jurnal produktiviti

0000053870
Jurnal Produktiviti - [Joumal].
JURNAL
PRODUKTIVITI
2005
JURNAL
PRODUKTIVITI
2005
SIDANG REDAKSI PENERBITAN
JURNAL PRODUKTIVITI 2005
KETUA PENGARANG
Mustapha Sufa'at
TIMBALAN KETUA PENGARANG
Samauddin Radiman
KETUA SEKRETARIAT PENERBITAN
Dr. Hj. Mustafa Hashim
SIDANG PENGARANG
Dr. Rahmat Hj. Md Ismail
Nor Aini Mohd. Amdzah
Zulaifah Omar
Roslina Md Isa
Abdul Majid Ibrahim
Kami mengalu-alukan sumbangan rencana untuk dimuatkan di dalam jurnal ini.
'Jurnal Produktiviti' diterbitkan enam bulan sekali, meliputi semua aspek ekonomi
dan pengurusan serta lain-lain bidang yang ada hubungannya dengan konsep
produktiviti. Rencana-rencana yang tersiar tidak semestinya merupakan pendapat NPC.
http-J/www. npc.org. my
PERBADANAN PRODUKTIVI NEGARA
'Jurnal Produktiviti' diterbitkan oleh
Perbadanan Produktiviti Negara
{Kementerian Perdagangan Antarabangsa dan Industri)
Peti Surat 64, Jalan Sultan,
46904 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
Tel: 03-7955 7266 (15 Talian) Fax : 03-7957 8068
http://www.npc.org.my
CONTENTS
THE STUDY OF ATTITUDINAL AND PERFORMANCE-RELATED
OUT COMES OF QUALITY CIRCLE PARTICIPATION
By Zainal Abidin Ahmad and Mustafa Hashim..........................................
PERUBAHAN PRODUKTIVITI DAN TEKNIK DALAM SEKTOR
PEMBUATANICT DI MALAYSIA
Oleh Zulridah Mohd Noor, Hasmiah Kasimin dan Liew Chei Siang..................
11
SERVICE QUALITY IN THE HOSPITALITY SECTOR: AN OVERVIEW
By Mohhidin Othman and Nor Fazila Hasftim...................................................... 33
TFP AS ASIAN ECONOMIES' SOURCE OF ECONOMIC GROWTH:
PAST EVIDENCES, MEASUREMENT CONTROVERSIES
AND RECENT FINDINGS
By Naziruddin Abdullah, Abdul Wahab Muhamad, Samaudin Radiman,
Eamizan Hashim and Noraoni Mohd. Shariff..........................................................
59
HOW THOUGHT PROCESSES IMPACT TECHNOLOGY
FOR PRODUCTIVITY
By Erf^ar/.RfrfZei/......................................................................................................
75
PRODUKTIVITI SEKTOR PERTANIAN MALAYSIA
Oleh Fatimah Said, SaadMohd Said,
dan Azmah Haji Otftmfln.........................................................................................
87
THE STUDY OF ATTITUDINAL AND PERFORMANCE-RELATED OUT COMES
OF QUALITY CIRCLE PARTICIPATION*
By
ZAINAL ABIDIN AHMAD
School Of Management
University Science Malaysia
MUSTAFA HASHIM
National Productivity Corporation
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
Abstract
The study explores thepossible attitudinal outcomes and performance-related out comes of quality
circle (QC) participation, and it was done among the operators from the five manufacturing
companies in Penang, Malaysia. Attention focused on the three major variables: (1) the role
conflict and ambiguity of QC participants and those of comparable non-participants to the work
situation; (2) the organizational commitment ofQC participants and those of comparable nonparticipants to work situation; and (3) the effectiveness and awareness ofTQM practices ofQC
participants and those of comparable non-participants. The encouraging finding was found from
this study especially in the contexts of human values out comes. This study found that those
workers participated in the QC activities had a higher commitment, lower role conflict and less
role ambiguity compared to those who are not involved with QC activities. It shows that QC
activities have an impact to the human values in term of their identification, involvement and
loyalties to their organization. At the same time workers that involved in QCC activities having
less conflict and more clarity in their work. On the other hand, involvement in the QC activities
also have a significant impact on the performance-related outcomes that based on the some of
TQM practices performance indicators such as awareness of leader vision, effectiveness of
customer focus, TQM training, task control and involvement policy. From these empirical
evidence this study conclude that QC activities and TQM initiatives were the solution for the
attitudinal problems of the workers and perhaps it is as a means of helping the management to
focus on the continuous improvement process more effectively.
INTRODUCTION
In Malaysia, National Productivity Corporation (NPC) introduced Quality Control Circle
(QCC) since 1983. It was started with different names and practiced by some companies
and according to the Total Quality Control (TQC) Secretariat of NPC, 124 circles with
1,619 members have registered in 1983 and as December 2001,6,851 circles with 51,937
'The Paper presented at an mtfrnatonal conference in Quality Control Circle (ICQCC'03) October 7-10, Tokyo, Japan
members have registered. This shows that the tremendous participation of workers in
the incremental process of quality and productivity improvement. As we know the
most popular definition of QCC was by Ishikawa (1985). He said that QCC is a small
group of workers from the same work place, who meet together on a regular, voluntary
basis to perform quality control activities and engage in self and mutual development.
In these cases they are going to identify, solve and implement solution to work-related
problems. On that conjunction QCC has been operating as a "mini-company" in the
organization that spearhead for total customer satisfaction and continuous improvement
but they are operating at lower rank of management (Leede & Looise, 1999).
Researches pertaining to the QCC intervention are become relevant in the form of
sustainability of the program. This study will explores the possible attitudinal outcomes
and performance-related out comes of quality circle {QC) participation. Attention of
this study will focus on the three major variables: (1) the role conflict and ambiguity of
QC participants and those of comparable non-participants to the work situation; (2) the
organizational commitment of QC participants and those of comparable non-participants
to work situation; and (3) the effectiveness and awareness of TQM practices of QC
participants and those of comparable non-participants
The present study seeks to find answers to these two question:
1.
Do involvements in QCC activities have an impact on attitudinal outcome such as
role conflicts, role ambiguity and organizational commitment of the workers?
2.
Do involvements in QCC activities have an impact on the level of awareness and
effectiveness of TQM practices among the workers?
The present study is significant value for TQM practitioners and academics alike. For
TQM practitioners, this will be the evidence to sustain the QCC activities in their
organization and willing to promote it, and this study also is expected to yield additional
insight into this relationship, which should contribute to the future development of
this line of research, particularly in a TQM environment. Thus, it will contribute to the
body of knowledge in this area.ch, particularly in a TQM environment.
LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
According to the British Standard Institute (1991), TQM is a management philosophy
and company practices that aim to harness the human and material resources of an
organization in the most effective way to achieve the objectives of the organization
(BS7850). Furthermore the primary TQM principles are focusing on satisfying the needs
and expectation of customers and to constantly improve the quality of all organizational
activities and processes, three strategies employed are customers, processes and
employees (Saraph et al. 1989; Flynn et al. 1994, and Ahire et al. 1996). This is the process
of employee involvement that portrays as an integral feature of quality programs (Juran,
1979; Magjuka, 1993; Matthes, 1993; and Reimer, 1992) and both empowerment and
involvement of workers are significantly impact on total effectiveness of an organization
(Brickenell, 1996; Jason 1990; Nurick, 1982; and Sconberger, 1994). Consequently TQM
has placed significant importance on involving employee - their experience and
creativity - in the organizational wide improvement process in order to archive strategic
objectives and develop employee involvement by increase in team structures (Crosby,
1979; Dahlgaard, 1999; Gyani, 1995; Ishikawa, 1985; Master, 1996; and Volker, 1998).
In the TQM structure, QCC is the one of the several types of quality improvement
teams, and according to Ishikawa (1984), QCC is a small group of people from it or
similar work units who regularly meet to identify and analyze problems and recommend
solutions regarding their work related problems to management. These are the
mechanisms of total involvement concepts that spearhead for total customer satisfaction
and continuous improvement (Gill & White, 1992; Lawler, 1994; Leed & Looise, 1999;
Lindelof, 1999; and Schonberger, 1994).
On these conjunction involvements in QCC activities has been proven having an impact
on work attitude, personal competence, better perception of work setting and more
educated (Buch & Raban, 1990; Norris & Cox, 1987; Steel & Llyod, 1988). When refers to
work attitudes, organizational commitment, role conflict and role ambiguity are the
factors that has to be considered in addressing this issues. Furthermore organizational
commitment has become very important in past research due to its significant impact
on job satisfaction, performance, absenteeism, and turnover intentions (Chelte & Tausky,
1986; Larson & Fukami, 1984; and Meyer & Schoorman, 1992). The relationship between
Organizational commitment and TQM are found in the research of Lawler (1986); Alien
& Brady (1997) Zeitz (1996); Brook & Zeitz (1999); and according to the most of "Quality
Gurus", organizational commitment is the most important factor that enhance the TQM
performance {e.g. Crosby. 1979; Deming, 1986; Fegeimbaum, 1986; Ishikawa, 1972; and
Juran, 1979). Group cohesiveness that portrays the involvement in the QCC activities
has an impact on organizational commitment (Wech et al. 1998) and the role conflict
and role ambiguity are the barrier to the higher performance. The relationship between
role conflict and role ambiguity with performance also received a great of attention in
past research. Role conflict and role ambiguity have been shown to have significant
effects on personal and organizational outcomes {Orphen & Bernath, 1987; Deluga &
Winter, 1990; Travis & Judith, 2000). Especially in this contact both role conflict and
role ambiguity have significant impact on organizational commitment (Glisson & Durick,
1988). As the conclusion this study is only concern on the level of role conflict, role
ambiguity, organizational commitment and TQM performance between the QCC and
non-QCC members.
