EFFECT FO DIETARY PROTEIN ENERGY LEVELS ON

Transcription

EFFECT FO DIETARY PROTEIN ENERGY
LEVELS ON PERFORMANCE OF DEBILITATED
NUBIAN GOATS
By
AISHA BABIKER MOHAMMED AHMED
B.V.Sc. (1982), University of Khartoum,
M.V.Sc. (1992), University of Khartoum.
A
Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements
of the University of Khartoum for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy.
Supervisor:
Prof. Amir Mohammed Salih Mukhtar
Department of Animal Nutrition,
Faculty of Animal Production, University of Khartoum.
Co-Supervisor:
Dr. Ahmed El Amin Mohammed
Department of Medicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology,
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum.
Department of Animal Nutrition,
Faculty of Animal Production,
University of Khartoum,
Dec' 2008.
Ahmed, Aisha B. M. , Ph.D Thesis, 2008
Dedication
To soul of my parents,
Who raised me up with
compassion
To my teachers,
Who gave me faith
To challenge the unknown
And
To my family and
extended family
Aisha
Dec' 2008
ii
‫‪Ahmed, Aisha B. M. , Ph.D Thesis, 2008‬‬
‫ال عِلْ َم لَنَا إِالَ مَا عَلَمْتَنَا‬
‫{قَالُو ْا سُبْحَانَكَ َ‬
‫إِنَكَ أَنتَ الْعَلِيمُ الْحَكِيمُ }‬
‫صذق اهلل العظيم‬
‫سورة البقرةاآليت ‪43‬‬
‫ّن لَكُمْ فِي اَّنْعَا ِم لَعِبْ َرةً نُسْقِيكُمْ مِمَا فِي بُطُونِهَا‬
‫{وَِإ َ‬
‫‪‬‬
‫وَلَكُ ْم فيِهَا مَنَافِ ُع كَثِي َر ٌة وَمِنْهَا تَأْكُلُوّنَ}‬
‫صذق اهلل العظيم‬
‫سورة المؤمنون االيه(‪)32‬‬
‫‪iii‬‬
CONTENTS
Page
viii
ix
x
xi
xii
xiii
xiv
Item
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Plates
List of Abbreviations
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Arabic abstract
INTRODUCTION
1
5
CHAPTER ONE
LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1
1.2
1. 2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.2.5
1.2.6
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.1.1
1.3.1.2
1.3.1.3
1.3.1.4
1.3.1.4.1
1.3.1.4.2
1.3.1.4.3
1.3.1.4.4
1.3.1.4.5
1.3.1.4.6
1.3.1.4.7
1.3.1.5
5
5
6
7
8
8
9
9
9
10
10
12
15
17
18
18
19
20
21
21
21
22
Goat classification
Sudan goat breeds
Nubian goats
Desert goats
Nilotic goats
Mountain goat (Taggar)
Baggara goat
Crossbred goats
Goat nutrition
Nutrient requirements of goats
Energy
Protein
Energy /protein requirement
Minerals requirement
Calcium
Sodium
Potassium
Phosphorus
Magnesium
NaCl salt
Zinc
Vitamins requirement
iv
1.3.1.6
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.6.4
1.6.4.1
1.6.4.2
1.7
1.7.1
1.7.1.1.
1.7.1.2
1.7.2
1.7.2.1
1.7.2.2
1.7.2.3
1.7.3
1.8
1.9
Water requirement
Feed intake
Body weight
Goat health
Clinical examination
Physical examination
Environmental examination
Laboratory examination
Blood and plasma parameters
Clinical Chemistry
Wasting diseases
Nutrition-related Causes
Primary nutritional problems
Secondary nutritional problems
Chronic affections
Viral causes
Bacterial causes
Parasitic causes
Miscellaneous causes
Under nutrition
Compensatory growth
22
23
25
26
26
26
29
30
30
32
35
35
35
36
37
37
38
38
39
40
44
CHAPTER TWO
47
MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.2.1
2.1.2.2
2.1.2.3
2.1.2.4
2.1.2.5
2.1.2.6
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.3.1
Nutritional and health profile of debilitated Nubian goats
Experimental animals
Data collected
Liveweigh
Management
Clinical examination
Blood
Serum
Internal parasites
Protein realimentation of adult debilitated Nubian goats
Experimental animals and housing
Experimental rations
Data collected
Performance
v
47
47
47
47
47
47
47
48
48
48
48
49
50
50
2.2.3.2
2.2.3.3
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2. 3.3
2.3.3.1
2.3.3.2
2.3.3.3
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.1.1
2.4.1.2
2.4.1.3
2.4.1.4
2.4.1.5
2.4.1.6
2.4.1.7
2.4.1.7.1
2.4.1.7.2
2.4.1.7.3
2.4.2
2.4.2.1
2.4.2.1.1
2.4.2.1.1.1
2.4.2.1.1.2
2.4.2.1.1.3
2.4.2.1.2
2.4.2.1.2.1
2.4.2.1.2.2
2.4.2.1.2.3
2.4.2.1.2.4
2.4.2.1.2.5
2.4.2.1.2.6
2.4.2.1.3
2.4.2.1.3.1
Blood
Serum profiles
Energy realimentation of adult debilitated Nubian goats
Experimental animals and housing
Experimental rations
Data collected
Performance
Blood
Serum
Methods
Haematological methods
Blood sampling
Red blood cell count (RBC)
White blood cell count (WBC)
Differential leukocyte count
Packed cell volume (PCV)
Haemoglobin concentration (Hb)
Red cell indices
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV)
Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH)
Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC)
Chemical methods
Determination of serum constituents
Serum enzyme activities
Glutamate oxalacetate transaminase (Aspartate amino transferase,
aspartate: 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase, E.C. 2.6.1.1, GOT; AST)
LDH ( Lactate dehydrogenase )
CK (Creatine kinase )
Serum metabolites
Blood sugar level
Total protein
Albumin
Urea
Creatinine
Total bilirubin
Determination of serum electrolytes
Sodium
vi
L-
50
50
51
51
51
51
51
52
52
53
53
53
53
53
54
54
54
54
54
55
55
55
55
55
55
56
57
58
58
58
59
60
60
61
62
62
2.4.2.1.3.2
2.4.2.1.3.3
2.4.2.1.3.4
2.5
2.6
Calcium
Potassium
Phosphorus
Proximate analysis of experimental diets
Statistical analyses
CHPTER THREE
65
RESULTS
3.1
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
62
63
63
64
64
Nutritional and health profile of debilitated Nubian goats
Protein realimentation of adult debilitated Nubian goats
Performance
Blood values
White and differential white cell values
Serum values
Energy realimentation of adult debilitated Nubian goats
Performance
Blood values
White and differential white cell values
Serum values
CHAPTER FOUR
65
71
71
73
73
74
75
75
77
77
77
79
DISCUSSION
Concusion
Practical implications
Suggestions for future work
88
88
89
90
111
REFERNCES
APPENDIX
vii
List of Tables
Table
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Title
Page
Percent composition (as-fed basis) and calculated chemical composition (dry- 49
matter basis) of experimental rations fed to goats at constant energy (9MJ
ME / kg) and variable crude protein (12, 14, and 16%) for 11 weeks.
Percent composition (as-fed basis) and calculated chemical composition (drymatter basis) of experimental rations fed to goats at constant protein (12%)
and variable energy (8, 10 and 12 MJ ME / kg) for 11 weeks.
Goat herds survey at Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of Khartoum.
Goat nutrition survey at Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of Khartoum.
Goat reproduction survey at Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of Khartoum.
Goat health survey at Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of Khartoum.
Goat herds haematological values at Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of
Khartoum.
Goat herds serum metabolites, enzymes and minerals values at Fitaih El
Agaleein, 25km south of Khartoum.
Performance values of experimental adult goats fed at constant energy
(9MJ ME / kg) and variabe crude protein for 11 weeks.
Average (mean ± s.d.) values of red blood cells of experimental
adult goats fed at constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) and variable crude protein
for 11 weeks.
Average (mean ± s.d.) values of white and differential white blood cells of
experimental adult goats fed at constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) and variable
crude protein for 11 weeks .
Average (mean ± s.d.) values of serum parameters of experimental
adult goats fed at constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) and variable
crude protein for 11 weeks.
Performance values of experimental adult goats fed at constant protein
(12%) and variable energy for 11 weeks.
Average (mean ± s.d.) values of red blood cells of experimental adult goats
fed at constant (12%) crude protein and variable energy for 11 weeks.
52
65
66
67
68
70
70
71
73
74
75
75
77
78
Average (mean ± s.d.) values of white and differential white blood cells
of experimental adult goats fed at constant 12% protein and variable
energy for 11 weeks .
Average (mean ± s.d.) serum parameters of experimental adult goats fed at 78
constant (12%) protein and variable energy for 11 weeks.
viii
List of Figures
Figure
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Title
Page
Growth curve of the control group A fed at 6MJ ME / kg and crude
protein 8% for 11 weeks.
Growth curve of experimental group B fed at constant energy (9MJ
ME / kg) and crude protein 12% for 11 weeks.
Growth curve of experimental group C fed at constant energy (9MJ
Growth curve of experimental group D fed at constant energy (9MJ
Growth curve of the control group A fed at 6MJ ME / kg and crude
protein 8% for 11 weeks.
Growth curve of experimental group B fed at constant crude protein
12% and energy 8 MJ ME / kg for 11 weeks.
Growth curve of experimental group C fed at constant crude protein
Growth curve of experimental group D fed at constant crude protein
ix
72
72
72
72
76
76
76
76
List of Plates
Plate
No.
Title
Page
1
Housing facilities of experimental goats
2
Feeding trough of experimental goats
48
48
x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbrev.
Denotation
Abbrev.
Denotation
ADG
Average daily gain
MCHC
BUN
Blood urea nitrogen
MCV
Mean Corpuscular volume
BW
Body weight
MDH
Maltate dehydrogenase
CF
Crude fiber
ME
Metabolizable energy
CK
Creatine kinase
MEa
Metabolizable energy required for
activity
CP
Crude protein
MEg
Metabolizable energy required for
gain
Creatine phosokinase
MEm
Metabolizable energy
CPK
Mean Corpuscular hemoglobin
concentration
for maintenance
DCP
Digestible crude protein
MJ
Mega Joule
DM
Dry matter.
MPg
Metabolizable protein required for
gain
Ether extract.
MPm
Metabolizable protein for
maintenance
FCR
Feed conversion ratio
MXD
Summation of basophils,
eosinophils and monophils
HCT
Hematocrit value
NEUT
Neutrophils
HGB
Hemoglobin
NFE
Nitrogen-free extract
Kg
Kilogram
RBC
Red blood cell
KJ
Kilo Joule
SE
Starch equivalent
LDH
Lactate dehydrogenase
TP
Total protein
LYM
Lymphocytes
UN
Undegraded protein
MCal
Mega Calorie
W 0.75
Metabolic weight
MCH
Mean Corpuscular hemoglobin
WBC
White blood cell
EE
xi
Acknowledgements
First, praise be to Allãh, the Lord of the Worlds, who permitted health and
help to complete this work. My Lord is the hearer of prayer. I wish to express my
thanks and deep gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Amir Mohammed Salih Mukhtar,
Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Production, University of
Khartoum, for his precious guidance, patience and encouragement throughout this
work. I wish also to express my thanks and deep gratitude to my Co-Supervisor Dr.
Ahmed El Amin Mohammed, Department of Medicine, Pharmacology and
Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, for his useful
guidance, encouragement and patience.
My thanks are also offered to Dr. Mohammed El Fatih Awad, Head
Department, Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Omdurman Islamic
University, and to Dean Faculty and Staff. Thanks are extended to the Head and
Staff of the Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Production,
University of Khartoum, and to Hanan Nimtalla Jibril and Afraa Tag Elsir
ElAtta, Department of Medicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of
Khartoum. Thanks are also directed to the Librarians at Shambat Library, Shambat
Digital library, University of Khartoum and the Arab Organization For
Agricultural Development Library.
Thanks are due to Abu Zar Mouhamed A/Elgader, Khartoum Hospital, for
facilitation of laboratory analyses. The help offered by Fitaih El Agaleein people
during the survey is acknowledged, and to Hag Mudawwi Farm at El Dikhianat.
Thanks are offered to Mrs Samia Gasmasseed and Omimah abbas for rapid
and efficient typing of the Thesis.
My thanks are extended to all of my family members and relatives for their
continuous materialistic and moral help and support and to all of those who
offered help, not being mentioned here, to the completion of this study.
Aisha
Dec.’ 2008
xii
EFFECT FO DIETARY PROTEIN ENERGY LEVELS ON
PERFORMANCE OF DEBILITATED NUBIAN GOATS
By
AISHA BABIKER MOHAMMED AHMED
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to investigate the performance and health of
debilitated stray goats and effects on subsequent re-alimentation at different
energy/protein ratios.
Eighty adult apparently healthy female Nubian goats of a debilitated
condition were surveyed in the field for the nutritional and health profiles. Data
were collected on liveweight, management, clinical examination, blood complete
haemogram, serum metabolic indicators, electrolytes and enzyme activities. Two
experiments, each of twelve adult apparently normal female Nubian goats of a
debilitated condition as selected for Experiment 1 were used. They were dvided
into 4 groups to investigate the performance and health values on protein realimentation at 8%, 12%, 14% and 16%crude protein( CP) at constant energy 9 MJ
ME/kg; and energy re-alimentation at 6, 8, 10 and 12 MJ ME/kg at constant 12%
CP. In both experiments data were collected on performance, blood complete
haemogram, serum metabolic indicators, electrolytes and enzyme activities.
Half of the herds in the area were medium in size (10-20 heads). The
Nubian goats were 93% of them and only 7% were local crosses. About 83% of the
surveyed goats had body weight range of 20 – 30 kg. Herds were 86% managed in
the range. The majority (86%) of goats feed on pasture with supplements offered at
the end of grazing. Insemination occurs soley naturally. Most goats (45%) conceive
once per annum. Lactating goats spent 2-6 month on lactation. Ninety percent of
the herd looked normal in appearance. Foreign body appeared in 9% of the goats.
Internal parasites infestation detected was mild to moderate coccidia , mild
strongyloides and moderate monieziasis. Mixed infestations were seen. Values for
white cells were within the normal range. RBCs count was very low; MCV and
MCH values were very high. Values, Hb, PCV and MCHC were within the normal
limits. Serum metabolites, enzymes and minerals tested fell within the normal
ranges except for LDH which was found high.
For protein realimentation at constant energy, feed intake and daily body
weight directly varied with the crude protein content in the diet and and both were
higher in group D (16% CP). The highest crude protein-fed Group D had the best
xiii
feed conversion ratio. All of the growth rates were inferior to the control group
with Group C growing at a superior rate to the other experimental groups. All of
the red cells and their indices, white and differential white cells of the test groups,
were not affected by the increase in CP in the diet, except number and percentage
of neutrophils which were decreased (p>0.05) in all test groups. Most metabolites
and calcium were not affected by the increase of crude protein in the diet.
Creatinine increased (p>0.05) in all test groups, while phosphorus increased
significantly (p<0.05)with crude protein increase in all test groups. The AST
activity decreased (p>0.05) with the increase of crude protein in the diet.
For energy realimentation at constant protein, feed intake was lowest in
group D and highest in group B. Body weight gain was lowest in group D goats fed
the highest energy level. The goats fed lowest energies (groups B and C) had food
conversion ratios11.10 and 10.50 respectively, while group D (highest energy) had
the best feed conversion ratio (10.10). Growth rates of groups B and D were
inferior to the control group (0.72). Group C coefficient (0.87) is superior to the
control group. The RBCs and their indices were not affected by the increase of ME
in the diet. WBC and lymphocytes were also not affected by the increase of ME in
the diet. Lymphocytes increased (p>0.05) in number and percentage in all test
groups while neutrophils decreaed in number and percentage (p<0.05) in test
groups Cand D. Grouped basophils, eosinophils and monocytes decreased (p>0.05)
in number and percentage in all test groups. Glucose, albumin, creatinine, calcium
and AST values were not affected (p>0.05) by the increase of ME in the diet.
Group D only showed a significant (p<0.05) decrease in total protein and globulin.
Phosphorus increased significantly (p<0.05) in all test groups.
Adult debilitated goats though look unthrifty, yet healthy enough to survive
shortages in feed and discrepant management. Due to their age (adulthood) and the
low plane of nutrition received during their growth phase, no compensatory growth
can be expected.
