NATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCE AND

Transcription

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NATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE,
SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
An International Interdisciplinary Journal
VOLUME 1, NO. 1 MARCH, 2014
ISSN NO. 2476-8464
PUBLISHED BY
IMO STATE POLYTECHNIC UMUAGWO
SPONSORED BY
TETFUND INTERVENTION 2013
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EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief
Editor
Editorial Secretary
Editorial Advisers
-
John Ezenwankwor Ph.D
P.C. Aju Ph.D
Chijioke Okoro
Engr. Dozie Ukaigwe
Gregory Obiechefu Ph.D
Chinedu Maduka
Prof. C.J.C. Akubuilo
Frank Nwankwo Ph.D
J.E. Ewuziem Ph.D
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PROFILE OF CONTRIBUTORS
Collins Obiorah: Is a lecturer in the Department of Mass Communication, Federal Polytechnic, Oko,
Anambra State.
Ofor, Okey Chris: Is a lecturer in the Department of Mass Communication, Federal Polytechnic, Oko,
Anambra State.
Ohika, Emmanuel: Is a lecturer in the Department of Mass Communication, Federal Polytechnic,
Oko, Anambra State.
Prof. Smart N. Uchegbu: Is the Head, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of
Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Enugu State.
Emma-Ochu Chidinma A.: Is a lecturer in the Department of Architecture, Federal Polytechnic,
Nekede, Owerri, Imo State.
Uzoma, S. U.: Is a lecturer in the Department Of Agricultural And Bio-environmental Engineering
Technology, Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo, Ohaji-Egbema, Imo State.
Akpelu, A. U.: Is a lecturer in the Department Of Agricultural And Bio-environmental Engineering
Anyanwu, Sunny: Is a lecturer in the Department Of Agricultural And Bio-environmental Engineering
Anyaoha, K. E.: Is a lecturer in the Department Of Agricultural And Bio-environmental Engineering
Nwokorie, E. C.: Is a lecturer in the Department of Computer Science, Federal University of
Technology, Owerri - Imo State
Nwachukwu, E. O.: Is a lecturer in the Department of Computer Science, University of Port
Harcourt, Rivers State.
Eke B. O. (PhD): Is a lecturer in the Department of Computer Science, University of Port Harcourt,
Rivers State.
Eze I. F.: Is a lecturer in the Department of Computer Science, Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo,
Ohaji-Egbema, Imo State.
Chima l. Osuchukwu: Is a lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Imo
State Polytechnic Umuagwo, Owerri, Imo State.
Chibuike Ononogbo: Is a lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Imo
State Polytechnic Umuagwo, Owerri, Imo State.
Ugochukwu F. Ukwuoma: Is a lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology,
Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo, Owerri, Imo State.
Victor I. Ehirim: Is a lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Imo State
Polytechnic Umuagwo, Owerri, Imo State.
Ibe Colman Chikwem: Is a lecturer in the Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Imo State
Polytechnic Umuagwo, Owerri Imo State.
Ukaigwe Chiedozie Innocent: Is a lecturer in the Department of Works Services, Imo State
Polytechnic, Umuagwo.
Efosa Obaseki: Is a lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Imo State
Polytechnic Umuagwo, Owerri, Imo State.
K. N. Nwaigwe: Is a lecturer in the School of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Federal
University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.
E. E. Anyanwu: Is a lecturer in the School of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Federal
University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.
Umeonyiagu Ikechukwu Etienne: Is a lecturer in the Department of Civil Engineering, Anambra State
University, Uli.
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IN THIS ISSUE
1.
Communicating Best Solid Waste Disposal Practices in Nigeria:
Need For Electronic Media Approach
Collins Obiorah, Ofor, Okey Chris, and Ohika, Emmanuel
1
2.
Gas Flaring; Environmental Harm and Injustice to Man:
Individuals' And Corporate Social Responsibility
Prof. Smart N. Uchegbu
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Growing Incidence of Building Collapse in the Nigerian
Built Environment - Causes And Implications
Emma-Ochu Chidinma A.
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Development of a Manual Maize Planter
Uzoma, S. U., Akpelu, A. U., Anyanwu, Sunny, and
Anyaoha, K. E.
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Modeling A Neural Network Based Foreign Exchange
Trading Robot
Nwokorie, E. C., and Nwachukwu, E. O.
44
Open Source Computer Systems, its Benefits and Usage on
Higher Institutions In Nigeria.
Eke B. O. (PhD), and Eze I. F.
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A Study of Current - Voltage Characteristics of an
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) for air Pollution Control
Chima l. Osuchukwu, Chibuike Ononogbo,
Ugochukwu F. Ukwuoma, Efosa Obaseki,
and Victor I. Ehirim.
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Permeable Pavements In Urban Storm Water Management
Ibe Colman Chikwem, and Ukaigwe Chiedozie Innocent
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Situational Analysis of Information Communication
Technology Potentials in Managing Environmental
Challenges In Africa
Ofor, Okey Chris, and Collins Obiorah
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Sustainable Building Design and Energy Conservation
Ukaigwe Chiedozie Innocent
108
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Comparative Analysis Of Up-flow Bioreactor With Central Substrate Dispenser And
Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor: Organic Municipal Waste Treatment
C. Ononogbo, C. I. Osuchukwu, E. Obaseki,
K. N. Nwaigwe, and E. E. Anyanwu
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12.
Relationship between the Compressive Strength and Aggregate/Cement Ratio for Concretes
made with Unwashed Local Gravel
Umeonyiagu Ikechukwu Etienne, and
Ukwuoma .F. Ugochukwu
134
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COMMUNICATING BEST SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL PRACTICES IN NIGERIA:
NEED FOR ELECTRONIC MEDIA APPROACH
1
Collins Obiorah, 2Ofor, Okey Chris, 3Ohika, Emmanuel
1, 2, 3
Department of Mass Communication
Federal Polytechnic, Oko
ABSTRACT
This paper examines solid waste disposal practices, especially in Nigerian urban areas, and the
concomitant implication on environmental sustainability in the country. It argues that the manner in
which solid wastes are generated and disposed of in the country poses serious environmental
challenges with enormous health consequences. It is of the view that aggressive public enlightenment
campaign aimed at sensitizing the people on sustainable waste management practices is crucial in
ridding our environment of mounts of wastes. To this end, it recommends the communication system
for promoting best solid waste disposal practices in Nigeria, which must incorporate both
conventional and traditional media of communication for better result..
Key words: Communication, Sustainable development, Waste, Solid waste, Waste management.
INTRODUCTION
Environmental quality problem in Nigeria, particularly in the urban centers has worsened
progressively since in the late 1970s to attain a crisis proportion in the 1990s till date. The unsanitary
conditions in which solid wastes are collected and disposed of contribute greatly to urban
environmental degradation in the country - Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team (NEST)
(1991). As rightly observed by Oyediran (1997), it is an indisputable fact that garbage or municipal
wastes are the most visible and serious environmental problem in Nigerian urban centres. According
to him, solid waste disposal remained the major cause of environmental degradation, pollution and
natural resource depletion with adverse social, economic and health consequences on Nigerian urban
environment.
Although the above scenario is not peculiar to Nigeria since as Cunningham and Cunningham (2004)
observe, ―Waste is everyone's business. We all produce unwanted by-products and residues in nearly
everything we do‖; and considering that, according to the United States Environmental Protection
Agency, the USA produces 11 billion tons of solid waste each year, the problems of waste disposal
technique vary from country to country, which in turn determine the extent of risks and dangers posed
by solid waste to societies.
Uncleared wastes cause damage to the environment and leakages and run-offs from landfills and open
dumps adversely affect quality of ground and surface water by polluting them with salts, nitrates, biodegradable organics, heavy metals and trace amount of numerous synthetic organic compounds Kmet,
(1991).
In Nigeria, many urban centers are known to have low water quality as a result of pollution; and cases
of epidemics are rife due largely to unclean environment occasioned by poor waste management
practices. Apart from the aesthetic problems created by solid waste, uncollected or non-disposed or
recycled wastes often give rise to noxious smells as well as provide breeding grounds for vermin, flies
and mosquitoes. Poor waste management often contaminates water supplies, causing environmental
health risks and avoidable epidemics.
From the metropolitan capital hub of the city of Lagos through the densely populated commercial
cities of Aba and Onitsha in the South-East geo-political zones to the other urban centers of the
country, such as Ibadan, Benin, Kano and even the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, the problem of
solid waste management are glaring.
Table 1: Estimated Volumes of Solid Waste Generation in Selected Nigerian Cities/Towns 1982-2000
Communicating Best Solid Waste Disposal Practices In Nigeria: Need For Electronic Media Approach
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Urban Area
1982
1985
1990
2000
Lagos
Ibadan
625,399
350,832
681,394
382,224
786,079
440,956
998,081
559,882
Kano
319,935
348,580
402,133
535,186
Kaduna
Onitsha
257,837
242,240
280,925
263,929
324,084
304,477
431,314
386,593
Port Harcourt
210,934
229,821
265,129
352,853
Oshogbo
Aba
131,903
131,903
143,712
143,712
173,720
169,719
253,841
236,703
Jos
99,871
111,905
135,272
197,660
Warri
67,477
75,607
91,396
133,531
Gusau
Potiskun
44,488
15,343
48,471
16,816
57,243
19,399
79,835
28,347
Uyo
12,508
13,628
15,721
20,923
Suleja
New Bussa
9,383
5,690
10,514
6,200
13,311
7,152
21,336
9,518
Source: Federal Ministry of Housing and Environment (1982). The state of the environment in
Nigeria. Monograph Series, 2. Lagos: Government Printers.
With an estimated population figure of 12 million people, Lagos obviously generates tons of refuse on
a daily basis. If on the average every inhabitant generates just one kilogram of refuge per day, that
means that in a day, we have 12 million kilograms amounting to 10,800 tons. In a week, we have
75,600 tons and in a month we have 302,400 tons of refuge. That means to evacuate these using the
standard 7 tons tipper lorries, we need 43,200 of such lorries per month. If ten lorries are engaged to
do the work, each will do 4,320 rounds in just one month; which when multiplied by 12 we have
3,628,800 tons of refuge.
Similar scenario plays out in other cities across the country such as Onitsha, Owerri, Awka, Aba,
Ibadan, Kano, Port Harcourt etc. Mounts of refuge adorn these cities because both the state
government and her people have over the years not really appropriated the gains of waste recycling, or
what Okpala (1997) termed ―sorting at source or starting point solution‖ whereby solid wastes are
collected right from the source (households) for proper disposal. This failure, accordingly, has
resulted in what he described as ―not in my background syndrome‖ whereby wastes are merely
transferred from one location to another where their nuisance value is thought to be less. As aptly
summarized by Sada and Odemerho (1988), solid waste generation and management are major issues
in Nigerian urban areas because of the increasing gap between the prolific level of waste generation
and the limited technology and capacity for evacuation. Waste dumping remains the common practice
of waste disposal in Nigeria.
Wastes, especially sludge and domestic waste materials are often indiscriminately dumped on open
plots of land, particularly on streets; and this ―throw away culture‖ of disposing wastes into the
nearest open space on land or surface water including into drainage systems is equally common
among industries. According to the Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team (NEST) (1991) an
estimated 71 percent of households throw away their refuse in this manner in the country. A study by
Obiorah and Ofor (2013) revealed that all the 566 respondents sampled in a study assessing media
environment campaigns by the Anambra State government said they do not sort their refuse before
disposal.
WASTE AND WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS
The fundamental questions which we intend to answer at this section are: what constitutes a waste and
what measures or methods can be deployed in managing solid wastes?
Madu (2001) describes wastes as either the by-product of initial production processes or as arising
when objects or materials are discarded after they have been used. The United States Environmental
Protection Act of 1990 defines waste as any substance which constitutes a scrap material or an
effluent or unwanted surplus substance which requires to be disposed. For Oyediran (1997), wastes
are substances or objects discarded as worthless or unwanted, defective or of no further value for
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manufacturing or production processes. In other words, they are materials or substances, the purpose
for which they are procured have been partially or totally exhausted and which offer no useful value
to the possessor than to discard them. It bears noting, according to Madu, that the manner in which
human settlements dispose of their wastes and even the degree to which they declare certain physical
outputs of production and consumption processes to be wastes reflect level of development of the
settlement. As Scott (1996) puts it, they reflect a series of social choices with consequences of those
choices on the environment varying widely.
The Lagos State Environmental Protection Agency Law defines waste to include:
Industrial, solid, liquid, gaseous gases containing substances such as sulphur dioxide, oxides or
nitrogen, hydrogen-sulphide, carbon-monoxide, ammonia, chlorine, smoke and metallic dusts and
particles, oil organic vapours, corrosive reagent, flammable liquid solid, poison, poly-chloringhed
hiphelys, dynocyanide, methylmelamine, ethylacetate, toxic substance, cement waste etc‖.
Waste may be classified in terms of origin, physical form or physio-chemical properties. Cunningham
and Cunningham (2004) identify two major classes of wastes: industrial waste and municipal waste,
whilst Oyediran (1997) categorized wastes into six classes as follows: ―municipal wastes, agricultural
wastes, mining and mineral wastes, industrial wastes and miscellaneous wastes‖.
Municipal wastes, otherwise referred to as municipal solid wastes, which is the chief concern of this
study, are defined to include refuse from households, non-hazardous solid (not sludge or semi-solid)
wastes from industrial and commercial establishments, refuse from institutions (including nonpathogenic waste and hospital waste), market waste, yard waste and street sweepings.
In Nigeria, there is no clear and effective framework for waste management. The existing framework
does not seem to work given the littering and piling of trash along city streets in most urban centres.
By waste management we mean the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal, and
monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity and
is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics.
Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas,
and for residential and industrial producers. According to Cunningham and Cunningham (2004, p.
301), modern waste management stresses the ―three Rs‖ of reduction, reuse and recycling before
destruction or, finally, secure storage of wastes. The following methods of waste disposal will be
briefly looked at: landfill, open dumps, ocean dumping, incineration, recycling, biological
reprocessing, and energy recovery.
 Landfill: This is a common practice in most countries. Disposing of wastes in a landfill involves
burying of wastes. Landfills are often established in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids;
borrow pits or land claimed by erosion.
 Open Dumps: This is the predominant method of waste disposal in most developing countries,
including Nigeria. Here, wastes are disposed of by simply dropping them at some designated or
even undesignated locations. This latter practice accounts for the building of mountains of refuse
across the urban cities in Nigeria.
 Ocean Dumping: A practice of refuse disposal common in most river-line communities involves
dumping refuse into oceans, rivers or even floods. Sometimes wastes collected from far distance
are dumped into rivers and oceans by the collecting agents.
 Incineration: This is a disposal method that involves combustion of waste material. Incineration
and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as ―thermal
treatment‖. Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.
 Recycling: This simply involves the conversion of waste materials into other useful purpose than
the material was initially procured of. As Bowman and Kearney (2002) put it, ―With landfill
space diminishing, disposal fees climbing, and health concerns increasing, recycling has been
presented as a better option.‖ Recycling is relatively inexpensive and ecologically sound since it
enables waste materials to be productively utilized.
 Biological Reprocessing: This is a somewhat variant of recycling. Here, waste materials that are
organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, paper product and other bio-degradable
waste materials are recycled using biological composting and digestion processes to decompose
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
the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for
agricultural or landscaping purposes.
Energy Recovery: This proves to be a very useful method of waste disposal especially for the
Third World nations that are grappling with problems of energy or power supply. The energy
content of waste products can be directly harnessed by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or
indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel.
REVIEW OF POLICY/LEGAL INTERVENTIONS ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Environmental sustainability issue is one of the visible challenges confronting man in his society
today. With the astronomical increase in human population, one of the major concerns across national
divides is how best to harness and utilize earth's resources to the ends of mankind without
jeopardizing the future.
Apart from the threats posed to the environment by pollutions, both of the air and water typologies,
the hazards of mounting waste streams in Nigeria is not less daunting. It hinders the attainment of the
environmental objective of the Vision 20 2020 and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
which entails meeting the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability to
meet those of the future.
The World Bank (1998) defines sustainable development as the process in which the exploitation of
resources, the direction of investment, the orientation of technological planning, implementation of
development as well as institutionalization of change are all in harmony. It further defines a
sustainable society as one that manages its socio-economic development and growth in a way as to do
no irreparable damage to the environment. By balancing socio-economic requirements with
ecological consideration and concerns, argues Adejemilua (2007), ―government satisfies the needs of
its people without jeopardizing the prospects of future generations‖.
The Nigerian governments have never feigned ignorance of the need for high quality environment and
have variously taken steps to improve the environment as exemplified in the national plans. For
instance, the National Rolling Plan 1990-1992 expressly stated ―Nigeria is committed to a national
policy that ensures sustainable development based on proper management of the environment in order
to meet the needs of the present and future generations‖ (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1990).
Similarly, in all the post independence constitutions, the environmental objective of the country as
clearly provided for in Chapter II (Fundamental Objective and Directive Principles of State Policy)
was to ―protect and improve the environment and safeguard the water, air and land, forest and wildlife
of Nigeria‖.
Pursuance to the objectives, the military junta of General Ibrahim Buhari introduced the monthly
sanitation exercise usually organized on every last Saturday of the month across the country to clean
the surroundings. Perhaps the boldest step towards the achievement of the environmental goals of the
country was the setting up of the Federal Environment Protection Agency (FEPA) in December 1988
by Decree 58 as well as the creation of Federal and State Ministries of Environment. The
responsibility of FEPA amongst others included setting, monitoring and enforcing national
environment quality standards. It was also authorized to handle all forms of environmental problems
and formulate policies dealing with them (FEPA, 1998).
FEPA backed up the nation's transition to sustainable development through the institution of a number
of regulations, guidelines and standards aimed at controlling pollution and protecting the
environment, which led to the preparation of the National Sustainable Development Strategy that
encouraged government to incorporate environment matters into the National Rolling Plan, 19921994 Babajide, (1995).
The National Guidelines and Standards for Environmental Pollution and Control of 1991 and the
Pollution Abatement in Industries and Facilities Generating Waste Regulation also of 1991 were some
of the policy propositions of the Federal Government as it concerned waste management. On the other
hand, the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Decree 86 of 1992 made it mandatory for new
major projects, including waste disposal facilities, to undergo EIA.
The failure of the above-mentioned measures and agencies both at the federal and state levels
informed the scrapping of FEPA in 1991 and the consequent setting up of the Ministry of
Environment by the civilian administration of Chief Olusegun Obasanjo to oversee matters and issues
relating to the environment, waste management inclusive. Hence, the following four activities among
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others have been embarked upon at one time or the other by the government to promote solid waste
management in Nigeria: ―construction of incinerators by some states governments, compulsory
observation of monthly clean up exercise, establishment of state environmental authorities; and
establishment of refuge dump sites in many urban countries‖ Madu, (2001).
In spite of the measures, one major obstacle to effective solid waste management, as aptly captured by
Cunningham and Cunningham (2004), remains the fact that ―…our collecting and dumping processes
mix and crush everything together, making separation an expensive and sometimes impossible task‖;
and as a consequence, the populace needs to be fully mobilized to imbibe the best solid waste
management practices that would promote environmental sustainability.
MEDIA VEHICLES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION
There are many media of communication or sharing of information in contemporary societies. They
are broadly grouped into two namely, modern media and folk/traditional media. To this we may add
the 'new' media which are very modern and trendy means of communication. For the purposes of
clarity, modern media of communication have been subdivided into the print and electronic media
Tosanwumi & Ekwuazi, (1994) and Okoruwa, (2006). Print media include books, handbills, journals,
newspapers, magazines, posters, event programme flyers, among others. The electronic media could
be subdivided into the narrowcast media (cinema, satellite transmission, cable TV, video film, etc)
and broadcast media (radio and television). However, there is no hair-splitting over these
classifications of modern media as different authorities based on different technological criteria have
categorized them differently over time.
Konkwo (1997 and 2003) note that the traditional media are customized communication channels that
people in specific societies adopt in sharing ideas, meanings, values and information. They are
extensions of a people's culture which remain credible and valid persuasive communication channels
even in the face of modernization. On the other hand, Wilson (1998) has offered a rather
comprehensive approach to the understanding of the traditional communication system. He identified
the following features of traditional communication ―It is dynamic, multi-media, multi-channel
system, the system is authoritative, credible, time-honoured, transactional, customary and ubiquitous,
as well as integrative, low-cost, non-alienating, adaptable and popular‖ (p. 209). Traditional media of
communication have been grouped into the following modes, instrumental, demonstrative,
iconographic, extramundane, visual and institutional modes Wilson, (1998); ―instrumental,
demonstrative, iconographic, extramundane, visual, institutional, venue-oriented communication,
myths and legends, names and folktales and proverbs‖ Akpabio, (2003). Nonetheless, Ibagere (1994)
collapses the above into ―verbal, non-verbal and esoteric modes‖. His classification may have sprung
from the fact that advanced technological considerations are not crucial to folk/traditional media
typology as they are generally located within what he calls ―symbolography‖. And, of course, the
'new' media which technological advancement has made very attractive and interactive include
computers such as the internet, digital video disks (DVDs), iPods, etc Armstrong-Idachaba, (2010).
These various media of communication are actively being put to use in various degrees in different
parts of the world, including Nigeria.
While the modern and 'new' media are predominantly used in urban and suburban centres in Nigeria,
the traditional media are very much in active use in rural settings across the country where well ―over
70 percent of the population resides‖ National Planning Commission, (2005). In any case, all media,
whether traditional, modern or 'new' media, help to inform, educate, advertise, entertain, mobilize,
innovate, socialize, link and survey as the case may be Dominick, (1996), Adeseye & Ibagere, (1999)
and Okhakhu & Omoera, (2010).
In any case, the primary concern in every development communication campaign programme is the
capability of the media vehicle and approach used to convey the message to the target audience
untainted by distortions of any kind. Development communication is a holistic communication effort,
approach or action designed to mobilize a people towards active participation in programmes aimed at
achieving improved physical, socio-cultural, political and economic environments for the benefit of
human beings in society Nwodu, (2007). Edeani (1993) sees development communication as ―the use
of all forms of communication in reporting, publicizing and promotion of development at all levels of
society‖. Quebral (1989) defines development communication as the ―art and science of human
communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people‖. From
10
these definitions, we can see that development communication concerns itself with (a) social
objectives among development agents; (b) communicating development programme objectives to the
programme targets; (c) mobilising development targets for active participation in the programmes;
and (d) evaluating programme strategies before, during and after the programme implementation for
the purpose of enhancing future delivery.
Development communication demands the effective use of various modes of communication media to
propagate news and information about social change. As Moemeka (1989) observes, development
(which is communication driven) should aim at improving ―the human, cultural, socio-economic and
political conditions of the individual and, consequently, of society. Linden (1989) cited in Okunna
(2002) agrees that development should focus on social change aimed at improving the quality of life
of human society, especially that of the underprivileged majority of the population.
To facilitate development, Moemeka (1989), and Nwosu (1991) note that in almost all development
communication projects, some kind of media mixing or combination seems most desirable, if not
imperative. This involves careful and cost-effective integration of the traditional, interpersonal, group
and mass media models of communication, for greater results. The effective deployment of some
traditional modes of communication and strategies, like folk media, market places, village square
meetings, age-grades, town crier/village announcer, advocacy visits, opinion leaders and other similar
forms in development communication contexts has also been documented and reported in the African
developmental research literature Nwosu & Megwa, (1993). And such traditional modes of
communication can be effectively deployed in the effort to sustain the environment by promoting
positive solid wastes disposal practices.
According to Okiyi (2007), when the people desire information to satisfy a need, they learn from the
mass media channels, but considering the nature of Nigerian state and the inability of majority of the
populace to access the media as well as other indices of national development such as literacy level
and rate of poverty, total reliance on the mass media alone would not achieve the desired results of
environmental sustainability campaigns that would imbibe in Nigerians best wastes disposal practices.
Oso (2002) puts the argument better perspective when he observes as follows:
―….We must realize the limitations of the mass media as tool for social mobilization…. The sociocultural set up of our country creates a lot of rooms for the use and effectiveness of certain traditional
practices…. The belief in the usefulness of traditional media is hinged on the fact that those channels
of communication are part of the people's culture‖.
CONCLUSION
Attempts have been made here to highlight the prevailing practices regarding solid waste management
in the country as well as the need to properly sensitize the people on the need to properly dispose of
solid wastes. This we said, would promote environmental sustainability and enhance health conditions
and aesthetic features of the society. Any media campaign aimed at inculcating the values of
environmental sustainability in the populace, we said, must be designed to communicate the import of
waste sorting, proper disposal and reuse where necessary. Regarding the media vehicle to be used, we
made case for a multi-media approach that would involve the use of both conventional and traditional
media channels. This is in view of the fact that restricting such campaigns to mass media would be
counter-productive as a large proportion of the population residing in the rural areas may not access
such campaign messages.
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13
GAS FLARING; ENVIRONMENTAL HARM AND INJUSTICE TO MAN: INDIVIDUALS'
AND CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Prof. Smart N. Uchegbu
Head, Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus
ABSTRACT
Gas flaring is a widely used practice for the disposal of natural gas in petroleum producing areas
where there is inadequate infrastructure to make use of excess gas. Although abolished, the practice
is still obtainable in some countries like Nigeria. The study examined the environmental and health
implications of Gas flaring. Existing data revealed that gas flaring has negative effects on the
environment and on humans. Gas flaring has impoverished several communities and present several
challenges. The reluctance of the Nigerian government to develop the needed infrastructure
contributes to the problem of gas flaring. The problem of gas flaring is further exacerbated by the
pollution of the river basin which affects the food supply chain. Individuals and corporate bodies are
expected to contribute towards solving the problem. We can only realize the magnitude of the
problem when the last river has been poisoned and the last fish been caught, then we will realize we
cannot eat money.