From the above literature review and discussed, the theoretical framework can be
established as Figure 1 and there are four main hypotheses developed for the research.
They are as follow:
HI: Organizational commitments of the QCC members are higher than n o n - Q C C
members.
H2: Role conflicts of the QCC members are higher than non-QCC members.
H3: Role ambiguities of the QCC members are higher than non-QCC members.
H4: TQM performances of the QCC members are higher than non-QCC members.
ROLE CONFLICT
INVOLVEMENT IN QCC
ROLE AMBIGUITY
ROLE AMBIGUITY
TOM PERFORMANCE
Figure 1 Theoretical Model
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The subjects of this study were QCC and non-QCC's members that participated in NPC
Regional Convention in the year 1999 and 2000. A random sample of QCC members
from three main categories, namely manufacturing, electrical/electronic and service
were then selected. It is approximately around 200 members of QCC (20 teams) and
200 from non-QCC, and total of 400 sample workers were being identified. For nonQCC members they were being identified through members of the QCC and
questionnaires were being distributed through drop-off and pick-up methods. The TQM
Steering Committees for each organization were also involved in assisting these
processes.
MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES
Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity measure by Rizzo & Litzman (1970) questionnaire is
used. Nine items measure the degree to which employee role expectation is incompatible.
Respondents were asked to rate on five-point Likert scale ranking from l(very false) to
5(very true). The reported Cronbach's alpha of the nine items of role conflict (see Table
2) of 0.70 and six items of role ambiguity (see Table 2) of 0.79 was considered as
acceptable.
Affective commitments were measured by using Alien & Meyer (1990). Eight items
measure the level of identification, loyalties and involvement of workers toward their
organization. Respondents were asked to rate on five-point Likert ranking from l(very
false) to 5(very True). The reported Croncbach's alpha of the eight items of affective
commitment (see Table 2) of 0.74 was considered as acceptable.
A modification TQM performances measured by Brook & Zeitz (1999) were used.
Twenty-four items measure perception of the employee toward six constructs of TQM
performance. Respondents were rate on five-point Likert scale ranking from l(not at
all) to 5 (to a very great extant). The reported Croncbach's alpha of the twenty-two
items of TQM performance (see Table 2) of 0.86 was considered as acceptable.
SAMPLING, DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
The sample comprises of workers from manufacturing and service companies that being
divided into two categories QCC and non-QCC members. The questionnaires were
distributed to them, which is administrated by the researcher. Two hundred and sixty
two questionnaires were obtained from the data collection. The summary of respondents
such as gender, race, level of education, industries, management level, year of experience
in the organization, age and involvement in QCC is in Table 1. The respondents
comprises of 53.8 percent of QCC and 46.2 percent of non-QCC. Descriptive statistical
analysis, which includes frequencies and percentages, are used to present the main
characteristic of the sample. Means and standard deviations are also used. The
Hypotheses will be tested using the t-test methods in the SPSS 11.0.
ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The discussion of the results will be based on the t-test result in Table 3. Table 1 shows
the summary of respondents in this study. The reliability of the measurement in this
study is in Table 2.
SAMPLE CHARACTERISTIC
The sample characteristics are shown in Table 1. The main sector of manufacturing
companies involved is 60% of electronic and electrical industry and the rest is from the
others type of industries. 80% of the total sample is consisting of the operators that 40%
of them are having less than 5 years of experience. The reliability of the measurement
of the variables was considered acceptable that ranged from Croncbach's alpha of 0.70
to 0.86. According to Nunally (1978) an alpha above than 0.70 is consider as acceptable
measurement. Table 2 shows that reliability of the measures.
FINDINGS
The findings shown in Table 4 reports that affective commitment ((=2.09, p<0.01}/ role
conflict (£=-2.02, p<0.01), role ambiguity (£=-2,68, p<0.01) and TQM performance (f=3.62,
p<0.01) have are significant difference between QCC and non-QCC members. This
finding suggests that the QCC members are more committed compared to non-QCC
members. In term of role conflict and role ambiguity, the QCC members are having less
role conflict and less role ambiguity compared to non-QCC members. Further more
QCC members are more aware and more effective in term of implementing the TQM
process compared to the non-QCC members, From the above finding both Hypothesis
1, 2, 3 and 4 are supported the arguments.
CONCLUSION
The study explores the possible attitudinal outcomes and performance-related out comes
of quality circle (QC) participation, and it was done among the operators from the five
manufacturing companies in Penang, Malaysia. Attention focused on the three major
variables: (1) the role conflict and ambiguity of QC participants and those of comparable
non-participants to the work situation; (2) the organizational commitment of QC
participants and those of comparable non-participants to work situation; and (3) the
effectiveness and awareness of TQM practices of QC participants and those of
comparable non-participants. The encouraging finding was found from this study
especially in the contexts of human values out comes. This study found that those
workers participated in the QC activities had a higher commitment, lower role conflict
and less role ambiguity compared to those who are not involved with QC activities. It
shows that QC activities have an impact to the human values in term of their
identification, involvement and loyalties to their organization. At the same time workers
that involved in QCC activities having less conflict and more clarity in their work. On
the other hand, involvement in the QC activities also have a significant impact on the
performance-related outcomes that based on the some of TQM practices performance
indicators such as awareness of leader vision, effectiveness of customer focus, TQM
training, task control and involvement policy. From these empirical evidence this study
conclude that QC activities and TQM initiatives were the solution for the attitudinal
problems of the workers and perhaps it is as a means of helping the management to
focus on the continuous improvement process more effectively.
TABLE 1
Sample Characteristics
Characteristics
Gender
Female
Male
Race
Malays
Chines
Indian
Others
Level of
Education
Primary School
Diploma
Frequency
%
192
73.
3
26.
7
70
194
45
20
3
74.
0
17.
2
7.7
1.1
216
16
82.
5
17.
Characteristics
Management Level
Supervisor
Operators
Frequency
%
40
222
15.3
84.7
Year of Experience
in the Organization
Less than 5 years
6-15 years
16 - 20 years
More than 20 years
109
90
37
26
41.6
34.4
14.1
9.9
Age
Less than 30 years
31 - 45 years
46 and above
122
116
24
46.2
44.6
9.2
Involvement in
QCC
Non-QCC
141
121
53.8
46.2
5
Industry
Electronic and
Electrical
Others
60.
159
103
7
39.
3
TABLE 2
Reliability of Measures
Alpha
Variables
Affective Commitment
Role Conflict
Role Ambiguity
TQM Performance
0.74
0.70
0.79
0.86
Mean (Standard Deviation)
QCC
Non-QCC
3.67 (0.57)
3.52 (0.53)
2.64 (0.65)
2.76 (0.59)
2.00 (0.52)
2.17 (0.53)
3.73 (0.52)
3.50 (0.49)
TABLE 3
The Result oft-testfor Equality of Means
t
Affective
Commitment
Role Conflict
Role Ambiguity
TQM Performance
t-test for Equality of Means
Sig. (2 -tailed)
df
Mean
Difference
2.09
259
.03
.14
-2.02
-2.68
3.62
259
259
.04
.00
-.13
-.17
259
.00
.22
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10
PERUBAHAN PRODUKTIVITI DAN TEKNIK DALAM SEKTOR PEMBUATAN
ICT DI MALAYSIA
Oleh
ZULRIDAH MOHD NOOR
HASMIAH KASIMIN
LIEWCHEISIANG
Pusat Pengajian Ekonomi
Fakulti Ekonomi dan Perniagaan
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Abstrak
Pengeluaran sektor pembuatan ICT meliputi 32.8 peratus daripada Keluaran Dalam Negara
Kasar (KDNK) dalam tahun 2001. Eksport elektronik dan ekktrik yang merupakan salah satu
komponen pembuatan ICT mewakili 70 peratus daripada eksport Malaysia. Walaupun Malaysia
telah membangunkan ekonomi berorientasikan eksportyangkukuh dalam pembuatan ICTnamun
pergantungan yang sangat kuat kepada elektronik dan persaingan yang hebat daripada negara
lain serta kehilangan yang ketara dalam syer komponen tertentu pembuatan ICT seperti peralatan
telekomunikasi dan perakaman telah mencabar daya saing sektor pembuatan ICT negara.