xiv
‫إعذاد‬
‫عائشت بابكر محمذ أحمذ‬
‫المستخـلص‬
‫أجزَذ هذِ انذراسخ نجحث أداء وصحخ انًبػش انُىثٍ انسبئت‪ ،‬انجبنغ وانهشَم ػُذ إػبدح رغذَزخ‬
‫ثبنغبقخ ‪ :‬انجزورٍُ ثًخزهف انُست‪.‬‬
‫رى يسح حقهٍ نثًبٍَُ يؼشٌ َىثُخً هشَهخ و ثصحخ ظبهزَخ جُذح نًؼزفخ رغذَزهب وصحزهب‪ .‬جًؼذ‬
‫ثُبَبد يٍ انىسٌ انحٍ و انزػبَخ و انحبنخ اإلكهُُُكُخ و قُبسبد انذو و يؤشزاد انًصم األَضُخ و انكهبرل‬
‫وَشبط اإلَشًَبد‪.‬‬
‫أجزَذ رجزثزبٌ اسزخذاو فٍ كم يُهًب اثٍُ ػشز يؼشًٌ َىثُخً هشَهخ كًب اإلخزُبر فٍ انًسح انحقهٍ‪،‬‬
‫قسًذ إنٍ أرثغ يجًىػبد نزقُُى األداء وانحبنخ انصحُخ ػُذ إػبدح انزغذَخ يزح ثًسزىَبد‪ % 8‬و ‪ %12‬و‬
‫‪ %14‬و ‪ %16‬ثزورٍُ خبو يغ ثجىد انغبقخ ػُذ ‪ 9‬يُجبجىل عبقخ يًثهخ‪/‬كُهى؛ ويزح ثًسزىَبد ‪ 10 ،8 ،6‬و‬
‫‪ 12‬يُجبجىل عبقخ يًثهخ‪ /‬كُهى ػُذ ثجىد انجزورٍُ انخبو ػُذ ‪ .%12‬جًؼذ يؼهىيبد فٍ انزجزثزٍُ ػٍ‬
‫األداء و قُبسبد انذو و يؤشزاد انًصم األَضُخ و انكهبرل وَشبط اإلَشًَبد‪.‬‬
‫كبَذ َصف انقغؼبٌ فٍ انًُغقخ يزىسغخ انحجى ( ‪ 20- 10‬راص) و ‪ %93‬يُهب يبػش َىثً و‪%7‬‬
‫يحهُخ يهجُخ‪ .‬حىانٍ ‪ % 83‬يٍ انًبػش انزٍ اجزٌ ػهُهب انًسح انحقهٍ رقغ اوساَهب فٍ انًذي ‪ 30-20‬كجى‪,‬‬
‫و ‪ % 86‬يٍ انقغؼبٌ رزػً فٍ انًزاػٍ انًفزىحخ‪ .‬يؼظى انًبػش (‪ )%86‬رزغذي ثبنزػٍ يغ رُبول إضبفبد‬
‫ثؼذ انؼىدح يٍ انًزػً‪ .‬انزهقُح َزى عجُؼُبً فقظ ‪ .‬يؼظى انًبػش (‪ )%45‬رحًم يزح واحذح فٍ انؼبو‪ .‬فززح‬
‫انحهُت ‪ 6-2‬شهىر‪ .‬رجذو ‪ % 90‬يٍ انقغؼبٌ عجُؼُخ فٍ يظهزهب‪ .‬وجذد االجسبو انغزَجخ فٍ ‪ %9‬يٍ‬
‫انًبػش‪ .‬اإلصبثبد انغفُهُخ انذاخهُخ انًزصىدح كبَذ كىكسُذَب خفُفخ انً يزىسغخ‪ ,‬دَذاٌ اسززوَقهىَذس خفُفخ‬
‫ودودح يىَُشَب انشزَغُخ ثئصبثخ يزىسغخ‪ ,‬كًب ظهزد إصبثبد يخزهغخ‪ .‬كبَذ قُبسبد خالَب انذو انجُضبء فٍ‬
‫انحذود انغجُؼُخ وػذد كزَبد انذو انحًزاء قهُم جذًا‪ .‬كبٌ يزىسظ حجى انخهُخ انحًزاء ويزىسظ هًقهىثُُهب‬
‫ػبل جذاً‪ ,‬ثًُُب كبَذ قُى انهًقهىثٍُ‪ ،‬حجى انخالَب انًززاص ويزىسظ رزكُش انهًقهىثٍُ انخهىٌ فٍ انحذود‬
‫انغجُؼُخ كبَذ انقُبسبد األَضُخ‪ ،‬اإلَشًَُخ وانكهبرل فٍ انًصم فٍ انحذود انغجُؼُخ ػذا َشبط إَشَى َبسع‬
‫هبَذروجٍُ انالكزُذ وانذٌ وجذ ػب نُبً‪.‬‬
‫ػُذ إػبدح انزغذَخ ثبنجزورٍُ يغ ثجىد انغبقخ‪ ،‬رغُز انًأكىل انغىػٍ وانىسٌ انُىيٍ رغُزاً عزدَبً‬
‫يغ يحزىٌ انجزورٍُ انخبو فٍ انغذاء‪ ،‬وكبَب األػهٍ فٍ انًجًىػخ د (‪ %16‬ثزورٍُ خبو)‪ .‬انًجًىػخ انزٍ‬
‫أعؼًذ أػهً يسزىي ثزورٍُ خبو وهٍ انًجًىػخ د أػغذ أحسٍ كفبءح رحىَهُخ نهغذاء‪ .‬كبَذ يؼذالد انًُى‬
‫فٍ جًُغ يجًىػبد اإلخزجبر أدًَ يٍ انًجًىػخ انًزجؼُخ وكبَذ انًجًىػخ ج رًُى ثًؼذل أػهً يٍ‬
‫يجًىػبد انزجزثخ األخزٌ‪ .‬نى رزأثزجًُغ خالَب انذو انحًزاء يؤشزارهب وانخالَب انجُضبء وػذادهب انزفزَقٍ‬
‫نًجًىػبد اإلخزجبر ثشَبدح انجزورٍُ انخبو فٍ انؼهُقخ يبػذا انخالَب انًزؼبدنخ وانزٍ قهذ (ة > ‪ )0.05‬فٍ‬
‫انؼذد وانُسجخ انًئىَخ فٍ كم يجًىػبد اإلخزجبر‪ .‬يؼظى انًئُضبد وانكبنسُىو نى رزأثز ثشَبدح انجزورٍُ انخبو‬
‫فٍ انؼهُقخ‪ .‬ساد انكزَبرٍُُ (ة > ‪ )0.05‬فٍ كم يجًىػبد اإلخزجبر‪ ,‬ثًُُب ساد انفسفىر يؼُىَبً (ة < ‪)0.05‬‬
‫‪xv‬‬
‫ثشَبدح انجزورٍُ انخبو فٍ انؼهُقخ فٍ كم يجًىػبد اإلخزجبر‪َ .‬شبط اَشَى َبقم أيُُى االسجبررُذ قم (ة >‬
‫‪)0.05‬يغ سَبدح انجزورٍُ انخبو فٍ انؼهُقخ‪.‬‬
‫ػُذ إػبدح انزغذَخ ثبنغبقخ يغ ثجىد انجزورٍُ‪ ،‬كبٌ أقم يأكىل عىػٍ فٍ انًجًىػخ د وأػالِ فٍ انًجًىػخ‬
‫ة‪ .‬كبٌ أقم كست وسٌ حٍ فٍ انًجًىػخ د انزٍ أعؼًذ انًسزىي االػهً يٍ انغبقخ‪ .‬انًجًىػبد انزٍ‬
‫أػهفذ يسزىَبد انغبقخ االقم (يجًىػزٍ ة و ج ) كبَذ كفبءرهًب انزحىَهُخ نهغذاء ‪ 11.10‬و ‪ 10.50‬ػهً‬
‫انزىانٍ‪ ،‬فٍ حٍُ أٌ انًجًىػخ د (أػهً يسزىي عبقخ ) كبَذ أفضم انًجًىػبد كفبءح رحىَهُخ نهغذاء‬
‫(‪ .)10.10‬كبٌ يؼبيم انًُى نهًجًىػزٍُ ة و د أدًَ يٍ انًجًىػخ انًزجؼُخ (‪ .)0.72‬يؼبيم انًجًىػخ ج‬
‫(‪ )0.87‬أػهً يٍ انًجًىػخ انًزجؼُخ‪ .‬كزَبد انذو انحًزاء ويؤشزارهب نى رزأثز ثشَبدح انغبقخ انًًثهخ فٍ‬
‫انؼهُقخ‪ .‬خالَب انذو انجُضبء وانخالَب انهًفُخ نى رزأثزا أَضبً ثشَبدح انغبقخ انًًثهخ فٍ انؼهُقخ‪ .‬انؼذد وانُسجخ‬
‫انًئىَخ نهخالَب انهًفُخ سادد (ة > ‪ )0.05‬فٍ جًُغ يجًىػبد اإلخزجبر‪ ،‬ثًُُب قهذ (ة < ‪ )0.05‬ثبنًثم‬
‫انخالَب انًزؼبدنخ فٍ انؼذد وانُسجخ انًئىَخ فٍ انًجًىػزٍُ ج و د‪ .‬يجًىع انخالَب انقبػذَخ وانحبيضُخ‬
‫ووحُذح انُىاح قم ػذدهب (ة > ‪ )0.05‬فٍ كم يجًىػبد اإلخزجبر‪ .‬نى رزأثز(ة > ‪ )0.05‬قُى انجهكىس‪،‬‬
‫االنجىيٍُ‪ ،‬انكزَبرٍُُ‪ ،‬انكبنسُىو وَشبط اَشَى َبقم أيُُى االسجبررُذ ثشَبدح انغبقخانًًثهخ فٍ انؼهُقخ‪.‬‬
‫انًجًىػخ د هٍ انىحُذح انزٍ أظهزد َقصبً فٍ انجزورٍُ انكهٍ وانقهىثُىنٍُ‪ .‬ساد انفسفىر يؼُىَبً فٍ جًُغ‬
‫يجًىػبد اإلخزجبر‪.‬‬
‫ثبنزغى يٍ أٌ انًؼشٌ انُىثُخ انجبنغخ انهشَهخ ركىٌ فبقذح نهىسٌ‪ ،‬نكٍ ثبنزغى يٍ شح انغذاء وقصىر‬
‫انزػبَخ فئَهب رسزغُغ انجقبء ثصحخ جُذح ‪ .‬ثبنُسجخ نؼًز انًؼشٌ (ثبنغخ) وانًسزىٌ انغذائٍ انًزذٍَ فٍ يزحهخ‬
‫ًَىهب‪ ،‬فال ًَكٍ رىقغ أٌ ًَى رؼىَضٍ‪.‬‬
‫‪xvi‬‬
INTRODUCTION
The Sudan is a vast country of great animal wealth and diversified climatic
conditions. It is considered amongst those countries having a great agricultural potential.
Small ruminants raising is important and usually may be the only animal source for
people inhabiting forest regions or regions that are not suitable for crop or cattle
production (Daskiran et al., 2006)
Livestock in Sudan is herded by nomads, semi-nomads and transhumans of
different tribes, and depend entirely on range grasses, browse trees and shrubs. Goat
farming is practiced worldwide, with goat products having a favorable image , and the
number of goats has increased globally, even in countries with high and intermediate
incomes (Morand – Fehr et al ., 2004) despite major change in agriculture due to
industrial mergers, globalization and technological advances in developed countries
( Boehlje and Sonka,1998; Cheeke, 2004). New, large-scale mohair industries, and to
a lesseor extent cashmere industries, have been established in Australia and New
Zealand (Yerex, 1986) and are also growing in the United States and Europe. Intensive
goat dairying for cheese production is now a small but rapidly growing industry in the
United States. In Asia, Africa, and Latin America there is an increasing demand for
importation of established milking breeds to improve the milking potential of local
meat-type goats. There is also significant interest in intensification of meat goat
industries in these regions to enhance production.
Goats are of economical and social importance, especially in developing and poor
countries and are therefore called the poor man’s cow (Elhag, 1976). The economic
importance of goats in the provision of animal proteins in developing countries has been
extensively reviewed (Devendra, 1987). As an important meat animal in Africa, Asia
and the Far East, the goat is now emerging as an alternative and attractive source of
meat in other parts of the world (Devendra, 1990). Goat meat production system
1
around the world is extremely diverse and received little scientific attention compared
with sheep and cattle. This may be due to the traditionally low economic significance of
goats in the developing countries. Meat from small ruminants accounts for almost 30%
of the meat consumed in Africa (Reed et al., 1988) and for 50% of red meat consumed
in Tunisia (Ben Dhia, 1995). In the summer season of North African regions,
consumption of goat meat increases traditionally because of the latter low fat content
compared to that of lamb, which meat is the first choice in the rest of the year. That is,
goats play a major role in the provision of animal proteins in this region.
Although goats have been the common source of meat in many tropical and
developing countries (Shelton,1990), goats are also an important milk supplier,
particularly for people in the technologically developing regions, situated mainly in the
tropics (Casey, 1992). These regions account for more than 90% of the estimated world
goat population of 504 millions, with approximately 56% in Asia, 33% in Africa and 7%
in South and Central America and the Caribbean (FAO, 1988)
At present the total population of goats in the world is about 850.1 million
(MWNZ, 2009) with approximately 54% being found in the tropics, the largest
concentrations are in Africa and India subcontinent. The population of goats in Africa is
approximately 218.6 million (FAO, 2003) which represent 32% of the world total. The
Eastern Africa region contains the highest concentration of goats. It is estimated that the
arid zone of the world contains about 39% of the goat population, in spite of low grazing
potential, while the semi-arid zone has the greatest concentration of goats.
The goat population in the Sudan is estimated to be 42756 thousand (AOAD,
2007), forming about 31.7% of ruminants in the country, 18.2% of goats in Africa and
5.3% of the world goat population (FAO, 1999). The goat populations in the Arab
countries count 112961.16 thousand (AOAD, 2007). Approximately 6% of the world's
goats are found in developed countries and 94% in developing countries (FAO, 1988).
2
In the Sudan, goats and sheep, as to many people of the world, play an important
integral component in most traditional production systems. They provide milk for
children, meat, skin, fiber and cash income from sales (Ageeb, 1992). They play a
special role in achieving food and economic securities in developing regions. Little was
done to raise the awareness for the potential of small ruminants, especially goats, to
stimulate their introduction into animal research and economic development
programmes.
Goats represent the most important species of livestock in the traditional
production systems due to their superior adaptation to the environment (Devendra and
Mcleroy, 1987). Their inquisitive feeding habits enable them to extend their feed
preferences and also perform well in situations where other ruminants may not be able to
survive. Goats prefer variations in their feed and they are selective feeders (Devendra
and Coop, 1982). They depend mainly on natural range in the Sudan. Feed selection in
goats is affected by season, availability, stocking rate, previous experience and the
physiological status.
Williamson and Payne (1978) mentioned that rationing of goats should be
realistic and should be based on cheap feed such as browse, pasture and agro -industrial
by-products. Goats generally have higher feed intake than sheep (Wahed and Owen,
1986) and furthermore, they have better digestive efficiency than sheep for low quality
forages.
All breeds respond to better nutrition. Traditionally, feedlot for beef, mutton and
goat meat production depend on concentrates, mainly cereals, oil cakes and some agro industrial by -products. However, consideration of the energy and protein concentrations
of the diet is important. Also consideration of the economical aspect of the feed and its
source is of vital importance. The nutrient requirements of goats were studied by the
NRC (1981).
3
Urban or rural goats receive meager care and almost run astray without proper
management by their owners, hence become debilitated and their production decreases.
The objective of this study is to evaluate the response of different debilitated Nubian
goats to varying energy / protein realimentation.
4
CHAPTER ONE
LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1 Goat classification
Goats are the earliest domesticated ruminants in the world that dates back to
6000 and 7000 BC (Devendra and Mcleory, 1982 and Lillywhite, 2000). Goat belong
to the Caprini Tribe of the Bovidae Family, a suborder of ruminants
(Lillywhite, 2000
and Wilson, 1991).The goat Tribe is composed of five Genera, of which two are true
goats. The criteria by which domestic goats can be classified are origin, body size and
length, ear shape, height at withers and production purpose (Devendra and Mcleory,
1990). In Somalia and in the Sudan, Mason and Maule (1960) reported attempts to
classify goat types into two large long–eared and small short- eared, like those in Central
East Africa where all goats have short erect ears. According to body size and height at
withers, Devendra and Burns (1983) classified goats into three categories:
a- Large breeds: Height at withers is more than 65 cm and live body weight is 2063 kg. They are dual – purpose goats.
b- Small breeds: Height at withers is 51-65 cm and live body weight is 19- 37 kg.
They are milk-type goats.
c- Dwarf breeds: Height at withers is less than 50 cm and live body weight is 18 25 kg. They are meat-type goats.
1.2 Sudan goat breeds
Goat breeds in the Sudan are generally classified into local ecotypes or breeds.
Four local types of goats exist in the Sudan, Nubian goat, Sudan Desert goat, Southern
Sudan (Nilotic) goats and Hill (Tagger) goat (Mason and Maule, 1960 and Muffarah,
1995). Recently many other foreign breeds were introduced to the country and so there
are many cross-breeds. This large population was widely distributed in all ecological
5
zones from arid Northern regions to humid Southern Sudan. All of these goats are
classified as meat types whereas Nubian goat is dual.
1.2.1 Nubian goats
The Nubian goats are found in the northern riverain Sudan (North to Khartoum),
and urban areas of the lowlands of western Eritrea (Gash, Setit and Akordat) and parts of
north- western Ethiopia. Its name is derived from the Nubian tribes (Kiwuwa, 1992).
The climate in these areas is extremely arid except for along the rivers. Pastoral or periurban is the production system. Also Nubian goats are kept by settled agriculturalists on
irrigation schemes along the Nile (Wilson, 1991 and ILRI, 1996).
This goat is well known in the country. It is widely distributed north of latitude
12◦ N (Mason, 1951). The Sudanese Nubian goat belongs to the general Nubian group
with heavy bodies (40-70kg), rudimentary mane , beard and wattles exist in the male.
Height is 70-75cm and characterized by fairly proportioned body size with small to
medium size head, the neck is of moderate length, the chest is deep and the withers are
prominent. The back is long and straight, nose is Roman, large drooping ears usually
turned out at the lower tips. The color is commonly black (Mason, 1951) but pure
brown, pure white and different shadows between them are found. Also multicolouration
of black and white are found (ELNaim, 1979 and AOAD, 1990). Horns are black and
scimitar shaped and sweeping backwards (Mackenzie, 1957 and French, 1942). The
legs are long, stronger and well proportioned. The udder is large and well shaped and
developed (Mason, 1951; ELNaim, 1979; AOAD, 1990 and Kiwuwa, 1992; Wilson,
1991 and ILRI, 1996).
The Nubian goat is dual–purpose (Luginbuhl, 1998). As a dairy goat, yield is
about 1.0 – 1.25 kg/ day (Mason and Maule, 1960) or 0.5 kg / day (El Naim, 1979).
Recorded milk yield in the Sudan is 72 kg in 121 days, and because of their large size;
6
surplus kids are suitable for meat production (Mason and Maule, 1960, Devendra and
Burns, 1970 and Gall, 1996).
Regarding reproductive performance, Nubian goats can give birth 3 times every
two years, with 50% of twinning or triple kids (Abo – El – Azaim, 1996). Puberty can
be reached by female Nubian kids within 6 months of age, and the gestation period
cover146 days Muffarah (1995). Age at first kidding is 12 months and kidding interval
is 228 days, birth weight is 2.3 – 2.6 kg for males and 2.1 – 2.4 kg for females (Gall,
1996). The dressing percentage is 48.1 and 55.8 on live and empty body weights
respectively (Yassin, 1994). Meat from Nubian goat is considered a secondary product
(AOAD, 1990).
1.2.2 Desert goats
These goats thrive in the arid dry areas of the Sudan, north of Lat.12 ◦ N (Wilson,
1991). These goats are related to the Sahel goats, which include many Saharan types
from Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morcocco (DAGRIS, 2007). It is well adapted
to desert and harsh environments and hence called Sahel or desert goat. The body size is
large to medium, both sexes are horned and being longer in the male, twisted and
projected laterally. Ears are moderate in size and pendulous. The coat has short fine
hairs with different colors, mainly grey with black and brown splashes (Mason, 1951;
El Naim, 1979 and Kiwuwa, 1992). Mature body weight is 33 kg and 66 cm at wither
height in adult female. Male liveweight range from 40 to 48 kg and wither height range
from 69 to 83 cm (Gall, 1996). These goats are meat and skin producers (Devendra and
Burn, 1983). The meat quality is good and dressing percentage is 49 % (Gaili et al.,
1972). Age at first kidding is 7.5 – 11.1 months and kidding interval is 238 days (Gall,
1996).
7
1.2.3 Nilotic goats
The dwarf equatorial riverain, goat is found in Southern Sudan, with similarities
to the Small East Africa goat (Gall, 1996). It is compact and small in size and its live
weight is 11- 25 kg. Males are beared and maned and the face profile is straight (Mason,
1951 and El Naim, 1979). Both sexes have small horns. Ears are medium in size.
Colors are mixed but white and black are common. Nilotic goats can resist
trypanosomiasis. There are three varieties of Nilotic goats, the Toposa (Mangla), Yei
(Dinka) and Latuka Baria goat (Jonglli state) (Mason, 1951 and Muffarah, 1995). It is
a meat type with low milk yield (Gall, 1996). Age at kidding is 10 months and kidding
interval is 210 days (Gall, 1996).
1.2.4 Mountain goat (Taggar)
Found in three distinctive mountainous areas, Nuba Mountains (Kordofan), Jebel
Marra (Darfur) and Ingassana hills (Blue Nile). It is highly adapted to thrive in
mountains, and exhibits active movements. Synonymous name is African Dwarf goat.
About 4.5% of the goat population in the Sudan is Dwarf goats. Both sexes are horned
and have short ears and neck. Males are beareded and maned. The goat colors are dark
brown or grey brown ( El Naim, 1979 and Muffarah, 1995 ).
The goat is of small size with short legs and height at withers is 56 cm. Adult body
weight approximates to 20 kg for males and 18.5 kg for females (Elbukhary, 1998)
In Rashad area, Elbukhary (1998) found age at first kidding to be 13.5 months
and kidding interval 230 days. Males birth weight is 1.6 kg and 1.3 for females. Twining
rate is 57%. Dressing percentage is 42.7 and 56.3 on slaughter and empty body weight
basis respectively.
8
1.2.5 Baggara goat
It dwells in Kordofan, reared by nomads and its population is about 800 thousands.
It is considered a cross, between Desert and Nilotic breeds (Ageeb, 1992). Body weight
is 26.4 – 30.8, heart girth 68.8 – 74.4 cm, height at withers 62.5 – 65.2 cm and body
length 58.9 – 61.5 cm. Colors are variable ( Ageeb, 1992).
Age at first kidding is 15.3 months, gestation length is 147 days and kidding interval is
234 days with a high twining rate of (65%). It is meat-type goat and the growth rate is
60.3, 40.8, 38.6 and 26.3 gm/day at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of age respectively (Ageeb,
1992).
1.2.6 Crossbred goats
Crossbreeding of goats is a breeding tool widely practiced throughout the Tropics.
Some exotic breeds imported into the country (1976) were mainly Toggenburg, Saanen,
Anglo- Nubian and Damascus. Khartoum and El- Gezira States were the first places
where early numbers of these crosses emerged (Abo – El.Aazaim, 1996). Crossbreeding
with local Nubian goats was meant for improving milk and meat production (Khalafalla
and Sulieman, 1990 ).
1.3 Goat nutrition
Good nutrition is a fundamental for livestock production. Feed accounts for the
highest single cost of any goat production (Poore and LuginbuhI, 2002).
Natural pasture (grasses, trees and shrubs) represent an important source for animal
feeds. Range lands cover nearly 280 million feddans in the country, producing 77- 78
million tones, dry matter annually (Ahmed, 1998). Darrag (1994) found that range can
not satisfy the requirements of the animals for fodder. Natural pastures are the principal
9
forage available for animals in the tropics but they are highly fibrous, lignified and of
low protein content in the dry seasons (Elbukhary, 1998).
Goats are selective browsers as they choose from large varieties of vegetation types
(Engle, et al 2000 and Lillywhite, 2000). Their grazing habits enable them to survive
the semi-arid harder conditions better than sheep or cattle (Rajapaksha et al., 2000).
Browse yield is important in the Sudan because it forms a large proportion of the annual
need of goats feed especially in the dry season. Goats also complement both sheep and
cattle in marginal grazing lands. This allows goats to maximize the use of marginal
pasture land as well as improved forage production systems ((Nye and Moore, (2004).
Goats feed on a wide range of feeds and preferred plants high in leaves, seeds and
with low cellulose i.e. rough, sparse pastures (Gulteridge and Shelton, 1994 and
Campbell and Marshall, 1975). The goat has greatest range of adaptation and tolerance
to many diseases except in the intensive production, where there may be parasitic
infestations (Devendra and Burns, 1983).
Goats consume relatively high dry matter intake, 3 – 5 percent of its body weight to
maintain itself under conditions unlikely suitable for cattle
(Green 1999). Goats
respond well to increased quality/ quantity of feedstuff (Pinkerton, et al, 1991).
1.3.1 Nutrient requirements of goats
Productive goats require nutrients for maintenance, growth, reproduction, pregnancy
and production of meat, milk and hair. The nutrients that are essential in goat nutrition
are energy, protein and their ratio, minerals vitamins and water.
1.3.1.1 Energy
Energy probably is the best defined requirement of farm animals. Also, shortage
of energy is translated immediately into a drop in production in dairy animals, and over
10
a longer period of time, other effects such as retarded growth, delayed puberty, and
decreased fertility will become apparent.
