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Saint Petersburg
UNIVERSITY
HIC TUTA PERENNAT
ST. PETERSBURG
UNIVERSITY
AT A GLANCE
F
DEAR FRIENDS,
or more than 290 years, St. Petersburg
University has been committed to advancing
science, generating knowledge and training
outstanding professionals. The University is
rich in history — it dates back to 1724, when Peter
the Great founded the Academy of Sciences and Arts
as well as the first Academic University in Russia.
The famous SPbU alumni are the source of pride
and dignity, which inspires us to excel and maximise
our potential in research and education. Among our
alumni and staff, there is an extraordinary number
of worldfamous people, in particular, Nobel Prize
winners: physiologist Ivan Pavlov, biologist Ilya
Mechnikov, physical chemist Nikolay Semyonov,
physicists Lev Landau and Aleksandr Prokhorov,
mathematician and economist Leonid Kantorovich.
SPbU is also an alma mater of outstanding
researchers, scholars, academics, political and social
leaders: Dmitry Mendeleev, Vladimir Vernadsky, and
Dmitry Likhachev to name but a few. The world owes
to our University most prominent cultural leaders,
writers and artists: Ivan Turgenev, Pavel Bryullov,
Alexander Blok, Alexander Benois, Sergei Diaghilev,
and Igor Stravinsky. Among the University alumni, we
are also proud to mention the leaders of the Russian
Government: Boris Sturmer, Alexander Kerensky,
Vladimir Lenin, Presidents of the Russian Federation
Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev.
Today, three centuries after it was established,
SPbU is striving, as before, to lead research and
education on a national and global scale. By bringing
together traditions and innovations, St. Petersburg
University sets the pace for development of science,
education and culture in Russia and across the world.
SPbU fully equips its students and staff for
the best of the diverse range of opportunities for
education, research and personal development: the
richest Research Library named after M. Gorky, a
state-of-the-art Research Park, laboratories headed
by leading scientists, museums, a publishing house,
sports clubs, a University choir, orchestras, drama
and dance studios and so on.
In November 2009, President of the Russian
Federation Dmitry Medvedev signed a law granting
St. Petersburg University and Moscow State
University the special status of ‘unique scientific
and educational complexes, the oldest institutions of
higher education in Russia being of great importance
to the development of the Russian society’. SPbU was
granted a privilege to set its own education standards
and award its own diplomas.
Discover the first Russian University now.
Welcome to SPbU!
Yours respectfully,
SPbU Rector
Nikolay KROPACHEV
CONTENTS:
IN FOCUS
5
13
13
17
The Future is Near
What is the future of
science?
Geomorphologists in the
Extreme North
Why should we study the
relief of the Arctic?
To "See" and to "Catch" an
Elementary Particle
SPbU scientists explore
unique pixel detectors
RESEARCH PARK
40
SCIENCE-LUNCH
43
SIENCE AND PRACTICE
20
17
“Real” Law in the
“Virtual” World
Protecting the rights of
users for magic crystals
RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
24
SPbU Scientists Are Harvesting Facebook
Psychologists to study
textual traces
27
Chemical “Architectonics”
and Synthesis
of New Nanomaterials
Capabilities of the
computer and the human
28
When the Important
Is on the Surface
NanoLAB makes it possible
to examine properties
of the atom
SPbU is to Lead a
Revolution in Technology
Are we in for a
breakthrough in data
transmission?
36
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
45
A Time to Gather Stones
SPbU students know
how to save important
architectural sites
of St Petersburg
43
GUEST APPEARANCE
50
"Museums Are More
Efficient Than Politics"
Yuliya Arkadyevna Kupina,
a graduate of Leningrad
State University,
on her work as Deputy
Director at the Museum
of Anthropology and
Ethnography of the Russian
Academy of Sciences
45
GRANTS
31
Investigation Held by
Geneticists
How genome research
helps to save rare species
36
31
2
“Hot” Research Pursuits
SPbU scholars study the
ideological bases of Islamic
movements
50
3
IN FOCUS
Alexander KNYSH,
Head of SPbU
Research Laboratory
for Analysis and Modelling
of Social Processes,
Professor at the University
of Michigan
(the USA)
IN FOCUS
Andrei
ASTVATSATUROV,
Candidate of Philology,
writer, Associate
Professor at SPbU
Alexey Kavokin,
Head of the SPbU
Spin Optics Laboratory
named after I.N. Uraltsev,
Professor at the
University of
Southampton (UK)
Ilya A. VASILEV,
Candidate of Law,
Associate Professor at SPbU
(Department
of the Theory and History
of the State
and Law)
THE FUTURE IS NEAR
Prof. Lyudmila
GROMOVA, Doctor
of Philology, Head of the
Department of History of
Journalism, member of the
Russian Union
of Journalists
4
Sergey PETROV,
Candidate of Physics
and Mathematics, Associate
Professor at SPbU
(Department
of Astronomy)
Tatyana ROMANOVA,
Candidate of Political
Science, Associate
Professor at SPbU
(Department of European
Studies)
A famous American inventor and futurist Raymond
Kurzweil once said that the 21st century would see a lot
more discoveries than the ten previous ones. It remains
to be seen whether the forecast was true. As the course
of science is unpredictable, the majority of scientists are
not fond of making forecasts. The progress, however, is
increasing as well as the amount of knowledge. First-year
students of today will get their diplomas in the reality of
new data and technologies. SPbU scientists and researchers shared their expectations on what changes
await their field of knowledge in the next decade.
Alla LAPIDUS,
Senior Researcher,
Associate Director of SPbU
Center for Algorithmic
Biotechnology,
a PhD in Molecular
Biology
Prof. Larisa TSVETKOVA,
Doctor of Psychology
(Department
of Social Psychology),
Head of SPbU Center for
Expert Advice
Yury CHERNOFF,
Head of the SPbU
Laboratory of Amyloids
Biology, Professor
of Biology at Georgia
Institute of Technology
(Atlanta, USA)
5
IN FOCUS
Alexey KAVOKIN,
Head of the SPbU Spin
Optics Laboratory
named after I. N. Uraltsev,
Professor at the University
of Southampton (UK),
“T
he development of
science is driven by
consumer demand.
The proliferation
of the Internet and mobile
technology has had a profound
impact on the development of
physics in the last decade. Among
recent technological advances
capable of producing a visible
effect on consumer demand
and, consequently, research and
development are, to my mind,
personal air vehicles. Jet packs
will hit the market as early as
2016. It is just a beginning. I am
almost sure that in some ten
years personal air vehicles will
count millions, if not dozens of
millions of items. In the longterm anyone would be able
to flutter from one balcony to
another, to stop on the way in
some attic and steal pastry from
unsuspecting landladies — just
like the famous Karlsson.
In crystal optics, my field
of interest, I expect two major
breakthroughs. The first one will
draw less public attention than the
second one. The first advance is the
advent of bosonic optoelectronic
6
IN FOCUS
devices. Up to now, all the devices
we have use electrically charged
elementary particles — the
electrons. Electrons follow the
Fermi-Dirac distribution, which
means, for example, that no two
electrons can share quantum state
with a certain velocity vector.
In bosonic devices electrons
will be replaced by electrically
neutral quasiparticles — excitons
or polaritons. These particles
are bosons, that is they follow
Bose–Einstein statistics. Unlike
fermions, bosons can condense
into the same energy state. These
condensates of bosons are likely
to march into our lives as new
lasers, optical computers, screens,
sensors, etc. Bosonic devices will
consume ten times less energy,
they will be smaller in size and
less heavy.
The second long-awaited
breakthrough seems less
significant, but will not go
unnoticed. The last decade has
seen a rapid development of
science of metamaterials — manmade materials with unusual
optical properties. They already
have pretty decent quality. One
of the remarkable applications of
metamaterials is an invisibility
cloak. At the start, it will not be a
cloak, but rather a box. Just think
of an absolutely transparent,
invisible box. Any object placed
into this box becomes invisible. In
fact, this is not much of a miracle
or a scientific discovery. Already
in the 18th century skillful
craftsmen used a set of mirrors
to make objects disappear. This is
just what we can see in the 1984
Russian movie Formula of Love.
The new invisible cloaks will use
the same principle with a few
improvements — the perfection of
metamaterials.
And, finally, one more thing
— I would like to talk about
what is not going to happen. I
have a profound conviction that
in the next five to ten years,
despite massive investments,
scientists will not be able to
develop a quantum computer.
On the other hand, we are sure
to see new models of traditional
computers: analog computers,
optical computers, spin-based
computers…”
Prof. Larisa
TSVETKOVA, Doctor of
Psychology (Department
of Social Psychology),
Head of SPbU Center for
Expert Advice,
must admit that modeling how it
works does not ensure complete
understanding of human psyche.
However, this knowledge is
absolutely essential if psychology
is to move forward.
Moreover, as I study
psychological health and wellness,
I see that this topic has been
actively presented at many latest
world congresses on psychology.
Though it is hardly reasonable
to expect any theoretical
breakthroughs in this field, more
applied research is likely to appear
— how to improve the quality of
life in corporate environments,
of teenagers and elderly people,
of those with an active lifestyle
or receiving hospital treatment.
People not only want to be healthy,
they also want to be happy!”
“T
hough making
forecasts is not a
rewarding task, I
would say certain
discoveries may occur on the
interface of psychology and
genetics or epigenetics — the
argument about nature and
nurture components to human
psyche and behaviour has been
ongoing and psychogenetic
research on social and biological
aspects sets out to answer this
very question. A megagrant project
supervised by Elena Grigorenko is
just one example of such a study.
I should also mention largescale studies of human brain now
in progress all over the world
(Blue Brain Project, Human Brain
Project, The Brain Initiative).
They pursue a diversity of goals:
to model brain architecture and
its functions, design a model of
artificial intelligence, find ways to
fight neurodegenerative diseases
such as, for example, Alzheimer's.
The first two tasks seem almost
impossible to solve, however, the
efforts are likely to produce a
great advance in 20 years time.
When talking about the brain, we
Aexander KNYSH,
Head of SPbU Research
Laboratory for Analysis
and Modelling of Social
Processes, Professor at
the University of Michigan
(the USA),
«I
am sure the future
belongs to polydisciplinarity and
breadth of scope. For
students making their first steps
in science poly-disciplinarity in
humanities is a purely abstract
notion. What is meant is the
researcher’s scope and the use of
comparative historical analysis.
If you are a sinologist, it makes
sense to compare the history of
China with the history if India
or even Russia. This allows to
discern some peculiarities of a
country which otherwise would
go unnoticed. Moreover, these
states were developing in common
geopolitical space, where goods
and ideas would be constantly
exchanged. Take the pelmeni
(Russian dumplings) — they made
an exciting journey from China
through Italy and then to Russia.
Young researchers have to be
aware of the links connecting
communities and historical
processes.
The next few years will see
the rise of statistical surveys and
digital processing of massive
datasets — data mining. It is a good
thing that young Russian people
are up-to-date with technology.
Technology is the future of not
only exact sciences, but also
humanities and social sciences.
This is going to constitute a
challenge for the new generation
— they will have to prove that
these fields of knowledge are
able to integrate and effectively
utilize information technologies.
We are used to careful, sustained
interpretation of any text — close
reading. In the nearest future
it will be partially replaced by
distant reading, which makes it
possible to get detached from the
text and draw the general picture
from the aggregate data.
These days Near Eastern
Studies are somewhat utilitarian.
Islamic activism, which many
of us have heard of due to the
upheavals in the Middle East,
triggered the interest in political
aspects of Islam. Why do people
get so inspired by the religion,
what drives them to sacrifice their
own lives? This interest is practical
— how to prevent all this, what
internal and external policy to
choose to stop the development of
Islamic terrorism and radicalism.
The side effect is that the cultural
heritage created by Muslims is
being lost. In the next few years
the information filed might get
oversaturated with this purely
political approach to Islam and we
will, after all, get back to artistic
and humanitarian values of this
culture. The general public will
get “fed up” with messages about
representatives of the Islamic
State, Russian and Western boys
and girls who go there to build
a utopia without knowing what
awaits them. I hope orientalists
manage to divert public attention
from “deadly” aspects of Islam to
more peaceful ones.”
Andrei
ASTVATSATUROV,
Candidate of Philology,
writer, Associate Professor
at SPbU,
“I
don’t think that in
the next 5-10 years
much will change in
the way we perceive
literature and what we appreciate
in it — I don’t mean popular
literature. As I see it, the general
structural tendency in literature
— its fragmentariness, interest in
particular cases and individual
episodes — will increase and
the reader will mainly be
looking for this kind of writing.
At the same time, the reader is
craving for something bigger,
something loftier and writers
will try to combine that with
fragmentariness and an anecdotal
stance. Just one example of that is
the reader’s intense interest in the
novels by Zakhar Prilepin Obitel
7
IN FOCUS
(Abode) and Eugene Vodolazkin
Lavr (Laurus). Besides, it looks like
the time of trivial characters, signlike characters, is over. Writers
will try to make their characters
more psychologically complex and
true-to-life ”.
Yury CHERNOFF, Head
of the SPbU Laboratory
of Amyloids Biology,
Professor of Biology
at Georgia Institute of
Technology (Atlanta,
USA),
“L
ife sciences are
experiencing
unprecedented
growth. Making
forecasts in this context is an
unrewarding and a subjective
task. With that in mind, I will start
from one of the major purposes of
biological/biomedical sciences —
to search for the ways to live long
and healthy lives. The next ten
years are expected to see several
important steps in this direction.
Artificial organs and organoids
will become common. Recently
published studies lead us to expect
that growing a range of artificial
organs or, at least, their simplified
modified versions (organoids) will
become a routine by the end, or
even by the middle, of the next
decade. It seems to me that the use
of artificial organs and organoids
8
IN FOCUS
for the therapeutic goals (that is
to replace diseased organs in the
human body) will still be limited
due to immune problems, potential
stimulation of malignant growth,
etc. Instead, artificial organs and
organoids will find widespread
use in drug development and trial,
disease prevention and studies
of fundamental mechanisms of
biological processes — this is
where artificial organs will begin
to replace laboratory animals.
We will achieve a complete,
deep understanding of how
information is retrieved and
transmitted in biological
systems. At the moment, the
most well-studied mechanism is
the storage and transmission of
genetic information contained
in the genome (DNA). However,
biological systems use some
other levels of recording and
transmitting information, for
example, matrix synthesis. We
have a range of examples showing
that these processes are used
in inheritance. Already now it
can be expected that they may
be instrumental in adaptation
to a new environment and cell
differentiation in multicellular
organisms and memory.
References to the implications
which the spatial organization
of proteins has for memory
appeared just recently and we
cannot yet fully estimate how
groundbreaking these findings
may be. Decoding molecular
underpinnings of memory may
revolutionise neurobiology
and our understanding of the
evolutionary development and
functions of the human brain.
Biological issues of
neurodegeneration and ageing
are also on the cutting-edge of
research on biological information
processes. As life expectancy has
increased, neurodegenerative
diseases are among leading causes
of death (particularly in developed
countries) since age represents
a major risk factor for such
conditions. The more successfully
we fight cancer and cardiovascular
diseases, the bigger the chances
are to die of Alzheimer’s. Moreover, these conditions undermine
economy because people suffering
from them turn into a “vegetable”
and require constant care
and attention which is rather
costly for the relatives and the
state. As the realization struck
the US, the country is going to
allocate significant funds to
fight Alzheimer’s and other
neurodegenerative diseases. It
is, unfortunately, unlikely that
the next decade will find a cure
for neurodegenerative diseases.
However, I expect some major
advances in understanding the
mechanism of such diseases
as well as in the decoding of
fundamental reasons of ageing
and finding if this process is
programmed or stochastic.”
Alla LAPIDUS,
Senior Researcher,
Associate Director
of SPbU Center
for Algorithmic
Biotechnology, a PhD in
Molecular Biology,
“O
ver the next ten
years we will
accumulate massive
amounts of data on
the human genome, the cell, the
human body and those who live
with us and affect our health. To
treat and study the human body
we need to know how the genes
function — if they are working
properly or too actively or their
function is suppressed. Genomics
is a buzzword these days, but
there is also transcriptomics and
proteomics to name but a few. With
a couple of extra “-omics” added,
we end up in systems biology, if
we add some more — then systems
medicine. All these fields require
huge amounts of data which will
take ages to analyze if we use traditional tools. The problem is that we
cannot afford to spend ages. The
number of diseases with time a
crucial factor is enormous — this is
not only cancer but also infectious
diseases. There is one thing they
have in common — the sooner the
necessary measures are taken, the
sooner we can give the diagnosis
and choose effective treatment.
For example, the sooner we study
a new strain of flue (each of them
poses a threat to humans), the
sooner we find the right reme-dy.
This is where immediate analysis
can help. Undoubtedly, researchers
are workaholics — they are sure
to sort it out with only traditional
methods available. But how many
diseased people will die in the
meantime? That is the question.
Just recall the 2011 outbreak
in Europe caused by the
enterohemorrhagic strain of
Escherichia coli (E. сoli). Due
to the changes in the bacterial
genome, E. coli, instead of being
the friend, turned to be the foe.
