Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico
1
Puerto Rico
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico (Spanish)
Motto:Ä
Latin: Joannes Est Nomen Eius
Spanish: Juan es su nombre
English: John is his name
Anthem:ÄLa BorinqueÄa
Capital
(and largest city)
Official language(s)
Ethnic groups
Demonym
Government
San Juan
18Ä27ÄN 66Ä6ÄW
[1]
Spanish and English
White (mostly Spanish origin) 75.8%, Black 12.4%, Asian 0.2%, Amerindian 0.5%, SOR 7.8%, other
[2]
3.3% (2010)
Puerto Rican
Republic, three-branch government
Å-Å
President
Barack Obama (D)
Å-Å
Governor
Luis FortuÇo (PNP/R)
Å-Å
Federal legislative
branch
United States Congress
Legislature
Legislative Assembly
Å-Å
Upper house
Senate
Å-Å
Lower house
House of Representatives
Puerto Rico
2
[3]
Sovereignty
United States
Å-Å
Cession
December 10, 1898 from
Kingdom of Spain
Å-Å
Autonomy
November 25, 1897 Supreme Authority and Sovereignty was retained by the Kingdom of Spain.
[4]
Area
Å-Å
Total
9,104Åkm2Å(169th)
3,515ÅsqÅmiÅ
Å-Å
WaterÅ(%)
1.6
Population
[5]
Å-Å
2011Åestimate
3,706,690
Å-Å
Density
418/km2Å(21st in the world; 2nd in U.S.)
1082/sqÅmi
Å(127th in the world; 29th in U.S.)
GDPÅ(PPP)
2009Åestimate
Å-Å
Total
$ 108.441 billion
Å-Å
Per capita
$ 27,384.27
[7]
Å(-)
Å(N/A)
GDP (nominal)
2010Åestimate
Å-Å
Total
$96.26 Åbillion
Å-Å
Per capita
$24,229
[8]
Å(58)
[8]
[9]
GiniÅ(2009)
53.2
HDIÅ(2004)
0,867
Å-Å
[6]
Å(34)
Å(?th)
[10]
Å(Very High)Å(Not ranked)
Currency
United States dollar (USD)
Time zone
AST (UTCÅ4)
SummerÅ(DST)
No DSTÅ(UTCÅ4)
Drives on the
right
ISOÄ3166Äcode
PR
Internet TLD
.pr
Calling code
+1 (spec. +1-787 and +1-939)
Puerto Rico (/ÇpÉrtÑÖriÜkoá/ or /ÇpwàÑrtÑÖriÜkoá/),[11] officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Spanish:
Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, Spanish pronunciation:Å[esÖtaÉo Ölibâe asoÖsjaÉo Ée Öpweâto Öriko]äliterally,
"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"), is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the
northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the
British Virgin Islands.
Puerto Rico (Spanish for "rich port") comprises an archipelago that includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a
number of smaller islands, the largest of which are Vieques, Culebra, and Mona. The main island of Puerto Rico is
the smallest by land area of the Greater Antilles. However, it ranks third in population amongst that group of four
islands, which also include Cuba, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), and Jamaica. Due to its location,
Puerto Rico enjoys a tropical climate and also experiences the Atlantic hurricane season.
Originally populated for centuries by indigenous aboriginal peoples known as TaÑnos, the island was claimed by
Christopher Columbus for Spain during his second voyage to the Americas on November 19, 1493. Under Spanish
Puerto Rico
3
rule, the island was colonized and the indigenous population was forced into slavery and nearly wiped out due to,
among other things, European infectious diseases. The remaining population was emancipated by King Charles I in
1520. Spain possessed Puerto Rico for over 400 years, despite attempts at capture of the island by the French, Dutch,
and British. The Spanish Crown, in an attempt to keep Puerto Rico from gaining its independence, revived the Royal
Decree of Graces of 1815. The decree was printed in three languages ä Spanish, English and French ä and it
fostered the immigration of hundreds of non-Spanish European families.[12]
The relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States dates back to the Spanish-American War, in which
Spain, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, ceded the island to the United States. Puerto Ricans became
U.S. citizens in 1917, and the United States Congress legislates many aspects of Puerto Rican life.[13] However, the
islanders may not vote in U.S. presidential elections.[14][15] Since 1947, Puerto Ricans have been able to elect their
own governor. Its official languages are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. The island's
current political status, including the possibility of statehood or independence, is widely debated in Puerto Rico. A
referendum on statehood, independence, or continuance of the status quo will be held on November 6, 2012.
Name
Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen, from BorikÅn, its indigenous TaÑno name, which means "Land of the
Valiant Lord".[16][17][18] The terms boricua and borincano derive from BorikÅn and Borinquen respectively, and are
commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also popularly known in Spanish as la
isla del encanto, which means "the island of enchantment" in English.
Christopher Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist. Eventually, traders
and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as "Puerto Rico", and "San Juan" became the name of
the main trading/shipping port.
History
Pre-Columbian era
The ancient history of the archipelago known today as "Puerto Rico" before the arrival of Christopher Columbus is
not well known. Unlike other larger more advanced indigenous communities in the New World (Aztec, Inca) which
left behind abundant archeological and physical evidence of their societies, the indigenous population of Puerto Rico
left scant records. What is known today about them comes from scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish
scholarly accounts. Today, there are few and rare cave drawings, rock carvings and ancient recreational activity sites
that have been identified with some degree of speculation as to who left them behind. The first comprehensive book
on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray ÖÇigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, almost three centuries after the
first Spaniards arrived on the island.[19]
The first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture
of Amerindian hunters and fishermen. An archaeological dig in the
island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be
an Arcaico (Archaic) man (named "Puerto Ferro Man") dated to around
2000ÅBCE.[20] The Igneri, a tribe from the region of the Orinoco river,
in northern South America, arrived between 120 and 400ÅCE. The
Arcaicos and Igneri co-existed on the island between the 4th and 10th
centuries, and perhaps clashed.
TaÑno Village at the Tibes Ceremonial Center
Puerto Rico
4
Between the 7th and 11th centuries the TaÑno culture developed on the island, and by approximately 1000ÅCE had
become dominant. At the time of Columbus' arrival, an estimated 30 to 60 thousand TaÑno Amerindians, led by
cacique (chief) AgÜeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it Boriken, "the great land of the valiant and noble
Lord".[21] The natives lived in small villages led by a cacique and subsisted on hunting, fishing and gathering of
indigenous cassava root and fruit. This lasted until Columbus arrived in 1493.[22][23] However, Puerto Rican culture
today exhibits many TaÑno influences within its music and vocabulary.
Spanish colony
Further information: Military history of Puerto Rico#Europeans fight over Puerto RicoÅandÅMilitary history of Puerto
Rico#Revolt against Spain
When Christopher Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on November 19, 1493, the island was
inhabited by the TaÑnos.[24] They called the island "Borikàn" or, in Spanish, "Borinquen".[25] Columbus named the
island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist. The first Spanish settlement, Caparra, was founded on
August 8, 1508 by Juan Ponce de Leân, a lieutenant under Columbus, who later became the first governor of the
island.[26] Eventually, traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as "Puerto Rico", and
"San Juan" became the name of the main trading/shipping port.
Garita at fort San Felipe del Morro
Soon thereafter, the Spanish began to colonize the island. The
indigenous population (TaÑnos) came to be exploited and forced into
slavery.[15] Within 50 years they were reduced to near extinction by
the harsh conditions of work and by European infectious diseases to
which they had no natural immunity.[27] For example, the smallpox
outbreak in 1518Å1519 wiped out much of the Island's indigenous
population.[28] In 1520, King Charles I of Spain issued a royal decree
collectively emancipating the remaining TaÑno population. Essentially,
the TaÑno presence while not completely extinct had almost
vanished.[29]
The importation of Sub-Saharan African slaves was introduced to provide the new manual work force for the
Spanish colonists and merchants. Following the decline of the TaÑno population, more slaves were brought to Puerto
Rico; however, the number of slaves on the island paled in comparison to those in neighboring islands.[30] African
slavery was primarily restricted to coastal ports and cities, while the interior of the island continued to be essentially
unexplored and undeveloped. Spanish and other European colonists were concentrated in island's seaports. Puerto
Rico soon became an important stronghold and a significant port for Spanish Main colonial expansion. Various forts
and walls, such as La Fortaleza, El Castillo San Felipe del Morro and El Castillo de San Cristâbal, were built to
protect the strategic port of San Juan from numerous European invasion attempts. San Juan served as an important
port-of-call for ships of all European nations for purposes of taking on water, food and other commercial provisions
and mercantile exchange.
Puerto Rico
In 1607, Puerto Rico served as a port provisioning the English ships
Godspeed, Susan Constant and Discovery, which were on their way to
establish Jamestown, Virginia, the first successful English settlement
in the New World. The Netherlands and England made several
attempts to capture Puerto Rico but failed to wrest it from the
long-term possession by Spain, which held tenaciously onto its
increasingly prized island colony.[31][32]
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Spanish colonial
emphasis continued to be focussed on the more prosperous mainland
North, Central, and South American colonies. This continued
distraction on the part of the Spanish Crown left the island of Puerto
Rico virtually unexplored, undeveloped, and (excepting coastal
outposts) largely unsettled before the nineteenth century. But as
independence movements in the larger Spanish colonies grew
Marker in Puerto Rico which traces the routes
successful, Spain began to pay attention to Puerto Rico as one of its
taken by the Godspeed, Susan Constant and the
Discovery and which commemorates their
last remaining maritime colonies. Amidst the attacks, Puerto Rican
stopping in Puerto Rico from AprilÅ6 to 10, 1607
culture began to flourish. In 1786, the first comprehensive history of
on their way to Virginia
Puerto RicoäHistoria GeogrÇfica, Civil y PolÉtica de Puerto Rico by
Fray IÇigo Abbad y Lasierraäwas published in Madrid, documenting
the history of Puerto Rico from the time of Columbus' landing in 1493 until 1783.[33] The book also presents a first
hand account of Puerto Rican identity, including music, clothing, personality and nationality.