The ME requirement for maintenance (MEm) was 485, 489, 580, 489 and 462
kJ/kgBW0.75, and the ME requirement for gain (MEg) was 13.4, 23.1, 23.1, 19.8 and 28.5
kJ/gADG for preweaning, growing meat, growing dairy, growing indigenous and mature
goats (indigenous and dairy), respectively. The MEm of mature Angora goats from
multiple regression analysis (at 0 tissue gain and clean fiber growth) was 473 kJ/kg BW
0.75
; ME requirements for tissue gain and clean fiber growth were 37.2 and 157 kJ/g,
respectively (Sahlu et al ,2004) .
For energy use by goats in grazing activities, NRC (1981) recommended the
addition of 25% of the suggested MEm requirement with light activity, 50% with semiarid rangeland and slightly hilly conditions and 75% with sparsely vegetated rangeland
or mountainous transhumance pasture.
CSIRO (1990) indicated that with good grazing conditions, MEa is 10–20%
greater than the activity cost in pen or stall environments and can be 50% greater with
extensive conditions in which land is hilly and walking distances are great.
Nsahlai et al. (2004a) evaluated the assumption of NRC (2001) that MEm is 20%
greater for lactating versus non-lactating cattle; and resultant regression equations
exhibited significant bias when used to predict values with the evaluation data set. Also,
as discussed by Nsahlai et al. (2004a), it is likely that MEm is not constant throughout
lactation, although insufficient data with goats were available to provide a justifiable
recommendation for change.
Luo et al. (2004e) reported a MEm of mature goats (462 kJ/kgBW 0.75), slightly
lower than for growing indigenous and mature goats (489 kJ/kgBW0.75) and suckling
goats (485 kJ/kgBW0.75).
11
It has been usually assumed that goats have similar energy requirements for
maintenance as sheep being 725.8g SE/day/100 kg live weight. The energy requirement
for live weight gain is 3 g SE/kg live weight gain (Williamson and Payne, 1978).
Tolkamp et al. (1994) also did not find differences between sheep and goats in values
obtained of parallel measures of fasting heat production made with adult castrated male
goats and wethers using respiration chambers (Aguilera and Prieto, 1986) were 324
and 272 kJ/kg0.75 per day, respectively. This suggests a metabolic rate 20%higher in
goats than in sheep (Aguilera et al., 1986 and Prieto et al., 1990).
There are few reports available on the energy requirements of goats. Energy
requirements in open range may increase several fold over those assumed for restrained
animals. The social concern about maintenance and renovation of natural resources
(sustainable development), and about animal welfare is growing up more and more,
together with a renaissance of semi-arid extensive systems of animal production
(Lachica and Aguilera 2005). They suggest that the use of tabulated values or the
extrapolation of theoretical allowances obtained for other animal species may result in a
great bias when predicting the energy needs of free-ranging goats in specific situations.
Consequently, the application of a direct estimation approach should be encouraged
whenever an accurate prediction of the additional expenditure of energy under grazing
conditions is required with definite advantages over the use of tabulated values.
1.3.1.2 Protein
Proteins are needed throughout life for growth and repair of the body and for
synthesis of enzymes, hormones, mucin, milk, and hair. As for monogastrics, ruminants'
protein requirement consists mainly of amino acids that are absorbed from the small
intestine. However, these amino acids come from two sources, dietary i.e. post ruminal
and microbial, utilizing soluble protein, nonprotein nitrogen, and ruminal ammonia
(Mary and David, 1994).
12
Different sources of protein vary in susceptibility to ruminal degradation and
amino acid composition. The average concentrations of ruminally undegraded protein
(UP) in blood meal, corn gluten, feather, fish, cottonseed and soybean meals is 80, 60,
75, 60 ,39 and 36% of total CP content (Preston, 2000). Fast growing ruminants have
protein requirements, that exceed the amount provided by bacterial protein, and can
benefit from supplemental protein, that has low ruminal degradability (ARC, 1980). The
use of feedstuffs with low ruminal degradability in diets for high producing ruminants
has received considerable attention in anticipation of enhancing performance (Keery
and Amos, 1993).
Most protein entering the small intestine is from microbial cells synthesized and
feed not degraded in the rumen (NRC, 1996). Microbial protein synthesis is affected
principally by ruminal concentrations of N containing compounds (Hespell, 1979) and
the quantity of carbohydrates fermented (Rohr et al., 1986). When amino acid
requirements are high, such as for rapidly growing young ruminants, ruminally produced
microbial protein may not meet amino acid needs of the host.
Protein level in the diet was found to be of importance in animal performance.
Weston (1967) and Elliott and Topps (1963 c) suggested that dietary protein was the
main limiting to voluntary feed consumption. Raising the level of dietary protein to
lambs resulted in a linear increase of feed consumption and likewise feed chemical
components up to 8% CP level. Beyond this protein level, the increase in feed
consumption ceases linearity.
Vipond et al. (1982) found in ewes significantly more feed consumption at higher
CP supplementation (48%) than lower (13%). The same results were observed with
cattle by Greathouse et al. (1974). Similarly, Weston (1971) found in lambs higher
gains with higher protein diets. Voluntary feed consumption and the efficiency of feed
utilization showed the same trend. Hinds et al. (1964) when increasing the level of
13
protein from 13.0 to 16.2% and from 15.4
to 18.4%, obtained a highly significant
increase in live weight gain and a reduction in feed required per pound of gain. Ash and
Norton (1987) found that increasing the protein content of the diet ( 11.3, 16.0 and
20.9% CP) resulted in significantly greater BW gains, largely promoted by increased
intake rather than by enhanced feed efficiency.
Effects of protein level on growth performance were studied by Atti et al. (2004)
on goat kids. Animals were fed individually oat hay ad-libitum and one of three
concentrates containing low, medium or high crude protein, 100, 130, and 160 g/kg dry
matter respectively for 12 weeks.
During the growth period (first 6 weeks), high CP diet gave greater growth rate
than low and medium ones. Nitrogen requirements declined thereafter and goat kids
didn’t need more than 13% CP. Feed intake and weight gain were the highest with
medium CP level (130 g/kg DM), while nitrogen retention was favored by the highest
CP level (160 g/kg DM). These results are in agreement with those reported by Tegene
Negesse et al. (2001). These authors showed that growth rate and protein retention are
optimum at 136 g CP/kg DM and 180 g CP/kg DM respectively.
Nocek and Russell (1988) reported that if there is deficiency or insufficient
utilization of CP, the digestibility of carbohydrate can be decreased.
Low crude protein level increased the molar proportion of propionate and decreased
molar proportion of butyrate and cellulytic protozoa population (Dayani et al., 2007).
Aharoni et al. (1995) found no effect of dietary crude protein content on short chain
fatty acid profiles in Friesian bull calves.
Growing goats’ metabolizable protein for maintenance (MP m) was 3.07
g/kgBW0.75; metabolizable protein required for gain (MPg) was 0.290 g/g ADG for dairy
and indigenous goats and 0.404 g/g ADG for meat goats. The MP requirement for
14
lactation was 1.45 g/g milk protein, equivalent to a milk protein efficiency of 0.69
(Sahlu et al., 2004).
Increased dietary protein supply, specifically the increased supply of ruminal
degradable protein, increases apparent digestibility of crude protein with warm-season
grass hay or pasture (Olson et al., 1999; Bodine et al., 2000; Bodine and Purvis, 2003;
Huntington and Burns, 2008). The apparent digestibility of CP improved as well with
higher levels of dietary UP. This is consistent with Ferrell et al. (2001), who observed
similar improvement in CP digestibility with soybean supplementation in lambs.
Ruminants can be maintained and achieve some level of production on diets that
contain virtually no true protein (Virtanen, 1966), however a requirement for N to
support microbial growth remains (Hume et al., 1970; Mathison and Milligan, 1971).
Urea recycling between body pools can be significant (Buttery and Lewis, 1982 and
Nolan, 1993) and has been shown to conserve nitrogen when animals are consuming
low protein diets (Egan et al., 1984 and Silanikove, 2000). Cocimano and Leng
(1967) demonstrated that the urea space in sheep consuming low protein rations (35 g/kg
CP) is significantly less than in animals on an optimal or high protein ration (135 or 170
g/kg CP) .
Urine excretion is generally considered a major route of N loss if dietary CP is
supplied in excess of requirements (Siddons et al., 1985; Bunting et al., 1987 and
Freudenberger et al., 1994).
1.3.1.3 Energy /protein requirement
The most critical item that influences feed quality is its digestible energy density
and protein contents. Waghorn (1986) studied the effect of different protein/ energy
intakes on nutritional and physiological parameters in young sheep. He stated that
increasing either energy or protein intakes resulted in higher rates of gain, wool
15
growth, N retention, fat synthesis and higher plasma concentrations of insulin but lower
concentration of Somatotropin. Lu and Potchoiba (1990) used growing Alpine and
Nubian goats to quantify the influence of dietary energy and protein levels on daily DM
intake and nutrient
utilization for growth. Goats were fed on diets containing 2.46,
2.77 or 3.05 Mcal ME/kg plus 11.2, 12.7 or 15.1% crude protein respectively. DM
intake decreased curvilineraly as dietary ME density increased. DM intake increased
linearly as dietary CP level increased.
The digestible crude protein requirements for maintenance are 45g/ 100kg live
weight, while the energy and protein requirements for growth have been fairly well
established. Luo et al. (2004d) utilized a database which included 80 treatment means
representing 466 animals and concluded that metabolic body weight (W
0.75
) is an
appropriate scaler of goat energy requirements.
When Sanjuva et al (1990) studied the effect of plane of nutrition on the growth
of Indian Goddi male goats (at energy : protein 100:100, 115:115, 115: 85, 85: 115 and
85: 85) , he revealed that the growth rate increased significantly (p<0.01) with the
energy level increases, irrespective of the protein level.
Elfadil ( 2001) used different levels of protein and energy in the diet of Nubian
goat kids, and found that the digestibility was better in those animals fed with high
energy high proteins or high energy low proteins. Luo et al. (2004b) determined the
metabolizable protein requirement for body weight gain to be 0.404 g/g of gain for meat
goats and 0.290 g/g of gain for dairy and indigenous biotypes. These researchers stated
that metabolizable protein intake may not have been more limiting to growth than ME
intake.
16
1.3.1.4 Minerals requirement
Mineral elements or electrolytes can be classified according to the relative
amounts needed in the diet, namely macro and micro elements. Macro or major elements
include calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K)
sulphur (S) and chlorine (Cl). Micro or trace elements comprise iron (Fe), iodine (I),
copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn) and cobalt (Co). Essential minerals are those
which proved to have a metabolic role in the body. They activate enzymes which are
essential co-factors of metabolic reactions or function as carriers of protein. They play
role in regulation of digestion , respiration , water balance , muscle reaction , nerve
transmission , skeletal strength or pH balance. Electrolytes can play role in protection
against diseases as antagonists or synergists to other elements, or play a vital role in
resistance, adaptation and evolution of new breeds and strains (Haenlein,1987).
Goats require many minerals for basic body function and production, being
provided as supplement or selected from the range. Major minerals likely to be deficient
in the diet are salt (sodium chloride), calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. Trace
minerals likely to be low in the diet are selenium, copper and zinc. (Poore and
LuginbuhI, 2002).
Excess minerals, such as phosphorus, copper and zinc, when supplied to the animal
always result in excretion to the environment and eventually accumulates in the soil and
groundwater (Jongbloed and Lenis, 1998). Producers are hence advised to calculate
mineral supplement for goats in view of the dietary formula (Poore and LuginbuhI,
2002) or range plants mineral content (Ramirez et al., 2006).
Most range plants had higher levels of minerals during summer. Ca, Mg, K, Fe
and Mn contents in all plants and in all seasons can be sufficient for the requirements of
grazing goats, while Na, P, Cu and Zn (with exception of few species) contents were
marginally deficient in all seasons. However, different plants differ in their minerals
17
content significantly, and depending on their floral density, need may arise for
supplementation during certain seasons. Also, interference between mineral levels
during certain seasons needs to be considered. It appears that ration formulation for
goats should include evaluation of the dominant available plants and consideration of
their probable mineral contents during certain seasons for ration formulation (Ramirez
et al., 2006).
1.3.1.4.1 Calcium
Most calcium is extracellular at a 10mg % and exists in three states free ion
(60%), bound to protein (35%) or in conjunction with organic acids such as citrate or
with inorganic such as phosphate (5-7%) (Arthur and Martin, 1973). In general,
during summer most plants had higher Ca than in other seasons. It seems that foliage
from browse plants that grow in semi-arid regions of Texas, USA (Barnes et al., 1990)
and Mexico (Ram´ırez et al., 2001; Cerrillo-Soto et al., 2004 and Ram´ırez-Orduña
et al., 2005) have enough Ca for optimal white-tailed deer and range goat performance,
respectively
1.3.1.4.2 Sodium
Sodium content in all shrubs was significantly different between seasons. D.texana
and P. aculeata had the highest content (0.3 g kg−1 DM) and B. myricaefolia, C. pallida
and H. parvifolia had the lowest (0.1 g kg−1 DM) (Ramirez et al., 2006). It appears that
all shrubs can be considered as Na non-accumulators because they contain less than 2
gNa kg−1 DM (Youssef, 1988). Moreover, during all seasons all plants had lower Na
content to meet the needs of a growing adult range goat.
18
1.3.1.4.3 Potassium
High potassium content in evaluated shrubs (Ramirez et a.l, 2006) could reduce
Na absorption of goats feeding these shrubs because it has been reported that elevated
dietary K may decrease ruminal concentration and absorption of Na in sheep and steers
(Spears and Harvey, 1987). It seems that a goat weighing about 50.0 kg BW
consuming 2.0 kg day−1 DM of these shrubs could eat substantial amounts of K to meet
their requirements for K for the whole seasons (Ramirez et al., 2006). Similar findings
were reported by Greene et al. (1987), Ram´ırez et al. (2001), Moya-Rodr´ıguez et al.
(2002), Cerrillo-Soto et al. (2004) and Ram´ırez-Orduña et al. (2005) who evaluated
K content in browse species growing in arid and semi-arid regions of the world.
Potassium is primarily an intracellular cation, therefore its concentration in the
serum is low and may not reflect body K status. Excretion is through the kidney in
exchange for Na or H ions. Serum concentrations are responsive to acid-base balance. In
animal acidosis (hyperkalemia), H ions move into cells, while potassium moves out.
Serum level of K is regulated by renal excretion, which depletes body store.
Hypokalemia may occur during alkalosis, as potassium moves into cells in exchange for
H ions.( William, 2001).
Although large amounts of potassium are required, this mineral is normally
present in abundance in forage-based diets and is well absorbed. Possible signs of
potassium deficiency include reduced feed intake, poor growth and reduced milk
production. Severe deficiencies may cause emaciation and muscle weakness. Dietary
potassium is also important in the maintenance of plasma sodium concentration. Levels
of 0.5% of the diet for growing kids and 0.8% for lactating goats have been
recommended, based on requirements for other ruminant species (NRC, 1981).
19
1.3.1.4.4 Phosphorus
Phosphorus is found primarily in cells and bone, its serum concentration does not
necessarily reflect body stores. Phosphorus moves into cells in exchange for hydrogen
ions. Phosphorus is required for both soft tissue and bone growth. It plays an important
part in nucleic acid synthesis, energy metabolism and acid-base balance. The normal
serum phosphorus concentration is approximately 4.2 to 9.8 mg/dl for adult goats and
8.3 to 10.3 mg/dl for juveniles (Sherman et al., 1983). Clinical signs of phosphorus
deficiency include slowed growth, pica, unthrifty appearance and decreased serum
phosphorus levels with calcium. Temporary phosphorus deficiency in the adult can be
met from body reserves, but with a prolonged deficiency milk production decreases.
Animals fed a large quantity of concentrates, which typically contain 3 to 5 g P/kg,
usually have adequate phosphorus intake, and in this instance a relative calcium
deficiency may occur. In general, the Ca : P ratio in the diet should not be less than 1.2:1
(2:1 for males).
Grazing goats rarely develop a phosphorus deficiency because of their tendency to
browse varied and phosphorus-rich plants. All plants, in all seasons, had phosphorus
contents that were not sufficient to meet adult goat requirements (Ramirez et al., 2006).
Ramirez et al. (2001), Moya- Rodr´ıguez et al. (2002) and Ram´ırez-Orduña et al.
(2005) also reported that shrub species were deficient in phosphorus in all seasons.
Ramirez et al. (2006) noted high Ca and low P content in shrubs resulted in an unusual
wide range Ca: P ratios (from 9:1 to 63:1). However, it appears that browsing small
ruminants (range sheep and goats) can sustain these high ratios without affecting
phosphorus metabolism (Ram´ırez, 1999).
20
1.3.1.4.5 Magnesium
The normal serum magnesium concentration for goats is 2.8 to 3.6 mg/dl.
Magnesium deficiency may lead to anorexia or hyperexcitability. Serum calcium may
be low because magnesium is required for the release and action of parathyroid hormone
(Hoffsis et al., 1989).Goats can compensate somewhat for a dietary magnesium
deficiency by decreasing output of both milk and urine.
Barnes et al. (1990) reported high Mg contents (1.1–8.0 g kg−1) in 18 shrubs that
grow in Texas, USA. Norton and Poppi (1995) found that some commonly used
tropical legumes had Mg concentrations that meet ruminant requirements. Moreover,
other studies have found that diets, from esophageal samples by range goats growing in
north Mexico (Cerrillo-Soto et al., 2004), or browse plants from northeastern
(Ram´ırez et al., 2001) and north western Mexico (Ramirez – Orduria et al, 2005) had
sufficient amount of Mg to meet requirements of adult range goats.
1.3.1.4.6 NaCl salt
Sodium is the most abundant extracellular cation. It is excreted primarily by the
kidney. Increases (hypernatremia) occur with dehydration. Decreases (hyponatremia)
occur with dietary deficiency, rapid Na loss e.g. diarrhea, vomiting or renal diseases.
Ordinary diets are more apt to be deficient in sodium than in chloride. Goats that lack
sodium may lick dirt. They also may show reduced growth and feed intake and reduced
milk production with increased butterfat concentration (Schellner, 1972). Goat milk
from European breeds contains approximately 0.4 g/kg sodium.
1.3.1.4.7 Zinc
Zinc is required for the formation of certain metallonezymes. The major
metabolic abnormalities associated with Zn deficiency are caused by a blockage of
protein synthesis, DNA synthesis and cell division. Zinc deficiency in goats was
21
reported to cause parakeratosis, joint stiffness, excessive salivation, swelling of feet and
deformities of the hooves, small testes, and low libido. Reduced feed intake and weight
loss also occur. Appetite was said to return within few hours after zinc supplementation.
1.3.1.5 Vitamins requirement
Vitamins are needed by the body as micronutrients. The vitamins most likely to
be deficient in the diet are A, D and E. For ruminants, all other vitamins are either
formed by ruminal bacteria or are synthesized in the body tissues in adequate quantities
to meet needs. (Poore and Luginbuhl, 2002). Carotenes are precursors of vitamin A in
green leafy forages which are converted into the body to vitamin A. Long-term stored
forages or weathered forages undergo vitamin A deterioration, and hence goats
consuming that should be fed supplemental vitamin A in a vitamineral mix, or should
receive vitamin A injection on drastic depletions (Poore and Luginbuhl, 2002).
Animals confined to barns especially during the winter, may become deficient in
vitamin D. Animals should have frequent access to sunlight to enable vitamin D
synthesis in the skin, or they should receive direct supplemental vitamin D. Vitamin E is
abundant in fresh high quality forages, but it is apt to deteriorate on storage. Generally,
providing some vitamin A, D and E either by periodic injection or preferably in the
mineral mix is good for ruminants (Poore and LuginbuhI, 2002).
1.3.1.6 Water requirement
Water is the commonest and least expensive nutrient, but also limiting to
production, growth and the general performance of animals at insufficiency (Poore and
luginbuhl, 2002). Tropical goats are adapted to water intermittence or shortages, hence
many factors affect water intake. Water intake is higher on high physiological demand
e.g. late gestation and during lactation (Carles, 1983). Water intake increases with
22
increase in ambient temperature and double at 40oC (Maglad et al., 1986). Increasing
dry matter intake, nitrogen, minerals and salts in feeds also increases water intake
(Devendra and Mcleory, 1982). Goats are efficient animals in the use of water. Goats
generally have slow body water turnover, and water intake in goats vary considerably
between 0.68 – 4.4 kg/ day and is correlated to dry matter intake (Devendra and
Mcleory, 1982).
1.4 Feed intake
Voluntary feed intake is defined as a weight eaten by an animal or group of
animals on free access to food, being a complex mechanism centrally controlled with
some local gastrointestinal reflex arcs (Forbes, 1995; Baile and Mc Laughlin, 1987).
Ruminants increase their feed intake in response to an increase in demand for
energy and protein or both (Kenedy and Milligan, 1987). The composition of a diet
determines the animal's voluntary intake. Nutrient imbalance can reduce feed intake as
when ammonia or an amino acids form the first limiting nutrient (Leng et al., 1977). El
Fadil (1995) found that feed intake increased as the energy level increased and reported
values of feed intake by desert goats as 3.68, 4.22 and 4.54 Kg. per week for high,
medium and low dietary energy levels. Seymour and Polan (1986) found that dairy
cows on a high energy diet ate less dry matter and lost more body weight than cows on
low energy diet, whereas milk yield and composition were no different.