INTRODUCTION
Gas flaring is a widely used method to dispose of natural gas in production of petroleum (Omoweh,
1995). It is an anthropogenic activity that is defined as the ―wasteful emission of greenhouse gases
(GHGs) that cause global warming, disequilibrium of the earth, unpredictable weather changes and
major natural disasters because it emits a cocktail of benzene and other toxic substances that are
harmful to humans, animals, plants and the entire physical environment‖ World Bank, (2007).
Necessary infrastructure may be developed to harness natural gas and turn it into a cash Company.
This happens during the processing of crude oil through the top of a pipe or stack in which the burner
and igniters are located (Aghalino, 2002; Okogun, 2004; Eweje, 2006). According to Raji et al;
(2013), a major contributor to gas flaring is the perennial flaring of associated gas during oil
production.
The companion procedure called venting is the release of gas without combustion. Venting is not only
dangerous, but releases gases known to absorb thermal radiation much better than carbon dioxide,
contributing to the greenhouse effect. Gas flaring is widely recognized as a waste of energy and an
added load to carbon emissions to the atmosphere. Because the flaring combustion is incomplete,
substantial amounts of soot and carbon monoxide are produced, contributing to air pollution
problems.
Table below shows volume of gas produced and flared in the country between 2003-2012. Nigeria is
the 6th largest producer of oil in the world and it is endowed with more natural gas reserves than oil.
In 2011, a total of 2400.40 Billion Standard Cubic Feet (BSCF) of Natural Gas was produced by the
sixteen oil companies. Of the quantity produced, 1,781.37 BSCF (74%) was utilized, while 619.03
BSCF (26%) was flared (NNPC, 2011).
Table 1: Gas produced and flared in the Ijaw area between 2003-2012
Year
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Gas Util ized (mm
10,000
15,000
34,000
36,000
39,000
41,000
47,000
52,000
55,000
59,000
3)
Gas flared (mm 3)
30,000
50,000
23,000
28,000
25,000
15,000
12,000
10,000
7,000
5,000
Gas Flaring; Environmental Harm And Injustice To Man: Individuals' And Corporate Social Responsibility
14
Source: (Raji and Abejide, 2013).
Fig. 1: Gas produced and flared in the Ijaw area between 2003-2012
Source: (Raji and Abejide, 2013).
The table and figure 1 show gradual decline in the gas flared. The ratio of gas flared to gas utilized
has steadily declined showing that lesser and lesser metric tons of gas are being flared. This may be
attributed to better practice or increased effort to capture the gas.
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS ON GAS FLARING IN NIGERIA
The Nigerian government has not enforced environmental regulations effectively because of the
overlapping and conflicting jurisdiction of separate governmental agencies governing petroleum and
the environment as well as because of non-transparent governance mechanisms. Neither the Federal
Ministry of Environment (FME) nor the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) has completely
implemented anti-flaring policies for natural gas waste from oil production, nor have they monitored
the emissions to ensure compliance.
Various legislations had been put in place to curb gas flaring in Nigeria since 1969, but successive
governments had lacked the political will to enforce them. Currently, the Petroleum Industry Bill
(PIB) is yet to be passed into law, fuelling concerns that the government is not serious about curbing
gas flaring (Ben, 2014)
From an economic perspective, the Nigerian government's main interest in the oil industry is to
maximize its profits from oil production. Oil companies find it more economically expedient to flare
the natural gas and pay the insignificant fine than to re-inject the gas back into the oil wells.
Additionally, because there is an insufficient energy market especially in the rural areas, oil
companies do not have economic incentive to collect the gas.
The oil-producing communities have experienced severe marginalization and neglect. The
environment and human health are frequently of secondary consideration for oil companies and the
Nigerian government. Corporations must be accountable and should be responsible to re-inject the gas
to recover it, or to shut down any extraction facilities in which gas flaring is occurring. As is the case
in most oil producing regions of less developed countries, the economic and political benefits are
given significantly more attention by the government than the resulting damage to the environment
and human health.
ENVIRONMENTAL HARM AND INJUSTICE OF MAN
Environmental Harm
Gas flaring pollutes the natural environment and consequently affects our quality of life. that reduce
human well-being. These impacts compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
15
The Brundtland criterion affirms the importance of human well-being and our responsibility to future
generations. But as Nobel Prize-winning economist Amartya (2004) remarked, ―Seeing people in
terms of only their needs may give us a rather meager view of humanity.‖ We have a responsibility to
safeguard the existence of other species regardless of whether the species in question serves any
practical human needs. Environmental quality can be seen as an end in itself, and not merely a means
to other ends.
Amartya (2004) asserts that future generations have the right to breathe clean air, and that
infringement of this right cannot be adequately compensated by improvements in other dimensions of
well-being. Not everything of value can be calibrated on a single scale. Freedom to make value
judgments about environmental change, and rights to a clean and safe environment, are themselves
important ethical objectives.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Gas flaring contributes to climate change, which has serious implications to both Nigeria and the rest
of the world. The burning of fossil fuel, mainly coal, oil and gas-greenhouse gases-has lead to the
warming up of the world and it is projected to get worse in the 21 century according to the
intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC). This scientific body was set up in 1988 by the UN
and the World Meteorological Organization to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human-induced) interference with
the climate system. Climate change is particularly serious for developing countries, and Africa as a
continent is regarded as highly vulnerable with limited ability to adapt. Gas flaring contributes to
climate change by emission of carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas. These gases make up about
80% of global warming to date.
ACID RAIN
Acid rain has been linked to gas flaring. Corrugated roofs in the Delta region have been corroded by
the composition of the rain that falls as a result of flaring. The primary causes of acid rain are
emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NO) which combine with atmospheric
moisture to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid respectively. Acid rain acidifies lakes and streams and
damages vegetation and wild life. In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and
paints. Sulfates and nitrates also contribute to visibility degradation and are potentially harmful. They
therefore posit a public health risk.
AGRICULTURE
Gas flaring gives rise to atmospheric contaminants. These include oxides of Nitrogen, Carbon and
Sulphur (NO2, CO2, CO, SO2), particulate matter, hydrocarbons and ash, photochemical oxidants,
and hydrogen suiphide (H2S). These contaminants acidify the soil, hence depleting soil nutrient.
Studies have shown that the nutritional values of crops are diminished in affected areas. In some
cases, there is no vegetation in the areas surrounding the flare due partly to the tremendous heat that is
produced and the acid nature of the soil pH.
HEALTH IMPLICATIONS
The implications of gas flaring on human health are largely related to the exposure to the hazardous
air pollutants emitted as a result of incomplete combustion. These pollutants are associated with a
variety of adverse health impacts, including cancer, neurological disorder, reproductive and
developmental effects. Deformities in children, lung damage and skin problems have also been
reported.
HEMATOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Hydrocarbon compounds are known to cause some adverse changes in hematological parameters.
These changes affect blood and blood-forming cells negatively. It could also give rise to anemia and
leukemia.
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ECONOMIC LOSS
Aside from the health and environmental consequences of gas flaring, the nation also loses billions of
dollars' worth of gas which are literally burnt off daily in the atmosphere. Much of this can be
converted to domestic use and for electricity generation. Nigeria has recorded a huge revenue loss due
to gas flaring. It is estimated that about $2.5 billion is lost annually through gas flaring in government
revenues.
POLLUTION
The petroleum industry contributes a substantial quota to Nigeria's environmental pollution. Between
1976 and 1997, more than 2,676 separate oil pipeline spill incidents were reported in the country.
Equipment malfunctioning, corrosion of aged pipelines, sabotage of oil installations and oil robbery
contribute to oil spillages. Thus, the most intractable of the petroleum industry related pollution is gas
flaring, the stoppage of which continued to remain elusive despite numerous attempts at regulation
Uchegbu (2007). Nigeria flares more gas than any other country in the world. About 77.8 % of the
associated gases produced from Nigerians oil fields are flared. Global estimates also show that flaring
of Nigeria's gas contributes significantly to the world's carbon dioxide emission. Okogun (2004).
In that same vein drilling mud and oil sometimes find their way to the streams, surface waters and
land thus making the streams unsuitable for consumption and the land inappropriate for farming This
oil companies are culpable for these problems. Furthermore, gas flaring being one of the major air
pollutants can lead to suffocation, irritation of the eye, lungs and skin, irritation of the respiratory
system and reduces visibility.
ENVIRONMENTAL INJUSTICE
The First Category
There are two categories of environmental injustice. The first category operates on both the benefit
side and the cost side of the coin. Benefits from economic activities that inflict environmental harm to
consumers such as savings from cost externalization (for example, releasing toxic chemicals rather
than spending money on pollution control) are passed on to consumers in the form of high cost of
environmental degradation.
Benefits accrue to the owners of firms in the form of higher profits. On the consumer side, the rich
generally get a bigger share of the benefits, for the simple reason that they consume more luxury
products than the poor. On the producer side, again they get a bigger share of the benefits, since they
own more productive assets, including corporate stocks. For these reasons, no matter what the
division of gains between consumers and firms, the rich reap the largest share. Even if the costs of
environmental harm were equally shared by all – for example, if everyone breathes the same polluted
air and drinks the same polluted water – this would always skew in favor of the wealthy.
In practice, many environmental costs are localized, rather than being uniformly distributed across
space Udeh, (2010). For example, the wealthy can afford to live in neighborhoods with cleaner air and
more environmental amenities. Furthermore, sometimes there are private substitutes for public
environmental quality. In Nigeria, for instance, where public water supplies are often contaminated,
the upper and middle classes can afford to consume bottled water. The poor cannot. In such cases,
because access to private substitutes is based on ability to pay, again the rich are better able to avoid
environmental harm.
Even in cases of environmental harm from which there is no escape – widely dispersed pollutants and
global climate change are examples – those who are relatively poor and powerless tend to be most
vulnerable. The poor has less ability to afford remedial measures like health care. They also have less
political clout to secure remedial actions from government authorities. Similar vulnerability
disparities are revealed by natural disasters, as when Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans in August
2005 (Pastor , 2006 ).
THE SECOND CATEGORY
The Second Category focused on respecting Nature's Limits, and thus how to limit environmental
harm – if we choose to do so. We can learn about replenishable natural resources, such as trees in
forest and fish in the sea, and we can manage our own harvests of these resources to ensure
sustainable yields. We can learn about nature's finite stocks of non-renewable resources, such as
17
minerals and fossil fuels, and we can develop renewable alternatives such as solar energy, wind and
others to avert future shortages.
INDIVIDUAL AND CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Individual Responsibility
The preservation, restoration, or improvement of the natural environment lies with individuals
especially: in the area of pollution control. This leads to the word environmentalism. This is a
philosophy adhered to by ecologically sensitive advocates who wish to protect the planet from
pollution or damage. It may also refer to the idea that mental and cultural development depends on a
person's environment rather than on their genes.
This denotes a social movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism,
and education in order to protect natural resources and ecosystems. It was first coined in 1922. It is a
broad philosophy, ideology and social movement regarding concerns for environmental protection
and improvement of the health of the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to
incorporate the concerns of non-human elements. It advocates the preservation, restoration and or
improvement, and may be referred to as a movement to control pollution or protect plant and animal
diversity. Environmentalism is an attempt to balance relations between humans and the various
natural systems on which they depend in such a way that all the components are accorded a proper
degree of sustainability.
CARBON FOOTPRINT
Individuals can assist the companies flaring gas by reducing our carbon footprint. Our Carbon
footprint can easily measure the total sets of greenhouse gas emissions caused by a person. Our use of
carbon, as an indicator of unsustainable energy that measures direct emissions of gases that cause
climate change into the atmosphere.
ROLE OF RELIGION
Religious thought and spirituality can guide the actions and behaviours of individuals with
discipleship in the right direction. The perfect blending of environment and development can take
place through the medium of religion or spirituality. Environmental harmful actions of gas flaring can
reduce when there is an induced change in individual behavior towards that, Sulphey (2012).
MAKING SOCIAL CHANGE
The inequalities of power and wealth that generate environmental harm are not forces of nature.
Political and economic disparities are social constructions, and as such they can be reconstructed
CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
The concept of social responsibility as an important aspect of corporate organization's mission
received a major impetus from Bowen (1953) who posits that business firms' mission should not be
exclusively economic but that the social implications of their decisions should be taken into
cognizance.
A related concept is social responsiveness suggested by Davis and Frederick (1984) which implies
―the ability of a corporation to relate its operations and policies to the social environment in ways that
are mutually beneficial to the company and to society‖. According to Slack (2006) the concept
encompasses a broad range of activities that corporations may engage in , with varying degree of
enthusiasm, to demonstrate that they are addressing important human rights, environmental, and labor
issues – many of which have been brought to their attention by activist groups.
There are arguments for and against corporate organizations involvement in social responsibilities.
The arguments in support of corporate involvement out-number those against. Koontz and Weihrich
(1988) listed eleven arguments in favor of social involvement of corporate organizations and seven
arguments to the contrary. A major argument for corporate social responsibility is that the creation of
a better social environment benefits both society and business. The society benefits through better
economic conditions and employment opportunities, while corporate organizations gain from a better
community, since the community is the source of its human and natural resources and the consumer of
its products and services.
18
In contrast, one of the arguments against is that the primary task of business is to maximize profit
which can be achieved by strictly focusing on economic activities as social involvement could reduce
economic efficiency of an organization. Irrespective of the argument, the need for corporate
organizations to be responsive to their social responsibilities should be considered a matter of great
social importance. For corporate social responsibility to be achieved, the following measures must be
considered: State intervention of the force of law and coercive approach by the local community.
COMPACT CITY
The Compact City is a concept of city of short distances, or an urban planning and urban design
concept; which promotes relatively high residential density with mixed land uses. It is based on an
efficient public transport system and has an urban layout which – according to its advocates –
encourages walking and cycling, low energy consumption and reduction of carbon emission. A large
resident population provides opportunities for social interaction as well as a feeling of safety in
numbers and 'eyes on the street'. It is also arguably a more sustainable urban settlement type than
urban sprawl because it is less dependent on the car, requiring less and cheaper per capita
infrastructure provision, Esara, (1997),
CARBON SEQUESTRATION
Corporate bodies can adopt both natural and deliberate processes to achieve carbon sequestration.
Trees act as a sink for carbon dioxide CO2 by fixing carbon during photosynthesis and storing carbon
as biomass (Obioh, 1999)
CARBON CREDIT
A carbon credit is a programme that permit companies that flare gas to emit only one tonne of
carbon dioxide. The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes
in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches.
CARBON TAX
Carbon tax is a system wherein all fuel consumed would be taxed at a rate that is proportionate to the
carbon content of the particular fuel or gas. This tax has a lot of direct and indirect advantages. Some
of the advantages include encouraging the use of solar energy and low carbon fuels, and discouraging
the use of high carbon fuels. If applied appropriately, it will reduce CO2 emissions from gas flaring(
Udeh 2010)
STATE INTERVENTION OF THE FORCE OF LAW APPROACH:
This approach argues that the state may intervene through the enactment of certain regulations to
compel organizations to fulfill their social responsibilities for the development of the community in
which they operate. Such laws requiring Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) are designed to
develop formal processes to predict the environmental consequences (positive or negative) of a plan,
policy, program, or project prior to the implementation stage. EIA proposes measures to adjust
impacts to acceptable levels or to investigate new technological solution.
Although an assessment may lead to difficult economic decisions and political and social concerns,
environmental impact assessments protect the environment by providing a sound basis for effective
and sustainable development. This is as a result of negligence on the part of the private sector where
the needed benefits of the society are not actually met. So, there is need for promulgation of law that
will specify the roles and functions organizations need to play to protect the natural environment. This
will go a long way in detecting actions and equally serve as check on those respective organizations.
COERCIVE APPROACH BY THE LOCAL COMMUNITY:
This approach posits that in view of the government's inability to either coerce or persuade
corporations operating in a particular locality to discharge their social responsibility role in a
commensurate measure to the damage they inflict on the environment, the inhabitants of such a
community may adopt certain extra – judicial strategies to ensure compliance. For example, as earlier
mentioned in the oil producing region of Nigeria, militant groups have emerged and their strategies
19
range from kidnapping of oil staff, incessant vandalization of oil installations to forceful and physical
occupation of the premises of multinational corporations located in the area.
The discharge and non-discharge of social responsibility function by corporate organizations involves
some costs. The cost of non-discharge have been found to have tremendous negative impacts on the
host community, which far outweighed the cost borne (e.g forceful stoppage of work, loss of manhour, threat to life) by the organization.
The cost to the host community as a result of loss of a means of livelihood, health hazards, death,
destruction of natural resources of the forest and wildlife is immeasurable and unparalleled to any
amount of compensation. Organizations stand to gain from improved corporate image, sustainable
business operation, and better relationship with its immediate community if it is socially responsible.
CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Environmental issues are often driven by consumer pressure, legislation, ethics, etc, and need to be
addressed. To ensure adequate environmental management, Neumann (2001) propose that
organizations should design environmental policy which would identify key performance areas and
form a sound basis for setting corporate objectives. Organizations should incorporate the following in
their Environmental Management Plan:
 Is the organization meeting its environmental commitments?
 Is concern for the environment integral to each of the organization's operations?
 Do managers and workers see environmental improvement as a goal and in what ways are
personnel being encouraged to be more involved?
 Are there new product opportunities that the organization could exploit which would have less
negative environmental impact?
 What are the financial and organizational constraints that may inhibit environmental
improvement?
CONCLUSION
Petroleum exploitation and production in the oil producing areas over the years have resulted in a
number of environmental, socio-economic and political problems in the region. Oil spillage and gas
flaring have caused severe environmental damages, loss of bioderversity and loss of revenue to both
the oil producing companies and the government. Petroleum exploration, exploitation, production,
storage, distribution and transportation activities affect the environment in a negative manner.
Vegetations are removed to make way for seismic lines and sites. Storage, distribution and
transportation of oil and gas using tankers and pipeline network result in some quantities of petroleum
products being released into the environment and disturbance of the natural habitat of both people and
animals.
Oil exploration causes a range of environmental problems. These include: contamination of both
surface and ground water by benzene, xylene, toluene, and ethylbenzene; contamination of soil by oil
spill and, leak; increased deforestation; as well as the economic loss and environmental degradation.
In order to address the problems of gas flaring, it is necessary to understand why the natural gas is
being flared. Because oil and natural gas are mixed in every oil deposit, the natural gas called
associated gas‖ (AG) must be removed from oil before refining..
Though the draft of the Petroleum Industry Bill (PIB) stipulates that 'natural gas shall not be flared or
vented after 31st December, 2012, in any oil and gas production operation, block or field, onshore or
offshore, or gas facility, except under exceptional and temporary circumstances‖, this draft is yet to be
passed into law. Legislative backing and governmental bureaucracy are still lacking. We will not wait
until the last tree has died and the last river been poisoned, and the last fish been caught before will
realize we cannot eat money.
The difficulties faced by local communities from gas flares are sufficient justification for ending gas
flaring practice. Government should as a matter of urgency enforce laws that would prohibit or at
least help to reduce gas flaring.
There is also evidence that pollution prevention can lower costs by improving upon inefficient
production processes. Therefore, firms must see it as a responsibility to reduce pollution during
20
production process. Cutting production costs, meeting the demands of green consumers, and shaping
public and private policies - all offer the potential for shareholder gains.
Rectifying the market failures and governance failures that lead to environmental harm requires
repairing the disparities of wealth and power that enable these failures. Safeguarding the natural
environment also will require us to cultivate an ethic of moral responsibility to others – particularly
when the costs of environmental harm would primarily fall upon future generations.
Achieving these goals does not only require rebalancing our relationships with nature, it will also
require rebalancing our relationships with our fellow humans. In addition, corporate
environmentalism can pay off by influencing the regulatory process - preempting or delaying new
regulations, speeding the issuance of permits and deflecting regulatory enforcement efforts.
Remedying this environmental harm will require more than defensive actions by single individuals,
communities, or states. Ultimately this and other transnational environmental problems require
building institutions that bridge the gap between the globalization of markets and the globalization of
governance.
21
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Environmental Justice'. in James K. Boyce and Barry G. Shelley,
eds., Natural Assets:
Democratizing Environmental Ownership.
Washington, DC: Island Press, ch. 4
Raji, A. O. Y and Abejide T. S.(2013) An Assessment of Environmental Problems Associated with
Oil Pollution and Gas flaring in the Niger Delta Region C 1960-2000. Arabian Journal of
Business and Management Review Vol. 3 No 3, Oct 2013 p 115
Slack, K. (2006) ―Putting teeth in corporate social responsibility‖. The Punch, December 5, p. 16
Sulphey M. M. (2012) Introduction to Environmental Management. PHI learning Private Limited
New Dehi-1 10001.
Uchegbu, S. N. (2007) ―Environmental Management and Protection‖. Enugu, Precision Printers.
Udeh, C. (2010) Environmental Management Strategies for City Authorities. Journal of
Environmental Management and Safety: Vol 1, No 1. 56-63
World Bank, (2007) A twenty year record of National and Global Gas Flaring. Volumes estimated
using satellite Data final Report to the World Bank-May 30, 2012
22
GROWING INCIDENCE OF BUILDING COLLAPSE IN THE NIGERIAN BUILT
ENVIRONMENT - CAUSES AND IMPLICATIONS
Emma-Ochu Chidinma A.
Department of Architecture, Federal Polytechnic, Nekede, Owerri.
ABSTRACT
Structural failures in buildings have been linked to many factors such as: poor workmanship, the use
of substandard building material, lack of qualified and appropriate personnel or poor supervision,
inadequate enforcement of existing building laws and regulations, amongst many other factors. These
factors have led to the growing incidence of building collapse in Nigeria. This paper, reviews some
cases of collapsed buildings in Nigeria, its causes and the urgent need to address and find a lasting
solution to the malady, it further suggests the need for national maintenance, and building materials
policy for the country and the enforcement of the national building code. The paper concluded that
without stringent policy measures against the use of substandard building materials, engagement of
qualified and appropriate professionals in the building industry and emphasis on building
maintenance, the growing incidence of building collapse will not abate.
Keywords: Building collapse, maintenance, standard, structural failure, substandard.
INTRODUCTION
The incidences of building collapse in Nigeria, where many lives and properties have been wasted,
have increased in recent time. This has become the issue of discussion at many fora.
The built environment in many developing countries particularly Nigeria is fast decaying. The factors
responsible for this can be attributed to rapid urbanization, rural – urban migration, and decades of
steady economic downturn, decay of urban infrastructure and negligent urban housekeeping (World
Bank, 2005).
According to Amadi (2007), building experts classify the causes of high incidence of collapsed
buildings as bad design, foundation failure, faulty construction, use of substandard construction
materials, faulty structural details arising from false assumption of soil strength, disregard for building
regulations, non – compliance with development control policies, patronage of quacks by developers,
construction of houses in unapproved areas, absence of proper supervision and a combination of other
factors that are not man-made.
The series of collapse of finished and unfinished buildings in recent times has been a source of
concern to government and the people especially the building professionals.
Whereas the incidents of collapsed buildings are not peculiar to Nigeria, but the difference however is
that in developed countries, when there are such cases, panels are set up to investigate the incident and
people are punished when found guilty. In Nigeria, it is not the same. Building professionals do not
even accept responsibility for any collapse rather they blame such mishaps to the handiwork of
quacks. Building construction is a team work amongst building professionals who have undergone a
period of training followed by the passing of prescribed examinations which qualifies the professional
to offer his or her services to the public for a fee. The professionals in the building industry range
from the Architects, Engineers, Builders, Quantity Surveyors, Town Planners, Estate Surveyors &
Valuers, Land Surveyors and completing the building team are the Clients, Suppliers/ Manufacturers,
Contractors and Sub – Contractors.
These professionals have specific roles to play in the construction of buildings which if played well
will help to prevent these ugly incidents of building collapse. When these roles are not played it may
result to the failure or collapse of buildings.
This paper will examine some cases of collapsed buildings in Nigeria, its causes and implications. It
will also proffer solutions that could improve the Nigerian built environment.
INCIDENTS OF COLLAPSED BUILDINGS NATIONWIDE
Lagos, city in southwestern Nigeria, in Lagos State, located on the Bight of Benin (an arm of the
Atlantic Ocean). Lagos is Nigeria's largest city, chief port, and principal economic and cultural center.
23
It served as Nigeria's capital until 1991, when the seat of federal government was moved to Abuja, in
central Nigeria.
In pictures: Lagos collapse
One of the tallest buildings in Nigeria's economic capital, Lagos, collapsed one morning during a
heavy thunderstorm.
Due to generally poor construction standards in Lagos, building collapses are a fairly common
occurrence. In 2006, up to 3 building collapses were reported.
On March22, 2006, the top nine stories of the 21-story industrial development bank building located
in the commercial centre of the city in Lagos collapsed. This happened after a fire had gutted two
stories in the building earlier that month. Heavy winds during a thunderstorm caused the building to
cave in from the structural weakness after the fire. Only one person was killed while 24 were reported
injured.
