Elizabeth Dilling`s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s
Transcription
Elizabeth Dilling`s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s
Journal of American Studies, 36 (2002), 3, 473–489 f 2002 Cambridge University Press DOI: 10.1017/S0021875802006928 Printed in the United Kingdom ‘‘ I have not had One Fact Disproven ’’ : Elizabeth Dilling’s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s CHRISTINE K. ERICKSON Who, then, is Mrs. Dilling ? Upon what strange meat has she been fed that she hath grown so great : And what inspired her, she who might have taken up knitting or petunia-growing, to adopt as her hobby the deliberate and sometimes hasty criticism of men and women she has never even seen.1 To see the lady in action, screaming and leaping and ripping along at breakneck speed, is to see certain symptoms of simple hysteria on the loose.2 May God strengthen and uphold you, [Mrs. Dilling] _ May your wonderful work grow and help save our Republic, _ a time is coming when you will be blessed _ You deserve a place in history comparable to Washington and Lincoln.3 Hysterical and demented, saintly and just, these were just some of the characterizations of the most prominent female activist on the right during the Great Depression. Elizabeth Dilling embraced them all. For Dilling and her supporters, service in the cause of Christianity and Americanism demanded vigilance and determination, as well as a tough skin. Dilling’s story is a fascinating one and deserves telling, if only because of the passion she provoked in her audiences. Yet her story has larger historical Christine Erickson is Assistant Professor of History at Indiana University–Purdue University at Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805, USA. The author gratefully acknowledges the following individuals for their helpful comments and criticisms of various drafts : the anonymous reviewer for The Journal of American Studies, Patricia Cline Cohen, Mary O. Furner, Stacey M. Robertson, and Georgia W. Ulmschneider. 1 Harry Thornton Moore, ‘‘ The Lady Patriot’s Book, ’’ The New Republic, 85 (8 Jan. 1936), 243. 2 Milton S. Mayer, ‘‘ Mrs. Dilling : Lady of the Red Network, ’’ American Mercury 47 ( July 1939), 294. 3 Quoted in Patriotic Research Bureau Bulletin (hereafter known as Bulletin), 4 July 1941, National Republic Magazine Collection, Hoover Institution, Stanford, CA. (Hereafter, NRM) Box 129 File : Elizabeth Dilling (hereafter F :ED). 474 Christine K. Erickson significance. Dilling created her own unique style of politics – distinctly gendered and explicitly personal, a feminine counterpunch to her male colleagues on the far-right who were relatively more aloof from their constituents. For Dilling, involvement in the politics of anti-communism was not only a personal source of strength and satisfaction but also a ticket to what she hoped would be a long and respectable career as an authority on subversive movements. While her hopes would be dashed and her authority ultimately recognized within only a tiny circle of far-right believers, Dilling’s ambition to forge a movement would have larger ramifications. From the mid 1930s to early 1940s, she would use her skills to great effect. Her attacks, both verbal and written, would anticipate the McCarthy-style witch-hunt of the Cold War, in which lists of suspected subversive names and organizations were dramatically brandished before the public and where reputations suffered crippling assaults. Dilling, of course, never came close to reaching McCarthy’s stature and impact. Yet, her ability to seize the issue of communist infiltration, capitalize on people’s suspicions, and create a one-woman crusade is reminiscent of the Wisconsin’s Senator’s opportunism. Elizabeth Kirkpatrick Dilling would not find her calling until late in life. She was born on 19 April 1894 in Chicago into a financially comfortable uppermiddle-class family. After she married at the age of 22 to an engineer and law student, Albert Wallwick Dilling, she continued to live a life of relative prosperity. Dilling’s inheritance from her mother and aunts allowed the young family to purchase a home and a 237-acre farm, while Albert, who became chief engineer of the Chicago Sewage District for a brief time, managed to acquire a small fortune through some underhanded and shady maneuvering.4 Throughout the 1920s, Dilling contented herself with raising two children and minding other domestic responsibilities. It was during her extensive journeys abroad that Dilling’s political views began to crystallize. With a love for travel that stemmed from her childhood, a husband and children in tow and expenses well funded, Dilling toured the globe (a total of ten extensive trips abroad between 1923 and 1931).5 As Dilling recollected in later years, her experiences overseas had a tremendous impact on her political outlook. Offended by what she considered British insults to the American navy and failure to acknowledge US support in World War I, as well as her increasing disdain and intolerance for non-Christian cultures, Dilling 4 5 Glen Jeansonne, Women of the Far Right: The Mothers’ Movement and World War II (Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1996), 10–12. Albert W. Dilling, ‘‘ Opening Speech to the Jury in Behalf of Elizabeth Dilling, ’’ 22 May 1944, FBI Files. Elizabeth Dilling’s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s 475 grew convinced of American superiority in all matters.6 Her convictions solidified after a trip to the Soviet Union in 1931; the journey Dilling claimed ‘‘ changed’’ her life and catapulted her into the public arena.7 According to her well-worn story, the sightseeing affair of the Soviet Union turned into a startling revelation of communism’s ‘‘atheism, sex degeneracy, broken homes, [and] class hatred. ’’ The impoverished and wretched conditions of Stalinist Russia appalled Dilling. She noted with concern the ‘‘ idle crowds’’ and abandoned children roaming the streets bordered by run-down buildings in desperate need of repair. She described in vivid detail the ‘‘poor, miserable workers ’ stores ’’ where the proletariat was forced to shop. What little food stocked the shelves was overpriced and fly-infested. The sight of Christian churches being ‘‘ converted