Book - ETH E

Transcription

Book - ETH E

WATER
Its Significance in Science ,
in Nature and Culture ,
in World Religions
and in the Universe
Peter Brüesch
0-0
CONTENTS
0 . Introduction
A - K
1 . Prologue : From the „Big Bang“ to Water on Earth
1 - 23
2.
24 - 126
Water : Physical and Chemical Properties
3 . Water as a Sovent and in Electrochemistry
127 - 158
4 . Water in Nature : Selected Examples
159 - 230
5.
Water and Global Climate
231 - 278
6.
The Battle about the „Blue Gold“
279 - 310
7.
Water , Light and Colours
311 - 350
8.
Water in Art and Culture
351 - 395
9.
Water in World Religions ,
in Psychology and in Philosophy
396 – 442
Water in the Solar System and in the Universe
443 - 507
10.
A
Introduction
„Water constitutes the principle of all things“
„That from (water) which is everything that exists
and from which it first becomes and into which it
is rendered at last , its substance remaining under it ,
but transforming in qualities , that they say is
the element and principle of things that are“.
Thales of Miletus :
~ 624 BC to 548 BC
„The wise find pleasure
in water .“
Confucius , 551 BC to 479 BC .
B
0–1
The „Blue Planet“
Western Hemisphere :
Eastern Hemisphere :
Europe (west of London) ,
western part of Africa , Atlantic Ocean ,
and a large part of the Pacific
Europe (east of London) ,
eastern part of Africa , Asia , Australia ,
Indian Ocean and some part of the
Pacific
C
Water , Ice , Snow and Clouds
Iceberg floating in Lago Argentino broken off from the
Perito – Mareno Glacier .
H2O is the only chemical substance which exists at normal conditions in
all three phases , liquid , solid and gas .
D
0–2
References : Introduction
R.0.A
Water in the Universe
Arnold Hanslmeier
Springer Netherlands (2010)
ISBN 9‘048‘199‘832
R.0.B
The „Blue Planet“
Western Hemisphere :
www./liveprint.de/de/artists/NHOO
Eastern Hemisphere :
www.de.wikipedia.org/wiki/datei:Earth-Eastern_Hemisphere
R.0.C
Thales of Miletus (620 to 540 BC)
„Water constitutes the principle of all things“
http://did.mat.uni-nayreuth.de/
Confuzius , 551 BV Chr . to 479 BC :
„The wise find pleasure in water“
de.clearharmony.net/articles/…/34841.html
R.0.D
Water , Ice , Snow and Clouds
http://demo.redtools.at/3_body.html?RT_WWW_h2o=8ecf51352c2087b23ef1f98
R.0.E
Die Elemente (The Elements)
Feuer , Erde , Luft und Wasser (Fire , Earth , Air and Water)
Rudolf Treumann
Carl Hanser Verlag : München – Wien (1994)
ISBN 3-446-17837-6
E
Preface
The present comprehensive treatise about “Water” grew out from my early studies
devoted to “Water and Aequeous Solutions”. In 1998 I first gave a Lecture at the “Ecole
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne” (EPFL) with the title “Water: Physical Properties and
Implications for Nature”.
My own Lectures have been kindly complemented by collegues from several Universities and
Industries by contributions about related theoretical and practical topics . I am indebted to
them for obtaining precious additional knowledge of this vast subject .
In 2000 I wrote an extended study for the ABB Research Center with the title : “Potential
Technological Applications of Water–based Dielectric Liquids : Physical and Chemical Basis” .
In addition to these activities I gave a series of Lectures about the topics of Water in
general . During this time the main goal was to acquire and to convey a broad survey of
the different aspects of water .
Since water is of central importance for human beings and survival as well as for nature
as a whole , I have decided to establish a comprehensive Review of the whole large subject
which is summarized in ten Chapters . They contain the most important aspects of water in
a form as simple as possible for a large community of readers . A large and detailed list of
References provides a survey about the broad topics treated in this work .
As a basis of this vast domain I have used my Lectures and Seminars as well as many
detailed and helpful discussions with collegues . The whole work is condensed in the form
of a “Power – Point” and a PDF presentation . A considerable number of explaining texts
serves to elucidate the graphs and pictures . Each Chapter contains a list of general and
special References .
Peter Brüesch
F
0–3
April 2012
Acknowledgements
I would like to express deep thanks to the following friends and collegues :
For Lecture contributions during my course at the EPFL in Lausanne :
Professor J . Dubochet (Univ . of Lausanne) ; Professors F . Rotzinger , H . Girault , and H .
Vogel (EPFL) ; Professor W . F . van Gunsteren (ETHZ) ; Professor P . Bochsler (University of
Bern) , Dr . O . Buser (Swiss Federal Institute of Snow and Avalanche Research (SLF) ,
Weissfluhjoch – Davos) ; Dr . M . Carlen (ABB Research Center , Dättwil) ; and Dr . S. Truffer
(Service des Eaux de Lausanne) . Some of their contrbutions have been incorporated in this
work .
I should like to thank the Professors M . Boller , U . von Gunten , and A . Zehnder of the
Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag) in Dübendorf for their
Lectures in the ABB - Research Center in Baden - Dättwil) . In addition , I am indepted to
Professor Thomas Stocker from the University of Bern for precious information and
interesting discussions about the most important role of water vapour for the Global
Climate .
I would like to express very grateful thanks to the theologian Hans Domenig of Chur for
his support concerning the significance of water in Christianity. In addition I thank Dr .
Walter Schneider for his continuous support concerning the latest Literature about water .
I am also indepted to Dr . H.R. Zeller and Kirkor Arsik for their help in data handling and
PC - support . In addition , I thank Dr . Zeller for his critical comments about the ascent of
water in tall trees .
Finally , I should like to thank my dear wife for her interest as well as for her support and
patience during the long period of preparation of this work .
G
Peter Brüesch : Scientific Career
1934
Born in Schuls (Scuol) – Graubünden – Switzerland
1948 – 1954
Academic high school in Chur , Switzerland
1954– 1960
Study of Experimental Physics at the ETHZ in Zürich
1960 – 1965
PhD at the Laboratory of „Physical Chemistry“ at the ETHZ
1965 – 1967
Postdoctoral Fellowship at the Chemistry Department , Oregon State University , USA
1967 – 2002
Scientific collaborator and Project Leader at the ABB Research Center – Switzerland
Studies of „Solid State Physics“ , resulting in 72 publications in refereed Journals
1975
Nominated „Assistant Lecturer“ at the Physics Department of the EPFL in Lausanne
1987
Nominated „Professeur Titulaire“ at the Physics Department of the EPFL
1998 – 2000
Consultant at the ABB Research Center rin the field of „Water Technology and aqueous
solutions“
2000 – 2011
Studies and Research on „Water and Aequeous Solutions and its role in Nature“
- Since 1997 : Lectures about „Solid State Physics“ and about „Water“ at the EPFL in Lausanne
- 2002 – 2011 : Elaboration of a comprehensive work about „Water“ :
This formed the basis of the following extended Work in German and English :
„Wasser : Seine Bedeutung in der Wissenschaft , in der Natur und Kultur ,
in den Weltreligionen und im Universum“
„Water : Its Significance in Science , in Nature and Culture ,
in World Religions and in the Universe“
E-Mail :
[email protected]
H
0–4
Table of contents
1.
Prologue : From the Big Bang to Water on Earth
1 - 23
1.1
1.2
1.3
A-1
R-1
The Big Bang
Galaxies , Stars , and Planets
Our Earth : The „Blue Planet“
Appendix to Section 1.3
References : Chapter 1
2.
Physical and Chemical Properties
24 - 126
2.1 Phase Diagrams and Basic Structures
2.2 The Water Vapour
2.3 The Ices of Water
2.4
Liquid Water : Structures and Dynamics
2.5
Anomalies of Water : General
2.6
Density and specific heat
2.7
Various physical properties and experiments
2.8
Phase diagram of water
2.9
Colours and spectra of water
2.10 Various topics
A-2 Appendix to Sections 2.1 , 2.3 , 2.7 , 2.8
R-2
25 - 27
28 - 45
46 - 57
58 - 65
66 - 70
71 - 79
80 - 95
96 - 109
110 - 118
119 – 126
2-5
6 -11
12 – 23
R-1-0 - R-1-7
R-2-0 - R-2-10
I
3.
Water as a Solvent and in Electrochemistry
3.1 Water as a Solvent : General
3.2 Sea Water
3.3 Water in Electrochemistry
A-3 Appendix to Section 3.2
R-3 References : Chapter 3
127 - 158
128 - 138
139 - 146
147 – 158
R-3-0 - R-3-4
4.
Water in Nature
159 - 230
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
A4
R-4
Survey
The World of Clouds
Precipitations
Limnology : The Study of Inland Waters
Water in Biology
Water Ascent in high Trees
Water Plants
Appendix to Sections 4.2 , 4.3 , 4.5 , 4.6 , and 4.7
160 - 161
162 - 172
173 - 182
183 - 191
192 - 202
203 – 222
223 - 230
R-4-0 - R-4-17
5.
Water and Global Climate
231 - 278
5.1
5.2
A-5
R-5
Water , Air and Earth
Some consequences of Climate Change
232 - 258
259 – 278
J
0-5
R-5-0 - R-5-6
6.
The Battle about the „Blue Gold“
6.1
6.2
A-6
R-6
All the Water on the Earth
Methods of Water Purification
Appendix to Sections 6.1 , 6.2
280 - 296
297 – 310
R-6-0 - R-6-8
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
A-7
R-7
Refraction , Reflection and Interference
Rainbows
Water Fountains, Drops and Rivers
Appendix to Section 7.1 , 7.2 , 7.3
8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
A8
R-8
279 - 310
311 - 350
312 - 326
327 - 339
340 – 350
R-7-0 - R-7-5
Water in Art and Culture
351 - 395
Water in Painting and in Photography
Water Sound Images
Water in Literature
Music and Water
352 - 367
368 - 379
380 - 388
389 - 395
R-8-0 - R-8-7
K
9.
Water in World Religions , in Philosophy and in Psychology
396 - 442
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
A9
R-9
Water in World Religions : General
Water in Judaism
Water in Christianity
Water in Islam
Water in Buddhism
Water in Hinduism
Water in Psychology and in Philosophy
10.
Water in the Solar System and in the Universe
443 - 508
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
A-10
R-10
Our Solar System
Water on the Sun !
The inner Planetary System
The outer Planetary System
444 - 447
448 - 451
452 - 471
472 - 486
487 – 508
397 - 400
401 - 413
414 - 424
425 - 427
428 - 432
433 - 438
439 – 442
R-9-0 - R-9-8
R-10-0 - R-10-10
L
0-6
1 . Prologue
From the Big – Bang to
the Water in the Earth
1
1–0
1.1
The Big Bang
2
Popular Picture of the Big - Bang and Evolution
Radiation - or Light Area
Original Fire - Ball
The physical
laws of the
Big Bang
are not
known .
Cooling down and expansion
Formation of hydrogen
(H , H2) and Helium (He)
There exist only elementary
particles : protons (p) ,
Age of present Universe :
neutrons (n) and elektrons (e)
 13.7 billions of years
3
1–1
Remarks about the Big Bang Concept
From : Evidence for the Big Bang
By Björn Feuerbacher and Ryan Scranton
Copyright @ 2006
(Remarks concerning our Figure at p. 3)
„Contrary to the common perception , the Big Bang Theory (BBT) is not a theory about the
origin of the Universerse . Rather it describes the development of the Universe over time .
This process is often called „cosmic evolution“ or „cosmological evolution“ „.
The Figure at page 3 is popular but might be misleading :
• „The BBT is not about the origin of the Universe . Rather , its primary focus is the
development of the Universe over time“ .
• „BBT does not imply that the Universe was ever point-like“ .
• „The origin of the Universe was not an explosion of matter into already existing space „.
The famous cosmologist P.J.E. Peebles stated this succinclty in the January 2001 edition of
Scientific American : „That the Universe is expanding and cooling is the essence of the Big
Bang theory . You will notice I have said nothing about an „explosion“ - the Big Bang theory
describes how our Universe is evolving , not how it began“.
The cosmologist Rudolf Kippenhahn states in his book „Kosmologie für die Westentasche“
(„Cosmology for the pocket“) : „There is also the widespread mistaken belief that , according
to Hubble‘s law , the Big Bang began at one certain point in space . For example : At one
point , an explosion happened , and from that an explosion cloud travelled into empty space ,
like an explosion on Earth , and the matter in it thins out into greater areas of space more
and more . No , Hubble‘s law only says that matter was more dense everywhere at an earlier
time , and that it thins out over time because everything flows away from each other“ . In a
footnote he added : „In popular science presentations , often early phases of the Universe are
mentioned as , at the time when the Universe was as big as an apple‘ or ‚as a pea‘ . What
is ment there is in general the epoch in which not the whole , but only t he part of the
Universe which i s observable today had these sizes“.
4
Evidence for the Big Bang
The hypothesis of the Big Bang is able to explain
the following
properties of the present Universe :
• Expansion of the Universe as observed by Hubble .
 Reversal of expansion : Density and temperature
increase rapidly  Contraction to a small region !
• The Big Bang generated a “radiation flash of lightning “ as
predicted by Gamov . This radiation is called today “Cosmic
Background Radiation” (3 K - Radiation) in the microwave region .
• The initial distribution of the lightest elements , Hydrogen (H)
and Helium (He) , in the oldest stars strongly suggest the
existence of a hot original state in the Universe : The ob served ratio of H and He is consistent with the predictions
obtained from the Theory of the Big Bang as a result of
thermonuclear reactions within the first three minutes .
5
1–2
1.2
Galaxies , Stars , and Planets
6
The Andromeda Galaxy
The Andromeda Galaxy is the nearest larger neighbour Galaxy to
our Milky Way Galaxy . It contains billions of stars with planets .
The distance between the Milky Way Galaxy and the Andromeda Galaxy
is inconceivably large , about 2.4 to 2.7 millions of light - years (about 25
trillions km) .
7
1–3
Evolution of Stars - 1
• In the hot centers of the stars such as in our sun , giant
quantities of energy are generated by nuclear fusion .
• Within the stars , the pressure and temperatures are extremely high
such that hydrogen – atoms (H) are fused to produce Helium (He) .
• Since the mass of a He - atom is smaller than that of the two H –
atoms from which they are produced , the Einstein relation E = Dm c2
predicts that a huge amount of energy E is produced .
(here , c is the velocity of light , and Dm is the mass defect) .

temperature increase of the Earth !
• 90 % of the life time of a star are used to fuse hydrogen atoms
into helium atoms .
8
Evolution of Stars - 2
• If Hydrogen is used up , fusion of Helium starts , and
as one of the by - products also Oxygen (O) is formed !
• Depending on the mass of the stars , all the elements up to
iron (Fe) are formed by successive nuclear fusion . This process
is also called nucleosynthesis .
• After the formation of iron , the star collapses , leading to a
supernova explosion
• All elements generated by this explosion are scattered away into the
Galaxis . This leads to the formation of giant interstellar clouds and to
the formation of new stars and planets .
9
1–4
From the Big Bang to Water on the Planet Earth
Generation of atomic
Generation of atomic Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O) by nuclear fusion
at the Big Bang
in the stars leading to
 molecular Hydrogen H2
their explosion
 molecular Oxygen O2
Water is generated by the violent reaction
2 H2 + O2

