Development of Modernist Style in Western European

Transcription

7th Semester Dissertation
Bachelor of Architectural Technology and Construction Management
Development of The Modernist Style in Western
European Architecture
Andrey Emilov Hodkevich
St.n. 124077
Consultant: Jørgen Nielsen
VIA University College
Horsens Campus
Denmark
Spring 2011
Development of The Modernist Style in Western European Architecture
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“Development of Modernist Style in Western European Architecture”
©Andrey Emilov Hodkevich
VIA University College, Horsens Campus, Denmark
Bachelor of Architectural Technology and Construction Management
7 Semester
This report is mentored by Jørgen Nielsen.
3 Copies- Font – Calibri, size 12, spacing 1,5 lines (optimized for easy reading)
2400 characters/page
May 2011
All rights reserved- no part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior permission
of the author.
Note: This dissertation was completed as part of an Architectural Technology and Construction
Management degree course- no responsibility is taken for any advice, instruction or conclusion
given within!
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1. Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank Mr. Jørgen Nielsen for his advice and support as my consultant throughout
the making of this dissertation.
I would like to thank Mr. Gordon Lindsay Alcock for providing an in depth description of the
methodology of writing a dissertation.
I would like to thank Arch. Nedko Nedev for his advice during the process of selection of topic
for this dissertation
Thank you all for your guidance and help.
Respectfully,
Andrey Emilov Hodkevich
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2. Abstract
This dissertation examines the rise of the Modernist style in Western European architecture. It
follows the development of Modernism through the main years of its existence. It analyzes the
early foundations, describes the main features and shows what made Modernism one of the
main factors in the history of architecture. In this dissertation you can observe the works of the
main representatives of the period, as they are separated into five different groups according to
their active years in Western Europe, and their visions about the modern style. By showing the
best works during each period, it shows the evolution of the different ideas, the contribution of
each of the names of the modern movement. Furthermore it describes how many of the
masters of the early 20th century architecture were connected in their works.
The dissertation concludes by showing what the main principles of the modernist style were
and what made it so important. Since it is considered to be influential up to nowadays it also
shows why and how it influences some of the architects of the 21st century.
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3. Table of Contents
1. Acknowledgements:.................................................................................................................................. 4
2. Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
4. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 8
4.1. Problem Statement ............................................................................................................................ 9
4.1.1 Points of Research........................................................................................................................ 9
4.2 Methodology..................................................................................................................................... 10
5. Main Part................................................................................................................................................. 11
5. 1 Roots of Modern Architecture ......................................................................................................... 12
5.1.1 Cultural Background of the Modern Style ................................................................................. 12
8.1.2 Demographic and Territorial Background of Modernism .......................................................... 14
8.1.3 Technological Achievements in the 18th and 19th Century ........................................................ 16
5. 2 Pre Modern Period ........................................................................................................................... 19
5.2.1 “The Arts and Crafts Movement” .............................................................................................. 19
5.2.1 ”The New Art” ................................................................................................................................ 20
5.2.1.1 Art Nouveau in Britain ............................................................................................................ 22
5.2.1.2 Le’ Art Nouveau in France ....................................................................................................... 23
5.2.1.3 Belgian Art Nouveau ............................................................................................................... 24
8.2.1.4 “Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Österreichs” -The Viennese Secession ............................... 25
8.2.1.5 Jugendstil (The Youth Style) - Art Nouveau in Germany......................................................... 27
8.2.1.5 The end of Art Nouveau .......................................................................................................... 28
8.3 Early Modernist ideas in Western Europe ........................................................................................ 28
8.3.1 “Ornament is a Crime” ............................................................................................................... 28
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8.3.2”Neue Sachlichkeit” .................................................................................................................... 30
8.3.3 The Art of Concrete .................................................................................................................... 33
8.4 The rise of the Modern Masters ....................................................................................................... 34
8.4.1 Gropius and the Bauhaus ............................................................................................................... 34
8.4.2 De Stjl ......................................................................................................................................... 39
8.4.3 End of Bauhaus .......................................................................................................................... 40
8.4.2 “Less is More” ............................................................................................................................ 40
8.4.3 “A House is a machine for living in” ........................................................................................... 43
8.4.4 The International Style ............................................................................................................... 45
8.5 Outline of the Modern Architecture ................................................................................................. 47
9. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 51
10. List of References .................................................................................................................................. 52
11. Glossary ................................................................................................................................................. 54
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4. Introduction
This dissertation represents the final step of the bachelor of architectural technology and
construction management. It is the final opportunity for us to investigate a sphere of our
particular interest and a chance for us to lay the foundation of our future development,
entering into the world of professional building construction.
As constructing architects in the past years we have been involved in each phase in the process
of a building project from the brief to the final details. As fascinating as our studies have been
this far they have mainly been oriented towards construction, engineering and planning, not
focusing so much on the actual building design, on the inception and artistic form that gives the
face of a project, on the architecture.
As a person who is oriented towards developing in the sphere of architectural design, I believe
that in order to be able to get a proper understanding of the architectural world today and
tomorrow you need to be well acquainted with the past and historical development. Only by
gaining this knowledge and experience you can guarantee that you will design a better future,
studying from the efforts and mistakes of the past. This is why I choose to orient my final
dissertation towards this area.
Architecture is the unique connection between the laws of science and the concepts of art,
which allows us to design and develop our living environment. It is the ability of man to change
and shape the world according to his views and perceptions. Such as our way of thinking
architecture develops, evolves adapts through the ages of history, being represented by
different styles and periods all of which being unique in their own consciousness. Some of the
architectural styles represent a particular point of view, others clearly symbolize the period of
development of the human civilization, third represent the technological achievements.
There is one architectural period which cannot simply be classified as a style or trend- this is
Modernism. Being deeply connected with the historical development and events, modernism
represents a new way of thinking, a new beginning for man’s civilization, a model to follow that
revolutionizes the architectural world known until then. I believe that through studying and
analyzing the development of modernism from initial years of its development, I can get a very
good understanding of the vision of architecture of the modern man. By observing the works of
the main representatives of this period I can see what lays behind the work of contemporary
architecture as known today.
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4.1. Problem Statement
This report will examine the main line of development of Modernism in Western European
Architecture. It will be based on observation of the reasons for its occurrence, analysis of the
work and development of the main representatives of the period and showing what their main
principles are and ideas were. In order to be more specific, due to the limited volume of this
dissertation, my analysis will be concentrated mainly over the main line of development of
modernism in Western Europe, as this was one of main points in its evolution.
Modernism is more than just an architectural style. Developed through a controversial period
of human history, it is a literal representation of the idea to give a new modern start of the
human civilization, an attempt to redesign the life of society. Based on the works of the main
representatives of the period, I will observe if modernism met the expectancy to be the new
style of the modern man. By doing so I will be able to give an answer on whether Modernism
was a successful experiment and if it is possible to create an architectural style that can change
the visions and life of man.
4.1.1 Points of Research
-What are the roots and background of Modernist Architecture?
*How did historical events influence it?
*How did architectural development until this stage influence it?
-How did the style evolve through the main years of its development?
-What are the main principles of modernism?
-Who are the main representatives of modernism and their work?
-Was the development of modernism logical, straightforward process?
-How does modernism influence architecture today?
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4.2 Methodology
This dissertation is based on Analytical
Research. The scope of this dissertation
limits me not to be able to follow the
complete and full development of
modernism. Modernism in architecture
is a very broad topic and its evolution is
based on its development all over the
world. It includes not only the modern
design style but also urban planning. In
this dissertation I would like to bring
forward the line of development of the
Modern style within one of the main
and key locations of its developmentWestern Europe. That is why I chose to
observe, follow and analyze the growth
of the movement in this part of the
world. By studying the works and ideas
of the modern masters, I will be able to
give an idea of what Modern
architecture was all about; why and
how it developed. In order to give a
clearer idea of the evolution process, I
will not investigate how modern
architecture developed in every
country. Instead I have developed
Figure 1 The Development of Modern Architecture will be observed in three parts-Pre
a straight going plan which
Modern Architecture which includes the styles that triggered the beginning of the
includes the development of
modern style; the Early modernism which includes the pioneers of modern
modernism in several stages
architecture, the man who laid the foundation of the moderns style; The Rise of
based only on the key events and Modernism after World War I which includes the masters of modern architecture, the
main representatives of its
man who gave the expression of the style; and Post War modernism-the late period
of modern architecture.
evolution through the ages. The
plan is based on the following
table which gives an outline of this
dissertation.
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5. Main Part
“The term “modern architecture” is ambiguous. It can be understood to refer to all buildings of
the modern period regardless of their ideological basis, or it can be understood more specifically
as an architecture conscious of its own modernity and striving for change. “
Alan Colquhoni “Modern Architecture” 2002 Oxford Press
The evolution of architecture is unstoppable and unpredictable. It changes and develops just as
fast as the thoughts of our minds and just as fast as an idea occurs, it disappears. Just like art,
just like music, it symbolizes the way of thinking of the human being, it represents, his state of
mind. Thus it is a
continuously evolving
factor which reflects our
lives, our minds. Gothic
architecture which lasted
for four centuries
represents the medieval
period of man being ruled
by the Church and by God.
Renaissance on the other
hand which has lasted for
three centuries symbolizes
the freedom of man from
the Church and the
triumph of arts. However,
the period between the
18th and the 20th century is
a period in which a rare
phenomenon can be
observed. This period is
represented by architectural styles that are either a reflection or a direct result from the
previous periods. All of those styles have their great influence but the very rapid changes
between them clearly indicate the confusion and uncertainty that marks this period of the
history. This period is the dawn of the modern times. It reflects the seek of the artists of
Table 1 Represents the Development of the architectural movements and
styles during the 18th, 19th and 20th century. It outlines in green color the
period which particularly will be described in the limits of this dissertation
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change, and lays the foundations of modernism. Modernism is a literal description of the
transition of the man in the new modern world. Furthermore it is not simply an architectural
style, just a result and falloff of the 20th century. It was the tool used for change to influence
and guide the people into the new modern times and the new modern way of thinking, thus
casting it shadow for many years ahead up until today.