Also on July 18, 2006 when a four-story block of flats collapsed in Lagos. At least 25 people were
killed. It is thought the accident was caused by poor construction. The building was under three years
old. The building was a residential one composed of 36 flats. Investigating officials attribute building
collapses in Lagos which claims dozens of lives yearly to poor building and construction standards as
well as poor materials.
24
Worried relatives and onlookers in Nigeria's main city of Lagos watch as rescuers search for survivors
at the site of a new building that collapsed.
In another incident nearly 30 people were said to have died while 50 people were rescued alive. The
building also housed restaurants and 18 shops on the ground floor and rescuers were unsure of how
many people remained trapped below the ground.The building, in Nigeria's largest city, is thought to
have been just three years old, and officials are blaming poor construction for the collapse. Local
media reported that city planners only gave permission for a two storey building on the site, not four.
The owner of the construction company was believed to have fled.
The sprawling industrial city of Lagos has a history of poor construction and maintenance. In
November of the same year, a building that was unfinished and still under construction collapsed. It
was a three-story building that was being built. Two construction workers were killed. The Red Cross
led rescue efforts to find people. Twelve people were saved with only minor injuries. The first day of
rescue efforts were slowed by the fact that no heavy equipment had been assigned for cleaning refuse
and looking for bodies. Lagos has the highest rate of building collapse in the country.
Port – Harcourt
The collapsed building near clock tower hotel along Tombia Street, G.R.A. Port-Harcourt according
to experts was because the building was erected on an area previously water logged without any
attempt to lower the ground water table, the flowing of water underneath the foundation affected the
foundation and caused the building collapse.
Owerri
The collapsed building is along Onitsha road, Owerri. The site is now warded off from public view.
Investigations revealed that the building which was still under construction was built up to the third
floor before the collapse. There were no approved building plans, neither were there competent
professionals in the building industry involved in the construction, this led to poor workmanship and
inappropriate use of building materials.
Ten Escaped Death as Building Collapsed in Imo October 21, 2008. Over 10 laborers and some
neighbors narrowly cheated death when a two-storey building under construction at Ubahu, Okigwe
local government area of Imo State, suddenly collapsed. Vanguard investigations revealed that the
workers, who arrived at the construction site at about 7.45am on the fateful day, had hardly settled
down for the day's business, when the building came crashing down.
BUILDING COLLAPSE AND ITS MAJOR CAUSES.
Building collapse is when the component parts of a building fall apart, when they cease to support one
another. A building is a structural system made up of structural components such as foundation, slabs,
walls, beams etc. When any of the elements fail, the whole system is bound to be affected.
Building collapse is caused by both natural factors and manmade factors. Natural building collapse as
a result of earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, flood, fire and other natural disasters which occur more
often in other parts of the world, but cases of building collapse in Nigeria is mostly as a result of
manmade factors which could be avoided. In Nigeria, the incidences of building collapse where many
lives and properties have been wasted have increased in recent time.
As noted by Oyewole (2010), over the years particularly since 1980's, Nigeria has been witnessing
sporadic cases of building collapse. The major centre of this ugly incidence are the urban centers,
where the need to provide accommodation as a result of ever increasing population is becoming
urgent. The case has become a major occurrence in urban centers, particularly in Lagos, Abuja,
Ibadan, Port – Harcourt, Kaduna and Owerri. In the Lagos metropolitan alone, between 1983 and
2007, there were 101 reported cases of building collapse. This incidence of building collapse is not
only accompanied by the waste of scarce resources and time, but also loss of lives and environmental
destruction. Below is the table on some reported cases of collapsed buildings.
Table 1. Some Reported Cases of Collapsed Buildings.
25
Source: Ogunsemi (2002); Fakere (2005); NIOB Technical papers 2006; Nigeria Daily Newspapers
(2000-2003); and Oke (2009).
26
Building experts classify the causes of high incidence of collapsed buildings as bad design, foundation
failure, faulty construction, use of substandard construction materials, faulty structural details arising
from false assumption of soil strength, disregard for building regulations, non – compliance with
development control policies, patronage of quacks by developers, construction of houses in
unapproved areas, absence of proper supervision by professionals in the building industry and a
combination of other factors that are not man-made.
In the light of the foregoing, there is therefore the need to empirically examine the underlying factors
associated with the increasing incidents of building collapse.
Table 2: Frequency of the Causes of Building Collapse in Lagos
Table 2 identifies the causes of building collapse and their frequencies, based on the empirical study
conducted by Ogunsemi (2002) on some selected collapsed buildings in Lagos. The most rampant
causes are 3,4,7,2 and 6. The degree of frequencies is in the order of their arrangement. These five
causes can be identified as major factors of building collapse. The tables prepared by LASPPDA
(2007), Onu (2007), Dare (2002)Iyagba (1999) in their different research indicate that the five factors
are among the contributing factors to the collapse of 75% to 90% of buildings in Nigeria between
1976 and 2007. It has been proven through research that there are other factors like high cost of
building materials, lack of awareness, illiteracy, lack of adequate supervision and rapid depreciation
plus other factors that cause the rampant use of substandard and inadequate materials.
THE FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR BUILDING COLLAPSE.
The factors responsible for building collapse are numerous and multidimensional and according to
Okereke (2006) they are:
 Lack of appropriate and strict adherence to due process in the approval procedures of building
plans.
 Non – involvement of structural engineers and builders in the production processes.
 Non – involvement of the builder as the anchor man in the realization of the architects dream and
the engineers' ingenuity.
 Lack of continuous monitoring and quality control of all important materials throughout the
duration of the project.
 Lack of soil investigation and proper interpretation of site conditions before structural design,
especially foundation design and construction
 Use of untrained and poorly equipped contractors without qualified professionals as their site
agents or supervisors.
 Use of unqualified professionals (quacks) as project supervisors.
 The unbridled importation of sub – standard materials and local production of poor quality
materials
27
Causes of building collapse could be summed up into two major causes namely; - Technical and
Administrative.
Technical causes are errors of omission or commission by any of the professionals in the course of
performance of duties that lead to the production of the building. Each professional should be
involved to the extent of his professional training and responsibility.
Administrative causes are due to flaws in the existing or non – existence of regulatory agencies such
as the building codes, professional ethics and government inadequacies which include undue
interference in the performance of official duties by doing what they are not supposed to do.
Table 3: Number of Buildings Collapse and Death Toll in Nigeria between 1976 and 2003.
Dare (2002, LASPPDA, 2004)
RESULT OF FINDINGS
The incidents of building collapse witnessed in the country in the recent years has resulted in the loss
of many lives and the destruction of properties worth several millions of naira; as reflected in the table
1, 2 and 3 above. Many families have been traumatized and many developers have lost their life
investments. In all the cases, many people were injured and some permanently disabled. Due to
increasing rate of cases of building collapse in Nigeria, a number of researches have been conducted.
These research findings have identified some factors to be responsible for the growing incidence of
building collapse which include the following according to Dare (2002) Ogunsemi (2002), Onu
(2007), Adediran (2007) and Alamu&Gana (2014)
1.
Lack of structural design and detail
2.
Inadequate reinforcement
3.
Poor workmanship
4.
Use of substandard materials
5.
Wrong conversion of building
6.
Absence of approved plan
7.
Lack of qualified and appropriate professionals in construction supervision
8.
Lack of soil investigation
9.
Hasty construction
10.
Lack of workable legal instrument
11.
Non – compliance with approved plan
12.
Design error
28
13.
14.
Wide gap between design and site operatives
Inadequate maintenance.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The causes of structural failures in buildings which has been linked to factors that have led to
incessant and growing incidence of building collapse in Nigeria has been identified and discussed.
This incidence of building collapse which has contributed to the loss of many lives and properties
cannot be over emphasized.
The various tiers of government led by the Federal Government should ensure to the enforcement of
stringent policy measures against the use of substandard building materials, maintenance problems,
engagement of qualified and appropriate professionals in the building industry and the national
building code has to be fully enforced if the issue of building collapse is to be mitigated.
The problem of building collapse has also been traced to lack of enforcement of existing laws and
regulation by the regulating authority on the one hand and the other activities of corrupt regulating
officials who after receiving gratifications, aid and abate the activities of unscrupulous building
contractors and quacks.
The following suggestions are made based on the findings of this paper.
1.
There should be a public awareness on the role and usefulness of the professionals in the
building industry, beyond the building plan approval process.
2.
Materials test laboratory should be established in every town planning department to enforce
materials test and to make this service accessible to both urban and rural areas.
3.
A law on enforcement of maintenance of buildings should be enacted and existing building
laws and regulations enforced by the appropriate regulating officials.
4.
The Standard organization of Nigeria (SON), should prohibit the use of poor materials and
should deal with manufacturers and importers of this sub – standard products.
5.
Stakeholders in the construction industry as well as citizens, who build, should involve
professionals of specialized areas in construction.
6.
Professionals in the building industry should not be involved in corrupt practices but be
distinguished by their training, ethical standards and competence.
7.
The government should ensure adequate legislation on issues affecting the building Industry
so as to stop this reoccurring issue of building collapse.
29
REFERENCES
Abimbola & Rotimi (2012) Contemporary Issues in Building Collapse and Its Implications for
Sustainable
Development.
An
Article
on
buildings
ISSN
2075-5309
www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
Adeyemi, (2001) Challenges of the New National Building Code. A Paper Presented at NCPD of NITP and TOPREC, August, Lagos.
Akingbohungbe D.O. (2002) Maintenance Culture An Antidote to Building Decay and Building
Collapse. Causes Prevention And Remedy. D.R Ogunsemi(ed) NIOB Ondo State Chapter
Akure.
Amadi, S.O. (2007) Preventing Foundation Failures in Buildings. The Geo-science Option
Environguard Journal of SEDT Federal Nekede Vol.1 No 1
Dare Shola (2002) Building Design Durability and Site Production. in Ogunsemi D.R. (2004)
Fagbohun P. O. (2010, )Building Maintenance and Materials Control Policy: A Panacea for
Infrastructure Provision Towards Sustainable Development. A Paper presented at Architects
Colloquium 2010, April, Abuja.
Federal
Republic
of
Nigeria
National
Building
Code
First
Edition
(2006).
http://www.ciobinternational.org/en/news/1107
Journal of Environmental Sciences and Resources Management (2014) Volume 6, Number 1, 2014
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2008. © 1993-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
The Nigerian Compass Tuesday, 25 May 2010 Samuel Ogidan. World Bank: Global Strategy and
Booster Programme. Annual Review, P.32 (2005)
30
DEVELOPMENT OF A MANUAL MAIZE PLANTER
1Uzoma, S. U., 2Akpelu, A. U., 3Anyanwu, Sunny, 4Anyaoha, K. E.*
1,2,3,4 Department Of Agricultural And Bio-environmental Engineering Technology
Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo, Ohaji-Egbema
ABSTRACT
A manually operated maize planting machine was designed and fabricated at Imo State Polytechnic
Umuagwo. The machine was designed to plant seeds in rows. The power transmission from the front
wheel was employed to operate and control the seed metering device. The machine consists of a
hopper, metering drum, delivery tubes and furrow openers. The two rear tires serve as pressers
(furrow closers). The hopper has a dimension of 210 x 145 x 148 mm. The machine planted 5,287
seeds in 30 minutes. After planting operation, 5,038 seeds were planted, 200 maize seeds failed to
enter the furrow but were in good shape while 49 seeds were damaged. This was achieved by
counting the number of seeds in the hopper, the total number planted in the furrows, number on the
surface of the soil and the number of seeds damaged. The result shows that the machine can plant
0.075hectare per hour.
Key words: Maize, Machine, Farmer
INTRODUCTION
Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climate and a
greater weight of maize is produced each year than any other grain. Maize is best grown in warm
tropical and sub-tropical regions. In southern Nigeria early maize is planted between March/April;
late maize is between July/August. Maize is typically planted from seed and this can be done
mechanically or by hand.
Drudgery has remained a major challenge for small scale maize farmers especially those with one and
two hectares of maize farm lands. Manual maize planting require the farmer to continuously stoop
while opening the soil around the seed. This leads to waist pain. In most cases, it takes more workers
to plant an area of land or one person more days. As a result cost is increased, and uniformity in
germination and growth eliminated respectively. Majority of farmers in southern Nigeria operate at
this level since precision planters are very expensive. Another reason is that it is not economical to
use the expensive planters on the small area of land. In most part of the country, old traditional seed
placing methods are still being used. Farmers make use of hoe, cutlass or stick to open the soil for
seed placement and as well use hoe, cutlass or feet to press the soil for proper soil-seed contact.
Traditional sowing methods adversely affect seed requirement and the production per unit area. Other
problems associated with the traditional sowing methods are improper placement of the seed into the
soil at the correct soil depth, failure to properly keep the seed firmly in the soil, uneven placement of
the seeds at the correct interval in a row, and incidence of birds and rodent attack due to improper
seed placement.
31
According to Odigboh, (1978) and Odigboh, (1998), it is very difficult for Nigerian Farmers with
small land holdings to afford costly agricultural machinery and equipment.
Planters use various technique such as fluid planting, centrifugal planting, pneumatic planting,
pressure differential planting, microcomputer controlled planting, planting of clay-coated seeds,
supersonic seeding system and punch planting. Elliot, (1966) was the first to report that pregerminated seed could be planted using an extrusion of gel. Getzke et al, (1969) designed a fluid
planter which achieved mechanical singulation using a conventional plate type mechanism. Fielder
and Summer, (1973) patented a fluid planter utilizing a flexible varying pump for planting. Giannini
et al, (1969) developed a vacuum seed pick up planter to select and space single small seeds. Searcy
(1982) developed a precision metering system for pre-germinated seeds using optical sorting and a
control system governed by a microprocessor. Wilkins and Lenker (1981) designed and fabricated a
metering system in which micro-computer detected seed presence with photoelectric devices and
drive the metering devices with steeping motors. Heineman et al, (1973); Wilkins et al, (1979), and
Srivastava and Anibal, (1981) have reported the development of precision punch planters. Onwualu,
et al, (2006) reported the development of a hand pushed wheeled rolling injection planter at
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan. Ugwuoke, et al, (2014) developed a
single row maize planter for garden.
Researchers are ongoing in finding solutions to the problems of planting different sizes and shapes of
seeds. Various designs of maize planters have been developed and tested over the years but there is
need to develop planters that will suit local challenges. The challenges include cost, operability, etc.
This is necessary because most local farmers are illiterate and operate at very low scale; therefore the
objective of this paper is to develop a manual maize planter for small land holders. Most local planters
are single rows. The manual maize planter is a double row planter, very simple and can be easily
moved around. The manual maize cost less than N18, 000 in 2014 compared to Adisa and Braide,
(2012). The machine can effectively plant one hectares of farm land in 13 hours or 0.075 hectare in
one hour.
Working Principles of a Planter
Basically, seeders are designed to operate in the following sequence: opening of soil by a furrow
opener; metering of seed from the hopper; dropping metered seeds through a tube; covering of seeds
with soil using furrow closer or other devices.
When seeds are dropped from the hopper to the ground, the following phenomena could happen:
Seeds fall freely to the ground; Seeds come into contact with the tube; Seeds collide with each
other attaining different velocities as they reach the ground. For an ideal case, the seeds must be in a
state of freely falling bodies until they strike the soil. The breath of spread and velocity of freely
falling seeds depends on the height of dropping and is directly proportional to it. The final velocity is
equal to d/t = (2gh) 1/2 under a free fall condition. It is therefore clear that a free fall condition may be
ensured by seed tubes which widens down their length. The other prerequisite is that the tube wall
should be smooth. Excessive deviation of the delivery tube from the vertical or possible defection, add
to irregularity of falling seed quantities in a unit of time. In such instance a considerable portion of
seed strike against the tube wall in falling down and rebounding in various directions with varying
velocities.
The pushing force of the operator of the planter on the front wheel is used to turn the metering device,
with both the furrow openers and the furrow closers moving along with the machine. At specified
32
intervals, the metering device drops the seeds into the furrows created by the two furrow openers and
the two rear wheels close and firm the soil around the planted seeds.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
The fabrication of the planter was done with very cheap and locally available materials. Stainless
steel, aluminum and mild steel are metals which may be used for the construction. Stainless steel has
high resistance to rust but is relatively expensive. Aluminum is better than mild steel in terms of
resistance to rusting but will not withstand the force that may be encountered during the cause of
operation. Also aluminum has poor weldability. Mild steel rust easily but can be easily welded
together.
DESIGN CALCULATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE
The manual maize planter was designed and constructed by the authors. Mild steel was used for the
construction because it is easily welded, readily accessible and relatively cheap. The mild steel parts
were painted to prevent rust. The machine was developed to plant seeds in rows. The power
transmission from the front wheel was employed to operate and control the seed metering device.
The speed of the shaft attached to the metering drum is calculated using the equation by Henderson
and Perry, (1976)
Ŋ1/Ŋ2 = Ɲ2/Ɲ1
(1)
Ŋ1 is the speed of the driving sprocket, Ŋ2 is the speed of the driven sprocket, Ɲ1 is the number of
teeth of the driving sprocket and Ɲ2 is the number of teeth of the driven sprocket.
The diameter of the driving wheel was determined by equating circumference of the driving wheel to
the intra-row spacing. This was selected to be 90 cm for plant population of 177,760 per hectare if
planted 4 seeds per hole. The inter-row spacing of 25 cm was chosen. Therefore,
πd = 90
(2)
d is 286 mm, where d is the diameter of the driving wheel. A wheel of 290 mm was selected from the
market.
To ensure smooth operation by the operator, an average speed of 30rpm for the driving sprocket was
selected for the design. A sprocket of 22 teeth was selected to transmit power to the metering drum.
Another sprocket of 44 teeth was selected to ensure speed reduction. Based on the speed ratio of 2:1,
one revolution of the driving wheel/sprocket gives ½ revolution of the driven sprocket/metering drum.
Therefore, the cells are opened at either side of the drum for planting at 90 cm intra-row and also
spaced 25 cm apart for planting inter-row.
To ensure the operator walks normally without any physical stress while pushing the machine, a pair
of handle of 900mm in length was selected.
The hopper is the chamber where the maize grains are kept during planting operation. The hopper has
dimensions of 210 x 145 x 148 mm. The weight and height were selected while the length was
calculated assuming the hopper to be a rectangular prism. Therefore, volume of a rectangular prism
was equated to the volume of maize that will fill the hopper.
33
L x w x h = m/ɐ
(3)
L is the length of the hopper, w is the width of the hopper, h is the height of the hopper, m is the mass
of maize and ɐ is the density of maize. The hopper can contain 5287 maize grains. The manual maize
planter is meant to plant 5287 maize grains before refilling.
The metering drum is placed directly under the hopper with the delivery tubes positioned under the
metering drum in such a way that the maize collected by the cells of the metering drum will discharge
into the tubes. Through the tubes the grains are delivered into the furrows created by the furrow
openers. The furrow openers are sharp flat bars positioned in front of the delivery tubes. As the
machine is pushed the furrow openers cut the soil creating spaces (furrows). The rear wheels of the
machine are placed behind the tubes to cover and firm the soil around the seeds. The drawings of the
machine are shown in figures 1, and 2. Plate 1 is the picture of the manual maize planter.
34
35
TESTING
The grains of yellow maize used in the experimentation were procured from a local maize seller in
Mgbirichi town near Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo. The seeds were carefully separated from the
maize chaff and fibres, and damaged ones were sorted out and only the normal ones were selected for
planting.
During planting using the manual maize planter, the hopper was filled with 5287 maize seeds. After
planting operation, 5038 seeds were planted, 200 maize seeds failed to enter the furrow but were in
good shape while 49 seeds were damaged. This resulted is presented in table 4.1 with the percentage
of each result to the total seed planted.
This was achieved by counting the number of seeds in the hopper, the total number planted in the
furrows, number on the surface of the soil and the number of seeds damaged.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The machine planted 5,287 seeds in 30 minutes and will plant 153,323 seeds in 13 hours 50 minutes.
The hopper will be refilled 29 times. Considering time lost during refilling, the machine can plant one
hectare in about 13 hours. The capacity of the machine which is the time taken to plant a hectare is
calculated by dividing the number of hectares by the time taken to cover the hectare. There is only 8
hours of work in a day; therefore, the machine will plant 0.6 ha in a day of 8 hours of work. The
theoretical capacity of the manual maize planter is 0.075 hectare per hour (0.075ha/hr) or 750 m2//hr.
This is effective when to compared to Ugwuoke et al, (2014) which has a capacity of 0.04ha/hr. With
this machine, a farmer can plant more than half a hectare of farm land in one day thereby reducing
36
cost, increasing income, reducing drudgery associated with the use of hoes. The machine compares
favourably with bullocks. According to Ojha and Michael (1966), a pair of bullocks can cover about
0.8ha in a day of 8 hours of farm work. Bullocks require at least a person to direct its movement and
as a work animal need maintenance.
Table: 4.1 Results of the Planting Operation
CONCLUSION
A manual maize planter was developed at Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo. The planter was tested
for its performance. The theoretical capacity is 0.075ha/hr. The machine was easy to operate and
push around with little or no physical demand on the operator. The machine is recommended for small
scale farmers with small land holdings who can not afford expensive planters, more so because of
machine cost-land ratio. The machine can effectively replace the use of hole, increase capacity of the
local farmers as well as their income.
REFERENCES
Adisa, A. F. and Braide, F. G. (2012) Design and Development of Template Row Planter.
Transnational Journal of Science and Technology. Vol 2, No. 7
Elliot, J. G. (1966) Improvements relating to the sowing of seeds. UK Patent no 1045,732
Fielder, M. L and Summers, J. N. (1972) Volume Displacement Seed Planter. Matrix and Method of
Planting Seed US Patent No 36,48,631
Getzke, H.E., Ariens, M. S. and Doty, V. G. (1967) Method and Apparatus for Hydraulic Seed
Metering and Planting. US Patent No. 33, 22,080
Giannini, G. R., Chancellor, W. J. and Garreh, R. E. (1967) Precision Planters Using Vacuum for
Seed Pick-Up. Transaction of ASAE 13: 803-805
Heineman, W. H. Jr., Cary, J. W. and Dilworth A. E. (1973) Experimental Machines for Auto dibble
Planting. Transaction of ASAE 16 (4): 556-659
37
Henderson, D. R. and Perry, R. L. (1976) Agricultural Process Engineering. The Avi Publishing Inc.
Westport, Connecticut.
Odigboh, E. U. (1978) A two row Automatic Cassava Cuttings Planter: Development. Design and
Prototype Construction. J. Agric. Eng. Res., 23: 109-116.
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New Delhi
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24 (1): 2-4
38
MODELING A NEURAL NETWORK BASED FOREIGN EXCHANGE TRADING ROBOT
1Nwokorie, E. C., 2Nwachukwu, E. O.
1Department of Computer Science, Federal University of Technology, Owerri
2Department of Computer Science, University of Port Harcourt
ABSTRACT
Electronic foreign exchange trading is now a popular activity world-wide. As with most forms of
trading, the activity is influenced by many random parameters, hence modeling a system that
effectively emulates the trading process is not only important but a necessity. The forex market is a
non-linear system which ordinarily is difficult to model. However, the market presents some patterns
which when known can be applied in making trading decisions. Now applying technical analysis
concepts and theories to identify these patterns, neural networks are then used to extract the patterns
and detect trends of the process ahead. A major issue for traders in the deregulated Foreign Exchange
Market is when to sell and when to buy a particular currency in order to maximize profit. This paper
therefore presents automated trading based on neural networks that find market points which open
positions with high potential reward and low potential risk. It is optimized and tested for robustness
on MetaTrader platform.
Keywords: Neural network, foreign exchange, trading strategies, technical analysis.
INTRODUCTION
The foreign exchange market or currency market or Forex is the market where one currency is traded
for another. It is one of the largest markets in the world. Some of the participants in this market are
simply seeking to exchange a foreign currency for their own, like multinational corporations which
must pay wages and other expenses in different nations that they sell products in. However, a large
part of the market is made up of currency traders, who speculate on movements in exchange rates,
much like others would speculate on movements of stock prices. Exchange rate fluctuations are
usually caused by actual monetary flows as well as anticipations on global macroeconomic
conditions.
The foreign exchange market is one of the most complex dynamic markets with the characteristics of
high volatility, nonlinearity, and irregularity. Some important factors such as economic growth, trade
development, interest rates and inflation rates, have significant impacts on the exchange rate
fluctuation. These characteristics also make it extremely difficult to predict foreign exchange rate.
Therefore exchange rate forecasting has become a very important and challenging issue for both
academic and industrial communities. The foreign exchange market, or Forex, is a global, fully
distributed, currency trading financial market. Unlike the stock market where a single buyer or seller
with enough capital can dramatically change the price of the stock, the forex market is much too vast
and distributed for any currency pair to be so easily affected. Furthermore, the fact that currencies can
39
be traded non stop, 24 hours a day, 5 days a week, there are a lot fewer spaces in the data stream
where news might be aggregating but no technical data is available. Because of these factors, there is
a greater chance that the pricing data do indeed represent the incorporated news and fundamental
factors, which might thus allow for prediction and trend finding through the use of neural networks.
There are four major trading sessions: European session, The American Session, the Sydney session,
and the Tokyo session. Currencies are traded against one another. Internationally traded currencies are
Canadian dollars (CAD), Australian dollars (AUD), Swiss francs (CHF), Japanese yen (JPY), and
British pounds (GBP), Korean wons (KRW), Taiwanese dollars (TWD) and U.S. Dollars (USD).
