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Studije Papers
Studije Papers 11 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 11–26 UDK 821.163.42.09-93 Katarina Ivon Sveučilište u Zadru, Hrvatska [email protected] Zlatni danci Jagode Truhelke – primjer kroatocentričnoga kulturnoga imaginarija Izvorni znanstveni rad / original research paper Primljeno / received 7. 4. 2015. Prihvaćeno / accepted 10. 7. 2015. Poticaj radu misao je autora Povijesti hrvatske dječje književnosti (M. Crnkovića i D. Težak) kako su naglašeno hrvatstvo i religioznost Truhelkina djela bili loša preporuka u razdoblju obiju Jugoslavija za njegovo uvrštavanje u službenu lektiru te kako su njezina djela bila vrlo često vrednovana na izvanknjiževnoj osnovi. Na tome tragu interpretira se autoričina autobiografska trilogija Zlatni danci u kojoj se razabiru dominantni motivi i narativi koji svojom učestalošću pripomažu u rekonstrukciji i tumačenju njezina kulturnoga imaginarija, koji možemo atribuirati kroatocentričnim. Taj imaginarij autorica signalizira različitim postupcima: Aničinim didaktiziranim patriotskim „tiradama“ naučenima u školi, opisom učiteljičine škole i salona, dječjom igrom bitke kod Sigeta (Hrvati nasuprot Turcima) te ispoviješću drvosječe Đorđa (Hrvata iz Istre) i njegovim znakovitim sudjelovanjem u Viškoj bitci. Važan je i element prostora koji, osim što ima integracijsku ulogu, postaje važnim pokazateljem kulturne samoidentifikacije. Analiza implicira kako imaginarij Zlatnih danaka ne reprezentira samo njihovu autoricu, već, u stanovitoj mjeri, i vrijednosti zajednice kojoj pripada. Ključne riječi: kulturni imaginarij, Jagoda Truhelka, Zlatni danci, nacionalno markiranje prostora, hrvatska dječja književnost Uvod Poticaj za nastanak ovoga rada bila je misao Milana Crnkovića i Dubravke Težak iz knjige Povijest hrvatske dječje književnosti od početaka do 1955. godine objavljene 2002. u kojoj autori, govoreći o trolistu drugoga razdoblja hrvatske 12 K. Ivon: Zlatni danci Jagode Truhelke – primjer… dječje književnosti (Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić − Vladimir Nazor − Jagoda Truhelka), konstatiraju kako su upravo Truhelkino naglašeno hrvatstvo i religioznost bili loša preporuka za službenu lektiru u usporedbi sa slavenstvom Vladimira Nazora i Ivane Brlić-Mažuranić. Autori navode kako se Truhelkino stvaralaštvo nakon 1945. nije preporučivalo te je često bilo vrednovano na izvanknjiževnoj osnovi. Kao primjer navode Slobodana Markovića, srpskoga stručnjaka za dječju književnost, koji na prvo mjesto stavlja njezin roman Zlatko (1934), dok vrijednost Zlatnih danaka (1918) negira njegovim neknjiževnim značajkama, ističući pritom kako one nisu nadživjele vrijeme svojega nastanka. Desetak godina prije u knjizi Dječja književnost (1990) Milan Crnković naglašava vrijednost Zlatnih danaka svrstavajući ih u najbolja Truhelkina djela. Prema njegovim riječima njihovo četvrto izdanje iz 1969. godine „spašava od nepravednog zaborava jedno od dva snažna djela s kojima je hrvatska realistična dječja književnost započela i odmah u početku našla siguran put“ (1990: 129). Stjepan Hranjec u knjizi Hrvatski dječji roman (1998) također naglašava kako se o Truhelkinu književnome radu pisalo vrlo malo unatoč njezinoj važnoj ulozi u hrvatskoj književnosti, kulturi i školstvu. Autor, navodeći temeljne smjernice u Truhelkinu radu, posebno ističe fascinaciju činjenicom „da se u obitelji učitelja, češkog doseljenika i žene mu, mađarske Njemice, gajilo duboko, iskreno i plameno hrvatsko domoljublje“ (Hranjec 1998: 17). U pogovoru Zlatnim dancima objavljenima 1997. Milan Crnković naglašava kako se u Truhelkinome književnome djelu „jasno i reljefno odražavalo hrvatstvo i katoličanstvo“ te kako su Jagodu Truhelku „u nepovoljnom vremenu potiskivali iz školske lektire“ (1997: 275). Upravo ta misao bila je poticaj i Hranjecovu radu „Jagoda Truhelka: vjera kao tradicijska baština“ objavljenome u knjizi Kršćanska izvorišta dječje književnosti 2003. godine. Hranjec navodi kako se umjetnost riječi ponekad procjenjivala izvanjskim mjerilima, odnosno o njoj je odlučivala politika, a ne književna kritika (2003: 54): Primjera je, nažalost, otkada je umjetnosti (ne samo književnosti). Među njih ubrajamo i Jagodu Truhelku, zato što je isticala ono što naglašava i Crnković, domoljublje i vjeru, dakle ono što bijaše vodilja odreda svim hrvatskim književnicima, onima koji su svojim djelima, zapravo, gradili hrvatsku državnost. Da je Truhelkin književni rad ostao po strani, svjedoči i podatak u knjizi Valentine Majdenić (2013) Regionalni tekst dječje književnosti. Autorica je ondje analizirala prisutnost slavonskih pisaca u osnovnoškolskim udžbenicima u dvama važnijim razdobljima hrvatske povijesti i književnosti. Prvo razdoblje od 1970. do 1989. obilježeno je hrvatskim proljećem i hrvatskim slomom, dok drugo razdoblje od 1990. do 2008. ponajviše obilježavaju osnutak neovisne Hrvatske i Domovinski rat. Jagoda Truhelka u prvome razdoblju zastupljena je sa svega deset Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 11–26 13 tekstova u udžbenicima za osnovnu školu, dok je u drugome zastupljena s 53 teksta. Iako je udio gotovo svih slavonskih pisaca veći u drugome razdoblju, što je i logično zbog povijesno-političke situacije te aktualizacije istraživanja uloge prostora u suvremenim interpretacijama književnih tekstova, svakako te podatke valja ozbiljno uzeti u obzir pri pozicioniranju Truhelkina književna stvaralaštva. Navedeno predstavlja važan poticaj u pokušaju rekonstrukcije Truhelkina kulturnoga imaginarija predstavljenoga u trilogiji. Prije same analize narativne strukture potrebno je svratiti pozornost na dvije činjenice. Prvo, pojam kulturni imaginarij posuđujemo iz imagologije.1 Iz pozicije postmodernističkih teorija upravo identitet postaje važnim pitanjem imagologije i ideologije, a nacionalno obojen diskurs izražava se domoljubnim govorom i ispisuje se u imaginariju nacionalnih simbola. Upravo tako dolazimo do ideologema, riječi i sintagmi koje dobivaju simboličku vrijednost u određenome diskursu. „Želje i strahovi stvaraju imagologiju, imagologija stvara ideologiju, ideologija stvara diskurs, diskurs stvara stereotipe kao posljednje, okamenjene identifikacijske točke, koje se naknadno naturaliziraju tj. pretvaraju u prirodne i autentične biti“ (Oraić Tolić 2006: 30). Drugo, valja imati na umu kako se u slučaju Truhelkine trilogije radi o autobiografskome književnome diskursu u kojemu su „procesi samorazumijevanja i samotumačenja najjasnije vidljivi“ (Zlatar 2004: 26). Trilogija2 Zlatni danci temeljni je tekst autobiografske proze hrvatske dječje književnosti, a ujedno pripada Imagologija je istraživačka paradigma u znanosti o književnosti i kulturi koja se bavi istraživanjem i interpretativnom analizom diskursivnih konstrukcija kolektivnih identiteta, u prvome redu nacionalnih i etničkih, ali i vjerskih, socijalnih i rodnih. Svoj istraživački interes imagologija dijeli s mnogim suvremenim paradigmama društvenih i humanističkih znanosti, posebice sa socijalnom psihologijom, kulturnom antropologijom i postkolonijalnim studijima, osiguravajući si tako atribut iznimno kompleksne transdisciplinarne paradigme. U središtu je imagološkoga interesa kulturni imaginarij, a njegova (re)konstrukcija temeljna je zadaća imagološke analize. Takva analiza posebnu pažnju usmjerava na tekstualne, intertekstualne i kontekstualne odnose koji utječu na oblikovanje autopredodžbi (predodžbi/slika o vlastitoj zemlji i narodu) i heteropredodžbi (predodžbi/slika o stranim zemljama i narodima), ujedno i ključnih pojmova kulturnoga imaginarija. Francuski imagolog Daniel-Henri Pageaux (2009) smatra da bi rekonstrukcija kulturnoga imaginarija trebala dovesti do stvaranja niza slika/predodžbi koje bi trebalo povezati s društveno-kulturnim kontekstom te da kulturni imaginarij, kao i slika/predodžba, počiva na sustavu vrijednosti neke zajednice u danome povijesnome trenutku, odnosno na ideologiji. Otuda i uzročno-posljedična veza imagotipske predodžbe (Fischer 2009) i ideologema. Konkretnije, za razumijevanje određene predodžbe od ključne su važnosti ideologemi kulture kojoj promatrana predodžba pripada. U hrvatskoj znanosti o književnosti i kulturi imagološkim istraživanjima sustavno se bavi Davor Dukić koji je zajedno sa suradnicima priredio knjigu Kako vidimo strane zemlje. Uvod u imagologiju koja donosi prijevode devet kanonskih teorijskih tekstova poznatih europskih imagologa (usp. Dukić i dr. 2009). 2 Riječ je o trilogiji ili tetralogiji koja je izlazila u obliku triju odnosno četiriju knjiga: u prvome sastavu – Zlatni danci (1918.), Bogorodičine trešnje (1929.), Dusi domaćeg ognjišta (1930.); u drugome sastavu – Zlatni danci, Gospine trešnje (Bogorodičine trešnje i Dusi domaćeg ognjišta), Crni i bijeli dani, Zagreb (1942. – 1944.); u trećemu sastavu – Zlatni danci (1. i 2. knjiga), Bogorodičine trešnje (3. knjiga), Dusi domaćeg ognjišta (4. knjiga), Zagreb, 1995. 1 14 K. Ivon: Zlatni danci Jagode Truhelke – primjer… najboljem dijelu Truhelkina stvaralaštva. Autorica u njemu opisuje svoje djetinjstvo provedeno u Osijeku šezdesetih i sedamdesetih godina 19. stoljeća, brižljivo i vrlo detaljno ocrtava ulicu svojega djetinjstva, prostor rodne kuće te niz likova koji su bili neizostavnim dijelom njezina djetinjstva koje je trajalo do 1878. godine kada se s obitelji preselila u Zagreb. Andrea Zlatar navodi kako se upravo u autobiografskim tekstovima samooblikovanje identiteta događa u procesu pisanja, a tekst postaje prostorom oblikovanja identiteta: „Govorenje o prošlosti nije sumacija onoga što se dogodilo, nego intervencija u prošlost: ispovjedne strategije vremena stvaraju diskontinuitet i nezavisne efekte, umjesto kontinuiteta i kauzalnosti“ (2004: 27). Taj diskontinuitet, ili vremenska „skokovitost“ (Zima 2011: 51), uočljiv je u cijeloj Truhelkinoj trilogiji, a posebice dolazi do izražaja u Bogorodičinim trešnjama i Dusima domaćeg ognjišta u kojima je upravo asocijativnost temelj narativne organizacije. Navedeno sugerira i dvije dimenzije, odnosno dva načela takvih tekstova, fikciju i stvarnost, koje su u svojoj biti protuslovne. Načelo istinitosti, ako se samo i dijelom realizira u autobiografskome diskursu, odnosno ako je sama intencija pisanja istinita, moglo bi biti važan poticaj u rekonstrukciji autorova svijeta. U kontekstu klasifikacije književnih vrsta trilogija se interpretira na dva načina, kao dječji roman i kao zbirka pripovijedaka. Znanstvenome kolebanju pridonosi epizodična kompozicija i nepostojanje jedinstvene fabularne poveznice. Dubravka Zima ipak navodi dvije dominantne kategorije integracijskoga načela u trilogiji: kategoriju prostora (fizičkoga i narativnoga) te kategoriju pripovjednoga obrasca koja se temelji na „nostalgičnom principu rekreiranja određenog vremena“ (2011: 49), što autorica povezuje s nazivom složeni roman koji rabe Maggie Dunn i Ann Morris u studiji The Composite Novel (1995). Da je riječ o neuobičajenome autobiografskome govoru, potvrđuje i Andrijana Kos-Lajtman u knjizi Autobiografski diskurs djetinjstva. Autorica navodi kako je prvijenac autobiografske proze dječje književnosti Zlatni danci netipičan upravo iz razloga što se u njemu spajaju dva različita modusa pripovijedanja: „autobiografski (historiografski) i romaneskni (fiktivni) – u jedinstvenu hibridnu inačicu dječje autobiografske proze“ (2011: 133). Vodeći se Genetteovom tipologijom pripovjednoga diskursa, autorica trilogiju određuje kao „heterodijegetsku asocijativnu autobiografiju literariziranog tipa diskursa“ (isto), navodeći kako svojevrsna neočekivanost leži u činjenici da se izvantekstualni okvir i književni tekst ne podudaraju u imenu glavne junakinje (Jagoda – Anica). Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 11–26 15 Truhelkin kroatocentrični kulturni imaginarij Prvi dio trilogije pod naslovom Zlatni danci izlazi važne 1918. Godina je to završetka Prvoga svjetskoga rata, godina raspada Austro-Ugarske Monarhije i na koncu godina osnivanja prve jugoslavenske države. O tome turbulentnome razdoblju posvjedočila je i Truhelka u svojoj autobiografiji Iz prošlih dana nazivajući 1918. godinu „kobnom“ te, kako je autorica istaknula, ta je godina: „za nas Hrvate najbolnija koju smo doživjeli“ (Truhelka 1970: 80).3 U svojemu radnome vijeku Truhelka je boravila u različitim sredinama (Osijeku, Gospiću, Zagrebu, Banjoj Luci, Sarajevu), a prostore svojega učiteljevanja označila je razdjelnim točkama autobiografije. Pomno iščitavajući njezinu autobiografiju, može se zaključiti kako se Truhelka svakom sredinom u kojoj je boravila koristila za brušenje/valoriziranje vlastitih stavova. Bitno je navesti kako u svojoj autobiografiji ističe nezaboravna predavanja profesora Hoića iz hrvatske povjesnice te će upravo hrvatska povjesnica u diskursu djela Zlatni danci postati ključnim ideologemom, svojevrsnim moralnim korektivom u svakodnevnim situacijama, počevši od bezbrižne dječje igre preko patriotskih poduka glavne junakinje do očeva pričanja u dugim zimskim večerima. Truhelka u svojoj autobiografiji navodi (1970: 62): Tu su bili oni burni dani okolo kobne godine 1102., borbe o hrvatsku krunu i prijestolje, smrt Petra Svačića, nesuđenog posljednjega kralja tada još potpuno nezavisne Hrvatske, tu predstavnici dvanaest plemena hrvatskih na sudbonosnoj Dravi da sklope savez s Mađarima i da nakon krvave borbe sastave „pacta conventa“ – to najjače uporište naših prava na slobodu i nezavisnost hrvatskog kraljevstva – od kojih mi se najjače utisnula u svijest točka da se u hrvatskim zemljama ne smije naseliti ni jedan ne-Hrvat. Nije mi onda u mom rodoljubnom zanosu padalo na um da smo i ja i moja braća djeca stranih doseljenika. Truhelka u autobiografiji također ističe i snažno očevo domoljublje, odnosno hrvatsku svijest koju je iskazivao podržavanjem reforme školstva, pohrvaćenja škola, ali i aktivnim sudjelovanjem u tome procesu; otac je kao stožerna figura patrijarhalno strukturiranoga Truhelkina osobnoga imaginarija predstavljen i u Zlatnim dancima. Dubravka Oraić Tolić u radu „Hrvatski kulturni stereotipi: Diseminacija nacije“ navodi kako je devetnaestostoljetna hrvatska kultura stvorila dvije ideologije i imagologije, što je onemogućilo stvaranje stabilnoga i jedinstvenoga nacionalnoga identiteta. Dvije su oprečne ideologije bile kroatocentrični imaginarij Ante Usp. također: „Vijest o prekidu Hrvatske s Monarhijom zatekla me je u postelji gdje sam odbolovala gripu. Jedva što sam razabrala taj glas, počela sam svjesnije osjećati što znači: Hrvatska sloboda! O čemu sam od svoje desete nejasno sanjala i za čim sam žudjela kroz čitav život, to da se sada ispunilo? Ali kad sam prvi puta došla u školu iza bolesti, odmah sam znala – da je to tlapnja i da će nama Hrvatima zamalo svanuti još mnogi crni dani i da ćemo proživjeti teške godine“ (Truhelka 1970: 80). 3 16 K. Ivon: Zlatni danci Jagode Truhelke – primjer… Starčevića i jugoslavizam Josipa Jurja Strossmayera. Obje su ideologije stvorile „vlastiti patriotski govor i vlastiti simbolični svijet, s vlastitim tipom simboličnog subjekta, stalnim motivima i narativima“ (Oraić Tolić 2006: 36). Više je nego očito kako Truhelka prati upravo ovu kroatocentričnu liniju nacionalnoga identiteta te svoj romaneskni svijet obogaćuje motivima i narativima koji se eksplicitno na njega referiraju. Narativni rekviziti slažu mozaik pripovjedne strukture, a među njima se zasigurno svojom učestalošću ističu očevi govori, ali i Aničini nostalgični patriotski iskazi koji se vrlo često referiraju na hrvatsku povijest. Konkretno, u prvoj knjizi Zlatni danci Anica s nostalgijom želi da njezina domovina bude jaka i sretna kakva je bila u vrijeme kralja Krešimira i kralja Zvonimira. U razgovoru Anice i njezinih prijateljica (Višnje i Dragice) o tome što bi poželjele da imaju zlatni prsten Anica odgovara kako bi željela (Truhelka 1995b: 198): […] da se pobiju svi naši dušmani i da nam se podiči naša domovina, da bude jaka i sretna kako je bila kad je živio kralj Krešimir i Zvonimir, i kako piše u povjesnici. Znate vi staru povjesnicu? Ja imam knjigu kod kuće, tata mi je dao i tamo svašta ima o starim Hrvatima. Od hrvatskih povijesnih ličnosti posebno mjesto u očevim pričama, ali i u dječjim igrama, pripada banu Nikoli Zrinskome koji u Truhelkinoj trilogiji postaje ideologemom hrvatskoga otpora, ali i simbolom hrvatske hrabrosti i junaštva te pruža djeci primjer kako valja ljubiti i raditi „za svoju domovinu Hrvatsku“ (Truhelka 1995a: 186), što je itekako korespondiralo s društveno-političkom situacijom druge polovice 19. stoljeća, vremenom Truhelkina slavonskoga djetinjstva. Govoreći o Nikoli Zrinskome, važno je spomenuti kako je upravo njegov nacionalni identitet u 19. stoljeću bio problemsko pitanje iznimno pogodno za oblikovanje mišljenja i osjećaja. Tumačena iz hrvatske ideološke vizure opsada Sigeta bila je u prvome redu borba junaka hrvatskoga podrijetla, a hrabrost i žrtva Zrinskoga za domovinu u političkoj realnosti 19. stoljeća značila je i isticanje hrvatskoga identiteta usred habsburške dominacije (Palić-Jelavić 2012).4 Osim Zrinskoga, kao simbol hrvatske hrabrosti i junaštva u očevim pričama ističe se i ban Josip Jelačić. Malenome Dragošu posebno su zanimljive priče o njemu, a od oca traži da mu nacrta Jelačića sa svim nacionalnim obilježjima, „perjanicom na klobuku i s crveno-bijelo-plavim barjakom u ruci, a na vilovitu konju“ (Truhelka 1995a: 185). Na Dragoševo pitanje baki što joj je rekao ban Jelačić kad ga je vidjela kako prolazi kroz njezino selo, baka je znakovito odgovorila: „Što ti ja više znam? Imali smo mi posla s ukonačivanjem njegovih četa. Brzo su ti oni otišli opet pa put Drave i preko na drugi kraj […]“ (186). S druge strane, drugačiji pogled na njegovo podrijetlo i obranu od Turaka imala je mađarska strana, koja ga smatra mađarskim junakom (usp. Bobinac 2006 i Palić-Jelavić 2012). 4 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 11–26 17 Važni su ideologemi Truhelkina imaginarija prikazanoga u trilogiji i hrvatski nacionalni simboli (nacionalna himna i trobojnica). Lijepu našu domovinu djeca pjevaju na proslavi Prvoga svibnja dok okupljeni oko trobojnice koračaju gradskim ulicama. Kolika je za Truhelkine dječje likove bila važnost hrvatske zastave, potvrđuje i Dragoševo prvo sudjelovanje na svibanjskoj proslavi: „[…] kako čvrsto korača kao pravi vojnik, kako mu se obrazi naduli od pjevanja a oči sjajne zapiljile u barjak i prate svaku kretnju njegovu. Što bi dao da on smije nositi barjak!“ (Truhelka 1995b: 105). Anica je i prije nego što je dobila novi klavir već na „fisharmonici“ jednim prstom znala odsvirati Lijepu našu domovinu. Domoljubne hrvatske pjesme (Gore nebo visoko, Glasna, jasna, Nek se hrusti šaka mala) djeca pjevaju u svim prilikama. Tako Anica u patriotskome zanosu započinje poznatu pjesmu Glasna, jasna, no njezine prijateljice Dragica i Višnja nisu je mogle pratiti jer je nisu znale. U ovome kontekstu nezaobilazno je spomenuti i nacionalnu komponentu dječje igre koja vrlo jasno oslikava djecu, ambijent i vrijeme u kojemu žive. Dječja igra bitan je element narativne strukture dječjega romana. Crnković napominje kako je dječja igra „priprema za kasniji život, podložna je sredini u kojoj djeca žive, duhu vremena, običajima koji vladaju i idejama kojima se ljudi zanose“ (1990: 131). Prikaz dječje igre u Truhelkinim Zlatnim dancima postaje prepoznatljivim elementom kulturnoga imaginarija, a najupečatljivija je ona koja se odvija jednoga četvrtka (na dan kada nema nastave) u poglavlju „Djeca se igraju“ koja umalo završava kobno. Potaknut učiteljevom pričom o Nikoli Zrinskome i opsadi Sigeta, Ćiro predloži da upravo taj događaj bude poticaj njihovoj igri. Djeca su se razdijelila na Hrvate i Turke, a da je hrvatska povjesnica korektiv i u dječjoj igri, potvrđuje Ćiro koji ističe kako Turaka mora biti mnogo više nego Hrvata jer je tako bilo i u povjesnici (Truhelka 1995b: 31): Zgodnije igre ne bi znali ni svijećom naći. Nikola Zrinjski i opsada Sigeta! Istom neki dan pričao gospodin učitelj u školi o tom junaku. Samo tko će biti Nikola Zrinjski? Stali se dječaci otimati za tu čast. I zaprijetilo je već da će se zbog toga opet razvrgnuti lijepa sloga […]. Važna je i Dragoševa ratna igra Hrvata protiv Talijana u kojoj su opet Hrvati bili junaci i istinski pobjednici. Ujedno je dječja simulacija sukoba Hrvata s Talijanima potaknula Đorđa da progovori o svojim iskustvima i sukobima s Talijanima koje je doživio. Đorđo se živo uklapa u kulturni imaginarij Zlatnih danaka. S pomoću Đorđova lika jasno se može nazrijeti društveni položaj Hrvata u Istri šezdesetih i sedamdesetih godina 19. stoljeća. Riječ je o epizodnome liku koji se pojavljuje u Bogorodičinim trešnjama, a s obzirom na to da je pripovjedno vrijeme organizirano asocijativno, u tome dijelu trilogije u središtu interesa upravo je njegova zanimljiva prošlost, vjenčanje s Kristinom i naposljetku smrt koja ga sprječava u želji za 18 K. Ivon: Zlatni danci Jagode Truhelke – primjer… povratkom u rodni kraj. Da je kronološki tijek pripovijedanja poprilično narušen, potvrđuje i to što se nakon Đorđove i Kristinine životne priče pripovijedanje nastavlja u vremenu Ćirina i Dragoševa ranoga djetinjstva. Đorđo je prikazan kao pravi domoljub koji stradava zbog obrane časti i ugleda hrvatskoga nacionalnoga identiteta, vjerno se uklapajući i u nacionalnome i u socijalnome smislu u društvenopovijesnu sliku Istre sedamdesetih godina 19. stoljeća.5 Pojavljujući se kao novi drvosječa u školskome dvorištu, djeci je poprilično neobičan; u prvome redu zbog „velike kolaste naušnice“ koju nosi u lijevome uhu, a to ne nose muškarci u Slavoniji, ali i zato što Đorđo „govori sasvim drugojačije hrvatski nego što se govori u našem kraju i najposlije Đorđova pjesma zove se ‘Vrbniče nad morem’“ (Truhelka 1995c: 89−90). Na početku šutljiv i tajnovit, sprijateljuje se s Dragošem gledajući njegovu ratnu igru u kojoj Hrvati pobjeđuju Talijane, što Đorđa vraća u dane kada je bio u ratu. U njegovoj tužnoj ispovijesti6 doznajemo kako je nastradao zbog pijanstva, odnosno ostao bez jednoga oka i lijeve noge. Razlog je bila prepirka s Talijanima o Viškoj bitci u kojoj mu je jedan Talijan rekao kako Hrvati nisu pobijedili Talijane kod Visa, pitajući se: „[…] jer otkuda onda da je Austrija morala Italiji predati Mletke i Milan i čitavu Lombardiju, ako je ona dobila bitku?“ (Truhelka 1995c: 110), nakon čega dolazi do tučnjave s tragičnim ishodom. Đorđo detaljno i vrlo živo djeci priča o svojemu sudjelovanju u Viškoj bitci 1866. godine u kojoj su Hrvati pod austrijskom zastavom pobijedili Talijane. U njegovoj uzbudljivoj priči sudjeluju i djeca svojim domoljubnim povicima. Tako Dragoš podržava Đorđovu izjavu kako su Hrvati junaci, izdvajajući Zrinskoga, Jurišića i Jelačića. Na kraju se nadovezuje i otac koji govori kako se čitalo po novinama o „divnom junaštvu naših Hrvata i kako je Nikola Krković čak strgao zastavu s jednog talijanskog broda i donio admiralu Tegethofu. Tako su doista dalmatinski ribari pobili gvozdene talijanske gorostase“ (Truhelka 1995c: 108). Nadalje i Viška bitka kao simbol hrvatskoga junaštva i hrabrosti često je variran motiv u diskursu devetnaestoga stoljeća, posebice u Dalmaciji. U prvome redu poslužio je kao način da se Dalmatinci približe hrvatskome imenu, stoga se idealno uklapa u Truhelkin kroatocentričan U nacionalnome smislu Đorđo se izjašnjava kao Hrvat iz Istre, što korespondira s tadašnjim jačanjem narodnoga pokreta u Istri kao rezultatom pritiska „talijanske buržoazije“ da Istri prida što više obilježja talijanskoga prostora, odnosno činjenicom kako se „u Italiji sve jače očituju težnje za priključenjem još ‘neoslobođene’ Istre“ (Šidak i dr. 1968: 112), a što Đorđo potvrđuje i u svojim pričama djeci. Njegov dolazak i socijalno je uvjetovan, a njegov socijalni status reflektira i razlike između sela i grada koje su tada u Istri bile vrlo izražene. Etnička opreka dodatno ih je osnaživala, građanstvo je gotovo u potpunosti bilo talijansko, dok je seljaštvo bilo većinom hrvatsko. 6 U prepričavanju svojih zgoda Đorđo se osvrće na razgovor koji je vodio u bolnici u Genovi, uoči sukoba Italije s Austrijom. Iako Đorđa Talijani smatraju Talijanom, on se predstavlja kao Hrvat iz Istre. Na to mu je jedan Talijan odgovorio: „Pa Istra je talijanska zemlja, i mi ćemo je osloboditi, i nju i Dalmaciju i sve otoke!“ (Truhelka 1995c: 104–105). Đorđa je to strašno razljutilo te ih optužuje za otimanje, na što mu oni odgovaraju kako oni otimaju svoje. 5 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 11–26 19 kulturni imaginarij. Viška bitka7 mnogim je književnicima 19. stoljeća poslužila i kao sredstvo poduke Istrana i Dalmatinaca u vezi s time kojoj naciji pripadaju te kako bi se nadvladale regionalne razlike. Očito je da i Truhelka dijeli takvo stajalište nacionalno atribuirajući Đorđa Hrvatom iz Istre. Na pitanje Aničina oca je li Primorac Đorđo odgovara: „Na službu, gospodine. Hrvat iz Istre – odgovori Đorđo dižući se sa stolice i stavši pred tatom u vojničku pozituru“ (Truhelka 1995c: 96). Zanimljivo je dodati kako se spomen na Višku bitku obilježavao do propasti Monarhije, a u vrijeme monarhističke i druge Jugoslavije zamijenile su ga proslave koje su pozivale na drukčiji povijesni imaginarij (Bermanec i dr. 2007). Prostorno markiranje Truhelkina kulturnoga identiteta Osim što je integracijski element narativne strukture, prostor, bilo otvoreni ili zatvoreni, otkriva se i kao važan pokazatelj kulturne (nacionalne) samoidentifikacije. Tako ambijent staroga Osijeka s ulicama, školom, crkvama i trgovima, rijekom Dravom kao „metaforom životnog ciklusa“ (Zima 2011: 50), ali i „sudbonosnim“ simbolom hrvatske povijesti,8 čiju važnost Truhelka naglašava i u autobiografiji i u trilogiji, predstavlja početni impuls u daljnjemu nacionalnome samopoimanju koje završava u širemu hrvatskome nacionalnome kontekstu. Poslužimo li se trima veličinama horizontalnoga strukturiranja prostora u književnome tekstu o kojima Gabriel Zoran (1984) govori u članku „Towards a Theory of Space in Narrative“, tada bi navedene prostorne jedinice čijim nizanjem nastaje kompleks prostora bile signum totalnoga prostora u značenju svijeta teksta koji, za razliku od konkretnih prostornih jedinica i prostornih kompleksa, uključuje i prostorne elemente koji se impliciraju, ali se ne pokazuju izravno u tekstu. Širi nacionalni (hrvatski) prostor kod Truhelke se implicira naznačenim ideologemima i narativima. To se može povezati i s tehnikom prikazivanja pripovjednoga prostora u radu Katrin Dennerlein (2009), koja razlikuje prostor strukturiran pripovijedanjem događaja od prostora koji se posreduje spominjanjem prostornih činjenica u opisima, refleksijama, argumentacijama ili komentarima. Upravo u refleksijama, otvara se i implicira nacionalni kontekst koji je kod Truhelke kroatocentričan te značenje prostora postaje paradigmatsko na razini cijele trilogije. Govorimo li o konkretnim O društvenim sjećanjima na Višku bitku i narativima koji se povezuju s njom detaljnije vidjeti Krešimir Bermanec i dr. (2007). 8 Djeca imaju posebno emotivan odnos prema Dravi: „Eh, da, divne velike rijeke! Puna puncata vode. Pružila se daleko i nalijevo i nadesno, pa se sjala na suncu kao rastaljeno srebro i bakar. I ove se njene vode nekamo žure niz maticu, pa ona teče i valja se kao da je živi stvor, pa šumi, grgolji, zapljuskuje o bijeli pijesak kao da ga miluje i hoće da razgovara sa zemljicom. Na drugom joj se kraju nanizali prekoputa suri ritovi i suri vrbici, a među njima bijeljele se seoske kućice kao koke u djetelini“ (Truhelka 1995a: 121–122). 7 20 K. Ivon: Zlatni danci Jagode Truhelke – primjer… prostornim jedinicama, možda niti jedan (zatvoreni) prostor u trilogiji nije toliko zasićen nacionalno-hrvatskim ideologemima kao školski prostor na Gornjemu gradu. Upravo u taj nevelik prostor kao da je utisnuta gotovo cijela hrvatska povijest. U poglavlju „Anica i njena učiteljica“ u dijelu trilogije naslovljenome Dusi domaćeg ognjišta opisuje se školska soba. Na čitavome školskome zidu u sedam slika predstavljena je hrvatska povijest od dolaska Hrvata do smrti posljednjega hrvatskoga kralja. Truhelka se navedenim opisom koristi za pokretanje Aničinih domoljubnih misli, pri čemu i podučava (1995d: 61–62): Anica je tužna kada gleda sliku smrti posljednjeg hrvatskog kralja, jer učila je gospođica da je veliki pokor za narod kojim ne vlada kralj njegova plemena i imena nego tuđin. I još ju je učila da je najveće zlo za narod ako je nesložan, i da bez sloge nema ni sreće ni napretka. Pa jer su stari Hrvati bili nesložni, zato su se morali pokoriti tuđemu vladaru i mnogo trpjeti od svakojakih neprijatelja. I zbog tih se neprijatelja Anica često zabrinula i u sebi žalostila i jadila. I narativ hrvatske nesloge i jala zbog kojih hrvatska kruna prelazi na mađarsku glavu služio je dakle kao upozorenje na moguće posljedice nesloge i bio je iznimno aktualan tijekom 19. stoljeća. Salon, prostoriju koja je bila povezana sa školskom sobom, ukrašavale su slike hrvatskih velikana: „U sredini ban Mažuranić ozbiljno i strogo pogleduje svakoga tko spram njega podigne oči. Okolo bana eto ti Ljudevita Gaja, bana Jelačića, Ivana Gundulića, sve hrvatski velikani“ (Truhelka 1995d: 63). Govoreći o nacionalnoj, neizostavno je spomenuti i religijsku komponentu prostora. Uz hrvatstvo, religioznost9 je temeljna označnica Truhelkina identiteta. Vjera u Truhelkinu stvaralaštvu nosi snagu trajne kulturne identifikacije, snažno utječe na život Aničine obitelji i u velikoj mjeri određuje naracijski tijek. Poglavlja su većinom određena nizom događaja koji se akumuliraju oko ključnih vjerskih blagdana (Badnjaka, Božića, Velike subote, Uskrsa) ili vjerskih običaja (procesija, hodočašća), što je prostorno itekako obilježeno. U pojedinim su poglavljima crkveni interijeri vrlo realistično opisani.10 Kao suprotnost realističnim opisima postojećih crkvenih interijera može se navesti potpuno apstraktan, ali kulturno proizveden prostor neba kako ga Anica doživljava. Anica je „sanjalica, a otvorenih očiju za stvarni svijet, buntovnik, pričalica i zanesenjak topla srca“ (Crnković 1997: Detaljna analiza prostornih elemenata religioznosti ostaje izvan fokusa ovoga rada. Međutim, o važnosti religioznosti u Truhelkinu stvaralaštvu detaljnije su pisali Stjepan Hranjec (2003) i Ana Pintarić (1998, 2006). 10 Kao primjer možemo navesti poglavlje „Uskrsna zvona“ u kojemu se opisuje događanje na Veliku subotu i odlazak na procesiju u crkvu na Gornjemu gradu. Ispred crkve mali je trouglasti trg s kipom sv. Ivana na sredini: „U crkvi divna svjetlost. Što god je bilo svijeća, rasvjetnika, kandila: sve je bilo u najvećem sjaju. Oko glavnog oltara i povrh njega savio se vijenac od pozlaćena bršljana, a po vijencu bile pozaticane stotine i stotine svijeća, da ti je sve bliještilo ispred očiju, a sveti Mihalj, krasan junak na ovome svijetu, izišao na slici kao da je izrastao iz plamena, pa kopljem bije strašnoga zmaja“ (Truhelka 1995b: 24). 9 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 11–26 21 274), često gleda i razmišlja o nebu, a u tim ga razmišljanjima i „oprostoruje“. U razgovoru s prijateljicom Milicom Anica nudi svoju dječju viziju neba (Truhelka 1995b: 72): Dok sam bila mala, ja sam sebi zamišljala nebo kako kakav divan vilinski dvor, pun ogledala i cvijeća svakojaka. U najvećoj dvorani sjedi na crvenom prijestolju dragi Bog, oko njega anđeli, broja im ne znaš, vojske anđela, a na drugom kraju su preminule duše, u sredini opet sveci, svi se šeću po sjajnom podu ili sjede na divanima od crvena baršuna, pjevaju, razgovaraju se. Poslije sam mislila da nebo mora izgledati kao velika, velika i prekrasna crkva. Ali onda me spopadala muka, gdje bi mogla da stoji ta crkva? Pomisli, koliko je samo nebrojeno mnogo ljudi već pomrlo, a sve duše treba da stanu u nebo – razumije se – one bez grijeha. Negdje na kakovoj zvijezdi? Kuća Truhelkina djetinjstva Govori li se o kulturnome markiranju prostora, neizostavno je zaviriti u kuću Truhelkina djetinjstva11 koja postaje nositeljicom etičke dimenzije trilogije, ali i važnom komponentom u razotkrivanju Truhelkina imaginarija. U svojoj autobiografiji Truhelka navodi kako je iz roditeljske kuće ponijela uvjerenje o dobroti koje joj je u životu bilo nadahnućem, što unosi i u svoje književno stvaralaštvo. Njezina etika proizlazi iz vjerskoga i nacionalnoga osjećaja. Prema knjizi Poetika prostora Gastona Bachelarda (2000) čovjekov identitet otkriva se upravo u procesu (raz)otkrivanja mjesta na kojemu prebiva. S obzirom na to da je prostor u trilogiji „življen“ (Lefebvre 1991: 356), odnosno da nije neutralan, on igra značajnu ulogu u oblikovanju autoričina kulturnoga identiteta. Upravo tematiziranjem emotivne povezanosti s određenim prostorom književnost posredstvom jezika pripomaže konstituiranju identiteta određenoga pisca. U trilogiji možemo posvjedočiti o tome kako upravo prostor kuće Truhelkina djetinjstva postaje nositeljem etičke dimenzije samoga djela. Radi se o patrijarhalno strukturiranim mikroprostorima koji imaju određene etičke/odgojne kodekse koji su itekako prostorno naglašeni. Svjedoči to i usporedba Aničine (Jagodine) kuće s kućom njezine prijateljice Melanke. Aničina kuća obilježena je nenametljivim redom i poštovanjem, skromnošću te likom oca kao stožernom figurom njezina identitetskoga svijeta, a Melankina kuća prikazuje se bogatijom i slobodnijom, s bitno labavijim granicama, bez pretjerane brige za određeni red i poštovanje (Melanka ima svoju sobu u kojoj sama spava, u božićno vrijeme Melankina kuća puna je gostiju te su sve sobe otvorene i gosti se kreću slobodno po njima). Shema na Sl. 1. prikazuje unutarnje prostorno ustrojstvo Aničine kuće s naglaskom na činjenici kako svaka soba/prostorija njihove obiteljske O ulozi prostora u Truhelkinim Zlatnim dancima izlagala sam na Šestome hrvatskome slavističkome kongresu održanome u Vukovaru i Vinkovcima od 10. do 13. rujna 2014. 11 22 K. Ivon: Zlatni danci Jagode Truhelke – primjer… kuće nosi svoju priču ili svoj događaj te je gotovo u potpunosti obilježena likom (likovima) koji u njoj boravi/djeluje ili vjerskim/obiteljskim običajima za koje je namijenjena. U strukturi kuće autonomija prostora apsolutno se poštuje, što i potvrđuje Anica čudeći se „slobodi“ Melankinih gostiju, a prostor se poistovjećuje s osobama, tradicijskim običajima ili postaje nositeljem alegorijskoga značenja. STRUKTURA KUĆE Prva soba Roditeljska soba Dječja soba /Anica, Ćiro, Dragoš Kuhinja / Kristina Kuća Dvorište / Đorđo Gostinjska soba / blagdani, vjerski i obiteljski rituali Dnevna soba / obitelj na okupu Školska soba / otac Stol+lampa Sl. 1. Mikroprostori kao nositelji etičke dimenzije Zlatnih danaka (struktura gornjogradske kuće). Fig. 1. Microspaces as carriers of the ethical dimension of The Golden Days (the structure of the Upper Town house). Ovdje ćemo se osvrnuti samo na dva prostora koja možda najeksplicitnije popunjavaju kroatocentrični mozaik Truhelkina kulturnoga identiteta. Dnevna soba središnji je prostor u kojemu obitelj provodi najviše vremena. Za dugih zimskih večeri cijela obitelj okupljena je oko stola u dnevnoj sobi, svaki član smješten je na točno određenome mjestu s već ritualnom aktivnošću. Zimski ugođaj izvana osigurava pojačanu intimnost unutar kuće: „U toploj sobi nasred velikog okruglog stola gori lampa“ (Truhelka 1995a: 181). Upravo takva atmosfera postaje poticajna Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 11–26 23 za pričanje i podučavanje djece koje većinom, kako smo naglasili, biva nadahnuto hrvatskom nacionalnom poviješću. Priče o banu Nikoli Zrinskom i banu Josipu Jelačiću te čitanje i prepričavanje biblijskih prispodoba i poučnih priča svoje prostorno utočište nalaze upravo u dnevnoj sobi tijekom dugih zimskih večeri. Otac, središnja figura obitelji, na kraju svojega pripovijedanja ističe činjenicu kako su „Hrvati bili junaci, kako su ljubili svoju hrvatsku domovinu, za nju se bili i krvcu lili“ (Truhelka 1995a: 186) te ne propušta priliku podučiti djecu: „Tako trebate i vi, djeco moja, da ljubite i da radite za svoju domovinu Hrvatsku!“ (isto). Ponekad se u ulozi pripovjedača pojavljuje i pomoćnica Kristina, čije biblijske priče djeca jako vole. Analizirajući biblijske prispodobe kao modele odgoja djece u Truhelkinoj trilogiji, Ana Pintarić (2006) ističe kako je odgojni postupak Aničina oca i neuke služavke jednak, naglašavajući kako oboje žele da djeca prepoznaju vlastitu situaciju ili postupke te da o njima promišljaju i donose sudove. Također je važan i prostor gostinjske sobe. Ona je namijenjena isključivo blagdanima, dio je tradicije, blagdanskoga rituala koji je tako imao i svoje prostorno utočište. Bio je to uređeni/nedirnuti prostor koji je pružao određeno obilje i raskoš, što se moglo dopustiti samo u blagdansko vrijeme. U tu sobu djeca su smjela ući na uskrsnu nedjelju nakon doručka, a na prostrtome stolu dočekala bi ih uskrsna peciva, pisanice i šunka. Povrh divana na zidu u gostinjskoj sobi, s jedne i druge strane ogledala, visjeli su portreti majke i oca. U gostinjsku sobu ulazilo se i na Badnjak. Netom prije ponoći otac bi nestao kroz kuhinju, a nakon nekoliko trenutaka začulo bi se zvonce iz gostinjske sobe kao znak da se može doći (Truhelka 1995a: 204): Ta ovakvoj se krasoti ni u najsmjelijim sanjama nisu nadali. Ne znaš kamo bi najprije pogledao. Onaj se bor posred sobe sjaji, blista kao da su po njemu pale sve same zvijezde nebeske, pa ti kradu i mame oči svojim svjetlucanjem. A tek ono što je bilo poredano pod drvetom i oko njega! Na koncu, analitičko čitanje Truhelkine trilogije pokazalo je koliko je njezin diskurs zasićen nacionalno-hrvatskim ideologemima. Truhelka otvara vlastiti kulturni imaginarij koji pulsira između osječke Labudove ulice i širega hrvatskoga nacionalnoga konteksta te s pravom nosi atribut kroatocentričnosti. Osim eksplicitno prizivanih nacionalnih ideologema važno je bilo istaknuti i neke nacionalne motive i narative koji su mijenjali ideološki značaj ovisno o društvenopovijesnim okolnostima (Nikola Zrinski, Josip Jelačić, Hrvatsko Kraljevstvo, Viška bitka itd.), međutim u Truhelkinu slučaju oni su bili itekako bitan segment u njezinu književnome pozicioniranju unutar nacionalne književnosti. Analiza implicira kako imaginarij Zlatnih danaka ne reprezentira samo njihovu autoricu, već, u stanovitoj mjeri, i vrijednosti zajednice kojoj pripada. Ono što se zatječe u Zlatnim dancima, u Aničinu (Truhelkinu) slavonskome djetinjstvu, itekako korespondira s nacionalno 24 K. Ivon: Zlatni danci Jagode Truhelke – primjer… obojenom drugom polovicom 19. stoljeća. Konkretno, Dalmacija i Istra tek tada doživljavaju svoj preporodni uzlet, čiju važnost Truhelka prepoznaje i podržava tada, ali i mnogo godina kasnije, kada se stvaralački, Zlatnim dancima, vraća u svoje djetinjstvo. Više su nego jasne poruke Aničina žučljiva odobravanja i podržavanja Đorđove priče, ali i konstantno isticanje junaštva Nikole Zrinskoga i vremena Hrvatskoga Kraljevstva, velikoga narativa hrvatskoga nacionalnoga imaginarija. U Truhelkinu stvaralaštvu oni su imali jasan cilj, ponajprije osnaživanje hrvatske nacionalne svijesti, poticanje osjećaja jedinstva i nacionalne homogenizacije hrvatskoga prostora. Literatura Primarna literatura Truhelka, Jagoda. 