Memandangkan jumlah produktivitifaktor (TFP) sering dikaitkan dengan pembangunan negara,
TFP bukan sahaja telah menjadifokus dasar pembangunan dan strategi negara malahan terdapat
keperluan yang meningkat untuk mengukur dan memantau TFP sektor pembuatan ICT secara
berterusan untuk membaiki produktiviti dan daya saing. Kertas ini bertujuan menghitung
pelbagai jenis ukuran kecekapan dan menganalisis pertumbuhan TFP dalam enam industri
pembuatan ICT di Malaysia bagi tempoh 1988-1999. Pendekatan analisis data envelopment
tak berparameter telah digunakan untuk menghitung indeks-indeks produktiviti Malmquist
berdasarkan data panel yang diperoleh. Indeks-indeks ini telah dihuraikan kepada perubahan
kecekapan dan perubahan teknik. Keputusan empirik menunjukkan yang TFP industri
pembuatan ICT meningkat pada kadar 7.0 peratus setahun. Pembaikan dalam pertumbuhan
TFP hampir semuanya dijelaskan oleh perubahan teknik (6.9 peratus) manakala hanya 0.1 peratus
sahaja yang disebabkan oleh pembaikan kecekapan.
Kata kunci: Sektor pembuatan ICT, analisis data envelopment (DEA), jumlah produktiviti
faktor (TFP), kecekapan.
Production of ICT manufacturing sector contributed 32.8 percent to Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) in 2001. One of the ICT manufacturing components, namely, electronics and electric
contributed 70 percent to Malaysian export. Even though Malaysia has developed a very strong
export-oriented economy in ICT manufacturing but is still highly reliant on electronics. Stiff
competition from other countries and significant share losses in certain components of ICT
manufacturing such as in telecom and recording apparatus have challenged competitiveness of
11
Malaysian ICT manufacturing sector. Recognizing the importance of total factor productivity
(TFP) in sustaining economic development, it is increasingly becoming the focus of development
policy and strategy. Therefore, there is now increased recognition of the need to monitor and
measure productivity constantly to improve both productivity and competitiveness. This paper
aims to calculate various measure of efficiency and analyse TFP growth of six ICT manufacturing
industries in Malaysia for the period of 1988-1999. Tlie study applies a non-parametric data
envelopment analysis (DEA) approach to measure Malmquist production indices based on the
panel data. The indices are then decomposed into efficiency change and technical change. The
study finds that TFP of ICT manufacturing sector has increased at the annual rate of 7 percent.
Improvement in TFP growth can be explained mostly by the technical change or technical progress
(6.9%), however only 0.1 percent due to efficiency improvement.
PENGENALAN
Produktiviti telah menarik minat ahli-ahli ekonomi dan pembuat dasar kerana
pertumbuhan produktiviti adalah sumber utama pertumbuhan ekonomi keseluruhan
dan pembaikan kebajikan kedua-dua pengguna dan pengeluar. Oleh itu pemahaman
dan pengukuran produktiviti adalah penting dan terdapat keperluan untuk
menghuraikan jumlah pertumbuhan produktiviti tersebut kepada dua komponen
penting iaitu perubahan kecekapan teknik dan pembahan teknologi. Progres teknik
(anjakan dalam sempadan pengeluaran) dan perubahan kecekapan teknik (pergerakan
kearah atau jauh daripada sempadan pengeluaran) adalah dua faktor utama dalam
pertumbuhan produktiviti, yang berkaitan dengan sumber berbeza, dan dengan itu
dasar-dasar berbeza diperlukan untuk melaksanakannya.
Pertumbuhan jumlah produktiviti faktor adalah merupakan ukuran penting bagi
pertumbuhan potensi output disebabkan oleh pulangan berkurangan bagi penggunaan
input dalam jangka panjang. Menyedari kepentingan jumlah produktiviti faktor (TFP)
bagi mempercepatkan pembangunan negara bukan sahaja telah menjadikannya fokus
dasar pembangunan dan strategi negara contohnya dalam Pelan Induk Industri Kedua
1996-2005 malahan terdapat keperluan yang meningkat untuk mengukur dan memantau
TFP sektor pembuatan negara secara berterusan untuk membaiki produktiviti dan daya
saing ekonomi sektor tersebut.
Minat untuk mengkaji pertumbuhan TFP dalam sektor pembuatan Malaysia semakin
meningkat terutamanya di kalangan pembuat dasar untuk melihat kebolehan industri
ini mengekalkan daya saing dan output mapan kerana pertumbuhan TFP adalah salah
satu ukuran pertumbuhan output mapan dan dalam jangka panjang pertumbuhan
ekonomi tidak boleh bergantung kepada pertumbuhan input semata-mata. Kajiankajian lepas terhadap pertumbuhan TFP dalam industri pembuatan di Malaysia telah
dilakukan dengan berbagai kaedah kajian. Kajian World Bank (1989) mendapati kadar
pertumbuhan TFP dalam sektor pembuatan hanyalah -1.9 peratus bagi tempoh 1981 1984. Kajian-kajian menggunakan pendekatan bukan sempadan (nonfrontier) oleh
12
Okamoto (1994) dan Tham (1996, 1997) mendapati pertumbuhan TFP yang tidak
melebehi 0.3 peratus bagi tempoh akhir tahun 1980an. The Productivity Report (1999)
dan Mahadevan (2001) pula menyediakan bukti terdapatnya pertumbuhan TFP yang
merosot bagi sektor pembuatan dalam pertengahan tahun 1990an. Mahadevan (2002)
pula dengan menggunakan pendekatan sempadan dan analisis data envelopment (DEA)
kepada panel data terdiri daripada 28 industri sepanjang tempoh 1981-1996 mendapati
pertumbuhan TFP tahunan sektor pembuatan adalah tersangat rendah iaitu hanya pada
0.8 peratus sahaja dan ini dihasilkan oleh pembaikan yang sangat kecil dalam keduadua perubahan teknik dan kecekapan dengan hampir semua industri beroperasi hampir
pada skel optimum.
Kajian ini penting dari segi tambahan kepada literatur empirik pertumbuhan TFP sektor
pembuatan yang sedia ada kerana kajian terperinci mengenai industri pembuatan ICT
di mana 5-digit industri kod perlu digunakan tidak pernah dilakukan. Sektor
pembuatan ICT dianggap sebagai sektor strategik bukan sahaja dari segi sumbangannya
kepada pendapatan eksport negara melalui produk elektronik malahan kepada
penjanaan pekerjaan penduduk. Pengeluaran sektor pembuatan ICT merupakan 30
peratus daripada Keluaran Dalam Negara Kasar (KDNK). Eksport elektronik dan
elektrik yang merupakan salah sahi komponen ICT pembuatan mewakili 70 peratus
daripada eksport Malaysia. Walaupun Malaysia telah membangunkan ekonomi
berorientasikan eksport yang kukuh dalam pembuatan ICT namun pergantungan yang
sangat kuat pada elektronik dan persaingan yang hebat daripada negara lain dan
kehilangan syer ketara dalam komponen tertentu ICT pembuatan seperti peralatan
telekomunikasi dan perakaman telah mencabar daya saing sektor ICT pembuatan
negara.
Sektor pembuatan ICT di Malaysia telah melalui beberapa perubahan penting sepanjang
beberapa dekad lepas, kebanyakannya disebabkan oleh peningkatan pembangunan
perindustrian, globalisasi, dan perubahan-perubahan teknologi. Dalam environmen
ekonomi yang berubah dengan cepat tersebut, adalah penting untuk mengetahui prestasi
pertumbuhan produktiviti industri pembuatan dalam sektor ICT secara keseluruhan
dan industri mana yang dilakukan secara cekap dan implikasinya.
Kertas kerja ini menerokai isu-isu tersebut di atas bagi kes 6 industri pembuatan ICT
pada kumpulan peringkat 5-digit bagi tempoh 1988-1999. Untuk mencapai tujuan ini
kaedah yang dimulai oleh Fare et al. (1989) dan digunakan dalam Fare et al. (1995)
digunakan, i.e. indeks jumlah prodiktiviti faktor (TFP) Malmquist dihuraikan kepada
dua komponen: perubahan teknik dan perubahan kecekapan teknik.
Indeks TFP Malmquist yang digunakan adalah purata dua indeks Malmquist yang
diperkenalkan oleh Caves et al. (1982). Walau bagaimanapun, indeks TFP Malmquist
ini membenarkan perubahan kecekapan teknik. Fungsi-fungsi jarak komponen bagi
indeks Malmquist dihitung menggunakan pendekatan DEA tak berparameter yang
13
mula diperkenalkan oleh Charnes et al. (1978). Teknik tak berparameter bagi ukuran
produktiviti yang digunakan dalam analisis ini akan membentuk sempadan utama atau
kadang-kadang dikenali sebagai sempadan 'amalan terbaik' berdasarkan data sampel
industri dan membandingkan setiap industri dengan sempadan ini. Berapa hampir
sesebuah industri kepada sempadan utama dipanggil 'kecekapan teknik', berapa banyak
sempadan utama beranjak pada setiap campuran input tercerap industri pula dipanggil
'perubahan teknik'.
Kertas kerja ini dibahagikan kepada enam bahagian. Bahagian kedua membincangkan
secara ringkas industri pembuatan dalam sektor ICT. Bahagian ketiga menjelaskan
metodologi yang terlibat dalam mendapatkan ukuran jumlah produktiviti f aktor (TFP)
dan huraiannya kedalam perubahan kecekapan teknik dan perubahan teknologi.