It was bioinformatics that helped
to shed light. It only took two to
three weeks. When the bacterial
DNA was extracted, its primary
structure was determined and
compared with the DNA of the
pathogenic E. coli strain. When
the alteration was revealed and
analysed, it became clear how
to fight it. It was only due to
bioinformatics that this was made
possible in such a short time.
I will repeat myself and say
that in the foreseeable future
we will accumulate massive
amounts of data. There will be
considerable advances in systems
biology and this science will
leave the laboratory to enter
the clinic. At least, I have high
hopes for that. It is crucial that
systems biology should include
studies in genomics, proteomics,
transcriptomics, metabolomics
and microbiota. To study the
human body is to study it all.”
Tatyana ROMANOVA,
Candidate of Political
Science, Associate
Professor at SPbU
(Department of European
Studies),
“D
espite globalization
and an increasing
role of the
private sector,
the state, with sovereignty as its
defining feature, will continue
playing a key role. Along with
it, we will see advancement in
international cooperation —
growing partnership between nongovernmental organizations, more
business contacts and dialogues
between epistemic communities.
On the one hand, states will take
steps towards the unification of
law; on the other hand they will
uphold sovereignty and their right
for a leading position.
We will go through the
redefinition of categories of the
Cold War. This will result in a new
paradigm, whose outlines are not
clear yet. The world will become
multipolar. Russia, insisting on
its special role, will articulate the
dynamically growing non-West.
China, an economic antipode to the
West, will be overshadowed. New
oppositions are already emerging.
In illustration of this point,
consider ISIS, which represents an
example of tension between a well-
established and an unintegrated
world.
Culture will rise in
importance. Technical progress
and the mobility of population
will bring citizens of different
countries closer, however, the
focus on differences, on national
peculiarities and the right to
uphold personal identity will
remain. The number of those
willing to become the West at
the sacrifice of their history and
culture will decline.
A war will remain a major
means of conflict-solving, its
nature will, however, change.
Geopolitical reasons to initiate a
military conflict will be replaced
by economic ones. The role of
ideological conflicts and conflicts
of information will rise; virtual
conflicts will matter as much as
the ones happening in reality or
might even substitute them.
The European Union will
preserve its integrity. It is
unrealistic to expect that any
member state will leave the Union,
whereas, some new members from
the Balkans are likely to join in.
The EU will try to maximise its
positive results, to entrench the
positions it has already achieved.
It is reasonable to expect the
expansion of the eurozone.
The changing world will
change approaches to studying
international relations.
Constructivist concepts will gain
more ground, realist paradigms
will continue thriving and liberal
idealist paradigms will lose their
position.
There will be more demand
for interdisciplinary research at
the interface of political studies,
economics, international relations,
law and history. Moreover, the
scope will expand not only due
to a bigger list of disciplines —
the research will provide a
deeper understanding of the old
problems and focus on the new
ones resulting in remarkable
combinations of subjects and
research methodology.
Finally, applying the tools of
neo-constitutionalism and political
pshycology, scientists will show
more interest in the activities of
states and other international
players.”
9
IN FOCUS
IN FOCUS
Sergey PETROV,
Candidate of Physics
and Mathematics,
Associate Professor at
SPbU (Department of
Astronomy),
“T
hese days the
development of
astronomy is largely
determined by the
development of technology, optics,
radio technology and digital
computational tools. In recent
decades penetration and resolution
of telescopes have significantly
improved and this trend is
likely to continue. Just to give an
example, RadioAstron, a Russian
2010
Stanislav Konstantinovich
SMIRNOV, Head of the SPbU
Interdisciplinary Research
Laboratory named after
P.L. Chebyshev
Alexey Vitalyevich
KAVOKIN, Head of the SPbU
Spin Optics Laboratory
named after
I.N. Uraltsev
10
201 1
Stephen James O’BRIEN,
Head of the SPbU laboratory
"Theodosius Dobzhansky
Centre for Genome
Bioinformatics"
2013
Ruslan Zufarovich VALIEV,
Head of the SPbU Laboratory
for Mechanics of Advanced Bulk
Nanomaterials for Innovative
Engineering Applications
2010 World’s Leading
Jörn THIEDE,
Head of the SPbU laboratory
"Palaeogeography and
Geomorphology of Polar
Countries and the
World Ocean"
2011
space-based radio telescope with
the effective aperture of almost
400,000 km., is an unprecedented
achievement. The Chinese LAMOST
is the first optical telescope with a
computerized synthetic aperture,
a project that became possible
due to the enhanced computing
power of modern tools, which has
increased dramatically in recent
years. Another unprecedented
advancement is an Extremely
Large Telescope with an aperture
of almost 40 meters now
constructed in Europe. What can
these and other groundbreaking
projects bring in the future?
Firstly, they will encourage the
development of applied astronomy.
For example, we can expect further
improvements in the accuracy of
2013
Christopher Antoniou
PISSARIDES,
Head of the SPbU Growth
Laboratory
Scholars
at SPbU
A number of research laboratories led by
prominent world class scientists has been
opened at the University in the recent five years
within the framework of the Russian Government's Mega Grant Programme and SPbU's own
large grants competition.
satellite navigation systems such
as GLONASS and GPS, and the
emergence of similar new systems
based on different principles
and more reliable. After all, we
all hope for further advances
in the fundamental knowledge
about the Universe. Thus, due
to brand-new observation tools
American astronomers have
already discovered about 5,000
exoplanets, and many more
are to be found in the next few
years. Improved penetration and
resolution of new tools allows to
see more and more distant objects.
One of the key questions we can
find an answer to in the nearest
future is whether the Universe
is homogeneous. According
to the modern Cosmological
2013
Valentin Pavlovich
ANANIKOV, Head of the SPbU
Laboratory
of Cluster Catalysis
Peter KIVISTO,
Head of the SPbU laboratory
"Transnationalism and
Migration Processes:
Comparative and Institutional
Analysis"
Ilya A. VASILEV,
Candidate of Law,
Associate Professor
at SPbU (Department
of the Theory and History
of the State and Law),
“I
f we speak about
Russian legal science,
I would point out two
major strategic goals.
Historically, laws and bylaws
have always been a cornerstone
2015
Pavel Arkadyevich PEVZNER,
Head of the SPbU Centre
for Bioinformatics and
Algorithmic Biotechnology
2015
Frederick van der PLOEG,
Head of the SPbU laboratory
"Economic Performance
and the Environment"
2014
Elena Leonidovna
GRIGORENKO, Head of the
SPbU project "Impact of early
deprivation on biobehavioral
indicators of child
development"
2015
Raul GAINETDINOV,
Head of the SPbU Institute
of Translational
Biomedicine
2015
today are to prove or disprove
this hypothesis in the foreseeable
future.”
2013
Yury Olegovich CHERNOFF,
Head of the SPbU Laboratory
of Amyloid Biology
2014
Alexander Dmitrievich KNYSH,
Head of the SPbU Research
Laboratory for Analysis
and Modelling of Social
Processes
2015
Evgeny Vladimirovich CHULKOV,
Head of the SPbU laboratory
"Spin-orbit and exchange interaction
as a driving force in formation of
electronic and spin structure of new
materials /topological nanosystems
for using in nanoelectronics and
spintronics"
2013
Nikolai Ruslanovich
SKRYNNIKOV,
Head of the SPbU Laboratory
of Biomolecular Nuclear Power
Resonance
2014
Detlef BAHNEMANN,
Head of the SPbU laboratory
"Photocatalysis
and Nanotechnology"
model, the Universe is generally
homogeneous. However,
astronomers are detecting gigantic
clusters of galaxies of clear size
and shape, which may question
our current theoretical concepts.
Thus, the data obtained from the
Planck space telescope point at
the inhomogeneous structure of
the Universe. In other words, the
Universe might have shaped along
a preferential axis, which got the
name of The Axis of Evil. Besides
that, current observations reveal
a possible non-random component
of the peculiar velocity of galaxy
clusters within the Universe. The
analysis of data from the WMAP
satellite found the coherent flow
of clusters which was termed
“dark flow”. Telescopes being built
2015
Lilac NACHUM,
Head of the SPbU Laboratory
"Internationalisation of
Politically Connected Firms from
Emerging Markets"
11
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of new effective regulatory models.
These mutual efforts could result
in draft regulations, guidelines
on public administration and
corporate governance, evidence
based proposals for lawmakers
and the concerned government
agencies on the optimization
of regulatory practices in their
particular spheres. Historically
and rightly, SPbU law schools
as well as law schools of our
partner universities have been
instrumental in achieving these
goals.”
of the Russian legal system. This
is what primarily regulates social
relations. We are witnessing a
gradual shift from the central role
of the law to more independent
legal regulation provided to both
juridical and natural persons in
certain social situations. I mean,
in particular, certain aspects of
entrepreneurship, public-private
investment projects, development
of energy industry, socially useful
functions of non-governmental
organisations. I regard selfregulation as a logical extension
of legislative regulation which
has developed from paternalistic
attitudes of public entities to
the effective use of public legal
consciousness. This is what makes
it crucial for modern legal science
to study existing administrative
regulations and procedures,
conflicts of competence between
regulators, the principle of party
autonomy, freedom of contracts,
balance of public and private
interests in activities of the
government and the business.
Along with this task, the legal
community is also observant of the
movement of goods and services
within modern fast developing
integrative unions, such as the
Eurasian Economic Union, BRICS,
and the Shanghai Cooperation
Organisation. Adopting the best
legal practices of Russia’s partner
countries will promote further
mutual harmonization of legal
systems and lead to the emergence
12
Prof. Lyudmila
GROMOVA,
Doctor of Philology,
Head of the Department
of History
of Journalism, member
of the Russian Union
of Journalists,
“E
ach time we
welcome a new
generation of
students, we try to
forecast what journalism will be
like by the time they graduate
and, therefore, what competences
they will have to develop to be in
demand in the job market. Mass
media formats and technologies
advance quickly, audiences
(consumers of information) alter
their preferences and we are
left with the task to steer our
effort in the right direction and
equip our students with a quality
education.
The academic community
is increasingly concerned with
mass media convergence and new
channels of mass communication;
we are trying to decide on what
constitutes journalism in the
present context and if blogosphere
is a form of journalism. It does
not matter that much which
channels the reader, the viewer
or the listener of today uses to
get information. It concerns
rapidly growing technologies of
consumption which are easy
to teach.
As I see it, it is much more
important to shape a thoughtful,
educated specialist not only
equipped with professional
knowledge and skills and
adaptable to media market needs,
but also a civic-minded mature
person able to understand social
processes and faithfully serve the
society. I often hear a question
about what a journalist should be
like — well-rounded or have some
speciality?
Obviously, the modern
journalist should be multi-skilled.
This primarily concerns a reporter
and a correspondent, which
is, by the way, specified in
occupational standards for these
areas.
Journalism has always been
interdisciplinary and focused on
historical, linguistic, economic,
social, political and other aspects
of its development. Today, as we
are trying to conceive mass media
convergence, integrated nature of
communication, visualization of
information, development of new
media, and all other phenomena
related to global information flows,
we are defining the place and role
of journalism in the new context,
forecast its development paths.
Despite technological
advancement and typological
transformations the essence of
journalism, its purpose — to serve
the society — remains constant.
It is no coincidence that recent
years have witnessed the rise
in the axiology of journalism, a
branch concerned with values
communicated by journalism to
the society.”
Most seal species live along the coastlines to the
north of 30° N and to the south of 50° S, in cold and
temperate waters of both hemispheres.
Geomorphologists in the
EXTREME NORTH
Authors: Aleksandr Nikolaevich LASTOCHKIN, Honorary Professor of St. Petersburg University
(Department of Geomorphology), Doctor of Geology and Mineralogy; Andrei Ivanovich Zhirov,
Head of the Department of Geomorphology, SPbU, Doctor of Education, Candidate of Geography
PHOTO: PAVEL LUNEV
13
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Studying the relief of the Arctic
is important for solving a whole
range of issues, from geopolitics to mineral exploration.
Many of the tasks can be performed by geomorphologists
from St. Petersburg University.
L
et us start with toponymy,
or rather, oronymy (a
branch of toponymy that
studies the names of
various land forms). Oronymy
records not only the name of the
land form but also its location
and the date of its discovery.
Accordingly, if a land form has a
Russian name and was discovered
long ago, for example, in the early
19th century, then it is our own,
our home ground. Thus, oronymy
is not only about prestige but also
about ownership. This concerns
not only the surface forms, such as
individual islands of Franz Joseph
Land, Spitsbergen, Severnaya
Zemlya, or the New Siberian
Islands, but also the submarine
ones.
UNDER THE SEA AND ON THE
SHORE
Underwater (under-ice) navigation
in the Arctic is quite widespread.
It is very important to know the
Arctic relief where such navigation
is more or less safe. There are
some undersea features that make
navigation dangerous, and you
need to be aware of them. You
have probably heard about ships
and even submarines lost in the
Arctic waters. The most likely
explanation is that the vessels get
into submarine canyons. These
are erosive landforms (or probably
not erosive, this is debatable)
that are deeply cut into the steep
continental slopes. In the Arctic,
we have discovered numerous
submarine troughs (submarine
valleys of glacial origin). Besides,
they (just like troughs that run
on the surface, free from large
amounts of rainfall) can serve as
paths for high-speed movement
of clastic sediments, which are
capable of tearing apart a meterwide cable as if it were a thread.
This is similar to mudflows that
go down the mountains, but in
this case everything happens
underwater. Therefore, the
14
IN FOCUS
mapping of submarine topography
is essential for safe navigation in
the Arctic waters.
Another very important task
facing geomorphology is analysis
of the coasts, harbours, sediment
accumulation in the bays, and
other similar issues. The fact
is that many concave-shaped
shorelines may for a long time
serve as safe havens for ships,
since their wave field is usually
calm. They, for example, can be
used for waiting out a storm.
However, they are often sanded up
at a faster rate. Sometimes, even
get destroyed. Do you remember
the story about Sannikov Land,
which mysteriously disappeared?
The coastlines in the Arctic get
destroyed by thermal erosion,
that is, the destruction of the
frozen sediments forming these
coastlines by warm waves. These
are geotechnical problems that
are directly associated with
topography and relief-forming
rocks.
IN SEARCH OF RESOURCES
It is quite natural, therefore, that
the Marine Biological Institute was
established in the North, in the city
of Murmansk. Biological resources
of the ocean are closely connected
to topographical relief. Broadly
speaking, various barriers project
at different depths, from shallow
to deep, towards the warm or cold
water masses. They may appear in
the rear, in the front, on the side,
IN BRIEF
At the end of 2014,
Yuri Mikhailovich Artemiev,
Dmitri Yurievich Bolshiyanov,
Andrei Ivanovich Zhirov, Aleksandr
Nikolaevich Lastochkin, and Jörn
Thiede were awarded the prize
of St. Petersburg University “For
Fundamental Achievements in
Science” for the Geomorphological
Atlas of Antarctica and the international edition of the Geomorphological Atlas of Antarctica
(in English).
Aleksandr Nikolaevich
LASTOCHKIN
Andrei Ivanovich ZHIROV,
Professor (from 2001/02),
Honorary Professor
of St. Petersburg University,
Doctor of Geology, who
established a number of new
areas of scientific research
in geomorphology, geology,
geography, geo-topology, geoecology and earth sciences
in general (general theory of
geosystems). After graduating
from Leningrad State University in
1962, he worked in the All-Union
Petroleum Research Exploration
Institute (VNIGRI), starting as
a senior technician and later
achieving the position of senior
researcher, Doctor of Sciences.
From 1982 to 1986, Lastochkin
headed the Department of
Geomorphology and Structural
Geology of the World Ocean
at the All-Russian Scientific
Research Institute for Geology
& Mineral Resources of the
Ocean (VNIIOkeangeologia).
He defended his candidate’s
dissertation in the field
of Geomorphology and
Paleogeography and his
doctorate — in two fields:
Prospecting and Exploration
of Oil and Gas, and Geology
of the Oceans and Seas. Since
1986, Aleksandr Lastochkin
has occupied the position of
Professor at the Department of
Geomorphology, Leningrad State
University (presently SPbU). For
sixteen years out of this time he
had served as head of the
Department.
Head of the Department of
Geomorphology at SPbU (from
2006), Doctor of Education
(1999), Candidate of Geography
(1989). His doctoral dissertation
dealt with the topic of the “Theory
and Practice of Professional
Geo-ecological Education in
Teacher Training Institutions
of Higher Education”; the topic
of his candidate’s dissertation
was “Evaluation of the
Landscape-Forming Role of
Lithogenic Base for the Purpose
of Developing an Indication
Model of Local Structures of
the Sedimentary Mantle.” His
research interests include general,
engineering and ecological
geomorphology, dendroindication
and microclimatology,
geomorphological mapping,
problems of geo-ecology,
telmatology, soil science, and the
development of geo-ecological
education in Russia.
narrowing the flow and creating
problems for navigation, or just
directing the movement of fish and
other biomass in a certain way.