In order to understand the meaning, the purpose and the reason for the great influence of
modernism as an architecture style it is good to start by studying and observing the reasons for
its development. Only by going deep into the roots of modernism and by analyzing the basis of
its creation we can understand why it has such an enormous effect even nowadays and why it is
impossible to classify it simply as an architectural style.
5. 1 Roots of Modern Architecture
The period of modernism is considered to be between 1900’s up until 1970 being replaced
afterwards by postmodernism. This period marks some of the most eventful moments in the
history of mankind. The occurrence of modernism during this period was everything but an
accident. It resulted due to many reasons. In this dissertation I would like to examine the roots
of modernism, by dividing them in three groups. The first is the territorial transformation in
Europe before the beginning of the 20th century, the second is the cultural transformation and
the third is the technological development.
5.1.1 Cultural Background of the Modern Style
“Modernism released us from the constraints of everything that had gone before with a
euphoric sense of freedom.”
Arthur Ericksonii
Modernism in architecture could be considered as the final result of the very long transition of
man leaving the age of religion and faith and entering the age of reason and technology. This is
a very controversial period in history, which historians often refer to modernism as post-
Development of Modernist Style in Western European Architecture
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medieval period1. This period starts with the years of the Renaissance from the 15th century
reaching the middle of the 20th century and is also referred to as Modernity. It is irrelevant to
go deeper in the history of Modernity. However, the late part of that interval, taking place from
the end of the 18th and the 19th century must be taken into considerations as it had a direct
impact over the inception of the idea of modern architecture. This period is marked by the socalled Age of Enlightenment known also as the age of Reason.2 It represented the triumph of
reason in intellectual, scientific and cultural life in Western European Societies. It developed
simultaneously in Great Britain, France, Spain, The Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Portugal and
respectively their colonies. It is a great example of how Western European cultures are closely
related in their process of evolution. Events such as the French Revolution which resulted in the
“Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen” ( Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen), the American Revolution (Even though it is not part of Europe, until that moment
North America was a British Colony and therefore it had big impact over its development) just
show how man was no longer
obliged to religion and the
faith in god, but was trying to
shape the world according to
his own views and visions
being led by logic and reason.
It is this fundamental fact that
actually lays in the basis of the
development of idea of the
modern world. The future
does not belong to the belief
and religion, it belongs to
human action and technology.
This transition is notable in
Figure 2 Laurynas Gucevičius 1783 The Cathedral of Vilinius. Symbolic
the architectural development Neo Classical Building giving a good example of the rediscovery of the
massive ornamental columns, typical for ancient Architecture.
as well.
Through the 18th and 19th century, a period which I would like to define as Pre-Modern,
architecture was represented by the styles of Neo-classicism, the Ancient and the Gothic
Revival. Neo-classicism which took place after the middle of the 18th century emerged as a
response to its naturalist predecessors- Baroque and highly ornamented Rococo. In its basics it
1
The new Cambridge modern history: Companion volume by Peter Burke
2
Oxford Dictionary
13
was a style principally derived from the architecture of Classical Greece and was inspired from
the purity of the arts of ancient Rome. By setting up an example of deriving inspiration from
history, Neo classicism unleashed the so-called period of Historicism or the Revivals. Such were
the Gothic, Greek, Islamic, Egyptian, and Byzantine.3 All those styles were following the
principles and ideals developed in the past. Their reintroduction showed the desire of mankind
to investigate and follow its history, with the belief of the purity of principles and higher
morality of the past.
The reason why I have put attention to this “pre-modern” period of the 19th century is because
it clearly shows that the development of Modernism was something inevitable. Architecture
connected to art and science needed to evolve. The period of the revival (present
active revīvō, derives from Latin meaning to relive) showed that the so called age of
Enlightenment, referring to not only in architecture but as a whole cultural aspect, has reached
a breaching point. Rediscovered principles and ideals simply could not be as influential as they
have been at the first place. By the middle of the second part of the 19th century it was clear
that western culture needed a change, a change which could not be found in history and which
would change the future. Artists were already tired of praising the ideals of the past. They
needed a new muse and thus began modernity. It was to give and absolutely new and different
view of the world of art and, therefore, architecture. This shows that the development of
modernism in cultural aspect was definitely not accidental. The word Modernism originates
from the Latin word mod (o)4 which means “just now”. It showed how western culture needed
to close the pages of the past, concentrate on what is happening now and start building the
future.
8.1.2 Demographic and Territorial Background of Modernism
In the pre modern period, through the 18th and 19th century, Western Europe cities underwent
drastic changes in terms of their population and territory. These changes can also be
considered as a reason for the development of modernism due to the fact that architecture
styles that served Europeans until that moment were no longer applicable to what was to
come. Therefore modernist architecture can be considered as a response of the growing need
to change of the European societies in the end of the 19th century.
3
“A World History of Architecture” Michael Fazio, Marian Moffett, Lawrence Wodehouse; Second Edition; 2009;
4
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/modern
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By the middle of the
18th century it was
clear that a massive
change was about to
begin with the
introduction of some
of the technological
achievements of that
time. It was this
period in which
began the so-called
“Industrial
Revolution” which
resulted in a drastic
change of the lives of
people in the major
European cities. It
Figure 3 View from River Thames 18th Century Factory London Example of the
caused major
atmosphere through the industrial ages.
changes in
manufacturing,
agriculture, mining,
technology and
transportation. The
process of so-called
industrialization
resulted in rapid
Table 2 The Changes in the Population of some of the major Western European
income of the
cities. The table gives an example of how drastic the population increase
average population. between the 19th and 20th century.
In addition to that
there was a sudden drop in mortality due to the improved standards in nutrition and medical
treatment. This resulted in unprecedented urban concentration, starting first in England and
then following the rest of Western Europe.5 All together in the 19th and 20th century the world
population increased approximately 6 times! 6 All this led to overgrowth of the capacities of the
5
“Modern Architecture-A Critical History”- Kenneth Frampton; 2007; p.21
6
The World Economy: Historical Statistics. Maddison, Angus; 2003; Paris: Development Centre, OECD. pp. 256–
62, Tables 8a and 8c..
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cities at that period. Old neighborhoods were turned into slums and the lack of municipal
transport at that time resulted in some of the central neighborhoods standard houses to be
transformed into rudimentary shelters which purpose was to provide as cheap living conditions
for as many people as possible at the lowest price. Of course such housings had inadequate
standards of light, ventilation and open space. Furthermore they had a rather primitive sanitary
system with no maintenance. The logical result of all these factors was the development of
many diseases in this period such as the outbreak of Cholera in England in the 1830s. All this
was clearly showing that a change was needed. The growing new industrial society, the growth
of the big cities, the lack of conditions to house this huge amount of people, the lack of
adequate urban development were all showing that a need for change in the architectural
approach was a necessity.
8.1.3 Technological Achievements in the 18th and 19th Century
Engineering and technological development are inevitable part of the evolution of architecture.
They can be considered as the driving force, as they extend the abilities of man, and destroy the
limits that architecture faces. The technological explosion, which happened in the so-called premodern period in the 18th and 19th century, definitely had a major impact over the
establishment of modernism in architecture. It is actually the technological development that
triggered the beginning of the “Industrial Revolution”.
The first invention of the time that must be mentioned was the creation of the steam powered
engine, originally designed by Thomas Newcomeniii in 1712 and then improved by James Wattiv
in 1763. 7 Together with this must be mentioned the increased usage and production of iron in
structures. Even though it has been a material known to mankind since ancient history, it was
the period of the industrial revolution that actually gave the start of mass production and usage
of iron in the building industry. In England the iron production increased 40 times between the
period of 1750 and 1950. Together with the invention of the steam powered engine this led to
the creation of the first interconnecting mobile lines between major cities, such as the railways.
Initially being demonstrated in 1804 by Richard Trevthickv, the first public rail service between
Stockton and Darlington is launched in 1825.8 This led to rapid development and necessity for
consideration of completely new infrastructure in the urban development of the cities and the
7
“Society and economy in modern Britain 1700-1850” ; Richard Brown 1991; (Repr. ed.). London: Routledge.
pp. 60.
8
The Victorian Railway and How It Evolved, London: Heinemann 1990
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areas in between them. By 1860 in Britain there were already 10,000 miles of railways which
just shows how quickly new technologies begin to influence the pre modern society. The
introduction of the new transportation
infrastructure led to the increase in the
population and the mass urbanization in
the earlier mentioned period of the
industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th
century.
In 1779 the first iron bridge was created.
It was a 30.5 meter iron structure
designed by architect T.F. Pitchardvi in
Coalbrookdale, England.9 This technical
achievement gave the start of the mass
usage of iron as a material in the building
Figure 4 The first cast iron bridge which crosses river Severn
located near Coalbrookdale, England
construction. It had great influence over
what was to come through the following
ages of modernism.
Use of iron reinforcements has been a building method used for many years and at different
periods of history. Early usage of concrete can be observed from the ancient Roman times.
However, it was the end of the 18th century, 1756 when English engineer John Smeatonvii made
the first officially registered mixture of concrete, using a mixture of pebbles as a coarse
aggregate and mixing powdered brick into the cement. Following the work of Smeaton in 1824
English inventor Joseph Aspdinviii invents the so-called “Portland Cement” which up to
nowadays remains the main cement used in concrete production. Also during this period
Joseph Monierix, a gardener from Paris, made garden pots using tubes of concrete which he
reinforced with iron mesh. In 1867 he receives a patent for that making it the first officially
registered reinforced concrete system.10 The usage of reinforced concrete structures is one of
the main features in the work of Western European Modern architects, as it will later be shown.