In 1779, citizens of the still-Spanish colony of Puerto Rico fought in the American Revolutionary War under the
command of Bernardo de Gálvez, named Field Marshal of the Spanish colonial army in North America. Puerto
Ricans participated in the capture of Pensacola, the capital of the British colony of West Florida, and the cities of
Baton Rouge, St. Louis and Mobile. The Puerto Rican troops, under the leadership of Brigadier General Ramân de
Castro,[34] helped defeat the British and Indian army of 2,500 soldiers and British warships in Pensacola.[35]
In 1809, in a further move to secure its political bond with the island and in the midst of the European Peninsular
War, the Supreme Central Junta based in Cádiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain with the
right to send representatives to the recently convened Spanish parliament with equal representation to Mainland
Iberian, Mediterranean (Balearic Islands) and Atlantic maritime Spanish provinces (Canary Islands). The first
Spanish parliamentary representative from the island of Puerto Rico, Ramon Power y Giralt, died after serving a
three-year term in the Cortes. These parliamentary and constitutional reforms, which were in force from 1810 to
1814 and again from 1820 to 1823, were reversed twice afterwards when the traditional monarchy was restored by
FerdinandÅVII. Nineteenth century immigration and commercial trade reforms further augmented the island's
European population and economy, and expanded Spanish cultural and social imprint on the local character of the
island.
5
Puerto Rico
6
Minor slave revolts had occurred in the island during this period,
However the revolt planned and organized by Marcos Xiorro in 1821,
was the most important of them all. Even though the conspiracy was
unsuccessful, Xiorro achieved legendary status among the slaves and is
part of Puerto Rico's folklore.[36]
In the early 19th century, Puerto Rico had an Independence movement
which, due to the harsh persecution by the Spanish authorities, met in the
island of St. Thomas. The movement was largely inspired by the ideals of
Simân BolÑvar of establishing a United Provinces of New Granada which
included Puerto Rico and Cuba. Among the influential members of this
movement was Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabe, a Puerto
Rican military leader known in Latin America as the "Liberator from
Puerto Rico" who fought alongside Bolivar and MarÑa de las Mercedes
Barbudo, a businesswoman also known as the "first Puerto Rican female
freedom fighter". The movement was discovered and Governor Miguel
de la Torre had its members imprisoned or exiled.[37]
With the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish
colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the
century, Puerto Rico and Cuba continued to grow in strategic importance
to the Spanish Crown. In a very deliberate move to increase its hold on its last two new world colonies, the Spanish
Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. This time the decree was printed in three languages: Spanish,
English and French. Its primary intent was to attract Europeans of who were not of Spanish origin, with the hope that
the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with increase of new loyalist settlers with
strong sympathies to Spain. As a consequence hundreds of families, mainly from Corsica, France, Germany, Ireland,
Italy and Scotland, immigrated to the island.[12]
Royal Decree of Graces, 1815, which allowed
foreigners to enter Puerto Rico
In 1858, Samuel Morse introduced wired communication to Latin America when he established a telegraph system
in Puerto Rico. Morse's oldest daughter Susan Walker Morse (1821Å1885), would often visit her uncle Charles
Pickering Walker who owned the Hacienda Concordia in the town of Guayama. Morse, who often spent his winters
at the Hacienda with his daughter and son-in-law, who lived and owned the Habienda Henriqueta, set a two-mile
telegraph line connecting his son-in-law's hacienda to their house in Arroyo. The line was inaugurated on March 1,
1859 in a ceremony flanked by the Spanish and American flags.[38][39] The first lines transmitted by Morse that day
in Puerto Rico were:
"Puerto Rico, beautiful jewel! When you are linked with the other jewels of the Antilles in the necklace
of the world's telegraph, yours will not shine less brilliantly in the crown of your Queen!"
As an incentive to immigrate and colonize, free land was offered to those who wanted to populate the two islands on
the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.[12] It
was very successful and European immigration continued even after 1898. Puerto Rico today still receives Spanish
and European immigration.
Puerto Rico
7
Poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant
uprising in 1868 known as "Grito de Lares." It began in the rural town of Lares,
but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastián.
Leaders of this independence movement included Ramân Emeterio Betances,
considered the "father" of the Puerto Rican independence movement, and other
political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis.
The Original Lares Revolutionary
Flag
Leaders of "El Grito de Lares", who were in exile in New York City,
joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, founded on
December 8, 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican
independence. In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders
of the independence movement of the town of Yauco organized
another uprising, which became known as the "Intentona de Yauco".
This was the first time that the current Puerto Rican flag was unfurled
on Puerto Rican soil. The local conservative political factions, which
believed that such an attempt would be a threat to their struggle for
Flag flown by Fidel Vàlez and his men during the
(colonial) autonomy, opposed such an action. Rumors of the planned
"Intentona de Yauco" revolt
event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put
an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.[40]
In 1897, Luis MuÇoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to Charters of Autonomy
for Cuba and Puerto Rico. In 1898, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, autonomous government was organized as an
'overseas province' of Spain. This bilaterally agreed-upon charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, which
held the power to annul any legislative decision, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February,
Governor-General Manuel MacÑas inaugurated the new government under the Autonomous Charter. General
elections were held in March and the autonomous government began to function on July 17, 1898.[41][42][43]
United States colony
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and
leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power
upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy
modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the
acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea which would serve as coaling and
naval stations and which would serve as strategical points of defense upon the
construction of a canal in the Isthmus.[44]
This idea was not new, since William H. Seward, the former Secretary of State
under the administrations of various presidents, among them Abraham Lincoln
First Company of native Puerto
and Ulysses Grant, had stressed that a canal be built either in Honduras,
Ricans enlisted in the American
Nicaragua or Panama and that the United States annex the Dominican Republic
Colonial Army, 1899
and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The idea of annexing the Dominican
Republic failed to receive the approval of the U.S. Senate and Spain did not
accept the 160 million dollars which the U.S. offered for Puerto Rico and Cuba.[44]
Puerto Rico
Captain Mahan made the following statement to the War Department:
Having therefore no foreign establishments either colonial or military, the ships of war of the United
States, in war will be like land birds, unable to fly far from their own shores. To provide resting places
for them where they can coal and repair, would be one of the first duties of a government proposing to
itself the development of the power of the nation at sea[45]
Since 1894, the Naval War College had been formulating contingency plans for a war with Spain. By 1896, the
Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. This
prewar planning did not contemplate major territorial acquisitions. Except for one 1895 plan which recommended
annexation of the island then named Isle of Pines (later renamed as Isla de la Juventud), a recommendation dropped
in later planning, plans developed for attacks on Spanish territories were intended as support operations against
Spain's forces in and around Cuba.[46] However, Jorge Rodriguez Beruf, recognized as a foremost researcher on
United States militarism in Puerto Rico,[47] writes that not only was Puerto Rico considered valuable as a naval
station, Puerto Rico and Cuba were also abundant in sugar Å a valuable commercial commodity which the United
States lacked.[48]
On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish-American War, Puerto Rico was
invaded by the United States with a landing at Guánica. As an outcome
of the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the Philippines and
Guam, that were under Spanish sovereignty, to the U.S. under the
Treaty of Paris. Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba, but did not
cede it to the U.S.[49]
The United States and Puerto Rico thus began a long-standing
relationship. Puerto Rico began the 20th century under the military rule
Children in a company housing settlement, San
of the U.S. with officials, including the governor, appointed by the
Juan, 1941
President of the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto
Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government, including a
popularly elected House of Representatives, also a judicial system following the American legal system that includes
both state courts and federal courts establishing a Puerto Rico Supreme Court and a United State District Court; and
a non-voting member of Congress, by the title of "Resident Commissioner". In addition, this Act extended all U.S.
laws "not locally inapplicable" to Puerto Rico, specifying specific exemption from U.S. Internal Revenue laws.[50]
The act empowered the civil government to legislate on "all matters of legislative character not locally inapplicable",
including the power to modify and repeal any laws then in existence in Puerto Rico, though the U.S. Congress
[50][51]
retained the power to annul acts of the Puerto Rico legislature.
During an address to the Puerto Rican
legislature in 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens.[50][52] In
1917, Puerto Ricans were made U.S. citizens[53] via the Jones Act. The same Act also provided for a popularly
elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly, a bill of rights and authorized the election of a
Resident Commissioner to a four-year term. As a result of their new U.S. citizenship, many Puerto Ricans were
drafted into World WarÅI and all subsequent wars with U.S. participation in which a national military draft was in
effect.
8
Puerto Rico
Natural disasters, including a major earthquake, a tsunami and several
hurricanes, and the Great Depression impoverished the island during
the first few decades under U.S. rule.[54] Some political leaders, like
Pedro Albizu Campos who led the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party,
demanded change. On March 21, 1937, a march was organized in the
southern city of Ponce by the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. This
march turned bloody when the Insular Police, "a force somewhat
resembling the National Guard which answered to the U.S.-appointed
governor",[55] opened fire upon unarmed[55] and defenseless[56] cadets
and bystanders alike,[55][56] as reported by a U.S. Congressman Vito
Soldiers of the 65th Infantry training in Salinas,
Marcantonio and the "Hays Commission" led by Arthur Garfield Hays.
Puerto Rico, August 1941
Nineteen were killed and over 200 were badly wounded,[56] many in
their backs while running away.[56][57] An American Civil Liberties Union report declared it a massacre[56] and it has
since been known as the Ponce Massacre. On April 2, 1943, U.S. Senator Millard Tydings introduced a bill in
Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico. This bill ultimately was defeated.[50]
The internal governance changed during the latter years of the RooseveltÅTruman administrations, as a form of
compromise led by Luis MuÇoz MarÑn and others. It culminated with the appointment by President Truman in 1946
of the first Puerto Rican-born governor, Jesäs T. PiÇero.
Commonwealth
In 1947, the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to elect democratically their own governor. Luis MuÇoz MarÑn was
elected during the 1948 general elections, becoming the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico.
A Bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and
nationalist movements in the island. The Senate at the time was controlled by the PPD, and was presided over by
Luis MuÇoz MarÑn.[58] The Bill, also known as the Ley de la Mordaza ("Gag Law") was approved by the legislature
on May 21, 1948. It made it illegal to display a Puerto Rican flag, to sing a patriotic tune, to talk of independence, or
to fight for the liberation of the island. The Bill, which resembled the anti-communist Smith Law passed in the
United States, was signed and made into law on June 10, 1948, by the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesäs
T. PiÇero, and became known as Ley 53 ("Law 53").[59] In accordance to the new law, it would be a crime to print,
publish, sell, exhibit, organize or help anyone organize any society, group or assembly of people whose intentions
are to paralyze or destroy the insular government. Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be
sentenced to ten years of prison, be fined $10,000 dollars (US), or both. According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa, a
member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives, the law was repressive, and was in violation of the First
Amendment of the US Constitution, which guarantees Freedom of Speech. He pointed out that the law as such was a
violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico. The infamous law was repealed in 1957.[60]
9
Puerto Rico
10
In 1950, the U.S. Congress approved Public Law 600 (P.L. 81-600)
which allowed for a democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to
determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local
constitution.[61] This act was meant to be adopted in the "nature of a
compact". It required congressional approval of the Puerto Rico
Constitution before it could go into effect, and repealed certain sections
of the Organic Act of 1917. The sections of this statute left in force
were then entitled the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act.[62][63]
Painting depiction of the U.S. 65th Infantry
Regiment's bayonet charge against a Chinese
division during the Korean War.
External videos
View newsreel scenes in Spanish of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s
[64]
On October 30, 1950, Pedro Albizu Campos and other nationalists led a 3-day revolt against the United States in
various cities and towns of Puerto Rico in what is known as the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s.
The most notable occurred in Jayuya and Utuado. In the Jayuya revolt, known as the Jayuya Uprising, the United
States declared martial law, and attacked Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers. The Utuado Uprising
culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre. On November 1, 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists Griselio
Torresola and Oscar Collazo attempted to assassinate President Harry S Truman. Torresola was killed during the
attack, but Collazo was captured. Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, being released in 1979. Don Pedro
Albizu Campos also served many years in a federal prison in Atlanta, Georgia, for seditious conspiracy to overthrow
the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.[65]
The Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by a Constitutional Convention on February 6, 1952, ratified by the
U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on July 3 of that year, and proclaimed by Gov. MuÇoz MarÑn on July
25, 1952, on the anniversary of the July 25, 1898, landing of U.S. troops in the Puerto Rican Campaign of the
Spanish-American War, until then an annual Puerto Rico holiday. Puerto Rico adopted the name of Estado Libre
Asociado (literally "Free Associated State", officially translated into English as Commonwealth), for its body
politic.[66][67] The United States Congress legislates over many fundamental aspects of Puerto Rican life, including
citizenship, currency, postal service, foreign affairs, military defense, communications, labor relations, the
environment, commerce, finance, health and welfare, and many others.[13][68]
During the 1950s, Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to OperaciÑn Manos a la Obra
("Operation Bootstrap"), an offshoot of FDR's New Deal, which aimed to transform Puerto Rico's economy from
agriculture-based to manufacturing-based. Presently, Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination, as well as a
global center for pharmaceutical manufacturing.[69] Yet it still struggles to define its political status. Three
plebiscites have been held in recent decades to resolve the political status, but no changes have been attained.
Support for the pro-statehood party, Partido Nuevo Progresista (PNP), and the pro-commonwealth party, Partido
Popular DemocrÇtico (PPD), remains about equal. The only registered pro-independence party, the Partido
Independentista PuertorriqueÄo (PIP), usually receives 3Å5% of the electoral votes.
Puerto Rico
Government and politics
Puerto Rico has a republican form of government,[70] subject to U.S.
jurisdiction and sovereignty.[3] Its current powers are all delegated by
the United States Congress and lack full protection under the United
States Constitution.[71] Puerto Rico's head of state is the President of
the United States.
The government of Puerto Rico, based on the formal republican
system, is composed of three branches: executive, legislative, and
judicial. The executive branch is headed by the Governor, currently
Luis FortuÇo. The legislative branch consists of a bicameral
The Capitol of Puerto Rico, home of the
Legislative Assembly made up of a Senate upper chamber and a House
Legislative Assembly in Puerto Rico
of Representatives lower chamber. The Senate is headed by the
President of the Senate, while the House of Representatives is headed by the Speaker of the House.
The judicial branch is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico. The legal system is a mix of
the civil law and the common law systems. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four
years. Members of the Judicial branch are appointed by the governor with the "advice and consent" of the Senate.
Puerto Rico is represented in the United States Congress by a nonvoting delegate, formally called a Resident
Commissioner (currently Pedro Pierluisi). Current legislation has returned the Commissioner's power to vote in the
Committee of the Whole, but not on matters where the vote would represent a decisive participation.[72] Puerto Rican
elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission and the State Elections Commission of Puerto
Rico.[73][74] While residing in Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, but they can
vote in primaries. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a U.S. state can vote in presidential elections.
Puerto Rico is not an independent country and, as such, it hosts no embassies. It is host, however, to consulates from
41 countries, mainly from the Americas and Europe.[75] Most consulates are located in San Juan. As an
unincorporated territory of the United States, Puerto Rico does not have any first-order administrative divisions as
defined by the U.S. government, but has 78 municipalities at the second level. Mona Island is not a municipality, but
part of the municipality of MayagÜez.[76]
Municipalities are subdivided into wards or barrios, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a mayor and a
municipal legislature elected for a four year term. The municipality of San Juan (previously called "town"), was
founded first, in 1521, San Germán in 1570, Coamo in 1579, Arecibo in 1614, Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692.
An increase of settlement saw the founding of 30 municipalities in the 18th century and 34 in the 19th. Six were
founded in the 20th century; the last was Florida in 1971.[77]
Since 1952 Puerto Rico has had three main political parties: the Popular Democratic Party (PPD), the New
Progressive Party (PNP) and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP). These three parties stood for three distinct
future political status scenarios: the PPD seeks to maintain the island's "association" status with the U.S. as a
commonwealth, and has won a plurality vote in referendums on the island's status held over the last six decades, the
PNP seeks to have Puerto Rico become a U.S. state, and the PIP seeks the establishment of a sovereign and
independent republic.
In 2007, a fourth party, the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party (PPR), was registered. The PPR claims that it seeks
to address the islands' problems from a status-neutral platform. However, it ceased to remain a registered political
party when it failed to obtain the requisite number of votes in the 2008 general election. Non-registered parties
include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, the Socialist Workers Movement, the Hostosian National Independence
Movement.
11
Puerto Rico
Political status
The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the
United States Congress, and the United Nations. Specifically, the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should
remain a U.S. territory, become a U.S. state, or become an independent country.[78][79]
Estado Libre Asociado
In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention via a referendum
that gave them the option of voting their preference, "yes" or "no", on a proposed U.S. law that would organize
Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth" that would continue United States sovereignty over Puerto Rico and its people.
Puerto Rico's electorate expressed its support for this measure in 1951 with a second referendum to ratify the
constitution. The Constitution of Puerto Rico was formally adopted on July 3, 1952. The Constitutional Convention
specified the name by which the body politic would be known.
On February 4, 1952, the convention approved Resolution 22 which chose in English the word Commonwealth,
meaning a "politically organized community" or "state", which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to
another political system. Puerto Rico officially designates itself with the term "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico" in its
constitution, as a translation into English of the term to "Estado Libre Asociado" (ELA). Literally translated into
English the phrase Estado Libre Asociado means "Associated Free State." The preamble of the Commonwealth
constitution in part reads: "We, the people of Puerto Rico, in order to organise ourselves politically on a fully
democratic basis, ...do ordain and establish this Constitution for the commonwealth which, in the exercise of our
natural rights, we now create within our union with the United States of America. In so doing, we declare: ... We
consider as determining factors in our life our citizenship of the United States of America and our aspiration
continually to enrich our democratic heritage in the individual and collective enjoyment of its rights and privileges;
our loyalty to the principles of the Federal Constitution;...
While the approval of the commonwealth constitution by the people of Puerto Rico, the U.S. Congress and the U.S.
President, as a federal law, marked a historic change in the civil government for the islands, neither it nor the public
laws approved by Congress in 1950 and 1952 revoked statutory provisions concerning the legal relationship of
Puerto Rico to the United States. This relationship is based on the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution. The
statutory provisions that set forth the conditions of the relationship are commonly referred to as the Federal Relations
Act (FRA).[80] Inclusive by Resolution number 34, approved by the Constitutional Convention and ratified in the
Referendum held on November 4, 1952, the following new sentence was added to section 3 of article VII of the
commonwealth constitution: "Any amendment or revision of this constitution shall be consistent with the resolution
enacted by the applicable provisions of the Constitution of the United States, with the Puerto Rican Federal Relations
Act and with Public Law 600, Eighty-first Congress, adopted in the nature of a compact".[81] The provisions of the
Federal Relations Act as codified on the U.S. Code Title 48, Chapter 4 shall apply to the island of Puerto Rico and to
the adjacent islands belonging to the United States and waters of those islands; and the name Puerto Rico, as used in
the chapter, shall be held to include not only the island of that name, but all the adjacent islands as aforesaid.[82]
While specified subsections of the FRA were "adopted in the nature of a compact", other provisions, by comparison,
are excluded from the compact reference. Matters still subject to congressional authority and established pursuant to
legislation include the citizenship status of residents, tax provisions, civil rights, trade and commerce, public finance,
the administration of public lands controlled by the federal government, the application of federal law over navigable
waters, congressional representation, and the judicial process, among others.[83][84]
In 1967, Puerto Rico's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by
passing a plebiscite act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by
the Legislature for a choice among three status options (commonwealth, statehood, and independence). Claiming
"foul play" and dubbing the process as illegitimate and contrary to norms of international law regarding
decolonization procedures, the plebiscite was boycotted by the major pro-statehood and pro-independence parties of
12
Puerto Rico
13
the time, the Republican Party of Puerto Rico and the Puerto Rican Independence Party, respectively. The
Commonwealth option, represented by the PDP, won with a majority of 60.4% of the votes. After the plebiscite,
efforts in the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and 2000s to enact legislation to address the status issue died in U.S.
