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Effect of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) Seeds
Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Effect of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) Seeds Supplementaion on Feed Intake, Some Metabolic Hormones Profile and Milk Yield Of Nubian Goats By: Nuha Mohammed Elmustafa Jame B.Sc. (Honours) Animal Sciance University of Kordofan 2004 A thesis submitted to the University of Khartoum in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of M.Sc.in Nutritional Science Supervisor: Dr. Balgees Abu Elgasim Atta Elmnan Department of Animal Nutrition Faculty of Animal Production University of Khartoum ϡ 2012 I Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Dedication This work Dedicated To soul of my Father My dear Mother Sisters & Brothers I Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, thanks and Praises to Allah, the God Almighty, for his limitless graces over me. I extend my deep thanks and appreciation for supervisor Dr. Balgees Abu Elgasim for supervision, advice and patience during this study. Thank and appreciation also extends to U of K for financing this research. Special thanks and gratitude's to Dr. Rasha Mohammed Elmustafa Dalanj University for encouragement and valuable advice throughout the course of my study. I also express my gratitude to Ustaz Adil Abdelmoneim for his help. Thanks to anyone who helped me in this work. Finally, I lovingly acknowledge of my husband and my kid, who sacrificed a lot to keep me in high spirits during this period. II Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Abstract Effect of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) Seeds Supplementaion on Feed Intake, Some Metabolic Hormones Profile and Milk Yield of Nubian Goats M.Sc.in Nutritional Science Nuha Mohammed Elmustafa Jame The objectives of this study were to assess the effect of fenugreek seeds supplementation on feed intake, some metabolic hormones, milk yield and composition of lactating Nubian goats. Twelve mature Nubian does were randomly distributed into 4 treatment groups according to the level of fenugreek seed levels, viz. FS0%, FS5% and FS10%, FS15% fed immediately postpartum for 2 consecutive months. Data pertaing to feed intake and milk yield were recorded daily. Milk and blood samples, for determination of the chemical composition and serum concentration of insulin, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), were taken every two weeks. The results indicated that both daily feed intake and milk yield increased significantly with the increased levels of fenugreek seed supplement, with concomitant decrease in milk fat content, while the other milk components (protein, lactose and SNF) showed inconsistent patterns. On the other hand, fenugreek seed supplementation at 10% and 15% levels increase significantly the concentration of insulin, and T4 and a decreased in T3 concentration. The results highlighted that fenugreek seed supplementation boosted feed intake, milk yield, insulin and T4. III Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. κϠ ΨΘ δϤ ϟ Δ ϴ πϳ Ϸ ΕΎ ϧ Ϯ ϣ ή Ϭ ϟ ξό Α ϭ ϝ ϭ Ύ Ϩ Θ Ϥ ϟ ˯ ά ϐ ϟ Δ ϴ Ϥ ϛ ϲϠ ϋ Δ Β Ϡ Τϟ έ ϭ ά Α Δ ϓ Ύ ο ή ϴ Λ ΄ Η ϲΑ Ϯ Ϩ ϟ ΰ ϋΎ Ϥ ϟ ϲϓ ϦΒ Ϡ ϟ ΝΎ Θ ϧ ϭ ϊ ϣ Ύ Ο ϲϔ τμϤ ϟ Ϊ Ϥ Τϣ ϲϬ ϧ Δ ϳ ά ϐ Θ ϟ ϡ Ϯ Ϡ ϋ ϲϓ ϡ Ϯ Ϡ ό ϟ ή ϴ Θ δΟΎ ϣ ξό Α ϭ ˬ ϝϭ Ύ Ϩ Θ Ϥ ϟ ˯ ά ϐ ϟ Δ ϴ Ϥ ϛ ϲϠ ϋΔ Β Ϡ Τϟ έ ϭ ά Α Δ ϓ Ύ ο· ή ϴ Λ ΄ Η Ϣ ϴ ϴ Ϙ Θ ϟ Δ γ έ Ϊ ϟ ϩ ά ϫ Ζϓ Ϊ ϫ Ζϋί ϭ ϲΑ Ϯ Ϩ ϟ ΰ ϋΎ Ϥ ϟ Ϧϣ ϲΜ ϧ 12 Ζϋί ϭ ϲΑ Ϯ Ϩ ϟ ΰ ϋΎ Ϥ ϟ ϦΒ ϟ ΐϴ ϛ ή Η ϭ Δ ϴ ΟΎ Θ ϧ · ϭ Δ ϴ πϳ Ϸ ΕΎ ϧ Ϯ ϣ ή Ϭ ϟ ϭ FS10% ϭ FS5% ϭFS0% Δ Β Ϡ Τϟ ΕΎ ϳ Ϯ Θ δϣ Δ ϓ Ύ οϹ Ύ Ϙ ϓ ϭ ΕΎ ϋϮ Ϥ Πϣ ϊ Α έ ϷΎ ϴ Ϯ θϋ Ϧϋ Ύ Ϭ ϴ Ϡ ϋ ϞμΤΘ Ϥ ϟ ΕΎ ϧ Ύ ϴ Β ϟ ΖϠ Πγ Ϧϴ ϴ ϟ Ύ Θ Θ ϣ Ϧϳ ή Ϭ η ϩ Ϊ Ϥ ϟ Γ Ω ϻϮ ϟ Ϊ ό Α Γ ή ηΎ Β ϣ Ζϳ ά Ϗϭ FS15% Ϊ ϳ Ϊ ΤΘ ϟ Ϧϴ ϋϮ Β γ Ϟϛ ϡ Ϊ ϟ ϭ ϦΒ Ϡ ϟ ΕΎ Ϩ ϴ ϋ Εά Χ Ύ ϴ ϣ Ϯ ϳ ϦΒ Ϡ ϟ Ϧϣ ΝΎ Θ ϧ ϻ ϭ ϝϭ Ύ Ϩ Θ Ϥ ϟ ˯ ά ϐ ϟ Δ ϴ Ϥ ϛ T4 Ϧϴ δϛ ϭ ή ϳ Ύ Μ ϟ T3 Ϧϴ ϧ ϭ ή ϳ Ύ Λ ϭ Ω Ϯ ϳ ϱ ή Θ ϟ ϭ Ϧϴ ϟ Ϯ δϧ ϸϟ ϡ Ϊ ϟ Ϟμϣ ΰ ϴ ϛ ή Η ϭ ϲ Ύ ϴ Ϥ ϴ Ϝ ϟ ΐϴ ϛ ή Θ ϟ (P<0.05) Ύ ϳ Ϯ Ϩ ό ϣ ΕΩ ί ϦΒ Ϡ ϟ Δ ˰ ˰ ϴ ΟΎ Θ ϧ ϭ Ύ ϴ ϣ Ϯ ϳ ϝϭ Ύ Ϩ Θ Ϥ ϟ ˯ ά ϐ ϟ Δ ϴ Ϥ ϛ Ϧϣ Ϟϛ ϥ ϲϠ ϋ Ξ Ύ Θ Ϩ ϟ Ζϟ Ω ΕΎ ϧ Ϯ Ϝ ϣ Δ ϴ Ϙ Α Ύ Ϥ Ϩ ϴ Α ϦΒ Ϡ ϟ Ϧϫ Ω ϱϮ Θ ΤϤ ϟ ΐΣΎ μϣ ϥΎ μϘ ϧ ϊ ϣ ˬ Δ ϓ Ύ πϤ ϟ Δ Β Ϡ Τϟ έ ϭ ά Α ΕΎ ϳ Ϯ Θ δϣ Γ Ω Ύ ϳ ΰ Α ϱή Χϻ Δ ϴ ΣΎ Ϩ ϟ Ϧϣ υϮ ΤϠ ϣ ή ϴ ϐ Η Ϊ Ϭ θΗ Ϣ ϟ Δ ϴ Ϩ ϫ Ϊ ϟ ή ϴ Ϗ Δ ϴ Ϡ Ϝ ϟ Ϊ ϣ Ϯ Πϟ ϭ ί Ϯ Θ ϛ ϼϟ ˬ Ϧϴ Η ϭ ή Β ϟ ϦΒ Ϡ ϟ Ϧϴ ϟ Ϯ δϧ Ϸ Ϧϣ Ϟϛ ΰ ϴ ϛ ή Η (P<0.05) Ύ ϳ Ϯ Ϩ ό ϣ ΕΩ ί 15%ϭ 10% ΕΎ ϳ Ϯ Θ δϣ Ϊ Ϩ ϋ Δ Β Ϡ Τϟ έ ϭ ά Α Δ ϓ Ύ ο· ˯ ά ϐ ϟ Δ ϴ Ϥ ϛ Γ Ω Ύ ϳ ί ϲϟ ΕΩ Δ Β Ϡ Τϟ έ ϭ ά Α Δ ϓ Ύ ο· ϥ Ξ Ύ Θ Ϩ ϟ Εί ή Α T3 ΰ ϴ ϛ ή Η ϲϓ ϥΎ μϘ ϧ ϭ T4ϭ T4ϭ Ϧϴ ϟ Ϯ δϧ ϻ ϭ ϦΒ Ϡ ϟ Δ ϴ ΟΎ Θ ϧ ϭ ϝϭ Ύ Ϩ Θ Ϥ ϟ IV Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. List of contents Page No Dedication I Acknowledgement II Abstract III Arabic abstract List of contents IV V List of tables VII CHAPTER ONE 1 Introduction CHAPTER TWO 1 3 Literature review 3 2.1 Feed additives 3 2.2 Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) 4 2.3 Chemical Composition of Fenugreek Seeds 5 2.3.1 Moisture Content 5 2.3.2 Protein Content 5 2.3.3 Oil Content 5 2.3.4 Crud Fiber 6 2.3.5 Mucilage Content 6 2.3.6 Ash Content 6 2.3.7 Carbohydrate Content 6 2.3.8 Sapogenin 7 2.4 Uses of Fenugreek Seeds 7 2.5.1 Effect of Fenugreek on Feed Intake 8 2.5.2 Effect of Fenugreek on Milk Production 9 V Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. 