2 H2O
 Water is expected to be widespread in the Universe !
Important restriction : Liquid water exists only at pressures
and temperatures as are present at our Earth !!
10
“Life Zone” in the Solar System
Blue Zone : habitable zone
Jupiter
Saturnus
Uranus
Mars
Earth
Venus
Due to the simultaneous existence of Water in its gaseous , liquid
and solid state , the Earth is the only planet which is located in the
habitable „Life Zone“ of the Solar System ! (s . p . 447)
11
1-5
1.3
The Planet Earth and the Role of Water
12
The “Blue Planet”
About 70 % of the
surface is covered
with water !
Hemisphere of the Earth covered
completely with clouds .
On the average , 60 - 70 % of the
terrestrial sky is permanently
covered with clouds !
13
1–6
Water , Ice and Vapor : all on our Earth
Water is the only chemical compound which exists on the Earth at
natural conditions in all three states of matter
(liquid , solid and vapor) .
14
The role of Water for Evolution
Evolution is the change of heritable features of a population of living
organisms from one generation to the next generation . These
characteristics are coded in the form of genes , which are copied during
reproduction to the next generation . As a result of mutations , different
variations of these gens are formed , which can give rise to different
and new characteristics .
The evolution started in water (see : H2O : P . Ball , Chapter 8)
Water and the Origin of Life
Life , as we know it , requires water as a universal solvent and as a
transport medium . According to accepted scientific knowledge it
possesses properties which are crucial for the generation of life . It is ,
however , possible that life can develop and exist without the
existence of water . But many scientist strongly believe , that the
presence of liquid water (in a certain region or on a specific planet
such as the Earth) not only makes life possible , but is even a
necessary condition for its formation .
15
1–7
Possible Origin of Terrestrial Water
b) A further part of water is
a) One part of water is believed
to originate from magma of
probably due to collisions of
early vulcanos ; this water
comets and /or asteroids rich in
therefore stems from the
water and possessing the
interior of the Earth .
correct isotopic ratio of D / H .
16
Geysers in the “Black Rock Desert” of Nevada
Sometimes the heat of volcanic rocks causes the water to boil and to
evaporate . As a consequence of the high steam pressure , a hot water stream
is ejected like an explosion : a Geyser is formed .
Within the reservoir of the Geyser the water is overheated , i.e. it remains
liquid , although its temperature is considerably higher then that of the
boiling point .
The brilliant colors of this Geyser is due to minerals , algae and
cyanobacteria .
17
1–8
Giant Iceberg in Sea Water
Only one tenth of an Iceberg is visible ;
90% are hidden below the surface of the sea .
The Icebergs consist essentially on fresh - water !
18
Clouds are Heralds of the Sun and of Water !
19
1–9
The Global Water Cycle
The numbers indicate the water transport in 1000 km3 per year
20
Without Water no Live !!
A humen beeing survives :
• 3 weeks without food
• only 3 days without water !
• 3 minutes without air
21
1 – 10
Healing Power of watering places
Mechanical effects ,
buoyancy - friction
- hydrostatic
pressure
Movements
free of pain ,
massage , …
Thermal effects : pain
relieving ,
anti - inflammatory ,
relaxation of muscles
Chemical
effects :
Minerals and
trace elements
 better blood
circulation
Non - specific stimulations :
 Stimulation Therapy 
positiv influence of the
vegetative nervous system
(Tonus)
22
Destructive Power of Water : Tsunami wave
A Tsunami wave , which destroied a coastal town in South – Eastern
Asia at December 2004 ; such waves can be as high as 35 m !
Most massive Earthquake of magnitude 9.0 triggered a giant Tsunami
and a serious nuclear catastrophe in Japan at March 11 , 2011 !!
23
1 – 11
Appendix – Chapter 1
1-A-0
The sinking of the Titanic
In the night of April 14 to April 15 1912 , the passenger liner Titanic sank in the
North Atlantic Ocean after colliding with an Iceberg . The Titanic was the largest ship
at that time having a length of 269 m , a width of 28 m and a weight of 67’000 tons !
The passenger liner was designed for 2400 persons .
The collision caused a leak of about 1 m2 into the hull of the ship . Of the 2207
people , 1496 died within the Titanic or while swimming in the ice - cold water . Only
711 people survived and were rescued from the Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Carpathia . The
wreck of the Titanic has been found and reached only on September 1st 1985 at a
depth of 3800 m .
1-A-3-1
1 - 12
The Iceberg and the Tragedy of the Titanic
This iceberg is thought to be the
one that Titanic hit , for it was
reported to be streaked with red
paint from the ships hull along
its waterline on the side .
There is evidence that in the
night of the collision , this
iceberg could hardly be seen
because of its dark colour
(«Black Berg») .
«Nearer , My God To Thee !»
(cartoon of 1912)
Some survivers later reported that
the ship’s ensemble played this
christian hymn as the vessel sank .
.
1-A-3-2
1 - 13
References :
Chapter 1
R-1-0
1 .1 Hypothesis and Evidence for the Big Bang
R.1.1.1
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE
J . Silk
New York : Scientific American Library (1994)
R.1.1.2
DAS SCHICKSAL DES UNIVERSUMS
Eine Reise vom Anfang zum Ende
Günther Hasinger
Wilhelm Goldmann Verlag , München
Taschenausgabe April 2009
R.1.1.3
BIG BANG
Simon Singh
The most Important Scientific Discovery of All Time and Why Your Need to Know
About It
Fourth Estate , London / New York 2004
@ 2005 der deutschen Ausgabe : Carl Hanser Verlag München Wien
R.1.1.4
ZURUECK vor DEN URKNALL
Die ganze Geschichte des Universums
Martin Bojowald
4. Auflage Juni 2009
S. Fischer Verlag GmbH .
Frankfurt am Main 2009
The physisist Martin
series of equations
as to the properties
negative times with
after the Big Bang .
Bojowald has generated much interest because he was able by using a
to get closer to the Big Bang as before ; he obtained even information
and development of the Universe before the Big Bang . At these
reversed space-time , the Universe was contracting before it expanded
R-1-1
1 – 14
R.1.1.5
DAS GESCHENKTE UNIVERSUM
Astrophysik und Schöpfung
Arnold Benz ; 2 . Auflage 2010
@ 1997 Patmos- Verlag der Schwabenverlag AG , Ostfilde
(Mit Bemerkungen über das Wasser im Universum)
R.1.1.6
SEARCHING FOR WATER IN THE UNIVERSE
Thérèse Encrenaz (Hrsg.)
Praxis Publishing Ltd.. 2007
Springer Praxis Book
R.1.1.7
L‘INVENTION DU BIG BANG
Jean – Pierre LuminetEditions du Seuil
Novembre 1997 , avril 2004
R.1.1.8
p . 3 : THE BIG BANG
links : „Ursprünglicher Feuerball“ (The original Fire Ball ) :
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/the_universe/images/bigbang2b.gif&imgrefurl  Bilder
rechts : „Strahlungs – Area“ (The light area ) :
http://www.dradio.de/images/10351/square/  Bilder
R.1.1.9
p . 5 : EVIDENCE FOR THE BIG BANG
Remarks to the Figures at p . 3
(Bemerkungen zu den Figuren auf p . 3)
Björn Feuerbach and Ryan Scranton
www.talkorigins.org/faqs/astronomy/bigbang. htm
R-1-2
1.2
Galaxis and Stars
R.1.2.1
Stars and Galaxies
Ron Miller
Twenty-First Century Books , 2006
ISBN 0761334661, 9780761334668
96 pages
R.1.2.2
Stars and Stellar Evolution
Klass de Boer et Wilhelm Seggewiss (2008)
ISBN 978 – 2 – 7598 – 0356 – 0
R.1.2.3
Cycles of fire : Stars , Galaxies , and the wonder of deep space
William K. Hartmann , Ron Miller
Workman Pub., 1987 ; Digitalised 2 . Sept. 2009
R.1.2.4
p . 7 . The Andromeda Galaxy
s . Internet : „Andromeda Galaxie“  Images
R.1.2.5
p . 11 : The Life Zone in the Solar System
„Habitable Zone – Wikipedia
www.de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitable_Zone
1 . 3 The „Blue Planet“
R .1.3.1
H2O : A BIOGRAPHY OF WATER :
Philip Ball , Weidenfeld & Nicolson (London ,1999)
R.1.3.2
THE BLUE PLANET
(UK Import)
DVD ~ David Attenborough
DVD - Erscheinungstermin : 3 . Dezember 2001 ; Amazone.de
R-1-3
1 – 15
R.1.3.3
„Planet Earth“ (2006) , TV series
With David Attenborough and Sigoumey Weaver
www.imdb.com/title/tt0795176/_
R .1.3.4
WATER IN BIOLOGY , CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS
G . Wilse Robinson , Sheng – Bai Zhu , Surjit Singh , and Myron W . Evans
World Scientific (Singapore , New Jersey , London , Hong Kong (1996)
R .1.3.5
WATER FROM HEAVEN : Robert Kandel ; Columbia University Press (2003)
R.1.3.6
H2O - THE MYSTEREY , ART , AND SCIENCE OF WATER
Chris Witcombe and Sang Hwang
Sweet Briar College
http://witcombe.sbc.edu/water/
R.1.3.7
THE STRANGEST LIQUID
„Why water is so so weird“
by Edwin Cartlidge . i n :
New Scientist
WEEKLY 6th February 2010 , pp 32 – 35
R .1.3.8
WATER : A Comprehensive Treatise ; Edited by Felix Franks , Plenum Press ,
New York – London (1972) , Volumes 1 – 6
R .1.3.9
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIE OF WATER
D . Eisenberg and W . Kauzmann (Oxford at the Clarendon Press , 1969)
R .1.3.10
THE WATER ENCYCLOPRDIA
2nd Ed . (Lewis Publishers : Chesea , MI , 1990)
R .1.3.11
DE L‘ EAU
Paul Caro
„Questions de science“ , Hachette Livre (1995)
R-1-4
R.1.3.12
PLANETE EAU
Guy Leray
EXPLORA – Collection dirigée par Dominique Blaizot
La Cité - Presses Pocket
R .1.3.13
PRESERVER L‘ EAU : Editions de l‘ Argile (1996)
R.1.3.14
LE GRAND LIBRE DE L‘EAU
Editions La Manufacture (1995)
R.1.3.15
L‘AVENIR DE L‘EAU
Eric Orsenna
Editions Fayard
Octobre 2008
(broché ou poche)
R .1.3.16
WASSER : Welten zwischen Himmel und Erde
Art Wolfe und Michelle A . Gilders (Weltbild)
R.1.3.17
WASSER : Das Meer und die Brunnen , die Flüsse und der Regen
Ute Guzzoni , Parerga Verlag GmbH , Berlin (2005)
R .1.3.18
WASSERBUCH : Natur Mensch Mythos
Brigitt Lattmann , Impressum (2003)
R.1.3.19
DAS SENSIBLE CHAOS : Theodor Schenk , Verlag Freies Geistesleben (1995)
(Ein phantastisches Buch über die Bedeutung des Wassers und der Luft !!)
R.1.3.20
DAS GREENPEACE BUCH VOM WASSER
Klaus Lanz
Naturbuchverlag
Deutsche Ausgabe 1995 , Weltbild Verlag GmbH , Augsburg
R.1.3.21
H2O : A Gentle Introduction to Water and its Structure
Simon Fraser University , USA
http://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/aboutwater.html
R-1-5
1 – 16
R.1.3.22
WASSER
Juraj Tögyessy and Milan Piatrik
Verlag Die Witschaft Berlin , 1990
R.1.3.23
p . 11 : Our Solar System : The Earth is the only Planet which lies in the so-called
Life – zone .
Figure from NASA : modified by P . Brüesch
http://www.astrobio.net/exclusive/3647/doubt-cast-on-existence-of-habitable-alien-world
Copyright @2011 , Astrobio.net
R.1.3.24
p . 13 : Wasser und Wolken auf dem Globus
left : Coverage of the Globe with Water : Referenz R.1.3.13 , p . 24
right : Complete coverage of a hemisphere with clouds:
LE GRAND LIVRE DE L‘EAU
Edition La Manifacture (1995) , p . 201
R.1.3.25
p . 14 : Iceberg with hole near sanderson hope south of Upernavik , Greenland
En.Wikipedia.org/…/File:Iceberg_with_hole_near_sanderson_hope_July 27 , 2007 :
R.1.3.26
p . 16 : Origin of Water on the Earth
Terrestrial origin :
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Volcano_p.jpg
Exteriestral origin :
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Halebopp031197.jpg
R.1.3.27
p . 17 : Geysirs :
s . Internet : „Geysire iin the Black Rock Desert of Nevada „
R-1-6
R.1.3.28
p . 18 : Giant Iceberg
von : „Tagesanzeiger“ (TA) der Schweiz , WISSEN – 27. 1 . 2005
R.1.3.29
p . 19 : Clouds are Herald of the Sun and of Water
Aus : Das GREENPEACE Buch vom WASSER
Klaus Lanz ; p . 11
Augsburg : Naturbuchverlag , 1995
R.1.3.30
p . 20 : The global Water Cycle
http://www.der-brunnen.de/wasser/allgwasser/allgwasser.htm
R.1.3.31
p . 23 : Destructive Power of Water : Tsunami
http://people.cornellcollege.edu/E-McNeill/images/Tsunami%20Wave.jpg
R.1.3.32
p . 1-A-3-1 : The sinking of the Titanic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMS_Titanic
The original Edition
appeared under the Title
«The Loss Of The SS Titanic»
in June 1912 by Houghton Mifflin , New York
see also : Lawrence Beesley - TIZANIC
«Wie ich den Untergang überlebte : Ein Augenzeugenbericht»
Aus dem Englischen übersetzt von Rolf - Werner Baak
R.1.3.33
p . 1-A-3-2 : The Iceberg of the Titanic
From Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
Sinking of the RMS Titanic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinking_of_the_RMS:Titanic
R-1.3.34
p . 1-A-3-2 : «Nearer My God , to Thee…»
Christian hymn played by the ship’s string ensemble as the vessel sank .
Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nearer _My God_to_Thee.
R-1-7
1 – 17
2 . Physical and
Chemical Properties
of Water
24
2-0
2.1
Phase Diagram , Water molecule ,
heavy Water and Clusters
25
Basic structures in the three phases
H2O molecules in the gaseous state
(water vapour) at low gas
pressures . The molecules are
moving freely in space exhibiting
translational- and rotational motions .
Gas
“Structure” of water molecules in
liquid water : the molecules are linked
by hydrogen bonds and are essen tially disordered . The molecules exhi bit hindred translational and rotational
motions and at the same time the
H – bridges are constantly broken
and reformed .
Liquid
Ice
Hydrogen bonds
In “normal” hexagonal ice Ih , the
oxygen atoms form an ordered
hexagonal lattice , while the hydrogen
atoms are distributed statistically . The
identity of the molecules is , however ,
conserved (molecular crystal) . The
molecules are linked together by
hydrogen bonds .
26
2–1
Phase diagram of Water
VIII
solid
VII
hot Ice
I
supercritical
state
liquid
Tc , Tc
solid
Pressure (bar)
VI
vapor
Tp , Pp
Temperature (oC)
Tp : triple point at Tp = 0.01 oC and Pp = 611.657 Pa = 6.116 10-3 bar
Tc : critical point at Tc = 374.12 oC and Pc = 221.2 bar
The numbers I , VI , VII and VIII denote different modifications of Ice.
27
2-2
2.2
The Water Vapour
28
Water vapour : Water in the gaseous state
Clouds are
water droplets
water vapour
in the air
p1
T1
p2
liquid water
29
2–3
T2
T2 > T1
p 2 > p1
Water molecules in the vapour
v
Individual molecules are flying in all directions with different
velocities v ; the higher the temperature , the larger is
the mean velocity <v>
(Figure prepared by P. Brüesch)
.
30
The H2O - molecule
electrons
Nuclear distance or
bond length : d(O - H) :
O
about 1 Ångström = 1 Å
1 Å = 0.000’000’1 mm
Molar mass :  18 g
m
H
a
O - H bond : strong
H
electron pair - binding
H2O and D2O are polar molecules :
the centers of gravity of the negative
Bond angle a :
and positve charges are separated !
104.5 o in vapour
 Dipole moment m ! (polar molecule)
105.5 o in water
109.5 o in ice
a 
180 o (!)
m= 1.854 D ; 1 D = 1 Debye = 3.3356 * 10-30 C m
 liquid H2O is an excellent solvent
for a large number of substances !
31
2–4
The D2O molecule of heavy water
proton p
D = Deuterium :
neutron n
electron e
O
mp = mn >> me
Chemically , the D2O –
molecule behaves as the
D
D
H2O - molecule ,
however :
D2O is heaviour than the
Natural abundance of D :
H2O - molecule by a factor
about 0.02 % of H
of 20 / 18 = 1.11
 important for the origin of
 slower kinetics in
water on the Earth
metabolism !
32
Heavy oder
water : D2O
In heavy water or deuterium oxide , D2O , both hydrogen atoms are replaced by
deuterium D . The nucleus of a D – atom contains one proton and one neutron .
Molar mass :  20 g ; Freezing point : 3.82 oC , boiling point : 101.42 oC , density at 20
oC : 1.105 g/cm3 , (largest density : 1.107 g/cm3 at 11.6 oC) , pH = 7.43 .
Heavy water is produced by electrolysis of natural water which contains about 0.015 %
deuterium ; in the residue of the elektrolyte , heavy water can be enriched up to more
than 98 % . Pure heavy water is strongly poisonous . Because of its moderating power
and small absorption for neutrons , heavy water is used as a moderator for nuclear
reactions  production of slow neutrons !
In addition to D2O there exists also deuterium protium oxide , HDO , which sometimes is
also called heavy water ; in pure form it is unstable .
Tritium oxide : T2O
Tritium T is the heaviest isotope of hydrogen : The nucleus of a T - atom is com posed of one proton p and of two neutrons n . For this reason the molar mass of
Tritium oxide , T2O , is  22 g .
Freezing point of T2O : 4.48 oC , boiling point : 101.51 oC : density : 1.2138 g/cm3 ; pH
= 7.61.
Since T – atoms are unstabel and decompose gradually into helium atoms (half – life :
12.32 years) , T2O is radioactive .
Due to its high diffusivity , T2O in its gaseous state is particularly dangerous for
living beings . This is because exposion causes all organs uniformally with
radioactive radiation .
33
2–5
The isotopes H , D and T
e
e
p
p
e
n
p
n
n
1
2
3
D = 1H
H = 1H
Hydrogen
T = 1H
Deuterium
Tritium
e : electron , p : proton ; n : neutron ; H , D , and T possess 1 , 2 and 3
nucleons , respectively , in their nuclei .
34
Water , “intermediate heavy water” and “heavy water”
electron e
electron e
proton p
Hydrogen atom H
Deuterium - atom D
charges : e : - q , p : + q , n : 0
M = 18
light water
masses : mp = mn >> me
O
O
H
neutron n
proton p
H
H
O
M = 19
D
intermediate heavy water
D
M = 20
heavy water
The abundance of D in natural hydrogen H is very small ,
about 0.015 % .
35
2-6
D
Molecular orbitals of the H2O molecule
H
H
For the calculation of the
electronic structure of
molecules , quantum mechanics
must be used (the electron is
an elementary particle having a
very small mass : me = 0.9107 *
10-27 g (!))
O
Result : 4 club – shaped “molecular
orbitals” are formed where each
of which is occupied by 2 ele –
trons ; they indicate the residence
probability of the 4 electron pairs .
lone electron
pairs
 The electronic structure is not plaine but rather 3 - dimensional
and the end points of the clubs form a tetrahedron (!)
36
Thermal Motion of a H2O - Molecule
The atoms O and H fluctuate
randomly about their equilibrium
positions ; this leads to
small changes of the bond lengths
and of the bond angle .
Approximate decomposition of thermal motion into three
normal vibrations :
The normal modes of vibrations can be observed by Infrared and / or
Raman spectroscopy .
In reality , the amplitudes of the atomic displacements are much smaller than
illustrated ; exception : Water vapour on the Umbra of the Sun at temperatures
between 3000 and 3500 oC (s . p . 443) .
37
2–7
Infrared Vibration – Rotation Spectrum of Water Vapour
Important for global warming !!
The fine–structure absorp –
tions which are grouped
around the fundamental
vibrations originate from
the rotational motions of
the whole molecules .
Absorption
From an exact analysis of
the spectra it is possible
to deduce the geometry of
the molecules !
(Spectrum measured by P . Brüesch)
n2
n3 n1
cm-1
110 THz
Frequency
50 THz
1 THz = 1012 Hz = 1 Billion Hz ; 1 Hz = 1 vibration / second
38
The Water Dimer and the Hydrogen Bond
O1
+
H
O2
The positively charged proton H+ links the negatively
charged O1 of the left hand sided molecule with the
negatively charged atom O2 of the molecule at the right
hand side .
O1 - H ----- O2 is the hydrogen bond
The hydrogen bond (H – bridge) is nearly linear
and d(O1 - H ---- O2) is about 3 Å .
The water dimer (H2O)2 is polar : its experimentally determined
static dipol moment is large , namely m = 2.6 D .
{The dipole moment of the monomer H2O is 1.854 D} .
[1 D = 1 Debye = 3.3356 * 10-30 C m] .
39
2–8
Remarks about Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds : General :
Hydrogen bonds (H – bonds) , are chemical bonds of mainly electrostatic nature . In
general , their bond strengths are distinctly lower than that of covalent or ionic bonds .
The H – bonds are responsible for the fact that water molecules usually cluster to form
larger groups . For this reason also warm water remains a liquid with a relatively high
boiling point . This fact is a necessary prerequisite for most living beings . In proteins H
– bonds glue the atoms together , thereby maintaining the three – dimensional structure
of the molecules . H – bonds also keep together the individual ropes to form the
characteristic double helix (s. pp 199– 201 ; 4-A-5-1) .
Hydrogen Bonds in Water :
H – bonds are responsible for a number of important properties of water ! Examples are
the liquid state at normal conditions , the large cohesion , the high boiling point and
the density anomaly at 4 oC (pp 69 , 73 , 74) . The typical bond length H---O of H –
bonds in water is 0.18 nm and the total O – H-----O bond is nearly linear and its length
is about 0.3 nm (1 nm = 10-9 m = 10 Å (Angström)) (see pp 26 , 39 , 41) .
In liquid water , preferentially 4 water molecules are linked together with a central
molecule (s. pp 60 , 61) . During evaporazation these H – bonds must be broken ; this
also explains the relatively high evaporization energy at 100 oC .
It has been found by means of Compton scattering that the covalent O – H bonds of a
water molecule partly extend into the weak H----O bonds . Therefore , although the H bonds are essentelly ionic they possess a small covalent contribution .
40
Cluster of H2O : 1) Dimer and Trimer
Dimer : (H2O)2
H- Acceptor
H- bridge
H- Donor
moleculel
The formation of H – bonds in water is co - operative :
The formation of a first H – bond triggers a change
of the charge distribution of the molecules in such a
way that the formation of a second H – bond is
favoured.
This leads to the formation of clusters .
In a conventioal picture the hydrogen bond is
purely electrostatic : the incompletely screened
positive charge of the proton is attracted to the
negative electron cloud around the oxygen atom .
But covalent O-H bonds of a water molecule
(darker yellow clouds) spread their influence into
intermolecular hydrogen bonds (lighter yellow
clouds) . This has already been suggested by
Linus Pauling in 1935 !
Compton scattering (blue and red curved flashes) from an ice crystal shows that there is
a substantial probability that the two shared electrons (two small spheres) of the O-H
bond spread out into the hydrogen bonds . This is a purely quantum mechanical effect
known as electron delocalization .
Electrons seek the lowest possible energy state , and for the covalent bonding pairs in
water , the lowest energy state extends into the hydrogen bond . The hydrogen bonds in
ice (and water) are therefore partly ionic and partly covalent .
41
2–9
Clusters of H2O : 2) Trimer , Tetramer , Pentamer , und Hexamer
n = 3 : cyclic trimer
n = 4 : cyclic tetramer
n = 6 : cyclic hexamer
n = 5 : cyclic pentamer
In contrast to the dimer , the clusters with n > 2 are only weakly polar or even nonpolar , such that the permanent dipole moments m are small or even zero .
The oxygen atoms of the cyclic structures are not arranged in one plane , i.e.
the clusters are not planar .
42
The Water Hexamer : (H2O)6
H - bridge
As shown in the model, the six – sided ring is not plane !
The water hexamer is the smallest particle of the hexagonal ice
43
2 – 10
Clusters of H2O : 3) Cyclic and Tetrahedral Pentamers (H2O)5
Examples : n = 5 : Pentamer (H2O) 5
H - bond
H - bond
tetrahedral pentamer :
cyclic pentamer
In ice and in water a H2O – molecule
is in the average surrounded by four
neighboring molecules .
General : a (H2O)n - cluster is a group of n water molecules ,
which are linked together by hydrogen bonds .
44
Two other compounds with Hydrogen bonding
HF
H
NH3
F
Hydrogen bond
H
N
Hydrogen fluoride is composed of HF molecules . Because of the difference in
electronegativity between H and F , a
hydrogen bond occurs beteen the hydrogen
atom of a molecule and the fluorine atom of
a neighbouring molecule .
Liquid Ammonia , NH3 , is a very
good solvent and exhibits similar
properties as H2O ; it is , however ,
considered a high health hazard .
The acid is an extremely corrosive liquid
and is a strong poison .
N and H of neighbouring mole cules are linked by H – bonds .
45
2 - 11
2.3
The Ices of Water
46
Phase Diagram of H2O - Ices
• Depending on temperature and
pressure as well as on the prepa –
ration conditions , there exist a large
number (at least 13) of stable and
metastable crystalline ices !
dP/dT < 0
• Structural building stone :
tetrahedral coordination with hydrogen
bonds between the molecules .
• The phase diagram is determined by
the Clapeyron – equation :
dP / dT = DHm / (T DVm)
The temperature and pressure regimes associated with most of the 13 known crystalline
phases are indicated here . When hexagonal ice at 77 K is subjected to increasing
pressure , so–called amorphous ice forms : at 1 GPa (blue circle) , high – density
amorphous ice forms ; if the temperature is then raised , very – high – density amorphous
ice forms (red circle) .
47
2 – 12
Modifications of Ice - 1
Ices at low temperatures
1.
2.
3.
4.
„Normal“ hexagonal ice (ice Ih) with proton disordering
Ordered hexagonal ice XI
Cubic ice Ic
Glassy and / or amorphous ice
Ices at intermediate temperatures
5)
6)
7)
8)
ice II : a structure with ordered protons
metastable ice III and proton – ordered stucture ice IX
metastable ice IV and monoclinic ice V
tetragonal ice XII
Ices at high pressures
9)
10)
11)
12)
ice VI : tetragonal unit cell ; density = 1.31 g/cm3 (- 175 oC , 1 bar)
ice VII : bcc – lattice of O – atoms ; H - atoms disordered ; density = 1.599 g/cm3
ice VIII : is formed by cooling of ice VII ; protons are ordered ; density = 1.628 g/cm3 .
ice X : is formed from ice VII by increasing the pressure to 165 GPa = 1.65 Megabar !
density = 3.65 g/cm3 !!
Here , the protons are located midway between two neighbouring oxygen atoms ! This
means that ice ceases to be a molecular crystal  atomic crystal (s. p. 56) !
48
Modifications of Ice - 2
• Depending on temperature and pressure , there exist different modi –
fications of ice , which differ in their structures , i.e. in their spatial
distributions of the H2O – molecules .
• up to now there are at least 13 modifications : ice Ih , ...... ice XII
• our “natural” ice : ice Ih (h = hexagonal)
• “metastabel” ice : such as ice XII ( about - 40 oC , 4000 bar)
• exotic “glowing ice” : such as ice VII , ice X (about 500 0C , 100’000 bar)
(see glowing ice in Jupiter (p . 475) and in Saturn (p . 480) .
• metalic ice ?
• Superionic conducting ice (very
high mobility of the protons !)
(s. p. 2-A-3-1)
49
2 – 13
Structure of Hexagonal Ice Ih
Hexagonal structure
of ice Ih :
Head with potbelly : O - atom
each H2O- molecule is
hands : H - atom
surrounded by 4 nearest H2O-
lags with feed : H – bridges ;
molecules ( ) .
note the 6 – fold ring of O – atoms
red line : H - bonds
Philip Ball : “H2O : A Biography of Water”
Weidenfeld & Nicolson (1999) , p. 159
50
Far – Infrared and Infrared Spectrum of Ice Ih
(cm -1)
Absorption
Absorption
n1
symmetric
and antisymmetric
vibrations of
the O – H bonds
vibrations and
rotations of
the whole
molecule
n3
n1
n3
hindred
rotations
(librations) of
the molecules
bending motion
H –nO
2 -H
n2
overtone
Frequency (THz)
The corresponding spectrum of liquid water is shown at pp 114 and 115 .
There exist two low - frequency „external“ vibrations of the whole molecules and 3
high - frequency „internal“ vibrations n 1 , n 2 , n 3 , of the atoms within the molecules .
51
2 – 14
Snow crystals are art works !
Note the approximate hexagonal symmetry of the crystals ! (s . p . 176 - 178
and Ref . R.4.3.6)
52
The
basic
forms
of snow
crystals
, each
of hexagonal
which
The seven
seven basic
forms
of snow
crystals
all of which
exhibit
possesses hexagonal
symmetry
(s.
p.
176)
symmetry
53
2 – 15
The Ice Grotto of the Rhone Glacier
Note the phantastic blue colours !
(Photo from Dr . Martin Carlen in : “Der
Rhonegletscher und seine Eisgrotte” (2003))
Because of global warming , the existence of the Ice
Grotto is more and more in danger !!
54
TThe
Ice VII , Ice
VIII and Ice X
1 Gpa = 10 000 bar
Phase diagrams of the two high – pressure
modifications of ice VII and ice VIII :
Their phase boundaries have been detected by
means of Raman scattering (empty squares : H2O ,
full squares : D2O ).
Pressure (GPa)
The oxygen atoms are green , the hydrogen atoms
are red .
The structure of ice VIII is hexagonal with ordered
protons ; by heating , it transforms into
the cubic form ice VII with disordered protons .
In cubic ice VII each oxygen atom is tetrahedrally
surrounded by four hydrogen atoms and the
molecules are linked by O – H----O bonds .
Temperature
(K)
Temperature
If the pressure is increased up to 165 MPa , there
is evidence for the formation of a new structure in
which the hydrogen bonds disappear . In this
structure , ice X , the mean positions of the
hydrogen atoms are in the centers between the two
oxygen atoms . This means that in ice X there exist
„symmetrical“ O – H – O bonds which implies that
we are dealing with an atomic crystal rather than
with a molecular crystal .
55
2 - 16
Remarks to Ice X
At extremely high pressures , a fundamental change of the structure of normal water – ice
occurs : A particularly dense ice is formed , in which the strong covalent bonds within a
water molecule and the weak hydrogen bonds between the water molecules become
equivalent . The pressure at which this occurs as well as the detailed formation of this
process has been studied by an international research team guided by Prof . Dominik
Marx (Lehrstuhl für Theoretische Chemie der Ruhr – Universität Bochum (RUB)) by means
of theoretical model calculations (see Ref . R.2.3.9) .
Sophisticated quantum mechanical computer simulations of the experiments at room
temperature are able to show in detail of how molecular ice is transformed into ice X ,
demonstrating the transition of hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds into atomic bonds as
a result of high external pressures . This occurs via a form of ice , in which the
hydrogen atoms have essentially lost their memory as to which of the two oxygen atoms
they belong with the consequence that they are permanently oscillating between their two
oxygen neigbours . This corresponds to a very dynamical form of ice , which does not
obey anymore the famous „ice – rules“ of Linus Pauling as proposed around 1930 .
Other scientists have speculated, that these unconventional forms of „hydrogen bonds“
which are formed in ice at high pressures , could play an important role in processes
such as in encym catalysis in which hydrogen bonds and transfer mechanisms from
H - O-----H to H – O – H bonds play an important role in biochemical processes .
56
Structure of Ice XII
View parallel to the channel axis ; only the O – atoms are shown .
This metastable structure exists at - 40 0 C and 4’000 bar .
57
2 – 17
2.4
Liquid Water :
Structure and Dynamics
58
“Random Network” Model of liquid water
“Groundstate”: totally interconnected
“Random Network” having an open
tetrahedral structure ; realized in
superercooled water .
“Excited state” : macroscopically inter
- connected “Random Network”
containing many deformed and
broken bonds ; continuous topological
reorganization ; realized in the stable
state of water .
Anomalous properties : as a result of
the competition between “open” water
(as in ice) and more compact regions
with deformed and broken hydrogen
bonds .
“Random Network Model” with tetrahedral coordi nation (only the O – atoms are shown) . Originally ,
the model has been constructed for Si and Ge .
F . Wooten and D. Weaire in: Solid State Physics
40, pp 1 - 42 (1987).
(C.A. Angell: J. Phys. Chem. 75, 3698
(1971); F. Stillinger, Science 209, 451
(1980)).
59
2 – 18
Mean instanteneous configuration of a water molecule
The O ....... H - O hydrogen
bonds are usually bent or
broken but are reformed
continuously and quickly .
O
H
The lifetime of a hydrogen
bond is very short , only
about a billion of a second,
i.e. about 10-12 seconds ;
this is a time in the pico second (ps) range or less.
H
More compact and much more dynamic
structure as in ice !!
60
Ballet of H2O – Molecules in Liquid Water
Water molecules – with hands re –
presenting lone pairs of electrons –
perform a wild dance that involves
grabbing neighbours by the ankles.
These clasps , due to hydrogen
bonding , lead to a tetrahedral
arrangement of neighbours around each
molecule .
This is the central motif of the
structure of water , and the key to all
its anomalous properties .
Liquid water has a very large specific heat :
1 cal / (g oC) !  buffer for stabilization of global climate !!
Figure and text by : Philip Ball : “A Biography of Water” , p . 159 ;
The Figure has been slightly modified by P . Brüesch by adding the blue and green
arrows indicating the exchanges and rotations of the molecules .
61
2 - 19
Computer - Simulation of the Dynamics of
Molecules in Liquid Water
In ice , the molecules execute small vibrations around their
equilibrium positions located at a regular lattice .
For the calculation of the molecular dynamics , realistic
interaction forces between the molecules are introduced which
simulate the nature of hydrogen bonds .
Result : In liquid water the molecules execute a wild dance . They
are still loosely connected by hydrogen bonds but these bonds are
no longer straight lines as in ice but are rather strongly tilted and
break very easily .
As a consequence , partners exchange very wildly and rapidly
with a mean residence time of the order of billionths of seconds !
 In a rough first approximation , this irregular motion can be
decomposed into several fundamental vibrational and librational
motions (see pp 64 , 65) .
62
Local structure of liquid water
Disordered structure of liquid water :
a snapshot from a molecular dynamics study (s . p . 62)
O – atoms : red , H – atoms : white .
The dashed white lines indicate the hydrogen bonds
between neighbouring water molecules
63
2 – 20
“Internal” molecular vibrations :
n1
n3
n2
“External” molecular vibrations : “librations”
hindered rotation : nr
hindered translation : nt
If an infrared frequency coincides with a molecular vibration , resonance
occurs at this frequency by absorbing a large portion of the
infrared light  infrared – absorption - band
64
Absorption spectrum in the Far – Infrared of the intermolecular vibrations of liquid
water at 27 oC . In a rough approximation , the wild dance of the water molecules (pp
61 - 62) can be decomposed into two fundamental vibrations . These absorptions can
be observed as two broad absorption bands at 675 cm -1 (about 20 THz) and near 200
cm-1 (about 5 THz) . The broad and intensive band near 675 cm-1 can be assigned to
the „hindered“ rotational motion of the H2O – molecules , while the band near 200 cm-1
is due to the „hindered“ translational motion of the H2O – molecules . The extremely
large widths of these absorption bands are due to the complex interactions between
the H2O – molecules ( distribution of absorption frequencies !) . The two „external“
normal vibrations are illustrated at page 64 and the complete infrared spectum is
shown at page 114 . (The above Figure has been composed by P . Brüesch) .
65
2 – 21
2.5
Liquid Water :
Anomalies
66
Anomalies : General - 1
• Liquid water is about 9 % heavier than ice !
• The density maximum of water is not at the
freezing point at 0 oC but lies at about 4 oC !
• The melting temperature decreases with increasing pressure !
• Compared with other substances , the heat capacity , the
surface tension and the thermal conductivity are
unusually large !
67
2 – 22
Anomalies : General - 2
• For a large number of substances , water is an excellent
solvent (s . pp . 127 - 135) !
• Pure liquid water can be supercooled down to as low as
- 37 oC without freezing !
• If supercooled and cold liquid water is heated up until
4 oC it exhibits a contraction !
Note : both , supercooled and superheated water are very
important in nature !
(Example : metastabel superheated water present in the
xylem conduits of tall trees (pp 215 , 216 ; 220 , 221)
68
Four additional anomalies of liquid water
a)
Rr (kg/m3)
aT aT (10-3 K-1)
b)
(T (K)
(T (K)
d)
Cp (kJ kg-1 K-1)
kT (10-4 MPa-1)
c)
(T (K)
(T (K)
Temperature dependences of a) the density r ; b) the thermal expansion coefficient aT ;
c) the isothermal compressibility kT , and d) the isobaric specific heat Cp at
1 bar = 0.1 MPa . The red curves indicate the experimental data for Water (s . Ref .
R.2.0.17 , R.2.5.3) . The blue lines indicate the behaviour for simple liquids
(Annotation of axis redrawn)
69
2 - 23
Phase Diagram of normal Compounds and of Water
critical
pressure
Substance without anomaly
liquid
critical
point
With increasing pressure
the melting temperature
increases .
Pressure
solid
Triple point
critical
temperature
critical
point
water
1
ice
0.006
With increasing pressure
the melting temperature
decreases !
Temperature
Substance with anomaly (e.g. water)
221
Pressure (bar)
gas
water
vapour
triple
point
273.15
0 0.1
70
2 – 24
100
374
Temperature (oC)
2.6
Density and specific heat
71
Densities of Water and Ice at 1 bar
Density (g / cm3)
1.00
P = 1 bar
0.98
0.96
ice Ih
0.94
water
0.92
- 100
- 50
50
0
Temperature
(o
100
C)
At the transition from water to ice the density decreases by about 9% !!
 Anomaly : ice is lighter than water !!!
72
2 - 25
The Density Maximum of Water is at 4 oC !
Temperature (oC)
0
2
4
6
8 10
Density (g / cm3)
1.00000
Anomaly : by cooling
below 4 oC the density
0.99992
decreases again !
0.99984
For nearly all other liquids
(except Bismuth (Bi)) the
density increases with
decreasing temperature down
to the melting point .
0.99976
maximum density at 4 oC
Note : As for H2O (p . 72) the density of liquid Bi is larger than the density of its
solid phase : Bi expands 3.32 % on solidifaction ; its melting point is just above 271
oC . See : Bismuth – Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia : en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth
73
Density of Water in its whole Range of Existence
pressure P = 1 bar
0.96
superheated
stabel
region
0.92
supercooled
Density in gr / cm3
1.00
0.88
0.84
- 50
0
TMD = 4
50
oC
100
150
200
Temperature (o C)
TMD = Temperature of Maximum Density
74
2 – 26
Specific heats Cp : Comparison with liquid water
Specific heats Cp (cal / g oC)
1.0
A
l
u
m
i
n
u
m
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
W
A
T
E
R
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
A
l
c
o
h
o
l
G
l
a
s
G
r
a
n
i
t
e
C
o
p
p
e
r
Z
i
n
c
I
r
o
n
S
i
l
v
e
r
M
e
r
c
u
r
y
T
u
n
g
s
t
e
n
L
e
a
d
G
o
l
d
B
i
s
m
u
t
h
75
Specific Heat Cp of Ice Ih , Liquid Water and of Vapour
1.0
l
o
Specific heat (cal/ C g)
l
P = 1 bar
0.8
liquid
water
ice Ih
0.6
water vapor
0.4
TS
-100
-50
0
TD
50
o 100
150
200
Temperature ( C)
Cp of liquid water : about two times larger than that of ice Ih at TS and than that of vapour
at TD . Reason : deformation and /or dissociation of hydrogen bonds which give rise to a
large and strongly temperature dependent configurational energy .
At TS and TD , energy is used for melting and evaporation , respectively , leading to sharp
“lambda – anomalies” of Cp (l - anomalies at ) .
(Figure composed by P . Brüesch from several experimental Data)
76
2 – 27
Specific Heat of Liquid Water in its
whole range of Existence
(δ S)2
k
B
1.4
1.4
supercooled
p
o / g oC)
heatC C(cal/g
Specific
p (calC)
Specific heat
C p = ( H/T) P = T ( S/ T) P =
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.2
P = 1 bar
overheated
stabel
region
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
-50
TNucleation
of ice
0
50
100
150
200
o
o
Temperature
(
C)
Temperature ( C)
250
300
TNucleation
of vapour
35 oC
77
Remarks about the anomalies of the temperature dependence of
the specific heat Cp(T) , of the thermal expansion a(T)
and of the isothermal compressibility k(T) of liquid water .
For typical liquids , Cp deacreses slowly with decreasing temperature and this is
also the case for liquid water but only down to 35 o C . At 35 o C the specific heat ,
of water passes through a minimum and increases again with decreasing temperature
(p . 77) !
In the supercooled state , below 0 oC , Cp increases strongly with decreasing temper ture (p . 77).
Anomalous behaviours are also observed for the thermal expansion a(T) (pp 69 and
81) as well as for the isothermal compressibility kT(T) (pp. 69 and 82) .
All three quantities , Cp(T) , kT(T) und a(T) , behave in such a way as to suggest the
existence of a singularity at low remperatures (below about - 40 oC) , but there is
no proof for this conjecture . Although there exist a large number of theoretical
models for the very unusual properties of water , these and many other anomalies
remain essentially a puzzle .
Although it is often possible to explain one of the anomalies with an appropriate
theoretical model , most other anomalies can not be explained with the same model .
There exists no universal theory of liquid water !
It can , however , be taken for granted that for the explenation of all anomalies, the
complicate nature of the hydrogen bonds blays a central role .
78
2 – 28
Reason and Relevance of water‘s high specific heat
Between 0oC and 100 oC the specific heat of water is about 1 cal / (g oC) . Compared
with most other substances , the specific heat of water is therfore unusually high
(s . pp 75 and 77) .
We can trace water‘s high specific heat , like many of its other properties , to
hydrogen bonding . Heat must be absorbed in order to break hydrogen bonds , and
heat is released when hydrogen bonds form . A calorie of heat causes a relatively
small change in the temperature because most of the heat energy is used to
disrupt hydrogen bonds before the water molecules can begin moving faster . And
when the temperature of water drops slightly , many additional hydrogen bonds
form , releasing a considerable amount of energy in the form of heat .
What is the relevance of water‘s high specific heat to life on Earth ? By warming
up only a few degrees , a large body of water can absorb and store a huge
amount of heat from the sun in the daytime and during summer . At night and
during winter , the slow cooling down of water stabilizes the temperature of the air .
Thus because of its specific heat , the water that covers most of the planet Earth
keeps temperature fluctuations within limits that permit life . Also , because
organisms are made primarily of water , they are more able to resist changes in
their own temperatures than they were made of a liquid with a lower specific heat .
79
2 – 29
2.7
Various physical quantities
and properties
80
( V )( S )
1
Expansion coefficient a(T) of liquid
( V/ T ) P =
a = water
k BT V
in its whole range of existence at V1 bar
P = 1 bar
supercooled
4
-1
Expansitivity a x 10 (K )
20
10
0
overheated
stable
-10
region
4 oC
-20
-50
0
50
100
150
o
Temperature ( C)
200
250
Literatur : P.G. Benedetti; Metastable Liquids, Princeton University Press (1996), p. 97;
M. Hareng and J. Leblond, J. Chem. Phys. 73, 622 (1980) .
(Figure compiled
by P . Brüesch)
81
2 – 30
Isothermal compressibility k(T) of liquid water in its range
of existance at P = 1 bar
1
( V/  P )T
V
supercooled
100
6
Isothermal compressibility (x 10 ) in bar
-1
kT = -
90
80
normal
region
superheated
70
60
Tmin = 46 oC
50
-50
0
50
100
150
o
Temperature ( C)
200
250
Literatur: R.J. Speedy and C.A. Angell, J. Chem. Phys. 65, 851 (1976) , and M.
Hareng and L . Leblond , J. Chem. Phys. 73, 622 (1980) .
(Figure compiled by P. Brüesch)
82
Thermal conductivity of Ice , Water and Vapour
At the transition from water to ice , the thermal conductivity increases by about
a factor of 3.6 ; however , going from water to its vapour at the boiling point ,
the thermal conductivity decreases by about a factor of 27 .
(Figure compiled by P . Brüesch)
83
2 – 31
Viscosity h(T) at P = 1 bar
At constant pressure , the viscosity decrea ses almost exponentially with increasing
temperature ; this behavour is also found in
the supercooled state .
The temperature dependence of the viscosity h can be approximated by
h(T) = h0 exp ( DEh / R T ) .
DEh is the Arrhenius activation energy for
viscous flow ; at 0 oC , DEh is about 5 kcal /
mol . For water , the temperature dependence
of DEh is considerably stronger than for
most other liquids .
Viscosity of water as a function of
temperature at P = 1 bar .
For most liquids , h increases strongly with
increasing pressure P . This is also the case
for water above 30 oC . Below 30 oC ,
however , the viscosity of water first de –
creases with
increasing
pressure , then
passes through a minimum between P = 1000
to 1500 kg / cm2 , and only at higher
temperatures it increases again .
(Figur compiled by P. Brüesch)
84
Surface tension
In contrast to many other properties of
water (such as the density , expansion ,
compressibility and specific heat) , the
surface tension does not show any obvious
anomaly by cooling down into the supercooled state . In particular , no drastic increase is observed in the deeply supercooled state , i.e. no indication of an anomaly is observed by approaching - 45 oC .
If the surface tension is not measured at 1
atm but rather along the boiling point curve ,
(s. pp 99 - 101) , it decreases continuously
and disappears at the critical point Pk (354.15
oC and 221.2 bar) . In other words , the
miniscus of water in a glass capillary
disappears at the critical point Pk .
Surface tension of water in its
standerd and supercooled state .
One anomaly of water is the fact that
the highest surface tension of all
metallic liquids ! This is due to the
cohesion between water molecules
result of hydrogen bonding .
(Figure compiled by P. Brüesch)
85
2 – 32
it has
non –
strong
as a
Mirror reflection of two water – striders during mating
Water striders (Wasserläufer) are walking on water . Due to the very high
surface tension of water (s . p . 85) , the water surface acts like an elastic
film that resists deformation when a small weight is placed on it .
In the present picture , two Water striders are mating on the Water surface ,
therby producing a mirror reflection .
86
The “Water - ions” H3O+ and HO- in ultrapure Water
Example :
the dimer
exchange of the O
H bond
with the H -------- O bond
Self – dissociation
or self – ionization
of pure water
considering a given H2O molecule , a H3O+ - ion is
formed after about 11 h .
 very seldom process !
hydroxide ion OH-
hydronium - ion H3O+
In pure water at 25 oC there will
exist about one H3O+ ion and one
OH- ion in 550 millions of H2O
molecules  pH = 7
pH ≈ - log [ H3O+ ]
[ H3O+ ] in mol / dm3
87
2 – 33
Formation and Hydration of Hydronium - ions H3O +
Acidity of water
H3 O +
H2O
OH In a dilute acidic solution , the small
H3O + - ion is strongly hydrated : it is
hydrogen – bonded to three H2O –
molecules forming a (H9O4) + - ion
complex . A similar complex exists
for the OH- - ion .
Mechanism of formation of a hydronium
ion H3O+ and of a hydroxide ion OH (schematic representation of a proton –
transfer)
2 H2O  H3O + + OH -
88
pH of pure water and H3O+ ion concentrations as a function
of temperature
With increasing temperature the pH decreases , i.e. the self – ionization 2 H2O  H3O+ + OHincreases strongly as shown in the Table below .
T (oC)
pH
[H3O+]
in 10-7 mol/L
number of H3O+ ions
number of H2O molecules
0
7.49
0.32
5.75 x 10-10
10
7.27
0.54
9.70 x 10-10
20
7.08
0.83
14.9 x 10-10
25
7.00
1.00
18.0 x 10-10
30
6.92
1.20
21.6 x 10-10
40
6.77
1.70
30.6 x 10-10
50
6.63
2.34
42.2 x 10-10
100
6.14
7.24
130.4 x 10-10
89
2 – 34
pH and normalized hydronium ion concentration as a function of T
The Figure shows the ratio of the con –
centrations of H3O+ - ions and of water
molecules in pure water as a function of
temperature T , r+(T) = [H3O+] / [H2O] . r+
increases with increasing T as does the
ratio r-(T) = [OH-] / [H2O] of the hydroxide
ions OH- . Since r+(T) = r-(T) , water
remains neutral .
At 25 oC , r+ = r- = 10-7 (mol/L) / 55.5 ( mol/L)
= (103 / 55.5) * 10-10 = 18 x 10-10 ; [ one mole
of water has a mass of ≈ 18 g ] .
With increasing temperature , the pH value of pure water decreases . This does
not mean that water becomes more
acidic as the temperature increases ; this
decrease is rather due to the fact that
with increasing temperature the selfdissociation of H2O – molecules : 2 H2O 
H3O+ + OH- , increases which results in a
higher concencentration of water ions .
Note that at 25 oC the pH = 7 .
90
Mobilities of H3O+ - and OH- - ions as a function of temperature
0.012
0.01
u
0.008
u(H3O +)
0.01
0.006
0.004
0.002
u(OH -)
0 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
u = u(H3O+) + u(OH-) = s / (F x c) ; s = measured conductivity (s . p 92) , F = Faraday –
constant , c = concentration of H3O+ - ions (or OH- - ions) , which are obtained from
the observed ion product Kw of pure water at room temperature . Assumption :
u(H3O+) = 0.64 x u ; u(OH-) = 0.36 X u independent on temperature . The factor 0.64 has
been deduced from the known mobilities u(H3O+) and u(OH-) at 25 oC .
(Figure prepared by P . Brüesch from different Data)
91
2 – 35
Temperature dependence of ionic conductivity sDC(T) = q c u(T) of
ultrapure water at 1 bar . u(T) is the total ionic mobility (s . p . 91) .
Conductivity of ultrapure Water
q:
ionic charge
Conductivity (W cm) – 1
c(T) : ion concentration
u(T) : sum of ionic
mobilities
Temperature (o C)
92
100
Specific DC - resistivity of
chemically pure
water at 25 oC
Resistivity (MW cm)
80
60
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
Temperature (o C)
At 25 oC chemically pure water has a pH – value of 7 and an extremely small specific
resistance of 14.09 x 10 6 W cm which corresponds to a specific conductivity of about
70 x 10-9 (W cm) -1 (s . p . 92) . This very high resistivity results from the very small con –
concentration of the H3O+ - and OH- ions (about 1 . 5 ppb at 25 oC) .
93
2 – 36
Conductivity (Ohm x cm) -1
Pressure dependence of the ionic conductivity of pure water
0
2
4
6
8
10
Pressure (atm)
red curve : at 30 o C ; blue curve : at 75 o C
The values have been normalized to the known conductivity values at 1 atm .
Note the anomalous increase of the conductivity with increasing pressure !
94
The electric double layer at a metal electrode in pure water
Peter Brüesch and Thomas Christen : J. Applied Physics , 95 , No 5, 2004 , p. 2846 - 2856
Pure water is a weak electrolyte that dissociates into hydronium
ions and hydroxide ions . In contact with a charged electrode , a
double layer forms for which neither experimental nor theoretical
studies exist , in contrast to electrolytes containig extrinsic ions like
acids , bases , and solute salts . Starting from a self-consistent
solution of the one-dimensional modified Poisson – Boltzmann
equation , which takes into account activity coefficients of point-like
ions , we explore the properties of the electric double layer by
successive incorporation of various correction terms like finite ion
size , polarization , image charge , and field dissociation . We also
discuss the effect of the usual approximation of the average
potential as required for the one-dimensional Poisson-Boltzmann
equation , and conclude that the one-dimensional approximation
underestimates the ion density . We calculate the electric potential ,
the ion distributions , the pH-values , the ion-size corrected activity
coefficients , and the dissociation constants close to the electric
double layer and compare the results for the various model
corrections .
95
2 – 37
2.8
Phase diagram of Water
96
Phases of a single substance - 1
Depending on temperature T and pressure P it is
possible that :
• a compound can exist in the solid , liquid or gaseous state
• two or three states can coexist :
solid  liquid : melting curve
solid  vapour : sublimation curve
liquid  vapour : vapour pressure curve
solid  liquid  gas : triple point
97
2 – 38
Phases of a single substance - 2
• Two coexisting states are said to be in dynamical equilibrium
if an equal number of molecules is transfered from state 1 into
state 2 per unit time .
Solid  liquid  vapour  : triple point
• The vapour pressure curve extends from the triple
point up the critical point .
• Above the critical point it is no longer possible to
distinguish between the liquid and gaseous state .
• liquid water can be supercooled !
• liquid water can be superheated !
98
Pressure P
Phase diagram of H2O (schematic)
super –
critical
water
Liquidland (*)
(water)
Solid land (*)
(ice)
super –
cooled
water
triple point
(*)
“Trimundis” (*)
Gasland (*)
(gas)
0 oC
100 0C
Temperature T
99
2 – 39
critical point
“Kritikala” (*)
(*) : Ref . R.2.1.1,
(p . 150)
374 oC
Phase diagram of water
melting curve
Tc = 374 oC
Pc = 221 bar
103
melting point
or freezing
point at 1 atm
and 0 oC
102
liquid
10
critical
point Tc
triple point :
Ttr = 0.098 oC
Ptr = 0.006 bar
10-1
boiling
point curve
solid
Pressure (at)
1
vapour
10-2
tripel point
10-3
boiling point
at 1 atm and
100 oC
10-4
H2O
10-5
10-6
0
sublimation
curve
100
200 300
400
Temperature (oC)
1 at = 1 kp / cm2 = 9.81 N / cm2
100
Boiling point curve of water
300
critical point :
supercritial vapour
(374 oC , 221 bar)
200
150
100
Ice
Pressure in bar
250
liquid
50
tripel point :
Ttr = 0.01 oC ,
Pcr = 611.73 Pa
0
0
50
100
vapour
150
200
250
Temperature in oC
101
2 – 40
300
350
Remarks to the critical point
(pp 99 – 101)
For each gas there exists a well defined temperature , above which it is impossibel to
liquify it at arbitrary high pressures .
This temperature is known as the critical temperature Tc of the gas . If the gas is cooled
down to this temperature , it is possibel to liquify it by application of a sufficiently high
pressure . At the critical temperature Tc a certain pressure is necessary , which is called
the critical pressure Pc. For water , the critical point is at Tc = 374 oC and Pc = 221 bar .
Water above the critical point is called supercritical water (s. p. 99) . Above the critical
point , the densities of water vapour and liquid water are undistinguishabel ; for this
reason , this state is called „supercritical“ . Chemically , supercritical water is particularly
active . For this reason , experimemts have been performed to neutralize strongly harmful
substances with the help of supercritical water . Examples include the hydrolytical decom position of Dioxins and PCB s which are highly toxic chemicals .
102
Superheated states of water
melting curve
103
boiling curve
102
liquid
superheated water
produced by increasing
the temperature
(metastabel !)
1
10-1
solid
Pressure (at)
10
vapour
10-2
superheated water
produced by
reduction of
pressure
(metastabel !)
10-3
10-4
H2O
10-5
10-6
sublimation
curve
0
100
200 300
400
Temperature (oC)
1 at = 1 kp / cm2 = 9.81 N / cm2
103
2 – 41
pressure gauge :
0 to 1.6 bar
excess pressure
Example : Pressure cooker
Total pressure (bar)
exampel : cooking temperature = 120 oC
 excess pressure = 1 bar
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
total pressure =
actual air pressure +
excess pressure
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
vapour pressure
0
thermometer
0 to 150 oC
20
rule of thumb : DT = 10 oC
 cooking time is 2 to 3
times shorter !
40
60
80 100 120 140
Temperature (o C)
104
Pressure dependence of melting and boiling point
a)
Water defines the temperature scale of Celsius
The Celsius scale is a temperature scale , defined such that (at normal pressure of 1013.25 hPa
= 1 atm) water freezes at 0 oC and boils at 100 oC .
b)
The melting point or freezing point of pure water is 0 oC . The melting point depends only very
weakly on pressure . A prominent anomaly of water is , however , the fact that as the pressure
increases , the melting point decreases (s. Figures at pp 70 and 79) ; at a pressure of 2000
bar , water freezes at a temperature as low as - 22 oC .
c)
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature , at which the vapour pressure is equal to
the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere . At a pressure of po = 1013.25 hPa , water boils at
100 oC . The boiling point of water depends strongly on the external pressure (s . pp. 70 , 99 101) and hence at the Earth from the altitude H above the Sea level (see left-hand Figure) : the
boiling point decreases about 3 oC for every 1000 m increase in height . At the Sea level , po = 1
bar and on top of the Mount Everest with H = 8850 m (right-hand Figure) , the Boltzmann
barometric equation gives the result that the air pressure decreases according to the exponential
law p(H) ≈ po * exp(- H / 7990 m) = 0.335 bar .
100
95
Boiling point BP (oC)
BP(h) = 100
BP(H)
100-–0.00304
0.00304* H
*H
90
85
80
75
70
65
If
Mt Everest : H = 8850 m  BP ≈ 74 oC
 air pressure p(H) ≈ 0.335 bar
0
2000
4000
6000
Altitude H (m)
8000
8000
10000
10000
94105
2 - 42
Schematic representation of the phases of water at
different temperatures and atmospheric pressure
superheated water
boiling point
stabel (normal) water
melting point
supercooled water
here , water is stable only in
its solid crystalline phase
ultraviscous water
glassy water
from : H . Eugene Stanley
in : MRS Bulletin / May 1999
Courtesy of O. Mishima
106
P – T Phase diagram of water
Temperature (oC)
0
(s. p . 106 for atmospheric prsssure)
Supercooled water :
Is obtained by careful
cooling of very pure water .
„No man`s land“ :
here , no liquid phase but only a solid crystalline
phase exists (s . also p . 106)
- 100
„Glassy water“ :
If liquid water is very rapidly cooled down , a
glassy amorphous ice is formed .
LDA : „Low - Density Amorphous“ ice
HDA : „High - Density Amorphous „ ice
- 200
0
100
200
300
400
Pressure (MPa)
The metastabel phase diagram shown
above is tentative : it is based on the
presently available data .
Deeply undercooled liquid water :
If LDA at atmospheric pressure (= 0.1013 MPa =
1013 hPa) is heated above - 137 oC , then a highly
supercooled liquid water is produced : deeply
supercooled liquid water . This ultraviscous water
has a caramell – like consistency .
107
2 – 43
Superheated water : (p. 106) : If pure water in the absence of foreign particles is heated
in a smooth and homogeneous container , i.e. in the absence of condensation nuclei ,
then it is possible to superheat the water up to at least 110 oC without transforming it
into the gaseous phase .
This is a metastabel state which can eventually be dangerous , since a small mechanical
shock can provoke a large gas bubble within a very short time which escapes the
vessel explosively : as a result , the liquid itself can escape very rapidly , a reaction
which occurs most often in narrow and large vessels .
In many cases , persons have been enjured by boiling of water in the microwave heater
for preparing beverages . Such water can easily be superheated and at certain conditions
(i.e. by dipping a spoon into the water or by adding granular grains of coffee to it , it
can provoke violent boiling or even dangerous explosions.
Geysir
The colder water in the upper
Geysir
exerts
a
pressure
underlying hot water and acts
pressure cooker . In this way
water becomes superheated ,
mains liquid above 100 oC .
part of the
onto
the
as a vessel
the boiling
i.e. it re -
Vapour bubbles which splash through the
oppenings , cause a reduction of the
pressure in the inner part of the Geysir .
The superheated water transforms violently
to vapour and seeths upwards , where it
splashes as a vapour - or water fountain .
108
Supercooled water : (s. pp 99 , 106 , 107) . Water contains usually condensation nuclei (such
as ice crystals , impurities or irregularities at the surface of the vessel) ; it freezes at 0 oC .
In our normal environment such nuclei exist almost always , such that the freezing (of still
water) takes indeed place at 0 oC .
In the laboratory it was , however , possible to keep very pure and still water in the liquid
state down to - 70 oC by very slow cooling ! Thus supercooled water is metastabel : it freezes
at once if condensation nuclei are added .
The supercooled water in the bottle
is poored into a vessel which
contains natural condensation nuclei .
As a result , the supercooled water
freezes instantaneously to ice .
In the atmosphere , supercooled water is present very frequently . At temperatures between 0
and - 12 oC , the concentration of supercooled water droplets is even higher than that of ice
crystals but by decreasing the temperature further , the number of ice crystals continously
increases . At a temperature of - 20 oC the ratio of supercooled water droplets and ice
crystals is 1 : 1 . At still lower temperatures , the concentration of ice crystal becomes larger
than that of supercooled water . Supercooled water droplets exist in the atmosphere down to
temperatures of - 40 oC (see Chapter 4 : Appendix 4_A_3_1) .
109
2 – 44
2.9
Colours and Spectra of Water
110
Colours and spectra of H2O and D2O
H2O : very weak absorptions in the
red and yellow spectral range , but
transparent in the blue region
 in large depths it appears blue !
D2O : no absorption in the red and
yellow range  colourless !
Light water (H2O ) and light ice are the only chemical
substances known until now , for which the colours are due
only to molecular vibrations (overtones - and combinations of
the fundamental vibrations , see pp 112 - 114) !
The colours of most other substances originate from light –
induced electronic excitations [Example : red colour of
copper] .
111
2 – 45
Spectrum of liquid water from the UV to the FIR
V
I
Infrared : (IR)
S
(NIR : Near Infrated)
NIR
UV
Far Infrared : (FIR)
112
Absorption of water and ice from the Far – Infrared
(FIR) to the Ultraviolet (UV) spectral range
Absorption coefficient a (cm-1)
4
10
10’000
1’000
10
The weak absorptions in the
Near Infra-Red (NIR) are
overtones and combinations
of the normal vibrations
(fundamentals) in the IR and
and FIR . They are produced
by anharmonic coupling of
the fundamental vibrations !
3
visible
2
100
10
1
10
10
0
1
10
-1
0.1
10
alpha of H2O liquid
alpha of H2O ice
FIR
IR
-2
0.01
10
NIR
NIR
sichtbar
infrarot
-3
0.001
10
Infrared
0.0001
10
alpha_H2O_liq
alpha_H2O_ice
UV
-4
0
0
500
500
THz
1000
1000
1 THz (Terahertz) = 1 Trillion Hertz = 10 12 Hz
113
2 - 46
1500
1500
3
10‘000 10
x10
Absorption coefficient a (cm -1)
Infrared spectrum of liquid Water
5‘000
5
0
0
0
50
0
100
50
100
THz
50
Frequency (THz) : 1 THz = 1 Trillian vibrations
per second = 10 12 Hz
114
Absorption coefficient (cm-1)
Infrared absorption spectra of water and ice
Water
Eis
Frequency
The assignment of the absorption bands is illustrated at p . 114
As shown in the Figure , the absorption bands of ice are located at slightly
displaced frequencies with respect to the corresponding bands of water .
115
2 – 47
Refractive index n(n)
Optical constants :
Refractive index n(n) and
absorption coefficient
a(n) of liquid water
Absorption coefficient a(n)
In the Micro-Wave (MW) :
Reorientation of the per –
manent dipol moments of
the Water molecules :
„Dipolar Relaxation“
In the Infraret (IR) :
Molecular vibrations :
(internal and external) ;
In the Near Infrared (NIR) to
the visible region (VIS) :
Overtones and combinations
In the Ultraviolet (UV) :
Plasma absorption
Frequency (Hz)
rf
MW
IR
116
Dispersion (e 1)
Complex dielectric constant
e(n) = e1(n) + i e2(n)
e1(n)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Dispersion and
absorption of liquid
water
100 K
101
103
105
268
268 K
K
268 K
101
103
105
107
109
1011
1013
• In the microwave range :
directional changes of the
permanent dipole moments
of the water molecules :
„Dipolar Relaxation“
1015
102
e2(n)
101
Absorption (e 2)
• In the infrared range :
molecular vibrations :
(internal and external)
• in the Near Infrared (NIR) up
to the Visible range (VIS) :
overtones and combinations
100 K
268 K
100
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
101
103
105
107
109
1011
Frequency (Hz) 
1013 1015
UV
117
2 – 48
• In the UV :
electronic plasma
absorptions
Static dielectric constant es(n)
There exist several analytical and MD - models.
The most popular model is the OnsagerKirkwood - Fröhlich model which gives
es(T) = e∞
+ 2 p N (m2 / kB T) g
e∞
≈ 4.2 : contributions of molecular vibrations
and electronic polarization .
N = number of molecules per unit volume
.
m = permament dipole moment of a water –
molecule in liquid water (m = 3.0 Debye) .
g = correllation factor of Kirkwood ; g is a mea sure for the orientational correlation between a
„central“ molecule and his surrounding mole cules (g ≈ 2.6 at 0 oC and g ≈ 2.46 at 83 oC .
The factor kBT in the denominator takes into
account the thermal motion of the water mole cules , which counteracts the alignement of the
dipole moments in the electric field .
 Accordung to Kirkwood , the high dielectric
constant of water is not only due to the strong
polarity of the individual water molecules (large
m) but also by the corelated motion of the
molecules which gives rise to a large g – factor .
(For a derivation of e s(T) see Ref . R.2.9.7 , R.2.9.8))
118
2 – 49
2 . 10
Various Topics
119
Dielectrophoresis
Dx
DE
The strongly inhomogeneous field DE , which emerges from the tip of
the pen , partially aligns the dipole moments of the water molecules
and exerts a force onto the polar liquid causing a deflection of the
jet of water . The force is proportional to F = (DE/Dx) ; Dx = diameter
of the jet of water ; DE = change of E across Dx .
120
2 – 50
Generation of a „water bridge“ by a high electric field
Here , water is subjected to a tension !
121
open end of
capillary tube
centrifugal forces
+ F and - F
ultra – pure
water
spinner
rotating with
frequency f
Z- shaped Pyrex ca pillary , fi = 0.6 mm
open end of
capillary tube
Negative pressure (tension) (bar)
Centrifugal – method for the generation of a very large stress
(negative pressure) in water
280
240
200
160
120
80
40
0
0
10
20
30 40 50
Temperature (oC)
J.M. Briggs (NBS) : the water column contained
in a horizontally rotating capillary tube breaks
apart only at very high negative pressures ; at
about 10 oC the negative pressure reaches a
maximum value of about - 277 bar (!!) and
decreases by about 22 % as the temperature is
increased to 50 oC .
Rupture as a result of loss of inner cohesion
of the liquid and / or by the loss of adhesion
at the walls of the capillary ?
Between 0 oC and 10 oC, the limiting pressure
undergoes an enormous increase of more than
90 % ! It presents another anomaly in the
behavior of water in this interesting region .
122
2 – 51
„Setting to music“ the
Infrared spectrum of liquid water
(p. 114) by transformation into
the audible acoustic range
(Concerning „Water in Music“
s . Chapter 8 , Section 4)
(P . Brüesch , 28 . 1 . 2009)
123
100
Transformation of the Infrared spectrum of liquid water (p . 114)
into the audible acoustic range
90
Relative Intensity I (%)
80
==> Basis for "setting to music of water"
70
60
50
40
a
(220)
Max. bei
cis''
(554)
30
20
cis'''
(1109)
'c
(65.4)
a'
(440)
10
200
400
eis''
(698)
600
fis'''
(1480)
c'''
(1046)
800
Frequency (Hz)
124
2 – 52
1000
1200
1400
Remarks concerning the „setting to music“ of the
infrared spectrum of water :
The spectrum of Figure 124 has been generated from the infrared spectrum (IR) of water
shown in Figure 114 by reducing each frequency by the factor 236.5 : this corresponds to
a reduction of each IR - frequency by 36 . 5 octaves , therby transforming it into the
audible acoustic range .
The reduction factor has been chosen in such a way that the frequency of the hindred
rotation at 20 THz (Figure 114) is set to the sound frequency at 220 Hz . The concert
pitch a` is fixed at 440 Hz .
The spectrum shown at p . 124 comprises more than 8 octaves each having 12 semi tones ; in the Figure the semitones are indicated by the small red circles . In the linear
frequency scale of this spectrum , the individual semitones are distributed very densely at
low frequencies , but their distances increase strongly with increasing frequency . The
frequency fn and their distances are given by
fn = 2(n/12) * fo ,
Δfn = f n+1 - fn = (21/12 - 1) * fn = 0.05946 * fn .
where n = 0 , 1 , 2 , ….11 ; 12 , 13 , …..23 ; 24 , 25 , …. 35 ; 36 , 37 ..….. 101 , and fo has been
chosen to be 4.33 Hz . For music , the 6 important octaves are :
``c - `c ; `c - c ; c - c`, c` - c`` , c`` - c```, und c``` - c````
where ``c = 32.7 Hz and c```` = 2092 Hz , which corresponds approximately to the register
of the piano . Some important sounds are indicated in the Figure . For a „setting to
music“ it would probably be necessary to take into account the large widths of the IR absorption bands : transformed into music , the broad and asymmetric band at 220 Hz ,
for example , should be decomposed into two or three bands at lower frequencies .
125
„Music spectrum“ of Water
Relative intensity as a function of
Relative intensity (%)
gn = log2(fn / f0) = n / 12
The designation of the
sounds `c , a , cis`` , eis``
112 to the
and cis``` refers
Figure at p . 124 .
fn = f0 * 2 (n / 12)
(n = 0 , 1 , 2 , ………101)
In this representation , the distance d between
two neighbouring points is d = 1 / 12
= 0.0833333 = constant
Ggn = log2 (fn / fo) = n / 12
126
2 – 53
2-A-0
Part of the pure rotational spectrum of water vapour
in the far – infrared region
FIR 
Very detailed information abot the geometry of the water molecule (bond – length and
bond angle) is obtained from spectroscopic measurements in the infrared and microwave
region . In the microwave and Far – Infrared Region (FIR) , the rotational motions of the
molecule are obsorved . From the observed rotational spectra and the theoretical
expressions for the rotational energies , the moments of inertia can be evaluated . The
total energy of the molecule is given by E(r,v) = Er + Ev + Erv , where Er is the rotational
energy , Ev , the vibrational energy and Erv the coupling between the rotational and
vibrational motions (Coriolis energy or Coriolis coupling) .
The observed superposition of the spectrum due to the vibrational motions (pp 37, 140)
and the rotational spectrum of water vapour is shown at p . 38 . (For more details s .
References R.2.0.1 and R.2.0.2) .
2-A-1-1
2 – 54
Proposed structure of metallic Ice
news.softpedia.com/news.Metallic-Ice-34871.shtml
The Figure shows a Computer Simulation of „Metallic Ice“ (Thomas Matsson et al , Sandia
National Lab) . Water is expected to change
into the
6. Sept.
2006„metallic“ form at a temperature of
4000 K and at a pressure of 100 GPa (= 106 bar) . Physicits think that such conditions exit
7. Thomas Mattson et al (Sandia National Lab)
on planets like Jupiter or Neptun .
pp of
49 water
and p.is2-A-3-1
Because of the high pressure , this s.
form
thought to be solid – it is a form of
electrical conducting ice . This form of ice is close to another form of exotic ice called
„superionic“ ice . The superionic ice is an electric insulater but its hydrogen atoms are
quasi-free to move around while the oxgen ions are frozen in place (s. p. 49 and p. 485 ;
„superionic“ ice is eventually present in Uranus and Neptun) .
2-A-3-1
Compressibility of Ice VII
Lattice constant of Ice VII from powder measurements and single crystal – samples .
1 GPa = 10‘000 bar .
[The inset of the original Figure showing the uniaxial stress-component as a
function of pressure has been omitted]
2_A_7_1
2 - 55
Vapour pressure of bulk Ice and bulk supercooled Water
Since the water molecules in ice are more strongly bound than in liquid water , the
water vapour pressure over the ice is smaller than over the supercooled water .
If , however , we are not considering bulk ice and bulk water but rather water
droplets and snow crystals in clouds (s. Chapter 4 , p. 4-A-3-1) , a maximum vapor
pressure difference is observed at about - 15 oC but below about - 50 oC the vapor
pressure curves are again practically identical (Bergeron – Findeisen – Process) .
2-A-8-1
2 – 56
R-2-0
2 . Physical and chemical properties
From the Figures contained in this Chapter more than one half of them have been prepared , completed and suitably arranged by the present author . If ever possible , I
have cited the original Literature but in other cases it was only possible to quote the
correponding Internet citation . In general , the Literature given here contains the general
aspects and information of this extremely vast subject . In addition , a lot of information
stems from Lectures given by the author (Reference R.2.0.1 and R.2.0.2) below) .
2. 0 General References
R.2.0.1
WATER : PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR NATURE
P . Brüesch :
Lectures given in the „Troisième Cycle du Département de Physique de l‘EPFL ;
Sémestre d‘Eté (1998) , and References cited therein .
R.2.0.2
POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF WATER - BASED DIELECTRIC
LIQUIDS : PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
P. Brüesch . ABB Report , 09 - 00 V4 TN (3 . 2 . 2000) and References given therein .
R.2.0.3
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
G . M . Barrow (McGraw-Hill Companies . Inc . , Sixth Edition , (1996))
(Phase Diagrams of Water , p. 245)
R.2.0.4
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
P.W. Atkins (Oxford University Press , Fifth Edition (1995))
R.2.0.5
PHYSIK
Wilhelm H. Westphal (Springer Verlag (1956) ; 18. and 19. Edition)
R-2-1
2 – 57
R.2.0.6
MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY
C.J. Ballhausen and H.B. Gray (W.A. Benjamin , Inc. New York (1965))
(Molecular Orbitals ; s. Figure at p. 36 in present Chapter)
R.2.0.7
MOLECULAR VIBRATIONS
The Theory of Infrared and Raman Vibrational Spectra
E.B. Wilson , Jr. , J.C. Decius , and P.C. Cross
McGraw-Hill Book Company , Inc. , New York (1955)
(Normal modes of vibrations of the water molecule ; s. Figure at p. 37 in present
Chapter)
R.2.0.8
THE HYDROGEN BOND : Recent Developments in Theory and Experiments
Eds. : P. Schuster , G. Zundel, C. Sandorfy
North-Holland Publishing Company (1976)
(Hydrogen bonds in clusters and in liquid water ; s. pp 39 - 45 ; 50 ; 55, 56 ; 59 ; 61 , 62 ;
76 ; 78 ; 87, 88 in present Chapter)
R.2.0.9
WOLKENGUCKEN („Looking at Clouds“)
Gavin Pretor - Pinney , Wilhelm Heyne Verlag , München (2006)
R.2.0.10
DIE ERFINDUNG DER WOLKEN („The invention of Clouds“)
Richard Hamblyn , Suhrkamp (2003)
R.2.0.11
PHYSICS OF ICE
V.R. Petrenko and R.W. Whitworth , Oxford University Press (1999)
R.2.0.12
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF ICE
Ed. By N. Maeno and T. Honoh , Hokkaido University Press (1992)
Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Physics and Chemistry of Ice ,
Held in Sapporo , Japan , 1 - 6 September 1991
R.2.0.13
THE CHEMICAL PHYSICS OF ICE
N.H. Flettcher , Cambridge at the University Press (1970).
R-2-2
R.2.0.14
THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIE OF WATER
D . Eisenberg and W . Kauzmann (Oxford at the Clarendon Press , 1969)
R.2.0.15
WATER IN BIOLOGY , CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS
G . Wilse Robinson , Sheng – Bai Zhu , Surjit Singh , and Myron W . Evans
World Scientific (Singapore , New Jersey , London , Hong Kong (1996)
R.2.0.16
WATER REVISITED
F.H. Stillinger , Science 209 , 451 , 25 July (1980)
R.2.0.17
WASSER : Anomalien und Rätsel
Ralf Ludwig und Dietmar Paschek
Chem. Unserer Zeit, 39, pp. 164 - 175 (2005)
(Die Anomalien auf p . 69 in unserem Kapitel 2 wurden aus R.2.0.17 , p . 165
übernommen) .
R.2.0.18
DER RHONEGLETSCHER und seine EISGROTTE
Martin M . W . Carlen :
Touristische Betriebe am Rhonegletscher
CH-3999 Belvedere am Furkapass / Wallis / Schweiz
3 . Auflage , 2003
2 . 1 Phase diagrams and basic facts
R.2.1.1
Philip Ball , Weidenfeld & Nicolson (London ,1999) , pp 146 , 147
R.2.1.2
Phase diagram of water : s . Reference R.2.0.3 : pp 246 - 247
R.2.1.3
Phase diagram of water : s . Reference R.2.0.4 : pp 186 - 187
R-2-3
2 – 58
2 . 2 Water vapour , Molecules , Hydrogen bonds and Clusters
R.2.2.1
About the „Thermal morion of Water molecules“ :
Ref . R.2.0.1 ; p. 19 ; Ref . R.2.0.2 , p. 4 ; Ref . R.2.0.3 , p. 599 ; Ref . R.2.0.4 : p. 580 .
R.2.2.2
The infrared spectrum of water vapour (p . 38) has been measured by P . Brüesch
R.2.2.3
THE HYDROGEN BOND : Recent Developments in Theory and Experiments
Eds. : P. Schuster , G. Zundel, C. Sandorfy ; North-Holland Publishing Company (1976)
(Hydrogen bonds in clusters and in liquid water : s. pp 39 - 45 ; 50 ; 55, 56 ; 59 ; 61 , 62 ;
76 ; 78 ; 87, 88 in present Chapter)
R.2.2 4
p . 41 : The water Dimer ; E.D. Isaacs et al., PRL 82, 600 (1999) ;
The experiment has been performed on ice .
R.2.2.5
p . 45 : HF : whatischemistry.unina.it (found under Bilder von „Hydrogen bonds in HF“)
NH3 : www.elmhurst.edu/.../162othermolecules.html
R.2.3.1
PHYSICS OF ICE
V.R. Petrenko and R.W. Whitworth , Oxford University Press (1999)
R.2.3.2
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF ICE
2 . 3 The Ices of Water
Ed. By N. Maeno and T. Honoh , Hokkaido University Press (1992)
Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Physics and Chemistry of Ice ,
held in Sapporo , Japan , 1 - 6 September 1991
R.2.3.3
p . 47 : „Condensed – matter physics . Dense ice in detail“
Dennis D . Klug : Nature 420 , 749 – 751 (19 December 2002)
R.2.3.4
The Figures at pp . 55 and 2_A_7_1 are contained in : ESRF Highlights 1995 / 96
R.2.3.5
p . 56 : Structure of Ice X : Magali Benoit , Dominik Marx and Michele Parrinello
Nature 392 , pp 258 – 261 (19 March 1998)
R.2.3.6
A comprehensive and updated list of the modifications of the ices of water is contained in
Reference R.2.0.1 , p. 205
R-2-4
R.2.3.7
pp 52 , 53 : Snow crystals : s . also pp 176 – 182 and References R.4.3.6 – R.4.3.7
R.2.3.8
Figure from p . 55 from : ESRF Highlights 1995 / 96 ; pp 55-57 : References R.2.0.11 – R.2.0.13
R.2.3.9
p . 56 : Struktuer of Ice X : Magari Benoit , Domimik Marx and Michelle Parrinello
Nature 392 , pp 258 - 261 (19 March 1998)
R.2.3.10
A comprehensive and updated list of the Ices of Water is contained in the
Reference R.2.0.1 , p . 205.
R.2.3.11
Appendix : p . 2-A-3-1 : Metallic Ice ? :
news.sofpedia.com/news/Metallic-Ice-34871.shtml (6. Sept. 2006)
2 . 4 Liquid Water : Structure and Properties
R.2.4.1
p . 59 : Local structure of liquid water :
from : Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL)
http://ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/nilssongroup/pages/project_liquid_structure.html
R.2.4.2
p . 60 : Random Network Model ; C.A. Angell , J . Phys . Chem . 75 , 3698 (1971)
R.2.4.3
p . 60 : F . Wooten and D . Weaite in : Solid State Physics 40 , pp. 1 - 42 (1987)
R.2.4.4
p . 61 : Instanteneous local structure (Figure from P . Brüesch)
R.2.4.5
Ballett of H2O - molecules , p. 62 in this work;
Figure adapted by P . Brüesch .
R.2.4.6
Absorption coefficients of the external vibrations in liquid water (p . 65) .
Spectrum composed by P . Brüesch from different Literature data ..
p. 159 in Reference R.2.1.1 ;
2 . 5 Anomalien des Wassers
R.2.5.1
An extensive List of the anomalies is given in Ref . R.2.0.1 , Section 1.4 , pp VI – IX .
R.2.5.2
W. Wagner , A. Pruss : J . Phys . Chem . Ref . Data , 31 , pp 387 - 535 (2002)
R.2.5.3
p . 69 : For other anomalies : s . Reference R.2.0.17 .
R-2-5
2 – 59
2 . 6 Density and specific heat
R.2.6.1
p . 73 : Density as a function of temperature in the range 0 oC und 10 oC
www.http://dc2.uni-bielefeld.de/dc2/wasser/w-stoffl.htm
R.2.6.2
Density of liquid water :
Literature : M . Vedamuthu et al. : J. Phys . Chem . 98 , 2222 (1994) ;
and : M . Hareng et al . : J . Chem . Phys . 73 , 622 (1980)
Figure at p. 74 adapted and designed by P . Brüesch in Referenz R.2.0.2 , p. 33
R.2.6.3
Specific heat Cp : Figures 76 and 77 :
Figures adapted and designed by P . Brüesch in Reference R.2.0.2 , p . 35
R.2.6.4
Reason and significance of the large specific heat of water :
http://www.sciencebyjones.com/specific_heat1.htm
2.7
Various physical Properties and Experiments
R.2.7.1
The Figures at pp 81 - 85 have been prepared and designed by P . Brüesch.
As far as possible , the relevant References are quoted .
see P . Brüesch : Reference R.2.0.2 , pp 34 - 38
R.2.7.2
p . 85 : Water has the highest surface tension of all non-metallic liquids !
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Properties_of_water ; see also Ref . R.2.0.2 : p . 36
R.2.7.3
p . 86 : Water strider walking on water due to high surface tension
see : de.academic.ru/dic.nsf/dewiki/1491187
and : en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerridae
R-2-6
R.2.7.4
p . 89 : pH(T) :
Jim Clark , 2002
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/acidbaseequia/kw.html
R.2.7.5
p . 91 : Temperature dependence of the mobility
Water Treatment Handbook , Vol . 1 , p . 493 ,
Lavoisier Publishing (1991)
R.2.7.6
p . 92 : Temperature dependence of ionic conductivity of pure water
Literature : Water Treatment Handbook , Vol . 1 , p . 493 ; Lavoisier Publishing (1991)
R.2.7.7
p . 94 : Pressure dependence of ionic conductivity of pure water :
W.A. Zisman , Phys . Rev . 39 , 151 (1932) ; adapted by P . Brüesch in Ref . R.2.0.2 , p. 42
R.2.7.8
p . 95 : „The electric double layer at a metal electrode in pure water“
Peter Brüesch and Thomas Christen : J . Appl . Physics , 95 , No . 5 , 2004
pp . 2846 – 2856
2 . 8 Phase Diagrams of pure Water
R.2.8.1
pp 99 – 107 : Phase diagrams of Water : the Figure at p. 92 shows superheated water (meta stabel) , both , by overheating at constant pressure as well as by reduction of pressure at
constant temperature .
R.2.8.2
p . 105 : Melting point and boiling point :
http://www.zeno.org/Meyers-1905/A/H%C3%B6henmessung
Mount Everest :
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everest
R.2.8.3
p . 106 : Phase diagram of water , p. 245 in Reference R.2.0.3
R.2.8.4
p . 107 : Phase diagram of water , p. 187 in Reference R.2.0.4
R-2-7
2 – 60
2 . 9 Colours and Spectra of Water
R.2.9.1
p. 111 : Absorption of H2O and D2O : from„www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/5B.html“
R.2.9.2
p. 112 : S. Prahl , Optical absorption of water . Available at
http:/omic.ogi.edu/spectra/water/index.html (Accessed 19 January 2001) . The data
combining low absorptions extracted from S.G. Warren, Optical constants of ice
from the ultraviolet to the microwave , Appl . Opt . 23 (1984), 1206 -1225) (revised data ,
1995) ; T.J. Quickenden and J.A. Irvin , J . Chem . Phys . 72 (1980) , 4416 ; etc.
Indications of spectral ranges added by P . Brüesch .
R.2.9.3
p . 113 : The spectra of ice and water have been collected from different Literatur –
data by P . Brüesch .
R.2.9.4
p. 114 : The infrared spectrum has been composed by P . Brüesch , using data from
H.D. Downing and D . Williams (J . of Geophysical Research 80 , 1656 (1975) .
R.2.9.5
p . 115 : Infrared absorption spectra of liquid water and ice
Figure composed by P : Brüesch from different Literature data
R.2.9.6
p. 116 : Refractive index n(n) and absorption coefficient a(n) of pure water :
Figure from : J.D. Jackson : Classical Electrodynamics , John Wiley & Sons , p . 291 (1975)
Explenations to the Figure from P . Brüesch :
above : Index of refraction; below : absorption coefficient a of pure water at N.T.P. conditions .
The small vertical arrows indicate the energy scale in units of eV and the vertical small
dashes indicate the wavelength scale . The visible range of the spectrum is illustrated by the
two vertical dashed lines . Note the logarithmic scale in both direction .
R.2.9.7
p . 117 : Complex dielectric constant e1(n) + i e2(n) of H2O as a function of frequency
s . Referenz R.2.0.1
R-2-8
R.2.9.8
p . 118 : Static dielectric constant : es(T) as a function of temperature
upper Figure : C . G . Malmberg and A . A . Maryott (J . Res . Natl . Bur . Std. 56, 1 (1956)
lower Figure : G . Bertellni et al . , J . Chem . Phys . 76 , 3285 (1982) .
Die Erklärungen für die verschiedenen spektralen Bereiche stammen von P . Brüesch
p . 118 : A simplified derivation of the Onsager – Kirkwood Theory of the static dielectric
has been derived by J.D. Edsdall and J . Wymann : Biophysical Chemistry , Vol . 1 , Academic
Press (1958) , Chapter 6 .
2 . 10 Vrious Topics
R.2.10.1
p. 120 : Dielectrophoresis
H.A. Pohl , Dielectrophoresis : The behavior of neutral matter in nonuniform electric
fields . Cambridge University Press . Cambridge (1978)
R.2.10.2
p . 121 : Explenations to experimental details for „Floating Water Bridges“
Fuchs , Elmar C. , Woisetschläger , Jakob , Gatterer Karl , Maier Eugen , Pechnik René ,
Holler Gert , and Eisenkölbl Helmuth :
„The floating water bridge“ : J . Phys . D : Appl . Phys .) 40 , 6112 – 6114 (2007)
R.2.10.3
p . 122 : Comments to „Water under tension“ : L . J . Briggs , J . Appl . Phys . 21 , 721 - 722 (1950)
s. also : S.A. Sedgewick , D.H. Trevena : J. Phys. D : Appl. Phys. , Vol. 9 , pp 1983 – 1990 (1976)
R.2.10.4
p . 122 : The Life and Scientific Contributions of Lyman J . Briggs
Soil Science Society of America Journal
by : Edward R . Landa and John R . Nimmo
Vol . 67 , May – June 2003 , No . 3 , pp 681 – 693
R.2.10.5
Probing water under tension – Physics Update
Physics Today , December 2 , 2010
blogs.physicstoday.org/update/2010/…/-ist-easy-to-think.html
R-2-9
2 - 61
R.2.10.6
pp 123 - 126 :
Transformation of the Infrared Spectrum of liquid Water into the Audio – Acoustic
Frequency Range
(Proposed by P . Brüesch for the basis of a „Water Music“)
R.2.10.7
p . 2_A_8-1 : Saturation vapour pressure over water and ice
in : Ice Properties - Caltech
www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/ice/ice.htm
Original - Literature: B.J. Mason :“The Physics of Clouds“ (Clarendon Press , 1971)
R-2-10
2 - 62
3 . Water as a Solvent
and in Electrochemistry
127
3–0
3 . 1 Water as a Solvent : General
Absolutely pure Water does
not exist in Nature !
128
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances
• Pure water does not exist in nature :
• For a large majority of compounds water is an excellent solvent !
• Reason : the H2O - molecule has a large dipole moment
(strongly polar molecule  polar liquid) .
• Many substances , i.e. sodium chloride (NaCl), sulfates ,
carbonates , urea , are hydrophilic substances or “water frendly”
(An exeption : Barium sulfate , BaSO4 , is not water – soluble !)
• Certain gases are strongly soluble in water : i.e.
nitrogen (N2) , oxygen (O2) , carbon dioxide (CO2) .
• Compounds which are not soluble in water are called
hydrophobic compounds (water hostile) , i.e. carbon,
synthetic materials .
129
3–1
Since the water molecules possess a large dipole moment ,
water is a polar solvent . In addition , the water molecules are
linked together via hydrogen bonds .
Therefore , water is an excellent solvent for substances
composed of polar molecules or for compounds containing
hydrogen- bonded molecules (i.e. for sugar) .
The ions of dissolved salts strongly attract water
molecules .
Example : NaCl in water  Na+(H2O)m + Cl-(H2O)n
(see p . 131)
 Water is a very “hungry” liquid !!
130
Dissolution of sodium chloride in water
Clhydrated ions
H2O
Cl- (H2O)n
and Na+ (H2O)m
Na+
in aequeous
solution
• In the lattice of sodium chloride the ions Na+ - und Cl- execute small
vibrations around their equilibrium positions (lattice vibrations)
• Agglomeration of H2O to NaCl  formation of Hydration- Energy (HE)
• The HE increases the vibrational amplitudes of Na+ - and Cl- ions in NaCl
 loosening of the bonds in the crystal lattice of sodium chloride
• If the amplitudes of the ions are sufficiently large, the ions break apart from
the NaCl- surface  dissolution of sodium chloride  hydration of NaCl
131
3–2
Clustering and orientation of H2O – molecules around the Na+ and Cl - - ions of NaCl (sodium chloride) : Hydration of ions
Na+
The positively charged protons
(hydrogen – ions H+) orient
themselves around the negatively
charged Cl- ions .
The negatively charged oxygen ions
O2- orient themselves around the
positively charged Na+ - ions .
 Hydration shell of Na+
 Hydration shell of Cl