Congressional committees. In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any
formal commitment on the part of the U.S. Government to honor the results), the current political status failed to
receive majority support. In 1993, Commonwealth status won by only a plurality of votes (48.6% versus 46.3% for
statehood), while the "none of the above" option, which was the Popular Democratic Party-sponsored choice, won in
1998 with 50.3% of the votes (versus 46.5% for statehood). Disputes arose as to the definition of each of the ballot
alternatives, and Commonwealth advocates, among others, reportedly urged a vote for "none of the above".[85][86][87]
Within the United States
Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the Congress's plenary powers under
the territorial clause of ArticleÅIV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution.[88] U.S.
federal law applies to Puerto Rico, even though Puerto Rico is not a state of the
American Union and their residents have no voting representation in the U.S.
Congress. Like the States of the American Union, Puerto Rico lacks "the full
sovereignty of an independent nation," for example, the power to manage its
"external relations with other nations," which was retained by the Federal
Government. The Supreme Court has indicated that once the Constitution has
been extended to an area (by Congress or the Courts), its coverage is irrevocable.
To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will
would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is.".[89]
Puerto Rico, U.S. quarter, reverse
side, 2009
Puerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens" in 1917 as a result of the Jones-Shafroth Act.[90] However,
U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote for the U.S. president, though both major parties, Republican and
Democrat, run primary elections in Puerto Rico to send delegates to vote on a presidential candidate. Since Puerto
Rico is an unincorporated territory (see above) and not a U.S. state, the United States Constitution does not fully
enfranchise US citizens residing in Puerto Rico.[71][91](See also: "Voting rights in Puerto Rico"). Despite their
American citizenship, however, only the "fundamental rights" under the federal constitution apply to Puerto Ricans.
Various other U.S Supreme Court decisions have been held opinions on which rights apply in Puerto Rico and which
ones do not. Puerto Ricans have a long history of service in the U.S. armed forces and, since 1917, they have been
included in the U.S. compulsory draft whenever it has been in effect.
Though the Commonwealth government has its own tax laws, Puerto Ricans are also required to pay most U.S.
federal taxes, with the major exception being the federal personal income tax.[92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99] In 2009,
Puerto Rico paid $3.742 billion into the US Treasury.[100] Residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, and are
thus eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. However, they are excluded from the Supplemental
Security Income (SSI), and the island actually receives a small fraction of the Medicaid funding it would receive if it
were a U.S. state.[101] Also, Medicare providers receive less-than-full state-like reimbursements for services rendered
to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system.[102]
In 1992, President George H. W. Bush issued a memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies
establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of
Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico
administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations. Federal
executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, including the Federal Bureau
of Investigation, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Transportation Security Administration, Social Security
Administration, and others. While Puerto Rico has its own Commonwealth judicial system similar to that of a U.S.
Puerto Rico
state, there is also a federal district court in Puerto Rico, and Puerto Rican judges have served in that Court and in
other federal courts on the mainland regardless of their residency status at the time of their appointment. Puerto
Ricans are also regularly appointed to high-level federal positions, including serving as United States Ambassadors.
International status
On November 27, 1953, shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the United
Nations approved Resolution 748, removing Puerto Rico's classification as a non-self-governing territory under
article 73(e) of the Charter from UN. But the General Assembly did not apply the full list of criteria which was
enunciated in 1960 when it took favorable note of the cessation of transmission of information regarding the
non-self-governing status of Puerto Rico.[103][104] According to the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico's
Political Status in its December 21, 2007 report, the U.S., in its written submission to the UN in 1953, never
represented that Congress could not change its relationship with Puerto Rico without the territory's consent.[105] It
stated that the U.S. Justice Department in 1959 reiterated that Congress held power over Puerto Rico pursuant to the
Territorial Clause[106] of the U.S. Constitution.[105]
In 1993, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the
Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations
of its choice.[84] In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the U.S. House Committee on Resources
stated, "Puerto Rico's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self-government under
Resolution 1541" (the three established forms of full self-government being stated in the report as (1) national
independence, (2) free association based on separate sovereignty, or (3) full integration with another nation on the
basis of equality). The report concluded that Puerto Rico "... remains an unincorporated territory and does not have
the status of 'free association' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international
practice", that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked
by the U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw the U.S. citizenship of Puerto Rican residents of
Puerto Rico at any time, for a legitimate Federal purpose.[107][108] The application of the U.S. Constitution to Puerto
Rico is limited by the Insular Cases.
The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed a resolution and adopted a consensus text
introduced by Cuba's delegate on June 20, 2011, calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow
Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self-determination and independence." [109]
Recent developments
In 2005 and 2007, two reports were issued by the U.S. President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status.[50][105] Both
reports conclude that Puerto Rico continues to be a territory of U.S. under the plenary powers of the U.S.
Congress.[105] Reactions from Puerto Rico's two major political parties were mixed. The Popular Democratic Party
(PPD) challenged the task force's report and committed to validating the current status in all international forums,
including the United Nations. It also rejected any "colonial or territorial status" as a status option, and vowed to keep
working for the enhanced Commonwealth status that was approved by the PPD in 1998, which included sovereignty,
an association based on "respect and dignity between both nations", and common citizenship.[110] The New
Progressive Party (PNP) supported the White House Report's conclusions and supported bills to provide for a
democratic referendum process among Puerto Rico voters.
14
Puerto Rico
A 2009 CRS report suggested that action might be taken in the
111th Congress. The reports issued in 2007 and 2005 by the
President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status may be the basis
for reconsideration of the existing commonwealth status, as
legislative developments during the 109th and 110th Congresses
suggested. Agreement on the process to be used in considering
the status proposals has been as elusive as agreement on the end
result. Congress would have a determinative role in any
resolution of the issue. The four options that appear to be most
frequently discussed include continuation of the commonwealth,
modification of the current commonwealth agreement,
statehood, or independence. If independence, or separate
national sovereignty, were selected, Puerto Rican officials might
seek to negotiate a compact of free association with the United
States.[111]
15
Congressman Luis FortuÇo meets with mayors from
across the island of Puerto Rico in his congressional
office (2006)
On June 15, 2009, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution calling on
the Government of the United States to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully
their inalienable right to self-determination and independence.[112]
On April 29, 2010, the U.S. House voted 223Å169 to approve a measure for a federally sanctioned process for Puerto
Rico's self determination, allowing Puerto Rico to set a new referendum on whether to continue its present form of
commonwealth political status or to have a different political status. If Puerto Ricans vote to continue to have their
present form of political status, the Government of Puerto Rico is authorized to conduct additional plebiscites at
intervals of every eight years from the date on which the results of the prior plebiscite are certified; if Puerto Ricans
vote to have a different political status, a second referendum would determine whether Puerto Rico would become a
U.S. state, an independent country, or a sovereign nation associated with the U.S. that would not be subject to the
Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.[113] During the House debate, a fourth option, to retain its
present form of commonwealth (status quo) political status, was added as an option in the second plebiscite.[113][114]
Immediately following U.S. House passage, H.R. 2499 was sent to the U.S. Senate, where it was given two formal
readings and referred to the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources.
A Senate hearing was held on May 19, 2010, for the purpose of gathering testimony on the bill. Among those
offering testimony were Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, Pedro Pierluisi; Governor of Puerto Rico, Luis
FortuÇo; President of the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico, Hàctor Ferrer; and President of the Puerto Rican
Independence Party, Rubàn BerrÑos.[115] According to the Senate Energy & Natural Resources Committee
leadership, the four options are the continuation of the current commonwealth status, subject to the territorial clause
(under Article IV of the Constitution), statehood, independence, and free association.[116][117][118] On December 22,
2010, the 111th United States Congress adjourned without any Senate vote on H.R.2499, killing the bill.[119]
The latest Task Force report was released on March 11, 2011. The report suggests a two-plebiscite process, including
a "first plebiscite that requires the people of Puerto Rico to choose whether they wish to be part of the United States
(either via Statehood or Commonwealth) or wish to be independent (via Independence or Free Association). If
continuing to be part of the United States were chosen in the first plebiscite, a second vote would be taken between
Statehood and Commonwealth." [120]
The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization passed a resolution and adopted a consensus text
introduced by Cuba's delegate on June 20, 2011, calling on the United States to expedite a process "that would allow
Puerto Ricans to fully exercise their inalienable right to self-determination and independence." [109]
Puerto Rico
In October 2011, Governor Luis FortuÇo set August 12, 2012 to hold the first part of a two-step status plebiscite. If a
second status vote is required, it will take place on the same day as the general election in November 6, 2012, he
added.[121] A bill was brought before the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico in 2011 to effect the governor's
proposal. The bill passed on December 28, 2011. Both referendums, however, will be held on a single ballot on
November 6, 2012.[122]
The first referendum will ask voters whether they want to maintain the current commonwealth status under the
territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution or whether they prefer a nonterritorial option. If more voters check that
nonterritorial option, a second vote would be held giving people three status options: statehood, independence or free
association.[123]
Geography
Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra,
Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of these last five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona
is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are
also many other even smaller islands including Monito and "La Isleta de San Juan" which includes Old San Juan and
Puerta de Tierra and is connected to the main island by bridges.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
has an area of 13790 square kilometers
(unknown operator: u'strong'ÅsqÅmi),
of which 8870Åkm2 (unknown
operator: u'strong'ÅsqÅmi) is land and
4921Åkm2 (unknown operator:
u'strong'ÅsqÅmi) is water.[124] The
maximum length of the main island
from east to west is 180Åkm (unknown
operator: u'strong'Åmi), and the
maximum width from north to south is
Map of Puerto Rico
65Åkm
(unknown
operator:
u'strong'Åmi).[125] Puerto Rico is the
smallest of the Greater Antilles. It is 80% of the size of Jamaica,[126] just over 18% of the size of Hispaniola and 8%
of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles.[127]
Puerto Rico is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is
called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 1339
meters (unknown operator: u'strong'Åft),[124] is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque, one of
the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 1065Åm (unknown
operator: u'strong'Åft).[128]
Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, and more than 50 rivers, most originating in the Cordillera Central.[129]
Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of the south,
since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions.
16
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and
plutonic rocks, overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent
carbonates and other sedimentary rocks.[130] Most of the caverns and
karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region in the
carbonates. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old
(Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the
island. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to
come from the Pacific Ocean realm.
Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North
Coast scene at Patillas, Puerto Rico
American plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused
by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides,
represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean. The most
recent major earthquake occurred on October 11, 1918, and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter
scale.[131] It originated off the coast of Aguadilla and was accompanied by a tsunami.
