AFE 305 - E
Transcription
AFE 305 - E
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, BANGALORE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING Course Outline for III B.Tech (Ag.Engg) Course Title: Agricultural Structures and Environmental Control Course No. and Credit Hrs: AFE 305 & (2+1) Sl No Lectures 1 Planning and layout of farmstead. Physiological reactions of livestock to solar radiations and other environmental factors, livestock production facilities, BIS. Standards for dairy, piggery , poultry and other farm structures 2 Design, construction and cost estimation of farm structures, animal shelters , compost pit, fodder silo, fencing and implement sheds, barn for cows, buffalo, poultry etc. 3 Design and construction of rural grain storage system, Engineering for rural living and development, rural roads, their construction cost and repair and maintenance. 4 Sources of water supply, norms of water supply for human being and animals, drinking water standards and water treatment suitable to rural community. 5 Site and orientation of building in regard to sanitation , community sanitation system 6 Sewage system – its design, cost and maintenance, design of septic tank for small family. 7 Estimation of power requirement for domestic and irrigation, source of power supply, use of alternate source of energy , electrification of rural housing 8 Scope, importance and need for environmental non-renewable resources and their equitable use 9 Concept of ecosystem, biodiversity and its conservation , environmental pollution and their control 10 Solid waste management system, BOD and COD of food plant waste, Primary and secondary treatment of food plant waste. control, References : 1.Principles of Agricultural Engineering Vol I- Miachel A.M and Ojha T.P renewable and DESIGN & LAYOUT OF A DAIRY FARM 1. Purpose: Proper housing is an important feature in raising the production capabilities of animals, in addition to good breeding, feeding, selection and disease control. Cattle rising and dairying is practised in the country by various interests. Generally, these interests are. (a) An Average Farmer who has not more than a pair of bullocks and two or three mulch animals with their calves. (b) Rural Milk Producers normally having a total of about 20 animals including about 12 mulch animals, their followers and a pair of bullocks; (c) Gaushalas and other organized milk producers; and (d) Large Dairy Farms. 2. Location: (a) The shed shall be 10 cattle on dry, elevated and well-drained area with consideration for future expansion. (b) Trees should be planted near the shed to serve as wind- brakes and to provide shade. (c) The site shall be away from public road but easily accessible throughout the year. (d) The site shall be such where good water supply would be available. (e) The site shall be such that the shed could be oriented east to west in areas where sun-heat is intense. 3. Standings (stalls): (a) For an average farmer: The standings shall be constructed in such a way the animals are kept facing towards the wall. The manger shall be adjacent to the wall. 4. Manger :(a) For an average farmer: The typical dimension of the manger shall be as given in Table. The manger shall be of continuous type. 5. Drain: There shall be a drain laid just outside the shed. Its length wise slope shall be 1 in 40. The width of drain may be of 23 cm but in any case not more than 30 cm. The depth the drain shall be 6 cm towards the standing and 7.5 cm. towards outside. The drain shall be led to a urine pit having a depth not exceeding 40 cm. It may be circular or rectangular. 6. Paddock or yard: For rural milk producers, there shall be a paddock with the following minimum space per animal for various categories of animals: a) Buffalo 8 m2 b) Cow 7 m2 c) Young stock 4 m2 d) Calf 2 m2 DESIGN & LAYOUT OF A POULTRY HOUSE Location: The poultry house shall be located on a fairly raised and properly drained site, not liable to flooding.The poultry house shall be so located and oriented as to avoid the western sun and heavy draughts but, at the same time, it shall have proper, Ventilation and circulation of fresh air to keep the house dry. The poultry house shall be located, preferably on medium or sandy loamsoil capable of growing good herbage. Space requirements: • Floor space Requirement: The floor space requirement per bird shall be as follows Table: floor space requirement per bird Age(weeks) Floor space per bird (sq.cm) Light breeds Heavy breeds 0 to 8 700mm 700mm 9 to12 950mm 950mm 13 to 20 1900mm 2350mm 21 and above 2300 to 2800 2800 to 3700 • The overall estimate can be done at 0.315 sq.m Feeder space requirement: The minimum feeder space required per bird shall be as follow: Table: Feeder space requirement per bird Age (weeks) Feeder space per bird (linear cm.) 0 to 2 2.5 3 to 6 4.0 7 to 12 7.5 13 and above 10.0 DESIGN AND LAYOUT OF SHEEP & GOAT HOUSING Procedure: Location: The housing for sheep and goats shall be located on a dry, elevated and well drained place. It should not be exposed to strong winds, hot or cold. A place, where there is a longer period of shade in a day, is to be preferred. Floor space requirement: The number of units of each type to be provided In the yard would depend on the number of animals to be looked alter. The area of each unit shall depend upon the minimum floor space specified for each animal and number of animals to be kept in each unit. The minimum floor space for each type of animal shall be: Table: minimum floor space requirement per animal Type of animal Floor space per animal (m2) Eve or nanny (female sheep or female goat) 1.0 Ram or buck(male sheep or male goat ) 3.3 Lamb or kid(young sheep or young goat 0.4 below one year of age) Units for sheep kept for wool and meat production and goats kept for meat production: A yard meant for keeping sheep for wool