The American Harp Journal - Michael Levy

The Universal Lyre:
Three Perspectives
by Diana Rowan
P
are often entranced by the harp for
its mystical sound and image, hearkening
back to the most ancient of times. Whether
we realize it or not, the harp’s roots lie deep within
our collective consciousness worldwide. The
instrument touches us in dual fashion, both in
body and soul. The harp or lyre may be found in
very similar form across the Middle East, Greece
and Africa. Everywhere they have been found, the
instruments have been used to address the sacred
and the secular throughout the ages. Note that
“harp” and “lyre” will be used interchangeably here
as many construction and playing techniques are
similar as is the use of the instrument.
EOPLE
Three Artist-Scholars
Three contemporary artists are involved in the field
of ancient lyre reconstruction. Each one is obviously
proud of his different heritage: Ethiopian, Greek and
Jewish, and it is through this profound appreciation
of their own cultures that they touch upon the
universal connections between us all.
Temesgen Hussein of Ethiopia (http://www.
temesgen.com) has perhaps the most immediate
relationship with the ancient harp/lyre, having
learned the krar and begena (lyres) from age
nineteen in traditional aural training directly with
teachers Alemayehu Fanta and Teshome Shenkute
of the Yared School of Music in Addis Ababa. A
trained architect, Temesgen is also an innovator,
bringing his instruments into our era via fusion
projects incorporating reggae, jazz, and Indian music
and a patent-pending series of improvements to krar
construction and tuning. He plans to open a school
for krar and begena. Besides his many recordings,
Temesgen has instructional DVDs for krar and
begena, with additional titles in the works. He is
also a source for people looking to purchase these
instruments.
Michalis Georgiou of Cyprus (http://terpandros.
com/) is steeped in that island’s ancient, always
visible history, and over twenty years ago moved into
the world of instrument reconstruction. Already a
lifelong musician, Georgiou took to his workshop
to recreate ancient Greek instruments. H has built
more than twenty-three different types of stringed
instruments, many of which can be classified as lyres.
He has also formed a large award-winning studentbased orchestra to perform reconstructions of
ancient music on these instruments, leading to:
…the creation of Terpandros, named after the great
musician of antiquity. It is a non-profit institution
with specific aims; the reconstruction of ancient
Greek musical instruments, the study, revival and
projection of ancient Greek music, and finally research on subjects that are related to Greek civilisation. I have personally undertaken the reconstruction of the ancient instruments, the activities of
Terpandros. Other members of the research team
are working on Greek philosophy, ancient Greek
discourse and its pronunciation, mathematics and
their relationship with discourse and music, performance of ancient Greek music, and the writing of a
book for the teaching of ancient Greek music. The
holding of seminars, concerts and other events is
also one of the main activities of Terpandros.
I had the pleasure of playing on some of these
exceptionally beautiful instruments one magical
evening at Georgiou’s house in Nicosia, Cyprus. As
others who were there experienced as well, it was
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as if the centuries melted away and an old, familiar
voice spoke with us again.
Finally we meet Michael Levy of the United
Kingdom (http://www.ancientlyre.com/), whose
explorations into his Hebrew roots via klezmer fiddle
eventually led him to dedicate himself to the ancient
biblical lyre, in particular its playing techniques:
…my musical exploration of antiquity began in
2006, when I discovered that over 2000 years ago,
it was my very own, very ancient Levite ancestors
who actually played the ten-string Biblical lyre (the
“kinnor”) in the Temple of Jerusalem to accompany
the singing of the Levitical Choir--my quest to revive the lost lyre playing techniques of antiquity,
for me, has simply got to be the ultimate in “roots
music!”
He has delved into how construction affects playing
techniques, explored clues garnered from artifacts
such as paintings and sculptures (one in particular
from mosaics viewed in Cyprus, highlighting the
cyclical nature of this subject), digested historical
references from ancient texts, and finally gathered
together information from other researchers such
as France’s Suzanne Haïk-Vantoura and her study
of Hebrew Bible cantillation marks in reference to
possible ancient melodic shapes. In doing so, Michael
has promoted evidence that challenges some of our
deeply held presumptions about ancient music, such
as it being simply diatonic and monophonic, his idea
supported by Denmark’s Lise Manniche’s findings on
chromatic scale/microtonal use in ancient Egyptian
music. Levy has released many recordings, plus
uploaded numerous educational videos via YouTube,
and generously shares his insights on his website.