Cl-(H2O)5 - cluster
Na+(H2O)5 - cluster
The hydrated ions Na+(H2O)n and Cl- (H2O)m are moving in opposite directions
in an external electric field; here, we have chosen n = m = 5 .
 ionic conductivity (s . p . 92) ! .
132
Structure of NaCl- solution
in water
Instantaneous configuration of
a 1.791 molar aqueous NaCl
solution .
The Cl – ions are represented
by the two yellow spheres .
The Na – ions are the (partly
hidden) smaller green spheres .
Water molecules :
Blue spheres for oxygen (O) ,
red small spheres for
hydrogen (H) .
133
3–3
Solubility of non – ionic compounds
Example : Sugar
The water molecules are hydrogen – bonded with the polar
groups (OH - groups) , thereby separating the sugar molecules
from the solid sugar in the solution .
Insoluble (non-polar) substances in water
Examples : Fats , oils , synthetic materials , silicon
Non-polar molecules do not dissolve in water , since for the water
molecules it is energetically more favourable to form hydrogen
bonds among themselves rather than forming Van der Waals
bonds with the nonpolar molecules  formation of emulsions ;
Example : water – in – oil emulsion .
134
Solubility of Glucose ,
Sucrose , etc . In water
Emulsion of oil in water
H2 O
Glucose
H
C
O
An emulsion contains two liquids in
which one of them is dispersed in the
other ; an example is oil in the form of
droplets (red) dispersed in water (blue) .
Glucose
Organic molecules such as Glucose ,
Sucrose (Rohrzucker) and Vitamin C
(ascorbic acid) are soluble in water
since they possess hydroxile (OH-) side
chaines ; together with the water
molecules , they form hydrogen bonds
H----O – H .
An emulsion is thermodynamically
unstable since the droplets tend to
coagulate ; in order to avoid this
coagulation , the droplets are coated with
a suitable surfactant which prevents the
droplets from sticking together .
135
3–4
Freezing point depression of an
Freezing point (oC)
aqueous NaCl - solution
0
Freezing point of
NaCl - solutions
solutions
-5
- 10
sea water
saturation
- 15
- 20
0
5
10
15
20
NaCl in weight percent
25
With increasing concentration of sodium chloride (NaCl) in water
the freezing point decreases ; sea water freezes at - 2.8 oC . The
saturated NaCl – solution freezes only at - 22.5 oC .
(Figure prepared and designed from different sources by P . Brüesch)
136
Phase diagrams of water and dilute aequeous solutions :
Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression
Water
aqueous solution
Water
aqueous solution
pambient
pambient
liquid
DpS
solid
p
liquid
solid
p
Dpfp
DTbp  Dpbp
gas
T
DTfp  Dpfp
DTbp
Tbp
DTfp
Tfp* Tfp
Tbp*
gas
T
At a given temperature , the vapor pressure p of a solution is smaller than that of the pure
solvent because the water molecules are bound to the ions of the dissolved compound (e.g.
Na+ and Cl- - ions in a NaCl – solution) . As shown in the left-hand Figure , a decrease of vapor
pressure causes an boiling point elevation by the amount of DTbp = Tbp* - Tbp (a liquid is
boiling if its vapor pressure is equal to the ambient pressure , pambient) . This is , however ,
only the case if the gas above the soultion does not contain ions , atoms or molecules of the
dissolved material .
The right-hand Figure shows that a decrease in vapor pressure causes a freezing point
depression , DTfp = Tfp* - Tfp. This is , however , only the case if pure solvent cristallizes . For
dilute solutions the temperature changes are proportional to the pressure changes : DT  Dp .
137
3–5
Temperature (oC)
Boiling point of pure water and of salt water
salt water
pure water
Time
At time t1 water starts to boil and the temperature (T1 = 100 oC) remains constant until all
water is vaporized . At time t2 the salt water boils at T2 > T1 . With increasing vaporization
of water , the salt concentration and the boiling point increase . If all water is vaporized ,
the salt is completely crystallized .
138
3–6
3.2
Sea Water
139
General Remarks and Facts
1 . The largest part of the surface of the earth (about 70 %) consists of water .
2.
About 97 % of the water on the earth is Sea Water .
3.
In Sea Water at least 72 different chemical elements have been observed , most of
them in extremley small concentrations .
4 . Salinity is the total salt concentration in Sea Water .
5 . A salinity of 35 ‰ (= 3.5 %) coresponds to 35 g of dissolved salt in 1000 g Sea Water .
6 . 1000 g Sea Water contains about 10.7 g sodium ions and 19.25 g chloride ions ; the
largest part of it is NaCl (sodium chloride) : about 85 % of the dissolved salts is NaCl .
This explains the salty taste of Sea Water which is not drinkable .
6 . The largest part of salt in the Sea has been generated by eruption of volcanic rocks ,
the Earth s crust , the disintegration and erotion of mountains in the Sea , as well as
by the transport of minerals by rivers into the Sea .
7 . In the remaining liquid water , the salinity is increased by evaporation and condensation
(evaporated and frozen water are free of salts !) . The salinity is decreased by rain or
by melting of ice .
8 . The salinity of the landlocked „Dead See“ is up to 33.7 % , in the average about 28
% ; (compare this with the „Middle Sea“ , the salinity of which is only about 3 %) .
Note , however , that the „Dead Sea“ is an „inland water“ and as such belongs to
„Limnology“ (s . p . 183) .
140
3-7
Composition of Sea Water
SSSSea
Sea Salt
S
Sea Water
Chloride
Water
55 % (19.25 g)
96.5 % (965 g)
Sulfate
7.7 %
(2.7 g)
Sodium
30.6 % (10.7 g)
Calcium
1.2 % (0.42 g)
Magnesium
3.7 % (1.3 g)
Potassium
1.1 % (0.39 g)
Remaining substances
0.7 % (0.25 g)
Salt
3.5 % (35 g)
All masses refer to 1 kg (or 1 Liter) of seawater
141
Seawater : Facts and Explenations
• The average salinity of seawater is about 3.5 mass percent . On the other hand , the
salt content of the Baltic Sea is about 0.2 to 2 % while the salt content of the Dead Sea
is about 30 % .
• The principle salts are the chlorides , where sodium chloride (NaCl) plays the dominant role .
Magnesium chloride , magnesium sulfate , calcium sulfate , potassium chloride , and calcium
carbonate together constitute less than 1 mass ‰ .
• For an average salt concentration of 3.5 % the melting or freezing point is - 1.9 oC (s. p. 137)
• The salts are washed out permantly from stones and rocks by rain and melting water .
By evaporation of fresh-water the originally very diluted salt water is concentrated and
salty Sea Water is produced . By this effect , the salt concentration in the Sea would
slowly but continously increase , if at the same time salt would not be be removed from
the sea .
• The loss of salt is firstly due by drying out of seas whereby the salt accumulates at the
soil . This salt is often found in salt mines . Secondly , Sea Water can be captured in
the crevices of sediments of the sea bed and in this way the salt is withdrawn from the
water .
•
The very high salt concentration of the Dead Sea is due to the fact that firstly the water
from the Jordan continously runs into it therby enriching it always by minerals . Secondly ,
and even more important , the Dead Sea has no drainage .
•
In addition to the salts , Sea Water contains dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) ,
oxygen (O2) , nitrogen (N2) and other atmospheric gases .
142
3–8
Typical depth profiles of temperature in different
climatic zones of Sea Water
Temperature (T)
permanent thermocline
(*)
o
tropical (5
0 S)
subpolar
(50S)
subtropical (35o S)
subpolar (50oS)
polar (55o S)
depth h
The thermocline is the transition layer between the
mixed layer at the surface and the deep water layer .
The definition of these layers is based on the
temperature variation T(h) .
143
Remarks about the temperature distribution
in the salt water of the oceans
• The latitude gives the location of a place on Earth north
or south of the equator .
• high latitudes : in the regions of the north- or south pole .
• With decreasing temperature , the density of Sea Water con –
tinously increases up to the freezing point ; therefore , the
temperature of maximum density is identical with the freezing
point Tfp , which depends on the salt concentration (salinity) .
For a salinity of 34 g/L (3.5 mass %) T fp = - 1.94 oC .
• The water with maximum density sinks down to large depths ;
below a depth of about 2000 m the temperature is therefore T fp .
• At high latitudes (north - and south pole) T = Tfp and below this
regions , T(h) = Tfp , independent on the height h .
144
3-9
Density (g / cm3)
Increasing depth (m)
1.023
00
500
Dichte
1.024 1.025 1.026 1.027 1.028
Pycnocline
1500
Depth – dependence of density ,
the Ice of Sea Water
and Brine Rejection
• The densest water is deep water and has
the temperature Tfp of the freezing point .
2000
• The density is practically independent on
hydrostatic pressure (incompressible liquid) .
2500
3000
•  The temperature therefore decreases with
3500
increasing depth ; the formation of the
thermocline (transition layer between deep and
surface water) results in the first place by the
variation of the density with temperature in
the water layer .
4000
4500
• The pycnocline is a layer or zone of changing density in lakes or oceans .
•
If the surface of the salt water freezes at Tfp , then the resulting ice is free of salts
and its density is equal to the density of ice obtained by cooling of fresh – water .
•
This ice is swimming on the salt water and the “frozen – out” salt increases the
density of the Sea Water just below the ice . This process is called
“brine rejection” .
145
A „Black Smoker“ in the Atlantic Ocean
A black smoker or sea vent , is a type of
hydrothermal vent found on the ocean floor .
They are formed in fields hundreds of meters
wide when superheated water from below the
Earth‘s crust penetrates the ocean‘s floor .
(critical point at 374 oC and 221 bar (s . pp 99
– 101) ; (superheated water : s . pp 103 and 108)
This water is rich in dissolved minerals from
the crust , most notably sulfides . When it
comes in contact with cold ocean water , many
minerals precipitate , forming a black chimney-like
structure around each vent .
At a depth of 3000 m the temperature is about
400 oC , but does not usually boil at the
seafloor , because the water pressure at that
depth (about 300 bar) exceeds the vapour
pressure of the aqueous solution .
The water is also extremely acidic , often
having a pH value as low as 2.8 – approximately
that of vinegar !
Each year 1.4 x 1014 kg of water is passed
through black smokers .
146
3 - 10
3.3
Water in Electrochemistry
147
Electrolysis : General
voltmeter
ammeter
switch
A
e-
e-
anions
cations
With the help of two electrodes , a direct
current is passed through an electrolyte con –
taining positive cations and negative anions . As
a result of electrolysis , reaction products are
formed from the ions contained in the
electrolyte .
The voltage source creates a loss of electrons
at the anode (the electrode connected with the
positive pole) and an excess of electrons at the
cathode (the electrode connected with the
negative pole) .
The solution between the electrodes contains an electrolyte with positive and
negative ions . By application of an electric field , the positively charged cations
migrate to the negatively charged cathode . At the cathode they accept one or
several electrons and are reduced to atoms . On the other hand , at the anode ,
the opposite process takes place : there , the negatively charged anions give up
electrons and get oxidized .
The minimum voltage which must be applied for the electrolysis , is called the
decomposition voltage Uz . For the electrolysis of pure water , Uz is 1.23 V ; in
practice , however , the unavoidable overvoltage requires a voltage of at least 2 V .
148
3 – 11
Electrolysis of pure Water
Self – Dissociation : 2 H2O  H3O+ + OH- (s. pp 87 , 88 in Chapter 2)
Electrolysis of pure water is very slow , and
can only occur due to the extremely small
concentrations of the „water ions“ H3O+ and
OH- (s . pp 87 - 93) .
U
4 e-
Reactions :
4 e-
cathode :
O2 (g)
2 H2 (g)
4 H3O+ (aq) + 4 e-  2 H2(g) + 4 H2O
H3O+ (aq)
anode :
OH- (aq)
cathode
anode
4 OH- (aq)  O2(g) + 2 H2O + 4 e-
H2O (liq)
Total reaction :
diaphragm
2 H2O (l)  2 H2 (g) + O2 (g)
149
Technical Water Electrolysis
Net reaction :
2 H2O (l)  2 H2 (g) + O2 (g)
The electrodes are emerged into water which is made weakly conductive by
adding sum sulfuric acid , i.e. H2SO4 or Potassium Hydroxide , KOH .
Cathode reaction : In the electric field , the positively charged H3O+ - ions
migrate to the negatively charged cathode , where they accepts an electron . In
this process , hydrogen atoms , H , are produced ; they combine to form H2
molecules , which escape in the form of H2 – gas . As a result , H2O – molecules
remain : 2 H3O+ + 2 e-  H2(g) + 2 H2O , ( or : 2 H+ + 2 e-  H2(g) )
Anode reaction : The negatively charged hydroxide ions , OH- , migrate towards the
positively charged anode . Each OH- - ion gives away an electron to the posi tive pole , such that oxygen atoms are produced , which combine to O2 - mole cules . The remaining H+ - ions are immediately neutralized by hydroxide ions OHto produce H2O – molecules : 4 OH-  O2(g) + 2 H2O + 4 e- .
New development : Use of SPE (Solid Polymer Elektrolyte) as proton conductors ,
using Pt – catalyzers  reduction of power consumption as compared with the
traditional KOH - technology .
150
3 – 12
Water decomposition according to Hoffmann
The water decomposition device of Hoffman allows the
electrolytic decomposition of aqueous solutions .
It allows the demonstration of the electrolytic decom –
position , for example of water as shown in the Figure .
In this case , the device is filled with diluted sulfuric –
acid or potassium – hydroxide because pure water does
not possess a sufficient electric conductivity . After the
application of a direct voltage at the platinum electro –
des , a gas developpment takes place at the cathode and
at the anode .
In this reaction , water is decomposed into Oxygen and
Hydrogen .
Cathode
e-
e-
At the cathode , the H3O+ - ions which have been gene –
rated by protolysis are reduced to H2 and at the anode
water is oxidized to O2 .
Cathode reaction : 4 H3O+ + 4 e-  2 H2 + 4 H2O
Anode reaction :
6 H2O  4 H3O+ + O2 + 4 e-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 H2O  2 H2 + O2
Net reaction :
151
Electrolysis current
Current – voltage characteristics of Electrolysis
Decomposition voltage
Circuit for the measurement of the decomposition voltage : 1: accumulator , 2 : switch ,
3 : resistance , 4 : ammeter , 5 : high- resistance voltmeter , 6 : electrolysis cell.
In an aqueous electrolyte (e.g. a 1 M
H2SO4 solution or a 6 – 8 M KOH - solution) , the formation of H2 – gas at the
cathode and of O2 – gas at the anode
sets in only if the voltage has reached a
certain value , the so-called decomposition
voltage .
152
3 – 13
Desalination of Sea – Water by Electrolysis
Conductivity
measurement
anode
cathode
CEM
AEM
desalination
chamber
NaCl –
solution
desalination of
a NaCl - solution
NaCl
solution
• First , all the three chambers are filled with an electrolyte (i.e with
a NaCl - solution) .
• Then , a large DC – voltage (400 – 500 V) is applied .
• The cations migrate through the Cation Exchange Membrane (CEM)
into the cation space while the anions migrate through the Anion
Exchange Membrane (AEM) into the anode space until the middle
chamber (desalination chamber) is free of salts .
153
Bipolar Electrodialysis
starting solution
ng
(NaCl)
H2O
H2O
Na+
Cathode
Anode
ClOH-
H+
BM
Soda lye
CEM
AEM
(NaOH)
BM = Bipolare Membrane
lye = Lauge
H+
OH-
BM
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Diluat
diluate
CEM : Cation Exchange
Membrane
AEM : Anion Exchange Membrane
154
3 – 14
Principle and Applications of Bipolar Electrodialysis
Principle
In analology to the conventional electrolysis (pp 148 - 150) , the repeating membrane unit
contained in the membrane module is composed on two Bipolar Membranes (BM) , on a
Cation Exchange Membrane (CEM) and on an Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) .
In the Figure shown at page 154 the chloride ions (Cl-) are moving in the electric field
through the AEM to the anode . There , they are collected at the inner side of the cation –
selective BM ; together with the protons produced in the BM they react to form hydro –
chloric acid , HCl .
In the same way an NaOH – lye (Lauge) is produced at the anion – selective side of the
BP . Correspondingly , a diluate , depleted of ions , is formed in the central (yellow) part ,
the so-called raw solution chamber .
Applications
• Disalination of a sodium chloride (NaCl) – solutions
• Converting water soluble salts to their corresponding acids and bases
• The Bipolar Membrane (BM) - Electrolysis is an alternative method to electrolysis
for the generation of H + and OH - ions which can be used to generate acid and
base from salts without the production of oxygen and hydrogen gases .
• Production of organic acids such as lactic acid , for traditional applications
[additives for food and pharmaceutical industries] as well as for new applications
such as for plastic industries [biodegradable materials] .
155
The Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell : PEFC
Watt current
anode
electrons
H2
M :
RL :
DL :
GD :
Membrane
Reaction Layer
Dffusion Layer
Gas Distributer
cathode
O2
O2
H2
Protons
H2O
M
RL
DL
GD
H2O , O2
A membrane – combustion cell contains two electrodes with an intermediate proton –
conducting membrane acting as the electrolyte . The electrodes are brought into contact with
external H2 and O2 gas . At the anode, H2 is oxidized : with the help of a catalyst (e.g.
platinum) , protons H+ and electrons e- are formed ; the protons migrate through the polymer
– membrane , while the electrons pass through the external circuit ( Watt current !) . At the
cathode , oxygen is reduced by the arriving electrons , thereby reacting with the protons to
form H2O : liquid water is formed . In addition to H2O also molecular O2 is produced .
156
3 – 15
Corrosion : 1
Definition
Corrosion is a chemical or an electrochemical reaction of a material containing certain
substances in his environment which results in a observable change of the substance .
Examples :
Oxygen corrosion : This is a corrosion process in which a metal in the presence of water
(air humidity) , is oxidized by reacting with oxygen . In this redox reaction , oxygen is the
oxidizing agent (similar to the combustion / oxidation in a pure oxygen atmosphere) .
However , the process takes place at room temperature with the help of water or an
electrolyte solution without flame appearences . For a mono-valent metal (Me) the total
reaction is :
4 Me + O2 + 2 H2O 
4 Me+ + 4 OHHydrogen corrosion is a form of corrosion of metals , which occurs in the presence of
water but in an oxygen deficient environment . The final product is elementary hydrogen :
The metal is oxidized and is dissolved in the form of ions in a solution . In the acid
environment , the protons of the hydronium ions (H3O+) accept electrons and are reduced
to hydrogen H2 and H2O is formed . This process occurs often during oxidation of Fe :
Fe