and meat production and goats for meat production may have the following units: a) Sheds i) Flock shed ii) Ram or buck shed iii) Lamb or kid shed iv) Lambing or kidding shed v) Sick shed b) Shearing and store room, and c) Shepherd’s house 4. Purpose and size of different units : FARM FENCING: Design and construction of farm fence: Farm fences are available with greater variety of design than any agricultural structures in the world. Design and materials of construction have diversity in a greater length. There are limitless designs and materials of construction throughout the world. The traditional fences have disappeared because of the other development modern agriculture. Except for some use in landscaping home ground, soil fences and stone walls surrounding the farms have been replaced with the new type of farm fences. A wide variety of materials and construction methods are available which can meet the specific needs of all classes of livestock and crop fencing. A recommendation for farm fence construction has established by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers construction details are specified by ASAE and quality of the materials is largely based on ASTM. For fences to be established on contract these specifications are quite useful. The most common sizes of woven wire fencing are 1155, 1047,939,832 and 726. The first one or two digits indicate the number of horizontal wires and the last two digits indicate the height. For example 1047 has 10 wires (first, two digits) and last two digits indicate l194mm or 47 inch height of the fences. The vertical wires are 305mm (12 inches) on centre for 1155 and 1047andl52mm (6 inches) on centre for the others. Following steps are taken in woven wire fence construction: o Laying out the fence by first locating comers, ends, and gate openings. o Setting comers and end posts and constructing necessary bracing for fences up to a single anchored and brace assembly is satisfactory. For length of 50-200m double bracing is recommended. For lengths over 200m intermediate braced line posts are needed. o Only in straight sections for contour fencing braced line posts are installed at 100m intervals. It is recommended that on rolling land braced line posts be installed at the crest and foot of the each chill. o Depending on equipment available and soil characteristics wood anchore posts may be driven or set in dug holes. They should be set at least one meter deep in either case being subjected to lifting as well as tipping forces. In order to get enough bearing surface steel anchore. Posts and braces are set in concrete. o Stretching a cord or a strand of barbed wire between the corner and end posts in place to establish a straight line as a guide for setting the line posts. FEED &FODDER STORAGE STRUCTURE : Permanent storages: The modern permanent storage system should be selected for the safe keeping of stored grains and other products. The modern storage structures should be selected on the basis of first on quality and then on cost considerations. The value of stored container. If the proper storage structure is not selected, the high loss rates may quickly erode any capital cost savings made in the selection of poor quality storage. A good quality storage structure may be structurally adequate, durable, and hygienic and gas sealable for fumigation. Various forms of permanent storage structures like shed, silos have been designed and built. They are, however, not all equal in quality or price. Shed: Traditionally, horizontal sheds have been used to provide low-cost, large volume storage. Very large volume sheds have also been constructed by Central Ware Housing Corporation for storing grains and other products. Sheds are usually made of steel or corrugated sheet construction with flat concrete or bitumen floors. Due to their shape, sheds are relatively inefficient structures for grain storage. Grain loads on the walls have to be supported by girts and heavy vertical butteresses designed to resist their loads in bending. Roofs have to be supported on a network of purlins and rafters. A typical bulk warehouse would be 15 m wide, 60m long, and 6 m high at the eaves. A building of this size would have a storage capacity of 2,840 tonnes. The same size building for bag storage has only 1440 tonnes storage capacity. Vertical silos : Vertical silos can be circular, hexagonal, square or rectangular. They tend to be more expensive than sheds. But the extra cost is justifiable where high through puts demand the provision of fully gravity discharge. In case of space limitations also, Vertical silos are preferred because limited space precludes the use of large floor areas required for shed. Where gravity discharge is required, it is achieved by the provision of sloping floors with either single or multiple discharge points. But to reduce the risks of eccentric discharge patterns and to minimise complex construction and costs, a single central discharge is preferred. For smooth floor surfaces, slope angles of 30 – 35 º generally give satisfactory results. However, for very dusty or moist grains, slope of 40º will not guarantee complete discharge. Hopper slope angle of 60-70º are necessary to achieve reliable mass flow. With normal hopper slopes of 30-40º, where pipe flow or funnel funnel flow are more likely to occurs. In such floes, the bottom layers of material remain static until the upper layers of material have been discharged. SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY, DRINKING OF WATER SUPPLY AND WATER TREATMENT SUITABLE TO RURAL COMMUNITY Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids and gases from contaminated water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is purified for human consumption (drinking water), but water purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes, including meeting