Ancient Roots and Routes
According to writer Michael Hopkin, Ethiopia,
currently home to over 91 million people, is one of
the oldest sites of human existence and believed
to be the point from which all people migrated
throughout the world (Li et al.). As such, it is a
good place to start exploring the roots of our
beloved harp. The krar and begena, both lyres, are
alive and well in Ethiopia, and serve as rare examples
of an unbroken tradition.
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THE AMERICAN HARP JOURNAL
Rock etchings featuring lyre players, discovered in the Negev
desert (present-day Israel), dated anywhere c. 4000 BC to 323
BCE-330 CE (Bayer, 1968).
credit: Music in Ancient Israel/Palestine, Joachim Braun, William
B Eerdmans Publishing Company, p. 73
Ethiopia’s krar and begena reflect the dual nature
of music: krar, the smaller instrument of the two and
tenor in voice, is used in secular performance, while
the imposing bass-range begena is reserved for sacred
events. The krar has six strings and can be held
vertically or horizontally, while the begena has ten
strings, is much larger, and is held vertically.
As is often the case, there are several versions
of the origin of these instruments. It is generally
acknowledged that the begena predates the krar
(Hussein). In the Kebra Negast (“Glory of Kings”),
a compilation of Ethiopian legends, the Queen
of Sheba, also known as Makeda, had a son by
Solomon. That son became Menelik I, the first
emperor of Ethiopia. He grew up to visit his father
in Israel, returning with the Ark of the Covenant
and other artifacts including King David’s harp.
Although there is, of course, controversy regarding
the veracity of this story, the connection between
Ethiopia, Israel and the harp/lyre is clear, and we
shall continue to discover more connections between
ancient worlds and instruments.
Another legend claims the begena already existed
in Ethiopia before the Queen of Sheba’s time, and
that regular citizens wanted a smaller, secular version
for themselves. Hence the krar was invented (rather
like the Israeli kinnor’s story, which we will read
below). A more symbolic version is the familiar tale
that Mercury fashioned the begena from a turtle
purposes and for putting his patients to sleep before
operations. Pythagoras set free the mind of his pupils from the cares of daily life by playing them music that calmed the mind and induced deep sleep.
Through the philosophy of esoterism, music helps
us to overcome the anxiety we feel in a world that
is often hostile. It lifts our spirits and confirms the
existence of harmony in the universe.
First known illustration of nomadic Semites playing the lyre,
from the tomb of a prosperous ancient Egyptian baron named
Knumhotpe at Beni Hassan, about halfway up the Nile to Nubia.
credit: Music in Ancient Israel/Palestine, Joachim Braun, William
B Eerdmans Publishing Company, p. 78
shell found on banks of Nile, a version which is
also found in ancient Greek sources about the lyre.
While in variant retellings, Apollo is the creating
god, and the location varies, the ancient connection
between cultures is clear. Finally, there is the legend
that the Devil invented the krar to accompany
songs celebrating worldly pleasures, which reminds
us of the various times music has been banned from
religious practice throughout history.
From these stories we can glean the great
importance, spanning both cultures and eras,
attached to these instruments. Appealing to body
and soul, they are the purview of royalty, gods and
demons. Georgiou further elucidates this secular/
sacred dichotomy as the Greeks saw it:
They [ancient Greeks] divided music into “esoteric,” the music of the gods, which was intelligible
only to a closed circle of initiates, and “exoteric,”
which was the music of men. Exoteric music was
used as a means of entertaining and delighting the
soul and also as a means of communication with
the divine. This music of men included folk music, artistic music and music which was designed for
public, religious and other ceremonies; in contrast,
the musical forms of esoterism were determined by
the relationship of man with the harmony of the
universe…Asclepios used this music for therapeutic
For harp players, everything Georgiou mentions rings
true as we perform today for all the same reasons:
high art as a way to transcend and understand
everyday life, healing harp as a way to soothe and
reconnect, accompaniment music to entertain and
celebrate.