1995a. Zlatni danci I. (ur. Joža Skok). Zagreb: Naša djeca. (Prvi put objavljeno 1918.). Truhelka, Jagoda. 1995b. Zlatni danci II. (ur. Joža Skok). Zagreb: Naša djeca. (Prvi put objavljeno 1918.). Truhelka, Jagoda. 1995c. Bogorodičine trešnje (ur. Joža Skok). Zagreb: Naša djeca. (Prvi put objavljeno 1929.). Truhelka, Jagoda. 1995d. Dusi domaćeg ognjišta (ur. Joža Skok). Zagreb: Naša djeca. (Prvi put objavljeno 1930.). Sekundarna literatura Bachelard, Gaston. 2000. Poetika prostora. Prev. Zorica Ćurlin. Zagreb: Ceres. Bermanec, Krešimir, Mario Katić, Tomislav Oroz i Nevena Škrbić Alempijević. 2007. „Sjećanje na Viški boj: proslave, spomenici, naracije“. Studia etnologica Croatica 19 (1): 77–127. Bobinac, Marijan. 2006. „Körnerov Zrinski – Hrvat, Mađar ili Nijemac?“. U Kulturni stereotipi. Koncepti identiteta u srednjoeuropskim književnostima, ur. Dubravka Oraić Tolić i Ernő Kulcsár Szabó, 111–127. Zagreb: FF press. Crnković, Milan. 1990. Dječja književnost. Priručnik za studente i nastavnike. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. Crnković, Milan. 1997. „Pogovor“ U: Jagoda Truhelka. Zlatni danci. 273– 276. Zagreb: Znanje. Crnković, Milan i Dubravka Težak. 2002. Povijest hrvatske dječje književnosti: od početaka do 1955.godine. Zagreb: Znanje. Dennerlein, Katrin. 2009. Narratologie des Raumes. Berlin/New York: De Gruyter Dukić, Davor, Zrinka Blažević, Lahorka Plejić Poje i Ivana Brković, ur. 2009. Kako vidimo strane zemlje. Uvod u imagologiju. Zagreb: Srednja Europa. Dunn, Maggie i Ann Morris. 1995. The Composite Novel. New York/Toronto: Twayne Publishers, Maxwell Macmillan Canada. Fischer, Manfred S. 2009. „Komparatistička imagologija: za interdisciplinarno istraživanje nacionalno-imagotipskih sustava“. U Kako vidimo strane zemlje. Uvod u imagologiju, ur. Davor Dukić i dr., 36–56. Zagreb: Srednja Europa. Hranjec, Stjepan. 1998. Hrvatski dječji roman. Zagreb: Znanje. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 11–26 25 Hranjec, Stjepan. 2003. „Jagoda Truhelka: vjera kao tradicijska baština“. U Kršćanska izvorišta dječje književnosti, 54–59. Zagreb: Alfa. Kos-Lajtman, Andrijana. 2011. Autobiografski diskurs djetinjstva. Zagreb: Naklada Ljevak. Lefebvre, Henri. 1991. The Production of Space. Oxford-Cambridge: Blackwell. Majdenić, Valentina. 2013. Regionalni tekst dječje književnosti. Zagreb: Naklada Ljevak. Oraić Tolić, Dubravka. 2006. „Hrvatski kulturni stereotipi: Diseminacije nacije“. U Kulturni stereotipi. Koncepti identiteta u srednjoeuropskim književnostima, ur. Dubravka Oraić Tolić i Ernő Kulcsár Szabó, 29–45. Zagreb: Zavod za znanost o književnosti Filozofskog fakulteta u Zagrebu. Pageaux, Daniel-Henri. 2009. „Od kulturnog imaginarija do imaginarnog“. U Kako vidimo strane zemlje. Uvod u imagologiju, ur. Davor Dukić i dr., 125–150. Zagreb: Srednja Europa. Palić-Jelavić, Rozina. 2012. „Ideologemi u operi Nikola Šubić Zrinjski Ivana pl. Zajca“. Kroatologija 3 (1): 54–89. Pintarić, Ana. 1998. „Život i djelo Jagode Truhelke – kako bih mogla da budem dobra“. U Zlatni danci 1 – Život i djelo Jagode Truhelke, ur. Ana Pintarić, 171–184. Osijek: HAZU, Zavod za znanstveni rad Osijek. Pintarić, Ana. 2006. „Biblijske prispodobe kao model odgoja u trilogiji Zlatni danci Jagode Truhelke“. U Zlatni danci 7 – obitelj u književnosti za djecu i mladež, ur. Ana Pintarić, 141–156. Osijek: Filozofski fakultet Osijek, Filozofski fakultet Pečuh, Matica hrvatska. Šidak, Jaroslav, Mirjana Gross, Igor Karaman i Dragovan Šepić. 1968. Povijest hrvatskog naroda g. 1860−1914. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. Truhelka, Jagoda. 1970. „Autobiografija“. U Zlatni danci. Autobiografija (Pet stoljeća hrvatske književnosti, knjiga 107), 51–82. Zagreb: Matica hrvatska. Zima, Dubravka. 2011. Kraći ljudi: povijest dječjeg lika u hrvatskom dječjem romanu. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. Zlatar, Andrea. 2004. Tekst, tijelo, trauma: ogledi o suvremenoj ženskoj književnosti. Zagreb: Naklada Ljevak. Zoran, Gabriel. 1984. „Towards a Teory of Space in Narrative“. Poetics Today 5 (2): 305– 335. Katarina Ivon University of Zadar, Croatia Universität Zadar, Kroatien Zlatni danci by Jagoda Truhelka: An Example of a Croatocentric Cultural Imaginary According to Croatian children’s literature historians, Crnković and Težak (2002), overstated Croatian patriotism and religiousness in Jagoda Truhelka’s work were reasons for avoiding it in official school curricula during the era of both Yugoslav states. Thus, her work was often evaluated on an extraliterary basis. The author’s autobiographical trilogy Zlatni danci [The Golden Days] is interpreted along these lines, to discern dominant 26 K. Ivon: Zlatni danci Jagode Truhelke – primjer… motives and narratives which contribute to the reconstruction and interpretation of her cultural imaginary which may be described as Croatocentric. The author signals this by various means: Anica’s didactic patriotic “tirades” learned at school, descriptions of the teacher’s school and her salon, by reconstructions of children’s play imitating the battle of Siget (Croats vs. Ottomans), by telling the story of lumberjack Đorđo (an Istrian Croat) and his significant role in the battle for Vis. The element of space is also important in the trilogy, both because of its integrative role and as a meaningful indicator of cultural self-identification. The analysis implies that the imaginary of The Golden Days represents not only its author’s values, but also, to some extent, the values of the community that is represented. Keywords: cultural imaginary, Jagoda Truhelka, Zlatni danci, national branding of space, Croatian children’s literature Zlatni danci [dt. Goldene Zeiten] von Jagoda Truhelka als kroatozentrisches kulturelles Imaginarium Im Beitrag wird von den Gedanken aus der Geschichte der kroatischen Kinder- und Jugendliteratur von Crnković und Težak ausgegangen, wonach zum einen das in Truhelkas Werken enthaltene Kroatentum bzw. die darin dargestellte Religiosität zu Zeit Jugoslawiens (1918 – 1989) die Einreihung der Werke dieser Autorin in die Schullektüre verhinderten, zum anderen ihre Werke sehr oft anhand außerliterarischer Kriterien bewertet wurden. Auf der Spur dieser Gedanken wird im Beitrag die autobiographische Trilogie Zlatni danci der Autorin gedeutet, indem auf die dort dominierenden Motive und Erzählmuster eingegangen wird, die durch ihr häufiges Vorkommen der Rekonstruktion des kulturellen Imaginariums der Autorin, das man als kroatozentrisch bezeichnen könnte, beitragen. Dieses Imaginarium wird in der Trilogie durch verschiedene Erzählverfahren signalisiert: durch Anicas belehrend-patriotische, in der Schule erworbene „Tiraden“, durch Beschreibung der Schule und des Salons der Lehrerin, durch die Rekonstruktion des Kinderspiels, worin die Schlacht bei Siget nachgeahmt wird, sowie durch das Nacherzählen des Schicksals des Holzfällers Đorđe und seiner Teilnahme an der Schlacht bei der Insel Vis. In der Trilogie ist auch der Raum ein wichtiges Erzählelement, dem neben der integrativen Rolle auch die Funktion eines wichtigen Hinweises auf die kulturelle Selbstidentifikation eigen ist. Die Analyse impliziert, dass das Imaginarium von Zlatni danci nicht nur Werte der Autorin, sondern auch jene der Gemeinschaft, zu der die Autorin gehört, enthält. Schlüsselwörter: kulturelles Imaginarium, Jagoda Truhelka, Zlatni danci, nationale Raummarkierung, kroatische Kinder- und Jugendliteratur 27 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 27-44 UDK 821.163.42.09-93 Vedrana Živković Zebec Fakultet za odgojne i obrazovne znanosti Sveučilišta Josipa Jurja Strossmayera u Osijeku, Hrvatska [email protected] Naša djeca Jagode Truhelke – poučavanje sudbinama ženskih likova Izvorni znanstveni rad / original research paper Primljeno / received 28. 10. 2014. Prihvaćeno / accepted 10. 7. 2015. Roman Naša djeca (1896) drugi je objavljeni roman Jagode Truhelke. U kritici je prošao uglavnom nezapaženo te se spominje samo kao bibliografski podatak. Roman se analizira u kontekstu autoričina književnoga stvaralaštva i pedagoškoga djelovanja krajem 19. stoljeća s ciljem analize funkcije ženskih likova. Roman pripada prvoj fazi Truhelkina stvaralaštva. U njemu je uočljiv utjecaj dječje književnosti 19. stoljeća s obzirom na poučnost i namjenu djela mladim djevojkama, ali već se i tada otvaraju aktualna pitanja ženskoga obrazovanja i samostalnosti, kao i socijalnih razlika. Ključne riječi: Naša djeca, Jagoda Truhelka, hrvatska književnost za djecu i mladež 19. stoljeća, moralistička pripovijest, žensko pitanje Uvod Roman1 Naša djeca objavljen je 1896. godine i, nakon Tugomile iz 1894., drugi je objavljeni Truhelkin roman. Kod kritičara su Naša djeca uglavnom prošla nezapaženo; spominju se samo kao bibliografski podatak, bez interpretacija i kontekstualizacije djela u ukupno stvaralaštvo Jagode Truhelke i u vrijeme objavljivanja romana s obzirom na razvoj hrvatske književnosti za djecu i mladež. Donedavno i samo je djelo bilo nedostupno suvremenim istraživačima dječje U radu se djelo Naša djeca promatra kao roman. Majhut (2005) navodi da su nakladnici i autori 19. stoljeća i s početka 20. stoljeća dječje romane nazivali pripovijestima, pripovijetkama ili novelama. U podnaslovu Naše djece stoji „pripovijest za mlade djevojke“. 1 28 V. Živković Zebec: Naša djeca Jagode Truhelke – poučavanje sudbinama ženskih likova književnosti.2 Crnković i Težak (2002: 250) navode da je Truhelka počela pisati u posljednjemu desetljeću pripremnoga razdoblja hrvatske dječje književnosti, kada dolazi do preispitivanja naravi i svrhe dječje književnosti; pojavljuju se nove teme, a to je i vrijeme kada kritičari djela namijenjena djeci podvrgavaju umjetničkim kriterijima. U radu će se odrediti koje elemente književnosti za djecu i mladež 19. stoljeća Truhelka rabi u romanu, a što donosi kao novinu u skladu s promjenama na društvenome i gospodarskome planu na kraju 19. stoljeća, osobito s obzirom na položaj žene u društvu. Kraj 19. stoljeća i književnost za djecu i mladež U hrvatskoj dječjoj i nedječjoj književnosti uočavaju se promjene krajem 19. stoljeća. U posljednjemu desetljeću toga stoljeća, 1892. godine, započinje razdoblje moderne, koje donosi stilski pluralizam i promjene na svim razinama romaneskne proizvodnje. Na tematskoj razini dolazi do „internalizacije i mikrokozmacije problematike“ (Nemec 1998: 11), odnosno političke, nacionalne i socijalne teme zamjenjuju se svijetom pojedinca, intimom i psihom. Romani se oslobađaju didaktičke i utilitarističke funkcije, a jača estetska funkcija teksta uz unošenje inovacija i eksperimentiranja. Ipak, uz navedene modernističke tendencije, krajem 19. i početkom 20. stoljeća u hrvatskome romanu supostoji i realistički literarni kompleks (11–13). Hrvatska književnost za djecu i mladež u 19. stoljeću u razvojnoj je fazi koju karakterizira uglavnom pretjerana pedagogizacija. Crnković (1978) ocjenjuje da je ta književnost bila moralistička, naivna, nestvarna i neuvjerljiva. Najraširenija prozna vrsta jest pripovijetka koja otvara put romanu.3 Uz prijevode, najčešće Hoffmanna i Schmida, objavljuju se pripovijetke pod utjecajem tih pisaca.4 Tematika je u Roman Naša djeca (1896) nije bio dostupan dugo vremena. I dok u literaturi tu i tamo nailazimo na rijetke osvrte na Tugomilu, dvije godine ranije objavljeni roman za mladež Jagode Truhelke, Naša djeca, jedva da se kad spomene. Tako primjerice Milan Crnković i Dubravka Težak samo uzgred spominju Našu djecu u Povijesti hrvatske dječje književnosti (2002: 290). Stjepan Hranjec niti ne spominje ta dva romana u knjizi Hrvatski dječji roman (1998). Dubravka Zima ne bilježi Našu djecu u studiji Kraći ljudi (2011). Majhut eksplicitno navodi kako nije uspio doći do knjige Naša djeca u svojoj studiji Pustolov, siroče i dječja družba (2005: 441). Tek je nedavno roman Naša djeca opet izronio na površinu i postao dostupan javnosti. 3 Crnković u studiji Hrvatska dječja književnost do kraja XIX. stoljeća proučava početno razdoblje hrvatske dječje književnosti i zaključuje da u tome razdoblju nema romana (1978: 121). Majhut (2005: 13–14) smatra da naslove objavljene u 19. stoljeću treba smatrati romanima ako imaju elementarne oblike narativnosti, neovisno o tome radi li se o prijevodima ili naslovima hrvatskih autora opterećenih pedagogiziranjem. 4 Majhut navodi da se utjecaji Hoffmanna i Schmida mogu promatrati tijekom sto godina pri čemu značenje njihovih djela za hrvatsku dječju književnost nije jednako. Također, pojava je tih autora sukcesivna te su Hoffmannovi romani potisnuli Schmidove (osim njegova djela Genoveva za koje je interes postojao do 1945. godine kada nestaje iz ideoloških razloga). Pri prosuđivanju Hoffmannova utjecaja treba razlikovati utjecaj njegove kratke priče s izrazitom poučnošću i utjecaj njegovih dječjih romana koji su predstavljali novost za čitateljsku publiku (usp. Majhut 2005: 15–16). 2 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 27-44 29 pripovijetkama različita, ali glavno im je obilježje težnja poučavanju. Najraširenija je tzv. ćudoredna ili moralistička pripovijetka u kojoj se prikazuju velika razdoblja života pojedinca, a motivi koji se uvode ne razvijaju se prirodno, nego su događaji motivirani svjetonazorom utemeljenim na vjeri u pobjedu dobra nad zlim, pri čemu je postupak deus ex machina čest odabir. Crnković i Težak (2002: 142) napominju da moralistička pripovijetka događaje uzima iz života i dorađuje ih unoseći brojne pouke. Likove je moguće podijeliti na dobre i zle, bogate i siromašne, sretne i nesretne, a poukom se pokazuje da će dobri biti nagrađeni, a zli kažnjeni. Kraj 19. stoljeća donosi promjene u odnosu na ranije pripovijedi za djecu u kojima teme iz djetinjstva i dječjega života gotovo i nisu bile zastupljene, a dječji likovi uglavnom su se pojavljivali kao statisti ili se pisalo o djetinjstvu glavnih junaka. Kao prijelomnu godinu Crnković (1978: 132–133) navodi 1891. kada u pripovijetkama Antonije Cvijić i Jelice Belović-Bernadzikowski uočava promjenu konvencija moralističke pripovijetke i unošenje prizora iz dječjega života sa željom dočaravanja djetinjstva, premda su ta nova kretanja još nedovoljno uobličena. Krajem 19. stoljeća u Hrvatskoj se zbivaju promjene na gospodarskome i kulturnome planu, a ujedno se i aktivizmom prvoga vala feminističkoga pokreta mijenja položaj žene. Preispitivanje položaja žene u društvu započinje sredinom 19. stoljeća u Europi i Americi, a kao bitan problem pojavljuje se obrazovanje žena (usp. Ograjšek Gorenjak 2004: 158): Ono je imalo dvostruku važnost. S jedne strane promicanje obrazovanja bilo je bitan korak prema stjecanju političkih prava žena. […] S druge strane, žene su tijekom obrazovanja stjecale određeni nivo ekonomske, socijalne i emocionalne stabilnosti. Ipak, feminizam je svojom pojavom sredinom 19. stoljeća prihvaćao doktrinu odvojenih sfera te se tvrdilo da muškarci i žene „prirodno imaju zasebno ali komplementarno i podjednako vrijedno mjesto u društvu“ (Pateman 1998: 121). Prve su se feministkinje borile protiv neravnopravnoga položaja žena u društvu, no njihove reforme, u koje se ubrajao i zahtjev za obrazovanjem žena, kako bi se neudane žene mogle same uzdržavati, obično su se smatrale sredstvima postizanja ravnopravnosti žena čiji će učinak ipak ostati u privatnoj sferi (121–122). U Hrvatskoj se „žensko pitanje“ rješavalo problematiziranjem obrazovanja, pri čemu su se u prvim djevojačkim školama učenice uz opće predmete pripremale i za ulogu majke i kućanice. Reformom obrazovanja početkom devedesetih godina 19. stoljeća djevojke su se mogle obrazovati za određena zanimanja u skladu s njihovim društvenim statusom (usp. Ograjšek Gorenjak 2004). Na promicanju svijesti o novome društvenome statusu žena, najviše o ženskome pravu na izobrazbu i sudjelovanje u kulturnome životu, u Hrvatskoj su se angažirale intelektualke, koje su se i same bavile umjetničkim radom, a među njima je bila i Jagoda Truhelka (usp. Detoni-Dujmić 1998). 30 V. Živković Zebec: Naša djeca Jagode Truhelke – poučavanje sudbinama ženskih likova Hrvatska književnica, učiteljica i intelektualka Jagoda Truhelka bila je učiteljica, intelektualka i književnica te je svojim pedagoškim i književnim radom bila među predvodnicama novih ideja o položaju žena u društvu. Ranka Jindra (1982: 30–31) navodi da je Truhelka težila promjenama na društvenome, kulturnome i socijalnome, a na neki način i na političkome području te se zanimala za jačanje nacionalne i staleške svijesti. Jedan od osnovnih načina njezina društvenoga angažmana bilo je pisanje o aktualnim problemima, čemu se posvećuje u svojim teorijskim radovima. U tim radovima, među ostalim, problematizira i odgoj i obrazovanje djevojaka, pri čemu joj je temeljna problematika obrazovanje i emancipacija žena (isto). Već u prvome teorijskome radu „Što da čitaju naše mlade djevojke“ Truhelka razmatra pitanja odgoja i važnosti samoodgoja, koji je ostvariv „privatnim čitanjem“ dobre lektire (1893: 163). Pri tome upućuje na problem nedostatka adekvatne domaće literature jer je mladim djevojkama dostupna uglavnom prijevodna književnost, pretežno njemačka, pa traži od domaćih autora da pišu djela za mlade djevojke (168): Hoćemo li da nam se mlade naše djevojke ne moraju laćati tuđih knjiga i time opajati se tuđim duhom, pružajmo im domaće hrane, priređene na domaćoj grudi. Neka im se ideali, uzori ženski i djevojački izvedu iz rođene zemlje u rođenim prilikama da se osjete svoje među svojima […]. Idejama iznesenima u teorijskim radovima Truhelka se koristila i u književnome stvaralaštvu. Njezino književno stvaralaštvo obaseže dugi niz godina: od radova objavljenih u časopisima i prve knjige Tugomila iz 1894. godine do posljednjega dijela trilogije Zlatni danci naslovljenoga Crni i bijeli dani, objavljenoga 1944. Njezin opus obuhvaća književnost namijenjenu djeci i mladima, ali i književnost za odrasle. Objavljivala je u časopisima Vijenac, Prosvjeta, Napredak, u sarajevskoj Nadi i dr., a 1900. godine s Marijom Jambrišak osnovala je časopis Domaće ognjište namijenjen ženama, koji je veliko značenje pridavao obrazovanju žena i sudjelovanju žena u odgoju mladeži. S obzirom na duljinu razdoblja u kojemu je Truhelka bila književno aktivna, njezina djela razlikuju se s obzirom na utjecaje književne tradicije i izvanknjiževne zbilje koji se u njima mogu iščitati. U nastavku će se pozornost posvetiti Truhelkinu književnome stvaralaštvu devedesetih godina 19. stoljeća i idejama koje unosi u roman Naša djeca. Dunja Detoni-Dujmić (1998: 107–109) navodi da je atmosfera devedesetih godina 19. stoljeća zaokupila mladu Truhelku nakon njezina preseljenja iz Gospića u Zagreb. Tada su se popularizirale teme o ravnopravnosti i stvaralačkoj samosvijesti žena, što su i promicale obrazovane i darovite hrvatske žene (učiteljice). U tome Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 27-44 31 razdoblju, dok su u Europi i svijetu nastajali i jačali ženski pokreti, a sufražetkinje su se javno borile za žensko pravo glasa, u desetljeću u kojemu se u Hrvatskoj otvorio prvi licej za djevojke,5 a Marija Jurić Zagorka ušla je u uredništvo Obzora, Truhelka je objavila četiri romana: Tugomila (1894.), Naša djeca (1896.), Plein air (1897.) i Vojača (1899.). Truhelkini romani objavljeni u posljednjemu desetljeću 19. stoljeća, unatoč slabijoj književnoj vrijednosti, mogu se promatrati u kontekstu feminističke književnosti i njihove vrijednosti u odnosu na povijesni kontekst pri čemu se „politička vrijednost književnih tekstova s feminističke točke gledišta može odrediti jedino istraživanjem njihovih društvenih funkcija i učinaka u odnosu na interese žena u određenom povijesnom kontekstu“ (Felski 1989: 2, prijevod prema Grdešić 2005). Njezin prvi roman Tugomila, prema mišljenju kritičara, nema veću književnu vrijednost i pisan je pod utjecajem djevojačke lektire 19. stoljeća. Ivo Zalar, primjerice, navodeći Tugomilu kao mogući početak hrvatskoga dječjega romana, piše da je taj roman „početnički slab i opterećen pobožnim dociranjima te ga je čitalačka publika brzo zaboravila. Danas predstavlja samo historiografski i bibliografski podatak“ (1978: 17). Tugomila je ipak bitna u kontekstu Truhelkina stvaralaštva jer se u tome romanu pojavljuju motivi i teme koji će i kasnije zaokupljati Truhelku kao književnicu – odrastanje i ženska emancipacija (Detoni-Dujmić 1998: 118). Navedeni motivi pojavljuju se i u romanu Naša djeca. Devedesetih godina 19. stoljeća Truhelka je objavila roman naglašene feminističke ideje Plein air za koji D. Detoni-Dujmić (111) smatra da prethodi gotovo svim značajnim zbivanjima u hrvatskoj moderni. Krešimir Nemec ocjenjuje da je taj roman rani primjer ženskoga pisma i propitivanja odnosa muškarca i žene, u kojemu se uočava zanimanje za odnos spolova i pitanja emancipacije i obrazovanja žena (1995: 248): Nakon procesa ili isključivo demoniziranja ili idealiziranja žena u hrvatskom romanu 19. stoljeća (razne Laure i Line nasuprot Doricama i Ankama), Truhelka dovodi na scenu intelektualno superiornu ženu koja feminističke preokupacije lagano gura u prvi plan. O liceju Marije Jambrišak i Natalije Wickerhauser, kao i o ženskome pitanju u Hrvatskoj toga vremena, piše Ida Ograjšek, koja ističe: „Krajem 19. st. u Hrvatskoj ne postoji organizirani ženski pokret. Ipak, pojedinačne akcije promicatelja i promicateljica ženskog pitanja kao i sve veći uspjesi pokreta u svijetu učinili su ovaj problem vidljivim i u našoj javnosti“ (2002–2004: 99). 5 32 V. Živković Zebec: Naša djeca Jagode Truhelke – poučavanje sudbinama ženskih likova Roman o djevojkama i za djevojke Roman Naša djeca (1896), u čijemu podnaslovu stoji da je namijenjen mladim djevojkama,6 prati odrastanje skupine djevojaka jednake dobi koje pohađaju isti razred. One su prijateljice unatoč socijalnim razlikama. Roman obuhvaća razdoblje duže od dvadeset godina, fabula romana prati protagonistice od školovanja u dobi od četrnaest godina do zrele dobi kada su već žene koje se brinu o obitelji ili vlastitoj egzistenciji. Prikazuju se promjene u životima djevojaka, ali i promjene u njihovu načinu razmišljanja koje donosi odrastanje i utjecaj sredine i predrasuda u društvu. Dubravka Zima navodi da se u dječjem romanu 19. stoljeća marginalne društvene skupine (djeca, ali i žene) funkcionaliziraju i time zadržavaju na marginalnome društvenome položaju (2011: 19–20): [...] riječ je o nastojanju da se tim društvenim grupacijama odredi funkcija (majčinstvo, učenje, nastojanje da se, uz pravilne primjere i poslušnost, odraste u korisnog i moralno kvalitetnog člana zajednice) što se postiže pripovijedanjem o ekstremnim ispravnim primjerima (Matijevićeva i Nagyjeva Genoveva, Jurkovićev Alojzije Gonzaga, Trstenjakovi Savka i Stanko, Truhelkina Tugomila) ili pak negativnim primjerima (Trstenjakov U radu je spas, Jurkovićevi likovi Šimun i Stjepan). Funkcionalizacija likova uočava se i u Našoj djeci, gdje Truhelka donosi galeriju ženskih likova koje rabi za izražavanje svojih ideja o obrazovanju i samostalnosti žena, umjetnosti, socijalnim razlikama, snobizmu te kršćanskim i moralnim vrijednostima. Sudbine djevojaka povod su za izricanje poruka u kontekstu suvremenih promišljanja o pravima, položaju i obrazovanju žena, njegovanja tradicionalnih patrijarhalnih vrijednosti ili konvencija moralističke pripovijetke. Crnković (1978) namjenu književnih djela mladim djevojkama krajem 19. stoljeća smatra diskriminatornom, što naročito povezuje sa stvaralaštvom Jagode Truhelke i Jelice BelovićBernadzikowske koje su pisale za mlade djevojke kako one ne bi posezale za „nemoralnim“ štivom. Majhut već u stvaralaštvu 60-ih godina 19. stoljeća uočava postojanje knjiga eksplicitno namijenjenih djevojačkoj publici s namjerom podučavanja čitateljica: „Od 1865. i prve knjige eksplicitno namijenjene djevojčicama Male gospodarice Franje Klaića sve do 1945. izdaju se knjige koje trebaju uputiti djevojke u pobožnost, društveno ponašanje, moralne vrline, kućanstvo i gazdinstvo itd. Zaručnica Isusova iz 1877., Dobra kućanica 1880., Uzor djevojka 1887., Sielo 1887., kao i prijevodna književnost: Doživljaji zalogaja hljeba 1872., Kako sam došla na svijet? 1924., Knjiga za djevojke 1927., Ti i on 1939. itd.“ (2011: 2). Uz navedene utilitarne knjige u 19. stoljeću i početkom 20. stoljeća pišu se i teorijski radovi o književnosti namijenjenoj mladim djevojkama, pripovijetke i romani: „[o]d romana Davorina Trstenjaka Savka i Stanko 1882., Jagode Truhelke Tugomila 1894., Naša djeca 1896., preko pripovijedanja Jelice Belović-Bernadzikowske Meandri iz 1900., Darovi našim djevojkama ur. Milke Pogačić iz 1905., do romana Halugica 1912. Vladimira Nazora kojeg su književni znalci iz nekog razloga smatrali dječjim a ne adolescentskim romanom“ (isto). Zima (2013) navodi i druge diskurzivne prakse hrvatske književnosti s kraja 19. stoljeća koje su usmjerene na adolescentsku žensku publiku: pripovijetke, prozne i lirske priloge u časopisu Pobratim, trotomni projekt Marije Jambrišak Znamenite žene iz priče i poviesti (1895. i 1896.), u čijemu se uvodu eksplicitno navodi da je namijenjen adolescenticama i dr. 6 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 27-44 33 U naslovu djela stoji Naša djeca, ali pojmovi „dijete“ i „djevojčica“ ne trebaju se izjednačavati. Shauna Pomerantz (2009) ističe da je pojam „dijete“ neodređeni pojam bez konotacija koje donosi pojam „djevojčica“ jer se identitet djevojčica izgrađuje pod utjecajem socijalnih, kulturnih i povijesnih okolnosti. Dominantna su značenja pojma „djevojčica“ kontradiktorna i donose polarizirane stavove o tome što djevojčice smiju i mogu, stoga Pomerantz ističe da bi „djevojčice“ trebale biti „nježne, korisne, privlačne, krotke, pametne te bi trebale imati ukusa, a ne bi trebale biti seksipilne, seksualno sugestivne, svojeglave, glasne, ljute ili zastrašujuće“ (2009: 149–150). U središtu romana dvije su prijateljice, Branka Panjićeva i Marta Miljevićeva, oko kojih se okupljaju razredne prijateljice Ida, Klarica, Lenka, Ludmila i Anđela, kao i Irma, koja je napustila školovanje. Razmatrajući pitanje konstituiranja identiteta u književnosti, Jonathan Culler objašnjava kako pripovjedna književnost prati sudbine likova – „kako oni sami sebe izgrađuju i kako su određeni različitim okolnostima svoje prošlosti, izborima koje čine i društvenim silnicama koje na njih djeluju“ (2001: 129). Dvije prijateljice dolaze iz socijalno različitih obitelji, Branka iz siromašne i nesrećom pogođene obitelji, a Marta iz obitelji bogatoga trgovca. Odrastanje u različitim uvjetima utječe na način razmišljanja i ponašanja djevojaka. Branka je brižna i odgovorna te se brine o bolesnoj majci i mlađoj braći, dok je Marta, životno već situirana, bezbrižna i razigrana. Odrastanje djevojaka Truhelka u romanu rabi kako bi naglasila razlike između dječje naivnosti i neopterećenosti društvenim podjelama te istaknula promjene u načinu razmišljanja uslijed odrastanja i utjecaja sredine. Primjerice, Martinim odlaskom na školovanje, djevojke se sve rjeđe viđaju, a s vremenom njihovo druženje prestaje (Truhelka 1896: 107): Zar se zbilja nadala, da bi djetinje uspomene i djevojačko prijateljstvo između bogate baštinice i uboge švelje pretrajale sve promjene u mišljenju i zapreke, koje diže društvo i životne prilike? Truhelka u romanu prikazuje odrastanje djevojaka tijekom duljega razdoblja uz veće skokove u kronologiji. Dječji likovi i djetinjstvo prikazuju se na početku romana. Iako u djelo unosi poneke elemente živosti pomoću lika djevojčice Marte, dočaravanjem atmosfere djetinjstva i smještanjem radnje u djeci prirodan ambijent – školu, Truhelkina je namjera poučiti dobromu ponašanju, shvaćanju odgovornosti i poštenju, a česta su i dociranja, kao i eksplicitno izricanje pouka. Tako se na početku romana ravnatelj, u nastojanju da otkrije kradljivicu među djevojkama, obraća djevojci koja nastoji lažno optužiti Branku: „Ne osuđujte ljude, dok se ne uvjerite na svoje oči“ (Truhelka 1896: 12). Prvo poglavlje donosi zaokruženu priču u kojoj se rješava slučaj potrage za kradljivicom novca u razredu, pri čemu 34 V. Živković Zebec: Naša djeca Jagode Truhelke – poučavanje sudbinama ženskih likova je Branka lažno optužena. Djevojke okupljene oko lažno optužene Branke ostaju odane skromnoj i poštenoj prijateljici. Ravnatelj svojim poštenim postupcima rješava slučaj, počiniteljica Katica drastično je kažnjena izbacivanjem iz škole, čime se čitateljima šalje snažna poruka. Iz skupine djevojčica izdvaja se Marta, koja je nestašna, razigrana, čak i neodgovorna. Izgradnja Martina lika na početku romana treba se promatrati uzimajući u obzir razlike u spolnome i rodnome identitetu, u skladu s čime je spol biološki determiniran, a rod kulturno konstruiran, odnosno „obuhvaća različita shvaćanja spola u povijesti kulture“ (usp. Oraić-Tolić 2005: 75). Pri razlikovanju spola i roda potonji se istražuje „preko raspona uvjeta, uloga, prava, postupaka, položaja i mogućnosti koji subjektu stoje na raspolaganju u danim okolnostima. Svaki od tih aspekata, ovisno o načinu njihova preuzimanja ili zaposjedanja, pripisuje ženi određena obilježja“ (Biti 2000: 192). U oblikovanju Martina lika uočavaju se „subverzivne retoričke strategije koje preokreću uvriježene hijerarhijske opreke“ (Brunčić 2008) tako što se prikazuje njezino ponašanje koje je drukčije od očekivanoga ponašanja djevojčice jer u njemu preteže „prirodno“ muško ponašanje s težnjom za slobodom i nesputanošću. Marta se, naime, zabavlja na, za tadašnje djevojčice, društveno neprihvatljiv način, primjerice penje se na drvo.7 Takvo ponašanje moguće je u slučajevima kada se ženski identitet lika prikriva, odnosno kada mu se dodjeljuju muške karakteristike, zbog čega Marta na početku romana i izgleda kao dječak. U drugome poglavlju, nakon događaja s Katicom i kazne koju je Marta dobila zbog penjanja na drvo, Martin lik doživljava preobrazbu. Njezino promijenjeno ponašanje odgovara tradicionalnim predodžbama o ponašanju djevojčica, što uzrokuje i promjenu njezina fizičkoga izgleda, odnosno omogućuje joj da se „preobrazi“ u djevojku. Odrastanjem djevojke stječu spoznaju o prisutnosti društvene nepravde i socijalnih razlika u društvu. Marta odrastanjem postaje svjesnija svoje okoline, koju zbog svojega blagodatnoga života nije mogla doživjeti, i počinje shvaćati siromaštvo iz kojega dolazi Branka. Prijateljice su odane jedna drugoj i vjeruju u svoje prijateljstvo, iako su socijalne razlike među njima jasne, na što ih odrasli upozoravaju, što je moguće razabrati i iz riječi Brankine majke (Truhelka 1896: 41): Rijetko biva u svijetu, da se bogati ljudi trajno sprijatelje sa siromasima, koji obično na svom putu sretaju prijezir, što je još gore, oholo preziranje. Vi ste još mladi, u vama je još djetinje dobrostivo srce i radite, kako vam to srce nalaže. Dao Bog, da i ostanete Martino penjanje na krušku važno je na fabulativnoj razini jer ona je čineći taj prijestup vidjela Katičinu krađu. Iako je Marta priznala svoj prijestup kako bi obranila nedužnu i krivo optuženu Branku, kažnjena je ukorom pred razredom, o čemu su obaviješteni i njezini roditelji. 7 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 27-44 35 takovi. Svijet svakoga čovjeka mijenja, on će se i vas hvatati; za koju godinu moguće da ćete drugačije misliti o tom prijateljstvu, koje sada veledušno nuđate sirotici, mojoj kćeri... – Ja ne ću nikada drugačije misliti, prekinu ju Marta žarko pogledavši ozbiljno Branku, kojoj su suze na oči vrcale. Smrću Brankine majke i prikazom Brankine sudbine uvode se neki motivi karakteristični za moralističku pripovijest popularnu u književnosti za djecu i mladež u 19. stoljeću: smrt roditelja, život braće u sirotištu, briga za mlađega brata, dobročiniteljstvo obitelji Miljević. Zima (2011) navodi da je u devetnaestostoljetnoj prozi omiljen siže o djetetu koje je prisiljeno brinuti se samo za sebe, a to se uočava i na Brankinu primjeru. Nakon majčine smrti ona napušta školu i počinje šivati, zbog čega neće moći postati učiteljica i biti situirana, kako je planirala prije nesreća koje su je pogodile. Preuzima ulogu majke, odnosno brigu o braći, a zanemaruje svoje potrebe, čime se afirmira ženska žrtva u korist obitelji. U prikazu njezina pristajanja na obavljanje „ženskih“ obiteljskih dužnosti i odustajanja od vlastitih želja mogu se prepoznati predodžbe Maxa Horkheimera i Theodora W. Adorna o zapadnjačkoj modernoj kulturi i rodnome binarizmu u skladu sa shemom „žena, priroda, objekt/muškarac, kultura, subjekt“, pri čemu napredak i sloboda čovjeka znače više ropstva za prirodu (odnosno u ovome slučaju ženu) (Horkheimer i Adorno 1989: 262): Žena nije subjekt. Ona ne proizvodi nego njeguje one koji proizvode kao živi spomenik davno minulih vremena zatvorene kućne privrede. Podjela rada koju je iznudio muškarac nipošto joj nije pogodovala. Ona je postala otjelovljenjem biologijske funkcije, slikom prirode, a potlačivanje prirode bilo je ono na čemu je civilizacija gradila svoju slavu. Na to se mjesto osvrće i Dubravka Oraić-Tolić u već citiranome radu (2005: 70). Društvene vrijednosti i ženska uloga Majčinim porukama na samrti djevojkama se docira kako se trebaju ponašati, odnosno da uvijek trebaju ostati poštene i čestite te da ne smiju primati milostinju koju ne mogu vratiti.8 Poštenje i čestitost moći će Branka ostvariti tako da sama počne raditi i zarađivati. Ona odrasta i živi pod utjecajem majčinih riječi te cijeli život nastoji ispuniti što je majci obećala, stoga se njezin identitet izgrađuje pod utjecajem odrasle osobe, odnosno majke. Proslavi Božića u romanu su posvećena tri poglavlja u kojima se potiču Usp. Truhelka (1896: 45): „Tebe čekaju teške dužnosti: i brige i siromaštvo i bijeda i još veća oskudica, nego što ju već poznaješ. Ali se spomeni, da čovjek može i u tim teškim prilikama pošten i čestit ostati. Lako nije, bijeda je tvrd i oštar bič, al čovjek budi još tvrđi. Budi ponizna, al se nikad ne ponizi, da primaš od ljudi milostinje, ako ju čimgod ne možeš uzvratiti.“ 8 36 V. Živković Zebec: Naša djeca Jagode Truhelke – poučavanje sudbinama ženskih likova kršćanske vrijednosti povezivanja, zajedništva i pomaganja onima koji nemaju dovoljno. Opisuju se različiti načini na koje se Božić proslavlja u siromašnim i bogatim obiteljima, pri čemu se docira o socijalnim razlikama koje društvo nameće i upućuje na kršćansku spoznaju o jednakosti ljudi. Pripovijedajući o Božiću, Truhelka unosi i epizodu u kojoj se pojavljuju književne konvencije moralističke pripovijesti. Djevojčica Lenka poziva ostale kolegice da odu do rijeke vidjeti kako kliže njezin brat Ivica. Doznaje se da je Ivica na prijevaru otišao na klizanje jer mu je otac zbog tankoga leda to zabranio. Ivica doživljava nesreću pa ga Lenka pokuša spasiti, ali oboje se smrznu u hladnoj vodi. Njihova smrt poruka je i pouka ostalim dječacima da ne budu neposlušni roditeljima jer bi se i njima takvo što moglo dogoditi. Na taj način dječji likovi drastično su kažnjeni za neposluh, što je karakteristično za moralističku pripovijest. Odrasli likovi u romanu također su u funkciji nositelja ideja, a različite vrijednosti koje vladaju u društvu prikazane su pomoću obitelji Račić i Miljević. Prikazuje se i susret novoga i staroga društvenoga stanja. Bogata trgovačka obitelj Miljević nositelj je novih zamisli. Zamisli obitelji Račić počivaju na lažnim i moralnim i materijalnim vrijednostima. U konstrukciji dječjih identiteta sudjeluju i majčinske figure, koje različito pristupaju odgoju, ovisno o njihovoj funkciji u tekstu. U obitelji Račić roditelji se ne brinu o odgoju djece, a djevojka Irma, pod majčinim utjecajem, odustaje od školovanja i život provodi zabavljajući se, s namjerom da se dobro uda. Irminim odgojem afirmira se rodna dihotomija privatno-javno, pri čemu muškarcima pripada javna sfera, a ženama privatna, a da se pritom ne spominju tada aktualna pitanja obrazovanja žena niti se na njih upućuje. Irma se zato čudi Martinoj odluci da nastavi školovanje jer joj se čini da to zbog bogatstva njezine obitelji nije potrebno. Nositelji su modernih zamisli o potrebi školovanja žena roditelji Marte Miljevićeve, pogotovo majka koja smatra da se Marta, unatoč njihovu bogatstvu, treba obrazovati i steći neko zvanje, ali i znati raspolagati novcem, što je u skladu sa stavovima o obrazovanju djevojaka u Hrvatskoj krajem 19. stoljeća (usp. Ograjšek Gorenjak 2004). Roditelji se brinu o Martinu odgoju i nastoje joj usaditi prave moralne vrijednosti i tome primjerenu odgovornost.9 Kako na Martine odluke i ponašanje velik utjecaj ima majka, njezin lik također se izgrađuje pod utjecajem odraslih. Na kraju osnovnoga obrazovanja djevojke se razilaze. Svaka od njih iznosi svoje planove za daljnji život, posao ili obrazovanje, a u njihove planove i rasprave upliće se predodžba o njegovanju tradicionalnih vrijednosti i suvremene zamisli o važnosti obrazovanja i samostalnosti žene, pri čemu je moguće uočiti i subverziju Marta je zbog nestašluka kažnjena ukorom i roditelji su suglasni s tom kaznom, a Račići ispisuju Irmu iz škole nezadovoljni njezinim neuspjehom za koji okrivljuju nastavnike. 