What’s your favorite
kind of pie?) and tallies (What color is your pencil?) lend themselves to
this kind of organization. At a glance an observer can tell that banana
cream is the class’s favorite pie, and that more students use brown
pencils. Two-coordinate graphs are useful in exposing relationships
between two variables.
There are three levels of abstraction at which data can be displayed.
The first level is concrete. The results of an experiment are displayed to
show a relationship. Concrete graphing is used in the first investigation
when students hang their pendulums on a number line. What they
observe is that the longest pendulum hangs on the lowest number, and
the shortest pendulum hangs on the highest number. Students in the
upper-elementary grades will identify and verbalize the relationship:
the longer the pendulum, the fewer the number of swings in a unit of
time.
The representational level of abstraction (second level) is the picture
graph (pictorial graph). Students draw pendulums exactly as they see
them hanging from the number line. The finished pictorial graph looks
like reality, and the observer can see the relationship in the picture.
Upper-elementary students are also ready to record their experimental
results at the symbolic level of abstraction (third level) on graph
paper. At this level nothing looks or feels like the real pendulums—
everything is resolved into symbols (numbers). Students plot the points
representing the length of each pendulum versus the number of times it
swings in 15 seconds. The same relationship is revealed.
In each of these two-coordinate recording systems it is possible to draw
a line that connects the pendulum bobs, the drawings of the bobs, or
the points on the graph. The curved line that appears is an inverse
square relationship. It is not important for elementary-school students
to be exposed to this fact, but it is important for them to see that the
relationship describes a curved line.
7
–
Overview
Motion and Force
The world is filled with motion. Some motion happens without
human intervention: Earth revolves around the Sun, snowflakes fall
to the ground, waves surge across the
sea, salmon swim up rivers to fulfill their
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
destinies. Other motions are under our
Physical Science, Energy and Change:
control: clock hands faithfully monitor
Motion, Force, and Models
time, jet planes streak across the sky,
Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions
baseballs fly over center-field fences,
Concept A The motion of an object is determined by the sum of
bicycles race in the Tour de France. Both
the forces (pushes and pulls) acting on it.
natural and designed motions are part of
our perception of the world—there is
• Any change of motion requires a force. Each force has
nothing special about them.
a strength and a direction.
• An object at rest typically has multiple forces acting
on it, but they add to give a zero net force (they are
balanced).
• Patterns of motion can be observed; when there are
regular patterns of motion, future motions can be
predicted.
• The more momentum an object has, the more force it
takes to bring it to a stop.
Concept B
All interactions between objects arise from a few types
of forces, primarily gravity and electromagnetism.
• Gravity is the force that pulls objects toward one
another. On Earth, the masses are pulled toward
Earth’s center.
Energy Transfer and Conservation
Concept A Energy is a quantitative property (condition) of a
system that depends on the motion and interactions of
matter and radiation within the system.
• Kinetic energy is energy of motion; potential energy is
energy of position. The faster an object is moving, the
more kinetic energy is has. Objects at higher heights
have more potential energy.
Concept B
The total change of energy in any system is always
equal to the total energy transferred into or out of the
system. When two objects interact, each one exerts
a force on the other, and these forces can transfer
energy.
• When objects collide, energy can transfer from one
object to another, thereby changing their motion.
8
What we take for granted is often worthy
of contemplation, in part because it is so
commonplace. Familiarity can breed a
sense of innate understanding where none
really exists. We rarely question what makes
things move, often resorting to the popular
nonexplanation, “that’s the way the world
works.”
Forces make things move or, more
accurately, make things change their
motion. The two natural forces that affect
most of the motion we are aware of are the
force of gravity and the electromagnetic
force. If a grape slips between your fingers
in the backyard, the force of gravity will
pull it to the ground. If the same grape
happens to fall onto the picnic table, the
force of gravity will still pull the grape,
but it will not fall to the ground. Why?
Because the table is pushing up against
the grape with a force exactly equal to the
force exerted by gravity pulling the grape
down. The force opposing the force of
gravity in this example, and most others,
is the electromagnetic force, expressed in
countless molecular interactions in the
matter forming the grape and the table.
Models and Design
When you ask students to define model, they often give vague answers
such as “someone who wears designer clothes,” “a new kind of car,” or
possibly “a small plastic boat or plane that looks like a real one.” And,
of course, they are right because in common language students talk
about so-and-so who chose a career as a model; they hear automobile
advertisements for the new models that just arrived on the showroom
floor; and if they have the change in their pockets, they might buy a
model of the space shuttle to remind them of the opportunities for
space exploration that can be theirs if they knuckle down and study
science diligently.
To the scientist, a model is something else. We do not understand many
things about the universe because we do not have direct access to the
objects and systems. How did the solar system come into being, and
how long will it endure? What happens to matter when it cools to
absolute zero? What happens to an object (or person) when it travels at
a velocity in excess of the speed of light? We don’t know the answers to
these questions, but that doesn’t mean we don’t have ideas about them.
In an effort to answer these questions, people build explanatory models.
Models represent systems (objects and their relationships) and might
answer questions. One type of model is a physical model that we can
test to see if they meet expectations. Scientists construct scale models
of space shuttles and airplanes and subject them to simulated flight
conditions in wind tunnels. Because air can be accelerated in wind
tunnels to reach speeds equal to those encountered in actual flight, the
system is a physical model of an aircraft in flight. By constructing and
testing a physical model, aeronautical engineers can investigate design
features safely and economically in the laboratory before committing
time and resources to construction of a prototype aircraft.
Similarly, geologists try to understand the complexities of Earth’s history
by looking at conditions today and generating explanations for how
landforms came to be the way they are. One theory of how valleys and
canyons formed is that they were eroded by millions of years of flowing
water. Geologists can compress time by building a model of Earth’s
surface from material less durable than rock and running water over it.
The results of such stream-table explorations help geologists understand
the processes that might have created the landforms we see today, and
they allow the scientists to predict what to expect over the millions of
years to come.
9
–
Overview
When it is not possible to build physical models, because of time,
distance, scale, or inaccessibility, a conceptual model can be constructed.
Conceptual models are explanatory ideas that are expressed in words
and mathematics. They are extremely valuable because they provide a
structure of ideas that can engage the thoughtful interest of others—
an intellectual point of departure for future investigators. The next
investigator might agree, or at least not be able to find any point of
disagreement. But when an investigator finds the model wanting,
based on fresh observations or new information derived from advanced
technology, the model must be revised or abandoned in favor of a
better one.
Historically, a series of conceptual models have explained the workings
of the solar system. The first comprehensive model was put forth in
the second century CE by Ptolemy. His model had Earth in the center
of the universe, and it described elaborate rotations of the Sun, Moon,
and planets. The model was fairly good at predicting the positions of
the bodies, but it needed constant revision because it didn’t explain all
observations.