9
"Ironbridge Gorge Museum - Our Collections". Retrieved 1.04.2011
10
"The History of Concrete and Cement". By Mary Ballis; About.com. Retrieved 1.04.2011
17
The reinvention of concrete and iron
structures gave the freedom of the
usage of curtain glazing, another
symbolic modernist feature. This
feature was presented in 1854 in the
design of the London exhibition hall
known also as the Crystal Palace
(Fig.5). Architect Joseph Paxtonx
foreshadowed some of the features
of modernism in his design, giving
vast amount of light within his
building. It was eventually followed
by the world’s first glass curtain wall
designed by architect Peter Ellisxi in
1864 in his building known as the
Oriel Chambers.11
Figure 5 The Crystal Palace-One of the symbols of the Pre Modern
period developed in 1851
All those examples show that the
development of modernist architecture was very
dependent on the technologies developed in the pre
modern period of the 18th and 19th century. It was the
discovery of those construction principles and
materials that was to give the freedom and inspiration
of the modern masters to design what was to be the
world of tomorrow.
It is clear that the enormous impact which modernist
architecture has cannot simply be based on one
reason only. The causes for the development of the
design principles and idea of this period are not only
cultural, nor only demographic or technological.
However, once you combine all those reasons
together, you can see that the change which
modernism was to bring to the architectural world
was definitely not just a coincidence. It was a result, a
necessity which closed the long lasting period of man
letting go of Religion as a leading role in his life and
taking destiny in his own hands.
11
Figure 6 Oriel Chambers (1864).The world’s first
glass curtain wall designed by architect Peter Ellis in
Liverpool, England.
"History". Oriel Chambers. Retrieved 5.4.2011
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5. 2 Pre Modern Period
Modernism follows a long process of development from its early ages in the beginning of the
20th century until the 1970’s when it is considered to be replaced by the so-called “postmodern” period. The idea of modernism as known as today was much different in the early
ages of the development of the period. This period specifically is oriented towards the end of
the 19th century and the rising mutiny of artists against the so-called historicism which
developed through the longer part of the pre modern interval. It is hard to say that the modern
movement developed at the same and constant pattern through countries in Western Europe.
In fact it differed in some of its ideas and views in some of the pioneer countries. However, it is
clear that everywhere the beginning of modernism carried a similar meaning rising from the
works of art. In the beginning it started with the development of several movements which
aimed to change the current status, “rebel” against the pattern given by historicism and its
predecessors, and mark the beginning of the modern period.
5.2.1 “The Arts and Crafts Movement”
The process of industrialization in the 19th
century led to many changes in the everyday
life of people in England. It resulted in a mass
production of goods of all range, and rapid
decline in the artistic standards within the
process. This led to the creation of an
opposition within the artistic sector. This
opposition was started with the writings of
John Ruskinxii. In his theories, he gave
importance to two main issues- the social
values and the artistic qualities of a product.12
These two values eventually would become the
12
Table 3 Main Points of the Arts and Crafts Movement
“A World History of Architecture” Michael Fazio, Marian Moffett, Lawrence Wodehouse; 2008, London P.425
19
two foundation points of modern architecture.
John Ruskin’s theories were advocating the
return to handcraft work, as he believed it was
the only true expression of man’s moral values
and art. The ideas of Ruskin inspired the creation
of the so-called “Arts and Crafts Movement” the
leader of which was textile designer William
Morrisxiii. It was him together with English
architect Philip Webbxiv who designed the Red
House at Bexleyheath. This house represented all
the visions of the arts and crafts movement. It
was inspired by nature, using natural materials,
and it represented the triumph of handcrafts over
the mass productive industry.
The works of Morris and Webb eventually
inspired one of the pioneer names of the
development of modern architecture in England- Figure 7(Up)”The Red House”(plan not in scale)Charles Francis Annesley Voyseyxv. He is
one of the most symbolic buildings of the Arts
and Crafts Movement. The building stands out
considered to be amongst the pioneers of
with its sufficient amount of light and good
modernism due to his functional design
ventilation.
approach. In his building in Broadleys, Lake
Windermere, Cumbria (1898) he demonstrates
his vision of open architecture, in which he gives
priority to the shape, function, view and light of the
building, excluding ornamentation.
The Arts and Crafts movement was the first step
towards conceiving the idea of modern
architecture for the machine age, and what values
should it possess. However, the movement never
had the strength to give the start of Modernism
in architecture. It was another movement that
would create that path-Art Nouveau.
Figure 8 The Design of the house in Broadleys is
entirely based on the view. The building has large
glass windows, providing the necessary light and
ventilation.
20
5.2.1 ”The New Art”
One of the main movements that
characterize the struggle to find
the new contemporary style of
the 20th century was the socalled “Art Nouveau” movement.
The name of the movement
meaning “new art” derives from
French Language and was first
referred to in England. It was
given after the name of an art
Table 4 Main Points of Art Nouveau
gallery and exhibition hall in Paris
known as “La Maison de l'Art Nouveau “opened in 1895
by German naturalized French art dealer Siegfried Bing
xvi
(later called Samuel Bing).13 14Even though the
present idea of modern architecture is completely non
decorative and functional design in the beginning it was
not exactly like that. Art Nouveau was more a
decorative movement and less an architectural
movement, although it marks some remarkable building
achievements. It was a wave against the visions of
historicism and its principles of seeking and
rediscovering the ancient and past ideals of art, an
attempt to break away from the old, from the past,
striving to create something new, something that was
never seen before. Initially Art Nouveau did not appear Figure 9 “La Maison de l'Art Nouveau “
exhibition hall in Paris opened in 1895
in architectural works, but in book illustrations, glass
which gave the name of the Art Nouveau
decoration, furniture and eventually in interior design.
Movement
Even though it is considered to be attempt for the
creation of something new and entirely independent, it
13
“A Chronology of Western Architecture” Doreen Yarwood; Londond; 1987; p.p.191
14
http://www.senses-artnouveau.com/biography.php?artist=bin Retrieved 19.4.2011
21
also has its foundations. Art Nouveau struggled to differ from the
historical revivals, but there are many examples for a resemblance
between it and the pre-existing Rococo style, such as the linear
and surface curved decoration inspired by organic shapes15.
The freedom of shapes and the desire for simplicity is definitely
one of the key features of the architecture of the Art Nouveau
movement. Furthermore the introduction of materials such as
glass, metal structures and reinforced concrete provided the
architects with even greater freedom in their organic linear
decorations. Most importantly, however, the usage of these
materials in the end of the 19th century gave the architects
enough freedom to get their attention towards light and spacekey elements of the incoming functionalism.
Art Nouveau architecture was definitely not presented in the
same way in the different ends of Western Europe. Even though it
followed more or less the same principles, the architectural
examples, in different countries, could often confuse a person in
his perception of the “new art” movement. It was more influential
in some than other areas. In order to follow the impact of the
influence of Art Nouveau on the development of Modern
architecture, I have followed some of the main concentration
points together with their main representatives and works.
Figure 10 The resemblance between
the decorations presented by Rococo
(above) and Art Nouveau
movement. It shows both use nature
as inspiration. Art Nouveau though
seeks to present it in a more
abstract way, as if it has never been
seen before.
15
“An Outline of World Architecture” Michael Raeburn; 1973; London; p.p 108
22
5.2.1.1 Art Nouveau in Britain
One of the key points in the development of
Art Nouveau architecture in Europe is Britain.
One of the first examples of the movement is
one Ruskin’s students and a close friend of C.F
Voysey- Arthur Macmurdoxvii with his linear
design for the title page of his article “Wren’s
Figure 8 Arthur Macmurdo’s
front page design of his
“Wren’s City Churches”. This
design represents some of
the ornamental principles of
Art Nouveau-such as the
linear decorations.
City Churches”. The main name that represented
the Art Nouveau was Charles Rennie
Mackintoshxviii. As an architect and furniture
designer his designs were distinguished with
special attention towards the finest interior
details. His interiors were always filled with
specially designed furniture for the particular
case. Architecture of Mackintosh was not
entirely limited to the natural ornamentation
and principles of Art Nouveau. In the end of the
19th century Japan isolation is reduced, which
results in rapid globalization of Japanese culture.
One of the first cities that got influenced by it is
Figure 10 The Façade of the Glasgow School of Art-the
façade is filled with big glass windows, which open the
interior space, and provide much light within.
Glasgow, as it is one of the key ports
connecting Europe with the East.
Mackintosh was inspired by the
simplicity of the Japanese interior
and furniture design, which does not
rely on ornaments, but on the
quality of space and the usage of
natural materials. A good example
of his visions is the Glasgow School
of Art. In it Mackintosh
demonstrated his early modern
Figure 9 The Plan of the Glasgow School of Art (Not in
Scale) shows an example of the simple, yet functional
ideas represented not by heavy
design of the building.
23
ornamentation but rather asymmetric wellproportioned geometry shape, presented by
strong right angles and floral inspired motifs with
curves. In addition he put a lot of attention to the
big glass windows, as he gives an early example of
one of the key modernist points-the openness of
a building and vast amounts of light let within. In
addition he pursued simple functional forms.
5.2.1.2 Le’ Art Nouveau in France
The development of the Art Nouveau in France
was mainly represented by the works of Lyon born
architect Hector Guimardxix. The design of his
metro stations in Paris was a perfect example of
the fundamental principles of the movement
including the vast usage of glass combined with
steel decorative curves. He used glass roofing, and
combined with all the decorative surfaces
achieved a plant-like design. In another of his
works, Castel d’Orgeval, he gives a good example
of the so-called open plan which eventually can be
observed in the works of some of the biggest
names of Modern Architecture.
Figure 14
Figure 12
Exterior of
the Castel
d’Orgeval by
Hector
Guimard.
Plan Drawing of
the Castel
d’Orgeval. It is one
of the earliest
examples of the
open plan. The
common areas are
barely separated
by nonloadbearing walls
Figure 11 The
library Interior of
the building. It
demonstrate how
Mackintosh’s
perceptions of Art
Nouveau were
influenced by
Japanese design.
The furniture, is
not decorated.
Instead it is
presented only by
its natural
wooden material.