9 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 27-44 37 patrijarhalnoga sustava promicanjem ženskoga javnoga kulturnoga djelovanja. Djevojke raspravljaju i o socijalnim razlikama te pomodarstvu i snobizmu. Plan je svake djevojke u funkciji ideje koju upravo njezin lik zastupa. Marta će se u Zagrebu školovati za učiteljicu, Anđela bi bila pjesnikinja, ali od toga ne može živjeti, pa će raditi u brzojavnoj službi. Ludmila će biti umjetnica, odnosno školovana pjevačica, pa se pomoću njezina lika progovara i o položaju žena u umjetnosti i njihovu ulaženju u javnu sferu, ali ujedno i potkopavaju društvene predodžbe o „prikladnim“ ženskim zanimanjima.10 Želja za njegovanjem patrijarhalnih vrijednosti očita je u liku djevojke Ide koja želi biti dobra kuharica i usrećiti muža dobrim jelima. U Irminim planovima uočava se snobizam: ona želi naučiti pjevati kako bi pjevala u dobrome društvu,11 i tako se probila u više krugove. Donosi se i rasprava o obrazovanju u Hrvatskoj i inozemstvu u kojoj Truhelka, učiteljica i pedagoška djelatnica, brani hrvatski obrazovni sustav. Pomodna Irma išla bi u Beč na izobrazbu, ali zbog pomodarstva, a ne zato što ju obrazovanje zanima, dok druge djevojke brane hrvatsko obrazovanje te ostaju u Hrvatskoj: „[…] mi hoćemo sve da smo naobražene djevojke, pa nijedna [od] nas ne će u svijet, da tamo kupi mudrost“ (Truhelka 1896: 101). Djevojke poštuju Branku i njezino nastojanje da ostvari svoj vlastiti prihod i hvale njezin trud, rad i vrijednost. Klarica želi biti učiteljica, što je Irmi neprihvatljivo jer smatra da bi samo siromašne žene trebale raditi, a Klarica je dovoljno bogata da ne treba raditi. Irma je, pod majčinim utjecajem, mišljenja da je ženi mjesto u braku: „Ja samo toliko znam, da ne bih mogla ni učiteljica biti, niti smatram kakvom srećom birati kakovo zvanje. Moja mati kaže, da djevojci ne treba drugoga zvanja do udaje“ (102). U toj dobi, još uvijek neopterećene predrasudama, djevojke žele očuvati svoje prijateljstvo, vjerujući da ih život neće rastaviti, pa ugovaraju ponovni susret za dvadeset godina na istome mjestu. Većim kronološkim skokom vrijeme radnje pomiče se do trenutka kada su djevojke završile školovanje. Dogodilo se upravo ono na što su ih upozoravali: životni stavovi promijenili su im se tako da je Branka sada svjesna socijalnih razlika koje ih razdvajaju. Nakon Martina odlaska na školovanje sve se rjeđe viđaju, a potom njihovi susreti potpuno prestaju. I Martina majka postala je sve hladnija prema Branki, ljuteći se na nju jer se nije htjela udati za poslovođina sina. Branka, naime, nije htjela pristati na brak iz koristi i društveno uvjetovanu rodnu ulogu koja iz toga proizlazi, premda bi joj ona donijela životnu sigurnost. I nadalje se Zima navodi da Truhelka u dvjema pripovijetkama iz 19. stoljeća, „U radu je spas“ iz 1893. i „Junačko srce“ iz 1894./1895., tematizira pjevanje kao žensko zanimanje: „Ipak, čini se da je pjevanje odnosno zanimanje pjevačice i subverzivna predodžba o pogodnom ženskom zanimanju Jagodi Truhelki zanimljiva tema“ (2013: 381). 11 Zima (2013: 381) napominje da se pjevanje u privatnoj sferi u to vrijeme smatralo prikladnim, korisnim i nužnim dijelom obrazovanja djevojaka. 10 38 V. Živković Zebec: Naša djeca Jagode Truhelke – poučavanje sudbinama ženskih likova drži obećanja danoga majci da će se brinuti o najmlađemu bratu Tomici dok ne odraste, pa stoga odbija i brak s Markom Bijelićem. Branka zato i nadalje izgrađuje svoj identitet pod majčinim utjecajem, od čega ne odstupa iako bi joj to moglo donijeti sreću. U njoj nema nezadovoljstva zbog nemogućnosti ispunjenja vlastitih emocionalnih planova i stjecanja sigurnosti prihvaćanjem bračne uloge. Žao joj je jedino zbog odnosa s Martom, pri čemu se unutrašnjom fokalizacijom prikazuje Brankina borba da bude dobra i da se othrva negativnim mislima i osjećajima prema Marti. Ostale djevojke završile su školovanje i njihovi su se snovi ispunili. Ludmila je postala umjetnica i pjevačica te će održati koncert u rodnome mjestu, čime se pozitivno konotira odabir njezina zanimanja i ono se percipira kao umjetnost. Anđela radi na brzojavu, Ida se udala, a Marta, koja je završila učiteljsku školu, sada život provodi zabavljajući se s Irmom. Postala je omiljena u muškome društvu i zabave joj oduzimaju mnogo vremena. Takav Martin položaj u društvu pomutio je inače racionalnoj majci glavu pa je savjetovala Marti da se više ne druži s Brankom. One se, naime, sada staleški razlikuju i ne mogu se više družiti kao u djetinjstvu. Marta se bespogovorno podređuje roditeljskim (majčinim) idejama, odbacuje prijateljicu iz djetinjstva i druži se s Irmom. Premda zbog toga ima grižnju savjesti, što se u tekstu očituje unutrašnjom fokalizacijom, ona i nadalje ne mijenja svoje ponašanje. Martini ispravni stavovi do izražaja dolaze u raspravi s Irmom o „finome društvu“ u kojoj se izražavaju suprotna mišljenja: Martino, osviješteno mišljenje o lažnome sjaju visokoga društva i nepravednih društvenih razlika, i Irmino, materijalističko i snobovsko. Irma smatra da su one bolje od drugih djevojaka i da se više ne mogu družiti s prijateljicama iz djetinjstva jer su razlike među njima sada izraženije (Truhelka 1896: 121): Istina, odvrati Irma, ali ovakovo drugovanje u djetinjstvu prekida kasniji život i zvanje. Hajde s Ludmilom još nekako; ona se svojim umijećem uspela do nas. Ali pomisli, da i sada nastavimo drugovanje sa svakom, s kojom smo prijateljevale za djetinjstva! Uzmi, da bi ti još sada onako pouzdano drugovala sa Brankom, koja je i danas tvoja – krojačica! Ja sam sretna, što si se jednom opametila i napustila to prijateljstvo, koje tebi sada više ne bi dolikovalo. Različiti stavovi prijateljica potaknuti su i njihovim vlastitim strahovima i problemima. Irma je svjesna svojih slabosti i vlastitoga lažnoga sjaja, a Marta je svjesna svoje nepravednosti prema Branki, koju pokušava opravdati pritiskom okoline. Truhelka u romanu tematizira razlike bogatih i siromašnih i propituje potrebu rada djece bogatih roditelja te donosi li novac dovoljnu sigurnost. Različiti stavovi Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 27-44 39 uočavaju se i u dijalozima Martina oca i majke, pri čemu je majka nositeljica suvremenih misli i brige za školovanje žene i stjecanje određene samostalnosti, dok se otac ponaša zaštitnički i ne želi da njegova kći radi. Martino ponašanje i posjećivanja zabava u funkciji su majčine ideje o odgoju. Pustit će Martu da se zabavlja dok joj to ne dosadi i dok ne uvidi lažni sjaj toga društva, a onda se treba prihvatiti pravih dužnosti. Otac pak misli da Marta treba ostati zaštićena i ne treba upoznati ozbiljnu stranu života dokle god oni imaju novca. Pouke Sudbine likova u analiziranome romanu sredstva su poučavanja. Čitateljima se nude pozitivni primjeri koje valja slijediti ili negativni koje bi trebali izbjegavati. U romanu dolazi do velikoga preokreta. Naime, kuća je Miljevićevih izgorjela i oni su ostali bez ičega, a otac je prilikom gašenja kuće umro. Marta, koja je usred sjaja i pažnje koju joj je davao položaj u društvu i bogatstvo, zanijekala Branku, potom je kod svoje stare prijateljice našla utočište. Pišući o modelima tvorbe identiteta, Culler (2001: 129) navodi da se u književnim djelima identitet zadobiva na različite načine, primjerice rođenjem, promjenom uvjetovanom životnim usponima i padovima ili na osnovi vrlina koje se otkrivaju za životnih nedaća. Marta se pod novim okolnostima mijenja, postaje ozbiljna djevojka, a nova životna situacija otkriva njezine kvalitete i prednosti koje je stekla vlastitim obrazovanjem. Dobiva posao kao učiteljica i nastavlja sa životom. S majkom je nakon nesreće živjela skromno, a s vremenom je zavoljela i zvanje učiteljice, što joj nakon bezbrižnoga i zaštićenoga života nije bilo lako. Martin lik u funkciji je podučavanja s konačnim ciljem njegovanja tradicionalnih patrijarhalnih vrijednosti. To potvrđuje i činjenica da se Marta nakon nekoga vremena zaručila i udala za bogatoga trgovca. Iako Martin lik u djevojačkoj dobi ima trenutke živosti i dječjega ponašanja, funkcija je njezina lika i sudbine naglasiti važnost obrazovanja žene neovisno o društvenome položaju. Zato što se obrazovala iako nije morala, nastavlja živjeti i nakon teške nesreće da bi naposljetku doživjela i bračnu sreću. I sudbine drugih djevojaka pružaju pozitivne primjere promicanja važnosti obrazovanja i samostalnoga rada žena, ali i njegovanja patrijarhalnih vrijednosti. Uloga žene u društvu naglašena je krajem romana koji je usklađen s patrijarhalnim kršćanskim svjetonazorom u kojemu je ženi namijenjena uloga supruge. Nakon što je odgojila Tomicu i brinula se i za stariju braću, Milana i Pavla, Branka je ispunila obećanje dano majci i sada se mogla udati. U Brankinoj sudbini uočava se pojava narativa o siročetu, ali s promjenom u odnosu na elemente tradicionalnoga romana 40 V. Živković Zebec: Naša djeca Jagode Truhelke – poučavanje sudbinama ženskih likova o siročetu koje iznosi Majhut (2005),12 i to, kako napominje Zima, zbog njezine dobi i rodne pripadnosti (2013: 388): [...] za razliku od doma koje siroče u ranom hrvatskom dječjem romanu stječe zahvaljujući svojoj pasivnosti, spremnom trpljenju nedaća i vjernom pridržavanju kršćanskih načela, sirotica u adolescentskoj književnosti svoj dom može osigurati i sama ako je marljiva, spremna na rad i na trpljenje, što će bit nagrađeno brakom s muškarcem višeg društvenog statusa (poželjno liječnikom ili „doktorom“). Djevojke se ponovno sastaju nakon dvadeset godina na dan Brankine udaje. Sve su ostvarile svoje snove, ako su oni bili ostvarivi na pošten način. Uz već spomenute Ludmilu, Idu i Anđelu, i Klarica je uspjela u svojim željama i postala učiteljica. Voljela je to zvanje, ali napustila ga je kada se odlučila udati, namjeravajući se i nakon udaje brinuti o izobrazbi seljaka. Naime, prema zakonu iz 1888. godine udaja je za učiteljice značila „dobrovoljno odreknuće od službe“, odnosno učiteljice su trebale živjeti u celibatu (Šilović-Karić 2004: 184). Njezina želja da i dalje pomaže u izobrazbi seljaka pokazuje da ona kao vlastelinova žena i dalje djeluje u javnoj sferi, ali to je moguće na drugačiji način nego što to čine muškarci. Carole Pateman (1998: 13), pišući o stvaranju građanskoga društva, navodi da su žene u građansko društvo bile uvedene kao stanovnice privatne sfere, a da pritom nikada nisu bile potpuno isključene iz sudjelovanja u institucijama javnoga svijeta, premda su to činile drukčije nego muškarci, tj. upravo onako kako im je bilo „dodijeljeno“ kao ženama. Sretan kraj za pozitivne likove ističe poučavateljsku namjenu romana namijenjenoga mladim djevojkama. Pouka se u romanu sugerira i dvama negativnim primjerima. Djevojke koje nisu imale ispravne moralne standarde, Irma i Katica, završile su nesretno. Nakon smrti Irmina oca, pokazao se lažni sjaj njihove obitelji jer su ostali u dugovima. I u takvoj situaciji Irma i njezina majka smatrale su da Irma ne treba raditi. Čak nakon dugoga niza godina Irma se i dalje nastojala pokazati otmjenom – pretjerano se uređivala i uzimala iznošene haljine poznanika pa ih prerađivala i time izazivala podsmjehe ljudi. Nije uspjela postići ono što je cijeli život smatrala da je najvažnije – bogato se udati. Katica, koja je krađom, lažima i neposluhom pokušala nešto postići, drastičnije je kažnjena. Cijeli život provela je nesretno. Nakon krađe, unatoč protivljenju roditelja, postala je glumica. Brzo je otkrila da nije talentirana, a muž ju je zlostavljao i mučio. Smučila su joj se 12 U tradicionalnim romanima o siročetu siroče karakterizira pasivnost i slabost, kao i sklonost trpljenju: „Glavne određujuće osobine siročeta su neslomljiva urođena čestitost, zahvalnost i umiljatost. Dok god je siroče prepušteno sebi, znači do pojave mentora ili lažnih roditelja, jedini izraz njegove osobnosti jest njegova urođena čestitost“ (Majhut 2005: 181). Nadalje, junaci su romana o siročetu slabiji od nevolja koje su ih snašle i potrebni su drugi koji će mu pomoći u nevolji (255-257). Osim toga, kako kaže Majhut, oni ne mogu sami stvoriti dom, nego mogu biti primljeni u dom, a to će zaslužiti svojim ponašanjem (144). Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 27-44 41 brojna putovanja i glumački zanat, ali ju je sve to također pokvarilo kao osobu te je život provela u svađama s mužem. Na koncu je i prerano umrla od bolesti koju zbog siromaštva i muževe nebrige nije na vrijeme liječila. Zaključak U svojemu književnome i teorijskome radu Truhelka se zanimala za pitanja odgoja i obrazovanja žena, kao i za pitanja samostalnosti žena i njihova položaja u društvu i obitelji. U romanu Naša djeca prepoznaju se narativni elementi karakteristični za moralističku pripovijest popularnu u 19. stoljeću, poput smrti roditelja, života u siromaštvu, nesretne djece, pojave bogatih dobročinitelja, kažnjavanja neposlušnosti, oholosti, laži i krađe te nagrađivanja požrtvovnosti, nesebičnosti i pomaganja. Navedene elemente Truhelka nadopunjuje suvremenim zamislima o položaju žene u društvu, važnosti obrazovanja, samostalnoga rada i umjetničkoga djelovanja žena u skladu s pokretima o pravima žena i reformama obrazovanja koji se pojavljuju krajem 19. stoljeća, ali i afirmiranjem tradicionalnih patrijarhalnih vrijednosti. U roman se unose i rasprave o socijalnim razlikama i predrasudama u društvu. Prozna naracija rabi se u romanu kao odgojno i didaktično sredstvo, a ženski likovi mogu se gledati kao funkcije jer se naracijom prenose elementi izvanknjiževne zbilje, a svaki se lik uvodi kako bi se na temelju pozitivnih odnosno negativnih primjera prenijela posve određena pouka. Naša djeca (1896) važno je djelo i u odnosu na važnost Truhelkina romana Plein air iz 1897. U kritici se taj roman spominjao kao početak autoričinih iznošenja zamisli o feminističkim idejama i položaju žene u društvu, premda autorica te ideje donosi već u Našoj djeci, objelodanjenoj godinu dana ranije. Feminističke zamisli unose se tematiziranjem odrastanja ženskih likova, njihovom kolektivnom povezanošću i konačnom sudbinom, koja je velikim dijelom povezana s njihovom odlukom da se školuju, umjetnički djeluju i rade i tako steknu samostalnost. Ovaj roman, stoga, treba promatrati kao prvo Truhelkino književno djelo u kojemu autorica iznosi svoje suvremene zamisli o položaju i obrazovanju žena u skladu sa svojim pedagoškim radom i idejama, ali i u skladu s novim stavovima o položaju žena na kraju 19. stoljeća. 42 V. Živković Zebec: Naša djeca Jagode Truhelke – poučavanje sudbinama ženskih likova Popis literature Primarna literatura Truhelka, Jagoda. 1896. Naša djeca. Pripovijetka za mlade djevojke. Zagreb: Dionička tiskara. Sekundarna literatura Biti, Vladimir. 2000. Pojmovnik suvremene književne i kulturne teorije. Zagreb: Matica hrvatska. Brunčić, Dubravka. 2008. „Tvorba rodnog identiteta u pjesništvu Brođanke Jagode Brlić“. Kolo 1. Dostupno na <http://www.matica.hr/kolo/311/r/Slavonija/> (pristup 7. travnja 2015.). Crnković, Milan. 1978. Hrvatska dječja književnost do kraja XIX. stoljeća. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. Crnković, Milan i Dubravka Težak. 2002. Povijest hrvatske dječje književnosti: od početaka do 1955. godine. Zagreb: Znanje. Culler, Jonathan. 2001. Književna teorija – vrlo kratak uvod. Prev. Filip i Marijana Hameršak. Zagreb: AGM. Detoni-Dujmić, Dunja. 1998. Ljepša polovica književnosti. Zagreb: Matica hrvatska. Felski, Rita. 1989. Beyond Feminist Aesthetics. Feminist Literature and Social Change. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Grdešić, Maša. 2005. „Politička Zagorka: „Kamen na cesti“ kao feministička književnost“. Anagram. Dostupno na mrežnome odredištu Zagrebačke slavističke škole: <http:// www.hrvatskiplus.org/article.php?id=1898&naslov=politicka-zagorka-kamen-nacesti-kao-feministicka-knjizevnost> (pristup 15. veljače 2015.). Horkheimer, Max i Theodor Adorno. 1989. Dijalektika prosvjetiteljstva. Filozofijski fragmenti. Prev. Nadežda Čačinović-Puhovski. Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša – Svjetlost. Hranjec, Stjepan. 1998. Hrvatski dječji roman. Zagreb: Znanje. Jindra, Ranka. 1982. Jagoda Truhelka: pedagoški i društveni rad (1864-1957). Zagreb: Školske novine. Majhut, Berislav. 2005. Pustolov, siroče i dječja družba: hrvatski dječji roman do 1945. Zagreb: Filozofski fakultet. Majhut, Berislav. 2011. „Djevojačkim srcima: nakladničke cjeline iz dvadesetih godina dvadesetog stoljeća“. Književna smotra 43 (161/162): 89–103. Nemec, Krešimir. 1995. Povijest hrvatskog romana od početaka do kraja 19. st. Zagreb: Znanje. Nemec, Krešimir. 1998. Povijest hrvatskog romana od 1900. do 1945. godine. Zagreb: Znanje. Ograjšek, Ida. 2002–2004. „Zastupljenost ženskog pitanja u hrvatskim glasilima na kraju 19. stoljeća“. Radovi Zavoda za hrvatsku povijest 34-35-36: 89–100. Ograjšek Gorenjak, Ida. 2004. „Pitanje obrazovanja žena u sjevernoj Hrvatskoj krajem 19. stoljeća“. U Žene u Hrvatskoj: ženska i kulturna povijest, ur. Andrea Feldman, 157– 181. Zagreb: Institut „Vlado Gotovac“, Ženska infoteka. Oraić-Tolić, Dubravka. 2005. Muška moderna i ženska postmoderna. Rođenje virtualne kulture. Zagreb: Naklada Ljevak. Pateman, Carole. 1998. Ženski nered: demokracija, feminizam i politička teorija. Prev. Mirjana Paić Jurinić. Zagreb: Ženska infoteka. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 27-44 43 Pomerantz, Shauna. 2009. „Between a Rock and a Hard Place: UN/Defining the ‘Girl’“. Jeunesse: Young People, Texts, Cultures 1 (2): 147–158. Šilović-Karić, Danja. 2004. „Domaće ognjište – prvi ženski list u Hrvatskoj“. U Žene u Hrvatskoj: ženska i kulturna povijest, ur. Andrea Feldman, 181–191. Zagreb: Institut „Vlado Gotovac“, Ženska infoteka. Truhelka, Jagoda. 1983. „Što da čitaju naše mlade djevojke“. Napredak 34 (11): 163–168. Dostupno na <http://dnc.nsk.hr/journals/LibraryTitle.aspx?id=dd26e9a4-f456-4b1c9b8c-f9b4df4eef1f#> (pristup 2. travnja 2015.). Zalar, Ivo. 1978. Dječji roman u hrvatskoj književnosti. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. Zima, Dubravka. 2011. Kraći ljudi: povijest dječjeg lika u hrvatskom dječjem romanu. Zagreb: Školska knjiga Zima, Dubravka. 2013. „Adolescentska književnost i adolescentica: Javni i privatni lik adolescentice u drugoj polovici 19. stoljeća“. U Veliki Vidar – stoljeće Grigora Viteza, ur. Marina Protrka Štimec, Diana Zalar i Dubravka Zima, 373–399. Zagreb: Učiteljski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Vedrana Živković Zebec Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek – The Faculty of Education Fakultät für Erziehungs- und Bildungswissenschaften der Universität Osijek, Kroatien Naša djeca by Jagoda Truhelka – Instruction by Depiction of Young Girls’ Destinies The novel Naša djeca [Our Children] (1896) is Truhelka’s second novel. It has remained rather unnoticed in literary criticism, mentioned only as another title in her bibliography. This paper sets the novel in the context of the author’s literary opus, as well as her pedagogic work at the end of the 19th century in order to analyse the function of female characters. The novel belongs to the first phase of Truhelka’s oeuvre, so the influence of 19th century literature with regard to its pedagogic and didactic messages, being intended as literature for young girls, can be recognised in it. The novel, however, also addresses issues of female education, independence and social differences that were current at that time. Keywords: Naša djeca, Jagoda Truhelka, Croatian 19th century literature for children and young adults, morality tale, women’s issues Naša djeca [dt. Unsere Kinder] von Jagoda Truhelka als belehrendes Beispiel zu Schicksalen von Frauengestalten Der Roman Naša djeca (1896) ist der zweitveröffentlichte Roman von Jagoda Truhelka, der jedoch kein großes Echo bei der Literaturkritik erzielte, so dass er meistens nur als bibliographische Angabe angeführt wird. Im Beitrag wird der Roman im Kontext des Schaffens und des pädagogischen Wirkens der Autorin am Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts analysiert, wobei den Forschungsmittelpunkt die Funktion der Frauengestalten in diesem Roman bildet. Der Roman gehört in Truhelkas erste Schaffensphase, in deren Rahmen 44 V. Živković Zebec: Naša djeca Jagode Truhelke – poučavanje sudbinama ženskih likova der Einfluss nicht nur der belehrenden, den jungen Mädchen zugedachten Jugendliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts, sondern auch der Beginn der Auseinandersetzung der Autorin mit aktuellen Fragen zur Ausbildung der Frauen und deren Selbstständigkeit sowie zu den sozialen Unterschieden im Gesellschaftlichen festzustellen ist. Schlüsselwörter: Naša djeca, Jagoda Truhelka, kroatische Jugendliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts, Moralerzählung, Frauenfrage Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 45–60 45 UDK 82.09-93 355.012 Sanja Pajnić OŠ Ivane Brlić-Mažuranić, Virovitica [email protected] Jezik smrti i smrt jezika: holokaust u književnosti za djecu i mlade Izvorni znanstveni rad / original research paper Primljeno / received 15. 7. 2014. Prihvaćeno / accepted 14. 11. 2014. U književnosti za djecu i mlade motivu smrti nerijetko se pristupa s obvezom da čitatelj dijete, kojega se također suočava s (literarnim) gubitkom, zauzvrat dobije i zadovoljštinu i utjehu, odnosno da smrt ne bude prihvaćena kao konačno i trajno rješenje. Članak propituje prikaze smrti te načine pripovijedanja o njoj u odabranim tekstovima koji tematiziraju holokaust, a uključuju dječje pripovjedače ili likove. Uzimajući u obzir te dvije temeljne odrednice, narativ o smrti u kontekstu stvarne povijesne pozadine genocida i odabir djece kao pripovjedača ili likova, pretpostavlja se i drukčije poimanje smrti, ali i progovaranje o njoj, pri čemu se propituje snaga jezika kao temeljnoga instrumentarija pripovijedanja. Ključne riječi: dječja književnost, holokaust, jezik, književnost za mlade, pripovjedač, smrt Uvod Tema smrti u književnosti za djecu i mlade često se predstavlja kao tabu1 – djetinjstvo i bezbrižnost, za koju se pretpostavlja da ga prati, nespojivi su s doživljajem smrti i propadanja. Interes za tu temu sve je veći i sve je više književnih, edukativnih i analitičko-teorijskih tekstova o njoj (npr. Corr 2003–2004, Polling i Hupp 2008), no ostaje pitanje iscrpljivanja pripovjednih mogućnosti u književnosti za djecu i mlade koja ne govori o prirodnome fenomenu smrti, već o nasilnoj i O smrti kao o društvenome tabuu i o različitim načinima prikazivanja smrti u fantastičnoj i realističnoj prozi za djecu i mladež izlaže Dragica Haramija u tekstu „Smrt u prozi za djecu i mladež“ (2002). 1 46 S. Pajnić: Jezik smrti i smrt jezika: holokaust … nepravednoj smrti koja za sobom ne ostavlja argumente ni utjehu (koja se može pronaći u književnosti koja tematizira prirodnu smrt) i čija je žrtva ne samo odrasla osoba – djetetov bližnji, već i dijete samo. Takav prikaz smrti pronalazimo u tekstovima koji povezuju djecu i genocid, a među njima su česti oni koji tematiziraju dječje iskustvo holokausta. Na primjerima odabranih tekstova prevedenih na hrvatski jezik ili napisanih hrvatskim jezikom koji ujedinjuju dječje likove, temu smrti i holokausta nastojat će se prikazati odnos lika, pripovjedača i autora te općenito načini pripovijedanja o smrti, odnosno diskursi koje pripovjedači pritom upotrebljavaju. Tekstovi će se analizirati da bi se uvidjelo kako se pripovijeda o stvarnoj smrti, tko o njoj pripovijeda i kojim se jezičnim osobinama pripovjedači služe. Analize će se temeljiti na sljedećim tekstovima: John Boyne, Dječak u prugastoj pidžami (2009.), izvorno (eng.) The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas (2006.), Imre Kertész, Čovjek bez sudbine (2003.), izvorno (mađ.) Sorstalanság (1975.), Damir Mađarić, Dječak koji je govorio Bogu (2010.), Jona Oberski, Djetinjstvo u logoru (1986.), izvorno (nizoz.) Kinderjaren (1978.), Elie Wiesel, Noć (2011.), izvorno (jidiš) Un di Velt hot geshvign (1956.) i Markus Zusak, Kradljivica knjiga (2008.), izvorno (eng.) The Book Thief (2005.). Smrt u književnosti za djecu i mlade U literaturi za djecu i mlade koja tematizira smrt moguće je pronaći mnoštvo ciljano usmjerenih biblioterapijskih tekstova kojima se djeci nastoji ublažiti šok koji donosi spoznaja o smrti. Terapijska svrha ponekad je sugerirana već u samim naslovima djela.2 Bilo da je riječ o suočavanju sa smrću ili s nekim drugim problemom, cilj je biblioterapije, ali i poetske terapije, „izazivanje promjene, što se ostvaruje u narastajućoj vještini prilagodbe da se radi kroz potisnute konflikte“ (Bašić 2011: 11). Tri su osnovne faze na koje biblioterapijski tekstovi navode čitatelja: identifikacija (čitatelj se poistovjećuje s likom), katarza (čitatelj s likom dijeli misli i osjećaje) i uvid (pomoću lika čitatelj shvaća kako se nositi s problemom) (usp. Morawski 1997: 247–248). Većinom je takva vrsta tekstova namijenjena određenome uzrastu djeteta s obzirom na njegovu mogućnost poimanja smrti. Kao što navode Bruna Profaca i Sena Puhovski (2010: 8), djeca u dobi od tri do sedam godina ne razumiju gubitak, ali intuitivno su ga svjesna te su sklona mistificiranju i personificiranju smrti, a mogu smrt doživljavati i kao kaznu. Uz to, nemaju dovoljno Izdvajamo neke od mnogobrojnih primjera: When your Grandparent Dies: A Childʼs Guide to Good Grief [Kada ti umre baka ili djed: djetetov vodič za dobro žalovanje] Victorije Ryan (2002.), Sammyʼs Mom Has Cancer [Sammyjeva mama ima rak] Sherry Kohlenberg (1993.), A Childʼs Book about Burial and Cremation [Djetetova knjiga o sahrani i kremiranju] Earla Grollmana (2001.). 2 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 45–60 47 razvijen rječnik kojim bi izrazili svoje misli i osjećaje. Starija djeca (od sedme godine života do adolescencije) razumiju neizbježnost, konačnost i nepovratnost smrti, pokazuju emocije i imaju jaku potrebu da zadrže kontakt s umrlim. Reakcije djece na gubitak mogu biti različite: od ponašanja „kao da se ništa nije dogodilo“ (9), separacijskih poteškoća, osjećaja krivnje, okrivljavanja odrasle osobe ili ljutnje na umrloga do osjećaja da je umrla osoba još uvijek prisutna (usp. nav. dj.: 9–11). U mnogim se književnim tekstovima za djecu tema smrti pojavljuje, a da najčešće nije središnja, dok primarna namjena takvih tekstova nije biblioterapijska (iako nije isključena), pri čemu je tema prilagođena dječjoj percepciji i često je oprezno prikazana u obliku metafore ili eufemizma. Slično kao i u stvarnome životu („Djed spava.“), ponekad je u tekstovima namijenjenima djeci smrt prikazana kao san.3 San je privremeno stanje mira poslije kojega slijedi buđenje, odnosno novi život, a to znači i neprihvaćanje smrti kao konačnosti. Slična je i (kršćanska) percepcija života kao pripreme za smrt koja nije kraj, već prijelaz u vječni život, besmrtnost, odnosno u „nebo“, ako je ono zasluženo ispravnim životnim putem. To otvara pitanje i prostorno-vremenskoga doživljaja „neba“ kao novoga odredišta, kao mjesta od kojega se, poslije smrti, očekuje da bude svrhovito, bolje i ljepše. U većini dječjih knjiga koje tematiziraju postojanje neba kao načina zagrobnoga života4 prikaz je neba pojednostavnjen – karakteriziraju ga svjetla, anđeli i oblaci (usp. Malcolm 2010: 51). I u Andersenovoj „Djevojčici sa šibicama“ iz 1845. po djevojčicu tako dolazi baka koja ju odvodi u nebo. Iako je nebo prikazano jednostavno, postoje razlike u prikazu zagrobnoga života ovisno o tome je li u tekstu riječ o smrti kućnoga ljubimca, roditelja, djeda/ bake ili djeteta. Tako se na nebu kućni ljubimci i djeca uglavnom zabavljaju, roditelji i dalje paze na djecu i pomažu im u životu, a djedovi i bake, slično kao i roditelji, paze na voljene osobe i čekaju ponovni susret s njima (Malcolm 2010: 65– 67). Navedeni primjeri prikazivanja smrti u obličju sna, kao stanja mira, ili neba, kao novoga života, navode na zaključak da se smrt kao tema u dječjoj književnosti ne izbjegava, pri čemu se, međutim, ne pristaje na njezinu konačnost. Smrt u percepciji koja uključuje nebo ili san nije kraj života, već njegov nastavak, a takvo suočavanje sa smrću biva utješno, posebno u knjigama za djecu i mlade. Narativ se o smrti kao književnoj temi prihvaća, premda se tabuizira „način prikazivanja smrti, jer besmrtnost likova kao da je nešto bez čega nema utjehe niti pravoga smirenja“ (Zalar 2002: 73). U bajci „Trnoružica“ smrt je pretvorena u stoljetni san, dok dječja priča Badgerʼs parting gifts (1984.) Susan Varley prikazuje staroga jazavca koji „zaspi“ u stolici i sanja čudnovat, ali prekrasan san u kojemu se našao ispred dugoga tunela. 4 Upućujemo na sljedeće primjere: Maribeth Boelts, Sarahʼs Grandma Goes to Heaven (2004.), Cynthia Rylant, Cat Heaven (1997.), Christine Thomas, My Liddle Buddy Jake (2006.). 3 48 S. Pajnić: Jezik smrti i smrt jezika: holokaust … Ipak, susrećemo i one tekstove za djecu i mlade u kojima je smrt nepovratna i konačna i u kojima autor ne nudi objašnjenje ni zadovoljštinu, a čitatelju je smrt prikazana kao neizbježna činjenica. Diana Zalar takav prikaz smrti zamjećuje u djelu Polarno svjetlo Philipa Pullmana5 iz 1995. koje govori o neopozivoj smrti djece za koju nije predviđeno „ni buđenje, ni spas na drugom svijetu“ (2002: 78). Pullmanov je romaneskni opus fantastičan, što autoru još više pruža mogućnost da „izmašta“ smrt, da ju ublaži i prikaže kao nekonačnu. Ipak, čitatelj ne dobiva takvu utjehu. Ako smrt može biti neopoziva i u svjetovima fantastične književnosti, postavlja se pitanje o percepciji smrti u tekstovima koji su proizišli iz realnoga – često iz događaja koji je doživljen, kojemu se svjedočilo ili o kojemu se pripovijedalo, a koji gotovo na paradoksalan način spaja smrt i dječje likove. Književni tekstovi za djecu i mlade koji tematiziraju položaj djece podvrgnute genocidu nužno tematiziraju i samu smrt, i to s malom nadom da njezin prikaz bude utješan, pogotovo ako je riječ o svjedočanstvima. Moguće je pronaći velik broj tekstova s temom holokausta koje mogu čitati djeca različite dobi, dok još uvijek predstoji detaljnije otkrivanje tekstova namijenjenih djeci koji tematiziraju genocide u Armeniji, Ukrajini, Kambodži, Bosni, Ruandi, Sudanu, naročito s obzirom na pitanje kako se u njima prikazuje smrt i nudi li se utjeha nadom u besmrtnost. Načini pripovijedanja U pripovjednim tekstovima nužno je razlikovati pripovjedača kao „glas koji preuzima odgovornost za pripovjedni iskaz“ (Biti 1997: 320) od lika, odnosno onoga koji govori (glas) od onoga koji gleda (modus), zbog čega Genette uvodi pojam „fokalizacija“6 kako bi opisao perspektivu kroz koju se priča posreduje (usp. 1992: 96). Genette razlikuje nekoliko vrsta pripovjedača: s obzirom na stupanj pripovjedačeva sudjelovanja u radnji pripovjedač može biti unutardijegetičan (pripovjedač može dijeliti istu opstojnu razinu s likovima) ili izvandijegetičan (pripovijeda se s prostorno-vremenski nadređene razine), a s obzirom na odnos pripovjedača prema priči heterodijegetičan (pripovjedač se ne pojavljuje kao lik u zbivanju o kojemu pripovijeda), homodijegetičan (pripovjedač se pojavljuje kao Pullman zastupa borberni ateizam, dio kojega je i prihvaćanje konačnosti smrti, odnosno prema kojemu se nakon smrti ne nudi utjeha. U njegovim djelima postoji život nakon smrti, ali u svojevrsnome limbu gdje duše pate, pa im je jedina nada da nestanu u konačnoj smrti i tako ponovno uđu u prirodni ciklus obnavljanja svijeta ili svjetova kao dust, ono što svijetu omogućuje postojanje, a ljudima život. 6 Genette (1992: 99) razlikuje tri tipa fokalizacije: nultu (klasični pripovjedni tekst), unutrašnju (pripovjedačev spoznajni doseg sužen je na perceptivni vidokrug lika) i vanjsku (junak djeluje pored nas, a nije nam dopušteno upoznati njegove misli i osjećaje). 5 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 45–60 49 lik, primjerice kao svjedok) ili autodijegetičan (pripovjedač je glavni lik) (usp. Biti 1997: 320). Razlika između Genetteovih dvaju kriterija, dihotomije „tko gleda?“ i „tko govori?“, nije jednostavno uočljiva u tekstovima pisanima u prvome licu jednine, kako je pisana većina ovdje interpretiranih tekstova o holokaustu. „Ja“ pripovjedaču dopušta otvorenost, osobnost, intimnost s čitateljima, iskazivanje vlastitih nesigurnosti, strahova i pitanja. Izbor forme prvoga lica u tekstovima Djetinjstvo u logoru, Noć i Čovjek bez sudbine ima i svoju stvarnosnu pozadinu jer su sva tri autora navedenih tekstova zaista i boravila u logorima te njihovi tekstovi pripadaju opusu autobiografske proze (u širemu smislu).7 Elie Wiesel, rođen u Rumunjskoj, kao petnaestogodišnjak je s obitelji deportiran u Auschwitz, a poslije je s ocem prebačen u Buchenwald, gdje je otac i preminuo. Zbog ostvarenja u književnosti i angažmana oko promicanja ljudskih prava 1986. dobio je Nobelovu nagradu za mir (usp. Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity 2014). Sličan put prošao je i Imre Kertész, mađarski književnik, također dobitnik Nobelove nagrade za književnost 2002. godine (usp. Nobel Media AB 2014), koji je kao mladić deportiran u Auschwitz, a poslije u Buchenwald iz kojega je oslobođen 1945. Iako je djelo Čovjek bez sudbine napisao u formi autobiografskoga romana, Kertész ga ne određuje kao pravu autobiografiju, što potvrđuje i imenom svojega mladoga pripovjedača (2003: 27): Službenim su me papirom bili obavijestili o dobivenom rasporedu u stalnome zaposlenju. Naslov mi se obraćao kao „mladome gospodinu Györgyu Kövecsu, pomoćnom pripravniku. Nizozemski pisac Jona Oberski također je kao dijete preživio holokaust, o kojemu piše u autobiografskome romanu Djetinjstvo u logoru koji je, jer su mu roditelji umrli, posvetio svojim usvojiteljima. Sva tri autora, Wiesel, Kertész i Oberski, prema Genetteovoj podjeli uvode autodijegetične pripovjedače koji se pojavljuju i kao glavni likovi u događajima o kojima pripovijedaju u prvome licu. Unatoč zajedničkome stvarnome iskustvu, prenesenome u prvome licu, glasovi se pripovjedača u ovim tekstovima razlikuju te nastaju dva različita diskursa koji čine osnovu lingvističko-stilističke karakterizacije likova (usp. Diklić 1990: 107). Wiesel i Kertész u svojim tekstovima predstavljaju tinejdžere čiji je diskurs (nestvarno) zreo, odrastao, pun razmatranja, analiza, procjena i opisa situacija, a Oberski uvodi glas djeteta pripovjedača. Kod Kertésza je posebno naglašena složenost na razini sintakse: duge rečenice razlomljene su bogatom interpunkcijom, rečenični su dijelovi umetnuti ili naknadno dodani, a u cijelome tekstu vrlo je česta uporaba glagolskoga priloga sadašnjega i prošloga (Kertész 2003: 153): Autobiografizmom hrvatske dječje proze sustavno se bavi Andrijana Kos-Lajtman u knjizi Autobiografski diskurs djetinjstva (2011). 7 50 S. Pajnić: Jezik smrti i smrt jezika: holokaust … Sve sam to, kao što rekoh, uočavao; međutim, ne onako kako sam, razmislivši o svemu i odvrtjevši slike u sebi, poslije sažeo, nego postupno, privikavajući se svakome stupnju pojedinačno, što je na kraju ipak značilo da zapravo ništa nisam ni primjećivao. Oberski, pak, predstavlja naivni glas pripovjedača djeteta koje ne razumije kauzalnost događaja, stvarnost vidi kao igru, događaje prikazuje gotovo dokumentarno, kao niz radnji koje slijede jedna drugu, ne posežući pritom za prikazom osjećaja. Čak i pri ekstremnim događajima, kao što je traženje očeva leša u kosturnici, viđeno se prepričava uz nemogućnost da se tuga, užas i strah iskažu jezikom (Oberski 1986: 76): Tad vidjeh mrtvace. Zamotuljci u plahtama. Iz nekih su izvirivale ruke i noge. Bilo je i golih leševa. Na nekima su još bile hlače. Svi nabacani jedan na drugoga. Kratke i jednostavne rečenice kod Oberskoga često su iskazane i prezentom koji naglašava doživljajno sada, za razliku od ostalih tekstova u kojima se najčešće upotrebljava perfekt u retrospektivnome pripovijedanju (isto): Vratim se unutrašnjim vratima pa ih ponovno otvorim. Uđem i pregazim prve leševe. Popnem se na gomilu i zavirim u najgornji zamotak u plahti. Retrospektivno pripovijedanje sadrži i Kertészov tekst, premda se u njemu ipak sugerira blizina junaka i pripovjedača jer se katkad uspostavlja i sadašnjost pripovijedanja: „[…] na mojemu me putu, znam već i to, poput nezaobilazne stupice vreba sreća“ (Kertész 2003: 265). Pripovjedač sličan Kertészovu obrazovani je i pobožni tinejdžer u Wieselovoj Noći: „Nastavio sam posvećivati se svojem učenju. Po danu Talmud, po noći Kabala“ (Wiesel 2011: 6). U tekstu se kronološki prikazuju događaji od protjerivanja Židova Moše do oslobođenja logora Buchenwalda. No, događajnost ovdje nije važnija od prikaza razvoja junakove svijesti, njegova osjećaja nesigurnosti, preispitivanja savjesti (u jednome trenutku on o ocu počinje razmišljati kao o utegu), sumnje u Boga, stoga put fizičkoga preživljavanja postaje i put odrastanja i sazrijevanja, kao i kod Kertésza, o čijemu djelu Ušumović (2003: 36) piše: „To je, na jedan zastrašujuće ironičan način, roman o odrastanju, odgojni roman – Bildungsroman.“ I u Wieselovu tekstu u jednome trenutku uspostavljena je sadašnjost pripovijedanja u odnosu na priču, pa je moguće iščitati razliku između onoga koji vidi, doživljajnoga subjekta koji je smješten na raniju vremensku točku (perfekt), i onoga koji govori, pripovjedača u kasnijoj vremenskoj perspektivi koji uspostavlja vremenski odmak u odnosu na priču (prezent) (Wiesel 2011: 115): Htio sam se vidjeti u zrcalu koje je visjelo na sučelnom zidu. Nisam se bio vidio od geta. Iz zrcala me je promatralo neko truplo. Njegov pogled u moje oči više me ne napušta. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 45–60 51 Jedini je ovdje tumačeni tekst u cijelosti pisan u trećemu licu jednine Dječak u prugastoj pidžami irskoga pisca Johna Boynea, roman utemeljen na liku devetogodišnjega dječaka koji dugo ne shvaća značenje događaja u kojima se nalazi. To se, slično kao i kod Oberskoga, reflektira u jednostavnosti jezičnoga izraza, posebno u mnogobrojnim dijalozima pomoću kojih pisac gradi pripovijed. Otac dječaka Brune njemački je oficir zbog čijeg se položaja cijela obitelj seli u Auschwitz, naravno s vanjske, slobodne, strane ograde. Dječak si pri dolasku pokušava objasniti niz nelogičnosti – prepune vlakove ljudi dok je vlak u kojemu su oni putovali bio gotovo prazan, neobične „pidžame“ u koje su odjeveni ljudi s druge strane žice, naziv samoga mjesta u koje dolazi, a umjesto „Auschwitz“ dječak ga razumije kao „Aut-Šic“: „šic ljudima koji su ovdje stanovali prije nas, valjda“ (Boyne 2009: 31), „Furora“ (ispravno njem. Führer, vođa) koji se, prema dječakovu razumijevanju, tako zove, a brkovi su mu ostali, misli on, jer je vjerojatno zaboravio na komadić iznad usana kada se brijao. Dječja naivnost, nemogućnost djeteta da shvati zlo te njegovo stalno poimanje svijeta kroz prizmu igre8 prikazano je do samoga kraja kada Bruno vjeruje da ga, preodjevenoga u logorašku odjeću, vojnici zatvaraju u prostoriju s mnoštvom ostalih logoraša zbog toga što ih žele skloniti od kiše. Drugu perspektivu priče otvara Šmuel, židovski dječak unutar granica ograde. Kad i sam Bruno prijeđe granicu i uđe u logor, dihotomija se svjetova i dvaju odvojenih identiteta urušava te obojica bivaju svedeni na naslovnu odrednicu „dječaka u prugastoj pidžami“. Prije prelaska ograde Brunina perspektiva iz pozicije slobode i sigurnosti ujedno simbolizira i „našu“ perspektivu, perspektivu vanjskih promatrača koji ne vide što se uistinu događa. Tekst Damira Mađarića Dječak koji je govorio Bogu pisan je u prvome licu jednine te uključuje radnju na dvjema vremensko-prostornim razinama: tekst započinje pripovijedanjem pisca u stvaralačkoj krizi (događajno sada) i izmjenjuje se sa zapisima u pronađenome dnevniku dječaka koji je živio u vrijeme njemačke okupacije. Kako se tekst razvija, tako se dvije pripovjedne linije i dvije vremenske perspektive isprepliću i prelijevaju jedna u drugu te se u jednome trenutku tom gotovo halucinantnom distorzijom vremena i prostora9 onemogućuje uočavanje glasa koji preuzima „odgovornost“ za pripovijedanje. Neobičan pripovjedni postupak primijenjen je u knjizi australskoga autora Markusa Zusaka Kradljivica knjiga u kojoj je pripovjedač sama Smrt, pri čemu je njezino pripovijedanje usmjereno na praćenje događaja povezanih s likom djevojčice Liesel. Kao i u Boyneovu romanu Dječak u prugastoj pidžami u Igra ima vrlo važnu ulogu i u filmu La vita è bella [Život je lijep] Roberta Begninija iz 1997. godine, koji također tematizira zarobljeništvo u logoru. 9 Primjerice, u dječakovu dnevniku spominju se mačak Roko i pas Lori, a ljubimce s tim imenima ima i pisac koji u sadašnjosti čita dnevnik. 8 52 S. Pajnić: Jezik smrti i smrt jezika: holokaust … kojemu je u središtu priča o Bruni, i ovdje je Lieselinim likom u fokusu priča posredovana iz „druge“, njemačke perspektive, što predstavlja razlikovni element u odnosu na ostale analizirane tekstove. No, kao i u ostalim tekstovima, likovi su ujedno djeca pa je njihovo viđenje neutralno, apolitično, neopterećeno, nezadojeno ideologijom. Pripovjedačica Smrt pripovijeda u prvome licu, često komentatorskim crnohumornim tonom, obraćajući se katkad izravno čitateljima: „Samo ne tražite od mene da budem draga“ (Zusak 2008: 9), čime sam čin pripovijedanja biva osviješten: „Naravno uvod. / Početak. / Zaboravih na pristojnost“ (10). Razlomljenost teksta u paragrafe s naslovima i podnaslovima („Evo jedne male činjenice / Umrijet ćete“ (9), „Jedna teorijica“ (10)), kao i uobličenost teksta u svojevrsni scenarij, sugerira da Smrt ima ulogu redateljice koja može mijenjati scenu, perspektivu, usmjerenost na pojedine likove te da je u svojoj „igri“ svemoguća, na primjer (30 i 145): Mali prizor, dvadesetak metara dalje... A sad promjena scene. Oboma nam je dosad predobro išlo, prijatelju, zar ne? Što kažete na to da na minutu-dvije zaboravimo Molching? Dobro će nam doći. A važno je i za priču. Kradljivica knjiga o kojoj pripovijeda Smrt sama je Liesel koja je, opčinjena moći koju imaju riječi, katkada krala knjige (od gradonačelnikove žene, sa zgarišta zapaljenih knjiga itd.). Na kraju romana doznajemo da je Liesel svoju opčinjenost riječima, tim „predivnim gadurama“ (527), i sama pretočila u riječi, odnosno u knjigu naslovljenu Kradljivica knjiga, čime se autor autoreferencijalno poigrava i samim naslovom knjige. Percepcija smrti Fenomen smrti koji neprestano opčinjava ljudski rod, i to bez obzira na tehnološki napredak civilizacije, počiva na svojevrsnome paradoksu: čovjek je biće koje odbacuje smrt i užasava se smrti, ali i jedini je koji traži smrt i koji ubija pripadnike svoje vrste i kada ga na to ne prisiljava borba za opstanak (usp. Morin 2005: 90). Razlog je tomu „samopotvrđivanje preko uništavanja nekoga drugoga“ (92), odnosno izgrađivanje individualnosti ubojice u odnosu na potiranje individualnosti ubijenoga. Morin kao primjer takvoga samopotvrđivanja i težnje za moći navodi krvnike u koncentracijskim logorima – njihovo „potvrđivanje individualnosti“ (94) suprotno je smrti logoraša koja postaje „samo još jedna stvar zavedena u registar, stvar bez individualnosti“ (95). Smrt, koju Heidegger određuje kao „mogućnost koju tubitak u svakom slučaju mora preuzeti na sebe“ (cit. prema Božić Blanuša 2012: 183) i koja je sastavni dio čovjekove autentične egzistencije,10 10 Edgar Morin Heideggerov pojam autentične egzistencije interpretira na sljedeći način: „Autentičan je onaj život koji u svakome trenutku zna da je osuđen na smrt i koji to hrabro i časno prihvaća“ (2005: 402). Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 45–60 53 u prostoru kao što je logor gubi individualnost, odnosno pojedinac ovdje biva lišen „svoje mogućnosti ne-bitka u svijetu“ (isto). Zatočenici u logoru nemaju pravo na Heideggerovo temeljno određenje čovjeka kao „bivanja spram smrti“ („Sein zum Tode“) jer ondje ne proživljavaju svoju autentičnu (navlastitu) smrt, „nitko ne umire svojom vlastitom smrću“ (isto), s obzirom na to da se ondje umire anonimno, pa nema razlike između smrti i skončavanja. Osim u Zusakovoj Kradljivici knjiga, u kojoj je personificirana i detaljnije opisana, u ostalim interpretiranim tekstovima smrt – koja „dolazi“, koja ima miris (Mađarić 2010: 43) i čiju prisutnost protagonisti osjećaju, npr.: „Sjedio sam sam u klupi jer je smrt bila oko mene“ (12) – ostaje na razini neodređenoga entiteta koji se ponekad manifestira i fizički (Wiesel 2011: 86): Smrt me obavijala kao da će me ugušiti. Lijepila se uz mene. Osjećao sam da je mogu dodirnuti. Počinjala me fascinirati ideja da ću umrijeti, da više neću biti. Ne postojati više. Ne osjećati više strašne bolove u nozi. Kod Oberskoga i Boynea smrt se ne tematizira izdvojeno, kao objekt promišljanja (zašto se događa, što biva poslije smrti), već se gotovo stihijski predočavaju događaji koji završavaju nečijom smrću. To opet sugerira nemogućnost poimanja zla i smrti u djece pripovjedača, što kod Oberskoga rezultira gotovo dokumentarnim prikazom tek onoga što se trenutačno događa, a čemu, osim glasa dječjega pripovjedača, pridonosi i pripovijedanje u prezentu. Ilustrativni primjer pronalazimo u prikazu trenutka u kojemu umire dječakov otac: prenesen je razgovor liječnika i majke, opisan je očev izgled, krkljanje i naposljetku umiranje, a potom i prikaz liječnika koji zatvara oči, dok dječak još uvijek ne zna zašto to čini (usp. Oberski 1986: 70–72). U istome tekstu gotovo je naturalistički prikazana scena svinjokolje u obliku šištanja krvi, cičanja svinje i rezanje njezina mesa (usp. nav. dj.: 103), koja simbolično najavljuje vijest i o majčinoj smrti. Smrt u ulozi pripovjedačice potpuno preuzima riječ u Zusakovoj Kradljivici knjiga u kojoj se, osim na Liesel, referira i na samu sebe pa svoju „intimu“ – izgled, detalje svojega „posla“, razmišljanja − dijeli i s čitateljima koji su, kao smrtnici, pripovjedačici i svojevrsna publika (Zusak 2008: 317): KOMADIĆ ISTINE Ne nosim srp ni kosu. Nosim samo crni ogrtač s kapuljačom, kad je hladno. I nemam skeletne crte lica koje mi s takvim zadovoljstvom pripisujete iz daljine. Zanima vas kako doista izgledam? Pomoći ću vam. Nađite si zrcalo dok ja nastavljam priču. 54 S. Pajnić: Jezik smrti i smrt jezika: holokaust … Konstatacija Smrti da je čovjek može ugledati u vlastitome odrazu u zrcalu govori da je nitko nije pošteđen, odnosno da je svatko smrtan, ali i da je sam čovjek potencijal Smrti, njezina produžena ruka, poput Führera koji se kao virtualna i nedefinirana prijeteća sila provlači tekstom (Führer je tako i imaginarni protivnik Maxa Vandenburga u boksaškome ringu). Rat, koji Zusak tematizira i koji „zapošljava“ smrt, djelo je samoga čovjeka. Ljudski rod onaj je koji priziva i proizvodi smrt, koji ju paradoksalno održava na životu te je na njemu odgovornost patnje, dok Smrt ovdje dobiva tek ulogu svojevrsnoga posrednika (Zusak 2008: 318–319): Te je godine trebalo odraditi popriličan broj tura, od Poljske i Rusije do Afrike, i natrag. Mogli biste ustvrditi da ih ja odrađujem bez obzira na godinu, ali ljudski rod katkad voli malo ubrzati stvari. Povećavaju proizvodnju tijela i duša što bježe od njih. Obično je dovoljno nekoliko bombi. Ili plinskih komora, ili štektanje udaljenih pušaka [...] Kažu da je rat najbolji prijatelj smrti, ali na tu vam temu moram ponuditi drugo mišljenje. Meni je rat poput novog šefa koji očekuje nemoguće. Stoji vam za leđima i neprekidno ponavlja jedno te isto. „Obavi to, obavi to.“ Pa radite više. Obavite posao. Šef vam, međutim, ne zahvali. On traži još. Kradljivica knjiga fikcionalna je proza kojoj povijesna stvarnost, Drugi svjetski rat, služi kao okvir priče, što pruža mogućnost da prikaz smrti, kao u većini fikcionalne književnosti, ipak bude utješan: na površini „hladna, nepokolebljiva“ (Zusak 2008: 319), Smrt je iznutra „malodušna, puca po šavovima, shrvana“ (isto), često puta samilosna: „Željela sam stati. / Čučnuti. / Željela sam reći: / ‘Žao mi je, dijete.ʼ / Ali ne smijem“ (19), ponekad i priželjkivana jer donosi olakšanje: „Preklinju me da ih uzmem sa sobom, ne shvaćaju da sam ionako prezaposlena“ (318). Prikaz Smrti koja ima karakter, koja griješi kao i sam ljudski rod: „Pogreške, pogreške, katkad kao da ni za što drugo nisam sposobna“ (29), a koja ima i savjest, ublažava uobičajenu percepciju smrti, no ako čitatelj ipak traži satisfakciju za izgubljene živote i za predavanje duša „pokretnoj traci vječnosti“ (isto), besmrtnost smrti postaje njezina najveća kazna: „Ljudsko je srce pravac, moje je kružnica...“ (498). Pretpostavljeno vjerovanje u zagrobni život kod Zusaka nije detaljizirano, ali, kao i u većini ostalih interpretiranih tekstova, otvara pitanje postojanja Boga. Religijska pitanja Znakovitu transformaciju svijesti od početka do kraja logoraškoga iskustva proživljava religiozni tinejdžer u Wieselovu autobiografskome tekstu Noć iznoseći sumnju u Boga koji dopušta strahote u logorima. Time se otvara osnovno pitanje teodiceje, odnosno opravdanja Božje dobrote i svemogućnosti s obzirom na prigovor Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 45–60 55 postojanja zla u svijetu. Wieselov pripovjedač Božju dobrotu propituje na sličan način kao i biblijski Job: u patnji i iskušenju Job progovara o Bogu kao onome koji „nevina i grešnika [...] dokončava. / I bič smrtni kad bi odjednom ubijô [...] / ali on se ruga nevolji nevinih“ (Biblija 1996: 591). Sumnja u pravednost Oca u jednome dijelu protagonistova boravka u logoru događa se usporedno i s doživljajem vlastita oca kao utega: njegova starost, bolest i briga za njega otežavaju preživljavanje, što izaziva i preispitivanje vlastite savjesti: „Njegova posljednja riječ bilo je moje ime. Doziv, a ja nisam odgovorio“ (Wiesel 2011: 112).11 Kod autora koji progovaraju o doživljaju Boga u holokaustu posebno se ističe nemogućnost žrtava da objasne njegovu šutnju (Wiesel 2011: 32): Prvi put osjetio sam kako u meni raste pobuna. Zašto bih morao svetiti ime Njegovo? Vječni Gospodar svijeta, Vječni, Svemogući i Strašni je šutio, za što ću mu zahvaljivati? Slično je i kod Mađarića (2010: 111): „A Bog šuti jer nema što reći, tišina je jedini odgovor“ (2010: 111). Božja šutnja ne negira njegovo postojanje, ali stvara otpor i ljutnju žrtava (Wiesel 2011: 67): Danas više nisam preklinjao. Nisam više bio sposoban uzdisati. Osjećao sam se naprotiv veoma jakim. Bio sam tužitelj. A optuženik: Bog. Potraga za objašnjenjem, zadovoljština u nalaženju smisla nije običaj kojemu teže samo žrtve, pa o Božjoj šutnji progovara čak i sama Zusakova Smrt, pripovjedač koji po svojoj biti nije dužan postavljati pitanja ni davati odgovore (Zusak 2008: 359): Bože. Uvijek izgovorim to ime kad se sjetim toga [...] Izgovaram njegovo ime u uzaludnom pokušaju da shvatim. „Nije tvoj posao da razumiješ.“ To ja odgovaram. Bog nikad ništa ne kaže. Mislite da ste jedini kojima nikad ne odgovara? [...] (Ne)moć jezika Materinski jezik kao sredstvo komunikacije često postaje nedostatnim među zarobljenicima različitih nacionalnosti koji govore i različitim jezicima, pa pronalaženje onih koji u logorima govore istim jezikom znači i stvaranje komunikacijske i duhovne zajednice. No, jezik nije zapreka samo unutar granica logora, on to postaje i nakon proživljenoga logoraškoga iskustva zbog nemogućnosti da se njime opiše trauma, pa je problematizacija jezika kao sredstva svjedočenja o traumi karakteristika zajednička većini interpretiranih tekstova. Jezik u naknadno normaliziranim okolnostima gubi moć, a riječi postaju jalove i prazne. U eseju Takav odnos među starijim i mlađim članovima obitelji nije bio neuobičajen u logoru. I prije prikaza krize u dječakovu i očevu odnosu u Wieselovoj knjizi opisana je scena mahnite borbe zatvorenika za kruh, također oca i sina, u kojoj sin tuče staroga oca koji ima kruh i proždire ga nakon što starac umre. 11 56 S. Pajnić: Jezik smrti i smrt jezika: holokaust … Jezik u progonstvu Kertész govori o stvaranju jezičnih oblika govora o holokaustu (poslije samoga iskustva holokausta) koji ne dotiču njegovu stvarnost – to je jezik koji „pripada svijetu svijesti društva koje i dalje ravnodušno funkcionira“ (2004: 243), jezik u kojemu su zavladale konvencije (primjerice riječi „žrtva“, „progonjeni“, „preživjeli“), a uz njih i prikladne uloge i svijest pa se u njemu relativizira individualnost, gubi se „ja“ svake pojedinačne sudbine (244): Danas je već i sama riječ „holokaust“ zapravo gotovo sakralno zvučeća zbirna imenica za svakodnevna masovna ubijanja [...] Kertész postavlja pitanje postoji li uopće pravi i isključivi jezik holokausta te pretpostavlja da bi, ako postoji, on bio toliko strašan da bi doveo do samodestrukcije i one koji njime govore.12 O poteškoćama pisanja svojega svjedočanstva u nekoliko navrata govori i Wiesel u predgovoru drugome izdanju svoje knjige, koji se prenosi i u hrvatskome prijevodu (Wiesel 2011: iii, v): Imao sam previše stvari za reći, ali nisam imao riječi da to kažem. Svjestan siromaštva svojih sredstava, vidio sam da se govor pretvara u smetnju. Trebalo je izmisliti nov govor. Kako se mogla rehabilitirati i humanizirati riječ koju je neprijatelj izdao, pokvario i izopačio? [...] činilo mi se da su postojeće riječi, izašle iz rječnika, mršave, jadne i blijede. Ovdje se samo bit računa...Više me je plašilo ispričati previše nego reći manje. Pisanje na drugi način, međutim, daje život Emanuelu F. u Mađarićevu romanu (kako autor žanrovski određuje vrstu teksta u podnaslovu) Dječak koji je govorio Bogu. Pisac u stvaralačkoj krizi dobiva inspiraciju tek kada pronalazi rukopis, dnevnik dječaka Emanuela, koji govori o stradanjima Židova u predratno vrijeme i koji pisac kao pripovjedač okvirne priče o pronalasku rukopisa pretače u roman, zadavši si zadatak da dovrši Emanuelovu priču13 (Mađarić 2010: 9–10): Dnevnik? Što je to? Nisam znao [...] Čitao sam do jutra. I to je bilo to!/Roman. [...] Pustimo neka Emanuel govori kroz dnevnik [...] O da, tu i tamo sam intervenirao. Nešto malo nadodao, ili ponekad i više. Koliko je trebalo. Ponešto sam promijenio, ali priča je kao priča ostala. A ostale su neke nedosljednosti i vremenski lomovi, neka...ništa nije savršeno! Neki pisci koji su preživjeli holokaust doista su kasnije i počinili samoubojstvo. Među njima je i pjesnik Paul Celan (1920. − 1970.). 13 Potaknut Emanuelovom pričom, u romanu Dječak koji je govorio Bogu, pisac simbolično uzima i knjigu Prima Levija, Zar je to čovjek, „jednu od mnogih o logorima“ (Mađarić 2010: 73). 12 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 45–60 57 Na čuđenje pisca koji dnevnik čita u sadašnjoj vremenskoj perspektivi, zapisi u njemu ne prestaju dječakovim transportom u logor (63–64): Kako je napisao ove stranice? Zar je preživio? Kako je sve ovo nastalo? [...] Ispred mene je bila nova rečenica. Događaji su tekli dalje i to mimo mene. Ovdje autor uvodi elemente fantastike ispreplićući sadašnjost i prošlost, ali i daje naslutiti da je ostatak priče zaživio u mogućoj piščevoj halucinaciji izazvanoj umorom („Ovo treba prestati. Moram se odmoriti“, 63) i zatečenošću nad zločinima o kojima čita u dnevniku, pri čemu on sam, katkada dijelom i bez namjere, grozničavo dovršava Emanuelovu priču („Kako to da ja sjedim u sobi i pišem? Može li se ovo ponoviti?“, 80). Sanjivo polusvjesno piščevo stanje izmjenjuje se s trenutcima lucidnosti u kojima je čin pisanja osviješten i u kojima pisac odlučuje: „Neću zaboraviti na Emanuela. Dobit će svoju knjigu i svoj život“ (34). Trenutak u kojemu piščev glas ipak nadglasava Emanuelov onaj je u kojemu se, pred sam kraj romana, o Emanuelu piše u trećemu licu jer dnevničkoga zapisa više nema, a pisac preuzima odgovornost dovršavanja njegove sudbine. Recitirajući Goetheova Fausta,14 Emanuel umire, ali pisac nam pruža svojevrsnu zadovoljštinu: dok su na njega pucali, „Emanuel je stajao i smiješio se poput sretna djeteta“ (Mađarić 2010: 108). Time Emanuelova smrt ipak, paradoksalno, postaje dijelom Heideggerove autentične egzistencije i potvrda Morinove individualnosti, makar je zapravo piščeva, konstruirana – fikcionalna. Unatoč tome, sažetost piščeva teksta, rascjepkanost i kratkoća rečenica koje omogućuju Emanuelov fikcionalni „život“ sugeriraju da se ni ovdje jezikom ne može izraziti užas svih počinjenih zločina. Dok Wiesel i Mađarić govore o nemogućnosti jezika da prenese blizinu smrti, a Boyne i Oberski doslovno reduciraju jezik svodeći ga na kratke dječje iskaze, Zusakov roman govori ponajprije o strahovitoj moći jezika, i to onoj koja prethodi katastrofi, dok je kod ostalih spomenutih autora jezik izgubio potencijal nakon proživljenoga logoraškoga iskustva. „Ilokucijska snaga“ (illocutionary force, Austin 1962: 99) jezičnih iskaza u načelu omogućuje stvaranje ili razaranje, pa i kod Zusaka riječi imaju potencijal „činjenja“ dobra ili zla. Također, jezik omogućuje manipulaciju, impliciranje, relativiziranje stvarnosti, ucjepljivanje ideja, a time i postupno stvaranje novoga društvenoga identiteta, pri čemu su te karakteristike u Kradljivici knjiga posredno interpretirane na primjeru tada vladajućega nacističkoga diskursa (Zusak 2008: 527): Riječi. Zašto uopće moraju postojati? Bez njih svega ovoga ne bi bilo. Bez riječi, Führer ne bi bio ništa. Dio iz Goetheova Fausta izravno je interpoliran u roman, kao i dio iz Shakespearove drame Romeo i Julija. 14 58 S. Pajnić: Jezik smrti i smrt jezika: holokaust … O važnosti riječi posebno govori interpolirani tekst Židova Maxa Vandenburga, jednoga lika u romanu, u kojemu se objašnjava da je Hitlerov najsnažniji instrument kojim se manifestira moć upravo jezik (Zusak 2008: 454): Da, Führer je odlučio da će svijetom zavladati riječima [...] Prvi mu je plan napada bio da posadi riječi u što je više moguće dijelova svoje domovine. Sadio ih je danju i noću, i njegovao ih. Gledao je kako rastu sve dok se, na kraju, diljem Njemačke nije uzdigla velika šuma riječi. Bila je to nacija uzgojenih misli. Zaključak Iako nije neuobičajena u književnosti za djecu i mlade, tema smrti ponekad je eufemizirana i prikazana tako da čitatelju ipak pruži svojevrsnu zadovoljštinu – buđenje ili novi život (na nebu), moralnu pobjedu (umiranje je vrijedno viših ciljeva) ili duhovnu transformaciju. Osim sadržajnoga aspekta, postavlja se pitanje o pripovjednim postupcima i načinima prikazivanja smrti u tekstovima za djecu i mlade koji su proizišli iz domene realnoga. Narativ o smrti povezan holokaustom kao nadređenom zajedničkom temom koja ima stvarno povijesno uporište prikazan je u nekoliko odabranih tekstova u kojima su pripovjedači ili likovi djeca i(li) mladi. Analizirani tekstovi većinom su pisani u prvome licu jednine (samo je jedan analizirani tekst pisan u trećemu licu jednine), pri čemu se razlikuju prema diskursnoj „zrelosti“ – od naivnoga jezika dječjega pripovjedača (Oberski) do „odrasloga“ diskursa s filozofskim interpolacijama i raščlambama (Kertész). U romanu Kradljivica knjiga Markusa Zusaka uvedena je i nova, vanjska, pripovjedna perspektiva, pa o temi smrti (okolnostima i načinima umiranja) govori Smrt sama. Dio tekstova čini autentičnu autobiografsku prozu utemeljenu na stvarnim događajima (postoji vanjska poveznica između autora i pripovjedača), a dio je čista fikcionalna proza tematski povezana sa stvarnim povijesnim okvirom (Kradljivica knjiga, Dječak u prugastoj pidžami, Dječak koji je govorio Bogu). Osim fizičke manifestacije smrti (npr. opis umiranja kod Oberskoga), smrt se ponekad, paradoksalno, povezuje s igrom. Takav doživljaj povezan je s naivnim dječjim pripovjedačem koji smrt, kao ni zlo uopće, nije prethodno upoznao. Osvješteniji pripovjedači (tinejdžeri) nastoje bezuspješno racionalizirati i objasniti zlo i smrt, pri čemu ne nailaze na svrhovit i utješan odgovor, stoga progovaraju o božanskoj šutnji zbog nemogućnosti argumentacije i dobivanja utjehe, ali i o vlastitoj šutnji jer jezik koji govori o traumi i smrti nije dostatan da se proživljeno Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 45–60 59 iskustvo opiše. Prisutan je i utješan prikaz smrti, i to u Zusakovu tekstu u kojemu se Smrt pojavljuje u ulozi pripovjedača, čime se naglašava njezina suosjećajnost. U tome je djelu ujedno jezično pitanje prikazano i isticanjem moći koju riječi posjeduju, kao i mogućnošću da se ta moć manifestira kao činjenje i dobra i zla. Popis literature Primarna literatura Boelts, Maribeth. 2004. Sarah’s Grandma Goes to Heaven. Grand Rapids, MI: Zonderkidz. Boyne, John. 2009. Dječak u prugastoj pidžami. Prev. Ivan Matković. Zagreb: EPH Liber. Kertész, Imre. 2003. Čovjek bez sudbine. Prev. Xenia Detoni. Zaprešić: Fraktura. Mađarić, Damir. 2010. Dječak koji je govorio Bogu. Koprivnica: Matica hrvatska. Oberski, Jona. 1986. Djetinjstvo u logoru. Prev. Anka Katušić-Balen. Zagreb: Znanje. Rylant, Cynthia. 1997. Cat Heaven. New York: Blue Sky Press. Thomas, Cristine. 2006. My Liddle Buddy Jake. Atlanta, GA: Brittany’s Books. Varley, Susan. 1984. Badger’s parting gifts. New York: Lothrop, Lee&Shepard Books. Wiesel, Elie. 2011. Noć. Prev. Mate Maras. Zagreb: Znanje. Zusak, Markus. 2008. Kradljivica knjiga. Prev. Lada Silađin. Zagreb: Profil International. Sekundarna literatura Austin, John Langshaw. 1962. How to Do Things with Words. Oxford: University Press. Bašić, Ivana. 2011. Biblioterapija i poetska terapija: priručnik za početnike. Zagreb: Balans Centar. Biblija. 1996. Zagreb: Kršćanska sadašnjost. Biti, Vladimir. 1997. Pojmovnik suvremene književne teorije. Zagreb: Matica hrvatska. Božić Blanuša, Zrinka. 2012. Iz perspektive smrti: Heidegger i drugi. Zagreb: Plejada. Corr, Charles A. 2003–2004. „Bereavement, grief and mourning in death-related literature for children“. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying 48 (4): 337–363. Diklić, Zvonimir. 1990. Lik u književnoj, scenskoj i filmskoj umjetnosti. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity. 2014. „Elie Wiesel“. Dostupno na <http:// eliewieselfoundation.org/eliewiesel.aspx> (pristup 9. siječnja 2014.). Genette, Gérard. 1992. „Tipovi fokalizacije i njihova postojanost“. Prev. Dubravka Celebrini. U Suvremena teorija pripovijedanja, priredio Vladimir Biti, 96–115. Zagreb: Globus. Haramija, Dragica. 2002. „Smrt u prozi za djecu i mladež“. U Tabu teme u književnosti za djecu i mladež, priredila Ranka Javor, 30–38. Zagreb: Knjižnice grada Zagreba. Kertész, Imre. 2004. Jezik u pogonstvu. Prev. Xenia Detoni. Zagreb: Durieux. Kos-Lajtman, Andrijana. 2011. Autobiografski diskurs djetinjstva. Zagreb: Naklada Ljevak. Malcolm, Nancy L. 2010. „Images of Heaven and the Spiritual Afterlife: Qualitative Analysis of Children’s Storybooks about Death, Dying, Grief and Bereavement“. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying 62 (1): 51–76. Morawski, Cynthia. 1997. „A Role for Bibliotherapy in Teacher Education“. Reading horizons 37 (3): 243–259. Morin, Edgar. 2005. Čovjek i smrt. Prevela Branka Paunović. Zagreb: Scarabeus. Nobel Media AB. 2014. „Imre Kertész – Facts“. Nobelprize.org. <http://www.nobelprize.org/ nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2002/kertesz-facts.html> (pristup 9. siječnja 2014.). 60 S. Pajnić: Jezik smrti i smrt jezika: holokaust … Polling, Deveraux A. i Julie M. Hupp. 2008. „Death sentences: a content analysis of children’s death literature“. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 169 (2):165–176. Profaca, Bruna i Sena Puhovski. 2010. Kako pomoći tugujućem djetetu. Zagreb: Grad Zagreb i Poliklinika za zaštitu djece grada Zagreba. Ušumović, Neven. 2003. „Sve što ne shvaćam naučio sam u Auschwitzu“. Zarez 5 (117): 36–37. Zalar, Diana. 2002. „Smrt u djelu tri hrvatska i jednog inozemnog fantastičara“. U Tabu teme u književnosti za djecu i mladež: zbornik, priredila Ranka Javor, 72–79. Zagreb: Knjižnice grada Zagreba. Sanja Pajnić „Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić“ Primary School, Virovitica, Croatia Grundschule „Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić“, Virovitica, Kroatien The Language of Death and the Death of Language: The Holocaust in Literature for Children and Young Adults In the literature for children and young adults, the motif of death is not uncommon, but it is usually not accepted as a final and permanent solution. This paper examines the narrative representation of death in chosen texts that deal with the Holocaust and include children and young people as narrators or characters. Taking these two principles into account – the narrative of death in the context of the real historical background of genocide, and emphasising children as narrators or characters – we presuppose a different indication of death, as well as narration about it. Here we also debate the power of language in dealing with this subject matter. Keywords: children´s literature, holocaust, language, young adult literature, narrator, death Die Sprache des Todes und der Tod der Sprache: Holocaust in der Kinder- und Jugendliteratur Das Todesmotiv ist in der Kinder- und Jugendliteratur heutzutage kein so ungewöhnliches Motiv mehr. Dennoch wird in dieser Literatur meistens der Tod als keine endgültige und dauerhafte Lösung dargestellt. Im Beitrag werden die Darstellungsweisen des Todes in einigen Werken analysiert, deren Thema Holocaust ist und worin Kinder bzw. Jugendliche entweder als Erzähler oder als Gestalten vorkommen. In Anbetracht dieser zwei Tatsachen – des Erzählens über den Tod im Kontext des historischen Hintergrunds des Genozids und der Übernahme von Kindern als Erzähler bzw. Gestalten – ist in den analysierten Werke festzustellen, dass darin ein anderes Verständnis des Todes sowie eine andere Erzählweise entwickelt werden. Darüber hinaus wird im Beitrag auch die Macht der Sprache als Grundinstrument des Erzählens hinterfragt. Schlüsselwörter: Kinder- und Jugendliteratur, Holocaust, Sprache, Erzähler, Tod 61 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 UDK 82-93-054.73-053.2(=162.1)”1941/1945” Trish Brooking University of Otago – College of Education, New Zealand [email protected] Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees in Contemporary Australasian Fiction Izvorni znanstveni rad / original research paper Primljeno / received 27. 8. 2014. Prihvaćeno / accepted 10. 7. 2015. This paper focuses primarily on the experiences of Polish child refugees in World War 2, some of whom were relocated to New Zealand. In 1944, the New Zealand government accepted 733 Polish refugee children who had survived deportation to the Soviet Union labour camps in Siberia before reaching Red Cross camps in Iran. For these Polish children, arrival in New Zealand, the southernmost colonial outpost of Britain, was a challenging and bewildering process. While many refugee narratives have been produced as a consequence of World War 2, few, if any, document the journeys undertaken by families who were evicted from their Polish homeland and deported to Russia, before being relocated to countries such as New Zealand. Displacement on such a scale underscores the depth of cultural trauma and its manifestations in the selected texts. This paper suggests that the mode of historical representation in the texts constructs a timely pathway for further exploration of transnational literature, signalling how texts can extend beyond national boundaries, and foreground interactions between cultures. The paper probes how children’s literature that depicts the experiences of Polish child refugees situates itself within a discourse of cultural trauma. Keywords: World War 2, cultural trauma, deportation, transnational, relocation, children’s literature If you don’t know history, You don’t know anything. You’re a leaf that doesn’t know It’s part of a tree.1 This quotation is often ascribed to Michael Crichton. 1 62 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… Introduction While the quotation that introduces this paper is contestable (whose version of history?), nonetheless it offers a context for a story that has hitherto received scant attention. Although many refugee narratives have been produced as a consequence of World War 2, few, if any, document the journeys undertaken by families who were evicted from their Polish homeland and deported to Russia before being relocated to countries such as New Zealand. It is only comparatively recently that the postwar generation of writers has mined this concealed history and made it accessible through fictionalised accounts of the cultural trauma experienced by Polish refugees. Conflict between retaining cultural identity and developing a sense of belonging in a new (and for most, a permanent) land are echoed throughout the texts. This paper contends that it is due time for another version of the Polish historical narrative which foregrounds the journeys of child refugees to be made available for the child reader. It will investigate issues of representation by situating the discussion within a discourse of cultural trauma, and examine how contemporary Australasian texts rely on the use of emotions in the construction of trauma. The paper will also focus on thematic aspects considering the construction of combined national identities of the characters and the representation of historical fact in the analysed narratives. Transnational literature and text selection Transnational literature reflects cultural interaction and transfer of views. Constructions of cultural trauma in the texts under consideration expose tension and negotiation arising from the shifting zones of contact. Resettlement highlights cultural and linguistic instability, signalling what Ommundsen refers to as “[…] the growing realisation that writing does not stop at national or linguistic borders, but spills across nations, cultures and languages” (2012: 2). World War 2 provides the context for three of the texts referred to in this paper, all of which foreground Polish refugee experience, while the fourth text references an earlier indeterminate period of migratory experience. A variety of literature has been chosen to illustrate how cultural trauma is constructed for the implied reader. The portrayal of refugee children’s experiences of cultural trauma is investigated in the following three New Zealand texts: Halina Ogonowska-Coates’s Krystyna’s Story (1992), Melinda Szymanik’s A Winter’s Day in 1939 (2013), and Jennifer Beck’s Stefania’s Dancing Slippers (2007). In an attempt to determine how the medium of a wordless text relies on the use of emotions in the construction of cultural trauma, the paper will conclude with an exploration of a generic migration text, Shaun Tan’s The Arrival (2007), initially produced by Australian publisher Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 63 Lothian. The New Zealand authored narratives all explore representations of exile, displacement, and cross-cultural experience in response to the historical crisis of World War 2, while the Australian text interrogates trauma within a non-specific context. Both New Zealand and Australia share a colonial heritage where contact zones between indigenous populations and newcomers have harboured tension. Subsequent waves of migration in both countries reflect global patterns of relocation due to a variety of reasons. What is apparent in the New Zealand situation is that the first large group of designated refugees emanated from Poland and they comprised mainly children. What Australian artist Tan depicts is an exploration of trauma and bewilderment akin to that experienced by the child protagonists in the prose narratives presented in this paper, albeit in a culturally non-specific setting. Nonetheless, the general cultural meanings that underscore The Arrival are applicable to any situation of displacement and cultural encounter. The affective impact resonates in each of the genres. Findings from recent studies, informed by a sociocultural perspective on learning, confirm the need for more inclusive pedagogical practices where imagebased texts such as The Arrival complement the use of literary genres to introduce what Fleckenstein et al. refer to as “welcoming into our classrooms the necessary transaction between imagery and language” (cited in: Arizpe et al. 2014: 200). The research of Arizpe et al. (2014) which focuses on critical engagement with the visual image to investigate meaningful ways of responding to the needs of immigrant populations in classrooms, including a high percentage of Polish immigrants in Glasgow, highlights the picturebook’s role in mediating empathy. As the authors posit, “The Arrival seemed to effectively support the immigrant children’s sense of making and negotiating their identities and offered them a channel to make sense of the many emotions they experienced” (Arizpe et al. 2014: 117). As a means of enabling children to develop awareness of sensitive issues related to migration, the novels and picturebook discussed in this paper constitute their own border crossing as they invite readers to pose questions about experiences of departure, relocation and (un)settlement. While the principal focus is on the first text, Krystyna’s Story, which expands on its protagonist’s resettlement in New Zealand, the other selected narratives enhance awareness of the process by which webs of displacement and dislocation are negotiated. The reason for including a generic visual wordless text is to maximise the interdisciplinary potential of what Arizpe (2013) refers to as a fusion of children’s literature scholarship and educational research. Each research strand adds to a more nuanced interpretation of the effects of cultural trauma. 64 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… As my research interest encompasses issues of migratory and refugee experiences, this juxtaposition of texts signals how patterns of dislocation are represented in literature produced for children. All of the texts, I believe, offer thought-provoking portrayals of cross-cultural issues and multi-layered constructions of narrative complexity. To date there has been little acknowledgement in texts produced for children of one of the more significant enforced migrations in recent history involving children. Implicit references to ethnic cleansing underscore the narratives that focus on the cultural dislocation of Polish children. The paper will first examine definitions of cultural trauma in relation to refugee experience, then explore how trauma is constructed in the texts under discussion, and finally suggest that exposure to narratives that probe intersections between Polish and New Zealand history prompts readers to navigate participation in their varied cultures, and interpret their more pluralistic worlds through historical encounter with hitherto untold tales. Cultural trauma and historical representation The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees defines a refugee as someone who, “owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable to, or owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country” (UN General Assembly). All the texts discussed in this paper address contexts where persecution and discrimination are embedded in the narrative. Only since 2000 has there been an internationally recognised day to honour refugees. The annual World Refugee Day commemorated each year on 20 June signals the relevance of historical refugee experiences, along with their contemporary counterparts. The purpose of proclaiming such a day honours the courage, strength and resilience of refugees and provides a day of global recognition which acknowledges not only the plight of refugees and the causes of exile, but significantly the contribution they make to their host communities. Törnquist-Plewa cites cultural trauma theorists such as Bernhard Giesen who suggests that working through trauma requires the production of new narratives about the past to confront present and future issues: “It is about the need for reconciliation not only with ‘the others’ but also with oneself, that is, accepting a ‘new master narrative of national identity’” (2014: 4). To this end, Törnquist-Plewa argues that the rhetoric of some specific texts casts light on received versions of historical events and focuses on their present relevance. As the mode of historical representation in the texts elicits an affective encounter in the construction of cultural trauma, Neil J. Smelser’s view Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 65 is tacitly echoed in the belief that “those interested in establishing a historical event or situation as traumatic must speak in a language that will reach individual people” (2004: 40-41). Exposure to children’s literature that invites an affective response offers a conduit for development in imagination, language, empathy, and critical inquiry. Tribunella (2010) explores the ambivalence of conflicted affection and hostility generated by loss and trauma in his interrogation of the complex relationship between romantic views of childhood and melancholy and maturation. In referencing the privileged status of award-winning American texts that deal with trauma, he explores the cultural contexts that produced the texts and offers a compelling argument that focuses on representations of trauma and the depiction of melancholia as a catalyst for maturation. Tribunella problematises assumptions related to melancholic maturation, especially when resolutions align with hegemonic values. The recurring narratives of trauma investigated in his research prompt the reader to embody loss as a platform for maturation, recognising the impact of narrative style in representing characters’ dilemmas. As examples of recurring narratives of trauma, the texts examined in this paper prompt readers to explore different perspectives and gain closer realisations of their own identities. While the literature I am focusing on locates itself within an historical context, the narratives contain contemporary resonance, both for those children who are unaware of the circumstances surrounding the Polish diaspora and for present-day refugees whose lives are disrupted through events beyond their control, such as children displaced by recent events in Syria, Iraq, and Ukraine. Children’s vulnerability and dependence are accentuated in times of conflict, most revealingly in the ways in which cultural values underpin the construction of children’s traumatic experiences in literature. As Mike Cadden asserts, “[…] no literary genre has ever taught us more about a culture and its values than the literature published for a society’s children” (2010: xxi). The texts selected for analysis in this paper reinforce the significance Cadden places on the transmission of cultural values. The New Zealand texts that focus on Polish child refugees use a mode of historical representation that relies on an affective response to the construction of cultural trauma. Interwoven through the narratives are ideas about nationhood, cultural values, and identity that permeate memories of the places of dislocation and relocation – Poland and New Zealand, respectively. Scholars, including Short (1994, 1997, 2003) and Kokkola (2003), have written extensively on representations of the Holocaust in children’s literature. Problems of representation and distortions of the past are highlighted in their research, with historical accuracy foregrounded as a non-negotiable criterion. 