2.5.3 Effect of Fenugreek on Insulin 10 2.5.4 Effect of Fenugreek onT3andT4 11 2.6 Safety and Adverse Effect of Fenugreek Seeds 13 CHAPTER THREE 14 Materials and Methods 14 3.1 Experimental Site 14 3.2 Experimental Animals 14 3.3.1 Management of Experimental Flock 14 3.3.2 Feed and Feeding 14 3.4 Milk Sampling and Analysis 15 3.5 Blood Sampling and Analysis 15 3.6 Statistical Analysis 16 CHAPTE FOUR RESULT 21 4.1 Effect of Fenugreek Seeds on Feed Intake and Milk yield 21 4.2 Effect of Fenugreek seeds on Milk Composition 21 . 4.3 Effect of Fenugreek Seeds on T3, T4 and Insulin 21 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION 26 COCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 29 REFRENCE 30 VI Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. LIET OF TABLES Table (3:1) Calculated Chemical Analysis of Experimental Diet 17 Table (3:2) Chemical Composition (%DM) of Fenugreek Seeds 18 Table (3:3) Ingredient Composition (%) of the Experimental Diet 19 Table(3.4) Determined Chemical Composition (%) of Experimental 20 Diet Table(4.1) Effect of Fenugreek Seed on Feed Intake and Milk Yield 23 Table (4.2) Effect of Fenugreek Seed on Milk Composition 24 Table (4.3) Effect of Fenugreek Seed on T3, T4 and Insulin 25 VII Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Livestock play a significant role in providing food security as well as income resource for less poor people in Sudan. Therefore, it is important to adopt different strategies to increase productive efficiency of livestock. In high yielding dairy animals, the onset of lactation increases the total energy requirements by approximately four folds, reflecting mostly the oxidative and milk precursor needs of the mammary gland (Bauman and Currie, 1980). Brian and Lance, (2003) found that after parturition dairy animals, suffer from an intense energy deficit caused by the onset of copious milk secretion and an inadequate increase in voluntary food intake. In animal production since banning antibiotic, growth promoters in animal feeds, there are a number of non- therapeutic alternatives to antibiotic and growth promoters, including enzymes, organic acids, probiotics, prebiotics, herbs, immune stimulants and specific management practices. (Awadein et al., 2010). The use of herbs in animal production may relate to their wide spectrum of physiological and nutritional effects depending on the herb. These effects may include but not limited to growth promoting effect, antimicrobial and hormonal effects. Feed additives may be used in animal feed to increase dietary energy utilization, improve the performance efficiency and as source of protein (El-Katch, 1990, Abdel El-Aal and Attia, 1993). ϭ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of supplementing different levels of Fenugreek seeds on feed intake, some metabolic hormones and milk yield and composition. Ϯ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. CHAPTER TOW LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Feed Additives Medicinal and aromatic plants have been used for many years in human nutrition as a spices and medical additives. Feed additives are important materials that can improve the efficiency of feed utilization and animal performance . The possibility of using new natural alternative additives instead of antibiotics and hormone in animal diets is being recently used. Some plants , containing various essential oils, have been used as alternative remedies by some researchers Ceylan et al., (2003). Feed additives are defined as substances that are added to diets or feed ingredients to either (a) preserve its nutritional characteristics prior to feeding (antioxidants and mould inhibitors) (b) facilitate ingredient dispersion or feed pelleting (emulsifiers , stabilizers , and binders) , (c) facilitate growth (growth promoters , including antibiotics and hormones ) , (d) facilitate feed ingestion and consumer acceptance of the product (feeding stimulus and food colorants ) or (e) to supply essential nutrients in purified form (vitamins, minerals , amino acids , cholesterol and chospholipids) (NRC, 1983) . Plants and plant extracts are more safe than chemical products whereas natural products is becoming more popular, since drugs of synthetic origin may have a negative impact on the environment and parasite resistance to poisonous chemicals which can develop after repeated applications (Magi, 2003). ϯ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. 