The oldest actual harps/lyres still in existence
were found in present day Iraq (ancient
Mesopotamia), in the city of Ur, and bear striking
resemblance to the Ethiopian begena. The Golden
Bull Lyre of Ur and the Silver Lyre of Ur date back
to at least 2600 BCE and are among the oldest
stringed instruments ever discovered. Since harps
are made of perishable material (wood, gut, leather),
we can assume such harps were in existence even
earlier. Performances on reconstructions of these
lyres sound almost identical to the music of the
begena. Historical harpist Bill Taylor (http://www.
billtaylor.eu) worked in close collaboration with
harpist-historian Andy Lowings to produce a
performance on a reconstructed Golden Bull Lyre in
2006. The reader should compare this to Hussein’s
begena recordings. http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=TSWEeBGhz4M
There is speculation that the earliest lyres
emerged from early-dynastic and Akkadian
Mesopotamia and migrated through the Negev and
into Egypt (Braun) and thus into Ethiopia. As our
quest passes through Israel, Michael Levy comments:
By the time of the Ancient Hebrews (c. 1900 BCE)
the lyre had become portable and could be played
horizontally—ideal for wandering groups of Semitic
nomads to play whilst constantly on the move. The
very first illustration of nomadic Semites playing
such a lyre is seen in the tomb of a prosperous ancient Egyptian baron named Knumhotpe. He had
a forty-foot-long mural painted in his tomb at Beni
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THREE ARTIST-SCHOLARS:
Michalis Georgiou ▶▶
◀◀ Michael Levy
Temesgen Hussein ▼▼
Michael Levy recording with his lyre.
© Michael Levy
Temesgen Hussein demonstrates krar performance stance.
© Temesgen Hussein
An African adungu.
© Michael Levy.
Michael Levy’s nevel.
© Michael Levy
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THE AMERICAN HARP JOURNAL
Temesgen Hussein demonstrates begena performance stance.
© Temesgen Hussein
Michalis Georgiou in his workshop.
© Michalis Georgiou
An Egyptian arched harp.
© Metropolitan Museum of Art
Two kitharas built by Michalis Georgiou.
© Michalis Georgiou
The Bull Lyre of Ur, also known as the Golden Lyre of Ur.
© Lyre of Ur Project
A Greek samvyx built by Michalis Georgiou.
© Michalis Georgiou
The Silver Bull Lyre of Ur.
© Trustees of the British Museum.
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Hassan, about halfway up the Nile to Nubia. [Note
the recurring Africa connection, and the horizontal
holding of the instrument.]
Albert Barnes cites further evidence of the
connections between these locations, instruments
and the use of lyre music:
The harp - ‫ רונכ‬kinnor. This is a well-known
stringed instrument, employed commonly in sacred music. It is often mentioned as having
been used to express the pious feelings of David;
Psa_32:2; Psa_43:4; Psa_49:5. It is early mentioned
as having been invented by Jubal; Gen_4:21. It is
supposed usually to have had ten strings (Josephus,
“Ant.” B. x. ch. xii. Section 3). It was played by the
hand; 1Sa_16:23; 1Sa_18:9. The “root” of the word
‫ רונכ‬kinnôr, is unknown. The word “kinnor” is
used in all the languages cognate to the Hebrew,
and is recognized even in the Persian. It is probable that the instrument here referred to was common in all the oriental nations…and of course the
knowledge of it would be extended far. It is an oriental name and instrument, and from this word
the Greeks derived their word κινύρα kinura.
The Septuagint renders it κιθάρα kithara and
κινύρα kinura. Hence, it is referred to as the instrument employed by David to drive away the melancholy of Saul 1Sa_16:16-22, and is the instrument usually employed to celebrate the praises of
God; Psa_33:1-2; Psa_43:4; Psa_49:5; Psa_71:2223. But the harp was not only used on sacred occasions. Isaiah also mentions it as carried about by
courtezans Isa_23:16, and also refers to it as used
on occasions of gathering in the vintage, and of
increasing the joy of the festival occasion. [emphasis mine]
Interestingly, the Arabic word for harp, “‫راثيق‬,” is
pronounced approximately “githar,” very similar in
sound to the Greek “kithara” (Larkin). Again this
instrument weaves together cultures.