the requirements of medical, pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications. In general the methods used include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation, biological processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon, chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light. Sources of water: Groundwater: Soil and rock layers naturally filter the ground water to a high degree of clarity and often it does not require additional treatment other than adding chlorine or chloramines as secondary disinfectants. Such water may emerge as springs, artesian, or may be extracted from boreholes or wells. Deep ground water is generally of very high bacteriological quality (i.e., pathogenic bacteria or the pathogenic protozoa are typically absent), but the water may be rich in dissolved solids, especially carbonates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium. Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the headwaters of river systems, upland reservoirs are usually sited above any human habitation and may be surrounded by a protective zone to restrict the opportunities for contamination. Bacteria and pathogen levels are usually low, but some bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present. Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land surface waters will have a significant bacterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a variety of dissolved constituents. Atmospheric water generation is a new technology that can provide high quality drinking water by extracting water from the air by cooling the air and thus condensing water vapour. SANITATION, SEPTIC TANK AND SEWAGE SYSTEM :Safe disposal of all human sewage and domestic wastes is necessary to protect the health of the community and also to prevent the occurrence of epidemics and other diseases. For satisfactory results, such wastes must be disposed of so that the drinking water supply is not contaminated. It should not be accessible to insects, flies, rodents and other diseases carriers. It should not be disposed off in stream or pond which may be used for bathing purposes. These criteria can be best be met by the discharge of the domestic sewage into septic tank and soakage pit or into bore hole latrines. Sewage: sewage includes solid and liquid portions of the human excreta which enters the septic tank in combined form. Sludge: refers to that part of the sewage which after being acted on by the bacteria settles at the bottom of the tank. Scum: Scum refers to it is a partially submerged mat of floating solids that may form at the surface of the fluid in the tank. Generally the lighter solids including fats and greases rise to the surface and form a layer of scum Septic tank:A septic tank is a key component of the septic system, a small-scale sewage treatment system common in areas with no connection to main sewage pipes provided by local governments or private corporations. The principle on which a septic tank works is that under suitable conditions bacteria will liquify any organic material reducing it to liquids and gases for the most part. The residue not liquefied will be an inert and ineffective material. The septic tank is closed water tight container in which untreated sewage is put so that it may be acted on any bacteria. There are three important functions that take place within the tank. First, the removal of the solids from the sewage as it enters the tank. The solids are retained in the tank and remaining portion is discharged. Secondly, the decomposition of the solid sewage under anaerobic condition, that is, in the absence of the air. Thirdly, the storage of the sludge and scum in the tank. A considerable portion of the sludge and scum are liquefied through decomposition , resulting in the liberation of gas into the atmosphere. Capacity of the tank: Capacity is one of the important considerations that determines the major dimensions of the tanks. For an average size family of five members including two adults and three children, the tank capacity may be kept about 2.8 cu.m. For additional members of the capacity should be increased by 0.42 cu.m per member. The capacity of the tank should not be smaller than 2.1 cu.m. Scope, Importance And Need For Environmental Control, Renewable And Non-Renewable Resources And Their Equitable Use : Environment: Environment literally means surrounding and everything that affect an organism during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment. In another words “Environment is sum total of water, air and land inter-relationships among themselves and also with the human being, other living organisms and property”. Scope of Environment: Environmental science is a multidisciplinary science whose basic aspects have a direct relevance to every section of the society. Its main aspects are : o o o o o o Conservation of nature and natural resources. Conservation of biological diversity. Control of environmental pollution. Stabilization of human population and environment. Social issues in relation to development and environment. Development of non-polluting renewable energy system and providing new dimension to nation’s security Importance of Environment : The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Environment Issues Being of International Importance Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development Explosively Increase in Pollution Need for An Alternative Solution Need To Save Humanity From Extinction Need For Wise Planning of Development NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS Power requirement for Domestic and Irrigation and Rural Electrification : Electricity on farm : Electricity is used for illumination, mechanical work, transportation , heating etc. It is one of the cheapest sources of power available for these uses.It offers the advantage of being generated at the most favourable location, such as near the river dams or coal field, but it can still transmitted economically over long distances . Nearly all electrical energy now generated as alternating current (a.c) is utilizing either steam or hydraulic energy. The main reason for this is that alternating current can be generated at high voltages and transformed to the voltages required for utilization. Currents that flows in one direction and then in the oppsite direction periodically are called alternating currents (a.c). AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences. Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct current is produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type. Rural Electrification : At the time of independence of India (1947) only 3000 villages out of 6 lakhs are electrified. At this stage , the production of electrical installed capacity was only 1500 MW. By 1983, electrical installed capacity went up to 48,000 MW more than 70 per cent villages were connected to power grid. By 2002, power output reached to 80,000 MW and about 90 per cent villages may get electricity. Power Consumption: Electricity is used in villages chiefly for pumping water for agriculture. Nearly 2/3rd of the electrical energy consumed in villages is used up by agricultural pumping sets. Other uses of electricity in villages is for lighting and process industries like rice hulling, flour milling, oil pressing, cane crushing, ginning, dairy industry etc. About 70 % of the electrical power in India is consumed by the industries and only 10 % power is spared for a agriculture and related activities. Concept Of Ecosystem, Biodiversity And Its Conservation, Environmental Pollution And Their Control : Ecosystem:An ecosystem includes all of the living things in an area, plus their surroundings, plus all the ways in which they interact with each other. Ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. Examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, a grassland. Energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling are the main processes that comprise the field of ecosystem ecology. Processes of Ecosystems :Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed into chemical energy in organic molecules by cellular processes including photosynthesis and respiration, and ultimately is converted to heat energy. This energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled. Without the continued input of solar energy, biological systems would quickly shut down. Thus the earth is an open system with respect to energy. Transformation of Energy: the transformations of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the input of energy from the sun. Energy from the sun is captured by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is combined with hydrogen (derived from the splitting of water molecules) to produce carbohydrates (CHO). Energy is stored in the high energy bonds of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. Biodiversity : The variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems or Biological diversity is the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur. Types of Biodiversity : 1. Genetic diversity - GD refers to the variation of genes within species. This covers distinct populations of the same species (such as the thousands of traditional rice varieties in India) or genetic variation within a populations. 2. Species diversity - diversity between different species Or (Species diversity refers to the variety of species within region.) 3. Ecosystem diversity – diversity within a region Why Biodiversity is important? Provides food, fodder, fruit, fuel, timber, medicine 1. Commercial value : Oil, Fertilizers etc. extracted from species of plants and animals. 2. Biological value: Pollination, Soil formation and Nutrient enrichment 3. Recreational Value: Can not be measured in terms of money. 4. Aesthetic Value: Art, Poetry, Literature. 5. Scientific Value: Gene Pool, Evolution and Human Welfare, etc,. Solid waste management system, bod and cod of food plant waste, primary and secondary treatment of food plant wastes : Solid Waste: Soild or semi-solid material(including gases and liquids in containers) which are non-soluble in nature are called as soild waste. It may be hazardous or not, includes agricultural refuse, demolition waste, industrial waste, minimg residues, municipal garbage and sewage sludge. Types of solid wastes: Solids waste are classified into different types depending upon their source, they are 1. House hold waste or municipal waste: includes food, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather, glass, metal , ashes , electronic waste etc.. 2. Industrial waste: includes toxic chemicals, oil debris from construction site, packaging wastes, ashes etc.. 3. Biomedical waste or hospital waste : medicine bottles , expired medicines, syringes and medical instruments like scissors , blades etc. 4. Solids waste are classified into different types depending upon their source, they are 5. House hold waste or municipal waste: includes food, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather, glass, metal, ashes, electronic waste etc. 6. Industrial waste: includes toxic chemicals, oil debris from construction site, packaging wastes, ashes etc. 7. Biomedical waste or hospital waste : medicine bottles , expired medicines, syringes and medical instruments like scissors , blades etc., Classification of Wastes According to Their Properties:They are classified as Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable materials : 1. Biodegradeble material which can be degraded & includes ( paper, wood , fruits and others) 2. Non-Biodegradeable material includes which cannot be degraded & includes (Plastics, bottles, old machines , cans, containers and others).