2.2 Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) Fenugreek is an annual crop belonging to the legume family. This crop is native to an area extending from Iran to northern India, but is now widely cultivated in China, North and East Africa, Ukraine and Greece. In this area, the young plants are used as potherbs and the seeds as a spice or as herbal medicine (Petropoulos, 2002). According to Lust fenugreek is one of (1986) the oldest known medicinal plants in the recorded history. Basch et al., (2003) stated that the leaves and seeds have been used extensively to prepare extracts and powders for medicinal uses. The leaves and seeds have anti - diabetic, anti-fertility, anticancer, anti-microbial, and anti-parasitic and procholesterolaemic, effects (Al-Habori and Raman, 2002). Also Fenugreek seeds germinated was powder or exhibits anti-diabetic properties (Devi et al., 2003; Hannan et al., 2003,Tahiliani and Kar, 2003), hypocholesterolaemic effect ( Thakaran et al., 2003 and Vats et al., 2003), anti-cancer effect ( Suboh et al., 2004 and Thompson Coon and Ernst, 2003), and its effect on thyroxine- induced hyperglycaemia (Devasena and Menon, 2003). Schryve, (2002). reported that Fenugreek like other legumes, is a good source of dietary protein (approximately 20-30%) for consumption by human and animals , the fatty acids from 5-10% which are predominantly linoleic, linolenic, oleic and palmatic acids. 45 - 65% total carbohydrates with 15% of galactomannan (a soluble fiber). It is a good source of minerals and vitamins (Michael and Kumawat, 2003). ϰ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. 2.3 Chemical Composition of Fenugreek Seeds:2.3.1 Moisture Content: Several authors reported varying contents of moisture in fenugreek seeds: Nour & Maghboul (1986) reported a range of 3.4% - 5.7%, Shankarachraya and Nalarjan (1972) found 5.7% and Suleiman (1995) reported 7.7 ± 1% and 1.8% ± 0.8% for Sudanese and Ethiopian fenugreek seeds respectively. The author attributed variation in moisture content reported by various investigators to one or more of the following: 1Environmental conditions. 2- Time of harvesting. 3- Storage conditions. 2.3.2 Protein Content: Suleiman (1995), Reported that the Ethiopian fenugreek seed contains 26.4±0.04% protein, and which was slightly higher than that of Sudanese fenugreek 25.5± 0.07. Other investigators reported variable values for protein content in Fenugreek seeds: Elmahdi (1985), reported value of 27% while Conlson and Kolousek (1955), reported a value of 26.67% and Shankaracharya and Nalarjan (1972) reported 24.7%. Suleiman (1995) attributed this variation to different cultural practices, soil and environmental conditions. 2.3.3 Oil Content: Sauvaire et al., (1976), reported a value of 9.1% oil content in fenugreek seed: which is similar to that obtained by Suleiman (1995), Shankaracharya and Nalarjan (1972), Pudayasekhara and Shayma, (1987), and Abdel hamide et al., (1984) all of whom reported values of 7.6%, 7.9% and 7.6% oil content in fenugreek seeds respectively. ϱ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. 2.3.4 Crude Fiber: The crude fiber content of the fenugreek seed obtained by Suleiman, (1995) was 9.8± 0.14% for the Ethiopian seed type and which was similar to the range (9.3- 11.9%) obtained by El-Hassan (1991). On the other hand, the values of crude fiber content reported by Abdel Hamide(1984) was 8.2% crude fiber in Egyptian fenugreek seeds. Pudayasekhara and Shayma, (1987) reported a value of 4.8% crude fiber content in Indian fenugreek seed. 2.3.5 Mucilage Content: Abu Zeid (1986) reported a 20% mucilage content in fenugreek seed which is lower than that obtained by Suleiman (1995) who found 23.5 ± 0.04% in Sudanese type and 22.6 ± 01% in the Ethiopian type , and lower than that obtained by Musa et al., (1987), who reported 28% mucilage in fenugreek seeds. 2.3.6 Ash Content: Ash percent of 4.4.± 1% and 4.6 + 0.07% were obtained by Suleiman (1995) for Sudanese and Ethiopian fenugreek seeds respectively, these values were generally in close agreement to the range of 3.15˰ ˰4,8% ash content reported by Shankaracharya and Nalarjan (1972). 2.3.7 Carbohydrate Content: Suleiman (1995) reported a total value for soluble and insoluble sugars of Sudanese type as 42.43± 0.2% and which was higher than ϲ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. that of Ethiopian fenugreek seed 40.8 ± 0.2%. El-Hassan (1991) reported a value of 44 – 53.6. 2.3.8 Sapogenins: Suleiman (1995) cited the presence of steroidal sapogenins in fenugreek seeds, diosgenin is starting material of choice for conversion into steroids. Sudanese fenugreek seeds show much promise as commercial source of sapogenins mostly diosgenin and yamogenin. 2.4 Uses of Fenugreek Seeds: Fenugreek seeds contain high percentage of mucilage a natural gummy substance present in the coating of many seeds, the gooey mass is not absorbed by the body, but instead passes through the intestine and also triggers intestinal muscle contraction. Both actions promote the emptying of intestinal contents described by Anon and Butter, (1996). Al-Habori and Raman (1998) found that Triogonella seeds delayed gastric emptying and caused inhibition of glucose transporter as the seed contain 50% pectin that forms a colloid suspension when hydrated and decreases the rate of gastric emptying and slows carbohydrate absorption. However Bordia et a.,l (1997) demonstrated that fenugreek seeds contain chemicals that slow down the time that food takes to go through the intestinal tract . As one result sugars are absorbed more slowly and blood sugar levels may not rise as high or fluctuate as much as usual. Also fenugreek seeds contain an amino acid called 4 hydroxy iso leucine,which appears to increase the body's production of insulin when blood sugar levels are high. Higher amounts of insulin production may decrease the sugar that stays in the blood for individuals Borca et al., (2000). In some studies of animal and humans with diabetes and cholesterol ϳ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. levels, fenugreek seeds lower cholesterol levels as well as blood sugar levels. However no blood-sugar lowering effect was seen in non diabetic animals, similarly individuals with normal cholesterol levels showed no significant reduction in cholesterol while taking fenugreek seeds described by Sharma et al., (1990). Some evidence suggests that fenugreek seeds may also have other medical uses; it may reduce the amount of calcium oxalate in the kidneys (Ahsan et al., 1989). In animals' studies fenugreek seeds also appeared to lessen the chance of developing colon cancer by blocking the action certain of enzymes (Devansena and Menon, 2003). 