66 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… The texts discussed in this paper all reflect significant historical research that underpins the narrative structure, prompting readers to engage in critical reading. Encountering historic disclosures of trauma and experiencing affective empathy for characters’ situations introduces child readers to a wider global situation beyond their national boundaries. While Kokkola (2003) is unimpressed by the fact that fiction is often prioritised as a substitute for learning about history, I believe, for the affective reasons outlined in this paper, that literature is an integral accompaniment to the exploration of historical events. None of the texts under consideration shirks the reality of life in a Russian camp, the scarcity of food, or the hardships associated with displacement. Engagement with literature that foregrounds cultural trauma invites children to reflect on, and challenge, their understandings of historical events. Interrogating stereotypes is one means of developing deeper historical awareness related to persecution and deportation. Short’s emphasis on human rights education as a means of breaking down stereotypes can be summed up in a statement that also carries contemporary resonance: “any group, if sufficiently vulnerable can suffer the effects of racism and if sufficiently powerful can perpetrate it” (2003: 281). As a vehicle for promoting a more inclusive pedagogy, exposure to texts that challenge stereotypes and investigate racist ideology contributes to the reader’s awareness of a wider socio-political context. The next section illustrates how a New Zealand destination offers scope for engaging with a little-known historical event, that of the relocation of hundreds of Polish children. New Zealand background It is a legitimate question to consider why such an isolated corner of the world became one of the destinations for Polish child refugees. What follows, therefore, is a brief background to the arrival of the children in New Zealand. The idea was conceived in 1943 due to the influence of Countess Maria Wodzicka (1901–1968), wife of the Polish Consul in Wellington, NZ. That year, the US transport ship Hermitage carrying a group of 706 Polish refugees from Iran to Mexico anchored in Wellington where the Countess visited them. Concerned for the welfare of other Polish orphans still in Iran, she approached the wife of the Prime Minister Peter Fraser. This level of informal diplomacy/networking produced an invitation from the NZ Government to offer hospitality to 733 Polish children and 102 accompanying staff members. So began the journey from Isfahan to Pahiatua, New Zealand (Fig. 1). The group arrived on 1 November 1944 and the children were mobbed at the Wellington Railway Station by hundreds of school children waving New Zealand and Polish flags. The former internment camp at Pahiatua had been Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 67 Fig. 1 Polish children find refuge in New Zealand: Young war victims arrive as guests of the Dominion. Auckland Weekly News, 8 November 1944. Sl. 1. Djeca iz Poljske nalaze utočište u Novome Zelandu: mlade žrtve rata stižu kao gosti Dominiona. Auckland Weekly News, 8. studenoga 1944. converted into the Polish Children’s Camp administered by the NZ army. As it was envisaged that after the war all the children and staff would return to Poland, Polish was the medium of instruction and some of the camp street names were in Polish. By 1945, with the installation of a pro-Soviet regime, the New Zealand Government assured the children and staff they could remain in New Zealand. The camp itself was closed in 1952 and today a white marble monument whose shadow at midday casts the shape of a mother and child is the only evidence left of the former camp. The monument, based on Greek mythology, was unveiled in 1994 to mark the 50th anniversary of the children’s arrival (cf. NZETC, Polish Children’s Reunion Committee). 68 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… Fig. 2 View of the Polish children’s camp, Pahiatua, New Zealand. Sl. 2. Pogled na poljski dječji kamp, Pahiatua, Novi Zeland. Whilst the welcome in New Zealand was friendly, nonetheless the Polish children were transported to a camp, replete with barbed wire. As mentioned previously, this was envisaged as a temporary relocation prior to the children returning to Poland, so every effort was made to forge a community based on Polish tradition and protocol (Fig. 2). Exchange and communication with New Zealand families was sporadic and generally confined to visits during school holidays. As the medium of instruction was Polish, opportunities to develop fluency in English were limited. Yet the resilience of the children, assisted by the nurturing of their teachers and caregivers, provided a strong patriotic bond that was to stand them in good stead for an uncertain future. Krystyna’s Story traverses the entire journey through East Europe and Asia to New Zealand and is the only text to situate itself within the Camp and to encompass adulthood where no attempt is made to simplify the process of healing. Three of the four texts under consideration document the stories of Polish refugee children who had survived deportation to the Soviet Union labour camps Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 69 in Siberia before reaching Red Cross Camps in Iran. For the children who came to New Zealand, the southernmost colonial outpost of Britain, this was a challenging and bewildering process, involving significant displacement. Such displacement, particularly when trauma is foregrounded, potentially undermines cultural identity. Carrying their Polish identity would be put to the test in a new environment with hegemonic assimilation policies as part of its societal fabric. Displacement underscores cultural trauma as a social and political process which Smelser defines as (2004: 44): […] a memory accepted and publicly given credence by a relevant group and evoking an event or situation which is laden with negative affect, represented as indelible and regarded as threatening a society’s existence or violating one or more of its fundamental cultural presuppositions or groups’ identity. Furthermore, Smelser expands on the complexity of definition when he posits (32): The most promising avenues of insight appear to be in the definition of trauma; its status as negotiated process; the roles of affect, cognition, and memory in trauma; and the roles of defence against, coping with, and working through traumas. Cultural trauma as experienced by Krystyna intersects with the definitions Smelser provides. As engagement with the text relies on the roles of affect and coping with trauma through resilience, a discussion of the historical mode of this narrative may suggest insights into the use of emotions in the construction of trauma. Identities, memory and displacement: Krystyna’s Story How might an “event […] laden with negative affect” with attendant undertones of threat and violation impact the depiction of characters in Krystyna’s Story? The italicised preface suggests that the story could be the author’s mother’s own story or it could belong to any one of the 2 million Poles deported to the Soviet Union during World War 2. Smelser’s above-mentioned definition of cultural trauma as threatening a society’s existence is foreshadowed early in the narrative when the 8-year-old protagonist recalls (Ogonowska-Coates 2008: 10): I can feel the fear rising. I cannot hear anything above the noise of the planes buzzing over my head […]. There were big open fields in front of our house and the planes came right down low, dropping leaflets and sweets on to the fields. As soon as the planes disappeared my brother Feliks rushed outside and started picking up the sweets. Their mother insists he puts them down and the sweets are dropped into the pig pen. In the morning the pigs are dead. From the outset, the reader is catapulted into a tale in which sinister, almost fairy-tale tropes, intersect with reality. 70 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… Written in the first person, the narrative conveys the uncertainty and increasing despair of the initial and then subsequent journeys undertaken by Krystyna. Beginning with her family’s dispossession of their land and home, followed by a forced exodus by train to an unknown destination, and culminating in arrival at the Siberian labour camps where she works for ‘Father Stalin’, the journey is graphically depicted. Krystyna addresses the reader as the thirty minutes assigned for the family to pack is enforced (Ogonowska-Coates 2008: 32): Like an overdressed dummy I stood there in the middle of the kitchen, wondering what to do. Half an hour! The minutes were ticking away before my eyes. Soon there would only be twenty minutes left. What would you do if the soldiers came into your home and said they were taking you away? Destination unknown. What would you take? A spoon and fork? A bar of soap and a piece of bread? Krystyna’s address to the reader signals her panic amidst the indelible memory of threat faced not only by her family but also by their friends and neighbours, all of whom were treated with similar disdain. When Krystyna’s mother asks a soldier if he is making a list so they can all be taken to Siberia, he retorts, “We don’t want you Poles anywhere in our country, not even in Siberia” (Ogonowska-Coates 2008: 30). But it was to Siberia that they were transported in wagons that (54): […] rumbled and swayed for days on end […]. I longed to be able to run outside and look at the sky, to feel the sun on my face and my feet on the ground. Sometimes the train would stop for days on end. Nowhere. We lived without thinking about the life we had lost. All you wanted was for things to be better tomorrow. Krystyna’s impassioned plea for a better future carries a universality related to the rights enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) and echoed in Short’s (2003) research on the need for human rights education which discusses the contexts from which breaches of human rights have occurred. Krystyna’s resilience underscores how the narrative structure can trigger inquiry and assist in posing questions through negotiated processes. While firstperson narration traditionally connects to character identification, a surprising finding in Nikolajeva’s essay “The Identification Fallacy” (2011: 200-201) suggests that this perspective can paradoxically enhance a dialogic encounter with the text, as subjectivity is split between the narrating and the experiencing self. Due to the pull between the narrating and experiencing self, the ability to free oneself from the protagonist’s subjectivity in Krystyna’s Story allows for a more robust evaluation of characters, which leads to increased empathy for their predicament. Food shortages, ill health, and neglect on a geopolitical scale are potent reminders of displacement, yet Krystyna’s resolve remains hopeful, even when she is perpetually frightened and trapped in a vortex of uncertainty (cf. Ogonowska-Coates 2008: 54). The Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 71 tension between the hope Krystyna exhibits, and her bewilderment at the violation of fundamental human rights associated with a secure home environment and a country to call her own, develops the potential for a dialogic encounter with the text, encouraging the reader to explore more fully the tension constructed in this textured narrative. Journeys, random destinations, and a tacit urgency required for adaptation propel Krystyna’s Story into specific uncharted terrain. As a result of the amnesty granted to all Polish citizens imprisoned in the Soviet Union, Krystyna undertakes another perilous journey, this time from the labour camp to an orphanage. En route, assistance comes from an unlikely quarter – a Russian family, who, by hiding her, shield her from being ordered off the train, thereby subverting binarities related to heroism and villainy. The reader is challenged to enter into a dialogic encounter with the text to examine how personal exchanges disrupt prejudicial expectation. At the mercy of on-going and rapid geopolitical configuration, Krystyna finds herself once more on the move. Having cancelled the amnesty that allowed Krystyna to leave the camp, the Soviet authorities required all Poles to become Soviet citizens. The Poles who ran the orphanage were arrested but the children were able to leave. So began yet another journey that takes Krystyna to a Red Cross camp in Iran. There she describes the initial de-lousing process. The following quote illustrates her need for physical and emotional nourishment, as issues of identity, belonging, and memory become clouded (Ogonowska-Coates 2008: 123): We were all given a piece of soap. I bit mine to see if it was good to eat but the taste was awful and it burned my mouth […]. I couldn’t ever remember having washed in warm water before. At nightfall each of us was given a red blanket. I sat on mine so that no one would take it from me. It was the first thing I had owned for a long time. Someone said my name. It echoed far off in a distant consciousness. Somewhere far away in the back of my mind I remembered being that girl, but now things were different. I belonged to this group of children with shaven heads, sitting on the sand. Krystyna’s stark summary of her current situation contrasts vividly with her memories from which she is emotionally distanced. Paradoxically they each contain dream-like elements as she sits on the sand waiting for an announcement of her relocation destination. In the Red Cross camp, the children find solidarity in their communal strength. Recognising the desire to safeguard their national and collective identity, Krystyna muses: “our teachers called us the dispossessed […]. And we held tightly to each other because we knew we carried our Polishness in us” (Ogonowska-Coates 2008: 132). The period in Iran provides the children with temporary respite from the myriad of hardships encountered over the previous two years. They experience gentleness, and the narrative incorporates some levity that reflects a new-found 72 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… optimism. Krystyna observes the egg sellers advertising their hard-boiled eggs for sale and ponders the strange fact “that hens in this place laid eggs that were already boiled” (124). Lydia Kokkola questions and examines the role of humour in representations of Holocaust literature and invokes the carnivalesque elements of Maurice Sendak’s text We Are All in the Dumps with Jack and Guy to illustrate a subversive comic element that works to disrupt power through ironic distancing: “By attacking the rule of etiquette that suggests laughter should not be placed in tandem with genocide, Sendak creates a new position to view history” (2003: 275). The emphasis on food in Krystyna’s narrative captures the deprivation experienced and I suggest that the inherent levity in this instance serves to heighten rather than diminish the severity of the situation. The children are still isolated, contained within the confines of a camp, and unsure of their future. As an historical example of transnational border crossings, nowhere is this dislocation more keenly felt than in the ambivalence and tension experienced by the refugee children. A lighter text inflection signals the perceived safety surrounding the proposed evacuation destinations, places like Canada, America, Africa, Israel and New Zealand. When Krystyna asks where New Zealand is, she is informed that it is a small country located at the end of the world and is promptly reassured that she will be happy there as it is “a land flowing with milk and honey” (Ogonowska-Coates 2008: 89). While wartime travel posed many risks, the trip to New Zealand on the General Randall staffed by an American crew gives the children adult camaraderie and a (literal!) taste of kindness as they are introduced to chocolate and chewing gum. Krystyna’s Story offers an unsentimental view of adjustment to life in New Zealand. Although evacuation to New Zealand was designed to be a temporary measure before the children returned to Poland, nonetheless tensions around how the children were prepared to adapt to the new culture without losing their cultural identity are explored. From a systemic perspective, the text examines how New Zealand institutions were slow to respond to a changing population profile. The role of memory and affect in working through trauma underscores a process of maturation developed in the final section of the narrative. ‘Carrying their Polishness’ would be put to the test in a new environment. On the day of the children’s arrival in Wellington, New Zealand, they are escorted from the wharf to the railway station. Krystyna is welcomed by crowds dispensing sweets and cakes before she climbs into a ‘proper railway carriage’ with seats. Their destination is Pahiatua Camp in New Zealand’s lower North Island which becomes known affectionately as ‘Little Poland’ (described earlier in this paper). Krystyna remains cocooned in the camp for two years before graduation from Primary School (Years 1-8) to Secondary School (Years 9-13) on the South Island. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 73 Separation from the community at Pahiatua exacerbates the children’s isolation and lack of belonging. Journeying once more to different cities to attend school and begin their working careers poses a further threat to the bonds forged at the camp. In their new school Krystyna and her friends are referred to collectively as the ‘Polish girls’. Anglicised first names reflect the majority culture’s attempt to ‘normalise’ their experience. So Krystyna becomes known as Christine and the children are not permitted to speak their mother tongue. The lengths to which Krystyna goes to develop her English proficiency reveal her determination. On requesting books from the nuns so that she could practise her reading, she is presented with Oliver Twist and Wuthering Heights. The only thing she knows about the former is that Oliver is a boy, and she re-reads the latter numerous times to help her “think in English without first having to change the words from Polish to English in my head” (Ogonowska-Coates 2008: 181). The nuns compliment her on her progress in English and, contrary to current pedagogical practice, advise against reverting to Polish when the children return to the Pahiatua Camp for a mid-year break. Tensions between retaining cultural identity and developing a sense of belonging in a new (and now for most, a permanent) land are echoed throughout the text. Cultural trauma is compounded by the children’s ethnic minority and their lack of agency. Significant displacement and trauma had already occurred for the children before their arrival in the country of their final destination. While not within the scope of the selected texts under discussion, the long-term effects of cultural trauma are foreshadowed. Ogonowska-Coates hints at how the immigration discourse impacts on refugee re-settlement in New Zealand as the plot unfolds to follow Krystyna’s journey into young adulthood, as she becomes an active member of her new society. Unlike Krystyna’s Story, the following two texts halt the narrative in childhood. In a similar vein, all three probe the circumstances that precipitate their forced removal from their homeland, and weave through the texts the ensuing trauma of their journey. Cultural trauma and dialogic encounter: Negotiated process (A Winter’s Day in 1939 and Stefania’s Dancing Slippers) Both Melinda Szymanik’s A Winter’s Day in 1939 and Jennifer Beck’s picturebook Stefania’s Dancing Slippers illustrated by Lindy Fisher poignantly illuminate Smelser’s view that “those interested in establishing a historical event or situation as traumatic must speak in a language that will reach individual people” (2004: 40-41). Moreover, he emphasises the significance of the affected society’s 74 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… sociocultural context at the time of the event. Echoes of the former world war and subsequent geopolitical history underpin the narratives. Hinting at the duration of future military events in A Winter’s Day in 1939, innocuous lupins are described as “standing like a regiment of weary soldiers in fading blue, purple and green uniforms” (Szymanik 2013: 19; my emphasis). Protagonist Adam’s appreciation of the complexity of Polish society at the outbreak of the war where Ukrainians, Jews and Poles co-existed alert the reader to ethnic undercurrents in relation to land ownership and entitlement. The re-drawing/re-imagining of Polish boundaries following the First World War fuelled ethnic tension. Adam is aware of territorial history when he looks for his friends: “Instead I spotted a couple of my enemies; local Ukrainian boys who resented us being here. We were the invaders I guess” (19). Like Krystyna’s, Adam’s family is forcibly removed from their land in winter with scant time, measured in minutes, not hours, to pack. The desolation of the journey is described by Adam (97): Buildings had tumbled down into the street. Some were roofless, like soft-boiled eggs with their lids off. Here and there I saw signs of repair: fresh wooden weatherboards like raw scars, and tarpaulins keeping out the winter weather. But some places were beyond fixing and had been abandoned to the elements, their insides exposed, frozen with an icing of snow. Adam’s experiences mirror the cultural trauma experienced by Krystyna in echoing their sense of loss and their longing for Poland. Both novels elaborate how the occupation of Poland impacted on the respective families, and capture the extreme hardships entailed in progressive displacement. Perhaps the potential for a dialogic encounter promoted by first-person narration in both narratives reinforces the view that Ogonowska-Coates and Szymanik have constructed narratives that resonate affectively as they identify and establish respective situations as traumatic. Picturebooks offer a complex synergy of the visual and written texts, and issues of displacement and trauma are foregrounded by both texts in Stefania’s Dancing Slippers (Fig. 3). The visual plot begins on the cover with an image of brightly coloured and textured slippers. It is further developed in the endpapers with a map and the heading “My journey 1939−1944”, and consolidated on the back cover with a monochromatic image using a cool blue palette depicting the bleakness of Siberia. Using the visual as a multi-modal text, illustrator Lindy Fisher has constructed collages in three-dimensional images that emphasise the following: ethnicity and traditions; geographical contrasts between Poland, Siberia, Isfahan, and New Zealand; the strength of family relationships that underscore all the narratives selected for discussion in this paper. The slippers referenced in the title were crafted by Stefania’s parents and they provide a motif that links back to Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 75 Fig. 3 Cover of Stefania’s Dancing Slippers by Jennifer Beck and Lindy Fisher (2007). Sl. 3. Prednja strana korica slikovnice Stefania’s Dancing Slippers [Stefanijine plesne papučice] autorica Jennifer Beck i Lindy Fisher (2007). family, and forward to hope. Beck and Fisher’s text foregrounds a recurring motif of loss which, as Tribunella’s (2010) research suggests, recognises the experience of melancholia in developing the narrative. The text clearly examines how attachment objects impact on patterns of loss, most effectively demonstrated in the textured illustrations. The colour palette shifts to a darker hue as winter descends and Stefania is puzzled by the sight of her mother sewing their best silver spoons into 76 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… the hem of her coat. When Russian soldiers order the family to leave, Stefania’s mother tells her to choose one thing that is most precious to her: “Just as they were being hustled out of the house, Stefania managed to tuck her dancing slippers into the pockets of her coat” (Beck and Fisher 2007: [5]). Just as the written text inhabits a torn, crumpled piece of brown paper which reflects the ripped, jagged nature of their lives, so the slippers in the colours of the Polish flag become a potent yet fragile symbol of resettlement and a return to normalcy. Pedagogical implications In response to researchers who are sceptical about the value of Holocaust education (Kochan 1989, Novick 1999, Kinloch 2001), Short (2003) contends that literature of the Second World War contains useful lessons for individual students and the education system, yet is mindful of how historical narrative affects perceptions of the subject of history. His studies reveal the need to activate students’ prior knowledge to gauge levels of understanding of historical events and determine students’ cultural perceptions to avoid perpetuation of stereotypes. Literature that maintains historical accuracy encourages discussion of human rights and challenges the reader, and is also a powerful adjunct to the history curriculum. As with all the texts under discussion, historical research is assiduous. In Stefania’s Dancing Slippers, scarcity of food, experiences of military brutality, and dangers inherent in forced evacuation reflect the children’s reality (Fig. 4). The harrowing context of displacement includes crowded cattle wagons, intense hunger and thirst quenched by icicles broken off the door bolts, and work in the Siberian forest. There, Stefania’s mother’s astute preparation is revealed for the first time when she exchanges one of her precious spoons for an egg: “That night Stefania and her mother feasted, each savouring their half of the egg. They even tried to eat the shell” (Beck and Fisher 2007: [10]). Such deprivation is potently depicted in the interplay between the visual and written text where barbed wire barriers are a reminder of their captivity among the visceral events depicted in the stripped-back prose (ibid.): Stefania’s mother was forced to cut timber in the vast forest. It was so cold that when she went out the door her figure left a tunnel trailing through the icy mist. While the adults were working the children were made to learn about Russia. The short sentences, visual metaphor, and enforced educational ideology of the written text are extended in the visual depiction of a monochromatic pale blue and white palette with ghost-like figures behind the wire barrier. The means by which picturebooks use the semiotic codes of written and visual sign systems signal emotional engagement with the meanings constructed in the text. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 77 Fig. 4 Illustration from Stefania’s Dancing Slippers foreshadows the family’s impending entrapment. Sl. 4. Ilustracija iz slikovnice Stefania’s Dancing Slippers [Stefanijine plesne papučice] koja nagovješćuje stupicu što se priprema obitelji. Sipe acknowledges the power of the picturebook as a catalyst in promoting new literacies, and its role as a transformative force for society (2010: 244). Throughout the book the verbal and visual texts combine to expand understandings about the causes of cultural trauma. As in all the previous narratives, the ability to hold tight to cultural values often manifests itself through religious observance. This is especially significant when confronted by competing ideologies. In Stefania’s Dancing Slippers, symbolic codes are inscribed mostly in Christian iconography, including the Madonna, a chalice and rosary beads, while Muslim iconography includes a mosque referencing the journey to Iran. Religious references to prayers and hymns are present in all three texts. They provide a conduit into prevailing beliefs about Catholicism and Communism, where epistemological tensions are played out on the small, faraway stage of New Zealand politics (Fig. 5). Historian Nicholas Reid (2006) has researched the ‘struggle for souls’ in New Zealand and acknowledges the role of the Catholic press and the Communist publication People’s Voice in articulating the local repercussions of international events. He suggests that the Catholic press presented Poland as a Catholic country “crucified between Nazis and Communists”, while the Communist press saw it as a backward 78 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… Fig. 5 Illustration from Stefania’s Dancing Slippers references significant cultural motifs explored in the text. Sl. 5. Ilustracija iz slikovnice Stefania’s Dancing Slippers [Stefanijine plesne papučice] upućuje na važne kulturne motive koji se razrađuju u tekstu. feudal land, deeming all non-Communist Poles Fascists (Reid 2006: 79). Indeed Reid asserts that (80): throughout 1946 the ‘People’s Voice directed a low level campaign of abuse at the Polish refugees’ and the camp itself was described as ‘an anti-Soviet racket with the refugees guilty of spreading lurid anti-Soviet stories’. Such attitudes where insinuation is levelled at the camp occupants, albeit from a minority viewpoint, nonetheless posed additional barriers to integration. The three texts discussed in this paper so far thus foreground the experiences of children during their forced migration from their Polish homeland during WW2. Exposure to such texts offers opportunities for child readers to investigate different historical knowledge and engage in dialogic encounters enabled by the narrative point of view. Furthermore, they provide a conduit for affirming cultural identities. Similarly, inclusion of more generic texts dealing with similar themes stimulates children’s literacy and sociocultural horizons. Several studies have focused on wordless texts as effective pedagogical tools in helping children from minority cultures develop meaning-making from text. Carmen Martinez-Roldan and Sarah Newcomer’s (2011) study on immigrant students’ interpretations of Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 79 The Arrival illustrates the purposeful nature of wordless narratives in helping immigrant students articulate their own stories. Jane Gangi’s (2005) research on children’s literature and social justice focuses on immigrant, refugee and bicultural experiences in historical and current events. She estimates there are six million refugee children in the world and challenges the publishing industry to widen its scope. Gangi’s research elaborates the role of small presses in publishing books about cross-cultural experiences and notes the mission statement of the Children’s Book Press “to give young people a sense of their own ethnic history and importance” (2005: 247). Given the significant numbers of children who, as a result of global civic unrest, have experienced psychological trauma, it is fitting that the final text discussed in this paper is Shaun Tan’s The Arrival. A wordless text like The Arrival allows the reader, especially one with recent experience of displacement and relocation, to make connections between the images and to layer his/her own story into the narrative. The Arrival visually constructs a generic migratory experience that offers the implied reader an explicit journey (as do all the texts under consideration) in which active engagement with the text enables the creation of co-constructed meaning. This wordless text documents displacement through a series of poignant back stories, and in the process presents a journey deeply accentuated by enigmatic imagery that interrupts expectations. While the structure of six ‘water-stained’, parchment-like ‘chapters’ illuminates the book as an artefact, it also details an explicit chronology of departure, voyage and arrival, cultural interactions, language issues, and employment challenges. A similarly patterned chronology of events is evident in the Polish texts. The Arrival provides a useful adjunct to the aforementioned texts in that the overall filmic quality of the visual narrative creates multidimensional points of entry which enable the reader to move in and amongst the events of the plot in a non-linear way. From the outset, the reader is drawn to what Rozario (2012) refers to as the materiality of the book: in much the same way as Stefania’s Dancing Slippers, The Arrival makes full use of page spreads, endpapers, and the cover to include a variety of dimensional print effects. Rozario argues that incorporating the materiality of a book into the narrative enhances the storytelling and becomes an integral component of how a text is read and absorbed. By constructing the migration experience as multilayered back stories in The Arrival, Tan opens up new angles on belonging, and the textured role of memory. His depiction of uncertainty and fear registered by individuals as they depart their homeland, their bewilderment on arrival in a new place, and the mechanised processing procedures for ‘clearance’ into a new country resonate strongly with the representation of the children’s own experiences in the texts about Polish children. Adjustment in the face of language barriers, unfamiliar 80 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… customs, currency, and cuisine is an ambivalent process and Tan deftly captures his protagonist’s unease. Similarly, the unease displayed by the Polish children is observed by the sailors on board the General Grant when they are mystified about why the children never smile. Tan’s sepia-toned imagery recognises perplexity within the host community as its members attend to the needs of newcomers, and acknowledge the duality of their lives. Like the previously analysed narratives, Tan’s portrayal of displacement underscores the depth of cultural trauma experienced by the protagonists and augments the previous examples of the Australasian fiction on Polish historical experience that foreground the journeys of child refugees. Inclusion of The Arrival in this discussion raises the refugee/immigrant experience to a universal level and enhances the possibility of recognising generic elements, albeit through a specific sequence of historical events, in the other three Australasian ‘Polish’ texts. Arizpe et al. (2014) use The Arrival to demonstrate how readers respond to the ideas in the narrative(s), and their comprehensive research project details how it was read by immigrant children around the globe. Globally, our education systems are striving to find ways to work effectively with diverse populations, including refugees and immigrants. Acquisition of a new language is one of the first hurdles encountered, and researchers develop a non-threatening space in which to explore ideas and themes in The Arrival that may reflect children’s own experiences. The metaphor of the researcher as traveller is echoed in the organisational structure of embarkation, navigation of the interpretive process, and conceptualisation of possible transformative pedagogical practices. This international inquiry highlights the importance of the discussion of The Arrival as a tool for unpacking ideas and co-constructing knowledge. Conclusion Exploration of the three Australasian ‘Polish’ texts opens up new narrative pathways for a re-focusing of New Zealand’s neo-colonial Anglocentric privileging of mid-twentieth century history. The books under discussion point to a less wellknown but equally turbulent Eastern European front. With the publication of narratives produced by second generation Polish New Zealand writers based on the experiences of family members, and, in time, the availability of embargoed Soviet records, more detailed representation of events will unfold. What is apparent now is the emergence of compelling information contained in the nuanced prose of the variety of narratives under discussion. Clare Bradford (2011) comments on the role of transnational literature in exposing patterns of dislocation, and signals how texts can extend beyond national boundaries and foreground interactions Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 81 between cultures. She suggests that transnational texts offer a way of thinking about how children’s literature addresses and is “informed by diverse complex influences, sometimes from a variety of cultures and languages” (Bradford 2011: 1). Transnational literature highlights patterns of dislocation, and also signals how texts can extend beyond national boundaries and foreground interactions between cultures. Working through trauma implies confrontation, and the refugee narratives selected for analysis in this paper construct cultural trauma for the implied reader through a negotiated process and invite engagement with the text through affective means. These narratives that probe intersections between Polish and New Zealand history prompt children to (re)discover ways of participating in their varied cultures, and of interpreting their worlds. The narratives foreground their protagonists’ responses to all that contravenes human rights: deportation, loss, and starvation. In so doing they invite dialogical encounter and assist readers in developing their navigational skills for participation in more pluralistic societies. Powerful stories are integral tools in mediating migration.