Fe 2+ + 2 e-
(oxidation of metal)
2 H3O+ + 2 e-  H2 + 2 H2O
(reduction of hydronium ions)
157
Corrosion : 2
Galvanic corrosion and pitting corrosion
pitting corrosion
electrolyte
or
water
cathode
galvanic corrosion
more noble metal
anode
non noble metal
Me
Galvanic corrosion : (at right in the Figure)
By contacting a non noble metal with a noble metal in the presence of water , galvanic
corrosion occurs . This type of corrosion is particularly frequent for non noble metals ,
because in this case already small impurities at the interface between the metals are
sufficient for their initiation . At the surface of the more noble metal , H3O+ ions are
reduced to hydrogen . Since carbonic acid , (H2CO3) , is also contained in distilled water ,
such processes occur also in water .
Pitting corrosion : (at left in the Figure)
A second important type of corrosion is pitting corrosion , in which the less noble metal
is dissolved : at the interface of the metal with water , the metal is ionized :
Me (s)  Me+ (aq) and the electrons migrate to the metal interface .
Figure adapted by P . Brüesch)
158
3 – 16
Appendix : Chapter 3
3-A-0
Freezing point temperature Tfr and temperature of
maximum density Tm as a function of Salinity S
Temperature (oC)
4
Tm(S)
2
0
TfrS)
Oceans
- 1.33 oC
- 1.8 oC
Rivers , lakes and a
few diluted seas
-2
0
10
20 24.7 30
Salinity S (psu) 
35
40
Solid red curve Tfr(S) : Adding salt to pure water at 0 oC an almost linear decrease of
the freezing point is observed . At 35 psu (mean salinity of sea water) the freezing
point of the solution is - 1.8 oC . [1 psu is the practical salinity unit which measures the
salinity similar to 1 part per thausend (ppt)] .
Dashed green curve Tm(S) : The density maximum of pure water is at 4 oC . Increasing
the salinity , the density maximum is shifted linearly towards lower temperatures and at
Tfr(S) = 24.7 psu it intersects the freezing point line . For salinities above 24.7 psu (S
of most ocean waters is higher than this) , the temperature of maxiumum density
equals the freezing point – line of the solution . 3-A-2-1
3 - 17
Aquarius Mission of NASA
Aquarius is a NASA instrument aboard the
Argentine SAC-D : „Satellite de
Aplicaciones Cientfices“ spacecraft .
Its mission is
surface salinity
fluence of the
cycle and to
to measure the global sea
in order to assess the in –
oceans to the global water
the climate of the Earth .
The observatory was successfully launched
from the Vandenberg Air Force Base on
June 10 , 2011 and was carried into a 657
km sun-synchronous orbit to begin its
three - year mission . The science
instrument includes a set of three
radiometers that are sensitive to salinity
and a scatterometer that corrects for the
surface roughness of the oceans .
Start of Aquarius (SAC-D Satellite)
After less than one month in operation ,
Aquarius produced the first map showing
the varying degrees of salinity across the
ocean‘s surface (s . p . 3-A-2-3) . Previous
satellites enabled measurements of ocean
currents , sea surface temperature , winds
and ocean colour .
3-A-2-2
ocean
surface
salinity
grams
per kg
no data
Aug . 25 – Sept . 11 , 2011
3-A-2-3
3 – 18
References :
Chapter 3
R-3-0
3 . Aqeuous Solutions
3 . 1 Water as a Solvent
R.3.1 .1
WATER AND AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Structure , Thermodynamics and Transport Properties
Edited by R . A. Horne
Wiley - Interscience
Copyright @ 1972 , by John Wiley and Sons , Inc .
R.3.1 .2
WASSERCHEMIE FUER INGENIEURE
H . Sontheimer , P . Spindler , und U . Rohmann
Engler - Bunte - Institut der Universität Karlsruhe (1980)
R.3.1 .3
General References : R.2.0.3 , Chapter 6 : Solutions , pp 274 - 312
R.3.1.4
General References : R.2.0.4 ; Chapterl 10 : Equilibrium Electrochemistry , pp 311 - 355
R.3.1.5
pp 129 – 130 : General Texts (P . Brüesch)
R.3.1.6
p . 131 : Process of dissolution of a salt , i.e. NaCl
CHEMIE
Hans Rudolf Christen
Velag Diesterweg – Salle
Frankfurt am Main
Achte Auflage (1971)
Figure at p . 107
R.3.1.7
p . 132 : Hydration of Na+ - and Cl- - ions
from : Internet : Google – Bilder : „chloride-sodium.jpg“
familywaterusa.com
Diameter of Na decreased and colour modified by P . Brüesch
R.3.1.8
p . 133 : 3D - Structure of a NaCl - solution
Reference R.2.0.15 , pp 248 , 249
R-3-1
3 – 19
R.3.1.9
p . 134 : Solubility of non – ionic compounds : Text by P . Brüesch
R.3.1.10
p . 135 : Solubility of Glucose , Emulsion of oil in water
Solubility of Glucose :
http://cdavies.wordopress.com/2007/09/18/basic-concepts_what-are-s...
Emulsion of oil in water:
from : Internet – Google : Light micrograph of an oil in water emulsion (Bild) ; ifr.ac.uk
R.3.1.11
p . 136 : The Figure „Freezing point depression of a NaCl - solution has been constructed by
P . Brüesch using different data from E.C.W. Clark and D.N. Glew , J . Phys . Chem . Ref .
Data 14 , No . 2 , 489 (1985) .
R.3.1.12
p . 137 : Increase of boiling points and decrease of melting points for dilute solutions :
Ref . : Lerninhalt : Rein- und Mischphasen - Dampfdruckerniedrigung - ChemgaPedia
http://www.chemgapedia.de/vsengine/vlu/vsc/de/ch/13/vlu/thermodyn/phasen/phasen_....
(The Figures have been slightly changed by P . Brüesch). s . also Ref . R.3.1.6 , p . 132 ;
Ref . R.2.0.3 : pp 298 – 302 , and Ref . R.2.0.4 : pp 223 – 226 .
R.3.1.13
p . 138 : Boiling point of water and salt – water as a function of time : Ref . R.3.1.6 , p . 15
3.2
Sea Water
R.3.2.1
p . 141 : „Chemical composition of Sea Water“ ;
http ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sea_salt-e-dp_hg..svg
R.3.2.2
p . 143 : Temperature distribution in an Ocean;
Dr. David Voelker : The temperature distribution in Oceans as a function of depth
„http://130.133.88.4/projekte/geomeer/inhalt/seatemp01
R.3.2.3
p . 145 : Density as a function of depth in Sea Water
Figure from : www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/Water/density.html
R.3.2.4
p . 146 : Black Smokers
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_smoker
R-3-2
3 . 3 Water in Electrochemistry
R.3.3.1
ELEKTROCHEMISTRY
Carl H . Hamann , Wolf Vielstich , and Wolf Vielstich
Wiley – VCH (1998)
R.3.3.2
General References :
R.3.3.3
General References : R.2.0.4 : pp 834 - 846
R.3.3.4
p . 148 : Electrolysis : General
wiki.one-school.net/index.php/Analysing_elect…
Figure modifizied by P . Brüesch ; Text from different References
R.3.3.5
pp 149 , 150 : Electrolysis of pure Water
Figure and Text combined from different sources by P . Brüesch
s . also : http://www.der-brunnen.de/wasser/allgwasser/allgwasser.htm
R.3.3.6
p . 151 : Decomposition of water by Hoffmann
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoffmannscher_Wasserzersetzungsapparat
R.3.3.7
p . 152 : Current – Voltage Characteristics for Electrolysis
Reference R.3.1.6 : p . 233
R.3.3.8
p . 153 : Deslination of Sea Water by Electrodialysis
http://dc2.uni-bielefeld.de/dc2/iat/dc2it_29.htm
R.3.3.9
pp 154 , 155 : Bipolare Elektrodialysis
www.syswasser.de/german/.../GB_Membran:Elektrodialyse.pdf
R.3.3.10
pp 154 , 155 : Principle of bipolar Electrodialysis
Principle of bipolar electrodialysis (Zum Funktionsprinzip der bipolaren Elektrodialyse)
Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Luft - und Raumfahrt (DLR)
Institut für Technische Thermodynamik
R.2.0.3 : pp 365 – 375
R-3-3
3 – 20
R.3.3.11
p . 156 : The Membrane Combustion Cell
http://www.chorum.de/
R.3.3.12
p . 156 : FUEL CELLS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Karl Kortesch and Günter Simader
Wiley – VCH (März 1996)
R.3.3.13
a) pp 157 , 158 : Corrosion Processes (Korrosions – Prozesse)
KORROSION UND KORROSIONSSCHUTZ VON METALLEN
P.J. Gellings
Carl Hanser Verlag München (1981)
b) CORROSION AND CORROSION CONTROL
H.H. Uhlig
John Wiley and Sons Inc . (1971)
R.3.3.14
p . 3-A-2-1 : The effect of salinity on the temperature of maximum density
www.colorado.edu/geography/class-homepages/geog.../weak_6_7.pdf
The Figure has been adjusted and compleated by P . Brüesch
For a Table of Tfr and Tm versus Salinity S see :
www.teos-10.org/puks/gsw/pdf/temps/maximum density.pdf
R.3.3.15
p . 3-A-2-2 : Missions – Aquarius – NASA Science
http://science.nasa.gov/missions/aquarius
SAC-D : Satellite Aplicaciones Cientificas : Instrumente von SAC-D
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAC-D
Aquarius SAC-D Launch : SAC-D-Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAC-D
http://en.wikipedia/File:Aquarius_SAC-D_Launching.jpg
R.3.3.16
p . 3-A-2-3 : Aquarius : Salt distributions in the Oceans
www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/aquarius/multimedia/gallery/pia14786.html
(For better readability the location of the Text in the Figure has been slightly changed by P . Brüesch)
R-3-4
3 - 21
4 . Water in Nature :
Selected Examples
159
4–0
4.1
Some Examples
160
Survey of some Examples
• The world of clouds
• Water drops and precipitations
• Lymnology : Inland Water as Ecosystems
• Photosynthesis
• Examples from Biology
• The ascent of water in tall trees
• Water plants
161
4–1
4.2
The world of clouds
162
Cloud formation
Warm and humid air is lighter than the surrounding air and therefore rises upward . During
its rise the air cools down with the result that the (molecular) vapour condenses to small
water droplets or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere : a cloud is formed .
163
4–2
Droplets and crystallites in clouds
supercooled
small water
droplets (exist
often up to about
- 12 oC (!))
very
small
snow
crystal
•
• •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• • • •
• •• •
•
•
•
• •
••
•
•
•
Air with water vapour
and condensation
nuclei (transparent !)
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
• •
•
•
•
•
•
• •
•
•
•
Aerosol
nuleus
•
• • •
• • ••
• • •• •
•
•
•
••
•
water
droplet
Nice- weather clouds : Aggregation of water droplets with diameters ranging
between 1 to 15 mm (1 mm = 0.000’001 m) . Droplets are formed often at
condensation nuclei (Aerosols) . (Note that for the purpose of illustration , the
diameters of the droplets are shown much too large !)
Rain clouds : Diameters of droplets up to 2 mm  formation of
rain drops !
164
Cumulus - Clouds
Cumulus - cloud with anvil at the top (anvil cloud) :
contains very small water droplets
165
4-3
Why do clouds not fall from the sky ?
A water droplet in a cloud has a typical diameter of 10 mm and a
small speed of fall of some cm / s (several 100 m / h).
But upwinds are counteracting the small speed of fall ,
causing the drops to float or even to move upwards .
166
Colours of clouds : white
This cloud is composed of very small and densely packed droplets
such that the sunlight can not penetrate deeply before it is reflected .
Since all colours are contained in the reflected light , its
superposition combines to the observed characteristic white colour .
167
4–4
Colours of clouds : blue - white
The sunlight is composed of
several colours (red – green –
yellow – blue ,…) , which
combine to the white colour .
The colour of the cloud is the
result of the scattering of the
sunlight by the water droplets . Our
eye observes the scattered (and
reflected) light . The latter depends
on different factors such as of the
size of the droplets , of the
viewing angle , the distance and
the dust between the cloud and
the observer .
168
Colours of rain - clouds : white – grey - dark-grey
If a large number of small droplets combine to large rain
drops , then the distances between the drops become larger .
As a consequence , light can penetrate much deeper into the
cloud and is partly reflected and partly absorbed . Thus the
reflection – absorption process gives rise to a whole range of
cloud colors , which extends from grey to black .
169
4–5
Clouds at sunrise and sunset : dark-red - orange-pink
Such clouds can almost always been observed during sunrise
or sunset . Their color is the result of scattering of sunlight by
the atmosphere where the short-wavelength blue light is
scattered most strongly . The clouds then reflect the remaining
light which contains mainly the long-wavelength red light .
170
Electrical structure of thunderstorm clouds
• uper part : positive
charge range , which can
extend up to the anvil .
• negative charge range in
the lower part of the cloud.
• small positive charge layer
close to the base of the
cloud which is generated by
precipitations .
The detailed mechanism of the charge formation and of the charge
separation is not clarified until know .
171
4–6
Threatening Thunderstorm Cloud
172
4–7
4.3
Water drops and Precipitations
173
Shape of a raindrop in a wind channel
wind channel
Only very small raindrops with diameters d
smaller than about 140 mm will be perfect
spheres due to their high surface tension .
Larger drops tend to be flattened , leading to
oblate shapes .
If larger raindrops begin to fall they are also
spherical in shape . But then they quickly
become shaped more like hamburger buns –
flattened base and rounded top . The
distortion is caused by the air flow which
pushes against the lower drop surface and
thus flattens its base as it falls .
The hamburger - bun shape shown in the
Figure is based on the observation of single
drops in a steady flow , particular in heavy
rains . In fact , as rain falls , the drops have
many different sizes .
air stream
Speed of fall :
Simulation of shape of a
large falling raindrop
d = 0.5 mm : 7 km/h ; d = 1 mm : 14 km/h
d = 3 mm : 29 km/h ; d = 8 mm : 43 km / h
174
4–8
Shapes of vertically falling Water drops
of different sizes
d
The white arrows indicate the
directions of the air streaming
around the falling drop .
Falling water drops of different
sizes (d in mm)
175
Bergeron – Findeisen : Formation and Morphology of Snowflakes
supercooled
water drop
evaporating
water molecule
Formation of a
snow crystal
Left : Snowflakes are formed if water vapour molecules from supercooled water droplets
condense directly to ice leading to the growth of an agglomeration of ice crystallites .
Right : The hexagonal symmetry of a snowflake derives ultimately from the hexagonal
symmetry of ice Ih , which in turn is related to the hexagonal symmetry of H2O- clusteres
(pp 41 , 43 , 50 , 52) . Several factors are responsible for the form of snowflakes such as
temperature , relative humidity and air currents . The „Water saturation“ curve corresponds
to the difference between the saturation vapour pressure of supercooled water droplets and
snow crystals (s. Appendix 4_A_3_1) .
176
4–9
The fascination of snowflakes
Snowflakes always possess a hexagonal form ; this is due to the
hexagonal symmetry of the crystal structure of ice .
According to Bentley (1880) , who collected and studied snowflakes
during 40 years , all of them were different !!
177
All snowflakes have hexagonal symmetry
All snowflakes have hexagonal symmetry , but the details
of there building units are all different !
178
4 – 10
Zeus has struck a terrible blow !!
electrical voltage :
electrical currents :
maximun air temperature :
local air pressure :
explosion of air :
some 100 million Volts !
several 100’000 Ampère !
up to 30’000 oC !
up to 100 atmospheres !
thunder !
179
Hail
Formation : Hailstones are formed in the inner layers of the
lightning where supercooled water transforms into ice with the
help of crystallizing nuclei .
The cycle of ice grains : They are first lift upwards by the upwind ,
then they fall bag to lower air layers , take up more additional
water , rise up again to higher levels whereby additional water is
frozen at the surfaces .
This process is repeated several times up to the point where a
hailstone is too heavy to be carried by the upwind .
Fall velocity : normally , the diameter d of hailstones are about 0.6 to 3
cm . For d = 3 cm , the fall velocity is about 90 km/h .
Exceptions : diameters up to 10 cm with weights of more than 1 kg
and fall velocities of more than 150 km/h have been observed !!
180
4 – 11
Hailstones after a Hailstorm
After a hailstorm
Picture of one of the
largest hailstones :
diameter about 10 cm ,
weight about 154 g .
The hailstorm is compared
with the size of a 9 Volt
accumulator .
181
Cross section through a hailstone
The rings have been produced by the different depositions of
layers during the complex vertical growth of the hailstone .
182
4 – 12
4.4
Lymnology :
The science of the “Inland Water”
as Ecosystems
Lymnology is the study of inland waters . It is often regarded as a
division of ecology or environmental science . It covers the biological ,
chemical , physical , geological , and other attributes of all inland
waters (running and standing waters , both fresh and saline , natural or
man – made) . This includes the study of lakes and ponds , rivers ,
springs , streams and wetlands .
Limnology is closely related to aquatic ecology and hydrobiology ,
which study aquatic organisms in particular regard to their hydrological
environment .
183
Density anomaly of water and implications for lakes
Temperature (oC)
s . p. 185
0
2
4
6
8 10
Density (g / cm3)
1.00000
0.99992
0.99984
0.99976
The lighter ice is swimming on the water
Ice : good thermal insulation 
further freezing of the water below
the ice is prevented .
 Biological system can survive in
water !
Maximum density at 4 oC
The interface ice / water is at 0 oC
The most dense water at 4 oC is located at the ground of the lake .
184
4 – 13
The surface of ice is “wet” !
Ice scating is possible because the surface of ice is „wet“ ! (s . p. 184)
air
water – like
surface film
(~ 2 nm)
structurly
disordered
O - atoms
Ice :
only the O atoms are
shown
O – atoms
form an
ordered lattice
structure
185
A glass filled with Ice - Water
Unstired ice – water in a glass of water : at the bottom of the glass
the temperature is approximately 4 oC .
186
4 – 14
Temperature- and density profiles in lakes
Density
Density
Temperature
Depth
Temperature
Summer
Winter (below ice)
The depth – dependence of the density is essentially due to the depth – dependence of temperature . The latter is small in winter (between 0 oC and 4
o C) but large in summer (between about 25 oC and 4 oC) as is also shown
explicitely at page 188 .
Since the compressibility of water is very small , its influence on density is
negligible , even in deep oceans .
D. M. Imboden and A. Wüest : “Environmental Physics” (Eawag)
187
Observed depth and temperature profiles in Lakes
0
1
2 oC
3
4
0
0
5
1
10 m
January 13
2m
March
April
February 2
15
March 13
3
August
May
June
20
5
Beaver Pond Lake , Massachusetts : The
measurements show a transition from 0 oC
just below the Ice towards 4 to 5 oC at
the bottom .
July
10
15
oC
20
25
Lake of Zürich at spring
and summer
Symbols : measurements
Curves : calculations from
Eawag .
188
4 – 15
Crater Lake in Oregon , USA - 1
The deep blue colour of the Crater Lake is due to its large depth (597 m) , the
clarity and high purity of water , as well as to the selective absorption of sun
light : red , orange , yellow and green light are absorbed more strongly than
blue light . Blue light is scattered in water more strongly and a part of this
scattered light returns back to the surface where it can be observed .
189
Origin of the colour of a lake
In pure and deep lakes and seas , the red , orange , yellow and green
colours contained in the light of the sun are more strongly absorbed than
the blue colour . The depth of penetration of blue light is therefore larger
than that of the other colours . In addition , it is scattered more strongly
by the water molecules and partly returns to the surface of the water
where it can be observed .
190
4 – 16
Groundwater
 permeable to water
 impermeable to water
Groundwater is our
most important source of
drinking water !
The groundwater is part of the water cycle (s . Chapter 1 , p . 20) . It is water
located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in fractures of rock
formations ; its flow is mainly due to gravitational forces and frictional forces .
The body of rocks in which groundwater is present and in which it is flowing is
known as an aquifer .
The water table is the upper level of the underground surface in which soil or
rocks are permanently saturated with water .
Nearly all of the groundwater comes from surface precipitation which soaks into the
ground . Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from precipitation ,
streams , and rivers when this reacharge reaches the water table .
An artesian well is a spring water in the hollow of a valley , in which the groundwater is subjected to a certain pressure . This pressure is sufficiently high that the
water reaches (without the need for pumping) the surface of the earth or even
higher . An artesian well is artificial , i.e. it is produced by boring a hole .
191
4 – 17
4.5
Water in Biology
192
Water in Life before Birth
Fetus in amniotic fluid
The amniotic fluid is a
clear , slightly yellowish
liquid that surrounds the
unborn baby (fetus) during
pregnancy .
It is contained in the
amniotic sac .
The amniotic fluid contains
98 – 99 % water !!
The embryo contains more
than 85 % water !
193
4 – 18
50
Wassergehalt (Gew. %)
(weight %)
100100
Water content
Dehydration of men with increasing age - 1
90
86
8080
75
65
70
56
6060
48 %
4040
H2O
30
20
20
10
00
00
10
10
20
20
30
40
50
60
30
40
50
60
Alter
(Jahren)
70
70
80
80
90
90
Age
(years)
Water is contained in all body fluids such as sweat , urine , tears and blood !
The main functions of water in the body are : as a transport and solvent medium ,
as a cooling and heating medium , and as a chemical reaction partner .
Compare also with the Figure of p . 195 .
194
Dehydration of men with increasing age - 2
100 %
Fat F(*)
Water (*)
5%
15 %
30 %
55 %
55 %
40 %
70 %
60 %
Baby
45 %
jung
old
In this Figure the water content of the baby is somewhat smaller than that in
the Figure of p . 194 , which is probably more realistic . The two symbols (*)
indicate , however , that the values shown here are also approximate figures .
Note that the content of fat is strongly increasing with increasing age !
195
4 – 19
Water content in human body - 1
“A handful of salts and proteins dissolved in water !”
Body mass 70 kg  50 kg water  ca. 72 % water
Organ or tissue
% Water content
teeth (without hair!)
10
skeleton
22
blood
69
liver, spinal cord
70
skin
72
brain
75
lung
79
kidney
83
vitreous body of the eye
99
Compare with
the Table on
p . 197
196
Water content in human body - 2
tissue
water content (%)
percentage of
body weight
blood
83
7.5
kidneys
83
0.5
heart
79
0.5
muscular system
76
41
brain
75
2
skin
72
18
liver
68
2
skeleton
22
16
fat tissue
10 – 30
12.5
197
4 – 20
Grotthus - Diffusion (1785 - 1822)
Starting from the hydronium ion , H3O+, (marked light blue) at the
left , a proton jumps to the next H2O – molecule , and this hopping
mechanism repeats continuously .
Although in each elementary jump the individual protons are
displaced by only about 0.7 Å = 0.07 nm (*) , the H 3O+ - ion
propagates with high speed to the right and finally arrives at the
position of the right side (marked light blue).
This process is important for nervous conduction !
(*) 1 nm = 10-9 m ; 1 Å = 10-10 m
198
The Code of Life is the DNA :
It is the carrier of genetic information
side rails of the
spiral staircase
rungs of
spiral staircas
rungs : consist of
base – pairs , which
are linked together
via hydrogen bonds :
34 Å =
3.4 nm
3.4 Å
10 Å
........O
N -- H
or
N -- H ........N
schematic structure of
the DNA double helix
199
4 – 21
side rails : consist of a
very large number of
alternate units of sugar –
(desoxyribose) and
phosphates .
DNA : Structure and Hydrogen Bonds - 1
C
G
A
T
sugar
PO4
DNA unfolded : the side rails consist on
phosphate groups , PO4 , and of sugar
(Desoxyribose) . The two side rails are linked by
hydrogen bonds , namely by
N-H----O (
) and by N-H----N (
);
(s . symbols in the Figure above) . Each H - bond
links two bases , i.e. ( C : Cytosine ; G : Guanine )
( T : Thymine ; A : Adenine ) (s . p . 4-A-5-1) .
Space-filling model of DNA ,
the nucleic acid
KK that stores
genetic information .
200
DNA : Structure and Hydrogen – Bonds - 2
a side rail of DNA
O--H ......O hydrogen bonding
The negatively charged phosphate –
groups are mutually screened by
water molecules , thereby reducing
strongly their Coulomb repulsion .
N--H......O hydrogen bond
Water must be considered without
doubt as an integral component of
biological molecules such as the DNA .
Example : water is a stabilizer of the
DNA molecule , e.g. by reduction of
the Coulomb repulsions between
phosphate groups .
201
4 – 22
Water and Photosynthesis
From carbon dioxide (CO2) and Water
(H2O) together with light and the
action of the green pigment
chlorophyll , the products sugar
(glucose) and oxygen are formed (O2) .
sun
light
leaf
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light
H2O
C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2
shoot
root
system
H
O
sugar
(glucose)
H
Note : Chlorophyll is contained in the chloroplast (s . p . 218)
202
4 – 23
4.6
The Ascent of Water in
tall and very tall Trees
Remarks :
In general , several mechanisms for the ascent of sap in plants
and trees are responsible or have been proposed :
1) Capillary forces (p . 209)
2) Root pressure and Osmosis (pp 210 – 212)
3) Cohesion – Tension Theory and Transpiration (pp 214 - 216)
For the ascent of sap in tall and very tall trees , the third
mechanism is dominant and is closely coupled with „capillarity“
in the Mesophyll - cells of the leaves (p . 217 - 219)
For experimental verification of tensile stresses as a
function of tree – height in Coast – Redwood trees s . p. 216 .
203
Ascent of sap in tall and very tall trees
How does water ascent
tall trees against
gravitational forces to
heights between
100 and 120 m in Mammoth or Redwood trees ?
Remark :
During a hot summer
day , a typicall beech tree
evaporates more than
600 liters of water
per day !
Question :
 What is the main mecha nism for water transport in
tall trees ?
The „Giant Eucalyptus tree“
is one of the tallest
leaf trees (70 – 100 m) !
• Capillarity ?
• Root Pressure / Osmosis ?
• Root Pressure / Guttation ?
• Transpiration – Cohesion ?
• A combination ?
204
4 – 24
A giant Coast Redwood
tree with a height
of 115 m !
Anatomy of a tree trunk
Wood ray or
annular ring
pith
Secondary
Xylem
Secondary
Phloem
(Primary Xylem and Phloem are formed during primary grouth from procambium)
205
Sap transport in Xylem and Phloem conduits
4) Gas exchange (CO2
and O2) occurs through
the stomata of the
leaves
5) Sugar is produced in
the leaves by
photosynthesis
3) Transpiration of water
from the leaves due to
sunshine creates a tension
force that pulls water
upward in Xylem conduits
6) Sugar is transported to
other parts of the plant
in the Phloem
There are three levels
of transport in plants :
a) The individual cell levels
(membrane transport)
2)2) Water and mine –
rals are transpoted
upard from roots to
shoots in Xylem
- Uptake and export of
materials in root cells
b) Short distance - cell to
cell through mesophyll
- Shugar loading from
mesophyll to phloem
c) Long distance transport tissue to tissue or organ
to organ
1) Roots absorb water
and dissolved minerals
from soil
- Xylem and Phloem
206
4 – 25
• Through the stomata into the
Xylem sap
outer atmosphere
Mesophyll
cells
•
Stomata
From the mesophyll cells to
the water – air interstices
Water
molecule
TRANSPIRATION
Adhesion
Sap flow 
Xylem
cells
Atmosphere
COHESION AND
ADHESION IN
THE XYLEM
Cell
wall
Cohesion by
hydrogen
bonding
•
To the mesophyll cells
of the leafes
•
From the Xylem conduits of the
the roots into the Xylem conduits
of the stem and leaves
•
From the roots into the
Xylem conduits of the roots
Water
molecule
Root hair
•
Soil
particle
Through the root hairs
into the roots
Water
WATER UPTAKE
FROM SOIL
• Water from the
films around the soil particles
207
Circulatory water flow
through the plant
Cambium
Cortex
Epidermis
Sieve tube (phloem )
Phloem
Xylem
Transpiration stream
Gefässbündel
Phloem
Xylem vessel
Water
Vascular bundle
Water
Sucrose
Water
Pressure flow
Xylem and Phloem arranged in
vascular bundles
Sucrose
The xylem transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves , and the phloem transports
sugars and other products of photosynthesis from the leaves to the roots . These photosynthic products
are in solution , the water having come from the xylem . At the root end of the system sugars are
removed by the cells for use in metabolic processes , and water flows out by osmosis into the
intercellular spaces .
Some of the water which flows out of the roots is taken up by the Xylem and is transported up to the
leaves again where it may be used in photosynthesis , lost by evaporation through the stomata or
drawn into the phloem again whence it may return to the roots .
So , allthough there are two distinct transport systems , xylem and phloem , it is possible for water to
be transported between leaves and roots in a closed loop , travelling up in xylem and down in the
phloem . Plants therefore , may be said to have a circular system (Münch – model : s . also p . 4-A-6-1
and References R.4.6.17 , R.4.6.18) .
208
4 – 26
Capillary forces are able to rise water to a certain height h
h = 2 s cos(q) / (r r g)
surface tension s
the surface behaves
as a stretched skin
q
H2O
forces acting at
a molecule at
the surface
Important Note :
h
the forces acting
at a molecules at
the interior cancel
H2O : s = 0.0727 N / m at 20 oC ;
r = density (1 g/cm3)
Example :
for r = 10 mm
 h ~ 1.5 m for
water with com pletely wettable
capillaries (q = 0)
2r
density r
q = contact angle
The spongy mesophyll
tissues in the leaves between the water-air interfaces have radii of
about r  5 to 10 nm and
are highly wettable ; they
act as very efficient
capillaries with effective
(or nominal) heights h of
up to 3 km (!) for r = 5 nm
and are very important for
water ascent of sap in tall
trees (s. pp 218 - 219) .
209
Root pressure
Osmosis
solution 2 :
concentration c2 > c1
H ~ posm :
posm ca. 1 - 3 bar
Semi – permeable
wall for H2O
H
 H ~ 10 m - 30 m
C2 > C1  more water is
flowing from outside to
inside than the other way
around .
solution 1 :
 solution is deluted
concentration c1
 total pressure : p ~ (c2 - c1)
210
4 – 27
Osmosis and Turgor in plant cells and roots
Osmotic pressure is the main cause of support in many plants . The osmotic entry of
water raises the turgor pressure exerted against the cell wall , until it equals the osmotic
pressure , creating a steady state .
Suppose a plant cell is placed in an external medium of sugar or salt in water .
• If the medium is hypotonic - a dilute solution , with a higher water concentration - than
the cell (right-hand picture below) will gain water through osmosis
• If the medium is hypertonic – a concentrated solution , with a lower water concentration than the cell (left-hand picture) will lose water by osmosis .
• If the medium is isotonic – a solution with exactly the same water concentration as the
cell - (central picture) , there will be no net movement of water across the cell membrane .
Hypertonic
Isotonic
Hypotonic
Osmotic states in a
plant cell
vacuole
Turgor : the rigid state
of a cell resulting from
the pressure against the
wall or a membrane .
Plasmolized
Flaccid
Turgid
turgid : swollen
At the right-hand picture , the plant cell stores ions , sugars and other solutes in its
vacuole which causes an influx of water . The influx of water causes a large turgor
pressure exerted on the plant cell wall . This makes plant cells to become turgid ,
helping the plants to stand upright , and do not wilt .
211
Root pressure and Guttation
The root pressure is an osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that
causes sap to rise through stem to the leaves . It occurs in the xylem vessels of
some vascular plants when the soil moisture is high either at night or when trans –
piration is low during the day . When transpiration is high , xylem sap is usually
under tension , rather than under pressure , due to transpiration pull (pp. 214 - 215) .
Root pressure provides a force , which pushes water up the stem , but it is not
enough to account for the movement of water to leaves at the top of the tallest
trees . The maximum root pressure measured in some plants can raise water only to
about 20 meters , but the tallest trees are over 100 meters !
The picture at the right hand side shows the appearence
of drops of xylem sap on the tips or edges of leaves of
some vascular plants , such as grasses . This is called
guttation ; it is not to be confused with dew , which
condenses from the atmosphere onto the plant surface .
At night , transpiration usually does not occur because
plants have their stomata closed . When there is a high
soil moisture level , water will enter plant roots , because
the water potential of the roots is lower than in the soil
solution . The water will accumulate in the plant , creating
a slight root pressure . The root pressure forces some
water to exude through special leaf tip or edge structures ,
hydathodes (special stomatas) , forming drops (Guttation) .
Root pressure provides the impetus for this flow , rather
than transpiration pull .
212
4 – 28
Guttation on Equisetum
Tracheids of Douglas - Firs
Tracheids of a Douglas fir (side view)
showing bordered pits in the walls .
Water is transported from one
tracheid to other tracheids through
bordered pits . (The tracheid‘s
bordered pits allow for the rapid
movement of water from one tracheid
to other tracheids) .
Scanning electron microgaph of a cross
section of tracheids of an untreated
Douglas fir (top view) showing nearly
destroyed latewood below and apparently
intact earlywood above (175 x)
213
Sun
Vacuum pump
The sun is the driving force
for the transpiration sucsion
!
evaporation at
the
yew branch
vacuum
(≈ 0 atm)
H2O
mercury (Hg)
H = 760 mm
Hg
1 atm
1 atm corresponds to 760 Torr = 760 mm Hg ;
this corresponds to the pressure of a
water column of 10.37 m ; 1 bar corres ponds to a water column of 10.24 m .
Evaporation at the yew branch :
due to the transpiration - suction ;
the Hg column can rise above 760
mm and hence a water column
can rise above 10.24 m !  tensile
stress > 1 atm !
214
4 – 29
The Cohesion – Tension Theory (CTT) for the ascent of sap in tall trees
In the following we quote some statements of the ascent of sap in tall and very tall trees which are
based on the Cohesion – Tension Theory (CTT)
(References R.4.6.1 – R.4.6.5 , R.4.6.25 , R.4.6.26) .
Although CTT is not able to explain all the phenomena completely , it is considered today by most
plant physiologists as the most satisfactory theory.
During most of the vegetation period , water is pulled up into the trees and the pressure in the
Xylem conduits is lower than that of the atmosphere . Under the right circumstances , when the xylem
is cut , one can even here the hissing sound of air being drawn into the injured vessels“.
The „motor“ of sap ascent must be in the crown of the tree . This motor is powered , of course , by
sunlight which provides the energy for the evaporation of water , i.e. the energy to break the
hydrogen bonds in liquid water . About 99 % of the water is evaporated into the air and the rest is
engaged in photosynthesis .
Through the cell membranes of the tiny stomata , or pores , on the under surface of the leaves , the
water is transpired a molecule at a time ; the molecules that escape into the air are replaced by
molecules pulled up from below by surface tension forces . The water xylem-columns are continuous ,
all the way from the rootlets to the nanometer interstices between the mesophyll cells in the leaves
(s . pp 218 , 219) . They do not , therefore , depend on the pressure of the atmosphere for support
but are held up by cohesion forces within the water itself and adhesion between the water and the
cell walls .
Summarizing , we can state that in a narrow and airtight tube , water can reach heights much higher
than 10 m , in trees higher than 100 m . To this case the pressure reaches very large and negative
values (a negative pressure of - 10 atm for a 100 m high tree) , i.e. it is subjected to very large
tensile stresses (see also p . 122) . If the tensile stress becomes too high , the water column in the
xylem conduits of the tree ruptures , giving rise to air bubbles and embolism ! Part of the air bubbles
are healed out by specific repair mechanisms (see p . 222 and References R.4.6.3 and R.4.6.26) .
215
Tree – height versus (negative) Xylem pressure
at the top of trees
Height profiles of Xylem versus (negativ) pressure (tension) in very tall trees at
midday (filled symbols) and at predawn (open symbols) during the dry season for
three coast Redwood trees [1 MPa = 10 bar = 9.87 atm] . The experiments shown in
this Figure are consistent with the Cohesion – Tension - Theory (CTT) (pp 214, 215) .
216
4 – 30
Leaf surfaces and leaf veins
Adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces :
left : adaxial leaf surface : the side facing
against the shoot axis (= direction of growth ;
upper side of the leaf) .
right : abaxial surface : the side facing away
from the shoot axis (underside of the leaf ;
this side is drying out less rapidly) .
• It contains the veins (the xylem and phloem
conduits for sap transport) and provides
mechanical stability of the leaf .
• This surface also contains the stomata for
water vapour transport into the atmosphere .
Leaf veins at underside of the leaf :
The „veins“ in leaves are primary vascular
bundles . They transport water and photo –
synthates via primary xylem and primary
phloem (s . pp 208 and 218) .
The primary vein is located in the center of the
leaf and is termed the midrip .
From this vein branch the secondary veins ,
and from these veins the tertiary veins .
217
Tensile stresses and ascent of sap due to capillary forces between
mesophyll - cells and subsequent evaporation through the stomata
In tall trees , the relevant capillary
dimensions are not those of the
relatively large Xylem conduits (pp
213 , 214) . Rather , the appropriate
dimensions are determined by the
water – air interstices between the
highly wettable mesophyll – walls.
The dimensions of these inter stices correspond to radii ranging
between 5 to 10 nm :
Chloroplast
[Chlorophyll is contained in the
Chloroplasts [s . p . 202)]
• Water from Xylem in the leaves enters into the mesophyll cells .
• It then penetrates the cell walls into interstitial spaces where it forms very thin
films at the walls as well as filled capillaries with „radii“ between 5 and 10 nm
• The thin films and the minisci of the capillaries evaporate and are continuously
refilled from the Xylem conduits
• The water vapor leaves the interstices through the stomata .
• Thus , the water transport in tall trees is due to CTT (p . 215) , the driving
force of which is mainly due to capillarity in the very tiny interstices between
the mesophyll cells followed by the sun – driven evaporation through the stomata .
218
4 - 31
Vascular tissue in the leaf
The vascular tissue in a leaf contains the xylem and the phloem which are often
protected by an epidermis , known as a bundle sheath or bundle cell (s . p . 218) .
The vascular tissues are located between the palisade mesophyll cells and the
spongy mesophyll cells . The xylem is oriented toward the uper leaf surface (uper
epidermis) , whereas the phloem is oriented toward the lower epidermis (p . 218) .
The bundle sheath controls the mass exchange between the vascular tissue (xylem
and phloem) and the mesophyll . The vascular tissues form a dead end within the
mesophyll . Thereby , the vascular tissue is more and more reduced until the sieve
tubes are fading away ; in the xylem , only spiral tracheids are left over which
eventually also form dead ends . This allows an exchange between xylem and
phloem , i.e. water is flowing from xylem to phloem . A corresponding exchange is
also possible within the roots . In this way a closed circle between xylem and
phloem is established (p . 208) ; this is known as the Münch - model .
As a rule , the entire leaf is filled out so densily with vascular tissues such that no
leaf cell is more distant away from a vascular tissue than seven cells . The resulting
small regions between the vascular tissue are called „open areas“ or intercoastal
fields .
The function of vascular tissues consists in the transport of water and minerals
within the leaf via the xylem , and the transport of products of photosynthesis via
the phloem out of the leaf .
219
Transpiration – Cohesion : Water is under stress !
Water is boiling if the external pressure Pext
is equal to or smaller than the vapor
pressure of water , Pw .
At very small pressures , water is
usually boiling , and this holds
especially for water at negativ
pressures , i.e. under tension
Examples :
(s . p . 122)
• Pw = Pext = 1 bar  Tboiling = 100 oC
• Pw = 0.0317 bar ; if Pext  Pw , water is
boiling at or below Tboiling = 25 oC
In trees , however , water is not
boiling although it is under tension !
How can this be explaned ?
Vacuum pump :
 Water is enclosed and in the
superheated state !
 No room for vapor !
Water is in a metastable state !
boiling water
with bubbles
0 < Pext < 1 bar  Pext  Pw
Inside the conduits of trees , there
are several mechanisms which
suppress the formation of bubbles
i.e. the formation of embolism ! In
this way the superheated state can
be stabilized to a large extent !
220
4 – 32
Superheated states
melting
curve
evaporation
curve
103
102
liquid
superheated water
obtained by increasing
the temperature at
constant pressure
(metastable !)
1
10-1
solid
Pressure (at)
10
vapour
10-2
superheated water
obtained by reduction of
pressure at constant
temperature (metastable !)
10-3
10-4
H2O
10-5
10-6
sublima –
tion curve
0
100
200 300
Temperature (oC)
400
1 at = 1 kp / cm2
221
Vulnerability of Xylem to cavitation and embolism ; Repair mechanisms
•
Plants open and close their stomata during daytime in response to changing
conditions , such as light intensity , humidity , and CO2 - concentration .
•
A cavitation event causes a rapid relaxation of a liquid tension that produces
an acoustic emission in the audio – frequency and ultrasonic range .
• The wals of xylem conduits are extremely hydrophobic , decreasing the
likelyhood of cavitation at the wall – water interface .
•
2 neighboring tracheids are connected : in case of air infiltration into one of
the tracheids , the second tracheid is closed by a membrane ; in this way , the
second tracheid can continue to work .
• Cavitation is important biologically because embolized conduits reduce the
hydraulic conductivity of the Xylem .
There is considerable evidence that water – stress induced embolism occurs by air
seeding at pores in the intervessel pit membranes .
• Air within the bubbles can be dissolved by diffusion into the water contained in the
Xylem capillaries .
•
There is evidence that the growth of small air bubbles is partially hindered by an
energy barrier .
222
4 - 33
4 . 7 Water plants
Plant zones at a shallow lakeshore
Reed bed
zone
Floating
leaf zone
Pondweeds
zone
Completely submerged
plants
With increasing depth of water in the lake , the intensity of light for photosynthesis
decreases rapidly . This gives rise to a zoning of the plant population at the shore ,
such that the most light-hungry plants are growing at the shallowest waters, whereas
deeper below the surface , more modest species are found . Therefore , at a natural
flat sea or at a pondside , the above illustrated plant zoning is usually found .
223
General remarks and properties
In our lakes most of the higher plants belong to the pondweed and have
nothing to do with „seawood“ or algae .
In contrast to terrestrial plants , water plants do not possess a rigid
supporting tissue . If they are removed from water they are flabby . In
water , however , they are standing upright and are following the water
movement flexibly without braking . Their stems are very tenacious and
elastic . In contrast to land plants , water plants do not need an
evaporation protection ; theire leaves are therefore very soft and tenuous .
This allows for a direct uptake of nutrients from water through the leaves .
The roots function in the first place as ground anchors to the bottom of
the pond .
According to the Figure at p . 223 , the following species of water plants
exist :
a) Reed bed plants
c) Pondweed plants
b) Floating leaf plants
d) Plants which are completely sub merged under the surface of the
water
224
4 – 34
a ) Reed beds
Reed beds constitute a subgroup of
march plants . They are located at
river banks and penetrate the water
up to a depth of about 1.5 m . With
the help of their strong rhizomes (*)
they are able to form dense reed
beds . An important example is the
reed (Schilfrohr) .
b) Floating leaf plants
The floating leaf plants such as the „Water lily“ and the „Lotus flower“ (s . p . 226 ,
227) , are of particular interest because their roots ancher at the bottom of the pond
while there leaves are swimming at the surface of water . The leaves have hollow air
cells which are important for two reasons : firstly , the leaves are swimming at the
surface of the water , and secondly , the air is conducted through the hollow petioles
(Stängel) down into the roots such that they do not suffocate in the oxygen-deficient
mud .
In contrast to terrestrial plants, the stomata nesessary for respiration are located at the
upper surface of the leaves ; this is in contrast to terrestrial plants (p . 218) . In
addition , the leaves have wide-mashed air passages in the tissue ; the breathing air
collected by the stomata is then transported through the petiole (leaf stalk = Blattstiel)
to the rhizome ((*) Rhizome : Root-like underground horizontal stem of plants that
produce shoots (Triebe) above and roots below) .
225
Nymphaea alba , a species of water lily
Blue water lily
Air channels in
the petiole (leaf stalk =
Blattstiel)
The leaves of a normal water lily is
wetted completely by water (hydrophilic)
and the stomata are located at the upper
side of the leaves .
226
4 – 35
Lotus flower
Lotus leaves in rain : On the top of the
Lotus – leaves raindrops are formed , i.e.
the upper leave surfaces are hydrophobic
(water-repellent) . On the other hand , the
leaves of the water lily are completely
wetted , i.e. they are hydrophilic or water –
attracting .
227
Lotus fruit
Pondweed
The pondweed zone has a depth of 2 – 5 m . The leaves of this plants are
growing under water , only the blossoms extend over the surface of the
water . Within the dense populations of pondweeds , swarms of juvenile
fishes , all possible species of invertebrates and lurking pikes can be
observerved during summer time .
On the leaves of pondweeds one
finds many snails , insects , grubs ,
hydra , and water - mites . Some
fish species use to deposit their
spawn on the surface of these
pondweeds .
Blooming alpine pondweed :
Some inflorescences (Blüten –
stände) have already penetrated
the water surface .
228
4 – 36
Completely submerged water plants
These plants are blooming under water . Normally , no
part of the plant ever reaches the water surface .
The leaves of the naiad (Nixen kraut) are dark green , hard and
jagged . In late summer the leaf
axil contain nutty seeds with
diameters of 2 – 3 mm .
Muskgrass Chara (Armleuchteralgen) :
The appearence of this plant resembles
strongly to a flowering plant , although
it is an algae . The luster – like
branching and the rough , brittle nature
of the plant which is due to the
incorporation of silicic acid (Kieselsäure)
is typical for the muskgrass chara .
229
Plankton
Plankton is the name for organisms which live in water and the key feature of which is
the fact that their swimming direction depends on the flow of water .
Plankton exist in all possible forms and sizes . Very small organisms (4 – 40 mm) are
assigned to the nanoplankton . The smallest plankton are bacteriums . Phytoplankton are
usually smaller than the diameter of a human hair . Zooplankton exist in tiny forms but
also in the form of very tall jellyfishes (Quallen) with sizes up to 9 m ! Plankton do not
swim activelly but are rather drifting passively in the direction of the water current . The
following species of plankton exist :
• Bacterioplankton
• Phytoplankton (plant plankton) , such as diatom (Kieselalgen) and green algae
• Zooplankton (animal plankton)
Phytoplankton
Single-celled diatom (Kieselalgen) constitute the bulk of the phytoplankton . The cells are
surrounded by a two-part shell of silicic acid . Today , about 6‘000 different species are
known . A characteristic feature of diatom cells is that they are encased within a unique
cell-wall made of silica (hydrated silicon oxide , SiO2 • n H2O) , called a (glassy) frustule .
Theses frustules show a wide diversity in form , but usually consist of two
asymmetrically sides with a split between them , hence the name „diatom“ (see Figure at
the left of p . 4-A-7-1) .
The phytoplankton is also known as the primary production of the sea , because it
represents the basic food resource for all other living beings in the sea . Without the
phytoplankton , no life would exist in the sea ! In waters having a green shimmer , a
relatively large concentration of phytoplankton exists .
A large Figure of Phytoplanktons is shown in the Appendix at p . 4_A_7_1 .
230
4 – 37
4-A-0
Clouds : Fall streaks of ice particles or Virga
Translated liberatly from Latin , Virga means as much as „twig“ or „stick“ . In
metereology it signifies precipitations (ice crystals or rain) which originate from the base
of the clouds but which evaporate bevore reaching the ground . Fall streaks or Virga are
often observed if a very humid air layer at high altitudes is present over a dry layer
below .
[It should be mentioned that for fair weather clouds as shown at p . 164 , small snow
crystals can exist in the upper region of the clouds] .
4-A-2-1
4 - 38
Saturation vapor pressure (hPa)
Saturation vapour pressures of supercooled water droplets
and snow crystallites in clouds (Bergeron process)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
- 48
- 43
- 38
- 33
- 28
- 23
- 18
- 13
-8
-3
0
Temperature (oC)
The saturation vapour pressure of ice particles is lower than the saturation vapor pressure
of water droplets . Water vapor interacting with a water droplet may be saturated , but the
same amount of water vapor would be supersaturated when interacting with an ice particle .
The water vapour will attempt to return to equilibrium , so the extra water vapour will
condense into ice on the surface of the particle . These ice particles end up as the nuclei
of larger ice crystals . This process only happens between 0 oC and about - 40 oC . Below
about - 50 oC , liquid water will spontaneously nucleate and freeze . The corresponding
curves for bulk ice and bulk supercooled water are shown in the Appendix 2-A-8-1 .
4-A-3-1
The Leidenfrost - effect
Vapor
The red base plate is substant –
ially hotter than the boiling point
of water
(s)
Water
60
Lifeitime of drop
70
50
40
30
20
10
Johann Gottlob
Leidenfrost
Leidenfrost - point
200
300
Baseplate– Temperatur (o C)
The Leidenfrost - effect , also known as Leidenfrost – phenomenon , is the effect of a
water drop dancing on a hot base plate . This effect has been described for the
first time by Gottlob Leidenfrost (1715 – 1794) in 1756 .
If the base plate is essentially hotter than the boiling point of water , only the
lower layer of the drop evaporates , while the upper part of the drop is still colder .
In this way , a thin layer of water vapor is formed (0.1 bis 0.2 mm) , which lifts the
drop and protects him from evaporating . Gases , in this case the water vapor , are
poor thermal conductors . On the top of this cushion of steam , the water drop is
gliding back and forth . The Figure at the right hand side illustrates that the lifetime
of a water drop between 100 and 200 oC is very small and then strongly increases .
At the so-called Leidenfrost – point , somewhat higher than 200 oC , the lifetime of
the drop reaches its maximum , in the present case at about 72 seconds .
4-A-3-2
4 – 39
DNA : Structure , Chemistry and H - Bonds
cytosine
thymine
adenine
guanine
back bone of
second chain
back bone of
second chain
back bone of
first chain
back bone of
first chain
Notice : 3 hydrogen
bonds this time
hydrogen bonds
The A – T (Adenine – Thymine) and G – C (Guanine – Cytosine) –
pairs of the DNA fit exactly to form very effective hydrogen bonds
with each other . It is these hydrogen bonds (N – H----O and
N – H ---- N) which hold the two chains together (s . p . 200)
4-A-5-1
Hydraulic coupling between Xylem and Phloem
s . also p . 208
4-A-6-1
4 – 40
Aquaporins : Water channels in roots and leaves
In the Xylem – conduits the long-distance transport of water from the roots up into the
leaves takes place (s . pp 206 , 207) . On the other hand , a short-distance transport
exists both , in the roots as well as in the leaves between neighbouring cells . For the
transport of water between the cells , so-called Aquaporins are responsible ; Aquaporins
are water pores between adjacent cells. The Aquaporins are neither pumps nor
exchanger and for this transport no energy is required . The transport of water is rather
established by osmotic gradients . The channel is working bidirectional , i.e water can
propagate in both directions through the channel . Aquaporins are of great importance in
tissues , in which a large physiological current exists , i.e by the establishment of the
turgor pressure (p . 211) or in the kidneys .
Cuticula
Epidermis
Schematic cross section in leaves with
representations of the tissue – specific
expression patterns of aquaporins and
paths of transport are shown .
(see also p . 218) .
Aquaporins = Waterr + Pores
Xylem vessel
Phloem sieve tube
The Aquaporins PIP1s (Plasma mem braine Intrinsic Proteins) are regulating
the water conuction through the cells .
Bundle sheath
Guard cells
Mouvent of
CO2
Movement
of water
The Aquaporins TIPS1s (Tonoplast
Intrinsic Proteins) regulate the volume
increase of the cell by absorption of
water .
PIP1s
TIP1s
Water – air cavities
4-A-6-2
Deciduous leaves
Epidermis
Vacuole with
red pigment
Chloroplasts
Cell nucleus
A deciduous
leaf
Photosynthesis takes place within the green chloroplasts – small corpuscles in
the interior of the mesophyll cells (s . also p . 218) . The chloroplasts contain
the chlorophyll. Chlorophyll , CO2 and water are engaged in photosynthesis (s .
p . 202) .
During summer , chlorophyll absorbs sunlight selectively (in the blue and red
spectral range) , whereas green light is not absorbed but rather scattered ;
this is the reason for the green colour of the leaves .
If in autumn the days are getting shorter and colder , chlorophyll is
deactivated and loses its colour . At this time the yellow and orange – colored
carotenoids which have always been present in the leaf become active . The
yellow carotine or the red anthocyanin are now producing the radiant beautiful
colors of autumn .
4-A-6-3
4 – 41
Evergreen plants
In botany , an evergreen plant is a plant that has leaves in all seasons . For these
trees , the individual leaf exists at least 12 months .
Evergreens will grow in almost all parts of the globe that will support vegetation .
They have largely solved the problem of excessive water loss through their leaves
caused by extremes of temperature . Thus , evergreens such as conifers are
comfortably at home as far north as the tundra , while all tropical forests have rich
quota of huge evergreens with waxy leaves . In temperature climates too, evergreens
such as holly and laurel abound .
Plants lose water through their leaves , and evergreen leaves commonly have one or
more modifications to cut down the loss of water . Conifer leaves are thin and needle
– shaped , exposing only a relatively small surface area to the atmosphere .
Temperature and tropical evergreens have leaves with a thick waxy cuticle (covering)
on their surfaces which help to keep water inside the plant .
An example is the Cherry laurel shown below .
upper side
under side
Cherry laurel
Leaves of a cherry laurel
4-A-6-4
Biology of Maple Sap Flow in Winter and Spring
Maple tree in fall
Tapping a maple tree in
winter or spring
Collecting sugar maple in
winter or early spring
During summer , an average-sized maple tree loses more than 200 L of water per hour
through the leaves ; this water loss is due to osmosis and/or to cohesion – tension , i.e.
sap is under negative pressure as discussed in the Cohesion-Tension_Theory (CTT) at
pp 214 - 219 .
In winter and spring , however , the pressure of the sap of sugar maple is greater than
the atmospheric pressure , causing the sap to flow out , much the same way as blood
flows out of a cut . If one visualizes a portion of the tree trunk as being under positive
pressure , a tap-hole drilled into the tree is like a leak so that sap moves toward the
point of lowest pressure from all dircetions , i.e. towards the atmospheric pressure
present at the outside of the tree . It is important and interesting to realize that sucroserich maple sap is not transported by the Phloem but rather by the Xylem ; in fact ,
winter and spring is the only time during the year when the fluid in the Xylem is rich
in sucrose and represents an exception to the CTT - mechanism in „normal“ trees .
4-A-6-5
4 – 42
Developing fruit of an apple trea
Phloem
Companion cell
fruit (sink for sucrose)
In tall fruit trees , the Cohesion – Tension – Theory (CTT) (s . p . 215) is still valid , but
the fruits are additional sinks for phloem saps .
After sugars are produced in photosynthesis , these sugars must be transported to other
parts of the plant for use in the plant‘s metabolism . The sucrose is moved by active
transport into the phloem of the phloem leaf veins . A developing fruit is one example
of a sink . Sucrose may be actively transported out of phloem into the fruit cells . This
raises the sugar concentration in the fruit . In response to this concentration difference ,
water will follow the sugar into the fruit by osmosis .
4-A-6-6
Capillarity in nanometer pores of mesophyll cells of leaves - 1
At this page we discuss some remarks associated with the Cohesion-Tension-Theory (CTT) as
discussed at pp 209 , 215 , 217 , 218 and 219 . The following remarks are essentially taken
from References R.4.6.50 and R.4.6.51 :
- The driving force for the ascent of water in the Xylem is ultimately generated by surface
tension at the evaporating surfaces . The evaporating surfaces are at the wall of the
leaf cells where evaporation takes place . In contrast to a large flat surface of evapo rating water , these surfaces are a porous medium . Consequently , evaporation generates
a curvature in the water menisci within the pores of the cell wall . The surface tension
effects become very prominent at the nano scale due to the high surface to volume ratio .
- The radius of curvature of these menisci is sufficiently small as to be able to support
water columns as high as thousends of meters . By Jurin‘s law h = 2 s / (r r g) (p . 209) ,
it follows that for radii in the nanometer range , effective capillary rises of several kilo –
meters are possible . The transition from the negative pressures in the Xylem of the
leaves to the positive pressures in the water – air interstices between the highly wettable
mesophyll walls takes place in the tiny menisci in the cell walls of the mesophyll . The
resulting surface tension causes a negative pressure , i.e. a tension in the Xylem conduit
which transports the water from the roots up to the mesophyll (see p. 4-A-6-8) .
- Because of surface tension and because of the small radii of curvature of the menisci at
the evaporating surfaces , evaporation lowers the water potential (pressure) in the adjacent
regions of the Xylem conduits . This change is instantaneously transmitted through the
whole plant.
- In this way , evaporation establishes gradients of negative pressure or tension along the
pathway in transpiring plants . This causes an inflow of water from the soil to the trans piring surfaces .
- The ascent of water in tall trees is therefore due to the combined action of the Nano meter capillaries in the menisci of mesophyll (transition from negative to positive pressure)
and the subsequent evaporation through the stomata of the leaves .
4-A-6-7
4 - 43
Capillarity in the pores of Mesophyll cells of leaves - 2
Laplace – law :
R
qE
r
PA = P0 - 2  cos(qE) / r
P0 = atmospheric pressure (1 bar)
A
PA = Pressure in point A (PA < P0)
r = R cos(qE) = effective radius
H
qE = contact angle
 = surface tension
B
H2O :  = 0.0727 N / m2 (20 oC) , Density r = 103 kg / m3 ; g = 9.81 m / s2
Mesophyll – cell walls : let r = 10 nm and qE = 0 (complete wetting)
from Laplace – law it follows :
PA  - 144 bar (!) ;
H = 2  cos(qE) / (r g r)
from Jurin‘s capillary rise H = A B :
For the effective capillary rise we obtain : H  1.5 km (!)
4-A-6-8
Phytoplankton : Art works of nature !
Central diatom
(radially symmetric)
Pennate diatom
(pennate : bilateral symmetric)
Full Text see p . 230 : „Plankton and Phytoplankton“
Diatoms are monocellular ; the lengths of the cells are 30 – 500 micrometers .
[Selection from Ernst Haeckel‘s „Kunstformen der Natur“ , (1904) or
„Artforms of Nature“ .]
4-A-7-1
4 - 44
R-4-0
4.
Water in Nature
4.1
Some selected examples
Some examples concerning the central role of water in nature has already been mentioned in
Section 1.2 . In the following , the topics of some aspects are discussed and illustrated .
4 .2
The world of clouds
R.4.2.1
A short Course in Cloude Physics
R.R. Rogers and M.K. You
Elsevier Science 1988
Oxford UK
R.4.2.2
Cloud Physics
A Popular Introduction to Applied Meteorology
Louis J. Battan
Dover Publications.com ; Amazo.de
R.4.2.3
Water from Heaven
Robert Kandel
Columbia University Press , New York
Chapter 9 : p. 135
R-4-1
4 – 45
R.4.2.4
DIE ERFINDUNG DER Wolken : „ The invention of Clouds“
Richard Hambyn
Suhrkamp Taschenbuch 3527 ; Erste Auflage 2003
R.4.2.5
WOLKENGUCKEN
Gavin Pretor - Pinney
Heyne - Verlag , 2006
R.4.2.6
p . 163 : Cloud Formation
From Internet : Cloud formation ; Bilder . Csupomona.edu
R.4.2.7
p . 164 : Droplets and Crystallites in Clouds
Figure prepared by P . Brüesch
R.4.2.8
p . 165 : The World of Clouds
Cumulonimbus Clouds : bretaniongroup.com
R.4.2.9
p . 166 : Why do Clouds not fall from the Sky ?
http://www.islandnet.com/see/weather/elements/cloudfloat.html
R.4.2.10
p . 167 : Colours of Clouds : white
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud
R.4.2.11
p . 168 : Colours of Clouds : blue - white
http://weathersavvy.com/cumulonimbus5_OPT.jpg
R.4.2.12
p . 169 : Colours of Clouds : white – gray - dark - gray
Regenwolken : foto community.de
R.4.2.13
p . 170 : Colours of Clouds at Sunset : dark – red - orange - pink
www.yunphoto.net/es/photobase/hr/hr545.html
R.4.2.14
p . 171 : U . Finke : Atmosphärische Elektrizität (2003) ; Atmospheric Electricity
www.sferics.physik.uni-muenchen.de/Messgrundl...
R.4.2.15
4-A-2-1 : Clouds : Fall streaks or Virga :
Image from Google in „Images“: under „Virga„ ( Page 5)
s . also in : http://meteo.sf.tv/sfmeteo/wwn.php?id=201108111
R-4-2
4.3
Precipitations
R.4.3.1
Clouds Rain , and angry Skies : Ref . R.4.2.3 : Chapter 9 ; pp 135 - 154
R.4.3.2
Ref . R.1.3.12 : „Les précipitations“ : pp 32 - 38
R.4.3.3
About Precipitations and Rain Fall : Ref . R.1.3.1 : pp 25 , 61 - 62 , 314 - 315
R.4.3.4
p . 174 : Fallender Wassertropfen im Windkanal
Source: Falling raindrop in the wind channel : jpg; Film und Standard :
R . Jaenicke , IPA Universität Mainz , 2002
R.4.3.5
p . 175 : Shapes of falling rain drops of different sizes
(Form von fallenden Wassertropfen verschiedener Grösse)
R.4.3.6
p . 176 – 182 : Literature to Snowflakes and Hail ;
Snowflakes : Ref . R.1.3.1 : pp 170 – 181 ; Hail : Ref . R.1.3.1 : pp 61 – 62 and
Ref . R.4.2.5 : p . 176
R.4.3.7
p . 176 : Formation and Morphology of snowcrystals
left : found under: Der Bergeron-Findeisen-Prozess-ethz.ch
iacweb.ethz.ch/staff/eszter/…/Bergeron-Findeisen.pdf
right : http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/primer/primer.html
R.4.3.8
p . 181 : After a Hailstorm :
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Hailstorm.jpg
p . 181 : A very large Hailstone (Ein sehr grosses Hagelkorn)
http://home.arcor.de/student/wetter/aktuell/bild2.html
R.4.3.9
p . 182 : Cross section through a Hailstone showing grotwh rings
Querschnitt durch ein Hagelkorn mit Wachstumsringen
www.fotocommunity.de/pc/pc/display/17206268
R.4.3.10
p . 4-A-3-1 : Bergeron – Findeisen Prozess :
Saturation vapor pressure over water and ice
http://apollo.Isc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter7/eswgtesi.html
R-4-3
4 – 46
R.4.3.11
p . 4-A-3-2 : Leidenfrost – Effekt von Wasser : http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leidenfrost-Effekt
Leidenfrost effect : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leidenfrost_effect
Linkes und rechtes Bild : Leidenfrost – Effekt : http://www. rtl2.de/55971.html
Beschriftung der Figur rechts von P . Brüesch ; auch auf Deutsch übersetzt .
4.4
Limnology
R.4.4.1
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF LAKES
A . Leemann , D.M. Imboden , J.R. Gat
Springer , Heidelberg (1995)
R.4.4.2
HYDRODYNAMICS OF LAKES
K . Hutter
Springer (1983)
R.4.4.3
LEHRBUCH DER LIMNOLOGIE
W. Schönborn
E. Schweizerbatr‘sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägeli u . Obermiller) Stuttgart 2003
R.4.4.4
EINFUEHRUNG IN DIE LIMNOLOGIE , 9. Auflage
J . Schwoerbel und H. Brendelberger
Spektrum Akademischer Verlag , Heidelberg 2005
R.4.4.5
LYMNOLOGY , 3rd Edition
R.G. Wetzel
Academic Press , 2001 ; p . 188
About „Black Smokers“ : Ueber „Schwarze Raucher“
R.4.4.6
THE ECOLOGY OF DEEP – SEA HYDROTHERMAL VENTS
Cindy L . Van Dover
Princeton University Press (2000)
R.4.4.7
MICROBIOLOGY OF DEEP – SEA HYDROTHERMAL VENTS
David M . Karl
CRC Press , Boca Raton (1995)
R-4-4
R.4.4.8
Density anomalies of water and implications for freezing lakes and skiting
Density maximum : http://dc2.uni-bielefeld.de/dc2/wasser/w-stoffl.htm
Temperature distribution in lakes :
Physik : E.J. Feicht und U. Graf ; Buchclub Ex Libris , Zürich
R.4.4.9
p. 185 : The surface of ice is „wet“ !:
Reference R.3.1.1 : pp 180 , 181
Figure composed by P . Brüesch
R.4.4.10
p . 186 : Ice in a glass of water (Eis in einem Glas mit Wasser )
Photograph courtesy of O. Mishi Published by H. E . Stanley in :
MRS Bulletin / Mai 1999 , p. 2
R.4.4.11
p . 187 : Temperature profiles in Lakes - 1
(Temperaturprofile von Seen – 1)
“Aquatische Physik I”
Dieter Imboden and A . Wüest ; Umweltphysik Eawag
CH-8600 Dübendorf ; Oktober 1997 ; p . 2.2
R.4.4.12
p . 188 : Temperature profiles in Lakes - 2
(Temperaturprofile von Seen – 2)
Left-hand Figure : Beaver Pond Lake
Right-hand Figure : Lake of Zürich (Eawag)
In the Figure , the indications of the months in the temperature profiles have
been added by P . Brüesch
R.4.4.13
p . 189 : Colours of the “Crater Lake” in Oregon (USA)
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crater Lake
R.4.4.14
p . 190 : Origin of the colours of a Lake
Source unknown
R.4.4.15
p . 191 : Groundwater (General) from : Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwater
p . 191 : Groundwater with Artesian well :
From Google : Seminole Springs , LCC 2010
(Florida‘s Original Artesian Spring Water Source)
R-4-5
4 – 47
4 . 5 Water and Biology
R.4.5.1
LIFE BEVORE BIRTH : The Challenge of Fetal Development
Peter W . Nethanielsz
W.H. Freeman and Company , New York (1996)
R.4.5.2
AMNIOTIC FLUID DYNAMICS
Alberto Bacchi Modena and Stefania Fieni
Acta Bio Medica Ateneo Parmense 2004 , 75 ; Suppl . 1 : 11 – 13
(Conference Report)
R.4.5.3
p . 193 : Life before Birth :
www.aaenvironment.com/Pictures/Fetus2.jpg
R.4.5.4
Figure at p . 194 , 195 : Dehydration of men with increasing age
from „http://www.elmar-schuerr.de/Wasser_und_Salz.htm“ (adjusted by P . Brüesch)
R.4.5.5
pp 196 -197 : Water contents in human beeings : 1 and 2 ; from :
PHYSIOLOGIE DES WASSERS - UND ELEKTROLYTHAUSHALTS
Dr . Sylvia Kaap
Fachhochschule Wiener Neustadt
Seminar Physiologie WS 2006 / 07
R.4.5.6
p . 198 : About the Grotthus – diffusion of proton mouvement in water
N . Agmon : Chem . Phys . Lett . 244 , 456 - 462 (1995)
O . Markovitch and N . Agmon : J . Phys . Chem . A 111 (12) , 2253 - 2256 (2007)
O.. Markovitch et al . : J . Phys . Chem . B 112 (31) (2008)
R-4-6
R.4.5.7
R.4.5.8
pp 199 – 201 : DNA : Structure , Chemistry and H – Bonds
„The role of water in the structure and function of biological macromolecules“
Kristin Bartil (2000) in : http:/www.exobico.cnrs.fr/article.php3?id article=44
contains 20 literature citations ; the conclusion of the article is the following :
„Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic effects are dominant driving forces for biochemical
processes : protein folding , nucleic acid stability and molecular recognition / binding events .
Water , without any doupt , must be considered an integral part of biological
macromolecules .
For the Figures showing explicitely the N – H ----O and N – H ----N bonds in A-T and G-C
illustratet in the Appendix 4-A-5-1 , see Reference :
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/aminoacids/dna1.html
p . 202 : Concerning the Photosynthesis
„Where does the water in the brutto reaction of photosynthesis com from ?“
Rainer Eising und Stefan Hölzenbein
PDF/Adope Acrobat - HTML-Version
with 14 Literature citations.
R-4-7
4 – 48
4 . 6 Water ascent in tall trees
R.4.6.1
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
Hans Mohr and Peter Schopfer
Berlin : Springer 1995
R.4.6.2
XYLEM STRUCTURE AND THE ASCENT OF SAP
M.T. Tyree and M.H. Zimmermann
a) Berlin : Springer - Verlag ; First Edition : 1983
b) Berlin : Springer – Verlag ; Second Edition : 2002 (Springer Series in Wood Sciences)
R.4.6.3
The Cohesion - Tension theory of sap ascent : current controversies (Review Article)
M.T. Tyree
J . Experimental Botany , 48 , No . 315 , pp 1753 - 1765 (1997)
R.4.6.4
The Dynamics of an Evaporating Meniscus
R.H. Rand , Ithaca , New York
Acta Mechanics 29 , 135 – 146 (1978)
R.4.6.5
The limits of tree height
G.W. Koch , S.C. Sillett , G.M. Jennings , and S.D. Davis
The tallest known tree on Earth is a Sequoia sempervirens in wet temperature forests
of northern California having a height of 112.7 meters . It is estimated that the
maximum tree height is 122 – 130 meters (see p. 184 in this work)
R.4.6.6
Water ascent in plants : Do ongoing controversies have a sound basis ?
Chunfang Wie , Ernst Steudle and M.T. Tyree
Trends in Plant sciences
Vol . 4 , No . 9 , pp 372 – 375 ; September 1998
R.4.6.7
Water ascent in tall trees :
Does evolution of land plants rely on a highly unstable state ?
Ulrich Zimmermann , Heike Schneider , Lars H . Wegner , and Axel Haase
New Phytologist , 182 , 575 – 615 (2004)
R-4-8
R.4.6.8
M. J . Canny : A New Theory for the Ascent of Sap - Cohesion Supported by Tissue Pressure
Annals of Botany 75 , 343 – 357 (1995)
R.4.6.9
Ascent of sap in plants by means of electrical double layers
M . Amin
Journal of Biological Physics
Volume 10 , Number 2 , / June 1982 , pp 103 - 109
R.4.6.10
W. Nultsch
Allgemeine Botanik
Georg Thieme Verlag , Stuttgart (1964) , pp 163 – 164
R.4.6.11
METASTABLE LIQUIDS : Concepts and Principles
Pablo G . Debenedetti
Princeton Universit Press (1996) ; pp 20 – 25.
R.4.6.12
LEHRBUCH DER BOTANIK
Begründet von E . Strassburger , F . Noll , H . Schlenck und A..F.W. Schimper ; 28 . Auflage
Neubearbeitet von : R . Harder ; F . Firbas , W . Schuhmacher und D . Von Denffer Gustav Fischer
Verlag , Stuttgart (1962) , pp 188 - 205 , s . speziell p . 204
R.4.6.13
p . 204 : left : A giant Eucalyptus tree
Eucalyptus-Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucalyptus
right : A „Coast Redwood“ tree : s . Internet – Bilder : Coast Redwood tree
R.4.6.14
p . 205 : Anatomy of a tree trunk
http;//bio1151.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch35/35_20TreeTrunkAnatomy.jpg
R.4.6.15
p . 206 : Sap transport in Xylem and Phloem conduits
[PDF] Chapter 36. Transport in Plants
www.holmodel.k12.nj.usl/.../plant%20transport.pdf
R.4.6.16
p . 207 : Upward sap transport in plantse
http://plantcellbiology.masters.grkraj.org/html/Plant_Cellular_Physiology5-Translocation_OF_Wat...
Figure slightly changed and explaining text added by P . Brüesch
R-4-9
4 – 49
R.4.6.17
p . 208 : Xylem and Phloem arranged in vascular plants
Figure left: www.fairchildgarden.orgl/.../Anatomy%20and%20Physiology%20of%20Leave
Figure right: E. Münch : Die Saftbewegungen in der Pflanze ; Gustav Fischer , Jena (1930) :
und : Journal of Experimental Botany , Vol . 57 , No . 4 , pp 729 – 737 , 2006
R.4.6.18
p . 208 right : E. Münch : Die Saftbewegungen in der Pflanze (Sap movements in plants) :
Gustav Fischer , Jena (1930) :
and : Pearson Education , Inc . , publishing as Benjamin Cummings
R.4.6.19
p . 209 : Capillary rise
Figure by P . Brüesch
s . also the following References ::
R.2.0.3 : pp 340 – 341 (Barrow) ; R.2.0.4 : pp 965 – 967 (Atkins) ; R.2.0.5 : pp 148 – 149 (Westphal)
R.4.6.20
p . 210 : Root pressure and Osmosis
Figure by P . Brüesch
s . also the following References :
R.2.0.3 : pp 303 – 305 ; R.2.0.4 : pp 227 – 229 ; R.2.0.4 : pp 261 – 263
R.4.6.21
p . 211 : Osmosis and Turgor in Trees
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmosis
R.4.6.22
p . 212 : Root pressure and Guttation :
Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
Root pressure : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_pressure
Guttation : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guttation
p . 212 : Guttation general and at Equisetum
Guttation – Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guttation
R.4.6.23
p . 213 : Tracheids of a Douglas fir
Literatue : from Google Images
R-4-10
R.4.6.24
p . 214 : Vacuum pump and evaporation at the yew branch
Figure left : Vacuum pump (P . Brüesch)
Figure right : Evaporation from a yew branch
Reference : R.4.6.10 : p . 163
R.4.6.25
p . 215 : The Cohesion – Tension Theory (CTT) for the ascent of sap in tall trees
Reference R.4.6.1 : Chapters 29 : pp 467 - 486 ; Chapter 30 : pp 487 – 495 ;
and : „Transport in Plants“ under : [PDF] Chapter 36-transport in plants
www.seattlecentral.edu/.../Chapter%2036%20-%20/transport%20in20%plants.pdf
additional References : R.4.6.2 – R.4.6.12
R.4.6.26
p . 215 : The Cohesion – Tension Theory has first been proposed by H.H. Dixon and J . Joly
and is still the most important and accepted Theory of water transport in tall trees .
see : Transport of Water and Minerals in Plants
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/X/Xylem.html
Henry Horatio Dixon : http://www.tcd.ie/Botany/tercentenary/300-years/chairs/henry-horatio-dixon
R.4.6.26a
N.M. Hohlbrook , M.J. Burns , and C. B. Field
Negative Xylem Pressure in Plants : A Test of the Balancing Pressure Technique
Science 270 , Noveber 17 , 1995
…The experients deonstrates that the Xylem is capable of sustaining large negative pressures …
The „balancing pressure technique“ supports rhe cohesion –tension theory as the primary
mechanism for water transport in higher plants .
R.4.6.27
Xylem : From Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylem
An interesting description of the ascent of sap on the basis of the Cohesion – Tension Theory
R.4.6.28
p . 216 : Redwood tree height profiles of Xylem pressure : Experiments
Plaint Psysiology Online : How water climbs up the Top of a 112 m tall tree : Essay 4.3 , p . 5
(Mai 2006) : http://4e.plantphys.net/article.php?ch=&id=100
R.4.6.29
p . 217 : upper Figure : adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces
Round-leaved dock : left : upper side ; right: lower side of the leaf
from Internet under „Leaf veins : Bilder (CLRV leaf veins – sympt)
p . 217 : lower Figure : Leaf veins (abaxiale leaf surface)
from Internet under „Leaf veins : Bilder : www-plb.ucdavis.edu
R-4-11
4 – 50
R.4.6.30
p . 218 : Structure and sap transport through leaves)
from Internet : „Leaf structure“ at heading „Plant Structure“
www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/.../biobookplantanat.html
or : http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farebee/biobk/biobookplantana...
from : Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology , 4th Edition , by Sinauer Associates and
W.H. Freeman
R.4.6.31
p . 219 : Vascular tissue in the leaf
http://de.wikipedia.org.wiki/Blatt
R.4.6.32
p . 220 : Superheated states in trees ; Figure from P . Brüesch
R.4.6.33
p . 221 : P-T diagram of water in superheated state ; s . p . 241 in Reference R.2.0.5
R.4.6.34
p . 222 : Vulnerability of Xylem to Cavitation and Embolism : Repair mechanisms
M.T. Tyree and J.S. Sperry
Annu . Rev . Plant Phys . Mol . Bio . 40 , 19 – 38 (1989)
R.4.6.35
M.J. Lampinen and T. Noponen : Thermodynamic analysis of the interaction of the xylem and
phloem sugar solution and its significance for the cohesion theory .
Journal of Theoretical Biology 224 (2003) , pp 285 – 298
R.4.6.36
Equation of state of water under negative pressure
Kristina Davitt , E . Rolley , F . Coupin , A . Arvangas , and S . Balibar
The Journal of Chemical Physics 133 , 174507 (2010)
R.4.6.37
Optical measurements probe the pressure and density under tension
Johanna Miller
Physics Today , January 2011 , pp 14 - 16
R-4-12
R.4.6.38
Aquaporin Water Channels
Peter Agre : Nobel Lecture
Bioscience Reports , Vol . 24 , No . 3 , June 2004
R.4.6.39
In 2003 , Peter Agre obtained the Nobel – Price in Chemistry for Aquaporine which are
proteins, allowing the rapid transfer of water molecules through cell membranes .
s . : http://wps.pearsoncustom.com/pcp_80577_bc
R.4.6.40
Aquaporins
http://de.wikipedia.org/wikii/Aquaporine
R.4.6.41
Ernst Steuble :
„Aufnahme und Transport des Wassers in Pflanzen“
http://www.homepage.steudle.uni-bayreuth.de/papers/2002/Leopoldina.pdf
R.4.6.42
The role of aquaporins in cellular and whole plant water balance
I. Johansson , M . Karlsson , U. Johannson , Ch. Larsson , and P. Kjellbom
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1465 (2000) , 324 – 342
R.4.6.43
„Aquaporine : Wasserspezifische Kanalproteine in Zellmembranen“
www.tp2.uni-erlangen.de/Lehrveranstaltungen/seminar/.../Gebert.pdf
Here , Aquaporines are considered in living creatures .
p . 8 : „Aquaporine are neither pumps nor e Carriers, but always open pores, whichh allow the
rapid passage through these pores „.
p . 27 : The driving force is the osmotic pressure“
R.4.6.44
Figure at p . 4-A-6-1 : Hydraulic coupling between xylem and phloem ; see in :
Journal of Experimental Botany , Vol. 57 , pp 729 – 737 , 2006
Thorsten Will and Aart J.E. Van Bel
R.4.6.45
Figure on p . 4_A_6_2 : Aquaporins
Ch. Maurel , Lionel Verdoucq , D-Trung Luu , and Véronique Santoni
Annu . Rev . Plant Biol . 2008 , 59 : 595 – 624
For this Reference I am indepted to Dr. H.R. Zeller
s . also p . 218 : Mesophyllzellen and Stomata
R-4-13
4 – 51
R.4.6.46
p . 4_A_6_5 : Biology of maple sap flow
An excellent introduction to the mechanism of sap flow in the maple tree has been worked out by :
Stephen G . Saupe ; College of St. Benedict / St. John‘s University ; Biology Department ;
Plant Physiology (Biology 327) : Biology of Maple Sap Flow (7. Jan . 2009)
http://employees.csbsju.edu/ssaupe/biol327/lab/maple/maple-sap.htm
R.4.6.47
Figure on p . 4_A-6_6 :
- Moving water , minerals , and sugar . Plant Transport : p . 34 : an apple trea
www.wou.edu/ /bledsoak/103materials/presentations/plant_transport_ppt
- Shits in xylem vessel diameter and embolisms in grafted apple trees of differing
rootstock growth potential in response to drought
Bauerle , T.L. , Centinari M. And Bauerle W.L. , SpringerLink
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21710199
R.4.6.48
to Figure on p . 4_A_6_6 :
Relationships between Water Stress and Ultrasonic Emission in Apple (Malus domestica Borkh
H.G. Jones and J. Pena
http://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/content/37/8/1245.abstract
R.4.6.49
Related to Figure on p . 4_A_6_6
Is xylem cavitation resistance a relevant criterion for screening drought resistance
among Prunus species ?
H . Cochard , S. Tete Barigah , Marc Kleinhentz , and Amram Eshel
Journal of Plant Physiology 165 (2008) , pp 976 – 982
R.4.6.50
p . 4_A_6_7 : Plant Physiology Online : The Cohesion – Tension Theory at Work
A Companion to Plant Physiology , Fith Edition , by Lincoln Taiz and Eduardo Zeiger
Chapter 4 : Essay 4.2
http://5e.plantphys.net/article.php?ch=e&id=99
R.4.6.51
p . 4_A_6_7 : Xylem – Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia ; pp 1 - 11
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylem
pp 2 and 3 : Transpiration pull ; capillary action and surface tension in mesophyll
R-4-14
R.4.6.52
Capillarity and Wetting Phenomena
Drops , Bubbles , Pearls , Waves
Pierre-Gilles de Gennes , François Brochard-Wyart and David Quéré
Springer – Verlag : New York , Berlin , Heidelberg (2004)
(The Figure shown on our page 4-A-6-8 is found in the book citted above (Section 2.4.3 ,
pp 52 – 53)) ,
R.4.6.53
Do Woody Plants Operate Near the Point of Catastrophic Xylem Dysfunction
Caused by Dynamic Water Stress ?
M.T. Tyree , and John S. Sperry ; Plant Physiology (1988) 88 , 0574-0580
[The Paper considers Thuja , Acer , Cassipurea , and Rhizophora]
4.7
Water plants
R.4.7.1
An introduction is found in :
Aquatic plants –Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_plant
R.4.7.2
Another exellent introduction has been worked out by :
Dr . Patrick Steinmann , Stein am Rhein
Gewässerbiologie : Wasserpflanzen
pp 223 , 224 : Plants with increasing water depths : p . 2 of this Reference
http://www.psteinmann.net/bio_wasserpfl.html
R.4.7.3
p . 225 : Red beds
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Röhrichtpflanze
R.4.7.4
Water lily – generain :
Water lily – Wikipedia
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seerosen
R.4.7.5
p . 226 : Blue Water lily
from Google – Suche
Pictures to „Blue Water lilies“
R.4.7.6
p . 226 : Air channels in the petiole and Leaves of a water lily :
Wasserpflanze - Wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasserpflanze
R-4-15
4 – 52
R.4.7.7
p . 227 : Lotus flower :
Lotus flower , Lotus fruit and Lotus leaves in rain – comparision with leafves of water lily
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotusblumen
R.4.7.8
p . 228 : Pondweed
Reference R.4.7.2 : pp 7 and 12
R.4.7.9
p ..229 : Fully submerged plants
Reference R.4.7.2 : pp 18 , 20 and 21
R.4.7.10
Plankton
Published : August 22 , 2008
Lead Author : Judith S. Weis
Topics : Marine Ecology
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Plankton
R.4.7.11
Plankton
http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Plankton
R.4.7.12
What are Phytoplankton ?
NASA : Earth Observatory
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Phytoplankton/
R.4.7.13
Phytoplankton
From : Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
R.4.7.14
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton – Wikipedia
aus : Wikipedia , der freien Enzyklopedie
http://de.wikipedia.org.wiki/Phytoplankton
R-4-16
R.4.7.15
Diatoms (Kieselalgen)
from : Wikipedia , der freien Enzyklopedie
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kieselagen
R.4.7.16
p . 230 : Figure from
Phytoplankton : Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton , p . 3
R.4.7.17
In 2003 , Peter Agre obtained the Nobel – Price in Chemistry for Aquaporine which are
proteins, allowing the rapid transfer of water molecules through cell membranes .
s . : http://wps.pearsoncustom.com/pcp_80577_bc-campell_biology_8/...
R.4.7.18
Figure 4_A_7_1 : Diatoms (Kieselalgen) : http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kieselalgen
Nitszschia is a species diatoms
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki.org/wiki/Nitzschia
R-4-17
4 - 53
5 . Water and Global Climateate
231
5–0
5.1
Water , Air , and Earth
232
All the water on the Earth amounts
to a volume of about 1.4 * 109 km3 ,
which corresponds to a mass of
about 1.4 * 1018 Tons .
This includes all the water in the
oceans , seas , ice caps , lakes and
rivers as well as the ground water
and the water in the atmosohere .
This total amount of water is
illustrated by the blue sphere with a
radius of about 700 km .
From the total amount of water , only about 3 % is freshwater (salt-free
water) which corresponds to about 42 millions km3 and to a radius of a
sphere of about 216 km .
From this freshwater less than 1 % is readibly avaialable for human
consumption because a large part of this freshwater must first be
purified or is stored in the form of ice bergs , etc .
233
5–1
All the Air of the Earth
Sphere with a radius
of about 1000 km
At technical normal conditions
(20 oC and 1 atm )
This corresponds to a mass of
about 5140 * 1012 Tons
 The air layer is very thin :
troposphere + stratosphere
together only about 50 km
Air layer = protection layer :
stores the heat radiated by the
Earth in the infrared region 
pullover effect !
Without the air layer , the
global temperature of the
Earth would be as low as
about - 15 to - 18 o C !
No liquid water would exist on
our planet ; only ice !
234
Air layer:
thickness about 50 km
thickness of troposphere :
about 11 km
+
thickness of stratosphere :
about 50 km
protection layer is very thin !
contains more than 99 % of
the mass of the terrestrial
atmosphere
Earth
The protection layer
stores the heat radiation
from the Earth in the
infrared region of the
spectrum  pullover !
R = 6357
km
without protection layer :
global temperature on the
Earth would be about
- 15 to - 18 oC !
No liquid water would be present on the Earth !
235
5–2
Structure of terrestrial atmosphere
236
Layering of terrestrial atmosphere viewed from space
Mesosphere and
Thermosphere
Stratosphere
Troposphere
237
5–3
Composition of the dry atmosphere
(in volume % and / or in parts per million (ppm))
N2 : 78.084 %
(780 840 ppm)
Argon : Ar
Carbon dioxide:
CO2
residual gas
O2 : 20.946 %
(209 460 ppm)
Ar : 0.934 %
(9 340 ppm)
oxygen : O2
CO2 : 0.036 %
(360 ppm)
nitrogen : N2
residual gases : i.e.
methane : CH4 ,
nitrous oxide : N2O ,
noble gases , H2
238
Solar radiation at the Earth (without atmosphere)
R
The solar energy falling onto a hemi sphere of the Earth is equivalent to the
energy which falls onto a spherical disk
with the radius R of the Earth . If S =
1368 W / m2 is the specific power , also
called solar constant , then the power
falling onto the surface of the disk is
equal to S x p R2 Watt (W) .
(The same result is obtained if the
integral of all normal components of the
radiation falling onto the hemisphere is
evaluated) .
Now , the Earth is not a disk but rather spherical .
Therefore , the surface onto which the solar
radiation is impinging during 24 h or more onto
the rotating earth is not p R2 but rather 4 p R2 ,
hence 4 times larger .
Therefore , the solar power density , averaged
over the surface of the whole earth , is given by
1368 W / m2 x p R2 / 4 p R2 = (1368 / 4) W / m2
= 342 W / m2 = S / 4 .
239
5-4
Stationary power balance (in %) between impinging and
reflected sun radiation without atmosphere but with
albedo (reflection of sun light by ice , snow , etc)
reflected
solar
radiation
31
impinging
solar
radiation
69 units correspond to
69 % of 342 W / m2 or of
Ps = 236 W / m2
emitted
terrestrial
radiation
100
A specific power density
of Ps = 236 W / m2 is
equivalent to a surface
temperature of the Earth
of  = - 18 o C (!)
69
atmosphere
69
from Stefan – Boltzmann law :
absorbed
solar
radiation
Ps = s T4 ; s = 5.6704 * 10-8 W / (m2*K4)
 T = (Ps / s) (1/4) = 255 K
Surface of Earth
  = - 18 oC
240
Greenhouse gases - General
Greenhouse gases are gases in an atmosphere that absorb and emit radiation within
the thermal infrared range . Both , absorption and radiation of infrared gases are caused
by specific molecular vibrations which change the dipole moment of the molecules .
The major atmospheric constituents , nitrogen (N2) , oxygen (O2) and Argon (Ar) (s . p .
231) are not greenhouse gases . This is because molecules containing two atoms of
the same element such as N2 and O2 and monoatomic molecules such as Ar have no
net change in their dipole moment when they vibrate and hence are almost totally
unaffected by infrared light .
The main greenhouse gases in the Earth„s atmosphere are water vapour , carbon dioxide
(CO2 : about 350 ppm) , methane (CH4 : 1.7 ppm) , nitrous oxide ( N2O : 0.3 ppm) and
ozone O3 (in the ppb range) . CO2 , CH4 , N2O , are antrhropogenous greenhouse gases
(i.e. they are produced to a large extent by men„s activities) .
Water vapor is still the most important greenhouse gas , because its concentration in
the atmosphere is on average about 25 times that of CO2 . Water vapour is the only
greenhous gas whose concentration is highly variable in space and time in the
atmosphere . Note , however , that water vapour is not an anthropogenous greenhouse
gas (see also p . 256) . The highest concentration of water vapour are found near the
equator over the oceans (enhanced by the warming up of Sea Water) and in tropical
rain forests . On the other hand , cold polar areas and subtropical continental deserts
are locations where the concentration of water vapour can approach zero percent .
The influence of water vapour to climate change and its positive feedback onto global
warming is discussed at pp 248 - 251 .
241
5–5
242
Temperatures and some greenhous gases
Remperatures :
Temperature without
greenhous effect
- 18 oC
Temperature with
greenhous effect
+ 15 oC
33 oC
Difference :
Greenhous gases :
Water :
Carbon dioxide :
H2O
CO2
Methane :
CH4
Nitrous Oxide :
N2O
CFCs : i.e.
CCl3F
(Chlorofluorocarbon s)
Ozone :
O3
243
5–6
Solar spectrum and spectrum of heat radiation of a
body (Earth) at 15 oC
Relative power
Sun
Earth
5‟500
oC
15 oC
VIS
0.1
0.2
IR
0.5
1
2
5
10
20
50
100
Wavelength in (mm) (logarithmic scale !)
The sun is heating the Earth  heat increases the vibrations of the
atoms thereby increasing the emission of Infrared Radiation (IR)
 heat radiation increases !
blue curve : global heat radiation corresponding to a temperature of 15 oC
244
IR - absorption (%)
Radiation
Greenhous gases are climate – active trace gases , i.e. gases
which absorbe sunlight in the infrared spectral region and
greatly affect the temperature of the Earth ; without them , Earth‟s
surface would be on average 33 oC colder than at present .
Earth
at
18 oC
Sun
6000 K
100
water vapour
0
100
carbon dioxide
0
0.1
0.5
1
5
10
20
50
Wavelength in micrometers (mm)
245
5–7
100
Global Temperature
14 . 0 oC
Year
Global warming is unambiguous today . This conclusion follows from observations of
the global increase of the average temperature of air and oceans , the melting of ice
and snow over large areas , as well as from the global increase of Sea levels .
The most important part of the increase of the mean temperature observed since the
middle of the 20 the century is due (with a high degree of probability) to the observed
increase of the concentration of anthropogenic greenhous gases , in particular CO2
which accounts for about 60 % .
246
Temperature change (oC)
Global average temperature since the year 1000
Northern hemisphere
Global
Clmate reconstruction / Observation
Different
possible
increases
Scattering due to
reconstruction
year
Mean average global temperature between the year 1000 and 2100 .
The Figure is based on a reconstruction of the climate (1000 - 1860) ,
on observations between 1860 - 2000 , and on different extrapolations
for 2000 – 2100 . (Source : IPCC)
247
5–8
Carbon Dioxide Concentration Increase
10„000
5„000
0
years
Carbon dioxide is the most important
anthropogenic greenhous gas . The
global atmospheric concentration of
CO2 has increased from a pre-industrial
value of about 280 ppm to 379 ppm in
2005 .
The atmospheric concentration of CO2
in 2005 exceeds by far the natural
range over the last 650„000 years (180
to 300 ppm) . This follows by analysing
ice cores from 1750 to 2005 which
show an increase of 100 ppm in this
time . The annual CO2 concentration
growth rate was larger during the last
10 years (1995 – 2005 average : of 1.9
ppm per year) , than it has been since
the beginning of continuous direct
atmospheric
measurements (1960 –
2005 average : 1.4 ppm per year)
although there is year-to-year variability
in growth rates .
The primary source of the increased atmospheric concentration of CO2 since the
pre-industrial period results primarily from the increase of fossile fuel use . An
additional but smaller increase of CO2 is due to the „land-use change“ ; an
example of the latter is the commutation of woodland into agriculture land .
248 a
Variation of CO2 - concentrations
Note the very marked increase in CO2 - concentrations
starting at the beginning of industrialization after 1800 .
249
5–9
Methane (CH4) - concentration increase
10„000
5„000
0
years
The global atmospheric concentratin of methane (CH4) has increased from a
pre-industrial value of about 715 ppb to 1732 ppb in the early 1990„s , and
was 1774 ppb in 2005 . The atmospheric concentration of CH4 in 2005 exceeds
by far the natural range of the last 650„000 years (320 to 790 ppb) as
determined from ice cores . It is very likely that the observed increase in CH4
concentration is due to anthropogenic activities , predominantly agriculture and
fossil fuel use .
250
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) Increase
The global atmospheric nitrous oxide (N2O) concentration increased from
a pre-industrial value of about 270 ppb to 319 ppb in 2005 . The growth
rate has been approximately constant since 1980 . More than a third of
all N2O emissions are anthropogenic and are primarily due to
agriculture .
251
5 – 10
Correlation of atmospheric CO2 – concentration
and temperature variation with time
The so-called „Vostok Ice – Curve“ shows a very strong correlation between the CO2 –
concentration and temperature development during the last 160„000 years . The data have
been obtained from chemical measurements of fossile air bubbles in antarctic ice .
252
Global climate change :
Correllation of temperature with CO2 - concentration
CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
Globale mean temperature of the Earth
ppm
oC
370
14.4
360
14.3
350
14.2
340
14.1
330
14.0
320
13.9
310
13.8
13.7
300
13.6
290
13.5
1860
1880
1900 1920
1940
1960
1980 2000 1
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
Development of global temperature of the Earth as a function of
the CO2 – concentration between 1860 and 2000
253
5 – 11
Today : 90 % of the global energy requirement is obtained
from fossile fuels (mineral oils , natural gases , brown- and
hard coal , deforestation , etc.) :
Anthropogenous combustion of fossile fuels
CO2 - emission : 30 Giga - Tons (GT) per year !
about 50 % (15 GT) diffuses into
the atmosphere
about 50 % (15 GT) is absorbed
by the earth :
• absorption of CO2 in the Seas
• photosynthesis in woods
greenhouse effect
global warming !
1 GT = 1‟000‟000‟000 tons
254
Interaction between global warming and water
Water vapor
Oceans ,
Lakes
Clouds
Global
Warming
Ice
Snow
255
5 – 12
Water and Climate : Basic Facts
• Water vapour is the most important climate - active gas
• however : water vapor is not anthropogenous (i.e. not
man – made) and is unevenly distributed
• strong positive feedback : self inforced warming
• Clouds , snow and ice reflect the sun light and there net –
effect produces a cooling (albedo - effect)
• by global warming : snow recedes to higher altitudes ; ice is
melting  warming with positive feedback
• During the last century , the Sea level rise due to global
warming is about 200 mm .
• without water vapor , the global warming would only be
about 50 % of the total warming !
256
Influence of water vapour on climate change
CO2 in atmosphere
increase of temperature of oceans , lakes , dry land and air :
stronger evaporation of
water
temperature
of water is
further increased
the warmer the air , the higher
is the saturation concen tration of water vapor :
higher con –
centration of
water vapor
in the air
10 0C : 9.4 g/m3 , 20 oC : 17.2 g/m3
the air is further
warmed up and
radiates back to
the Earth
257
5 – 13
water vapour of the air
absorbs more infrared –
radiation , which is back
radiated from the warm
Earth .
The positive feedback of water vapour onto global warming
CO2
greenhous gas
Temperature
greenhous –
gas
increased
evaporation
H2O(g)
Water vapour : most important climate active gas but it is not
anthropogenous !
Doubling the present CO2 – concentration :
 Temperature increase DT = 2 to 4.5 oC !
Without water vapour : temperature increase only about 50 % of DT !
258
5 – 14
5.2
Some implications
of Climate Change
259
Temperature increase  increase of evaporation  higher
concentration of water vapour  more clouds  more rain !
Flood in Switzerland (2007)
Flood in Délémont
260
5 - 15
Floods in Switzerland (2007)
Flood in
Laufental
Flood in a
hamlet in the
Canton Jura
261
Flood in Turgi (Canton Aargau , Switzerland)
August 7 , 2007 : the BAG TURGI ELECTRONICS AG (below) and the Armory
in Brugg (above) appear as islands !
The whole “Limmatspitz” is completely flooded !
262
5 – 16
Australia 2007 : The “Drought of the Century”
Increased temperature of ground and air  stronger evaporation
 drying out !
263
Ice + Snow
Climate
• Sunlight is reflected by ice and snow  albedo effect
The albedo is defined as the intensity ratio of the reflected and
incident radiation .
CO2 : Ice melts  warming up by decrease of albedo
CO2 : covering of snow decreases and is present only for short
times  warming up by decreasing the albedo
warming up : positive feedback !
264
5 – 17
Clouds
Climate
• about 60 % of the surface of the earth is
covered permanently with clouds .
• Clouds are formed only in the presence of
aerosols (condensation nuclei) on the sur face of which water vapour can condense .
• Clouds appear very often in the form of
supercooled water droplets or of ice crystals .
Clouds are important regulators for the climate :
• by reflection of the sunlight  cooling effect
• by absorption of IR – radiation from the earth
Net effect: cooling  Albedo - effect
265
Planetary Albedo effect
At the white regions of
the surface (clouds ,
snow , glaciers and icecovered areas of the
antarctic) , the sunlight
is reflected
 cooling !
(Albedo – effect)
Planetary albedo :
from the power of the
sunlight irradiated to
the earth , about 1 / 3
is reflected and 2 / 3 is
absorbed .
266
5 – 18
Direct observation of the more recent climate change
Difference (mm)
14.5
0.0
14.0
- 0.5
13.5
50
0
- 50
100
- 150
4
40
0
36
-4
32
1850
1900 year 1950
millions of km2
Northern hemi sphere snow cover
(km2)
Diff. (mill. Km2)
Global average
sea level (mm)
0.5
Temperature (oC)
Global mean
temperature (oC)
2000
267
Global change of the Sea level during the last
250 millions of years
maximum Sea
level (460
millions years
ago)
Trias
Jurassic period
Cretaceous age
Tertiary
Deepest
sea level
Sea level
today
Cretaceous age : time of global warming ;
Sea level about 170 m higher than today !
• global maximum sea level : 200 - 250 m higher than today
• mean concentration of CO2 : 700 - 2000 ppm (today : 380 ppm)
• average global temperature : about 21 0C (today : 15 0C)
• reasons : stronger magma flow at the sea grounds  evaporation
of CO2 ; melting of ice ; repression of water by magma ….
268
5 – 19
Changes of global Sea – level in cm
Increase of Sea level : 1870 - 2009
Data from Satellites
Reconstruction (Church  White)
Standard deviation
Double Standard deviation
Year
During the time 1870 – 2005 , measurements of the mean Sea – level in
geologically stable regions show an increase of about 25 cm .
269
Tropical fishes in the Mediterranean
The water temperature in the Mediterranean was never
as high as in recent years .
The warm water of the Mediterranean has attracted globefishes - the native
species are gradually superseded .
270
5 - 20
Computer – based climate prognosis with the help
of the Super Computers ESS : Earth Simulator System
Dr. Mitsuo Yokokava :
Chef - constructure of ESS
The Earth Simulator
Speed : 40 TFlops = 40 x 1012 floating point operations per second ;
Memory : 10 TB = 10 x 1012 Bites
271
ESS – based climate – prognosis for different scenaries :
from “Special Report Emission Scenaries” (SRES)
ESS : Earth Simulator System
Results of some SRES Models (1990 - 2100)
IPCC : Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (2007)
5
Temperature - change (oC)
6
different
scenaries
4
3
2
1
0
2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
year
As shown in the graph , the va rious models have a fairly wide
distribution of results over time .
For each curve , on the far right ,
there is a bar showing the final
temperature range for the corres ponding model version .
As expected , the further into the
future the model is extended , the
wider is the variance between them .
Roughly half of the variations
depends
on
the future
climate
forcing scenario rather than on the
uncertainties in the model .
IPCC Graph of the models of the tem perature increase as a function of time
272
5 – 21
Increase of Sea - Level extrapolated to 2100
The Graph shows estimates of the development of the Sea – Level in the past
(grey) , the observations during the last decades by measurements of the tide
gauge and satellites (red) , and prognosis for the future according to the IPCC
A18 scenario (blue)
273
Global glacier receding - 1
Meters
Average Change of Glacier Thickness (cm/yr)
Cumulative Mean Thickness Change (Meters)
274
5 – 22
cm/yr
Remarks to Figure at p . 274
The Figure shows the mean rates of the change of thicknesses of the ices
on the Earth .
This information is also known as the Glaciological Mass Balance (GMB) .
The GMB is evaluated by forming the difference of two measurements : a)
measurements of the Anual Increase of Snow (AIS) on the one hand and b)
measurement of the Anual Loss of Snow (ALS) due to melting - and subli mation processes on the other hand , i.e. GMB = AIS - ALS .
The upper graph of Figure 274 shows the anual average thickness changes
of the glaciers (in cm / year) . The lower curve gives the acumulated change
of the thickness decrease . During this time a thickness increase is obser ved only during 3 years (between 1965 and 1970) . For the thickness de crease see also p . 277 .
The Figure shows that during the whole observation period the average
thickness of the glacier ices (measured in m) decreases essentially contin ously during the time between 1957 und 2004 and that the total de -
crease is about 14 m !
275
Global glacier receding : the glaciers are melting more rapidly !
PERITO – MORENO GLACIER (ARGENTINA)
In 2007 , all glaciers in South America have lost ice
276
5 – 23
Cumulative mean annual mass balance [mm]
Accelerated melting of Glaciers - 2
0
- 2000
- 4000
- 6000
- 8000
30 „reference“ glaciers
subset of reference glaciers
- 10000
all glaciers
- 12000
1980
- 12000
1980
1985
1985
1990
1990
1995
1995
2000
2000
2005
2005
2010
Time (years)
Compair also with the thickness decrease shown at p . 274
277
Remarks concerning the global glacier receding
„The global receding of glaciers has been occurred within the last years . This is the con clusion reached by „World Glacier Monitoring Service“ (WGMS) , which has published the
newest results at January 29 , 2009 . At the average , the glaciers have been receded in 2007
as much as 75 cm . The most dramatic situation has been observed in the alps : Some
glaciers have lost up to 3 m of ice !“ ……
„The data of WGMS have been collected from more than 80 glaciers all over the world . At
the end of each summer , scientists are monitoring the changes of the thickness of the ice
at different places of the glacier .“ ……
„Collected over several years , the measurements of the thicknesses demonstrate the present
climate change (s. Graphs , pp 274 , 277) . From the start of the measurements in 1980 ,
thickness increases have been observed only in the years 1984 , 1987 and 1989 .
Furthermore : „The loss is accelerating , the values became increasingly negative“ , sais
Michael Zemp , WGMS member and glaciologist at the Geographical Institut of the Universi –
ty of Zürich“.
„The melting glaciers contribute each year 1 mm to the increase of the height of the Sea .
„This is roughly one third of the total increase , sais Zemp“. An additional increase of one
third is believed to be due to the melting ice of Grönland and in the Antarctic . The remai ning increase is due to the heat extention of the Sea water , sais Zemp .
„The 100 glaciers studied today constitute only a small portion“ , sais Zemp . …. „Worldwide
there exist 160„000 to 200„000 glaciers . … Despite this fact , the receding of the glaciers is
accelerating “ , according to Zemp . The exact extent is , however , still unclear . „In Switzer land , the receding of glaciers in 2008 was about the same as in 2007“.
278
5 - 24
5-A-0
380
Parts per billion (ppb)
390
Carbon dioxide
CO2
370
360
350
340
330
1978
390
1850
1800
1986
1994
2002
2010
Methane
CH4
1750
1700
1650
1600
1550
1978
325
325
320
320
Nitrous oxide
N2O
315
315
310
310
305
305
300
295
390 1978
Parts per trillion (ppt)
Parts per billion (ppb)
Parts per million (ppm)
Development of Greenhous gases : 1978 - 2010
1986
1994
2002
2010
600
500
CFC - 12
CFC - 11
400
300
200
100
0
1986
1994
2002
2010
390
1978
1986
1994
2002
2010
Growth trend of the most important anthropogenes Greenhous gases between 1978 and 2010 . CO2
and N2O (laughing gas) are constantly increasing, while after 1999 NH4 remained constant for some
years and started to increase again only recently . Due to their chemical inertness , CFC-12
(Dichlorofluoromethane) and CFC-11 (Trichlorofluoromethane) have a long dwell time in the
atmosphere . For this reason they are rising up into the stratosphere where they decompose by UV
radaiation . The reaction products are chlorine - and fluorine radicals which react with ozone leading
to a depletion of the ozone layer . Thanks to the Montreal Protocol for the protection of the
ozone layer , CFC-12 and CFC-11 remaine stable or even derease slightly after 1996 (right Figure
below) .
5-A-1-1
5-25
The CO2 – data (red curve) shows the monthly observed CO2 – concentration in dry air ,
observed in the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii . The Figure shows the longest
measuring observation for the CO2 – concentration : from 1958 to 2010 .
The data show the mole fraction of CO2 in dry air in units of ppm . The black curve
illustrates the average concentration .
5-A-1-2
Decrease of O2 in the atmoshere as a function of time
(O2 / N2)
L
Year
The Figure shows the decrease of O2 normalized to N2, (O2/N2) in Mouna Loa Vulcano
in Hawaii as a function of time between the years 1990 and 2006 . The quantity (O2/N2)
is defined as follows :
(O2/N2) = (O2/N2)Sample / [O2/N2)Reference – 1 * 106 in units of „per meg“. (*)
[(*) 1 per meg = 0.001 o/ oo ]
A regularly yearly cycle is observed . The average long-time trend represented by the
blue dashed line L as well as the blue grid have been added by P . Brüesch .
5-A-1-3
5-26
Remarks about the (O2/N2) - dada from 5-A-1-3
a) The O2/N2 – ratio can be changed both by a variation of the O2 - and the N2
concentrations . The air contains about 20.9 % O2 and 78.1 % N2 . Since air contains
several times more N2 than O2 , and since the natural sources and sinks of N2 are
much smaller than those of O2 , the O2/N2 – ratio reflects essentially the changes
of the O2 – concentration .
b)
The quantity  is zero if the sample has the same O2/N2 – ratio as the reference ,
and  is negative , if the sample has a smaller ratio than the reference . The pre sently observed values of  are negative because the O2 – concentration is
decreasing since about the year 1985 .
c)
The changes in (O2/N2)sample of (O2/N2) (p . 5-A-1-3) are very small : For typical air
of the year 2000 ,   - 0.000270 = - 0.0270 % = - 0.270 o/oo = - 270 per meg = 270 /
106 (s . Fig . p . 5-A-1-3) . [1 per meg = 0.001 o/oo = 0.0001 %] .
d)
The average time dependence (t) of the dashed line L in in the Figure of
p . 5-A-1-3 can be aproximated by (P . Brüesch)
(t) = 3.274 * 104  16.5 * t
t (year)
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
(t) (per meg)






