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El Wakeel et al., Sudan Academy of Sciences Journal-Special Issue (Climate Change), Vol. 11, 2015, 83-94
ISSN 1816-8272
Copyright © 2015 SAPDH
Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity
in Sudan: A Review
Ahmed S. El Wakeel1
Abstract
The Central Bureau of Statistics in 2008 classified the population of Sudan into
rural (67%) and urban (33%) categories. The pastoral group of the population has
been added to the rural category. This implies that most of Sudan’s population
secures their livelihood by using natural resources. This situation has put intensive
pressure on these resources, and has thereby led to serious degradation in
biodiversity and the rest of ecosystems components. The end result has been
negative impact on the well–being of the rural communities. The indirect factors
for the degradation of the natural resource base can be attributed to population’s
growth, globalization in trade, market, and technology and policy framework.
While the direct ones are change in land use and cover, species introduction and
removal, technology and climate change. With the secession of South Sudan,
Sudan lost a third of its area which is the richest in biodiversity. Climate change
will profoundly affect agriculture worldwide. Similar to most African nations,
Sudan’s economy relies heavily on agriculture. Although Sudan is endowed with
diverse ecosystems and species, it is adversely affected by climate change and
other factors. The ecological zones extend from the desert in the extreme north to
the savannah in the south. Forests and rangeland represent 35.6% of the total
country’s area. Food security in Sudan is under threat from unpredictable changes
in rainfall and more frequent extreme weather. Under harsh climatic conditions,
poorer farmers in Sudan with will be most affected. An increase in biodiversity
has been reported as the most effective strategy to adapt to climate change in
agriculture. A mix of different crops and varieties in one field has been reported
as an effective farming method to increase resilience to climate change, while
monocultures of genetically identical plants would not be able to cope with a
changing climate. Genetic diversity within a field provides a buffer against losses
caused by environmental changes, pests and diseases, and thereby contributes to
food security. The fastest way to develop stress tolerant varieties is through the
use of modern breeding techniques such as marker assisted selection. More
research on the effects of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystem
functioning is needed, especially the interaction between climate change and other
factors such as habitat fragmentation, biological invasions, pollution and
overexploitation.
Kewards: Parooral groups, Climate change, biodiversity, Biological.
Background and Introduction
Sudan is a vast country with an area of 1.8 million km2. It lies between latitudes
10o and 22o N and longitudes 22 o to 38o E. Its landscape consists primarily of
1
Professor of Ecology (formerly, in the Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC). Then as Project
Manager Biodiversity – Sudan, (Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources (HCENR).
This manuscript was submitted couble of monthes before his sudden death.
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gently sloping plain, with the exception of Jebel Marra Masssif, Red Sea Hills,
and Nuba Mountains. Mean annual temperatures vary between 26 oC and 32oC
across the country. The northern part is almost desert and semi-desert, with
average annual temperature and annual rainfall around 30 oC and 150 mm,
respectively. The central area is semi-desert to savanna, with average annual
temperature and annual rainfall around 27 oC and about 200 mm, respectively.
Rainfall, which supports the great majority of the agricultural activity, is erratic
and varies significantly from the northern to southern ranges of the country.
Sudan can be ecologically divided into five vegetation zones according to rainfall
patterns from North to South.
The diversity of the Sudan’s climate is responsible for its rich flora and fauna.
Agricultural activity, including animal production and forest related activities in
Sudan, is based to a great extent on the indigenous heritage of plant and animal
species that forms an important component of the country's wealth of biodiversity.
The forestry sector contributes some 12% of the Sudanese GDP, besides the
indirect benefits it renders in the way of environmental protection, biodiversity
conservation, soil amelioration, work opportunities for rural population and
others. Perhaps the most tangible benefit derived by the people of the Sudan from
their forests is fuel wood in the form of firewood and charcoal, as well as Gum
Arabic with an annual export that ranges between 20-40 thousand tons.
Rangelands contribute substantially to the income and subsistence of a large
sector of the population who are either pastoralists or agro-pastoralists by
providing important forage feed resource. It supplies about 70 % of the total feed
requirement of national herds, which are estimated at 104.9 million heads
(Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries and Rangelands (MoLFR), 2012).