Figure 13
Entrance to the
Metro Station
in Paris. The
Plant like
design gives a
good example
of the natural
inspiration of
the Art
Nouveau
24
5.2.1.3 Belgian Art Nouveau
One of the chief centers of Art Nouveau
architecture was Brussels, the capitol of
Belgium. There emerged one of the key early
modern architects- Victor Hortaxx. His works
became symbolic for the Art Nouveau
movement. He clearly showed that the visions
of the new art architecture were not simply
based on loose structural form, but on rather
simple clearly defined geometric forms. His
usage of steel and glass gave an early example
of the success that could be achieved with the
usage of these materials in terms of light and
space within the building. He designed one of
his most fundamental works in 1985 - “Hôtel
van Eetvelde”.
“The Hotel van Eetvelde in Brussels was
designed in 1898 by Victor Horta, undoubtedly
the key European Art Nouveau architect. While
most other architects flirted with the new style,
Horta found it gave the best expression to his
ideas. His skill is demonstrated in his ability to
slip his domestic designs into narrow constricted
sites. The interiors become of great importance
as centres of light, which permeates through the
filigree domes and skylights—usually in the
center of the building. The Hotel van Eetvelde is
a remarkable example of the way Horta handled
the situation and used it to highlight the
imposing staircase, which leads up to the firstfloor reception rooms”
Figure 18 The Exterior of the
Hotel van Eetvelde. It has
large windows façade,
combined with curved
decorations.
Figure 19 The Plan of the
building is developed
around the staircase
center system, which is
perfectly lit by the roof
skylight. Thus the simple
geometric form of the
building is combined with
curved walls
Figure 20 The Interior
shows the central part
featuring the main
principles of Art
Nouveau, simple
geometry, decorative
glass combined with
decorative steel
structure.
John Norwich, “Great Architecture of the World”
1975
25
Figure 21 Hotel
Tassel 1893-94. A
great example of
Art quality
combined with
industrial
materials.
In his projects he was entirely relying on some of
the revolutionary stylistic principles of the
incoming functionalist architecture as he was one
of the first to introduce the open plan and the
diffusion of light. This could be observed in some
of his other great works, such as the “Hôtel Tassel”
designed in the period of 1893-1894 - a perfect
example of early modern usage of the key
products of the industrial revolution- steel and
glass.
8.2.1.4 “Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Österreichs”16 -The Viennese Secession
Influenced by the works of Art Nouveau artist on the
3rd of April 1987 a group of artists and architects in
Austria formed the so-called Vienna Secession
Group. Amongst the main names representing the
Viennese Secession Group were Gustav Klimtxxi,
Koloman Moserxxii, Otto Wagnerxxiii, Joseph Maria
Olbrichxxiv. Similar to the other representatives of Art
Nouveau movement the group emerged in response
to the conservatism of the art exhibition center
”Vienna Künstlerhaus” and its orientation towards
Historicist movement. Each member of the group
has had an amazing influence over the development
of modern art and architecture. The designs of the
members of the group were inspired by the
development of the Arts and Crafts movement in
England and the works of Art Nouveau
representative Charles Mackintosh. In their works
it can be observed that they combined decorative
motives with simple and more formal geometry.
Example of this is the headquarters building of the
16
Figure 22 The exterior of the Exhibition Hall and headquarters of
the Viennese Secession. The building, designed by Olbrich,
represents the combination of strict, simple geometric design,
combined with Art Nouveau decorations and Neo Classical
features.
The Union of Austrian Artitsts
26
group. Example of this is the headquarters building
of the group. Designed by Austrian architect Joseph
Olbrich in 1897, and decorated with the help of
Gustav Klimt and Koloman Moser, it has become a
symbol of the Vienna Secession and the Art Nouveau
movement in Austria. The design of the building clearly
showed how Olbrich was influenced by the principles
of Mackintosh, having in mind the articulate and
symmetrical geometry combined at the same time
with the decorative principles of Art Nouveau
movement. Together with that he was inspired by
some his some of the ideas given to him by his Neo
Classical teacher, Otto Wagner, such as the grand
entrance.
Figure 23 The Metro Stations in Vienna designed by Otto
Wagner. Another good example of the strict and yet again
One of the most notable architectural representatives decorated principles of the Austrian Art Nouveau.
of the group was the oldest member of the group
Otto Wagner. Even though through most of his career
he is follower of the Neo-Classical style, he creates his
most remarkable works as a representative of the
Vienna Secession. Amongst these are the 36 stations
for the Vienna subway system. They were designed in
the typical for Art Nouveau stylized ornaments in cast
iron. However, his modernist views did not last for long
as he was more interested in developing a cleaner and
less decorative works, such as the Postal Savings Bank
in Vienna designed in 1904. In it is quite clear that
Wagner has abandoned the need for decoration and
has given priority to the light and openness of the
Figure 24 The Postal Savings Bank in Vienna is a good
building. This design is amongst the first
example of the transition between Art Nouveau and
representatives of the idea of the modern
Modernism. It shows how the decorative features are
architecture. It would be one of the reasons why
slowly (not completely) abandoned replaced by light
and function as center of attention.
Wagner is considered to be one of the fathers of
modern architecture.
27
8.2.1.5 Jugendstil (The Youth Style) - Art Nouveau in Germany
Art Nouveau movement in Germany came to be famous as the
Youth Style “Jugendstil”. The name was given by the “Jugend”
magazine issued in 1896 by German journalist and writer
Georg Hirth. Art Nouveau in Germany had much more
influence in the area of graphic arts and design work, than in
architecture. The central figure in the development of the
Jugendstil architecture in Germany was the previously
mentioned Belgian architect Henry Van de Velde. Even though
most of his commissions would mainly be interiors, his works
without a doubt must be mentioned as rather influential not
only for the development of modernism in Germany but as a
whole in Western Europe. His works involved the designs of
“Villa Esche" in Chemnitz, Germany and the interior of the
Folkwang Museum in Hagen. It must be mentioned that even
though Art Nouveau architecture, did not stand out, as
much as in the other Western Countries it definitely had a
great influence over the ideas of some of the early modern
German architects that would later on develop the
modern functional style.
Figure 25 Villa Esche-one of the symbols of
the German Jugendsti. It shows that
ornamentation is slowly replaced by clean
simple façades.
8.2.1.5 The end of Art Nouveau
It can be said that Art Nouveau was definitely one of the leading factors and the first step
towards new modern architecture. It was spread all over Western Europe, having bigger
impacts at some areas than on others. What must be said though is that it outlined some of the
main features of the modern movements and in a way acted as an inspiration for the modern
masters. It reduced the attention towards complex geometry, and put the attention towards
more strict and simple geometry. It gave the start of the usage of modern materials such as
glass, steel and concrete. Furthermore it clearly showed a new architecture way of thinking in
which the decoration is not the key feature of the building but it is more like an incidental part
of its design. More important from everything else, Art Nouveau gave the element which was
working towards an entirely new conception of architecture. It gave the need of the new
modern architects to discover something new, something that was never seen before, which
would slowly drive them away from the ideas of neo-classicism and historicism. In a way it can
28
be said that Art Nouveau was the bridge between the old, the past, and the new and modern
architecture.
8.3 Early Modernist ideas in Western Europe
8.3.1 “Ornament is a Crime”
The representatives of Art Nouveau had influence over the developing artists of the beginning
of the 20th century. It was those artists that eventually would come to be known as the fathers
of Modernism.
One of the initiators of the principles ideas of modernism was Austro-Hungarian Architect Adolf
Loosxxv. Early in his career he was affiliated with the ideas of the Vienna Secession17. Eventually
after graduation he traveled In the United States where he was clearly influenced by the works,
of Louis Sullivan, the father of the skyscraper.
“I shall say that it would be greatly for our esthetic good if we should refrain entirely from the usage of
ornament for a period of years, in order to that our thought might concentrate acutely upon the
production of buildings well-formed and comely in the nude”
“Ornament in Architecture” Louis Sullivan (1892)
Not long after returning to Vienna in 1896 he
soon began speaking against the ideas of having
decoration within the building. This of course
led to disruption between him and the
representatives of the Vienna Secession as they
were following the ideas of Art Nouveau
architecture which included ornamentation as
part of the building design. In this way it can be
concluded that it was actually Loos that further Figure 26 Exterior of Loos’s Steiner House
took the process of discovering architectural
style for the new modern age, a process initiated by Art Nouveau movement. Loos’s writings in
short time became very popular and had great influence. In 1908 he published his most famous
work, under the name Ornament and Crime, which suggested that the next step in the
development of architecture is the complete abandoning of the ornament in design.
17
29
“Why, there are prisons where eighty per cent of the convicts are tattooed, and tattooed man who are
not in prison are either latent criminals or degenerate aristocrats….I have therefore evolved the following
maxim, and pronounce it to the world : the evolution of culture marches with the elimination of
ornament from useful objects.”
“Ornament and Crime”; Adolf Loos, 1908
This radical message, followed by similar publications
led to, Loos becoming a main figure in the
development of 20th century architecture. He
advocated the design of rather simple, plain and
functional structures, which until that moment would
normally be considered to have no aesthetic values,
as this style was to be more appropriate for man
entering the machine age.
It was Loos’s work, however which spoke best for his
design visions. Most important were the designs, of the Figure 27 Plan drawing of the Steiner housedemonstration of an open plan with reduced to
Steiner House (fig.28) in Vienna and the Moller House
minimum internal walls.
(fig.30) in Vienna. The first is amongst the first
modernist buildings in the world. In them Loos
introduced a simple and straightforward design in which
included absolutely no ornamentation, symmetrical
design, floor slabs layered at the same height and plain
white façade. However, it would be one of his un-build
projects, which actually was to show the full potential of
his idea for developing a style in which the space
composition was playing the leading role. This was the
design of the , which introduced what he called the Figure 28 The Vila Lido fetaures some of the key issues of
“Raumplan”. In it he puts a lot of attention on the
modern architecture. Even though it is part of the second
modern period after WWI it still is important as it was one
usage of light and space, including multiple bold
of the inspiration of Le Corbusier’s five modern points.
openings between the spaces of the house. This
concept would eventually prepare the path for the
idea of Modernist Spatial Compositions of one of
the masters of Modernism Le Courbusier18.