Bahagian keempat pula membincangkan data dan sumber data yang digunakan.
Bahagian kelima melaporkan keputusan kajian manakala Bahagian keenam akan
menyimpulkan keseluruhan kajian dan membincangkan implikasi dasar bagi
pertumbuhan produktiviti masa hadapan.
INDUSTRI PEMBUATAN DALAM SEKTOR ICT
Mengikut MSIC 2000 kini terdapat 28 industri yang dikenali dalam sektor ICT yang
digolongkan dalam lima pengkelasan besar iaitu pembuatan; pemborongan mesin,
peralatan dan bekalan; telekomunikasi; penyewaan mesin dan peralatan; dan komputer
dan aktiviti-aktiviti berkaitan. Jadual 1 berikut menunjukkan senarai terperinci bagi
12 sub-industri pembuatan dalam sektor ICT berdasarkan MSIC 2000 dengan industri
bersamaannya berdasarkan MIC 72. Jika konsep maklumat kandungan industri yang
lebih luas diperlukan maka senarai berikut yang ditunjukkan oleh Jadual 2 perlu
disertakan.
Oleh kerana data siri masa bagi industri pembuatan dalam sektor ICT menggunakan
klasifikasi baru MISC 2000 belum tersedia, untuk mengenali industri pembuatan yang
terlibat dalam sektor ICT, statistik utama sektor pembuatan ICT 5-digit berdasarkan
MIC 72 bagi tempoh 1986-99 yang digunakan ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 3. Statistik
tersebut dikumpulkan daripada tujuh industri yang terlibat dalam pembuatan produk
ICT daripada Laporan Penyiasatan Industri Pembuatan Tahunan yang dikeluaran oleh
Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia seperti disenaraikan berikut:
• percetakan, penerbitan dan industri berkaitan (34200),
• membuat mesin pejabat, pengiraan dan perakaunan (38250),
• membuat set radio dan televisyen, perkakas pengeluar dan perakam bunyi
(38321),
• membuat piring hitam dan pita magnet yang telah dirakam (38322),
• separa konduktor dan komponen elektronik dan alat dan radas perhubungan
lain (38329),
14
• membuat kabel dan dawai (38391),
• membuat alat profesional dan saintifik serta ukuran dan kawalan (38510).
Secara umum, dalam tahun 1986, sektor pembuatan ICT melaporkan kadar
pertumbuhan tahunan negatif dalam nilai ditambah manakala nilai-nilai kadar
pertumbuhan tahunan guna tenaga, upah dan nilai aset tetap secara relatif sangat
kecil berbanding dengan tahun-tahun selepas itu. Ini adalah disebabkan oleh
kemelesetan ekonomi yang dihadapi pada tahun sebelum ini. Deregulasi pelaburan
langsung asing (FDI) yang membenarkan 100 peratus hak milik modal asing
mengeksport lebih daripada 80 peratus produk mereka telah menyumbang kepada
pertumbuhan guna tenaga, upah dan gaji dan nilai aset tetap selepas 1987. Dalam
tahun 1987 kadar pertumbuhan tahunan guna tenaga bernilai negatif disebabkan
kelembapan dalam permintaan sektor pembuatan secara umumnya akibat krisis
kewangan. Pada tahun 1990 walaupun ekonomi telah pulih, kadar pertumbuhan
tahunan guna tenaga masih kecil berbanding dengan tahun-tahun sebelum ini
kecuali tahun 1997.
Pertumbuhan cepat dalam nilai aset tetap daripada 1990-1996 adalah disebabkan
oleh peningkatan penggunaan automasi oleh firma-firma sebagai respon kepada
kekurangan buruh dan tekanan-tekanan persaingan global yang semakin
meningkat. Pelaburan dalam sektor pembuatan ICT terus meningkat seperti yang
ditunjukkan oleh pertambahan bilangan pertubuhan daripada 385 dalam tahun
1986 kepada 777 pada tahun 1994 dan 1,842 pada tahun 1997. Selepas krisis
kewangan pada tahun 1997 cuma lima firma baru sahaja dilaporkan pada tahun
1990.
Mengikut industri pula, industri yang dianggap penting dalam pembuatan ICT dari
segi sumbangan kepada guna tenaga, nilai ditambah dan jumlah eksport adalah industri
separa konduktor dan komponen elektronik dan alat dan radas perhubungan lain
(38329). Bilangan pertubuhan yang terlibat dalam industri ini telah meningkat daripada
75 pada tahun 1985 kepada 516 pada tahun 1997 bila krisis kewangan melanda negara
ini. Walaupun ekonomi telah pulih pada tahun 1999 namun bilangan ini telah merosot
kepada 495. Walau bagaimanapun krisis kewangan tidak banyak memberi kesan kepada
nilai output kasar, nilai ditambah, guna tenaga, upah dan gaji, dan nilai aset tetap bagi
industri ini. Semua pembolehubah ini menunjukkan arah aliran yang meningkat dan
kadar pertumbuhan tahunan positif bagi tempoh 1985-1999. Industri ini menyerap
paling ramai guna tenaga dalam sektor pembuatan ICT iaitu seramai 306,330 pekerja
pada tahun 1999 berbanding dengan 59,673 pekerja pada tahun 1985 pada ketika industri
ini mula diperkenalkan di Malaysia. Nilai ditambah juga meningkat kepada
15
RM24,864.602 juta pada tahun 1999 berbanding dengan RM1,392.109 juta pada tahun
1985.
Mengikut industri pula, industri percetakan, penerbitan dan industri berkaitan (34200)
merupakan industri yang sangat berkembang pesat dengan 1,081 pertubuhan pada
tahun 1999 berbanding dengan hanya 253 pertubuhan pada tahun 1985. Nilai ditambah
meningkat kepada 1,822.828 juta pada tahun 1999 berbanding RM489.924 juta pada
tahun 1985. Dalam tempoh yang sama bilangan pekerja telah bertambah kepada 35,513
berbanding 20,719 orang. Upah dan gaji juga telah meningkat daripada RM212.820
juta kepada 664.785 juta. Nilai aset tetap industri ini juga telah meningkat kepada
RM2,861.902 juta berbanding RM343.894 juta. Sepanjang tempoh 1985-1999 semua
statistik utama dalam industri ini menunjukkan arah aliran yang meningkat kecuali
pada masa meleset pada tahun 1986-87.
PENGUKURAN PRODUKTIYITI DAN KECEKAPAN
Dalam kertas kerja ini, perubahan produktiviti dalam 6 industri pembuatan ICT pada
5-digit dihitung sebagai min geometrik bagi dua indeks Malmquist. Industri mencetak,
menerbit dan industri berkaitan (34200) tidak disertakan kerana industri ini termasuk
dalam sektor pembuatan mengikut klasifikasi baru MSIC 2000. Diperkenalkan oleh
Caves et al. (1982), indek produktiviti Malmquist (berdasarkan output) ditakrifkan
sebagai nisbah dua (output) fungsi jarak. Fungsi-fungsi jarak adalah perwakilan fungsi
bagi teknologi berbilang-output, berbilang input yang hanya memerlukan data kuantitikuantiti input dan output. Dengan itu, indeks ini adalah ukuran perubahan produktiviti
primal yang, berbanding dengan indeks Tornquist atau Fisher, tidak memerlukan kos
atau syer hasil bagi tujuan pengagregatan tetapi mampu mengukur pertumbuhan TFP
dalam situasi berbilang input dan berbilang output.
Mengikuti Fare et al. (1989) dan Caves et al. (1982) indeks produktiviti Malmquist boleh
ditakrifkan sebagai min geometrik dua quotients bagi fungsi-fungsi jarak output seperti
berikut:
,
t+1
,
t+i
,yv ,
Dengan itu indeks tersebut menggunakan fungsi-fungsi jarak daripada dua tempoh
berbeza atau teknologi, D,,* (.,.) dan DQt+1(.,.) dan dua pasangan vektor input-output, (x*,
yl) dan (xt+1, yi+1). Caves et al. (1982) mengandaikan yang DOI (x', y') dan D^1^1, yt+1)
yang membayangkan yang cerapan-cerapan tempoh tertentu adalah cekap secara teknik
dalam takrifan Farrell (1957). Seperti yang ditunjukkan oleh Fare et al. (1989), indeks
Malmquist tersebut diatas boleh dihuraikan kedalam dua komponen iaitu perubahan
16
kecekapan teknik (EFFCH) dan perubahan teknik (TECHCH) yang ditakrifkan seperti
berikut:
1 1
(xwi
v,t,
x.
v,>
_
________
+
M+
D 0''(*'
',/M
')D' 0 '(*',/)
' '
———————-————-————.————— | ——
Mn (x * , y'*', x', y') =
di mana nisbah diluar kurungan adalah mengukur perubahan dalam kecekapan relatif
(i.e., perubahan dalam berapa jauh jarak pengeluaran tercerap daripada pengeluaran
potensi maksimum) antara tahun t dan t+1. Min geometrik bagi dua nisbah dalam
kurungan pula menggambarkan anjakan dalam teknologi antara dua tempoh dinilai
pada x*, dan x1*1, iaitu,
ZV+V+1,/+1)
EFFCH = nt,..t ,,
TECHCH =
Walaupun, indeks produktiviti Malmquist boleh dihitung berdasarkan andaian-andaian
pulangan ikut skel berbeza, kertas ini menghitung indeks relatif pada teknologi
pulangan malar ikut skel (CRS) yang dihuraikan pada perubahan kecekapan dan progres
teknik. Oleh kerana di bawah CRS skel operasi ridak penting, keseluruhan perubahan
kecekapan adalah perubahan kecekapan teknik. Walau bagaimanapun, jika pulangan
berubah ikut skel (VRS) digunakan (i.e., teknologi yang menunjukkan mula-mula
pulangan meningkat, kemudian malar, dan akhirnya merosot) perubahan kecekapan
berasal daripada penggunaan skel operasi tidak cekap (dikenali sebagai kecekapan skel)
dan daripada ketakcekapan teknik tulin. Komponen perubahan kecekapan dihitung
berkaitan dengan teknologi CRS dihuraikan ke dalam perubahan kecekapan tulin
(PECH) dan perubahan kecekapan skel (SCCH) yang membayangkan penggunaan skel
sub-optimal oleh firma.