For herbivores, the productivity escalates with digestible energy intake i.e.
voluntary feed intake, which is positively correlated with nutrient content and
digestibility of forage (Skarpe and Bergstorm, 1986). Blaxter (1967) concluded that
total energy consumption and ultimate performance of the animal are functions of
voluntary feed intake. Intensive finishing requires high daily gain which increases the
efficiency of feed utilization by adopting high feed intake through
23
ad libitum feeding
or elevating nutrient concentrations by feeding high proportion of concentrates (Owen
and Gray, 1992), but to a diminishing return of feed intake and efficiency
(Montgomery and Baumgardt, 1965; Conard, 1966; Waldo, 1967; Geay and
Robeline, 1979 and Hicks et al., 1990).
Volume of dry matter intake varies with the composition of a diet. With roughage
diets (<65% D. M. D.), large bulk limits feed and energy intake (Mertins , 1985). When
D.M.D. is above 65%, total intake of energy remains reasonably constant for finishing
cattle. Hence, feed intake declines as energy concentration increase (Owen and Gray,
1992). Following, the addition of a small portion of roughage to an all concentrate diet
will increase the voluntary feed intake (Wise et al., 1965; Boweres, 1968 and Preston
and Willis, 1975). The physical form of the diet affects feed intake (Cottyn et al.,
1971), as well as crude fiber content (Debrahanders et al., 1978). McCullough (1970)
reported pelliting supplemented with either concentrates or dried grasses to increase dry
matter intake. Supplemental undegradable protein yielded an increase in feed intake and
rate of gain compared to the unsupplemented lambs (Kempton and Leng, 1978 and
Hassan and Bryant, 1986). When digestible energy is less than 2.5 MCal/kg, Dinius
and Baumgardt (1969) observed that feed intake in sheep is to be limited by gutfill.
Environmental factors such as high or low temperature, wind and humidity can
alter feed intake (Owen and Gray, 1992). High environmental temperature reduces rate
of feed intake and hence affects maintenance requirements and efficiency of animal
weight gain (Ames and Ray, 1983; Deagan and Young, 1981). Ruminants are
sensitive to the ruminal heat produced by fermentation (Forbes, 1980). Summer total
dry matter intake by Egyptian sheep and goats was significantly lower than during
winter and spring (El Mouty et al., 1988). Offensive smell or dusty feed affects the rate
of feed intake. Intolerable smell is of volatile materials given off by unpalatable pasture
24
plants, and it will be rejected by the animal without tasting (Preston and leng, 1987).
Dust in feed is irritable to nose and eyes and decreases feed intake inversely.
1.5 Body weight
Growth is measured in terms of live weight per unit of time in addition to changes
in body conformation and measurement (Pomeroy, 1955). Pattern of relative growth of
body components are not affected by the nutritional experience and that variation in
body composition are largely examined in terms of differences in body weight
(Wallace, 1948 and Tulloh, 1963).
High plane of nutrition accelerates live weight growth well to the genetic
capabilities of the individual animal (Brook and Vincett, 1950 and Pomeroy, 1955).
Wilson (1976) in southern Darfur, Sudan; observed indigenous kids to have a growth
rate of 87 g/ day for the first 3 months growth phase and 65 g/ day for the second 3
months growth phase. Ageeb (1992) reported in both male and female kids of Baggara
goats of South Kordofan, Sudan higher daily gains during the first 3 months. The
average daily gains at different stages of growth were 60.3 ± 22.7, 40.8 ± 18.1, 38.6 ±
22.7 and 26.3 ± 3.6 g/day at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of age respectively. This is a normal
growth curve in which rates of gain tend to diminish with increase in age. Devendra
(1983) in Malysia reported average daily gain in native goat breed on extreme range as
18 g/day up to more than 200 g/day for improved goat breed on high plane of nutrition.
The growth rate of Indian male goats increased significantly as energy level increased
irrespective of protein levels when fed on different ratios of protein and energy
(Sanjuva et al., 1990).
The feed conversion ratio (FCR) is defined as the amount of food required by an
animal to produce one unit of live weight. Breed type, sex and plane of nutrition are
factors affecting the FCR and the postnatal growth of the animal. Rate of live weight
gain for tropical goats was reported by Devendra and Burns (1983) as 0.5 kg per week.
25
Average F.C.R. of 10.76 to 22.52 Kg dry matter/ Kg weight gain was reported in
intensively fed Sudan Desert goats on different levels of feed (Osman, 1984). Babiker
et al. (1985) reported a weekly weight gain for Sudan Desert goats intensively fed from
weaning to 7.5 months of age to be 0.5 Kg for entire and 0.38 Kg for castrates. Babiker
et al. (1985) reported an average F.C.R. of Sudan Desert goats intensively fed for 126
days from weaning to slaughter at 30 Kg live weight to be 5.06 and 6.56 Kg DM/Kg
gain for entire and castrated kids respectively. Bello (1985) fed entire Sudan Desert
goats and their temperate crosses with a diet of 12.75 MJ/Kg DM. Weekly weight gain
was 0.55 Kg and 0.7 Kg for entire desert male kids and their temperate crosses
respectively. He also reported FCR at 8.39 and 7.06 for his tested kids respectively.
Different proportions of concentrate (high -H, medium- M and low -L) to
roughage in the performance of Sudan Desert goats were studied by El Amin et al.
(1990). They observed no significant difference on the daily gain of the animals. They
also reported FCR of 8.3, 9.0 and 11.8 respectively. Entire male Desert goat kids were
fed by Ibrahim (1996) three energy levels, 12 (high energy), 10 (medium energy) and 8
MJ/Kg DM (Low energy). Difference in the final live weight and the rate of weight gain
per week for the three treatments was highly significant for the high and medium dietary
energy levels. The F.C.R. was 7.6, 11.95 and 24.06 for the high, medium and low energy
levels.
1.6 Goat health
1.6.1 Clinical examination
A complete clinical examination consists of history taking, physical,
environmental and laboratory inspections.
1.6.2 Physical examination
It is often diagnostically useful to observe a group of goats from a distance prior
to disturbing them for "hands – on" examination. The animals should be observed at
26
rest, while eating or drinking and during spontaneous and forced movement. Body
condition, mental attitude, and the status of the superficial lymph nodes should be noted.
The temperature, pulse, and respiration should be recorded.
The normal body temperature of goats is usually reported in the range of 38.6 –
40.0 0C (101.5 – 104.0 0F). However, the body temperature of a normal Angora goat
with a full fleece on a hot, humid day can reach 40.30 C (104.50 F) or higher, and goats
of lighter body weight are more likely to have a higher temperature when exposed to sun
than bigger goats (Mc Gregor, 1985).
The pulse can be measured by stethoscope over the heart or by digital palpation of
the femoral artery. Normal pulse rate ranges from 70 -90 beats per minute in resting
adults, but can be double that in young, active kids. Fetal heart rates up to 180 bpm have
been recorded by ultrasound. It may be useful to assess respiratory rate both at rest and
after exercise. Any abnormalities of respiration should also be noted including flaring of
nostrils, extension of head and neck, grunting, abdominal press and so forth.
The heart is heard most audibly over the left thoracic wall at the fourth intercostal
space. Heart rate varies considerably in goats with age and level of activity. Mean heart
rates for small numbers of goats at different ages have been reported from India (Schaer
et al., 1989). Barbari goat kids from birth to 15 days of age had mean heart rates per
minute of 255± 15 and 209± 6 from 16 days to 1 month of age. By 1 to 6 months of age,
mean heart rates had decreased to 142 ± 6 and to 125 ± 9 between 6 and 12 months.
Goats 1 to 3 years of age had heart rates of 126 ± 5 and goats 3 to 5 years of age, 126 ±
7. In one American study, of 100 male goats to 1.5 years of age, the mean heart rate was
96% with a range of 70 to 120 (Toussaint, 1984). In a second American study of 8 adult
females of mixed breed, the mean was 105 with a range of 90 to 150 (Roudebush and
Sweeney, 1990).
27
The normal respiratory rate at rest is approximately 10 to 30 breaths per minute
(kids 20 to 40 /min). In addition, many normal goats will pant and a respiratory rate of
270 per minute has been reported for goats held at 104° F (40°C). A goat with a long
winter coat will certainly breathe rapidly if brought into a warm and humid room.
Notably not every goat that breathes rapidly or harshly has respiratory disease.
Different rates of heat loss and different partition of retained energy between
protein and fat has to be due to a different metabolizable energy (ME) utilization for
maintenance or/and for growth. The values for ME requirement for maintenance and
ME net efficiency for energy retention estimated by Sanz Sampelayo et al. (1995) were
of the same magnitude as those obtained by others for kid goats (Jagusch et al., 1983
and Sanz Sampelayo et al., 1988) and lambs (ARC, 1980 and Degen and Young,
1982).
The increase in ambient temperature through the morning and towards the
afternoon may explain the significant rise in respiratory rate, pulse rate and rectal
temperature for all the treatment groups studied. However, respiration rate showed
greater proportional changes than pulse rate and rectal temperature because the
homeothermic animals initially react to stress by enhancing the thermo-regulation
mechanism, such as respiration rate, to avoid an increase in body temperature These
findings are in agreement with reports on variable dietary energy level intakes in other
breeds maintained in semi-arid hot environments (Naqvi, 1987; Hooda and Naqvi,
1990). The lower values for respiration rate, pulse rate and rectal temperature recorded
in animals subjected to restricted feed may be attributed to their low metabolic rate
during the energy deficiency (Maurya et al, 2004).
The energy requirements for maintenance also vary with environmental
conditions (such as temperature, humidity, and wind) and with exercise. The heat of fermentation normally lost during digestion helps to maintain body temperature of
28
ruminants in a cold environment. In fact, a goat on a high roughage diet has the benefit
of more internal heat production to keep it warm. Animals without active rumen
function must shiver to maintain body temperature. For this reason a 'goat coat is often
beneficial to an animal off feed because of illness or surgery (Mary and David, 1994).
Examination of body regions and systems include mucous membranes, oral
cavity, eyes, nares, ears, and horns; examination of the neck, examination of the chest,
examination of the abdomen, examination of the limbs, examination of the reproductive
system and mammary glands. In goats, the character of the skin and haircoat is a good
indicator of general health. A rough, dry unglossy coat, excessive dander or flakiness,
and failure to shed out in the spring are all suggestive to poor nutritional status,
parasitism or other chronic disease. The hair or fleece should be parted and the skin
examined for lice, ticks, fleas (in tropics), nodules, swellings, crusts, eczema, necrosis,
neoplasia, photosensitization and sun burn and focal or regional alopecia.
1.6.3 Environmental examination
Overcrowding can facilitate transmission of lice and pneumonia and predispose to
herd outbreaks of enteric diseases, some of which can assume chronic forms. Poorly
drained paddocks and barns can contribute to foot problems and coccidiosis;
Chronic weight loss can be related to the way animals are fed. If young animals
can climb or defecate in feeders, then fecal contamination promotes the spread of
coccidiosis. Keyhole-type feeders common in goat dairies may promote the rupture of
head and neck abscesses during feeding, causing contamination of feed and spread of
caseous lymphadenitis. Inadequate feeder space in either keyhole-type or trough-type
feeding systems may deprive individual animals, low in the social pecking order of
adequate feed intake.
29
1.6.4 Laboratory examination
1.6.4.1 Blood and plasma parameters
Mean blood volume as a percentage of body weight is approximately 7.0% with a
range of 5.7% to 9.0% (Fletcher et al.,1964) and Brooks et al., 1984) or 70.0 to 85.9
ml/ kg b.w. (Jain, 1986). Blood volume increases in responses to increased altitude
(Bianca, 1969). The mean specific gravity of whole blood is 1.42 with a range of 1.04 to
1.50 (Fletcher et al., 1964 and Brooks et al., 1984). The osmotic pressure of the serum
colloids is 300 mm Hg. Mean plasma volumes range from 4.2% to 7.5% of body weight,
or 53.0 to 60.2 ml/kg b.w. (Jain, 1986). Mean plasma specific gravity is 1.022, with a
range of 1.018 to 1.026.
Anemia results from RBC loss, excessive RBC destruction (regenerative anemia)
or depressed RBC production (non regenerative anemia), may be due to nutritional
deficiencies, iorn, vitamin B12 and folic acid .
The mean corpuscular volume (MCV) is an indication of overall RBC size. It
increases in regenerative amemias and may decrease in states of iron deficiency.
MCHC indicates the concenteration of Hb per unit volume of RBCs. Reduced MCHC
indicate iron deficiency. An elevated MCHC indicates hemolysis or laboratory error.
The decreases in hemoglobin (Hb) and packed cell volume (PCV) that occur
during the first month of life may be due to iron deficiency anemia associated with a
milk diet. The decrease can be prevented in kids by administration of 150 mg of iron as
iron dextran at birth (Holman and Dew, 1990).
Seasonal changes are also noted in erythrocyte parameters, with greater red blood
cell (RBC), Hb, and PCV values in late summer and fall than in winter and spring. Male
goats tend to have higher RBC counts than females. Pregnancy has little effect on
erythrocyte parameters, but PCV can decrease during the first 5 months of laciation.
30
The goat has the smallest erythrocyte of domestic mammals, with a diameter of
3.2 to 4.2 microns. As a result, standard methods of determining the PCV may
overestimate it by as much as 10% to 15% because of inadequate centrifugation time.
For the microhematocrit method, centrifugation or a minimum of 10 minutes at 14,000
G is recommended for accurate results. The standard Wintrobe method cannot generate
sufficient relative centrifugal force to completely pack RBCs even when centrifugation
time is extended. As much as 20% of plasma can be trapped with erythrocytes (Jain,
1986).
The large size of newly released erythrocytes was reflected in a progressive
increase in the MCV, which was highest from 25 to 29 days after bleeding, but did not
always exceed the normal range of MCV reported for the species. Therefore, the MCV
must be interpreted carefully in establishing the presence of regenerative anemia.
Hemoglobin and PCV levels return to before bleeding levels by 5 weeks.
The mean white blood cell (WBC) count of the goat is generally reported to be 9000
cells/µl in the range of 4000 to 14 000. However, total WBC counts and differential cell
counts may vary significantly with age.
Lymphocytes numbers begin to decline again and remain roughly equivalent to
neutrophil numbers throughout adulthood. However, in a field study with sampling of
1000 goats in Mexico, eosinophil counts in kids younger than 7 weeks of age averaged
0.5% of the WBC count, but 4.3% in adults (Earl and Cartanza, 1980). Guldelines for
interpretation of caprine leukograms have been suggested by Coles (1986). A WBC
count more than 13 000 /µl constitutes leukocytosis and a counts less than 4000 /µl,
leucopenia. A neutrophil count greater than 7200/µl represents neutrophilia and a count
less than 1200 /µl, neutropenia. More than 100 band neutrophils/ µl constitutes a left
shift. Lymphocytosis is interpreted as a lymohocytes count greater than 9000/µl and
lymphopenia by a count less than 2000/µl. Monocytosis is represented by monocyte
31
count more than 550/µl and eosinphilia by an eosinophil count more than 650/µl.
Inflammatory responses in the goat often produce a neutrophilia with total WBC counts
in the range of 22 000 to 27 000 /µl. The maximum WBC count reported in a goat is
36300/µl observed in association with kidney abscess (Jain, 1986).
A mature neutrophilia is often seen associated with stress and chronic infections,
particularly when abscesses develop as in caseous lymphadenitis or mastitis. Acute
bacterial infections can produce a moderate to severe neutrophilia with some degree of
left shift. Acute severe coccidiosis in young kids is a frequent cause of marked
neutrophilia and left shift.
The mean platelet count in the goat is generally considered to be 500 000/µl, with
a range of 340 000 to 600 000/µl (Mitruka and Ramnsley, 1981 and Lewis, 1976).
Lower platelet counts were identified considerably in goats, with an average count of
116 000/µl during the first 2 weeks of life, decreasing to 28 000/µl by 1.5 years of age
and stabilizing at an average 62 550/µl by 2 years of age (Holman and Dew, 1965).
1.6.4.2 Clinical chemistry
Enzyme AST is found in many tissues, including liver, skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle and erythrocytes. LDH is found in most tissues, including liver, muscle, kidney
and erythrocytes. Creatinekinase (CK), an isoenzyme of creatine phosphokinase (CPK)
is found in skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and brain. Enzyme CK increase in muscle
damage. Hepatic parenchymal disease that causes a disruption of hepatocytes can lead to
measurably increased serum levels of a number of intracellular hepatic enzymes in goats
(Kaneko, 1980 and Carnier et al., 1984)
Increases in aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
are not liver – specific and also result from muscle cell damage. Basal levels of sorbitol
dehydrogen (SDH) in goat liver and serum are much higher than those reported for cattle
32
and sheep. Concentration of liver – specific enzymes are generally higher in acute liver
disease than chronic liver disease and may be within normal limits in the later stages of
prolonged hepatic disease, so careful interpretation of laboratory values in conjunction
with clinical findings is essential.
The range of mean total serum protein concentrations reported in goats is from
6.75 to 7.53gm/dl with concentration in individual goats ranging from 5.9 to 8.3 gm/dl
(Fletcher et al., 1964; Mitruka and Rawnsley, 1981 and Melby and Altman, 1976).
Total protein consists of albumin and globulin fractions. Albumin is synthesized by the
liver and catabolized by peripheral tissues. It functions maintenance of OP and as carrier
for transporting various hormones, ions, and drugs. It increases with dehydration and
decreases with the decrease in protein intake, malnutrition or starvation. Globulin
portion of serum proteins includes the immunoglobulins and various transport proteins.
The hepatic insufficiency leads to hypoalbuminemia. Normal serum albumin levels in
the goat are reported in the range of 2.7 to 3.9 g/dl (Kaneko, 1980).
Sources of serum glucose include dietary intake, liver glycogenolysis and
gluconeogensis.
Hepatic dysfunction can also cause hypoglycemia. Normal blood
glucose level in the goat was reported in the range 50 to 75 mg/dl (Kaneko, 1980).
As in other species, the kidney serves multiple functions, including water and
electrolyte balance, nutrient conservation, maintenance of normal blood pH levels and
regulation of nitrogenous wastes. The kidney also has endocrine functions (Nolly and
Fasciolo, 1972).
Recently, the excretion of inulin, creatinine, sodium sulfanilate (SS) and
phenolsulfonphthalein (PSP) has been evaluated to assess caprine renal function (Brown
et al., 1990).
Bilirubin results from the breakdown of heme. Hemoglobin from erythrocytes is
the primary source of heme, but myoglobin and some heme-containing enzymes also
33
contribute. Total bilirubin concentration in the serum of normal goats is generally
reported to be in the range of 0.0 to 0.1 mg/dl (Kaneko, 1980). Increased bilirubin
concentration in the range of 0.2 to 0.8 however, have been reported in normal pygmy
goats, values varying with both age and sex (Castro et al.,1977) As in cattle and sheep,
circulating bilirubin levels increase only modestly in the face of severe generalized
hepatic disease (Sen et al., 1976). The most dramatic increase in serum or plasma
bilirubin in the goat is due to hemolytic crises rather than liver dysfunction (Wasfi et al.,
1976).
Creatinine clearance was determined not to be a reliable measure of glomerular
filtration rate (GFR) in goats, primarily because of the existence of a tubular secretory
mechanism for creatinine in the goat. Urea is produced from ammonia exclusively by
the liver. Urea is excreted primarily by the kidneys. Increase with dehydration, renal
disease, circulatory impairment, mild increase with a high-protein diet. Decrease may
occur with dietary protein restriction. Normal blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels are in
the range of 10 to 28 mg/dl.
Serum creatinine is derived from the breakdown of phosphocreatine, an energy
storage molecule found in the skeletal muscle. Creatinine is found in the skeletal muscle
and the primary excretion is through the kidneys. However, some may be lost through
the gastrointsinal tract. Hence creatinine concentration is related to the muscle mass.
Heavily muscled or well-conditioned animals may have serum creatinine at the highest
end of the reference range. Conversely, creatinine concentration may be low in animals
having marked loss of muscle mass. Small amounts of creatinine also may be absorbed
from meat in the diet. Creatinine increases with dehydration and muscle wasting.
Normal creatinine levels range from 0.9 to 1.8 mg//dl and normal uric acid levels from
0.33 to 1.0 mg/dl. Breed, sex and age variations in these normal parameters have not
been identified in goats.
34
Serum levels are regulated by the interaction of parathyroid hormone calcitonin,
and vitamin D. excretion occurs mainly through the kidneys. The normal serum calcium
concentration for goats is approximately 9.0 to 11.6mg/dl (4.5 to 5.8 mEq/L)
1.7 Wasting diseases
The loss of weight without obvious signs of disease is known as wasting or ill
thrift, which is a common syndrome in goats. While individual goats may lose weight
for one or more known reasons, the abnormally thin goat is often a sentinel of serious
herd infectious, parasitic or management origin problems. Ill thrift in mature animals is
taken to mean that a loss of weight in individual goat has occurred and the goat is
abnormally thin. In growing animals it may also mean that the animal has lost weight, or
alternately, that the rate of weight gain is less than expected from past experience,
known breed standards or in comparison with other animals on the premises.
The numerous causes of weight loss include nutrition-related causes, chronic
affections being caused by viable causative agents and miscellaneous other causes
including dental ruminal and neoplasia (Mary and David, 1994; Merck, 2004 and
Bene and Bene, 2002).