The task of geomorphology is to
identify the types of these barriers
(there are actually a lot of types; for
example, the frontal ones can have
streamline shapes or can represent
a trap) and their extension. This
is a whole set of issues which
affect the biological resources of
the Arctic seas, and thus, are of
extreme interest to humans.
And, of course, the mineral
resources. We, geomorphologists,
deal with relief and landforms,
and, first of all, we are interested in
what lies on the surface rather than
what is hidden in the vast depths
of the lithosphere. The Arctic is a
place where significant resources
can be found on the surface.
Sulphide ore deposits lie along
mid-ocean ridges (in the Arctic,
this would be the Gakkel Ridge).
It is an important source of nonferrous metals; it also contains the
valuable platinum, silver, and gold
deposits. Ferromanganese nodules
are the source of manganese.
Almost all of the technologically
advanced countries (especially the
United States, Britain, Japan, and
China) are prospecting for these
mineral resources in mid-ocean
ridges. On the surface we can also
find shelf deposits, tin and gold,
both of which are valuable. Not
only do we have the information
about their sources — drainage
areas of such rivers as the Kolyma
and the Indigirka. The scientists
from our department also develop
Quaternary geology; they study
the Pleistocene, and, therefore,
know how the same Kolyma and
Indigirka flowed in the Pleistocene
epoch.
Finally, extractable resources,
especially hydrocarbons: oil
and gas. It should be borne in
mind that both of them are
very young formations. They
are being formed right now,
during our lifetime. Neo-tectonic
criteria of hydrocarbon potential
represent yet another important
task. At first, this was explored
on land (for instance, Professor
Lastochkin’s doctoral dissertation
discussed this issue with regard
to Western Siberia), and now
scientists are exploring the shelf
from this perspective (the Barents
and the Kara Sea).
As a result, we have an
extensive range of tasks
performed by geomorphologists
in the Arctic, and they concern
different areas of human life:
navigation, and biological
resources, and mineral resources
(both supergene, that is, lying
on the surface, and those lying
underground), and geopolitics. A
significant part of these problems
could be solved by the publication
of a geomorphological atlas of
the Arctic, which has been in our
plans for a while.
WHEN WILL THE ATLAS
BE COMPLETE?
In 2011, we published the world’s
first geomorphological atlas of
Antarctica (see SPBU Journal, No.
4, 2012), which has been highly
praised by experts both in Russia
and abroad. Even at that time
we already planned to release a
similar atlas of the Arctic. Much
of the work has already been
done. Jörn Thiede, head of the
Köppen Laboratory, continues his
work at St. Petersburg University.
Our field research also continues,
to a great extent thanks to
cooperation with our partners,
the Arctic and Antarctic Research
Institute and German institutes.
We hope that geomorphologists
of St. Petersburg University will
be able to maintain their leading
position and hand on the torch
to a new younger generation of
scientists.
15
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Written by: Vladimir Iosifovich ZHEREBCHEVSKY, Candidate of Physics and
Mathematics, Associate Professor, head of SPbU Training Laboratory of Nuclear
Processes;
Grigory Aleksandrovich FEOFILOV, Associate Professor, Head of SPbU
Laboratory of Ultra-High Energy Physics (LUHEP)
Without its detectors the Large
Hadron Collider would be a
person without eyes. In order to
"catch" particles, scientists have
to strengthen the "visual acuity" of the collider by constantly
improving its tracking systems.
Physicists of St Petersburg University play an important role in
this process.
N
ow the University
is working on two
fronts. Scientists and
engineers from St.
Petersburg University are actively
involved in the preparation of
a new inner tracking system
for the ALICE machine and
conduct active research of CMOSbased monolithic detectors
(complementary metal oxide
semiconductor. — Ed.). Do not
worry, it is actually a whole lot
simpler than it seems.
TO "SEE" AND TO "CATCH" AN
ELEMENTARY PARTICLE
16
PHOTO: ALICE COLLABORATION
As a result of a head-on collision
of two lead nuclei, thousands
of particles are formed.
They are registered by the ALICE
track detectors at the Large
Hadron Collider.
THE WORKS OF ENGINEERING
ART
Along with the discovery of
radioactivity and various
types of ionising radiation a
demand for instruments that
can detect and track them has
emerged. Such devices, capable
of catching particles and quanta
and measuring of their position
and energy, are called detectors.
The development of radiation
detectors has become one of the
basic elements that underlie
experimental nuclear physics.
It can be said without prejudice
that the stages in the development
of nuclear physics and particle
physics are intertwined and
interconnected with both the
development of new particle
detection methods and the
modernisation of the old ones,
using the latest materials and
technology, with the development
of information technology and
increasing use of high-speed
microelectronics directly in the
sensitive area of detectors. Today
nuclear physics employs a huge
number of various detectors and
detector systems. Some of them
truly are works of engineering
art and are the most advanced
devices ever created by human
hands. With the help of detectors
a particle can be directly "caught"
(tracked) and its further trace
observed. Its other important
characteristics such as energy,
momentum and charge can also
be measured. Often it is important
to track a certain particle, the
one we need, while ensuring
that the contribution of other
particles (the background) would
be minimal. That means we have
to exactly define the moment of
this particle's impact with our
detector (physicists call it "the
event") and separate this event
from the large background of
other events created by other
particles. Sometimes a single event
that is important to us happens to
coincide with millions or billions
of background events. In order
not to get "drowned" in this sea
of particles scientists use various
combinations of detectors and
tracking methods. Also, different
kind of coincidence circuits or
anti-coincidence circuits between
the events tracked by different
detectors are used.
HOW TO "CATCH" A PARTICLE?
So how do you track a particle in
a detector? Let's look at charged
particles first. Let us assume that
a charged particle has flown into
our detector. Then, moving in the
environment of the detector that
is neutral in terms of its electrical
properties, this particle, due to its
electromagnetic interactions, will
cause ionisation and excitation
of the atoms in the environment.
Free electrons and ions as well
as excited atoms will appear
along the particle's path. If you
now apply an electric field to the
detector's environment, electric
current will emerge in it and,
as a result, it will be converted
into an electrical impulse, which
17
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THE PHOTO IS PROVIDED BY G. FEOFILOV
is then supplied to a complex
electronic system for collecting
and processing signals from the
detector. In the end, we can get,
for example, information on the
coordinates of the particle that
has flown into our detector. That
is, the interaction of the charged
particle with the matter in the
detector makes its track to appear,
and we can see the path of the
charged particle passing by. These
are the so-called track detectors.
Thanks to them, we discovered
and studied nuclear reactions and
new particles such as positrons,
muons and so on.
In general, many different
types of detectors have been
created over the past century;
some of them even brought Nobel
Prizes to their inventors. For
example, in 1927 Charles Wilson
became such an awardee for the
invention of a track detector for
charged particles. In 1992 Georges
Charpak became a Nobel Prize
winner for the discovery and
creation of particle detectors,
in particular the multiwire
proportional chamber.
THE ERA OF SILICON DETECTORS
Since the 1950s semiconductor
materials have been widely used
in detector manufacturing, and
in the recent 20 years silicon
detectors became dominant in
experimental particle physics.
One of silicon's advantages is its
high radiation resistance. This
is crucial because nowadays
detectors may be exposed to huge
doses of radiation during nuclear
physics experiments.
The scale of the use of
silicon detectors in high energy
physics can be illustrated by an
experiment at the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC), the CMS (Compact
muon solenoid). As you may know,
the Higgs boson has recently
been "caught" — pardon me,
tracked — during this experiment.
If all of the silicon included in
different detector systems of this
experiment could be melted, it
would fill a 25-meter swimming
pool!
Now, let us take a closer
look at the LHC experiments
employing silicon detectors, in
particular track detectors. In some
18
experiments, the key role is played
by vertex detectors. It is a track
detector consisting of many layers
of individual detector systems
surrounding the collision area
of the LHC beams. Typically, the
first layer consists of the so-called
pixel detectors. They are used to
determine the flight coordinate. In
fact, the vertex detector operates in
The inner tracking system (ITS),
ALICE's central system, was created
in 2007 with SPbU playing the major
part in developing it. In just one year it
became the first one to provide physical
information shortly after the launch of
the collider. It continues to be operated
at present
A PARTICLE DETECTOR, ALSO KNOWN AS A
RADIATION DETECTOR, in experimental nuclear physics is
a device to detect and track particles and radiation as well as
to measure their characteristics such as energy, momentum,
speed, spatial coordinates, lifetime and so on.
the same manner as the matrix of
a digital camera.
All of the most advanced
developments in the field of pixel
detectors, including ATLAS, CMS
and ALICE, are created for the LHC
experiments. For example, the
ATLAS vertex detector has 80 mln
pixels.
The inner tracking system
(ITS), a so-called vertex detector,
plays a key role in determining
the coordinates of both primary
and secondary vertices (the latter
related to the decay of particles
containing heavy quarks)
in ALICE. ITS surrounds the
birthplace of the particles. By the
way, the ALICE tracking system
working today was designed
and built from 1992 to 2008 by
an international community
of 15 institutions, with experts
from St. Petersburg being active
participants of this project.
SPbU played the major part in
developing the ITS concept.
It ensured an unprecedented
radiation transparency among all
up-to-date mega class facilities.
The technology was tested and
main elements were made. At
present, SPbU is actively involved
in the development of a new
ITS. The overall strategy of
modernisation of the detector is
to provide experimental studies
on the beams of the LHC after its
reconstruction in 2017–2018 when
the luminosity of the collider will
be increased by more than 10 times
(the higher it is, the more particles
from oppositely directed beams
collide, that meaning higher
requirements to the detectors.
— Ed.). The tracking frequency,
when collision of lead ions may
give birth to thousands of charged
particles, is expected to be 50 kHz,
that imposing tough requirements
on both the speed and the
granularity (in other words, to
miniaturisation of individual
sensors) of the detectors.
Therefore, the main option in
the concept of modernisation
of the ALICE detector complex
at the Large Hadron Collider in
the internal tracking system, the
most central one, surrounding
relativistic nuclei collision site,
will be a new generation of CMOSbased monolithic pixel detectors.
A PIXEL = A DETECTOR
Present-day detectors include a
pixel matrix and a special readout
chip for information processing.
The pixel matrix is generally a
silicon plate with a large number
of identical miniature sensors —
pixels. Each pixel is essentially
a separate detector. The pixel
matrix is complemented by a chip,
containing special electronics
providing for the preparation
of the signals from each pixel
to transmission and processing.
There are various ways of
connecting the pixel matrix to
the electronics. Depending on the
connection, pixel detectors can be
hybrid or monolithic ones. In the
case of hybrid detectors the pixel
matrix and the chip are separately
manufactured and then connected
to make an integrated system.
In the case of monolithic
detectors both the matrix and the
electronics are produced using the
same semiconductor crystal, and
as a result we have a monolithic
detector.
At present, hybrid pixel
detectors are used in the LHC
experiments including ALICE.
Their advantage is that they
are resistant to heavy radiation
exposure and provide for accurate
spatial measurements of tracks.
In addition, these detectors can
instantly capture and process a
large number of particles and
to detect rare processes and
decays. However, now there are
new technologies of the creation
of monolithic pixel detectors
where each tiny pixel contains, in
addition to the detector, several
transistors amplifying the
signal. Unlike hybrid detectors,
monolithic pixel detectors allow
to avoid using sophisticated
technology to connect the chip
and the sensor matrix, to further
reduce the capacity of each pixel
and to have a detector with a
very low noise level and low
power consumption. Yet the main
advantage of such detectors as
compared to the hybrid ones is that
all tracking and control electronics
are placed on a single chip directly
integrated into the sensor.
SPbU scientists actively
explore CMOS-based monolithic
pixel detectors. These detectors
(no one else in Russia has them (!))
were delivered from CERN. Teams
from SPbU Training Laboratory
of Nuclear Processes and SPbU
Laboratory of Ultra-High Energy
Physics (LUHEP) have developed
and built special-purpose test
stands. SPbU students work
with these stands now. They are
involved in the measurement of
the main characteristics of fullscale prototypes of monolithic
active pixel detectors, study their
noise properties of their study,
learn how to detect defective
pixels and exclude them from the
operation of the entire detector
system. To date, it is cuttingedge research in the physics of
particle and radiation detectors.
Investigation of the characteristics
of these latest monolithic pixel
detectors, a comparative analysis
of the options and features of
the used CMOS technology,
modelling of their work, analysis
and development of techniques
for the recovery of secondary
vertices for tracking of rare and
underexplored processes in
collisions of relativistic nuclei —
these are some basic problems
being solved by students today.
Their solution will open up the
possibility for the implementation
of the programme of new physical
research at the LHC.
CMOS-based monolithic pixel
detectors are increasingly used
for the detection of radiation and
charged particles. The excellent
performance and properties of
these devices provide for their
use as vertex and track detectors
in high energy physics and in
many other applications requiring
visualisation of the detected
charged particles (for example, in
nuclear medicine).
19
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
Although millions of people today play
free computer games, they increasingly
face issues connected with “virtual
property”.
“Real” Law in the
“Virtual” World
Author: Vladislav Vladimirovich ARKHIPOV, Candidate of Law, Associate Professor,
Department of Theory and History of State and Law, SPbU
T
he author of this
publication delivered
an interactive lecture
at a breakout session on
“Legal regulation of computer
games industry: ‘Real’ law in
the ‘virtual world’” held as part
of the 6th International Youth
Legal Forum. The lecture was
followed by a discussion with the
participants of the Forum. The
most interesting thing in this topic
is its descriptive and problem
part, which allows for interesting
parallels between jurisprudence
and the development of computer
games. In general, legal regulation
of the computer games industry
is a fairly new and controversial
topic for modern legal science.
The novelty stems from the
fact that the very object of legal
regulation is recent enough, and
the ambiguity — from the fact
that legal science normally deals
with problems of legal regulation
within specific industries only on
an exceptional basis (as opposed
to branches of law, such as civil or
20
criminal law). At the same time,
the approach rationalized by the
Harvard professor Lawrence
Lessig in the early 1990s with
regard to Internet law (cyberlaw) is
fully applicable to computer games
in the context of jurisprudence.
According to him, fragmentary
study of separate problems
related to legal regulation in this
field within the framework of
“classical” legal disciplines is less
identification, determination
of jurisdiction and information
intermediaries. It is notable that
at the present stage computer
games (and especially multiplayer
online games) not only fully
reflect each of these problems but
also add new ones: the problem of
distinguishing between in-game
relations and non-game relations,
the problem of rights in relation
to user-generated content and
moma.org
Vladislav Vladimirovich Arkhipov
is associate professor at the SPbU Department of
Theory and History of Law and Science, Candidate
of Law. Lawyer; Counsel in intellectual property,
information technology, and telecommunications
practice for Dentons, a multinational law firm;
member of the Advisory Council of the Federal
Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Telecom,
Information Technologies and Mass Communications
(ROSKOMNADZOR).
BY THE WAY
The Museum of Modern Art in New York now has
a permanent collection of computer games:
http://www.moma.org/explore/inside_out/2012/11/29/
video-games-14-in-the-collection-for-starters/
useful than studies integrated into
one subject area, since the Internet
architecture itself changes the
format of social relations, and
the study of legal aspects related
to this architecture is valuable
also because it can enrich
jurisprudence as such.
THIS IS NOT A GAME!
The discourse about Internet
rights is centred on systemic
legal problems: these are, at the
very least, the problems of user
the problem of the legal nature
of virtual property and virtual
currency. All this makes the legal
aspects of computer games a
subject that is methodologically
of great current interest for
theoretical research because
each of these problems addresses
legally relevant aspects of virtual
reality itself (in the technological
sense).
At the same time,
representatives of the computer
games industry among the
PHOTO: DENTONS
Studying the legal aspects of
video games is a unique opportunity to use one’s personal
gaming experience in a professional field. Today, lawyers are
increasingly involved in the process of differentiation between
what is real in the virtual world
of the game and what is not.
While computer games per se can
be said to have appeared as early
as by the 1940s (see, for instance,
Video Game History Timeline, in The
Strong. National Museum of Play,
URL: http://www.museumofplay.
org/icheg-game-history/timeline/),
a separate video game industry now
has existed for just a few decades,
which can hardly be compared to
other fields of activity that have
become relatively independent
subjects of legal regulation and legal
research like, for example, insurance.
21
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
Although millions of people
today play free computer
games, they increasingly face
issues connected with “virtual
property”.
ФОТО: WWW.MUSEUMOFPLAY.ORG/
clients of law firms in the current
practice of law have grown in
number and importance. Issues
that require participation of
lawyers can be tentatively
divided into those associated with
traditional lines of practice, for
example, tax or corporate law,
and those that are inherently
connected with game design.