into anti-religious museums’’ and the shock of seeing nude bathers swim in a river under the shadow of one Moscow church, an event Dilling captured on film, clearly signaled to her that communism bred atheism and encouraged immorality.8 Compassion and moral revulsion turned to alarm when, during a tour of the Moscow Museum of the Revolution, the guide informed tourists that ‘‘ Our world revolution will start with China and end with the United States. ’’ A revised map of the United States with cities renamed completed a terrifying picture of an expansionist Soviet Russia bent on creating a communist regime in America. The final straw came for Dilling when she returned home to Illinois to be met with what she labeled as ‘‘ bitter opposition against my telling the truth about Russia ... from suburbanite ‘ intellectual’ friends and from my own Episcopal minister. ’’ No longer could Dilling continue a quiet and comfortable life devoted to husband, children, and harp. The combination of her experiences in Russia and the unsympathetic hearing she received at home convinced her that she had an urgent mission to fulfill : to expose communist infiltration of American institutions and share her information with anyone who would listen. ‘‘Good Christian women ’’ such as herself had no right to sit 6 7 8 Dilling to Henry B. Joy, June 1936, Henry B. Joy Collection, B7, F, 13 June – 30 June 1936, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan; Jeansonne, 10–12 ; Dilling, ‘‘ About Elizabeth Dilling, ’’ Dilling Papers. See Dilling to Henry B. Joy, June 1936, Henry B. Joy Collection, University of Michigan, B 7 F, 13 June – 30 June 1936 and Albert W. Dilling, ‘‘ Opening Speech to the Jury in Behalf of Elizabeth Dilling, ’’ 22 May 1944, FBI Files. Elizabeth Dilling, ‘‘ Red Revolution : Do We Want It ? ’’ (Kenilworth, Ill., 1932), 15 ; Elizabeth Dilling, The Red Network : A ‘‘ Who’s Who’’ and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots (Kenilworth, Ill. By the author, 1934), 11. See also ‘‘ Red Revolution, ’’ 15 and Bulletin, 4 July 1941 and August 1941 in NRM B129 F:ED. The question of ‘‘ immorality ’’ aside, Dilling was more on the mark than realized. Subsequent research has shown that Stalin’s regime was terrifyingly oppressive. See Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment (New York : Oxford University Press, 1990). 476 Christine K. Erickson passively in their homes while ‘‘ a fire burns in the nation’s basement and [radicals] fill the platforms with their dirt and anti-American ideas. ’’9 Dilling made her public debut during the Great Depression, a crisis that created circumstances conducive to political change. A host of voices from across the spectrum emerged that challenged President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, each offering their own solution to the turmoil and a promise to guide Americans out of the miasma and into a brighter future. Huey Long, the ambitious senator from Louisiana, and Father Charles Coughlin, the radio priest from Michigan, were two of FDR’s fiercest critics, and, in the case of Long, FDR’s most dangerous adversary. Long and Coughlin formed the backbone of dissent, the ‘‘ voices of protest ’’ as noted by historian Alan Brinkley.10 But beneath Long and Coughlin lay another layer of ferment, the Protestant far right. Gerald L. K. Smith, Huey Long’s former right-hand man, emerged as one of the leading spokesman of the Protestant far right after Long’s assassination in 1935. Others included Gerald P. Winrod, a fundamentalist minister who claimed that the ‘‘ Hidden Hand of Zion ’’ guided the New Deal, and William D. Pelley, who modeled his paramilitary organization, the Silver Shirts, after Hitler’s elite Nazi corps, the SS. Smith, Winrod, and Pelley agreed with the conservative critique that the New Deal posed a collectivist threat to capitalism, but they expressed greater concern with its supposed antipathy toward Christianity. According to the Protestant far right, the unique American constitutional government was so intertwined with Christian principles that a socialist agenda, with its atheistic tenets, would not only corrupt that special union but also dissolve a distinct American identity. As with Coughlin, anti-Semitism permeated their world view, particularly by the end of the decade.11 Dilling found her natural home in the Protestant far right. Like her counterparts, Dilling contended that communism posed a dire threat to an American way of life and its Christian heritage. It was communism that endangered individual initiative and the free market, promoted atheism, and encouraged amoral behavior; it was communism that gave the state unprecedented power and savaged the family. More immediately, ‘‘the Roosevelt Regime’’ was launching a revolution that represented just the ‘‘ first stage’’ in the communist conspiracy to subvert 9 10 11 Dilling, The Red Network, 9; Bulletin, 4 July 1941, NRM B129 F :ED ; ‘‘ Who is Elizabeth Dilling ? ’’ (1965?) Radical Right Collection, Hoover Institution, Stanford, CA, B1 F :ED ; Dilling, ‘‘ About Elizabeth Dilling, ’’ Dilling Papers. Alan Brinkley, Voices of Protest: Huey Long , Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression (New York : Alfred A. Knopf, 1982). Leo P. Ribuffo, The Old Christian Right (Philadelphia : Temple University Press, 1983). Elizabeth Dilling’s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s 477 American democracy.12 Point by point, Dilling compared FDR’s agenda to The Communist Manifesto. Karl Marx’s call for the abolition of private property was reflected in New Deal tax increases for ‘‘ boondoggling’’ projects, fat government loans for farms, houses, and businesses, and dark hints by braintrusters for increased state control over land. Marx’s scheme of a graduated income tax, centralized communication, state control over undeveloped lands, and work programs had already come to fruition with the Revenue Act, the Federal Communications Commission, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Works Progress Administration, and the Civilian Conservation Corps.13 While Dilling did not place the entire blame on Roosevelt, whom she referred to as ‘‘ merely an ambitious rich man’s son, eager for honors and dictatorial power,’’ she accused him of catering