* References Primary sources Beck, Jennifer and Lindy Fisher. 2007. Stefania’s Dancing Slippers. Auckland, New Zealand: Scholastic. Ogonowska-Coates, Halina. 2008. Krystyna’s Story. Dunedin, New Zealand: Longacre Press. First published in 1992. Szymanik, Melinda. 2013. A Winter’s Day in 1939. Auckland, New Zealand: Scholastic. Tan, Shaun. 2007. The Arrival. Melbourne, Australia: Lothian. Secondary sources Arizpe, Evelyn. 2013. “Meaning-making from Wordless (or Nearly Wordless) Picturebooks: What Educational Research Expects and What Readers Have to Say.” Cambridge Journal of Education 43 (2): 163-176. Arizpe, Evelyn, Teresa Colomer & Carmen Martínez-Roldá. 2014. Visual Journeys Through Wordless Narratives: An International Inquiry with Immigrant Children and The Arrival. London & New York: Bloomsbury Academic. Bradford, Clare. 2011. “Children’s Literature in a Global Age: Transnational and Local Identities.” Nordic Journal of Childlit Aesthetics 2: 20-34. Cadden, Mike. 2010. “Introduction.” In Telling Children’s Stories: Narrative Theory and Children’s Literature, edited by Mike Cadden, i-xxv. Lincoln, USA: University of Nebraska Press. The author would like to thank all those who gave permission to include materials in both print and electronic versions of this issue of Libri & Liberi: to Lindy Fisher and Scholastic for permission to use images from Stefania’s Dancing Slippers; the Alexander Turnbull Library for permission to use the photograph of the Polish children’s camp in Pahiatua. There is no known copyright for the picture of Polish children in New Zealand from Auckland Weekly News, 8 November 1944 (Fig. 1). * 82 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… Gangi, Jane. 2005. “Inclusive Aesthetics and Social Justice: The Vanguard of Small, Multicultural Presses.” Children’s Literature Association Quarterly 30 (3): 243-264. Kinloch, Nicolas. 2001. “Parallel Catastrophes? Uniqueness, Redemption and the Shoah.” Teaching History 104: 8-14. Kochan, Lionel. 1989. “Life Over Death.” Jewish Chronicle, 22 December. Kokkola, Lydia. 2003. Representing the Holocaust in Children’s Literature. New York: Routledge. Martinez-Roldan, Carmen and Sarah Newcomer. 2011. “Reading between the Pictures: Immigrant Students’ Interpretations of The Arrival.” Language Arts 88 (3): 188-197. Nikolajeva, Maria. 2011. “The Identification Fallacy: Perspective and Subjectivity in Children’s Literature.” In Telling Children’s Stories: Narrative Theory and Children’s Literature, edited by Mike Cadden, 187-208. Lincoln, USA: University of Nebraska Press. Novick, Peter. 1999. The Holocaust in American Life. New York: Houghton Mifflin. NZETC, Polish Children’s Reunion Committee. Available at <http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz> (accessed May 7, 2014). Ommundsen, Wenche. 2012. “Transnational Imaginaries: Reading Asian Australian Writing.” Journal of the Association for the Study of Australian Literature 12 (2): 1-8. Reid, Nicholas. 2006. “Struggle for Souls: Catholicism and Communism in TwentiethCentury New Zealand.” Australian Historical Studies 37 (128): 72-88. Rozario, Rebecca-Anne. 2012. “Consuming Books: Synergies of Materiality and Narrative in Picture Books.” Children’s Literature 40: 151-166. Short, Geoffrey. 1994. “Teaching the Holocaust: The Relevance of Children’s Perceptions of Jewish Culture and Identity”. British Educational Research Journal 20 (4): 393405. Short, Geoffrey. 1997. “Learning Through Literature: Historical Fiction, Autobiography, and the Holocaust.” Children’s Literature in Education 28 (4): 179-190. Short, Geoffrey. 2003. “Lessons of the Holocaust: A Response to the Critics.” Educational Review 55 (3): 277-287. Sipe, Lawrence. 2010. “The Art of the Picturebook.” In Handbook of Research on Children’s and Young Adult Literature, edited by Shelby Wolf, Karen Coats, Patricia Enciso and Christine Jenkins, 238-252. New York: Routledge. Smelser, Neil J. 2004. “Psychological Trauma and Cultural Trauma.” In Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity, edited by Jeffrey C. Alexander, Ron Eyerman, Bernhard Giesen, Neil J. Smelser and Piotr Sztompka, 31-59. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Törnquist-Plewa, Barbara. 2014. “Rhetoric and the Cultural Trauma: An Analysis of Jan T. Gross’ Book Fear. Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz.” Memory Studies 7 (2): 161-175. Tribunella, Eric. 2010. Melancholia and Maturation: The Use of Trauma in American Children’s Literature. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. UN General Assembly. 20 November 1989. Convention on the Rights of the Child. United Nations, Treaty Series 1577: 3. Available at <http://www.refworld.org/ docid/3ae6b38f0.html> (accessed 15 May 2014). UN General Assembly. 28 July 1951. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. United Nations, Treaty Series 189: 137. Available at <http://www.refworld.org/ docid/3be01b964.html> (accessed 15 May 2014). Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 61–84 83 Trish Brooking Sveučilište u Otagu – Učiteljski fakultet, Novi Zeland Abteilung für die Lehrerbildung der Universität Otago, Neuseeland Iseljavanje i otkrivanje: kulturna trauma i djeca izbjeglice iz Poljske u suvremenoj australazijskoj književnosti Rad se ponajprije usredotočava na iskustva djece izbjeglica iz Poljske u Drugome svjetskome ratu prikazana u dječjoj književnosti. Neka od njih preseljena su na Novi Zeland. Vlada Novoga Zelanda prihvatila je 1944. godine 733 djece izbjeglica iz Poljske koja su preživjela deportaciju u radne logore Sovjetskoga Saveza u Sibiru, prije negoli su dospjela u kampove Crvenoga križa u Iranu. Za ovu poljsku djecu dolazak u Novi Zeland, najjužniju britansku koloniju, bilo je izazovno i zbunjujuće iskustvo. Iako je Drugi svjetski rat iznjedrio velik broj izbjegličkih pripovijedi, malo je (a možda ih nema nimalo) onih koje dokumentiraju putovanja obitelji protjeranih iz rodne Poljske i deportiranih u Rusiju, odakle ih se selilo u države poput Novoga Zelanda. Ovakav razmjer iseljavanja ukazuje na dubinu kulturne traume i njezine manifestacije u analiziranim književnim tekstovima. Rad sugerira da način povijesnoga prikaza zabilježen u analiziranim pripovijedima naznačuje prikladan put za daljnja istraživanja transnacionalne književnosti, upućujući na mogućnost književnosti da nadilazi nacionalne granice te da interakcije među kulturama postavi u prvi plan. Rad propituje na koji se način dječja književnost koja prikazuje iskustva djece izbjeglica iz Poljske pozicionira unutar diskursa o kulturnoj traumi. Ključne riječi: Drugi svjetski rat, kulturna trauma, deportacija, transnacionalno, premještanje, dječja književnost Auswanderung und Entdeckung: Kulturelles Trauma polnischer Flüchtlingskinder in der zeitgenössischen asiatisch-australischen Literatur Im Mittelpunkt des Beitrags stehen die in einigen kinder- und jugendliterarischen Werken verarbeiteten Erfahrungen der polnischen Flüchtlingskinder aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, die nach Neuseeland übersiedelt wurden. Die neuseeländische Regierung nahm 1944 733 polnische, die Deportation in die sibirischen Arbeitslager überlebende Flüchtlingskinder auf, bevor sie in den Rotes-Kreuz-Lagern in Iran untergebracht wurden. Für die polnischen Kinder war der Aufenthalt in Neuseeland, dieser südlichsten britischen Kolonie, sowohl eine Herausforderung als auch eine verwirrende Erfahrung. Obwohl aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg eine Vielzahl von Flüchtlingserzählungen hervorgegangen ist, ist die Zahl derer gering, in denen die Reise der aus dem heimischen Polen vertriebenen und nach Russland deportierten, bzw. von da aus nach Neuseeland übersiedelten Familien dokumentiert wird. Das Ausmaß der Reise weist in den analysierten literarischen Texten auf die Tiefe des kulturellen Traumas und dessen Erscheinungsformen hin. Im Beitrag wird darauf hingewiesen, dass die in den analysierten Texten festgestellten historischen Darstellungsweisen den Weg für weitere Erforschung im Bereich der transnationalen Literatur eröffnen, weil darin die nationalen Grenzen als überwunden erscheinen und die Interaktion zwischen den Kulturen in den Vordergrund rückt. Im Beitrag wird ferner die Position der Kinder- und Jugendliteratur, 84 T. Brooking: Displacement and Discoveries: Cultural Trauma and Polish Child Refugees… welche die Erfahrungen der polnischen Flüchtlingskinder verarbeitet, im Rahmen des Diskurses über kulturelle Traumata erforscht. Schlüsselwörter: Zweiter Weltkrieg, kulturelles Trauma, Deportation, Transnationales, Übersiedlung, Kinder- und Jugendliteratur Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 85–102 85 UDK 82.0-93 82.09-93:7 Janelle Mathis University of North Texas – Department of Teacher Education & Administration, USA [email protected] The Significance of the Arts in Culture: Learning through Children’s Literature Pregledni rad / review paper Primljeno / received 07.03.2015. Prihvaćeno / accepted 10. 7. 2015. Cultural studies frequently rely on the arts to reveal traditions, history, ideologies, and other aspects of a particular group. However, at what point and how are child readers asked to consider the significance of the arts to individuals’ cultural lives? This paper shares an inquiry that addresses how children’s literature, outside being a distinctive art form in itself, can offer stories that place the arts inseparably at the heart of one’s life experiences – defining culture, traditions, family history, and personal identity. The inquiry shared here focuses on a text set of 12 children’s picturebooks in which characters connect to some form of the arts in very specific and purposeful ways – facing a life challenge as a result of his or her passion for the arts or a challenge for which the arts hold resolution. Through the lens of New Historicism supported by social semiotics, a critical content analysis of these books reveals their potential for powerful, authentic insights into the role of the arts in one’s personal culture. Keywords: critical content analysis, identity, historicism, picturebook, art Introduction Cultural studies frequently rely on the arts to reveal traditions, history, ideologies, and other identifying aspects of a particular group, thus going beyond the notion of the arts as mainly entertainment. As used in this study, the arts (broadly conceived) include the many crafted or shaped forms of image, language, music, and movement (such as sports and dance) carried out in skilled and creative ways. 86 J. Mathis: The Significance of the Arts in Culture: Learning... Artists, through the application of technique and skill “achieve expressiveness through the ways in which form has been crafted or shaped” and inform through the sensory side of human experience what often cannot be seen directly (Eisner 2008: 8). In formal ways, cultural studies address the impact of the arts from social science perspectives. The notion that the meaning of an artistic artefact is historically contextualized is an accepted belief in many venues (Malpas 2013). Recently, researchers have recognized the significance of the arts in qualitative research methodologies (Leavy 2015) and, at times, suggest that the arts as method parallel the requirements of qualitative research (Knowles & Cole 2008). This is not to say that those artists whose lives are framed by their field and passion have not always recognized the importance of the arts beyond their aesthetic appeal, but as the complexities of qualitative research extend the methodological approach, insights from the arts are given greater recognition. In classrooms today, children are frequently introduced to other cultures through music, drama, or the visual arts − tangible means to identify the unique backgrounds of varied groups. In some situations these approaches are used to reflect similarities as well as differences in life experiences; in other situations, the focus is on the unique aspects of the arts that set cultures apart. As young learners are introduced to the concept of culture very early in life, these visual symbols of culture are meaningful for young children to begin to establish a sense of the diversity surrounding them at a time when the visual is a key means to their understanding of the world around them. However, at what point and in what ways are children invited to consider the significance of the arts to an individual’s cultural identity, life experiences, and lived passions? This question echoes Elliot Eisner who asked, “Are the arts merely ornamental aspects of human production and experience or do they have a more significant role to play in enlarging human understanding?” (2008: 3). In attempting to respond to the question of how to invite children into deeper understandings of the arts in an individual’s life, one can turn to children’s literature. Advocates of this literature are quick to acknowledge the depth of understanding and response that results from young readers’ connections to discerningly chosen and strategically shared books. Children’s literature, a distinctive art form in itself, offers stories that place the arts inseparably at the heart of one’s life experiences. The exploratory inquiry shared here examined 12 books wherein some form of the arts was intrinsic to the theme of each. Seven of the twelve books are biographical fiction, based on fact but still offering a fictional experience. Three titles are historical fiction and two blend realistic and historical fiction. Through the lens of New Historicism supported by social semiotics, a critical content analysis of these Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 85–102 87 books revealed their potential for powerful, authentic insights into the significance of the arts in one’s personal culture and identity. Theoretical frame Children’s literature has assumed many roles and responsibilities for young readers in the past few decades. Besides being a source of enjoyment, imagination, and exposure to a variety of places, people, and experiences, researchers are exploring this literature as a resource for critically considering social issues (Lehr 2001, Singer 2006, Crisp & Hiller 2011, Leland, Lewison & Harste 2012, Short 2012a), understanding culture (Cai 1997, Hade 1997, Harris 1997, Bishop 2007), and developing a sense of community, both local and global (Short 2012b, Choo 2013). Ultimately, many believe that using literature with children strategically from a critical stance has the potential to impact children’s identity, agency, and their ability to take other perspectives (Harste 2014, Mathis 2015). Authenticity within the story told, therefore, has become a focus for many scholars and its complexity is acknowledged (Fox & Short 2003). In this search for authenticity and for issues that might promote stereotypes, critical content analyses have been conducted to examine closely the contents of books (Bothelo & Rudman 2009, Bradford 2009, Johnson, Mathis & Short 2016). The literature shared here focuses on the use of story within picturebooks to enhance readers’ understandings of the past, present, and future. Stories are how people make sense of their worlds and the worlds of others (Short 2011, Siu-Runyan 2007) and can support readers’ insights in very natural frameworks as readers relate the stories of others to the stories that shape their own lives. The literature within this study reflects the power of story to share culture, value, and identity. While chapter books were also read in light of the topic at hand, the significance of the arts in culture, picturebooks are the focus of this particular inquiry. Besides being an artistic form within itself, this “intricate dance between words and visual images” (Sipe 2011: 238) is rich with sociological and ideological implications: “There is no such thing as value-free art, whether it is purely literary art or the combination of visual and verbal art that constitutes the picturebook” (244). Sipe continues in his discussion to share the potential of picturebooks to be a catalyst for shifts in readers’ thinking as they invite thinking into culture, identity and ideology. He also shares with others the concern that the arts in general receive little attention in many schools, and that picturebooks can serve to nurture an aesthetic appreciation in these classrooms (Dewey 1934/1980, Sipe & Beach 2001, Nikolajeva 2005, Gadsden 2008). Through the aesthetics of these books, sociocultural implications abound that can potentially speak to the role of the arts in one’s personal culture. 88 J. Mathis: The Significance of the Arts in Culture: Learning... Examining art itself or the role of art within narratives, contemporary scholars turn to a uniquely defined lens that helps to articulate the significance of the arts for both aesthetic purposes as well as the arts as knowledge. This knowledge includes communicating ideologies, both personal and social, and documenting contemporary and historical events. The theoretical lens of New Historicism helps to frame the belief about the arts that undergirds the analysis described here as it views the arts as integral to understanding and contextualizing historical events and the cultural implications of particular eras. New Historicism is framed on the interdependence of the arts and culture. Art and literature are shaped by the beliefs and desires of society and actively sustain and challenge them as sites of power and resistance (Gillespie 2010, Malpas 2013). Therefore, artistic forms can be considered documentary texts providing insight into cultural events or historical eras (Mathis 2016). Within the current inquiry that examines children’s books with demonstrations of characters engaged in the arts, New Historicism provides support in considering art forms as integral to everyday life as they weave throughout social contexts and include power relations of particular eras. Of particular interest is the New Historicist focus on the work of Michel Foucault in questioning the production and potential change of social order. Foucault claims that “history is discontinuous; a given period is better understood as a site of conflict between competing interests and discourses than as a unified whole; and the role and function of power is redefined” (Malpas 2013: 67). As this inquiry reveals, the notion of power is evident in books for children. Aligned with New Historicism and another theoretical lens to be mentioned later, social semiotics provides yet another lens to frame this study and clarify its findings. Semiotics involves a focus on how individuals use various sign systems, such as language, music, visual arts, movement, such as dance or the aesthetic aspects of sports, and others to communicate and represent. Social semiotics, aligned with other theoretical lenses, focuses on how people use sign systems within particular historical and cultural social settings (Van Leeuwen 2005). According to Marjorie Siegel and Deborah W. Rowe, “This implies a dynamic, reflexive relationship between text and context in which individuals acting with text shape and are shaped by their participation in activities” (2011: 206). Social semiotics supports an understanding of the integral role of the arts in everyday life: “Becoming aware of our capacity to feel is a way of discovering our humanity. Art helps us connect with personal, subjective emotions, and through such a process, it enables us to discover our own interior landscape” (Eisner 2008: 11). Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 85–102 89 Method Critical content analysis Content analysis is a frequently used approach to analyzing, describing, and interpreting literature. Since it is a highly adaptable method, it has been applied for a variety of purposes utilizing a variety of theoretical lenses. The present inquiry is developed within the field of education where there is a concerted interest in a critical analysis of text that emerges from current classroom issues. Therefore, the origin of the research questions and the implications of the research are intimately tied to the classroom and to children as readers (Johnson, Mathis & Short 2016). While content analysis serves to inform some aspects of this study, the notion of critical content analysis is also important within the current educational interest in critical literacy. As a result of the nature of the book choices for this study and the specific interest and questions of the researcher, the notion of critical that points to locating power in social practices as well as uncovering conditions of inequality, became a natural focus in the data collection. “Critical content analysis provides important insights on specific books that are significant within classrooms, particularly as related to issues of cultural authenticity and representation, all issues of increasing interest” (Johnson, Mathis & Short 2016). Data collection and analysis This inquiry began with an interest in the arts as portrayed by children’s literature, especially literature that reflects global scenarios. A list of books was created over time from award lists in the United States as well as personal reading and exploration of children’s and adolescent literature. The books that were most intriguing became those historical and personal stories in which characters engaged with some form of the arts in very specific and purposeful ways − biographical fiction and historical fiction. In many of these life stories, the characters were facing life challenges as a result of their passion for the arts or challenges for which the arts held resolution. These books initiated questions regarding whether children are invited to consider the significance of the arts to life rather than just being introduced to the arts as an aesthetic opportunity. Thus, the research question guiding this study became: How does children’s literature demonstrate the significance of the arts in cultural aspects, such as identity formation, historical insight, and sociocultural issues? Of the many books identified over the preceding ten year period that revealed the arts being used in significant ways, a representative text set of 12 books was selected wherein the characters’ personal connections to some artistic form were tightly woven into sociocultural issues that presented the arts as a challenge or as a 90 J. Mathis: The Significance of the Arts in Culture: Learning... means of resolution. The representative books identified here are picturebooks that reflect the strong demonstrations consistently identified over time in the overall ongoing list of books, although chapter books are also in the ongoing list. As each book was read and reread, questions were asked that evolved from the focus of the inquiry and the critical content analysis stance of the researcher. These questions began with the following, but each was expanded as further questions developed: • Is the art form positioned as identity, a passion, a challenge, or resolution of an issue? • What is the specific role of the arts as challenge or resolution? • Is the challenge an issue of power? Inequity? • Whose perspective is told and/or whose voice is missing? • What historical or cultural contexts situate the story’s artistic focus? What is missing? These questions formed the various categories that entitled the columns of an inquiry chart used to record data and provide a frame to support the identification of themes during analysis. Once each book had been examined in light of the critical questions asked above, the answers were recorded as data on the chart (see Table 1). Examining data across the titles through an adaptation of a constant comparative method provided insight into themes that were prevalent. These themes respond to the research question above that asks: How does children’s literature demonstrate the significance of the arts in cultural aspects, such as identity formation, historical insight, and sociocultural issues? The following sections elaborate on these themes using specific examples from the text set of books and support from theoretical and scholarly perspectives. While each theme is discussed using one or two exemplary titles, the themes can also be found weaving throughout all titles as together they create a tapestry that supports the potential significance of the arts in one’s culture. Discussion Examining the categories of the data chart revealed themes that support children’s literature as a resource for insight into the role of the arts in personal culture and identity. These themes are shared here through specific titles, but they are themes that can be identified in a variety of books where the arts are integral to its narrative. The arts persevere despite the challenges of inequity and disabilities The arts have often been a strong source of identity, so much so that even when faced with challenges, the artist, driven by his or her passion, perseveres. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 85–102 91 One source of challenge is that of the injustice that lies at the core of inequity. Sociocultural issues of power and the hierarchy of social constructs can undergird a narrative and create a context that exposes inequity. In Sixteen Years in Sixteen Seconds: The Sammy Lee Story (Yoo & Lee 2005), Sammy, of Korean-American ethnicity, was intrigued with the art of diving. As a twelve-year-old in 1932, he could only dream about becoming proficient since all people of color in Los Angeles were limited to using the public pool one day a week. He also became aware of the Olympics and his desire to be a champion diver grew. When he was eighteen, one man noticed him and became his coach, even though Sammy often had to practice in a specially created sand pit. With the onset of World War II and his father’s death, he decided to follow his father’s wishes and became a highly respected doctor while still dwelling on his love of the physical art of diving. This continued focus resulted in his winning a gold medal at the Olympics when he was twenty-eight despite the challenges of discrimination he faced along the way. His success was fed by his passion and talent for the art of diving; even in a successful medical position the artist in him never was still. A Place Where Sunflowers Grow (Lee-Tai & Hoshino 2006) is yet another book that reflects the role of the arts in facing challenges of inequity. The perseverance of the Japanese-Americans is shown here through one family who strives to make the best of their living in an internment camp where they were taken during WWII. The mother, an artist, plants sunflowers, one of the few plants to live in the desert sun, and worries about her daughter Mari who is withdrawn as she misses her home. While in school, Mari discovers that drawing creates a “sense of purpose and peace” as she creates images of her mother’s sunflowers. In this book, the use of art in the Japanese-taught schools provides a traditional means for children to cope with the sudden change in lifestyle and loss of personal possessions and freedom. In both of these scenarios, issues of power emerge as obstacles in the lives of these very different individuals and yet, artistic endeavors are the source of inspiration that propel Sammy to Olympic victory and Mari into drawing which serves as comfort in a challenging time. The notion that “power is everywhere […] a complex strategical situation in a particular society” (Foucault 1984: 93) is evidenced in many children’s books reflective of different stories of power creating social injustices during World War II and other historical eras. Disabilities also provide challenges to engaging in the arts and pursuing one’s passion. Yet these challenges can be met with a determination and passion to continue. In fact, many authentic narratives reveal the arts as providing both the goal and the impetus to overcome the limitations of the disability and go beyond what might be possible otherwise. One such book is A Splash of Red; the Life and 92 J. Mathis: The Significance of the Arts in Culture: Learning... Table 1. Data obtained from the sample analysis. Tablica 1. Podatci dobiveni analizom odabranoga uzorka. Title, author, year published Genre Sweethearts of Rhythm (Nelson & Pinkney 2009) Historical fiction (in US poetry format) WW II Music/swing Passion Resolution Resiliency Memories of Survival (Krinitz & Steinhardt 2005) Biographical fiction − autobiography Germany/US WW II/Holocaust Needlework Resolution Show Way (Woodson & Talbott 2005) Biographical fiction − autobiography US, from about 1800 to Quilting present; focus on culture Writing of slaves as enacted by this family through contemporary times Jose! Born to Dance (Reich & Colón 2005) Biographical fiction Mexico and US (historical) 20th C Dance Passion Challenge Dave the Potter: Artist, Poet, Slave (Hill & Collier 2010) Biographical fiction US (historical) 17th C Pottery Passion Resolution (adding poetry to pottery) A Song for Ba (Yee & Wang 2004) Realistic fiction (some historical reference) Canada Chinese-Canadian Chinese opera Passion Challenge Baghdad Calligraphy Passion Resiliency Silent Music (Rumford 2008) Realistic fiction (some historical reference) Culture/country/era Art form Historical context situating the artistic focus Role of the arts: Passion Challenge Resolution Resiliency Passion Challenge Resolution Resiliency Sixteen Years in Sixteen Seconds (Yoo & Lee 2005) Biographical fiction US (historical) 20th C Olympic diving Passion Challenge Henry and the Kite Dragon (Hall & Low 2004) Historical fiction Kite making/ pigeon training Passion Challenge Resolution A Splash of Red: The Life and Art of Horace Pippin (Bryant & Sweet 2013) Biographical fiction US (historical) 20th C Painting Passion Challenge Django (Christensen 2009) Biographical fiction Belgium (historical) Gypsy/Roma camp & beyond as book progresses Early 1900s Music Jazz guitarist Music was part of early cultural experiences & guitar became his identity A Place Where Sunflowers Grow (Lee-Tai & Hoshino 2006) Historical fiction Drawing Painting Art was part of schooling in internment camp US/New York Early 20th C US Japanese- American WW II 93 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 85–102 Role of the arts as related Unique aspect/ to identity of character(s) significance of the arts revealed in book Integration of 3 art forms; music shown as bringing people together in challenging times Provided a way to tell Needle work is a her story, leave story for personal art form; others, through art and text extensive time required; family heirloom with significance to history Issues of power or equity Voices/perspectives Heard – or not heard Other challenges faced Civil rights issues Voices of women and woven throughout; Jim minorities heard through Crow laws music/swing One family/girl’s experience fleeing from Hitler and death; power over Jews One victim’s voice speaking for family and neighbors as well Moving from place to place as a child Linking generations & handing down a strong sense of self and family; assuming the role of “show way”; identity through family art Symbolism within Slavery; injustice quilting is handed down during civil rights era to generations as each finds their own show way; Woodson is writing her story Jose hears rhythms all around from childhood; seeks way to share his art Drive of the artist to pursue dream; movement from one art form to another to communicate to others (audience) Cultural conflict Jose’s artistic “voices” of Situating himself because of rhythm shared throughout in the art form socioeconomics as an book most appropriate immigrant; leaving family to pursue dream Unique glimpse of many aspects of art of this slave; identity through voice of lyrics Talent in the trade he was assigned; using lyrical verse to claim the pottery as his own Slavery Hopes of pursuing a role in Conflict of old and new; opera to follow father and traditional opera form vs grandfather new culture Voices of slaves heard through quilts at a time when they had no voice and were denied literacy; Woodson’s writing gives her voice in contemporary times Voice found in the art of pottery for which he was known and in lyrics he engraved on pottery at a time when slaves were not allowed to learn to read or write Not necessarily power or equity; economics an issue as opera becomes less popular Changing culture with less demand for performances Ancient culture of calligraphy is hobby of boy; sustains in times of conflict Arts/war in ancient and Not power in modern times; continuity immediate focus but of traditions bombing points to power issues in setting Voice found in calligraphy Determination despite injustice and success as physician Artistic satisfaction found in Olympic sports Voice in perseverance to achieve dream despite obstacles and success as physician Each group followed cultural artistic endeavors; kite making handed down by elderly Conflict due to artistic Effort made towards interests but art helped to equality in resolution resolve conflict Both groups’ voices heard Painting was his joy and later his way to proclaim his message Perseverance overcomes even disability Not focus Voice through painting to include messages about conflict/war Disability caused by war injury From Gypsy/Roma camps Artist desire so to Paris, became famous; compelling that he overcame disability caused developed a new sound by fire Not focus but economic situation, perhaps, resulted in fire Voice through music/ guitar Disability caused by fire Painting was her escape from the injustice imposed on her family for being Japanese American Japanese internment during WW II Art even within “unartistic environments” creates solace Racism kept Lee from practicing in public pools Desire of father for Lee to be a doctor 94 J. Mathis: The Significance of the Arts in Culture: Learning... Art of Horace Pippin (Bryant & Sweet 2013). This award-winning title relates the story of self-taught artist Horace Pippin, an African American born in 1888, who revealed his talent for drawing as a young child. He quit school to take care of his family when his father left home, and eventually Horace fought in World War I. His honorable service in the army was a turning point in his life as he was injured, and the implications were that he would not be able to draw again. However, with determination he returned to painting, creating images of the everyday world around him but also of his memories of the war. His work is now highly regarded in major museums in the USA. The author’s note in the book speaks to the topic here as Bryant says, “Through his art, he transcended personal loss, injury, poverty, violence, and racism” (2013: np). The illustrations by Melissa Sweet also speak to the voice Pippin gained through his art. A quote in Publishers Weekly Review column (2013) states, “Quotations from Pippin about the psychological scars of war and his artistic process are hand-drawn into Sweet’s images, underscoring how art was not only a joyful outlet for Pippin, but also a vital means of interpreting the world.” Art as “a vital means of interpreting the world” is a concept that weaves as well through the other themes identified here. Django (Christensen 2009) is the story of a well known jazz guitarist that begins in a “Gypsy” or Roma camp in Belgium in 1910, where he grew up around music and taught himself to play the guitar. Moving to Paris, he played on street corners and sometimes in concerts until he was badly burned in a home fire and told he would no longer play. Determined, however, he overcame this disability and continued into a career that was world renowned. His innate talent and passion for guitar music knew no boundaries and when his burned left hand required him to create a different way to play, the result was a unique sound that led him to continued fame. The arts bring people together While we can learn of other cultures through artistic means, young readers can also realize the potential of the arts in crossing cultural borders. Henry and the Kite Dragon (Hall & Low 2004) relates this concept as two groups of children are brought together through a misunderstanding of the artistic hobbies of each other. In the 1920s many different ethnic groups were living in New York City and as an immigrant population, they brought with them many different cultural traditions. This story is about two groups of children from China and Italy whose favorite pastimes, making and flying kites for one group and training homing pigeons for the other, interfere with each other in problematic ways. Just as cultural differences can present tension or conflict, so people must learn to overcome these tensions to create better ways to live together. Such is the case with the young men in this story. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 85–102 95 Based on a true experience, the story of these young men reflects the authentic artistic activities that comprise the plot. The arts are an active, visible demonstration of individual identity and voice Sweethearts of Rhythm: The Story of the Greatest All-Girl Swing Band in the World by Marilyn Nelson and Jerry Pinkney (2009), another story set in the midtwentieth century, is a powerful example of this theme. During World War II swing was a popular form of music for listening and dancing even though the men who usually comprised swing bands were away fighting in the war. In a small school created to teach a trade to young people of color from low economic means, a group of young female students formed a band and set out to entertain a nation and help provide resilience during wartime. Told from the voices of instruments in a New Orleans pawn shop, writer Marilyn Nelson and illustrator Jerry Pinkney have created a story in poetry and art that not only describes and honors these young women but also gives readers a sense of the sociocultural environment during the time of the Jim Crow Laws. Thus, their sense of identity and agency through their music surpassed the challenges of cultural injustice and the struggle for human rights, discussed previously as a theme of this inquiry, as they traveled nationally and internationally. Music became a form of resiliency during World War II, and this book reveals that it was not limited to the predominant ethnic or gender group. In Jose! Born to Dance (Reich & Colón 2005), a young artist struggles to share his soul with the world. As a young child in Mexico, Jose Limon heard music in all that was around him. When the Mexican Revolution of 1910 erupted, his family left the familiar surroundings and began the journey to the United States. He worked with and for his family once they arrived in their new homeland, all the while showing great talent in painting. After his mother died, he made the decision to go to New York City to become a great painter; however, he felt uninspired and yearned for a way to give to others. Once he experienced a dance performance, he realized his love of music and art could be combined in this form. Jose Limon ultimately became a renowned choreographer. Dance was part of his being and his struggles to find a place to grow in this art is described simply but effectively. While based on fact, fictionalized musical allusions help young readers realize the music that is around them daily. The arts are a source of comfort and strength in trying times Silent Music: A Story of Baghdad (Rumford 2008) provides a more contemporary story of Ali, a fictional but typical boy who loves playing soccer with his friends and music. He loves to practice calligraphy and is inspired by Yakut 96 J. Mathis: The Significance of the Arts in Culture: Learning... who lived in Baghdad 800 years before Ali was born. Just as traditional stories tell of Yakut going to his tower and using calligraphy to comfort himself in times of conflict, so Ali does the same when Baghdad is bombed. This traditional art is described through both a modern-day boy and a historical figure whose work is still remembered in this part of the world. Both use calligraphy to cope with the tensions and uncertainties of war. A closing metaphor of the difficulty in writing the word “peace” versus writing the word “war” sends a strong message about the necessary effort to achieve peace. The previously mentioned, A Place Where Sunflowers Grow, is another example of the arts as a source of comfort during challenging times. Mari doesn’t understand why she is sent from her home to the internment camp, but drawing becomes a joy to look forward to in her daily life. As a cultural bridge, the arts connect generations Times are changing, and living in a “New World” adds to the difficulty of keeping one’s own culture alive. In A Song for Ba (Yee & Wang 2004), Wei Lim wants to follow his father and grandfather in being part of the Chinese opera. However, Ba, his father, is troubled by the lack of public interest in the opera. Additionally, his fleeting opportunities to play the larger and more demanding male roles have delegated him to take female parts even though his voice struggles to do this. Wei Lim’s grandfather has secretly taught him how to sing these parts, and it is Wei that comes to his father’s rescue in assisting his performance as well as reflecting on the ongoing effort to maintain this cultural aspect of their lives. Realizing that historical and cultural contexts differ from generation to generation is pivotal for readers to potentially recognize, later on, the need to redefine “the ways in which art and literature were produced, experienced and valued” (Malpas 2013: 69) during a given historical period. Also, when one generation realizes what is culturally important to a previous generation, a strong lesson in why history matters has occurred. The arts provide a venue for telling one’s story One way of connecting generations as shared above is that of telling one’s life story, so it is never forgotten. In Memories of Survival (Krinitz & Steinhardt 2005) Esther Krinitz survived the Holocaust, but her stories remind readers and viewers of the horrific events that millions experienced. At the age of 50, she decided to tell her life story in embroidered panels that included some description of her own. She created a visual reminder of the horrific events and her daughter decided to place this in a book to share with readers. The actual panels are in a museum, but the reproductions in the book capture the details and emotions of Krinitz as a young Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 85–102 97 girl. Her art was a way of telling her story but also a way of preserving this historic event “lest it be forgotten.” In Show Way, Jacqueline Woodson (Woodson & Talbott 2005) shares her own heritage as she traces stories of her ancestry from the early days of slavery in the United States to present times through the traditional art of quilt making. Of course, quilt making served also as informational tools with hidden messages sewn within for slaves to follow in their escape to freedom prior to and during the Civil War, so the role of the arts in this book has layers of significance in the lives of those within the narrative. Woodson shares in carefully created dialect the “show way” art of her ancestors that continues in her own writing as a “show way” to readers. The notion of quilts as symbolic messages is acknowledged by Helen Ball, who states (2008: 365): In some cases quilts are used as subversive acts – as a medium for the expression of resistance, rage, grief, and the celebration. The irony is that while these stories were created, not a word needed to be said. For many, quilts are merely beautiful presentations of colors and patterns, but to those who know how to read them, they contain complex stories and meanings. Another book that takes readers to a slavery era is Dave the Potter: Artist, Poet, Slave (Hill and Collier 2010). The story of Dave, a slave whose task was that of making large pottery pieces, is told in short lyrical verse and richly created images that reflect an individual of both extreme strength and warmth. Although the description here reveals the art of pottery as both a gift and passion, we realize that while the evidence of Dave’s talent lives on today in the artifacts that remain, his passion has to be contextualized in the culture and ideology of the times. Nevertheless, what Laban Carrick Hill brings to the attention of readers about Dave are the short lyrical lines engraved on the bottom of his work. Although it was highly unusual at this time for a slave to write, or at least for slaves who could write to reveal themselves as such, this touch of verbal art imprinted on the clay art provides another example of the arts as significant to culture. In this case, Dave’s voice found life beyond his own through his engraved pottery that can still be seen and read. The author provides examples of Dave’s lyrical lines and where they were found at the end of the poetic historical account. The art of lyrics is an ancient one that continues in many forms throughout history: “Lyric language is often grounded in the particular and has been described as resonant and embodied” (Neilsen 2008: 95). Neilsen continues to acknowledge that lyric language is marginalized by some since it is associated with the personal or imaginative. But she continues by stating a powerful notion by Zwicky that “we need to recognize that imagination allows us to enter the experience of another without appropriation, ownership, or reductiveness” (2003: 95). Such a belief can 98 J. Mathis: The Significance of the Arts in Culture: Learning... be applied to any experience with literature and is of special note in this inquiry as the books discussed here ask readers to consider the personal connections of characters to the arts. Conclusions Returning to the theoretical lens undergirding this inquiry, New Historicism, any exploration into historical and social implications of the arts must be prefaced with the understanding that historical artists are using their talents and creative imaginations in the context of the social discourses of their cultural eras: “The work of art is the product of a negotiation between a creator or class of creators, equipped with a complex, communally shared repertoire of conventions, and the institutions and practices of society” (Greenblatt 1989: 12). While this concept may be beyond the developmental parameters of the children reading these stories, educators can indeed turn to historical contexts for explanations of how and why certain events, emotions, and dialogue led to the artistic engagement at the heart of such stories. Maxine Greene describes the arts as public spaces for social transformation. However, she also recognizes that “of all our cognitive capacities, imagination is the one that permits us to give credence to alternative realities. It allows us to break with the taken for granted, to set aside familiar distinctions and definitions” (2000: 3). Children’s literature can invite readers into situations and events, both past and present, where their imaginations flourish if such spaces are created by educators. These spaces need to be supported, however, by insights into historical contexts that invite the reader to suspend his or her disbelief while imaginatively contemplating other realities. Learning about other people, both within one’s local community and the global community is clearly implied in the selected stories shared here − stories that represent other cultural narratives that exist across developmental levels of readers and across genre. Engaging in thoughtful discussions, asking critical questions of their reading, relating the contents of literature to contemporary people and events, and finding personal connections to the arts as a cultural medium are possible outcomes when teachers use such books to empower students. Perceiving the arts as natural, functional sources for cultural insights, dissemination, and individual growth becomes a potential goal in classrooms where literature empowers young readers. The diversity of people and situations serves as demonstrations to readers that their own cultural identities can flourish within their artistic passions. While this study was focused on literature accessible within the United States, the notion of the inseparable relationship between the arts and culture is a universal belief. One overarching theme arising from this analysis is that engagement in Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 85–102 99 the arts knows no boundaries − socioeconomic, geographical, race, historical, or gender. This notion cuts across all books offered to young readers today where the arts are significant to cultural lives. As these narratives potentially serve to invite young readers to realize the significance of the arts in their own lives, they can also realize their significance for others in the global community. Literature invites readers to immerse themselves into storyworlds to gain insights about how people live, feel, and think around the world − to develop emotional connections and empathy as well as knowledge. These connections go beyond the surface knowledge of food, dance, clothing, folklore and facts about a country to the values and beliefs that lie at the core of each culture (Short 2011: 130). As educators everywhere expand the notion of literacy to include the many ways we understand and communicate with the world around us, insight into the role of the arts becomes critical in building knowledge of past and present cultures, and understanding the sociocultural contexts that frame the extent and depth of our knowledge. Children’s literature can invite young readers into such insights as well as the realization of the potential of the arts to build personal identity and cultural expression. While educators of all types entertain the arts for aesthetic enjoyment, or rather let the arts entertain them, the cultural significance that ensures the continuation of this entertainment also positions it at the heart of historical events and personal endeavors of artists. References Children’s books Bryant, Jen & Melissa Sweet. 2013. A Splash of Red: The Life and Art of Horace Pippin. New York: Knopf. Christensen, Bonnie. 2009. Django. New York: Square Fish. Hall, Bruce Edward & William Low. 2004. Henry and the Kite Dragon. New York: Penguin. Hill, Laban Carrick & Bryan Collier. 2010. Dave the Potter: Artist, Poet, Slave. New York: Little Brown. Krinitz, Esther Nisenthal & Bernice Steinhardt. 2005. Memories of Survival. New York: Hyperion. Lee-Tai, Amy & Felicia Hoshino. 2006. A Place Where Sunflowers Grow. San Francisco: Children’s Book Press. Nelson, Marilyn & Jerry Pinkney. 2009. Sweethearts of Rhythm: The Story of the Greatest All-Girl Swing Band in the World. New York: Penguin. Reich, Susanna & Raúl Colón. 2005. Jose! Born to Dance. New York: Simon & Schuster. Rumford, James. 2008. Silent Music: A Story of Baghdad. New York: Roaring Brook Press. Woodson, Jacqueline & Hudson Talbott. 2005. Show Way. New York: Penguin. Yee, Paul & Jan Peng Wang. 2004. A Song for Ba. Toronto: Groundwood Books. 100 J. Mathis: The Significance of the Arts in Culture: Learning... Yoo, Paula & Dom Lee. 2005. Sixteen Years in Sixteen Seconds: The Sammy Lee Story. New York: Lee and Low. Secondary sources Ball, Helen K. 2008. Quilts. In Handbook of the Arts in Qualitative Research: Perspectives, Methodologies, Examples, and Issues, edited by J. Gary Knowles & Ardra L. Cole, 363–368. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bishop, Rudine Sims. 2007. Free within Ourselves: The Development of African American Children’s Literature. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Botelho, Maria José & Masha Kabakow Rudman. 2009. Critical Multicultural Analysis of Children’s Literature. New York, NY: Routledge. Bradford, Clare. 2009 (December). “Critical Content Analysis of Children’s Texts: Theories, Methodologies, and Critique.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the 59th National Reading Conference, Albuquerque, NM. 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Volume 1. Translated by R. Hurley. New York, NY: Pantheon. (Original work published in 1978). Fox, Dana & Kathy Short, eds. 2003. Stories Matter: The Complexity of Cultural Authenticity in Children’s Literature. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Gadsden, Vivian L. 2008. “The Arts and Education: Knowledge Generation, Pedagogy, and the Discourse of Learning.” Review of Research in Education 32 (1): 29–61. Gillespie, Tim. 2010. Doing Literary Criticism. Portland, ME: Stenhouse. Greenblatt, Stephen. 1989. Shakespearean Negotiations: The Circulation of Social Energy in Renaissance England. Berkeley: University of California Press. Greene, Maxine. 2000. Releasing the Imagination: Essays on Education, the Arts, and Social Change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Hade, Daniel D. 1997. “Reading Multiculturally.” In Using Multiethnic Literature in the K-8 Classroom, edited by Violet J. Harris, 233-253. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Harris, Violet J., ed. 1997. Using Multiethnic Literature in the K-8 Classroom. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. Harste, Jerome. 2014. “The Art of Learning to Be Critically Literate.” Language Arts 92 (2): 90–102. Johnson, Holly, Janelle Mathis & Kathy Short. 2016 (in press). Reframing Perspective: Critical Content Analysis of Children’s and Young Adult Literature. New York: Routledge. Knowles, J. Gary & Ardra L. Cole. 2008. Handbook of the Arts in Qualitative Research: Perspectives, Methodologies, Examples, and Issues. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 85–102 101 Leavy, Patricia. 2015. Method Meets Art: Arts Based Research. 2nd edn. New York: Guilford Press. Lehr, Susan. 2001. Beauty, Brains, and Brawn: The Construction of Gender in Children’s Literature. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Leland, Christine, Mitzi Lewison & Jerome Harste. 2012. Teaching Children’s Literature: It’s Critical! New York: Routledge. 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Aesthetic Approaches to Children’s Literature: An Introduction. Scare Crow Press, Lanham, MD. Publishers Weekly. 2013. “Review of A Splash of Red, the Life and Art of Horace Pippin.” Retrieved from <http://www.publishersweekly.com/978-0-375-86712-5> (accessed February 15, 2015). Short, Kathy. 2011. “Building Bridges of Understanding through International Children’s Literature.” In A Master Class in Teaching Children’s Literature: Trends and Issues in an Evolving Field, edited by Lettie Albright & April Bedford, 130–148. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Short, Kathy. 2012a. “Children’s Agency for Taking Social Action.” Bookbird 50 (4): 41–50. Short, Kathy. 2012b. “Story as World Making.” Language Arts 90 (1): 9–17. Siegel, Marjorie & Deborah W. Rowe. 2011. “Webs of Significance: Semiotic Perspectives on Text.” In Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts. 3rd edn., edited by Dianne Lapp & Douglas Fisher, 202–207. New York: Routledge. Singer, Jessica. 2006. Stirring Up Justice: Writing and Reading to Change the World. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Sipe, Lawrence R. 2011. “The Art of the Picturebook.” In Handbook of Research on Children’s and Young Adult Literature, edited by Shelby A. Wolf, Karen Coats, Patricia Enciso, and Christine A. Jenkins, 238–252. New York, NY: Routledge. Sipe, Lawrence R. & Richard Beach. 2001. “Response to Literature as a Cultural Activity.” Reading Research Quarterly 36 (1): 64–73. Siu-Runyan, Yvonne. 2007. “Notable Books for a Global Society: The Beginning.” In Breaking Boundaries with Global Literature, edited by Nancy L. Hadaway & Marian J. McKenna, xiii–xviii. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Van Leeuwen, Theo. 2005. Introducing Social Semiotics. New York: Routledge. Zwicky, Jan. 2003. Wisdom and Metaphor. Alberta: Brush Education. 102 J. Mathis: The Significance of the Arts in Culture: Learning... Janelle Mathis Odsjek za izobrazbu učitelja, Sveučilište North Texas, SAD Abteilung für die Lehrerbildung der Universität North Texas, USA Važnost umjetnosti u kulturi: učenje iz dječje književnosti Kulturni studiji često se oslanjaju na umjetnost da bi otkrili tradicije, povijest, ideologije i ostale aspekte određene skupine. Međutim, u kojemu se trenutku i na koji način od djece traži razmišljanje o važnosti umjetnosti u kulturnome životu pojedinca? Ovaj rad istražuje kako dječja književnost, osim kao samosvojna umjetnička forma, može ponuditi priče koje neraskidivo smještaju umjetnost u središte životnoga iskustva neke osobe – definirajući kulturu, tradiciju, obiteljsku povijest te vlastiti identitet. Istraživanje je usmjereno na dvanaest slikovnica, dječjih knjiga u kojima se likovi povezuju s nekom umjetnošću na poseban i svrsishodan način, pri čemu se svaki lik suočava sa životnim izazovom koji je posljedica strasti za nekom umjetnošću ili s izazovom za koji umjetnost nudi rješenje. S pomoću novohistorističke književne teorije, dopunjene društvenom semiotikom, kritička analiza sadržaja ovih knjiga otkriva njihov potencijal za snažan i autentičan uvid u ulogu umjetnosti u kulturi pojedinca. Dok se u obrazovanju koncept pismenosti proširuje različitim načinima na koje razumijemo svijet koji nas okružuje i na koje s njime komuniciramo, uloga umjetnosti postaje presudna u izgradnji znanja o prošlim i sadašnjim kulturama te za razumijevanje društvenoga i kulturnoga konteksta koji uokviruju opseg i dubinu našega znanja. „Samo odbijanjem razdvajanja umjetničkoga izraza od drugih formi društvene i kulturne interakcije, ističu novohistoristi, umjetnost ili književnost mogu postati smislenima i važnima za sve nas“ (Malpas 2013: 67). Ključne riječi: kritička analiza sadržaja, identitet, novi historizam, slikovnica, umjetnost Wichtigkeit der Kunst in der Kultur: Lernen durch Kinderliteratur Kulturwissenschaften greifen oft nach der Kunst, um die Merkmale der Tradition, der Geschichte, der Ideologie und sonstiger Aspekte des Zusammenlebens einer Gruppe festzuhalten. Es stellt sich jedoch die Frage, in welchem Augenblick und auf welche Weise man von den Kindern verlangt, dass sie über die Wichtigkeit der Kunst im kulturellen Leben des Einzelnen nachdenken? Im Beitrag wird die Art und Weise untersucht, auf welche die Kinder- und Jugendliteratur Geschichten anbietet, worin die Kunst zum Mittelpunkt der Lebenserfahrungen wird, indem sie Kultur, Tradition, Familiengeschichten sowie eigene Identität bestimmt. Es werden zwölf Bilder- und Kinderbücher besprochen, worin die Gestalten mit einer der Kunstformen verbunden und zugleich mit Lebensherausforderungen konfrontiert werden, welche das Ergebnis ihrer Begeisterung mit der Kunst sind oder eine Herausforderung darstellen, wofür die Kunst eine Lösung anbietet. Anhand der durch die Theorie der gesellschaftlichen Semiotik unterstützten neuhistoristischen Literaturtheorie wird der Inhalt dieser Bücher einer kritischen Analyse unterzogen und ihr Potenzial für die Erlangung von Einblicken in die Rolle der Kunst in der Kultur des Einzelnen festgestellt. Während im Bildungssystem das Alphabetismuskonzept auf verschiedene Weisen, auf die wir die umgebende Welt verstehen und mit ihr kommunizieren, erweitert wird, wird die Kunst zum entscheidenden Faktor im Ausbau der Wissensbestände über die vergangenen und gegenwärtigen Kulturen sowie für das Verständnis des gesellschaftlichen und kulturellen Kontextes, welcher den Umfang und die Tiefe unserer Wissens umrahmt. „Nur dadurch, dass man die Abgliederung des Kunstausdruckes von anderen Formen gesellschaftlicher und kultureller Interaktion ablehnt, erlangen Kunst oder Literatur nach den Neuhistoristen für uns Sinn und Wichtigkeit“ (Malpas 2013: 67). Schlüsselwörter: kritische Inhaltsanalyse, Identität, Neuhistorismus, Bilderbuch, Kunst Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 103–120 103 UDK 39:711.437(480)”18” 821.511.111-93 075.8 Merja Leppälahti University of Turku, Finland [email protected] Cultural Heritage in Picturebooks: Mauri Kunnas’s Doghill and The Canine Kalevala Izvorni znanstveni rad / original research paper Primljeno / received 24. 2. 2014. Prihvaćeno / accepted 10. 7. 2015. Some of Mauri Kunnas’s picturebooks are examined as bearers of Finnish cultural heritage. His Doghill series conveys heritage by describing country life in 19th-century western Finland. Kunnas’s The Canine Kalevala is an adaptation of the Finnish epic The Kalevala and also includes several adaptations of Akseli Gallen-Kallela’s Kalevala paintings. Both The Kalevala and the paintings of Gallen-Kallela, held in high esteem in Finland, are adapted for child readers by Kunnas, who retells the story by using animal characters, omits problematic issues and adds humour to make it more appropriate for children. An informed adult reader reads The Canine Kalevala as an adaptation of The Kalevala, with an understanding of complex cultural and literary references, while a child reader sees the book as a new, exciting story. Keywords: adaptation, Doghill series, Akseli Gallen-Kallela, heritage, Kalevala, Mauri Kunnas, picturebooks In this paper some of the picturebooks written by Finnish author Mauri Kunnas are analysed as bearers of cultural heritage. The term heritage or cultural heritage is nowadays used very often, but seems quite difficult to define (Harvey 2007: 25, 37). There are almost as many definitions as there are heritage commentators. In the simplest of terms, heritage is what contemporary society chooses to inherit and pass on; it is something that has been defined as worth saving. UNESCO has drawn up a list of World Heritage Sites, but heritage can also be defined within a country, community or smaller group (Hovi 2014: 24−25; see also Bendix 2000, Hall 2007). 104 M. Leppälahti: Cultural Heritage in Picturebooks: Mauri Kunnas's Doghill … The paper first focuses on Kunnas’s Koiramäki [Doghill] series. Relying on animal characters, this series of seven picturebooks describes the past in a manner similar to its presentation in museums, but more humorously and in a less complicated way. Secondly, the Koirien Kalevala [The Canine Kalevala], a picturebook adaptation of the Finnish national epic The Kalevala, is examined. Since the story of The Canine Kalevala comes from The Kalevala, it can be called a re-writing or hypertext of the said epic (cf. Genette 1997: 5). In addition to the text, some of the pictures in The Canine Kalevala are adaptations of the canonical Kalevala paintings by Akseli Gallen-Kallela1 (1865–1931). The Canine Kalevala is a picturebook, but it is often considered to be a book for both children and adults (Virtanen 2007: 72−73). The importance of Kunnas’s picturebooks as bearers of cultural heritage has already been recognised and studied by several authors, mostly in the context of translation studies: for instance, Melissa Garavini (2014) and Hanna-Maria Hyvönen (2004) study Italian translations of Kunnas’s books, with special emphasis on translations and adaptations of culture-specific elements. Kunnas’s Christmas books (cf. Hyvönen 2004, Tettinen 2014) and books from the Doghill series have so far received most scholarly attention: Elina Järvinen (2011), for instance, analyses personal names in the Doghill books, while Liisa Saarinen (2013) studies how the past is represented in one of the books from that series, Doghill Martha and Runeberg. This study focuses on the way cultural and historical content is presented so as to be accessible to child readers, and how Kunnas uses pictures in the analysed picturebooks to mediate complex meanings and build an awareness of cultural identity. Cultural heritage is thus considered a component of a system of values, an ideology that is conveyed to children in the process of reading pictures in picturebooks by Kunnas. As John Stephens puts it (1992: 8): Ideologies […] are not necessarily undesirable, and in the sense of a system of beliefs by which we make sense of the world, social life would be impossible without them. If a child is to take part in society and act purposively within its structures, he or she will have to master the various signifying codes used by society to order itself. Mauri Kunnas and his works Before he began publishing picturebooks, Mauri Kunnas studied graphic design and drew comic strips and caricatures for newspapers. Today he is very well known in Finland and is one of the most popular Finnish authors of picturebooks. He changed his name from Gallén to Gallen-Kallela in 1907. 1 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 103–120 105 In all, Mauri Kunnas has already published over forty picturebooks and he keeps writing more.2 His books have also sold well both in Finland and abroad. So far, his books have been published in 34 countries and translated into 31 languages (Mauri Kunnas3). The first picturebook by Mauri Kunnas was Suomalainen tonttukirja (The Book of Finnish Elves), published in 1979. The book, illustrated by Kunnas himself, consists of folktales about house elves from the Finnish folklore archives. The last story, which tells of one elf’s celebration of Christmas, is not a folktale but a story written specifically for the book. However, it contains many references to a traditional Finnish Christmas: the elf, for instance, particularly likes the tradition of leaving the Christmas feast on the table overnight for the house elf to eat. The book has been very well received and is still in print. Internationally, Joulupukki [Santa Claus] is Kunnas’s best-known and bestselling book; it has been translated into 26 languages. In Finnish folklore, the character of Santa Claus is not nearly as old as, for example, the house elves. Christmas elves helping Santa Claus are also a more recent tradition, but they have assumed many characteristics of traditional Finnish house elves, like the red pointy hats. Kunnas makes use of this in his book, explaining that Santa’s elves are former house and forest elves that have moved to the peaceful Lapland from cities and industrialised areas. Nevertheless, Kunnas’s Santa Claus does fit the contemporary Finnish idea of Santa very well. In most of his books, Kunnas uses animal characters. He is especially known for the Koiramäki [Doghill] series, which uses characters of anthropomorphic dogs to describe life in the past. The three original Doghill books, published from 1980 to 1988, are discussed in more detail below. Another famous book is Koirien Kalevala [The Canine Kalevala] in which characters from The Kalevala are dogs, cats and wolves. Kunnas also uses dog characters in his book Seitsemän koiraveljestä [The Seven Dog Brothers], which is an adaptation of Aleksis Kivi’s 1870 novel Seitsemän veljestä [Seven Brothers]. Kunnas has used animal characters in many of his other works, such as books about the Vikings, vampires, pirates, King Arthur and Robin Hood. One of his most popular characters is Herra Hakkarainen (Mr. Clutterbuck), a sleepwalking goat who unwittingly performs heroic deeds. He first appeared in Hyvää yötä, herra Hakkarainen [Good Night, Mr. Clutterbuck] (1999). Many new books by Kunnas have a “hidden” picture of the sleepwalking Mr. Clutterbuck in them. Mauri Kunnas’s wife, Tarja Kunnas, has coloured many of the pictures for his books and has also taken part in designing the books. She is mentioned in some of the books as co-author. 3 Mauri Kunass’s official web site <http://maurikunnas.net/>. 2 106 M. Leppälahti: Cultural Heritage in Picturebooks: Mauri Kunnas's Doghill … The style of Kunnas’s illustrations is reminiscent of the style of comic books and caricatures. Kunnas’s animal characters usually have round white eyes as comicbook characters do and they are typically quite “rough” rather than cute (Virtanen 2007: 96). The books abound in movement, even though Kunnas makes very little use of speed lines, or motion lines, which are typical of comics (cf. McCloud 1994: 110-–114). The impression of movement in Kunnas’s illustrations is created mainly through the characters’ positions in relation to each other (Happonen 2001: 101−103), presented as either transactional or bi-transactional processes (cf. Kress and van Leeuwen 2006: 64–66). One page, or even just one picture, can illustrate all the different stages of processes such as washing clothes or harvesting crops in the past, representing “continuous narrative” illustrations (cf. Schwarcz 1982: 23ff). Many characters are busily working on different tasks, which creates the feeling of motion throughout the picture. For buildings, Kunnas often uses the socalled “open house” structure, also known in scholarly writings on children’s books as the “doll house” structure (Ylimartimo 2001: 88−90). This provides a view of the entire interior of the building from the side or the top, allowing the viewer to see either many rooms at once, or the back and front of the same room within the same picture. Kunnas has received awards4 and praise for popularising heritage among children: “Kunnas has brought Finnish folklore and history into nurseries and kindergartens” (Press release of Aalto University, 26 October 2012; Tjnk 2013) and making key works of Finnish literature (The Kalevala and Seven Brothers) appropriate for young readers and listeners (Tjnk 2013). The Doghill books as heritage bearers In Finland, books from the Doghill series are among Kunnas’s most widely recognised work. The three original Doghill books are Koiramäen talossa [Doghill Farm] (1980), Koiramäen lapset kaupungissa [The Doghill Kids Go to Town] (1982), and Koiramäen talvi [Winter at Doghill Farm] (1982). Some later books by Kunnas also reveal connections with the Doghill series, e.g. Koiramäen lasten joulukirkko [Doghill Children in Christmas Church] (1997),5 Koiramäen Martta Among the many awards given to Mauri Kunnas is the State Award for Public Information (2013) for his distinguished life’s work. He also received the title doctor honoris causa from Aalto University. 5 This book was created to raise funds for rebuilding the Saint Olaf Church in Tyrvää, which had burned down in 1997. Set in the past, the book tells about the Doghill children’s visit to that same church. 4 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 103–120 107 ja Tiernapojat [Doghill Martha and the Christmas Pageant] (2000),6 Koiramäen Martta ja Ruuneperi [Doghill Martha and Runeberg] (2005),7 and Koiramäen lapset ja näkki [Tales from Doghill] (2007), which includes several old Finnish folktales.8 The first book in the series, Doghill Farm, appeared soon after The Book of Finnish Elves. Inhabitants of Doghill farm include the farmer, his wife and children, grandma, grandpa and the farmhands, all of them represented as anthropomorphised dogs wearing clothes, living in houses and doing human chores. Life on Doghill farm presents life in the countryside of western Finland in the 19th century: baking bread, herding cows, shearing sheep, and weaving cloth. Heritage is a part of culture or history, the preservation of which is considered to be especially important, e.g. in museums (Hall 2007: 87, Hovi 2014: 24−25). The Doghill house was inspired by buildings in the farmhouse museum in Satakunta, in western Finland, where Kunnas himself lived as a child. Kunnas’s images of various tasks, tools and props are ethnologically accurate, and the items in the pictures are clearly labelled. Kunnas points out that he carefully checks such details and uses real museum items as references for his illustrations (Mauri Kunnas). In the second Doghill book, The Doghill Kids Go to Town, two of the Doghill farm children, Elsa and Kille, visit their relatives in town. There they get to experience town life in the 1850s. Together with their relatives, Elsa and Kille go to the store, the pharmacy, the market square and the harbour. They also visit the homes of some of the townsfolk. They take wool for spinning to a small cottage at the edge of town, and wedding confections made at their relatives’ bakery to a wealthy house. All this enables Kunnas to demonstrate how people lived in the 1850s. The pictures show scenes from historical Turku, a town in the south-west of Finland. The location is reflected in the names of places and characters: for instance, the names of the families the Doghill kids visit, Kinkeliin and Juliin, are vernacular forms of the family names Kingelin and Julin. The third book in the Doghill series, Winter at Doghill Farm, tells about life in the 19th-century Finnish countryside during winter. The Doghill children Tiernapojat (literally: “star-boys”) is a group of four singers who sing the story of Christmas. In Finland, this tradition has been known from at least the 18th century. 7 Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804−1877) was a famous Fenno-Swedish poet. 8 In 2013, Koiramäen tarinat [Tales from Doghill] was published, a collection that brings together the first three as well as two other Doghill books in one volume. The two other Doghill books are Doghill Children in Christmas Church and Koiramäen lapset ja näkki (the English translation bears the name Tales from Doghill, but the literal translation is “The Doghill Children and näkkiˮ [näkki is a mythical water-creature in Finnish folktales]). 