The latter group of issues is
the most interesting because it
reflects, in the general sense,
interpenetration of the real world
and the imaginary world (which,
however, gets, by means of
modern information technology,
a “permanent existence” that
does not depend on individual
users). These issues also include
the distinction between games
of chance and games of skill,
various legal restrictions on
content distribution, both on
the Internet and in general, the
problems of legal classification of
“virtual property” (virtual items
that participate in transactions
for real money), problems
related to delineation of rights
for user-generated content in
games, protection of consumer
rights of players participating
in multiplayer games, and the
possibility of judicial remedies for
claims arising from participation
in games.
Today these issues find their
expression both in foreign and
Russian judicial practice. For
example, the American Bragg
v. Linden Research, Inc. case is
commonly considered as one of
the first cases involving virtual
property; it addressed the dispute
between a user of the online
virtual world Second Life and
its developer. Judicial practice in
Russia at first developed mainly
around two issues — the status of
the player of multiplayer games
A rocket simulator, considered to be the earliest of the
known interactive electronic
games (1947), resembled a
World War II radar.
22
distributed on a free-to-play basis,
as a consumer, and the possibility
of judicial remedy for players’
claims arising, for example, from
having their accounts blocked for
violation of the rules of the game.
And while in the first legal cases,
as it follows, for example, from
the Moscow City Court decision
of March 10, 2011, in Case No.
4г/1-1668, courts used to take
the position that even “money”
relations between players and
the developer cannot be subject
to judicial protection, since
this requirement arises from
participation in the game (and
this general rule can be found in
Paragraph 1, Article 1062 of the RF
Civil Code), later the situation has
changed. In the judgement passed
by the Leninsky District Court
of the city of Kemerovo on April
26, 2013, the player is already
regarded as a consumer and
his monetary claim is regarded
as being subject to judicial
protection.
NO CONNECTION
TO THE REAL WORLD
At the moment, the most
interesting Russian case of this
kind is the litigation between LLC
“Mail.Ru Games” and the Federal
Tax Service No.14 in Moscow, in
which the company attempted to
challenge in court the decision
of the tax authorities to charge
the company additional taxes
in the amount of 276.3 million
roubles for the first quarter of
2013 and 184 million roubles
for the second quarter of 2013.
At the time of writing, the court
has supported the claim of the
tax authorities with regard to
the first quarter of 2013, and
the judgement concerning the
second quarter of the same year
is expected to be made soon.
The dispute stemmed from the
fundamental difference in the
positions of the litigants. In brief,
LLC “Mail.Ru Games” alleges that
virtual assets in online games
(such as crystals for the Curiosity
Shop in Allods Online) can be
regarded as intellectual property
assets, i.e. as software provided
to the user under a license
agreement. The company, if that
were the case, could expect to
obtain VAT exemption pursuant
to Paragraph 26, Part 2, Article
149 of the Tax Code of the Russian
Federation (transfer of rights to
use computer programmes under
a license agreement). The tax
authorities, however, claimed
that the virtual assets in question
SOURCES TO READ:
Lessig L. The Law of the Horse:
What Cyberlaw Might Teach //
Berkman Center for Internet &
Society at Harvard University
Website, URL: https://cyber.law.
harvard.edu/sites/cyber.law.harvard.
edu/files/1999-05.pdf.
Azizov R.F., Arkhipov V.V.
‘Relationships in the Internet of
Web 2.0 format: The problem of
correspondence between network
architecture and legal regulation’,
Zakon (2014), No. 1, pp. 92-93.
Arkhipov V.V. ‘Virtual property:
Systemic legal issues in the
context of the development of
computer games industry’, Zakon
(2014), No. 9, pp. 75-79.
Arkhipov V.V. ‘Rules of the game
as a normative system, or what is
in common between law and game
design’, Logos (2015), No. 1.
Bragg v. Linden Research, Inc., 487
F.Supp. 2d 593 (E.D. Penn. 2007),
No. 06-4925. See http://www.
paed.uscourts.gov/documents/
opinions/07d0658p.pdf.
Bartle R.A. Pitfalls of Virtual
Property. The Themis Group, 2004.
P. 1 URL: http://www.themis-group.
com/uploads/Pitfalls%20of%20
Virtual%20Property.pdf .
Castronova E. ‘The Right to Play’,
New York School Law Review
(2004), Vol. 49, No. 1, URL: http://
papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.
cfm?abstract_id=733486
should be regarded as services,
thereby effectively making a
decision on the legal nature of
virtual property: it remains, as
it were, within the virtual world
and has no connection to the
real world. “Virtual property
turnover” is a service provided
by the developer associated
with organization of the game
process. This is an interesting
approach that is in tune with
ideas previously expressed by
researchers working on legal
aspects of virtual worlds.
Besides, legal regulation of
the computer games industry is
an exciting and important field
of activity, which has another
curious aspect, especially when
it comes to young professionals,
the target audience of the
International Youth Legal Forum.
Today, computer games are no
longer a subculture; they have
become part of contemporary
modern mass culture (not to
mention the fact that some
games are quite worthy of being
regarded as contemporary
art, and it seems significant
in this respect to mention that
the Museum of Modern Art in
New York already possesses a
permanent collection of computer
games).
Today, games have already
become ingrained in our
everyday lives, just like cinema
and television, and this is
especially true for students,
including law students. In
fact, the latter have a unique
opportunity to use their personal
gaming experience in their
future work (the value of this
experience would have otherwise
been limited to mere leisure
activities). Understanding the
perspective of the player as a
consumer in the legal sense
and understanding the basic
principles behind the work of the
gaming industry, in the author’s
experience, is highly helpful in
both theoretical research related
to legal aspects of computer
games and in the practice of law
in the relevant field. This was
evidenced by a discussion held
after the interactive lecture at
the breakout session of the 6th
International Youth Forum.
23
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Cambridge Prosociality and
Well-Being Laboratory. He has
already conducted some research
on Facebook. For example, he
studied the quality and quantity
data on smileys (emoticons) that
users from different countries
send. The study found a direct
correlation: the higher the
quality of life, the greater is
the number and diversity of
emoticons that users, living in
this country, share.
Though the research based
on social media data is booming,
psychologists admit that this
field lies off the beaten track.
“For us it is a new and interesting
field. Social networks have
become an indispensable part
of our life. This raises a whole
range of interesting issues: how
do we use social networks and
why do we need them? Does our
identity change online and what
means do we use for online selfrepresentation. Human behavior
in the new environment has not
been studied enough,” said Olga
Bogolyubova, Associate Professor
at SPbU (Department of Medical
Psychology and Psychophysiology)
and one of the initiators of the
project, “depending on a social
network a text or an image (a
photo or sometimes a video)
is used to represent a person’s
identity. Our analysis, along with
psychological variables, will focus
on textual content.”
The research will adopt an
interdisciplinary approach —
programmers and linguists will
join the team of psychologists.
When launching a social network back in 2004, Mark ZUCKERBERG,
the founder of Facebook, could hardly expect that he was at the same
time creating a space for scientists to conduct extensive researc
worldwide.
SPbU scientists
are harvesting
Facebook
By Vera SVIRIDOVA
24
SPbU psychologists are launching a three-year extensive
study of Facebook. Researchers
will analyse emotional content
of Facebook posts, descriptions, and comments to videos
and photos to compare these
data with psychological profiles
of users.
S
tress, Health and
Psychological Well-Being
on Social Networks: A
Cross-Cultural Study is
the project headed by a young,
successful Dr. Aleksandr Kogan,
a lecturer at the University of
Cambridge, where he runs the
FROM A QUESTIONNAIRE
TO BIG DATA
The research team is busy
designing a questionnaire.
According to Yanina Ledovaya,
Assistant Professor at SPbU
(Department of General
Psychology) and the project
coordinator, filling in the
questionnaire, research
participants agree to give access
to their public posts on social
networks. A special software tool
will “harvest” all the information
linked to a user account: posts
on their walls and walls of
other users, comments to videos
and photos. All these refer to
as public texts. “So, we will get
two sets of data — answers from
a questionnaire (an array of
psychological characteristics) and
what this person has shared on
the social network for, say, the last
twelve months,” Yanina Ledovaya
explained.
Act one is over. Linguists are
welcome to the stage. They will
join psychologists to encode a
part of textual data obtained from
Facebook. To do that they will sift
through the texts for emotional
content: aggression, sarcasm,
fondness, joy, etc. Then the
linguists will write a code which
will automatically detect similar
content in big sets of textual data.
Finally, the research team will
compare the emotional content
with psychological characteristics
given in questionnaires.
Considering that the
study will involve over 1,000
respondents as heavy users of the
social network, the data set will be
large. At this point programmers
will march in with the Big Data
tools. “Well, we are doing it in a
big way. This approach will, first
of all, let us work with different
segments of data and, secondly,
try different paths as we look
for specific patterns. However,
the study focuses primarily on
psychological well-being and illbeing,” said Yanina Ledovaya.
A WEALTH OF OPPORTUNITIES
“We are not going to compile a
complete dictionary of emotions,
our goal is to analyse only certain
aspects of statements,” clarifies
Olga Bogolyubova, “we may even
focus our efforts on a particular
group of statements.”
MORE:
People are more willing to share their
feelings, ideas and experiences on
social networks. Strange as it may
seem, this is more true of men. It
turns out that men use their personal
pages to post creative ideas and draft
projects more often than women.
SOURCE: PEWRESEARCH.ORG
25
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
PHOTO BY: MIKHAIL VOLKOV
In the photo on the left —
Olga BOGOLYUBOVA,
Associate Professor
at SPbU (Department of Medical
Psychology and Psychophysiology), and
on the right —
Yanina LEDOVAYA,
Assistant
Professor at SPbU (Department
of General Psychology)
Originally, the initiators of the
project wanted to obtain data on
the psychological features which
induce people to show negativism
in social interaction. “There
is much to talk about in this
respect. A user can create negative
posts and, at the same time, get
distressed when someone shows
aggression on their page. It would
be interesting to see the evidence,
to juxtapose self-reported data
and what this user generates on
the social network. It is not clear
yet if we will manage to more
deeply reveal aspects of negative
behavior on social networks or
rather focus on psychological
distress. In theory, our efforts
may open up several directions
for further analysis,” explained
Olga Bogolyubova.
The research team did
their best to offer a diversity of
16
%
of Russian
respondents
report they
cannot do
without social
networking
22
%
of Russian
users admit
they spend
too much
time online
26
opportunities for each participant
of the project. Linguists, for
example, are interested in finding
correlates of emotions which
users reflect in comments and find
out how close they are to what a
person is feeling.
“My goal is to evaluate
the prevalence of traumatic
experience using self-reported
data and, if it is possible, to
analyse linguistic correlates of
psychological distress,” said Olga
Bogolyubova.
ERROR-FREE
RESULTS
Obviously, social networks
represent a very specific
environment. First of all, there
is evidence that people are more
prone to behave aggressively
online. Secondly, you can never
be sure that the user identity
is real. Almost 9% of Facebook
accounts are fake (according
to US Securities and Exchange
Commission). However, the
scientists are sure this will not
prevent them from getting a
realistic picture. According to
Olga Bogolyubova, what makes
the research team so sure is that
the virtual environment has
been with us for many years,
which blurs the line between
real and virtual human behavior.
People are increasingly seeing
the Internet as part of reality.
“It is no longer that peculiar and
imaginative,” Yanina Ledovaya
confirms, “it involves different
generations, so it is difficult to
detach from your real identity.”
Chemical
“ARCHITECTONICS”
and Synthesis
of New Nanomaterials
Author: Valery Pavlovich TOLSTOY, Doctor of Chemistry, Professor, the Department of Chemistry of Solids, SPbU
An alternative process, for example, is
the making of a napoleon cake, which
consists of multiple layers of puff pastry
alternating with layers of cream.
27
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
PHOTO BY: ANNA GRUZDEVA
Ksenia RESHANOVA, a master’s degree
student within the SPbU “Chemistry,
Physics and Mechanics of Materials”
programme, carries out synthesis of
multilayers containing graphene.
We are witnessing and SPbU
scientists are actively participating in the emergence of a
promising approach to new
materials synthesis when computer capabilities and human
abilities are joined together.
This enables us to obtain a lot
of new advanced materials,
which cannot be obtained by
means of any other method.
A
s you know, human
history can be divided
into periods by the
type of materials
used, starting with the Stone
Age, then the Bronze Age, then
the Iron Age, etc. Now we talk
about the information society
and the age of the Internet,
but it should be borne in mind
that the new opportunities of
information technology were
also due to the creation of new
materials for micro-, nano- and
optoelectronics.
FROM SOUP TO A NAPOLEON
CAKE
For chemists who are engaged
in the development of such
materials, history can be divided
into periods by the type of
techniques and methods used in
synthesis. After humans learned
to control fire, for example,
it became possible to create
clay ware, and this led to the
28
discovery of bronze. It is notable
however that starting with the
alchemists and up until quite
recently, a fairly narrow range
of processes was used, such as
heating, dissolution, de-salting,
distillation, extraction and
pressing. Besides, the method
employed in all these cases was
mixing, that is, initial reagents
used for obtaining the necessary
substance were mixed with each
other. A similar process is used
when a hostess in the kitchen
is making soup or porridge. We
can say that, from the standpoint
of history of human society and
preparative chemistry, until
quite recently we had lived
in a “mixture” mode, when a
new property of a material was
obtained by means of introducing
additions to various substances.
An alternative process, for
example, is the making of a
napoleon cake, which consists
of multiple layers of puff pastry
alternating with layers of cream.
After the middle of the
twentieth century, preparative
chemistry started employing new
techniques. The main idea of the
Langmuir–Blodgett method was
to apply a surface-active agent to
a substrate, place it on the water
surface and select appropriate
conditions for the surfactant
molecules to arrange themselves
in a monolayer, and then to
move the substrate through
this interface. Highlighting the
importance of research work in
this area, it would be pertinent to
note that the American chemist
Irving Langmuir was awarded
the Nobel Prize in 1932 “for his
discoveries and investigations in
surface chemistry”.
Another important series of
investigations was performed by
the biochemist Robert Merrifield,
who won the 1984 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry. In 1963, he pioneered
solid-phase peptide synthesis
involving amino acid solutions,
by “immobilising” one amino
acid on a matrix substrate and
treating it with coupling agents.
It is important to note that
starting reagents during this
kind of synthesis are added to the
substrate matrix in accordance
with a special programme
designed by the researcher, which
opens up new possibilities for
creating “artificial” sequences (a
kind of chemical assembly) in the
synthesized substance.
Less attention was paid
to the work started in the
mid-1960s on the synthesis of
inorganic materials by atomic
layer deposition (ALD) with the
use of reagents in a gas phase
(more on that can be found in the
article entitled “Size Matters”
published in issue No.5 (2015) of
St. Petersburg University).
In addition to molecules in
the gas phase, which are used
by the ALD method to achieve
this chemical assembly, another
attractive idea is using salt
solutions in synthesis, since for
most substances their solvent can
be found, and carry out synthesis
under the so-called “soft”
chemistry, or mild, conditions
practically at room temperature.
It is important that, on the one
hand, substances in solutions
may exist in the form of charged
particles — cations, anions, or
micelles in colloidal solutions,
and the synthesis itself can be
performed with the use of simple
equipment.
The relevance of such
research work in the field of
synthesis under conditions
of “soft” chemistry at low
temperatures will become
obvious if one considers the
well-known fact that “highly
organized” compounds, and in
particular biological structures,
get destroyed when heated; for
example, an embryo of a chicken
in the egg will be destroyed if
the egg is treated with hot water,
i.e. at a temperature only a few
tens of degrees higher than room
temperature.
Conditions for such layerby-layer synthesis employing
solutions of metal salts were
independently discovered in the
French laboratory of Y.F. Nicolau
and in the SPbU Laboratory of
Solid State Chemistry, Leningrad
State University (presently SPbU),
in 1985. This method received
the name of Successive Ionic
Layer Deposition (SILD). At first,
these new methods of synthesis
did not get much attention. It
is in a way understandable,
since the question arises: what
can be the practical value of a
theoretical layer on the surface
of a substrate, wherein the
deposition of the layer on the
substrate is achieved through
tens and hundreds of chemical
operations that the researcher has
to perform manually? Currently,
however, these multiple
operations are performed by a
robotic manipulator controlled
by a microprocessor or a desktop
computer. Indeed, no one thinks
too much about the multiple
stages used in a washing machine
when it is started up for 1 or
2 hours. During this time, the
dirty clothes are repeatedly
treated with a detergent and
running water in accordance
with a special programme, and
we get clean clothes as a result.
When the ionic layer deposition
method is used in synthesis, the
researcher designs a programme
in accordance with the task, and
in a few hours receives, at the
output, a substrate of a block
or dispersed material with a
synthesized layer coating or a
multilayer coating consisting of
layers with various compositions.
Besides, the ultimate composition
over the thickness of the layer
can be computer programmed.
In this regard, we can talk of a
programmable layer-by-layer
synthesis (PLLS).