1.7.1 Nutrition-related Causes
Nutrition-related causes of chronic weight loss fit in either of two categories,
primary causes resulting from the unavailability of appropriate feed or specific nutrients
and secondary causes leading to the inability of animals to apprehend or intake feed
even when available (Mary and David, 1994; Merck, 2004 and Bene and Bene,
2002).
1.7.1.1 Primary nutritional problems
In extensive systems, feed availability can be curtailed by sustained, severe
weather conditions such as drought or heavy snow cover, and also by overgrazing, over35
stocking, or failure to provide supplemental feed when nutrition requirements are not
being met. In confinement systems, inadequate feeder space can lead to weight loss.
This should become apparent if animals are observed during feeding. In any
management system, specific nutritional deficiencies may be caused by inappropriate
feedstuffs, unexpected feed shortages, unbalanced rations, inexperience with livestock
feeding and occasionally negligence (Mary and David, 1994; Merck, 2004 and Bene
and Bene, 2002).
Regarding specific deficiencies, inadequate energy and protein levels are most
commonly involved in cases of primary nutritional weight loss (Tilton and Warnik
1964). Cobalt deficiency may be a specific cause of progressive emaciation with no
localizing signs in goats. Goats grazing cobalt-deficient pastures will show loss of
appetite, rough hair coat, weakness, muscle wasting and anemia and may die after
several weeks to months. Copper deficiency can cause inadequate weight gains in
growing goats (Anke, M. et a.l,1972). In stations where forage quality is extremely
poor, with little or no fresh green forage available, hypovitaminosis A may contribute to
progressive emaciation ( Schmidt, H., 1941).
1.7.1.2 Secondary nutritional problems
A variety of ailments must be considered which could limit the animal's ability to obtain
or use feed. These include developmental or behavioral problems. Even when feeder
space is adequate, goats with a low social standing in the herd hierarchy may be barred
from feeding by more dominant goats. Goats with marked brachygnathism may be
unable to prehend and masticate efficiently and will not do well under extensive
management. In the oral problems, the excessive or loss of teeth, a common cause of
thin ewe syndrome, can also occur in goats though it is less frequent, this is because
goats are more likely than sheep to browse in range and pasture and therefore less likely
36
to wear away teeth by grazing low to the ground on abrasive soils. (Mary and David,
1994; Merck, 2004 and Bene and Bene, 2002).
Water intake can also diminish as worn teeth are more sensitive to cold
temperatures. Animals with dental attrition become progressively weaker and emaciated
and can succumb to secondary disease processes, particularly pneumonia and pregnancy
toxaemia. Contagious ecthyma as a soft tissue infection is common in goats worldwide
and can produce painful, scabby legions on the lips that persist from 3 to 6 weeks or
longer if secondary bacterial infections occur. These lesions can impair feed intake and
lead to weight loss.
Animals fed in confinement can readily adapt to sudden blindness if surroundings
are unchanged. Grazing animals on sparse rangelands, however, probably depend
heavily on sight for adequate feed intake. Angora goats with excessive hair covering of
the face, an inherited trait, graze inefficiently because of impaired vision. They may
become thin and often succumb to secondary disease problems. Locomator problems of
the foot and leg can interfere with efficient grazing or produce sufficient pain to keep
animals recumbent instead of standing at the feeders. Weight loss may precede outward
signs of lameness due to reluctance to ambulate and eat. (Mary and David, 1994;
Merck, 2004 and Bene and Bene, 2002)
1.7.2 Chronic affections
1.7.2.1 Viral causes
Caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) is the arthritic form of the viral
infection which generally affects variably the animal mobility and hence associated with
weight loss. This form most often appears clinically between 1 and 2 years of age with
great variability in the progression and severity of signs. Viral contagious ecthyma was
cited above causing oral problems. Foot and mouth disease temporarily affects
movement and prehension due to viral injuries in the foot and mouth. Rinderpest and
37
rinderpest-like disease of goat peste des petits can cause pronounced weight loss and
debilitation in goats during the prolonged convalescent periods that follow acute
diarrheal disease (Mary and David, 1994; Merck, 2004 and Bene and Bene, 2002)
Pulmonary adenomatosis or jaagsiekte is a neoplastic transformation of the lung
possibly caused by a retro-virus distinct from CAEV. It is primarily a sheep disease but
has been reported in goats. The disease produces a syndrome of progressive dyspnea and
weight loss with pronounced nasal discharge over a period of several months.
1.7.2.2 Bacterial causes
Any prolonged infection may contribute to progressive debilitation and weight
loss. It is very likely that paratuberculosis (Johne's disease) is frequent but undiagnosed
cases show progressive weight loss in adult goats. Caseous lymphadenitis is caused by
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis . Tuberculosis is uncommon in goats but sporadic
cases continue to be reported. Mycobacterium bovis is the most common cause, but M.
avium and M. tuberculosis also occur.
Melioidosis infection is caused by soil saprophyte Pseudomonas pseudomallei.
Pasteurella pneumonia of goats is widespread and often becomes chronic due-to failure
of early detection coupled with inadequate therapy.
Peritonitis can occur secondary to a number of conditions, these include rumenitis
resulting from grain overload, migration of liver flukes through abdominal organs,
administration of irritating drugs intraperitaneally, rupture of internal abscesses and as
sequelae to abdominal surgery or septicaemia. Salmonellosis and enterotoxemia present
most often as causes of acute, frequently fatal, enteritis or toxemia.
1.7.2.3 Parasitic causes
Both ecto and endoparasites can contribute significantly to progressive weight
loss in goats, either primarily or in association with malnutrition or concurrent disease.
38
Gastrointestinal parasitism include coccidiosis, nematodiasis, cestodiasis, tapeworms,
trematodiasis, and fascoila spp.
Internal parasites are of universal importance in goats, although the species will
vary according to the climate, management system and breed of goat. It seems goats are
more susceptible to internal parasite than sheep and cattle are. This is perhaps because
they are browsers by nature. Some gastrointestinal parasites are nematodes (haemonchus
contortus), cestodes (Moniezia spp.), Trematodes (paramphistomum spp.) and Protozoa
(coccidian, including Eimeria spp).Of all the gastro-intestinal parasites that affect goats,
haemonchus contortus is by far the most important species. The main symptoms of
parasitic infection are weight loss, reduced feed intake, reduced milk production, pale
mucous membranes, anaemia, diarrhoea and some times death. The effects of cestodes
such as Moniezia spp are relatively minor, except in kids. (Urquhart et al., 1996 and
Ballweber, 2001)
Ecto or external parasites can contribute to ill thrift when infestations are severe
and concurrent diseases are present. Biting lice such as Damalina caprae may cause
irritation to affected hosts leading to reduced feeding efficiency. Among the mange
mites affecting goats are the sarcoptes (Urquhart et al., 1996 and Ballweber, 2001). In
tropical regions, heavy infestations of goats with fleas of the genus Ctenocephalides can
cause anorexia, anemia, weight loss, and even death. Goat kids are most severely
affected. Of the blood parasites only trypanosomes were known to cause chronic body
loss (Urquhart et al., 1996 and Ballweber, 2001).
1.7.3 Miscellaneous causes
A wide variety of poisonous plants may affect goats on pasture or range.
Plant toxicities show all of the range, from acute to chronic symptoms. Often plant
toxicities are subclinical (Mathews, 1940 and Cao, et al., 1992).
39
Progressive weight loss accompanied by progressive abdominal distension
suggests the presence of gastrointestinal foreign bodies. Consumption of plastic trash
bags is common where rubbish disposal is casual and goats forage in urban areas. These
foreign bodies can lead to partial gastrointestinal obstructions, chronic indigestion,
abdominal distension and weight loss. Tumors or neoplasia are an unusual finding in
goats and only rarely cause progressive emaciation (Mary and David, 1994).
1.8 Under nutrition
Undernutrition is one of the major setbacks of animal production in the tropics
(Kallah et al., 2000 and Collins-Lusweti, 2000). A seasonal weight loss of up to 40%
in beef and mutton herds can be expected (Clariget et al., 1998) in extensive systems
with lack of supplementation, as demonstrated by Jordan and Le Feuvre (1989).
Periods of under nutrition due to low plane of nutrition or malnutrition create stress
which often produces bodyweight loss (Meyer et al., 1962). Meyer et al. (1965) noted
that sheep lost 6.1 Ib body weight when fed 70% ad libitum straw and 13.7 Ib body
weight loss when fed on straw alone. Similarly Hadjipanyton et al. (1975) found loss of
body weight from 38.8 kg to 31.2 kg body weight during12 weeks of straw feeding to
lambs. The straw intake decreased with time and was accompanied by increase in the
rate of bodyweight loss due to nutrients deficiency in straw coupled with reduced
energy.
Reduced feed intake decreases bodyweight or rate of growth. Reduced growth
rate occurred when sheep were fed at 52% of the control, and the sheep fed at 20% of
the control lost 5.5 kg bodyweight during 42 days. (Meyer and Clawson, 1964).
Substantial reduction in live weight of Rommeny ewes was observed when their feed
intake was restricted to 0.3 Ib/day, and ewes body weight loss was 20 Ib during the first
21 days of feed restriction. During the following 21 days, further reduction in live
40
weight (12.8 Ib) was reported (Hight and Barton, 1965). Initial live weight was
reduced 33-39% when fat Marino ewes were fed diminishing quantities of a mixture of
lucerne chaff and oats for 50 days. Under feeding was accompanied by considerable
depletion of tissue reserve (Panarito, 1964).
Low protein was reported to produce marked bodyweight loss (Meyer et al.,
1965). Energy deficiency was assumed to be a limiting factor for bodyweight gain,
whereas both protein and energy deficiencies were assumed to cause severe bodyweight
losses (Alden, 1968a and Tilton and Warnik, 1964).
Digestibility of feed governs the voluntary intake. Hay voluntary intake was more
than twice that of straw due to low digestibility of the straw (Campling et al., 1961).
Milford and Minson (1966) observed that tropical grass intake fell when the crude
protein percentage was less than 7%. Intake of hay increased markedly by sheep when
dietary protein supply was doubled to 2.6g (Eliot, 1967). Likely with protein, non
protein nitrogen can affect the same. Campling et al. (1963) noted an increase oat straw
intake by 40% when urea (75 g) was infused of in the rumen. Van Soest (1965) showed
that fiber content inhibites intake of roughages of high cell wall contents (50-60%).
As demonstrated by Prior et al. (1981) and Goetsch et al. (1998), ruminant
serum amino acid concentrations seem to be a consequence of feed consumption,
consequently different serum free amino acid concentrations could also be expected as a
result of undernutrition. Serum amino acid concentrations are expected to increase as a
consequence of protein breakdown caused by undernutrition (Bergen, 1979).
In adequately fed dairy cows, variations of serum free amino acid concentrations
after feeding, tend to show an increase in Ala, Glu, Gly, Arg, His, Ile, Leu, Met, Phe and
Val, the maintenance of Ser, Pro, Lys, Thr and a decrease in Tyr and Asp (Ndibualonji
et al., 1997). A 27 h fasting period in sheep has been reported to cause an increase in Ile,
Leu, Phe, Lys, Tyr and Glu, maintenance of Thr, Met, His, Arg, Asp, Ser and Ala and a
41
decrease in Gly concentrations (Cross et al., 1975). These results are partially contrary
to those of Heitmann and Bergman (1980) in sheep, where underfed animals had
higher concentrations of Gly, Leu, Ile and Val than those observed in normally fed
animals, with no differences obtained in concentrations of Ala, Glu, Ser, Arg, Thr, Lys,
Phe and Tyr. A longer fasting period of 6 days was applied in sheep by Pell and
Bergman (1983) and resulted in an increase in the concentrations of Asp, Ile, Leu, Lys
and Tau, while Thr, Glu, Pro, Gly, Ala, Val, Phe and Orn had similar concentrations to
those observed in normally fed sheep.
Undernutrition significantly affects several muscle characteristics (Bedi et al.,
1982; Crouse et al., 1984; Mosoni et al., 1999 and Ameredes et al., 1999) mainly as a
result of the increased degradation of tissue mass (Wassner et al., 1977) and the
decrease in protein synthesis (Ogata et al., 1978; Fong et al., 1989 and Van Eenaeme
et al., 1998). Increasing whole protein degradation levels are expected to influence not
only whole myofibrillar protein breakdown, but also at the level of each one of the
myofibrillar proteins (Fong et al., 1989), as observed in the chicken (Iñarrea et al.,
1990) and rabbits (Samarel et al., 1987). The trial done by Almeida et al. (2004) aimed
at defining the serum free amino acids and myofibrillar protein profiles in Boer goat
bucks, hence contributing to the establishment of the physiological components of
undernutrition in a species where information on this subject is lacking.
In ruminants, a negative relationship has been clearly established between the
level of intake and digestibility, due to a higher retention time of digesta in the rumen
when intake decreases (Galyean and Owens, 1991). Most experiments in this area were
conducted at levels of intake higher than at maintenance. However, when animals are
fed at under-maintenance level, the effect of a decrease in intake is variable.
Digestibility may remain constant (Grimaud and Doreau, 1995) or even decrease
(Grimaud et al., 1999). In these cases, an increase in the retention time of particles
42
occurs in the rumen, which does not result in an improved digestibility. It is, therefore,
likely that a drop in digestion at low intake could be due to limitations of microbial
activity. Knowledge on the origin of a disturbance in digestive processes in underfed
animals is lacking. Moreover, it is of practical interest to know if animals are able to
adapt to feeding deficiency. Blaxter and Wainman (1964), Graham (1964b) and
Blaxter (1961) all noted in sheep decreased digestibility coefficients of the major
nutrients when the plane of nutrition was increased.
Decreasing intake resulted in a substantial decrease in digestibility. This was
opposite to other observations on the effect of level of intake on digestibility (Galyean
and Owens, 1991), but in accordance with recent results obtained at levels of intake
lower than maintenance. This decrease in digestibility has been especially shown with
forage diets in less drastic feeding conditions (Grimaud et al., 1998, 1999) and with a
concentrate diet given in very small amounts (Gingins et al., 1980). In other
experiments, the low intake involved no variation (Michalet-Doreau and Doreau,
2001) or an increase in digestibility (Kabré et al., 1995). When animals were underfed,
retention time of digesta was very long. This did not avoid a drop in digestibility and
confirms that when intake is very low, digestibility cannot be improved by a longer
retention time of digesta in the rumen.
Energy insufficiency may affect growth and productivity of animals more than
any other nutrient (Blaxter, 1956). Wilson and Osbourn (I960) stated that previously
restricted animals must be fed ad libitum to high plane of nutrition to take advantage of
their compensatory growth potential. Recovery after a period of gross under nutrition in
young cattle has been reported by Waldrop (1966) and Harte (1968). Other workers
(Waters, 1908,; Eckles, 1946; Brook and Vincett, 1950 and Crichton, Aitken and
Boyne, 1959) noted that prolonged undernutrition in the first 8-12 months of life in
cattle may cause permanent stunting of growth. Bohman (1955) noted that cattle under
43
one year of age were slower on compensation after energy insufficiency period and they
needed longer refeeding periods than mature cattle subjected to similar treatments.
1.9 Compensatory growth
Because of their adaptability to a wide range of sources of feed, adult goats do
not lose condition during the dry season (Devendra and Mcleroy, 1987). For growing
goats, gross under nutrition is known to decrease growth rate and if it is severe it may
lead to loss in weight. The enhanced growth noted or the higher growth rate of a
previously (pre-pubertal) underfed animal following refeeding has been called
Compensatory Growth (Bohman, 1955 and Osborne and Mendel, 1915). The subject
of compensatory growth has been reviewed by Wilson and Osbourn (1960), Lawrence
and Pearce (1964) and Allden (1970). Compensatory response of previously underfed
animals on refeeding is governed by several factors, age of the animal at the beginning
of growth restriction, nature of nutrients restricting growth, severity and duration of
growth restriction and plane of nutrition on refeeding. Under nutrition in the earlier
stages of growth is more detrimental to an animal than is restriction at a later stage.
Consequently, the age at which an animal is subjected to under nutrition may be as
important as the severity of under nutrition (Wilson and Osbourn, 1960).
Compensatory or catch-up growth is a rapid growth spurt that occurs in a wide
range of mammals, including humans, domestic animals and birds (Wilson and
Osbourn, 1960; Ashworth and Millward, 1986; Mersmann et al., 1987; Summers et
al., 1990 and Marais et al., 1991). Nutrient composition in diet is one of the factors
influencing an animal’s ability to recover from the effects of undernutrition, among
which the most attention has been paid to protein restriction (Wilson and Osbourn,
1960). A 19% body weight loss in ewes subjected to restricted diet could only be
compensated to 17% during the re-alimentation period of the same duration (Maurya et
44
al., 2004). The higher weight gain during re-alimentation after restricted diet is in
agreement with O’Donovan (1984); Naqvi and Rai (1991) and Oldham et al. (1999).
This may be ascribed to lower maintenance requirement (Thomson et al., 1979). The
overall loss in body weights remained approximately 5% in animals subjected to
restricted diet, followed by grazing/re-alimentation. Sheep fed ad libitum on a 60%
recovered fully to their live weight by 73 days ad libitum feed intake (Ledin, 1983).
Gaili (1975) observed no compensatory growth on rehabilitation of growth
restricted lambs between birth to one month of age and 1-2 months of age. Coop and
Clark (1955) noted that sheep at one year of age, previously underfed, with 13.5 kg
difference in body weight from the controls, recovered completely on grazing for 20
months. Donald and Allden (1959) observed that post-weaning undernutrition did not
affect the productivity in Merino wethers.
It was stated that the more severe the restriction, the greater the initial rate of gain
after realimination, and during a period of under nutrition animals maybe fed at rates
above or below maintenance energy requirements. (Wilson and Osbourn, 1960).
Feed restriction on the growth performance of kids was studied by Toukourou
and Peters (1999). Restricted kids had lower daily gains than the control, but on
subsequent realimination, the restricted kids showed compensatory growth and caught
up the controls in body weight after 10 weeks. Rompala et al. (1985) found that steers
realiminated after a 70 day period of live weight constancy exhibited compensatory
growth between 200 – 300 kg live weight, after which they exhibited normal growth
patterns to the completion of the trial. However, Rayan et al. (1993a) found that steers
exhibited compensatory growth over a much wider weight range (350 -600 kg) spanning
a time period of approximately 11 months.
Gomez et al. (1999) studied the effect of long term feed restriction on metabolism
and tissue composition of adult goats. They found that plasma insulin did not differ
45
between the treatments, but the final live weight, blood glucose, carcass and hepatic
tissue protein deceased. The liver and muscle DNA increased significantly with
restriction. The results suggested the capacity of goats to adapt to long term under
nutrition and the importance of hepatic and muscle tissues as sources of metabolic
energy.
The composition of the diet eaten during realimination has a significant effect on
the ability of animal to demonstrate compensatory growth. Fontana et al. (1992) had
shown that the protein might be a limiting nutrient during the recovery after a period of
restriction. Rayan et al. (1993a) restricted steers for 89 days starting at 250 kg, after
which they were realiminated on a high quality diet (0.9 and 11.7 MJ ME/Kg 16.2%
crude protein DM basis) given ad libitum. This diet was fed until the steers reached
approximately 600 kg. These steers compensated completely. The restricted cattle had
greater feed intake than the controls for about 140 days (day 100-240 post restriction)
offering support to the results of Graham and Searle (1975), who reported that greater
feed intake might be the main mechanism responsible for long term compensatory
growth.
The amount of feed consumed during realimination may have an effect on
compensatory growth. Rayan et al. (1993a) found that during realimination, steers that
were previously restricted had greater feed intake than non-restricted control animals for
approximately 140 days. For the last two thirds of 330 day period the extra growth of the
realiminated cattle could be explained entirely on the basis of higher feed intake.
Increases in feed intake and daily gain after a period of feed restriction had been
reported by other workers (Owen et al., 1971 and Donker et al.,1986). Bikker et al.
(1994) found compensatory gain and feed e,fficiency to improve with increased feeding
level in the realimination period, stressing the importance of the dietary conditions
during realimination.
46
CHAPTER TWO
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study comprises three experiments:
2.1 Nutritional and health profile of debilitated Nubian goats
2.1.1 Experimental animals
Eighty adult (2-4+ years old) apparently normal female Nubian goats, of a
debilitated condition (one third or less of the average normal adult weight, located at
Fitaih Al Agaleein suburb, south to Khartoum, were surveyed in the field using a survey
form (Appendix 1).
2.1.2 Data collected
2.1.2.1 Liveweight
Liveweight was recorded to the nearest 0.01 kg using a pressure digital ground
balance.
2.1.2.2 Management
Owners were explained for the extent of management entities (Feed, water, shelter
and remedies) offered to their goats.
2.1.2.3 Clinical examination
The general health condition of the goats was assessed by monitoring pulse,
respiration and temperature plus observations of gait, alertness, skin and faeces. Mouth,
buccal cavity and udder were examined plus abdominal palpation for presence of foreign
bodies.
2.1.2.4 Blood
Only apparently healthy goats were used to drain blood. Twelve goats, randomly
selected, were subjected to drain of blood samples. A blood haemogram was done.
47
2.1.2.5 Serum
Sera were prepared and analyzed for metabolic indicators glucose, total protein,
albumen, bilirubin, creatinine and urea; electrolytes Na, Ca, K, P and serum enzyme
AST, CK and LDH activities were also measured.