Sudan possesses an immense and diversified wealth of animal resources, ranging
from the domesticated livestock species to the wild and aquatic life which
contributes significantly to the food security, as well as forming a considerable
base for the economy of the country. Livestock goes beyond its influence on the
economy to its role in securing national and strategic food. It allows selfsatisfaction in meat (100%) and export of 3770240 heads, of which 3415739
heads of sheep had contributed to about 451 million US dollars in 2012 (Ministry
of Livestock, Fisheries and Rangelands (MoLFR), 2012). Also the contribution of
the sector in the national income is estimated to be 18–25 % and it represents a
livelihood activity for about 60% of the population, as well as providing labour
for about 40% of the population.
The density of mammal species in Sudan ranges between 21-50 animal species
per 10,000 km2 (Talhouk and Abboud, 2005). These estimates were before the
secession of South Sudan.
Status and Trends of Ecosystems and Biodiversity in Sudan
Agro-biodiversity
Sudan is considered as part of the centres of origin and/or diversity for some of
the cultivated crops such as sorghum, pearl millet, okra, melons, sesame and dry
dates. It is also a secondary centre of diversity for others such as hot pepper and
Roselle. Wild relatives of different crops are also known growing in the country.
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These include wild relatives for crops such as sorghum, pearl millet, rice, okra,
watermelon, melon and sesame. Specifically, Sudan is part of the East African
Region of crop genetic diversity. Local cultivars from old introduced germplasm
for other crops such as maize, faba bean, cowpea and chickpea, are still existing
and being utilized by some framers.
Sudan embraces diverse biological resources which represent an important
national asset and heritage (HCENR, 2013).
Insects life (Diversity of bees and honey production)
Morphological studies on populations of native honey bees in Sudan showed more
than one subspecies. El-Sarrag et al. (1992) mentioned two subspecies of
honeybees in Sudan. The first, Apis mellifera sudanensis nov subsp, is distributed
all over Sudan between latitudes 3°N and 16 20°N. The other, Apis mellifera
nubica Ruttner, exists along the borders of Ethiopia and Uganda. The
morphometric studies carried out to differentiate honey bee populations showed
more than one subspecies. It has been estimated that there are about 200,000
honey bee hives in Sudan and 50,000 beekeepers. About 99% of them are
traditional beekeepers and 1% using modern beekeeping technology
The protein structure, physicochemical properties and mineral composition of
Apis mellifera honey of different floral origin, commercialized in several states of
Sudan were studied (Mohammed and Babiker, 2009). A recent study provided
information related to geographical and botanical origin of honey based on honey
protein (Mohammed and Azim, 2012). Honey samples from five floral sources:
Ziziphus sp., Helianthus annuus, Acacia nilotica, Acacia seyal, and Azadarichta
indica were studied. Ziziphus sp, Helianthus annuus, Acacia seyal and
Azadarichta indica honeys were 100% correctly classified, and Acacia nilotica
honey was 66.67% correctly classified (Mohammed and Babiker, 2009).
There is an urgent need for more studies and information to assist in developing
policies for conservation of the native honeybees in Sudan (Updated NBSAP,
Unpublished).
Forest ecosystem
It is estimated that there are about 533 trees species in the Sudan, 25 of which are
exotics. Also there are about 184 shrub species in the Sudan, of which 33 are
exotics. Some of the species have a wide range of distribution and considerable
variation within the species exists. However, the vegetation of Sudan forests is
neither adequately explored nor adequately documented. Some forest formations
are unique in the Sudan such as the Mangrove Forests along the Red Sea Coast
and other unique forests on mountains and hills.
Those considered seriously threatened are 241 tree or shrub species, which
showed marked retreat in their distribution and/or regeneration due to climatic
conditions and also due to the intensity of their removal for wood, fodder or
clearance for cultivation. Of the exotic shrubs or tree species, 43 are also
endangered.