WHAT IS DONE AT SPBU
Currently, the Successive Ionic
Layer Deposition method is
relatively widely used; for
instance, there were about 1,500
publications on this topic in 2014,
and four researchers who work
on the development and practical
application of this method are
among the top 100 most cited
materials chemists, according to
one of the rating agencies. The
SPbU research team headed by
the author of this publication has,
in continuation of the priority
work, performed numerous new
syntheses, which have contributed
to the development of this fastgrowing field. For example,
our joint research with Artem
Lobinsky, a graduate student,
produced new high efficiency
electrodes for supercapacitors —
sources of electrochemical energy,
which compete with lithium-ion
batteries.
Another possible application
of the PLLS method that is worth
mentioning is production of
the so-called multi-functional
materials. Such materials have a
new and unique combination of
chemical and physical properties.
This can be achieved via synthesis
of multilayers composed of layers
with different properties and we
can get, for example, a magnetic
A touch-sensitive screen
and a powerful microprocessor
are the basis of new facilities
for programmable layer-by-layer synthesis of nanomaterials.
PHOTO BY: ANNA GRUZDEVA
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
29
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
material which is a luminophore,
and so on. Another important area
that is developing intensively in
connection with the new PLLS
techniques is materials chemistry
of the so-called smart materials.
They can change their properties
in reaction to changes in their
environment.
In connection with the
development of such materials,
it would be interesting to
mention our joint work with the
SPbU senior research scientist
Larisa Gulina. We succeeded
in proposing and providing
experimental validation of
a new, simple and effective
method of synthesising nanoand micro-tubes for a wide
range of inorganic substances.
These studies also provide new
opportunities for creation of new
materials. We anticipate that
one day chemical storerooms at
laboratories will have not only
metal oxides, sulphides, fluorides,
etc. in the ordinary crystalline
powder form but also containers
with these substances, though in
the form of micro-tubes.
Currently, in cooperation
with Professor Igor Murin,
head of the SPbU Department
of Chemistry of Solids, and
colleagues from the University of
Darmstadt (Germany), we have
been able to demonstrate that
such micro-tube structures based
on lanthanum fluoride have
unique properties. In particular,
they are characterised by the
fluoride ion mobility that is by
two orders of magnitude higher
than that of a single crystal of
lanthanum fluoride. This opens
up new opportunities for the
development of fluoride ion
batteries.
BUILDING WITH NANOBLOCKS
Application of colloidal solutions
and solutions of coordination
compounds with complex organic
ligands, as well as solutions
of polyelectrolytes, for the
purposes of synthesis provides
for a possibility of obtaining new,
relatively complex materials
with unique properties on the
substrate surface by using
programmable layer-by-layer
synthesis, in other words,
30
BRIEFLY:
Valery Pavlovich TOLSTOY
has worked at St. Petersburg
University since 1977. Currently
he occupies the position of
Professor at the Department of
Chemistry of Solids, SPbU.
He is expert in the fields of optical
spectroscopy of solid surfaces,
physical methods of investigation
of solids, and preparative
chemistry of nano- and
multinano- layers of inorganic
and hybrid inorganic and organic
substances.
He works on the development of
new methods of programmable
layer-by-layer synthesis of
nanomaterials under “soft”
chemistry conditions with the
aim of creating new photoactive
materials, adsorbents, catalysts,
ion-exchange materials,
electrodes for supercapacitors
and chemical power sources,
anti-corrosion coatings, optical
coatings and photonic crystals,
magnetic and semiconductor
materials, high temperature
superconductors, solar cells,
sensors, membranes, ionic
conductors, etc.
He is a member of editorial
boards of the Journal of
Nanomaterials and Nanoscience
and Nanoengineering.
“building” with nanoblocks.
The scientific works of the last
decade have even started using a
new term “nanoarchitectonics”,
which incorporates the body
of knowledge on the design
of nano-sized compounds.
The modern period in the
development of preparative
chemistry, therefore, involves
moving away from the synthesis
of nano-layers to the synthesis of
more complex nanostructures,
in other words, a transition from
producing compounds with
two-dimensional morphology to
building 3D-ordered nano-objects.
GRANTS
To highlight the complexity of
the tasks facing the researchers,
it would be probably fitting
to compare them with the
construction of the pyramids,
which the Egyptians knew how
to erect more than four thousand
years ago. However, scientists
have only recently succeeded
in obtaining nanoparticles on
pyramid surfaces, and this
reflects the overall complexity of
the chemical problems described
above. Obviously, the techniques
and methods of the “mixture”
mode, or the soup mode as we
called it earlier, would be unable
to synthesize such complex
structures.
An important part of the
work carried out in this field is
systematization of experimental
data connected with the
development of synthetic routes
for such nanoscale compounds
and creation, on the one hand,
of reference books, and on the
other hand, of special educational
literature not only for universities
but also for secondary schools.
This topic is also one of our
priorities.
When talking about the
work performed by the team of
the laboratory, it is important
to note that new opportunities
for its progress appeared when
we received a grant from St.
Petersburg University, and we
are very grateful to the members
of the competition committee,
who recognised the value of our
application in 2014. This grant
enabled us to attract new young
scientists, to repair and buy new
equipment. In this respect, St.
Petersburg University represents
a kind of “greenhouse” for
researchers if we compare
our situation with that in the
laboratories of other universities:
we have access to international
information databases, we
can perform experimental
diagnostics of synthesized
materials in the Resource Centre,
we benefit from additional
funding for the most currently
important areas of research
and for publications in leading
scientific journals.
INVESTIGATION
HELD BY
GENETICISTS
The code for saving rare animal species from extinction and human beings from many
diseases currently incurable lies in DNA. SPbU biologists are among those who search
for the key to this code. They are helped by mathematicians and specialists in the field
of information technology.
Author: Yulia SMIRNOVA
FOTO: FREE STOCK PHOTOS
31
GRANTS
GRANTS
Stephen James O’Brien
received his bachelor’s degree
in 1966 at St. Francis College.
In 1971, he earned a PhD in
genetics from Cornell University,
which in 1998 awarded him
the title of Andrew Dickson
White Professor-at-Large. From
1986 to 2011, he headed the
Laboratory of Genomic Diversity
at the National Cancer Institute
at the National Institutes of
Health (USA). In December 2011,
he was appointed as scientific
head of the Theodosius
Dobzhansky Centre for Genome
Bioinformatics, St. Petersburg
University. Prof. O’Brien’s
research interests include
human and comparative
genomics, genetic epidemiology,
HIV/AIDS, retrovirology,
biodiversity and species
conservation.
PHOTO FROM THE PERSONAL ARCHIVE OF JAMES O’BRIEN
what the differences are between
individual specimens.
Now that vast amounts of data
contained in the genomes have
become available to biologists, it
is clear that simple mathematical
methods are not enough to
process all this information.
Biologists, therefore, get help
from bioinformatics — a set of
mathematical methods that can
be used to solve specific biological
tasks. “Combining computer
technology with genomics is the
only way to analyse the data that
we can get from DNA sequencing”,
says the geneticist. Thus, standing
at the intersection of genomics
and informatics, genome
bioinformatics makes it possible
to use the results of genome
sequencing for solving medical,
biological and agricultural
problems; we can even use them
in criminalistics.
J
udging from the tasks that
geneticists set for themselves,
today genomics combined
with computer science can do
almost everything. The work on
decoding the genomes of wildlife
species is just one of the projects
developed at the Theodosius
Dobzhansky Centre for Genome
Bioinformatics, St. Petersburg
University. It was established in
2011 under the leadership of the
prominent geneticist Professor
Stephen James O’Brien with
support of the mega-grant from
the Russian government.
LET US AGREE UPON
THE TERMS
It is to genes and their various
combinations that we owe
the diversity of all the living
things. Genomics studies how
genes work and investigates the
changes that occur in the genome
of individual animals and the
entire species. The main object
of investigation for this science
is, of course, human DNA. We
have, however, inherited many
32
of the genes from our ancestors,
and they can be found in many
other living organisms. This
means that it is possible to
study humans by investigating
monkeys, tigers, or shrimp. “All
mammals — humans, whales, or
monkeys — descended from one
insectivore that ran under the feet
of dinosaurs millions of years ago.
For example, genes in humans and
apes coincide up to 99%. Besides,
humans and apes can undergo
the same mutations; however,
in some cases these mutations
cause diseases in humans but not
in apes. Knowing this, we can,
with the help of genetics, develop
drugs for a particular disease,”
says Stephen O’Brien when
explaining how by investigating
animals we help ourselves.
Studying DNA sequences of
different species, we get an idea
of how genes are constructed,
how they work and how different
species evolve, how different
populations are organized and
DECODE AND ASSESS
“When we start decoding the
genome of an animal that is
threatened with extinction, we
do not yet know how exactly we
will be able help,” says Professor
O’Brien. The picture begins to
emerge after the bioinformatic
analysis of the data, and then
it becomes clear how the
researchers will be able to use
the data in order to preserve
biodiversity.
The first way is assessing
the variability of the genome.
There are some species that
have a highly reduced genetic
diversity because in the past this
species went through the socalled population bottleneck: at
some point, it was on the verge
of extinction and then had to
restore the population size using
the remaining individuals. The
surviving representatives of
the species begin to mate with
each other, which results in
numerous close relatives in the
population, and variability drops
sharply. All these events can be
reconstructed by studying the
genome. Such is the situation, for
example, with the Amur tiger:
the genetic variability of the
species is dramatically reduced.
This means that inbreeding can
result in genetic mutations that
IN BRIEF:
Genome sequencing is
determining the order of DNA
nucleotides (see more about
sequencing technologies in
the article entitled "Four-letter
Words" published in issue
No.6 (2015) of St Petersburg
University Journal).
do not contribute to the survival
and well-being of the species but
rather cause various diseases and
disorders.
Another application of
genome bioinformatics is in
criminalistics. “Even a small
fragment of the skin or the horn
may be enough to associate a
specific person with the killing of
a protected animal and put him in
prison. This is what happened in
the case of South African rhinos.
Poachers are interested only in
the horn and the carcass is left
intact. Scientists have created a
special database with genomic
data of the animals, and if a
slain rhino is found or someone
is trying to sell the horn on the
black market, the relevant DNA
sequence can be compared and
the perpetrator identified. Thanks
to this work, 50 poachers have
already been put behind bars,”
says Stephen O’Brien.
Genome bioinformatics can
also be used to study animal
behaviour, for example, to answer
the question why lions live in
prides. The fact is that males in
the pride are often brothers and
thus, from the evolutionary point
of view, it does not matter who
will be mating with the females.
“When we already have the whole
sequence and not, as before, just
fragments of the genome, we
can say much more. In a recent
study, we were able to identify
which gene is responsible for
the problem associated with
reproduction of the cheetah.
Every species has its own history
and its own habitat, which affect
survival. Thanks to whole genome
sequencing, we have received
a real gift. For the first time in
history we can take a look at the
species that rarely come into view
of researchers — leopards, tigers,
Baikal seals,” said the scientist.
Besides, genomic data can
show when a particular species
separated from its ancestral
forms and how it is related to
other forms with which it shares a
common ancestor, that is, not only
can we draw the evolutionary
tree, but also know exactly when
certain “branches” appeared
on it. This technique is called
the “molecular clock”. Genome
analysis also helps us to identify
the factors that are threatening
some of the species — whether
these are other animal species or
environmental factors, or various
diseases, and often find a way for
prevention or cure.
IN THE BEST INTERESTS OF
HUMAN BEINGS
Theodosius Dobzhansky, after
whom the University Center
for Genome Bioinformatics is
named, used to say that nothing
in biology makes sense except
in the light of evolution. It is due
to evolution that there is not
such a great difference between
human beings and other species
of living organisms. Medicine
and biology traditionally use
mice and rats for research and
development of new remedies
for such diseases as diabetes or
cancer. On the other hand, there
is veterinary science that deals
with treatment of primarily cats
and dogs. Interestingly enough,
when it comes to cats and dogs,
effective treatments for them have
already been developed for some
diseases that humans also suffer
from. Why not add them to our
arsenal? “For example, they have
discovered immunodeficiency
virus in cats, which is related
to human immunodeficiency
virus. A working vaccine against
this disease has been developed
for cats, but not yet for humans.
However, transferring drugs from
veterinary medicine to human
medicine would require whole
genome sequencing. Using it, we
can see specific regions of the
genome which help to protect
33
GRANTS
GRANTS
Not only creation of nature reserves
but also genetic research contributes
to the preservation of lion populations.
animals against the diseases
that affect humans. All that I
have been now taking about is
called comparative medicine,”
said Professor O’Brien about
the prospects of using genomic
information.
A CAT FOR FIFTEEN HUNDRED
DOLLARS
Four years ago, the Centre started
its work with the Genome 10K
project, which Professor O’Brien
brought with him to St. Petersburg
University. Its goal is decoding the
genomes of as many vertebrate
species as possible. Among
participants of the project are
San Diego Zoo (USA), University
of California (USA), the American
Genetic Association (AGA), Beijing
Genomics Institute and other
organizations. The SPbU Centre
is working on decoding the
genomes of 25 species, including
the domestic cat and dog, the
lion, the hyena, the snow leopard
and others. The project engages
about 400 scientists throughout
the world, and the work is to be
completed by 2020.
“What we are doing in this
project represents a unique
gift for the next generation of
geneticists. Because when all
that just started, the cost of the
first whole genome sequencing
amounted to 3 billion dollars
(the Human Genome project —
Ed.). But the price soon began
to decline, and now we can
catch any cat in the streets of St.
Petersburg and sequence it for
just fifteen hundred dollars. At the
time when the cost had changed
so significantly, the scientists
decided that it was necessary to
sequence everything. In addition
to the project on vertebrate
animals, similar collaborations
exist that deal with fungi, insects,
plants, and other groups,” says
Stephen O’Brien.
ON THE MOST IMPORTANT
Now the centre is working on
several projects. “It’s hard to say
which one is the most important.
Usually it all starts with a
problem that we would like to
solve. And then we either do not
find anything because we have
poorly designed the experiment or
34
DNA from volunteers belonging
to different ethnic groups for
the purpose of whole genome
sequencing and analysis. This
project involves four subtasks.
First, finding rare variants that
can supplement the data already
present in the international
community studying the human
genome. Second, making a map
of haplotypes, which will help us
to understand what groups show
resistance to certain diseases and
what groups, on the contrary,
are especially susceptible to
them. Third, finding mutations
associated with various diseases
and studying the indigenous
population to help population
geneticists test their hypotheses
on how the territory of Russia was
settled,” said Stephen O'Brien,
sharing his plans for the future.
because everything initially was
different from what we expected,
or we find something amazing
and the project becomes one of
the most important in our work,”
replies Professor O’Brien when
asked what projects could now be
considered the most important.
Nevertheless, the last four
yours of work of the University
Centre did lead to some amazing
findings.
The first thing that the
Professor starts talking about
is the development of new tools
for genomic analysis. A year
ago, GigaScience published an
article about the new Internet
platform called GWATCH (the
acronym stands for Genome-Wide
Association Tracks Chromosome
Highway) used in automated data
analysis for identifying genes
responsible for complex human
disorders. The genomic browser
allows you to view any human
chromosome and identify those
regions of the genome that are
associated with a particular
disease.
Another important project
is the study of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, the causative agent
of tuberculosis, which would
enable researche to make an
assumption on how exactly
certain strains of M. tuberculosis
spread among different human
populations. The study involves
determining the whole genomes
of 300 bacterial isolates from
different regions of Russia. The
analysis of the data would reveal
certain markers specific to strains
from particular regions. It is
expected that in the future these
markers will make it possible
to explain some fundamental
facts related to dissemination
of the infection. If the scientists
succeed in comparing the data of
the Mycobacterium tuberculosis
genome study with specific
characteristics of the human
genome, they will quite possibly
get more information on how
the disease has evolved and
developed.
Another initiative is the
promising Genome Russia project,
in which experts from the Centre
cooperate with many Russian
scientists and health workers
across the country. “We take
“GIVE ME THE QUIET OF YOUR
LIBRARIES…”
“We now live in a very exciting
time when a new library is
being created,” the scientist says.
“When Gutenberg invented the
printing press, the first book he
printed was the Bible. The human
genome has become the bible of
whole genome sequencing. Now
we see how a whole new library
is being built, which will benefit
the children who still attend
kindergarten here, right below
the windows of our laboratory. In
the future, perhaps, one of them
will become a biologist. I am
happy that both I and members of
the Dobzhansky Centre team take
part in this process and train
students and experts in the field
of genome bioinformatics. They
can take the data written down
as a strange sequence of letters,
analyse it and turn into data
which can be used for further
genetic analysis.”
35
GRANTS
W
“Hot” Research
Pursuits
Author: Ekaterina Kovaleva
36
The terrorist attack on the
editorial office of the French
satirical weekly Charlie Hebdo,
which killed 12 people, shocked
the whole world. The tragedy
has once again highlighted the
fact that Islam requires close
attention of researchers, who
can suggest different solutions
to conflicts and ways of overcoming crises.
hile other
universities just
start setting up
centres for the study
of the Muslim world, SPbU has
already established the Research
Laboratory for Analysis and
Modelling of Social Processes,
which has been working for over
a year. The Laboratory is headed
by Alexander Knysh, a graduate
of Leningrad State University
(presently SPbU) and Professor
of University of Michigan
(USA). As a reminder, he won
the open SPbU competition
for the establishment of
research laboratories under the
supervision of leading scientists.