The Puerto Rico Trench, the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about 115Åkm (unknown operator:
u'strong'Åmi) north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates.[132] It is
280Åkm (unknown operator: u'strong'Åmi) long.[133] At its deepest point, named the Milwaukee Deep, it is almost
8400Åm (unknown operator: u'strong' ft) deep, or about 5.2 miles.[132] The island experiences frequent tremors and
is an area of concern for major earthquakes.
Located in the tropics, Puerto Rico has an average temperature of 82.4 ÄF (unknown operator: u'strong'ÅÄC)
throughout the year, with an average minimum temperature of 66.9 ÄF (unknown operator: u'strong'ÅÄC) and
maximum of 85.4 ÄF (unknown operator: u'strong'ÅÄC). Temperatures do not change drastically throughout the
seasons. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central
interior mountains are always cooler than the rest of the island. The hurricane season spans from June to November.
The all-time low in Puerto Rico has been 39 ÄF (unknown operator: u'strong'ÅÄC), registered in Aibonito.[134] The
average yearly precipitation is 1687mm.[135]
Species endemic to the archipelago are 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 amphibians/reptiles, recognized as of 1998. Most
of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island.[136] The most recognizable endemic species and
a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the CoquÉ, a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, and from which it
gets its name. Most CoquÉ species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest, a tropical rainforest in the
northeast of the island previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240
plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered
Puerto Rican Amazon. Across the island in the southwest, the 40Åkm2 (unknown operator: u'strong'ÅsqÅmi) of dry
land at the Guánica Commonwealth Forest Reserve[137] contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals,
including 48 endangered species and 16 endemic to Puerto Rico.
Administrative divisions
17
Puerto Rico
18
As an unincorporated territory of the
United States, Puerto Rico does not
have any first order administrative
divisions as defined by the U.S.
Government, but there are 78
municipalities at the secondary level
which
function
as
counties.
Puerto Rico's municipalities
Municipalities are further subdivided
into barrios, and those into sectors.
Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for four year terms.
The first municipality (previously called "town") of Puerto Rico, San Juan, was founded in 1521. In the 16th century
two more municipalities were established, San Germán (1570) and Coamo (1579). Three more municipalities were
established in the 17th century. These were Arecibo (1614), Aguada (1692) and Ponce (1692). The 18th and 19th
century saw an increase in settlement in Puerto Rico with 30 municipalities being established in the 18th century and
34 more in the 19th century. Only six municipalities were founded in the 20th century with the last, Florida, being
founded in 1971.[77]
Economy
In the early 20th century the greatest contributor to Puerto Rico's
economy was agriculture and its main crop was sugar. In the late 1940s
a series of projects codenamed Operation Bootstrap encouraged a
significant shift to manufacture via tax exemptions. Manufacturing
quickly replaced agriculture as the main industry of the island. Puerto
Rico is classified as a "high income country" by the World
Bank.[138][139]
Economic conditions have improved dramatically since the Great
Depression because of external investment in capital-intensive
industries such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and technology.
Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the U.S.
government, today local industries must compete with those in more
economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject
to U.S. minimum wage legislation. In recent years, some U.S. and
foreign owned factories have moved to lower wage countries in Latin
America and Asia. Puerto Rico is subject to U.S. trade laws and
restrictions.
Pharmaceutical companies around Puerto Rico
Milla de Oro is a major financial center in Puerto
Also, starting around 1950, there was heavy migration from Puerto
Rico.
Rico to the Continental United States, particularly New York City, in
search of better economic conditions. Puerto Rican migration to New
York displayed an average yearly migration of 1,800 for the years 1930Å1940, 31,000 for 1946Å1950, 45,000 for
1951Å1960, and a peak of 75,000 in 1953.[140] As of 2003, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that more people of
Puerto Rican birth or ancestry live in the U.S. than in Puerto Rico.[141]
On May 1, 2006, the Puerto Rican government faced significant shortages in cash flows, which forced the closure of
the local Department of Education and 42 other government agencies. All 1,536 public schools closed, and 95,762
people were furloughed in the first-ever partial shutdown of the government in the island's history.[142] On May 10,
2006, the budget crisis was resolved with a new tax reform agreement so that all government employees could return
Puerto Rico
19
to work. On November 15, 2006, a 5.5% sales tax was implemented. Municipalities are required by law to apply a
municipal sales tax of 1.5% bringing the total sales tax to 7%.[143]
Tourism is an important component of Puerto Rican economy
supplying an approximate $1.8 billion. In 1999, an estimated 5 million
tourists visited the island, most from the U.S. Nearly a third of these
are cruise ship passengers. A steady increase in hotel registrations
since 1998 and the construction of new hotels and new tourism
projects, such as the Puerto Rico Convention Center, indicate the
current strength of the tourism industry. In 2009, tourism accounted for
nearly 7% of the islands' gross national product.[144]
Puerto Ricans had median household income of $18,314 for 2009,
which makes Puerto Rico's economy comparable to the independent
nations of Latvia or Poland.[145] By comparison, the poorest state of
the Union, Mississippi, had median household income of $36,646 in
2009.[145] Nevertheless, Puerto Rico's GDP per capita compares
favorably to other independent Caribbean nations, and is one of the
highest in North America. See List of North American countries by
GDP per capita.
View of the La Concha, one of the newly
refurbished hotels, from the beach in Condado
Puerto Rico's public debt has grown at a faster pace than the growth of
its economy, reaching $46.7 billion in 2008.[146] In January 2009, Luis
FortuÇo enacted several measures aimed at eliminating the
[147]
government's $3.3 billion deficit,
including laying off 12,505[148] government employees. Puerto Rico's
unemployment rate was 15.9 percent in January 2010.[149] Some analysts said they expect the government's layoffs
to propel that rate to 17 percent.[150]
In November 2010, Gov. FortuÇo proposed a tax reform plan that would be implemented in a six-year period,
retroactive to January 1, 2010. The first phase, applicable to year 2010, reduces taxes to all individual taxpayers by
7Å15%. By year 2016, average relief for individual taxpayers will represent a 50% tax cut and a 30% cut for
corporate taxpayers, whose tax rate will be lowered from 41 to 30%.[151]
Businesses and consumers in Puerto Rico are subjected to economic discrimination by many U.S. and multinational
companies that limit access to products or offer them at higher prices to businesses and consumers located in Puerto
Rico. For example, Apple does not include K-12 or post-secondary educational institutions in their national pricing
program offering discounts to teachers and students and special pricing for institutional purchases.[152] Likewise,
Minneapolis-based Best Buy does not allow residents of Puerto Rico to purchase goods on their website, which may
be purchased from the 50 states, Guam and the United States Virgin Islands, but invites potential customers to skirt
their own rules: "Now you can order items online and ship them to a U.S. address* Å or pick them up at a U.S. store.
International orders may be shipped to street addresses in the U.S., U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam, along with
AFO/FPO mailing address."[153]
At the same time, the latest report by the President Task Force on Puerto Rico Status recognizes that the status
question and the economy are intimately linked. Many participants in the forums conducted by the Task Force
argued that uncertainty about status is holding Puerto Rico back in economic areas. And although there are a number
of economic actions that should be taken immediately or in the short term, regardless of the ultimate outcome of the
status question, identifying the most effective means of assisting the Puerto Rican economy depends on resolving the
ultimate question of status. In short, the long-term economic well-being of Puerto Rico would be dramatically
improved by an early decision on the status question.[120]
Puerto Rico
20
Demographics
Racial and Ethnic Composition in Puerto Rico (2010 Census)
[154]
Ethnics
White
75.8%
Black or African American
12.4%
Asian
0.2%
Two or more races
3.3%
American Indian
0.5%
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander
0.1%
Other races
7.8%
Note: Hispanic or Latino (of any race) makes up 99.0 percent of the population.
The population of Puerto Rico has been shaped by Amerindian settlement, European colonization, slavery, economic
migration, and Puerto Rico's status as unincorporated territory of the United States.
Population and racial makeup
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Puerto Rico was 3,706,690 on July 1, 2011, a
-0.51% decrease since the 2010 United States Census.[5]
Continuous European immigration during the 19th century helped the population
grow from 155,000 in 1800 to almost a million at the close of the century. A
census conducted by royal decree on September 30, 1858 gives the following
totals of the Puerto Rican population at this time: 341,015 as Free colored;
300,430 identified as Whites; and 41,736 were slaves.[155]
During the 19th century hundreds of Corsican, French, Lebanese, Chinese, and
Portuguese families arrived in Puerto Rico, along with large numbers of
immigrants from Spain (mainly from Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia, the Balearic
Islands, Andalusia, and the Canary Islands) and numerous Spanish loyalists from
Spain's former colonies in South America. Other settlers included Irish, Scots,
Germans, Italians and thousands others who were granted land by Spain during
the Real Cedula de Gracias de 1815 ("Royal Decree of Graces of 1815"), which
allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with land allotments in the
interior of the island, provided they agreed to pay taxes and continue to support
the Catholic Church.
Royal Decree of Graces, 1815
Between 1960 and 1990 the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or color. However, the 2000
United States Census included a racial self-identification question in Puerto Rico. According to the census, most
Puerto Ricans self-identified as White and few declared themselves to be Black or some other race.[156] A recent
study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that around 52.6% of the population possess Amerindian mtDNA.[157][158]
Puerto Rico
21
Immigration and emigration
Population density, Census 2000
Puerto Rico has recently become the
permanent home of over 100,000 legal
residents who immigrated from not
only the Dominican Republic, but from
other Latin American countries. These
include
Cuba,
Colombia,
and
Venezuela, as well as surrounding
Caribbean islands, Haiti, Barbados,
and the American Virgin Islands
among them.
Emigration is a major part of contemporary Puerto Rican history. Starting soon after World WarÅII, poverty, cheap
airfare, and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States,
particularly to New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Florida. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico's
economy improved and its birth rate declined, and Puerto Ricans continue to follow a pattern of "circular migration".
Languages
The official languages are Spanish and English with Spanish being the primary language. English is taught as a
second language in public and private schools from elementary levels to high school and at the university level.