Michael Levy finds another cross-cultural
connection:
The root of the word kinnor was even incorporated into the names of deities such as the mythical
Cypriot king“Kinyras/Cinyras.” In ancient Egypt at
this time, the word “knwrw” refers to a lyre.
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The kinnor (like the krar) is understood to be a
smaller lyre than the “NVL” (‫ ) לבנ‬and pronounced
“nevel” or “naval.” It is also mentioned in the Bible.
According to Romano-Jewish historian Titus Flavius
Josephus (aka Joseph ben Matityahu, 37-100 CE) the
nevel had twelve strings, while the nevel asor had
ten strings and perhaps a skin membrane, exactly
like the begena. Levy explains these size distinctions:
The ancient Jewish text, the Mishnah, limits the
number of nevels in the Temple Ensemble to “no
fewer than two and no more than six,” but “never
fewer than nine kinnorot, and more may be added” (Mishna, Arak 2:5). This is the first piece of
evidence that the Biblical nevel could have been
a bass register lyre—just as in a modern string orchestra, there are proportionately more violins in
the upper register than the cellos and basses. The
Mishnah also informs us that the strings of the
nevel were made of sheep’s large intestines, whilst
those of the kinnor were made of the small intestines (Mishnah, Quinnim 3:6).
In the gorgeous ancient Greek lyre reproductions of
Michalis Georgiou are echoes of what we discovered
above. The seven-string lyre was most popular in
the ancient Greek world, and deeply associated
with Apollo and with Pythagoras’ concept of the
natural scale and foundation of reality. The oldest
lyres sported four strings. The number increased to
twelve strings as time went on. There was also great
variation in size: lyres could range from soprano to
tenor. As with the krar, begena, kinnor and nevel,
strings were attached in a variety of ways: leather
thongs, small wooden sticks (toggles), pegs, and
strings were made of animal gut, nerves or plant
fiber. Sometimes a plectrum was attached, as with
the other lyres. A back of tortoise shell was common
along with a leather covering, although Georgiou
now uses modern materials such as fiberglass for
ecological and convenience purposes. Arms were
made of wood or bronze, and attention to the
curvature of arms allows vibrato and pitch bending.
The Archaic Kithara, the gold standard of
ancient lyres, had a hollow wooden base, ranged
from three to seven strings, and had very complex
arms, allowing great expression of tone. Bells
and cymbals were sometimes attached for extra
percussive effect.
Coming full circle, Georgiou’s reconstruction of
an ancient Samvyx is strikingly similar to bow harps
of Africa such as the Adungu from Uganda, which
Levy also notes is virtually identical to the ancient
Egyptian arched harp. In fact, these bow harps,
derived from the bow and arrow, are considered to be
the mother of all harps.
Current Practice and Applications for
Western Harpists
As we see, Hussein, Georgiou and Levy have great
respect for practices of the past and are eager to
continue them. Yet at the same time, they are
concerned with state of the art construction methods
and materials and contemporary techniques, and
thus keeping the musical tradition very much alive.
Many of the techniques they use and document
(see http://www.temesgen.com/extras for clear krar
& begena materials) have exciting applications
for harpists today in terms of performance and
composition, and, while some are considered
avant-garde, we know they are actually very
ancient devices.
Physical Techniques:
Strumming by blocking certain strings with
one hand and performing a glissando with the
other, forming a chord. This can be performed
rhythmically with additional attention to strumming
direction (rather like flamenco guitarists do), or
arrhythmically.
Holding instrument horizontally thus allowing
different approaches to aggressive strumming or
muting.
Plectrum use, and combination plectrum/finger
plucking use for contrast in tone.
Baton use on strings and body of lyre as seen on bas
reliefs of musicians in Palace of Nineveh c.700 BCE.
(This technique can be heard on Richard Dumbrill’s
interpretation of “Hurrian Hymn Text H6” one of
the very oldest discovered scores, on Michael Levy’s
recording Musical Adventures in Time Travel, and is
similar to current dulcimer practice.)