Members of the Research
Laboratory deal with the whole
range of discourses on the fate
of Islam and Muslims, namely,
blogs, chat forums, and literature
that is available on the Internet
or published in traditional form.
This work helps to learn more
about the ideological foundations
and practical activities of Islamic
movements.
Now researchers find
themselves right in the heart of
it all; indeed, almost everything
that has been recently happening
in world politics, with the
exception of the Ukrainian crisis,
is connected with the idea of the
Islamic state and with the Middle
East. “One of the achievements of
the Laboratory is our success in
entering the international scene.
We collectively participated
in several international
conferences,” said Alexander
Knysh. “Our researchers, for
instance, gave presentations
at such conferences as “Islam
in a Multicultural World” held
in Kazan, “The World of Islam:
History, Society and Culture”
held in Moscow and the Finnish
conference “A Meeting of Scholars
and Research Projects: Middle
Eastern, Arab and African Studies
in St. Petersburg and Helsinki”.
In other words, we have asserted
ourselves as a new research
programme and a division of
the University. Participating in
these forums, young researchers
have gained experience in
communicating with their
European and American
GRANTS
colleagues.”
The Laboratory engages
both mathematicians and
representatives of the humanities
and social sciences. For example,
the historian Daria Ulanova
is doing research on marital
relations in the light of Islamic
law in the Ottoman Empire.
Now Turkey is reviving the
idea of Neo-Ottamanism (i.e.
the promotion of cultural and
social values of the Ottoman
Empire). Inspired by the ideas
of the Ottoman past, the ruling
Justice and Development Party
(Turkish: Adalet ve Kalkınma
Partisi) has been pursuing the
policy of re-Islamization of the
state and restoration of Islamic
values. Daria Ulanova examines
the documents on this subject,
and what she finds in historical
sources is significantly different
from what today’s Turkish leaders
see as Ottoman realities.
Another young researcher
from the Laboratory, Vladimir
Rozov, is investigating how
Muslims are trying to create
an alternative to the capitalist
economy in the sphere of banking
services. Charging interest is
forbidden in Islam, so attempts
are made to create financial
instruments that are, at least
outwardly, not the same as usury.
Vladimir Rozov analyses banking
advertisements, discussions of
economic problems in the press,
the use of various banking
terms by Muslim institutions,
and different ways used for
circumventing the ban on interest
rates in Muslim countries,
particularly in the Persian Gulf.
The “hottest” subject which
has become a topic of research
is jihadist propaganda. Scholars
study the publications that call for
a holy war against the “infidels”
and against “erring Muslims”
which can be found online or in
printed sources in English and
Arabic.
“Almost the first thing done
by the new ‘caliphate’ in Iraq
and Syria, which first used to
call itself ISIL (Islamic State of
Iraq and the Levant), or simply
IS (Islamic State), was publishing
new magazines — made quite
professionally, by the way,” said
37
GRANTS
GRANTS
PHOTO FROM THE PERSONAL ARCHIVE OF A. KNYSH
Alexander Dmitrievich KNYSH,
Head of the SPbU
Laboratory
for Analysis and
Modelling of
Social Processes
the head of the Laboratory. “In
these magazines the terrorists
explain to Muslims from different
countries why they should
abandon their homes and families,
and go to fight for their faith in the
newly created ‘Caliphate’. Aside
from ISIL, similar magazines and
online publications are published
by Al-Qaeda in Yemen; this group
claimed responsibility for the
murder of the cartoonists from
Charlie Hebdo committed on
January 7, 2015. Both jihadists
had been trained in this terrorist
organization and were inspired
by its propaganda. The Yemen
branch of al-Qaeda also publishes
magazines in two languages. We
are interested in how different
are the strategies for attracting
new members, how tastes and
interests of the audience are taken
into account, what the differences
are between the propaganda
in English and Arabic. In
addition, the researchers analyse
propaganda strategies used by ISIL
in social networks, especially the
Russian-language ones.”
Many explanations have
been suggested as to why the
French cartoonists were killed.
It is generally assumed that the
38
terrorists thus
avenged the
insult to the Prophet Muhammad.
“But it is one thing what people
who committed the act were
thinking, and quite another —
what the actual results of the
attack were,” said Alexander
Knysh. “Many Islamic scholars
are inclined to believe that alQaeda does not have enough new
recruits, so its aim is to create
an atmosphere of intolerance
towards Islam and Muslims in
Europe, which in turn will push
young Muslims to emigrate to
the “lands of jihad”, that is, Iraq,
Syria, Somalia and Yemen.”
The terrorist organizations,
however, cast out their
propaganda lines not only in
Europe but also in Russia. Online
recruiting of neutral Muslims
around the world is one of
the objectives of ISIL, since its
methods of warfare constantly
create the need for fresh “cannon
fodder”.
ISIL carries out an active
propaganda and fundraising
campaigns for the needs of the
army, for example, in social
networks, such as Twitter,
YouTube and VKontakte.
Interestingly enough, the
terrorists actively use popular
Internet memes that can cause
potential recruits to think of
the war as something “funny”,
“cute”, “filled with heroism” and
“military fraternization”, but at
the same time “not dangerous.”
In fact, the reality is quite
the opposite. Upon arrival to
the “lands of jihad”, they find
devastation, all-out brutality and
often death.
THE COST OF FREE SPEECH
The tragedy in Paris has sparked
a lot of discussions about
freedom of speech: should it
be the most important value
in contemporary information
society; should it have no limits?
This is undoubtedly a very
complicated issue that everyone
has to decide for themselves.
There are those who believe that
you should not persist if your
words cause rejection or hatred.
Others recognize the freedom of
expression as the highest of all
values, even if your statement
brings pain and rejection to
someone else; this was probably
the position of the cartoonists
from Charlie Hebdo.
“We see that Charlie Hebdo’s
director of publication Stéphane
Charbonnier (known as Charb)
had made his choice and became,
along with other members of
the editorial board, a victim of
its consequences. He knew what
he was doing, since even before
the tragedy the office had been
several times attacked, he had
received threats, and the magazine
had been firebombed. From the
rational and humanistic point of
view, after seeing such a reaction,
he should have probably stopped.
Charb and his colleagues, however,
did not. In my opinion, they should
have left the Prophet Muhammad
alone so as to prevent things from
going to the extreme, but, again,
this is my personal point of view
and I do not want to impose it on
anyone as the only correct one,”
concluded Professor Knysh.
“THE DOG BARKS, BUT THE
CARAVAN MOVES ON”
The attack, however, caused a
split not only in Europe but also
in the Muslim society. Many
non-radical movements and
ordinary civilians are inclined to
follow the Eastern wisdom that
“the dog barks, but the caravan
moves on.” According to them,
Muslims should rather leave the
insulters alone instead of creating
unnecessary advertising for
their activities. Others are more
peremptory and think that the
“infidels” must be silenced at all
costs.
While we are on the subject
of ideological disagreements in
Muslim communities, I would add
that they are generally split on a
variety of issues. There are people
with different interpretations
of jihad. Some say that it is an
internal fight against the instincts
of the soul, natural passions and
immoral desires: a vast majority
of Muslims believe that this is the
right “holy war.” There are also
those who adhere to “defensive
jihad”. They argue, for instance,
that Palestinians have the right
to defend themselves because
they are oppressed. As for
global jihadism, which does not
distinguish between the civilian
population and the members of
the military, it does not have a lot
of supporters, but, unfortunately,
they are very active. There has
also appeared a concept of virtual
jihad, when hackers try to break
into databases, for instance,
of the Pentagon. Supporters of
active jihad explain their position
by citing an Islamic statement,
according to which the sin that
you see must be corrected with
your hand or your sword. If this
is not possible, it is recommended
to use a pen, for example, to
defend your position on the
Internet, promote jihad and
defend Muslim values, preferably
in the English language, since
this is now the language that
the majority of Muslims use for
communication (in any case,
Muslims communicate in English
much more actively than in the
language of the Quran). English
today seems to have become the
main language of Islam, although
the role of Arabic as the language
of sacred texts is preserved.
One of the factors dividing the
Muslims is the geography of their
home countries. In particular,
BRIEFLY
Alexander Dmitrievich KNYSH
graduated from Leningrad State
University (presently SPbU) with
a degree in Arabic Philology. Since
1991, he has worked in the USA.
Starting from 1997, he has served
as professor of Islamic Studies at
University of Michigan.
Alexander Knysh has published
over a hundred works on various
aspects of the history of Islam,
in English, Russian, Azerbaijani,
German, Italian, Persian and Arabic.
Since 1997, he has been head of the
Research Laboratory for Analysis
and Modelling of Social Processes,
St Petersburg University.
those Muslims who live in the
Muslim world often do not agree
with the ideas produced by the
Muslims who live in the West. It
is believed that the latter have
become its “puppets” because they
left Muslim countries, moving
to the West in search of gain and
comfort. As a result, they have lost
the understanding of what “true
Islam” is.
Besides, not everything is
so unified in Muslim countries
either. There, too, you will find
both liberals and “conservative”
fundamentalists. The former
believe that liberal values of
the West are initially present
in Islam, for example, the idea
of Parliament, a consultation
between the ruler and his
subjects, love of science and
scientific knowledge of nature,
which was particularly manifest
in medieval Islam. For their
opponents, however, the only
possible constitution is Sharia law,
the word of God interpreted by
the leading scholars of the Muslim
community. And there can be no
democracy or consultation.
This gives rise to the
concept of the “correct” and
the “incorrect” understanding
of Islam. They sometimes go to
absurd lengths, arguing that in
some communities, people’s faith
is “incorrect” and, therefore, they
are doomed to poverty, while in
Saudi Arabia people believe in
God “correctly” and for that Allah
gave oil wealth to its citizens.
UNITED NOT BY
OIL ALONE
There are issues, however,
concerning which Muslims have
no difference of opinion. Almost
all of them are in agreement that
Palestinians are suffering from
Israeli and American policy.
This idea is one of the few that
unites terrorist groups like ISIL
(IS), Salafi fundamentalist and
liberals. It is actively used by
the militants, who have already
mastered digital marketing, in
order to attract young Muslims
to their ranks. The aim is noble
— freeing the world from the
domination of the Western
powers and “elevating the
word of God” over human laws
and constitutions. In addition,
it sometimes seems to young
Muslims that it would be easier to
leave Europe and start building
a new life within the Caliphate
than to try and integrate into
Western European society while
remaining strangers in it despite
all their efforts.
“The radicals, of course,
discredit the very idea of a
Muslim state, without even
realizing it. Muslims who return
to the land of their ancestors,
find it totally different from what
they expected: the terrorized
population, destruction, poverty,
authoritarianism and social
inequality,” says Alexander
Knysh.
The exchange of ideas and
findings among researchers
working at the SPbU Laboratory
for Analysis and Modelling of
Social Processes is ongoing,
but the most productive format
is what the members of the
Laboratory now call “a forum
of new ideas and projects”. It
meets about once per month and
has the form of presentations of
research results and subsequent
discussions, to which everyone
is invited. For announcements of
meetings and thematic workshops
please visit the official site of the
Laboratory: http://islab.spbu.ru/
39
RESEARCH PARK
RESEARCH PARK
When the Important
Is on the Surface
Author: Yulia SMIRNOVA
T
he study of solid surfaces
and low-dimensional
structures is an
important problem of
modern science and technology.
In addition to their fundamental
theoretical interest, these
studies have also great practical
importance, namely, for the
development of nanotechnology.
Any solid has a surface. In
essence, it is an ultra-thin layer
with its own crystalline and
electronic structure, possessing
new properties of a twodimensional material. Synthesis
of nanostructures on the surface
of a solid with a specified atomic
structure by means of controlled
manipulation of individual atoms
and molecules makes it possible
to produce new materials with
unique properties.
“The object of research for
us is the surfaces of solids. A
surface consists of several atomic
monolayers from 1 nm to a few ten
nanometres thick. The material
can be both artificial and natural.
For the purposes of our studies,
such things as proper surface
preparation, removal of adsorbed
40
gas molecules from the surface
and further synthesis in ultrahigh vacuum conditions, when
required, are very important,”
says Artem Rybkin, candidate of
physics and mathematics, director
of the SPbU Resource Centre
for Physical Methods of Surface
Investigation where the NanoLAB
research system is located.
The NanoLAB research
platform is a modular system,
consisting of two parts designed
synthesis of nano-objects,
with processes detailed at the
atomic level. Using NanoLAB,
the scientists can analyse the
characteristics of the electronic
energy and spin structure of
nano-objects, thus contributing to
the development of breakthrough
technologies and scientific
research in the most modern and
relevant areas of nanoelectronics
and spintronics. “We have
combined the methods of probe
NanoLAB research system
was put into operation
at SPbU at the end of 2014.
THE PHOTO IS PROVIDED BY A. RYBKIN
SPbU scientists are able to
learn more about atomic interactions and surface properties
of materials with the help of
the unique NanoLAB research
platform. It enables researchers to conduct scientific ultra-high vacuum investigations
using the methods of photoelectron spectroscopy and
scanning probe microscopy.
by different companies together
with the Research Centre team.
Both parts of the platform, in
their turn, consist of a whole
set of modules, which together
enable researchers to perform
nanodiagnostic tasks and
microscopy and photoelectron
spectroscopy in a single device.
All experiments are carried out
in ultra-high vacuum (at the
pressure of 1-2x10-10 mbar).
The design and the geometry
of research chambers provide
Artem Gennadievich RYBKIN,
Candidate of Physics and Mathematics,
Director of the SPbU Resource Centre
for Physical Methods of Surface
Investigation
us with the opportunity to
conduct unique experiments on
a broad class of objects,” says
Artem Rybkin. As a result, the
instrumentation base includes
more than a dozen sophisticated
methods of spectroscopy and
imaging that can provide nanolevel representation of processes
occurring on the surfaces of the
objects under study.
LET’S DO SOME MODELLING
One of the tasks performed
by NanoLAB is the study of
artificially created systems.
These are experimental physical
models which are used to study
real processes. After thoroughly
investigating the required
properties and qualities of
several atoms and molecules, and
analysing the interaction between
them, researchers can get a good
idea as to what properties the
materials composed of them will
have.
In the catalytic chemistry, for
example, it has become popular
in recent years to use modelling:
systems are artificially created
and are then used for studying the
action of the catalyst. Particularly
relevant are such studies in
heterogeneous catalysis. The
catalytic reaction produces the
highest yield at certain cluster
sizes, consisting of tens of atoms
or molecules. To model the
behaviour of atoms and molecules
involved in a reaction with the
catalyst, researchers need devices
like NanoLAB.
Such physical properties
as thermal and electrical
conductivity depend on the
structure of the material.
Photoelectron spectroscopy helps
to study the chemical nature of
the substance and its electronic
structure: valence electrons
(those that are further from the
nucleus) and core electrons (those
that are closer to the nucleus).
By examining core-level binding
energies, you can identify what
element you are dealing with,
and by examining core-level
photoelectron intensity, you can
tell how much of this element is
present on the surface. Knowing
the chemical shift, it is possible to
tell what compound this element
is part of. Studying valence
electron levels, you can identify
the type of the compound — metal
or dielectric — and predict its
surface conductivity.
If there are any point defects,
for example, one atom in the
lattice is replaced with another,
the electronic structure of the
material will be changed. What
effects does the replacement of
one atom have? Atomic links
change, the structure of valence
states changes. Replacement of
MORE:
The Resource Centre for Physical
Methods of Surface Investigation
focuses on scientific ultra-high
vacuum investigations of surface
nanostructures and composite
materials, analysis of local atomic
structure, morphology, electron
energy and spin structure. The
main experimental methods
used in the Centre are Auger
electron spectroscopy, X-ray and
UV photoelectron spectroscopy
as well as ultra-high vacuum
scanning tunnelling and atomic
force microscopy. The research
conducted at the Centre cuts
across a range of topics in such
fields as chemistry, physics,
biology and materials science.
only a small number of atoms can
affect the electronic structure
of the whole material and,
consequently, its properties. This
needs to be taken into account
when dealing with impurities. In
the presence of impurities, the
crystalline structure changes and
the surface can be reorganised,
but this should be a controlled
process. Besides, the electronic
structure should be diagnosed
at every stage, and only in this
case the sampling material can be
reliably characterized.
HOW DO WE STUDY ATOMS?
How can we synthesize and
study a system consisting of
several atomic layers, or clusters
of several atoms, or quantum
wires, or quantum dots? During
the measurement process, the
test object experiences a certain
influence that affects the results
of the experiment in some way
or another. When it comes to
research at the atomic level, the
preparation and the design of the
physical experiment are of key
importance.
NanoLAB enables researchers
to work with different materials
— with crystals of metals,
semiconductors, and dielectrics,
with biological objects. For each
sample there is its own, special
sample preparation procedure,
which includes the theoretical
and the practical parts. The first
thing to be taken into account
is all the possible properties
and interactions of the sample
and the materials with which
it will interact — the holder on
which it will be mounted, and the
fastening methods.