5-A-1-4
5-27
-
0
85
190
270
370
450
R-5-0
5 . Water and global climate
5 . 1 Water , Air and Earth
R.5.1.1
For helpful information and interesting discussions about important topics discussed in
this Chapter , in particular about the role of water for climate change , I should like
to thank Professor Thomas Stocker of the University of Bern .
Prof . Dr . Th . Stocker
Climate and Environmental Physics ; Physics Institute , University of Bern
Siedlerstrasse 5 , 3012 Bern , Switzerland
R.5.1.2
WELTATLAS DES KLIMAWANDELS
Karten und Fakten zur globalen Erwärmung
Kirsten Dow und Thomas E . Downing ; Europäische Verlagsanstalt
Dr . Götze Land & Karte ; Hamburg (2007)
R.5.1.3
Important additional information can also be found in :
Google unter : „Water and Global Climate Change“
R.5.1.4
p . 233 : All the Water of the Earth
p . 234 : All the Air of the Earth
„http://www.adamniemann.co.uk/vos/index.html“
R.5.1.5
p . 235 : Air Layer of the Earth
Compilation by P . Brüesch from different Literature sources
R.5.1.6
p . 236 : Structure of terrestrial atmosphere :
From : Paul Scherer Institut (PSI) , 5232 Villigen , Schweiz
„Aerosolforschung auf dem Jungfraujoch“
s . Glossar : Sphere representing the atmosphere :
http://aerosolforschung.web.psi.ch/Glossar/Glossar Page htm
R-5-1
5-28
R.5.1.7
p . 237 : Atmosphere viewed from space :
Image from „The Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change“ (p . 3 of 77)
A slice through the earth‘s atmosphere viewed from space
http://www.bom.gov.au/info/climate/change/gallery/3.shtml
R.5.1.8
p . 238 : Composition of the dry atmosphere
from : http://www.ux1.eiu/  cfjps/1400/atmos _origin.html
Figure text by P . Brüesch
R.5.1.9
p . 239 : Solar radiation to the Earth (p . 3)
p . 240 : Impinging and reflecting sun radiation without atmosphere (p . 5)
p . 237 : Solar spectrum and spectrum of heat radiation of the Earth at 15 oC (p . 7)
In : „Climate Change „
http://openlearn.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=172073
Figures adapted and comented by P . Brüesch
R.5.1.10
p . 241 : Greenhouse gasous
Text composed by P . Brüesch from different Literature data
R.5.1.11
p . 242 : The Greenhouse Effect 1 : Incident and reflected solar radiation
http://andrian09.wordpress.com/2008/12/27//greenhouse-effect-2/
R.5.1.12
p . 243 : The Greenhouse Effect 2 : A giant natural climate machine
aus : PDF Aerosole : Die Wirkung auf unser Klima und unsere Gesundheit :
Urs Baltensperger : Paul Scherer Institut – PSI
www.kkl.ch/upload/cms/user/Vortrag_Baltensperger_Aerosole1.pdf
R.5.1.13
p . 244 : Solar spectrum and heat radiation of the Earth at 15 oC (Ref . R.5.1.9 , p . 7)
R.5.1.14
p . 245 : Radiation absorption characteristics of water vapour and carbon dioxide
http://www.bom.gov.au/info/climate/change/gallery/4.shtml
Figure adapted by P . Brüesch
R-5-2
R.5.1.15
p . 246 : Global Temperature Increase (1860 – 2005)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:instrumental_Temperature_Record.png
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Gobal.warming
R.5.1.16
p . 247 : Globale Temperatur zwischen den Jahren 1000 und 2100
From : BUELLTIN : Magazin der Eidgenössisch Technischen Hochschule Zürich : CO 2
Number 293 , May 2004 ; Figure from p . 23 of this Bulletin (Source IPCC)
R.5.1.17
IPCC , 2007 : Summary for Policeymakers . In : Climate Change 2007 : The Physical
Science Basis . Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , United Kingdom and New York ,
N.Y. USA .
p . 248 : Carbon Dioxide Concentration Increase (- 10‘000 to present time) ; p . 3 of IPCC
p . 250 : Methane Concentration Increase ; p . of IPPC
p . 251 : Nitrous Oxide Concentration Increase ; p . 3 of IPPC
R.5.1.18
p . 249 : Carbon Dioxide Variations (between - 400‘000 to present)
http://www.te-software.co.nz/blog/augie_auer.htm
R.5.1.19
p . 252 : Correlation of CO2 with temperature and with time back to - 160‘000 years
Alleged Correlation between CO2 and temperature
www.skepticalscience.com/The-correlation-between...
R.5.1.20
p . 253 : Global Climate Change : CO2- concentration and temperature increase
http://www.klimawandel-global.de/klimawandel/ursachen/co2-emission/neue-klimawandel , p . 2 von 3
http://www.klimawandel-global.de/bilder/co2-vs-temperature.jpg
R.5.1.21
pp 254 - 257 : Composed by P . Brüesch based on different Literature sources
for p . 256 : „Water and climate : Basic facts“ the following References have been used :
Reference R.1.3.1 : p . 67 ;
http://www.espere.net/Grmany/water/detroposde.html
http://www.schulphysik.de/aktkli2104.html ; http://www.te-software.co.nz/blog/augie auer.htm
R.5.1.22
p . 258 : Positive feedback of climate change (Positive Rückkopplung …. )
in : „Klimawandel“ , p . 20
Joachim Curtius ; Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
www.staff.uni-mainz.de/curtius/Klimawandel/
Login . Klimawandel , Password : CO2
Universität Mainz , WS 05 7 06
R-5-3
5-29
R.5.1.23
p . 258 : The positive feedback of water vapour ontu global warming ;
(Die positive Rückkopplung von Wasserdampf auf die globale Erwärmung)
in : „Klimawandel“ , p . 20 ; Joachim Curtius ; Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre
Login . Klimawandel , Password : CO2 ; Universität Mainz , WS 05 7 06
www.staff.uni-mainz.de/curtius/Klimawandel/
R.5.1.24
Appendix 5-A-1-1 : Greenhouse gas trends ; 1978 - 2010
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globale_Erwärmung
R.5.1.25
Appendix 5-A-1-2 : Atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory
Recent Mauna Loa CO2 ;
http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends
R.5.1.26
Appendix 5 –A-1-3 : Decrease of O2 in the atmosphere as a function of time
http://www.esrl.noaa.gov//gmd/obop/mlo/programs/coop/scripps/o2/o2.html
R.5.1.27
Appendix 5-A-1-4 : Remarks concerning the observed (O2/N2) – decrease
http://scrippso2.ucsd.edu/units-and-terms
5 . 2 Some implications of the climate change
R.5.2.1
p . 260 : Flood in Délémont , (Hochwasser in Délémont) , Switzerland (2007)
http://www.baz.ch/_images/imagegallery/Delemont.jpg
R.5.2.2
p . 261 : Flood in Laufental , Switzerland (2007)
Laufental : www.polizeibericht.ch/ger_details_3154/Kanton_Basel_Land_Hochwasserlage_...
Weiler Riedes : http://sc.tagesanzeiger.ch/dyn/news/schweiz/779685.html
R-5-4
R.5.2.3
p . 262 : Lit . zu : „Flood in Turgi“ , Switzerland ,
MZ (Mittelland – Zeitung der Schweiz) : Donnerstag , 23 . August 2007
R.5.2.4
p . 263 : Drought of the Century in Australia
MZ Mittwoch , 26 . September 2007 (p . 2)
R.5.2.5
p . 264 : The Albedo Effect by Ice (left) and Snow (right)
left hand Foto : „Icebirg“ from : Tagesanzeiger (TA) of Switzerland ; WISSEN - 27. 1. 2005
right hand Foto : „Dry Avalanche“ from : http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawine
R.5.2.6
p . 265 : Clouds as regulators for the clima
Foto of Cumulus Cloud : p . 164
R.5.2.7
p . 266 : Planetary Albedo Effect
in Reference R.5.1.9 : p . 4
R.5.2.8
p . 267 : More recent climate changes
Smoothed curves represent decadal average values while circles show yearly
values . The shaded areas are the uncertainty intervals estimated from a comprehensive analysis of known uncertainties (a and b) and from the time series © .
from : IPCC 2007
R.5.2.9
p . 268 : Global change of sea level during the last 250 millions of years
http://www.bbm.me.uk/portsdown/images/CretEnv/Seal.vl02.gif
R.5.2.10
p . 269 : Average increase of Sea Level since 1870 - 2009
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Recent_Sea_Level_Rise.png
R.5.2.11
p . 270 : Tropic fishes in the Mediterranean
Nathalie Schoch : MZ Dienstag , 25 . August 2009 , p . 26
R.5.2.12
p . 271 : Earth Simulator Computer
NEC Global – Press Release
http://www.nec.co.jpg/press/en/0203/0801.html
http://www.thocp.net/hardware/nec
R-5-5
5-30
R.5.2.13
p . 272 : Different time developments for temperarue as a function
of time between 1980 and 2100 according to ESS .
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IClimateprediction.net
R.5.2.14
p . 273 : Sea level rise extrapolated to 2100 (Extrapolation from 2007)
http://epa.gov/climatechange/science/futureslc_fig1.html
R.5.2.15
p . 274: Global glacier receding : Graph – 1
http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming
p . 274 : Gletscherschmelze
http://de.wikipedia.org./wiki/Gletscherschmelze , pp 1 - 28
R.5.2.16
p . 275 : Text to Figure 267 composed by P . Brüesch
R.5.2.17
p . 276 : Global glacier receding : The glaciers are receding faster !
from MZ (Mittelland – Zeitung) : Freitag , 30 Januar , 2009 , p . 22
R.5.2 18
p . 277 : Global Glacier receding : Graph - 2
originally from : www.durangobill.com/Swindle_Swindle_html
Bill Butler : Debunking the Deniers of Global Warming
Graph found under : „Graphs of receding glaciers“
(The quality of the Graph has been improved by P . Brüesch)
(s . also : MZ (Mittelland - Zeitung ): Freitag , 30 Januar , 2009 , p . 22)
R.5 2 19
p . 278 : Remarks to global glacier receding
from MZ (Mittelland – Zeitung) : Freitag , 30 Januar , 2009 , p . 22
Quotations by Michael Zemp , WGMS member and „Glaziologist at the Geographical
Institute of the University of Zürich
I
R.5.2.20
Sea Level Rise , After the Ice Melted and Today
Vivian Gomitz – January 2007
NASA GISS : Science Briefs : Sea Level Rise , After the ice Melted and Today
http://www..giss.gov/research/briefs/gornitz_09/
R.5.2.21
Worlds glaciers continue to melt at historical rates (25 . Jan . 2010)
www.guardan.co_uk/.../world-glacier-monitoring-service
R-5-6
5 - 31
6 . Water :
The Battle about
„the „Blue Gold“
Water contamination
and
Water treatment
279
6–0
6 . 1 The struggle for the „Blue Gold“
280
The total mass of water on the Earth
fills a sphere with a radius of about 700 km
This amounts to a weight of about 1 . 4 x 10 18 tons
281
6–1
Woman water carriers : India - 2003
Note the completely cracked and dry floor !
282
Women in Ethiopia are carrying water
1.2 1.2 1.2 billion of people do not have access to
drinking water and are permanently risking their life ! ot
283
6–2
A Samburu - warrior in the Nyuru – mountains of North Korea
is quenching his thirst
284
Drinking water
after the return
of rain
285
6–3
Thirsty Zebras at a water – hole in Namibia
286
World Population and Water scarcity
World population 2005 :
6.5 billion men
World population 2025 :
7.9 billion men
C
B
A
A : Sufficient availability : available and renewable source of fresh water per capita and
year is larger than 1700 m3
B : Water scarcity :
available fresh water ranges between 1000 m3 and 1700 m3
per capita and year
C : Water shortage :
available fresh water is less than 1000 m3 per capita and year
In 2005 about 745 millions of people lived in countries in which there was water
scarcity or water shortage . It is expected that by the year 2025 this number will be
about 4 times larger . According to present estimations , about 2.8 to 3.3 billions of
people will then suffer from chronical or repeated shortage of drinking water and most
of them will live in Africa .
287
6-4
Virtual Water - General
Virtual water , also known as embedded water , or hidden water, is
the amount of water that is contained in a specific food or in other
specific products for its production .
We are dealing therefore with that kind of water which is contained
fictitiously or seemingly within this product .
Professor John Anthony Allen (King„s College , London) was the creator of
the virtual water concept , which measures how water is embedded in the
production and trade of food and consumer products (he was the winner
of the Stockholm Water Prize 2008) .
The total real water consumption of a country is the sum of inland use ,
added by the import of virtual water (import of products) , and by
subtracting the export of virtual water (export of products) of a country .
288
Virtual Water for different Crops - 1
Plant / Fruit
Litres of water per kg
Potatos
255
Maiz
350
Oats
1597
Wheat
1334
Rice (paddy)
2300
Carrots
131
Tomatoes
184
Cucumbers
242
Cranberries
152
Dry onions
346
Apple
697
Apricots
1391
Cherries (sweet)
1543
289
6–5
More examples of virtual water content
for foot , drink and an average private car - 2
Product
Tomato
Quantity
Virtual water content (litre)
70 g
13
Cup of tea
125 ml
20
Potato
100 g
25
30 g
40
Orange
100 g
50
Apple
100 g
70
Glass of bear
250 ml
75
Slide of bread
Slide of bread with cheese
Glas of wine
30 g + 10 g
90
125 ml
120
Egg
40 g
135
Cup of caffee
125 ml
140
Glass of orange juice
200 ml
170
Bag of potato crisps
200 ml
185
Glas of apple juice
200 ml
190
Glass of milk
250 ml
Vegetarian diet
Hamburger
Meat-eating diet
Average private car
250
Daily (adult)
1„200
2„500
150 g
Daily (adult)
16„000
20„000 - 30„000
1
290
245
The Water Footprint - 1
The Water Footprint is related to the virtual water . For an individual , it is
simply the water used and is expressed in litres per day or in m3 per year .
But at the national level , this becomes complex : it is equal to the use of
domestic water resources , minus the virtual water export flow , plus the
virtual water import flow .
291
6–6
The Water Footprints - 2
The water footprint concept was introduced in 2002 . It is an indicator of water use
that includes both direct and indirect water use of a consumer or producer . The
water footprint of an individual , community or business is defined as the total
volume of freshwater that is used to produce the goods and services consumed by
the individual or community or produced by the business . Water is measured in
water volume consumed per unit of time .
Examples for Water Footprints :
USA : 2480 m3 per capita and year or of 6900 liters per capita and day .
China : 700 m3 per capita and year or of 1950 liters per capita and day .
Global average : 1240 m3 per capity and year or of 3450 liters per capita and day .
Water Footprint of a nation :
When assessing the water footprint of a nation , it is essential to quantify the flows
of virtual water leaving and entering the country . If one takes the use of domestic
water resources as a starting point for the assesssment of a nation„s water footprint ,
one should subtract the virtual water flows that leave the country and add the virtual
water flows that enter the country .
292
Three shocking facts :
• One third of the world population has no
access to clean drinking water !
• In the third world , contaminated drinking
water is the major cause for illnesses .
• Every day , about 6000 children are dying by
illnesses which are due to contaminated water !
293
6–7
Israeli settlers are occupying the water of Jordan
The 21 th century
Water war
294
Arming against thirst !
Bone of contention : Water of
Jordan . Israeli settler (p. 294 require the lion„s share of the life supporting liquid . But also the
Jordanians (this picturer showing
an armour training ) and the Palestinians require their contribution !
Both , the Jordanians and
the Palestinians are eager
to get their necessary
water contributions .
295
6–8
The precious Water of the Nil
Egyptian‟s president Sadat warned more than 30 years ago :
“ Who is playing with the water of the Nile , is declaring us the war ! “
Back in 1979 he said :
“The only matter that will take Egypt to war is water”
Thirty years later , there are still few effective mechanisms to resolve the
growing political and economic disputes over the Nil‟s water .
„Of all the social and natural crises we humans face , the water crisis is
the one that lies at the heart of our survival and that of our planet Earth“
Unesco„s director-general , Koichiro Matsuura“
in : Mechanical Engineering , September 2003 , p . 47
Opposition against the dam - projects “Blue Nile” of the States
neighbouring the upper part of the Nile
Egyptian‟s supply with surface water depends more than
90 % of the water of the Nile .
More and violent wars because of water
scarcity can be foreseen in our planet !!
296
6–9
6.2
Technologies for Water Treatment
and Control of Drinking Water
297
Methods for controlling drinking water
Physical methods :
Colour , conductivity, smell ,
taste , clouding ,
optical investigations
Chemical methods :
pH – monitoring , analysis
of different impurities , ….
Microbiological
methods :
Detection of different germs
298
6 – 10
Water treatment methods - 1
Compulsory :
Global research , development and efficient
detection by methods of water treatment
Distillation
Microporous filter
Ion - exchange
Ultra - filter
Photo oxidation
Reverse osmosis (p . 303)
Absorption by
activated carbon
SODIS :
Solar Disinfection
See also: NZZ : „Forschung und Technik“ , Mittwoch , 18 . März 2009 , Nr . 64 ,
p . 9 : „Salz und Wasser effizienter trennen“ von Hanna Wick
299
Water treatment methods - 2
• Distillation : heating up to boiling point  condensate
• Ion - Exchange : replacement of cations and anions of
impurities by H3O+ and OH- - ions using ion – exchange resins .
• Electrodeionization : Elimination of foreign ions by means of
electric fields and by using a combination of ion – exchange
resins and ion – selective membranes . The method has been
developed from electrolysis (s . pp 153 - 155) .
• Reverse Osmosis : By application of an external pressure ,
osmosis (diffusion of water molecules across semi – permeable
membranes into the solution) can be reversed  purification
of the solution , i.e. removing salts from Sea Water .
• Microporous Filtration and ultra - filtration across membranes
• Photo – Oxidation : UV – radiation destroys bacteria
300
6 - 11
Commercial plants are based
Distillation plant for households
on “flash - evaporation” ,
i.e. by sudden evaporation
of water :
• salt water is heated up ;
the vapour is free of salt
• then it is pumped into a
vessel with low pressure
• with decreasing pressure
the boiling point of water
decreases  saving energy ! ;
the method works with
superheated water !
• sudden evaporation !
“flash evaporation”
Heating element brings water to boiling
 evaporation ; vapour condenses in
condensing coil  distilled water
301
• In the condensing coil ,
the vapour condenses to
distilled water
Multi - Stage - Flash (MSF) : Distillation - plant for
desalination of Sea Water in Jebel Ali near Dubai
Capacity : 300 millions m3 water per year
(about 820‟000 m3 water per day !)
302
6 – 12
Osmosis
Reverse Osmosis
The “semi - permeable”
membrane (thin polyamid film) allows to cross only the
small water molecules , but
not the salts , dirt , bacteria ,
heavy metals and other
contaminations .
By application of a pressure
p > posm in the solution
compartment , the water
molecules from the aqueous
solution are pushed into the
water  from the solution ,
pure water is obtained !
The small water molecules are able
to diffuse across the “semi –
permeable” membrane into the
solution : in equilibrium , an
osmotic pressure , posm , of several
bars is building up (p . 304) .
303
Desalination plant in Perth (Australia)
Technology : Reverse Osmosis
Capacity : 140‟000 m3 /day ; expandable to 250‟000 m3 /day
In its final capacity the plant is able to produces 17 % of
the required drinking water of Perth
304
6 – 13
Zeolites for water softening
left : the pore spaces of zeolith A are usually occupied by highly
mobile Na+ - ions (yellow) , which neutralize the negative charge of the
framework . They can easily be replaced or exchanged by other ions
 ion exchanger
right : hard water contains much calcite (CaCO3  Ca2+ + CO32-) ;
the Na+ - ions are replaced by Ca2+ ions (red) , preventing the
deposition of calcite .
2 Na+ + CO32-  Na2CO3  good water solubility.
305
History of SODIS : Solar Disinfection
• The idea for disinfection of water by using sun radiation has
been found already some 30 years ago by Aftim Acda , Professor
for microbiology , in Beirut . During the war , he filled plastic bottles
with water who served as an emergency stock for drinking water
and he stored these bottles on his balcony . During this time of
exposure , he discovered that the sun was able to kill the
microorganisms present in water .
• 1984 : Publication in a scientific Journal , but his conclusions
have not been accepted !
• 1991 : The method has been tested and confirmed by Eawag
Sandec (Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology) in
Dübendorf , Switzerland .
• During this time the method has been thoroughly tested during
more than 10 years , both , in the Laboratory as well as in the field .
306
6 – 14
SODIS : Solar Disinfection
By suitable methods , clear
water is produced :
• sedimentation
• filtration
Start : contaminated and
eventually clouded water
307
Imperatively : Improving water treatment methods !
Important example of a simple and cheep method : SODIS
Principle of SODIS :
Clear plastic bottles are filled with contaminated but clear water .
The bottles are exposed during 6 to 24 hours to the sun light .
By exposure to the UV light as well as by warming up , the
bacteria causing diarrhoea are killed up to 99.99 % !
308
6 – 15
Exposing bottles filled
with contaminated
water to the sun
Characteristics of the method :
• cheap
• Water temperature can
increase over 50 oC
• Coli - bacteria are killed
by 99 . 9 to 99 . 99 %
• can not be applied under
all climate conditions
• virus and heavy metals
can not be eliminated .
309
Sodis from Eawag
Instructions of the SODIS – method at a school in Lombok (Indonesia)
by Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag) ,
Switzerland .
310
6 – 16
Appendix - Chapter 6
• Catastrophic Drought in the Horn of Africa
• Global Water Utilization in Percent
• Contamination of Sea - Water by Oil disasters
6-A-0
Catastrophic drought in the Horn of Africa
Samalia„s drought : Some
parts of the Horn of Africa
have been hit by the worst
drought in 60 years , with
tremendous humanitarian
consequences .
Kenya : Drought leaves dead
and dying animals in
northern Kenya .
6-A-1-1
6 – 17
Global Water Utilization in Percent
Agriculture
Private use
Industry
(including Energy sector)
Agriculture is very thirsty : 70 % of freshwater is used for agriculture !
Irrigation of crops is the main user of freshwater resources in most developing
countries and in Australia . ACIAR (Australien Centre for International Agrculture
Research) is supporting research on more efficient irrigation in developing
countries , to release some of this pressure .
6-A-1-2
Mega Cities in Water Crisis
The „World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is one of the World„s largest international
Environmental Organizations . It took place at August 21 , 2011 in Stockholm together with
an international Team of „World Water Week“ : „Big Cities , Big Water , Big Challenges“ . In
the following we quote some results and facts :
Mega – Cities all over the world are menaced in the years to come by a further
aggravating of the water crisis . They are especcially threatened by a further shortage of
drinking water , declining water quality as well as by a breakdown of canalizations .
• In many Metroplises the situation is untenable and menacing already today . In Mexico –
city , for example , the overexploitation of ground water reserves by boring of artesian
wells , (s . p . 191) causes a loss of 5 to 40 cm per year . For this reason , water
reserves at distances of 150 km away from the city must be used .
• The rivers of Buenos Aires are called „public sulages“ by the WWF . Worldwide , the
most heavily contaminated one is the Riachuelo ; it contains huge concentrations of
Lead , Zink and Chromium .
•
In Karachi , the southern port city of Pakistan , studies have shown that each year
about 30„000 people are dying as a consequence of contaminated drinking water .
•
Although the chinese Metropolis Shanghhai has sufficient freshwater , it is concerned
because of water scarcity .
• If the severe water problems in the above Mega – cities would be transferred to
Germany , it is estimated that about every third citizen of Berlin would not have access
to drinking water (Martin Geiger , WWF – expert for potable water) . In the case of
extreme weather conditions it would be necessary to boil the drinking water for several
weaks . In addition , the rivers Spree , Havel and the lakes around Berlin would be con –
taminated , blocked with refuse or would be pumped out .
6-A-1-3
6 - 18
Contamination of Sea Water by oil – spills :
Chronicle of the most serious oil disasters
• March 1967 : The supertanker Torrey Cayon struck a rock  loss of about 120„000 tons
of crude oil leading to an oil spill between the Cornish mainland and the Scilly Isles.
•
March 1978 : Amoco Cadiz was a very large crude carrier who struck a rock close
to the Bretagne  223„000 tons oil spill over a coastal area of 350 km .
• June 1979 : Explosion of the Oil rig Ixtoc I  Oil caught fire and about 1 million tons
of oil contaminated the Gulf of Mexico  drilling rig Sedco collapsed into the sea .
• March 1989 : Tanker Exxon Valdez grounded near Alaska  oil spill of 45„000 tons .
• 1991 : Gulf war oil spill  about 1 million of oil contaninated the Persion Gulf
thereby contaminating about 560 km of the coast . Reason : bombardments of tankers .
• October 1998 : Cargo „Pallas“  most serious oil spill at the German coast  244
tons of crude oil spilled into the Wattenmeer  about 16„000 birds were killed .
• December 1999 : Tanker „Erika“ sank off the coast of France near the Bretagne
 Loss of 17„000 tons of fuel oil contaminating about 500 km of the coast .
 about 300„000 sea birds were killed
• November 2002 : The tanker „Prestige“ sank and caused an oil spill of about 70„000
tons of fuel oil  contamination of hundreds of kilometers of the north-west coast of
Spain .
• April 2010 : Explosion of the Deepwater Horizon Oil rig of „British Petroleum“ (BP) in
the Gulf of Mexico  Explosion killed 11 men working on the platform and injured
17 others . After two days :  sinking of the platform . According to US . Information ,
about 254 millions liters of oil are still swimming in the sea  exceeding by far all
former oil spills !
6-A-2-1
a) Oil disaster of Deepwater
Horizon , BP Mexico in April 2010 .
c) Tony Hayward presided over the worst
oil US – history in Mexico . He is one of
the most responsible person for this
disaster in 2010 . He had to resigne as
BP chief officer .
b) Oil spill of BP Deepwater Horizon . An
oiled dead bird at the coast at East Grand
Terre Island of the Louisiana sea coast .
d) Oil cleanup operations having
adverse side effects on workers .
6-A-2-2
6 – 19
Possible actions after an oil spill disaster
After an oil spill disaster , several more or less effective treatments are possible , but
considering the enormous ecological consequences , only a small protection is
achieved . In spite of the astonishing regenerative capacity of nature , oil is an
extreme environmental poison . A liberation of such huge quantities of oil as in the
Gulf of Mexico is associated unavoidably with damages beyond repair . In the
following we quote some possible measures and problems associated with such a
huge oil spill :
1)
Containment with booms : Booms are floating barriers used to contain the spilled
oil and keep the slick from spreading . The method is not useful for very large
spills .
2)
Skimming : On the surface of water , oil can be skimmed with special ships using
vacuums or oil absorbant ropes .
3)
Chemical dispersants : The use of dispersants accelerates the natural dispersion
of the oil and at the same time it prevents the adherence to suspended solid
materials . Rough seas prevent the use of dispersants , because of the naturally
accelerated dispersion . The mixture known as Corexit 9500 is aimed to disperse
the oil at large depths below the surface , thereby avoiding the oil to rise to the
surface so that it can not be washed ashore .
But environmentalists such as Terry Hazen from the Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory are warning from the toxic effects of the Corexit components ,
especially since many solvents may be more harmful than the oil itself ! In Great
Britain Corexit has been forbidden already ten years ago . However , BP is still
insisting at Corexit : since the beginning of the oil spill disaster in Mexico , more
than 6.8 million liters of chemicals have been used !
6-A-2-3
4)
Burning : is highly disputed , because by burning the oil , the problem is not
solved but only transfered to other areas : The reason is that controlled burning
of oil slick produces a large number of toxic gases . Furthermore , burning of oil
in contact with sea water produces other toxic compounds .
In addition , more than 10 % of the oil is not burned but rather evaporates in the
form of micro–droplets . These micro–droplets can eventually be transported as oily
precipitations over distances of thousands of kilometers . Since burning produces
particularly toxic compounds , this method is even less recommendable than
chemical dispersion .
5)
Biodegradation : It is well known that some bacteria are living on crude oil . In
spite of the advantageous circumstances for the bioremediation of crude oil by
means of oil–consuming bacteria and by other micro–organisms , the quantity of
oil lost in the accident is simply way too large for the bacteria cultures in the
natural cycle of the Gulf of Mexico . Furthermore , the oxygen content in water is
replenished much too slowly by the heavy swell and by storms .
The tragedy of Mister Werner Kroh : his disdained invention
The German inventor Werner Kroh developed a non-toxic substance composed of a
mixture of various rock meals (originally known as Gees61) , which is able to
neutralize crude oils . After a most gruelling large time during which he lost all his
money as well as his health , he was finally able to sell his product to the Company
„Oil Treatment International AG“ (OTI) in Switzerland for marketing . Today , the product
is known as SOT-11 (Solid Oil Treatment) and LOT-11 (Liquid Oil Treatment) . It is the
best-selling product for indoor cleaning of oil .
Together with oil , the product reacts to amino acids , sinks to the ground and can
even be consumed by fishes !
Until today the Oil Companies have ignored the product in a humiliating manner ! For
this reason it has never been used for decontamination of oil spills in seas !
6-A-2-4
6 - 20
Ecological impact of the oil disaster in the Gulf of Mexico
• The oil rig is located in the center of an area of wild - life reservation .
• Threatened by oil is in particular the delta of the Mississippi river and the wild – life
reservation Pass à l„outre . Experts assume that the disaster will be worse than the
one caused by the tanker accident of the Exxon Valdez .
• Trying to burn the oil slick under controlled conditions resulted in a considerable
air pollution . In addition , by applying this strategy , the pollutants from the burned
oil (polycyclical aromatic hydrocarbons) create toxic residues in the sea and enter
the food chain .
• The US „National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration“ (NOAA) declared that birds
and mammals could escape more easily a fire than an oil slick . The effects to other
marine creatures and to fishes are , however , less clear .
• Concerning the amount of oil still present in the sea after closing the leak at the
bottom of the sea , there exist widely different opinions . NOAA believed that until the
end of August 2010 , about 74 % of the oil has been burned , sucked off or biode grated . On the other hand , scientists from the University of Georgia arrived at the
opposite conclusion : Due to the chemical Corexit , about 80 % of the spilt oil has simply
been pushed below the surface of the sea . There , it still threatens the plankton and
hence the entire food chain .
• The oxygen content of water has already been decreased by 30 % and the concentration
of methane is extremely high . Such a sizable decrease of oxygen causes a considerable
damage of the plankton . In the long term , this strongly disturbs the base of life of
marine creatures .
6-A-2-5
There exist more plastics than plankton in some seas !!
Trashing of Oceans :
A giant pacific plastic garbage is drifting through the North Pacific : The size of the
plastic carpet is comparable to Africa !! In each square meter , up to 18„000 plastic
chunk pieces are drifting through the world„s oceans , and this quantity is increasing
each year by about 6.5 million tons ! „Sea birds are confusing with increasing rate
plastics with food and are dying an agonizing death !“
6-A-2-6
6 – 21
Calciumcarbonate and water hardness : General
Calciumcarbonate or chalk , CaCO3 , is a white and nearly colorless powder .
In nature , three different crystalline modifications of chalk are known . The
most common structure is calcite or calcareous spar ; in addition the
modifications aragonite and vaterite exist . Chalkstones , chalk and marble are
fine-grained calcite .
In contrast to most salts , the solubility of CaCO3 in pure water decreases
with increasing temperature . The same applies for carbone dioxide , CO2 , as
well as for other gases dissolved in water : in warm water , their solubility is
smaller than in cold water .
Each process which increases the concentration of CO2 (dissolved in water)
increases the solubility of CaCO3 , while each decrease of CO2 causes a
precipitation of CaCO3 .
The solubility of CaCO3 depends very strongly on the acid concentration in
water . Example : in carbon dioxide containing water (water containing
carbonic acid) , CaCO3 is transformed into calcium hydrogen carbonate :
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Ca(HCO3)2 
Ca2+ + 2 HCO3-
Calcium hydrogen carbonate , Ca(HCO3)2 , is responsible for the water
hardness , i.e. the water contains the bicarbonate ions Ca2+(aq) and HCO3-(aq) .
6-A-2-7
Calcium carbonate : CaCO3 and calcination
a)
Chalk powder : In pure water , calcium carbonate ,
CaCO3 , is hardly soluble (only 14 mg / L at 20o C) and
at higher temperatures (above 55 to 60 oC) its solubility
decreases even more strongly (*) . In the presence of
dissolved CO2 , however , its solubility increases more
than a factor of hundred . It is thîs effect which is
responsible for the weathering of chalkstone , resulting
in the formation of the well water-soluble calcium
hydrogen carbonate , Ca(HCO3)2 .
Droplet from a calcified water faucet .
b)
The crystalline calcium carbonate , CaCO3 , blocks
the faucet nearly completely .
The picture shows a nearly completely calcified water
pipe .
c)
A very thick layer of CaCO3 is deposited in the pipe .
(*) In order to avoid excessive calcination , the
temperature of water in households , etc . should
not exceed 55 – 60 oC !
6-A-2-8
6 - 22
Chemical water softening
A large variety of water softening substances in households and industry is
available . These substances interact strongly with the alkaline earth ions (e.g.
Ca2+) which are then no longer available for disturbing reactions . In this process
the alkaline earth cations are not removed but they are rather „marked“ . The
resulting water behaves now essentially as soft water .
In addition to the water softening based on Zeolites and layerd crystals (ion
exchangers) as outlined at p . 305 , other chemical processes exist .
In the following we consider only the method based on acetic acid , CH3COOH . In
dilute form , this acid is used for scaling chalk according to the following chemi –
cal method :
Acetic acid
Calcite
2 CH3COOH
+ CaCO3
Ca(CH3COO)2 : Calcium acetate