Ptolemy’s model stood for 1400 years until Nicolaus Copernicus
proposed a revolutionary conceptual model of the universe—one in
which the Sun stood at the center and all of the other bodies moved
around it. This was not a popular model, particularly among the
theologians of the time, but in a short time the Copernican system
was accepted and validated by Kepler and Newton. Today we fly our
surrogate eyes, ears, and fingers to the far reaches of the solar system,
adding details to the model of the Sun as the center of our solar system
that is today accepted as an accurate depiction of reality.
10
Problem Solving and Technology
This module stresses product-oriented problem solving. This kind of
problem solving is employed in both model building and engineering.
It calls for divergent, creative thinking and critical interpretation of
how to use observations and materials to produce products. In model
building, the products are ideas that can be represented in mathematics,
words, drawings (conceptual models), or concrete representations
(physical models). In engineering, the products are objects, machines,
materials, and processes that have uses in everyday life.
Engineering problems are expressed in terms of need: a bridge across
the Golden Gate, a material as strong as steel but flexible and half as
heavy, a toy car that propels itself for 2 meters. The beauty of these
kinds of problems is that they can have many solutions. Ten people
might find ten solutions, depending on the resources at hand, a
particular insight at a critical moment, or coincidence. Sometimes a
solution is obvious and immediate; sometimes a solution comes after
a considerable amount of brooding. In the real world, the value of a
solution is judged against a myriad criteria; in the classroom, only one:
does it fill the need?
11
–
Overview
Energy and Change Content Sequence
This table shows the five FOSS modules and courses that address the
content sequence “energy and change” for grades K–8. Running
through the sequence are two progressions—1) motion and stability:
forces and interactions, and 2) energy transfer and conservation. The
supporting elements in each module (somewhat abbreviated) are listed.
The elements for the Motion, Force, and Models Module are
expanded to show how they fit into the sequence.
ENERGY AND CHANGE
Module or course
Motion and Stability: Forces and
Interactions
Energy Transfer and
Conservation
Electronics
• A circuit is a pathway through which electric
current (energy) can transfer to produce
light and other effects.
• Voltage (electromotive force) is the push
that moves electric current through a circuit.
• Resistance is a property of materials that
impedes the flow of electric current.
• There is a relationship (Ohm’s law) between
resistance, voltage, and electric current in a
circuit.
• Energy can be moved from place to place
by electric currents.
• Current (electric energy) is the amount of
charge moving past a point in a conductor
in a unit of time.
• The sum of the voltage drops in a circuit is
equal to the voltage available at the source.
• Voltage drop is proportional to resistance.
• Resistances in series add; resistances in
parallel add inversely.
Force and Motion
• A net force is the sum of the forces acting on
a mass; a net force applied to a mass results
in acceleration of the mass.
• Gravity is a force pulling two masses
toward each other; the strength of the force
depends on the objects’ masses.
• The heavier the object, the greater the force
needed to achieve the same change in
motion.
• When two objects interact, each one
exerts a force on the other, causing energy
transfer between them.
• Friction increases energy transfer to the
surrounding environment by heating or
accelerating the interacting materials.
Energy and
Electromagnetism
• Magnets interact with each other and with
materials that contain iron.
• Like poles of magnets repel each other;
opposite poles attract. The magnetic
force declines as the distance between the
magnets increases.
• Conductors are materials through which
electric current can flow; all metals are
conductors.
• Energy is present whenever there is motion,
electric current, sound, light, or heat.
• Electricity (electric current) transfers energy
that can produce heat, light, sound, and
motion. Electricity can be produced from a
variety of sources.
• A circuit is a system that includes a
complete pathway through which electric
current flows from a source of energy to its
components.
• Energy can be generated by burning fossil
fuels or harnessing renewable energy.
Balance and
Motion
• Objects can be balanced in many ways;
counterweights can balance an object.
• Pushing or pulling on an object can change
the speed or direction of its motion (rolling,
rotation, vibration) and can start or stop it.
• Magnetic force acts at a distance to make
objects move by pushing or pulling.
• A bigger push or pull makes things
go faster.
• Sound comes from vibrating objects.
• Larger objects vibrate slowly and produce
low-pitched sounds; smaller objects vibrate
quickly and produce high-pitched sounds.
Motion, Force, and
Models
12
Motion and Stability: Forces and
Interactions
Energy Transfer and
Conservation
• Any change of motion requires a
force. Each force has a strength and
a direction.
• Gravity is the force that pulls
objects toward Earth’s center.
• Patterns of motion can be observed;
when there are regular patterns of
motion, motion can be predicted.
• An object at rest typically has
multiple forces acting on it, but they
add to give a zero net force (they
are balanced).
• Objects in motion have energy. The
faster a given object is moving, the
more kinetic energy it has.
• When objects collide, energy can
transfer from one object to another,
thereby changing their motion; a
larger force causes a larger change
in motion.
• Kinetic energy is energy of motion;
potential energy is energy of
position. For identical objects at
rest, the objects at higher heights
have more potential energy than
objects at lower heights.
13
TEACHING NOTE
Education has four core ideas in
physical sciences.
–
Overview
T Motion, Force, and Models Module aligns with the NRC
The
F
Framework. The module addresses these 3–5 grade band endpoints
ddescribed for core ideas from the national framework for physical
sscience and for engineering, technology, and the application of science.
PS1: Matter and Its Interactions
Physical Sciences
P
PS2: Motion and Stability:
Forces and Interactions
C
Core
idea PS2: Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions—
How can one explain and predict interactions between objects and
H
within systems of objects?
w
PS3: Energy
PS4: Waves and Their
Applications in
Technologies for
Information Transfer
• PS2.A: How can one predict an object’s continued motion, changes in
motion, or stability? [Each force acts on one particular object and
has both a strength and a direction. An object at rest typically
has multiple forces acting on it, but they add to give zero net
force on the object. Forces that do not sum to zero can cause
changes in the object’s speed or direction of motion. The patterns
of an object’s motion in various situations can be observed and
measured; when past motion exhibits a regular pattern, future
motion can be predicted from it.]
• PS2.B: What underlying forces explain the variety of interactions
observed? [Objects in contact exert forces on each other (friction,
elastic pushes and pulls.) Electric, magnetic, and gravitational
forces between a pair of objects do not require that the objects
be in contact—for example, magnets push or pull at a distance.
The sizes of the forces in each situation depend on the properties
of the objects and their distances apart, and for forces between
two magnets, on their orientation relative to each other. The
gravitational force of Earth acting on an object near Earth’s
surface pulls that object toward the planet’s center.]