to Moscow by appointing ‘‘ Red revolutionaries ’’ to implement his New Deal program. According to her, reformers, intellectuals, and educators aided Roosevelt in his scheme by spreading Marxist poison in churches, settlement houses, and colleges.14 If Americans continued their apathetic ways, Roosevelt, he of the ‘‘winning smile and splendid voice ’’ would ‘‘ snap the handcuffs on the wrists of American Constitutional liberty ’’ and establish a communist dictatorship.15 Dilling’s attack on Roosevelt echoed charges launched by Smith, Winrod, and others on the far right. What was remarkable was that she seized that message and shaped it to suit her political style, a style that distinguished her from her male colleagues. Dilling sought to forge personal relationships with her followers. Her fierce dedication (many would say obsession) to her mission and her talent to incite loyalty among both men and women combined with an uncanny ability to promote herself gained her many admirers and set her apart from her fellow anti-New Dealers. Dilling’s entry into the public arena began shortly after her fateful trip to Russia in 1931 when she struck up a friendship with Iris McCord, a radio teacher at the Moody Bible Institute of Chicago. McCord, in sympathy with Dilling’s views, invited her to address local church groups about the communist threat. Dilling also received encouragement from ‘‘ an old line expert,’’ probably Harry Jung of the American Vigilant Association. As word spread about Dilling’s talents as an anticommunist speaker, she began giving lectures and showing her home movies across the country, from national organizations such as the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) and 12 13 Elizabeth Dilling, The Roosevelt Red Record and its Background (Chicago, Ill.: By the author, 1936), 3, 392. 14 15 Ibid., 24–36. Ibid., 153–55. Ibid., 4–5. 478 Christine K. Erickson the American Legion to local civic and women’s clubs. She received a little compensation for her efforts, usually travel expenses and a small percentage of the nightly income. Despite the minimal financial rewards, Dilling felt inspired enough by her success on the lecture circuit to write an expose´ of radicals in the U.S.16 Her first efforts resulted in a small pamphlet in 1932 called ‘‘ The Red Revolution: Do We Want It Here? ’’The collection of essays raged against ‘‘ Parlor Pinks, ’’ ‘‘Broadminded Pinks, ’’ and the subversives who lived in ‘‘ Red Ravina,’’ with little distinction between shades. All, however, were burrowing deep into schools and churches and corrupting them with dangerous ideas.17 According to Dilling, the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) reprinted the articles and distributed them by the thousands to local chapters across the country.18 Anxious to reach a wider audience, Dilling published in 1934, The Red Network: A ‘‘Who’s Who’’ and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots. Essays, most recycled from ‘‘The Red Revolution,’’ comprised the first half of the book while a long detailed list of over 460 organizations that she labeled as ‘‘ Communist, Radical Pacifist, Anarchist, Socialist, I.W.W. controlled’’ and 1,300 people who either belonged to those organizations or sympathized with them made up the second.19 Concerned, perhaps, that her word was insufficient and her credibility would be questioned, she inundated her essays with long quotes from multiple sources. When Dilling did speak with her own voice, her writing was descriptive, personal, and humorous, and informed by a keen eye toward gender. Her observation that ‘‘ the bedbugs in the Grand Hotel [in Moscow], were wild about me, the listless waiters not at all’’ revealed an unsettling image of communism’s power to emasculate—how could any man ignore Dilling?20 Moreover, she had witnessed male communists who deceptively used their wiles and charm to persuade unsuspecting audiences, primarily female, to swallow their propaganda ‘‘as smoothly as ... a chocolate cream. ’’21 To critics on the left, however, The Red Network’s debut was not as palatable. Dedicated to ‘‘those sincere fighters for American liberty and Christian principles,’’ Dilling’s assault on communism elicited a flurry of responses.22 16 17 18 19 22 See ‘‘ Who is Elizabeth Dilling ? ’’ n.d. [1965], Radical Right Collection, B1 F:ED ; Obituary, New York Times (May 1966), 88. Jeansonne, 15. ‘‘ About Elizabeth Dilling, ’’ [n.d., 1948 ?]. Also see ‘‘ Jung is a Mystery of Dilling Case, ’’ The Chicago Sun, 24 July 1942, NRM B129 F :ED. Dilling, The Red Network, 5. ‘‘ About Elizabeth Dilling, ’’ [n.d., 1948 ?], Dilling Papers. 20 21 Dilling, The Red Network, 7. Ibid., 12. Ibid., 55. Dilling, ‘‘ Dedication, ’’ The Red Network. Elizabeth Dilling’s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s 479 As one contemporary journalist unfriendly to Dilling noted, ‘‘ professional patrioteers ’’ across the country cited her research in their own efforts to expose radicals. The Red Network was ‘‘ accepted as expert testimony by a dozen legislative and Congressional investigations’’ and used, successfully, in at least one court case.23 The New Republic, no fan of Dilling’s, warned that The Red Network carried ‘‘ considerable weight,’’ particularly among police stations where officials were ‘‘ only too glad’’ to discover the identity of suspected communists. Inclusion often resulted in canceled lecture engagements for controversial scholars and diminished financial support for suspected red organizations. The New Republic half-jokingly mentioned that it made a ‘‘ handy, compact reference work’’ for those who wanted to get involved in worthy organizations, while Survey stated that it was a ‘‘ ridiculous,’’ yet dangerous book because of the potential for abuse.24 Another writer warned, ‘‘ long after the Winrods, Kuhns, Gerald Smiths, and perhaps the Coughlins, have faded from the picture, this woman’s book will continue to function. ’’25 Eminent journalist Dorothy Thompson remarked that Dilling was ‘‘ one of the most successful defamers of private character in this country. ’’26 Dilling’s willingness to irreverently paint all liberals with varying shades of red won her many accolades from the right. What helped make The Red Network an instant hit among patriots was