2.5.1 Effect of Fenugreek Seeds on Feed Intake: The seed of fenugreek is a common flavoring agent in livestock feed and has history of therapeutic use as an appetite stimulant in humans as reported by Blumenthal et al., (1998). Tomar et al.,(1996) found that the fenugreek seeds stimulates feed intake in dairy cattle, resulting in a significant increase in milk production . Mohammedain (2000) demonstrated that increasing levels of fenugreek seeds had a significant effect on feed intake , within treatment there was a significant increase in feed intake between the control and other groups of treatment , containing five levels of dietary fenugreek seeds ( 2, 4, 6, 8,and 10%) Also there was a significant increase between the low (2 and 4) and high (6, 8. and 10%) levels of fenugreek treatments. Fenugreek silage improves feed utilization in beef cattle (Okine et al., 2001). The improved feed utilization may possibly by improving the microbial environment in the rumen (Goel et al., 2008). The seeds were reported to be used culturally to promote weight gain in Moroccan women (Rguibi and Belahsen, 2006). Petit et al., (1993) found that saponins isolated from plants like fenugreek have been shown to have ϴ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. hypoglycaemic effects. Male Wistar rats given 10 and 100 mg per 300 g body weight of fenugreek extract mixed with food had chronically higher plasma insulin levels, probably caused by stimulation of the pancreatic ßcells.more ever that extract of the seed (33 mg/kg body weight/ day) significantly increased feed intake and eat motivation in rats. The appetite stimulant effect of fenugreek is considered to be at least partially associated with its steroidal saponin content - particularly diosgenin (Bruneton,1999). 2.5.2 Effect Fenugreek Seeds on Milk Production: Fenugreek is a herbal plant that is often used in increasing milk production. It has been used as such for centuries as a production of galactogogue, also in women used to increase milk supply (Swafford and Berens, 2000). Tiran (2003) found that the seeds of this herb have been used to promote lactation in lactating women In addition it has been shown to influence the lactation performance in ruminants. Fenugreek seed as galactogogue was seen to enhance the flow of milk (Riordan and Auerbach, 1998). Fenugreek seeds support the production of milk because it is a rich source of essential fatty acids as described by Mowrey, (1986). Shah and Mir, (2004) demonstrated that supplementation of dairy ration, with fenugreek seeds improve the composition of cow milk. El alamy et al., (2001), found that feeding of fenugreek seeds to buffaloes increase milk yield, but without any effect on milk composition except for a tendency of lower fat content. Hale (2002) reported that the transfer of fenugreek into milk is unknown, but untoward effects have not been reported but has been used to increase milk production since biblical times. Sayed et al., (2005) mentioned that the fenugreek seed contains phytoestrogens, which are ϵ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. plant chemicals similar to the female sex hormone estrogen, a key compound, diosgenin, has been shown experimentally to increase milk flow. 2.5.2 Effect of Fenugreek Seeds on Insulin: Fenugreek seeds are a dietary supplement that may hold promise in this regard Insulin stimulates cellular glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissues by inducing the translocation of glucose transporter-4 (Glut-4) from an intracellular pool to the plasma membrane (Mohammad et al., 2006). Puri et al., (2002) had isolated an active compound from fenugreek that showed hypoglycemic properties in diabetic rabbits. The significant attention of the glucose tolerance curve and improvement in the glucose induced insulin response, hypoglycaemic effect may be mediated through stimulating insulin producing beta-cells of the Islets of Langerhans (Baquer et al., 2009). Srinivasan (2006) reported that saponins are active compounds owing to their hypoglycemic effects. However, Abajnoor and Tilmisany (1988) excluded extract of the whole seed, stimulation of pancreatic insulin secretion, but did not exclude other pathways. Yadav et al., (2008) also suggested that fenugreek seeds, more precisely the water extract, act as an insulin secretor but unfortunately, they did not monitor insulin levels. Devi et al.,(2003) observed increase insulin secretion on feeding fenugreek seeds. Further, Vijayakumar