Actual bending of the instrument (specifically the
arms) to create vibrato and pitch alterations.
Hand position with fingers straight up (different
tone), automatic finger patterns (motifs) combined
with different types of muting, similar to current
medieval music performance practice on small harps.
Use of different colors along length of the string
(for example, as we understand près de la table).
String stopping to create chromatics and
microtones (used in some Latin American harp
music today).
Harmonics which ring differently due to different
temperaments, creating different overtones.
Scales, Modes & Tuning
Use of multiple scales/modes, and developed
deployment of these; for example the krar and
begena’s scales (kignits) have more in common with
raga modes than western linear scales:
Anchihoye (begena scale, translates to “hey,
love”) C C# F F# A C’
Bati (krar, most popular, named after a town) C E
F G B C’ or C Eb F G B C’
Tizita (krar, 2nd most popular, translates
“nostalgia” from Amharic) C D E G A C’ or C D
Eb G Ab C’
Ambassel (krar, less common, named after a
town) C C# F G G# C’
Greek modes (note these are differently named than
the “Church Modes” we are familiar with today (the
latter being erroneously named during the Middle
Ages) and with the use of Pythagorean tuning:
B-B Mixolydian ; E-E Dorian; A-A Hypodorian;
D-D Phrygian; G-G Hypophrygian; C-C Lydian;
F-F Hypolydian,; D E F G# A B C D Chromatic
Phrygian.
Hebrew modes (based on the Jewish Chazzanut
(Cantorial) Modes and just intonation.);
Ahava Raba (prayer of gratitude) mode: E F G#
A B C D E (also Greek Chromatic Dorian Mode).
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Natural minor: E F# G A B C D E’
Misheberakh (healing blessing) mode: E F# G
A# B C# D E’ (also Greek Chromatic Phrgyian
Mode)
Egyptian modes as explained by historian John
Wheeler on his website: http://www.rakkav.com and
quoted at length due to astonishing parallels with
modern practice):
Lise Manniche concludes that the Egyptians also
knew of and used scales with chromatic or even
smaller intervals. This would seem to be confirmed by recent work by others with reconstructions of ancient Egyptian reed pipes or nays tuned
to various scales. These include the diatonic scale
in the “minor” mode, the chromatic scale, and certain “enharmonic” scales. The heptatonic or diatonic scale was also known from high antiquity in
Mesopotamia. Cuneiform tablets found in Babylonia and Assyria and the city of Ugarit in modern
Syria document the existence of that scale and all
seven modes based on it as far back as 3,000 years
ago. The Mesopotamian texts in particular document a system of tuning a lyre in the seven diatonic modes, complete with technical terms for
the modes and even a description of the tritone as
the “unclear” interval of a given mode. (Apparently only the tritone was considered “dissonant” by
the ancient Mesopotamians—which fact alone has
implications both for melodic and harmonic practice.) The various modes were derived by a tuning
cycle called a “cycle of fifths”—the very same cycle
used to tune a folk harp “by ear” today. The resulting “temperament” of the modes would have been
“Pythagorean”—that is, the same temperament
noted by the Greek philosopher Pythagoras (who
studied music and mathematics in Egypt and Mesopotamia before founding his famous school).
Use of different temperaments: just intonation,
Pythagorean tuning, krar and begena temperaments,
creating purer intervals as well as more biting ones.
Tuning strings in a non-linear fashion, such as
having large intervals between adjacent strings or,
conversely, tuning adjacent strings to the same pitch,
allowing for interesting melodic contours, ornaments
and harmonic possibilities. The krar has its highest
and lowest pitches as strings 6 and 5 respectively,
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with strings 1, 2, 3, and 4 rising in pitch between
these.
Musical Devices
Ornamentation such as trills, tremolos, filigree,
glissandi, development of melody.
Melodic shapes similar to raga shapes in terms of
contour defining the mode/meaning of piece.
Motifs/stock patterns which are repeated,
sometimes very rapidly as with krar.
Universal Connection
For each of these three artist-scholars, Hussein,
Georgiou and Levy, attention is paid to the
symbolism of the physical instruments themselves.