Ca2+(aq) + 2 (CH3COO)-(aq) + CO2 + H2O
The salts of acetic acid are called acetates .
In most cases the acetates are colorless
crystalline salts , the ionic lattices of which
are occupied by the acetate ions , i.e. CH3COOand by Ca2+ ions .
The solubility of calcium acetate is very high :
374 g / L at 0 oC !
(CO3)2- : planar carbonate ion
Ca2+
structure of CaCO3
6-A-2-9
Physical water softening - 1
For a long time the market offers devices for physical water softening . It is the
scope of these treatments to reduce or eliminate scale by means of magnetic or
electric fields in water pipes , water tube boilers and pans .
EMIPULS
Elektronics
Water
Permanent magnets
connected in series
Generation of magnetic pulses
in the water pipe
The producers assume that the magnetic field causes a transition of the strongly adherent
Calcite of CaCO3 to the very weakly adherent Aragonite modification and that the latter is
easely washed out .
Concerning the effectiveness of the methods a heated controversy inflamed . The „Swiss
Federal Laboratories for Material Science“ (EMPA) has tested five comercial decalcification
devices based on magnetic fields under practical conditions . Within measuring accuracy ,
they have found that the same amount of chalk has been deposited with and without
magnetic fields (see Scanning Electron Microscopy of calcite and aragonite at p . 6-A-2-11) .
Similar results have been obtained by the „German Institute of goods quality test“
(„Stiftung Warentest“ at the year 2000 (Reference R-6-2-25 c) . Significantly more favorable
results have been reported by Dr . Regula Müller in her Doctoral Dissertation in 1998
performed at the „Swiss Federal Institute of Technology“ (ETH) in Zürich (Reference R-6-225 a) . The results seem to depend strongly on the many actual parameters of the specific
device .
6-A-2-10
6 - 23
Physical water softening - 2
The two Figures below show the Scanning – Electron – Microscopy pictures of Cacite
and Aragonite deposited at 25o C in a strong magnetic field [Ref . R.6.2.25 d)] . The
following results have been obtained :
a)
The quantity of deposited CaCO3 was independent on the presence of static
magnetic fields .
b) In contrast to the assertion of the producers , the needle-shaped Aragonite sticks
much more strongly at the heating elements than the disc-shaped Calcite .
Calcite
Aragonite
Both results do not support the effectiveness of the magnetic water softening as claimed
and described by the producers nor do they offer an explanation : Using static magnetic
fields no water softening can be achieved . Under the conditions of the above experiments ,
the Aragonite sticks even more strongly than the Calcite and can not be washed out . On
the other hand , the deposited Calcite can be removed easily .
All these results demonstrate that the effectiveness of water softening with static magnetic
fields is highly qûestionable . In the case of alternating magnetic fields the situation may be
more complex . In addition , moving water can behave differently than standing water . In
any case , the number of potentially relevant parameters is very large .
6-A-2-11
6 - 24
R-6-0
6 . The battle about the „Blue Gold“
6 . 1 All the water on the Earth
R.6.1.1
The Big Thirst : The Secret Life and Turbulent Future of Water
Charles Fishman
Free Press : 2011
R.6.1.2
Vandana Shiva
Water Wars : Pollution , Profits and Privatization
Softcover , Pluto Press , ISBN 0745318371
R.6.1.3
WATER SCARCITY & CLIMATE CHANGE
Authored by the Pacific Institute
Jason Morrison , Mari Morikava , Michael Murphy , and Peter Schulte
Ceres , Pacific Institute , February 2009 ,
A Ceres Report
R.6.1.4
Helvetas – Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvetas
Sustainable Management of Natural Resources – Helvetas
helvetas.ch/w/English/…/doc-resources.asp?...16
R.6.1.5
Philip Ball , Weidenfeld & Nicolson (London ,1999 ; pp 313 -346
R.6.1.6
p . 281 : All the Water on the Earth (see p . 226 and Reference R.5.1.4 :
Adam Niemann , http://www.adamniemann.co.uk/vos/index.html
R.6.1.7
p . 282 : Indian woman are carrying Water
„Neue Zürcher Zeitung“ : NZZ
Sonderbeilage „Wasser - ein kostbares Gut“ (ISBN 07) , (28.10.2003)
R-6-1
6 – 25
R.6.1.8
p . 283 : Woman in Ethiopia are carrying Water
In Internet under „Woman in Ethiopia carry Water“
„Developping Countries , Issues in-dam,building,river,effects…“
R.6.1.9
p . 284 : A Samburu – warrier in the Nyuru – mountains of North Korea
quenching his thirst
Reference R.1.3.18 , p . 21
R.6.1.10
p . 285 : Drinking after the return of rain
Le Grand Livre de L‘EAU
Edition La Manufacture , 1995 , p . 406
R.6.1.11
p . 286 : „Thirsty Zebras at a water – hole in Namibia“
Ethona National Parc , Namibia
in : Reference R.1.3.14 , p . 60
R.6.1.12
p . 287 : World population and Water scarcity
(Weltbevölkerung und Wasserknappheit)
www.dsw-online.de/pdf/wasserknappheit.pdf
R.6.1.13
p . 288 : Virtual Water : General Remarks
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtuelles_Wasser
R.6.1.14
pp 289 – 290 : Virtual Water
John Anthony Allan : was awarded the Stockholm Water Prize in 2008 for his
revolutionary „Vrtual Water Concept „
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Anthony_Allan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_water
for Data at pp 289 and 290 see :
a) Virtual Water : by Darshan Sachda
see in Internet under : „Table of virtual water content“
b) http://edro.wordpress.com/water/virtual-water-content/
c) www.megill.ca/files/water2010/Report-Hans_Schreier_et_al.pdf
d) www.fao.org/nr/water/does/VirtualWater_article_DZDR.pdf
R-6-2
R.6.1.15
p . 291 , 292 : „Water Footprint“ :
p . 291 : Water Footprint – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://www.gdre.org/uem/footprins/water -footprint.html ; http://waterwiki.net/index.php/Water_footprin
p . 292 : Water footprints of nations : Water use by people as a function of their
consumption pattern .
A.Y. Hoekstra and A.K. Chapagain : Water Resource Manage 21 , pp 35 – 48 , 2007 (Springer)
R.6.1.16
p . 293 : Three shocking facts : Collected from different Literature Data by P . Brüesch
R.6.1.17
p. 294 : Israelis settlers are occupying the Water of Jordan
Bild der Wissenschaft 1/2000 , p. 36
R.6.1.18
p . 295 : Armer training of the Jordanians ; Bild der Wissenschaft 1/2000 , p . 37
R.6.1.19
p . 296 : In Africa , the waters of the Nile are shared by ten countries in the east and
north of the continent .
http://www.theafricareport.com/archives2/frontlines/71-nile-troubled-waters.html
R.6.1.20
6-A-1-1 : Google – Images
upper picture : Dying child : found in : „Worst drought in the Horn of Africa“
lower picture : found in : „Drought in Kenya leaves dead animals“
R.6.1.21
6-A-1-2 : Reducing water use in agriculture / Globale Wassernutzung in Prozent
ACIAR : Australien Centre for International Agricultural Research
http://aciar.gov.au/node/725
http://www.focus.de/magazin/verlagssonderveröffentlichungen.grue...
R.6.1.22
Water crisis in Mega – cities (Wasserkrise in Mega – Städten)
WWF – Studie : Megastädte in der Wasserkrise
http://www.gmx.net/themen/wissen/klima/92810mg-megastaedte-in-der-wasserkrise
WWF – Studie sieht Megastädte von verschärfter Wasserkrse bedroht
http://www.bluewin.ch/de/index.php/26,452131/WWF-Studie_sieht_Mega%C3%A4dte_vonversch%
Wasserkrise_bedro…
R-6-3
6 – 26
6 . 2 Methods for Water Treatment
R.6.2.1
WATER TREATMENT
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment
R.6.2.2
WATER PURIFICATION
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification
R.6.2.3
PROCESS TECHNOLOGIES FOR WATER TREATMENT
Edited by Samuel Stucki ; Asea Brown Boveri , Ltd . , Baden , Switzerland
Plenum Press – New York and London (1988)
R.6.2.4
Reference R.3.2.8 : Desalination of Seawater by Electrolysis
R.6.2.5
WATER MANAGEMENT , PURIFICATION & CONSERVATION IN ACID CLIMATES
Technomic Publishing Company , Inc .
851 New Holland Avenue , Box 3535
Lancaster , Pennsylvania 17604 , USA
Copyright 2000 By Technomic Publishing Companx , Inc .
R.6.2.6
CHEMISTRY OF WATER TREATMENT
Samuel Denton Faust and Osman M . Aly
CRC Press , 1998
2nd Edition
R.6.2.7
WATER RESOURCES OF ARID AREAS
D . Stephenson , E.M. Shemang , and T.R. Chaoka
Taylor & Francis , 2004
R-6-4
R.6.2.8
WATER TREATMENT MEMBRANE PROCESSES
American Water Works Association , 1996
Printed and bound by R.R. Donnelley and Sons Company
(22 contributors)
R.6.2.9
WATER AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT : OPPORTUNITY FOR THE CHEMICAL SCIENCES
Workshop Report to the Chemical Sciences Roundtable
Publication year : 2004
Chemical Sciences Roundtable ,
National Research Council
http://www.aquaprix.com/What_is_Distillation.html ; p . 2
R.6.2.10
pp 297 – 300 : Methods for Water Treatment and Purification
see : R.6.2.1 , R.6.2.2 , and R.6.2.4
R.6.2.11
p . 301 : Distillation plant for housholds :
http://www.aquaprix.com/What_is_Distillation.html ; p . 2
R.6.2.12
p . 302 : Multi – stage flash distillation :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-stage .flash
Desalination Plants in Jebel Ali near Dubai
http://www.lahmeyer.de/en/en/projects/details/browse/0/project/212/model/1show/show...
www.meyer.de
R.6.2.13
p . 303 : Principle of Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis
Figures of Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis : http://www.aquatechnology.net/aropix1.jpg
Reverse Osmosis : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis
R.6.2.14
p . 304 : Perth Seawater Desalination Plant based on Reverse Osmosis :
Figurere : http://www.australienwaterservices.com.au/images/WaterFactsProspect.jpg
http://www.water-technology.net/projects/perth/
R.6.2.15
p . 305 : Zeolithes : http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeolith_A :
The structure of Zeolith can accept Ca 2+ -ions and get rid of Na+ - ions .
s . Dr . Arnold Chemie - Beratung , Claudia Arnold , ca@arnold - chemie.de
R-6-5
6 - 27
R.6.2.16
pp 306 - 310 : Literature about SODIS : Solar Disinfection
Martin Wegelin and Camille De Stoop , Eawag , Switzerland
25th WEDC Conference , p . 310 ; Addis Ababa , Ethiopia (1999)
„Potable water for all : promotion of solar water disinfection
Houshold Water Treatment Systems :
Establishing a SODIS Reference Centre at Eawag
Sandec News 8 / 2007
The SODIS Africa Net (SAN)
http:// www.sodisafricanet.org/
Solar water disinfection – Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_water_disinfection
R.6.2.17 : p . 6-A-2-1 : The most serious oil disasters in history
http://www.welt.de/die-welt/wirtschaft/article8755697/Die-schlimmsten-Oelkatastrophen-...
R.6.2.18 : p .
a)
b)
c)
d)
6-A-2-2 : Images from Google
in : „Images“ from „Oil disaster in the Gulf of Mexico“
in : „Images“ from „Deepwater Horizon – an oiled dead bird in coastal Louisiana“
in : „Images“ from „Oelcatastrophe in the Gulf of Mexiico“
in : „Images“ from „Oelcatastrophe in the Gulf of Mexico“
R.6.2.19 : pp . 6-A-2-3 - 6-A-2-5: Strategies to and consequences of oil disasters
a) Oil Spill Cleanup Procedures :
http://www.ehow.com/way_5340818_oil_spill_cleanup-procedures.html
b) How do you clean up an oil spill ?
http://www.ceoe.udel.edu/oilspill/cleanup.html
d) Oil dispersants and environmental „cfapsshoot“
http:www.msnbc.msn.com/id/37282611/ns/disaster_in_the_gulf/t/oil-dipersants-environmental-c…
e) Oil spill-Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spill
R-6-6
f) Werner Kroh : CH-3077 Enggistein : Literatut über Bekämpfung der Oelpest
- „Neue Energie – Technologien“ (NET) , Mai – Juni 2010 ; Jahrgang Nr . 15 , Heft Nr . 5/6
- http://www.highspirits.co.cc?p=308
- htttp://www.freepatentsonline.com/y2008/ 0312122.html
- http://www.importers.com/Exporter/ID.153218/OTI_Oil_Treatment_International_AG.html
- „Der späte Triumph des Werner Kroh“ : Migros-Magazin 16 , 18. April 2011
- OTI AG – Product & Services
Toxic Oil Spill Rains Warned Could Destroy North America . Corexit Rain ?
http://www.besplatnestvari.biz/video/Toxic-Oil-Spill-Rains-Warne...
R.6.2.20
p . 6-A-2-6 :
Es gibt viel mehr Plastik als Plankton im Meer (KEYSTONE)
(There is much more plastics than plankton in the sea)
Aargauer Zeitung : Dienstag , 19 . Juli 2011 , pp 1 und 19
Autor : Nils Guse : Forschungs - und Technologiezentrum in Büsum
R.6.2.21
p . 6-A-2-7 :
CaCO3 and water hardness : General
http://www.chempage.de/lexi/lexikalk.htm
An introduction to water hardness (5 pages)
www.itacenet.org/.../water/Sec...-Vereinigte Staaten
R.6.2.22
p . 6-A-2-8 :
CaCO3 and calcination
picture a) : http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calciumcarbonat
picture b) and c) : Wikipedia : „pictures : to Hard Water“
R.6.2.23
p . 6-A-2-9 :
Chemical water softening - acetic acid
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essigs%C3%A4ure
Calcium acetate
http://en.wikipedia.org/wikiCalcium_acetate
Calzit – Wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calzit
R-6-7
6 – 28
R.6.2.24
R.6.2.25
6-A-2-10 : Comparision between Ion – Exchangers and physical water softening
Vergleich zwischen Ionentauscher und physikalischer Wasserenthärtung
http://www.wasser-hilft.de/vergleich_zwischen_ionentauscher.htm
References to pp 6-4-2-10 and 6-4-2-11 :
a) Regula Müller : Dissertation (Doctoral Dissertation) ETHZ , No 12644 (1998)
„Einfluss elektromagnetischer Felder auf Kristallisationsvorgänge : Praktische Anwendungen in
der Schlammbehandlung von Kläranlagen und in Trinkwassersystemen“
b) Wasserenthärtung – Wikipedia (Water Softening – Wikipedia)
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasserenth%C%A4rtung
(Contains critical remarks about „Physical Water Softening“)
c) Stiftung Warentest 01 / 2000 : Physikalische Wasserbehandller im Test
http://www.test.de/themen/umwelt-energie/test/Physikalische-Wasserbehandlung-Ein-Schlag
ins-Wasser-16891-16891
d) Physikalische Wasserbehandlungsgeräte – Versuche und Stellungnahme von EMPA
Franz Theiler , Dübendorf (EMPA : Eidgenössische Materialprüfungs – Anstalt)
Sonderdruck Nr . 1166 aus Gas – Wasser – Abwasser (1988 / 11) des Schweizerischen
Vereins des Gas – und Wasserfaches , Zürich (pp 623 - 632)
Für die auf unserer Seite 6-4-2-11 gezeigten Figuren von Calzit und Aragonit : s . p. 629
(For providing me this Figure I am indepted to Dr . M . Tuchschmid , EMPA)
For the following three References I am indepted to Dr . F . Greuter (ABB – Switzerland)
e) Mitteilungen zum Gewässerschutz : NR . 30 ; Elektromagnetische Wasserbehandlung
BUWAL 1999 : www.umwelt-schweiz.ch/publikationen , pp 1 – 7
f) Wasserbehandlung : Chemisch , physikalisch , elektrolytisch oder wie ?
Hauseigentümer – Zeitung 2004 / Nr . 20
g) Emipuls : Verhindert neue Kalkablagerungen … EMIPULS AG , Zug , Switzerland
h) For the following Refernce I am indepted to Mister Oswald Keller ; CH-Nussbaumen , Switzerland
HydroFlow (Patented Technology)
Control and Monitoring Systems GmbH ; 5608 Stetten , Switzerland
R-6-8
6 - 29
7 . Water , Light and Colours
311
7–0
7.1
Refraction , Reflection and Interference
312
Solar Radiation Spectrum
NIR
Infrared
The Figure shows the solar radiation spectrum for direct light at both the top of the
Earth‘s atmosphere and at the sea level . The sun produces light with a distribution
similar to what would be expected from a 5525 K (5250 oC) blackbody , which is
approximately the sun‘s surface temperature . The absorption bands (H2O) in the near
– infrared region (NIR) are due to combination frequencies of the normal modes of
vibration of the water molecules .
313
7–1
Spectral decomposition of Sunlight showing the visible range
in an expanded scale
390 nm
1 nm = 10-9 m
750 nm
The wavelength range from l = 390 nm to l = 750 nm is the visible light and
corresponds to the spectrum of the Sunlight . From n l = c (n = frequency ,
l = wavelength , and c = velocity of light) , this corresponds to a frequency
range from n = 7.69 * 1014 s-1 to n = 4.0 * 1014 s-1 .
At the left-hand side the whole range of the electromagnetic spectrum from
Gamma Rays to Radio Waves is shown .
314
Water and visible light
Refraction of a light beam entering from
air to water :
refractive index of air : na = 1,
velocity of light in air = ca = c0 ,
in water : nw = 1.33 ,
c = ca / nw < ca  refraction
The velocity of constant phase in
water is smaller by a factor of
1 / nw = 0.75 than in air
a
 refraction
Law of refraction :
b
sin(a) / sin(b) = ca / cw = nw / na = nw
315
7-2
Reflection and Refraction of Light by Water
Fermat‘s Principle : The time t required for light to travel from point A to
point B is the shortest possible time.
A
Reflection :
B
L
L(x) = L1 + L2 = (h2 + x2)1/2 + [h2 + (L-x)2]1/2
L2
h
L1
h
a b
D
x
C
Minimum : dt/dx = 0 ; t = L/c  dL/dx = 0
A simple calculation gives :gives : a = b
 ABC is the shortest path
L-x
Refraction :
A
air
s1
a
a
s1 = AO ; s2 = OB
n1 = 1
O
v1 = c/n1 = c = s1/t1 ; v2 = c/n = s2/t2
water
b
n2 = n
= 1.333
b
s2
x
s1 = (a2 + x2)1/2 ;
s2 = [b2 + (c – x)2]1/2
t = t1 + t2 = (1/c)* { (a2 + x2)1/2 + n*[b2 + (c – x)2 ]1/2}
Minimum : dt / dx = 0 (AOB is the shortest path)
c-x
Snell‘s law : n1 * sin(a) = n2 * sin(b)

B
c

for air / water : sin(a) = n * sin(b)
316
Optical image lifting of a stick immersed into water
Real stick : dark-gray
A
Refraction gives rise to a sharp bend at P
R
v
u
S
Q
P
 viewed obliquely from above the water
surface , the stick (light-gray) appears to
be bent in the water
If viewed from outside , objects (i.e. fishes
in the sea) appear to be at depths smaller
than the actual depth .
In the above picture , the real stick in the air is dark-gray . If viewed
perpendicularly through the water-plane defined by the points P, Q, R, S , the stick
is not bend (real stick P-Q in the water) . If , however , the stick is viewed
slightly from above the water surface , refraction gives rise to a sharp bend of
the stick at the point P resulting in the apparent stick P-S (light-gray) . The
effect of refraction can be explained by starting from the point Q : A light ray
from Q to R (solid yellow line) is refracted at the point R of the water surface
giving rise to the ray R-A in the air which is observed by the eye A . But the
eye does not know anything from the refraction of light and assumes that it is
radiated from the end-point S of the apparent light-gray stick along the dashed
yellow line S-R . This phenomena is known as optical image lifting .
A more detailed explenation of this interesting optical phenomena is discussed at
pp 7-A-1-1 and 7-A-1-2 . There , it is shown that for nearly perpendicularly
immersed sticks the ration u/v = ¼ = 0.25 .
317
7–3
Reflection and construction of mirror images
From the point S , light is radiated in all
directions such as SA1 , SA2 , SA3 . The
radiations are reflected by the mirror O .
p1 , p2 , p3 are the verticals of O through A1 , A2 ,
and A3 . A1B1 , A2B2 und A3B3 are the reflected
beams .
The three reflected rays B1 , B2 , and B3 appear
to be irradiated from the point S1 . Therefore , S1
is the mirror point or the virtual image or mirror
image of the light source S . To our eye it
appears as though the light is emanated by the
mirror point S1.
The flash A - B , which is reflected by a mirror
(a water mirror , for example) , is therefore
viewed by our eye in such a way , as though it
is emanated by the mirror image A1 - B1 (i.e. by
the virtual image of the flash A - B) .
Remark : a mirror image or a virtual image S1 , or a
flash A1 - B1 is also produced in shallow water or by a
very thin mirror .
318
Interference of two plane waves
The two individual water waves interfere to produce a superimposed wave . If the
maxima or minima coinside , they combine to produce a wave with larger amplitudes . If
the maximum of the first wave combines with the minimum of the second wave, the
two waves cancel each other .
319
7–4
Water waves propagating through slits
If plane water waves are transmitted
through a narrow slit with a slit width
comparable to the wavelenth of the water
wave , circular waves are produced .
If two slits are present , two waves
propagate and combine by interfe rence . The superposition gives rise
to constructive and destructive inter ference patterns .
320
Interference of two Water waves
The photograph shows the interference of two water waves at the surface
of a stretch of water . Each wave propagates with a certain velocity in the
radial direction . Depending on the location of interference , the two waves
can reinforce or quench each other (s . Ref . R.7.1.9) .
321
7-5
Mirror picture at the surface of a pond
322
Mirror image of a bridge
Friedensreich Hundertwasser
323
7–6
Little Egret reflected by shallow Water :
„Self-awareness“ or „Self -recognition“ ?
324
Depth of penetration of light into Sea Water
Light penetration in open ocean
Light penetration in coastal waters
Depth
in m
50
100
150
200
Depth of penetraton in
clear water of the open
ocean
Depth of pene –
tration in contami nated coastal waters
mixed colours
325
7–7
mixed colours
Depth of penetration of light in Sea Water
To p . 325 : left – hand Figure : „Light penetration in open Ocean“
The intensity of light decreases by about a factor 10 over a depth of 75 m .
From this it follows that only a neglible part of light reaches the Sea floor in
deep waters . The Figure at the left hand side of p . 325 shows the decrease
and the spectral distribution of light over a depth between 0 and 200 m .
With increasing depth , the intensity of light is not only reduced dramatically
but also its colour is changed . The absorption of the long- wavelength red
light (with large wave -lengths l) by the water molecules is much stronger
than for the short- wavelength blue light (with short wavelengths l). It is only
the violet light which is again strongly absorbed. The deeply penetrating blue
light , however , is scattered most strongly by the water molecules (scattering
is proportional to 1 / l 4) , which is responsible for the blue colour of water .
To p . 325 : right – hand Figure : „Light penetration in coastal water“
The depth of penetration into coastal waters is strongly reduced . This is
mainly due to the phytoplankton (p . 230) and by other components , which
absorb and scatter light in different ways . The phytoplankton contains
chlorophyll (p . 202) for which the absorption maxima are located near 430
nm (violet) and near 670 nm (red) . The maximum tansmission of light is
therefore in the green part of the spectrum which explains the green colour
of coastal water .
326
7–8
7.2
Rainbows
327
A Rainbow
A rainbow is a phenomena of atmospheric optics . It appears as a circular light
stripe containing many spectral colors with a characteristic sequence of colors .
A rainbow is generated by the interaction of approximately spherical water droplets
with sun light . Depending on the wavelength of light , the incoming and outgoing light
is refracted slightly differently . At the inner surface it is reflected according to its
specific direction .
328
7–9
rain drop
7
qB
fA,min
Rainbows :
Construction of
Descartes
The sun rays 1 - 12 (upper half of Figure) arrive from the left and strike the
spherically shaped rain drop . After striking its surface , they are refracted and at
the back side they are reflected . The back reflected waves are refracted once
more at the exit .
There exists a “minimal deviation angle” fA,min , shown by the ray 7 above ;
all other rays have a larger deviation angle (extreme case : ray 1 with fA = 180 o) .
Many rays (6 , 8 - 11) appear in the vicinity of ray 7 with deviation angles fA very
close to the minimal deviation angle fA , min) ; in this region the concentration of
light is relatively high . The minimal deviation angle f A , min is 138.7 o (s . p . 331) .
329
Formation and deviation angle of rainbows
qB = 2 b
(1) : DOAB : a + 2 q2 = p ; (2) : DAOP : q1 + a + b = p ; (3) : point P : fA + 2 b = p;
(4) : Law of refraction : sinq1 / sinq2 = nwater/ nair = N = 1.333 at l = 600 nm
Combining equations (1) - (4) and elimination of a , b and q2 gives the
following expression for the deviation angle fA :
fA = p + 2 q1 - 4 arc sin (sinq1 / N)
330
7 – 10
Minimum deviation angle fA , min and aperture angle qB
Deviation angle fA = p + 2 q1 - 4 arc sin (sinq1 / N)
The minimum of the deviation angle ,
fA ,min , follows from dfA / dq1 = 0 :

sin[(q1,min] = [( 4 – N2) / 3] ½

for N = 1.333 one obtains :
q1 = incident angle
of the rainbow;
fA = deviation angle
(s . p . 330)
q1,min = 59.4o and fA,min = 138.7 o
The viewing angle qB
for the minimum deviation angle
is given by
fA,min
qB = 180o- fA,min = 41.9 0  42 o
(see Figures at p . 330 , 333 , 334)
qB is also known as the aperture
angle of the rainbow
q1,min
331
Origin of couloured rings
Sun
water
droplets
observer
Formation of coloured rings of rainbows : due to the dispersion of
colours (larger refractive index for shorter wavelengths) the violet rays
are more strongly deviated than the red rays ; the violet rays therefore
appear at a smaller viewing angle , i.e. at the inner part of the rainbow .
332
7 – 11
Why the Rainbow appears as a bow
from
the sun
from
the sun
The rainbow appears as a bow , because it consists on rays , all of which are
deflected backwards by approximately the same viewing angle qB ≈ 42 0 (relative
to the sun rays) .
The locus of all rays , which are forming the same angle with respect to a fixed
axis (that of the sun rays) , is a cone ; the observer is viewing a section of this
cone area , which depends on the distance to the droplets deviating the light .
333
Formation of a primary Rainbow : schematic
A rainbow is the result of refraction and reflection of sunlight within
raindrops . The different colours are refracted differently : the violet colour of
the sunlight is refracted most strongly whereas the red colour is re fracted most weakly . The deviations are 1800 – qB,, where the viewing angle qB
depends slightly on colour with a mean value of about qB = 420 .
334
7 – 12
Formation of a secondary Rainbow : schematic
By a double reflection of the light within the droplets , a second
rainbow is generated , also called the secondary bow which is
weaker than the primary bow . The above picture shows that the
order of the color arrangement in the secondary bow is reversed .
A complete and detailed theory of the rainbow is complex and
must be based on wave theory .
335
Primary and Secondary Rainbows - 1
Secondary
bow
Water droplet
Primary
bow
Sunrays
Sun
Observer
In the primary bow and in the secondary bow , the spectral colours are
arranged in opposite ways . The primary ray is red at the outside and
violet at the inside . In the secondary ray , however , the colours are
reversed . Note that the viewing angles qB are different for the primary
and the secondary bow . Concerning the origin of rainbows see also pp
329 and 330 .
336
7 – 13
Primary and Secondary Rainbows - 2
The intensive primary bow is generated by a single reflection in the
water droplets .
By a double reflection of light in the droplets , a second and
considerably weaker rainbow is generated . This rainbow is called the
secondary bow , in which the sequence of colours is reversed .
337
Primary and Secondary Rainbows : 3
Intensive primary and secondary rainbows
Note the reversal of the colour sequence in the two rainbows
338
7 – 14
A Rainbow between Sky and Water
339
7 – 15
7.3
Water Fountains , Droplets , Brooks
and Rivers
340
Water Fountain in Geneva during day
Height of Fountain : 140 m
341
7 – 16
Water Fountain in Geneva by night
Part of the light climbs upward by total reflection within the water
Fountain ; the diffuse light is due to scattering at the water droplets .
342
Water Fountain in Geneva by night
343
7 - 17
Water droplets - 1
If a water droplet falls on a water surface , a circular wave is generated .
After hitting the water surface , the droplet can be reflected and can split
into several smaller droplets .
344
Water droplets and Isaac Newton
“Our knowledge is a droplet ,
what we do not know ,
is an Ocean”
Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727)
345
7 – 18
Raindrops falling onto Water - 1
346
Raindrops falling onto Water - 2
347
7 – 19
Part of the Rhine Falls in Schaffhausen (Switzerland)
348
The Iguacu Water Fall (Argentina / Brazil) - 1
349
7 – 20
The Iguacu Water Falls (Argentina / Brazil) - 2
350
7 – 21
7-A-0
A stick immersed into water : quantitative aspects (s . p. 317)
y
nA
air :
nA = 1
E

O
a
B
D
A‘
A
Real stick EC
a‘
a‘
x
b‘
b
a
water :
nB = n = 1.33
bent or virtual stick
A , A‘ : Eye at different positions
(for A the light seems to radiate
from D via B)
Total reflection at b > b cr = 48.6o
Depending on the position of the eye , the virtual stick OD
appears to be more or less bent (dashed line)
C
xD = xB + yCtan(a) (nA cos3(a)) / (nB cos3(b)) with xB = [1 – tg(b)*tg()] * xC

yD = yC (nA cos3(a)) / (nB cos3(b)) ;
[ yC = yC() ; in Figure :  = - 30o ]
Optical stick bending :
The graph shows the ratio of the
lengths yCD = yC - yD and yC :
r(n, b) = yCD / yC = 1 – (yD/yC) ; with nA = 1
and nB = n one obtains after rearrangment :
r(n,b) = 1 – (1 / n) * f(n, b)
with
1 – n2 sin2(b) 3/2
f(n,b) =
b
7-A-1-1
7 – 22
1 – sin2(b)
r(n,b) is independent on  ;
for b  0 , r = ¼ = 0.25
A stick S immersed in water as observed from different heights h
above the water level
E (Eye))
y
S
h
Y > 0 : air: nA = 1
O