• PS2.C: Why are some physical systems more stable than others? [A
system can change as it moves in one direction (e.g., a ball rolling
down a hill), shifts back and forth (e.g., a swinging pendulum), or
goes through cyclical patterns (e.g., day and night). Examining
how the forces on and within the system change as it moves can
help to explain the system’s patterns of change.]
14
Core idea PS3: Energy—How is energy transferred and conserved?
• PS3.A: What is energy? [The faster a given object is moving,
the more energy it possesses. Energy can be moved from place
to place by moving objects or through sound, light, or electric
currents. (Boundary: At this grade level, no attempt is made to
give a precise or complete definition of energy.)]
• PS3.B: What is meant by conservation of energy? How is energy
transferred between objects or systems? [Energy is present whenever
there are moving objects, sound, light, or heat. When objects
collide, energy can be transferred from one object to another,
thereby changing their motion. In such collisions, some energy is
typically also transferred to the surrounding air; as a result, the air
gets heated and sound is produced.]
• PS3.C: How are forces related to energy? [When objects collide,
the contact forces transfer energy so as to change the objects’
motions.]
15
TEACHING NOTE
Education has two core ideas
in engineering, technology, and
applications of science.
ETS1: Engineering Design
ETS2: Links among Engineering,
Technology, Science, and
Society
–
Overview
Engineering, Technology, and Applications of Science
E
C
Core
idea ETS1: Engineering Design—How do engineers solve
problems?
p
• ETS1.A: What is a design for? What are the criteria and constraints
of a successful solution? [Possible solutions to a problem are limited
by available materials and resources (constraints). The success of a
design solution is determined by considering the desired features
of a solution (criteria). Different proposals for solutions can be
compared on the basis of how well each one meets the specified
criteria for success or how well each takes the constraints into
account.]
• ETS1.B: What is the process for developing potential design solutions?
[Research on a problem should be carried out—for example,
through Internet searches, market research, or field observations—
before beginning to design a solution. An often productive way
to generate ideas is for people to work together to brainstorm,
test, and refine possible solutions. Testing a solution involves
investigating how well it performs under a range of likely
conditions. Tests are often designed to identify failure point or
difficulties, which suggest the elements of the design that need to
be improved. At whatever stage, communicating with peers about
proposed solutions is an important part of the design process, and
shared ideas can lead to improved designs.
There are many types of models, ranging from simple physical
models to computer models. They can be used to investigate
how a design might work, communicate the design to others, and
compare different designs.]
16
Core idea ETS2: Links among Engineering, Technology, Science,
and Society—How are engineering, technology, science, and
society interconnected?
• ETS2.A: What are the relationships among science, engineering,
and technology? [Tools and instruments (e.g., rulers, balances,
thermometers, graduated cylinders, telescopes, microscopes) are
used in scientific exploration to gather data and help answer
questions about the natural world. Engineering design can
develop and improve such technologies. Scientific discoveries
about the natural world can often lead to new and improved
technologies, which are developed through the engineering
design process. Knowledge of relevant scientific concepts and
research findings is important in engineering.]
• ETS2.B: How do science, engineering, and the technologies that result
from them affect the ways in which people live? How do they affect the
natural world? [Over time, people’s needs and wants change, as do
their demands for new and improved technologies. Engineers
improve existing technologies or develop new ones to increase
their benefits (e.g., better artificial limbs), to decrease known
risks (e.g., seatbelts in cars), and to meet societal demands (e.g.,
cell phones). When new technologies become available, they can
bring about changes in the way people live and interact with one
another.]
17
–
Overview
FOSS COMPONENTS
Teacher Toolkit
The Teacher Toolkit is the most important part of the FOSS Program. It
is here that all the wisdom and experience contributed by hundreds of
educators has been assembled. Everything we know about the content
of the module, how to teach the subject, and the resources that will
assist the effort are presented here. Each toolkit has three parts.
Investigations Guide. This spiral-bound document contains
these chapters.
• Overview
• Materials
• Investigations (four in this module)
• Assessment
Teacher Resources. This collection of resources contains these chapters.
• FOSS Introduction
4%!#(%22%3/52#%3
Motion, Force,
and Models
• Science Notebooks in Grades 3–6
• Science-Centered Language Development
• Taking FOSS Outdoors
• FOSSweb and Technology
• Science Notebook Masters
• Teacher Masters
• Assessment Masters
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0UBLISHEDAND$ISTRIBUTEDBY$ELTA%DUCATION
The chapters contained in the Teacher Resources and the Spanish
duplication masters can also be found on FOSSweb
(www.FOSSweb.com) and on CDs included in the Teacher Toolkit.
FOSS Science Resources book. One copy of the student book of
readings is included in the Teacher Toolkit.
Equipment Kit
The FOSS Program provides the materials needed for the investigations,
including metric measuring tools, in sturdy, front-opening drawer-andsleeve cabinets. Inside, you will find high-quality materials packaged for
a class of 32 students. Consumable materials are supplied for two uses
before you need to resupply. Teachers might be asked to supply small
quantities of common classroom items.
18
FOSS Components
FOSS Science Resources Books
FOSS Science Resources: Motion, Force, and Models is a book of original
readings developed to accompany this module. The readings are
referred to as articles in the Investigations Guide. Students read the
articles in the book as they progress through the module. The articles
cover a specific concept, usually after that concept has been introduced
in an active investigation.
The articles in Science Resources and the discussion questions provided in
the Investigations Guide help students make connections to the science
concepts introduced and explored during the active investigations.
Concept development is most effective when students are allowed
to experience organisms, objects, and phenomena firsthand before
engaging the concepts in text. The text and illustrations help make
connections between what students experience concretely and the ideas
that explain their observations.
FOSSweb and Technology
The FOSS website opens new horizons for educators, students, and
families, in the classroom or at home. Each module has an interactive
site where students and families can find instructional activities,
interactive simulations and virtual investigations, and other additional
resources. FOSSweb provides resources for materials management,
general teaching tools for FOSS, purchasing links, contact information
for the FOSS Project, and technical support. You do not need an
account to view this general FOSS Program information. In addition
to the general information, FOSSweb provides digital access to PDF
versions of the Teacher Resources component of the Teacher Toolkit and
digital-only resources that supplement the print and kit materials.
NOTE
To access all the teacher
resources and to set up
customized pages for using
FOSS, log in to FOSSweb
through an educator account.
Additional resources are available to support FOSS teachers. With an
educator account, you can customize your homepage, set up easy access
to the digital components of the modules you teach, and create class
pages for your students with access to tutorials and online assessments.
Ongoing Professional Development
The Lawrence Hall of Science and Delta Education are committed
to supporting science educators with unrivaled teacher support,
high-quality implementation, and continuous staff-development
opportunities and resources. FOSS has a strong network of consultants
who have rich and experienced backgrounds in diverse educational
settings using FOSS. Find out about professional-development
opportunities on FOSSweb.