Kecekapan skel boleh disertakan bagi tempoh t dan t+1 dalam ukuran perubahan
kecekapan seperti berikut:
EFFCH
=
17
Perubahan Kecekapan Skel = SCCH =
r+1
r+1
/+1
, dan
Perubahan Kecekapan Tulin = PECH = —_ , , ,—,..,„„,
D0 (x ,y \VRS)
Dengan itu, penghuraian lanjutan bagi indek produktiviti Malmquist (M0) yang
digunakan dalam kertas ini boleh dihuraikan seperti berikut:
Indek Produktiviti Malmquist = Perubahan Kecekapan Teknik (EFFCH) x Perubahan
(Pertumbuhan TFP)
Teknik (TECHCH)
= (Kesan Catching up) x (Kesan Sempadan)
= (SECHxPECH)
x
TECHCH
DATA KAJIAN DAN SUMBER DATA
Dalam kajian ini pendekatan DEA akan digunakan dengan menggunakan satu output
iaitu nilai ditambah dan dua input iaitu modal dan buruh. Sebelum sektor ICT
diwujudkan sebagai salah satu sektor baru ekonomi, produk pembuatan ICT telah
dikelaskan dalam sektor pembuatan. Data bagi industri-industri yang berkaitan dengan
pembuatan produk ICT boleh didapati dalam sama ada Tinjauan Tahunan Industri
Pembuatan yang telah dilakukan sejak 1975 (kecuali 1980 dan 1998) atau Band Industri
Pembuatan yang dilakukan setiap lima tahun (kecuali 1998) ole Jabatan Perangkaan
Malaysia. Data asas yang dikumpulkan termasuk nilai pengeluaran, nilai ditambah,
kos bahan, inventori perbelanjaan modal, guna tenaga dan upah. Dalam kajian ini data
nilai ditambah, buruh dan modal bagi tempoh 1988-1999 didapati dari 6 industri
pembuatan ICT di peringkat 5-digit menggunakan kod industri MIC 72 dalam sektor
pembuatan. Data buruh diukur sebagai bilangan pekerja dalam industri tertentu dan
pengeluaran dan modal diukur dalam RM.
ANALISIS KEPUTUSAN KAJIAN EMPIRIK
Dalam bahagian ini indeks produktiviti Malmquist dihitung begitu juga komponen-
komponen perubahan kecekapan, perubahan teknik dan perubahan skel bagi setiap
industri dalam sampel akan dibincangkan. Secara perinsipnya keenam-enam industri
yang dikaji adalah agak berbeza sifat semulajadinya. Oleh itu, diandaikan teknologiteknologi mereka adalah berbeza dalam intensiti faktor tetapi mereka berkongsi
sempadan pengeluaran yang sama, i.e. mereka beroperasi pada bahagian-bahagian yang
sangat berbeza pada fungsi pengeluaran yang sama. Teknologi CRS diandaikan untuk
18
menghitung indeks produktiviti Malmquist kerana adalah perlu dan cukup bagi indeks
Malmquist menjadi indeks TFP sebenar jika indeks produktiviti ditakrifkan sebagai
nisbah hasildarab purata (average products) bagi dua tempoh. Teknologi dalam
sebarang tempoh tertentu diwakili sebagai fungsi jarak output. Oleh kerana hanya
satu output digunakan, fungsi jarak output adalah bersamaan dengan fungsi
pengeluaran.
Dalam kajian ini program DEAF versi 2.1 yang dicipta oleh Coelli (1996) telah digunakan
untuk membentuk sempadan utama 'amalan-terbaik' bagi semua industri dalam sampel
data dan menghitung fungsi-fungsi jarak menerusi teknik pemprograman linear dan
kemudianya menggunakan fungsi-fungsi tersebut untuk menghitung indeks
produktiviti Malmquist, perubahan kecekapan dan perubahan teknik. Mengikut Fare
et al. (1994) produktiviti dihuraikan dalam cara ini kedalam perubahan-perubahan
dalam kecekapan (catching up) dan perubahan-perubahan dalam teknologi (inovasi).
Perhatikan yang jika nilai indek Malmquist atau sebarang komponennya adalah kurang
daripada satu, ini menunjukkan kemerosotan dalam prestasi antara dua tahun
berdekatan, sedangkan nilai-nilai lebih besar daripada 1 menunjukkan pembaikan dalam
prestasi berkaitan. Dengan itu dengan menolak satu daripada nombor yang dilaporkan
dalam setiap jadual akan memberikan kenaikan atau kejatuhan purata tahunan bagi
tempoh masa berkaitan dan ukuran prestasi berkaitan. Perhatikan yang ukuran-ukuran
ini menggambarkan prestasi industri berbanding dengan 'amalan terbaik' dalam sampel.
PERUBAHAN TFP
Sebelum membincangkan keputusan kajian bagi setiap industri prestasi purata industri
pembuatan ICT secara keseluruhan bagi tempoh 1988-1999 akan dibincangkan. Jadual
4 melaporkan perubahan tahunan dalam TFP dan komponennya dalam industri
pembuatan ICT berdasarkan anggaran-anggaran DEA. Rajah 1 dalam lampiran yang
mengambarkan arah aliran EFFCH, TECHCH, dan TFPCH sepanjang tempoh 19881999 menguatkan perbincangan prestasi industri pembuatan secara keseluruhan dan
purata dalam sektor ICT. Dengan mula melihat kepada baris min, adalah ketara yang
TFP meningkat pada kadar purata 7.0 peratus setahun sepanjang tempoh 1988-1999
bagi industri pembuatan ICT secara keseluruhan. Secara purata, pembaikan tersebut
berpunca daripada progres teknik (6.9 peratus) dan pembaikan kecekapan yang sangat
kecil (0.1 peratus).
Secara terperinci, terdapat peningkatan dalam TFPCH sepanjang tempoh tersebut
kecuali pada tahun 1989/90-1991/92 di mana TFP merosot sebanyak masing-masing
6.5, 0.2, dan 4.2 peratus. Namun demikian terdapat keadaan turun naik dalam
peningkatan TFP tersebut, sebagai contoh peningkatan TFP pada tahun 1997/99 adalah
lebih kecil berbanding dengan tahun sebelumnya kecuali tahun 1993/94. Ini adalah
berhubungan dengan krisis kewangan dan ekonomi yang berlaku pada tahun-tahun
tersebut.
19
Jadual 5 melaporkan penghuraian perubahan tahunan TFP kepada perubahanperubahan komponennya mengikut industri. Semua industri mengalami peningkatan
pertumbuhan TFP dan terdapat 2 industi yang mengalami pertumbuhan TFP tahunan
puratanya yang melebehi kadar pertumbuhan purata TFP industri ICT keseluruhan
dengan 9.3 -12.7 peratus peningkatan TFP setahun, seperti industri 38322 (membuat
piring hitam dan pita magnet yang telah dirakam) dan 38321 (set radio dan televisyen,
perkakas pengeluar dan perakam bunyi). Industri membuat piring hitam dan pita
magnet yang telah dirakam (38322) mencapai pertumbuhan tahunan purata TFP
tertinggi pada 12.7 peratus. Industri separa konduktor dan komponen elektronik dan
alat dan radas perhubungan lain (38329) pula mengalami pertumbuhan tahunan purata
TFP sebanyak 6 peratus. Ketiga-tiga industri ini sahaja yang mengalami peningkatan
dalam perubahan teknik (kesan sempadan/inovasi) dan perubahan kecekapan teknik
(kesan catching up). Dalam industri 38321 peningkatan dalam perubahan kecekapan
teknik adalah lebih besar berbanding dengan perubahan teknik dengan nilai-masingmasing 5 peratus dan 4.2 peratus. Bagi industri 38322 pula perubahan teknik lebih
besar berbanding perubahan kecekapan teknik dengan nilai masing-masing 9.3 peratus
dan 3.1 peratus. Bagi industri 38329 terdapat peningkatan yang agak besar dalam progres
teknik (6 peratus) tetapi tiada perubahan dalam kecekapan teknik.