Each pair of currencies thus constitutes an individual product. For instance, EUR/USD is the price of
the euro expressed in US dollars, as in 1 euro = 1.2045 dollar.
There are three approaches to market speculation, the technical, the fundamental and sentiment.
Technical analysis is based on the hypothesis that all reactions of the market to all the news, is
contained within the price of the financial instrument. Thus past prices can be studied for trends, and
used to make predictions of future prices due to the price data containing all the needed information
about the market and the news that drives it. The fundamental analysis group on the other hand
concentrates on news and events. The fundamental analyst peruses the news which causes the prices,
he analyzes supply and demand, and other factors, with the general goal of acting on this information
before others do, and before the news is incorporated into the price. The sentiment analysis contains
some factors from both fundamental analysis and technical analysis, which focuses on the traders'
psychological state and reaction to economic news and market movements. A combination of these is
used by traders to achieve best result. The foreign exchange market moves in three cycles: the
uptrend, the down trend and sideways. The increased level of investing and trading necessitate a
search for better tools to accurately predict the market in order to increase profits and reduce losses.
Neural Networks have seen a lot of use and success in the financial market [Wong (2000), Fadlalla
(2001)]. One of the main strengths of neural network systems, which makes them popular as market
predictors, is that they are naturally non linear, and can learn non linear data correlation and mapping.
Artificial neural networks are also data driven, can be on-line-trained, are adaptive and can be easily
retrained when the markets shift, and finally, they deal well with data that has some errors; neural
networks are robust. Using neural networks to analyze financial data allows you to reveal implicit
connections and predict the direction of price movement. The application of neural networks in
developing automated trading systems is relatively new as previous work focus on prediction. This
work combines technical data into training sets, design neural networks to extract patterns and detect
trends used in automated trading decisions. A trained neural network is often referred to in FOREX
trading as "A FOREX Expert Advisor" (EA) or ―A FOREX Robot‖.
II RELATED LITERATURE
Various techniques have been applied to financial market prediction over the years, ranging from
conventional, model-based, statistical approaches to more esoteric, data-driven, experimental ones
(Harris et al (2003); Mills (1993)). Wee et al (2008) proposed a fuzzy logic based trading system to
predict price movements in the financial markets. The fuzzy model is optimized by using a genetic
algorithm and historical data but is not flexible.
Slany (2009) proposed a self-adapting architecture for FOREX market prediction using genetic
programming (GP) for predictor representation. The goal of the system is the design and adaptation of
simple predictors which can either be used by the system itself or be manually' used by a human
trader. However, this system has a major drawback high ratio of wrongly predicted turning points.
40
The Penn-Lehman Automated Trading (PLAT) project is a broad investigation of genetic algorithms
and strategies for automated trading in financial markets. Subramanian et al (2008) presented the
results of experiments conducted within this project and demonstrated that autonomous agents can
achieve consistent profitability in a variety of market conditions, in ways that are human competitive.
They also showed that show that it is possible to use qualitative characterizations of stochastic
dynamics to improve the performance of these agents. The experiments were however limited to the
stock market. Traditionally, statistical models such as Box-Jenkins models dominate the time series
forecasting Box (1996). White (1998) suggested that the relationship between neural networks and
conventional statistical approaches for time series forecasting are complementary. Yao (2007) also
indicated that traditional statistical techniques for forecasting have reached their limitation in
applications with nonlinearities in the data set such as stock indices. Wong et al (2000) conducted a
survey on the use of neural networks in business application that contains a list of works covering
bankruptcy prediction. Holmstrom (1997) focuses on portfolio optimization and short term equity
forecasting. Jacobs (2003) mentioned the varying degree that ANN has the capability to forecast
financial markets. Rose (2006) proposed a novel flexible model called neuron coefficient smooth
transition auto regression (NCSTAR), an ANN to test for and model the nonlinearities in monthly
exchange rates.
Most models trading strategies cannot easily be applied to high frequency trading since they are
mostly based on a lot of past data and do not react as quickly as is needed for trading at changing
market conditions. Neural networks, on the other hand, can be set up to take in a number of data
points and can be continuously trained on new data to be ideally suited for the current state of the
market at all times. They can also learn trading rules with which humans would struggle by
automatically learning nonlinear functions.
III NEURAL NETWORKS
In recent times, neural networks have generated a lot of interest in the financial markets. In technical
terms, neural networks are data analysis methods that consist of a large number of processing units
that are linked together by weighted probabilities. They are a model loosely resembling the way that
the human brain works and learns. Unlike the traditional data structure, neural networks take in
multiple streams of data and output one result. They are used in Forex market prediction because they
are naturally nonlinear, and can learn nonlinear data
41
correlation and mapping. Artificial neural networks are also data driven, can be on-line-trained, are
adaptive and can be easily retrained when the markets shift. They deal well with data that has some
errors and are robust.
Usually, a neural network (figure 1.1) model takes an input vector X and produces output vector Y.
The relationship between X and Y is determined by the network architecture.
Neural networks starts with an input layer, where each node corresponds to a predictor variable. These
input nodes are connected to a number of nodes in the hidden layer. Each input node is connected to
every node in the hidden layer. The nodes in the hidden layer may be connected to nodes in another
hidden layer, or to an output layer. The output layer consists of one or more response variables.
Artificial neural networks are made up of artificial neurons. When creating a functional model of the
neuron, there are three basic components of importance. First, the synapses of the neuron are modeled
as weights. The strength of the connection between an input and a neuron is noted by the value of the
weight. Negative weight values reflect inhibitory connections, while positive values designate
excitatory connections. The next two components model the actual activity within the neuron cell. An
adder sums up all the inputs modified by their respective weights. This activity is referred to as linear
combination. Finally, an activation function controls the amplitude of the output of the neuron. An
acceptable range of output is usually between 0 and 1, or -1 and 1. Mathematically, this process is
described in the figure 1.2
42
.
Activation functions
The activation function acts as a squashing function, such that the output of a neuron in a neural
network is between certain values (usually 0 and 1, or -1 and 1). In general, there are three types of
activation functions: Threshold, Linear and Sigmoid( tanh) (Figure 1.3).
43
IV METHODOLOGY
Technical analysis have been used by traders to study financial markets in an effort to identify and
forecast the direction of price trends (Louis, 2008). It is built on three principles: market action
discounts everything, prices move in trends and forex patterns repeats itself. There are five categories
in Forex technical analysis theory: Indicators (oscillators, e.g.: Relative Strength Index (RSI), Number
theory (Fibonacci numbers, Gann numbers), Waves (Elliott wave theory), Gaps (high-low, openclosing), Trends (moving average). The most important skill of a trader is how to determine the
direction of the market and not just price prediction. To successfully determine whether the market is
going up, down or sideways proper selection and combination of technical data to be fed as input to
the neural network is very important. The moving average, is a trending indicator, that is, it works
very well when the market behaves in a directional manner because prices tend to stay above or below
their averages during a trend. Stochastic oscillator is used to indicate overbought/oversold conditions
on a scale of 0-100%. The indicator is based on the observation that in a strong up trend, period
closing prices tend to concentrate in the higher part of the period's range. Conversely, as prices fall in
a strong down trend, closing prices tend to be near to the extreme low of the period range. Divergence
between the stochastic lines and the price action of the underlying instrument gives a powerful trading
signal. Moving Average Convergence Divergence (MACD) is the difference between two exponential
moving averages and signals that a change in the trend is likely. Mathematical transformation of the
values of these indicators is used instead of their raw values for more accurate prediction. Our
multilayer neural network was trained with the following inputs: The difference of the past three IMA
of the 15min chart Bars, past two indicator values of MACD, Stochastic and past two IMA difference
of 1H chart Bars. A code was written with the MetaEditor which is a built-in editor developed by
MetaQuotes) to extract the values of these indicators from the trading platform and export them to a
file (csv format). The file data was normalized before input to the neural network. Normalization is a
mathematical process that converts data into range 0..1 or -1..1 for correct calculation of activation
44
functions. If normalization is not performed, the input data will have additional effect on the neuron
leading to wrong decisions. Normalized data are de-normalized, in other words converted back into
original range. De-normalization is needed to decode neural network output to a human readable
form. Normalization was done using the formula:
Designing ANN models for FOREX Trading
The three layers feed forward neural network model can be represented by the following expression:
Y=λ0+Σλj×Φj(wj×x)
Where y is the output, x a vector of inputs, Φj a series of functions (typically logistic or hyperbolic
tangents), wj a series of weight vectors to ensure that each Φj receives a different input, λ0 a constant,
and λ1 to λM a series of weights, known as output weights, that weight the outputs from Φ1 to ΦM.
A number of systematic procedures are followed when designing artificial neural network models for
forex trading. The basic steps as shown in figure 1.6 are: (1) Data collection and verification, (2)
Preprocessing data, (3) building neural network models, (4) apply trade strategy on network signals,
(5) backtest and forward test Robot, (6) live trading
45
Figure 1.4 : Basic steps in Forex neural network Trading
Using these steps a high level design of the trading system is shown in figure 1.5.
A.
Creating, Training and Testing the Network
Neurosolutions 6.0 was used to create, train and test the neural network. A training size of 2000 was
used with 1/3 of it for validation. The network was trained till the error rate reduced to 0.01. The
testing result that shows the values obtained from the net (the red color) on our history and the real
values (the green color) is shown in the chart in figure 1.4. After training the network with an epoch
of 1000, momentum of 0.5 and learning rate of 0.3, we got the chart in figure 1.5.
46
Figure 1.6: Prediction during training
Figure 1.7: Prediction after training
47
B.
Prediction using trained network
The trained network was used to create a Meta Trader 4 neural network indicator (m4neuraind) that
tries to predict the future trend and produce the best value for investment. The indicator is attached to
a new Meta Trader chart. The trading robot uses the neural indicator output to decide whether to buy
or sell a currency. It buys whenever indicator is above zero and sells when it is below zero, meaning
buy when best return prediction on a given time window is positive and sell when best return
prediction is negative.
C.
Neural network porting
Using Neurosolutions the DLL which contains the neural network is created with visual C++ option
and saved as a project file with the settings and neural network structure. The DLL is imported into
the Meta Trader 4 expert files and the trading settings done for it to start trading. The system uses the
network signals to develop trading strategies. The automated forex trading system contains the rules
on which signals should be considered and when the trades should be opened and closed. The open
position evaluates the signals to determine if and at which level the positions should be opened. The
close position evaluates the signals to determine if and at which level the open positions should be
closed. The risk management system contains the rules on what is the optimal per-trade exposure for
the trading system which is used by the trader.
V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Back testing was done with meta trader 4 using EURUSD H1and the profitability graph is shown in
figure 1.8 while table 1.1 is the trade results.
Figure 1.8: Trading system tasks
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Figure1.9: Backtesting profitability Graph
Table 1.1: EURUSD Live test Result summary
49
CONCLUSION
Trading on financial markets involves many risks including the most critical one - the risk of making
a wrong trading decision. The dream of every trader is to create a clear and strict trading system that
can be presented in the form of algorithms and completely get rid of routine operations which are
subject to human weaknesses like fear, greed, Impatience. We have created an automated trading
system that can trade in the foreign exchange market using neural networks.
50
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Allen, F. and Karjalainen, R., (1999) Using genetic algorithms to find technical trading rules.
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Box G. E. and Jenkins G. (1996) Two-Coefficient Time Series Model of Factored Form.
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Fiesler, R. and Beale, E., (2010) Handbook of neural computation (G6.3; pp. 1-7). Oxford, UK:
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Harris, R and Sollis, R. (2003) Applied time series modelling and forecasting. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Harvey, A. C., (1989) Forecasting structural times series models and the kalman filter. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
Holmstrom K and Hellstrom T., (1997) Predicting the Stock Market. Technical Report Series IMaTOM-1997-07, Malardalen University, Vasteras, Sweden.
Jacobs C., (2003) Average Speed Prediction Using Artificial Neural Networks. Published M.Sc.,
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Mills, T. C., (1993). The econometric modelling of financial time series. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
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Sisman-Yilmaz, N. A., Alpaslan, F. N. and Jain, L. C. (2004) Fuzzy mulivariate autoregression
method and its application. In J. Fulcher, & L. C. Jain (Eds.), Applied intelligent systems: New
directions (pp. 281-300). Berlin: Springer.
Slany, K., (2009) Towards the Automatic Evolutionary Prediction of the FOREX Market Behaviour.
In: IEEE International Conference on Adaptive and Intelligent Systems, pp. 141-145, IEEE Computer
Society, Los Alamitos, CA, USA.
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Tseng, F. M., Tzeng, G. H., Yu, H. C. and Yuan, B. J. C. (2001) Fuzzy ARIMA model for forecasting
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52
OPEN SOURCE COMPUTER SYSTEMS, ITS BENEFITS AND USAGE IN HIGHER
INSTITUTIONS IN NIGERIA.
1Eke B. O. (PhD), 2Eze I. F.
1Department of Computer Science, University of Port Harcourt
2Department of Computer Science, Imo State Polytechnic
ABSTRACT
The need to make computing accessible and interoperable and the desire to harness the power of
distributed peer review and transparency of process as well as better quality, higher reliability, more
flexibility, lower cost, and an end to predatory vendor lock-in called for the development of open
source. In this paper, we will examine what is open source and how far the needs and desires for the
institutionalization of open source have been achieved. We will equally look at the usage of some
successful open source application and technologies in the higher institutions in Nigeria with
reference to University of Port Harcourt as well as the Imo State Polytechnic that have very high
future prospects. Ways in which the technology can be utilized by students, lecturers and computer
professionals in the developing world in leapfrogging their overall technological capabilities will
equally be highlighted.
Keyword: Open Source, Interoperable, Distributed peer review, Usage
INTRODUCTION
The desire of improving computing accessibility and interoperability and the desire to harness the
power of distributed peer review and transparency of process as well as better quality, higher
reliability, more flexibility, lower cost, and an end to predatory vendor lock-in called for the
development of open source. Open source does not just mean access to the source code but it equally
includes the process of development, process of third party refactoring and terms of use. Open source
describes practices in production and development that promote access to the end product's source
materials. Some consider open source a philosophy, others consider it a pragmatic methodology.
In this paper we will discuss open source generally and then concentrate in open source software
usage with the aim of educating and spreading the development method to our young as well as
experienced software developers and users.
Open source is a development method for software that harnesses the power of distributed peer review
and transparency of process. The promise of open source is better quality, higher reliability, more
flexibility, lower cost, and an end to predatory vendor lock-in. (OSI, 2010)
Open source software is software whose source code is published and made available to the public,
enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the source code without paying royalties or fees.
53
Open source code evolves through community cooperation. These communities are composed of
individual programmers as well as very large companies. (Wiki1, 2010)
Free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as
in 'free speech' not as in 'free beer' (FSF, 2005).
Open source hardware on the other hand is hardware whose initial specification, usually in a software
format, are published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and
redistribute the hardware and source code without paying royalties or fees. Open source hardware
evolves through community cooperation. These communities are composed of individual
hardware/software developers, hobbyists, as well as very large companies. Examples of open source
hardware initiatives are:
·
Openmoko: a family of open source mobile phones, including the hardware specification and
the operating system.
·
Sun Microsystems's OpenSPARC T1 Multicore processor. Sun has released it under GPL.
·
Arduino, a microcontroller platform for hobbyists, artists and designers.
·
Simputer, an open hardware handheld computer, designed in India for use in environments
where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inappropriate.
·
Linux Kernel Spinlock (Hans-J, 2010)
Today the copyright, licensing and domain variation were instituted to counter the licensing of
proprietary (Close) source and this letter became the fulcrum for the specification of open source
applications. Subsequently, a new, three-word phrase ―open source software‖ was born to describe the
environment that the new copyright, licensing, domain, and consumer issues created. The open source
model includes the concept of concurrent yet different agendas and differing approaches in
production, in contrast with more centralized models of development such as those typically used in
commercial software companies. A main principle and practice of open source software development
is peer production by bartering and collaboration, with the end-product, source-material, ―blueprints‖
and documentation available at no cost to the public. This is increasingly being applied in other fields
of endeavor, such as biotechnology.
HISTORY
The concept of open source and free sharing of technological information existed long before
computers. For example, cooking recipes have been shared since the beginning of human culture.
Open source can pertain to businesses and to computers, software and technology. Very similar to
open standards, researchers with access to the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET) used a process called Request for Comments to develop telecommunication network
protocols. This collaborative process of the 1960s led to the birth of the Internet in 1969.
Early instances of open source and free software include IBM's source releases of its operating
systems and other programs in the 1950s and 1960s, and the SHARE user group that formed to
facilitate the exchange of software. Open source on the Internet began when the Internet was just a
message board, and progressed to more advanced presentation and sharing forms like a Web site.
54
There are now many Web sites, organizations and businesses that promote open source sharing of
everything from computer code to mechanics of improving a product, technique, or medical
advancement.
The label ―open source‖ was adopted by some people in the free software movement at a strategy
session held at Palo Alto, California, in reaction to Netscape's January 1998 announcement of a source
code release for Navigator. The term was given a big boost at an event organized in April 1998 by
technology publisher Tim O'Reilly. Originally titled the ―Freeware Summit‖ and later known as the
―Open Source Summit‖, Starting in the early 2000s, a number of companies began to publish a
portion of their source code to claim they were open source, while keeping key parts closed. This led
to the development of the now widely used terms free open source software and commercial open
source software to distinguish between truly open and hybrid forms of open source (Wiki2, 2010).
OPEN SOURCE APPLICATIONS
There are many successful open source software products, some of which are:
·
GNU Project — ―a sufficient body of free software‖
·
FreeBSD — operating system derived from Unix
·
Apache — HTTP web server
·
Tomcat web server — web container
·
Drupal — content management system
·
Eclipse — software development environment comprising an integrated development
environment (IDE)
·
Joomla — content management system
·
Linux — operating system based on Unix
·
Mediawiki — wiki server software, the software that runs Wikipedia
·
Mongo DB — document-oriented, non-relational database
·
Moodle — course management system or virtual learning environment
·
Mozilla Firefox — web browser
·
Mozilla Thunderbird — e-mail client
·
Open BSD — operating system derived from Unix
·
OpenOffice.org — office suite
·
Open Solaris — Unix Operating System from Sun Microsystems
·
osCommerce — ecommerce
55
·
PeaZip — File archiver
·
Stockfish — chess engine series, considered to be one of the strongest chess programs of the
world
·
Symbian — real time mobile operating system
·
TYPO3 — content management system
·
WordPress — content management system — blog software
·
7-Zip — File archiver
Some Open Source Application that Runs on Windows OS (http://www.opensourcewindows.org/)
Mozilla firefox : The premier free, open-source browser. Tabs, pop-up blocking, themes, and
extensions. Considered by many to be the world's best browser. Word Processing / Office Suites.
OpenOffice.org
Big, full featured suite of tools for word processing and spreadsheets. Compatible with and a free
replacement for Microsoft Word documents. Also supports OpenDocument Format.
Miro: Beautiful interface. Plays any video type (much more than windows media player). Subscribe to
video RSS, download, and watch all in one. Torrent support. Search and download from YouTube and
others.
Pidgin: Connect to multiple IM accounts simultaneously in a single app, including: AOL IM, MSN,
and Jabber.
Miro Video Converter: Convert any type of video to mp4 or theora. Convert any video for use with
iPhone, iPod, Android, etc. Very clean, easy to use interface.
SkipScreen: A Firefox extension that skips unnecessary clicks and wait times on Rapidshare,
Megaupload, Mediafire, zShare, and more.
Mozilla Thunderbird: Powerful spam filtering, solid interface, and all the features you need.
RSSOwl: Solid cross-platform RSS client.
Cabos: A simple, easy to use filesharing program. Gnutella network.
Gnucleus: A very good Gnutella search and download filesharing program.
VLC: Plays more video files than most players: Quicktime, AVI, DIVX, OGG, and more. Pretty good
interface.
Mplayer: Similar to VLC-- plays loads of video formats.
Media Player Classic: Compact, but powerful media player. Plays anything under the sun. No install
necessary.
AbiWord: A word processor. Leaner and quicker than OpenOffice. Compatible with Microsoft Word
documents and OpenDocument Format.
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Juice: Solid podcasting client.
PeaZip:Fantastic archiving utility to extract and pack archives of an extensive amount of formats.
PeaZip also features password protecting archives, keyfile support, system integration, a lovely
interface, and much more.
OPEN SOURCE LICENSES
Open Source Licenses which have successfully gone through the approval process and comply with
the Open Source Definition are listed here (Accessible in http://www.opensource.org/licenses/)
Licenses by Name: The following licenses have been approved by the OSI via the License Review
Process.
·
Academic Free License 3.0 (AFL 3.0) Accessible in http://www.opensource.org/licenses/afl3.0.php
·
Affero GNU Public License
·
Adaptive Public License
·
Apache License, 2.0
·
Apple Public Source License
·
Artistic license 2.0
·
Attribution Assurance Licenses
·
New and Simplified BSD licenses
·
Boost Software License (BSL1.0)
·
Computer Associates Trusted Open Source License 1.1
·
Common Development and Distribution License
·
Common Public Attribution License 1.0 (CPAL)
·
CUA Office Public License Version 1.0
·
EU DataGrid Software License
·
Eclipse Public License
·
Educational Community License, Version 2.0
·
Eiffel Forum License V2.0
·
Entessa Public License
·
European Union Public License (link to every language's version on their site)
·
Fair License
57
·
Frameworx License
·
GNU General Public License version 2.0 (GPLv2)
·
GNU General Public License version 3.0 (GPLv3)
·
GNU Library or "Lesser" General Public License version 2.1 (LGPLv2.1)
·
GNU Library or "Lesser" General Public License version 3.0 (LGPLv3)
·
Historical Permission Notice and Disclaimer
·
IBM Public License
·
IPA Font License
·
ISC License
·
LaTeX Project Public License (LPPL)
·
Lucent Public License Version 1.02
·
Microsoft Public License (Ms-PL)
·
Microsoft Reciprocal License (Ms-RL)
·
MIT license
·
Motosoto License
·
Mozilla Public License 1.1 (MPL)
·
Multics License
·
NASA Open Source Agreement 1.3
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NTP License
·
Naumen Public License
·
Nethack General Public License
·
Nokia Open Source License
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Non-Profit Open Software License 3.0 (Non-Profit OSL 3.0)
·
OCLC Research Public License 2.0
·
Open Font License 1.1 (OFL 1.1)
·
Open Group Test Suite License
·
Open Software License 3.0 (OSL 3.0)
·
PHP License
58
·
The PostgreSQL License
·
Python license (CNRI Python License)
·
Python Software Foundation License
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Qt Public License (QPL)
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RealNetworks Public Source License V1.0
·
Reciprocal Public License 1.5 (RPL1.5)
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Ricoh Source Code Public License
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Simple Public License 2.0
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Sleepycat License
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Sun Public License
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Sybase Open Watcom Public License 1.0
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University of Illinois/NCSA Open Source License
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Vovida Software License v. 1.0
·
W3C License
·
wxWindows Library License
·
X.Net License
·
Zope Public License
·
zlib/libpng license
You can also view a list of open source licenses grouped by category, and licenses which have been
super ceded or retired.
OPEN SOURCE DISTRIBUTION TERMS
The distribution terms of open-source software must comply with the following criteria:
a. Free Redistribution
The license shall not restrict any party from selling or giving away the software as a component of an
aggregate software distribution containing programs from several different sources. The license shall
not require a royalty or other fee for such sale.
Rationale: By constraining the license to require free redistribution, we eliminate the temptation to
throw away many long-term gains in order to make a few short-term sales dollars. If we didn't do this,
there would be lots of pressure for cooperators to defect.
59
b.
Source Code
The program must include source code, and must allow distribution in source code as well as
compiled form. Where some form of a product is not distributed with source code, there must be a
well-publicized means of obtaining the source code for no more than a reasonable reproduction cost
preferably, downloading via the Internet without charge. The source code must be the preferred form
in which a programmer would modify the program. Deliberately obfuscated source code is not
allowed. Intermediate forms such as the output of a preprocessor or translator are not allowed.
Rationale: We require access to un-obfuscated source code because you cannot evolve programs
without modifying them. Since our purpose is to make evolution easy, we require that modification be
made easy.
c.
Derived Works
The license must allow modifications and derived works, and must allow them to be distributed under
the same terms as the license of the original software.
Rationale: The mere ability to read source is not enough to support independent peer review and rapid
evolutionary selection. For rapid evolution to happen, people need to be able to experiment with and
redistribute modifications.
d.
Integrity of The Author's Source Code
The license may restrict source-code from being distributed in modified form only if the license
allows the distribution of "patch files" with the source code for the purpose of modifying the program
at build time. The license must explicitly permit distribution of software built from modified source
code. The license may require derived works to carry a different name or version number from the
original software.
Rationale: Encouraging lots of improvement is a good thing, but users have a right to know who is
responsible for the software they are using. Authors and maintainers have reciprocal right to know
what they are being asked to support and protect their reputations.
Accordingly, an open-source license must guarantee that source be readily available, but may require
that it be distributed as pristine base sources plus patches. In this way, "unofficial" changes can be
made available but readily distinguished from the base source.
e.
No Discrimination Against Persons or Groups
The license must not discriminate against any person or group of persons.