19
–
Overview
FOSS INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
Each FOSS investigation follows a similar design to provide multiple
exposures to science concepts. The design includes these pedagogies.
• Active investigation, including outdoor experiences
• Recording in science notebooks to answer the focus question
• Reading in FOSS Science Resources
• Assessment to monitor progress and motivate student reflection
on learning
In practice, these components are seamlessly integrated into a
continuum designed to maximize every student’s opportunity to learn.
An instructional sequence might move from one pedagogy to another
and back again to ensure adequate coverage of a concept.
FOSS Investigation Organization
F O C U S
Q U E S T I O N
What variables might affect the
number of cycles a pendulum
makes in 15 seconds?
Modules are subdivided into investigations (four in this module).
Investigations are further subdivided into 3–4 parts. Each part of each
investigation is driven by a focus question. The focus question, usually
presented as the part begins, signals the challenge to be met, mystery
to be solved, or principle to be uncovered. The focus question guides
students’ actions and thinking and makes the learning goal of each part
explicit for teachers. Each part concludes with students recording an
answer to the focus question in their notebooks.
Investigation-specific scientific background information for the
teacher is presented in each investigation chapter. The content
discussion is divided into sections, each of which relates directly to
one of the focus questions. This section ends with information about
teaching and learning and a conceptual-flow diagram for the content.
TEACHING NOTE
This focus question can be
answered with a simple yes
or no, but the question has
power when students supportt
their answers with evidence.
Their answers should take the
form Yes, because . . .
20
The Getting Ready and Guiding the Investigation sections have
several features that are flagged or presented in the sidebars. These
include several icons to remind you when a particular pedagogical
method is suggested, as well as concise bits of information in several
c
categories.
T
Teaching
notes appear in blue boxes in the sidebars. These notes
c
comprise
a second voice in the curriculum—an educative element.
The first (traditional) voice is the message you deliver to students. It
supports your work teaching students at all levels, from management
to inquiry. The second educative voice, shared as a teaching note, is
designed to help you understand the science content and pedagogical
rationale at work behind the instructional scene.
FOSS Instructional Design
The safety icon alerts you to a potential safety issue. It could relate to
the use of a chemical substance, such as salt, requiring safety goggles,
or the possibility of a student allergic reaction when students use latex,
legumes, or wheat.
The small-group discussion icon asks you to pause while students
discuss data or construct explanations in their groups. Often a Reporter
shares the group’s conclusions with the class.
New
Word
S ee it
Say it
Write it
The new-word icon alerts you to a new vocabulary word or phrase
that should be introduced thoughtfully. The new vocabulary should
also be entered onto the word wall (or pocket chart). A complete list
of the scientific vocabulary used in each investigation appears in the
sidebar on the last page of the Background for the Teacher section.
Hear it
The vocabulary icon indicates where students should review recently
introduced vocabulary, often just before they will be answering the
focus question or preparing for benchmark assessment.
The recording icon points out where students should make a sciencenotebook entry. Students record on prepared notebook sheets or,
increasingly, on pages in their science notebooks.
The reading icon signals when the class should read a specific article in
the FOSS Science Resources book, preferably during a reading period.
The assessment icon appears when there is an opportunity to assess
student progress by using embedded or benchmark assessments.
Some of the embedded-assessment methods for grades 3–6 include
observation of students engaged in scientific practices, review of a
notebook entry, and response sheets.
The outdoor icon signals when to move the science learning
experience into the schoolyard. It also helps you plan for selecting and
preparing an outdoor site for a student activity.
The engineering icon indicates opportunities for addressing
engineering practices—applying and using scientific knowledge. These
opportunities include developing a solution to a problem, constructing
and evaluating models, and using systems thinking.
The EL note in the sidebar provides a specific strategy to use to
assist English learners in developing science concepts. A discussion of
strategies is in the Science-Centered Language Development chapter.
To help with pacing, you will see icons for breakpoints. Some
breakpoints are essential, and others are optional.
E L
N OT E
See the Science-Centered
Language Development chapter
for notebook-sharing strategies.
POSSIBLE BREAKPOINT
21
–
Overview
Active Investigation
Active investigation is a master pedagogy. Embedded within active
learning are a number of pedagogical elements and practices that keep
active investigation vigorous and productive. The enterprise of active
investigation includes
• context: questioning and planning;
• activity: doing and observing;
• data management: recording, organizing, and processing;
• analysis: discussing and writing explanations.
Context: questioning and planning. Active investigation requires
focus. The context of an inquiry can be established with a focus
question or challenge from you or, in some cases, from students. How
does changing the length of a pendulum change the number of swings?
At other times, students are asked to plan a method for investigation.
This might start with a teacher demonstration or presentation. Then
you challenge students to plan an investigation, such as to find out how
much force can a rolling ball apply during a collision. In either case, the
field available for thought and interaction is limited. This clarification
of context and purpose results in a more productive investigation.
Activity: doing and observing. In the practice of science, scientists
put things together and take things apart, observe systems and
interactions, and conduct experiments. This is the core of science—
active, firsthand experience with objects, organisms, materials, and
systems in the natural world. In FOSS, students engage in the same
processes. Students often conduct investigations in collaborative groups
of four, with each student taking a role to contribute to the effort.
The active investigations in FOSS are cohesive, and build on each other
and the readings to lead students to a comprehensive understanding of
concepts. Through the investigations, students gather meaningful data.
Data management: recording, organizing, and processing. Data
accrue from observation, both direct (through the senses) and indirect
(mediated by instrumentation). Data are the raw material from which
scientific knowledge and meaning are synthesized. During and after
work with materials, students record data in their science notebooks.
Data recording is the first of several kinds of student writing.
Students then organize data so they will be easier to think about. Tables
allow efficient comparison. Organizing data in a sequence (time) or
series (size) can reveal patterns. Students process some data into graphs,
providing visual display of numerical data. They also organize data and
process them in the science notebook.
22
Analysis: discussing and writing explanations. The most
important part of an active investigation is extracting its meaning. This
constructive process involves logic, discourse, and existing knowledge.
Students share their explanations for phenomena, using evidence
generated during the investigation to support their ideas. They
conclude the active investigation by writing in their science notebooks
a summary of their learning as well as questions raised during
the activity.
Science Notebooks
Research and best practice have led FOSS to place more emphasis
on the student science notebook. Keeping a notebook helps students
organize their observations and data, process their data, and maintain
a record of their learning for future reference. The process of writing
about their science experiences and communicating their thinking is
a powerful learning device for students. The science-notebook entries
stand as credible and useful expressions of learning. The artifacts in the
notebooks form one of the core elements of the assessment system.