Spanish
The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax which
differentiate it from the Spanish spoken in other Spanish-speaking countries. While the Spanish spoken in all Iberian,
Mediterranean and Atlantic Spanish Maritime Provinces was brought to the island over the centuries, the most
profound regional impact on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico has been from the Spanish spoken in present day
Canary Islands.
As a result of the natural inclusion of indigenous vocabulary in all New World former European colonies (English,
French, Spanish, Dutch, etc.), the Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes occasional "TaÑno" words, which are
typically in the context of vegetation, natural phenomenon or primitive musical instruments. Similarly,
African-attributed words exist within the contexts of foods, music or dances developed in coastal towns with
concentrations of descendants of former Sub-Saharan slaves.
English
Since the acquisition of the Island by the US from Spain in 1898, the linguistic impression of American English
increasingly leaves its linguistic impact on the island in all aspects of social, commercial and educational exchange.
According to a study by the University of Puerto Rico, nine of every ten Puerto Ricans residing in Puerto Rico do
not speak English at an advanced level.[159] More recently, according to the 2005Ä2009 Population and Housing
Narrative Profile for Puerto Rico, among people at least five years old living in Puerto Rico in 2005Å2009, 95
percent spoke a language other than English at home. Of those speaking a language other than English at home, 100
percent spoke Spanish and less than 0.5 percent spoke some other language; 85 percent reported that they did not
speak English "very well."[160]
Puerto Rico
22
Religion
The Roman Catholic Church has historically been the dominant religion in
Puerto Rico. The first dioceses in the Americas, including the first diocese of
Puerto Rico, were authorized by Pope JuliusÅII in 1511.[161] One Pope, John
PaulÅII, visited Puerto Rico in OctoberÅ1984. All municipalities in Puerto Rico
have at least one Catholic church, most of which are located at the town center or
"plaza".
Protestantism, which was suppressed under the Spanish regime, has spread under
American rule, making modern Puerto Rico interconfessional. The first
Protestant church, Holy Trinity Church in Ponce, was established by the
Anglican diocese of Antigua in 1872.[162] In 1872, German settlers in Ponce
founded the Iglesia SantÑsima Trinidad, an Anglican Church, the first non-Roman
Catholic Church in the entire Spanish Empire in the Americas.[163][164]
There is also an Eastern Orthodox community in Puerto Rico, The Dormition of
the Most Holy Theotokos/ St. Spyridon's Church is located in Trujillo Alto, and
serves the small Orthodox community. The congregation represents Greeks,
Russians, Serbians, Bulgarians, Americans, Moldavians, and Puerto Ricans.[165]
Front entrance of the Roman
Catholic Cathedral of San Juan
Bautista: Many religious beliefs now
are represented in the island
In 1940, Juanita Garcia Peraza founded the Mita Congregation, the first religion of Puerto Rican origin.[166] TaÑno
religious practices have been rediscovered/reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates. Various African
religious practices have been present since the arrival of African slaves. In particular, the Yoruba beliefs of SanterÑa
and/or Ifá, and the Kongo-derived Palo Mayombe find adherence among a few individuals who practice some form
of African traditional religion.
In 1952, a handful of American Jews established the island's first synagogue in the former residence of William
Korber, a wealthy Puerto Rican of German descent, which was designed and built by Czech architect Antonin
Nechodoma.[167][168] The synagogue, called Sha'are Zedeck, hired its first rabbi in 1954.[169] Puerto Rico now is
home to the largest Jewish community in the Caribbean, numbering 3,000, and is the only Caribbean island in which
the Conservative, Reform and Orthodox Jewish movements all are represented.[169][170]
In 2007, there were about 5,000 Muslims in Puerto Rico, representing about 0.13% of the population[171][172] There
were eight mosques spread throughout the island, with most Muslims living in Rio Piedras.[173][174]
In 2011, there were 26,546 Jehovah's Witnesses, representing about 0.72% of the population, with 329
congregations.[175]
The Padmasambhava Buddhist Center, whose followers practice Tibetan Buddhism, has a branch in Puerto Rico.[176]
Iglesia SantÑsima Trinidad of
Ponce
Islamic Center at Ponce
Inside Sha'are Zedeck in San Juan
Puerto Rico
23
Culture
Modern Puerto Rican culture is a unique mix of cultural antecedents, including
African (from the slaves), TaÑno (Amerindians), Spanish, and more recently,
North American.
From the Spanish Puerto Rico received the Spanish language, the Catholic
religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions.
The United States added English language influence, the university system and
the adoption of some holidays and practices. On March 12 1903, the University
of Puerto Rico was officially founded, branching out from the "Escuela Normal
Industrial", a smaller organism that was founded in Fajardo three years before.
Ricky Martin, singer
Much of the Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music. Like the
country as a whole, Puerto Rican music has been developed by mixing other
cultures with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican
music, the influences of African and Spanish traditions were most noticeable.
However, the cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have
played a vital role in the more recent musical influences that have reached Puerto
Rico.[177][178]
Kapok tree (Ceiba), the national tree
of Puerto Rico
The official symbols of Puerto Rico are the Reinita mora or Puerto Rican
Spindalis (a type of bird), the Flor de Maga (a type of flower), and the Ceiba or
Kapok (a type of tree). The unofficial animal and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride
is the CoquÑ, a small frog. Other popular symbols of Puerto Rico are the "jÑbaro",
the "countryman", and the carite.
Sports
Baseball was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Baseball League
serves as the only active professional league, operating as a winter league. No Major League Baseball franchise or
affiliate plays in Puerto Rico, however, San Juan hosted the Montreal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004
before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals. The Puerto Rico national baseball
team has participated in the World Cup of Baseball winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals and
the Caribbean Series, winning fourteen times. Famous Puerto Rican baseball players include Roberto Clemente and
Orlando Cepeda and Roberto Alomar, enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973, 1999, and 2011
respectively.[179][180][181]
Boxing, basketball, and volleyball are considered popular sports as well. Wilfredo Gâmez and McWilliams Arroyo
have won their respective divisions at the World Amateur Boxing Championships. Other medalists include Josà
Pedraza, who holds a silver medal, as well as three boxers that finished in third place, Josà Luis Vellân, Nelson
Dieppa and McJoe Arroyo. In the professional circuit, Puerto Rico has the third-most boxing world champions and
its the global leader in champions per capita. These include Miguel Cotto, Fàlix Trinidad, Wilfred BenÑtez and
Gâmez among others. The Puerto Rico national basketball team joined the International Basketball Federation in
1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions, including gold in three FIBA
Americas Championships and the 1994 Goodwill Games. August 8, 2004, became a landmark date for the team
Puerto Rico
when it became the first team to defeat the United States in an Olympic tournament since the integration of National
Basketball Association players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92Å73 as part of the 2004 Summer
Olympics organized in Athens, Greece.[182] Baloncesto Superior Nacional acts as the top-level professional
basketball league in Puerto Rico, and has experienced success since its beginning in 1930.
Miscellaneous practices of this sport have experienced some success,
including the "Puerto Rico All Stars" team, which has won twelve
world championships in unicycle basketball.[183] Organized Streetball
has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street
Ball" competing against established organizations including the
Capitanes de Arecibo and AND1's Mixtape Tour Team. Consequently,
practitioners of this style have earned participation in international
teams, including Orlando "El Gato" Melàndez, who became the first
Puerto Rico Islanders fans at game
Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.[184]
Orlando Antigua, whose mother is Puerto Rican, made history in 1995,
when he became the first Hispanic and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.[185]
The Puerto Rico Islanders Football Club, founded in 2003, plays in the United Soccer Leagues First Division, which
constitutes the second tier of football in North America. Puerto Rico is also a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. In
2008 the archipelago's first unified league, the Puerto Rico Soccer League, was established. Secondary sports include
Professional wrestling and road running. The World Wrestling Council and International Wrestling Association are
the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The World's Best 10K, held annually in San Juan, has been
ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally.
Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the Summer and Winter Olympics, the Pan
American Games, the Caribbean World Series, and the Central American and Caribbean Games. Puerto Rican
athletes have won six medals (one silver, five bronze) in Olympic competition, the first one in 1948 by boxer Juan
Evangelista Venegas. On March 2006 San Juan's Hiram Bithorn Stadium hosted the opening round as well as the
second round of the newly formed World Baseball Classic. The Central American and Caribbean Games were held
in 1993 in Ponce and in 2010 in MayagÜez.
Education
The first school in Puerto Rico and the first school in the United States after Puerto Rico became a US territory, was
the Escuela de Gramatica (Grammer School). The school was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the
area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught
were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.[186]
Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levelsäPrimary (elementary school grades 1Å6), Secondary
(intermediate and high school grades 7Å12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the
literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1%; by gender, it was 93.9% for males and 94.4% for
females.[187] According to the 2000 Census, 60.0% of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of
education, and 18.3% has a bachelor's degree or higher.
Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18 and is enforced by the state. The
Constitution of Puerto Rico grants the right to an education to every citizen on the island. To this end, public schools
in Puerto Rico provide free and non-sectarian education at the elementary and secondary levels. At any of the three
levels, students may attend either public or private schools. As of 1999, there were 1532 public schools[188] and 569
private schools in the island.
The largest and oldest university system in Puerto Rico is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11
campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which
24
Puerto Rico
25
operates the Universidad del Turabo, Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este, the multi-campus Inter
American University, the Pontifical Catholic University, and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazân. Puerto Rico has
four schools of Medicine and four Law Schools.
Transportation
Tren Urbano at Bayamân Station
Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of
roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the
Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the
U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the Puerto Rico
Police Department. The island's metropolitan area is served by a public
bus transit system and a metro system called Tren Urbano (in English:
Urban Train). Other forms of public transportation include seaborne
ferries (that serve Puerto Rico's archipelago) as well as Carros
PÖblicos (private mini buses).
The island has three international airports, the Luis MuÇoz MarÑn
International Airport in Carolina, Mercedita Airport in Ponce, and the Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla, and 27
local airports. The Luis MuÇoz MarÑn International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean,
and one of the largest in the world in terms of passenger and cargo movement.[189]
Puerto Rico has 9 ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, and
the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo
movement, respectively.[189] The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce, currently under expansion
to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million twenty-foot containers (TEUs) per year.[190]
Notes
[1] Nancy Morris (1995). Puerto Rico: Culture, Politics, and Identity (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vyQDYqz2kFsC& pg=RA1-PA62&
lpg=RA1-PA62& dq="puerto+ rico"+ official+ language+ 1993). Praeger/Greenwood. p.Å62. ISBNÅ0-275-95228-2.