6 108 M. Leppälahti: Cultural Heritage in Picturebooks: Mauri Kunnas's Doghill … visit their friends who live in a “smoke-hut”, a house with no chimney, and attend school which is organised in the village for a few weeks at a time (for more on representations of the past in children’s literature, see Lucas 2003). Children’s books often feature child or animal characters, which seem to be closer to child readers. Perry Nodelman draws attention to the “similarity of children to animals” (2004: 159) and points out that “the state of animals who talk like humans is a metaphor for the state of human childhood” (161). John Stephens, on the other hand, argues that the anthropomorphism allows readers to both empathise with a dog character’s human emotions, and be distanced from his dogginess (1992: 134). Both authors place anthropomorphic characters in the more general context of mediating cultural meanings and ideology (Nodelman 2004: 159–160): Like most narrative, picture book stories most forcefully guide readers into culturally acceptable ideas about who they are through the privileging of the point of view from which they report on the events they describe […] All stories imply subject positions for readers to occupy. […] [P]icture books do so with pictures as well as words. Stephens points out that “the discourses of children’s fiction are pervaded by ideological presuppositions, sometimes obtrusively and sometimes invisibly” (1992: 1–2), and that (2–3): in anthropomorphic picture books or folk tales in which animals are depicted performing social actions and functions particular to human beings, [...] the discrepancy between human and animal behaviour can easily mask the assumption that the implied human behaviour reflects social reality. Kunnas frequently uses anthropomorphic animals for such purposes. Nearly every double-page spread in the book features the Doghill children doing something related to the tasks the adults are doing, or playing near the working adults. This shows life in the past from a child’s perspective and makes the pictures more interesting for child readers. Stephens explains (1992: 3): Writing for children is usually purposeful, its intention being to foster in the child reader a positive apperception of some socio-cultural values, which, it is assumed, are shared by author and audience. These values include contemporary morality and ethics, a sense of what is valuable in the culture’s past (what a particular contemporary social formation regards as the culture’s centrally important traditions), and aspirations about the present and future. Kunnas thus employs the representation of characters to convey cultural and traditional information and values and makes them more easily understandable for child audiences through anthropomorphic animals. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 103–120 109 Rather than rely on a specific plot to organise the narrative, the Doghill books are structured around pictures.9 Paula Havaste notes that the function of the text in the Doghill books is to tie together the central themes of the pictures (2001: 138−139). Each spread features an event or an activity illustrated with one or more pictures and accompanied by a relatively small amount of text. As Stephens puts it, visual representations “encourage a more complex response to the text. Pictures can reveal things that the words do not” (1992: 163). Picturebooks combine words and pictures to produce complex meanings, and they have “a capacity to construct and exploit a contradiction between text and picture so that the two complement one another and together produce a story and a significance” (164). In other words, they “communicate only within a network of conventions and assumptions, about visual and verbal representations and about the real objects they represent” (Nodelman 2004: 157). Kunnas thus uses pictures and words to engage young readers and raise their awareness of tradition and culture on which they can build their individual identities. He employs the form of picturebook to convey complex ideological content and cultural meanings to children, who are generally an inexperienced audience, and, as such, “in need of learning how to think about their world, how to see and understand themselves and others. Consequently, picturebooks are a significant means by which we integrate young children into the ideology of our culture” (Nodelman 2004: 157). The Doghill series is considered to teach accurate lessons about the past, in a way that appeals to children. When visiting a museum, children enjoy seeing the same objects they have already seen in the Doghill books. When families visit museums, children can sometimes name obsolete farm tools and objects from everyday life that even adults cannot recognise. Examples such as these show that Kunnas’s picturebooks play an important part in preserving heritage and transmitting knowledge about heritage to young readers. Not only are child readers of the Doghill books interested in visiting museums, but museums also use the Doghill series to attract families. Kunnas modelled the Doghill farm on buildings from the Yli-Kirra Farm Museum in Punkalaidun (Mauri Kunnas); nowadays, that museum is explicitly publicised as “The Doghill House”. Many other museums offer special Doghill-themed exhibitions aimed at children, and the North Ostrobothnia Museum in Oulu even has a permanent “Doghill” section where life in the past is depicted by using Doghill-themed miniatures. The The detailed illustrations in the Doghill books are evocative of picturebooks by Richard Scarry (1919–1994), a popular American author and illustrator of children’s books. Kunnas himself has mentioned Scarry as one of his sources of inspiration (Mauri Kunnas). 9 110 M. Leppälahti: Cultural Heritage in Picturebooks: Mauri Kunnas's Doghill … Doghill theme is also used in other places besides museums to attract families with children. A Doghill theme park was opened in Tampere in the summer of 2013, while the city of Turku offers visitors a “Doghill Kids’ Town Tour”, which includes sites depicted in the book The Doghill Kids Go to Town.10 Presenting the past to non-academic audiences, especially young children, is sometimes seen as problematic. Often only cultural heritage that is considered interesting and acceptable ends up being portrayed, with any difficult or unpleasant topics omitted. The past is depicted in a nostalgic and romanticised way (Bendix 1997: 188−199, Lumley 2005: 15−25). In his books, Kunnas also shows life in the past as uncomplicated and blissful. Most of the characters are shown smiling or laughing. Poverty, hunger or sickness is not depicted. The fact that timber worker Hunsteen’s entire large family lives in a single small room (in The Doghill Kids Go to Town) or that Karvaturri’s children who reside in a smoke-filled hut have only one pair of shoes they all share (in Winter at Doghill Farm) is presented merely as a curiosity. These families are also presented as happy and smiling. However, the Doghill series has not been criticised for depicting historical times and circumstances as nice and unproblematic. Dogs and the national epic In addition to the Doghill series, Mauri Kunnas is also well known for his adaptation of the Finnish national epic The Kalevala into Koirien Kalevala, which was published in 1992.11 This book has been translated into English [The Canine Kalevala (1992)], Swedish [Hundarnas Kalevala (1994)], and Karelian [Koirien Kalevala vienankarjalaksi (2010)]. In this book, once again all the characters are animals: dogs, wolves and cats. The Finnish national epic The Kalevala was compiled from Karelian and Finnish oral folklore verses by Elias Lönnrot and published in 1835. After that, Lönnrot gathered so much more folklore material that he expanded The Kalevala considerably and changed the order of some of its parts. The new Kalevala was published in 1849. What is known as The Kalevala today is the new version, while the older version from 1835 is known as “the old Kalevala”. Later, in 1862, Lönnrot made an abridged version of The Kalevala for schools (cf. Honko 2002, Kaukonen 1979). Some of Kunnas’s other books have also been used for the purposes of family tourism. The sleepwalking goat Mr. Clutterbuck is so popular that Kunnas’s home town Sastamala has a tourist attraction called “Herra Hakkaraisen talo” (Mr. Clutterbuck’s House). 11 This book has become quite popular among both children and adults in Finland. It has been adapted into many children’s theatre productions and there is even an opera version of the book. 10 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 103–120 111 Many artists have been inspired by the epic. One of them was Akseli GallenKallela (1865–1931), whose powerful paintings have acquired a canonical status among illustrations of The Kalevala (Itkonen 2009: 123). Among the most famous of Gallen-Kallela’s Kalevala paintings are Aino-triptyykki [The Aino Triptych] (1891), Sammon taonta [The Forging of the Sampo] (1893), Sammon puolustus [The Defence of the Sampo] (1896), Joukahaisen kosto [The Retribution of Joukahainen] (1897), Lemminkäisen äiti [The Mother of Lemminkäinen] (1897), Kullervon sotaanlähtö [Kullervo’s Departure for War] (1901), Sammon ryöstö [The Raid for the Sampo] (1905), and Ilmarinen kyntää kyisen pellon [Ilmarinen Ploughs a Field Full of Adders] (1928). Adaptations of all Gallen-Kallela’s paintings mentioned above can be seen in The Canine Kalevala, where they are always labelled in the margins as “a doggy adaptation of Akseli Gallen-Kallela’s [the name of the painting].” Many of Gallen-Kallela’s Kalevala paintings are widely known in Finland: they are featured in schoolbooks, magazines, on covers of books and records, on posters and in advertisements (Itkonen 2009: 123).12 Adult Finnish readers have probably seen many versions of Gallen-Kallela’s Kalevala paintings or perhaps even the originals themselves. To younger readers, the Gallen-Kallela adaptations in The Canine Kalevala can simply be pictures like all others, unless the adult reader draws their attention to them. Since the adaptations of Gallen-Kallela’s paintings in The Canine Kalevala are labelled, literate young readers might also notice that some pictures are somehow specific. The last thirty years have seen a resurgence of interest in The Kalevala. Numerous books with intertextual links to The Kalevala were published in Finland; some of them are new versions of The Kalevala, others have less obvious connections. Mauri Kunnas’s The Canine Kalevala was among the first books that marked this new wave of interest in the epic (Leppälahti 2012: 63−83). After The Canine Kalevala was published, many literary critics praised Kunnas’s attempts to present Finnish cultural heritage to children, but some were confused: what to make of dogs in the highly distinguished Kalevala epic and Gallen-Kallela’s paintings? (Virtanen 2007: 48−65). The Canine Kalevala is a picturebook, but it is often considered to be a book for both adults and children, as it can provide intellectual, aesthetic and even emotional pleasure to an adult reader (cf. Arizpe and Styles 2004: 21). The crossover readership of adults and children is often recognised as a common feature of all (quality) picturebooks. As Sandra Beckett has shown, “picturebooks offer a unique opportunity for a collaborative A Donald Duck version of Gallen-Kallela’s Sammon puolustus [The Defence of the Sampo] was used as the cover picture for Don Rosa’s 1999 comic book Sammon salaisuus [The Secret of the Sampo]. 12 112 M. Leppälahti: Cultural Heritage in Picturebooks: Mauri Kunnas's Doghill … or shared reading experience between children and adults, since they empower the two audiences more equally than other narrative forms” (2012: 2), so that “many crossover picturebooks offer challenging reading experiences for adults as well as children” (3). The original epic and The Canine Kalevala The Kalevala starts with the creation of the world. Ilmatar, the virgin spirit of the air, floats on the surface of the ocean. A bird lays an egg on her knee and the world is created from parts of the egg. The main character of The Kalevala is Väinämöinen, born as a fully grown man after Ilmatar’s thirty-year-long pregnancy. Other male heroes of The Kalevala are Ilmarinen, Lemminkäinen, Joukahainen, and Kullervo. The most important female characters are Louhi, who forces Ilmarinen to forge the Sampo,13 Aino, Kyllikki, Marjatta, and Lemminkäinen’s nameless mother. The plot of The Canine Kalevala follows the storyline of The Kalevala, but the creation of the world and the birth of Väinämöinen are left out. In some places, verses from The Kalevala have been almost directly “translated” into comprehensible prose for children.14 The narrative starts in the Kalevala village, inhabited by the wild and free dog tribe and their famous hero Väinämöinen. The neighbouring village of Pohjola is home to a fierce and mean tribe of wolves. Somewhere between these two villages lives a small tribe of cats. Adapting the story of Aino The adaptation of the story of Aino reveals the most notable differences between The Canine Kalevala and The Kalevala. In The Kalevala, Joukahainen challenges Väinämöinen to a spell-singing contest, and Väinämöinen’s spell makes Joukahainen sink into a marsh. To get out, Joukahainen promises Väinämöinen his sister Aino. Väinämöinen is thrilled, but Aino refuses to marry an old man. Väinämöinen and Aino accidentally meet in the forest: Väinämöinen is very pleased, but Aino is shocked and later drowns in the sea. In The Canine Kalevala, Väinämöinen and Joukahainen also compete against each other, and Joukahainen has to promise Väinämöinen his sister. Joukahainen, Aino, and their mother start planning the wedding, but Väinämöinen believes The Sampo is said to be a magic mill that can grind many kinds of goods. In addition to the mill, researchers have interpreted the Sampo as the sun, the moon, the North Star, a rainbow, a cloud, a temple, the image of a god, a dragon ship, a musical instrument, a shield, a shaman drum, a box, and some kind of charm or amulet (Harva 1943: 16−17). 14 The original language of The Kalevala can be quite difficult to understand even for a native Finnish speaker, because it is an archaic eastern dialect. 13 Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 103–120 113 that Aino will become his maid servant. Aino, however, really wants to marry the famous and powerful hero. Väinämöinen and Aino accidentally meet in the forest: Väinämöinen is shocked when Aino tells him they will soon get married. Later, Aino tries to catch Väinämöinen while he is swimming.15 One of Gallen-Kallela’s famous Kalevala paintings is the Aino Triptych,16 which consists of three paintings of the story of Aino. The picture on the left illustrates the meeting between Väinämöinen and Aino in the forest. The middle painting depicts the naked Aino who is in the water, trying to escape Väinämöinen, who is in a boat. The painting on the right shows the naked Aino stepping into the water, where water spirits are waiting for her. The Canine Kalevala includes adaptations of only two parts of the Triptych: the left and the middle one. In the central picture, Väinämöinen is in the water and Aino is trying to catch him from the boat. The picture resembles Gallen-Kallela’s painting, but the characters have been reversed. As mentioned above, events described in the text of The Canine Kalevala also differ from those featured in The Kalevala. The character of Aino has been the subject of critical re-evaluation. Some previous male researchers admire Aino’s “humble passive femininity” (Tarkiainen 1911: 33), but many modern female researchers see her as a strong woman who is not afraid to make decisions about her own destiny (Piela 1999: 126). Re-evaluation can also be detected in Kunnas’s interpretation of the character, seen in the novel use of the middle painting of Gallen-Kallela’s Aino Triptych (cf. Kailo 2000: 27). The reviews of The Canine Kalevala also noticed the modern presentation of the story of Aino (Virtanen 2007: 65−66). The adaptation of Gallen-Kallela’s Joukahaisen kosto [Joukahainen’s Revenge] in The Canine Kalevala shows Joukahainen who is getting ready to shoot Väinämöinen with his arrow. As in Gallen-Kallela’s painting, his mother is standing behind him, but unlike the painting, the illustration in The Canine Kalevala also depicts Aino. In The Kalevala, Joukahainen wants revenge for the outcome of the spell-singing contest. His mother asks Joukahainen not to shoot, because without Väinämöinen there would be no joy or singing in the world any more. In The Canine Kalevala, the whole family is angry because Väinämöinen did not marry Aino. Both the mother and Aino urge Joukahainen to shoot. Joukahainen shoots, and Väinämöinen falls into the water, as he does in The Kalevala.17 As in The Kalevala, in Kunnas’s book Väinämöinen and Aino do not get married. Actually there are two versions of the Aino Triptych: one from 1889 and the other from 1891. The picture in The Canine Kalevala is an adaptation of the 1891 painting. 17 In both The Kalevala and The Canine Kalevala, Väinämöinen is saved and brought to Pohjola. This is the beginning of the story of the Sampo. 15 16 114 M. Leppälahti: Cultural Heritage in Picturebooks: Mauri Kunnas's Doghill … An epic for children Literary adaptations can be motivated by a wish to present something complex and considered valuable (like Shakespeare’s plays or The Kalevala) to broader or entirely new audiences. To make them more appealing to new readers, existing texts are often presented in a more comprehensible way and, in the case of adaptations for children, made less violent and more optimistic (Hutcheon 2006: 91−92, 114; see also Müller 2014). The Canine Kalevala follows the central storyline of The Kalevala, but some episodes have been modified, while “delicate” details have been left out altogether. When he visits the village of Pohjola, Lemminkäinen does not kill its master (or anyone else, for that matter) by cutting off his head, as he does in The Kalevala, but rather causes a fight by pushing the wolves of Pohjola off a rock on which they stand singing. Later, instead of being cut into pieces on the River Tuonela, he falls into the river. In search of her son, Lemminkäinen’s mother combs the river with a rake. First she finds his socks and helmet. After finding Lemminkäinen, the mother manages to revive him by rolling his body with a piece of wood, which is shown in the picture. In The Canine Kalevala, the character of Lemminkäinen is a cat, and the text mentions that cats have nine lives. Some central figures of The Kalevala have been completely left out of The Canine Kalevala. Most notable of these omitted characters are Kyllikki, Kullervo and Marjatta. They are all connected to events and themes that might be difficult to explain to a small child, such as suicide and incest. Kyllikki is a beautiful maiden whom Lemminkäinen seizes for his wife after seducing all the other women in her home village. Kyllikki refuses his advances, so he takes her away by force, but soon abandons her and sets off to woo the Maiden of Pohjola. Kullervo becomes an orphan because of a feud between his father and his uncle, the father’s brother. His uncle repeatedly tries to kill little Kullervo by hanging or burning him, but does not succeed. When Kullervo grows up, he is sold as a slave to a blacksmith. The wife of the smith bakes a stone in the bread she gives him, and Kullervo sends the forest beasts to kill her. Later, Kullervo unknowingly seduces his own sister and ends up committing suicide. Although the character of Kullervo has been left out of The Canine Kalevala, an adaptation of Gallen-Kallela’s painting Kullervon sotaanlähtö [Kullervo’s Departure for War]18 is included. However, the picture substitutes Kullervo with Lemminkäinen. A notable difference between Gallen-Kallela’s painting and The Canine Kalevala (in addition to the change of 18 After this 1901 painting, Gallen-Kallela also painted a fresco and a tempera painting of Kullervo’s departure for war. The 1901 version was also used on a stamp in 1935. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 103–120 115 characters) is the addition of Lemminkäinen’s mother who is trying to stop her son from leaving by hanging onto his horse’s tail. Marjatta is a folktale version of the story about the Virgin Mary. Marjatta becomes pregnant from eating a lingonberry and her parents drive her away from home. Marjatta gives birth to a boy in the forest and needs someone to give him a name. Väinämöinen comes along and instead of naming the child orders that he be killed. Although he is only three nights old, the child speaks out and accuses Väinämöinen of the foul deeds he had committed in his youth. After that, Väinämöinen leaves the village of Kalevala.19 The characters and events mentioned above have probably been left out of The Canine Kalevala because they might be difficult for children to understand. It might be frightening for a child to think about Kullervo’s own uncle trying to kill him, about parents abandoning their children, or Väinämöinen sentencing a baby to death. Also, both incest and suicide are generally considered to be taboos in children’s literature (cf. Beckett 2012: 265ff). These events might also have been difficult to square with the humorous tone of The Canine Kalevala. Leaving out the most problematic themes and issues dealt with in The Kalevala, The Canine Kalevala ensures that children, as the book’s intended readers, are not exposed to topics such as sexuality and death, which might be considered inappropriate for them. When death does appear, as in the previously described example of Lemminkäinen’s death, it is placed in the context of animal life. As Sandra Beckett points out, “[u]sing animal rather than human protagonists can make the subject less painful” (2012: 257), and here it also gets a humorous aspect. For young readers, pictures in picturebooks are as important as text. They “provide an equality of access to narratives and ideas that would otherwise be denied to young readers” (Arizpe and Styles 2004: 223). The style of all the pictures in The Canine Kalevala is the same throughout, and noticing the Gallen-Kallela adaptations is not essential for understanding the story. As in the Doghill series, the pictures in The Canine Kalevala are very rich in amusing details. The child reader can be delighted by finding mice in funny places, such as inside Lemminkäinen’s birch bark horn or by little hats on the heads of adders. Humorous pictures also alleviate the more sombre episodes described in the text. Both in The Kalevala and The Canine Kalevala, the Sampo breaks and its pieces are scattered all over the sea. However, in The Canine Kalevala, small pieces are left floating on the water and waves bring some of them to the shore at the Kalevala village. Ilmarinen forges the pieces into small plaques which are attached Elias Lönnrot placed this story as the last one in The Kalevala to show that the old era has come to an end and a new one begins: Christianity takes the place of old beliefs and gods (Järvinen 1999: 146). 19 116 M. Leppälahti: Cultural Heritage in Picturebooks: Mauri Kunnas's Doghill … to leather straps and given to the villagers to wear around their necks. Väinämöinen hopes that the pieces still have enough magic left in them to give every villager a pleasant life, a juicy bone in his cup and a soft mattress to lie on – and that is exactly what happens. The last picture in The Canine Kalevala shows a dog lying on a pillow, a collar around his neck and a ribbon around his tail. The ending of the book points out that The Canine Kalevala is, after all, a story about dogs. Concluding remarks Analyses of several picturebooks by Mauri Kunnas have shown that they function as bearers of cultural heritage. The Doghill series conveys Finnish heritage by describing 19th-century rural life in western Finland and establishes links with the way this period is presented in museums, i.e. as valuable and worth preserving in the cultural memory of young generations. The Canine Kalevala is an adaptation of the Finnish epic The Kalevala, and also includes several adaptations of Akseli Gallen-Kallela’s Kalevala paintings. Both The Kalevala and the paintings by Gallen-Kallela are held in high regard in Finland. In picturebooks, the story depends on the interaction between text and image: as an art form it is “based on the combination of two levels of communication, the visual and the verbal” (Nikolajeva and Scott 2001: 1). A good picturebook, as a whole, is more than the sum of its parts: “a whole is different from the component parts, but without those parts ever actually blending into one” (Nodelman 1988: 21). In the Doghill books, the pictures are clearly more important than the text. Unfamiliar ethnographic items and activities are easier to explain through images than words. In addition, many items in the Doghill books are labelled. The Doghill series teaches its child readers history, and children become interested in the past after reading these books. Museums use the series to attract families as visitors. The Canine Kalevala also includes ethnographic material. For instance, the presentation of skis is based on ethnographic knowledge, so when Lemminkäinen is shown skiing and wearing a pair of skis in a picture, one ski is short, and one is long, as it was in the past. Adaptation involves both memory and change (Hutcheon 2006: 173). Adopting a new approach to an old story, The Canine Kalevala brings together The Kalevala (along with its canonical interpretations such as Gallen-Kallela’s paintings) and animal characters. However, this is an adult interpretation. Children are not expected to spontaneously read all cultural signs even if those signs are familiar to their parents. The cultural asymmetry between children and adults makes them comparable to two different communities with different languages and cultural backgrounds (Franco Aixelá 1996: 53−54, Oittinen 2005). When reading Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 103–120 117 about Finnish heritage, a Finnish child may occupy a position similar to that of a non-Finnish adult reader (Virtanen 2007: 96). This can be seen when reading the Doghill series with its ethnographical and historical details, but even more so in The Canine Kalevala which, in addition to the text of The Kalevala and pictures of Gallen-Kallela, contains cultural images and shows reverence for The Kalevala. While Finnish adults usually know at least something about The Kalevala, for children the story told in The Canine Kalevala is new and they do not know what to expect. Unlike in the Doghill series, text plays an important role in The Canine Kalevala. In spite of that, research done by Tarja Virtanen reveals that young children reading The Canine Kalevala usually read the pictures without text, or, rather, they use the pictures as the basis for understanding the text (Virtanen 2007: 96). Rich and humorous pictures alleviate some of the themes addressed in the text. While adult readers recognise the Gallen-Kallela adaptations in The Canine Kalevala, children probably view them just as pictures. Although The Canine Kalevala is indeed a book for both adults and children, the two groups read the book in different ways. Adults read The Canine Kalevala through The Kalevala and Gallen-Kallela, while children see it is as a new story with humorous pictures. However, when encountering the original Kalevala in later years, they may be able to relate the story they remember from their childhood with ancient Finnish cultural and literary traditions, and discover new meanings. References Primary sources Kivi, Aleksis. 1985 (1870). Seitsemän veljestä. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Kunnas, Mauri. 1979. Suomalainen tonttukirja. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 1980. Koiramäen talossa. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 1981. Joulupukki. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 1982. Koiramäen lapset kaupungissa. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 1988. Koiramäen talvi. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 1992a. Koirien Kalevala. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 1992b. The Canine Kalevala. Translated by Tim Steffa. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 1994. Hundarnas Kalevala. Translated by Lars Huldén. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 1997. Koiramäen lasten joulukirkko. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 1999. Hyvää yötä, herra Hakkarainen. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 2000. Koiramäen Martta ja Tiernapojat. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 2002. Seitsemän koiraveljestä. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 2005. Koiramäen Martta ja Ruuneperi. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 2007. Koiramäen lapset ja näkki. Helsinki: Otava. Kunnas, Mauri. 2010. Koirien Kalevala vienankarjalaksi. Translated by Nadja Lutohina. Helsinki: Otava. 118 M. Leppälahti: Cultural Heritage in Picturebooks: Mauri Kunnas's Doghill … Kunnas, Mauri. 2013. Koiramäen tarinat (Koiramäen talossa, Koiramäen lapset kaupungissa, Koiramäen talvi, Koiramäen joulukirkko, Koiramäen lapset ja näkki). Helsinki: Otava. Lönnrot, Elias. 1849. Kalevala. Available from <www.finlit.fi/kalevala > (accessed March 04, 2015). Secondary sources Arizpe, Evelyn and Morag Styles. 2004. Children Reading Pictures. Interpreting Visual Texts. London and New York: RoutledgeFalmer, Taylor & Francis Group. Beckett, Sandra. 2012. Crossover Picturebooks: A Genre for All Ages. New York and London: Routledge. Bendix, Regina. 1997. In Search of Authenticity: The Formation of Folklore Studies. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Bendix, Regina. 2000. “Heredity, Hybridity and Heritage.ˮ In Folklore, Heritage Politics and Diversity, edited by Pertti J. Anttonen, in collaboration with Anna-Leena Siikala, Stein R. Mathisen and Leif Magnusson, 38–54. Botkyrka: Multicultural Centre. Franco Aixelá, Javier. 1996. “Culture-Specific Items in Translation.” In Translation, Power, Subversion, edited by Román Alvarez and M. Carmen-África Vidal, 52−78. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Garavini, Melissa. 2014. La traduzione della letteratura per l’infanzia del finlandese all’italiano: l’esempio degli albi illustrati di Mauri Kunnas. Turku: University of Turku, 2014. Available from < http://www.doria.fi/handle/10024/96476 > (accessed May 25, 2015). Genette, Gérard. 1997. Palimpsests. Literature in the Second Degree. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Hall, Stuart. 2007. “Whose Heritage? Un-settling ‘The Heritage’, Re-imagining the Postnation.ˮ In Cultural Heritage: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies, vol. 2, edited by Laurajane Smith, 87–100. London: Routledge. Happonen, Sirke. 2001. “Liike, kuvakirja ja kuvitettu teksti.” In Tutkiva katse kuvakirjaan, edited by Kaisu Rättyä & Raija Raussi, 101−131. Helsinki: BTJ Kirjastopalvelu. Harva, Uno. 1943. Sammon ryöstö. Helsinki: WSOY. Harvey, David C. 2007. “Heritage Pasts and Heritage Presents: Temporality, Meaning and the Scope of Heritage Studies.ˮ In Cultural Heritage: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies, vol. 1, edited by Laurajane Smith, 25–44. London: Routledge. Havaste, Paula. 2001. “Mauri Kunnas.” In Kotimaisia lasten- ja nuortenkirjailijoita 3, edited by Ismo Loivamaa, 136−141. Helsinki: BTJ Kirjastopalvelu. Honko, Lauri, ed. 2002. The Kalevala and the World’s Traditional Epics. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Hovi, Tuomas. 2014. Heritage through Fiction. Dracula Tourism in Romania. Turku: University of Turku. Hutcheon, Linda. 2006. A Theory of Adaptation. New York and London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Hyvönen, Hanna-Maria. 2004. La traduzione dei culture-bound nei testi di ambientazione natalizia di Mauri Kunnas. Turku: University of Turku. Itkonen, Satu. 2009. “Kansallisten ikonien kommentteja.” In Kalevala kuvissa, edited by Riitta Ojanperä, 123−139. Helsinki: Valtion taidemuseo. Järvinen, Irma-Riitta. 1999. “Marjatta.” In Kalevalan hyvät ja hävyttömät, edited by Ulla Piela, Seppo Knuuttila & Tarja Kupiainen, 146−147. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Libri & Liberi • 2015 • 4 (1): 103–120 119 Järvinen, Elina. 2011. Henkilönnimet Mauri Kunnaksen Koiramäki-kirjoissa. Turku: University of Turku. Kailo, Kaarina. 2000. “Monoculture, Gender and Nationalism: The Kalevala as a Tool of Acculturation.” In Ethical Challenges for Teacher Education and Teaching: Special Focus on Gender and Multicultural Issues, edited by Vappu Sunnari & Rauni Räsänen, 13−37. Oulu: Oulu University Press. Kaukonen, Väinö. 1979. Lönnrot ja Kalevala. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Kress, Gunther and Theo van Leeuwen. 2006. Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. London: Routledge. Leppälahti, Merja. 2012. “Le Kalevala dans la littérature finlandaide contemporaine.” In Le Fantastique et la science-fiction en Finlande et en Estonie, edited by Martin Carayol, 63–83. Paris: L’Harmattan. Lucas, Ann Lawson, ed. 2003. The Presence of the Past in Children’s Literature. Westport, CT: Praeger. Lumley, Robert. 2005. “The Debate on Heritage Reviewed.” In Heritage, Museums and Galleries, edited by Gerard Corsane, 15−25. London: Routledge. Mauri Kunnas. <http://maurikunnas.net/> (accessed March 04, 2015). McCloud, Scott. 1994. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. New York: HarperPerennial. Müller, Anja. 2014. Adapting Canonical Texts in Children’s Literature. London, New Delhi, New York, Sydney: Bloomsbury. Nikolajeva, Maria and Carole Scott. 2001. How Picturebooks Work. London and New York: Garland. Nodelman, Perry. 1988. Words about Pictures: The Narrative Art of Children’s Picture Books. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. Nodelman, Perry. 2004. “Picture Books and Illustration.” In International Companion Encyclopedia of Children’s Literature, 2nd edn., edited by Peter Hunt, 154–165. London and New York: Routledge. Oittinen, Riitta. 2005. “Translating Culture.” Literatuur zonder leeftijd 19 (67): 45–56. Avaliable from <http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_lit004200501_01/_lit004200501_01_00 22.php> (accessed May 25, 2015). Piela, Ulla. 1999. “Aino-myytti.” In Kalevalan hyvät ja hävyttömät, edited by Ulla Piela, Seppo Knuuttila & Tarja Kupiainen, 118−130. Helsinki: Finnish Literary Society. Press release of Aalto University. 26th October 2012. Available from < http://design.aalto.fi/ fi/current/news/view/1e21f45e66875521f4511e289ebb32d053d5ecb5ecb/> (accessed May 25, 2015). Rosa, Don. 1999. Sammon salaisuus ja muita Don Rosan parhaita [The Quest for Kalevala]. Translated by Jukka Lindfors. Helsinki: Helsinki Media. Saarinen, Liisa. 2013. Adaptaatio kuvan ja sanan keinoin Mauri Kunnaksen teoksessa Koiramäen Martta ja Ruuneperi. Turku: University of Turku. Schwarcz, Joseph H. 1982. Ways of the Illustrator: Visual Communication in Children’s Literature. Chicago: American Library Association. Stephens, John. 1992. Language and Ideology in Children’s Fiction. London and New York: Longman. Tarkiainen, Viljo. 1911. Aino ja muut Kalevalan naiset. Helsinki: WSOY. Teittinen, Laura. 2014. Poistoja, korvauksia ja äänteellisiä mukaelmia. Erisnimien kääntäminen suomesta saksaksi neljässä Mauri Kunnaksen jouluaiheisessa lastenkirjassa. Turku: University of Turku. Tjnk. “The Reasoning of State Awards for Public Information 2013.” Available from <http:// www.tjnk.fi/fi/tsvfm > (accessed March 04, 2015). 120 M. Leppälahti: Cultural Heritage in Picturebooks: Mauri Kunnas's Doghill … Virtanen, Tarja. 2007. Eläväksi haukuttu Kalevala. Mauri Kunnaksen Koirien Kalevalan aikuis- ja lapsilukijoiden vastaanotto. Master thesis. Tampere: University of Tampere. Ylimartimo, Sisko. 2001. “Kanssa ja lisää, vaiko ohi ja jopa vastaan? Lastenkirjan kuvittaja myötä- ja mielikuvittelijana.” In Tutkiva katse kuvakirjaan, edited by Kaisu Rättyä & Raija Raussi, 79−100. Helsinki: BTJ Kirjastopalvelu. Merja Leppälahti Sveučilište u Turkuu, Finska Universität Turku, Finnland Kulturna baština u slikovnicama: Koiramäki i Koirien Kalevala Maurija Kunnasa U radu se neke od slikovnica svjetski poznatoga i istaknutoga finskoga autora Maurija Kunnasa analiziraju kao nositeljice finske kulturne baštine. Njegova serija slikovnica Koiramäki, u engleskome prijevodu Doghill [Pseće brdo], predstavlja baštinu opisujući seoski život na zapadu Finske u 19. stoljeću. Kunnasova slikovnica Koirien Kalevala, engleski The Canine Kalevala [Pseća Kalevala], adaptacija je finskoga epa Kalevala te uključuje i nekoliko adaptacija slika Akselija Gallen-Kallele nadahnutih Kalevalom. I ep i slike Gallen-Kallele u Finskoj su vrlo cijenjeni, a Kunnas ih prilagođava dječjim čitateljima posežući za životinjskim likovima, izbjegavajući problematične teme i dodajući humor u svoja prepričavanja. Upućeni odrasli čitatelj slikovnicu The Canine Kalevala čita kao adaptaciju Kalevale, s razumijevanjem složenih kulturnih i književnih referencija, dok dječji čitatelj u knjizi vidi novu i uzbudljivu priču. Ključne riječi: adaptacija, Koiramäki, Akseli Gallen-Kallela, baština, Kalevala, Mauri Kunnas, slikovnica Kulturerbe in Bilderbüchern: Koiramäki und Koirien Kalevala von Mauri Kunnas Im Beitrag werden einige der Bilderbücher des weltbekannten finnischen Autors Mauri Kunnas als Träger des finnischen Kulturerbes untersucht. Seine Bilderbuchserie Koiramäki [dt. Hundeberg] stellt einen Beitrag zur Erhaltung des finnischen kulturellen Erbes dar, weil darin das Bauernleben im Norden Finnlands des 19. Jahrhunderts beschrieben wird. Das Bilderbuch von Kunnas unter dem Titel Koirien Kalevala [dt. Hundekalevala] ist eine Adaption des finnischen Kalevala-Epos und enthält einige Adaptionen der durch diesen Epos inspirierten Bilder von Akseli Gallen-Kallela. Sowohl der Epos als auch die Bilder von Gallen-Kallela werden in Finnland sehr geschätzt. Kunnas passt diese an die Fähigkeiten der junge Leser an, indem er in der Nacherzählung des Epos nach Tiergestalten greift, problematische Themen vermeidet und das Erzählte mit viel Humor ausstattet. Der schon versierte erwachsene Leser liest das Bilderbuch Koirien Kalevala als eine KalevalaAdaption mit Verständnis für die darin enthaltenen komplexen kulturellen und literarischen Bezüge, während der junge Leser im Buch eine neue und aufregende Geschichte entdeckt. Schlüsselwörter: Adaption, Koiramäki, Akseli Gallen-Kallela, Kulturerbe, Kalevala, Mauri Kunnas, Bilderbuch
NEKROLOG