Jadual 6 melaporkan berbagai perubahan ukuran kecekapan dan TFP mengikut industri
secara terperinci. Untuk mengukuhkan penjelasan tentang pertumbuhan TFP,
perubahan kecekapan (EFFCH) dan perubahan teknik (TECHCH), Rajah 2-7 disertakan
untuk menunjukkan arah aliran terkumpul bagi ketiga-tiga indeks pertumbuhan
kecekapan tersebut dalam enam industri pembuatan ICT sepanjang tempoh 1988-1999.
PERUBAHAN TEKNIK, PERUBAHAN KECEKAPAN TEKNIK, PERUBAHAN SKEL
DAN PERUBAHAN KECEKAPAN TULIN
Jadual 4 juga menunjukkan yang komponen TECHCH telah meningkat dengan purata
yang agak besar iaitu 7 peratus setahun. Malahan sepanjang tempoh 1988-1999 terdapat
peningkatan dalam TECH kecuali bagi tahun 1989/90 dan 1990/91 di mana TECH
merosot sebanyak masing-masing 6.3 peratus dan 4.3 peratus berbanding tahun-tahun
sebelumnya. Pada sepanjang tempoh 1988-1999 EFFCH meningkat dengan kadar purata
yang sangat kecil iaitu sebanyak 0.1 peratus setahun. Terdapat perbezaan dalam nilai
kedua-dua EFFCH dan TECHCH dengan nilai TECHCH sentiasa lebih besar daripada
EFFCH kecuali pada tahun 89/90, 90/91, 94/95, dan 97/99 di mana TECHCH ketara
merosot pada tempoh 89/90, 90/91 dan 97/99 masing-masing disebabkan oleh
kelembapan ekonomi dunia dan krisis kewangan. Namun demikian pembaikan dalam
EFFCH pada tahun-tahun tersebut menampung kesan negatif kelembapan ekonomi
dunia dan krisis kewangan tersebut kepada pertumbuhan TFPCH. Contohnya pada
tempoh 1989/90 nilai indeks TFPCH sebanyak 0.935 (merosot sebanyak 6.5 peratus)
20
adalah hasildarab komponen EFFCH yang bernilai 1,117 (meningkat sebanyak 11.7
peratus) dengan TECHCH yang bernilai 0.837 (merosot sebanyak 16.3 peratus).
Berdasarkan jadual 4 juga didapati yang progres teknik memainkan peranan yang lebih
penting kerana ia berkemampuan menampung kesan kemerosotan perubahan
kecekapan teknik (EFFCH) dengan menghasilkan peningkatan dalam perubahan TFP.
Sedangkan kecekapan teknik tidak mampu untuk menampung kemerosotan dalam
perubahan teknik untuk menghasilkan peningkatan dalam perubahan TFP.
Secara purata dan individu industri pula, hanya dua industri sahaja mengalami
peningkatan dalam kecekapan teknik iaitu industri 38321 (5 peratus) dan 38322 (3.1
peratus). Industri 38329 iaitu industri separa konduktor dan komponen elektronik
dan alat dan radas perhubungan lain pula tidak mengalami apa-apa perubahan
kecekapan teknik. Walaupun industri 38250,38391 dan 38510 mengalami kemerosotan
dalam perubahan kecekapan teknik namun kecekapan teknik purata mereka melebehi
90 peratus yang bermakna industri-industri tersebut beroperasi pada hampir 90 peratus
output potensi maksimumnya. Contohnya industri 38391 dengan kecekapan teknik
purata terkecil pada 95.2 peratus boleh meningkatkan outputnya sebanyak 4.8 peratus
tanpa meningkatkan penggunaan inputnya.
Dari segi perubahan teknik pula, semua industri mengalami peningkatan perubahan
teknik malahan terdapat dua industri iaitu industri 38391 dan 38322 dengan peningkatan
yang melebehi peningkatan teknik purata sebanyak 6.9 peratus. Industri dengan
pertumbuhan perubahan teknik terbesar adalah industri kabel dan dawai (38391)
dengan kadar 11.5 peratus diikuti oleh industri membuat piling hitam dan pita magnet
yang telah dirakam (38322) dengan kadar 9.3 peratus.
Ingat semula yang EFFCH adalah diwakili oleh hasildarab SECH dengan PECH. SE
mengukur kehilangan output relatif disebabkan oleh sisihan daripada pulangan malar
ikut skel. Sedangkan PE mengukur berapa jauh sesebuah industri daripada tingkat
pengeluaran cekap di bawah VRS. Oleh itu peningkatan perubahan kecekapan skel
(SECH) akan membaiki kecekapan dan produktiviti dengan nilai hampir kepada satu
membayangkan pulangan malar ikut skel. Berdasarkan jadual 5 dan 6 terdapat dua
industri iaitu industri 38322 dan 38329 yang tidak mengalami perubahan dalam
pertumbuhan kecekapan tulin (PECH). Industri lain kecuali 38321 mempunyai nilai
purata PECH yang lebih kecil dari nilai purata PECH (= 0.991). Terdapat peningkatan
1 peratus dalam purata perubahan kesan skel. Kebanyakan industri mempunyai SECH
yang bernilai hampir satu yang membayangkan keadaan pulangan malar ikut skel dan
secara langsung semua industri adalah hampir cekap.
Berdasarkan Rajah 1 dapat ditunjukkan yang sepanjang tempoh 1988-1999 hampir
kesemua pertumbuhan TFP dalam industri pembuatan ICT secara keseluruhan
disumbangkan oleh TECHCH kecuali bagi tempoh 1989/90 dan 1990/91. Begitu juga
dengan pertumbuhan TFP industri individu. Rajah 2-7 menunjukkan yang walaupun
21
diperingkat permulaan kajian pertumbuhan TFP bagi industri tertentu seperti industri
38322, 38329, dan 38391 adalah dipacu oleh kecekapan teknik dan bukannya oleh
perubahan teknik namun selepas itu sumber pertumbuhan TFP telah dikuasi oleh
peningkatan dalam perubahan teknik dan kemerosotan dalam perubahan kecekapan
teknik. Ini adalah sepadan dengan kajian Mahadevan (2002) terhadap sektor pembuatan
yang mendapati faedah daripada kecekapan teknik semakin merosot sementara
perubahan teknik menunjukkan arah aliran yang semakin meningkat mengikut masa.
Namun demikian dalam industri pembuatan ICT kemerosotan perubahan kecekapan
teknik masih dapat ditampung oleh peningkatan dalam perubahan teknik untuk
menghasilkan peningkatan dalam perubahan TFP.
Progres teknik yang agak tinggi ini dalam industri pembuatan ICT boleh difikirkan
berkaitan rapat dengan dasar-dasar menaiktaraf industri tersebut melalui projek dan
dasar dengan insektif cukai untuk meningkatkan produktiviti, galakan-galakan
pelaburan melalui Akta Pelaburan 1986 yang menggalakkan strategi pertumbuhan
berorientasikan eksport melalui kemasukan pelaburan langsung asing (FDI) yang
membawa peralatan dan teknologi yang lebih baik dan kenaikan-kenaikan dalam aktiviti
R&D yang menghasilkan peningkatan dalam perubahan teknik. Walau bagaimanapun
penguasaan teknologi asing ini semenjak akhir 1980an tidak sejajar dan mengikuti
kemasukan teknologi yang sangat besar ini seperti yang digambarkan oleh kemerotan
dalam kecekapan teknik tulin (PE).
KESIMPULAN DAN IMPUKASI DASAR
Sektor pembuatan ICT dianggap sebagai sektor strategik bukan sahaja dari segi
sumbangannya kepada pendapatan eksport negara melalui produk elektronik dan
elektriknya malahan kepada penjanaan pekerjaan penduduk. Pengeluaran sektor
pembuatan ICT merupakan 30 peratus daripada Keluaran Dalam Negara Kasar (KDNK).
Eksport industri elektronik dan elektrik (38329) yang merupakan salah satu komponen
industri pembutan dalam sektor ICT mewakili 70 peratus daripada eksport Malaysia.
Walaupun Malaysia telah membangunkan ekonomi berorientasikan eksport yang kukuh
dalam pembuatan ICT namun pergantungan yang sangat kuat pada elektronik dan
persaingan yang hebat daripada negara lain dan kehilangan syer ketara dalam
komponen tertentu ICT pembuatan seperti peralatan telekomunikasi dan perakaman
telah mencabar daya saing sektor ICT pembuatan negara. Menyedari kepentingan total
faktor produktiviti (TFP) bagi mempercepatkan pembangunan negara bukan sahaja
telah menjadikannya fokus dasar pembangunan dan strategi negara malahan terdapat
keperluan yang meningkat untuk mengukur dan memantau TFP sektor ICT pembuatan
secara berterusan untuk membaiki produktiviti dan daya saing ekonomi sektor tersebut.