[2] 2010 Census Data. "2010 Census Data" (http:/ / 2010. census. gov/ 2010census/ data/ ). 2010.census.gov. . Retrieved 2011-10-30.
[3] "U.S. Department of State. Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty" (http:/ / www. state. gov/ s/ inr/ rls/ 10543. htm). State.gov. .
Retrieved August 14, 2010.
[4] "Carta Autonâmica de 1897 de Puerto Rico" (http:/ / www. lexjuris. com/ lexlex/ lexotras/ lexcartaautonomica. htm). Lexjuris.com. .
Retrieved 2011-10-30.
[5] "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2011" (http:/ /
www. census. gov/ popest/ data/ state/ totals/ 2011/ tables/ NST-EST2011-01. csv) (CSV). 2011 Population Estimates. United States Census
Bureau, Population Division. December 2011. . Retrieved December 21, 2011.
[6] "Penn World Tabbles - PWT - Version 7.0" (http:/ / pwt. econ. upenn. edu/ php_site/ pwt70/ pwt70_form. php). University of Pennsylvania. .
Retrieved May 2, 2012.
[7] "Penn World Tabbles - PWT- Version 7.0" (http:/ / pwt. econ. upenn. edu/ php_site/ pwt70/ pwt70_form. php). University of Pennsylvania. .
Retrieved May 2, 2012.
[8] "Government Development Bank of Puerto Rico, May 2011" (http:/ / www. gdb-pur. com/ economy/ documents/
2011-05-16-AETabla1-2010. pdf). gdb-pur.com. . Retrieved June 2, 2011.
[9] http:/ / www. census. gov/ hhes/ www/ income/ data/ historical/ state/ state4. html (English)
[10] - "El capital social movilizadocontra la pobreza" -- UNESCO, CLASCO (2007) (http:/ / bibliotecavirtual. clacso. org. ar/ ar/ libros/ secret/
capital/ 03cap1. pdf)
[11] In 1932, the U.S. Congress officially corrected what it had been misspelling as Porto Rico back into Puerto Rico.Pedro A. Malavet (2004).
America's colony: the political and cultural conflict between the United States and Puerto Rico (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=pKqVpqGVsJYC). NYU Press. pp.Å 43 (http:/ / books. google. com. ph/ books?id=pKqVpqGVsJYC& pg=PA43), 181 note 76
(http:/ / books. google. com. ph/ books?id=pKqVpqGVsJYC& pg=PA181). ISBNÅ978-0-8147-5680-5. . It had been using the former spelling
in its legislative and judicial records since it acquired the territory. Patricia Gherovici states that both "Porto Rico" and "Puerto Rico" were
used interchangeably in the news media and documentation before, during, and after the U.S. invasion of the island in 1898. The "Porto"
spelling, for instance, was used in the Treaty of Paris, but "Puerto" was used by The New York Times that same year. Nancy Morris clarifies
that "a curious oversight in the drafting of the Foraker Act caused the name of the island to be officially misspelled."Patricia Gherovici (2003).
Puerto Rico
The Puerto Rican syndrome (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2jSsxVWxu2sC). Other Press, LLC. pp.Å 140Å141 (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=2jSsxVWxu2sC& pg=PA140). ISBNÅ978-1-892746-75-7. .
[12] Real Càdula de 1789 "para el comercio de Negros" (http:/ / www. ensayistas. org/ antologia/ XIXE/ castelar/ esclavitud/ cedula. htm)
[13] Levinson, Sanford; Sparrow, Bartholomew H (2005). The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803Ä1898. Ed. by Sanford
Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Cloth, ISBN 0-7425-4983-6. Paper, ISBN 0-7425-4984-4.)
pp. 166Ä167 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ayINMX_RtkEC& pg=PA167#). ISBNÅ978-0-7425-4984-5. . Retrieved August 14, 2010.
[14] "Regions and Territories: Puerto Rico" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ country_profiles/ 3593469. stm). British Broadcasting
Corporation. June 16, 2011. .
[15] "World Factbook: Puerto Rico" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ rq. html). Central Intelligence
Agency. .
[16] Allatson, Paul. Key Terms in Latino/a Cultural and Literary Studies, p. 47. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. ISBN
1-4051-0250-0.
[17] Dictionary: Taino Indigenous Peoples of the Caribbean (http:/ / www. taino-tribe. org/ terms1. htm#anchor250018) Retrieved: February 21,
2008. (Based on the encyclopedia "Clásicos de Puerto Rico", 2nd. edition. Ed. Cayetano Coll y Toste. Publisher: Ediciones Latinoamericanas,
S.A., 1972.).
[18] Grose, Howard Benjamin (August 8, 2006). H. B. Grose, Advance in the Antilles: the new era in Cuba and Porto Rico, Presbyterian Home
Missions, 1910 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qAMQAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=porto+ rico#v=onepage& q=land of the
valiant lord& f=false). . Retrieved February 6, 2011.
[19] Abbad y Lasierra, IÇigo. Historia GeogrÇfica, Civil y Natural de la Isla de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico.
[20] Mahaffy, Cheryl (January 28, 2006). "Vieques Island Å What lies beneath" (http:/ / www. canada. com/ edmontonjournal/ news/ travel/
story. html?id=eb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7). Edmonton Journal. . Retrieved February 11, 2006.
[21] Pedro Torres. "The Dictionary of the TaÑno Language" (http:/ / members. dandy. net/ ~orocobix/ tedict. html). TaÉno Inter-Tribal Council
Inc.. . Retrieved February 11, 2006.
[22] Cheryl Mahaffy (January 30, 2006). "Vieques Island: What lies beneath" (http:/ / www. canada. com/ edmontonjournal/ news/ travel/ story.
html?id=eb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7). Edmonton Journal. .
[23] "500 Years of Puerto Rican History through the Eyes of Others" (http:/ / www. newberry. org/ exhibits/ PuertoRico. html). The Newberry
library - Newberry.org. 2008-07-12. . Retrieved 2011-10-30.
[24] "History of Puerto Rico" (http:/ / welcome. topuertorico. org/ history. shtml). . Retrieved November 16, 2009.
[25] Today, Puerto Ricans are also known as Boricuas, or people from Borinquen.
[26] Vicente YaÇez Pinzân is considered the first appointed governor of Puerto Rico, but he never arrived on the island.
[27] Arthur C. Aufderheide; Conrado RodrÑguez-MartÑn; Odin Langsjoen (1998). The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC). Cambridge University Press. pp.Å 204 (http:/ / books. google. com. ph/
books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC& pg=PA204). ISBNÅ978-0-521-55203-5. .
[28] Kohn, George C. (2008). Encyclopedia of plague and pestilence: from ancient times to the present (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=tzRwRmb09rgC& pg=PA160& dq#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Infobase Publishing. p.Å160. ISBNÅ0-8160-6935-2. .
[29] "Puerto Rico | Colonial Genocides | Genocide Studies Program" (http:/ / www. yale. edu/ gsp/ colonial/ puerto-rico/ index. html). Yale
University. . Retrieved 2011-10-30.
[30] Dietz, p.38.
[31] "The Life of Sir Francis Drake" (http:/ / www. drakenavigatorsguild. org/ drakeslife. html). July 20, 2004. . Retrieved March 1, 2006.
[32] Historias de Puerto Rico by Paul G. Miller, (1947) pgs. 221Å237.
[33] Abbad y Lasierra, IÇigo. Historia GeogrÇfica, Civil y PolÉtica de Puerto Rico. S.l.: Univ Of Puerto Rico Pr. ISBNÅ0-8477-0800-4.
(Spanish)
[34] Interview of Thomas Ellingwood Fortin, Producer, New Albion Pictures
[35] "Words from Pres. Ronald Reagan" (http:/ / www. thecajuns. com/ galvezrw. htm). Thecajuns.com. . Retrieved August 14, 2010.
[36] "Slave revolts in Puerto Rico: conspiracies and uprisings, 1795-1873"; by: Guillermo A. Baralt; Publisher Markus Wiener Publishers; ISBN
1-55876-463-1, ISBN 978-1-55876-463-7
[37] "MarÑa de las Mercedes Barbudo; Primera mujer independentista de Puerto Rico; CLARIDAD; December 1994; page 19" (http:/ / www.
raquelrosario. net/ Historias Claridad Mercedes Bar. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-10-30.
[38] "150th. Anniversary of the Foundation of Arroyo, Puerto Rico" (http:/ / www. elboricua. com/ MiradorPuertorriquenoArchives. html).
Elboricua.com. . Retrieved 2011-10-30.
[39] "Welcome to Puerto Rico" (http:/ / www. topuertorico. org/ history4. shtml). Topuertorico.org. . Retrieved 2011-10-30.
[40] Negroni, Hàctor Andràs (1992) (in Spanish). Historia militar de Puerto Rico. Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario.
ISBNÅ978-84-7844-138-9.
[41] "USA Seizes Puerto Rico" (http:/ / www. solboricua. com/ history2. htm#usa). History of Puerto Rico. solboricua.com. 2000. .
[42] Magaly Rivera. "History" (http:/ / www. topuertorico. org/ history4. shtml). topuertorico.org. . Retrieved October 1, 2007.
[43] "Chronology of Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ hispanic/ 1898/ chronpr. html). The World of 1898:
The Spanish-American War. Hispanic Division, Library of Congress. .
[44] Strategy as Politics; by: Jorge Rodriguez Beruff; Publisher: La Editorial; Universidad de Puerto Rico; page 7; ISBN 978-0-8477-0160-5
[45] A.T. Mahan, "The Influence of Sea Power upon History (1660Å1783)", London: Sampson Low, Marston, Seale; page 83
26
Puerto Rico
[46] David F. Trask. The war with Spain in 1898. University of Nebraska Press. 1996. ISBN=978-0-8032-9429-5. Pages 72Ä78 (http:/ / books.
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the Yale Law School. Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library. December 10, 1898. .