For Hussein, the krar’s pillars are associated with
the pillar of a thatched hut and symbolize home
and survival itself. For Levy, the ten strings of the
kinnor and the nevel asor are linked to the Ten
Commandments, the twelve strings of the nevel
reflect the twelve tribes of Israel. For others, the
seven strings of a lyre relate to the mystical number
seven, the number of the Music of the Spheres, and
according to Pythagoras “the perfect number,” while
the older four-string lyre represented the four turning
points of the year, that is the solstices and equinoxes.
Some have attached symbolic association with the
strings themselves. Writing to Michael Levy in 2012,
Peter Pringle observed:
Ancient string makers guarded their recipes with
all the secrecy of modern industrialists. They added all sorts of things to their binders—powdered
silver and gold, minerals like rock crystal, jade, lapis—in order to impart certain sonic properties to
the finished product. Much of that was, I believe,
based on the rather romantic, folkloric notion that
the music would ultimately take on the metaphysical qualities of the substance used. With powdered
pearls in your silk binders, the string would manifest the characteristics of the sea, a small amount
of the dried and finely ground heart of tiger would
make your music more powerful and compelling.
Interestingly, some of the substances they used
(such as powdered metals) actually did change the
acoustic properties of the string!
Perhaps the most inspiring aspect of these researcherartists’ work is their ultimate goal of connection
with the universal, however we choose to define
that. Each is driven by a profound mission towards
wholeness. As performers, we often hear the same
type of comments regarding our harps’ music as this
one:
Listen to the stark, haunting sounds of traditional Ethiopian music and you will be elevated to a place free
from worries and strife. The wisdom and knowledge of
centuries of culture are communicated by the nimble
fingers and resonant voice of Temesgen. Temesgen sings
songs of life, of love and of devotion. Deeply spiritual,
with the simple truth of folk music, sanded and distilled
by generations of musicians, these songs have evolved
over the ages to shine with the pristine beauty of the
very roots. (Review of Begena Bedtimes, Temesgen
Hussein 2006)
These three inspiring artists, Hussein, Georgiou and
Levy, preserve their musical legacies and expand our
musical vocabulary as we harpists of today resonate
alongside them.
Works Cited
Barnes, Albert. Barnes Notes on the Old and New
Testaments. Baker Books, 1983.
Braun, Joachim. Music in Ancient Israel/Palestine.
William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 2002.
Georgiou, Michalis P. The Quest for the Resonance
of the Universe. En Tipis Publications, 2005.
Haïk-Vantoura, Suzanne. The Music of the Bible
Revealed. trans. Dennis Weber, ed. John
Wheeler, BIBAL Press, 1991
Hopkin, Michael. “Ethiopia is top choice for cradle
of Homo sapiens”. Nature, February 2005.
Li, J. Z. et al. “Worldwide Human Relationships
Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of
Variation”. Science, 2008.
Personal Interviews
Michalis Georgiou http://terpandros.com
Temesgen Hussein http://www.temesgen.com
Margaret Larkin, Chair of the Department of Near
Eastern Studies, UC Berkeley
Michael Levy http://www.ancientlyre.com
Additional Information
Bill Taylor http://www.billtaylor.eu
Peter Pringle http://www.peterpringle.com
John Wheeler http://www.rakkav.com
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Born in Ireland, Diana
Rowan lived, performed
and studied on the East
Coast, in Europe and
the Middle East before
choosing Berkeley, California, where she earned
her Master of Music
degree. Her music interweaves Celtic, Eastern European, Near Eastern and classical arts and mythology. A worldwide performer, her recordings include
Panta Rhei, The Bright Knowledge, and upcoming
As Above, So Below. She splits her time between the
San Francisco Bay Area and Eastern Europe, pursuing
a PhD in harp composition at the National Academy of
Music in Sofia, Bulgaria. Diana believes strongly in the
healing power of music and is the founder of Harpists
for Health.
www.harpistsforhealth.org
www.dianarowan.com V
Manniche, Lise. Music and Musicians in Ancient
Egypt. Dover Publications, 1992.
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