The Forest National Corporation (FNC) estimates that, after secession of South
Sudan, forests cover about 11.60% of the total area, while agricultural land
13.70%, Rangelands 26.40% and water bodies 0.17%. The average annual
increment of growing stock volume is estimated as 1.340 million m3, of which 5
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% is removed per year. The majority is used for firewood and charcoal, while 9%
is used for high quality timber and the rest is lost because of fires, drought,
overgrazing and unsustainable agricultural practices. UNEP has indicated that
between 1990 and 2005 the country lost 11.6 % of its forest cover.
Little information is available on genetic makeup of harmful invasive plants
invading the valuable agricultural lands such as Prosopis, although there is
ongoing debate on the identity of the problematic Prosopis, whether it is Prosopis
juliflora or P. chilensis.
Range plants ecosystem
Some natural range plants are of great value to rural people especially during
periods of food scarcity and famine such as Dactyloctenium aegyptium,
Echinochloa colona (Difra), Chrosophora brochidiana, Boscia senegalensis,
Curbonia virgate, Brachiaria obtusiflora, (Um chir), Chenopodium album,
(porridge foods), Sonchus oleraceus (Moleita) used as fresh salad, Cassia
obtusiflora (kawal) used as traditional food flavour etc. Some range plants have
also medicinal importance such as Blepharis linariifolia (Beghail) and Cassia
senna (Sannameka). Different local and indigenous plants are known for their
importance in the folk medicine in Sudan. The list of such plants includes both
cultivated and wild species.
The forestry and rangelands of Sudan support about 101 million heads of cattle,
sheep, goats and camels, mostly under pastoral and small agro-pastoral systems in
the traditional rainfed lands. Sudan possesses an immense and diversified wealth
of domesticated livestock species, farm animal resources which include cattle,
sheep, goats and camels. There are different types and breeds of livestock, the
majority of which is raised within tribal groups and often carries the names of the
tribe or locality. Other domesticated local types of animals include horses,
donkeys, pigs and poultry and a wide range of wildlife species. The wildlife
occurs in protected areas and in fragmented habitats outside protected areas in
desert, semi-desert, Low rainfall savanna woodland, high rainfall savannah
woodland and sea coastal habitats. Wildlife includes mammals, birds and reptiles.
The number of many species has either noticeably declined or disappeared from
many of their former habitats. Other fauna like amphibians, insects and other
invertebrates are important and are hosted in protected areas.
Freshwater (Inland waters) ecosystem
The term “Inland Waters” denotes all aquatic systems that are not part of the
marine system i.e. seas and oceans. The term embraces different types of water
bodies and is not restricted to freshwater bodies only. Within this context inland
waters could be classified into two categories; running water “Lotic” or Nonrunning water “Lentic”. The Nile River System is the main lotic system in Sudan.
The biodiversity in inland waters in Sudan is in limited locations and of limited
distribution and include aquatic macrophytes which have always been regarded as
nuisance, useless organisms and at the best cases, they have always been
neglected. This attitude has been reflected in the fact that the aquatic macrophytes
of the Sudan have received little scientific attention, almost no attempt to utilize
and of course, no policy to conserve. Furthermore, the taxonomy of the aquatic
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fauna and flora is neither accurate nor complete. Not all inland waters have been
surveyed (HCENR, 2013).
Marine and coastal habitats diversity
The Sudanese coastline of the Red Sea is about 750 km long, including bays and
inlets. Typical features of the coast are coastal lagoons and sheltered bays
(marsas) that form natural harbours and fish landing places. Several of these
lagoons are fringed by mangroves. Sea grass beds are frequently found in the
shallow waters of marsas and in the lagoons between the coast and the reefs.
These features contain a spectacular biological diversity of ecosystems and
species that require considerable efforts for conservation (HCENR, 2013).
Mangroves
Avicennia marina was the only mangrove species found in the Sudanese coast
during a relatively recent survey conducted on the coast (PERSGA, 2004).