You will find the duplication masters for grades 1–6 presented in
notebook format. They are reduced in size (two copies to a standard
sheet) for placement (glue or tape) into a bound composition book.
Full-size duplication masters are also available on FOSSweb. Student
work is entered partly in spaces provided on the notebook sheets and
partly on adjacent blank sheets.
9-4-15
Procedure for Cons
Materials
1
String–50 cm
1
Paper clip
•
Masking tape
Directions
1. Tie one end of
the string
tructing Pendulum
FQ: What variable
s
affect the number might
cycles a pendulum of
makes
in 15 seconds?
s
1 Meter tape
1 Penny
securely to the paper
clip.
2. Measure exactl
y 38 centimeters (cm)
from the tip of the
paper clip along the
string. Fold the string
back at exactly
the 38 cm mark.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
FQ answer:
The mass of the
bob, the length of
the string, and th
release position ar e
e the
variables.
9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23
24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31 32 33
34 35 36 37 38
39 40 41 42 43
44
3. Put a tiny piece
of masking tape aroun
d the string to make
loop. The loop should
a
be large enough to
hang over a pencil
Remeasure to make
.
sure the Pendulum
is 38 cm from the
of the paper clip to
tip
the top of the loop.
4. Clip a penny in
the
4
paper clip. You have
made a
FOSS Motion, Force,
and Models Module
© The Regents of
the University of California
Can be duplicated
for classroom or workshop
use.
Pendulum.
Investigation 1: Motion
and Variables
No. 1—Notebook
Master
F
©
Ca
5
23
–
Overview
Reading in FOSS Science Resources
The FOSS Science Resources books emphasize expository articles and
biographical sketches. FOSS suggests that the reading be completed
during language-arts time. When language-arts skills and methods are
embedded in content material that relates to the authentic experience
students have had during the FOSS active learning sessions, students are
interested, and they get more meaning from the text material.
Assessing Progress
The FOSS assessment system includes both formative and summative
assessments. Formative assessment monitors learning during the
process of instruction. It measures progress, provides information about
learning, and is generally diagnostic. Summative assessment looks at the
learning after instruction is completed, and it measures achievement.
Formative assessment in FOSS, called embedded assessment, occurs
on a daily basis. You observe action during class or review notebooks
after class. Embedded assessment provides continuous monitoring
of students’ learning and helps you make decisions about whether to
review, extend, or move on to the next idea to be covered.
Benchmark assessments are short summative assessments given after
each investigation. These I-Checks are actually hybrid tools: they
provide summative information about students’ achievement, and
because they occur soon after teaching each investigation, they can be
used diagnostically as well. Reviewing a specific item on an I-Check
with the class provides another opportunity for students to clarify their
thinking.
The embedded assessments are based on authentic work produced
by students during the course of participating in the FOSS activities.
Students do their science, and you look at their notebook entries.
Within the instructional sequence, you will see the heading What to
Look For in red letters. Under that, you will see bullet points telling you
specifically what students should know and be able to communicate.
24
22. Assess progress: notebook entry
Have students hand in their notebooks open to the page on
which they answered the focus question. Review students’
notebooks after class and check their understanding of
variables they could investigate to further their understanding
of pendulums. Record your notes on a copy of the Embedded
Assessment Notes.
What to Look For
•
Students write that the mass of the bob (number of pennies), the
length of the pendulum string, and the release position are the
variables they could change.
•
Students might indicate other variables, such as how to attach the
pennies or type of string, or providing an additional push.
If student work is incorrect or incomplete, you know that there has
been a breakdown in the learning/communicating process. The
assessment system then provides a menu of next-step strategies to
resolve the situation. Embedded assessment is assessment for learning,
not assessment of learning.
Assessment of learning is the domain of the benchmark assessments.
Benchmark assessments are delivered at the beginning of the module
(Survey) and at the end of the module (Posttest) and after each
investigation (I-Checks). The benchmark tools are carefully crafted
and thoroughly tested assessments composed of valid and reliable items.
The assessment items do not simply identify whether or not a student
knows a piece of science content. They identify the depth to which
students understand science concepts and principles and the extent to
which they can apply that understanding. Since the output from the
benchmark assessments is descriptive and complex, it can be used for
formative as well as summative assessment.
Completely incorporating the assessment system into your teaching
practice involves realigning your perception of the interplay between
good teaching and good learning, and usually leads to a considerably
different social order in the classroom with redefined student-student
and teacher-student relationships.
25
–
Overview
Taking FOSS Outdoors
FOSS throws open the classroom door and proclaims the entire
school campus to be the science classroom. The true value of science
knowledge is its usefulness in the real world and not just in the
classroom. Taking regular excursions into the immediate outdoor
environment has many benefits. First of all, it provides opportunities
for students to apply things they learned in the classroom to
novel situations. When students are able to transfer knowledge of
scientific principles to natural systems, they experience a sense of
accomplishment.
In addition to transfer and application, students can learn things
outdoors that they are not able to learn indoors. The most important
object of inquiry outdoors is the outdoors itself. To today’s youth, the
outdoors is something to pass through as quickly as possible to get
to the next human-managed place. For many, engagement with the
outdoors and natural systems must be intentional, at least at first. With
repeated visits to familiar outdoor learning environments, students
might first develop comfort in the outdoors, and then a desire to
embrace and understand natural systems.
The last part of most investigations is an outdoor experience. Venturing
out will require courage the first time or two you mount an outdoor
expedition. It will confuse students as they struggle to find the right
behavior that is a compromise between classroom rigor and diligence
and the freedom of recreation. With persistence, you will reap rewards.
You will be pleased to see students’ comportment develop into proper
field-study habits, and you might be amazed by the transformation
of students with behavior issues in the classroom who become your
insightful observers and leaders in the schoolyard environment.
Teaching outdoors is the same as teaching indoors—except for the
space. You need to manage the same four core elements of teaching:
time, space, materials, and students. Because of the different space, new
management procedures are required. Students can get farther away.
Materials have to be transported. The space has to be defined and
honored. Time has to be budgeted for getting to, moving around in,
and returning from the outdoor study site. All these and more issues
and solutions are discussed in the Taking FOSS Outdoors chapter in the
Teacher Resources.
FOSS is very enthusiastic about this dimension of the program and
looks forward to hearing about your experience using the schoolyard as
a logical extension of your classroom.
26
Science-Centered Language Development
The FOSS active investigations, science notebooks, FOSS Science
Resources articles, and formative assessments provide rich contexts in
which students develop and exercise thinking and communication.
These elements are essential for effective instruction in both science
and language arts—students experience the natural world in real and
authentic ways and use language to inquire, process information, and
communicate their thinking about scientific phenomena. FOSS refers
to this development of language process and skills within the context of
science as science-centered language development.