et al., (2005) also reported that hypoglycaemic effect of fenugreek seeds, on the modulation of insulin secretion. The effect of fenugreek on feed intake may be related to its well documented ability to increase insulin sensitivity (Gad et al., 2006). Insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism are involved in the complex endocrine regulation of feeding behavior (Hannan et al., 2007). However, Abajnoor ϭϬ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. and Tilmisany, (1988) excluded the involvement of gastrointestinal action of fiber to explain the hypoglycemic effect. Vijayakumar et al., (2005) mentioned that this mechanism could not explain the hypoglycemic effect they observed in mice because they used the intraperitoneal route of administration. Raju et al., (2001) and Devi et al.,( 2003) found that the ability of fenugreek seeds to modulate key glucose metabolizing enzymes such as hexokinase (glycolysis), glucose-6-phosphatase or fructose-1,6bisphosphatase (gluconeogenesis) was also considered as a possible mechanism. 2.5.3 Effect of Fenugreek Seeds onT3 andT4: Thyroid is an important endocrine organ (Mansourian, 2011, Salari and Abollahi, 2011). The thyroid gland, in response to stimulation by TSH, produces tetratiodo -thyronine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3). The synthesis of these hormones requires the amino acid tyrosine and the trace mineral iodine ( Kohrle, 1996). T3 and T4 are absolutely required for normal physiology in animals (Issi et al., 2011).They regulates metabolism development, nervous system, cardio vascular system and skin physiology. Although T4 and T3 are generated within the thyroid gland, T4 is quantitatively the major secretory product. All T4 found in circulation is generated in the thyroid unless exogenously administered. Production of T3 within the thyroid is related to very small quantities and is not considered significant compared to peripheral production (Robbins1981 and Visser, 1996). Several plants appear to be capable of influencing peripheral conversion of thyroid hormones in a manner consistent with decreasing the conversion of T4 to T3. Thahilian and kar (2000) reported fenugreek seed ϭϭ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. extract impaired peripheral conversion of thyroid hormones, resulted in a significant decrease in serum T3, with a concomitant increase in T4 levels. Administration of fenugreek seed extract to both mice and rats revealed its effect on thyroid hormone that fenugreek inhibits the synthesis of triiodothyronine concentration estimated by decrease in serum triiodothyronine concentration and T3/T4 ratio and consequently increased thyroxine levels which can be mediated through fenugreek- induced hypoglycaemia (Panda et al., 1999). The secretion of thyroid hormone is regulated by the hypothalamus in animals and human, development nerve system releasing hormone. Concentrate supplementation induced an increase of plasma T4 levels in lactating ewes as described by Shetaewi and Ross, (1991). Decreased in body weight has also been reported and attributed to decrease in T3 (Panda et al., 1999). However Yadav et al., (2005) mentioned that Fenugreek seeds also lower the lipid. This lowering might also be attributed to its oestrogenic constituent, indirectly increasing the thyroid hormone T4. (Kong et al., 2004). T3 directly stimulates feed intake at the hypothalamic level. While on the other hand, the quantity and quality of food eaten is a major factor determining plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones (TH) (Dauncey, 1990). Blood TH levels are considered to be good indicators of the nutritional status of an animal and were correlated with feed intake in ruminant species (Riis and Madsen, 1985). Mc Cann et al., (1992) reported that the circulating thyroid hormones (TH) concentrations seem better correlated with feed intake than adiposity status. Appropriate thyroid gland function and activity of thyroid hormones (TH) are considered crucial to sustain the productive performance in domestic animals (growth, feed intake, reproduction, milk, hair fiber ϭϮ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. production) and circulating TH can be considered as indicators of the metabolic and nutritional status of the animals (Riis and Madsen, 1985; Todini et al., 2007). In goats, maternal plasma T3 levels remained rather steady around parturition, while T4 concentrations markedly decreased and remained low until day 10 post partum. Blood TH levels were low at the beginning of lactation, afterwards gradually does (Riis and Madsen, 1985 Emre and Garmo, 1985) and in ewes (Mitin et al., 1986). Administration of TH is known to stimulate lactation in many species (Tucker, 1994 and Tucker 2000) but an inverse relationship between blood hormone concentration and milk yield has been observed in goats (Riis and Madsen,1985). 