Mangroves are distributed along the Sudanese coast from Mohammed Qol north
of Port Sudan to Shabarango-Gafud south of Suakin. Mangrove lagoons and
channels are occupied by numerous fish species including many commercially
important species. The leaves and shade zones provide additional habitat. The
mangrove fauna includes true residents that spend their entire life cycle in
mangroves (e.g. Aphanius dispar, Gerres oyena and some gobiids), closely
associated species that are found there as juveniles e.g. Acanthopagrus berda,
Chanos chanos, Crenidens crenidens, Hypoatherina temminckii, Leiognathus
equulus, Terapon jarbua, Pomadasys commersonni and some mugilid species),
and loosely associated species that are occasional visitors seeking food or shelter
e.g. Silago sihama and Thryssa baelama (PERSGA/GEF, 2004b). In addition to
marine organisms, mangroves are used as a food source by terrestrial vertebrates
and as a roosting and nesting site by many species of birds.
Corals and coral reef communities
The Sudanese coast is characterized by the extreme diversity of its reefs compared
to the rest of the Red Sea coast. The primary coral reef habitats are barrier reefs,
fringing reefs, isolated patch reefs, and one oceanic atoll (Sanganeb). The
assessment of the condition of Sudan’s coral reefs showed that average live coral
cover on reefs in less than 10 m depth ranged from 5–75%. Healthy colonies of
framework corals were observed below 10 m. Algal film was the dominant
substrate cover in water less than 10 m deep and was attributed to a thermal event.
Live coral cover ranged from 5–60%, with dead coral cover higher than 1% noted
at only five sites (Nasr and Al-Sheikh, 2000; PERSGA/GEF, 2003b). Assessment
of coral reefs in the Dungonab Bay and Mukawwar Island marine protected area
(MPA) showed major differences in the health of coral communities between
parts of the MPA. The coverage of living coral was generally greatest within
Dungonab Bay (PERSGA, 2006). Dungonab Bay is the home for the pearl oyster
(Pinctada margaritifera).
Sea-grasses
Although sea-grass beds are widely distributed in sheltered shallow water and
bays of the Sudanese Red Sea coast, only Dungonab Bay and Mukkawar Island
MPA was extensively surveyed. The survey showed that it included at least seven
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species of sea grasses (Thalassia sp., Thalassodendron sp., Halophila stipulacea,
H. ovalis, Halodule uninervis, Cymodocea sp. and Enhalus sp.). The total area of
sea-grass estimated from Landsat 7ETM image is 11.68 km2. The extensive seagrass beds are a nationally and regionally important feature of the Dungonab Bay
and Mukawwar Island area where the substantial population of the globally
endangered dugong is found here (PERSGA/GEF, 2004)
Fishes and elasmobranches
The Dungonab Bay and Mukawwar Island MPA is significant for the
conservation of fish diversity in Sudan. Major differences exist between the inside
and outside of Dungonab Bay in the communities of butterfly fish (family
Chaetodontidae) and angelfish (family Pomacanthidae).
Communities inside Dungonab Bay closely resemble communities from the
southern Red Sea, while communities outside the Bay are similar to communities
from the north-central Red Sea. The basis of this pronounced difference in
community structure is likely to be differences in water quality, temperature and
turbidity (PERSGA, 2006).
Additionally, the Dungonab Bay–Mukawwar Island MPA is also well known for
its aggregations of whale sharks (Rhyncodon typus) and manta rays (Manta
birostris) during summer (PERSGA/GEF, 2004f).
Groupers were more abundant in Sudan in comparison to other sites in the Red
Sea, with more than 20 groupers recorded in over half of 20-minute timed swims
(PERSGA/ GEF, 2003b). Parrotfish (family Scaridae) are important consumers of
algae on coral reefs and contribute to coral dynamics and habitat formation
(Bellwood et al., 2003). Their conservation is, therefore, important for the
maintenance of coral reef ecosystems.
Assessment of fishes in Mukawwar Island and Dungonab Bay MPA prior to the
MPA declaration in 2005 (PERSGA/GEF, 2004f) showed that large groupers
(family Serranidae) were rare and Nagil (Plectropomus spp.) over 30 cm in length
were rarely observed, suggesting a high fishing pressure on these species.
Regionally important populations of sharks are known to occupy the waters off
the coast of Sudan, and are a very important attraction for the marine tourism
trade. Hammerhead sharks are known to occur around Sanganeb Atoll and around
many of the reefs of Dungonab Park in winter, but very few were observed during
the recent survey.