Rationale: In order to get the maximum benefit from the process, the maximum diversity of persons
and groups should be equally eligible to contribute to open sources. Therefore we forbid any opensource license from locking anybody out of the process.
60
Some countries, including the United States, have export restrictions for certain types of software. An
OSD-conformant license may warn licensees of applicable restrictions and remind them that they are
obliged to obey the law; however, it may not incorporate such restrictions itself.
f.
No Discrimination Against Fields of Endeavor
The license must not restrict anyone from making use of the program in a specific field of endeavor.
For example, it may not restrict the program from being used in a business, or from being used for
genetic research.
Rationale: The major intention of this clause is to prohibit license traps that prevent open source from
being used commercially. We want commercial users to join our community, not feel excluded from
it.
g.
Distribution of License
The rights attached to the program must apply to all to whom the program is redistributed without the
need for execution of an additional license by those parties.
Rationale: This clause is intended to forbid closing up software by indirect means such as requiring a
non-disclosure agreement.
h.
License Must Not Be Specific to a Product
The rights attached to the program must not depend on the program's being part of a particular
software distribution. If the program is extracted from that distribution and used or distributed within
the terms of the program's license, all parties to whom the program is redistributed should have the
same rights as those that are granted in conjunction with the original software distribution.
Rationale: This clause forecloses yet another class of license traps.
i.
License Must Not Restrict Other Software
The license must not place restrictions on other software that is distributed along with the licensed
software. For example, the license must not insist that all other programs distributed on the same
medium must be open-source software.
Rationale: Distributors of open-source software have the right to make their own choices about their
own software. Yes, the GPL v2 and v3 are conformant with this requirement. Software linked with
GPLed libraries only inherits the GPL if it forms a single work, not any software with which they are
merely distributed.
61
j.
License Must Be Technology-Neutral
No provision of the license may be predicated on any individual technology or style of interface.
Rationale: This provision is aimed specifically at licenses which require an explicit gesture of assent
in order to establish a contract between licensor and licensee. Provisions mandating so-called "clickwrap" may conflict with important methods of software distribution such as FTP download, CD-ROM
anthologies, and web mirroring; such provisions may also hinder code re-use. Conformant licenses
must allow for the possibility that (a) redistribution of the software will take place over non-Web
channels that do not support click-wrapping of the download, and that (b) the covered code (or reused portions of covered code) may run in a non-GUI environment that cannot support popup
dialogues.
OPEN SOURCE USAGE IN UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT (UNIPORT)
A simple research was equally carried out on the level of usage of open source applications in the
University of Port Harcourt. Two main open source applications where selected for the purpose-Linux
Operating System and Open Office (for Wordprocessing, dataprocessing and presentations). The
result is as shown in figure 1 and Figure 2. Figure 1 show the usage rate between Linux and Windows,
it clearly showed that the rate of usage of open source operating system (Linux) in the University of
Port Harcourt is very low compared to the usage of the closed operating system (Windows). Figure 2
equally showed similar trend in Microsoft office applications (Excel, Word and Powerpoint) usage
when compared to OpenOffice1 application equivalents (Note: Open Office Word, Excel and
Powerpoint are used for clearity for Open Office Write, Calc and Present).
In Uniport, however, the Computer Based Test and the e-leaning program uses Moodle and open
source application to various degrees and they have recorded high level of success. The lesson on the
successful deployment can also be replicated in Imo State Polytechnic.
In Imo state polytechnic the usage is equally similar in recent time and tend to be on the increase both
in the computer software and electronic hardware via embedded open source hardware such as
arduino microprocessor chips. This chips is used in electronic chip embedding in phones, cars,
controllers and other related devices use in prototype developments at the polytechnic. However
accurate data of usage were not comprehensive enough for plotting in this research paper.
62
5. Open Source Emerging Technologies
With the development of social networking applications and web 2.0 new development in response
feeds has called for the review of the servers and client application domains. Node.js an open source
server seems to be in the fore front in the development. The Ajax implementations on the client has
equally seen applications like Dojo and JQuery been in the fore front causing even Microsoft to make
moves towards the incorporation of some of the technologies into its Jscript programs.
The continues development in Ubuntu, Mandriva and other GUI Linux operating systems and the
newer changes effected in MySQL by Oracle as well as PHP Object-oriented improvements has also
63
increased users preference towards the use and deployment of these tools even in the most safety
centered government and business organizations.
RECOMMENDATION
Open source is recommended to all students for use in the development of their applications including
research projects. Lecturers who teach operating system should equally look towards open source OS
as means of developing their research and teaching in the technology of the now and the future. The
Universities and Polytechnics should encourage the use of open source by making sure that some of
the systems in the labs are open source based. Our curriculum should include Open Office alongside
Microsoft office in teaching of Word, Data processing (Excel) and presentation in the General studies
(GES) course materials in Computer Appreciation.
Networking systems in the higher institution need to also deploy open source Networking capabilities
to create stability in the networks and cutting the cost associated with proprietary and closed systems.
Most of the IT research tools of prestigious Universities across the globe in programming and even
hardware development where done using open source. The good use of Open source in Nigerian
higher institutions will open up researchers to using and deploying some of these tools in further
development of their own systems.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Open source as a philosophy have been discussed. Open source software, its licensing
and benefits have equally been emphasized. The result of a research on the usage of some of the most
successful open source applications in the University of Port Harcourt have equally been presented.
We believe that there is a need to improve the present trend by encouraging students, staff and the
higher institution community to start incorporating open source in most of their software and material
development activities. In deploying open source we can leapfrog the technological base of both the
Universities and Polytechnics in particular and the country in general.
REFERENCES
Cohn, D. "Free Beer for Geeks". Wired News. 18 July 2005.
Eric S. R. (2000) The Revenge of the Hackers. Brook's Law Review, http:catb.org/~esr/faqs/hackerrevenge.html
Fisher, F. M.; James W. M., Richard B. M. (1983) IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry. An
Economic History. Praeger. ISBN 0-03-063059-2. pages 172-179 IBM unbundled (began charging
for) software June 23, 1969
FSF (2005) Free-Software Definition. http://www.gnu.org/philosophy//free-sw.html,
64
Hans-J B. (2010) Linux x86 Spinlock Implementation. Communications of the ACM, Vol 53 no7
pg95
James J. F.( 1977) The Car Culture. MIT Press, 1977, ISBN 0-262-56015-1
Muffatto M. (2006). Open Source. A Multidisciplinary Approach. Imperial College Press. ISBN
1860946658.
Stallman R. M (2009) Free Software and Open Source. Communications of the ACM, Vol 48, No 5.
pg49.
Tiemann M. (2006) "History of the OSI". Open Source Initiative. http://www.opensource.org/history.
Retrieved August 23, 2008.
Wiki1
(2014)
Wikipedia
an
Online
http:/en.wikipedia/wiki/Open_source_software
Wiki2(2010)
Wikipedia
an
http:/en.wikipedia/wiki/Open_source.
Online
Encyclopedia.
Encyclopedia.
Open
Open
source
Software,
source
Software,
65
A STUDY OF CURRENT - VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ELECTROSTATIC
PRECIPITATOR (ESP) FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
1Chima l. Osuchukwu, 2Chibuike Ononogbo, 3Ugochukwu F. Ukwuoma, 4Efosa Obaseki,
5Victor I. Ehirim.
1,2,3,4,5 Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology,
Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo, Owerri
ABSTRACT
A study of current-voltage characteristics (CVC) of an Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) for the
protection of the environment was carried out. Electrostatic Precipitator is an air pollution control
device used to separate solid particulate matter from a contaminated air stream. The Benue Cement
Company (BCC) PLC at Gboko was used as a case study to ascertain the need of ESPs in cement
producing industries. The ESP under study is comprised of three electrostatic fields as seen in table 2
which represent the currents (mA) and their corresponding voltages. Using figs. 2, 3 and 4 of the
CVC test, the average distribution of current in the electric fields gave a mean regression line of
0.976; which satisfies the requirement that the equipment has been built to handle the job of flue gas
cleaning effectively for overall particulate collection efficiency. It is interesting to note that the
environment under study during factory production was found to be free from these harmful air
pollutants while the ESP was operating. However, the incessant complaints launched by the
inhabitants of the area against the industry on pollution of the neighborhood immediately ceased
following the installation of the ESP.
Key words: Environment, Current-Voltage Characteristic Test, Electrostatic Precipitator, Gravity
Settlers, Centrifugal Separators.
INTRODUCTION
Particulate matter is one of the industrial air pollution problems which militate against our
environment, and therefore needs to be controlled with every effort. This emission problem is not
particular to a few industries, but pervasive across a wide variety of industries. Many industrialized
nations have enacted laws to restrict the emission of these particulate matters to a certain limit, thus
the use of various control devices are in use both internationally and locally to protect the
environment (Beachler, Joseph and Peterson, 1983). Electrostatic precipitator is topping (in terms of
efficiency which is 99% and above) amongst the various dust controlling devices, besides it has the
capabilities of handling high volume/hot flue gases unlike bag house and other control devices.
66
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The specific objectives for carrying out the CVC test in the ESP were:
·
To ascertain whether the equipment conforms to the claims and specifications of the vendor
(manufacturer);
·
To verify if the equipment is safe and okay for use and
·
To set a reference in trouble shootings/detection and correction.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) is an air pollution control device used to separate solid particulate
matter from a contaminated air stream (Nag, 2001). Gravity settlers and centrifugal separators are
devices that cannot function effectively in an industrial operation for particles below 0.5mm in
diameter. External forces greater than gravity or centrifugal forces should be used for this range (Hall,
1975). ESP uses electrostatic force to drive particles to the wall of collecting electrodes. It imparts
electrostatic charges and then puts them in an electrostatic field that drives them to a collecting plate.
That is, the principle of dust collection with electrostatic precipitators is based on the utilization of the
effect of gas ionization in strong electric field, which is formed by discharge electrodes and by
collecting electrodes with a sufficiently high electrical voltage between the two electrodes. The
discharge electrodes begin to emit electrons, resulting in charging the gas molecules surrounding the
electrodes in the ESP.
67
The negative ions now migrate to the grounded positive or collecting electrode. If the gas is dustladen, the negative ions impose their charges onto the dust particles. The negatively charged dusts are
attracted by the positive electrodes, being here precipitated and neutralized. By rapping or vibrating,
the collected dust is removed from the collecting electrode, dropping into a dust bin (hopper).
However, a small part of the dust particle will also be charged positively and precipitated on the
discharge electrode; therefore, for proper cleaning the discharge electrode must also be rapped.
There are three major unit variables in the operation of electrostatic precipitator; these variables are
the factors that are dependent on the optimum performance of the Electrostatic Precipitators.
These variables are;
1
System Variable: system variables of the ESP are the parameters which depend on the design
of the ESP. these parameters include types of materials used in the construction of discharge and
collection electrodes, the power and rating of the rectified- transformer (RT), aspect ratio (AR) of the
ESP, Sectionilization of the electric field, specific collection area(SCA) and so on.
2
Material Variables: these include the constituent's parameters of the flue gas handled by the
ESP. In any cement industry, the material is the cement dust mixed with combustion products (clinker
dust). So, the parameters in this case are the density of the flue gas, the texture of the dust and
humidity of the dust (Mastropietro and Dhargalker, 1991).
3
Operating variables: these include the parameters which are associated with the operation of
the system. These parameters can be affected positively or negatively by the skills and attitude of the
operators of the ESP. They include: corona power, flue gas temperature, induced drought fan power
and differential pressure of the system (Osuchukwu, 2010).
RESISTIVITY
Resistivity which is a characteristic of a particle in an electric field is a measure of a particle's
resistance to transferring charge (both accepting and giving up charges). Resistivity is a function of a
particle's chemical compositions as well as flue gas operating conditions, such as temperature and
moisture. Particles can have high, moderate (normal) or low resistivity (Kart, 1976).
In an ESP, where a particle charging and discharging are key functions, resistivity is an important
factor that significantly affects collecting efficiency. While resistivity is an important phenomenon in
the inter-electrode region where most particle charging takes place, it has a particularly important
effect on the dust layer which is at the collection electrode where discharging occurs (US, E.P.A.
1985). Particles that exhibit high electrical resistivity are more difficult to charge. But once charged,
they do not readily give up their acquired charges on arrival at the collection electrode. On the other
hand, particles with low resistivity easily become charged and readily release their charges to the
ground collection plate. Both extremes in resistivity impede the efficient functioning of the ESP
(White, 1982). Electrostatic precipitators work best under normal electrical resistivity conditions.
Resistivity is the electrical resistance of a dust sample, 1.0cm2 in cross sectional area, 1.0cm thick and
is recorded in ohms-centimeter. Table 1 gives value ranges for low, normal and high resistivity
68
DUST LAYER RESISTIVITY
A potential electric field (voltage drop) is formed across the dust layer as negatively charged particles
arrive at the dust layer surface and leak their electrical metal surface of the electrically grounded
collection plate, voltage is zero. Whereas at the outer surface of the layer, where new particles and
ions are arriving, the electrostatic voltage caused by the ions can be quite high. The strength of this
electric field depends on the resistivity and thickness of the dust layer.
In high resistivity dust layers, the dust is not sufficiently conductive, so electrical charges have
difficulty, moving through the dust layer (Copper and Alley, 1994). Consequently, electrical charges
accumulate on and beneath the dust surface, creating a strong electric field. Voltage can be greater
than 10,000 volts. Dust particles with high resistivity are held too strongly to the plate making them
difficult to remove and causing rapping problem.
In low resistivity the dust layers, the corona current is readily passed to the grounded electrode.
Therefore, a relatively weak electric field, of several thousand volts is maintained across the dust layer
collected. Particles with low resistivity do not adhere strongly enough to the collection plate. They are
easily dislodged and become re-entrained in the gas stream.
ESP performs best in normal resistivity. Particles with normal resistivity do not rapidly lose their
charge on arrival at the collection plate. These particles slowly leak their charge to the grounded plate
and are retained on the collection plates by intermolecular adhesive and cohesive forces. This allows a
particulate layer to be built up and then dislodged from the plates by rapping. Within the range of
normal dust resistivity, fly ash is collected more easily than dust having low or high resistivity.
MATERIALS
The materials and equipment used to generate data for the current voltage characteristic examination
of the electrostatic precipitator in order to ascertain the degree of performance and functionality of
ESP in the job of flue gas cleaning are as follows: (a) High voltage rectified transformer (b)
Barometer (c) Thermometer (d) Existing ESP (e) Voltmeter (f) Ammeter.
METHOD
69
This test was carried out by subjecting the ESP to an idle running mode. Idle mode of the ESP is when
the system is energized by the high voltage rectified transformer without a dust laden air stream. The
transformer rectifier type of this ESP was RICO-W3X80KV/115A/600 mA. The experiment was
carried out under 320 C temperature and barometric pressure of 741 bars. The collection area of the
ESP under study was 2223m2. Then the vicinity of the ESP was barricaded to prevent people from
getting near to the equipment in order to forestall electrocution. At the electrical panel (comprised
mostly of the materials mentioned before this section) situated at the central control room, minimum
and maximum voltages were keyed in starting from 37 volts and 40 volts respectively. This in effect,
gave rise to the corresponding current in milli-amperes and the average voltage in the ESP. This was
applied in ascending order of magnitude until a substantial data that could describe the behavior of
current against voltage in the ESP was obtained.
RESULTS
The results of the current voltage characteristic test conducted for the three fields of the electrostatic
precipitator to determine the current density of the equipment are presented in tables 2. The CVC
curves with model regression equation ( y = mx + c) for the three fields are shown in figs. 2, 3 and 4.
Table 2. The current voltage characteristic test to determine the current density of the ESP equipment
70
DISCUSSION
Table 2 contains three fields, each with a minimum voltage, maximum voltage, average voltage and
their corresponding currents in (mA). Each field has a graph of current against voltage to show the
movement of current in the entire area of the electric field. The CVC for ESP field 1, 2 and 3 are
shown in figs. 2, 3 and 4.
Looking critically at the three graphs, one observes that the regression line (line of best fit) of 0.978,
0.977 and 0.974 respectively are close to unity depicting a gentle slope through the threshold voltage
(40V). While
the average distribution of current in the electric field of the ESP gave the mean
regression line of 0.976 which confirms that the ESP equipment has been built to efficiently handle
the job of flue gas cleaning, recovery of otherwise wasted raw materials, general conservation of
energy in the ESP UNIT and indeed the sole responsibility for the protection of our dear environment.
71
CONCLUSION
The use of CVC test has confirmed that the ESP is an important machine to be employed for air
pollution control. This is seen in the mean regression value of the three sections of the ESP which
stood at 0.976. This value is an indication that the ESP functioned optimally. Very important is the
environmental protection it offers by cleaning contaminated gas stream. Basically, the reaction of the
inhabitants of the area where the industry is sited proved the effectiveness of the use of an ESP for
particulate matter air pollution control. Before the installation of the ESP, there were continuous
agitations and protests launched by the inhabitants of the area against the management of the industry
on account of the uncontrolled emission of hazardous dust particles in the area. However, the
installation of the ESP at the cement production plant changed the situation. The protesters
immediately stopped their agitation and peace was restored since the recurring air pollution problems
were reduced to the barest minimum. Hence, the effectiveness of the ESP under the CVC test satisfies
the objectives for which the research was conducted.
RECOMMENDATIONS
a.
Decreasing the actual gas flow in ESP will have a positive effect on the dust collection. The
reduction of the intake air leakage and motor-control-system (frequency converters) of fans will allow
for a better control of the gas flow.
b.
Installation of spare carbon monoxide (CO) analyzer: when the CO analyzer is taken out for
maintenance, ESP should be switched off to prevent explosion which can occur due to high
concentration of CO.
c.
Production of clinker should be done in such a manner that high quality clinker is obtained
which in essence reduces the moisture content in the flue gas. This moisture content which is related
to electrical conductivity of cement particles affects the efficiency of the ESP.
d.
Always make sure the high voltage energization system is operating properly.
72
REFERRENCES
Beachler, D.S., Jahnke, J.A ; Joseph, G.T and Peterson, M.M. (1983) Air Pollution Control System
for Selected Industries-Self-Instructional Guidebook. (APTI Course S1: 431). EPA 450/2-82-006. US.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Copper, C.D and Alley, F.C. (1994) Air Pollution Control. A Design Approach. 2nd ed. Waveland
Press, Prospect Heights, Illinois.
Hall, H.J. (1975) Design and Application of High Voltage Power Supplies in Electrostatic
Precipitation. Journal of Air Pollution Control Association. 25:132.
Kartz, J. (1976) The Art of Electrostatic Precipitators. Munhall, PA: Precipitator Technology.
Mastropietro, T. and Dhargalkar, P. (1991) Electrostatic Precipitator Designs Evolve to meet Tighter
Regulations. Pulp and Paper.
Nag, P.K. (2001) Power Plant Engineering. 2nd ed. New Delhi; Tata Mc Graw Hill. Page 403-406.
Osuchukwu, L.C. (2010) Evaluation of the Effects of Operational Variables of Electrostatic
Precipitators for Energy Conservation. A Case Study of BCC plc. M.Engr Thesis, PP 3-4. University
of Agriculture Makurdi.
Smith, S.L. (2009) A GermanyElectrostatic Precipitator Vendor.
U.S Environmental Protection Agency (1985) Operation and Maintenance Manual for Electrostatic
Precipitators. EPA 625/1-85/017.
White, H.J. (1982) Review of the state of Technology. Proceedings of the International Conference on
Electrostatic Precipitation. Monterey, CA: October 1981. Air Pollution Control Corporation,
Pittsburgh.
73
PERMEABLE PAVEMENTS IN URBAN STORM WATER MANAGEMENT
1Ibe Colman Chikwem, 2Ukaigwe Chiedozie Innocent
1Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Imo State Polytechnic Umuagwo.
2Department of Works Services, Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo.
ABSTRACT
Management of urban storm water run-off is becoming a global environmental issue and problem.
This is as a result of numerous hard engineering surfaces of the urban cities. Urbanization generates
more surface storm water run-off with its detrimental consequences if unabated. Permeable
pavements in Sustainable urban Drainage System (SuDS) offer a remedy for storm water runoff
problems. Permeable pavement is a whole range of materials with voids in-between blocks and/or on
its surface to allow the passage of water and even air into the soil or reservoir sub-base. The
installation of permeable pavements aims at infiltration of storm water through the spaces or voids inbetween blocks to the soil and or the sub-base reservoir. This aids flow attenuation to minimize the
consequences of peak flow on the catchment and probable receiving water body. However, Nigerian
case presents a difference as observed that permeable pavements rather than ameliorate flood flows,
appear to contribute to the greater volume of storm water run-off in our urban cities with its floodrisk consequences. This anomaly is attributed to the wrong construction/installation methods. The
paper hopes to highlight the proper use and maintenance of permeable pavements as a panacea to
storm water management within the Nigeria environmental context. The performance of the installed
pavement was evaluated using double ring infiltrometer to determine the infiltration rate and the
result compared with the design capacity. It showed good performance, and was recommended
strongly for urban storm water run-off management as a component of Sustainable urban Drainage
System. It is very workable in urban cities of Nigeria if properly designed and installed despite
estimated heavy precipitation. Additionally, this method would be supported by high infiltration rates
in some areas in Nigeria with natural good soil drainage.
Key words: Permeable pavement; storm water; runoff; infiltration rate; performance; and SuDS.
INTRODUCTION
Increases in levels of rainfall, and the resulting high runoff due to urbanization and development of
housing and engineering structures, resulted in the introduction of various reform policies by
Environment Agency (EA), to adapt to the increasing menace. To minimize increased surface storm
water runoff, Environment Agency (2010) and Gibbs (2004) advocate that new development must be
carefully located and designed such that runoff source control measures will be adapted to reduce
flood risk and improve water quality within the catchment. This is supported by legislations in UK
such as Planning Policy Statement 1(PPS1) (ODPM, 2005), Planning Policy Statement 25 (PPS25)
(DCLG, 2010) and Flood and Water management Act (Statutory Instruments, 2011).
74
To add effect to the Water Framework Directive (WFD), the Sustainable urban Drainage Systems
(SuDS) approach to urban storm water management was designed to systematically manage the storm
runoff in urban catchments. This is to the extent of allowing storm water to infiltrate as naturally as
possible to the ground or reservoir sub-base by the use of permeable pavements and other components
of SuDS. The need for this system is growing with the expected increase in precipitation (Hulme, et
al., 2002) due to climate change phenomena, and its benefits need to be demonstrated to encourage
uptake.
This is a new example to mitigate and reduce flood risk, improve water quality, improve groundwater
recharge, and enhance amenity creation through biodiversity improvement was evaluated.
A permeable pavement infiltrates storm water through the spaces or voids inbetween blocks to the
soil and or the sub-base reservoir. This aids flow attenuation to minimize the consequences of peak
flow on the catchment and probable receiving water body, and infiltration rate of the pavement
relative to its design storm intensity determines the performance. .
Permeable pavements are important in control of urban storm water and their efficiency is determined
through infiltration measurement to monitor how well the storm water infiltrates into the soil and/or
sub-base reservoir which attenuates flow. Infiltration rate of permeable pavements at installed
capacity determines performance, which in turn ensures efficiency in flood control and pollution
reduction. The efficiency of permeable pavements as a component of Sustainable urban Drainage
Systems is determined by the periodic evaluation of its infiltration rate.
As urbanisation grows, structures are built to provide shelter, soils get more compacted with the
movement of heavy construction equipment, and more surface runoff is generated as the storm water
cannot infiltrate the soil. Conventional drainage systems may fail to cope with the increased volume
of runoff, resulting in the need for an alternative storm water runoff management strategy. Permeable
pavements are robust and adaptable so to play a critical role in the Sustainable urban Drainage
Systems and meet governmental planning policy guidance for adaptable technology for drainage and
rainwater re-use strategy to be part of all developments (ODPM, 2005; lnterpave, 2010; DCLG 2010).
This is expected in order that flood and pollution are reduced; in line with the requirements of the
European Water Framework Directive (WFD) (EC, 2000; Jefferies, 2010). SuDS have potential to
ameliorate the high risk from surface flooding estimated to expose about 80,000 properties to losses,
causing an average of £270 million of damage every year in UK according the government's Foresight
Report (Evans, et al., 2004). The SuDS concept being revolutionary in approach tends to manage the
surface storm water by providing attenuation and filtration schemes to replicate as closely as possible,
the natural drainage system before development that disrupted the natural order of the water cycle.
Various laws and Acts of Parliament in the UK such as the Water Management Act 2011 (Statutory
Instruments, 2011), and the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) (EC, 2000), and even the
Pitt Review into 2007 flooding and future water (Pitt, 2008) give credence to SuDS to minimise water
runoff quantity, improve water quality, and provide amenity and biodiversity (lnterpave, 2010; Ciria,
2000; Defra, 2004; VADCR STORMWATER, 2009). lt is very plausible that the incorporation of
permeable pavements in SuDS that allow water to gradually infiltrate the ground or reservoir sub-base
after filtration help to maintain continual water supply through efficient recharge of the groundwater
in a pollution free catchment, and subsequently help to maintain river flows.
It is notable that SuDS incorporate other internal facilities such as swales, detention basins, etc.
However, functionality of these depends on the extent water that is allowed to infiltrate into the
ground or reservoir sub-base by the permeable pavement and the workability of some other SuDS
75
facilities such as underground swales cannot be evaluated unless the permeable pavements infiltrate
the storm runoff (Ogunyoye, et al., 2010; EA, 2006).