Kertas kerja ini bertujuan menghitung berbagai jenis ukuran kecekapan dan
menganalisis pertumbuhan produktiviti berdasrkan ukuran-ukuran tersebut dalam
enam industri pembuatan ICT diperingkat 5-digit klasifikasi MIC 72 di Malaysia bagi
22
tempoh 1988-1999. Pendekatan analisis data envelopment tak berparameter telah
digunakan untuk menghitung indeks-indeks produktiviti Malmquist menggunakan
data panel. Indeks-indeks ini telah dihuraikan kepada perubahan kecekapan dan
perubahan teknik dan perubahan kecekapan pula telah dihuraikan kepada perubahan
kecekapan tulin dan perubahan skel. Keputusan empirik mendapati sepanjang tempoh
1988-1999 pertumbuhan TFP bagi industri pembuatan ICT telah meningkat pada kadar
purata 7 peratus dengan peningkatan perubahan teknologi yang agak tinggi pada 6.9
peratus dan pembaikan yang tersangat kecil iaitu hanya 0.1 peratus dalam perubahan
kecekapan teknik. Walaupun perubahan teknik menunjukkan arah aliran yang semakin
meningkat sepanjang tempoh tersebut namun pola perubahan kecekapan teknik agak
turun naik dan menunjukkan faedah kecekapan teknik yang semakin merosot. Dalam
kebanyakan kes kemerosotan perubahan kecekapan teknik dapat ditampung oleh
peningkatan dalam perubahan teknik untuk menghasilkan pertumbuhan TFP yang
positif.
Keputusan di atas mencadangkan beberapa perkara. Pertama, hampir kesemua
pertumbuhan TFP industri pembuatan dalam sektor ICT datangnya daripada kesan
teknik atau sempadan. Ini adalah sejajar dengan berbagai dasar dan galakan pelaburan
melalui Akta Pelaburan 1986 yang menggalakkan strategi pertumbuhan berorientasikan
eksport melalui kemasukan pelaburan langsung asing (FDI) yang membawa peralatan
dan teknologi yang lebih baik. Ini bermakna hanya faedah penggunaan teknologi dan
modal yang lebih baik menyumbang kepada pertumbuhan TFP. Sedangkan kesan
faedah-faedah pembelajaran dengan perlakuan (learning-by-doing) atau resapan
sebenar pengetahuan penggunaan teknologi yang diwakili oleh pertumbuhan
kecekapan teknik adalah sangat kecil atau negatif. Kebanyakan industri pembuatan
ICT tersebut adalah pada hujung tertinggi bagi operas! pembuatan. Dengan itu terdapat
kemungkinan penggunaan berterusan teknologi yang lebih baik dan lebih canggih dan
dengan itu kesan-kesan sempadan adalah besar. Hanya dalam industri membuat piling
hitam dan pita magnet yang telah dirakam {38322} dan membuat set radio dan
televisyen, perkakas pengeluar dan perakam bunyi (38321) sahaja terdapat sumbangan
kesan catching up (perubahan kecekapan teknik) bersama-sama kesan sempadan
(perubahan teknik) terhadap pertumbuhan TFP. Ini bermakna faedah pembelajaran
dengan perlakuan atau resapan sebenar dalam pengetahuan penggunaan teknologi
bersama-sama faedah dari penggunaan teknologi dan modal yang lebih baik bersamasama menyumbang kepada pertumbuhan TFP dalam kedua-dua industri ini. Ini adalah
benar disebabkan oleh keperluan teknologi dan proses pengadaptasian teknologi yang
agak rendah dalam industri ini berbanding dengan industri-industri lain dalam
pembuatan ICT ini. Dalam industri ini jenis teknologi pengeluaran yang sama yang
dimiliki dan pengetahuan yang diperolehi dalam pengadaptasian dan penggunaan
teknologi tersebut secara cekap telah memberi faedah kepada pengeluaran industri
tersebut disamping teknologi baru juga diperkenalkan.
23
Dalam industri separa konduktor dan komponen elektronik dan alat dan radas
perhubungan lain (38329) pula walaupun terdapat peningkatan dalam TECHCH namun
tiada perubahan langsung dalam EFFCH. Ini bermakna walaupun terdapat
kemungkinan teknologi baru dan canggih diperkenalkan dalam industri ini (diwakili
oleh nilai indeks pertumbuhan TECHCH melebehi 1) namun faedah atau resapan
sebenar pengetahuan yang diperolehi dari pengadaptasian dan penggunaan teknologi
adalah sifar (diwakili oleh nilai indeks pertumbuhan kecekapan teknik (EFFCH)
bersamaan 1).
Kedua, faedah kecekapan teknik yang semakin merosot contohnya dalam industri 38250,
38391, dan 38510 menunjukkan penguasaan teknologi tidak mengikut langkah
pengadaptasian teknologi di mana industri tidak mampu mencapai atau menggunakan
pengetahuan teknik yang sesuai untuk menjamin output maksimum daripada
penggunaan teknologi canggih. Ini menimbulkan persoalan sama ada perubahan teknik
yang terlalu cepat ini telah menghasilkan ketakcekapan teknik atau adakah pekerja
dan pengurusan tidak dapat mengadaptasikan diri secara cukup bila teknologi beranjak?
Sememangnya penggunaan teknologi tinggi dapat mengurangkan pergantungan
Malaysia kepada pekerja asing yang kebanyakannya buruh kurang mahir namun
kekurangan buruh mahir Malaysia sendiri akan melambatkan pemakaian teknologi
baru untuk menjadi cekap. Sebagaimana yang diketahui penggunaan teknologi baru
memerlukan proses pengadaptasian yang memakan masa serta menjejaskan
produktiviti modal pada peringkat awal.
Ketiga, dalam jangka panjang pertumbuhan ekonomi tidak boleh bergantung kepada
pertumbuhan input sama ada modal atau butuh semata-mata. Tambahan pula, masalah
keterhadan input seperti kekurangan buruh secara umum dan buruh mahir khasnya
dan pemilihan penggunaan input akan mempengaruhi pertumbuhan input itu sendiri.
Oleh itu aspek yang patut lebih diberikan penekanan ialah pertumbuhan dipimpin
kecekapan (efficiency-led growth). Dengan itu disarankan industri pembuatan ICT ini
memberikan perhatian kepada peningkatan (deepening) buruh mahir dan bukan
semata-mata kepada peningkatan modal sahaja. Industri pembuatan ICT perlu
mempunyai pekerja yang berkemahiran tinggi untuk mengoperasi mesin yang lebih
canggih. Dengan itu majikan disarankan meningkatkan latihan pekerja bagi mencapai
tahap kemahiran dan meningkatkan pengetahuan mereka supaya industri-industri
dapat mengeluarkan keluaran pada potensi penuh mereka.
Akhirnya, walaupun dasar keterbukaan kepada FDI terutamanya bagi industri
pembuatan dalam sektor ICT bersama-sama dengan strategi berorientasikan eksport
telah meningkatkan pertumbuhan pengeluaran dan mencapai pertumbuhan TFP yang
positif namun terdapat sumbangan sumber pertumbuhan TFP yang tidak seimbang di
mana hanya perubahan teknik sahaja yang menyumbang kepada peningkatan
pertumbuhan tersebut sedangkan sumbangan perubahan kecekapan teknik terlalu kecil
dan dikuatiti bila-bila masa sahaja boleh menjadi negatif. Oleh itu terdapat kebimbangan
24
tentang sama ada pertumbuhan TFP ini akan mapan dalam jangka panjang kerana
dikuatiri sekiranya tiada pembaikan dalam perubahan kecekapan teknik yang
melibatkan amalan-amalan pengurusan, insentif latihan, dasar-dasar kerajaan,
pendidikan dan industri perubahan kecekapan teknik yang hampir negatif akan
merendahkan kadar pertumbuhan TFP di masa akan datang.
RUJUKAN
Caves, D., L. Christensen, and W. E. Diewert. 1982 The theory of index number and
measurement of input, output and productivity. /. of Econometrics 50,1393-414.
Charnes, A., W. W. Cooper, and E. Rhodes. 1978. Measuring the efficiency of decision
making units. European ]. of Operational Research 6,429-444.
Coelli, T. 1996. A guide to DEAF version 2.1: A data envelopment analysis (computer)
program. CEPA Working Paper 96/08, Australia.
Fare, R., S. Grosskopf, B. Lingren, and P. Roos. 1989. Productivity development in
Swedish hospitals: a Malmquist output index approach, memo.
Fare, R., S. Grosskopf, M. Norris, and Z. Zhang. 1994. Productivity growth, technical
progress, and efficiency changes in industrialised countries. American Economic
Review 30(3), 655-666.
Fare, R., S. Grosskopf, and W. F. Lee. 1995. Productivity in Taiwanese manufacturing
industries. Applied Economics, 27,259-65.
Farrell, M. J. 1957. The measurement of productive efficiency. /. of Royal Statistical Society
Series A (General) 120,253-281.
Mahadevan, R. 2001. Assessing the output and productivity growth of Malaysia's
manufacturing sector. /. of Asian Economics 12(4) 587-597.
Mahadevan, R. 2002. A DEA approach to understanding the productivity growth of
Malaysia's manufacturing industries. Asia Pacific], of Management, 19, 587-600.
National Productivity Corporation of Malaysia. The Productivity Report 1999.
Okamoto, Y. 1994. Impacts of trade and FDI liberalization policies on the Malaysian
economy. The Developing Economies 32(4), 460-478.
Tham, S. Y. 1996. Productivity and competitiveness of Malaysian manufacturing sector.