Turtles
The eastern shore of Mukawwar Island is a turtle nesting site of regional and
possibly international significance. There is no deliberate capture of turtles within
the MPA (PERSGA/GEF, 2004f). Green turtles nest all year at the following key
nesting sites: Seil Ada Kebir Island, Suakin Archipelago and Mukawwar Island.
Hawksbill turtles, on the other hand, nest during March- July at the following key
nesting sites: Mukawwar Island, Seil Ada Kebir and Suakin Archipelago. Key
foraging sites for Hawksbill include all fringing and barrier reefs.
All species of marine turtle are globally endangered and are CITES- listed. The
eastern shore of Mukkawar Island is one of the two or three most important turtle
nesting sites in the entire Red Sea region. This important site merits immediate
protection, and the application of a rigorous monitoring program.
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Marine mammals
Three species of marine mammals (cetaceans) are present in the Sudanese waters
including the Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), the common dolphin
(Delphinus delphis) and the Bottle nosed dolphin (Tursiops truncates). It appears
to show that the cetacean population of the Sudan seems to be strong and is not
under much pressure at the moment. The Bottle-nosed dolphins appear to be
breeding well and seems to cope being around the many vessels along the coast.
Like the shark species the cetacea are apex predators in the park and as such will
be an indicator of the state of the health of the park, so their needs will need to be
considered in the long term planning of the park.
Dugong occurs in the Mukawwar Island and Dungonab Bay MPA. The population
there may be the most important remaining on the coast of Africa. However,
numbers have declined sharply in recent years. The cause is most likely accidental
capture in fixed fishing nets. Two species of dolphin occur in the MPA
(PERSGA/GEF, 2004f).
Seabirds
The whole area of Dungonab Bay and Mukawwar Island MPA is internationally
recognized as an Important Bird Area (IBA). Breeding seabird species include:
Sterna bengalensis, Sterna repressa, Sterna anaethetus, Larus hemprichii and
Larus leucophthalmus (PERSGA, 2006).
Suakin Archipelago, which is an unprotected area, is also an important bird area
including the following breeding seabird species: Sterna bergii, Sterna
bengalensis, Sterna repressa, Sterna anaethetus, Anous stolidus, Sula leucoaster
and Larus hemprichii (PERSGA, 2006).
Marine planktons
Very few studies have been carried out on plankton in the Sudanese Red Sea
although currently some post graduate studies are being carried out. Previous
investigations included studies in planktonic populations in Port Sudan coastal
area (El Hag et al., 1989) and studies in coastal plankton fauna of the Sudanese
Red Sea (Nasr, 1980).
Climate Change in Sudan
Climate change presents an additional stress for Sudanese people already
struggling with poverty, post-conflict recovery and environmental degradation.
Straddling north and sub-Saharan Africa, with the Sahel running through the
centre of the country, Sudan is a country of extreme geographic and climatic
contrasts. However, rainfall and the length of the dry season are the most
significant climatic variables. The rainy season in Sudan usually lasts from July to
September in the north. There is less rainfall in the north and the driest regions
suffer from massive sand storms. In the northern and western semi-desert areas,
including Darfur and Kordofan, people rely on scant rainfall for basic rainfed
agriculture and many are nomadic pastoralists. Nearer to the Nile, there are wellirrigated farms growing cash crops.
Decreasing annual rainfall and increased rainfall variability are contributing to
extreme dry spells and periods of drought in many parts of Sudan, even in the
south. A succession of dry years from 1978 to 1987 resulted in severe social and
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economic impacts, including many human and livestock fatalities and the
resettlement of about three million people close to the Nile and in urban areas.
Drought will increase if these trends continue, without efforts to adapt.
Devastating floods have also troubled Sudan in the last few decades leading to
widespread loss of property, damage to irrigation facilities and water services, and
the spread of waterborne diseases.
The country’s long history of conflict has had significant impacts on the
environment. Population displacements, a lack of governance, conflict-related
resource exploitation and underinvestment in sustainable development have been
the most severe consequences to date. Any discussion of climate change in Sudan
must take into account the political context.
The interrelation of climate change with other factors is complex and evolving.