Permeable pavement is a paving surface that allows the storm water to filter through small openings
(voids) in the pavement surface into the soil and/or the underlying (stone/sand) reservoir where the
water may be stored and/or infiltrated as a system of urban drainage (VADCR STORMWATER,
2009), though the structure of the reservoir depends on the traffic load, soil type, and its capacity.
Permeable pavement/paving can consist of a whole range of materials and/or techniques used to pave
roads, path-ways, and parking lots that allow the passage/movement of water and even air into the soil
or reservoir sub-base, and around the paving materials. It comes in different forms: pervious concrete,
porous asphalt, paving stones or bricks, and whatever the form, all these allow precipitation to
percolate through areas that may ordinarily be impervious and infiltrate the storm water into the soil.
ln some cases, the infiltrated water enters an engineered storage underground and is released to the
surface drainage system more slowly (Booth and Leavit, 1999).
TYPES OF PERMEABLE PAVEMENT AND INFILTRATION MODELS
There are many types of permeable pavements available for use in flood and pollution mitigation.
These include: a) concrete grid paver (CGP) which is a paving system comprised of blocks that have
voids inside and between the blocks. According to Bean, et al., (2004), photo-analysis of the CGP
shows that opening, void and space approximate about 30% of the surface, and this can explain why it
infiltrates storm water. b) The permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) is another type. This
is a concrete block paver that creates voids at the open joints or on the corners of the pavement, and
the open joint or void, space available from photo-analysis is about nine percent (9%) of the surface
(Gerritts and James, 2002; Bean, et al,. 2004).
The structure of a typical permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) is shown in Fig.1.
76
c) Other forms like porous asphalt and pervious concrete exist. However, in whatever form,
permeable pavements have a similar structure, as they consist of a surface pavement layer, an
underlying stone aggregate reservoir layer, and a filter layer or fabric geotextile material usually
installed on the bottom (\/ADCR STORMWATER, 2011) as shown in Figure (1). The choice of any
of these would depend on the scope, hydrological status of the environment, the soil type in the
environment and the engineering design of the individual pavement.
The rainfall and runoff characteristics along with the soil and geologic types must be studied, as these
contribute to runoff volumes and stress on the pavement (Pervious Concrete, 2010a). The slope of the
area and how well the surrounding soil can infiltrate storm water must guide the choice to avoid the
excess surface runoff running over a pavement surface, as this deposits sediment, silt, and other
organic fines that reduce infiltration capacity (Pervious Concrete, 2O'l0b). According to Pervious
Concrete (2011), the design of a permeable pavement in soils with substantial silt and clay content or
a high water table must be considered thoroughly, as the water table results in low infiltration due to
no or low hydraulic influence on the surface of the permeable pavement to drain the surface
water/runoff. This in turn reduces the infiltration capacity and may result to puddles/ponding
depending on the storm intensity of the area (Pervious Concrete, 2010c). Storage capacity and the
type of reservoir sub-base will be guided by these considerations. The expected traffic load a
pavement may be carrying should also be considered in decision making. These factors therefore call
for a detailed analysis of the design environment if the desired result is to be achieved. There are three
basic types of design models used in the installation of a permeable pavement that offer specific
requirements suited for a particular environment. These are as follows:
a)
Total infiltration model in which the pavement blocks allow water falling on the
pavement to infiltrate down the joints between the concrete blocks or through voids in the
blocks, passing through the constructed layers below and eventually into the sub-grade as
illustrated in Fig. 2.
b)
Partial infiltration that removes excess water from the permeable pavement sub-base. This
model incorporates a series of perforated pipes or fin drains at the top of foundation/subgrade to allow the remaining water to be drained to other systems such as sewers, swales
77
or watercourse (Fig. 3). This is very useful where the existing sub-grade or ground may
not cope with absorbing all the water.
C) No infiltration model that allows the permeable pavement to capture all water/surface
runoff or attenuate the water using an impermeable flexible membrane placed at the
bottom of the permeable sub-base. The pipes or fin transmit the water away as in partial
infiltration model. This is a solution applied in heavily contaminated sites to avoid
polluting the groundwater through infiltration (lnterpave, 2010) as illustrated in Fig.4.
78
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Site location Lamb drove site as shown in figure 5 is located on TL 532100; 259500 National Grid
Reference (NGR) of Great Britain.
SITE PREPARATION
The Lamb Drove site was divided into five sections to ensure representative samples for the
infiltration measurements. Two infiltration measurements were taken on points randomly selected
from each section to ensure even distribution and maintain spatial variability at the site. Hand-held
Geographical Positioning System (GPS) was used to locate and record the coordinates of the
measurement points in each of the sections. This enables easy identification in the case of attempts to
repeat the measurement after several years.
Figure 5 is a block representation of the Lamb Drove site location as shown in Figure 5, and it shows
the infiltration measurement points (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2, D1, D2, E1 and E2) of the five sections.
Infiltration rate measurement procedures
The infiltration rate was measured with double-ring infiltrometer using the modified ASTOM D3385
as described by Bean, et al. (2004) in tests carried out between 24"' June and 15"' July, 2011. The
choice of the double-ring infiltrometer was due to its ability to control the influence of horizontal
movement of water, offering a more reliable result of vertical infiltration. The procedure was
modified using plumber's putty to seal the infiltrometer to the surface of the permeable pavement
instead of pushing it into the pavement as would be done when using on soil. This enabled monitoring
performance of permeable pavement in an in-situ field situation. The outer ring helped to buffer the
inner ring against horizontal and lateral water movement to give credence to the infiltration rate
resulting only from vertical water movement down in the inner ring.
Plumber's putty was used to seal the infiltrometer on the surface of the permeable pavement to prevent
leakage and damage to the pavements as pushing the infiltrometer into the pavement would be
unfeasible. The inner and outer rings of the infiltrometer were filled with water up to 5cm to check for
79
leakages, and then filled full to 15cm (the top of the rings). The initial water levels of the inner ring
were recorded at time 0. The water level in the inner ring was then measured from the top of the
infiltrometer at five minutes intervals. This process was continued until a steady infiltration rate was
seen or the water in the inner ring dried up, Water was continuously added to the outer ring whenever
the water level was about 1cm below that of the inner ring to maintain the same hydraulic head.
CALCULATION OF INFILTRATION RATE
The cumulative infiltration rate (water intake) (F) of each measurement was divided by the time (T)
taken for the water intake. F/T values were plotted against time to the power minus 0.5 (t-0.5) to
derive a and b from a linear regression plot, where a is the slope and b is the intercept of each
measurement, and 0.5 is a constant to the power term which maintains a linear relationship between
the average infiltration rate. An average linear regression values (a and b) of all measured infiltration
points was calculated and used to calculate the infiltration rate/ curve for the Lamb Drove permeable
pavement at 0.08h intervals for 1h using Philip's equation (Landon, 1999) as shown below;
|= 0.5at-0.5 + b.
80
Figure 6: Existing and cleaned Infiltration Rate Graph
81
Figure 7: Graph Comparing Lamb Drove Permeable Pavement Infiltration Rates
with 1:100 years Design Storm Intensities in mm/h
A relative comparison of design storm and historic rainfall intensities with permeable pavement
infiltration curve/rate showed a good performance and suitability for use in storm water management
The implication of the results (Table 1 and 2, and Figure 7) is that the Lamb Drove permeable
pavements are capable of draining water input from any design or observed historic (2008 – 2011)
storm event of varying intensities at a rate that will not permit formation of storm surface runoff. This
is an evidence of good performance in storm water management as the pavement's infiltration rate
(mm/h) was above the 1 in 100 year storm intensities except for the very short duration of five
minutes (0.08h) below which may lead to ponding depending on the volume of runoff generated.
ASCE (1996) suggests that a project performs/functions well only when it is able to
accommodate/drain the storm water from its design storm intensity event and failing whenever its
design storm water infiltration capacity is exceeded. From the results, it is obvious the performance of
the permeable pavements at Lamb Drove may have theoretically reduced slightly since it was
designed to cope with 1in 100 year storm intensities plus 20% climate change influence (Ogunyoye,
et al., 2010). This is by 19% of the estimated 1 in 100 year 5 minutes (0.08h) event which its
occurrence may be once in 100 years. This extreme case does not invalidate the good performance of
the permeable pavement which its infiltration capacity copes well with the 1 in 100 year intensities.
Spatial variability of measurement across the site showed no effect on the infiltration rate. This means
that the pavement infiltrates across its surfaces at rates that do not allow formation of puddles/ponding
on any part of its surface after storm events which demonstrates excellent performance. The measured
infiltration rate compared well with the calculated design storm intensities which indicate that the
Lamb Drove permeable pavements infiltrate all storm water except at maximum design storm
intensity of 386mm/h at 0.08h which rarely can occur in UK. The performance of the permeable
pavements is excellent in relation to actual observed rainfall of the area (over 2008 – 2011), as it
would infiltrate all the water from the selected storm event intensities of O_52mm/h-3.53mm/h at
varying durations of events since the measured infiltration rates are higher than storm maximum
intensity values of 0.52mm/h-3.53mm/h for the period under review. The results have shown the
82
suitability of permeable pavements at Lamb Drove for use in urban storm water management for flood
risk reduction in the environment as a component of SuDS. Though south Eastern Nigeria may record
high rainfall intensities when compared with the UK, but the nature of our soil, high sun intensities
and luxurious vegetation, would aid the performance of permeable pavement in mitigating flooding
problems in our urban cities.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Urbanisation can impact heavily on storm water runoff volumes potentially resulting in flooding,
erosion, and economic losses in the affected area. This necessitated introduction of an alternative
method aiming to reduce the storm water surface runoff, and allows the water infiltrate into the
ground and/or reservoir base as naturally as possible. This component of the newly developed
Sustainable urban Drainage Systems (SuDS) called permeable pavement should be installed in our
highly porous soil environment to showcase its functionality in storm water management in an urban
catchment, its impact on surface/ground water quality, ground water recharge (aquifer richness) and
urban aesthetic/beauty. Environmental water experts and civil engineers should be involved in the
design and installation of permeable pavement in a sustainable manner at the International Conference
Center Owerri under construction now, instead of the hard surface engineering which is capable to
generate great volume of urban runoff, resulting in detrimental consequences downstream of Nworie
River- its main surface water recipient
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85
SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
POTENTIALS IN MANAGING ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN AFRICA
1Ofor, Okey Chris, 2Collins Obiorah
1,2Department of Mass Communication
Federal Polytechnic, Oko
ABSTRACT
The protection of the environment is a matter of global concern that calls for global measures.
Improved and effective information about the environment and communication within the globe is
vital because it broadens public awareness and participation in the debate on environmental
challenges facing human kind today. And the upsurge of electronic networking through computers
which is generally called the information superhighway appears to be a development that can
precisely address this need. However, as more and more environmental information on a global scale
continues to be stored and controlled electronically, developing countries risk becoming more
marginalized within the rapidly evolving world economy due to lack of computers and low levels of
computer literacy among the majority of their population. The question is: what are the likely
consequences of this situation bearing in mind the understanding that environmental degradation
does not affect Africa only but the whole globe?. This paper gives a situational analysis of the
information superhighway in Africa and suggests policy issues which need to be addressed both
internationally and regionally if the expectations of environmental communication are to be realized.
Key words: Information communication technology, Internet, Sustainable development,
Environmental challenge, Environmental communication.
INTRODUCTION
Environmental protection is a matter of global concern, which requires concerted global measures.
The need to strike a good balance between man's activities and their impact on the physical
environment has remained a topical issue among scholars, and other stakeholders alike. The term
'sustainable development' has become a global cliché to describe man's attempt to control and reverse
the negative consequences of his domination of the earth. The World Conference on Environment
Development (WCED) defined sustainable development as ―the economic and social development
that meets the needs of the current generation without undermining the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs‖ Ademiluyi & Dina, (2011). Such developments involve the orientation of
technological, institutional and physical changes to make them consistent with the future human needs
as well as that of the present.
Unfortunately, in Africa, the ecosystem is faced with multifarious environmental challenges that
continue to encumber sustainable development. At one level, noise pollution is captured by the
deafening decibels of noise in the cities and towns where sellers of audio-visuals such as cassettes,
video compact disks (VCDs), digital video disks (DVDs), and mobile advertisers are polluting the
environment with so much noise, striping the towns and cities of their social sanity and making a
growing number of people deaf without them knowing it. At another level, air pollution and water
pollution are epitomized by the indiscriminate gas flaring, fumes (carbon monoxide) from tokunbo
cars and other industrial sources as well as oil spillages that have decimated aquatic life across the
coastlines of the country. This is a source of worry going by the problems and challenges presently
faced in ensuring that urban, suburban and rural areas of Africa become functional, liveable, and
aesthetically pleasing Ademiluyi & Dina, (2011).
86
Another worrisome and noteworthy environmental issues in the continent are incidents of oil spillage
and gas flaring. Oil spills, when released into the environment, change the physiochemical and
biological state of the environment making it unsuitable for life. Hundreds of oil spills occur yearly in
Nigeria and more than 2,000 sites have been recorded to be contaminated by oil spills, which affect
fishing, forests products and bathing and drinking water for the people in the Niger Delta region
Amnesty, (2009). As it concerns gas flaring, Elvidge et al. (2009) observed that it damages
ecosystems and its biodiversity, and destroys buildings as well through acid rain formation. In a
similar vein, UNDP and World Bank (2004) noted that Nigeria was acknowledged as the second
largest flarer after Russia, producing 15.1 billion cubic meters, in 2008. Estimation by UNDP/World
Bank shows that Nigeria losses about US$ 2.5 billion on annual basis to gas flaring in the Niger Delta
where oil and gas production operations are going on.
The chief concern in this paper is to highlight the inherent potentials in information communication
technology (ICT), particularly the Internet infrastructure in communicating environmental issues to
Nigerians so as to promote environmental sustainability. We begin by exploring the values of
environmental communication and the potentials of ICT in diffusion of environmental information
across the globe.
THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION
Generally, increased opportunities for public access to environmental information are seen as underpinning the objective of encouraging people to take on their responsibilities of stewardship. The
provision of information is not an end in itself but a means to an end, where the end in this case is the
promotion of stewardship. The burden of stewardship is also not seen as resting on the government
alone since the responsibility of our environment is an obligation to all. Jeremy et al. (1996), quoting
the Tenth Report of the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution and the White Paper on
Common Inheritance, list the benefits of improved public access to environmental information under
five general headings all of which contribute to the stewardship objective as discussed below. The
stewardship objective is defined in general terms as "the moral duty to look after our planet and to
hand it in good order to future generations"
A nation's improved public access to environmental information performs the following roles:
i.
Public reassurance: It will reassure the public and promote confidence on their part on the
actions being taken by the government. Since secrecy of information fuels fear, withdrawal of secrecy
promotes public confidence.
ii.
Personal responsibility: It informs the consumer of the choices available in the demand for,
and consumption of goods. This is in conformity with what the International Organization of
Consumers Union (IOCU) which in 1993 asserted that "Consumers play an important part in the
process of environmental degradation and that all consumers, rich or poor are affected by
environmental degradation". Information about the causes and consequences of pollution, for
instance, may thus encourage consumers to adopt waste minimization technologies such as reusing
and recycling.
iii.
Industry responsibility: Increased public scrutiny encourages industries to take environmental
protection seriously. Environmental pressures on industries should be recognized as a helpful stimulus
for industries to gain greater credibility and acceptance from the public other than viewing such
pressures as obstruction (UNEP, 1991).
iv.
Agency accountability: The knowledge that activities will come under public scrutiny should
act as a vital discipline for environmental protection agencies, and lastly;
v.
Public participation: Environmental information also enables members of the public to play a
role in policy formulation and decision-making on environmental matters. Of these roles, public
87
participation and personal responsibility appear to be the most essential in contributing towards the
notion of stewardship. Personal responsibility ultimately enhances public participation.
Effective public participation further depends on the behavior of different individuals. UNEP (1988)
identifies the four ways in which members of the public may respond to environmental deterioration
as follows: First, the individual may remain completely unaware or unconcerned because the issue has
no impact on his or her ways of life. Secondly, the individual may recognize the existence of
environmental stress but may adjust to it through a variety of compensating mechanisms or "sour
grapes" or "sweet lemon" defence mechanisms. Symptoms of these reactions are commonly found in
communities where the major sources of employment are large polluting industries. Here, the source
of pollution is not seen so much as contributing to environmental degradation as the provider of
income and employment to meet basic needs. The third type of reaction is to assume that nothing can
be done about the issue and that the individual's own concern plays little part in the decision-making
process. The individual expresses no 'intention to act and this deters his action towards the
environment. The person many feel he has no power over the powers that be, since no genuine efforts
are made to incorporate his views towards issues that have environmental consequences. For example,
it may be rational for a local community to recklessly cut its forest, if the timber is also being cut by
government forestry agencies or outside contractors over which the communities feel they have no
control (UNEP, 1993). The fourth kind of response is that of the active participant who feels
empowered towards resolution of environmental issues and has a sense of ownership of the
environment. Such a person is not entangled in the phenomenon of the "tragedy of the commons". The
tragedy of the commons as advanced by Garret (1968) and Kye (1995) states that even if the
environment is attracting much attention everyday, it is quite another matter for persons to sacrifice
their interests for the environment. That is, since the environment is a collective good, each individual
has an incentive for over-exploitation. If he does not use the environment, somebody else will,
anyway. To resolve this phenomenon, therefore, would require more than appeal to conscience and as
Garret consistently argues "voluntary compliance with such appeals of conscience would only work
for a 'simpleton' who can be ashamed into standing aside while the rest of us exploit the "commons".
The behaviour responses of individuals towards environmental deterioration will, to a great extent,
determine their environmental information consumption habits although not disregarding the socioeconomic, political and nature of communication infrastructures within a given region. In the light of
the pressing environmental challenges facing Nigeria today (uneven development, poverty,
uncontrolled population growth, resources depletion and management) innovative approaches to
evolving technological developments in communication are required to address these challenges in a
way that is useful and acceptable to her people. Ironically, minority "elites" have access to the
information superhighway or are in a position to access it. On the other hand, the poor do not even
have basic needs for it, and it almost seems unrealistic to want to connect them to it when they have
no food or shelter. Why should they participate when even basic survival is a problem? Yet it is this
latter group that the superhighway needs. The role of the communicator thus, as that of national
leaders, becomes that of educating people to become proper stewards of the environment by
expanding the audience for public debate on particular issues affecting their survival needs.
ICT AND ENVIRONMENT COMMUNICATION
Global thinking and concern requires tools capable of extending man's senses as well as enhancing his
ability to comprehend the information he receives. The most comprehensive and effective tools for
communication about environment remains the electronic machines, notably computers. Their
capability in making up for the natural limits to human beings' views of the globe has widely been
acknowledged Young, (1993).
88
A current development in electronic networking is the Internet – a term describing the union of
connected computer networks, transferring information between millions of computer users everyday.
UNEP (1995) refers to it as the "networks" while in the field of communication, it is generally called
the "information superhighways". The electronic machines serve as the information highways which
provide the means through which the transmission and circulation of information is made possible.
Unlike previous technological revolutions which focused on energy and matter, the fundamental
change brought by the information superhighway involves our understanding of time, space, distance
and knowledge. It is a revolution centred on the electronic processing, storage, retrieval and
communication of information. This in essence will contribute significantly towards the promotion of
sustainable growth in the global economy and the enhancement of the quality of life worldwide. That
is a move towards achieving the super-ordinate goal of sustainable development through harmonizing
environmental and developmental needs for both developed and developing countries.
Although, the use of electronic machines is heavily concentrated in the industrialized countries,
environmental degradation knows no national or regional boundaries. The consequences of
environmental neglect in one quarter of the globe have evidently been shown to have harmful
consequences in the other quarters Western, (1986). Indeed, a global environmental problem such as
the ozone layer depletion from the emission of chloroflorocarbons (CFCS) is largely the outcome of
consumption patterns of industrialized countries but it is massively contributing to loss of biodiversity in the remotest part of South America, Asia and Africa. In effect, it follows that deprivation
of environmental data in any part of the globe can lead to an environmental catastrophe which will
affect the human race regardless of origin and location. The management of environmental problems
will only be met when the best solutions are knowingly chosen by a well informed public. The
information superhighway could help meet some of our environmental challenges.
THE REALITY OF THE INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN THE
AFRICAN CONTEXT
According to the 1990 Report of the South Commission, the inferior position of development in
science and technology of African countries in relation to other parts of the world has serious
implications for development in communications and information technology.
The level of information infrastructure and applications development in Africa still lags far behind the
industrialized countries. As such, the information technology gap between Africa and industrialized
countries continues to widen as the same Western agencies continue to dominate the international
information technology development trends Karinga, (1996).
Due to the low socio-economic status of majority of the countries and economic policies which have
hit these countries even further, equipment for the information superhighway is extremely difficult to
obtain, maintain and repair, while in other instances electric power is absent or unreliable. The
diffusion of environmental information and communication technologies implies critical adaptation
such as ability to deal with computers. It also calls for specialized knowledge of network
administration and design which in most cases is weak or absent.
In some countries, there is virtually no access to the outside world and thus they are threatened with
exclusion from the entire information revolution. Illiteracy levels are high, aggravating the problems
of training where majority of the population generally lack the basic skills to exploit new innovations.
Good quality telephone lines, e-mail connections and affordable telecommunication costs to a
majority of the population are serious problems to contend with. There is also no policy yet on
telecommunications in some African countries where the government, maintain monopoly over
services and gives low priority to improvement of existing infrastructure.
Electronic mail which is cheaper than international phone calls, faxes, or express package services
allows its users to bypass signals, unpredictable postal services and schedule conflicts created by
89
different time zones. User discussion group computer conferences (sometimes called electronic notice
boards) allow any number of individuals to share information and opinions globally; assemble
information from many sources that are immediate; collaborate on research, writing or planning
events; distribute and respond to action alerts, and; ask questions that can be seen and answered by
any other user watching that conference.
News bulletins from electronic conferences reveal environmental information globally within a few
hours unlike conventional media where the environmental story would take three to four days to be
reported. Other barriers that therefore hindered information flow such as censorship and magazine
bans are also overcome by the superhighway. And when something significant happens almost
anywhere in the world, word of it spreads more quickly through other information channels, since
there are millions of users and fewer delays.
Other Internet tools that are useful for information retrieval are Telnet and the World Wide Web
(WWW). The latter is the best tool available on the Internet today. It is the fastest growing part of the
Internet and is a vast network of documents that combine texts, images, sound and video. The biggest
advantage of the Internet is the capability to be an electronic node once you have a desktop computer
and a good telephone line. The implication of this to environmental information is that the constraints
cited earlier regarding accessibility are minimized since such information can be obtained as required
through other channels.
CONSTRAINTS TO ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION DIFFUSION
Freedom of access to information on environment is limited especially due to incoherent regulatory
system for environmental protection, in both developing and developed countries. For instance, it was
not until 1986 that American environmentalists fought for, and won the Emergency Planning and
Right-To Know Act, which created the world's most comprehensive national pollution database - the
Toxics Release Inventory (TRI). It includes data on toxic chemicals released to land, air and water
from about 24,000 US industrial facilities each year U.S Environmental Protection Agency, (1993).
The sufficiency of information becomes even more suspect when human health is at stake. As
Weatherill, quoted by Kye (1996) stresses, there are some circumstances where the threat in question
cannot be adequately addressed by informing the public.
Information on the environment is also problematic regarding its dependence on disclosure by
commerce and industry or what environmental communication researchers refers to as uncertain
nature of environmental information Kunst et al, (1993). Various other barriers exist to the collection
of environmental information. First, the costs are great given the complicated nature of evaluating
environmental consequences. Second, the "social goods" problem and "tragedy of commons"
phenomenon arise where producers have a weakened incentive to understand environmental damage
in the absence of a distinct and personal interest.
Environmental data is most useful when it is current because in some cases, it is a matter of life and
death. A case in point is the 1988 toxic waste dump in the Nigerian village of Koko and the waste's
effects on the health of local citizens. Greenpeace International used computer networking to monitor
the traffic of the hazardous waste. During the ensuing international uproar, the waste was traced back
to an Italian company. Any delay in releasing such information would be disastrous to people in not
only West Africa but Africa as a whole. In case of delayed information, the public cannot adequately
express an opinion on pollution levels, neither can it hope to influence executive decision making if
such decisions are taken on the basis of confidential information which is disclosed long after an
irrevocable decision has been taken.
When people potentially at risk of such impacts do not possess a comprehensive environmental
information package, they cannot realistically gauge the extent of the risks they face. The bureaucratic
procedure involved in retrieving such information is an area of concern, which can be addressed
90
effectively by the information superhighway. Lastly, even if industries have accurate environmental
information, some have little incentive to disclose everything since their main objective is to make
profits within the shortest time possible and with the available resources. Kye, (1995). This has led to
re-location of polluting industries by the multinationals who, in most cases, have not bothered to alert
the governments in Africa of the environmental consequences of their industries. As a result, Africa
continues to suffer the woes of environmental degradation which perpetuates a poverty cycle. Until
recently (1992 during the Earth Summit conference) environmental information has been subjected to
a strict regime of secrecy which explains why the environmental performance of industry has been
very poor.