its accessibility to older studies by Representative Hamilton Fish, who headed an investigation in 1931 of communist activities in the US and Senator Clayton R. Lusk, who compiled a four-volume Report of the Joint Committee Investigating Seditious Activities in New York in 1920. These reports, with their many inaccuracies and overzealous claims, combined with data from other patriotic groups and individuals such as Nelson Hewitt, a close friend and editor of the anticommunist Advisory Associates in Chicago, Francis Ralston Welsh, another super-patriot activist from Philadelphia, Walter Steele, owner of the National Republic Magazine, and Harry Jung, provided, according to Dilling, an indispensable and comprehensive guide for hunting communists.27 Dilling may have published The Red Network herself, but she enjoyed tremendous help in marketing and distributing. Well-known fundamentalist 23 24 25 27 Milton S. Mayer, ‘‘ Mrs. Dilling : Lady of the Red Network, ’’ American Mercury, 47 ( July 1939), 294; Dilling, ‘‘ Dare We Oppose Red Treason ?’’ Red Network Bulletin, Thanksgiving Day, 1937, NRM B129 F:ED. The New Republic (4 July 1934) ; Survey ( Jan. 1935). 26 Mayer, ‘‘ Mrs. Dilling : Lady of the Red Network, ’’ 299. Ibid., 293. Even in 1965, Dilling was still selling ‘‘ the famous Red Network ... as accurate as ever, ’’ from her Research Bureau. She had apparently received donated copies (it was out of print) and was willing to sell them for $25.00. See ‘‘ Who is Elizabeth Dilling ?’’ Radical Right Collection, B1 F :ED. 480 Christine K. Erickson preacher W. B. Riley sung The Red Network’s praises and claimed that he had ‘‘ personally disposed of some hundreds of copies,’’ while a national officer of the American Legion declared it a ‘‘ splendid’’ piece of work and a ‘‘useful ’’ reference tool. ‘‘ It should be carefully read and studied, ’’ urged the national president of the Sojourners, a patriotic organization dedicated to the preservation of the family.28 ‘‘Exactly what was needed, ’’ and ‘‘ very valuable ’’ agreed two prominent officials from the DAR.29 One journalist complimented Dilling ‘‘ for her courage and her patriotism’’ and also noted that 2,000 copies of The Red Network sold within ten days of publication.30 Another supporter declared that he ‘‘consult[ed] The Red Network almost daily for the invaluable reference data’’ it contained.31 The president of the Ladies Auxiliary of Pullman Porters and Maids strongly recommended that her co-workers purchase The Red Network, sold at ‘‘ all first class bookstores ’’ to discover the extent of communist infiltration in the union.32 The Moody Bible Institute advertised and sold The Red Network, while Gerald Winrod gave away a free copy of Dilling’s book with each new subscription to The Revealer. The German–American Bund and the Aryan Bookstores also distributed Dilling’s book.33 Despite the success of The Red Network, Dilling failed to write a sequel equal to it. Her next effort, The Roosevelt Red Record, ignited little controversy, perhaps because Dilling had nothing new to say; moreover, by 1936, other voices more powerful and more persuasive than hers were attacking FDR and the New Deal. Far more than in The Red Network, Dilling cut and pasted long quotes from other sources, offering only a few hurried comments of her own. Her lack of analysis and insight did not stop Dilling from claiming that both books prompted the founding of the House Committee to Investigate Un-American Activities in 1938, although she certainly took more credit than she deserved.34 More suggestive here was the importance she attached to her work and her need for credibility. Perhaps creditability, or more precisely, marketability, was 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 ‘‘ Some of Hundreds of Other Favorable Comments, ’’ FBI Files. ‘‘ The Red Network : Favorable Comments ’’ and ‘‘ Some of Hundreds of Other Favorable Comments, ’’ FBI Files. The Press [city unknown] (3 May 1934), NRM B129 F:ED. H. A. Whipple, American Mercury 48 (Sept. 1939), 122. Leota G. Harris, President, Ladies Auxiliary, P.P. & M.P.A. [n.d], Dilling Papers. Chicago Tribune (3 June 1944) in NRM B129 F :ED. In 1965, Dilling wrote that she had sent The Red Network and The Roosevelt Red Record to VicePresident John Garner. She ‘‘ was told ’’ that Garner ‘‘ stayed up all night reading them and had his friend Cong. Dies of Texas start up the Dies Com. (later called the House Com.) as a result. ’’ See ‘‘ Who is Elizabeth Dilling ? ’’ 1965, Radical Right B1 F :ED. See also Bulletin, 4 July 1941, NRM B129 F:ED. Times-Leader – The Evening News (Wilkes-Barre, PA) 30 April 1940. Attached to Bulletin, May 1940, NRM B129 F :ED. Elizabeth Dilling’s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s 481 the reason she chose to include in The Roosevelt Red Record a photograph of ‘‘ The Author’’ as a very young woman – a far cry from a seasoned 42 years at the time of publication – a visionary, a prodigy perhaps, wise beyond her years who saw through the transparency of the Roosevelt administration and had the courage to tell the truth. Dilling’s books, however, did not come close to revealing fully her ambition to create a personal network of friends, followers, and fellow patriots. Her genuine enthusiasm for her mission emerged in her Patriotic Research Bulletins, which she started publishing regularly in 1938. Hand mimeographed in her office and subsidized by Dilling and her husband, the bulletins were mailed free of charge to her subscribers. These bulletins set her apart from her colleagues, who often published newsletters but without the individual touch that characterized Dilling’s work. Her photograph on the front page indicated a desire to personalize her political message. Showing a much younger Elizabeth Dilling with a serene expression on her face and a black dress with a white lace collar, the photograph sought to assure readers that Dilling was a trustworthy woman dedicated solely to the cause of Christianity and patriotism. Reminiscent of letters to close friends in which confidences were shared, her monthly bulletins overflowed with news, often for 25 to 30 pages, about her very busy life. Dilling consistently maintained that her patriotic work did not interfere with her motherly duties and