[50] "Report by the President's task force on Puerto Rico's Status" (http:/ / charma. uprm. edu/ ~angel/ Puerto_Rico/ reporte_status. pdf) (PDF).
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[51] Efràn Rivera Ramos (2007). American Colonialism in Puerto Rico: The Judicial and Social Legacy (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=J5l55R3_mPoC). Markus Wiener Publishers. pp.Å 54Å55 (http:/ / books. google. com. ph/ books?id=J5l55R3_mPoC& pg=PA54).
ISBNÅ978-1-55876-410-1. .
[52] "Porto Rico En Fete: President's Auto Tour Amid Shower of Roses: He Promises Citizenship" (http:/ / search. proquest. com/ docview/
144628701/ 137535EE2B32E7AAC9B/ 1?accountid=46320). The Washington Post: p.Å1. November 22, 1906. .
[53] Levinson, Sanford; Sparrow, Bartholomew H. (2005). The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803Ä1898. New York: Rowman
& Littlefield Publishers. p.Å166, 178.. "U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act, chap. 190, 39 Stat.
951 (1971)(codified at 48 U.S.C. ã 731 (1987)"
[54] "Sistema de Alerta de Tsunamis de Puerto Rico y el Caribe" (http:/ / redsismica. uprm. edu/ spanish/ tsunami/ index. php) (in Spanish). Red
SÑsmica de Puerto Rico. . Retrieved February 6, 2011.
[55] "Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico. The Commission, 70p, np, MayÅ22, 1937" (http:/ / www. llmc. com/
TitleLLMC. asp?ColID=3& Cat=136& TID=7037& TName=Ponce Massacre, Com. of Inquiry, 1937). Llmc.com. . Retrieved August 14,
2010.
[56] Five Years of Tyranny, Speech before the U.S. House of Representatives. (http:/ / www. cheverote. com/ reviews/ marcantonio. html) The
entire speech is contained in the Congressional Record of August 14, 1939. It is reported in the Cong. Rec., and various other publications
elsewhere, that among those shot in the back was a 7-year-old girl, Georgina Maldonado, who "was killed through the back while running to a
nearby church"
[57] Antonio de la Cova. "Photos of police shooting with rifles (from positions previously occupied by marchers and bystanders) at bystanders
running away" (http:/ / www. latinamericanstudies. org/ ponce-1937. htm). Latinamericanstudies.org. . Retrieved 2011-10-30.
[58] "La obra jurÑdica del Profesor David M. Helfeld (1948-2008)'; by: Dr. Carmelo Delgado Cintrân (http:/ / academiajurisprudenciapr. org/ en/
revistas/ volumen-vii/ )
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[181] "Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Roberto Alomar" (http:/ / baseballhall. org/ hof/ alomar-roberto). Baseballhall.org. . Retrieved
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[183] Jesäs Omar Rivera (October 29, 2008). "Boricuas lucÑos en una rueda" (http:/ / www. primerahora. com/
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[184] Joshua Hammann (October 14, 2008). "Melendez adds a new country to Globetrotters' resume" (http:/ / sports. espn. go. com/ espn/
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[185] "A Non-Black Player Joins Globetrotters" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
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31
Puerto Rico
References
External links
ç
ç
ç
ç
ç
ç
ç
ç
ç
Puerto Rican government official website (http://www2.pr.gov/prgovEN/Pages/default.aspx) (English)
BBC Territory profile (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/3593469.stm)
Encyclopaedia Britannica profile (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/482879/Puerto-Rico)
Datos y Estadisticas de Puerto Rico y sus Municipios (In Spanish) (http://www.tendenciaspr.com/)
Puerto Rico (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rq.html) entry at The World
Factbook
Puerto Rico (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Caribbean/Puerto_Rico/) at the Open Directory Project
Five Years of Tyranny (http://www.cheverote.com/reviews/marcantonio.html) by Congressman Vito
Marcantonio
Wikimedia Atlas of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico travel guide from Wikitravel
United States government
ç Application of the U.S. Constitution in U.S. Insular Areas (http://www.gao.gov/archive/1998/og98005.pdf),
November 1997
ç Puerto Rico State Guide, from the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/
puertorico/index.html)
United Nations (U.N.) Declaration on Puerto Rico
ç U.N. Decolonization Committee's press release on what it deems as the colonial political status of Puerto Rico
(http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2007/gacol3160.doc.htm), June 14, 2007
32
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Puerto Rico ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=497646686 ÅContributors: (jarbarf), *drew, --colibri--, 000peter, 209.91.204.xxx, 21655, 334a, 5-HT8, 9eyedeel, A2Kafir,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Flag of Puerto Rico.svg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Puerto_Rico.svg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: User:Madden
File:Coat of Arms of Puerto Rico.svg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Puerto_Rico.svg ÅLicense: GNU Free Documentation License ÅContributors:
Escudo_de_Puerto_Rico_1.svg: HansenBCN derivative work: Fry1989 (talk) 21:25, 27 January 2011 (UTC)
File:Puerto Rico (orthographic projection).png ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Puerto_Rico_(orthographic_projection).png ÅLicense: GNU Free Documentation License
ÅContributors: Hispania
File:Flag of the United States.svg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: Anomie
File:Flag of Spain (1785-1873 and 1875-1931).svg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain_(1785-1873_and_1875-1931).svg ÅLicense: Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported ÅContributors: previous version User:Ignaciogavira ; current version HansenBCN, designs from SanchoPanzaXXI
File:Taino Village.JPG ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taino_Village.JPG ÅLicense: GNU Free Documentation License ÅContributors: File:garita morro s.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Garita_morro_s.jpg ÅLicense: GNU Free Documentation License ÅContributors: Boricuaeddie, Kurpfalzbilder.de,
Look2See1, OliverZena, Telim tor, 1 anonymous edits
File:JamestownMarker.JPG ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JamestownMarker.JPG ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: Marine 69-71
Image:Real CÅdula de Gracia.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Real_Càdula_de_Gracia.jpg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Rockero
File:LARESFLAG2.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LARESFLAG2.jpg ÅLicense: GNU Free Documentation License ÅContributors: Original: Mariana Bracetti.
Photo: Marine 69-71 at en.wikipedia
File:Intentona de Yauco.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Intentona_de_Yauco.jpg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: Marine 69-71
File:First Company of native Puerto Ricans in the American Army.jpg ÅSource:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_Company_of_native_Puerto_Ricans_in_the_American_Army.jpg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: Strohmeyer & Wyman
File:Jack Delano, Children in a company housing settlement, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1941.jpg ÅSource:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jack_Delano,_Children_in_a_company_housing_settlement,_San_Juan,_Puerto_Rico,_1941.jpg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors:
User:trialsanderrors
File:Puerto Ricans in WWII.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Puerto_Ricans_in_WWII.jpg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: A3A3A3A, DrKiernan,
NeverDoING, Zaccarias
File:US 65th Infantry Regiment.Painting.Korean War.Bayonet charge against Chinese division.jpg ÅSource:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_65th_Infantry_Regiment.Painting.Korean_War.Bayonet_charge_against_Chinese_division.jpg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: Avron,
Magog the Ogre, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg ÅLicense: unknown ÅContributors: Tkgd2007, Waldir, 1 anonymous edits
File:Puerto Rico Capitol.JPG ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Puerto_Rico_Capitol.JPG ÅLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
ÅContributors: User:Mtmelendez
File:2009 PR Proof.png ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2009_PR_Proof.png ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: United States Mint
File:FortuÇo and Mayors 2.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FortuÇo_and_Mayors_2.jpg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: Office of United States Congressman
Luis FortuÇo (R- Puerto Rico)
File:Rico (1).png ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rico_(1).png ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: Original uploader was Caltrop at en.wikipedia Later version(s)
were uploaded by Hoshie, Ikescs, Hfastedge at en.wikipedia.
File:Patillas Puerto Rico.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Patillas_Puerto_Rico.jpg ÅLicense: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 ÅContributors: Oquendo from
Freeport, NY
File:USA Puerto Rico labeled.svg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USA_Puerto_Rico_labeled.svg ÅLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 ÅContributors:
USA_Puerto_Rico_location_map.svg: NordNordWest derivative work: Kmusser (talk)
File:Pharmaceutical Companies Puerto Rico.png ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pharmaceutical_Companies_Puerto_Rico.png ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors:
Kako13
File:Milla-de-oro-min-2.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Milla-de-oro-min-2.jpg ÅLicense: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 ÅContributors: Thief12/Carlo
Giovannetti (talk) (Transferred by Thief12/Originally uploaded by Thief12)
File:La Concha.JPG ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:La_Concha.JPG ÅLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 ÅContributors: Mateoborinquen at
en.wikipedia
File:Real CÅdula de Gracia.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Real_Càdula_de_Gracia.jpg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Rockero
File:Population Density, PR, 2000 (sample).jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Population_Density,_PR,_2000_(sample).jpg ÅLicense: Creative Commons Attribution
3.0 ÅContributors: Javier Rodriguez Galarza
File:San Juan Cathedral.JPG ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Juan_Cathedral.JPG ÅLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported ÅContributors:
User:Mtmelendez
File:SANTISIMATRINIDAD.gif ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SANTISIMATRINIDAD.gif ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: Marine 69-71
File:IMG 3392 - Centro Islamico de Ponce, PR.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IMG_3392_-_Centro_Islamico_de_Ponce,_PR.jpg ÅLicense: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 ÅContributors: Roca Ruiz
File:Shaare Zedeck.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shaare_Zedeck.jpg ÅLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 ÅContributors: Marine 69-71
File:RickyMartin.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RickyMartin.jpg ÅLicense: Public Domain ÅContributors: User:Rgl168
File:Kapok tree Honolulu.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kapok_tree_Honolulu.jpg ÅLicense: GNU Free Documentation License ÅContributors: Daderot, Franz
Xaver, Joel Bradshaw, Look2See1, Tbc
File:Orangestarsultra.jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orangestarsultra.jpg ÅLicense: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike ÅContributors: Sebastian Perez
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Tren Urbano in BayamÉn (Puerto Rico).jpg ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tren_Urbano_in_Bayamân_(Puerto_Rico).jpg ÅLicense: GNU Free Documentation
License ÅContributors: Machuka
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
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