2.6 Safety and Adverse Effects of Fenugreek Seeds: Basch et al., (2003) had reviewed the literature on the safety and adverse effects of T. foenum-graecum. Although fenugreek has traditionally been considered safe and well tolerated, some side effects have been associated with its use. Caution in using fenugreek is warranted in patients known to be allergic to it or chickpeas, because of possible cross-reactivity (Patil et al., 1997). Sharma et al. (1996) Abdel-Barry et al. (2000) reported that there are some effects include transient diarrhea and flatulence. ϭϯ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODES 3.1 Experimental Site: This study was carried out during the period extending from April to July 2011 at the Animal unit belonging to the Department of Animal Nutrition: faculty of Animal Production U of K (Shambat). 3.2 Experimental Animals: Twelve mature Sudanese Nubian goats were purchased from a local livestock market (Abu Zaid) in western Omdurman, the criteria adopted for selection of the goats were as follows matching body weight, breed, age and late stage of gestation to ensure homogenous groups. 3.3.1 Management of Experimental Flock: On arrival to the experimental site, ( 1-2 weeks pre partum) each doe was identified by an ear-tag, treated against internal and external parasites, divided into four group's three animals in each group using complete randomize design, they were housed individually in pens partially shaded and were allowed free drinking. 3.3.2 Feed and Feeding: Four isonitrogenous and isocaloric diets (Table 3.1) were offered daily to meet the nutrient requirements of goat according to (NRC, 1981). All animals fed a control diet before parturition which includes (sorghum, groundnut cake, sesame cake, wheat bran, molasses, L.stone and NaCl). After parturition all animals received diet as follow: Group (FS0) was fed ϭϰ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. the control diet. Groups (FS5), (FS10) and (FS15) fed the control diet supplemented with 5, 10 and 15 % of crushed fenugreek seeds respectively. Green roughages were offered three times weekly. Feeding programme continued for 2 consecutive months, and feed intake was recorded daily. Percent of chemical composition of fenugreek seed, ingredients composition and determined chemical composition of experimental diet are shown in table (3:2) (3:3) and (3:4) respectively. 3.4 Milk Sampling and Analysis: After colostrums day were ended the does were milked daily and milk yield was recorded, the kids were daily fed milk manually and Milk sample were taken. Chemical analysis of milk sample was determined by using milk analyzer lactoscan 90 according to the manufacture, instruction (Aple industries service la Roche sur foron, France) to determined fat, protein, SNF and lactose of milk sample. 3.5 Blood Sampling and Analysis: Blood samples were collected every two weeks at 10 Am from jugular vein using a 5ml plastic disposal syringe, 10 ml of blood were obtained from each animal into clean dry heparininzed vacationers which were evaluated on the same day of collaction ( schalm,1956). Serum was separated by centrifugation at high speed of 4000 (rpm) at 30 o C for 5 minutes stored at -20o C. Serum Insulin was analyzed by insulin commercial kit. Measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) using insulin iodination (iodine-125) and standard supplied by (Midgley, (1969). Serum triiodothyronine (T3) and ϭϱ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. thyroxine (T4) were measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) usingT4-T3 iodination (iodine-125) and standard Supplied by Morgan and Lazarow (1962). 3.6 Statistical Analysis: The data obtained from feed intake, milk yield , milk composition and serum for hormone were subjected to Statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA) for completely randomized design, using computerized program known as statistix8.0.A least significant difference (LSD) was carried out to test significant difference between the treatment means. ϭϲ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Table (3:1) Calculated Chemical Analysis of Experimental Diet Level of fenugreek seeds Ingredient CP% FS0 14.59 FS5 FS10 FS15 15.25 15.95 15.47 ME(Mj/kg) 11.21 11.11 10.92 10.95 Ca% 0.488 0.48 0.48 0.42 FS0 (0% Fenugreek seed), FS5 (5% Fenugreek seed),FS10(10% Fenugreek seed), FS15 (15% Fenugreek seed). ϭϳ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Table (3: 2) Chemical Composition (% DM) of Fenugreek Seeds. Component % DM 94.11 CP 28.60 CF 14.04 EE 6.16 Ash 4.65 NFE 40.66 ME 2368.17 kcal/kg ME: calculated according to the equation of Lodhi et al., (1976) ϭϴ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Table (3:3) Ingredient Composition (%) of the Experimental Diets. Level of fenugreek seeds FS0 FS5 FS10 FS15 Sorghum 55 53 50 51 G .N.C 5 5 5 3 S .C 5 5 5 3 Wheat bran 14 11 9 7 Molasses 20 20 20 20 Fenugreek 0 5 10 15 L.stone 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 NaCl 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Total 100 100 100 100 Ingredients FS0 (0% Fenugreek seed), FS5(5% Fenugreek seed) FS10, (10% Fenugreek seed), FS15 (15% Fenugreek seed), G.N.C groundnut cake, S.C sesame cake. ϭϵ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Table (3.4) Determined Chemical Composition (%) of Experimental Diet Level of fenugreek seeds % Component 0 5 10 15 Dry matter 89.86 86.08 88.27 86.74 Crud protein 17.56 17.20 18.77 19.52 Crud fiber 13.70 13.16 14.80 14.93 Fat 4.15 3.39 3.24 2.99 Ash 13.68 13.84 13.77 13 NFE 50.91 52.43 49.44 49.57 0(0% Fenugreek