In the Science-Centered Language Development chapter in Teacher
Resources, we explore the intersection of science and language and the
implications for effective science teaching and language development.
We identify best practices in language-arts instruction that support
science learning and examine how learning science content and
engaging in scientific practices support language development.
Language plays two crucial roles in science learning: (1) it facilitates
s,
the communication of conceptual and procedural knowledge, questions,
and propositions, and (2) it mediates thinking—a process necessary
for understanding. For students, language development is intimately
involved in their learning about the natural world. Science provides
a real and engaging context for developing literacy, and language-arts
skills and strategies support conceptual development and scientific
practices. For example, the skills and strategies used for enhancing
reading comprehension, writing expository text, and exercising oral
discourse are applied when students are recording their observations,
making sense of science content, and communicating their ideas.
Students’ use of language improves when they discuss (speak and listen,
as in the Wrap-Up/Warm-Up activities), write, and read about the
concepts explored in each investigation.
TEACHING NOTE
Embedded even deeper in the
FOSS pedagogical practice is
a bolder philosophical stance.
Because language arts commands
the greatest amount of the
instructional day’s time, FOSS
has devoted a lot of creative
energy to defining and exploring
the relationship between science
learning and the development
of language-arts skills. FOSS
elucidates its position in the
Science-Centered Language
Development chapter.
There are many ways to integrate language into science investigations.
The most effective integration depends on the type of investigation, the
experience of students, the language skills and needs of students, and the
language objectives that you deem important at the time. The ScienceCentered Language Development chapter is a library of resources
and strategies for you to use. The chapter describes how literacy
strategies are integrated purposefully into the FOSS investigations, gives
suggestions for additional literacy strategies that both enhance students’
learning in science and develop or exercise English-language literacy
skills, and develops science vocabulary with scaffolding strategies for
supporting all learners. The last section covers language-development
strategies that are specifically for English learners.
27
–
Overview
FOSSWEB AND TECHNOLOGY
NOTE
The FOSS digital resources are
available online at FOSSweb.
You can always access the
most up-to-date technology
information, including help
and troubleshooting, on
FOSSweb. See the FOSSweb
and Technology chapter for a
complete list of these resources.
FOSS is committed to providing a rich, accessible technology experience
for all FOSS users. FOSSweb is the Internet access to FOSS digital
resources. It provides enrichment for students and support for teachers,
administrators, and families who are actively involved in implementing
and enjoying FOSS materials. Here are brief descriptions of selected
resources to help you get started with FOSS technology.
Technology to Engage Students at School
and at Home
Multimedia activities. The multimedia simulations and activities
were designed to support students’ learning. They include virtual
investigations and student tutorials that you can use to support students
who have difficulties with the materials or who have been absent.
FOSS Science Resources. The student reading book is available as an
audio book on FOSSweb, accessible at school or at home. In addition,
as premium content, FOSS Science Resources is available as an eBook.
The eBook supports a range of font sizes and can be projected for
guided reading with the whole class as needed.
Home/school connection. Each module includes a letter to families,
providing an overview of the goals and objectives of the module.
Most investigations have a home/school activity providing science
experiences to connect the classroom experiences with students’ lives
outside of school. These connections are available in print in the Teacher
Resources and on FOSSweb.
Student media library. A variety of media enhance students’ learning.
Formats include photos, videos, an audio version of each student
book, and frequently asked science questions. These resources are also
available to students when they log in with a student account.
Recommended books and websites. FOSS has reviewed print books
and digital resources that are appropriate for students and prepared a list
of these media resources.
Class pages. Teachers with a FOSSweb account can easily set up class
pages with notes and assignments for each class. Students and families
can then access this class information online.
28
Technology to Support Teachers
Teacher-preparation video. The video presents information to help
you prepare for a module, including detailed investigation information,
equipment setup and use, safety, and what students do and learn through
each part of the investigation.
Science-notebook masters and teacher masters. All notebook
masters and teacher masters used in the modules are available digitally
on FOSSweb for downloading and for projection during class. These
sheets are available in English and Spanish.
Assessment masters. The benchmark assessment masters for
grades 1–6 (I-Checks) are available in English and Spanish.
NOTE
The Spanish masters are
available only on FOSSweb and
on one of the CDs provided in
the Teacher Toolkit.
Focus questions. The focus questions for each investigation are
formatted for classroom projection and for printing onto labels that
students can glue into their science notebooks.
Equipment photo cards. The cards provide labeled photos of
equipment supplied in each FOSS kit.
Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS). These sheets have information
from materials manufacturers on handling and disposal of materials.
Teacher Resources chapters. FOSSweb provides PDF files of all
chapters from the Teacher Resources.
• FOSS Introduction
• Science Notebooks
• Science-Centered Language Development
• Taking FOSS Outdoors
• FOSSweb and Technology
Streaming video. Some video clips are part of the instruction in the
investigation, and others extend concepts presented in a module.
Resources by investigation. This digital listing provides online links
to notebook sheets, assessment and teacher masters, and multimedia for
each investigation of a module for projection in the classroom.
Interactive whiteboard resources. You can use these slide shows and
other resources with an interactive whiteboard.
Investigations eGuide. The eGuide is the complete Investigations
Guide component of the Teacher Toolkit in an electronic web-based
format, allowing access from any Internet-enabled computer.
29
–
Overview
Module summary. The summary describes each investigation in a
module, including major concepts developed.
Module updates. These are important updates related to the teacher
materials, student equipment, and safety guidelines.
Module teaching notes. These notes include teaching suggestions and
enhancements to the module, sent in by experienced FOSS users.
FOSSmap and online assessments. A computerized assessment
program, called FOSSmap, provides a system for students to take
assessments online, and for you to review those assessments online and
to assign tutorial sessions for individual students based on assessment
performance. You generate a password for students to access and take
the assessments online.
Most assessment items are multiple-choice, multiple-answer, or shortanswer questions, but for one or two questions, students must write
sentences. These open-response questions can be answered either
online or using paper and pencil.
After students have completed a benchmark assessment, FOSSmap
automatically codes (scores) the multiple-choice, multiple-answer, and
short-answer questions. You will need to check students’ responses
for short-answer questions to make sure that the questions have been
coded correctly. Students’ open-response questions are systematically
displayed for coding. If students have taken any part of the test via
paper and pencil, you will need to enter students’ answers on the
computer for multiple-choice and multiple-answer questions (the
computer automatically codes the answers), and to code the shortanswer and open-response questions.
Once the codes are in the FOSSmap program, you can generate and
display several reports.
The Code-Frequency Report is a bar graph showing how many students
received each code. This graph makes it easy to see which items might
need further instruction.