2.1.2.6 Internal parasites
Twelve animals were randomly selected for faecal examination for internal
parasites, using quantitatively the McMaster counting technique. Eggs per gram faeces
up to 500 were considered mild, 2000 moderate and above that were considered heavy.
2.2 Protein realimentation of adult debilitated Nubian goats
2.2.1 Experimental animals and housing
Twelve adult (2-4 years old) apparently
normal female (non-lactating) Nubian goats, of a
debilitated condition, as selected for Experiment 1,
were bought from Fitaih Al Agaleein area to be used
experimentally. The goats were rested, watered, eartagged and allowed one week adaptation to the
Plate 1. Housing facilities of
experimental goats
premises and the experimental control ration. At the
end of the adaptation period the goats were weighed to
the nearest 0.01 kg to mark the initial body weight.
Goats were randomly weight-distributed to 4
groups (A, B, C and D) of three heads each. Group A
was designated as control; the other three were test
groups. Each goat was kept separately in a pen (1x2 m.)
with sandy floor and thatch roof (Plate 1). The pens
Plate 2. Feeding trough of
experimental goats
were adequately ventilated and equipped with watering and feeding facilities (Plate 2).
48
2.2.2 Experimental rations
A control diet (A) and three test diets (B, C and D) were formulated (Table 1).
Smaller to large quantities and concentrated to roughage characteristics of ration
ingredients were milled weighed and mixed manually in respective priority. The control
diet furnished 8% CP and 6 MJ ME per kg. Control goats were ofered wheat bran and
green Abu 70 fodder daily at 150gm and 3kg / head respectively. The test rations B, C
and D provided variable crude protein content 12, 14, and 16% at an increasing protein
/energy ratio respectively with a constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) value.
Table (1). Percent composition (as-fed basis) and calculated chemical composition (drymatter
basis) of experimental rations fed to goats at constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) and diffrent level of
protein for 11 weeks.
Protein %
Ingredient
Dura
Cottonseed cake
Wheat bran
Groundnut hulls
Abu-70
NaCl
Total
Groups
8
A
12
B
14
C
16
D
25
75
100
40
10
15
33
2
211
30
20
20
28
2
211
23
35
20
20
2
211
93.13
7.88
1.85
28.75
46.97
7.68
5.62
1.40
93.44
12.22
3.12
26.33
47.36
4.42
8.55
1.42
93.41
13.85
3.55
25.52
46.08
4.68
8.55
1.58
93.44
15.62
4.12
23.39
45.52
4.79
9.35
1.67
Calculated analysis
Dry matter
CP%
Ether extract
Curde fiber
Ash
Energy (MJ ME/kg)
P/E ratio
49
Individual feeding and watering was ad libitum. Salt-licks were available to all groups
throughout the experimental period. A fixed amount of the green forage Sorghum bicolor
(Abu 70) was offered to test groups at the rate of 200 g /head twice weekly. Experimental
feeding was continued for 11weeks.
2.2.3.1 Performance
All animals were weighed weekly at 7.00 a.m. before feeding to the nearest 0.01
kg using a livestock balance of maximum load 180 kg. The initial body weight was
recorded on the first day of the experimental feeding. Average body weight and weight
gain for each group were determined weekly throughout the experimental period. Daily
feed intake by each goat was calculated by difference between refusals and the amount
offered daily. Data on total feed intake and live weight gain was used to calculate the
FCR. The general health condition of the animals was closely observed.
2.2.3.2 Blood
Heparinized blood samples were withdrawn from the jugular vein fortnightly at 7.00
am, and were analyzed on the same day for RBCs count, Hb concentration, PCV, WBCs
count and their cell differentials lymphocytes, neutrophils, basophils, oesinophils and
monocytes.
2.2.3.3 Serum profiles
Non-heparinized blood samples were withdrawn from the jugular vein fortnightly at
7.00 am, and sera were prepared. Sera samples were analyzed for concentrations of
metabolites glucose, total protein, albumin, creatinine and enzyme AST activity and
minerals P and Ca.
50
2.3 Energy realimentation of adult debilitated Nubian goats
2.3.1 Experimental animals and housing
Twelve adult (2-4 years old) apparently normal female (non-lactating) Nubian
goats, of a debilitated condition, as selected for Experiment 1, were bought, prepared
and adapted to the premises and the experimental control ration as done with
Experiment 2. At the end of the adaptation period the goats were weighed to the nearest
0.1 kg to mark the initial body weight. Goats weight-distribution, grouping and housing
facilities were provided as in experiment 2.
2.3.2 Experimental rations
A control diet (A) and three test diets (B, C and D) were formulated (Table 2)
the same technique explained in experiment 2. The control diet energy and protein
values were the same as in experiment 2. Control goats were fed wheat bran and green
Abu 70 fodder daily at 150 g and 3kg / head respectively. The test rations B, C and D
provided variable energy content 8, 10 and 12 MJ ME / kg at a decreasing protein
/energy ratio respectively with constant 12% crude protein.
Individual feeding and watering was ad libitum. Salt-licks were available to all
groups throughout the experimental period. A fixed amount of the green forage Sorghum
bicolor (Abu 70) was offered to test groups at the rate of 200 g /head twice weekly.
Experimental feeding was continued for 11weeks.
2.3.3.1. Performance
Animals weighing, weight gain and daily feed intake were taken the same way
with experiment 2. Data on total feed intake and live weight gain was used to calculate
the FCR. The general health condition of the animals was closely observed.
51
Table (2). Percent composition (as-fed basis) and calculated chemical composition (drymatter
basis) of experimental rations fed to goats at constant protein (12%) and variable energy for 11
weeks.
Ingredients
Energy MJ/Kg
Groups
Dura
Cottonseed cake
Wheat bran
Groundnut hulls
Abu-70
NaCl
Total
6
A
25
75
100
8
B
30
12
17
39
2
211
10
C
60
06
10
22
2
211
12
D
90
02
02
04
2
211
93.13
7.88
1.85
28.75
46.97
7.68
5.62
1.40
93.59
12.19
3.22
30.55
42.81
4.81
7.55
1.66
93.15
12.17
2.90
18.41
56.03
3.64
9.78
1.24
92.72
12.33
2.65
5.94
69.34
2.46
11.8
1.04
Calculated analysis
Dry matter
CP%
Ether extract
Curde fiber
Ash
Energy (MJ ME/kg)
P/E ratio
2.3.3.2 Blood
Heparinized blood samples were withdrawn from the jugular vein fortnightly at
7.00 am, and were analyzed on the same day for RBCs count, Hb concentration, PCV,
WBCs count and their cell differentials lymphocytes, neutrophils, basophils, oesinophils
and monocytes.
2.3.3.3 Serum
Non-heparinized blood samples were withdrawn from the jugular vein
fortnightly at 7.00 am, and sera were prepared. Sera samples were analyzed for
concentrations of metabolites glucose, total protein, albumin, creatinine and enzyme
AST activity and minerals P and Ca.
52
2.4 Methods
2.4.1 Haematological methods
2.4.1.1 Blood sampling
The blood samples were collected every two weeks at about 7.00 am from the
jugular vein, using a 10 ml plastic disposable syringe. Ten ml of blood were obtained
from each animal into clean dry heparinized vacotainers for haematological parameters
which were evaluated on the same day of collection (Schalm, 1965). During the
collection of samples the animals were kept quiet, as the excitation may lead to
significant change in the composition of the blood (Kelly, 1984). The area from which
the blood was drawn was cleaned with alcohol.
2.4.1.2 Red blood cell count (RBC)
Red blood cells were counted with an improved Neubauer haemocytometer
(Hawksly and Sons Ltd. England). Formal citrate (3 gm sodium citrate, 1 ml conc.
formaldehyde, 100 ml distilled water) was used as a diluent. The red blood cells diluting
pipette was filled according to the procedure described by Schalm (1965). All
erythrocytes in the 4 corners of the chamber and the center squares were enumerated, the
total was multiplied by 104 and expressed in millions per cubic mm of blood.
2.4.1.3 White blood cell count (WBC)
White blood cells were counted with an improved Neubauer haemoycytometer
(Hawksley and Sons Ltd. , England). Turk’s solution (1 ml glacial acetic acid, tinged
with gentian violet, 100 ml distilled water) was employed as a diluent. The white cell
diluting pipette was filled according to the procedure described by Schahm (1965).
Enumeration was of the white cells was achieved by counting all leucocytes in the 4
leucocytes counting squares, the total was multiplied by 50 and expressed in thousands
per cubic mm of blood.
53
2.4.1.4 Differential leukocyte count
The percentage of neutrophils, monocytes, esinophils and basophils were
determined microscopically from a count of 100 leukocytes in thin, Giemsa stained
blood smear (Kelly, 1984). Giemsa stain was prepared by transferring 3.8g of Giemsa
powder to a dry bottle, 250 ml of methanol were added to the stain and mixed well, and
then 250 ml of glycerol were added and mixed well. For use, the prepared Giemsa stain
was diluted 1:10 with distilled water.
The blood smear was prepared freshly blood. The blood was spread using the
spreader slide, then the smear was dried at room temperature and fixed by placing in
absolute methyl alcohol for 5 minute. The smear was covered by stain for 15 minute,
then the smear was rinsed well in distilled water and allowed to dry. The blood film was
examined using the oil immersion lens (X 100).
2.4.1.5 Packed cell volume (PCV)
Fresh blood samples were centrifuged in a microhaematocrit centrifuge (Hawksley
and Sons Ltd., England) for 5 minutes and PCV percentage was read off on the
microhaematocrit reader provided with the centrifuge.
2.4.1.6 Haemoglobin concentration (Hb)
Haemoglobin concentration was determined by the cyanmethaemocytometer
technique using a haemoglobinometer. The method is based on the conversion of
haemoglobin by mean of Drabkin’s solution (0.2 gm potassium cyanide, 0.2 gm
potassium ferricyanide and 1 gm sodium bicarbonate per liter distilled water) to
cyanmethaemoglobin. The concentration was measured in gm/100 ml of blood.
2.4.1.7 Red cell indices
2.4.1.7.1 Mean corpuscular volume (MCV)
MCV was calculated from RBC number and PCV values as follows:
54
MCV (m3) =
PCV x 10
RBC in million/mm3
2.4.1.7.2 Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH)
MCH was calculated from RBC count and Hb values as follows:
MCH =
Hb (g/dl)
RBC in million/mm3
2.4.1.7.3 Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC)
MCHC was calculated from PCV and Hb values as follows:
MCHC % =
Hb (g/dl) X 100
PCV %
2.4.2 Chemical methods
2.4.2.1 Determination of serum constituents
Jugular blood samples were collected from animals every two weeks and allowed
to clot. Serum was separated and stored at -20ºC until analyzed. Spectrophotometer,
Merck Mega, Version 0.6, 1995 (E. Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) was used to analyze
serum enzyme activities, serum metabolites and serum electrolytes.
2.4.2.1.1 Serum enzyme activities
2.4.2.1.1.1 Glutamate oxalacetate transaminase (Aspartate amino transferase, Laspartate: 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase, E.C. 2.6.1.1, GOT; AST)
Serum GOT activity was measured colorimetrically (Schrockert and Basseler,
1971) using test kit (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany).
Test principle
Aspartate aminotransferase catalyses the reversible transfer of an amino group
from aspartate to α-ketoglutarate forming glutamate and oxalacetate:
L-aspartate + α-ketoglutarate
GOT
55
L-glutamate + oxalacetate.
The oxalacetate produced is reduced to maltate by maltate dehydrogenase
(MDH) and NADH.
Oxalacetate + NADH + H+
MDH
Maltate + NADP
The rate of decrease in concentration of NADH is proportional to the catalytic
concentration of GOT present in the serum sample.
Protocol
Non-haemolytic serum was incubated with a buffered mixture of L-aspartate and
α-oxoglutarate at 37ºC for 12.6 minutes. The initial absorbance was recorded 1 minute
after addition of the serum sample and at 1minute interval thereafter for 3 minutes. The
mean absorbance per minute (Δ A/minute) was recorded and used for the calculation of
enzyme activity. The absorbance was read at U.V. wavelength 340 nm. and enzyme
activity was calculated as follows:
µ/L = ΔE × 3489
(Where E= emission)
2.4.2.1.1.2 LDH ( Lactate dehydrogenase )
Serum LDH activity was measured by using commercial kit (Merck, Darmstadt,
Germany) according to Sharma and Datta (1971).
Test principle
It is measured by the lactate librated from decreasing NADH by the enzyme
activity.
Pyruvate + NADH + H
LDH
Lactate + NAD
Protocol
None-haemolytic serum was mixed with NADH + phosphate buffer pH 7.5 and
sodium pyruvate. The mixture was incubated at 37ºC for12.6 min. The enzyme activity
was read at U.V. wavelength 340 nm. The enzyme activity was calculated as follows:
µ/L
=
ΔE × 3489
(Where E= emission)
56
2.4.2.1.1.3 CK (Creatine kinase )
Serum CK activity was measured according Paterson (1971) by using commercial
kit (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany).
Test principle
The measurement of the rate of increase in NADPH librated is directly
proportional to the CK enzyme activity.
Creatinine phosphate + ADP
ATP + D-glucose
HK
CK
creatinine + ATP
ADP + D-glucose-6-phosphate
D-glucose-6-phosphate + NADP
G-6-PDH
D-gluconate-6-phosphate + NADPH + H+
Protocol
Non-haemolytic serum was mixed with the substrate mixture in sufficient buffer.
The reaction mixture contains the substrates, enzymes and cofactors necessary for the
coupling reactions that are ADP creatinine phosphate and magnesium acetate
for
reaction 1., glucose and hexokinase for reaction 2., and glucose-6-P dehydrogenase and
NADP for reaction 3.
It also contains AMP to inhibit the action of adenylate kinase present in red cells
and glutathione to increase CPK activity that may have been lost in storage. The mixture
is buffered to pH 6.7 with imidazole acetate buffer. The reaction was read at wavelength
340 nm. and CK activity was calculated as follows:
µ/L
=
ΔE × 4932
(Where E= emission)
57
2.4.2.1.2 Serum metabolites
2.4.2.1.2.1 Blood sugar level
Serum glucose values were determined using enzymatic kits provided by
Plasmatic Laboratory Product, Ltd.
Test principle
Glucose level was measured according to the method described by Giterson et al.
(1971).
Glucose + O2 + H2O
Gluconate + H2O
2H2O2 + phenol + 4-amino-antipyrine
red chinonimin + H2O
Protocol
Dilute enzyme reagent (GOD + POD + 4-amino-autipyrine) was mixed with
buffer (phosphate buffer, pH 7.5 + phenol). None-haemolytic serum was mixed with the
reagent solution and the mixture was incubated at 37ºC for 15 min. The absorbance was
read at wavelength 500 nm against the reagent blank and calculated as follows:
U/L = Δ A sample / Δ A standard
× standard concentration (100 ml/dl)
(Where A= absorbance)
2.4.2.1.2.2 Total protein
Total serum protein was measured by a colorimetric method using a commercial
kit (Randox Laboratories Ltd., U.K.)
Test principle
Colorimetric determination of total protein in serum is based on the biuret
reaction. The serum protein reacts with copper sulphate in the presence of sodium
hydroxide. The Rochelle Salt (K-Na-tartarate) contained in the biuret reagent is utilized
58
to keep the formed cupric hydroxide in solution which gives the blue colour. The
intensity of the colour produced is proportional to the amount of protein in the sample.
The absorbencies of the sample (A sample) and of the standard (A standard) were read
against the reagent blank in the spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 545 nm. The total
serum protein concentration (C) was calculated as follows:
C (mg/dl) = A sample X concentration of the standard
A Standard
2.4.2.1.2.3 Albumin
Serum albumin was estimated quantitatively by the bromocresol green indicator
method (Doumas et al., 1971).
Test principle
Measurement of serum albumin is based on its quantitative binding to the
indicator 5,5-dicromo-o-cresolsulphonaphthaline (bromocresol green, BCG).
Protocol
None-haemolysed serum was mixed with a buffered BCG reagent and incubated
at 20-25ºC for 5 minutes. The absorbance of the sample and that of the standard were
measured against the reagent blank at a wavelength of 630 nm and albumin
concentration was calculated as follows:
g/L = Δ A sample / Δ A standard
×standard concentration (6 g%)
(Where A= absorbance)
59
2.4.2.1.2.4 Urea
Serum urea concentration was estimated by an enzymatic colorimetric method
using a kit (Randox Laboratories Ltd., U.K.).
Test principle
Ammonia and carbon dioxide are produced when urea is hydrolysed by urease
Urea + H2O urease Ammonium carbonate + CO2
Ammonium ions react with phenol and hydrochlorite to give a coloured complex.
Protocol
The serum was mixed with a buffered urease solution and the mixture was
incubated for 10 minutes at room temperature. The hydrochlorite solution was added
and mixed and the contents were incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes. The
absorbency of the sample (A sample) and of the standard (A standard) were read against
the blank at a wave length of 546 nm and the concentration (C)of urea was calculated as
follows:
A standard
2.4.2.1.2.5 Creatinine
Serum creatinine concentration was measured according to Cook (1971) using
test kit (Merck Mega, Darmstadt, Germany).
Test principle
Creatinine reacts with picric acid under alkaline condition to yield a coloured
complex. The intensity of the developed colour is proportional to the concentration of
creatinine in the reaction mixture.
60
Protocol
None-haemolytic serum was mixed with LiOH and Li picrate. The creatinine
activity was measured at wavelength 524 nm. The absorbance of sample was read as
mg/dl.
2.4.2.1.2.6 Total bilirubin
Serum total bilirubin concentration was measured according to Van Roy et al.
(1971) using a diagnostic kit of Merck Mega, Darmstadt, Germany.
Test principle
Bilirubin reacts with diazotized sulfanilic acid to form an azo dye, which is red in
neutral and blue in alkaline solution, whereas, the water-soluble bilirubin glucouronides
react directly, the free indirect bilirubin reacts only in the presence of an accelerator.
Protocol
None-haemalytic serum was mixed with diazotized sulfanilic acid after the
addition of accelerator (caffeine + sodium benzoate + sodium acetate). A blue
azobilirubin is found in alkaline Fehling solution (potassium sodium tartrate + sodium
hydroxide solution). The direct bilirubin was read exactly 5 minutes after the addition of
serum at wavelength 548 nm. The absorbance of the sample was read against the sample
blank as follows:
Concentration of direct bilirubin = A × 14.0 mg/dl
= A× 240 µmol/L (Where A= absorbance)
61
2.4.2.1.3 Determination of serum electrolytes
2.4.2.1.3.1 Sodium
Test principle
Serum sodium concentration was determined by flame photometry as described
by Varly (1967).
Protocol
Diluted serum (1:100) was passed under controlled condition as a very fine spray
in the air supply to a burner where the solution evaporates and the salt disassociates to
give neutral atoms. Light of characteristic wavelength was emitted and passed through a
specific fitter for sodium ion to a selenium cell and the amount of current product was
read on a galvanometer. Changes in the galvanometer reading for the sample against that
of low standard concentration of NaCl (14 µmol/L) were recorded and sodium values
were calculated in mEq/l as follows:
Sodium concentration (mEq/l) = (T/S) × 140
Where T = test ; S = low standard.
2.4.2.1.3.2 Calcium
Serum calcium concentration was determined by a colorimetric method using a
commercial kit (Randox Laboratories Ltd., U.K.).
Test principle
Calcium ions form a violet complex with chromogen (-O-cretholphthalein
complex one-8- hydroxyquinoline hydrochloric acid) in an alkaline medium (2-amino-2methyl-propan-1-01).
62
Serum was mixed with a buffered reagent and the absorbance of the sample (A
sample) and of the standard (A standard) were measured against a reagent blank at a
wave length of 578 nm and calcium concentration ( C ) was calculated as follows:
A standard
2.4.2.1.3.3 Potassium
Test principle
The method described by Varly (1967) for the determination of serum potassium
is based on the same principle of flame-photometry as in serum sodium determination.
Protocol
The sensitivity of the instrument was varied in order to use the same dilution of
serum (1:100) for both sodium and potassium. The galvanometer was adjusted to zero
using the blank and adjusted to 100 using a high concentration standard of KCl (7
mmol/l). Changes in the galvanometer reading for the sample against that of the low
standard concentration of (5 mmol/l) were recorded and potassium value was calculated
in mEq/liter as follows:
Potassium concentration (mEq/L) = (T/S) × 5
Where T = test ; S = low standard.
2.4.2.1.3.4 Phosphorus
Determined by a colorimetric method using a commercial kit (Randox
Laboratories Ltd, U.K.).
63
Test principle
In nitric acid phosphate forms a coloured complex with molybdate and a
reductant.
Serum was added to trichloroacetic acid for deproteinization, then the supernatant
was added to the reductant and molybdate and the absorbance of the sample was read
against a blank at a wavelength of 405 nm. Phosphorus concentration (C) was calculated
as follows:
C (mg/dl) = 42.2 X A sample.
2.5 Proximate analysis of experimental diets
Samples of experimental diets were approximately analyzed, on dry-matter basis,
for moisture, ash, crude protein, crude fiber, ether extract (fat) and nitrogen free-extract
by the procedure described by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists
(AOAC, 1980). Results were expressed as percentage composition.