seed), 5 (5% Fenugreek seed), 10(10% Fenugreek seed), 15(15% Fenugreek seed). ϮϬ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.1 Effect Fenugreek Seeds on Feed Intake and Milk yield According to the effect of fenugreek seeds on feed intake and milk yield which are shown in Table (4.1), the following important points can be observed: there was a significant increase (p<0.05) in feed intake between control and treated groups while there was no significant different among treated groups. There was a significant (P<0.05) effect of fenugreek seeds on total milk yield during the experimental period between control and treated groups. There was a significant different (p<0.05) among treated groups in milk yield which increased by increasing fenugreek seeds levels from FS10 to FS15compared with FS5 level. 4.2 Effect of Fenugreek seeds on Milk Composition Table (4.2) showed the result of the effect of fenugreek seeds on milk composition. The results clarify that fat content was significantly (P<0.05) higher in FS0 and FS5 than the two other groups FS10 and FS15. However, there was no significant (P<0.05) different among the groups in lactose content. Milk solids not fat (SNF) content was higher in FS0 than the other groups. Protein content was significantly higher (P<0.05) in FS0 followed by FS15 and there was no significant different between groups FS5 and FS10. 4.3 Effect of Fenugreek Seeds on T3, T4 and Insulin The results on the effect of supplementing fenugreek seeds on concentration of T3 showed in table (4.3). There was a significant (P<0.05) difference between control and treated groups. Among treated groups there was no significant (P<0.05) different. However, the higher concentration of Ϯϭ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. T3 recorded by FS0 (2.09 ml U/L) Followed by FS5 (1.37 ml U/L), FS10 (1.33 ml U/L) and FS15 (1.12 ml U/L). The results in table (4.3) indicated that the effect of fenugreek seeds on T4 concentration was significantly (P<0.05) higher in groups FS10 and FS15 than FS0 anFS5. The result of the Insulin concentration as affected by fenugreek seeds supplementation shown in table (4.3). There was a significant (P<0.05) different between control group and other groups, the higher concentration obtained by FS15 follow by FS10, FS5 and FS0. ϮϮ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Table (4.1): Effect of Supplementation of Different level of Fenugreek Seeds on Feed Intake (g/day/animal) and Milk Yield (ml/day/animal): Item FS0 FS5 FS10 FS15 SEM Feed intake 546.3b 1083.3a 1231.8a 1318.3a 88. 59 Milk yield 381.78c 1016.7b 1138.4a 1334.0a 188.42 FS0 (0% Fenugreek seed), FS5 (5% Fenugreek seed) FS10, (10% Fenugreek seed), FS15 (15% Fenugreek seed), SEM: stander error of the means. a-c: values with in row with no common superscript differ significantly (p<0.05) Ϯϯ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Table (4.2): Effect of Effect of Supplementation of Different level of Fenugreek Seeds on Milk Composition%: Item FS0 FS5 FS10 FS15 SEM Fat 3.56a 3.38a 2.94b 2.72b 0.14 Protein 3.74a 3.50b 3.52b 3.59ab 0.06 Lactose 5.21 4.88 5.35 5.07 0.30 SNF 9.63a 9.01b 9.16ab 9.32ab 0.17 FS0 (0% Fenugreek seed), FS5 (5% Fenugreek seed) FS10, (10% Fenugreek seed), FS15 (15% Fenugreek seed), SNF (Sold Non Fat) SME: stander error of the means. a-c: values with in row with no common superscript differ significantly (p<0.05) Ϯϰ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Table (4.3): Effect of Supplementation of Different level of Fenugreek Seeds on T3, T4 and Insulin (ml U/L): Item FS0 FS5 FS10 FS15 SEM T3 2.09a 1.37b 1.33b 1.12b 0.1 T4 71.67b 71.60b 86.00a 92.27a 2.72 Insulin 7.97c 10.36bc 11.32ab 13.66a 0.90 FS0 (0% Fenugreek seed), FS5 (5% Fenugreek seed) FS10, (10% Fenugreek seed), FS15 (15% Fenugreek seed), SME: stander error of the means. a-c: values with in row with no common superscript differ significantly (p<0.05) T3 Triiodothyronine, T4 Thyroxine. Ϯϱ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION The present study showed clearly that the groups of goats fed the fenugreek seeds supplementation diets secured higher feed intake. This result is in agreement with the results obtained by several outher Petit et al., (1993), Tomar et al., (1996), Blumenthal et al., (1998), Borca (2000) and Mohammedain (2000). The increase in feed intake might be partially due to the presence of saponins in fenugreek seeds which increase food consumption. Petit et al., (1995) concluded that saponins in fenugreek seeds increase food intake. Also Abo El-Nor et al., (2007) stated that the increases in feed intake as result of feeding fenugreek may be attributed to its effect on hypothalamus to stimulate hunger centers in the brain and increase the desire for eating. Fenugreek is a herbal plant that is often used to increase milk supply. This study illustrated that feeding varying levels of fenugreek seeds led to progressive increase in milk production. The increase in milk production may be due to the presence of phytoestrogens, which are plant chemicals similar to the female sex hormone estrogen which is a key compound to increase milk flow. Similar results were obtained by many researchers (Swafford and Berens, 2000, Tiran 2003, Sayed et al.,2005) who