18
30
8.3.2”Neue Sachlichkeit19”
The developing art movements and organizations in Western Europe gave a direct influence
over the development of architecture in Germany. The “Neue Sachlichkeit” or the new
objectivity was the expression of the development of Modernism in Germany. Grasping the
momentum, the need for change, inherited by Art Nouveau, using the industrial development
as a foundation it was not only to lead to drastic changes in many European cities, but it was to
give part of the face of Modernism in Western Architecture.
The first expression of the “new objectivity” was the development of the German Werkbund20.
In 1896 German architect Herman Muthesiusxxvi was send in England to study the development
of the Arts and Crafts movement. Based on his observations he returned to Germany where he
openly criticized the German industrial products in a lecture in Berlin21. This led to disruption
between the major German industrial
designers and architects, and led to the
development of the so-called “Deutsche
Werkbund”, founded in Munich in 1907.
The Werkbund promoted the quality
design of industrial mass production
goods, thus trying to develop an art for
the machine age. Without a doubt it was
less of an artistic movement and more
an industrial one, when compared with
its predecessors of Art Nouveau and the
Arts and Crafts Movement. The
organization included many influential
names of the period. Amongst them
Figure 29 The AEG Turbine Factory by Peter Behrens. The building
stood out the name of the German
Architect Peter Behrens, one of the most gave a new modern expression of the industrial design. In a way the
consequences it had played decisive role in the development of
influential names in modern history. In
Modernism.
1907 he was employed by the AEG
19
New Objectivity; New Sobriety –translation from German Language
20
The German Work Federation – direct translation from German Lanuguage; German Products Association- a
more appropriate equivalent.
21
www.hermann-muthesius.de
31
(Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft) electric company. In 1909 he designed the turbine
factory and headquarters in Berlin, a building which showed clearly the visions of architecture
promoted by the Werkbund. The building comprised of
massive load bearing corner ends, in between which
there are exposed steel supports and a massive glass
façades. It was a good example of the orientation of the
development of modern industrial architecture,
developed for the industrial functional needs. It was this
that would eventually be the basis for the ideas taught in
the cradle of Modern architecture-The Bauhaus. With
the growing interest towards his design Behrens’s office
gained popularity which resulted in him collaborating
with many young architects. Amongst his apprentices
were the names of Walter Gropius, Adolf Meyer, Mies
van der Rohe and the young Charles-Édouard JeanneretLe Corbusier; names which eventually will grow up to be
crowned as the Masters of the Modern architecture.
Figure 30 The Poster of the 1914 German
Parallel to the development of the German Werkbund
Werkbund Exhibition.
was another modern movement, which opposed the
industrial visions of architecture-the Expressionists. It
took some of the modern principles developed in the beginning of the 20th century such as the
lack of ornamentation, but unlike the principles of the architecture for the machine age, it tried
to give an expression of emotions. The movement of the expressionist had a strong support in
Germany, Holland, Denmark and Austria. It can be suggested that expressionism was much
closer to its predecessor Art Nouveau, than the Modern Industrial Architecture. The main
themes developed by expressionist were based on natural inspirations, trying to put back the
attention that architecture should be considered as an art, in which the aesthetic beauty is
more important than the final pragmatic solution. Of all the movements representing the ideas
of expressionism the main one were the German and the Dutch Expressionism. In Germany the
movement was initiated by a group of young Jugendstil students who formed the so-called
German Brücke. Eventually it entered the area of architecture where it was in a direct
opposition with the industrial werkbund. The first more influential appearance was in 1914 in
the Werkbund Exhibition held in at Rheinpark in Cologne, Germany. This exhibition was marked
by the Glass Pavilion of Bruno Tautxxvii. His design was design was inspired by the writings of
German expressionist thinker and author Paul Scheerbartxxviii. The building, designed in glass
and concrete adapted the idea of Adolf Loos and all attention was put on the glass surface
32
dome, which intentionally demonstrated the different
usage of glass in architecture. The building was supposed
to set an example of the possibilities that could be
achieved with the usage of glass, concrete and steel
materials, and how they can be adapted to artwork. The
exhibition included also the works of Jugendstil member of
the Werkbund, Henri Van de Velde, with his design of a
modern werkbund theatre. With this project he showed
that he was moving away from the ideas set by Muthesius,
who visions for the Werkbund were oriented towards
industrial mass production. The exhibition also included
the work of two of the students and employees of Peter
Behrens, Adolf Meyer and Walter Gropius. They presented
a model factory for the werkbund which also
demonstrated the industrial usage of glass, steel and
concrete.
Figure 31 Model of the 1914 Glass
Pavillion showing the transparent dome
which gave great amount of light
within.
Dutch Expressionism or “Wendigen”
was also a movement which would have
its own influence over the development
of Modern architecture. In the basis of
the development of all Dutch modern
movements lies the name of Hendrik
Berlagexxix. He himself was greatly
influenced by the works of American
Figure 32 Henri Van de Velde Modern Theatre. The rather
architect Henry Hobson Richardson and complex and curvous design of the building shows his influence
by the movement of the expressionists.
the usage of brick in during the neoRomanesque revival. This could be
observed in his most famous project which was the design of the American Stock Exchange
building in Amsterdam, which used steel trusses and glass roof. However, what influenced him
the most was his contact with one of the masters of the modern movement in the United
States-Frank Lloyd Wright. It was his words that actually Berlage spread afterwards during the
modernist boom in Europe. Amongst the followers of Berlage were Dutch expressionists Piet
Kramer and Michael De Klerk. Their projects remain as some of the most provocative
architecture structures of the 20th century and influence.
33
Figure 33- The American Stock Exchange building in
Amsterdam-one of the most symbolic buildings in
Dutch Expressionism
Figure 34 The interior of the Stock Exchange building. It is
revolutionary in terms of its enormous glass roof
combined with steel trusses.
8.3.3 The Art of Concrete
The idea for usage of reinforced concrete was originally
suggested and used in the 18th century. However, it was
Robert Maillart, a Swiss engineer, who provided a
concept for the reinforced concrete which would suit
the purposes of the modern designxxx. With the help of
his achievement stood up the work of another early
modern master such as the French Auguste Perret. Even
though he was a descendant of the neo-classical
architecture in the process of his career he tried to
combine the principles of the 19th century historical
movements with the usage of modern materials. One of
his most notable designs was the Paris apartment house
at “25 bis Rue Franklin” designed in 1902. The building
was made entirely of reinforced concrete and
symbolized a structural freedom that was never seen
before.
August Perret set an example and showed that the
modern architecture should not back away, but
exactly the opposite-it should rely on the
technological developments of the time. One of his
young employees, Charles-Édouard Jeanneret- Le
Figure 35 The apartment building at “25 bis Rue Franklin”
in Paris designed by August Perret. This building had key
influence over the development of modernism. It is the first
reinforced concrete building in the world. It gave the
modern masters a material which provides them with great
freedom in their design.
34
Corbusier was without a doubt influenced by this idea and
was to further take the usage of reinforced concrete as the
leading modernist building material.
In 1914 the Modern movements in Western Europe reached a
point that would leave probably one of the most decisive
marks on its development-The First World War. The aftermath
of the war would provide the necessary conditions for
modernism to flourish to its maximum extent.
Figure 36 The plan drawing of the building,
showing the free flowing interior open plan in
which the internal spaces are open to each other
8.4 The rise of the Modern Masters
World War 1 had great effect over the development of the Western European culture. It led to
changes in many of the leading participants of the war, especially to those that were considered
to be on the “losing” side. One of these results was the end of most of the major imperial forces
in Europe. This was followed by discredit of the aristocracy and together with them, a downfall
of all the historical and classical styles that were representing them until that time. With the
rise of the power of people, rose the need for new architecture, which would need to represent
the new beginning.
8.4.1 Gropius and the Bauhaus
Until the First World War the development of modern architecture in the main areas of
Western Europe, was divided into two. On the one hand there was the industrial architecture,
developed to suit the needs and functions of the machine age, led by the German Werkbund.
On the other there was the art driven Expressionist movement, which rose for the aesthetic,
exceptional and emotional sides of architecture. It was clear that a style that would suit the
needs of the modern times was to combine the principles of the two. The defeat of Germany in
WWI and the rise of Weimar Republic, led to many changes, amongst which was the
abandoning of the high censorship which shadowed the works of artists, authors, and architects
before. The wave of experimentation gave the modernists the momentum they needed. In
1906 William Ernest, the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenachxxxi, founded the Arts and Crafts
35
School of Weimar appointing the member of the Werkbund and Art Nouveau representative
Henry van de Velde as the director of the
school22. Eventually due to his Belgian nationality
in 1915 Van de Velde was supposed to resign
from the school. He chose as his successor Walter
Gropius (1883-1969), a name that was to leave a
decisive mark over the development of modern
architecture. Until that moment Gropius had
already been clearly influenced by the early
modern works. In the early stages of his career
during the period 1907-1910 he was employed in
the office of Peter Behrens, from whom he
developed the industrial touch of the modern
design. Immediately after together with Adolf
Meyer, another of Behrens employees he set up
an independent architectural practice. Both of
them, being part of the German Werkbund, in
1911 designed the façade for the Fagus Shoe-Last
Factory located at Alfeld-an-der-Leine, Germany.
This design, obviously inspired by the works of
their former master Behrens, was distinguished
with its massive limestone walls combined with
large structural glass facades. In addition to that
they added a flat-roof to the construction which
was not typical for industrial designs until that
stage. The building was with simple yet very
functional geometry-a principle which Gropius
would follow in the following years of his career. In
1919 he was involved in a correspondence with the
leading expressionist architects, initiated by Bruno
Taut and known as the Glass Chain. Being
influenced by both expressionism and the
Figure 37 The Weimar Arts and Crafts School
Figure 38 Tne Fagus Shoelast Factory demonstrates the influence
of Peter Behrens on both Gropius and Meyer. The building was
considered a state of the art industrial design at its time, and
gave Gropius the necessary fame to become director of Weimar
Arts School.