P
d
x
The ratio r = RQ / PQ
is 0.25 = ¼ ( s . p . 317
and p . 7-A-1-1) .
 = - 30 o 
Y < 0 : water
nw = n = 1.333
d = - 23.4
o
R
Q
The real stick (blue) is immersed in water at an angle of  = - 30o ât the point O (origin
of the coordinate system) . In the present example the eye is located above the end of
the stick at a height h vertically to the water surface (y = 0) .
Green virtual stick : the eye E is at a height h = 10 cm above the water level ;the stick
appears as a bent curve .
Red stick : The eye E is at a height h = 50 cm above the water level :
the stick appears as a straight line.
7-A-1-2
Principle of Caustic Effects
Sun radiation
This Figure shows how the two kinds of caustics work : The waves act like
curving mirrors (Caustic Reflections) and lenses (Caustic Refractions or
Projections) at the same time .
The rays impinging the bottom of the pool give rise to a network of ridges of
bright lines that is constantly in motion . This network is also called a diacaustic
pattern (s . p . 7-A-1-4) .
[„Holocaust“ is a word of Greek origin and means „sacrifice by fire“ .
Holocaust : holos : „whole“ ; kaustos : „burnt“
During World War II , it refers to the genocide of European Jews and others by
the Nazis] .
7-A-1-3
7 – 23
Diacaustic at the bottom of a swimming pool
Let‘s imagine a sunny day at a swimming pool . A glance to the bottom of the pool
shows a layer of a constantly moving pattern consisting of lines of bright light (see
Figure above) . These structures are so-called optical caustics (Diacaustics) , i.e. lines
of maximum intensities . They are produced by the fact that the small waves on the
water surface are refracting the sunlight , thereby producing a bright pattern at the
bottom of the pool : The rippling water surface concentrates the light only in
specific regions at the bottom of the pool , rather than illuminating it uniformly . The
Figure shows a snap-shot in time of a fascinating diacaustic pattern at the bottom of
the pool.
7-A-1-4
Diacaustics : Patterns of light at the bottom of water ,
produced by illumination of rippling water surfaces
7-A-1-5
7 – 24
Viewing angles q1 and q2 of primary and secondary rainbows
Primary rainbow :
Secondary rainbow :
sin(q1 / 2) = (4 – n2)3/2 / (3*3 * n2)
sin(q2 / 2) = (n2-1)1/2 * (9-n2)3/2 / (8*n3)
for n = 1.333 = refractive index of water at l = 589 nm , 20 oC it follows
with MATLAB – Program :
 q1 = qB  42.08 o (s . pp 333 , 334) ;
q2  50.09 o
(s . pp 336 – 338)
7-A-2-1
Mirror of a bridge over the Loire - France
7-A-3-1
7 – 25
Realistic water surface with waves and ripples
7-A-3-2
A purling brook is flowing through the forest
7-A-3-3
7 – 26
R-7-0
7.
7.1
Refraction , Reflection , and Interference
R.7.1.1
PHYSIK
Wilhelm H. Westphal (Springer Verlag (1956) ; 18. und 19. Auflage)
Brechung , Spiegelung (Reflexion) und Interferenz des Lichtes :
(Refraction , Reflection and Interference of Light)
Refraction: pp 495 - 498
Reflection: 192 - 193 , 489 - 490
Interference : 195 - 199 , 535
R.7.1.2
p . 313 : Solar radiation spectrum
http:/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_Spectrum.png
R.7.1.3
p . 314 : Spectral decomposition of Sun light
Ergebnisse Bildersuche nach spectrum of sunlight
www.thermoderngreen.com/tag/light-spectrum/
R.7.1.4
pp 315 - 317 : Refraction of Light :
Josef F . Alward , PhD , Department of Physics , University of the Pacific
„http://sol.sci.uop.edu/ ~jfalward/refraction/refraction.html“
R.7.1.5
p . 317 : Rod immersed into Water
(Eingetauchter Stab im Wasser)
http://www.filmscanner.info/Strahlenoptik.html
Patrick Wagner , Fa . ScanDig
p . 317 : Properties of Light using Geometry
physics.tamuk.edu/ suson/html/…/geometry.htm
(Huygen‘s Principle and Fermat‘s Principle)
R.7.1.6
p . 318 : Construction of mirror images
Konstruktion von Spiegelbilder
http://library.thinkquest.org/22915/reflection.html“
R-7-1
7 – 27
R.7.1.7
p . 319 : Interference of two plane waves
http://skullsinthestars.com/2007/11/15/optics-basics-what-is-a-wave-part-ii-interference/
R.7.1.8
p . 320 : Water propagation through slits ; (Ausbreitung und Interferenz von Wasserwellen)
„http://www.alexander-unzicker.de/LK/050413.pdf“
R.7.1.9
p . 321 : Foto : Ueli Bula ; Interference of two water waves
http://www.artbula.ch/ art bula . Fotogrfie Images : postkarten
R.7.1.10
p . 322 : Eigenschaften_des_Wassers_Wikipedia
de.wikipedia.org/…/Eigenschaften_des_Wassers
R.7.1.11
p . 323 : Mirror image of a bridge ; Gespiegelte Brücke: Friedensreich Hundertwasser :
R.7.1.12
p . 324 : Little Egret reflected by shallow Water ;
http://www.waldhaeusl.eu
R.7.1.13
pp. 325 , 326 : Depth of penetration of light in to Sea Water
„michaeldowney.net/colour-in-the-deep-s
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04deepsscope/background/deeplight/edia/...
R.7.1.14
p . 317 : Optische Hebung eines ins Wasser eingetauchten Stabes
Strahlenoptik , geometrische Optik , Brechung, ….
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04deepscope/background/deeplight/media/..
www.scanding.info/Strahlenoptik.html
R.7.1.15
- p . 7-A-1-1 : Optische Hebung eines ins Wasser eingetauchten Stabes
IB Physics Notes : Optics – Real and Apparent Depth of a Stick in Water
astamathsandphysics.co…Vereinigtes Königreich
- Gebrochener Stab :
Dr . Martin Lieberherr : Kantonsschule Rämibühl MNG
Natw . Inst / Physik : Rämistrasse 54 . 8001 Zürich
gefunden unter : „Bildhebung eines Stabes im Wasser“
[PDF] Gebrochener Stab
www.vsmp.ch/de/bulletins/no1 113lieberherr.pdf
(In contrast to the above Reference, the real stick in the present Figure has been slightly shifted to the
right in Figure 7-A-1-1 such that it passes through the origin O of the coordinate system)
R-7-2
R.7.1.16
p . 7-A-1-2 : The stick S is immersed at an angle of  = - 30 o into the water surface .. The eye
E is located vertically above the end of the stick at a height h above the water level .
- green curve : h = 10 cm ; the virtual stick appears to be bent ,
- red line : h = 50 cm ; the virtual stick appears as a straight line ,
The Figure has been composed by P. Brüesch with a MATLAB – Program . The algorithm deveeloped by Dr. Martin Lieberherr (Ref . R.7,1,15) has been used , The curvature of the green
curve is negative , but for other positions of the eye it can be positive (if the eye is on the y.,
axis (x=0) , for example) , In practice it is difficult to visually observe the curvature of the virtual
slab for h = 10 cm ,
.
R.7.1.17
p . 7-A-1-2 : Caustic Reflections and Refractions
http://gurneyjourney.blogsot.com/2010/07/caustic-reflections.html
R.7.1.18
p . 7-A-1-3 : Diacaustic at the bottom of a swimming pool
www.mpi-inf.mpg.de/.../Light%20and%20Color%20in%20Nature1.ppt
R.7.1.19
p . 7-A-1-4: Patterns of diacaustics
http://oolong.co.uk/oo/caustics
R.7.1.20
C . Upstill : Light caustics from rippling water (Proc . R . Soc . A . 365 , 95 – 104 , (1979)
7 . 2 Rainbow
R.7.2.1
p . 328 : Rainbow – Phenomena
(Regenbogen - Bild -1)
http://sol.sci.uop.edu/~jfalward/physics17/chapter12/rainbowmeadow.jpg
R.7.2.2
pp 329 - 336 : Optical Caustica and Rainbows
Optische Kaustiken und der Regenbogen
http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~brewer/ph3_regenb.html
.R.7.2.3
pp 329 - 336 : p . 7-A-2-1 : Theory of Rainbows
(Zur Theorie von Regenbögen , Glorien und Halos)
Eugen Willerding
Argelander Institut für Astronomie (AIFA) der Bonner-Universität
Auf dem Hügel 71 (Raum 1.10) ; D - 53121 Bonn / Germany
R-7-3
7 – 28
R.7.2.4
p . 334 : Formation of primary Rainbow
Bildung des Hauptregenbogens
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Rainbow1.png
R.7.2.5
p . 335 : Formation of secondary Rainbow
Bildung des Nebenregenbogens
http://de:wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenbogen , p . 5 (von 15)
p . 336 - 338 : Primary and secondary Rainbows
R.7.2.6
pp 336 – 338 : Primary and secondary rainbows
R.7.2.7
p . 339 : A Rainbow between Sky and Water
Home Page of Eugen Willerding
www.astro.uni-bonn.de/~willerd/
7 . 3 Fountains , Drops and Rivers
R.7.3.1
p . 341 : Water Fountains in Geneva during day
(Wasserfontäne in Genf bei Tag)
http://www.ville -ge.ch/fr/decouvrir/en-bref/jet.htm
R.7.3.2
pp 342 , 343 : Water Fountains in Geneva during night - 1 and 2
( Wasserfontäne in Genf bei Nacht )
File : Jet d‘eau de Genève de nuit . jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org.wiki /File:Jet_d‘eau_de_Gen%C3%A8ve_de_nuit:jpg
R.7.3.3
pp 344 - 347 : Raindrops are falling on to water
(Regentropfen_fallen_auf_Wasser)
http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/%7Eandrewm/misc-photo/raindrops.jpg“
R.7.3.4
p . 348 : Part of the Rhine Falls in Schaffhausen , Switzerland
http://www.pictures-switzerland.-com/rheinfall.rheinfall-h38y.jpg
R-7-4
R.7.3.5
pp 349 , 350 : The Iquacu Water Falls in Argentina (Brazil)
(Der Iguacu Wasserfall in Argentinien (Brasilien))
http://www.lauerweb.de/Lauerweb/images/foz-di-iquazu-2.jpg
Over a width of nearly three times of that of the Niagara – Falls , the water
precipitateds here into the depths and from far away it sounds as an earthquake .
The droplets in the atmosphere produce a rainbow .
In the language of the Guarani – Indians , Iguaqu means „Large Waters“ .
(Auf einer Breite von fast dreimal so gross wie die Niagarafälle stürzen die Wassermassen
hier in die Tiefe , und von weitem schon tönt es wie ein Erdbeben . Die Tröpfchenatmos phäre schimmert in allen Regenbogenfarben . Iguazu bedeutet in der Sprache der Guarani Indianer „grosse Wasser“) .
R.7.3.6
p . 7-A-3-1 : Bridge over the Loire (France) by Night
de.wikipedia/org/wiki/Datei:Bridge_over_Loire.jpg
R.7.3.7
p . 7-A-3-2 : Landscape Modeling Technique for Landscape Visualization
http://www.landscapemodelling.org/html/ch4/ch4text.htm (Stephan M. Ervin , Hope H. Hasbrouck)
McGraw-Hill , Series © , 2001 , Chapter 4 : Water
R.7.3.8
p . 7-A-3-3 : A purling brook is flowing through the forest
From : Bilddatenbank : Verlag MEV
Image Number : A03MEV51024
R-7-5
7 - 29
8 . Water in Art and Culture
351
8–0
8.1
Water in Painting
and in Photography
352
„The Fountain of Youth“
Lucas Cranach , 1472 to 1553
353
8–1
Lucas Cranach : The “Fountain of Youth” - Detail
Arrival of the old Woman
354
Leonardo Da Vinci
(1452 - 1519)
A jet of water flows into a standing
body of water and causes a turbulence
355
8–2
The Wave
Katsushika Hokusai (1760 - 1849)
356
The Wave
Gustave Courbet (1819 – 1877)
357
8–3
Cloud study
John Constable : English romantic painter (1776 - 1837)
358
Claude Monet (1840 – 1926)
359
8-4
The Japanese Bridge in Monets Water – lily pond in Giverny
360
„The Water – Lily Pond“ in Claude Monets Garden in Giverny
361
8–5
Claude Monet : Water - lilies
362
Tivoli is famous for its magnificent gardens and the fountains of the
Villa d„Este near Rome
363
8–6
Dew drops on a leaf
364
Dewdrops on Spider web
365
8–7
Raindrops
366
A water drop falling on a water surface
367
8-8
8.2
Water Sound Images
368
Ernst Chladni
German
physicist
(1756 – 1827)
Ernst Chladni excited his sound images of sand using
a violin bow
369
8–9
Dr . Hans Jenny
Swiss physician
(1904 - 1972)
Experimental setup for the excitation of sound images - 1
370
Hans Jenny : Electrical generation of Chladnis sound images - 2
sand on plate
circular
metal plate
sound
generator
mechanical
vibrator
vessel with sand
Square
metal disc
sound generator
371
8 – 10
Hans Jenny - Cymatics : Water sound images - 3
Jenny called this new area of research cymatics , which comes from
the Greek „kyma“ : waves
The higher the frequency of excitation , the more complex is the
pattern .
In the dark areas within the material on the plates , the vibrations are
most intense .
372
Hans Jenny : Sound images within water drops for different
excitation frequencies and different volumes of the drops
373
8 – 11
Hans Jenny :
Cymatic water patterns : vibrating water drops
374
Water sound images
Alexander
Lauterwasser
German philosopher
and artist
Cymatic water patterns
375
8 – 12
Excitation frequencies :
28 . 9 Hz
34 . 5 Hz
102 . 528 Hz
1339 Hz
Cymatic water images
Alexander Lauterwasser
In addition to the frequency , the
shapes and structures of the water
sound images also depend on the
amplitude , the water quantity
and the temperature .
376
Water sound image
Excitation frequency :
417 Hertz
Alexander
Lauterwasser
377
8 – 13
Water sound images as a
function of frequency
Analogies :
Analogies:
Bellflower
or columbine
Hibiscus
blossom
cornflower
grapefruit
cauliflower floret or
romanesco –
brocoli
snail shell
378
„Water harp“
Housi Knecht :
The „strings“ of the harp are jets of water
379
8 – 14
8.3
Water in Literature
380
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 - 1832)
381
8 – 15
The poem
„Gesang der Geister über den
Wassern“
or
„Song of the Spirits over the
Waters“
was written by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
on 9 – 11 October 1779 at Lauterbrunnen in
Bern , Switzerland . It was sent to Charlotte
von Stein on 14 October and published in
Goethe„s chief works in 1789 .
The Water Fall , called „Staubbach“ , inspired
the poem . The image of falling water and
rising spray is extended to cover the course of
the river down to the lake and provides a
parable of the life of men .
382
Song of the Spirits over the Waters
The soul of men is like the waters :
It comes from heaven , it returns to heaven ,
and down again to earth must go ,
ever ending .
When from the high , sheer wall of rock
The pure stream pushes , it sprays its lovely vapor
in billowing clouds toward the smooth rock ,
it goes enshrouded ,
Softly hissing down to the deep .
Opposing its fall . Annoyed , it foams
step by step into the abyss .
Wind is the wave„s handsom suitor ;
Wind stirs up from the depths foaming billows .
Soul of men , how like to the water !
Fate of men , how like to the wind !
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
383
8 – 16
Antoine de Saint Exupéry
(1900 - 1944)
A Poet of aviation
and a Father of
Air Transport
384
“ What makes the desert beautiful is
that somewhere it hides a well “
385
8 – 17
Aus : “ Wind , Sand und Sterne “ (1939)
“ WASSER ! Du hast weder Geschmack , noch Farbe noch Aroma .
Man kann Dich nicht beschreiben .
Man schmeckt Dich ohne Dich zu kennen .
Es ist nicht so , dass man Dich zum Leben braucht :
Du bist das Leben ! “
“ EAU ! Tu n‟as ni goût , ni couleur , ni arôme .
On ne peut pas te définir .
On te goûte sans te connaître .
Tu n‟est pas nécessaire à la vie :
Tu es la vie !
Source : “ Terre des Hommes “ (1939)
386
WATER !
WATER , you have neither taste , nor colour , nor scent . You cannot be
defined . You are savoured , but you remain unknown . You are not a
necessity of life : you are life . You fill us with a joy that is not of the
senses . You restore to us all powers we had surrendered . Through your
grace , all the desiccated springs of our hearts flow forth once more .
Of all the riches in the world you are the greatest , and the most delicate ,
you who lie so pure in the womb of the Earth . A man can die by a
magnesium spring . He can die a yard from the salt lake . He can die in
spite of a quart of dew with chemicals suspended in it . You can accept no
mixing , bear no adulteration ; you are a sensitive divinity …
But you spread within us an infinitely simple happiness .
Antoine de Saint Exupéry , from : “Wind , Sand and Stars” or
“Terre des Hommes “
(English Translation)
387
8 – 18
The Goddess
In the beginning , before the world was created , God was wandering around
through the nothingness trying to find something . He had almost given up hope and was
dead tired when suddenly he came to a big shed . He knocked . A Goddess opened the door
and asked him to come in .
She said she was just busy working on Creation but he should take a seat for a
while and watch what she was doing . At the moment she was planting various water plants
in an aquarium .
God was astonished at what he saw . He would never have come up with the
idea of creating a substance like water . It is precisely this , the Goddess said smilingly ,
that was , so to speak , the basis of life .
After a while God asked if perhaps he could help a bit and the Goddess said she
would be very grateful if he could take the water and the things she had created so far to
one of the planets that she had set up a little further in the back . She would like to start
with the least significant one as a test .
So God began to deliver the Goddess„ creations one after the other from her
shed to the Earth , and it is not a surprise that later , people on this planet knew only
about the God who had brought it all and who they assumed was the actual creator of all .
Of the Goddess who had thought it all up , however , they knew nothing , and
therefore it„s high time she gets mentioned .
Franz Hohler
translated from „Die blaue Amsel“
388
8 – 19
8 . 4 Water and Music
H2O – The Mystery , Art , and Science of Water
MUSIC AND WATER
A Summary from
Professor Jonathan Green
389
Water – Music Festival
390
8 – 20
The Water Music of Händel
The Water Music is a collection of orchestra movements , often considered three suites , composed
by Georg Friedrich Händel (1685 – 1759) . It premiered on 17 July 1717 after King Georg I . had
requested a concert on the River Thames . The concert was performed by 50 musicians playing on
a barge near the royal barge from which the King llistened with close friends .
391
Franz Liszt : Les Jeux d„Eau à la Ville d„ Est
„Les jeux d‘eau à la Ville d‘Este“ (The Fountain of the
Villa d‘Este) in Tivoli near Roma is one of the 19th
century most brilliant demonstrations of pictural music ,
and one of the most virtuosic pieces Liszt ever wrote .
„Les jeux d‘Eau“ is a piano pice reminescent of the
fluidity of water and its transparency .
392
8 – 21
Maurice Ravel : Jeux d„Eau
Ravel
Jeu d„Eau is a piece for solo piano . The Title
is often translated as „Fountains“ , „Water
Games“ , or „Playing Water“.
According to Ravel , he was inspired by Franz
Liszt„s piece „Jeux d„Eau à la Villa d„Este“ (p .
392) . It appeared in 1901 .
Maurice Ravel
1875 - 1937
393
Bedrich Smetana : The Moldau
Vltava , also known by its German
name
„The Moldau“ ,
was composed by Smetana between 20
November and 8 December 1874 . It is
about 12 minutes long , and is in the
key of E minor .
Bedrich Smetana
1824 - 1884
In this piece , Smetana uses tone
painting to evoke the sounds of one of
Bohemia„s (Böhmen„s) great rivers .
The piece contains Smetana„s most
famous tune written below :
394
8 – 22
The Moldau
Further examples for „Music and Water“
Fréderic Chopin :
Prélude , op . 28 , no . 15 , „The Raindrop“
Claude Debussy :
„La cathédrale englouté „ ;
„La Mer“ ;
„Reflets de l„eau“
Camille Saint-Saens :
„Aquarium“ from Carnival of the Animals
Ralph Voughan Williams :
„Sea Symphony“
Antonio Vivaldi :
2 Concerti , RV 253 and 433 , „La Tempesta di mare“
Ludwig van Beethoven :
Symphony No . 6 : 2th mouvement : „Scene at the brook“ ; 4th mouvement :
„The Thunderstorm“
Franz Schubert :
„The Trout Quintet „ in A major , Opus post . – D 667 (1819)
The piece is known as the „Trout“ because the fourth movement is a set of variations
on Schubert„s earlier Lied „Die Forelle“ (The Trout) .
395
8 - 23
Appendix :
Chapter 8
8–A-0
8 - 24
The Sourcerer‟s Apprentice - J.W. Goethe (1797 / 1827)
Good ! The sorcerer , my old master
Left me here alone toda !
Now his spirits , for a change
my one wishes shall obey !
Having memorized
What to say and do ,
With my powers of will I can
Do some withching , too !
O , you ugly child of Hades !
The entire house will drown !
Everywhere I look , I see
water , water , running down .
Be you damned , old broom ,
why won‟t you obey ?
Be a stick once more ,
please , I beg you stay !
Go , I say , go on your way ,
do not tarry , water carry ,
let it flow abundantly ,
and prepare a bath for me !
Is the end not in sight ?
I will grab you , hold you tight ,
with my axe I‟ll split the brittle
old wood smartly down the middle .
Come on now , old broom , get dressed ,
these old rags will do just fine !
You‟re a slave in any case ,
and today you will be mine !
May you have two legs ,
and a head on top ,
take the bucket , quick
hurry , do not stop .
Here he comes again with water !
Now I‟ll throw myself upon you ,
and the sharpness of my axe
I will test , o spirit , on you .
Well , a perfect hit !
See how he is split !
Now there‟s is a hope for me
and I can breath free !
Go , I say , go on your way ,
do not tarry , water carry ,
let it flow abundantly ,
and prepare a bath for me .
Woe is me! Both pieces come to live anew ,
now, to do my bidding I have servants two !
Help me , o great powers !
Please , I‟am begging you !
Look , how to the bank he‟s running !
And now he has reached the river ,
he returns , as quick as lightning ,
once more water to deliver .
Look ! The tub already
Is allmost filled up !
And now he is filling
Every bowl and cup !
And they‟re running ! Wet and wetter
Get the stairs , the rooms , the hall !
What a deluge ! What a flood !
Lord and master , hear my call !
Ah , here comes the master !
I have need of Thee !
From the spirits that I called
Sir , deliver me !
Stop ! Stand still ! Heed my will !
I‟ve enough of the stuff !
I‟ve forgotten – woe is me !
What the magic word may be .
„Back now , broom , into the closet !
Be thou as thou wert before !
Until I , the real master
call thee forth to serve once more !“
Oh , the word to change him back
Into what he was before !
Oh , he runs , and keeps on going !
Wish you‟d be a broom once more !
He keeps bringing water
Quickly as can be ,
and a hundred rivers
he poors down on me !
This ballad may be representative for the
occurrence of various catastrophes among
others for global floods as a result of
anthropogenous climate - change
(see Chapter 5 , pp 259 – 263) .
No , no longer can I let him ,
I must get him with some trick !
I‟am beginning to feel sick .
What a look ! - and what a face !
8-A-3-1
8 - 25
The Sorcerer„s Apprentice
The old broom
The Sorcerer„s Apprentice
(Picture from Ferdinand
Barth (1882))
8-A-3-2
8 – 26
The old Master
R-8-0
8 . Water in Art and Culture
8 . 1 Water in Painting and in Photografphy
R.8.1.1
p . 353 : Lucas Cranach the Elder; „The Fountain of Youth“
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Lucas Cranach d. %C3%84. 007.jpg
The „Fountain of Youth“ as well as the „Fountain of eternal youth“ and the „Fountain
of eternal Life“ often represent mythological pictures of a lake containing water which
provides eternal youth and eternal life for everybody who is drinking it .
R.8.1.2
p . 354 : The „Fountain of Youth“: Detail : „Arrival of old women“
http://www.gallery.net/popup_image.php/pID/6005/imgID/0/XTCsid/6a61b185d227
R.8.1.3
p . 355 : Leonardo Da Vinci : A jet of water is flowing into standing waters and
creates a swirling .
http://witcombe.sbc.edu/water/images/leonardowaterstudy.jpg
R.8.1.4
p. 356 : Katsushika Hokusai : „The Wave“
(from the Series of the 36 pictures of the Fudschijama)
www.kunstkopie.ch or +Kanawaga/18285.html
R.8.1.5
p . 357 : Gustave Courbet : The Wave (Die Welle)
www.kunstkopie.ch/a/courbet-gustave/die-welle.html
R.8.1.6
p . 358 : „Cloud study“ from John Constable
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:John_Constable_029.jpg
R-8-1
8 – 27
R.8.1.7
p . 359 : Claude Monet :
Claude Monet – Wikipedia
http://de.wikipedia.org.wiki/Claude-Monet
R.8.1.8
p . 360 : „The japanese bridge in Monet‘s Garden in Giverny“
Björn Quellenberg¦@Kunsthaus Zürich ; Foto 2004
www.cosmopolis.chkunst/66/claude-monet augenkrankheiten.htm
R.8.1.9
p . 361 : „The Water Lily Pond“ in Claude Monets Garden in Giverny
www.xosmopolis.ch/kunst/66/claude-monet_augen...
R.8.1.10
p . 362 : Claude_Monet_Water_Lilies
www.allforthegreatergood.com/
R.8.1.11
p . 363 : Fountains Villa d‘Este in Tivoli near Roma
http://listphobia.com/2009/04/26/10-most-beautiful-fountains-of-the-world/
R.8.1.12
p . 364 : Dew drops on grass
http://michael.tyson.id.au/2008/11/01/dew-drops-on-grass/
R.8.1.13
p . 365 : Dewdrops on Spider webs
http://upload.wikimedia.org
R.8.1.14
p . 366 : Raindrops
Raindrops Photograph by Kenna Westerman_Raindrop Fine Art…
R.8.1.15
p . 367 : Thomas Block : A water drop is falling on water
in Google under : „The art of water“ Images
s . also under : view:stern.de.de/spotlight/41/popup?page=24 – (VIEW SPOTLIGHT)
Image title : Water (Wasser)
Comment in German :
… Auf seinen Fotos zeigt Thoma Block faszinierende Makroaufnahmen von Tropfen , die den
Beobachter erstaunen lassen . Wie macht ein Fotograf solche Bilder ? Wurden sie digital nach bearbeitet ? Wurden Spiegelungen hinzugefügt ? „Nein“ , sagt Thomas Block , „die digi tale Bild bearbeitung beschränkt sich auf Schnitt , Schärfe und auch mal auf das Entfernen unschöner
Flecken . Es wird nichts an der Form oder den Spiegelungen verändert oder hinzugefügt „ …..
R-8-2
2 . Water Sound Images
R.8.2.0
CYMATICS (Kymatik) : „Wellenlehre und Schwingungen“
www.cymaticsourse.com/ - 26k
„Cymatics , the study of wave phenomena , is a science pioneered by Swiss medical
doctor and natural scientist , Hans Jenny (1904 - 1972) . For 14 years he conducted
experiments animating inert powders , pastes , and liquids into life - like , flowing forms
which mirrored patterns found throughout nature , art and architecture . What‘s more ,
all of these patterns were created using simple sine wave vibrations (pure tones)
within the audible range . So what you see is a physical representation of vibration ,
or how sound manifests into from through the medium of various materials“.
R.8.2.1
p . 369 at left hand side : Ernst Chladni :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst Chladni
p . 369 at the right hand side : CHLADNI PLATE INTERFERENCE SURFACES
Paul Barke , April 2001
http://local.wasp.uwa.edu.au/ pbourke/surfaces curves/chladni/index.html
R.8.2.2
pp 370 - 374 : Sound images of Hans Jenny
(Klangfiguren von Hans Jenny)
p. 370 : Hans Jenny with experimental setup
http://www. unitedearth.com.au/sound.html
(Figure arranged by P . Brüesch)
R.8.2.3
p. 371 : Electrical excitations of Cladni - sound images
http://nemesis.ucsc.edu/waves/visible/visible2.html
(Figure arranged by P . Brüesch)
R-8-3
8 – 28
R.8.2.4
p. 372 : Kymatik : Sound images of Hans Jenny
(Wasserklang - Figuren von Hans Jenny)
http://www.unitedearth.com.au/sound.html
R.8.2.5
p . 373 : Cymatics :
The Structure and Dynamics of Waves and Vibrations by Hans Jenny
(Klangbilder im Wassertropfen …)
htt Vibrating water droplets p://www.world-nysteries.com/sci_cymatics.htm
R.8.2.6
p . 374 : Vibrating water droplets
(Schwingende Wassertropfen (Hans Jenny)
http://www.schwingung-undgesundheit.de/Experimente.html
R.8.2.7
p . 375 : Water Sound Images - 1
The creative Music of the Universe
(Die schöpferische Musik des Weltalls )
AT Verlag (2004)
R.8.2.8
p . 376 : Water sound images - 2
Secrets and beauties of interacting water - and sound colorus
(Geheimnisse und Schönheit im Zusammenspiel von Wasser - und Klangfarbe)
Lauterwasser Alexander
AT Verlag (2005)
R.8.2.9
p . 377 : Water sound images - 3
( Wasser - Klang - Bilder- 3)
http://www.flutetrends.ch/Lauterwasser.html
R.8.2.10
p . 378 : Analogies of Sound Images - 4
Klangbilder mit Analogien
http://www.schwingung-undgesundheit.de/Experimente.html
(The associations of flowers or fruits to the „Water sound images“ have been added by
P . Brüesch and are tentative ) .
R-8-4
R.8.2.11
p . 379 : WATER – HARP
(WASSERHARFE)
Water – Light sculpture containig water strings
Housi Knecht :
Wasser - Licht - Skulptur : Material - Stahl feuerverzinkt und Bronze patiniert . Eingebauter
(Wassertank mit Pumpe für vom Wasseranschluss unabhängigen Betrieb .
Indirekte 12 Volt - Halogen - Beleuchtung .)
http://www.housi.ch/index.php?DE&sid=2000&prid=40
8 . 3 Water in Literature
R.8.3.1
p . 381 : Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749 – 1832)
„http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Goethe_%28 . Stieler_1828%29.jpg“
R.8.3.2
p . 382 : Waterfall near Staubbach
(inspired Goethe for his famous poem)
www.grindelwald-events.ch
R.8.3.3
p . 383 : Song of the Spirits over the Water
(Gesang der Geister über den Wassern)
http://www.onlinekunst.de/goethe/gesang_der_geister.html
R_8_5
8 – 29
R.8.3.4
p . 384 : Antoine de Saint Exupériy
„http://images.google.ch/imgres?imgurl=http://imansolas.freeservers.com/ASExupery“
R.8.3.5
p . 385 : „The Little Prince,“
http://images.amazon.com/images/P/0156013983 01 LZZZZZZZ.jpg
R.8.3.6
p . 386 : „Terres des Hommes“
„Wind , Sand , and Stars“
Hymn to Water – 1
R.8.3.7
p . 387 : „Terres des Hommes“
„Wind , Sand , and Stars“
Hymn to Water – 2
R.8.3.8
p . 388 : The Goddess
Franz Hohler
München : Luchterhand 1995
translated by Andrew Rushton in : Bergli Books
„At Home“ (a selection of stories by Franz Hohler) ; p . 34
R.8.3.9
p . 8_A_3_1 : The Sorcere‘s Apprentice : J.W. Goethe
Goethe : Der Zauberlehrling – Germam / English
http://germa.about/library/blgzauberl.htm
Translation Copyright @ Brigitte Dubiel
R.8.3.10
p . 8_A-3_2 : The Sorcere‘s Apprentice and the old broom
Josef Müller , Willisau
(Three Illustration s composed into one picture by P : Brüesch)
learnsite freelinks.ch
see also : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sorcerer‘s_Apprentice
R_8_6
8 . 4 Water and Music
R.8.4.1
H2O – The Mystery , Art , and Science of Water
Chris Witcombe and Sang Hwang ; Sweet Briar College
MUSIC AND WATER (23. 09. 2007)
Professor Jonathan Green
http://witcombe.sbc.edu/water/music.html
The three-page overview provides a good summary of „Water as a Musical Tool“ ,
and „Water as Inspiration in Music“
R.8.4.2
p . 390 : Water Music Festival
http://watermusicfestival.com/
R.8.4.3
Water Music of Handel
History of Water Music
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_Music_(Handel)
R.8.4.4
p . 391 : Water Music of Handel
Image of „Water Music“
www.thisislondon.com.uk/events/article-2341175...
R.8.4.5
p . 392 : Franz Liszt : „Les Jeux d‘Eau de la Villa d‘Este“
(„The Fountain of the Villa d‘Este“)
http://everynote.com/piano.show/1321.note
http://everynote.com/goods.pic/Lis_Ann3-4.gif
R.8.4.6
p . 393 : Maurice Ravel : Jeux d‘Eau
The title is often translated as „Fountains“ , „Water Games“ , or „Playing Water“
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeux_d‘eau_(Ravel)
R.8.4.7
p . 394 : Bedrich Smetana : *The Moldau“
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_vlast
R.8.4.8
p . 395 : More examples for „Music and Water“
Reference R.8.4.1
R_8_7
8 - 30
9 . Water in
World Religions ,
in Psychology
and in
Philosophy
396
9–0
9.1
Water in World – Religions : General
397
Water in World Religions : Examples
In all world religions , water is of central importance :
• In all world religions , water is ambivalent , i.e. it is a
symbol for both birth and death .
• Water is associated with purification and spritual force .
• Living water is often associated with running water
• John the Babtist baptizes Jesus in the Jordan
• Holy water is a sign of blessing and is associated with life
and purification
• The Flood is the punishment of God for the sins of men
• Hinduism : Purification by a bath in the holy water of the Ganges
398
9–1
Water in the five world religions :
Judaism , Christianism , Islam ;
Buddhism and Hinduism
In all five world religions , water is of central importance .
The main reasons are :
• Without water there is no life
• Water possesses a purifying force
• In every religion , water is a sign for both , birth and death .
399
Significance of Water in World Religions
Because of its natural qualities , water is of high significance in all world
religions : it is often associated as being the residence of gods , ghosts
and other powers ; it is often even admired as a holy force .
In many religious and mythological narrations about the genesis of
world , water symbolizes the state of creation or even the basic source
for all beings .
The world’s origin is the Sea , which creates the other cosmological
elements . As a source of all life , water is considered to constitute a
life - generating principle of order .
On the other hand , water is considered to be a power of destructive
chaos , which destroys the world catastrophically as the flood , and
threatens life . Seas and oceans are viewed as menacing homesteads of
the evil .
400
9–2
9.2
Water in Judaism
Ritual purification with vivid water , i.e.
with flowing water
401
Michelangelo : The Creation of
the Sun and the Moon
402
9–3
The first book of Moses , called
GENESIS
1 In the beginning God
created the heavens and
the earth .
2 Now the earth was
formless and empty ,
darkness was over the surface
of the deep , and the Spirit
of God was hovering over the
waters .
403
GENESIS
6
And God said , Let there be a firmament
in the midst of the waters , and let it
divide the waters from the waters .
7
And God made the firmament , and
divided the waters which were under the
firmament from the waters which were
above the firmament : and it was so .
9
And God said , Let the waters under the
heaven be gathered together unto one
place , and let the dry land appear : and
it was so .
10 And God called the dry land Earth ;
and the gathering together of the waters
called he Seas : And God saw that it was
good .
404
9–4
Moses in the basket at the shore of the Nile
405
Michelangelo‟s Moses
406
9–5
During the escape of the Israeli from the Egyptians
Moses divides the Red Sea
407
The Flood
“ The Flood“ from Buanarrotti Michelangelo (1475 - 1564)
In the background is Noah‟s ark , the only ship that would survive the Flood
408
9–6
“The Flood” : Section from the painting of Michelangelo
409
The Flood
Leonardo Da Vinci
410
9–7
Noah„s Flood and Reality
Did a great flood once surge into the Black Sea ,
forming the basis of a Biblical tale ?
Mark Siddall (University of Bern , Switzerland)
investigates a computer model
that has added weight to the idea .
Nature , Vol . 430 , 12 August 2004 , p . 718
----------------------------------
„Oceanographers must have a natural interest
in extreme events“
If we can„t resolve the occurrence of such a huge flood ,
then what can we resolve ?
Mark Siddhal
-------------------------------------
See also : W . Ryan and W . Pitman :
„Noah„s Flood : The New Scientific Discoveries
about the Event that Changed History“
(Simon and Schuster , New York 2000)
411
For purification , the Mikvah , a font filled with water , is important .
The water must be composed at least partly of rain water and
spring water . The latter originates from heaven and represents the
relation to the primary flood . In the Mikvah , people take an
immersion bath in order to regain the original spiritual purity .
412
9–8
During the immersion bath a spiritual force is exchanged
413
9–9
9 . 3 Water in Christianity
414
Significance of Water - 1
In jewish and christian religion water is a symbol of the origin of
creation . Water is a hierophany (i.e. a physical manifestation of the
holy or sacred) . It can represent a creative force of life or a
destructive force of death .
• The fountains in the desert are similar to the sources in the
mountains : a reason of pleasure of the nomads .
• The narration of the „Flood“ (1 . Mose 6 ff .) will remain a
symbol of destruction as well as of salvation.
Pontius Pilatu„s manual ablutions during the trial against Jesus
(Math . 27 , 24) is of jewish origin
D . With his ceremonial protest of
hand wasing , Pilatus rejects any responsibility for the consequences .
415
9 – 10
Significance of Water - 2
Jesus Christ considered Water as the Symbol for eternal life .
Jesus proceeds to say :
“Unless one is born of water and the Spirit , you cannot enter the
kingdom of God.”
John 3 : 1 - 13
At the Jacob‟s well , Jesus answered to the Samaritan woman :
“Whoseoever drinking of this water (from Jacob‟s well) shall thirst
again ; but whosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give him
shall never thirst ; but the water that I shall give him shall be in
him a well of water springing up into everlasting life .“
(John 4 , 13 , 14 )
416
John the Baptist
When he was 30 years old , he went
into the desert , to Jerusalem , and
to the Jordan and declared the
arrival of the Messiah .
Many people admired him , and many
let have been baptized from him ;
Jesus also was baptized from him .
John the Baptist says :
“ Behold the Lamb of God (Jesus) ,
which takes away the sin of the
world .“ .
417
9 – 11
John the Baptist baptizes Jesus
John the Baptist baptizes Jesus in
the water of the Jordan .
Two angels are carying the robe of
the Messiah .
The Baptism of Jesus
Fresco de
Giotto di Bondono
(1267 - 1337)
418
Jesus walking on the Sea and the rescuer in storm at high Sea
The physical laws are
abolished and replaced by the
divine laws !
Jesus , the rescuer in storm at
high Sea !
419
9 – 12
Babtism of a baby
After the baptism of a baby : his head is still held over the holy water
font while his hands are directed against the future life .
420
The Water Source of Lourdes
The Grotto of Massabielle is a place of pilgrimage in Lourdes (France) . For
Bernadette Soubirous it was the place of apparition of the Blassed Virgin .
With here help Bernadette discovered a water source . Today , the water of
this source is believed to possess a strong healing force .
421
9 – 13
Jesus and the Samaritan at the Fountain of Jacob
Angelika Kauffmannn (1741 - 1807)
422
From „The Revelation“ of St . John : 22 , 1 - 2
And he (one of the seven angels) shewed me a pure river of water
of life , clear and as crystal , proceeding out of the throne of god
and of Lamb .
In his midst of the street of it , and on either side of the river ,
was there the tree of life , which bare twelve manner of fruits , and
yielded her fruit every month : and the leaves of the tree were for
the healing of the nations .
423
9 – 14
„Be praised , my Lord ,
through Sister Water ;
She is very useful ,
and precious , and pure .“
From : „The Canticle of the Sun“ ,
Francis of Assisi
424
9 – 15
9 . 4 Water in Islam
425
Significance of Water
Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the
earth were joined together (as one unit of creation) ,
before we clove them asunder ? We made from water
every living thing . Will they not then believe ?
“The Holy Qur‟An”
Surah 21 : Al – Ambija 30 (The Profets)
In Islam , water is most important for purification .
Moslem should be ritually pure , before they are
approaching God in prayer .
426
9 – 16
Ritual washing of hands
In Islam , washing one‟s
hands frees oneself from the
sins which have been
commited by hands .
The ritual washsing must be
performed in running and
pure water .
Running water signifies vivid
water . The pure river
carries the sins and and dirt
away .
427
9 – 17
9.5
Water in Buddhism
428
Water is a symbol for Life
In Buddhism , water symbolizes life , the purest form of food , and
water is the particular element which in nature carries everything
together .
Water symbolizes purity , clarity and calmness , and reminds us to
cleanse our minds and attain the state of purity .
Water is used to clean away dirt . When everyone sees you (the water) ,
they are happy and joyful . This is because they are reminded that they
can wash away the filth of their minds . They should wash away selfish
and unkind thoughts and be clean and pure like you .
“It is as with Ice and Water :
Without Water there is no Ice …”
(Hakuins song of meditation)
Water is also most important for funerals (see Reference R.9.5.2)
429
9 – 18
Healing power of Water
To a weak or indispositioned
sick person , water is poored
over his head .
The water then causes an
energetical purification which
improves the illness rapidly .
430
Religious Procession
under a waterfall
Japan , 1985
A Shingon Buddhist practitioner mediates
under frigid waterfalls at the
Oiwasan Nissekiji Temple in Toyama ,
Japan . In Shingon , a school of Japanese
esoteric Buddhism , waterfall mediation , or
„takigyo“ , is used to focus the mind and
increase self-awareness .
431
9 – 19
Water as Sacrifice to the Gods
Water sustains and makes
possible new life .
Since water is given to us and
is of such prime importance ,
it must also be returned .
For this reason it is sacrificed the
Gods in beautifully shaped bowls
as a sign of admiration , of deep
respect and of gratitude .
432
9 – 20
9.6
Water in Hinduism
433
Water as an original force
Water is considered to be an original force ; it is the only element
which is not assigned to a divinity .
The water of the Ganges is holy because its origin is the Himalaya ,
the highest known source of all , and falls to the valley .
434
9 – 21
Purification in the Ganges - 1
The purification in the Ganges
is a meditation which helps to
understand the greatness of
god .
A bath in the Ganges can be
considered as a search to
himself .
435
Hindu are purifying themselves in the holy river Ganges in
order to gain freedom from their sins .
436
9 – 22
Bath in the
Ganges
437
Water as a symbol for the circle of Life
Water is offered God as a gift
before washing themeselfes .
By this symbol of sacrifice ,
the gift of God is returned to
the creator .
Water symbolizes the circle of
life : everything has its origin
from water and is created from
water . After death , the ash is
retuned into the holy river .
438
9 – 23
9.7
Water in Psychology
and in Philosophy
439
Water in Psychology
• Water is an archetype i.e. a source image of the soul or of the
unconscious layers of personality , which are inhabited by
mysterious beings (see Carl Gustav Jung , p . 441)
•
Water is the basic symbol of all unconscious energy
in dreams :
- positive : for standing and flowing waters :
ponts , lakes , Seas , strands , streams and rivers
- negative : riptides , torrents , flood
• On the one hand , water is the most well- known life symbol ,
and on the other hand , water is also a symbol for death .
Hence , the symbol water is ambivalent .
440
9 – 24
Carl Gustav Jung (1875 – 1961)
Water is an Archetype :
Water is a symbol of life , cleansing , and rebirth . It is a strong life force ,
and is often depicted as a living , reasoning force .
441
Water and greek philosophy
“ The principle of all things is
water .”
“Everything is made of water ,
and everything returns to
water. “
Thales of Miletus thought that water
is the principle basic substance of all
existing things and that everything is
imbued by the spirit of the Gods ,
and therefore , to everything is given
a soul to .
“Spirit and matter are same” .
Thales of Miletus , 600 BC.
442
9 – 25
9-A-0
The washing of the feet of Jesus by Maria Magdalena
Johann Christof Haas (1753 – 1829)
9-A-3-1
9 – 26
The Babtism
Baptism Sainte – Chapelle
Last quarter of the 12th century
Scene of baptism . Stained glass , Paris
9-A-3-2
9 – 27
R-9-0
9 . Water in World Religions , in Psychology and in Philosophy
9 . 1 Water in World Religions
R.9.1.1
Atlas of the World‘s Religions
Second Edition
Frederick Denny
Nov . 2007
R.9.1.2
Hammond Atlas of World Religions
by Hammond (Author , Editor) and Stuart Murray (Author)
R.9.1.3
Atlas of World Religions
By Prentice Hall
Published Hall , 2006
R.9.1.4
Water in World Religion : An Introduction
Terje Oestigaard
Unifob Global
R.9.1.5
Water in World Religions
Jela Hasler and Ruben Hollinger
Matura -Arbeit von 2005 / 2006
Kantonsschule , CH-Wettingen
(Switzerland)
R.9.1.6
World Water Day : Facts and Figures about Water Religions and Beliefs
http:77www.worldwaterday.org/page/422
R.9.1.7
Facts and Figures - Water and Religions
http://fami.oszbueroverw.de/wasser_in_religionen/index.html
R.9.1.8
LE GRAND LIVRE DE L‘EAU
Edition la Manifacture (1995)
R-9-1
9 – 28
9 . 2 Water in Juidaism
R.9.2.1
p . 402 : Michelangelo – The Creation : http://ais.badische-zeitung.de/piece/01/42/1a/51/21109329.jpg
R.9.2.2
p . 403 : Water in Genesis_1 _The Bible , Genesis and Geology ; www.kjvbible.org/-
R.9.2.3
p . 404 : Water in Genesis_2 : Holy Byble : King James Version
R.9.2.3a
The Bible – GENESIS : The Creation and the Flood (DVD)
The Genesis story begins with the creation of Man and Woman , the sin committed by Adam and Eve , and the
temptation by the snake , which led to their banishment from Paradise . The story continues with the first crime
committed by mankind , Cain‘s murder of his brother , the condemnation of God , mankinds corruption and evil ,
and God‘s regret from having created the Earth . The choice of Noah , a just and upright man , to bild the Ark ,
the flood and its clearing the way for a new mankind , the pact of the eternal Covenant between God and all
living beings , are told through the clear and simple words of an old named shepherd .
R.9.2.4
p . 405 : Moses_in_the_Basket : A Princess finds a Basket
The Bible story of baby Moses by Linda Sue Pochedzay Edwards
www.childrenschapel.org/biblestonries/babymoses.html
R.9.2.4a According to the Bible : EXODUS : Chapter 2 :
And there went a man of the house (a slave) of Levi , and took wife a daughter of Levi . And the women
conceived , and bare a son : and when she saw him that he was a goodly child , she hid him three months .
And when she could no longer hide him , she took for him an ark of bulrushes , and daubed it with slime and
with pitch (to form a basket) and put the child therein and she laid it in the flags by the river‘s (the Nil‘s)
spring . And his sister stood afar off , to wit what would be done to him . And the daughter of Pharaoh came
down to wash herself at the river ; and her maidens walked along by the river‘‘s side : and when she saw the
ark among the flags , she sent her maid to fetch it . And when she had opened it , she saw the child : and ,
behold , the baby wept . And she had compassion on him , and said , This is one of the Hebrews‘ children .
Then said his sister to Pharao‘s daughter , Shall I go and call to thee a nurse of the Hebrew women , that
she may nurse the child for thee ? And Pharaoh‘s daughter said onto her . Take the child away , and nurse it
for me , and I will give thee thy wages . And the women took the child , and nursed it . And the child grew ,
and she brought him unto Pharao‘s daughter , and he became her sun , And she called his name Moses : and she
said , because I drew him out of the water .
R-9-2
R.9.2.5
p . 406 : Michelangelo‘s Moses i n Church San Pietro in Rom
R.9.2.6
p . 407 : Crossing the Red Sea of the Israeli is the Biblical account of the crossing the
Red Sea by Moses and the Israelites in their flight from the persuing Egyptian army and
is part of the Exodus narrative on the journay out of Egypt , found in the Book of Exodus ,
Chapter 13 : 17 to 15 : 21.
According to the Book of Exodus , God parts the Red Sea for the safe passage of the
Israelites , after which the pursuing Egyptians army is drowned when the waters return .
At the end of these events , the Israelites sing the song of the Sea to celebrate their
deliverance .
R.9.2.7
p . 408 : „The Flood“ (Michelangelo Buanarroti (1475 – 1564) , painted at 1512) .
The actual details of the Flood are given in Chapters 7 and 8 of Genesis :
„The Flood continued forty days upon the earth ; and the waters increased , and bore up
the ark (of Noah) , and it rose high above the earth . …And the waters prevailed so mightily
upon the Earth that all the high mountains under the whole heaven were covered ; the waters
prevailed above the mountains , covering them fifteen cubits (about 22 feet) deep .“
„And all flesh died that moved upon the Earth , birds , cattle , beasts , all swarming creature
that swarm upon the Earth , and every man ; everything on the dry land in whose nostrils
was the breath of life died . …. Only Noah was left , and those that were with him in the ark .
And waters prevailed upon the Earth a hundred and fifty days .
R.9.2.8
p . 409 : „The Flood“: Detail of the left hand side of p . 408
R.9.2.9
p . 410 : „The Flood“ of Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519)
In 1513 Leonardo Da Vinci was seriously thick - and threatened by mortal agony created „The Flood“ and over visions of the end of the world .
R.9.2.10
p . 411 : The flood and reality ;
see also : Mark Siddhal : Nature 430 ,12 August 2004 , p . 718 - 719
R.9.2.11
p . 412 : The purification : „Mikveh“
„htto://en.wikipedia.org/wik/Mikvah“
R.9.2.12
p . 413 : Spiritual immersion bath in the river
see in Reference R.9.1.5 , p . 33
R-9-3
9 – 29
9 . 3 Water in Christianity
R.9.3.1
p . 415 / 416 : Christian Symbols and their Meanings – eBook
www.symbols.net/christian/
R.9.3.2
p . 415 / 416 : Church Symbols – What Do They Really Mean ?
Rita Green
www.epworthsteeble.org/symbols.htm
R.9.3.3a
p . 415 / 416 : Rudolf Koch : Christian Symbols
catholic-resources.org/Art/Koch-christiansymbols.htm
R.9.3.3b
p . 415 / 416 : „The Meaning of Water in Christianity“
Alexander Pokhilko
http://www.st-jonnesbaptist.de/Heiligengeschichte/heiligengeschichte.html
R.9.3.4
p . 417 : John the Baptist : Biography from Answers.com
http://www.answers.com/topic/john-the-baptist
R.9.3.5
p . 418 : Baptism of Jesus – Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wik/Baptism-of_Jesus
p . 418 : The Baptism of Jesus in the Jordan :
Amazon.com: The Baptism of Jesus in the Jordan : The Trinitarian and
Cosmic Order of Salvation : Kilian McDonald Books
www.amazon.com/Baptism-Jesus-Jordan
R.9.3.6
p. 419 : Jesus walking upon the Lake and rescuer at high Sea
http://www.daily-word-of-life.com/DailyWord/Jesus_Walking_Water1.jpg
Jesus Walks on Sea : Matt . 14 , Mark 6 , Luke 22
virtualreligion.net/primer/Repute/sea-walk – html
Parallel Texts in Mathew , Mark and Luke (synoptic : presenting or taking the same point of view )
R-9-4
R.9.3.7
A meditation about Petrus (and Jesus) walking upon the Sea
(Eine Meditation zum Seewandel des Petrus)
Eugen Drewerman
http://www2.ev-theol.uni-bonn.de/relpaed/wunder/mediatseew.html
R.9.3.8
Eugen Drewermann
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen-Drewermann
R.9.3.9
Eugen Drewermann : Taten der Liebe . Meditationen über die Wunder Jesu
„Meditations about the miracles of Jesus“ , Freiburg 1995
http://www2.ev-theol.uni-bonn.de/replaced/wunder/meditatseew.html
R.9.3.10
p . 420 : After the baptism of a baby
Ref . R.9.1.5 , p. 15
R.9.3.11
p . 421 : Lourdes : A major place of Christian pilgrimage and of alleged miraculous healings .
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lourdes
R.9.3.12
p . 422 : Jesus and the Samaritian at the Fountain (see also p . 416)
Painting from Angelika Kaufmann (1741 – 1807)
Christ said to the samaritan : „If you knew the gift of God , and who it is that says to you ,
Give me to drink ; you would have asked of him , and he would given you living water (4:10)“
http://www.christiancourier.com/articles/282-jesus-and-the-samaritan-woman
R.9.3.13
p . 423 : Holy Bible
(King James Version)
„The Relevation“ of St . John (Die Offenbarung des Johannes) 22 : 1 – 2 ; p . 268
R.9.3.14
p . 424 : Francis of Assisi : The Canticle of the Sun
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Canticle_of_the_Sun
R.9.3.15
9-A-3-1 : The washing of the feet of Jesus by Maria Magdalena
Johann Christof Haas (1753 – 1829)
R.9.3.16
9-A-3-2 : The Babtism in Sainte Chapelle - Paris
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasser
R-9-5
9 – 30
9 . 4 Water in Islam
R.9.4.1
In Islam water is important for cleansing and purifying . Muslims must be ritually pure before
approaching God in prayer . Some mosques (Moscheen) have a courtyard (enclosed area ,
often a space enclosed by a building that is open to sky) with a pool of clear water in the
centre , but in most mosques the ablutions (Waschungen) are found outside the walls .
Fountains symbolising purity are also sometimes found in mosques . In Islam purity (called
tahara) is
required before carring out religious duties , especially salat (worship : the adoring
acknowledgment of all that lies beyond us - the glory that fills heaven and earth) .
There are three kinds of ablutions : the most important is ghusl (an Arabic term referring to
the major ablution (ritual washing) requested in Islam for various rituals and prayers) , is the
washing of the whole body in pure water , after declaring the intention to do so . Muslims are
obliged to perform ghusl after sex which incurs a state of major ritual impurity . Ghusl is also
recommended gefore the Friday prayer , the two main feasts , and before touching the Koran .
Ghusl must be done for the dead before they are buried -
R.9.4.2
p . 427 : Ritual washing of one‘s hands : Ref : R.9.1.5 : p . 44
9 . 5 Water in Buddhism
R.9.5.1
To „Water in Buddhism“ see :
Zen – Mind – Beginner‘s Mind
Shunryu Suzuki
in : Nirvana ; The Water fall (Der Wasserfall)
www.torrentreactor.net/torrents/.../Zen-Mind-Beginners-Mind-66%2F24
R.9.5.2
p . 429 : For Buddhists , symbolism and ritual are less important because they seek spiritual
enlightment that comes from seeing the reality of unreality . Bodhidharma , thought to be the
first Zen Buddhism said this in the 5th Century CE .
R-9-6
Nethertheless , water is a symbol for life , for the purest form of food , for purity ,
clarity and calmness .
In Buddhism , Water also features in funerals where it is poured into a bowl placed
before the monks and the dead body . As it fills and pours over the edge , the monks
recite :
„As the rains fill the rivers and overflow into the ocean , so likewise may what is given
here reach the departed“.
R.9.5.3
p . 430 : Ref . R.9.1.5 , p. 55 ; Water is poored over the head of a sick person
R.9.5.4
p . 431 a : Referenz R.9.1.8 . p . 28 : Religiöse Prozession unter einem Wasserstrahl
in Japan , 1985
p . 431 b: Meditation unter Wasserfall :
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/healthyliving/gallery/japan/photo7.html
R.9.5.5
p . 432 : Water sustains and makes possible new life .
Ref . R.9.1.5 : p . 59
9 . 6 Water in Hinduism
R.9.6.1
p . 434 : Water is imbuded with powers of spiritual purification for Hindus , for whom
morning cleansing is an everyday obligation . All temples are located near a water source ,
and followers must bathe before entering the temple . Many pilgrimage sites are found on
river banks ; sites where two , or even three , rivers converge are considered particularly
sacred .
There are seven sacred rivers : The Ganges , and the Godavari , Kaveri , Narmada ,
Sarashvati , Sindhu and Yamuna Rivers . According to Hindu beliefs , those who bath in
the Ganges or who leave part of themeselves (hair , bones of the dead) on the left bank
of the river will reach Svarga , the paradise of Indra , storm god .
Funeral rites are always held near rivers ; the son of the deceased pours water on the
burning funeral pyre so that the soul cannot escape and return to Earth as a ghost ….
The ashes are collected three days after cremation , and several days later , are thrown
into a holy river
R-9-7
9 – 31
R.9.6.2
p . 435 : Purification in the Ganges
Ref . R.9.1.5 : p . 68
R.9.6.3
pp 436, 437 : Purification in the Ganges ; Fotos selected by P . Brüesch
R.9.6.4
p . 438 : Water is a gift which is returned to God
Ref . R.9.1.5 , p . 77
9.7 Water in Psychology and in Philosophy
R.9.7.1
p . 441 : Carl Gustav Jung : „The Collective Unconscious“
Photo of C.G. Jung from Internet under „Carl Gustav Jung“ : „Pictures“
R.9.7.2
According to C.G. Jung , Water is the most well – known symbol for the collective
unconscious . The descent into the depth seems always to precede the ascent .
In Psychologically , water is therefore a symbol for spirit which became unconscious .
R.9.7.3
p . 442 : Thales of Miletus
http://did.mat.uni-bayreuth.de/ ~wn/thalesmensch.html
It is said that Thales of Miletos , one of the seven wise men , was the first to under take the study of physical philosophy . He said that the beginning (the first principle)
and the end of all things is water .
R.9.7.4
H2O - THE MYSTEREY , ART , AND SCIENCE OF WATER
Chris Witcombe and Sang Hwang
Sweet Briar College
http://witcombe.sbc.edu/water/
R-9-8
9 - 32
10 . Water in the
Solar System
and in
the Universe
443
10 – 0
10 . 1 Our Solar System
444
The Solar System - 1
Inner Planets (right : from left to right) : Mercury , Venus ,
Earth with Moon , and Mars
Asteroide - belt : Large number of small spots located between Mars and Jupiter
Outer Planets (left : from left to right) : (Pluto) , Neptune ,
Uranus , Saturn and Jupiter
445
10 – 1
The Solar System - 2
446
Mass of star relative to Sun
Habitable Zone in Solar System
Habitable
Zone
2.0
1.0
Mars
Earth
Venus
0.5
0
0.1
10
1
40
Radius of orbit relative to Earth
The Solar System along center row of possible zones of varying size stars .
The blue zone indicates the habitable zone .
The Earth is located in the habitable zone of the solar system; if it were about 5 % or about 8
million kilometers closer to or further from the sun , the conditions which allow the three forms
of water to be present simultaneously (liquid , solid , and gaseous) would be far less likely to
exist .
447
10 – 2
10 . 2
Water on the Sun !
448
The Sun God Apollo
Head of the Sun god Apollo
Apollo , the Sun god , brings life –
giving heat and light to Earth
449
10 -3
Water vapour on the Sun spots Umbra !
Umbra
Penumbra
Sun with sunspots : the
mean temperature of
the surface of the Sun
is about 5’500 o C.
In the sunspots (Umbra) the
temperature is “only” about 3000 to
3500 oC . In such “oasis” , water
vapour can survive in a highly
excited state without decomposition .
Detection with Infrared spectros copy and Computer - simulations
450
Water on the Sun : Experiments and Theory
• Experimental : observation of the emission spectrum of the sun
• In this experiment also the water vapour of the atmosphere is an inevitably
observed complication !
• But in the infrared spectrum of atmospheric water vapor there exist “windows” which
allow the observation of the spectrum of the umbras .
• A carefull experimental and theoretical analysis clearly demonstrates the existence of
water vapor in the Umbras , but the water molecules are thermally highly excited :
“hot molecules” ; these hot molecules give rise to a much more complicated infrared
spectrum than that known from the “cold molecules” on the Earth .
• The infrared spectrum of the water vapor of the Umbras are compared with very
hot water prepared on the Earth and good agreement is obtained !
• The theoretical analysis of the IR – spectrum of “hot water molecules” is extremely
complicated (quantum mechanics , coupling of electronic and atomic motions , relativistic
treatment of electrons …) .
451
10 – 4
10 . 3
The inner Solar System
• The planets Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars belong to the
terrestrial or “rocky” planets .
• They are characterized by a relative clearly defined interface
between there surfaces and their atmospheres .
• Compared to the outer planets , they are very small .
452
The God Mercury
Mercury : Herald of the Roman Empire
and the Ambassador of Roman Gods
453
10 – 5
Water and Ice on the Mercury ?
• Since the planet Mercury is closest to the Sun , its highest temperature can
rise up to 430 oC , his lowest temperature can , however , be as low as - 170 oC .
• One would therefore assume that the existence of water – ice is relatively
improbable .
Space flight pictures from Mariner 10 show ,
however , many craters and suggest the presence
of ice in deep craters .
Radar – signals taken from the Earth (left)
show red spots : strong radar signals