In the Class-by-Item Report, each item is presented in a text format that
indicates a percentage and provides names of students who selected
each answer. It also describes what a code means in terms of what
students know or need to work on.
30
The Class-by-Level Report describes four levels of achievement. It lists
class percentages and students who achieved each level.
The Class-Frequency Report has bar graphs indicating how many students
achieved each level. The survey and posttest are shown on the same
page for easy comparison. I-Checks appear on separate pages.
The Student-by-Item Report is available for each student. It provides
information about the highest code possible, the code the student
received, and a note describing what the student knows or what he or
she needs to work on. This report also suggests online tutorials to assign
to students who need additional help.
The Student Assessment Summary bar graph indicates the level achieved
by individual students on all the assessments taken up to any point in
the module. This graph makes it easy to compare achievement on the
survey and posttest as well as on each I-Check.
Tutorials. You can assign online tutorials to individual students,
based on how each student answers questions on the I-Checks and
posttest. The Student-by-Item Report, generated by FOSSmap, indicates
the tutorials specifically targeted to help individual students refine
their understandings. Tutorials are an excellent tool for differentiating
instruction and are available to students at any time on FOSSweb.
31
–
Overview
UNIVERSAL DESIGN
FOR LEARNING
The roots of FOSS extend back to the mid-1970s and the Science
Activities for the Visually Impaired and Science Enrichment for
Learners with Physical Handicaps projects (SAVI/SELPH). As those
special-education science programs expanded into fully integrated
settings in the 1980s, hands-on science proved to be a powerful medium
for bringing all students together. The subject matter is universally
interesting, and the joy and satisfaction of discovery are shared by
everyone. Active science by itself provides part of the solution to
full inclusion.
Many years later, FOSS began a collaboration with educators and
researchers at the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST),
where principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) had been
developed and applied. FOSS continues to learn from our colleagues
about ways to use new media and technologies to improve instruction.
Here are the UDL principles.
Principle 1. Provide multiple means of representation. Give learners
various ways to acquire information and knowledge.
Principle 2. Provide multiple means of action and expression. Offer
students alternatives for demonstrating what they know.
Principle 3. Provide multiple means of engagement. Help learners get
interested, be challenged, and stay motivated.
The FOSS Program has been designed to maximize the sciencelearning opportunities for students with special needs and students from
culturally and linguistically diverse origins. FOSS is rooted in a 30-year
tradition of multisensory science education and informed by recent
research on UDL. Procedures found effective with students with special
needs and students who are learning English are incorporated into the
materials and strategies used with all students.
English Learners
The FOSS multisensory program provides a rich laboratory for
language development for English learners. The program uses a variety
of techniques to make science concepts clear and concrete, including
modeling, visuals, and active investigations in small groups at centers.
Key vocabulary is usually developed within an activity context with
32
Universal Design for Learning
frequent opportunities for interaction and discussion between teacher
and student and among students. This provides practice and application
of the new vocabulary. Instruction is guided and scaffolded through
carefully designed lesson plans, and students are supported throughout.
The learning is active and engaging for all students, including
English learners.
Science vocabulary is introduced in authentic contexts while students
engage in active learning. Strategies for helping all primary students
read, write, speak, and listen are described in the Science-Centered
Language Development chapter. There is a section on sciencevocabulary development with scaffolding strategies for supporting
English learners. These strategies are essential for English learners, and
they are good teaching strategies for all learners.
Diﬀerentiated Instruction
FOSS instruction allows students to express their understanding
through a variety of modalities. Each student has multiple opportunities
to demonstrate his or her strengths and needs. The challenge is then to
provide appropriate follow-up experiences for each student. For some
students, appropriate experience might mean more time with the active
investigations. For other students, it might mean more experience
building explanations of the science concepts orally or in writing or
drawing. For some students, it might mean making vocabulary more
explicit through new concrete experiences or through reading to
students. For some students, it might be scaffolding their thinking
through graphic organizers. For other students, it might be designing
individual projects or small-group investigations. For some students,
it might be more opportunities for experiencing science outside the
classroom in more natural, outdoor environments.
There are several possible strategies for providing differentiated
instruction. The FOSS Program provides tools and strategies so that
you know what students are thinking throughout the module. Based
on that knowledge, read through the extension activities for experiences
that might be appropriate for students who need additional practice
with the basic concepts as well as those ready for more advanced
projects. Interdisciplinary extensions are listed at the end of each
investigation. Use these ideas to meet the individual needs and interests
of your students.
33
–
Overview
WORKING IN COLLABORATIVE
GROUPS
Collaboration is important in science. Scientists usually collaborate
on research enterprises. Groups of researchers often contribute to the
collection of data, the analysis of findings, and the preparation of the
results for publication.
Collaboration is expected in the science classroom, too. Some tasks call
for everyone to have the same experience, either taking turns or doing
the same things simultaneously. At other times, group members might
have different experiences that they later bring together.
Research has shown that students learn better and are more successful
when they collaborate. Working together promotes student interest,
participation, learning, and self-confidence. FOSS investigations use
collaborative groups extensively.
No single model for collaborative learning is promoted by FOSS.
We can suggest, however, a few general guidelines that have proven
successful over the years.
For most activities in upper-elementary grades, collaborative groups of
four in which students take turns assuming specific responsibilities work
best. Groups can be identified completely randomly (first four names
drawn from a hat constitute group 1), or you can assemble groups to
ensure diversity. Thoughtfully constituted groups tend to work better.
Groups can be maintained for extended periods of time, or they can be
reconfigured more frequently. Six to nine weeks seems about optimum,
so students might stay together throughout an entire module.
Functional roles within groups can be determined by the members
themselves, or they can be assigned in one of several ways. Each
member in a collaborative group can be assigned a number or a color.
Then you need only announce which color or number will perform
a certain task for the group at a certain time. Compass points can also
be used: the person seated on the east side of the table will be the
Reporter for this investigation.
The functional roles used in the investigations follow. If you already use
other names for functional roles in your class, use them in place of those
in the investigations.
Getters are responsible for materials. One person from each group gets
equipment from the materials station, and another person later returns
the equipment.
34
Working in Collaborative Groups
One person is the Starter for each task. This person makes sure
that everyone gets a turn and that everyone has an opportunity to
contribute ideas to the investigation.
The Reporter makes sure that everyone has recorded information on
his or her science notebook sheets. This person reports group data to
the class or transcribes it to the board or class chart.
Getting started with collaborative groups requires patience, but the
rewards are great. Once collaborative groups are in place, you will be
able to engage students more in meaningful conversations about science
content. You are free to “cruise” the groups, to observe and listen to
students as they work, and to interact with individuals and small groups
as needed.
When Students Are Absent
When a student is absent for a session, give him or her a chance to
spend some time with the materials at a center. Another student might
act as a peer tutor. Allow the student to bring home a FOSS Science
Resources book to read with a family member. Each article has a few
review items that the student can respond to verbally or in writing.