proudly interspersed the latest data on subversion with updates on her children’s achievements in academics and school plays. When her daughter married in 1945, for instance, Dilling shared her joy by treating her followers to a full-length photograph of ‘‘ Babe’’ in her wedding dress.35 Like other conservative women who claimed a maternalist mantel to legitimize their political activities, Dilling wanted to clarify that her children came first ; moreover, they were an important reason why she worked so hard to purge the communist threat. She freely shared her personal difficulties; the most devastating of which was her highly publicized divorce trial in 1942. The bulletins also revealed that there was little room for ambiguity in Dilling’s world. ‘‘ I call filth filth where ever I run into it, ’’ she declared in 1940.36 ‘‘ Plenty of people hate me, ’’ she added, ‘‘ but I’ve never been sued for libel yet.’’37 This was not to say that Dilling passively accepted her detractors’ comments. She did not. She viciously lashed out at her ‘‘ enemies’’ or at those 35 36 Dilling, Bulletin, ‘‘ Wedding Month, ’’ June 1945, NRM B129 F:ED. Wilkes-Barre Record, Wilkes-Barr, Pennsylvania, 1 May 1940. Attached to Bulletin, 4 May 37 1940, NRM B129 F:ED. Ibid. 482 Christine K. Erickson she simply did not like ; and, more often than not, her attacks simmered with unflattering jabs at physical appearances and mannerisms in speech. Good and evil existed in the world, and Dilling told people exactly where that evil lay in language that was emphatic, urgent, and frequently bitter. The evil, which threatened America’s Christian foundations, stemmed from communism, New Deal statism, atheism, and, as she was asserting by 1940, Judaism. Tolerance was not part of her rhetoric : either one agreed with her or one did not, either one championed the cause of Christianity and Americanism or one thwarted it. Dilling’s followers responded with loyalty, applause, and sometimes a check. Both men and women not only commended her patriotic work but also offered sympathy in times of personal trouble. Admirers over the years praised her. One man contended that Dilling should be America’s first female vicepresident, reasoning that women voters would likely choose a female candidate; moreover, she was ‘‘ the best informed, most courageous woman’’ he knew.38 Dilling basked in this wealth of encouragement; she also wanted to let her readers know that she deserved it. To ‘‘ serve the cause of Christianity and Americanism in whatever way is best, dead or alive, in jail or out, smeared or vindicated, ’’ was Dilling’s task, and she delighted in her image of a martyr willing to sacrifice herself for a higher purpose.39 That the ‘‘ anti-Red movement ’’ needed Dilling’s savvy and drive was a given, according to Dilling; it also needed her Patriotic Research Bureau which she founded in Chicago in 1938. Staffed by several ‘‘ Christian women and girls ’’ associated with the Moody Bible Institute in Chicago, the Patriotic Research Bureau provided a vast archive brimming over with material about radical individuals and organizations. Serious patriots could peruse the files at their leisure or request information through the mail. Much of the data came from Dilling’s work in the field: she attended Communist Party meetings, saw plays she believed were red-directed, and read the platforms of Communist and Socialist parties.40 She pored over ‘‘ the Red press continuously and extensively’’ such as The Daily Worker and the Jewish Sentinel to decipher communist intentions.41 The usual suspects also included institutions of higher learning. To her horror, an investigation of the University of Michigan’s library in the spring of 1939 (financed by Henry Ford) revealed a seething cauldron of radicalism. Dilling’s ‘‘ incomplete ’’ survey of the library revealed 189 books on communism, 76 on the Soviet Union, 656 38 40 George Hornby, Boise, Idaho, Disabled American Veterans of World War to Dilling, 3 Aug. 1944, Gerald L. K. Smith Collection, B12 F 1944, Bentley Historical Library, University of 39 Michigan. Bulletin, 27 March 1942, NRM B129 F :ED. 41 Dilling, The Roosevelt Red Record, 247. Ibid., 259. Elizabeth Dilling’s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s 483 written by ‘‘ radicals,’’ and 74 on ‘‘ materialism (Atheism). ’’ Dilling was particularly incensed when she counted 81 books with Sigmund Freud in the title, a man who had ‘‘probably done more to break down moral decency and to spread sex filth under the guise of science’’ than any other individual. Not satisfied with simply counting the number of books listed in the card catalogue that mentioned Freud, Dilling located his books on the shelves and noted with alarm that the pages were ‘‘well-thumbed, ’’ which clearly indicated that they were recommended reading.42 When she was not actively seeking out evidence of subversion, Dilling traveled the lecture circuit. Her stinging commentaries given at ‘‘breakneck speed ’’ with ‘‘ a swift, staccato tempo’’ on the perils of communism and the treachery of the New Deal found appreciative audiences from Los Angeles to Chicago, from Rotary clubs to, as one journalist condescendingly noted, ‘‘ women’s clubs of the simpler sort.’’43 As with her writing, Dilling lectured in her own, unique style. She often passed out original lyrics to well-known tunes and led audiences in ‘‘ songfests ’’ that lampooned radicals, among whom she included the New Dealers. Singing in a ‘‘ clear and confident voice,’’ Dilling made cutting and often vicious remarks about her targets, much to the delight of her audiences. Her husband, whom Dilling praised for his seeming dedication to her and the cause, obliged her by trotting forth descriptive posters and banners before the crowds. Home movies from her visits to Stalin’s Russia and Franco’s Spain, complete with a running commentary on communist destruction of churches, frequently highlighted the meeting.44 Dilling was also willing to use whatever tools she had to elicit support for her cause. In many cases, gender was her weapon of choice. When, for example, she pleaded to a Rotary club in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, in 1940 to leave their golf clubs at home and use their ‘‘ executive ability, power and brains ’’ to root out communist infiltration in schools, government, and churches, she hastened to add that she was ‘‘ just a woman with a mouth who has spent the past nine years of my life and my husband’s money to get to the 42 43 44 Dilling, Bulletin, Oct. 1941, 18, 20, NRM B129 F :ED ; Jeansonne, Women of the Far Right, 20. Mayer, ‘‘ Mrs. Dilling : Lady of the Red Network, ’’ 294, 298; Memo to Director, FBI, re: Elizabeth Eloise Dilling, 28 Aug. 1943, FBI Files. Dilling visited Spain by herself in the summer of 1938. According to her husband, Dilling gained permission to visit the battlefront in ‘‘ Christian Spain ’’ by showing her literature to General Franco’s headquarters in Lisbon, Portugal. She traveled to Spain again in 1939, this time with her husband. Albert W. Dilling, ‘‘ Opening Speech to the Jury in Behalf of Elizabeth Dilling, ’’ 22 May 1944, FBI Files ; Bulletin, July 5, 1941, NRM B129 F :ED ; Bulletin, August 1941, NRM B129 F :ED ; Case Report,12 April 1944, FBI Files ; Mayer, ‘‘ Mrs. Dilling : Lady of the Red Network, ’’ 295 ; Jeansonne, 13 ; PM (1 Aug. 1943) in NRM B129 F :ED. 484 Christine K. Erickson bottom of it. ’’ Her Patriotic Research Bureau gathered critical information to help patriotic men ‘‘who haven’t the time to do this drudgery.’’45 In one respect, Dilling’s characterization of herself as ‘‘just a woman’’ placed the burden of guilt on her male audience. The implication was that if she could ferret out subversion, they certainly could ; after all, as she told them : ‘‘ You have what I lack – money and brains.’’46 Yet, while Dilling played up her inferiority to her male audiences, she implicitly reminded women followers that they should battle against ‘‘ the Red Cancer ’’ for their children and their country.47 Besides relying on a gendered appeal to patriotic duty, Dilling enjoyed portraying herself as a helpless victim confronted with diabolical evil. One telling example was when a federal subpoena in 1941, issued by the Justice Department, ordered her to Washington DC to explain her alleged affiliations with Nazi sympathizers. She described her experiences at the ‘‘ New Deal O.G.P.U.,’’ an unsubtle reference to Stalin’s secret police, in the format of a play, in which she acted the part of the victim interrogated by an agent of the New Deal. The dramatic scene overflowed with ‘‘ sinister glower[s],’’ ‘‘ sarcastic questions ’’ and ‘‘ long harangue[s].’’ The victim, ‘‘ a bit weary with the endless hectoring,’’ answered unfair questions with righteous indignation. Throughout this little skit, Dilling downplayed her public role and denied the accusation that she was ‘‘ an important woman ’’ and that her ‘‘ name carr[ied] weight.’’ A sincere act of humility this was not, but it did reveal Dilling’s inclination for martyrdom and self-importance, as well as a talent for propaganda.48 While Dilling treasured her role as a lone crusader, nothing pleased her more than ‘‘gabfesting ’’ with other super patriots.49 This was how Dilling made important contacts. She was on a friendly basis with several top leaders of the DAR, an organization she greatly admired but was ineligible to join. She associated with prominent men of the Protestant far right, especially Gerald L. K. Smith, but she met more frequently with the smaller patriotic groups such as the Constitutional Educational League, Women Investors of America, and American Women against Communism.50 Kindred spirits with whom she 45 46 47 48 49 50 Times-Leader, The Evening News (Wilkes-Barre, PA) 30 April 1940. Attached to Bulletin, 4 May 1940, NRM B129. Wilkes-Barre Record, Wilkes-Barr, Pennsylvania, 1 May 1940. Attached to Bulletin, 4 May 1940, NRM B129 F:ED. Dilling, Bulletin, Memorial Day, 1939, NRM B129 F:ED. Bulletin, Oct. 1941, NRM B129 F :ED. Also see Jeansonne’s chapter on the Mass Sedition Trial inWomen of the Far Right, 152–64. Bulletin, 4 May 1940, NRM B129 F :ED. Patriotic Research Bureau, 4 May 1940, NRM B129 F :ED. Elizabeth Dilling’s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s 485 shared ideas and information included Nelson Hewitt, Harry Jung, and Henry B. Joy, a retired industrialist who often sent her money and who was her most faithful supporter. Henry Ford also supported her for a short time.51 Dilling courted the fundamentalists and lectured on a regular basis in fundamentalist churches, institutes, and conventions. Dilling’s efforts to rouse Christians from their apathy often proved extraordinarily frustrating. Financing the research trips for the monthly bulletins, let alone footing the costs of printing and mailing, took its toll on her personal resources. More aggravating were ‘‘ the airy individual’’ and the ‘‘ debonair patriots’’ who failed to appreciate how much time and energy she put into her work. Only a person with courage and determination, such as herself, could stand up to the pressure and criticism.52 As she dramatically stated in 1932, ‘‘ neither personal ridicule or hackneyed argument, but only a bullet ’’ could stop her from completing her mission.53 Bullets aside, and no attempt was ever made on her life, Dilling continued her quest to wake America’s conscience to the dangers that loomed. In 1941, angry that the Roosevelt administration sought to push through a ‘‘ dictatorship’’ bill that would create Lend Lease, Dilling spearheaded the ‘‘ Mothers’ Crusade to Defeat H.R. 1776. ’’ Dilling’s organization was part of a loose coalition of some fifty to one hundred mothers’ groups that formed across the country in vigorous opposition to US involvement in Europe. With an estimated membership of almost one million women, what Laura McEnaney has called the America First Movement accused Roosevelt and the New Dealers of conspiring to plunge the US into a dangerous cycle of global war that would, among other catastrophes, tear men away from their families and ultimately destroy the cornerstone of democracy, the nuclear family.54 Dilling and the other women activists organized meetings and pageants, protested and picketed the White House, distributed newsletters, and, on more confrontational days, verbally attacked Congressmen in their offices. Their tactics often ended in arrests and finally, for Dilling, a conviction and a $25.00 fine.55 In early 1942, directly after Dilling’s involvement in the Mothers ’ movement and the battle over Lend Lease, her marriage disintegrated. A complicated tangle of financial misdealings and personal attacks, the divorce trial dragged on for four months during which dozens of fist fights erupted 51 53 54 52 Jeansonne, 18, 20. Bulletin, 22 Oct. 1940, NRM B129 F :ED. ‘‘ The ‘ Broadminded’ Pink, in ‘‘ Red Revolution, Do We Want It ?’’ Elizabeth Dilling, Kenilworth, Ill., 1932, NRM B129 F :ED. Laura McEnaney, ‘‘ He-Men and Christian Mothers : The America First Movement and the Gendered Meanings of Patriotism and Isolationism, ’’ Diplomatic History, 18 (Winter 1994) : 55 47–57 ; Jeansonne, Women of the Far Right. Jeansonne, 79. 486 Christine K. Erickson between both men and women, at least two spectators were ejected, and three contempt citations were issued – all to Elizabeth Dilling. During the trial, Dilling remarked that her husband, Albert, had ‘‘threatened ’’ to end her work and ‘‘smear ’’ her good name across the country by claiming she was a drug addict and an alcoholic (charges which were unsubstantiated and which Albert later rescinded). Much to the surprise of the lawyers involved and to the judge who expressed fear that the case would give him ‘‘a nervous breakdown,’’ the Dillings agreed to an amicable split. Albert, in fact, moved back in with Dilling and served as her lawyer in a sedition trial later that summer. But he continued to be unfaithful and in September 1943 moved to Nevada to seek a divorce, which Dilling did not contest.56 Elizabeth Dilling’s sense of victimization grew even more acute when she was charged with sedition on 21 July 1942. The mass sedition trial, known as United States v. Winrod, would be the pinnacle event of what Leo P. Ribuffo astutely called the Brown Scare, a determined effort by the federal government to discover and prosecute known and suspected sympathizers with the Axis powers. Prompted by President Roosevelt, Attorney General Francis Biddle appointed Special Assistant William P. Maloney to investigate far right activity in the United States – Dilling’s federal subpoena was just one part of the government’s sweep. In United States v. Winrod, the Justice Department accused 26 defendants, including Dilling, Pelley, Winrod, and other far right activists, of launching a conspiracy to incite mutiny in the armed forces by distributing Nazi propaganda, an allegation Dilling repeatedly denied. On 4 January 1943, Maloney expanded the indictment, still named U.S. v. Winrod, to include evidence dating back to Hitler’s assumption of power in 1933. The final transformation of the case occurred on 3 January 1944 when Maloney’s successor, O. John Rogge, issued a new indictment, U.S. v. McWilliams. The government now charged the defendants with belonging to a conspiratorial ‘‘ worldwide Nazi movement. ’’57 The charges were eventually dismissed in 1946: the case was weak, the evidence scanty, and the prosecutors overzealous in their attack. What the trial revealed, noted Ribuffo, was FDR’s desire to silence all critics of the administration’s wartime policy without regard to civil liberties. Indeed, the sedition trials gave a governmental stamp of approval for targeting ‘‘ unpopular dissidents ’’ who disagreed with the political status quo, thereby 56 57 The Chicago papers (and others) gave plenty of press coverage to the raucous divorce trial. Bulletin, 28 Feb. 1942, 4, NRM B129 F :ED ; Washington Times Herald (17 Apr. 1942) ; Chicago Tribune (23, 30 Apr. 2 May 1942), NRM B129 F:ED ; Jeansonne, 81. See Leo P. Ribuffo’s chapter on the ‘‘ Brown Scare’’ in The Old Christian Right, 178–224 ; O. John Rogge, quoted in Ribuffo, 206. Elizabeth Dilling’s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s 487 helping to set the stage for the McCarthy witch-hunt.58 As to the veracity of the charges, evidence linking Dilling and the other defendants to an international Nazi conspiracy was on shaky ground at best. Dilling was more than willing to milk the government’s weak case for all it was worth. To be sure, she disseminated anti-Semitic and anti-Roosevelt literature, expressed publicly her vehement opposition to Roosevelt’s foreign policy, and admired frankly the Nazis ’ seeming emphasis on ‘‘ home life and Christianity.’’59 This proved only that Dilling was a bigot – not a conspirator. The trial also provided Dilling with another outlet to vent her anger and frustration toward the Roosevelt administration. Convinced that the trial was a personal attack on her politics and character, Dilling depicted herself as the lone and fearless avenger for truth and right against injustice and villainy. This ‘‘ Moscow purge trial,’’ as she called it, was simply another rotten plot instigated by her ‘‘ New Deal and Red enemies’’ to discredit her. ‘‘I am guilty only of pro-Americanism’’ she declared, as she implored her supporters to ‘‘ beg ’’ for donations and urged them to form support committees and prayer groups. This was not a personal fight, she reminded them, but ‘‘ a fight for the cause of American George Washingtonian principles versus New Deal dictatorship.’’60 By the time Maloney had issued the first indictment, Dilling’s battle against the New Deal had assumed an anti-Semitic cast. She was not alone: fellow far right activists considered Henry Ford’s ‘‘The International Jew,’’ a widely read series published in the Dearborn Independent during the 1920s, and The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, a malicious forgery whereby Jewish elders plotted to take over the world and undermine Christian civilization, a model for the Roosevelt administration.61 Despite Dilling’s claim that she wanted to ‘‘ avoid baiting Jews as a race,’’ her hostility towards Jews in the New Deal and elsewhere poisoned her bulletins and speeches by the early 1940s.62 On a more clandestine level, she published a stridently anti-Semitic tract, The Octopus, under a pseudonym in 1940. Her viciousness and paranoia became more acute as she grew convinced that Jews had masterminded the divorce and sedition trials. The combined trauma of the FBI investigation, the divorce trial, and the sedition trial clinched Dilling’s suspicions about a conspiracy determined to crush her. Through the rest of the 1940s and 1950s, her world shrank to a frighteningly small sanctuary in which she still trusted her family but few 58 60 62 Ribuffo, 215. Also see Glen Jeansonne’s chapter on the Mass Sedition Trial in Women of the 59 Far Right. FBI Files, Case Report, San Francisco, 3 Sept. 1943. 