Climate change is projected to affect agriculture, water resources and health. A
recent United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report states:
“An estimated 50 to 200 km southward shift of the boundary between semi-desert
and desert has occurred since rainfall and vegetation records were first held in
the 1930s. This boundary is expected to continue to move southwards due to
declining precipitation. The remaining semi-desert and low rainfall savannah
which represent some 25 percent of Sudan’s agricultural land are at considerable
risk of further desertification. This forecast is expected to lead to a significant
drop (approximately 20 percent) in food production.”
Projections indicate that climate change will also impact water resources.
Reduced groundwater, either through decreased precipitation or increased
temperatures and evaporation, would have serious repercussions. National studies
show that soil moisture would decline. Coupled with increased water
consumption, population growth, a high variation in rainfall and a high rate of
evaporation, climate change is increasing the likelihood of a water crisis for
Sudan, particularly in the arid north. Experts also expect climate change to
threaten health. Many communities in Sudan will be at a significantly increased
risk of malaria, which could threaten the country’s already limited health care
system.
In an attempt to address climate change and related issues, Sudan has already
completed several activities. It ratified the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1993 and submitted its initial national
communication in 2003. The government of Sudan also signed the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992 and ratified in 1995. The Higher Council for
environment and natural Resources (HCENR), the government’s national focal
point for both conventions, plays an advisory policymaking role with regard to
climate-related initiatives. The HCENR is also the national executing agency for
Sudan’s National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA), completed in 2007,
which focuses on major impacts and vulnerabilities in four regions: Gedaref,
North Kordofan, South Darfur and the River Nile States representing different
ecological settings across the country. The NAPA for Sudan deals with the task of
identifying adaptation priorities in four separate ecological zones. The two
dominant themes are inevitably water and agriculture, with public health concerns
such as the spread of malaria not far behind. Enhancing Adaptation to Climate
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Change in Agriculture and Water Resource (ECAW) in the Horn of Africa is a
regional initiative. ECAW-Sudan Project is aiming at strengthening NAPA by
economic analysis of adaptation investments and informing NAPA by credible
and impartial scientific assessment of climate change impacts. To achieve this, the
project is delivering the following outputs: i) Estimates of climate change impacts
in agriculture and water resources improved ii) Costs and benefits of the
adaptation options to guide climate change risk planning and investments assessed
iii) Capacities of institutions to advance climate change adaptation assessments,
options and plans enhanced iv) Knowledge sharing platforms to inform climate
change adaptation policies and actions facilitated.
The Biodiversity and Climate Change Interaction
There are numerous effects on both terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity from
climate change. Climate change is a major threat to species, communities and
ecosystems due to the rapid rate at which the climate is expected to change in the
near future.
Increasing plant diversity through agricultural expansion within Sudan can lead to
decreased nutrients/water, prey and dead organic matter, respectively. This would
be a negative effect on supporting ecosystems services, which are defined as
nutrient cycles and crop pollination. However, in turn, implementation of such
agricultural availability would have a positive impact on provisioning ecosystem
services, such as production of food, as well as water as the proposed food
security solution includes water retention and irrigation in order to allow for
agriculture throughout the dry months in Sudan. Desertification and soil erosion
are an issue that Sudanese deal with every year, decreasing their crop yields and
enforcing nomadic behaviour, therefore not lending itself to sustainable
agriculture or human well-being. The question of sustainable well-being comes
into play as it is of utmost importance for the people of Sudan to have available
food sources from more sustainable agriculture.
Biodiversity is a natural insurance policy against climate change. Diversity
farming is the single most important modern technology to achieve food security
in a changing climate. Scientists have shown that diversity provides a natural
insurance policy against major ecosystem changes, be it in the wild or in
agriculture (McNaughton, 1977; Chapin et al., 2000; Diaz et al., 2006). It is now
predicted that genetic diversity will be most crucial in highly variable
environments and those under rapid human-induced climate change (Reusch et
al., 2005; Hajjar et al. 2008; Hughes et al., 2008). The larger the numbers of
different species or varieties present in one field or in an ecosystem, the greater
the probability that at least some of them can cope with changing conditions.