Figure 39 The Plan of the Factory is a good example of the
functional visions that Gropius had at his early ages.
22
“A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture” 1999 John Flemming, Hugh Honour, Nikolaus
Pevsner;5h ed; p.44
36
industrial design in 1919 he was hired as Master of the academy of Arts and Crafts in Weimar.
With his coming to power, he changed the name of the school to Bauhaus (House of Buildingliterally from German language). It was the point at which the applied and the fine arts were
supposed and came into one. Bauhaus without a doubt can be considered as one of the key
factors in the development of 20th century modern architecture, not only in Europe but in the
whole world. It outlined the main principle of modernism by showing to its pupils that modern
architecture was to be:
Functional- the beauty and
aesthetics of modern architecture
lay in its functionality
Simple- modern architecture
should pursue be based on simple
and rational asymmetric shapes
and forms
Clear- modern architecture
should not rely on excess of
ornaments; the façades should be
clear and pure
Figure 40 The new Bauhaus building in the
Bauhaus became a leading force in
Dessau
the development of modernism.
Eventually due to various reasons
the school was moved from
Weimar to Dessau. The new
building of the school was designed
by its master Gropius and his
collaborator Meyer. This building
represented all the features of
Modern architecture according to
the principles of Bauhaus. The
building had nothing to do with
similar European educational
facilities. It comprised of several
Figure 41 Plan of the second floor of Bauhaus building. It shows a complex
asymmetrical units each of which
asymmetric combination of simple open and functional unit.
represented a particular education
37
facility, which combined all together with
the access road gave a sculptural
monumental feeling of the build. In addition
it was developed in industrial construction
materials such as concrete, steel and glass
setting a clear example and message to the
architectural world of how functional,
industrially inspired design could become a
piece of art, as the building is considered to
be. As the popularity of Bauhaus grew so
was the criticism towards it. In an attempt
Figure 42 The industrial railed balconies of the Bauhaus
to orient the criticism towards himself
building which remain symbolic for the modernist
Gropius resigned from his position in 1928. movement
Eventually he continued his contribution
towards the development of modern
architecture in Western Europe by joining
the British modernists in 1934. With the
help of British modernist Maxwell Fryxxxii he
managed to escape from Nazi Germany,
pursuing short carrier in Britain, followed by
his move to the United States where he
stayed until the rest of his life.One of the
influential movements which had large
influence within the stylistic views taught in
Bauhaus was the Dutch movement the Stjl.
Figure 43 Model of the Bauhaus Building
8.4.2 De Stjl
The Stjl was an art movement which emerged in the
Netherlands after WWI. It was developed by the
artists Theo Van Doesburgxxxiii and Piet Mondrianxxxiv
and its origins can be traced within the works of
Expressionist architect H.P. Berlage.23 Even though
the movement was more oriented towards the
23
Figure 44
Composition with
Yellow, Blue and
Red by Piet
Mondrian
38
works of art it had a big influence on some of the modern visions of architecture. It provided a
different view of art work, entirely abstract view based on some of the principles of Cubism24.
The designs were based on black framed squares and rectangles, painted in three primary
colors. These colors (yellow, red and blue) formed the basis for the color orientation taught
within Bauhaus. The only truly representative building designed in the principles of De Stjl was
the so-called Schröder House designed by De Stjl architect Gerrit Rietveldxxxv. The house was
not a tipical modernist building, but definitely was a
ground breaking design featuring ideas which have
never been seen before. The building was a literal
expression of the open plan as the interior was not a
closed space, there were no closed rooms but the
inside was a dynamic and changeable open area.
This building was in many terms inspiring for the
future generations as it clearly demonstrated the
advantages of an open and adaptive floor plan.
Figure 15 The Exterior of the Scrhoder House
Figure 46
The
Interior of
the
Schroder
house
Figure 16
Plan of
the
Schroder
House.
Example
of the
dynamic
spaces
8.4.3 End of Bauhaus
In 1928 immediately after his resignation Gropius was succeeded by Hannes Meyer. His stay as
a master was short because of the fact that his strong political interests. He was replaced by
another representative of the German Werkbund and one of the most famous Modernist
names-Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe. In his period in Bauhaus he completely forbid all political
influences within the school, and oriented the works of the students to more efficient and
functional designs. However, with the rise of Nazism the school was considered to be
24
th
Cubism-20 century Abstract art movement
39
representing the principles of the Communist movement which was rising from the East, and
therefore in 1932 closed the school. Even though in 1933 Mies van der Rohe tried to reestablish it in Berlin, it was finally shut in 1933 and so was the modernist movement in
Germany before the Second World War.
8.4.2 “Less is More”
Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe (1886-1969) is
one of the pioneers of Modern
architecture. Being son of a stonemason,
he received a proper understanding of
quality materials from his youth.
Eventually in the period 1908-1911 he
was employed in the office of Peter
Behrens just like most of the other
Figure 48The Kroller Muller Residence
modern masters of the time. This gave
him a good understanding over the modern industrial design. Eventually
he was commissioned to work in St Petersburg, which gave him the
interest in neo-classical design. Furthermore he was clearly inspired by
Prussian architect Karl Friedrich Schinkelxxxvi, which can be observed in
his first work which was the Kroller-Muller Residence . The building was
with simple symmetric shape and a straight classical colonnade in front.
Eventually in the future he dismissed the principles of the classical
design. Similar to the work of his colleagues Mies did all his major
achievements after the end of the Great War. His first proposals had a
very strong impact over the ideas of modern European architecture. The
designs of the office building over Berlin’s Friedrichstrasse and the
concept for a transparent skyscraper, clearly were ahead of their time,
but correctly predicted the development of modern architecture in the
Figure 49The designs of the office
impending years. At the current moment the building industry and
engineering achievements could not meet the demands of Mies Van Der building over Berlin’s Friedrichstrasse.
Design which demonstrated Mies van
Rohe. At that stage he had already been clearly influenced by the eastern der Rohe unlimited visions of the
developing modern movement of the Constructivists, with their pursuit
Modern Architecture.
of efficiency, the design touch of the Dutch De Stjl,the theories of Adolf
Loos and the lack of ornamentation, the ideas for space qualities and composition of the
“Father” of American modernism Frank Lloyd Wright. This combined with his earlier knowledge
in the quality of natural materials would mark one of his biggest achievements in his
40
participation in the European modernism-The German Pavilion in the International Expo in
Barcelona (1929). This building is one of the symbols of Modern Architecture. At that time he
was a director of the German Werkbund and the design was supposed to represent all the
Figure 17 The Interior and the Exterior of the Barcelona Pavilion. Demonstrate the interest of Mies van der Rohe
towards nautral materials such as stone slates. Also gives an example of the influence of De Stjl in Modernism at
that time as it inspired the red curtain in the background.
Figure 51 Plan drawing of the Barcelona Pavilion. It shows the free movement which is provided by the lack of load
bearing walls, as all the roof load Is transferred via steel columns.It is real triumph of the modern ideas combined
with Mies’s visions of natural material usage, and demonstrates a perfect balance between handcraft art and
industrial design features.
41
principles of modernism- it was
simple and yet sophisticated
giving example of the open
space providing freedom, the
vast amount of light and large
glass façade, the combination of
industrial and natural materials,
the simplicity and lack of
ornamentation, the flat roof
that was supported by state of
the art columns. The building
was designed to represent the
quality of design, materials, and
Figure 52 Exterior of the Tugendhat house (1930)
craftsmanship, and until today it
is a perfect example of that.
Another great example of the
visions of modernism of Mies
Van Der Rohe was the design of
the Tugendhat house (1930) in
Burno. The building was divided
into two spaces according to the
function. The family are for daily
occupancy was minimally
divided and very open with
nearly no walls in between. The
second part which was the
services part was rather closed
Figure 18 Plan of the Tugendhat house. A perfect example of an open
and separated from the central
plan.
points of interest in the building.
All together it also contained all the features of modern architecture. In the following years
Mies van der Rohe continued to be amongst the strongest representatives of the modern style.
He did this, however, not in Western Europe, but in the United States where he emigrated in
1937 after his style was dismissed by the rising power of Nazism.
42
8.4.3 “A House is a machine for living in”25
During the period of the rise of Bauhaus and the Weimar Modernism, another of Peter
Behrens’s young employees stepped into the spotlight. This was the Swiss architect CharlesÉdouard Jeanneret-Le Corbusier (1887-1965). Similar like his other modern colleagues, Le
Corbusier, developed his interest in
industrial design, due to his presence in
Peter Behrens office in the period of 1910
and 1912. Before that period he was
employed in the office of the French
master of concrete design- August Perret.
With his collaboration he developed his
love towards concrete design. In the
period of the First World War Le Corbusier
devoted himself to theoretical studies of Figure 19 Le Corbusier’s Domino house
modern architecture. The result of these
was the so-called “Domino” house which
he designed with the purpose to give a
suggestion for quick, mass production
house which was to take part in the
rebuilding process of Europe after the
war. This design and the ideas which it
included actually laid the foundation of all
Figure 55 The “Citrohan” House. The name is inspired from the name
his future modern works. It showed his
of the French automobile company, as the building was to be
modern visions of openness, the minimal designed for the middle class, just like the car.
load bearing system in which the load of
the roof is transferred via columns to the foundations. Furthermore it showed his interest in
prefabrication and his desire to give strict definitions of the principles in modernism. He
demonstrated his contribution to modernism by showing his interest in giving a literal
description of modern architecture as he did in his books such as the “Vers une architecture
(Towards a New Architecture)”. After giving an example of his visions with his commission over
the “Citrohan” house, a building which was designed to be affordable and functional for the
new society, in the of the 1920s he was given his two commissions, which would remain
landmarks of modern architecture-these were the “Villa Stein”(1927) and “Villa Savoye”(1929).