61 Bulletin, 29 July 1942, NRM B129 F :ED. Ribuffo, 8–9, 17. Dilling to Rev. Nollner, 27 Aug. 1936, File 26 Aug. – 3 Sept. 1936, B7, Henry B. Joy Collection. Also see Bulletin 4 July 1941, NRM B129 F :ED. 488 Christine K. Erickson others, outside of the friends who subscribed to her monthly bulletins. At least one long-time supporter had abandoned her by 1939. Nelson Hewitt informed the FBI that Dilling had become, in a telling description, ‘‘ neurotic, ’’ ‘‘ completely cracked, ’’ and ‘‘ entirely unbearable.’’63 She remarried in 1948 to Mormon attorney Jeramiah Stokes, a long-time anti-communist crusader and anti-Semite. After his death in 1954, Dilling moved in with her son, Kirkpatrick Dilling, and continued to publish her bulletins once every two months. More and more, her bulletins rambled on about Jewish threats to Christianity, even devoting an entire bulletin to the supposed connections between Barry Goldwater and an international conspiracy of Jewish bankers (a charge that prompted William F. Buckley Jr. to assert that Dilling ‘‘ belong[ed] in the category of people who see ghosts ’’).64 Dilling’s activism was significant in several respects. First, she deftly melded gender and the anti-communist cause in a calculated ploy to elicit support from both men and women. She capitalized on her identity as a mother of two children and, during the divorce trial, a wife wronged by a sinful husband in cahoots with her Jewish enemies. She also recognized the power of a personal approach to gain sympathy and support. Her decision to combine political activism with her private circumstances was an unusual move: no other individual male activists or female organizations on the right appealed to their constituency in quite the same way. While one can argue that personality naturally permeates political behavior, the difference in Dilling’s case is that she carefully cultivated an image as a dedicated patriotic crusader who was only concerned about the welfare of her country and was doing the best job that a woman with her ‘‘ limited’’ abilities could do. Her Red Network was also the first comprehensive reference guide to communists and their sympathizers that was easily accessible to the public. Far more than the Spider-Web chart of the 1920s – a chart composed by a member of the DAR that plotted suspected red-affiliated organizations with progressive individuals – The Red Network revealed the power of ‘‘ guilt by association,’’ a tactic that would be used all too often by future Red baiters with devastating effectiveness. While Dilling’s future efforts would fall well short of The Red Network’s reception, Dilling’s book remained an important source of information in the patriotic network. Moreover, Dilling’s efforts to paint the New Deal every shade of red reflected not only a personal, often visceral dissatisfaction with Roosevelt’s reform agenda, but also a broader current of hostility towards big government and the intellectuals who supported it. The fear that a huge, faceless 63 64 Memo to Director, 30 Nov. 1939, FBI Files. William F. Buckley Jr. to Walter H. Wheeler, 28 July 1961, Dilling Papers. Elizabeth Dilling’s Crusade Against Communism in the 1930s 489 bureaucracy would crush American initiative and freedom was not uncommon among the general public by the late 1930s and it had long been a staple of conservative attacks on the New Deal. Where Dilling took a sharp right turn from the Republican Party and the American Liberty League was in her fierce anti-intellectual lashing of the New Dealers and their supporters, from Rexford ‘‘ Dr. of Foolosophy’’ Tugwell to the ‘‘ Kelley–Addams–Roosevelt type ’’ of ‘‘ intellectuals’’ who were making Marxist thought ‘‘ fashionable.’’ The Communist Manifesto, the blueprint for the Roosevelt conspiracy, used ‘‘ pompous poly-syllabled words’’ and a ‘‘ pedantic style, perhaps deliberately obscure’’ that ominously mirrored confusing language in New Deal legislation. Dilling’s anti-intellectualism, combined with a simmering class resentment towards prominent and wealthy individuals, suggests a populist flavor to her argument. The language of populism, as Michael Kazin has noted, echoes in part the concerns of ordinary people who believe that powerful and elite forces in government and Wall Street understand little and care even less about how their economic policies impact a struggling middle-class.65 In the 1930s, Father Charles Coughlin grabbed this theme and fashioned a populist response to the economic crisis. According to Coughlin, ‘‘ money-changers’’ had purposely manipulated the international economy to plunge the US into a depression that resulted in thousands of lost jobs and broken confidence. One difference between Coughlin and Dilling however, besides the priest’s obvious edge in power and influence, was that Dilling rarely concerned herself with the larger picture of the Great Depression. Instead, she linked concentrated wealth with a communist threat. ‘‘ Cream-puff millionaires, ’’ by foolishly supporting socialist schemes, were slitting their own throats; they were also sliding neatly into the designs of the Roosevelt plan. How could ‘‘ patriots in modest circumstance ’’ possibly hope to compete against the overflowing coffers of Carnegie, Rockefeller, and others of their ilk ? It was not without a sense of hopelessness that Dilling likened human society to a glass of beer, ‘‘the froth at the top, the dregs on the bottom, and the best in the middle.’’66 Dilling’s frustration and resentment struck a chord among thousands of Americans, many of whom were unsure and unsettled about the direction in which their country was headed. Her criticism of the New Deal, her disdain towards its sympathizers, and her unrelenting attack on communism, which she expressed in her biting, personal, and often compelling manner, helped solidify her position as the most well-known female activist of the Protestant far right during the 1930s. 65 66 Michael Kazin, The Populist Persuasion (Basic Books, 1995). Elizabeth Dilling, Patriotic Research Bulletin, 10 Aug. 1942.