found that fenugreek seeds contain a chemical compound (diosgenin) that has a similar role to the female sex hormone estrogen, which has been experimentally proved to increase milk flow, this hormone promote development of the ductal system of milk glnds. Also the ability of fenugreek seeds to increase milk might be due to the fact that this herb contains rich source of essential fatty acids. Ϯϲ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. Mowrey, (1986) reported that herb with high essential fatty acids increased milk production. Milk fat content was significantly lower in groupFS15 and FS10 compared with groups FS0 and FS5, there is an inverse relationship between yield and fat percentage. The lower fat content of both FS10 and FS15 can be justified by the higher milk yield secured by both group, compared to the FS0 and FS5, this result agrees with El alamy et al., ( 2001), who found that feeding fenugreek seeds to buffaloes increase milk yield , but without any effect on milk composition except for a tendency of lower fat content. Milk lactose was not affected by supplementing different level of fenugreek seed. This result is similar to the results obtained by Kholif et al., (2001) who found that there was insignificant different on lactose content between all treated and control group. The progressive increase of feeding of fenugreek seeds to the experimental animals resulted in an increase in insulin hormone secretion; this may be due to the presence of the amino acid 4, hydroxyisoleucine in fenugreek seeds. This amino acid appeared to act on pancreatic beta cells to enhance insulin production. This result agree with Broca et al., 2000, Schryver, 2002 and Baquer et al. 2009 who reported that fenugreek seeds contain amino acid called 4 hydroxy iso leuciine , which appears to increase the body's production of insulin. Also Abajnoor and Tilmisany (1988), Devi et al.,(2003) and Yadav et al., (2008) found that the extract of the whole seed of fenugreek seeds, stimulate pancreatic insulin secretion. More over the effect of fenugreek on feed intake related to its well-documented ability to increase insulin sensitivity because fenugreek interferes with intestinal glucose absorption as a result of local effects at the gastro-intestinal level Ϯϳ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. mainly due to dietary fibers contained in fenugreek seeds (Gad et al,. 2006). Insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism are involved in the complex endocrine regulation of feeding behavior (Hannan et al, 2007). T3 and T4 hormones are absolutely required for normal physiology in animals. Increasing levels of supplementation of fenugreek seeds on diets resulted in decrease of serum T3, while increasing T4 level, this may be due to meet the highly metabolic demand of milk synthesis, milk is very metabolically expressive commodity it extract, 80% of the total circulation nutrient to the milk glands to synthesis milk, this result agrees with result obtained by (Issi et al., 2011). The increase of T4 level might be due to concentrate ration used in experiment. Shetaewi and Ross, (1991) reported that concentrate ration induced an increase of plasma T4 levels in lactating ewes. Or may be attributed to estrogenic compound that presence in fenugreek seeds which indirectly increased thyroid hormone T4 (Sauvaire et al,. 1991). Also the increase of T4 and a decrease in T3 level may be due to the fact that the fenugreek seed extract impaired peripheral conversion of thyroid hormones resulted in a significant decrease in serum T3, with a concomitant increase in T4 levels (Thahilian and Kar,2000). Panda et al.,(1999) reported that .administration of fenugreek seed extract to both mice and rats revealed its effect on thyroid hormone that fenugreek inhibits the synthesis of triiodothyronine concentration estimated by decrease in serum triiodothyronine concentration and T3/T4 ratio and consequently increased thyroxine levels. Ϯϴ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS v The results of this study indicated that the inclusion of fenugreek seeds in Nubian goat diet:improves feed intake and milk yield. Progressive levels of fenugreek seeds significantly increase milk production. Had no significant effect on milk composition, except lowering in fat content. Increases the secretion of Insulin, T4 and decreases the secretion of T3. v From the results obtained, it could be concluded that supplementing lactating goat's diets with medicinal plant is highly recommended as a new step in the field of animal production in the Sudan for improving productive performance of lactating goat, regarding milk yield and composition. v Further studies on fenugreek seeds is highly recommended in order to associate the beneficially effects of the seed to their ingredient component. Ϯϵ Please purchase PDFcamp Printer on http://www.verypdf.com/ to remove this watermark. REFERENCES Abdel El-Aal, E.S.M. and R.S. Attia,(1993).Characterization of black cumin (Nigella Sativa) seeds. 2-protein Alex.Sci.Exch., 14(4): 483-496. Abdel Hamide, M.R.; Allalla, R.K and Moussa, Z.N. (1984).Chemical studies on Egytian fenugreek (trigonella foenum graecum) seed. 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