There is a set of two or three virtual investigations for each FOSS
module for grades 3–6. Students who have been absent from certain
investigations can access these simulations online through FOSSweb.
The virtual investigations require students to record data and answer
concluding questions in their science notebooks. Sometimes the
notebook sheet that was used in the classroom investigation is also used
for the virtual investigation.
35
–
Overview
SAFETY IN THE CLASSROOM AND
OUTDOORS
Following the procedures described in each investigation will make
for a very safe experience in the classroom. You should also review
your district safety guidelines and make sure that everything you do is
consistent with those guidelines. Two posters are included in the kit:
Science Safety for classroom use and Outdoor Safety for outdoor activities.
Look for the safety icon in the Getting Ready and Guiding the
Investigation sections that will alert you to safety considerations
throughout the module.
Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for materials used in the FOSS
Program can be found on FOSSweb. If you have questions regarding
any MSDS, call Delta Education at 1-800-258-1302 (Monday–Friday,
8 a.m.–6 p.m. EST).
Science Safety
1 Listen carefully to your teacher’s instructions. Follow all directions.
Ask questions if you don’t know what to do.
2 Tell your teacher if you have any allergies.
3 Never put any materials in your mouth. Do not taste anything
unless your teacher tells you to do so.
4 Never smell any unknown material. If your teacher tells you
to smell something, wave your hand over the material to bring
the smell toward your nose.
Science Safety in the Classroom
5 Do not touch your face, mouth, ears, eyes, or nose while
working with chemicals, plants, or animals.
6 Always protect your eyes. Wear safety goggles when necessary.
Tell your teacher if you wear contact lenses.
General classroom safety rules to share with students are listed here.
7 Always wash your hands with soap and warm water after
handling chemicals, plants, or animals.
8 Never mix any chemicals unless
1. Listen carefully to your teacher’s instructions. Follow all
directions. Ask questions if you don’t know what to do.
your teacher tells you to do so.
9 Report all spills, accidents,
and injuries to your teacher.
10 Treat animals with respect,
caution, and consideration.
2. Tell your teacher if you have any allergies.
11 Clean up your work space
after each investigation.
12 Act responsibly during all
3. Never put any materials in your mouth. Do not taste anything
unless your teacher tells you to do so.
science activities.
Outdoor Safety
4. Never smell any unknown material. If your teacher tells you to
smell something, wave your hand over the material to bring the
smell toward your nose.
1358827
1 Listen carefully to your teacher’s instructions. Follow all directions.
Ask questions if you don’t know what to do.
2 Tell your teacher if you have any allergies. Let your teacher know
if you have never been stung by a bee.
3 Never put any materials in your mouth.
4 Dress appropriately for the weather and the outdoor experience.
5. Do not touch your face, mouth, ears, eyes, or nose while
working with chemicals, plants, or animals.
5 Stay within the designated study area and with your partner or
group. When you hear the “freeze” signal, stop and listen to your
teacher.
6 Never look directly at the Sun or at the sunlight being reflected
off a shiny object.
7 Know if there are any skin-irritating plants in your schoolyard, and
6. Always protect your eyes. Wear safety goggles when necessary.
Tell your teacher if you wear contact lenses.
do not touch them. Most plants in the schoolyard are harmless.
8 Respect all living things. When looking under a stone or log, lift
the side away from you so that any living thing can escape.
9 If a stinging insect is near you, stay calm and
slowly walk away from it. Tell your teacher
right away if you are stung or bitten.
7. Always wash your hands with soap and warm water after
handling chemicals, plants, or animals.
10 Never release any living things
into the environment unless you
collected them there.
11 Always wash your hands with
soap and warm water after
handling plants, animals, and soil.
8. Never mix any chemicals unless your teacher tells you to do so.
12 Return to the classroom with all of
the materials you brought outside.
9. Report all spills, accidents, and injuries to your teacher.
1358828
10. Treat animals with respect, caution, and consideration.
11. Clean up your work space after each investigation.
12. Act responsibly during all science activities.
36
Scheduling the Module
SCHEDULING THE MODULE
The Getting Ready section for each part of an investigation helps
you prepare. It provides information on scheduling the activities and
introduces the tools and techniques used in the activity. Be prepared—
read the Getting Ready section thoroughly.
Below is a suggested teaching schedule for the module. The
investigations are numbered and should be taught in order, as the
concepts build upon each other from investigation to investigation. We
suggest that a minimum of 10 weeks be devoted to this module. Take
your time, and explore the subject thoroughly.
Active-investigation (A) sessions include hands-on work with
physical systems and tools, active thinking about experiences, smallgroup discussion, writing in science notebooks, and learning new
vocabulary in context.
During Wrap-Up/Warm-Up (W) sessions, students share notebook
entries and discuss their answers to the focus questions.
Reading (R) sessions involve reading FOSS Science Resources articles.
I-Checks are short summative assessments at the end of each
investigation. The next day, after you have coded the assessments,
students self-assess their written responses on a few critical items to
reflect on and improve their understanding.
Week
Day 1
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Survey
START Inv. 1 Part 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
START Inv. 1 Part 2
R/W
A
A/W
R
Review
I-Check 1
Self-assess
A
R/W
A
A/R
R/Review
START Inv. 3 Part 1
START Inv. 3 Part 2
A/W
A
START Inv. 1 Part 3
A
START Inv. 2 Part 1
A
START Inv. 2 Part 2
A/W
START Inv. 2 Part 3
A
START Inv. 2 Part 4
A/R
R/W
I-Check 2
Self-assess
A
START Inv. 3 Part 3
R/W
A
A
R
START Inv. 4 Part 1
Review
I-Check 3
Self-assess
A
START Inv. 4 Part 2
A
START Inv. 4 Part 3
A
R/W
A
R/W
A
A
A
R
Review
Posttest
37
–
Overview
FOSS K–8 SCOPE AND SEQUENCE
Grade
Earth Science
Life Science
6–8
Electronics
Chemical Interactions
Force and Motion
Planetary Science
Earth History
Weather and Water
Human Brain and Senses
Populations and Ecosystems
Diversity of Life
4–6
Mixtures and Solutions
Energy and Electromagnetism
Weather on Earth
Sun, Moon, and Planets
Soils, Rocks, and Landforms
Living Systems
Environments
Measuring Matter
Water
Structures of Life
Balance and Motion
Solids and Liquids
Air and Weather
Pebbles, Sand, and Silt
Insects and Plants
Plants and Animals
Materials in Our World
Trees and Weather
Animals Two by Two
3
1–2
K
38
Physical Science

MOTION, FORCE, AND MODELS Overview

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