2.6 Statistical analyses
Results of the survey data were expressed as percentages. Growth curves were
drawn lineary as regression of weight on time. Mean test values in blood and serum
were compared to the control using the unpaired students' t-test (Snedecor and
Chochran, 1967).
64
CHAPTER THREE
RESULTS
3.1 Nutritional and health profile of debilitated Nubian goats
In the goat herds survey (Table 3), eighty female goats raised as dairy, at age
range 1-4 +years were surveyed. Half of the herds in the area were medium in size (1020 heads).
Table 3. Goat herds survey at Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of Khartoum.
Domain
Herd size
(from which the sample was
selected)
Ecotypes
Age
Sex
Body weight
Production purpose
Herd manager
Site
Item
< 10
10-20
20-50
> 50
Nubian
Local crosses
Foreign crosses
1-2yrs
2-4yrs
> 4yrs
Male
Female
20-30kg
30-50kg
Milk
Meat
Dual
Owner
Other
Other with pay
Non spcefic
Farm
Indoors
Range
Number of heads
14
40
26
0
74
6
0
7
32
35
0
80
57
11
80
0
0
61
0
18
0
0
11
67
%
17%
50%
33%
0
93%
07%
0
10%
43%
47%
0
100%
83%
17%
100%
0
0
77%
0
23%
0
0
14%
86%
The Nubian goats were 93% of them and only 7% were local crosses. About 83%
of the surveyed goats had body weighed range 20 – 30 kg. Herds were mostly (77%)
65
managed by their owners or with pay to others (23%). Herds were 86% managed in the
range.
Table 4 shows goat nutrition survey. The majority (86%) of goats feed on pasture
with supplements offered at the end of grazing. Other minority (14%) goats are fed in
the backyard. Cakes feeding-frequency only values 3% of the herds. Water (of 46%
purity) is sometimes available from pipes and/or the Nile. Some 54% of the owners mixin Dura flour as supplement.
Table 4. Goat nutrition survey at Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of Khartoum.
Domain
Feed
Feed offer
Cakes feeding frequency
Water
Water quality
Water availability
Item
Pasture+ supplement
Backyard
1-2Kg/day
>2Kg/day
Unweighed
Always
Once daily
Twice daily
None
Pipes
Pipes and Nile
Pure
Contaminated
Mixed with salt
Mix with dura flour
All the time
Some times
Number of Heads
67
11
0
0
80
0
0
2
69
60
18
36
0
0
42
0
80
%
86%
14
0
0
100%
0
0
3%
97%
77%
23%
46%
0
0
54%
0
100%
Table 5 shows goat reproduction survey. Herds with males constituting 5-10%
were 41%. Insemination occurs soley naturally, where males originating from within the
herd were 55% .Other males (45%) come from the surrounding farms.
66
Only 32% of the herd females were conceiving with 40% of the herd females having 2-4
conceptions and normal (93%) deliveries. Most goats (45%) conceive once per annum
with 49% of the herd females giving single kids. Lactating goats were 69% of the herd
with 67% of them spent 2-6 month on lactation.
Table 5. Goat reproduction survey at Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of Khartoum.
Domain
Males
Insemination
Source of male
Pregnancy
Times pregnant
Pregnancy frequency
Twinning
Delivery
Births
Lactation
Period lactating
Item
< 5%
5-10%
0% (Females only)
Artificial
Natural
Within herd
Surrounding farms
Conceiving
Non conceiving
1-2
2-4
>4
Once per annum
Once every 2 yrs..
Other
Twins always
Single always
No pattern
Normal
Abnormal
1-2
2-4
>4
Lactating
Dry
One month
2-3 months
4-6 months
>6 months
67
Number of heads
16
32
30
0
80
42
35
23
50
24
26
16
36
24
20
21
39
20
74
6
21
22
12
54
24
1
20
14
16
%
21%
41%
38%
0
100%
55%
45%
32%
68%
36%
40%
24%
45%
30%
25%
26%
49%
25%
93%
7%
38%
40%
22%
69%
31%
2%
39%
28%
31%
In goat health survey (Table 6), 90% of the herd looks normal in appearance.
Foreign body appeared in 9% of the goats. On clinical examination parameters were
normal (100%) or up to 76% normal. Internal parasites infestation detected were
coccidia (mild 25% and moderate 17%), strongyloides (mild 8.5%) and moniezia
(moderate 8.5%). Mixed infestations were seen with either strongyloides (17%) or
moniezia (8.5%) with coccidia
In about 87% of heads remedies were given as
treatment but only at need.
Table 6. Goat health survey at Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of Khartoum.
Domain
Remedies
Remedy frequency
Health appearance
Gait
Abdominal palpation
Respiratory rate
Pulse rate
Temperature
Hair coverage, length
and color
Item
Prevention
Treatment
Additives
Weekly
Monthly
At need
Normal
Abnormal
Normal
Abnomarl
Foreign body
Nothing
Normal
Abnormal
Normal range 60-70
Normal range 70-80
Normal range 80-90
<95
Normal
Abnormal
Normal
Allopecic
Long
Short
Black
Black + Other
68
Number of heads
10
68
0
0
0
80
72
8
80
0
7
73
80
0
15
25
28
8
80
0
79
1
39
8
74
6
%
13%
87%
0
0
0
100%
90%
10%
100%
0
9%
91%
100%
0
20%
33%
37%
10%
100%
0
99%
1%
83%
17%
93%
7%
Table 6. Continued
Skin
Udder
Buccal cavity
Teeth
Tounge
Lacrimation
Nasal discharge
Vaginal discharge
Pneumonia
External parasites
Internal parasites
Feacal consistency
Normal
Abnormal
Normal
Abnormal
Normal
Abnormal
Normal
Abnormal
Normal
Abnormal
Normal
Abnormal
Normal
Abnormal
Normal
Abnormal
Diagnosed
Free
None
Average
High
Mild Coccidia
Moderate Coccidian
Mild Moniezia + Coccidia
Moderate Moniezia
Mild Strongyloides
Mild Strongyloides +
Coccidia
Normal
Abnormal
78
2
78
2
79
1
78
2
80
80
74
6
80
11
69
61
19
0
3
2
1
1
1
2
97%
3%
97%
3%
99%
1%
97%
3%
100%
100%
93%
7%
100%
13%
87%
76%
24%
0
25
17
8.5
8.5
8.5
17
80
0
100%
0
Table 7 shows haematological values for 12 heads, randomly selected out of the
surveyed adult goats. The average values for white cells were within the normal range of
reference values. Of the red blood cells values, HB, HCT and MCHC were within the
normal limits. MCV and MCH values were very high and RBCs count was very low
compared to literature values.
69
Table 7. Goat herds haematological values at Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of
Khartoum.
Item
White cells
Parameter
WBC (µl)
LYM (µl)
LYM %
Bas.+Eosino.+ Mono./µl
Bas.+ Eosino.+Mono.(%)
Neutr. ((µl)
Neutr. (%)
RBC (µl)
HGB (dl)
HCT (%)
MCV (fl)
MCH (pg)
MCHC (dl)
Red blood Cells
Number of
heads
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
Mean ±
s.d.
18.39 ± 4.52
10.23 ±3.77
55.85 ±12.89
3.10 ± 3.20
14.40 ±11.61
6.03 ±2.14
30.77 ± 3.75
2.80 ± 0.44
8.88 ± 1.08
29.61 ± 4.86
105.86 ± 8.18
32.14 ± 4.33
30.49 ± 4.66
Table 8 shows serum metabolites, enzymes and minerals values for 12 heads,
randomly selected out of the surveyed adult goats. All parameters tested fell within the
normal ranges cited in the literature, except for LDH which was found high.
Table 8. Goat herds serum metabolites, enzymes and minerals values at Fitaih El
Agaleein, 25 km south of Khartoum.
Item
Parameter
Serum metabolites
Glucose (mg/dl)
Serum enzymes
Urea (g/dl)
Total Protein (g/dl)
Albumin (g/dl)
Globulin (g/dl)
Total bilirubin (g/dl)
Creatinine (mg/dl)
AST(µl)
CK (CPK)
LDH
Na (mg/dl)
Ca (mg/dl)
K (mg/dl)
P(mg/dl)
Serum minerals
70
Number of
heads
12
Mean ±
s.d.
52.92 ± 16.09
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
27.50 ±12.76
6.50 ± 0.65
3.57 ± 0.92
3.02 ± 0.92
0.20 ± 0.06
0.50 ± 0.12
133.14 ± 18.90
192.33 ± 143.19
834.08 ± 134.99
141.75 ± 1.96
9.63 ±0.75
4.37 ± 0.30
5.02± 2.40
3.2 Protein realimentation of adult debilitated Nubian goats
3.2.1 Performance
Table 9 shows performance values of experimental adult goats fed at constant
energy (9MJ ME / kg) and variable crude protein for 11 weeks. Feed intake directly
variated with the crude protein content in the diet. Feed intake was higher in group D
(16% CP) than groups B and C 12% and 14% crude protein respectively.
Daily body weight gain was higher for goats fed the highest crude protein (group
D) than for those fed 12 and 14% CP in the diet in a linear response. The highest crude
protein-fed group D had the lowest food conversion ratio comparable for the other two
groups B and C.
Table 9. Performance values of experimental adult goats fed at constant energy (9MJ ME / kg)
and variabe crude protein for 11 weeks.
Item
A
control
B
12%CP
C
14%CP
D
16%CP
Initial weight (Kg)
17.70
17.60
17.30
16.50
Final weight (Kg)
19.00
21.10
21.30
21.30
Total weight gain (Kg)
1.30
3.50
4.00
4.80
Daily weight gain (gm)
17.00
45.50
51.90
62.30
Total feed intake (Kg)
40.23
40.70
43.17
44.67
Daily feed intake (gm)
523.0
529.0
561.0
580.0
Daily energy intake (MJ)
3.10
4.76
5.05
5.22
FCR
31.00
11.60
10.80
09.30
Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 show growth curves of experimental groups A, B, C and D.
Regression coefficients were inferior to the control group (0.72). Group C coefficient
(0.66) is superior to the other two groups B and D.
71
gr.1
Observed
19.50
Y = 0.72 x + 17.21
SE 0.138
Linear
19.00
Figure 1. Growth curve of the control group
A fed at 6MJ ME / kg and crude protein 8%
for 11 weeks.
18.50
18.00
17.50
17.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
weeks
gr.2
Observed
25.00
Y = 0.535 x + 16.73 SE
22.50
Figure 2. Growth curve of experimental
group B fed at constant energy (9MJ ME /
kg) and crude protein 12% for 11 weeks .
Linear
0.637
20.00
17.50
15.00
12.50
10.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
weeks
gr.3
Observed
Y = 0.656 x + 16.36 SE 0.486
Linear
22.00
group C fed at constant energy (9MJ
ME / kg) and crude protein 14% for 11
weeks.
20.00
18.00
Y = 0.559 x + 17.03
SE 0.645
16.00
14.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
weeks
gr.4
Observed
25.00
Y = 0.559 x + 17.03 SE 0.645
group D fed at constant energy (9MJ
ME / kg) and crude protein 16% for 11
weeks.
Linear
22.50
20.00
Y = 0.559 x + 17.03
17.50
SE 0.645
15.00
12.50
10.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
weeks
72
8.00
10.00
12.00
3.2.2 Blood values
Table 10 shows average values of red blood cells of experimental adult goats fed at
constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) and variable crude protein for 11 weeks. All of the red
cells and their indices of the test groups were not affected (p>0.05) by the increase in CP
in the diet.
Table (10). Average (mean ± s.d.) values of red blood cells of experimental
adult goats fed at constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) and variable crude protein
for 11 weeks.
Treatment
A
(8% CP
6MJ)
B
(12% CP
9MJ)
C
(14% CP
9MJ)
D
16% CP
9MJ)
RBC
106 / mm3
HGB
g/dl
HCT
%
MCV
mm3
MCH
g/dl
MCHC
%
2.40±
0.53
8.99±
1.62
25.71±
7.31
105.68±
12.06
37.66±
2.26
36.26±
6.62
1.93±
0.77 NS
7.65±
2.35 NS
20.15±
8.65 NS
105.80±
13.45 NS
41.14±
7.02 NS
39.63±
6.42 NS
2.20 ±
0.44 NS
9.16 ±
0.87 NS
24.90±
6.32 NS
112.41±
8.70 NS
42.79±
7.63 NS
38.36±
7.61 NS
2.24±
0.40NS
8.61±
1.24 NS
24.41±
6.25 NS
107.99±
13.43 NS
38.62±
2.34 NS
36.31±
5.22 NS
3.2.3 White and differential white cell values
Table 11 shows average values of white and differential white blood cells of
experimental adult goats fed at constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) and variable crude
protein for 11 weeks. Values of total WBC, lymphocytes, grouped basophils, eosinophils
and monocytes and neutrophils all in number and percentage were not affected (p> 0.05)
by the increase of crude protein in the diet.
73
Table (11). Average (mean ± s.d.) values of white and differential white blood cells of
experimental adult goats fed at constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) and variable crude protein for 11
weeks .
Parameters
Treatments
A
(8% CP
6MJ)
B
(12% CP
9MJ)
C
(14% CP
9MJ)
D
16% CP
9MJ)
Total
WBC
/µl
12.17±
2.57
13.49±
2.23 NS
13.24±
4.40 NS
11.88±
2.20 NS
Lympho.
Lymph.
/µl
%
5.20±
42.37±
2.24
16.49
8.83±
63.26±
2.65 NS
11.25 NS
7.92±
56.52±
3.44 NS
11.47 NS
6.07±
50.90 ±
1.41 NS
6.32 NS
Bas.+
Eosino.+
Mono.
/µl
Bas.+
Eosino.+
Mono.
%
2.60±
1.13
Neutr.
/µl
Neutr.
%
18.35±
6.15
6.45±
0.78
50.85±
10.63
1.10 ±
0.60NS
8.90 ±
2.54NS
5.40 ±
1.46 NS
33.39±
9.55 NS
1.40±
0.68 NS
11.50±
6.58 NS
4.25±
1.68 NS
35.07±
7.69 NS
1.13±
0.59 NS
8.93±
2.45 NS
5.13±
1.36 NS
42.56 ±
6.23 NS
3.2.4 Serum values
Table 12 shows average serum parameters of experimental adult goats fed at
constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) and variable crude protein for 11 weeks. Glucose, total
protein, albumin, globulin and calcium were not affected (p>0.05) by the increase of
crude protein in the diet, while phosphorus increased significantly (p< 0. 05) with
increase of crude protein in the diet of all test groups. Creatinine increased (p> 0.05)
with the increase of crude protein in the diet. The AST activity decreased (p> 0.05) with
the increase of crude protein in the diet.
74
Table (12). Average (mean ± s.d.) values of serum parameters of experimental adult goats
fed at constant energy (9MJ ME / kg) and variable crude protein for 11 weeks .
Group
A
C P 8%, 6 MJ
B
12%
Glucose
mg%
42.00 ±
7.38
45.33±
5.63 NS
TP
g/dl
7.64±
0.67
6.48±
0.77 NS
Parameters
Alb
Glob.
g/dl
g/dl
2.82±
4.80±
0.51
0.83
2.93±
3.54 ±
0.80NS
0.80 NS
C
14%
43.78±
5.45 NS
6.93 ±
0.59 NS
2.80±
0.47 NS
4.13 ±
0.66 NS
0 46 ±
0.21 NS
0.49 ±
0.12 NS
D
16%
43.33±
13.98 NS
7.37 ±
0.77 NS
3.22±
0.37 NS
4.03 ±
0.62 NS
0.48 ±
0.13 NS
Creat
mg/dl
0.44±
0.11
P
mg/dl
2.98±
1.05
5.39 ±
1.24
5.47±
1.91
4.84 ±
1.28
Ca
mg/dl
8.85±
0.69
8.76 ±
1.21 NS
Ast
U/L
276.38±
173.79
113.56 ±
42.97 NS
8.27 ±
0.77 NS
248.6 ±
176.79NS
8.74 ±
0.65 NS
133.5 ±
55.89 NS
3.3 Energy realimentation of adult debilitated Nubian goats
3.3.1 Performance
Table 13 shows performance values of experimental adult goats fed at constant
protein (12%) and variable energy for 11 weeks. Feed intake was lowest in group D
(12MJ/Kg) and higher in group B (8MJ/Kg DM). Body weight gain was the same for
goats fed 8 and 10MJ/Kg and was lowest in group D goats fed the highest energy
(12MJ/ Kg).
The goats fed lower energies (groups B and C) had food conversion ratios11.10 and
10.50 respectively, while that fed highest energy (group D) had the best feed conversion
ratio (10.10).
Table 13. Performance values of experimental adult goats fed at constant protein (12%) and
variable energy for 11 weeks .
Item
Initial weight (Kg)
Final weight (Kg)
Total weight gain (Kg)
Weight gain /day(gm)
Total feed intake (Kg)
Daily feed intake (gm)
Daily energy intake
FCR
A
control
B
8 MJ
C
10 MJ
D
12MJ
17.70
19.00
1.30
17.00
40.23
523.0
3.10
31.00
15.30
19.00
3.70
48.10
41.20
535.1
4.28
11.10
17.70
21.40
3.70
48.10
38.90
505.2
5.05
10.50
18.90
22.00
3.10
40.30
31.50
409.1
4.91
10.10
75
Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8 show growth curves of experimental groups A, B, C and D.
Regression coefficients of groups B and D were inferior to the control group (0.72).
Group C coefficient (0.87) is superior to the control group.
gr.2
aY = 0.72 x + 17.21
22.50
SE 0.138
Observed
bY = 0.35 x + 14.92 SE 0.856
Linear
20.00
17.50
15.00
12.50
10.00
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
weeks
group B fed at constant crude protein 12%
and energy 8 MJ ME / kg for 11 weeks .
Figure 5. Growth curve of the control
group A fed at 6MJ ME / kg and
crude protein 8% for 11 weeks.
dY = 0.44x + 17.89 SE 0.732
cY = 0.87 x + 17.32 SE 0.207
group D fed at constant crude protein 12%
group C fed at constant crude protein 12%
76
3.3.2 Blood values
Table 14 shows Average values of red blood cells of experimental adult goats fed at
constant (12%) crude protein and variable energy for 11 weeks. The RBCs and their
indices were not affected (p>0.05) by the increase ME in the diet.
Table (14). Average (mean ± s.d.) values of red blood cells of experimental adult goats fed at
constant (12%) crude protein and variable energy for 11 weeks.
Groups
A
(Cp8%E6MJ)
B
(8MJ,12%CP)
C
(10MJ,12CP)
D
(12MJ, 12CP)
RBC
µL
2.40±
0.53
2.87±
0.22 NS
2.88±
0.40 NS
2.41±
0.90 NS
HGB
DL
8.99±
1.62
8.75±
0.90 NS
8.66±
1.34 NS
8.70±
1.41 NS
Parameters
HCT
MCV
%
fL
25.71±
105.68±
7.31
12.06
30.59±
106.33±
4.59 NS
9.10 NS
28.80±
101.61±
3.57 NS
11.49 NS
27.61±
115.94±
9.95 NS
11.68 NS
MCH
Pg
37.66±
2.26
30.80±
4.78 NS
30.52±
4.97 NS
39.04±
9.38 NS
MCHC
DL
36.26±
6.62
29.29±
5.73 NS
30.47±
3.08 NS
33.62±
7.07 NS
3.3.3 White and differential white cell values
Table (15) shows average values of white and differential white blood cells of
experimental adult goats fed at constant 12% protein and variable energy for 11 weeks.
WBC, lymphocytes, grouped basophils, eosinophils and monocytes were not affected
(p>0.05) in number and percentage by the increase of ME in the diet. Lymphocytes %
increased (p>0.05) in all test groups with the increase of ME in the diet, while
neutrophils decreased significantly (p<0.05) in number and percentage in groups C and
D.
3.3.4 Serum values
Table 16 shows average serum parameters of experimental adult goats fed at
constant (12%) protein and variable energy for 11 weeks. Glucose, albumin, creatinine,
calcium and AST values were not affected (p> 0.05) by the increase of ME in the diet.
Total protein and globulin were not affected (p> 0.05) by the increase of ME in the diet
77
except for values in group D which were significantly (p< 0.05) lower. Phosphorus
showed a significant (p< 0.05) increased in all test groups.
Table 15. Average (mean ± s.d.) values of white and differential white blood cells
of experimental adult goats fed at constant 12% protein and variable
energy for 11 weeks .
Parameters
Groups
A
(Cp8%E6MJ)
B
(8MJ,12%CP)
C
(10MJ,12CP)
D
(12MJ, 12CP)
Bas.+
Eosino.+
Mono.
/µl
Bas.+
Eosino.+
Mono.
%
42.37±
16.49
63.48±
11.75 NS
2.60±
1.13
1.60 ±
0.81 NS
18.35±
6.15
6.80 ±
5.56 NS
6.13±
1.78 NS
62.83±
6.81 NS
7.84±
5.07 NS
61.86±
13.48 NS
0.80 ±
0.77 NS
1.40±
0.82 NS
8.20 ±
4.3 NS
15.13±
9.99 NS
Total
WB
/µl
Lympho.
/µl
Lymph.
%
12.17±
2.57
15.31±
6.23 NS
5.20±
2.24
9.33±
5.13 NS
11.05±
4.84 NS
11.90±
5.68 NS
Neutr.
/µl
Neutr.