“When people come to us
with new tasks, we have to
understand all, even the smallest,
details. It is difficult to carry
out measurements without
preparations; the task should be
41
RESEARCH PARK
SCIENCE-LUNCH
Low-energy
electron diffractometer
Omicron
Chamber for sample
preparation
Radially extending robotic dispenser
Six axes LHe cooled manip
Scanning probe microscope
Prevac – VG Scienta
Damping supports
UV light source VUV 5k
Loading chamber
Chamber for sample preparation
X-ray source MX 650
Scienta R4000
energy analyser
clearly defined. For biological
systems, for instance, scanning
tunnelling microscopy may
not be an appropriate method
of analysis, since they usually
do not conduct electricity. A
different mode should be used
3D spin detector
way the obtained surface would
be perfectly clean and free of
adsorbed gas molecules.
As a result, sample
preparation can take more time
than the examination itself.
It is a good thing when users
Spintronics
Spintronics is a branch of quantum electronics which along
with the electronic charge uses the spin of the particles
associated with their intrinsic angular momentum for the
physical presentation of information.
here, namely, atomic force
microscopy,” says Artem Rybkin
when discussing the intricacies of
his work.
For example, upper layers
from the surface of single crystals
are sputtered with an argon ion
beam; single crystals of resistance
metals are annealed in an oxygen
atmosphere and are given a
short-duration heating to 2000˚C.
The surface can also be prepared
by in-vacuum cleaving; in this
42
have some previous experience
of similar work with their
material; otherwise the entirety
of the preparation, including
the theoretical part, falls on the
shoulders of the Resource Centre
staff, who work on the basis
of “one device — one person”
principle — this minimises the
risk of making a mistake.
Sample preparation takes
place inside the unit, in ultrahigh vacuum. The sample is
SPbU is to lead
a revolution
in technology
By Yulia SMIRNOVA
Alexey KAVOKIN
Professor at the University of Southampton, since 2011 Head
of the SPbU Spin Optics Laboratory named after I.N. Uraltsev
(funded by the megagrant of the Russian Federation
government).
moved between the modules
with the help of hand-operated
manipulators, working
with which requires a lot of
experience.
FROM RESEARCH TO
TECHNOLOGY
Surface investigation is directly
connected with studying the
properties of nanostructures
and composite materials, and
this is a path leading from
research to technology.
For example, can you make
one transistor out of one
silicon atom, and then make a
million of these and join them
together? “The problem of
many innovations is the need
to create an easily reproducible
technology,” says Artem Rybkin
on the topic of research prospects.
“Large companies have research
departments, which develop, for
example, nanoelectronic devices,
while we, in our turn, have all the
capabilities and resources needed
for basic research and for the
development of technologies that
can be used when designing such
devices.”
PHOTO BY: EKATERINA KOVALEVA
The diagram showing
NanoLAB research platform
43
SCIENCE-LUNCH
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
If scientists find out how to
manipulate spins as effectively
as they can now manipulate
electric charges, a global
technological revolution comparable only to the invention of
computers and the Internet will
take place.
S
tudying the properties
of spins — tiny magnetic
moments of elementary
particles — is one of the
major challenges of modern
quantum physics. One of the
regular SPbU science lunches
was set up to present the first
International Collaborative
Research Centre created by St.
Petersburg University, Ioffe
Physical and Technical Institute,
and the German Universities
of Dortmund, Bochum and
Paderborn. According to Alexey
Kavokin, Professor at the
University of Southampton and
Head of the SPbU Spin Optics
Laboratory named after I.N.
Uraltsev, almost every country
on the cutting-edge of science
is studying the physics of spin.
Despite there is no guarantee for
success yet, the US, Japan, France,
China and other countries have
high hopes for possible new
technologies.
Spin is a fundamental
property of an elementary
particle. The particle, so to say,
44
spins around its axis and has
its own magnetic moment. “If
you mix together many such
magnets, they will not make a
big one. Yet, if spins are arranged
properly, they are able to carry
and transmit information. Spins
can move in a crystal lattice,
which makes it possible to create
a new technology of fast data
transmission — at the speed close
to the speed of light, which is a
whole lot faster than electricity
passing through a metal wire.
Thus, information can be
transmitted at an enormous speed
and with minimal loss,” Alexey
Kavokin explained.
TO TAME THE SPIN
The world of today is reliant on
electronic devices, which are
based on, as the name suggests,
electronic interaction. If the
studies in the physics of spin
are successful, spin as a carrier
of information could, in many
cases, replace an electron. At
present scientists do not face the
task of developing a particular
new device — the research is
fundamental. “I would say we
are preparing a technological
revolution, which will allow
to develop a great variety of
new devices and improve the
properties of the ones in use.
The technology of using spin
to transmit information may
substantially reduce thermal
losses. Microchips will become
even smaller and computers will
run even faster. It is difficult
to perceive how much is 'even',
yet, if you think of it, up to 5%
of the produced energy is used
to support the Internet and the
new technology of heat-free
data transmission could save us
billions," said Alexey Kavokin to
underline the importance of the
physics of spin.
Scientists have emphasised
that such an ambitious and
long-term project (twelve-year
funding for now) is starting off in
the period of political
and economic instability.
“Fundamental science is what
unites the world,” assured
Alexey Kavokin. His colleague,
Prof. Manfred Bayer, added that
scientists should share their
findings not only with their
colleagues, but also the general
public to make people aware of
what public funds are spent on.
When do we see the results?
Scientists do not give promises,
instead, they give an example:
it took ten years to move the
transistor from the development
stage to mass production,
and sixty years passed before
television appeared after the
invention of the cathode-ray tube
used in television sets. “We are
doing high-risk research. So, it
will take between 10 to 60 years of
waiting,” said Manfred Bayer. He
was hopeful that those who have
just learned about the research in
the physics of spin would be able
to use its results.
The figure at the
southern Rostral
Column is considered to be an allegory of the Neva.
Ph. Thibault,
1809–1813
A TIME
TO GATHER
STONES
PHOTO BY: MARINA NOSOVA
PHOTO BY: EKATERINA KOVALEVA
Manfred BAYER
Professor at Dortmund University
of Technology, Head of the Department
of Experimental Physics. Since 2013
Head of the project Hybrid SpinOptronics: Applications of spin in semiconductor nanostructures and semiconductor/
metal hybrids: optic, microwave and
electric spin manipulation at Ioffe
Physical and Technical Institute of the
Russian Academy of Sciences.
Aleksandr SPIRIDONOV, Marina NOSOVA, SPbU students
45
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
Poets, when writing about St.
Petersburg architecture, would
glorify its granite embankments
and gilded spires, its iron railings
and marble statues. Few people
know, however, that some of
the icons of our city are made of
Pudost stone, which is now very
hard to find. Since its deposits
have been depleted, restoring
architectural elements made
of this material has become
an acute problem. Students of
St. Petersburg University have
found a solution.
The sculptural group Neptune
and Two Rivers on the façade of the
Stock Exchange. Architect: J.-F. Thomas
de Thomon
Pudost stone is a limestone tufa
with porous structure, which
from the very start makes it
look like old weathered stone.
It is soft and tractable. The fact
that it was easy to quarry and
could be obtained not far from St.
Petersburg made Pudost stone
cheap. When quarried, it is orangey
and sometimes yellowish in colour.
On exposure to air, however, it
eventually acquires an ash-grey
tint.
It is often called Pudozh, or Pudosh
stone. However, the village of
Pudozh is in Karelia, while the
village of Pudost is located not far
from Gatchina. In the 18th century
they used to call it Pudovsky
stone, but today we call it Pudost
stone. Other kinds of stone were
also quarried in the Gatchina area
and they are often mistaken for
Pudost stone. Among such rocks
we can name Paritsky stone and
Chernitsky hard stone of orange
colour. Decorative and artistic
properties of Pudost stone make it
unique; it is one of a kind.
F
or decades the restoration
community of St.
Petersburg has faced this
problem: it is impossible to
obtain this or that genuine stone
to make up for the lost features.
When you walk around the city
centre, past the great architectural
monuments, the eye increasingly
catches here and there inserts and
coatings made of foreign material
that serve to fill in for the lost
parts and elements on the historic
stone facades and monuments. The
decay of works made of Pudost
stone goes at a faster rate than
the development of its restoration
methods, while chances of finding
the authentic stone for restorative
replacements are declining all the
time. However, if you take a closer
look at the partly decayed fences,
sculptures and pedestals in the
city and its suburbs, you will see
that they can be used for restoring
architectural features that have
great cultural and historical value.
The most well-known St.
Petersburg sculptures created
from Pudost stone are perhaps
the statues at the bases of the
Rostral Columns. On either side
of the portico of the Mining
University located on Lieutenant
Schmidt Embankment, there
are sculptures of the Rape of
Proserpina and Hercules with
Antaeus, which are also made of
Pudost stone. The compositional
centre of the Spit of Vasilyevsky
Island is the building of the
Stock Exchange; its facade is
decorated with the sculptural
group Neptune and Two Rivers,
also made of this tufa. You will
not have to go far to see other
Pudost stone sculptures; just
46
BRIEFLY
cross the bridge and you will find
yourself in front of the central
tower of the Admiralty, decorated
with the sculptural group Sea
Nymphs Carrying the Celestial
Sphere and the statues of Achilles,
Ajax, Pyrrhus, and Alexander
the Great. The most extensive use
of Pudost stone in St. Petersburg
architecture was, of course,
connected with the construction
of the Kazan Cathedral. Here the
stone was used both for facing the
facades and designing sculptures
and architectural elements.
HISTORY AND RESTORATION
TECHNIQUES
Pudost stone is a porous and soft
material; therefore, aggressive
environment very quickly leads
to its degradation, weathering
and decay. This entails the need
for restoration measures to
be taken almost immediately
after the creation of buildings
and sculptures made of this
material. For example, as early
as in 1833, i.e. twenty years after
the construction of the Kazan
Cathedral was completed, the need
for the stone restoration arose.
During the imperial period,
Pudost stone was restored
with the help of rather crude
methods. The porous surface
of the stone was coated with a
layer of lime mixed with sand
and mastic cement, and then
covered with oil paint. All of
this was aimed at strengthening
the stone, but ultimately caused
further destruction of its surface.
The blocking of the pores led
to accumulation of moisture,
which in winter crystallized and
destroyed the structure of the
stone.
After the 1920s, restoration
became more thoughtful and
cautious. At that time Pudost stone
sculptures underwent their first
major cleaning from the previous
reconstructions of missing parts
with cement mastics. Restorers
removed the multiple paint layers,
which were covering not only the
surface but the general shape of
the sculpture.
The end of the 1990s saw a big
leap in Pudost stone restoration. A
special procedure was developed,
which included a thorough
cleaning of the stone surface from
older lime and mastic cement.
Researchers examined the stone
surfaces and found matching
materials with similar hardness
and expansion properties.
WITH OUR OWN HANDS
In 2013, one of the authors of this
article, Aleksandr Spiridonov,
took part in the restoration of the
Pudost stone sculptures of Ajax,
Achilles, Alexander the Great,
and Pyrrhus. The restoration
work was led by the sculptor and
restorer Pavel Ignatiev. During
the restoration, particular
attention was paid to removal of
old nails and cramps driven into
the lower part of the sculptures
for strengthening the roof. We
removed a lot of old cement
fillings that distorted the surfaces
of the sculptures. Clearing of the
cement layers exposed places
with black stone damage, which
had led to the destruction of the
surface. Minor losses and pores
were filled with single-coloured,
monochrome restoration
mortar, which had strength
characteristics slightly lower
than those of the original stone,
while larger losses were restored
47
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
SCIENCE AND PRACTICE
Pieces of Pudost stone from the ruined
bridge in the village of Pudost
BRIEFLY
Quarry mining of Pudost stone
started as early as in the Petrine
period. It was quarried not far
from Gatchina, near the village
of Pudost. The reserves of stone
were limited and it was intensively
quarried, which led to the depletion
of the deposit by the end of the 19th
century. Only the ruins came down
to us from the ancient time, which
have had great influence on the
aesthetics of classicism. Wide pores
of the stone gave the exterior of the
monument a look of “antiquity”,
of a “ruin”.
48
with a recovered block of Pudost
stone. It was put into the corner of
the Admiralty tower wall. Prior
to that, some lost features were
filled with Elizabethan limestone,
which is similar in colour, tone
and strength, but not porous.
RED DATA LIST
OF STONE
We live at the time when there
is still a possibility of finding
the necessary rare stones the
deposits of which have long
been worked out, but this takes
time. It often happens that in a
hurry to start the restoration, the
materials are found that are only
remotely similar to the original.
We propose to start collecting
such rare types of stone, which
may well be put on a special red
data list. These would include
Pudost stone, since its deposits
became depleted over a hundred
years ago and now it has to be
found somewhere if it is needed
for restoration of lost elements.
It should be recovered from old
destroyed structures, ruins and
foundations that do not have any
memorial or cultural importance.
The extracted stone can be
brought into one place and stored
till the time it becomes necessary
for restoring the lost features
of architectural objects that are
culturally important for the city.
Creating a “stone bank” like that
will enable further research
of the valuable restoration
materials; after all, even to this
day no one can definitely say how
many varieties of Pudost stone
existed.
Among the rare types of stone
we should name Yuvensky marble
and the Ruskeala marble. The
catastrophic situation is gradually
developing with the sedimentary
rock known as Putilov
limestone; it is quarried from
all layers at once and is cut quite
unprofessionally. As a result, it
is impossible to buy the stone
that was used in historical sites
separately from other varieties.
The list of “endangered” stones is
probably much longer, but if we
do not start collecting them now,
we are running the risk of further
exacerbating the problem in the
years to come.
THOSE WHO SEEK WILL FIND
What is the situation on the site of
the former Pudost stone quarry?
First we went to the village of
Pudost and, coming to the quarry,
found only the old, long-forgotten
traces of mining works. Only the
deepened relief standing out from
the surrounding country gave
evidence of the workings that
once were carried out there. In
places, we could see small spoil
heaps, in which we also noticed
several solid blocks of stone.
Then we went to the Gatchina
Park as its exterior decorations
also use Pudost stone. Exploring
the park, we found a large
number of old stone blocks as well
as partially restored fences and
gates where in some places Pudost
stone was replaced with a similarlooking limestone. If one day the
establishment of the “stone bank”
becomes possible, then a big role
in this important project could
belong to a group of volunteers,
who would look for places where
it is still possible to find rare
stones, make photo fixation of
the objects, determine the value
and significance of the stone in a
particular place, that is to say, if it
would be fine to take this or that
stone. Such activities will enable
students who study restoration
(and not only them) to develop
the ability to appreciate the value
of the stone and its significance
for sculpture and architecture,
which will contribute to the
correct approach to its subsequent
restoration.
J
The authors express their
gratitude to the sculptor and
restorer Pavel Ignatiev for the
invaluable skills and experience
in stone restoration and the
opportunity to participate in
the restoration of sculptures
made of Pudost stone, and to
Professor Andrey Bulakh, St.
Petersburg University, Department
of Mineralogy, for his help in
the concept development and in
the work on the article, as well
as to students Daria Siukhina
and Kristina Pevtsova for their
participation.
49
GUEST APPEARANCE
GUEST APPEARANCE
Yuliya Arkadyevna KUPINA,
Deputy Director at the Museum
of Anthropology and
Ethnography of the Russian
Academy of Sciences, graduate
of Leningrad State University,
Candidate of Science in History
"Museums Are
More Efficient Than
Politics"
Written by: Elizaveta BLAGODATOVA
University education can
become an excellent scientific
career foundation, although
it need not to be a scholar's
career in particular. Yuliya
Arkadyevna Kupina, Candidate
of Science in History, Deputy
Director of the Museum of
Anthropology and Ethnography
of the Russian Academy of Sciences, says: "We were taught
at the Department of Ethnography to strive for the very best
and learn from the best ones".
W
e can tell much
not only about a
person's job but also
about the person
themselves from the way he or
she characterises this job. These
words are the most frequent
ones in the speech of Yuliya
Arkadyevna Kupina: "adrenalin",
"interest" and "rapture". It is
almost a revelation for me how
exciting and at the same time
strained working at a museum
can be.
"Did you choose to be an
ethnographer at once?"
PHOTO BY: NATALIA SVIRIDOVA
"When a schoolgirl I visited
the archaeological courses of
the Leningrad Pioneers' Palace.