For the design of both he used the principle of the golden section to develop the spaces within.
25
“Vers une architecture”; Le Corbusier, 1923
43
Eventually those two buildings became
the living examples of what Le
Corbusier determined to be the 5
points26 of Modern Architecture:
1. The Pilotis (The Supports) elevating
the mass off the ground
2. The Free Plan achieved through the
separation of the load-bearing
columns from the walls subdividing
the space
3. The Free Façade the corollary of
the free plan in the vertical plane
Figure 20 Villa Savoye Exterior. A visual example of the 5 points
of Le Corbusier
4. The long horizontal sliding window
or fenetre en longueur
5. The roof garden restoring, supposedly the area
of ground covered by the house.
Those five points are the most precise brief
description of Le Corbusier’s vision of the modern
house. The house should be lifted from the ground
with the help of the “Pilotis”, it should contain a
free plan giving complete advantage of the space
and function within, the façade should respond to
the plan and be free and pure of ornamentation,
as the plan is from load bearing structures; the
sliding windows should provide efficient amount
of light with better inner transmission through
their horizontal, not vertical point; the roof garden
should open the building to the outside and should
recover all the build-up area.
Figure 21 The plan of Villa Savoye. A perfect example
of the open “free” plan, in which the building is
opened to the outside and filled with light.
26
There are many different understandings and translation of the 5 points of Le Corbusier. Originally written in
French Language they have often been misunderstood. This is an example of non-literal transition provided by
Kenneth Frampton in his book “Modern Architecture A Critical History” p.157
44
In addition to his 5 points Le Corbusier introduced
“The Modular” . This was to be a standardization
unit based on the shape of the human body, which
would be used when designing internal spaces. This
showed that Le Corbusier was clearly oriented
towards prefabricated structures, which eventually
have influence up to nowadays. One of the results
of the modulor was the design of the “Unite
d’Habitation” in 1945. This was his answer for the
rebuilding of Europe after WWII. Inspired by the
layout of ocean liners, he gave a great idea of
spacious, open and well lit floor plan which was to
host the modern man and his family in the process of
redesigning the modern world. In addition to his
designs Le Corbusier had a leading role in the
development of the European modernism. In 1928 he
organized and hosted the so-called Congrès
Figure 23 Le Corbusier Modular System
internationaux d'architecture moderne – CIAM
Figure 59 Unite d’Habitation”
(International Congresses of
Modern Architecture). This
organization featured some of the
biggest names in European
modernism and was discussing all
modern architecture principles.
However, later works of Corbusier
indicate how he eventually turns
away from the pricnicples of
modernism in its purest form.
However, he remains amongst the
leading representatives of the
movement.
Figure 22 Plan and section of Unite d’Habitation. Shows how obviously
Le Corbuiser was influenced by the designs of the ocean ships. Each
apartment is narrow and long and has overhead second floor. In
addition this building was an example of his vision of pre-standardized
architecture which is to be comnbined within a building
45
8.4.4 The International Style
In 1927 The German Werkbund organized another exhibition which was to demonstrate the
latest architectural innovations. The exhibition consisted of thirty three permanent buildings
located in Weissenhof, Stuttgart. Amongst the participants were also Walter Gropius, Le
Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe. The result of the meeting was quite stunning- it showed that
modernism was not just a movement, it was now a factor. This meeting outlined the key points
of the modernist style which had reached its peak. The reflection of the meeting was
worldwide, and caused Alfred H Barr, the director of New York’s Museum of Modern Art to call
what he observed the International Style. This was the modernist style, the functionalist
movement, the architecture of the 20th century. This was the result of the long lasting
development, origins of which lie back in the 18th century. Thus I can say that the leading
features of the modern architecture were:
Figure 61 The proposal of Mies Van der Rohe
Figure 24 The proposal of Le Corbusier
Functional Design- The leading feature within a building should be its function and its
fulfillment. The building’s geometry should follow the function, thus being simple but well
organized and perfectly oriented.
Space and Light- the building must have an open plan, in which there are nearly no internal
separating walls. At the same time the big “functional” windows must open the interior to the
outside, and fill the room with light
Removal of all unnecessary ornaments- The façade should be responsive to the functional
demands and ornaments on the façade don’t belong to this idea. As the most neutral color
facades should be white, clean and simple.
46
Standardization- each of the representatives of the modernist movements, inspired by
industrial thinking were developing standardized designs (for ex. “The Modulor”), which were
to be arranged differently within the plan.
Modern Materials-the modern buildings were to be a combination of steel, glass and
reinforced concrete. They gave the freedom to fulfill all other features.
Flat Roof- each of the modern building was to have a flat roof, which would provide the users
with additional space. For example it was to be used for green terraces. This was another
inspiration developed from the early modern industrial design.
This was the vision of the modern masters for the design of the 20th century; this was to be the
architecture of the new, modern man in the age of the machine. Even though each of the
representatives had a different interpretation these are the basic principles that outline the
Modernist Style in the 20th century.
Eventually in 1939 WWII began and
lasted until 1945. The result afterwards
showed that the ideas of the modern
masters were slowly losing their
strength. Eventually many of the
representatives were not so interested
into the simplicity of the functional
architecture. Modernism without a
doubt had great representatives after
the Second World War. Names like
Alvaro Aalto, Eero Sarinen, and Arne
Jacobsen also gave a great example of Figure 63 Le Corbusier chapel “Notre Dame du Haut”
the modern style, but they were their
contribution was more in exploiting the style rather than develop it. After the War new styles
emerged, such as brutalism, minimalism, and eventually Post Modernism. An example of Le
Corbusier’s later works such as his chapel “Notre Dame du Haut” shows how he was no longer
interested in the simple strict geometry of the Modern architecture but was instead trying to
design something new and more complex.
Eventually in the 1970’s Modernism was replaced by the so-called “Post Modern” architecture.
The post-modern designs used modernism as their foundation. The principles of the modern
design, the light and open spaces, the steel structures combined with glass facades, the
47
functional and simple orientation are and will continue to be part of architecture even in the
21st century.
8.5 Outline of the Modern Architecture
The rise of the modernist style was a very long and complex process. It can be concluded that it
is the result of logical and historical events. It is hard to present it as a straight line as it has its
period of rise and of fall. Table 5 represents an outline of the rise and fall of the modernist style
through the period analyzed within this dissertation.
Table 5 Outline of the development of modernist style. The green line marks Modernism.
The evolution of the modernist style was based on the development of the idea of architecture
for the new, modern world. The idea was based on a combination which was set early in the
period of the Arts and Crafts movement-the idea of architecture combining the social values
with artistic quality. This combined with the opposition towards the repeating Historicism, the
touch of the industrial design, the momentum given by Art Nouveau (the seek for something
new), the technological development of the time eventually led to the creation of the
modernist style. It can be also considered that without the historical events that occurred
during this time interval, the modernist style would not have developed at all in this way. The
industrial revolution gave the need of the seek for modern style, the Great War led to a
downfall of the monarchies which eventually led to an explosion of experimentation, which
gave the freedom of the modern idea to emerge from the closed architectural societies and
spread all over the World. World War II provided conditions for the modern ideas to evolve
even more, but due to the fact that many of the architects of the time were no longer
interested only into functional simple design, it led to its downfall. Thus it can be seen that the
modernist ideas were not only result of the cultural development of the styles, but a
combination of factors which made its existence inevitable. Furthermore this outline of the
modernist style shows that none of the ideas of modernism were based on the individual
ingenuity of a particular architect. Starting from the arts and crafts movement up to WWII there
can be traced a clear connection between the leading generations of Western European
architecture. This can be observed in Table 6.
48
Table 6 represents an outline of each of the main periods which influenced modernism and were analyzed within this dissertation. It
includes all the names observed and the main principles of the architectural period which they were representing. Most of the names in
this chart were connected at some stages of their careers or were inspired by each other as it is analyzed within the main body of the
dissertation.
49
The fact that modernism was a result of so many
factors clearly can be considered as the reason why it
influences our lives even nowadays. Some of the
principles of modernism such as the open plan, the
functional design, the structural glazing, the use of
light and space, the flat roof are features that
common for the building industry even in the 21st
century. The standardization of the designs, “the
modulor” are in the basis of the ideas of the
prefabricated constructions nowadays. Of course
many of the principles of modernism are further
Figure 64 An example of contemporary villa
which features the many of the modernist
principles. Designed in 2009 by Norwegian
architect Todd Saunders.
developed with the development of technologies,
which allowed many new styles to emerge such as deconstructivism, organic architecture, minimalism etc.
All those styles, however, are using many of the
modernist ideas as a basis, which just shows why
modernism was not just a trend, just a style or a
movement. It was a new way of thinking in the
architectural world. A style that was to suit the
Figure 26 The Vitra Design Museum by Frank Gehry
(1990) Weil-am-Rhein , Germany
machine age and give the right conditions of the
modern man to continue his evolution. In order to
achieve that all attention should be put towards
features such as the function and the removal of
everything which is not necessary. This was the
message that the modernist style carried to the
people of the 20th century.
Figure 25 Tennerife Opera House by Santiago
Calatrava (2003). An example of the evolution of
the reinforced concrete. A combination of raw
industrial concrete surface, with a sculptural like
massive geometry
50
9. Conclusion
This dissertation has been one of the most successful activities that I have ever undertaken.
Before the start I had basic idea of the development of modernism in architecture. Through the
process of work, I was able to understand why and how the modernist style developed. I
discovered who its main representatives were and what their most significant works were. By
observing the reasons and causes for the creation of modern architecture I managed to
understand why it casts its shadow up to nowadays. Most importantly I understood that the
success of the modernist style was not based on the particular genius of a single person. It was
a consequence and result of series of factors, historical events and new discoveries. This gives
me a good basis when facing new problems of the society such as sustainability or
overpopulation. Architecture evolves constantly, and it has faced many problems through the
years. Modernism gave us the foundation, a new, functional, stripped of all unnecessary
fragments thinking. I believe that it should be taken into consideration when we design the
world of tomorrow.