Many governments appear to treat environmental information as an important "secret" which must be
safeguarded to protect the interests of politically connected "fat cats" within their systems. As such,
not much genuine effort is directed towards increasing public access to environmental information
because their involvement in policy formulation and decision-making would hurt such interested
parties. In other instances, little effort, if any, is made, to sensitize the public on the existence of
environmental information.
Perhaps, the greatest constraint facing the African continent as far as environmental rehabilitation is
concerned is the unquestionable adoption of alien approaches to development dictated by the West
Lester, (1991), which is now also threatening dominance over the information superhighway. The
realization of such dominance to the environment has been expressed by many. Numerous calls have
been made for the formation of a strategy for sustainable living with emphasis on a "global alliance to
care for the global village" As a result, important international and regional protocols have been
drawn up to establish environmental standards globally. Examples of such efforts include the
Convention on Biological Diversity which was signed during the UN Conference on Environment and
Development in June 1992. The aims of the convention are to conserve biological diversity and
ensure that its components are used sustainably and that the resulting benefits are equitably shared.
This includes appropriate funding, access to genetic resources and transfer of technology, taking into
account all rights involved.
PROSPECTS OF THE INFORMATION SUPERHIGHWAY IN AFRICA
Despite the pessimism in Africa, the development of the information superhighway (Internet, e-mail,
teletext, facsimile and others) promises positive changes in access to environmental information
globally. The Internet which is the world's largest collection of computer networks has been cited as a
very useful tool especially to the scientific (including environmental) community where sharing and
free exchange of information have provided more research and faster learning. The Internet offers a
sense of freedom where any node can speak to any other node. Internet users can also connect through
it to the Association of Progressive Communications (APC) networks, the world's largest assembly of
online environmental information and activities. Altogether the system connects 17,000 activists
relatively cheaper than other forms of telecommunication and gives access to a huge amount of
information.
A good example of an organization using the Internet is Econews (ENA) which is currently working
with three communities in East Africa on a pilot project to halt desertification. ENA monitors global
trends in desertification through the Internet, then informs these communities about policies at global,
regional and national levels through newsletters which are distributed to the community information
officers who then translate such information. The dialogue that follows is condensed in form of a
newsletter which ENA again puts on Internet.
Mass communication in its different forms is indispensable for increasing public awareness of
different environmental issues. In Africa, this calls for competent environmental communicators, who
are capable of translating or (searching for) non-technical yet precise terms to pass the desired
91
messages. Ideally, it would be wonderful if there were fully trained environmental reporters who
understood the complexity and technical nature of environmental information to be able to play the
role of a watchdog. Playing this role for environmental management, the communicator needs to have
some knowledge of the situation, the parties involved in the environmental event, the government
agencies monitoring it, what actions are being taken and what others should be doing. As a watchdog,
one has a responsibility to keep the public informed even when faced with bureaucratic barriers which
are many in the field of environment. Again, the information flow should be cyclic such that
community inputs are translated to scientific or technical forms (mainly through research) by
competent reporters, translating it from the Internet and passing the feedback to the community.
Because of their relevance to the cultural, social and physical set-ups, traditional media systems such
as popular theatres, folklore, community radio and drama, can play a significant role if they are
integrated with the superhighway. These are particularly important while repackaging information.
The importance of integrating traditional media with the superhighway is now widely recognized.
POTENTIAL AREAS FOR INTERNETWORKING
At the national level, African countries should be assisted through the ongoing process of the
formulation of National Environment Action Plans (NEAPS) supported by the World Bank to connect
to the Internet. The search for appropriate environmental information networking must begin in each
country but with sensitivity to the concerns of neighbouring countries. The exchange of experiences
through the Internet in the adaptation and use of traditional knowledge can be useful in introducing
environmental sensitivity in the application of modern technologies to agriculture - the main
economic back bone for most parts of Africa and a big environmental degrader and in the
management of ecosystems and natural resources. Efforts to funnel both new and used computers,
properly equipped for local conditions could also link grassroots communities to the growing web of
computerized information.
Experiences with the management of common resources, especially in similar ecosystems may be
usefully shared within and between African nations by this "flick of-a-button" satellite information
technology which can surmount infrastructure problems and reach far into even the most remote parts
of Africa. Although private and non-governmental organizations may not contribute to public
networking, certain links, among grassroots organizations of African and industrialized countries can
be a valuable tool that can enhance international understanding and co-operation. Lastly local
institutions of higher learning and research institutes should be given priority and be used as nodes for
effective internetworking in Africa. Above all, successful internetworking will depend on awareness
creation about the superhighway and proper training in using, managing, promoting, and maintaining
the electronic network through identification and categorization of potential users and receivers of
environmental information.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Africa has the potential to tap the benefits of the information communication technology to meet her
environmental challenges. The existence of United Nations offices in Africa, numerous grassroots
organizations and donor agencies coupled with genuineness on their part to build networks could play
a major role in using the superhighway for development. The top-down approaches that introduce any
form of development such as in telecommunications through government agencies will only succeed
when officials are in favour of such undertaking. On this note, the liberalization of the
telecommunications ownership would thus be a first step for any government committed to internetworking.
Concerted efforts must also be made regionally to
92
1.
Create awareness among researchers and scholars about the information superhighway and
the need to use it to disseminate research findings.
2.
Make the internet accessible to many users. This should include the encouragement of
privatization in order to enhance competition.
3.
Provide comprehensive information especially for communicators in mainstream media,
through in-service training on professional environmental reporting.
4.
Encourage and promote distant learning to raise literacy levels in basic as well as specialised
education such as computer handling and maintenance. There is also need to update information and
promote, the "culture of participation" on the part of the public towards environmental conservation.
5.
Support, encourage and strengthen internetworking between African countries through
existing regional bodies.
93
REFERENCES
Ademiluyi, I.A. & Dina, O.A. (2011) The millennium development goals and the sustainable future
for Nigeria's urban environment. A railway strategy, Journal of Human Ecology, 33(3), 203-209.
Amnesty International (2009) Nigeria: Petroleum, Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta. Amnesty
international publications, International Secretariat, Peter Benenson House, 1 Easton Street, London
WC1X 0DW, United Kingdom. Pp 9-63.
Elvidge, C., Ziskin, D., Baugh, K., Tuttle, B., Ghosh, T., Pack, D., Erwin, E., & Zhizhin, M. (2009) A
Fifteen Year Record of Global Natural Gas Flaring Derived from Satellite Data. Energies, 2(3), 595622.
Jeremy, R.R., Ross, A., Walton, W. & Rothnie, J. (1996) Public access to environmental information.
A means to what end? Journal of Environmental Law, 8(1).
Karinga, S. (1996) How old boy networks dominate superhighways. In Daily Nation, September 12,
Nairobi.
Kunst, M. & Witlox, N. (1993) Communication research trends. Communication and the
environment. CKT 13(1).
Lester, R. (Ed) (1991) The global environmental issues. New York: W.W. Norton and Company Inc.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) & World Bank (2004) Strategic gas plan for
Nigeria. Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme (ESMAP).
UNEP (1988) The public and environment: The state of the environment. Nairobi: UNEP.
UNEP (1991) Two decades of achievement and challenge. Nairobi: UNEP.
UNEP (1995) Poverty and the environment. Nairobi: UNEP.
UNEP (1996) Industry Environmental Compliance Training Manual. Technical Report No 36. Paris:
UN Publications UNESCO.
USEPA. (1992) Principles of environmental enforcement. Washington DC: Environmental Protection
Agency.
Western, A.H. (ed) (1986) Global resources and international conflict. New York: Oxford University
Press.
94
SUSTAINABLE BUILDING DESIGN AND ENERGY CONSERVATION
Ukaigwe Chiedozie Innocent
Department of Works Services
Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo
ABSTRACT
Burning fossil fuels contributes to atmospheric pollution, resulting in a wide range of damage both to
the environment and public health. Increased atmospheric concentration of CO2 caused by burning
fossil fuels is increasing global temperature. This is generally referred to as global warming.
Improving energy efficiency and conservation will help reduce global warming. In most countries,
buildings are the largest driver for both energy use and CO2 emissions. Europe's buildings use over
40% the continent's energy and are responsible for 40% of its carbon emissions. In the US, the
corresponding figures are even larger, with buildings accounting for 48% of total US Green House
Gas (GHG) emissions. In developing countries, the share of buildings in total energy use and
emissions is much lower. However, rapid industrialisation is pushing a booming construction sector
with a corresponding increase in energy and GHG footprints. Reducing the energy and GHG footprint
in new buildings represents a key challenge and opportunity to tackle global warming. The Enterprise
South Liverpool Academy (ESLA) is one of such new builds conceived to provide a comfortable
learning environment for students and staff in an energy efficient, low carbon and sustainable way
whilst accommodating the architectural design concept .The scheme incorporated passive measures,
control of building services and the use of low carbon and renewable technologies such as Ground
Source Heat Pump (GSHP), solar hot water panels and ventilation earth tubes. The result is a
reduction in energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions.
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable building design is a multidisciplinary or integrated approach to development that
considers a building as a cooperative whole. This integrated approach requires the successful
collaboration of client, project manager, architect, engineer and quantity surveyor from the conceptual
stage. Sustainable design regards a building as a totality that should operate in concert rather than as a
collection of individual parts working in isolation (Carter, 2007)
This approach brings together building design, energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality,
material selection, site planning, resource efficiency and water use to boost energy savings and make
the most of all the building's elements.
Sustainable design takes into consideration the building structure, its systems and its site location as a
whole and examines how they will fit together to save energy and reduce environmental impact.
Perhaps the key principle of sustainability design is its focus on environmentally sensitive
development, design and construction, which should produce an absolute minimum of pollution and
aim to repair environmental damages of the past.
Sustainable design and construction practices can be categorised into the following headings:
·
Site selection and design
·
Energy use
·
Materials
·
Indoor Quality
·
Water
SITE SELECTION AND DESIGN
95
Site planning that embraces sustainable design would not disrupt the landscape, but rather responds to
the climate, site resources and natural conditions. The fitting of a building on a site influences the
energy consumption. Generally, a south facing orientation gives it much exposure to sunlight as
possible during daytime working hours. With little or no extra cost, a building can usually be oriented
within thirty degrees of true south, creating energy savings without changing the design (Klustner,
2007).
The use of tinted windows can eliminate glare and absorb solar heat. Products are available are
available that control the amount of total solar heat and visible light that are transmitted. New tints
have been developed that are spectrally selective. Some of these in the tropics allow daylight in and
keep heat out, while those intended for use in the temperate regions allow maximum solar gain.
Landscaping can help reduce a building's energy consumption. Deciduous trees can provide shade in
the summer and permit sunlight to strike the structure directly in the summer. Sustainable landscaping
seeks to use native plants that don't require special care or irrigation.
Energy Use
Most of the energy consumed in the life of a building is not from its construction but during the period
when the building is in use; that is when energy is being used for heating, cooling, lighting, cooking,
ventilation, electronics and other daily needs. Sustainable design strives to reduce the overall energy
use, lower operating costs and utilise renewable energy. Various methods for on-site renewable
energy production can reduce the overall footprint of the building and other means of using green
power.
Materials
Building material choices are important in sustainable design because of the massive work involved in
processing and transportation. Sustainable low energy materials are usually non toxic, recyclable,
renewable, local, standard sizes and durable.
Recycling on the job site is becoming more economical as the cost of disposal increases. Developing a
waste management plan can help realise cost and environmental savings. The key goals in the use of
construction materials are
·
reduce material use
·
use renewable resources that are environmentally friendly
·
reduce construction waste
INDOOR QUALITY
Indoor quality comprises the entire indoor environment; includes air quality, the presence of moisture
and humidity, thermal conditions and lighting. The indoor environmental quality of a building has a
significant impact on occupant health, comfort and productivity. A sustainable building should
maximise daylighting, have appropriate ventilation and moisture control.
WATER AND WASTEWATER
Sustainable design conserves water through low water use design, storm water management and waste
water treatment and reuse. Water usage in commercial buildings can be reduced significantly by
utilising low-flow fixtures coupled with sensors and automatic controls. Other methods of conserving
potable water use are by reusing roof runoff water for non potable applications, use of grey water
from bathroom sinks to flush toilets.
96
2.0
THE ENTERPRISE SOUTH LIVERPOOL ACADEMY
The Enterprise South Liverpool Academy is a 6-form entry Academy with a 200-place sixth form and
a capacity for 1100 students. The new facility provides a state of the art teaching and other
accommodation to enable the Academy to meet its current and future challenges. It is also intended
that the new facility will act as a hub for the local community and a beacon of change for the area.
The scheme design was developed to embed sustainable credentials through integrated architectural,
engineering and landscape design whilst responding to current regional and national policies on
energy efficiency. Minimising primary energy consumption and water use have been placed at the top
of the sustainable agenda.
The following are passive sustainability design measures incorporated in the scheme:
·
Increased Insulation levels: Increasing the insulation levels to give a 20% improvement on the
overall heat transfer coefficient (u value) as stipulated in the Building Regulations 2006. This was
expected to reduce the energy required to heat the building.
·
Solar Control Glazing: Utilising solar control glazing on the south, east and west facade will
reduce the internal summer time peak temperatures by lowering the amount of thermal energy passing
through the glazing, whilst letting in daylight.
·
Exposed Thermal Mass: The building structure is a concrete frame and exposing the soffits
within the building maximises the potential for absorbing heat generated within the building during
the occupied period and act as a heat sink during the day. During the summer months, the absorbed
load will be removed via the night time cooling strategy that pre-cools the mass of the building.
·
Mixed Mode Ventilation Strategy: Optimised to benefit from heat recovery in winter and to
maximise 'carbon free' natural ventilation. Mixed mode approach will not only provide an internal
environment that is conducive to learning, but also offers user control and automatic control reducing
real running costs and carbon emissions.
·
Ventilation Earth Tubes: The earth tubes provide pre-heat in the winter and pre-cooling in the
summer. During the winter, fresh air is brought into the building via earth tubes providing at least 6°C
temperature gain from the earth. In summer, air is drawn through the earth tubes allowing the air to
lose at least 6°C to the ground. The adoption of earth tubes has allowed for the provision of comfort
cooling in the majority of the occupied spaces.
·
Demand Control Ventilation: Carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors linked to variable volume
controls (VAV) will match supply of ventilation air accurately to occupancy levels thus reducing
wasted energy from absorbed fan power.
·
Daylight Linked Lighting Control: This simply turns the lighting on and off based on preset
daylight levels experienced within the rooms of the Academy thereby reducing the amount of energy
the lights use.
Renewable Energy Technologies: A number of different renewable technologies for energy source
have been considered in compliance with Building Regulations. The outcome suggests the use of
Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP) which taps free heat from the sun that has been absorbed into the
ground. Beneath the surface, the ground stays at a fairly constant temperature, so a GSHP can be used
throughout the year. The GSHP is very efficient with a heating Coefficient of Performance (COP) of 5
and a cooling COP of 4.
97
The environmental section above is a summary of the design with a display of the sustainable
features; the exposed thermal mass, solar panels, solar control glazing and lighting, earth tubes, GSHP
technology, Air Handling Unit (AHU) with heat recovery, rainwater harvesting etc.
Fig. 2 Sustainable Strategies
The sketch above is to further typify pictorially the various sustainable strategies used to achieve the
low carbon design.
2.1
THE VENTILATION STRATEGY
The Academy building is designed to have a mixed mode ventilation strategy which involves the use
of mechanical ventilation systems complemented with natural ventilation.
98
Due to the high levels of traffic noise incident on the proposed Academy, a full natural ventilation
solution would not be compliant with the Building Bulletins. However, the mixed mode option offers
the best of both worlds for the Academy; an energy efficient, acoustically compliant mechanical
ventilation system, which should occupants wish, can automatically switch to a natural ventilation
system when external conditions (temperatures and noise levels) allow.
Full mechanical ventilation is provided in areas where acoustics, room function or occupancy limits
the application of mixed mode ventilation. Where installed, mechanical ventilation systems are
designed to incorporate heat recovery and be low velocity systems to reduce absorbed fan power.
The Building Bulletin identifies the principles that should be adopted to provide a well-ventilated
space that performs both in summer and winter operation whilst recognising the need to avoid
excessive use of power and fuel in order to achieve this requirement.
The mechanical ventilation strategy employs the use of earth tubes to provide free cooling in summer
and free heating in winter. Two earth tubes located north of the Academy enter the building and rise
to roof level within a dedicated intake riser which feeds fresh air to the roof mounted AHUs.
Actuated vents at the top of the atrium shall be open/ close automatically to allow warm air rising due
to buoyancy to exit the space. The vents will be controlled via temperature and CO2 located within
the Heart space.
Supply air from the roof mounted AHUs is ducted vertically through risers before running
horizontally within the ceiling voids to serve individual spaces.
To control the amount of air being supplied and extracted from the spaces a variable air volume
(VAV) system will be employed. Duct mounted VAV boxes will be located on both the supply and
extract duct branches serving each room. The VAV boxes will be linked to both temperature and CO2
sensors to automatically control the ventilation flow rate. The system will be directly linked back to
the roof mounted AHU fan inverters to control the air flow and reduce fan energy consumption
accordingly.
Duct mounted attenuators will be provided after the VAV boxes to prevent noise breakout from the
dampers digressing into the occupied spaces.
Supply air is fed to the classrooms via fabric ducts installed above services rafts. Air is extracted via
extract grilles under the pull of the air handling unit and passed through a heat recovery unit in the
plant where recovered heat is
·
·
·
Earth tube from below
Main Supply duct in riser
Fabric supply duct below raft
99
·
·
·
Services raft contains fittings
AHUs on the roof
Extract grilles on extract duct
Generally, in the teaching spaces, a light on the classroom wall indicates to the building users that
external temperatures are such that switching to natural ventilation mode will maintain comfort whilst
saving energy. The window is manually opened and the CO2 sensor notices the drop in room CO2
levels resulting from the natural ventilation inflow. The damper in the mechanical supply duct shuts
off and the fan in the air handling unit ramps down accordingly. Air is exhausted from the space via
crosstalk attenuators and extracted naturally via attenuated louvers from the top of the atria.
The exposed concrete soffits in the learning basis provide further free cooling to the space, taking up
to 1oC of peak internal temperatures.
2.2
THE HEATING AND COOLING STRATEGY
Whilst air temperature fluctuates from day to night and season to season, the high heat capacity of the
ground means it's at a fairly constant temperature of 12oC. Therefore the Academy summertime
cooling, comfort and sustainability strategy focuses on harvesting cooling from the ground and
transferring this into the building. The primary means of extracting cooling from the ground are by
using GSHP and the earth tubes.
The GSHP (100 kW) is connected to an array of boreholes which circulate water to a depth of
approximately 100m below the ground. The water picks up coolth (cooling mode) or heat (while in
heating mode) from the ground, upgrades it to suitable temperatures for a cooling or heating systems
and transfer into the Academy building. The ground source heat pump generates 4 units of Cooling
for every unit of electricity consumed, has minimal maintenance issues and provides a very energy
and carbon efficient source of cooling.
Earthtubes are concrete drainage pipes of approximately 1m diameter, 40m length and 3m below the
ground. Five earthtubes have been used on the project to pre-cool the supply air. Air is drawn through
the earthtubes at about 3 m/s to induce some turbulence allowing coolth from the ground to be
transferred to the air. Air is then cooled further in the air handling units and supplied to the Academy.
The earthtubes reduce overall heating energy consumption by 10% per annum.
3.0
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
A computer based IES thermal model was used in determining the heating and cooling loads. IES is
an industry approved modelling package which enables the annual energy consumption of a building
to be predicted. The software performs a dynamic analysis on a model of the building calculating
energy loads over the year using inputted information such as U-values and room geometry in
addition to published weather data.
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U values are weighted U values as follows
100
Table 1 U-values for Building Element
The U-values used represent 20% improvement on the current Building Regulations. This
improvement was achievable due to the increased levels of quantity and quality of polyurethane
insulation in the fabric.
The internal gains for a classroom have been assumed as;
Occupants = 32 @ 90W per person
Computers = 4 @ 100W each
Small Power = 5W/m2
Lighting = 8.25W/m2 with daylight linked dimming.
The major criteria used in determining energy efficient building is by calculating CO2 emissions for
a 'notional' building of the same size and location as the proposed. The Building Emissions Rate
(BER) which is the estimated value of CO2 emmisions for the proposed building using actual design
data is compared with the Target Emissions Rate (TER). The TER is obtained a formula similar to
that for a school.
To demonstrate that the requirement of Building Regulation is met, the actual building's BER must be
no greater than the TER.
Compliance under this method is achieved when the annual carbon emissions of the designed building
(BER = 9.6 kgCO2/m2.annum) are NOT greater than those from target emission rate (TER = 23.9
kgCO2/m2.annum
101
Table 2 Energy Consumption by End Use
* Energy used by equipment does not count in the total for calculating emissions.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Sustainable design emphasises the protection of the environment and meeting the needs of the society.
A sustainable building affords increased functionality and improved comfort through a combination
of improved technology, innovative ideas and proven practices.
The Enterprise South Liverpool Academy (ESLA) design is a sustainable one; it benefited from
proper site orientation by allowing for south facing windows and solar panels to maximise air and
water heating in winter.
The application of mixed mode ventilation, demand control ventilation, earth tube technology,
Ground Source Heat Pumps etc. are improved and sustainable technologies geared towards reducing
energy use and CO2 emissions. The result is that the Building Emissions Rate (BER) is 9.6
kgCO2/m2.annum is less than the Target Emissions Rate (TER) of 23.9 kgCO2/m2.annum
Suitable materials or combination of materials with improved U values have been employed primarily
to reduce heat loss. The use of exposed thermal mass to act as a heat sink during occupied periods in
winter and the removal of heat load in summer are all efforts made to guarantee heat conservation and
comfort.
Demand control ventilation strategy aimed to achieve desired internal comfort during occupied times.
The use of Variable Air Volume (VAV) boxes and CO2 sensors are all innovations to ensure an
energy efficient design.
It is hoped that many more similar designs as that of Enterprise South Liverpool Academy (ESLA)
would have curbed to some the extent the increasing Green House Gas (GHG) emissions.
REFERENCES
Building Design Partnership (2011) Environmental Engineering Design Report Contractor's Proposal.
Manchester, United Kingdom.
Carter & Burgess, (2007) Technically Speaking. www.c-b.com/ IndustryInfo/ infoBrief/
sustainableDesign/ index.asp
Klustner, K. (2007) The Six Degrees of Building Efficiency. http:// greenerbuildings.com
United Kingdom Government (2010) Building Bulletin.
United Kingdom Government (2010) Building Regulations.
102
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF UP-FLOW BIOREACTOR WITH CENTRAL
SUBSTRATE DISPENSER AND ANAEROBIC SLUDGE BLANKET REACTOR: ORGANIC
MUNICIPAL WASTE TREATMENT
1C. Ononogbo, 2C. I. Osuchukwu, 3E. Obaseki, 4K. N. Nwaigwe,
5E. E. Anyanwu
1,2Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo,
Imo State, Nigeria.
3,4,5School of Engineering and Engineering Technology,
Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.
ABSTRACT
Experimental investigation of anaerobic digestion process of organic municipal waste (OMW) was
conducted in a test rig of a pilot-scale Up-flow Bioreactor with Central Substrate Dispenser
(UBCSD) and an Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB). The two bioreactors are
components of an integrated system of bioreactors assembled systematically to achieve desired
results. The UBCSD consists of two similar size bioreactors (B2and B3) joined by a central substrate
dispenser (CSD). The internal volumes of UBCSD and UASB are 64.8litres and 76litres respectively.
The UBCSD utilized the CSD as its inherent feature to help generate an up-flow, down-flow and
cross-flow pattern of the working substrate during its operation with a view to enhancing substrate
mixing effectiveness. Hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 10-days was studied at a mesophilic
temperature of 370 C. An influent COD concentration of 120,320 mg/l was utilized. COD reduction
was measured daily while biogas production for the reactors was recorded every six (6) hours. In
terms of the percentage COD removal, the amount recorded was 95.2 %.for UBCSD and 79.0 % for
UASB. The values of the first order kinetic constant (k) of COD for UBCSD and UASB are 0.2857
and 0.147 respectively. The cumulative biogas production of 52915 ml and 23550 ml were recorded
for UBCSD and UASB. Modified Gompertz and Fenton's first order kinetic models were used to
describe the biogas production and COD reduction. A biogas production lag phase of 12 hours was
achieved for the reactor during the experimental phase due to the novel use of freshly slaughtered
cow rumen content as inoculum.
Keywords: Anaerobic, Organic, Cross-flow, bioreactor, Chemical Oxygen Demand, substrate,
biogas yield.
INTRODUCTION
Bioreactors are defined as any manufactured or engineered device that supports a biologically active
environment (Naught and Wilkson, 1997). They are commonly cylindrical in configuration, and are
often made of stainless steel. The design of bioreactors is quite a complex engineering task. Under
optimum conditions the microorganisms or cells will reproduce at an astounding rate. The vessel's
environmental conditions like gas flowrates, temperature, pH, and agitation speed need to be closely
monitored and controlled. Lack of adequate bioreactor technology was the major cause of poor
performance of these earlier forms of biomethanation (Kale, 2003). The potential of biogas
technology despite its numerous advantages could not be fully harnessed or tapped as certain
constraints are also associated with it, Yadvika et al., (2004). Some of the major challenges associated
with most conventional bioreactors are flow and mixing problems, temperature, pH, organic loading
rate (OLR), etc. Fluid flow/mixing efficiency is one of the most significant factors affecting reactor
performance and scale-up requirements. Bonvillani et al. (2006). Many substrates and various modes
of fermentation require some sort of substrate agitation or mixing in order to maintain process
103
stability within the digester. The purpose of mixing in a digester is to blend the fresh material with
digestate containing microbes. Cibrowski (2004), reports that agitation in CSTR increases the rate of
heat transfer in a digester, resulting in generation of biogas with methane content as high as 79.6%.