It was my extracurricular
activity. Today, theses courses'
graduates include chief custodian
of the Hermitage Archaeology
Department as well as many
of our employees... In such a
good company, inspired by
archaeology, we became students
of the Faculty of History of
Leningrad State University. Yet,
50
when we were being allocated
to particular departments, the
Department of Archaeology
refused to accept me. I was a
young girl with pigtails and the
atmosphere there was rough and
mostly manly. There already were
many students from the regions
with a rich fieldwork experience
so I was politely refused. The
Ethnography Department was
just on the opposite side of the
passage so I looked in. It took me
thirty seconds to fall in love with
a man who was sitting there with
huge portraits of the great Russian
scholars above his head. That state
of love nurtured the rest of my
five years at the University. His
name was Rudolf Ferdinandovich
Its and it was the luck of my life
that I happened to become a
student of his department. Our
teachers, who were great experts,
treated us like friends and
partners. We had much fieldwork
and field trips. All of these five
years at the department we spent
inspired by huge interest, respect,
love, learning and research
excitement. I spent my ordinary
days like that: by 6 a.m. I was at
the University swimming pool
where I worked as a cleaner.
Having done my duties and swum
a bit, I went to classes and to the
library after that. At 9 or 10 p.m.
I finally had time for myself and
could go out. It was adrenalin and
total excitement! We were closely
connected with the Kunstkamera
Museum and the Institute of
Archaeology. Frankly speaking,
continuous learning was the main
thing we were taught."
"Did you choose the
Kunstkamera for your
postgraduate studies?"
"I was glad when I was offered
doctoral studies. Moreover, I
began to study a new region
for me (I had been on the Volga
region at the University and at
the Kunstkamera I was offered
to concentrate on Siberia).
Other alternatives were either
teaching at school or sitting in
the archives, so I chose Siberia.
My research advisor was Sergey
Vasilyevich Ivanov, a renowned
explorer of Siberia and a father
of the Soviet ethnography. My
thesis was devoted to Siberian
shamanism and visual decorative
art related to it. Yet, I did not
much like what I was into. It was
somewhat like astronomy: I did
not see the culture I was studying.
It was the Perestroika period.
Expeditions were not funded, so I
worked with museum collections,
archives and literature. There
was an expedition funded by no
one. I earned money myself by
working as a museum guide at the
Kunstkamera in summer. It was
useful, too, of course. As a result, I
finally defended my thesis."
"Did you continue to explore
Siberian shamanism?"
"I realised that I am no excellent
scholar. An ethnographer must not
only know culture well but also
love and feel it. Yet, I continued
working there. I applied for grants
and finally became a holder
of the Fulbright programme
fellowship — it is a grant from the
US Congress. After all the hard
51
GUEST APPEARANCE
"Did you organise exhibitions
of foreign museums' works in
the Kunstkamera or MAE RAS
exhibitions abroad?"
"We took our exhibitions abroad.
It was 1997 and the interest
towards Russia was huge. The
world was discovering Russian
museums' cultural heritage.
It was rather easy to develop
cultural international cooperation
at the Kunstkamera because
the Kunstkamera had been
built around it. Moreover, the
Kunstkamera, naturally, sparked
the Western museums' interest
from the practical point: we
have not only collections but also
experts who can present these
collections. Our experts speak 40
languages of the world (I may be
mistaken, though, and there are
even more). That is why we are
convenient to work with. Besides,
we share some collections with
many museums (i.e. collected by
the same collectors). There are
also joint research and education
projects. So we were a success
at the international exhibition
market. I took up this job for
several reasons: first, because
I already knew how Western
museums were designed; second,
I spoke fluent English and third,
which was of importance then, I
had a PC and Internet connection
at home. I worked at home for two
52
Yuliya Arkadyevna
KUPINA,
Candidate of Science in History,
graduated from Leningrad
State University in 1984. The
same year she became a fulltime doctoral student at the
Museum of Anthropology and
Ethnography of the Russian
Academy of Sciences and in
1987 defended a thesis called
"Evenks' traditional sculpture:
The origin and functioning in the
second half of the 19th — first
half of the 20th centuries". Since
1987: a staff member of the
Siberian Peoples' Ethnography
Department of the Museum of
Anthropology and Ethnography
of the Russian Academy of
Sciences. In 1999 became head
of the Exhibition Department.
Since 2004: Deputy Director of
the Museum of Anthropology
and Ethnography of the
Russian Academy of Sciences.
Scope of academic interests:
Siberian peoples' ethnography,
management of museums and
exhibitions. Yuliya Kupina has
written a series of research
papers devoted to Siberian
aborigines' traditional culture.
She has also created a number
of exhibition catalogues and
museums guides. Has a second
higher education in the field of
computer design (a diploma
of St Petersburg Polytechnical
University issued in 2001).
A holder of the Fulbright
programme fellowship for
researchers (2002), graduate of
the Getty Leadership Institute
(2003), UNESCO expert on
museum development in the CIS
countries and Mongolia.
hours in the morning, then went
to Kunstkamera for another two
hours: to print up documents,
to have the director sign them
and to accept faxes. Then I went
"The Large Globe of Gottorf" display
at the Museum of Anthropology and
Ethnography of the Russian Academy of
Sciences
back home with the floppy discs.
Many difficulties of the time seem
ridiculous now."
"Are these exhibitions
important for new audience
attraction?"
"An exhibition is quite a process.
It takes as a rule 2 to 3 years
to prepare an exhibition. The
exhibits in a hall, with captions
and images, are just a little
snowflake on the iceberg of
an exhibition projects. Such
international exhibitions are
heavy-duty blocks in the cultural
places interconnecting us. We
must arrange every detail. Many
problems are solved daily. As a
result, we get to know each other
better and become friends. It is
about getting to know another
culture and many journeys. Every
travel is education, training.
We do not earn much money by
our external exhibitions. Great
opportunities for the professional
development and world view
expansion of our employees are
what we get. Through a museum
you can penetrate the soul of
a society and learn its design.
Museums are more efficient than
politics. Politics is too clumsy and
sick to build any connections. It is
always slippery. People stumble
and break their legs and arms,
lose their heads... We live another
life at the museum. Experts from
Great Britain visted me yesterday.
We are not interested in politics at
all. We are into museum coverage,
it is of greater interest for us. Once
we were visited by Indians from
California who looked up all of
our collections. Now we are in
correspondence with each other
and discuss opportunities for joint
projects. We have sent several
parcels of books to our Ukrainian
colleagues. This is what is called
communication and nothing can
prevent it. To my mind, museum
workers are the society's bloodvascular system and it is healthy.
While politics is, like, skin
diseases."
"Yours is not a simple museum
but an academic institution..."
"The Kunstkamera's specifics is
its being one of the major Russian
research institutes. Its structure,
PHOTO BY: S.B. SHAPIRO, MAE RAS ARCHIVES
living and pressure for money
when I had to work much because
I had a small child, I found myself
in a situation when I can cultivate
science only. The information
space there is organised otherwise.
You received a huge amount of
information by sparing much
less effort. I finally had time to
see much and to think many
things over. I became interested
in the museum job and became a
student of the George Washington
University. I spent about 18
months working at museums
of Washington, New York and
Philadelphia. By communicating
with my colleagues I understood
how museums worked. I came
back to Russia very inspired
and got involved into museum
operation. Foreign exhibitions
were of great demand then, so I
took up this job."
GUEST APPEARANCE
staff and funding are similar
to those of research institutes.
Until 2000 there had been no
museum structures here. Then
the Department of External
Affairs was established and I
became its head (at the moment
it included two employees only).
I got involved into managerial
and legal issues, intellectual
property rights, cultural values
circulation... My learning habit
developed at the LSU Ethnography
Department went on serving
me. Then various management
courses appeared. I visited them
but did not like them much. We
were taught at the Department of
Ethnography to strive for the very
best and learn from the best ones.
The best museum management
institution is the Getty Leadership
Institute, formerly known as the
Museum Management Institute. I
took a risk to apply there, but it is
a very expensive programme and,
even if I won, I would not have
had those funds. Luckily I was
the first applicant from Russia
whom they agreed to accept, so
they took me free of charge. It
was in 2003. It was really hard:
non-stop learning, taking into
account the fact that the American
museum management system was
different from the Russian one, so
I had to immerse myself into the
context. Yet, it was four months
of total excitement. When I came
back, the Kunstkamera had a new
director. A powerful managerial
team was created and I was
offered the position of deputy
director. Still remaining head of
the Exhibition Department, I am
Deputy Director. In fact we have
two big spheres, the science and
the museum. There is no tight
bound between them, we all are
a team. We enjoy our everyday
work, the process itself. And we
try not for ourselves but for the
public. People may never visit us
but they read our publications.
A museum cannot exist in
vacuum. It will become foul. Any
museum grows and develops
under partnership conditions.
In intellectual, artistic, scientific
environment. A museum is a place
of entertainment and knowledge.
It is an institution with a huge
number of functions."
"A museum and a research
institution in one. What are the
advantages and disadvantages
of such a state, of such a way of
life?"
"The unique character of
an institution lies in its
comprehensiveness. It was created
by Peter the Great that way. We
need the public. It is one of the
resources for the Kunstkamera
development. We have a broad
understanding of the public:
these are not only those who
have bought an entry ticket. Our
public also includes those who
help us during our expeditions
and field work, who provide
us with accommodation: both
the diplomats and the reindeer
herders. Those who help us
preserve our collections, the
restorers. And various artists:
designers, typographers, cinema
and TV specialists, as well
as authors and technicians,
innovators. The museum is built
around communications. It is
aimed at collecting information,
forming it into collections and
getting knowledge from this
information."
"As to exhibits accessibility,
only 0.4% of the collection is
exhibited to the public. There is
no room for more?"
"It's a paradox of big modern
museums: the more the collection,
the less of it is exhibited. And
exhibition venues will never be
the main ones to provide access
to the collections. It is physically
impossible and inappropriate
to exhibit all of the collections.
What's to be done? To use two
more venues: depositories and
website. Why is the Hermitage
building its own open depository?
The depositories become more and
more convenient for visitors, for
various specialists' work. Website
is the next venue. While less than
1% of the collection is exhibited at
the museum, the website contains
over 20% available to the public."
"How does it solve the
communication problem you
were speaking about?"
"As I have said before, a museum
is a paradoxical institution.
The most renowned museums
including the Kunstkamera
are unknown. We have brand
collections, i.e. that of MiklukhoMaklay. Yet they constitute only a
small part of the total stock. These
53
GUEST APPEARANCE
are well-explored collections and
they have become treasures due
to scholars' efforts. The question
is: how many unknown things
are there in stock? Yes, they
are registered and information
on them is entered into the
museum documentation. There
is information, yet it must be still
transformed into knowledge. No
museum in the world can, by the
effort of its staff only, explore
its own collections. That is why
the museum must organise a
venue to accept the public. So
that any visitor could enter into a
discussion with us, a dialogue."
"If you look at the
Kunstkamera's website, you
can see how much attention
is devoted to working with
children. Is it a long-term
project?"
PHOTO BY: MIKHAIL VOLKOV
"It is another museum paradox:
it is an institution that must
provide access and preserve.
You said "preserve"? Well, I can
close everything now, dust it and
it will be well-preserved. Yet,
it was Peter I who ordered the
Academy created on the basis
of the Kunstkamera in 1724 to
accept visitors and explain things.
Why? Thus humanities acquire
an outstanding instrument. They
managed to demonstrate their
achievements to the public. Their
ability to see the other person
and to understand them, to build
54
GUEST APPEARANCE
a dialogue with them. Creators of
culture, collectors and different
generations of visitors meet
each other at the museum. The
atmosphere is magic there. It has
always been surrounded by urban
folklore for a good reason. If there
are no stories told about it, then it
is forgotten and disliked. Museum
is a special place transforming
anyone entering it. You find
yourself in an exclusive space
of meanings. Science gets an
outstanding opportunity at the
museum: to explain everything to
the littlest person. It is important
because an uneducated society
gets rotten. About 8 years ago
we created a children's centre
and purposefully engaged
into children's programmes.
There are electronic games on
our website. World-renowned
specialists helped us develop game
programmes for children, to make
their time at the museum more
exciting."
"What does the museum get
from such mutual relations with
the public?"
"We have no snobbery at all. Of
such kind: we are a scientific
institution of great importance
and some ignorant people visit
it, so OK, we will show them a
bit, but you mustn't touch it and
make noise. We are a museum of
ethnography and every visitor is
a culture-bearer whose opinion
is important for us. Our museum
halls are our ethnographic field
to a large extent. Many people
give us our personal belongings.
A Dagestani woman living in
St Petersburg brought us socks
that she had knit specially for
our museum. It is a work of art.
Researchers take collection
photographs with them to an
expedition, go to the village where
these photos were taken in the
1920s and show them to local
people. There was an inscription
"A group of men" when the photo
was kept in the collection. When
our scholars come back, they
know all of these men's names.
They found out that for the local
people it was the only photo of
that period with their relatives.
Perhaps it sounds pompous
but we are a people's museum.
When we printed the list of our
collectors for the last 300 years
(and there are only those whose
names we know), we had the
total of more than 3000 people.
Among them there are peasants,
hunters, emperors, academicians,
foreign and Russian scholars,
missionaries and craftsmen. Yet,
we do not know the names of
many people who created items
for our collection. Their names
were not fixed in older times.
Yet, our museum preserves their
work and art and, as a result, a
sort of mankind's family album is
created."
"How close are the
Kunstkamera and the
University?"
"They live together, I would
say. Many of our employees are
teachers at the University. For
example, Aleksandr Yurievich
Zheltov, Head of SPbU Department
of African Studies and the African
Ethnography at the MAE RAS.
Most of our employees are SPbU
graduates. We have doctoral
programmes and many SPbU
graduates come to us. There are
many joint publications and
scientific expeditions. University
philosophers, sociologists and
museum scholars have recently
joined our community, too. We
attract those who help us study
and understand our visitors,
including virtual ones. What is the
University today? SPbU comprises
not only those who study and work
there now but also its graduates
now working at the Hermitage, at
the Institute of Archaeology, at the
Museum of Ethnography, at the
Institute of Asian Studies as well
as at the Pushkin House... We can
treat that as numerous relations
but I think it is more accurate
to call that an intellectual
community."
"Do you teach?"
"No, I don't. I am rather busy at
the museum. I am responsible
for the UNESCO-level educational
programmes for museum
specialists. In 2007 we launched
a project for the museums of the
CIS countries. It is completed now.
I have been in charge of a project
in the Ukraine for three years.
I was invited to deliver longterm courses but it is hard work
requiring much effort and energy,
so I had to choose. Otherwise
I would have to quit being the
Kunstkamera's deputy director.
And it is the most important thing
for me now."
"In December you celebrated
the Kunstkamera's 300th
anniversary but, as far as I
understand, its jubilee story is
only beginning, isn’t it?"
"It started some eight years
ago when we tried to approve
the anniversary programme
events and raise funds. It takes
much money to organise such
events. We failed to raise funds
and a year ago we understood
why: the RAS reform had been
launched. In December 2014
everything was limited to a
large outstanding international
conference and a jubilee meeting
of the St Petersburg Scientific
Centre of RAS. What is 300 years,
though, if we count from 1714?
The Kunstkamera building had
not been built by that time yet.
The collections of Peter I were
taken to St Petersburg which was
under construction. The first
visitors came to the Kunstkamera
in 1719. This is a more important
event for a state public museum
than collections transit. We will
prepare ourselves to the year
2019. We are going to organise
an exhibition devoted to the
Kunstkamera's history. New
catalogues and albums will be
published. We still have much
time to get ready. The museum
will have to live the next 300 years
of its history as bright as it has
lived the first 300.
A view of the Museum of Anthropology
and Ethnography of the Russian Academy
of Sciences (at the centre)
from the Palace Bridge
55
MADE IN SPbU
FINISH VS
START
By: Vera SVIRIDOVA
In spring, over 6000 students in their final year at
St Petersburg University are about to enter the
final stretch. After university, some are expecting to start a job, for others postgraduate study
seems to be a very popular alternative and they
are hoping to go on to further study.
I
n June, the Russian Public Opinion Research
Center (VTsIOM) revealed an auto-stereotype
of the young generation in Russia today.
Seemingly, young people at 18-34 are more
likely to see themselves as communicative, active,
ready to face challenges, open and friendly, frank
and supportive.
All these personality traits are definitely shared
by the final year students and postgraduate students
involved in the survey conducted by the magazine
‘SPbU’ (this year, they all are about to defend their
theses). This list does not include one more trait, the
one that should also be rated most highly — research
interest. There is no bigger incentive for young
researchers to get involved into activities at the
forefront of research. There is no stronger temptation
to delve into the world of science which has more
questions than answers and makes you persist
through failure in search for these answers. Finding
them is still under way — while pursuing Master or
postgraduate programmes, or even while working on
a doctoral thesis, like Dmitry Bolotin who has set his
heart on doctoral research.
As Andrey Chetverikov, another postgraduate
student, said, they cannot think of any other
alternative for themselves.
In 2013 SPbU was the first in Russia to reintroduce PhD SPbU,
its own doctoral degree.
Number of theses
defended at SPbU
SPbU graduates,
193 teachers and staff
(From September 1, 2013
to May 31, 2014 SPbU Dissertation
Councils awarded)
225
academic
degrees
of Candidate
of Sciences
and Doctor
of Sciences
(all approved)
academic staff of SPbU
graduates, teachers
and staff
32
130
14
Candidate
of Sciences
Doctor
of Sciences
4
PhD