“And yet what is Modernism? It is undefined.”
John C Ransom American Political and Social Theorist27
27
http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/j/johncrans231797.html
51
10. List of References
The new Cambridge modern history: Companion volume by Peter Burke
A World History of Architecture” Michael Fazio, Marian Moffett, Lawrence Wodehouse; Second Edition;
2009
“Modern Architecture-A Critical History”- Kenneth Frampton; 2007
The World Economy: Historical Statistics. Maddison, Angus; 2003; Paris
The Victorian Railway and How It Evolved, London: Heinemann 1990
Society and economy in modern Britain 1700-1850” ; Richard Brown 1991; (Repr. ed.). London: Routledge
"Ironbridge Gorge Museum - Our Collections".
“A Chronology of Western Architecture” Doreen Yarwood; Londond; 1987
“An Outline of World Architecture” Michael Raeburn; 1973; London
Oxford Dictionary
A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture” 1999 John Flemming, Hugh Honour, Nikolaus
Pevsner;5h ed;
“Vers une architecture”; Le Corbusier, 1923
"History". Oriel Chambers. Retrieved 5.4.2011
"The History of Concrete and Cement". By Mary Ballis; About.com
http://www.senses-artnouveau.com/biography.php?artist=bin
www.hermann-muthesius.de
http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecture
http://architecture.about.com/od/20thcenturytrends/ig/Modern -Architecture/Modernism.htm
52
http://architecture.about.com/od/20thcenturytrends/ig/Modern-Architecture/Bauhaus.htm
http://architecture.about.com/od/20thcenturytrends/ig/Modern-Architecture/International-Style.htm
http://trove.nla.gov.au/result?q=voysey
http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi-bin/gbc-drawing.cgi/The_Red_House.html/Red_House_Plan_1.jpg
8.5
http://archi_plans.livejournal.com/47407.html
http://1900.art.nouveau.free.fr/?Hector-Guimard,15
http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi-bin/additional_image_viewer.cgi?872
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivo:Victor_Horta_Hotel_Tassel.JPG
http://nickkahler.tumblr.com/post/4661092097
http://www.barcelonepascher.com/fondation-caixa-catalunya-casa-mila-la-pedrera/
http://mic-ro.com/metro/metrocity.html?city=Vienna
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/19719789
http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi-bin/gbc-drawing.cgi/Steiner_House.html/Steiner_House_Plan.jpg
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Villa_Esche_Chemnitz.JPG
http://www.architetti.biz/blog/video/?attachment_id=40
http://www.arthistory.upenn.edu/spr01/282/w4c2i08.htm
http://thetextileblog.blogspot.com/2009/02/deutscher-werkbund.html
http://www.designishistory.com/1850/van-de-velde/
http://www.mywiseowl.com/articles/Amsterdam_Stock_Exchange
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Salginatobel_Bridge_mg_4080.jpg
http://fr.structurae.de/photos/index.cfm?JS=7936
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/inventai/itiinv/archixx/imgs/p21-02.htm
http://bauhaus-online.de/en/atlas/werke/weimar-art-school-building
53
http://www.dailyicon.net/2008/09/
http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi-bin/gbc-drawing.cgi/Bauhaus.html/Bauhaus_Plan_1.jpg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mondrian_CompRYB.jpg
http://en.wikiarquitectura.com/index.php/File:Residencia_Kroller-Muller.jpg
http://blanchardmodernart.blogspot.com/
http://afewthoughts.co.uk/flexiblehousing/house.php?house=4&number=4&total=4&action=keyname&
data=Corbusier&order=type&dir=DESC&message=projects%20by%20Le%20Corbusier&messagead=order
ed%20by%20type
http://picsus.eu/keyword/le+corbusier+drawings/
11. Glossary
i
Alan Colquhon (June 27, 1921-present) is a British architect, critic and author.
ii
Arthur Charles Erickson (June 14, 1924 – May 20, 2009) was a Canadian architect and urban planner.
iii
Thomas Newcomer (s 24 February 1664 –5 August 1729) was an English Iron manufacturer and the creator of the
first practical steam-powered engine.
iv
James Watt (19 January 1736 – 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer who invented
the first commercial steam powered engine.
v
Richard Trevithick (13 April 1771 – 22 April 1833) was a British inventor and a mining engineer. He was the
inventor of the first fully operational railway system.
vi
Thomas Farnolls Pritchard (c. 1723–23 December 1777) was an English architect. The designer of the first Iron
Bridge in the history.
vii
John Smeaton (8 June 1724 – 28 October 1792) was an English civil engineer. He is the first to introduce an
official ratio in the production of concrete.
viii
Joseph Aspdin (1778 – 20 March 1855) was a British cement manufacturer. The inventor of the Portland
Cement.
ix
Joseph Monier (November 8, 1823—March 13, 1906) was a French gardener. He is considered to be the inventor
of the modern concept of reinforced concrete.
54
x
Sir Joseph Paxton (3 August 1803 – 8 June 1865) was an English gardener and architect. He is known for the
design of the Crystal Palace (Please Refer to Fig. 5).
xi
Peter Ellis (1808-1888) was an English architect. He is the designer of the world’s first curtain wall.
xii
John Ruskin-(8 February 1819 – 20 January 1900) an English art critic, social thinker, poet and artist. His views
and pursue of connection between natural inspiration and art stay in the foundation of the development of the
arts and crafts movement.
xiii
William Morris-(24 March 1834 – 3 October 1896) was an English textile designer, artist, writer,
and socialist associated with the the English Arts and Crafts Movement. Designer of one of the symbols of the arts
and crafts Movement-The Red House in London (1859).
xiv
Philip Webb-(12 January 1831 – 17 April 1915) an English architect; One of the initiators of the arts and crafts
movement in architecture.
xv
Charles Francis Annesley Voysey (1857–1941) was an English architect and furniture and textile designer. He was
one of the first people to understand and appreciate the significance of industrial design. He has been considered
one of the pioneers of Modern Architecture.
xvi
Siegfried Bing (February 26, 1838 – September 6, 1905) was a German art dealer
xvii
Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo (12 December 1851 – 15 March 1942) was a English Architect, influenced by the
Arts and Crafts movement by his teacher John Ruskin.
xviii
Charles Rennie Mackintosh- (7 June 1868 – 10 December 1928) was a Scottish designer, architect and artist. He
was a designer in the Arts and Crafts movement and also the main exponent of Art Nouveau in the United
Kingdom. He had a considerable influence on European design.
xix
Hector Guimard (Lyon, March 10, 1867 - New York, May 20, 1942) a French Architect. One of the brightest
examples of the development of Art Nouveau architecture movement in France.
xx
Victor Horta (6 January 1861 - 9 September 1947) a Belgian architect and designer. One of the fundamental
representatives of Art Nouveau movement in architecture and a pioneer in the development of modernism in
architecture.
xxi
Gustav Klimt (July 14, 1862 – February 6, 1918) an Austrian Symbolist artist, painter and one of the founders of
the Vienna Secession movement. His major works include paintings, murals, sketches, and other art objects.
xxii
Koloman Moser (March 30, 1868 – October 18, 1918) an Austrian artist who exerted considerable influence on
twentieth-century graphic art and one of the foremost artists of the Vienna Secession movement
xxiii
Otto Koloman Wagner (13 July 1841 – 11 April 1918) an Austrian architect. One of the leading representatives
of the Viennese Secession Group. Professor of Architecture in Vienna Academy of Fine Arts.
xxiv
Joseph Maria Olbrich (22 December 1867–8 August 1908) an Austrian architect and founder, and fundamental
representative of the Vienna Secession Group.
55
xxv
Adolf Franz Karl Viktor Maria Loos (10 December 1870 – 23 August 1933) was a Moravian-born AustroHungarian architect. He was one of the pioneers of the modern design.
xxvi
Adam Gottlieb Hermann Muthesius (20 April 1861 - 29 October 1927) an German architect and author, famous
for promoting the ideas of the English Arts and Crafts Movement in Germany and thus influencing German
modernism and the Bauhaus.
xxvii
Bruno Julius Florian Taut (4 May 1880– 24 December 1938), was a German architect, author, and urban
planner. He was a representative of the German Expressionist movement, active in the period of the Weimar
Republic.
xxviii
Paul Karl Wilhelm Scheerbart (8 January 1863– 15 October 1915) was a German author. His carrier was
oriented towards fantastic literature and drawings.
xxix
Hendrik Petrus Berlage (February 21, 1856 - August 12, 1934) was a Dutch Architect. Considered to be the
“father of the modern architecture” in the Netherlands.
xxx
Robert Maillart (February 6, 1872 – April 5, 1940) was a Swiss Engineer who explored the possibilities of
reinforced concrete and revolutionized its usage for the construction of structures.
xxxi
Wilhelm Ernst Karl Alexander Friedrich Heinrich Bernhard Albert Georg Hermann (10 June 1876 – 24 April 1923)
was the last Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.
xxxii
Maxwell Fry (2 August 1899 – 3 September 1987), was an English architect. He was amongst the leading
representatives of the modernist movement and was famous for his designs Britain, India and Africa.
xxxiii
Theo van Doesburg (30 August 1883 – 7 March 1931) was a Dutch artist, active poet and designer, who is also
founder of the De Stjl”
xxxiv
Pieter Cornelis "Piet" Mondriaan, (March 7, 1872 – February 1, 1944), was a Dutch painter. He was one of the
leaders and most influential personas in the “De Stjl” movement
xxxv
Gerrit Rietveld (24 June 1888–25 June 1964) was a Dutch architect and furniture designer. One of the leading
members and most notable representatives of the De Stjl movement.
xxxvi
Karl Friedrich Schinkel (13 March 1781 – 9 October 1841) was a Prussian architect and furniture designer. He
was a representative of the neoclassical and neo gothic styles.
56

Development of Modernist Style in Western European

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