%
6.45±
0.78
4.70 ±
0.95 NS
47.42±
14.30
32.29±
11.45 NS
3.00 ±
0.21*
31.47±
1.23*
3.43±
0.31*
29.58±
3.28*
NS= Non significant.
* Means in a column are significantly different (P<0.05).
Table 16. Average (mean ± s.d.) serum parameters of experimental adult goats fed at constant
(12%) protein and variable energy for 11 weeks .
Parameters
Group Glucose
mg/dl
A
42.00±
(Cp8%
7.38
TP
g/dl
7.64±
0.67
Alb
g/dl
2.80±
0.48
Glob.
g/dl
±4.82
0.83
Creat
mg/dl
0.46±
0.12
P
mg/dl
2.98±
1.05
Ca
Mg/dl
8.85±
0.69
6.09±
2.23
4.30±
0.20
5.89±
2.12
8.47± 126.67±
1.23 NS 33.38 NS
E6MJ)
B
(8MJ,12%CP)
45.38±
5.95 NS
7.11±
0.84 NS
3.05±
0.37 NS
±4.19
0.91 NS
0.54±
0.21 NS
C
(10MJ,12CP)
40.00±
6.03 NS
7.15±
0.67 NS
2.65±
1.18 NS
4.50±
0.87 NS
0.52±
0.13 NS
D
(12MJ, 12CP)
49.56±
7.38 NS
6.64±
0.81
3.03±
0.59 NS
3.61±
0.44
0.54±
0.14 NS
78
Ast
µl
276.38±
173.79
7.83±
96.67±
1.27 NS 20.47 NS
8.39±
0.93 NS
105.67±
32.67NS
CHAPTER FOUR
DISCUSSION
The surveyed debilitated female Nubian goats are classified as milk goats (less
than 30kg body weight) and were herded in mostly less than optimum herd sizes (10-20
heads). Some social (ownership) and geographic factors (grazing area) govern the herd
size. Smaller sizes usually offer better management and attention of the herder - who is
likely be the owner- but that turns to be costly in overheads. Usually adult stock (2-4
years) is herded. Feeding is on range with scarce fodder offers and mostly none of the
cakes. Water source is pure, uncontaminated from domestic pipes, when most stock
receives a supplement of dura flour mixed in.
Tropical goat breeds are late maturing breeds (Kallah et al., 2000 and CollinsLusweti, 2000). Eventhough, these surveyed goats are subjected to under nutrition from
early age, and were born themselves from debilitated parents. Their growth rates are
slow and usually achieve puberty late. Their milk yield is low and gives off-springs after
longer intervals. Shortage of energy is translated immediately into a drop in production
in dairy animals. Over a longer period of time, other effects such as retarded growth,
delayed puberty and decreased fertility will become apparent (Mary and David, 1994).
Undernutrition is one of the major setbacks of animal production in the tropics
(Kallah et al., 2000 and Collins-Lusweti, 2000). A seasonal weight loss of up to 40%
in beef and mutton herds can be expected (Clariget et al., 1998) in extensive systems
with lack of supplementation, as demonstrated by Jordan and Le Feuvre (1989).
Energy insufficiency was known to affect growth and productivity of animals more than
any single nutrient (Blaxter, 1956). Tilton and Warnik (1964) showed that both protein
and energy deficiencies had caused severe bodyweight losses.
79
The erythrocytic series showed a number of adaptive changes to mal or undernutrition. The normal hematocrit value reflects normal blood fluidity, hence these goats
were not considered dehydrated. The low number of RBCs at normal Hb values had
created high MCH with an adaptive change to a very high MCV, rendering normal
MCHC. High MCV is usually seen in regenerative anemias (William, 2001and Blood
and Radostits, 1989).
Though the white cells of the surveyed goats were within the normal range, yet
exhibit a rise over the average number.
Differential white cell values show
lymphocytosis that may be in response to environmental challenges but animals were
not stressed as judged by the normal number of neutrophils. Stress neutrophilia had been
noted by Jain (1986) in domestic animals.
The surveyed goats’ urea was found high but within normal limits. Goats, and likewise
other ruminants, can perform well with low protein supply in marked adaptation to
conditions of poor nutrient availability and lack of water. Increase in blood urea nitrogen
(BUN) can occur in dehydration, by reducing the glomerular filtration of urea, also mild
BUN increases may occur with a high-protein diet or subsequent to digestion of blood
following gastro intestinal hemorrhage. Decrease in BUN may occur also with dietary
protein restriction or hepatic insufficiency (William, 2001and Blood and Radostits,
1989).
Desert breeds such as the Black Bedouin have a superior ability to conserve
urea under adverse dietary conditions. In comparative studies with Swiss Saanen goats,
both breeds could significantly increase the tubular reabsorption of urea when fed lowprotein diets, but the Bedouin goat possessed a superior capacity to reduce GFR, thus
lowering the amount of urea filtered by the kidney (Silanikove, 1984). Urea thus
conserved is available to the rumen microflora for protein anabolism. Mild increases in
80
BUN accompany the increases of protein catabolism as when animal is feverish or
starved.
Surveyed goats’ creatinine was considered low. Creatinine is found in the
skeletal muscle; hence creatinine concentration is related to the muscle mass. Heavily
muscled or well-conditioned animals may have serum creatinine at the highest end of
the reference range. Conversely, creatinine concentration may be low in animals having
marked loss of muscle mass (William, 2001and Blood and Radostits, 1989).
Our surveyed goat appeared of normal total protein, albumin and globulin.
Increases or hyper-proteinemia occur with dehydration. Non-anemic cases have
concurrent elevations in total protein, globulin, and hematocrit values. Decreases or
hypo-proteinaemia occur with external losses, decreased protein intake or increased
protein catabolism (William, 2001and Blood and Radostits, 1989).
Enzymes AST and LDH are not liver-specific and can also result from muscle
cell damage or excessive exercise as with these astray goats. Diseases affecting hepatic
parenchyma usually cause hepatocytic disruption and can lead to a measurable increase
in serum levels of a number of intracellular hepatic enzymes in goats. Increased AST
with normal to mild increase of ALT may indicate that the source of the AST was not
only from the liver. In the case of muscle damage, there should be a simultaneous
increase with CK (William, 2001and Blood and Radostits, 1989).
Serum mineral profile of the surveyed goats show normal values reflecting an
efficient kidney function in reabsorption as an adaptive mechanism to restricted
environmental resources, but levels of sodium and phosphorus were at minimum normal
scale. Most livestock in many parts of the world consume diets that do not meet their
mineral requirements. In consequence nutritional disorders arise, which range from
acute or severe mineral deficiency diseases, characterized by well-marked clinical signs,
pathological changes and high mortality to mild and transient conditions, difficult to
81
diagnose with certainty and express merely unthriftiness or unsatisfactory growth,
production and fertility (McDowell, 2003).
It appears that all shrubs can be considered as Na non-accumulators because
they contain less than 2 g Na kg−1 DM (Youssef, 1988). Moreover, during all seasons all
plants had lower Na content to meet the needs of a growing adult range goat. A goat
weighing about 50.0 kg BW consuming 2.0 kg day−1 DM of these shrubs could eat
substantial amounts to meet their requirements of K in all seasons (Ramirez et al.,
2006). Similar findings were reported by Greene et al. (1987), Ram´ırez et al. (2001),
Moya-Rodr´ıguez et al. (2002), Cerrillo-Soto et al. (2004) and Ram´ırez-Orduña et
al. (2005) who evaluated K content in browse species growing in arid and semi-arid
regions of the world.
All plants, in all seasons, had phosphorus contents that were not sufficient to meet
adult goat requirements (Ramirez et al., 2006).
Ramirez et al. (2001), Moya-
Rodr´ıguez et al. (2002) and Ram´ırez-Orduña et al. (2005) also reported that shrub
species were deficient in phosphorus in all seasons. Most plants had higher levels of the
tested minerals during summer. Ca, Mg, K, Fe and Mn contents in all plants in all
seasons can be sufficient for the requirements of grazing goats, while Na, P, Cu and Zn
contents were marginally deficient in all seasons
However, different plants differ in their minerals content significantly and
depending on their floral density may cause needs for supplementation during certain
seasons. Also, interference between mineral levels during certain seasons need to be
considered. It appears that ration formulation for goats should include evaluation of the
dominant available plants and consideration of their probable mineral contents during
certain seasons for ration formulation (Ramirez et al., 2006).
Herd owners do not go for disease prevention, but rely on treatment the moment
diseases occur i.e. only at need. Clinically, most of these goats appear normal in pulse,
82
respiration, temperature, skin and hair coverage, udder, buccal cavity, teeth and tongue
and faecal consistency. These goats suffer no lacrimation or vaginal discharges, but less
than 10% of them suffer nasal discharges and foreign body. Parasitic load is average
(coccidia, moniezia and strongyloides) in less than quarter of them and 11% of them
were found pneumonic.
On either protein or energy realimentation of debilitated goats, the control groups
mostly resemble the surveyed goats being put on a maintenance diet but they showed a
slight increase in body weight. This increase may be due to in-pens-keeping which
reserves some energy used to be expended in the field. CSIRO (1990) indicated that
with good grazing conditions, MEa is 10 -20 % greater than activity cost in pen or stall
environments and can be 50% greater with extensive conditions in which land is hilly
and walking distances are great. There are several reports available on the energy
requirements of goats (NRC, 1981). Energy requirements in open range may increase
several folds over those assumed for restrained animals (Lachica and Aguilera, 2005).
Feed intake has increased with increasing CP level of the diet; feed intake was
higher with the 16% CP than either 12% or 14% CP. Elliott and Topps (1993c) found
that voluntary consumption of low protein diet by sheep increased significantly with
increasing protein level of the deit. Lu and Potchoiba (1990) used growing goats and
found that DM intake decreased curvilineary as dietary ME density increased. The DM
intake increased linearly as dietary CP level increased. Mavrogenis et al. (1979) used
goat kids of both sexes to study the effect of three dietary crude protein levels. They
found that the daily dry matter consumption per kid was increased with increasing CP
level of the diet.
Ageeb (1992) reported higher daily gains during the first 3 months for both male
and female kids of Baggara goats of South Kordofan, Sudan. He found the average daily
gains at different stages of growth (3, 6, 9 and 12 months) diminishing with advancing
83
age. In the normal growth curve rates of gain tend to diminish with progress in age
especially post-pubertally. This explains the slow growth of the adult goats in this
experiment. They need longer time to gain minor weight because of age and long period
of under-nutrition since weaning age, even suckling was not believed to be sufficient in
quantity and time from debilitated under-fed dams. Hence FCR of the control goats was
exceptionally high (31) on the maintemance low energy (6 MJ) and low protein ( 8%CP)
in the diet.In the present study feed intake decreased with increasing ME level of the
diet, this agrees with Owen and Gray (1992) that feed intake declines as energy
concentration increases. Feeds that are dusty tend to cause irritation of the nose and eyes
of animals and decrease feed intake. Ruminants increase their feed intake in response to
an increase in demand for energy and protein or both (Kenedy and Milligan, 1987).The
feed in the present study was somewhat dusty and it may have had affected feed intake
and consequently decreased body weight gain.
In this study the average daily gain was the same in groups B and C ( 8 and 10
MJ/ Kg DM respectively) and low in group D (12 MJ/Kg DM). Sanjuva et al. (1990)
found a growth rate increase as the energy level increase irrespective of the protein
levels. Ibrahim (1996) fed entire male Desert kids three levels of energy 12, 10, and 8
MJ/Kg DM and found that the diet with high and medium energy level had higher final
weight compared with the low energy level diet. He also found that FCR was 7.6, 11.9
and 24.06 for the high, medium and low energy levels.
Wilson and Obsourn (1960) and Tulloh (1963) stated that under nutrition in the
earlier stages of growth is more detrimental to an animal than is restriction at a later
stage. Consequently, the age at which an animal is subjected to under nutrition is
important to determine the reversibility of the under nutrition status and the degree of
the compensatory growth achieved on re-alimentation. Bohman (1955) noted that cattle
under one year of age were slower on compensation after an energy insufficiency period
84
and they needed longer re-feeding periods than mature cattle subjected to similar
treatments. Gaili (1975) observed no compensatory growth in lambs whose growth was
restricted between birth to one month of age and 1-2 months of age on rehabilitation.
The likelyhood of body weight increase in CP re-alimentation at increasing CP levels
rather than with increasing energy re-alimentation may be due to the functional
supplementation of tissue loss during under nutrition by the crude protein.
Previously restricted animals must be fed ad libitum to high plane of nutrition to
take advantage of their compensatory growth potential (Wilson and Osbourn, 1960;
Ashworth and Millward, 1986; Mersmann et al., 1987; Summers et al., 1990 and
Marais et al., 1991). Nutrient composition in diet is one of the factors influencing an
animal’s ability to recover from the effects of undernutrition, among which the most
attention has been paid to protein restriction (Wilson and Osbourn, 1960). There have
been a number of investigations on farm animals showing that a complete recovery in
body weight was obtained after a period of protein restriction.
The overall loss in body weights remained approximately 5% in those subjected to
restricted diet, followed by grazing/re-alimentation. Ledin (1983) reported that sheep on
a 60% ad libitum diet had not fully recovered their live weight by 73 days after resuming
ad libitum feed intake.
Gomez et al. (1999) studied the effect of long term feed restriction on metabolism
and tissue composition of adult goats. They found that plasma insulin did not differ
between the treatments, but the final live weight, blood glucose, carcass and hepatic
tissue protein deceased. The liver and muscle DNA increased significantly with
restriction. The results suggested the capacity of goats to adapt to long term under
nutrition and the importance of hepatic and muscle tissues as sources of metabolic
energy.
85
The RBCs parameters were not affected by either increase in dietary energy or
crude protein. RBCs indices showed a number of adaptive changes to mal-nutrition as
seen in the control and surveyed goats. White and differential white cell values were not
changed by both type realimentations, but there was lymphoctosis which may be an
environmental effect. Both type alimentations show decreased neutrophils especially in
goats fed 10MJ and 12MJ ME/Kg. That indicates the treated animals were not under
stress compared to the control group. Stress neutrophilia had been noted by Jain (1986)
in domestic animals. A neutrophil count greater than 7,200/ul represents neutrophilia
and less than 1,200 /ul, is neutropenia (Mary and David, 1994).
Values of glucose, albumin and calcium were not affected by either energy or
protein supplementation. With protein supplementation the total protein and globulin
were not affected. Ruminants usually do not depend as monogastric animals on glucose
as the main energy source and exhibits minor fluctuation. Higher energy
supplementation affected the energy protein ratio and posed more demend for protein
with the higher supply of energy. Protein fraction globulin seemed to follow total
protein.
Creatinine increased nonsignificantly in all energy and protein supplemented
groups. Creatinine is found in the skeletal muscle; hence creatinine concentration is
related to the muscle mass. Heavily muscled or well-conditioned animals may have
serum creatinine at the highest end of the reference range. Conversely, creatinine
concentration may be low in animals having marked muscle loss (William, 2001and
Blood and Radostits, 1989). Energy or protein supplementation successfully achieved
weight gains sufficient to increase the creatinine level.
Enzyme AST decreased nonsignificantly in all test goats realimented for either
energy or protein. This indicates that either shortage met by supplementation contributes
to improvement of the muscular damage and a better gain and metabolic cure.
86
Phosphorus increased significantly in all test groups of both realimentations.
Increased intake with formula feed increased P intake. All grazing plants across all
seasons had insufficient phosphorus content to meet adult goat requirements (Ramirez
et al., 2006). Ramirez et al. (2001), Moya- Rodr´ıguez et al. (2002) and Ram´ırezOrduña et al. (2005) also reported that shrub browse species were also deficient in
phosphorus when tested in all seasons. Most plants had higher levels of minerals Ca,
Mg, K, Fe and Mn during summer, and their content across all seasons can be sufficient
for the requirements grazing goats, whereas Na, P, Cu and Zn content were marginally
deficient across all seasons. The regulation of P serum level depletes body stores and
phosphorus deficiency may be masked because serum concentration remain within the
normal range
Most livestock in many parts of the world consume diets that do not meet their
exact mineral requirements. In consequence nutritional disorders arise, which range
from acute or severe mineral deficiency or toxicity diseases, characterized by wellmarked clinical signs, pathological changes and high mortality to mild and transient
conditions, difficult to diagnose with certainty and express merely an unthriftiness or
unsatisfactory growth, production and fertility (McDowell, 2003). Mild deficiencies or
toxicities assume great importance in the nutrition of livestock because of their
inapparency. They can be confused with the effects of semi-starvation due to
underfeeding, protein deficiency and various types of parasitic infection. In many parts
of the world, animal productivity is limited primarily by shortages of available energy
and protein, infections and parasitic disease and genetic inadequacies in the animal. As
those limitations are increasingly rectified, local minerals deficiencies and imbalances
are likely to become more apparent and more critical (Underwood and Suttle, 1999)
The incidence and severity of mineral malnutrition can be further influenced, both
directly and individually, by climatic factors, such as sunlight and rainfall. Sunlight
87
promotes vitamin D formation in the goat which in turn facilitates Ca and P absorption.
The P concentrations in shrubs fall with increasing maturity and with the shedding of
seeds. In any area, the relative lengths of the dry, mature period (low browse P) and of
the green, growing period (high browse P) are determined by the incidence of rainfall
(Minson, 1990).
Conclusion

The debilitated goats were found to be healthy, judged by the normal blood and
serum parameters, despite debilitation and were adapted to poor nutrition and mild
parasitism.

Either protein or energy realimentation brings no significant or poor improvement on
performance in the post-pubertal stage reflecting their malnutrition pre-pubertaly.

Field goats receive restricted nutrients from graze which will not meet their energy,
protein or mineral requirements, unless supplemented by the owner.
Practical implications
 It is imperative to direct farm resources to feed the young growing stock at times of
feed scarcity rather than feeding large stock.
 Adult goats can always show adaptive capabilities but it would be safee to keep them
a little above maintenance.
 Debilitated astray goats should receive energy, protein and mineral (especially
phosphorus) supplementations (balanced diet) to keep their body reserves at a
reasonable level and secure their health status good.
 Though astray goats look normal, serum mineral parameters does not actually reflect
body reserves.
88
Suggestions for future work

The boundings of the adaptive capabilities of astray goats need to be studied
under more severer conditions.

Production parameters (especially milk) can be assessed in further researches to
test the efficiency of realimentation for production.

Further researches can similarly tackle the effect of improved debilitated goat
nutrition on reproductive performance.
89
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110
APPENDIX I
University of Khartoum
Faculty of Animal Production
Department of Animal Nutrition
Goat Survey Form
address……………………….
Date……………………
1. Goat herds
Fitaih El Agaleein, 25km south of Khartoum
Herd size (from which the sample was selected)
< 10
Ecotypes
Nubian
Age :
1-2 Yrs
Sex:
Male
Body weight
20 -30 kg
Production purpose
Milk
Herd manager
Owner
Site
Farm
10 -20
20 -50
Local crosses
Foreign crosses
2-4 yrs
> 4yrs
> 50
Female
30 -50 kg
Meat
Dual
Other
Other with pay
Indoors
Non specific
Range
2. Goat nutrition
Feed
Pasture + Supplement
Feed offer
1-2Kg/day
Cakes feeding frequency
Always
Backyard
> 2 Kg/day
un-weighed
Once daily
Twice daily
111
Non
Water
Pipes
Water quality:
Pure
Water availability
All the time
Pipe and Nile
Contaminated
Mixed with salt
Mixed + dura
Some times
3. Goat reproduction survey
Male: Female
< 5%
5- 10 %
Insemination
Artificial
Natural
Source of male
Within herd
Surrounding farms
Pregnancy
Conceiving
Non Conceiving
Times pregnant
1-2
2-4
Pregnancy frequency
Once / annum
Once every two years
Twinning
Twins always
Single always
Delivery
Normal
Abnormal
Birth
1-2
2-4
Lactation
Lactating
Dry
Period Lactating
One month
2-3 months
% (Female only)
>4
Others
Not pattern
>4
4-6 months
>6 months
4. Goat health survey
Remedies
Prevention
Remedy frequency
Weekly
Health appearance
Normal
Gait
Normal
Treatment
additives
Monthly
At need
Abnormal
Abnormal
112
Abdominal palpation
Foreign body
Respiratory rate
Normal
Pulse rate
Nothing
Abnormal
Normal range 60-70
Normal range 80-90
Temperature
Normal
Abnormal
Hair coverage, length and color
Normal
Alopecic
Long
Short
Skin
Black
Black + Other
Normal
Abnormal
Udder
Normal
Abnormal
Buccal cavity
Normal
Abnormal
Teeth
Normal
Abnormal
Tounge
Normal
Abnormal
Lacrimation
Normal
Abnormal
Nasal discharge
Normal
Abnormal
Vaginal discharge:
Normal
Abnormal
Pneumonia
Diagnosed
Free
External parasite
Non
Average
Internal parasite
Mild coccidia
Moderate coccidia
Moderate moniezia
Mild strongyloides + coccidia
Feacal consistency:
Normal
Abnormal
Normal range 70-80
<
95
High
Mild + coccidia
Mild strongyloides
N.B : Information acquired in this form will only be used for research purposes.
113

EFFECT FO DIETARY PROTEIN ENERGY LEVELS ON

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