eventually from water – ice in craters .
Yellow , green and blue areas : progressively
weaker reflections .
 small amounts of water – ice in these areas
454
Birth of the Goddess Venus
Sandro Botticelli (about 1486)
Venus (meaning „Love“ or „sexual desire“ in Latin) was a major Goddess principally
associated with love , beauty and fertility . From the third century BC , the increasing
Hellenization of Roman upper classes identified her as the equivalent of the Greek
Goddess Aphrodite (see p . 458) .
455
10 – 6
No water on the Venus !
View to the CO2
atmosphere of
the Venus
Venus , the goddess
of Love
View onto the hemi sphere of Venus across
the clouds (Magellan mission)
Today , Venus has no water ! In the past there existed eventually
oceans , which evaporated due to the enrichment of CO2 in the
atmosphere . It is believed that this was the consequence of a self –
enhancing greenhouse effect .
456
Michelangelo : Godfather
Creator of the Earth and of Water
457
10 – 7
Aphrodite : Goddhess of Love and Beauty
Robert Fowler (1853 – 1926)
458
Gaia : The Goddhess of the Earth
Gaia , the jung
mother of the Earth
Gaia , the mother of Earth :
Her suffering expression reflects
the tortured Earth.
459
10 – 8
The Goddess
In the beginning , before the world was created , God was wandering around
through the nothingness trying to find something . He had almost given up hope and was
dead tired when suddenly he came to a big shed . He knocked . A Goddess opened the door
and asked him to come in .
She said she was just busy working on Creation but he should take a seat for a
while and watch what she was doing . At the moment she was planting various water plants
in an aquarium .
God was astonished at what he saw . He would never have come up with the
idea of creating a substance like water . It is precisely this , the Goddess said smilingly ,
that was , so to speak , the basis of life .
After a while God asked if perhaps he could help a bit and the Goddess said she
would be very grateful if he could take the water and the things she had created so far to
one of the planets that she had set up a little further in the back . She would like to start
with the least significant one as a test .
So God began to deliver the Goddess‘ creations one after the other from her
shed to the Earth , and it is not a surprise that later , people on this planet knew only
about the God who had brought it all and who they assumed was the actual creator of all .
Of the Goddess who had thought it all up , however , they knew nothing , and
therefore it‘s high time she gets mentioned .
Franz Hohler
460
The “Blue Planet”
About 70 % of the
surface of the Earth
is covered by water !
461
10 – 9
Dry – Land Hemisphere
Water - Hemisphere
Water
Land
Water
Land
The Dry – Land Hemisphere is defined as
that part of the Globe which contains the
largest part of land .
It contains Europe , Africa , North – America
and Greenland as well as about 95 % of
Asia and two third of South America .
From the total surface of the Dry – Land
Hemisphere , 53 % is covered by water and
47 % by land .
Note that from the global surface , 29 % is
Dry - Land and 71 % is Water .
The Water – Hemisphere constitutes that
part of the Globe which contains the
largest water content .
Its center is located in the Pacific near
New Zealand . From the continents and
there land areas it contains only
Australia , the Antarctic und some per
cents of Asia .
The surface of the Water – Hemisphere
is covered by 89 % of water and by 11
% of dry – land .
462
Poseidon (greek)
or
Neptun (roman) :
God of Water
or the Sea
463
10 – 10
The Moon of our Earth
Comparision of Earth and Moon
Earth
Characteristics
12‘742
5.974 * 1024
9.78
Diameter (km)
Mass (g)
Surface gravity
Moon
3‘476
(m/s2)
7.349 * 1022
1.62
A view of the Moon
Spectacular view of the Earth‘s Moon :
The Moon is rising in the evening sky over
the Piz Rosatsch in the „Upper Engadine“
(Canton Grisons of Switzerland) .
(Arno Balzarini , Press photographer ;
s. Ref. R.10.3.12)
464
Water on the Moon !
Why could water have been present on the Moon ?
Answer : for the same reason as on the Earth : by Impacts of
Comets and asteroids about 4 billions years ago .
Moon crater Copernicus
But : the surface gravity on the Moon is about 6 times
smaller than on the Earth  Most of the water vapour can
not be attracted  Evaporation into space !
465
10 – 11
Apollo - and Lunar - Prospector Moon travels
Apollo space crafts of NASA (1968
– 1972) confirm that the surface of
the Moon has suffered a large
number of impacts of comets and
asteroids .
Lunar - Prospector
Moon travel (1998) :
Observation of H2 ,
but no water has been
found until very recently !
(see p . 467)
466
The humid layer on the Moon !
A continous current of hydrogen ions H+ could be the source of the water
on the Moon .
Several space crafts have discovered water at the surface of the Moon . The H2O –
molecules are found in a very thin layer at the surface . (NZZ : September 2009) .
467
10 – 12
Observation of impact craters by means of NASA‘s LCROSS :
(LCROSS = Lunar Crater Observing and Sensing Satellite)
In October 2009 , NASA
deliberately crashed its LCROSS
experiment on the south pole of
the Moon , creating two impact
craters . One of them was caused
by the spent Centaurus rocket
stage that the LCROSS instrument
was carrying , while the second
was made by the $ 78 million
spacecraft itself , as it fell to its
demise while snapping photos of
the Centaurus impact site .
An artist‘s conception shows the
LCROSS probe of NASA , observing
the crash of its Centaur upper
stage into the Lunar surface .
468
Water absorption bands on the Moon discovered !
Data from the down-looking near-infrared spectrometer of the Lunar Crater
Observation and Sensor Satellite (LCROSS) .
The red curve shows how the spectra would look for a „grey“ or „colourless“ warm
(230 oC) dust cloud . The yellow areas indicate the water absorption bands .
469
10 – 13
Mars – The Roman God of War
Mars in full speed
towards war
Mars in readiness of
battle
470
Water – Ice on the North – Pole of Mars
Discovered by
“European Space
Agency” (ESA)
(July 28 , 2005)
The diameter of the crater is about 35 km and its maximum depth is
about 2 km . The circular blue area in the centre is residual water – ice !
It has been possible to prove that the blue area is not composed of CO2
(dry ice) .
471
10 – 14
10 . 4
The Outer Solar System
472
General Remarks about the outer Solar System
• The “Outer Solar System” contains the giant planets Jupiter , Saturn ,
Uranus and Neptun .
Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt (Kuiper - Gürtel) , the outermost
parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of
the objects beyond Neptun .
• The giant planets possess a liquid or metallic core . The largest part
of there mass consist , however , on Hydrogen and Helium with traces
of Water vapor and other gases . Therefore , they are referred to as “gas
giants”.
• In contrast to the “rocky” planets , the “gas giants” do not have a
well defined surface : their atmospheres gradually increase by
approaching their cores . They are possibly interspersed by liquid or
even solid matter .
• Uranus and Neptun form a separate class of “gas giants” ; they are
often called “ice giants”, since they contain large quantities of ice
and water vapor at very high pressures . It is speculated that
they contain super – ionic or even metallic ice .
473
10 – 15
Jupiter , Father of the Gods
In Greek mythology : Zeus
474
The interior of Jupiter
H2O
NH3
CH4
Ice - nucleus
H2
liquid and
metallic
hydrogen
• 10’000 km below H2 - layer : P about 1’000’000 atm , T about 6000 K !
• liquid and metallic hydrogen : H  protons and electrons
• electric currents produce very strong magnetic fields !
• within nucleus : glowing water - ice at extremely high
pressures and temperatures .
475
10 – 16
Water on Jupiter and its ring system
• NASA 2000 : The atmosphere contains methane (CH4) , ammonia (NH3) and water
vapor . Condensation of water vapor  clouds , rain, thunderstorms ! There exist dry
and humid areas .
Jupiter‘s Jovian ring system
showing four main components .
This ring system is faint and consists mainly
on dust and rocks .
It comprises mainly four compounents :
- a thick inner torus known as „halow ring“
- a relatively bright „main ring“
- two wide , thick and faint outer rings ,
called „grossamer rings .
Running red rings around Jupiter
Jupiter‘s rings are darker and appear as
fine particles or rocks .
The six pictures at the left were taken in
infrared light from the Infrared Telescope
Facility in 1994 , and cover a time span
of two hours .
The origin of Jupiter‘s rings remains
unknown .
476
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 - 1791)
Fourth mouvement (Molto allegro) of the Jupiter - Symphony , KV 551
primary theme :
477
10 – 17
The Jupiter Moon Europe
rocky
interior
metallic
nucleus
liquid Ocean
below the ice
Ice - crust
Photo of a small part of the ice –
crust (70 km x 30 km) of the
Conamara - region of Jupiter’s
Moon Europe , taken with the
space probe Galileo .
Interior of Jupiter’s Moon
Europe , based on several
independent observations .
Note the ruptures in the ice crust ;
they can be produced by several
plausible reasons .
478
Saturn with Ice - Ring – System - 1
Pictures taken from the spacecraft Telescope Hubble : The planet with his
rings has been viewed from different angles (2001) .
Saturn is composed of about 75 % hydrogen and 25 % helium .
The rings of Saturn seem to be composed primarily of water – ice but they
may also include rocky particles with ice coatings . The water – ice particles
are swirling due to the graviational field of the planet . Therefore , they can
not condense to a moon .
479
10 – 18
Saturn with ring – system - 2
• Discovered by Galileo (1610) !
• Visits by : NASA’s Pioneer 11 (1979) , Voyager 1 and 2 . Cassini
approached Saturn in 2004 and is still circling around it .
• As Jupiter , Saturn is a “giant - gas” - planet with a similar
atmosphere (75 % H2 und 25 % He) .
• The interior of Saturn has the same structure as Jupiter : a glowing
nucleus of H2O - ice , liquid and metallic H2 and H2 - gas .
480
Saturn : God of Harvest and Time
Saturn : (Caravaggio in 16 th
Century)
481
10 – 19
The Gods Uranus and Neptune
Uranus is the earlier greek
God of the sky
Neptune is the Roman god of the
Oceans ;
In greek mythology : Posseidon
482
Upper atmosphere
surface of clouds :
H2 , He , and CH4
Atmosphere :
Hydrogen
Helium , Methane
The planet
Neptune
Mantle :
Water , Methane
and Ammonia
Rocky nucleus
and Ice
NEPTUNE
The diameter of Neptune is 49‘248 km ( smaller than Uranus) . Its colour is blue – green ,
which is due to methane in its atmosphere . For an orbit around the sun it takes about
165 years . The interiour of Neptune is similar to that of Uranus : a rocky nucleus , covered
by an ice - layer , a mantel contained of water , methane , and ammonia , followed by a
thick atmosphere .
As Uranus , but in contrast to Jupiter and Saturn , Neptune consists probably on clearly
distinguishable layers . Its surface temperature is - 218 oC . Neptun seems to possess an
internal heat source . The velocity of the wind can reach values up to 2‘000 km / h , which
is due to the inner heat source just mentioned . This is the highest velocity of wind in the
solar system .
483
10 – 20
Possible internal structure of Neptune and Uranus (*)
“Gas” : molecular
hydrogen (H2) and
helium (He) as well
as methan (CH4)
“Ice” : hot ice (glowing !)
mixed with H2 and CH4 at
very high temperatures
(about 1700 oC) and at
very high pressures (10
GPa = 100’000 atm )
“Rock” : rocks and ice at about
7’700 o C and at pressures of
800 GPa = 8 millions atm (!)
(*) Uranus and Neptune have a very
similar structure and are often referred to
as “giant - ice” - planets .
484
Superionic conducting water in Neptune and Uranus ??
The extreme conditions that exist
deep within Uranus and Neptun
could be ideal for water in the
superionic state in which the mole cules have been broken into oxygen
and hydrogen ions (*) .
ICE AND LIQUID WATER
HYDROGEN AND
HELIUM
IONIC WATER
Convection occurs ,
creating irregular
magnetic fields
In fact , the results from computer
models strongly suggest that a layer of
(solid) superionic water should extend
out about halfway to the surface
(red area) . The simulations assume
temperatures up to 6000 oC at
pressures of 7 millions atm (**) .
ROCK
SUPERIONIC WATER
No convection and
therefore no
contribution to
magnetic fields
ORDINARY WATER
Liquid water and steam con tain a jumble of unattached
molecules
Hydrogen
Oxygen
SUPERIONIC WATER
Oxygen atoms form a lattice
in which hydrogen ions
can move easily
Hydrogen
Oxygen
The observed curious magnetic fields
of Uranus and Neptun are consistent
with nearby patches of the surface of
liquid ionic water (brown area) having
fields of opposite polarity .
(*) The Physics of Superionic Conductors is
outlined in detail by P . Brüesch
(see Ref . R.10.4.15) .
(**) The Computer models hve been studied
by a team led by Ronald Redmer at the
University of Rostock (References R.10.4.13
and R.10.4.14) .
485
10 – 21
Pluto , the dwarf Roman God is the God of the Underworld
Modern astronomers have
abolished God Pluto from his
base !
Reason : it has been realized , that
Pluto has to be considered as a
“dwarf planet” ; in addition it
became clear that there exist
many similar planets having the
same size and structure .
Pluto , Greek god of wealth
(ninth planet from the Sun) .
486
10 – 22
10 . 5
Extra – Solar Water
487
L’ Univère populaire : Camille Flammarion , Wood engraving , Paris 1888 (*)
(*) A composition (“Montage”) of C. Flammerion for his art work
“ L’ Astronomie populaire “ , created 1880 .
488
10 – 23
Our Milky - Way Galaxy
Our Milky Way
Diameter :
about. 10 5 light years
(9.5 * 1017 km)
thickness :
about 103 light years
(9.5 * 1015 km)
age :
about 13 . 6 billions
of years
(13.6 * 109 years)
number of stars :
about 300 billions
(300 * 109 stars)
Our Solar
System
The observable Universe contains 100 - 400 billions (100 – 400 * 109) of Galaxies similar to
that of our Milky Way system shown in this Figure . One light year (ly) is equal to 9.46 *
1012 km ! The age of the oldest known star is about 13.2 billion years (13.2 * 109 years) .
489
Our Milky – Way Galaxy is a stellar disk - 1
490
10 – 24
Our Milky – Way Galaxy
The Milky – Way Galaxy is a vanishingly small part of the
Universe ; its dimension is of the order of about 100‘000
light years .
The Figure at p . 490 shows the shape and the dimension
of the Milky – Way System : a spiral – shaped Galaxy contai nig at least 200 billions of stars .
Our Sun is deeply hidden in the Orion – Arm , the distance of
which is about 26‘000 light years from the galactic center .
Approaching the center of the Galaxy , the density of Stars
is much larger as in the vicinity of our Sun .
In the Figure of p . 490 we can observe the existence of
small spherical star – clusters as well as the presence of a
dwarf – Galaxy , the so–called Sagittarius dwarf , which is
slowly swallowed by our Galaxy .
491
The diske – shaped Milky – Way Galaxy - 2
Edwin Hubble studied Galaxies and classified them into various types of elliptical , lenticular , and
spiral Galaxies . The spiral Galaxies were characterized by disc shapes with spiral arms as shown
in Figures 489 and 490 for the example of the Milky Way System .
[An elliptical Gallaxy is a Galaxy having an approximately ellipsoidal shape and a smooth , nearly
featureless brightness profile . They range in shape from nearly spherical to highly flattened . A
lenticular Galaxy is a type of Galaxy which is intermediate between an elliptical Galaxy and a
spiral Galaxy ].
492
10 – 25
The Milky – Way Galaxy : Facts and Explenations
The Milky Way , or simply the Galaxy , is the Galaxy in which our Solar System is located .
It is a barred spiral Galaxy that is part of the Local Group of Galaxies . It is one of billions
of Galaxies in the observed Universe .
The stellar disk of the Milky Way (s . pp 489 , 490 and 492) is approximately 100‘000 lightyears (ly) (9.5 * 1017 km) in diameter , and is considered to be , on average , about 1‘000 (ly)
(9.5 * 1015 km) thick . It is estimated to contain at least 200 billion of stars and possibly up to
400 billion stars , the exact figure depending on the number of very low-mass stars , which is
highly uncertain .
As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way , if it were reduced to 10 m in
diameter , our Solar System , including the Oort cloud (spherical cloud of Comets) , would be
no more than 0.1 mm in width ! This is a factor of 100‘000 (!) .
By including the estimated age of the stars in the globular cluster (about 13.4 billion years) ,
the age of the oldest stars in the Milky System has been estimated to about 13.6 billion years .
Based upon this newest scientific result , the Galactic thin disk is estimated to have been
formed between 6.5 and 10.1 billion years ago .
The galactic disk , which bulges outward at the galactic center , has a diameter between 70‘000
and 100‘000 ly . The distance from our Sun to the galactic center is now estimated at 26‘000
1400 ly .
The galactic center harbors a compact object of very large mass as determined by the motion
of material around the center . The intense radio source named Sagittarius A* , thought to
mark the center of the Milky Way , is newly confirmed to be a supermassive black hole . Most
Galaxies are believed to have a supermassive black hole at their center .
493
The Effelsberg - and the Green Bank Radio Telescope
Radio Telescope Effelsberg (Germany)
putting into operation : 1972
Green Bank Telescope : GBT – Telescope
(West – Virginia , USA)
putting into operation : 2001
Mirror diameter : 100 m
focal length : 30 m
Mirror : 100 x 110 m
The aperture is not blocked by the
excentrically arranged detector !
494
10 – 26
The Hubble – Space Telescope (HST)
The Hubble – Space Telescope (HST) is a Telescope , which circles around the Earth in
an altitude of 590 km within 97 minutes . The operation of a Telescope outside the
Earth‘s atmosphere is a big advantage since no filtering action for specific wavelengths
of the electromagnetic spectrum , i.e. in the UV and IR range , is necessary .
495
The Space Telescope Herschel
In 1789 , Frederick William Herschel constructed a Telescope with a mirror diameter of 126
cm and a focal length of 12 m . At May 14 , 2009 , the William Herschel Telescope , named
to honor of Herschel , has been startet into space . Herschel will reache the so called second
Lagrange-Point at a distance of 1.5 millions km from the Earth . Synchronously with the
Earth , it will then circle around the sun . All the three perturbations arising from the Sun ,
the Moon , and the Earth , are approximately in line as viewed from the Lagrange-Point and
are therefore hidden by a „sun shad“ . Herschel can therefore observe under conditions free
from perturbing temperature - and radiation conditions which originate from the Sun , the
Earth , and the Moon
The Herschel Telescope observes the emission of the
extremely cold objects of the Galaxies in the wavelength
range between the far infrared (FIR) and the sub –
millimeter range (60 to 570 microns) . With observations
reaching deeply into space , it is aimed to explore the
formation and development of the Galaxies since the
beginning of the Universe . It is the aime of scientists to
explore the physical and chemical properties of interstellar
space , thereby gaining new insight into the formation of
stars which have been formed from molecular clouds .
With the help of the Herschel Telescope it is possible to
observe
water molecules at very low temperatures –
between 10 and 20 degrees Kelvin (- 263 bis - 253 oC) . (In
this temperature range , no photons in the optical region
can be observed ) .
The Herschel Space Observatory
496
10 – 27
Observation of extrasolar Water
The emission (or absorption lines) characteristic of water vapor can be identified if the
observation of an object yields at least the three fundamental vibrations of the H2O molecule (s. Chapter 2 , pp 37 and 64) . Besides molecular hydrogen (H2) and carbon
oxide (CO) , water (H2O) , is one of the most important and most stable molecules in the
Universe . Due to the disturbing water vapor of the atmosphere of the Earth , water
vapor in the Universe can not be directly observed . With the aid of the Space
Telescope Herschel , however (p. 496) , it is now possible for the first time to observe
water in the Universe and to explore its genesis and its implications for the formation of
the planets .
Water plays an important role for the energy balance of stars since it regulates the
temperature and cools down the stars . The existence and properties of water could also
be responsible for the formation of heavy–mass and low–mass planets . This is because
water plays an important role for the accumulation of matter during the formation of
planets (accreation = growth of a massiv object by gravitationally attracting more matter ,
typically gaseous matter) . On the other hand , dust grains are surrounded by ice layers ,
thereby limiting the coagulation to larger boulders .
Remark : The Telescope of the next Generation is in the planning stage : the „European Extremely
Large Telescope (E-ELT)“ ; its main mirror will have a diameter of 42 meters which is composed on
900 hexagonal mirror elements . Its construction will probably be started at 2011 and is expected to
come to completion in 2020 .
497
Comet Hale – Bop and terrestrial Life
Observations of Comets such as for
example Hale – Bopp , have shown
that its water – ice contains many
organic compounds .
Many scientists believe that in its
earliest stage our Earth was hot , dry
and sterile .
Therefore , it is possible that the
origin of terrestrial life goes back to
the complex organic molecules which
have been formed in the „icy hart“ of
interstellar clouds .
The Hale – Bopp Comet
From the 3 mm absorption band of water
it follows that the comet looses water – ice
by sublimation .
498
10 – 28
The Comet Hartley 2
The NASA spacecraft „Deep Impact“
has passed the Comet Hartley at
November 4 2010 . The photograph
shows one of the most closest
observed pictures .
The length of the comet corresponds
to the distance between the Capital
building and the Washington Monument
in Washington .
The small Comet consits of a mixture
of Ice , rockets and dust .
NASA has photographed the Comet
Hartley 2 from different directions and
from a distance of about 700 km .
At the time when
spacecraft „Deep
Impact“ passed Hartley 2 , the distance
to the Earth was about 21 million km .
499
The Water - Planet
HD 189733b
in front of his Sun
Using the Spitzer Space Telescope , it
has been possible to detect water
vapor in the atmosphere of the gasgiant HD 189733b . An article about
these findings has been published in
„Nature“ .
The planet studied circles around a
Sun in the constellation of
„Vulpera“. the distance of which is
63 light years from the Earth . The
gas-giant is somewhat larger than
Jupiter , but it is moving about 30
times closer around his Sun than the
Earth , and for this reason it is
extremely hot .
Based on the Spitzer – Telescope from NASA , an international Team of astronomers have been able to
analyze in detail the wavelengths of the Sun light which have been absorbed by the atmosphere of the
Planet . By analyzing the absorption spectrum in the infrared region , they found the signature of Water ,
i.e. the absorption lines of Water vapor .
Parts of the atmosphere are very hot - about 2‘000 oC . Therefore , the Water molecules are highly excited
producing an extremely complicated vibrational and translational spectrum , a spectrum which is much
more complicated than that shown in the Figure of pp 37 , 64 . The complication is due to the extremely
strong anharmonic vibrations and the strong coupling between vibrational and rotational motions .
500
10 – 29
Planet Gliese 436b (left) circling around the
dwarf Star Gliese 436 (right)
The dwarf star Gliesse is approximately at a distance of 33 light-years from the Earth .
Stellar models from the Star give an estimated size of about 42 % of the Sun‘s radius and
predicts a temperature of about 3300 K .
The star is orbited by the planet designed Gliese 436b (at the left of the Figure) . The planet
has an orbital period of 2.8 Earth days and transits the Star as viewded from Earth . It has a
mass of 22.2 times the Earth‘s mass .
The planet is thought to be largely composed of hot ices with an outer envelope of hydrogen
and helium (see p. 484) and is termed a „hot Neptun“ .
501
Scale comparision of the relative size of the
Earth and the Water - Planet Gliese 436 b .
Mass : 132.6 * 1024 kg ( = 22.2 times the mass of
the Earth) .
Orbital period about its Sun Gliese 436 :
2.8 Earth days .
10‘000 km
Based on its width , the mass and the proximity
from its Star Gliese 436 , the planet 436 b is
now thought to be made mostly of hot ,
pressurized water ice in exotic forms (Ices VII
and X , see pp 48 , 49 ; 55 - 56) .
Water
Water
Earth
EarthEarthlike
Like
like
rock
rock
rock
Hydrogen
envelope
The composition of the atmosphere (yellow ring)
is uncertain but may contain hydrogen , helium
and water vapor .
Earth diameter
The Figure shows the cross-section of the proposed
structure and composition of Planet Gliese 436 b .
When the radius became better known , ice alone
was not enough to account for the composition of
the Planet . Another layer of hydrogen and
helium up to 10 % in mass would be needed on
top of the ice . It has been suggested that this
might even obviate the need for an ice core :
alternatively , the planet may be a super-Earth .
502
10 – 30
Water in a distance of 11.1 billions light years from the Earth
Astronomers have found the most distant
signs of water in the Universe to date .
According to Dr . Violetta Impellizzeri et
al. from the University of Bonn , water has
been found in a distance of 11.1 billion
light-years from the Earth . However ,
because the Universe has expanded like a
inflating balloon in the time , stretching out
the distances between points , the Galaxy
in which the water was detected is about
19.8 billion light-years away . The water
emission is seen as a MASER , where
molecules in the gas amplify and emit
beams of microwave radiation in much
the same way as a LASER emits beams
of light . (MASER stands for Microwave
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation) .
The image is made from HST (Hubble Space Teles cope) data and shows four lensed images of the dusty
red Quasar , connected by a gravitational arc of the
Quasar Galaxy . (Quasar means „Quasi–Stellar Radio
Source“) . The lensing Galaxy is seen in the centre
between the four lensed images .
Credit : John McKean/ HST Archive data) .
The water vapour is thought to be contained in a jet ejected from a supermassive
black hole at the centre of a Galaxy , named MG J0414+0534 . The faint MASER – signal
is only detectable by using a technique called gravitational lensing , where the gravity
of a massive Galaxy in the foreground acts as a cosmic telescope , bending and
magnifying light from the distant Galaxy to make a clover-leaf (Kleeblatt) pattern of our
images of MG J0414+0534 . The spectrum of water vapour (s. p. 504) has been observed
with the Radio – Telescope Effelsberg .
503
Flux / mJy
Water – Masar Emission in Quasar MG J0414+0535
Effelsberg
100 m radio telescope
Water
Multiple images of
MG J0414-0534
Frequency / GHz
Foreground Galaxy
Figure Text s . p . 503
MG J0414+0534 is similar to the nearby
active Galaxy M87 shown in this inset
504
10 – 31
Water - Maser Emission in Quasar MG J0414+0534
Astronomers have found the most distant Water yet seen in the Universe , in a Galaxy more
than 11 billion light-years from Earth . Previously , the most distant Water had been seen in a
Galaxy less than 7 billion light-years from the Earth
The spectrum shown in the Figure at p . 504 is a „fingerprint“ that revealed radio emission from
Water Masers in the distant Quasar MG J0414+0534 . The background image is an infrared
image of the Quasar , made with the Hubble Space Telescope . The Quasar appears broken up
into four components by a foreground Galaxy (diffuse object in the center) , acting as
gravitational lens and strengthening the signal by a factor 35 . The inset with the Galaxy M87
shows how the Quasar might be seen from nearby .
The soggy Galaxy , dupped MG J0414+0534 , harbors a Quasar - a supermassive black hole
powering bright emission - at its core . In the region near the core , the Water molecules are
acting as Masers , the radio equivalent of Lasers , to amplify radio waves at a specific frequency .
The astronomers say their discovery indicates that such giant Water Masers were more common
in the early Universe than they are today . MG J0414+0534 is seen as it was when the Universe
was roughly one – sixth of its current age .
At the Galxy‘s great distance , even the strengthening of the radio wave done by the Maser‘s
would not by itself have made them strong enough to detect with the radio telescope . However ,
the scientists got help from nature in the form of another Galaxy , nearly 8 billion light-years
away , located directly in the line of sight from MG J0414+0534 to Earth . That foreground
Galaxy‘s gravity served as a lens to further brighten the more-distant Galaxy and make the
emission from Water molecules visible to the radio telescope .
The detection of water from MG J0414+0534 with the Effelsberg radio telescope also occurd to a
touch of fortune . The object is within just the right redshift interval (Doppler shift) to stretch
the line emission of the H2O molecule from the original 22 GHz to 6 GHz and so within the
tuning range of the 6 GHz receiver installed in the Telescope .
505
The Eagle Nebula in the Serpent Constellation
The „Eagle Nebula“ belong to
the Serpent Constellation or
„Serpens Clauds“ .
The Eagle Nebula constitute
a young and open cluster of
Stars
in
the
constellation
Serpens .
The distance from the Earth is
about 23 billion light – years .
506
10 – 32
Giant water quantity around a black hole
According to estimates from NASA , the
amount of the discovered water is about
140 billion times larger than the toal water
on the Earth .
This water surrounds a giant quasar , the
quasar APM 08279+5255 - a black hole , which
absorbs matter in its surrounding .
The huge mass of water is located at a
distance of about 12 billions light years from
the Earth .
According to NASA , this quasar is about 20
billion times larger than our Sun .
During his absorption of mass , the quasar
produces a giant energy . This energy is
equivalent to the energy of thousand billions
of suns .
Black hole in the Universe – the water
discovered by astronomers surrounds
a giant gravitational singularity .
507
Aliens need Water desperately , too !!
Believe it or believe it not : „Extended theoretical and experimental
investigations have revealed that extraterrestrial aliens are also heavily
dependent on water and use to drink at least three gallons per day !!!“
(Text and Picture composed by P . Brüesch)
508
10 - 33
10-A-0
Did NASA find Liquid Water on the surface of Mars ?
Images from NASA satellite have detected dark patterns that ebb
and flow on Mars – evidence , perhaps , of a salty brine water .
Observations by High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiments (HiRISE) camera abord
the orbiting Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) have captured recurring features on
several steep slopes in Mars‘ southern hemisphere , which researchers believe could
be evidence of water .
10-A-3-1
10 – 34
Measurements of distance from the Earth to a Star
In order to calculate how far away a star is , astronomers use a method called parallax . Because of the
Earth‘s revoution about the sun , near stars seem to
shift their position against the farther stars . This is
called parallax shift . By observing the distance of the
shift and knowing the diameter of the Earth‘s orbit ,
astronomers are able to calculate the parallax angle
across the sky . The smaller the parallax shift , the
farther away from earth the star is . The distance
between the Earth E and the star P is then given by
2b
P
b b
r= a / sin(b)
r
S a
E
or for small angles b : r = a / b . This method is only
accurate for stars within a few hundred light-years
from Earth . When the stars are very far away , the
parallax shift is too small to measure .
The method of measuring distance to stars beyond 100 light-years is to use Cepheid
variable stars . These stars change in brigtness over time , which allows astronomers to
figure out the true brightness . Comparing the apparent brightness of the star to the true
brightness allows the astronomers to calculate the distance of the star . This method was
discovered by American astronomer Henrietta Leavitt in 1912 and used in the early part
of the century to find distances to many globular clusters .
10-A-3-2
10 – 35
R-10-0
10 . Water in the Solar System and in the Universe
10 . 1 Our Solar System (general)
R.10.1.1
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Thérèse Encrenaz , I.P. Bibring , M.A. Barucci , F . Roques , Ph . Zarka
Springer – Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
Third Edition , 2004
R.10.1.2
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
Seymour Simon
Amazon.com
R.10.1.3
THE NEW SOLAR SYSTEM
J. Kelley Beatle
Amazon.com
R.10.1.4
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
T. Encrenaz , J.P. Bibring , M . Blanc , M.A. Barucci , F . Roques , and Ph . Zarka
A&A Library
Third Edition
Springer , 2004
R.10.1.5
SOLAR SYSTEM
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System
R.10.1.6
p . 445 : The Solar System -1
www.nasastockphotography.com/
R.10.1.7
p . 446 : The Solar System - 2
www.aerospaceweb.org/.../astronomy/q0247
R.10.1.8
p . 447 : Habitable zone in the solar system
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitable_zone
R-10-1
10 – 36
10 . 2 Water on the Sun
R.10.2.1
WATER ON THE SUN : THE SUN YIELDS MORE SECRETS TO SPECTROSCOPY
Jonathan Tennysen and Oleg L . Polyansky
Contemporary Physics , 39 , No. 4 , 283 - 294 (1998)
R.10.2.2
WATER ON THE SUN
Grace Cavalieri and Maria Enrico
Uebersetzt von Maria Enrico
Published by Lightning Source Inc . 2006
108 pages
R.10.2.3
WATER ON THE SUN : LINE ASSIGNMENTS BASED ON VARIATIONAL CALCULATIONS
O.L. Polyansky , N.F. Zobov, S. Viti , J. Tennyson , P.F. Bernath , and L. Wallance
Science 277 , 18 . July , p. 328 (1997)
R.10.2.4
Water on the Sun : Molecules Everywhere
Takeshi Oka : Science 277 , 328 – 329 (1997)
R.10.2.5
p . 449 : The Sun – God Apollo
left-hand picture : http://www.snaithprimary.eril.net/plan7.htm
right-hand picture : http://www.wordsources.info/apollo.html
R.10.2.6
p . 450 : Water vapour on the Sun - Spots
left-hand picture :
http://www.geolinde.musin.de/aktuell/sonnenflecken1/20040723_1600_mdi_igr.gif
right-hand picture : http://www.heise.de/tp/r4/artikel/23/23563/1.html
R.10.2.7
p . 451 : Experiments and Theory for the proof of Water on the Sun
R-10-2
10 . 3 Water in the inner planetary System
R.10.3.1
p. 453 : Mercury : Ambassador of Roman Gods
left-hand Figure : http://img.search.com/thumb/7/76/Mercury god.jpg/
right-hand Figure : http://www.wordsources.info7mercury
R.10.3.2
p . 454 : Water on the Mercury ?
http://www.nrao.edu/pr/2000/vla20/background/mercuryice/
R.10.3.3
p . 455 : Birth of Venus (Sandro Boticelli)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Botticello_Venus.jpg
R.10.3.4
p . 456 : No Water on Venus !
left-hand side : View of the CO2 – atmosphere of Venus :
http://www.solarspace.co.uk/PlanetPics/Venus/venus.jpg
middle-hand side : The Goddess of Love
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild.The_Seven_Planets_-_Venus.jpg
right-hand side : Radar topography of one hemi-sphere of Venus
http://www.solarviews.com/eng/venus.htm
R.10.3.5
p . 457 : Michelangelo : „God - Father“
http://www.romaculta.it/Images/Images_det/hergott_bg.jpg
R.10.3.6
p . 458 : Aphrodite : Goddess of Love and Beauty
http://www.paleothea.com/Gallery/AphroditeFowler.html
R.10.3.7
p . 459 : Gaia : The mother of the Earth
left-hand Figure : Gaia , The jung mother of Life
http://www.gods-heros-myth.com/graphics/gaea.jpg
right-hand Figure : Gaia , the suffering muther of the Earth
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/mythology/images/Gaea_frame_jpg
R-10-3
10 – 37
R.10.3.8
p . 460 : The Goddess
Franz Hohler
München : Luchterhand 1995
translated by Andrew Rushton in : Bergli Books
„At Home“ (A selection of stories by Franz Hohler) ; p . 34
R.10.3.9
p . 461 : The Blue Planet
see left-hand Figure of p . 13
R.10.3.10
p . 462 : Land-Hemisphere and Water-Hemisphere of the Earth
left : Land - Hemisphere
right : Water - Hemisphere
http://www.lexas.net/geographie/halbkugeln.asp
R.10.3.11
p . 463 : Poseidon / Neptun : God of the Water or the Sea
http://www.hellenica.de/Griechenland/Mythos/Poseidon.html/
R.10.3.12
p . 464 : The photo has been taken by Mr. Arno Balzarini (Press Photographer – KEYSTONE)
by using a Telephoto of 8 fold magnification .
See in NZZ of 7. 2. 2012
I would like to thank Dr. Walter Schneider for sending him this highly impressing
photo and Mr. Arno Balzarini (Vadelsweg 18 , 7206 Igis , Switzerland) for his kind
permission ro reproduce this photo in my work .
R.10.3.13
p . 465 : Water – layer on the Moon (!)
left-hand Figure : Impact of a comet / asteroid
http://science.nasa.gov/Headlines/y2005/14apr_moonwater.htm
right-hand side : Moon crater Copernicus
http://www.mond.de/Mondkarte/detail_copernikus.htm
R.10.3.14
p . 466 : Apollo - und Lunar - Prospector Moon travels
upper right-hand Figure : Impacts on the surface of the Moon
http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Clavius.jpg
lower right-hand Figure : Observation of hydrogen on the Moon
http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/14apr_moonwater.htm
R-10-4
R.10.3.15
p . 467 : The human layer on the Earth (Die feuchte Hülle des Mondes)
Neue Zürcher Zeitung (NZZ) ; Mittwoch , 30 . September 2009 - Nr. 226
Forschung und Technik , p . 59
R.10.3.16
Traces of water detected on the Moon
p . 468 : (upper Figure) : LCROSS : http://lcross.arc.nasa.gov/
p. 468 : (lower Figure) : LCROSS : hitting the Moon :
www.msnbc.msn.com/id/33912611/ns/technology_and_science-space
R.10.3.17
p . 469 : LCROSS : Absorption bands of Water from the Moon
www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LCROSS/main/prelim_water_results.htm
R.10.3.18
p . 470 : Mars , the Roman God of War
left-hand Figure : Mars in readiness of battle
http://wordinfo.info/words/images/planet-mars.gif
right-hand side : Mars in full speed towards war
http://library.thinkquest.org/03oct/01858/images/aboutmars-myth.gif
R.10.3.19
p . 471 : Water – Ice at the north - pole of Mars
http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Mars_Express/SEMGKA808BE_0.html
R.10.3.20
Appendix 10-A-3-1 : Did NASA find liquid Water on Surface of Mars ?
http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2011/08/04/did-nasa-find-liquid-water...
R.10.3.21
Appendix 10-A-3-2 : Distance mearuements to stars
„How do astronomers meausre the distance to stars ?“
www.windows2universe.org/kids.../star.dist.htm
R-10-5
10 – 38
10.4
The Outer Solar System
R.10.4.1
p . 473 : General Remarks
R.10.4.2
p . 474 : Jupiter : Father of the Gods
left-hand Figure :: http://wordinfo.info/words/images/planet-jupiter.gif
right-hand Figure : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:IngresJupiterAndThetis.jpg
R.10.4.3
p . 475 : The interior of Jupiter
http://www.solarviews.com/cap/jup/jupint.htm
R.10.4.4
p . 476 : Water on the Jupiter_and_Ring Systems
Figure above : Rings of Jupiter - 1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter
Figure below : Rings of Jupiter - 2
http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap970205.html
R.10.4.5
p . 477 : Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mozart_(unfinished)_byLange_1782.jpg
(„The Jupiter Symphony“ , KV 551)
(unfinished portrait of Mozart by his brother-in-law Josef Lange
R.10.4.6
p . 478 : The_Jupiter_Moon_Europe
left-hand side: Photo of the Ice crust in Conamara – region (Space craft Galileo)
http://galileo.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/images/top10-02-browse.jpg
right –hand side : The interiour of the Jupiter Moon
http://images.google.ch/imgres?imgurl
R.10.4.7
p . 479 : Saturn with his Ring System_1
michaeldpadilla.com/…/amazing-image-of-saturn
R.10.4.8
p . 480 : Saturn with his Ring Systems_2
celestialdelights.info/saturn/sweetspot.html
R-10-6
R.10.4.9
p . 481 : Saturnus : God of Harvest and Time
left-hand Figure : Saturnus
right-hand side : Figure : Saturnus of Caavaggio
http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Image:Polidoro_da_Caravaggio - Saturnus-thumb.jpg
R.10.4.10
p . 482 : The Gods Uranus and Neptunus
left-hand Figure : Uranus : http://www.crystalinks.com/uranusgod.jpg
right-hand Figure : Neptunus : http://www.code-knacker.de/images/neptun.jpg
R.10.4.11
p . 483 : The planet Neptune
http://www.hs.uni-hamburg.de/DE/Ins/Bib/neptun.html
(Figure adapted to English by P . Brüesch)
R.10.4.12
p . 484 : Possible - internal structure of_Uranus and Neptune - Eis
http://www.hs.uni-hamburg.de/DE/Ins/Bib/neptun.html
R.10.4.13
p . 485 : Superionic Water of Uranus and – Neptune - 2
New Scientist , 4 September 2010 , p . 15
p . 485 : Giant planets may host superionic water
Published online 22 March 2005/Nature/doi:10.1038/news050321-4
www.nature.com/news/2005/050321/full/050321-4.html
(Figure - Texts rewritten for the sake of better readability by P . Brüesch)
R.10.4.14
p . 486 : Pluto is a Dwarf Planet
R.10.4.15
Concerning p . 485 :
The Physics of Superionic Conductors is described in detail in :
P . Brüesch
PHONONS : THEORY AND EXPERIMENTS III
Springer Series in Solid State Physics 66
Springer Verlag Berlin Berlin Heidelberg 1987
Chapter 7 : Ion Dynamics in Superionic Conductors , pp 167 - 199
R-10-7
10 – 39
10.5 Extra Solar System
R.10.5.1
The Milky - Way System
Ludwig Kühn
Verlag : Hirzel , Stuttgart
9th Edition (2003)
R.10.5.2
DAS GESCHENKTE UNIVERSUM : see Referenz R.1.1.5
Arnold Benz : Astrophysik und Schöpfung
pp 24 , 38 – 39 : Origin of the Universe
p . 119 : Origin of Life on Earth : three and a have billions of years after its origin
p . 72 : It is estimated that in. about 1.2 Billion years all water at the Earth will have
vaporized .
R.10.5.3
see Reference R.1.1.6 : SEARCHING FOR WATER IN THE UNIVERSE
Thérèse Encrenaz
R.10.5.4
p . 488 : L‘Univère populaire : A composition of Camille Flammarion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Flammarion
R.10.5.5
p . 489 : Our Milky - Way Galaxy
http://home.arcor.de/hpj/IMG/galaxis2.jpg
R.10.5.6
Our Milky - Way Galaxy
p . 490 : www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/galaxy.htm/
p . 491: http://www.star.le-ac.uk/edu/mway/
p . 492 : http://www.star.le-ac.uk/edu/mway/
R.10.5.7
p . 493 : The Milky – Way Galaxy : Facts and Explenations
from different sources
R-10-8
R.10.5.8
p . 494 : Radio-Telescopes
left-hand side : Radiot-Telescope Effelsberg
http://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/div/effelsberg
right-hand side : Green-Bank-Telescope (GBT)
www.gb.nrao.edu/gbt/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Bank_Telescope
images-nrao.edu >…Gallery > See_the_Universe > Telescope
R .10.5.9
p . 495 : The Hubble – Space Telescope
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble-Weltraumteleskop
R.10.5.10
p. 496 : The Herschel Space Telescope
Herschel Space Observatory : Wikipedia , for the free encyclopedia
and References given therin
R.10.5.11
p . 497 : Observation of extrasolar Water
General Remarks
R.10.5.12
p . 498 : Comet Hale – Bopp
M.P. Bernstein et al , Scientific American , July 199 , p . 26
Figure from : http://www.mpifr-bonn.mpg.de/public/Dir
Jan Thomas/Bilder/halebopp gleason,jpg
R.10.5.13
p . 499 : Comet Hartley 2
http://epoxi.umd.edu/3gallery/20101104_Sunshine3.shtml
5.10.5.14
p. 500 : The Planet HD 189733b in front of his Sun
http://www.scinexx.de/wissen-aktuell-bild-6801-2007-07-13.html
R.10.5.15
p . 501 : The Water – planet Gliese with hot Ice
http://www.scinexx.de/wissen-aktuell-bild-6522-2007-05-16-8943.html
R.10.5.16
p. 502 : Gliese 436b - Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia ,
and References given therein ; planet containig hot Water – Ice !
(For clarity of reading , the Figures have been slightly adjusted by P . Brüesch ) .
R-10-9
10 – 40
R.10.5.17
p . 503 : Most distant detection of water in the Universe
Wasser in 11.1 Milliarden Lichtjahre Entfernung wurde entdeckt !
(Dr . Violetta Impellizeri et al . , Universität Bonn)
http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0.1518.597100.00.html
R.10.5.18
p . 504 : Water detected in Quasar MG J0414+0534
www.raumfahrer.net/forum/smf/index.php?topic=526.15
R.10.5.19
p , 505 : Most distant Water in the Universe – Text to Figure at p . 497
http://www.physorg.com/news148753546.html
R.10.5.20
p . 506 : Eagle Nebula
from : Eagle Nebula  Bilder
„thereisfuninmypocket.blockspot.com“  („God‘s penis“! )
R.10.5.21
Arnold Hanslmeier
Springer Netherlands (2010)
ISBN 9‘048‘199‘832
R.10.5.22
Das Schicksal des Universums :
„Eine Reise vom Anfang zum Ende“
Günther Hasinger
Wilhem Goldmann Verlag , München
Copyright @ der Originalausgabe 2007
by Verlag C.H. Beck oHG , München
R.10.5.23
p . 507 : Giant water quantity around a black hole
22. July 2011 ; http://www.bz-berlin.de/aktuell/welt/riesige-wassermenge-weltall...
s . also: http://bauletter.wordpress.com/2011/07/31/riesiges-wasserresevoir-im-weltall-emtdeckt
R.10.5.24
p . 508 : Aliens need Water desoperately , too !
Picture composed by P . Brüesch from :
Figure at the left : www.topnews.in/aliens-do-exist-us-govt-hides-...
Figure at the right : Internet search for : female aliens
merveser.blospot.blogspot.com/
R-10-10
10 - 41

Book - ETH E

Transcription

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