Species diversity also reduces the probability of pests and diseases by diluting the
availability of their hosts (Chapin et al., 2000). It is an age old insurance policy of
farming communities to hedge their risks and plant diverse crops or varieties. The
strategy is not to maximize yield in an optimum year, but to maximize yield over
years, good and bad, by decreasing the chance of crop failure in a bad year
(Altieri, 1990).
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Dry and carbon sequestration, particularly in soils, can provide other ecosystem
and social benefits such as the rebuilding of the biophysical foundations of a
sustainable natural environment – biodiversity, forests, livestock, soils, water,
natural ecosystems - thus increasing productivity, improving water quality, and
restoring degraded soils and ecosystems. Increasing carbon stocks in the soil
increases soil fertility, workability and water holding capacity; and reduces
erosion risk and can thus reduce the vulnerability of managed soils to future
global warming. However, hidden costs in intervention strategies need to be
considered.
There is a limited institutional capacity to manage natural resources. Government
institutions and State level agencies charged with biodiversity (including forest)
conservation are still in nascent stages of development.
Many of the valuable range plants species are endangered. Considering climate
change issues when designing response activities is essential for ensuring
environmental sustainability. Biodiversity conservation activities that address the
impacts of climate change mitigation and adaptation also help achieve MDG 7.
For example, from 1992 to 2000, a group of 17 villages in the drought-prone Bara
Province in Western Sudan took part in a project to rehabilitate overexploited and
highly vulnerable rangelands through the use of community-based natural
resource management techniques. The project’s objective was to create a locally
sustainable natural resource management system that would both prevent overexploitation of marginal lands and rehabilitate rangelands for the purpose of carbon
sequestration, preservation of biodiversity and reduction of atmospheric dust. As a
result, 700 hectares of rangeland were improved and properly managed. With
improved land management and a more secure environmental and social asset
base, communities were able to increase their resilience to climate change
impacts.
Alternatives, Options and Recommendations
Farmers and governments worldwide have several options to counter continued,
long-run global warming.
 Farmer adaptations, such as switching crop varieties, introducing more
suitable crops, or shifting from crops to grazing, can often be undertaken by
individual farmers.
 Governments can provide reliable 6- to 8-month weather projections or
information about suitable crop and livestock alternatives to help farmers
increase production efficiency.
 Governments can encourage agronomic research for the development (by
either traditional breeding or biotechnology) of new varieties better able to
withstand the effects of global warming.
 Agronomists may be able to increase the ability of crops to use CO2 more
efficiently in photosynthesis.
 Other options, such as providing irrigation (or increasing its efficiency) and
maintaining flood control, require long-term cooperation with farmers or other
members of society. These options would benefit from reliable, long run
information about climate change and its effects on land and water resources.
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 Adaptation does not guarantee that farming will be able to continue in an area,
or if it does, that farm incomes will remain unchanged. Some adaptation will
involve shifting agricultural production from one location to another. This
adaptation, too, would benefit from government policies that provide reliable,
long run information that identifies suitable and unsuitable crop locations as
climate changes.
 Government policies that facilitate the migration of people from one location
to another or the transition from one profession to another would likewise be
helpful. Policies that stimulate economic growth and development and thereby
provide more alternatives to agriculture as a source of livelihood would benefit
farmers transitioning to new professions.
 Long-term policy responses require accurate information about the economic
impacts of future climatic conditions. Despite recent advances in analyzing the
economic effects of global warming, information about climate change and
food security in developing countries remains extremely limited. Specific
details are lacking about the location, timing, magnitude, and probability with
which food security issues might arise. ERS!!!!! will continue to conduct
economic research that helps to assess the effectiveness of public policies for
responding to global warming.
 More research is needed to improve our understanding of the effects of climate
change on biodiversity and its components, and on ecosystem functioning,
especially taking into account the interaction between climate change and
multiple other factors such as habitat fragmentation, biological invasions,
pollution and overexploitation.
 Conversely, there is need to improve our knowledge on the effect of
biodiversity and its components, on climate change, either mitigating (e.g.,
ecosystem service of carbon sink or of local climate regulator), or
exacerbating (e.g., release of greenhouse gas by livestock or from wetlands).
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