Furthermore, mixing prevents scum formation and avoids temperature gradients within the digester
and provides a uniform bacterial population density, Kossmann et al. (1999). Many biogas plants
today are not functioning satisfactorily, while some have gone out of operation due to low mixing
efficiency. Europe and Russia also experienced high farm digester failure rates (Lusk, 1997). Some of
the reactors Agulannna (2012) reported their falure in Nigeria are as follows:
a.
Cow dung biogas plant at May Flower Secondary School, Ikene, Ogun State.
b.
The pig waste biogas plant at Ojokoro Cooperative Agricultural Society, Lagos.
c.
Biogas plant at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, etc.
Their failure was attributed to some technical problems, especially inappropriate substrate flow
dynamics. (RISEAT, 1998) reports that the kind of mixing equipment as well as amount of mixing
varies with the type of reactor and the solids content in the digester and that excessive mixing can
disrupt the microbes. It is also noteworthy that the process of bio-methanation is very sensitive to
changes in temperature. If the temperature of the biomass is below 150C, gas production will be so
slow that the biogas plant is no longer economically feasible, Kossmann et al. (1999). According to
Wales Centre of Excellence for Anaerobic Digestion, mesophilic bacteria have an optimal
temperature for growth between 300C and 400C but typically around 350C. These microbes hardly
survive when they are exposed to temperatures beyond the mesophilic range. According to Gong
(2007) the microbes die when the temperature rises up to 500C.
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
The objective of this research was to investigate and compare the performances of UBCSD and
UASB reactor for the treatment of Organic Municipal Waste (OMW). Two kinetic models were used
to predict the behaviour of the reactors in terms of biogas production and COD removal viz, modified
Gompertz and Fenton's first order kinetic models.
UBCSD FEATURES, DESCRIPTION AND PROCESSES
Unlike the UASB reactor, the UBCSD is a recent research development which has been proven to be
workable. Basically, the idea is simply its use of inherent features to solve some of the flow problems
associated with the conventional bioreactor by its central substrate dispenser (CSD). It is envisaged
that this component will help enhance effluent stabilization, biogas production, and consequently pave
way for reduction in maintenance requirement problems. The basic function of the CSD unit labeled
D in figure 1 is to generate an up-flow, down-flow and cross-flow pattern of the substrate within the
twin bioreactors to which it is connected via horizontal pipe fittings so that adequate mixing of the
substrate will continuously be achieved. The dispenser has a volume of 8litres while each of the twin
reactor vessels has a volume of 28.4litres (total volume, 64.8litres). The test rig of the bioreactor setup consists of the UBCSD, UASB and other components such as: (i) Reservoir tank (ii) Feeder tank
(iii) Valves, centrifugal and recirculation pumps (iv) Gas collectors (v) Pressure gauges (vi) Heating
elements (vii) Control panel and effluent disposal system (EDS) as seen in figure 1.
104
The reservoir tank is stationed on the floor and is basically where the mixture of the organic municipal
waste (OMW) and water (i.e. the slurry) is filled. It is connected to the feeder tank (A) by the aid of
pipe fittings. A centrifugal pump (P1 in figure 1) of specification :(MAR QUIS MKF), 0.2kw, 5m3/s
discharge is used to pump the substrate from the reservoir tank into the feeder tank via an
interconnecting pipe. The pump also comes in handy when occasion calls for the cleaning and
flushing of the bioreactor vessels and pipe fittings. This time, water is used as the fluid to achieve this
goal. The feeder tank is positioned at an altitude considerably higher than the level at which the
reactors are placed so that the substrate can be easily inducted into the UASB as well as the twin
bioreactor vessels- UBCSD under the influence of gravity. Electromagnetic recirculation pumps (P2
and P3) with maximum discharge of 450ml/min (0.027m3/h) and discharge pressure of 0.2MPa
respectively were employed for the two reactors. The valves (labeled X) are used in this bioreactor
system to help regulate the flow of substrate within the biogas plant by opening, closing, or
obstructing various passageways at appropriate times. The biogas collectors (C1, C2 and C3) help to
remove as much as possible the biogas produced within the biogas plant and pressure gauges are
mounted at the top of the bioreactor vessels to help monitor the pressure levels of the biogas produced
during the fermentation process in the bioreactors. Also, an instrument panel was incorporated whose
function was to control the operations of the components of the biogas system such as the feeder and
recirculation pumps, the thermostat, the temperature probe, etc,. The thermostat used was of the
specification – JTC 903, 0-400 0C for the control of temperature. It receives an electrical input signal
from the temperature probe of specification T-CU/Ni 0-4000C inserted inside the bioreactor.
UPFLOW ANAEROBIC SLUDGE BLANKET REACTOR- UASB
The upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (UASB) process is known to be energy conservative
biotechnology. Its low cost and low skill requirement render it to be a viable technology for reducing
organic pollution loads (Venkatesh et al, 2013). The specific features in the reactor are a sludge bed
zone, sludge blanket zone and a granular zone. It does not require heavy mechanical agitation rather
the agitation it experiences is that from produced gas. The use of (UASB) is a great strategy to
achieve high COD removal efficiency in a short period of time (Najafpour et al., 2009). In the case of
COD removal efficiency, (UASB) is reported to have up to 78% for the treatment of pulp waste water.
This reactor is represented as B1 in figure 1 above.
105
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The substrate used in this study is Organic Municipal Waste (OMW), a fraction of Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW) obtained from Ekeonunwa Market, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. This waste underwent
pretreatment by sorting. The separation ensured removal of undesirable or recyclable materials such
as glass, metals, stones etc. The removal of the inert fraction of MSW which contains stones, glass,
sand, metal, etc prior to digestion is important as otherwise it increases digester volume and wear of
equipment. The analysis of a sample of the MSW gives components by weight of the material as
presented in table 1.
Table 1. Content of Municipal Solid Wasted (MSW) sourced from Owerri Central Market.
The resulting material after separation (OMW) is then dried in order to make it moisture-free for the
sake of preserving it from unwanted decomposition. The dry material was milled to about 500µm size
and stored at room temperature. The study was carried out in Projects Development Institute
(PRODA), Enugu Nigeria and the following parameters were examined: Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD), Viscosity, Density and pH.
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
The Organic Municipal Waste (OMW) was milled into powdered form to produce a 500μm mesh
size. 16 kg of this ground OMW was used to prepare the slurry with 150 litres of distilled water in the
reservoir tank and the substrate was stirred for some time with a mixer in order to achieve
homogeneity. A measured quantity (2 kg) of some substances from the rumen of the digestive system
of a freshly slaughtered cow was mixed with 5litres of distilled water; and after undergoing filtration
through 100μm sieve, the resulting liquid containing 2.1x105 bacteria per milliliter was introduced
into and mixed with the prepared substrate. The mixture of the slurry and the substance from cattle
rumen was then pumped into the feeder tank from the reservoir tank by the aid of the feed pump. To
achieve an anaerobic condition for the fermentation process, the bioreactor vessels were completely
filled with the substrate to ensure that the void spaces were covered to eliminate all particles of air in
the vessel. This de-airing process was achieved with the help of de-airing valves incorporated into the
system. Following the de-airing process a headspace was created within the vessels towards their
uppermost parts where the gaseous products (biogas) of the fermentation process could be
accommodated. This was accomplished by the removal of one (1)litre volume of the substrate from
each of the twin bioreactor vessels as well as from the UASB leaving a vacuum above the substrate
level in each of the reactors and a resulting volume of 62.8litres and 75 litres, respectively. This was
achieved with the aid of the valves and electromagnetic metering pumps. The reactors were allowed
to run without interruption for a period of 10-days at 370C and a recording of the biogas production
was made every six(6) hours. The biogas generated was at each set period liberated into the biogas
106
collector tank made of stainless steel pipe and the results obtained were carefully recorded and
tabulated. The biogas produced in the reactors was recorded as seen in tables 2 and 3, and COD in
table 4.
107
108
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The start-up study revealed a limiting factor on organic loading rate (OLR), that is, the particulate
nature of the substrate, as higher OLR would consequently lead to the clogging of the metering
pumps. To enhance the pumpability of the substrate as well as prevent the clogging of the feeder
pump, the substrate was continuously stirred within the reservoir tank. Biogas production lag phase is
an important parameter in biodigestion of organic wastes. The research carried out by Budiyono et al.,
(2010) reported a lag phase of 7-14 days. But in this work, a lag phase of less than 12 hours was
achieved due to the novel use of rumen content of newly slaughtered cattle as inoculum. Considering
the UBCSD unit, the nature of the substrate during the operation proved to be a success, in that the
combined operations of the metering pump and the central substrate dispenser (D or CSD) resulted in
what could be regarded as a breakthrough in terms of flow situation in bioreactors. The combined
operations of the CSD and the metering pump produced and maintained a fairly homogeneous
substrate front. This was observed by viewing through the transparent hoses connecting the CSD and
the metering pump. The recirculation speed of the metering pump was so controlled that it was not in
any way harmful and unfriendly to the biochemical activities; rather, it helped immensely to check
stalling of the microbial activities, and consequently fouling of the digestion process was prevented.
But in the case of the flow in the UASB, a partial separation of the substrate particles was observed
via transparent hoses connecting the upper part of the UASB vessel and the bottom part. Although the
transparent hoses are not essential parts of the bioreactors, but were attached to the vessels to help
observe the nature of the substrates). From the nature of flow encountered in this UASB unit, it could
be inferred that the substrate front was not homogeneous and that partial sedimentation occurred since
what was continuously recycled was observed to be a substrate front of high watery solution
exhibiting a scanty amount of the actual substrate particles. So, it can be posited that the success
achieved in terms of the flow situation in the UBCSD was as a result of the cross-flow characteristics
obtained by the use of CSD.
KINETIC EQUATIONS FOR ANALYSIS
The modified Gompertz equation as recommended by Yusuf et al (2011) for the evaluation of biogas
yield kinetics from organic wastes is as expressed below:
Bt = Bmax . exp[–exp{(Rb/ Bmax) . e . (l–t)+1}]
………1
Where Bt is cumulative biogas production with time, Bmax is the biogas potential, Rb is the rate of
production of biogas, l is the biogas production lag time, while t is the HRT and e = 2.7183.
Considering the case of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) reduction, Ghosh et al (2011), developed a
model based on Fenton's reaction in first order kinetics as expressed below:
COD(t) = COD(0)e–kt
…......2
ln COD(t) = –kt + ln COD(0)
.…....3
Where COD(t) is the COD at any time t, COD(0) is the influent COD and k is the constant for first
order kinetics. These models as shown in equations 1 and 3 will be used to investigate the
performance of UBCSD in terms of biogas production and COD reduction by employing the use of
MATLAB programme.
The percentage COD removed (%tage COD) as presented in tables 4 is obtained by the relation:
%tage COD = (COD(0)–COD(t))/ COD(0).
…….….4
Where COD(0) is the influent COD or the COD at t = 0, its numerical value is = 120320 mg/l; while
COD(t) = the COD at any time t. The percentage COD removal of 95.2% was recorded as seen in
tables 5. In terms of biogas production, it could be seen from tables 2 and 3 that the total biogas
produced is 52,915ml for UBCSD and 23550 ml for UASB; and that towards the end of the
experiment, the level of biogas produced in the reactors reduced significantly, especially at HRTs
between 168 and 222 hours.
109
ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS WITH MATLAB PROGRAM
The experimental results obtained for the integral reactors were analyzed by the use of MATLAB
programme at various HRTs.
Figure 2. Plot of cumulative biogas production vs HRT (days) for module II (UBCSD)
DETERMINATION OF THE KINETIC PARAMETERS FOR UBCSD
From equation 1, the modified Gompertz model is given by:
Bt = Bmax . exp[–exp{(Rb/Bmax) . e . (l–t)+1}]
Where e = exp(1) = 2.7183. Considering the cumulative biogas plot versus HRT (days), figure 2, we
have the following:
f(x) = 5.344e+004*exp[-exp{0.1712*exp(1)*(0.18 – x) + 1}],
.…5
Where f(x) =B-t , e+004 = 104, and x = t, respectively.
......6
Therefore, Bt = 53440*exp[-exp{0.1712*exp(1)*(0.18 – t) + 1}]
…..7
Thus comparing equations 1 and 7, we have the following results:
Bmax = 53440 ml, Rb/ Bmax = 0.1712 Or Rb = 9148.93 ml/day
For biogas production lag time, we have that: l = 0.18 days. Then for HTR of 10days, t =10
And substituting 10 for t in equation 7, we have that B10 = 51956.2ml
Figure 3. Plot of cumulative biogas production vs HRT (days) for module I (UASB).
110
DETERMINATION OF THE KINETIC PARAMETERS FOR (B1 or UASB)
Considering the cumulative biogas plot versus HRT (days) for UASB reactor, figure 3, we have the
following:
f(x) = 2.362e+004*exp[-exp{0.33929*exp(1)*(0.45 – x) + 1}], .... 8
So, Bt = 23620*exp[-exp{0.33929*exp(1)*(0.45 – t) + 1}]
....9
Thus, comparing equations1 and 9 we have that: Bmax = 23620 ml, Rb/ Bmax = 0.33929 or Rb =
8014.03 ml/day and l= 0.45 days and for t = 10, B10 = 23610.4ml
Considering figures 2 and 3, it can be deduced that the biogas production in the two modules
increased rapidly at HRTs between 2 and 6 days, after which it gradually declined and finally
remained constant towards the end of the experiment; at which time, the reactors were observed to
have stopped producing biogas. The plots in the above figures correspond to goodness of fit (R-square
value) of 0.9926 and 0.9981, respectively. The equations generated by the graphs are analogous to and
can closely be compared with the modified Gompertz model stated in equation 1 above. Thus this
would establish an enabling platform for a convenient evaluation of the kinetic parameters of the
bioreactor. However, comparing the results achieved for cumulative biogas production from the
model equation generated by MATLAB plot with the values obtained from the experiment, we can
see that the numerical values of the kinetic parameters from the Gompertz model (51956.2 and
23610.4ml) can reasonably be approximated to the values of the experimental data tabulated in tables
2 and 3 (52,915 and 23550ml) for the 10 days HRT.
COD REDUCTION IN THE REACTORS
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is a measurement commonly used to determine substrate quality.
The use of (UASB) is a great strategy to achieve high COD removal efficiency in a short period of
time (Najafpour et al., 2009). Organic material content enjoys the greatest percentage in the overall
composition of municipal solid wastes. According to Kuniholm (2002), the organic fraction is 45 t0
50%.The COD reduced from its initial value 120,320 mg/l to 5775.4 mg/l for UBCSD and 24,343.0
mg/l for UASB at the HRT of 10 day as seen in table 4. A MATLAB plot of InCOD versus HRT
(days) for UBCSD using a linear regression approach is seen in Fig, 4. The equation generated from
Fig. 4 closely conforms to equation 3 as seen below:
f(x) = -0.2857x + 12.1
…8
Where f(x) = InCOD(t), x = t and R-square value = 0.9178
Hence, substituting for f(x) and x in equation 8, we have:
InCOD(t) = -0.2857t + 12.1
…9
Comparing equations 3 and 9, gives the value for kinetic parameters:
InCOD(0)= 12.1 and k = 0.2857.
111
The plot of InCOD versus HRT (days) for UASB (figure 5) gives the following equation:
y = -0.147x + 12.094 and InCOD(t) = -0.147t + 12.094
……10
Hence, InCOD(0)= 12.094 and k = 0.147.
The values for the first order kinetic constant (k) of COD is 0.2857 and 0.147. k is an important
parameter which is used as a measure of the rate at which the substrate COD is reduced. A careful
consideration of the k- value obtained in relation to the COD reduction in the reactor, shows that
substrate stabilization improves ask increases.
The above plot, figure 6 shows the combine plot of cumulative biogas produced versus hydraulic
retention time for UBCSD and UASB using the values in table 5.
CONCLUSIONS
The investigation conducted reveals that the biogas production as well as the treatability of the OMW
using the UBCSD was a success given the results achieved. Realizing the fact that UBCSD exhibits a
smaller overall volume, and comparing its performance with the UASB reactor at the end of the
experiment, it can conveniently be said that the biogas production achieved in the UBCSD is more
than 50% than that achieved in the UASB. The UBCSD proved to be very efficient for the
achievement of high COD removal.The reactor generated a much higher level of biogas production
cumulatively with the value of 52915 ml and percentage COD removal of 95.2% compared to the
UASB reactor with the results, 23550ml and 79.0 %, respectively at the HRT of 10 days.
Interestingly, the percentage COD reduction achieved in the UBCSD is in close proximity to the
report given by Trosh and Holler (2001) that the combination of a bioreactor and microfiltration
112
allowed for a high COD reduction of 95%. Thus, the success accomplished in terms of biogas
production and COD reduction is due the use of UBCSD which is in concord with the research
findings published by Unger et al (2000) that substrate flow and mixing in bioreactors have significant
effect on the overall performance of bioreactors.
113
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organic loading rates. Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB,
Nobelstr. 12, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany. J Biotechnol. 2001 Dec 28;92(2):95-101.
Unger, D.R., Muzzio, F.J., Unions, J.G., and Singhvi, R. (2000) Computational and Environmental
Investigation of Flow and Fluid Mixing in the roller bottle bioreactor. John Wiley & Sons. Inc. Vol.
70. Issue 2, Pages 117- 150
Vandevivere, P., De Baere, L. and Verstraete, W. (1999) Unpublished manuscript. (Available in
www.biogasworks.com).
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Sludge Blanket Reactor Treating Low-Strength Wastewater Inoculated With Non-Granular Sludge.
Yadvika., Santosh., T.Z . Sreekrishna., S. Kohli., V. Rana (2004) Enhancement of Biogas Production
from Solid substrates using different techniques. Science Direct, Biosource Technology Volume 95,
Issue 1, October 2004, Pages 1-10.
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Biogas Production from Co-digestion of Horse and Cow Dung: Res. Agr Engineering, Vol 57, N0
3:97-104.
115
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND
AGGREGATE/CEMENT RATIO FOR CONCRETES MADE WITH UNWASHED LOCAL
GRAVEL
1Umeonyiagu Ikechukwu Etienne, 2Ukwuoma .F. Ugochukwu
1Dept. of Civil Engineering,
Anambra State University, Uli.
2Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology
Imo State Polytechnic, Umuagwo
ABSTRACT
The aim of this report is to determine the relationship between compressive strength and
aggregate/cement ratio of concrete made with unwashed local gravel from Abagana in Anambra
State. By varying the aggregate/cement ratios, concrete cubes of dimensions 150mm were made at
water/cement ratios of 0.6 and 0.575 by weight respectively. These cubes were then tested for their
compressive strengths. The result showed that the compressive strengths decreased parabolically with
increase in the aggregate/cement ratio. The regression equations of the graphs were polynomials of
the second order. A Fisher's test was used to prove the validity of these equations and the null
hypothesis was accepted.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is composed mainly of three materials, namely cement, water, coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, and an additional material, known as an admixture, is sometimes added to modify certain
of its properties. Cement is the chemically active constituent but its reactivity is only brought into
effect on mixing with water. The aggregate plays no part in chemical reactions but its usefulness
arises because it is an economical filler material with good resistance to volume changes which take
place within the concrete after mixing, and it improves the durability of the concrete[1]. Aggregates
can be grouped into fine aggregates and coarse aggregates. The fine aggregates, often called sand, are
not larger than 5 mm or 3/16 in., and the coarse aggregates, comprise materials at least 5 mm or 3/16
in. in size [2].
2.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
2.1
PREPARATION, CURING AND TESTING OF BEAM SAMPLES
The aggregates were sampled in accordance with the methods prescribed in BS 812: Part 1:1975 [3].
The test sieves were selected according to BS 410:1986 [4]. The water absorption, the apparent
specific gravity and the bulk density of the coarse aggregates were determined following the
procedures prescribed in BS 812: Part 2: 1975 [5]. The Los Angeles abrasion test was carried out in
accordance with ASTM. Standard C131: 1976 [6]. The sieve analyses of the fine and coarse aggregate
samples were done in accordance with BS 812: Part 1: 1975 [3] and satisfied BS 882:1992 [7]. The
sieving was performed by a sieve shaker. The water used in preparing the experimental samples
satisfied the conditions prescribed in BS 3148:1980 [8]. The required concrete cubes of dimensions
150mm were made in threes in accordance with the method specified in BS 1881: 108:1983 [9]. Table
1 shows the experimental ratios used at water/cement ratios, w/c of 0.6 and 0.575. These specimens
were cured for 28 days in accordance with BS 1881: Part 111: 1983 [10]. The testing was done in
accordance with BS 1881: Part 116:1983 [11] using compressive testing machine.
116
2.2
TESTING THE FIT OF THE QUADRATIC POLYNOMIALS
The polynomial regression equations developed were tested for adequacy using the Student's t-test
[12] [13]. The null hypothesis denoted by H0 assumed that the predicted values and the
experimentally-obtained values of the compressive strengths did not vary significantly. The
alternative hypothesis, H1 assumed otherwise. If the null hypothesis is accepted, then the equations
will be taken as adequate.
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
Sieve analyses of both the fine and coarse aggregates were performed and the grading curves shown
in figures 1 and 2. These grading curves showed the particle size distribution of the aggregates. The
maximum aggregate size for the local gravel was 53 mm and 2mm for the fine sand. The local gravel
had water absorption of 4.55%, moisture content of 53.25 %, apparent specific gravity of 1.88, Los
Angeles abrasion value of 60% and bulk density of 1302.7 kg/m3.
117
3.2 THE REGRESSION EQUATIONS FOR THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
RESULTS
TESTS
The graph of compressive strength against aggregate/cement ratio for w/c = 0.6 is shown in fig. 3. The
equation of the graph is y = 0.2371x2 – 4.5143x + 32.202, where y represents the compressive
strength measured in N/mm2 and x, the aggregate/cement ratio. The regression analysis of the data
118
gives the coefficient of determination, R2 = 0.7482. For w/c = 0.575, the regression equation is y = 0.0969x2 - 1.4121x + 26.583 and R2 = 0.892. The high values of R2 show a very strong relationship.
Figure 4 Compressive Strength Vs Aggregate/cement Ratio [w/c=0.575]
3.3
FISHER'S TEST
Table 2 shows the output of the F-test analysis for w/c of 0.6. With the alpha = 0.5 and degree of
freedom, df = 5, F = 1.336 and Fcritical = 5.05. Since F is less than F critical, the null hypothesis is
true and the regression equation adequate. The probability of the experimental y and theoretical y
having the same diversity, P(F<=f) one-tail is 0.379. Table 3 shows the output of the F-test analysis
for w/c of 0.575. With the alpha = 0.5 and degree of freedom, df = 8, F = 1.121 and Fcritical = 3.438.
Since F is less than F critical, the null hypothesis is true and the regression equation adequate. The
probability of the experimental y and theoretical y having the same diversity, P(F<=f) one-tail is
0.438.
119
4.0
CONCLUSIONS
The relationship between the compressive strength of the unwashed local gravel and the
aggregate/cement ratio is a polynomial of the second-order.
The compressive strength decreases parabolically with increase in the aggregate/cement ratio.
Since the values of F are less than F critical one-tail, these regression equations are adequate.
The probability of the experimental y and theoretical y having the same diversity, P(F<=f) one-tail is
0.438.
REFERENCE
ASTM. Standard C 131 (1976) Tests for Resistance to Abrasion of Small Size Coarse Aggregate by
Use of the Los Angeles Machine. American Society for Testing and Materials Publication, New York
.
British Standard 1881 Part 108 Method for making test cubes from fresh concrete. British Standards
Institution Publication, London, 1983.
British Standard 1881 Part 111 Method of normal curing of test specimens (20 oC). British Standards
Institution Publication, London, 1983.
British Standard 1881 Part 116 Method for determination of compressive strength of concrete cubes.
British Standards Institution Publication, London, 1983.
BS 3148 (1980) Tests for water for making concrete. British Standards Institution Publication,
London.
BS 410 (1986) Specification for test sieves. British Standards Institution Publication, London .
BS 812 (1975) Part 1 Sampling, shape, size and classification. Methods for sampling and testing of
mineral aggregates, sands and fillers. British Standards Institution Publication, London.
BS 812 (1975) Part 2 Methods for sampling and testing of mineral aggregates, sands and fillers.
Physical properties. British Standards Institution Publication, London .
BS 882 (1992) Specification for aggregates from natural sources for concrete. British Standards
Institution Publication, London.
Devore, Jay L. (1995) Probability and Statistics for Engineering and the Sciences. 4th ed. Wadsworth
Publishing.
Jackson, N. and Dhir, R. K., (1988) Civil Engineering Materials, Macmillan, Hampshire RG21 2XS,
England.
Neville, A. M., (1995) Properties of Concrete, Third Edition, Pitman, London.
Sokal, Robert R., and F. James Rohlf (1995) Biometry: The Principles and Practice of Statistics in
Biological Research. 2nd ed. New York: W. H. Freeman.

NATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE, SCIENCE AND

Transcription

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