Paper presented at the 7th Malaysian Plan National Convention, Kuala Lumpur, 57 August.
Tham, S. Y. 1997. Determinants of productivity growth in the Malaysian manufacturing
sector. ASEAN Economic Bulletin 13(3) 333-343.
World Bank. 1989. Malaysia: matching risks and rewards in a mixed economy
programme. Washington D.C. World bank.
25
LAMPIRAN
JADUAL1
Industri Pembuatan ICT- Pengkelasan MSIC 2000 dan MIC 72
MSIC 2000
3000
3001
3002
3130
31301
31302
31309
Penjelasan MSIC 2000
MIC 72
Membuat mesin pejabat, pengiraan
dan perakaunan
Membuat mesin pejabat dan 38250
perakaunan
Membuat komputer dan peralatan 38250
komputer
Membuat kabel dan dawai
Membuat kabel telekomunikasi
38391
Penjelasan MIC 72
Membuat mesin pejabat, pengiraan
dan perakaunan
Membuat kabel dan dawai
Membuat kabel kuasa elektrik dan 38391
dawai
Membuat dawai insulated lain dan 38391
kabel
3210
Mmbuat valve elektronik dan Hub
dan komponen elektronik lain
32101
Membuat alat separa-konduktor
32102
32109
Membuat valve elektronik dan hub 38329
Membuat komponen elektronik 38329
lain
32200
Membuat transmiter televisyen dan 38329
radio dan perkakas bagi talian
talipon dan telegrafi
Membuat penerima tebvisyen dan 38322,
radio, rakamam bunyi atau video 38321,
atau perkakas pengeluar, dan 38329
barangan berkaitan
32300
38329
33120
Membuat alat dan perkakas bagi 38510
mengukur, menyiasat, menguji,
mengemudi
(navigating)
dan
tujuan-tujuan lain, kecuali alat
kawalan proses industri
33130
Membuat alat kawalan proses 38510
industri
Sumber: Palanyandy (2000).
26
Komponen separa-konduktor dan
elektronik lain dan peralatan
komunikasi dan perkakasan
Membuat rekod gramafon dan tape
magnetik; radio dan set televisyen,
pengeluaran bunyi dan peralatan
perakaman; separa-konduktor dan
komponen lain dan peralatan
komunikasi dan bekalan
Membuat alat profesional dan
saintifik serta ukuran dan kawalan
JADUAL 2
Industri Pembuatan ICT (lama) dan Industri Pembuatan (baru) Pengkelasan MSIC 2000 dan
MIC 72
MSIC 2000
22110
22120
Penjelasan MSIC 2000
MIC 72
Menerbit buku, brochures, 34200
buku musik dan lain
penerbitan
Menerbit
surat
Penjelasan MIC 72
Mencetak,
menerbit
dan
industri berkaitan
khabar, 34200
jurnal dan berkala
22130
Menerbit media dtrekod
38322
22190
22300
Menerbit lain-lain
34200
Mengeluar semula media 38322
rekod gramopon dan pita
magnetic rekod awal
direkod
Sumber: Sumber: Palanyandy (2000).
JADUAL 3
Statistik Utama Industri Pembuatan ICT
Tahun
Bilangan
Kadar Pertumbuhan Tahunan (%)
Pertubuhan
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998*
1999
385
390
484
449
562
636
680
756
777
1187
1597
1842
Nilai
Kasar
Output
14.71
34.81
42.59
30.97
32.96
Nilai
Ditambah
Guna
Tenaga
Upah dan Nilai Aset
Tetap
Gaji
-0.55
13.75
29.95
3.43
12.41
38.14
9.64
31.49
47.08
14.77
26.99
134.80
37.85
24.38
23.16
27.89
27.01
21.26
11.99
16.08
13.85
0.74
7.33
29.56
18.17
31.59
34.61
-30.61
1845
17.24
5.89
23.40
1847
18.96
29.23
35.96
20.14
9.18
17.31
10.72
9.90
9.01
-3.70
2.95
2.87
21.97
23.32
22.41
24.62
19.75
3.67
8.13
7.52
0.48
11.43
44.79
21.62
66.70
39.13
19.83
24.96
20.66
26.54
20.97
12.66
9.89
9.01
Nota: tiada penyiasatan dilakukan pada 1998. Angka adalah anggaran.
Industri terlibat mengikut MIC 72:34200,38250,38321,38322,38329,38391, dan 38510.
Sumber: Dihitung daripada Penyiasatan Tahunan Industri Pembuatan Malaysia, Jabatan
Perangkaan Malaysia, berbagai keluaran.
27
JADUAL 4
Perubahan-perubahan Teknik, Kecekapan dan TFP Purata dalam Industri Pembuatan ICT
Tahun
1988/89
1989/90
1990/91
1991/92
1992/93
1993/94
1994/95
1995/96
1996/97
1997/99
Min
EFFCH
0.999
1.117
1.042
0.865
1.015
0.960
1.058
1.030
0.844
1.119
1.001
TECH
1.207
0.837
0.957
1.107
1.065
1.086
1.028
1.095
1.447
0.964
1.147
CHPECH
0.860
1.114
1.078
0.959
1.049
0.974
0.993
1.013
0.968
0.925
0.991
SECH
1.162
1.003
0.967
0.903
0.967
0.985
1.066
1.016
0.872
1.209
1.010
TFPCH
1.206
0.935
0.998
0.958
1.081
1.042
1.088
1.128
1.220
1.079
1.070
JADUAL 5
Penghuraian TFP dengan Kgsan Skel: Perubahan Tahunan Purata
Industri
38250
38321
38322
38329
38391
38510
Min
EFFCH
0.987
1.050
1.031
1.000
0.952
0.988
1.001
TECHCH
1.044
1.042
1.093
1.060
1.115
1.061
1.069
PECH
0.988
1.015
1.000
1.000
0.952
0.990
0.991
SECH
0.999
1.034
1.031
1.000
0.999
0.999
1.010
TFPCH
1.031
1.093
1.127
1.060
1.061
1.048
1.070
Nota: 38250: membuat mesin pejabat, pengiraan dan perakaunan; 38321: membuat set radio
dan televisyen, perkakas pengeluar dan perakam bunyi; 38322: membuat piring hitam dan
pita magnet yang telah dirakam; 38329: separa konduktor dan komponen elektronik dan
alat dan radas perhubungan lain; 38391: membuat kabel dan dawai; dan 38510: membuat
alat profesional dan saintifik serta ukuran dan kazualan.
28
JADUAL 6
Perubahan Berbagai Ukuran Kecekapan dan TFP mengikut Industri
INDUSTRI 38250
TAHUN
EFFCH
1988/89
1.000
1989/90
0.633
1990/91
1.491
0.762
1991/92
1992/93
1.390
1993/94
0.766
1994/95
1.181
1.085
1995/96
1996/97
1.019
0.880
1997/99
INDUSTRI 38322
TAHUN
EFFCH
0.893
1988/89
1989/90
1.904
1990/91
0.848
0.681
1991/92
1992/93
0.695
1993/94
1.106
1.351
1994/95
1.279
1995/96
1996/97
0.963
1.084
1997/99
TECH
1.279
0.664
0.946
1.108
1.023
1.046
1.097
1.088
1.551
0.875
PECH
1.000
0.656
1.471
0.813
1.274
0.854
1.171
1.000
1.000
0.887
SECH
1.000
0.965
1.014
0.937
1.091
0.897
1.009
1.085
1.019
0.992
TFPCH
1.279
0.420
0.844
1.422
0.801
1.295
1.181
1.581
0.770
INDUSTKI 38321
EFFCH
TECH
0.973
1.193
1.559
0.697
1.070
1.015
0.940
1.078
1.039
0.996
1.024
1.063
1.000
1.111
1.000
1.108
0.931
1.159
1.074
1.097
TECH
1.179
0.900
1.116
1.199
1.113
0.947
1.102
1.641
0.928
PECH
0.446
2.243
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
SECH
2.004
0.849
0.848
0.681
0.695
1.106
1.351
1.279
0.963
1.084
TFPCH
1.053
1.844
0.763
0.760
0.833
1.232
1.280
1.409
1.580
1.005
INDUSTRI 38329
EFFCH
TECH
1.000
1.136
1.000
0.806
1.000
1.025
1.000
1.120
1.000
0.983
1.000
1.102
1.000
1.073
1.000
1.084
0.686
1.487
1.457
0.908
TECH
1.321
1.182
0.863
1.093
1.179
1.081
0.946
1.102
1.641
0.928
PECH
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.886
0.822
0.843
SECH
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.986
1.005
1.000
TFPCH
1.321
0.968
INDUSTRI 38391
TAHUN
EFFCH
1988/89
1.000
1989/90
1.000
1990/91
1.000
1.000
1991/92
1.000
1992/93
1993/94
1.000
1.000
1994/95
1995/96
0.874
1996/97
0.826
0.843
1997/99
1.411
1.182
0.863
1.093
1.179
1.081
0.946
0.963
1.356
0.782
INDUSTRI 38510
EFFCH
TECH
1.144
1.147
1.033
0.806
0.949
1.006
0.860
1.130
1.087
1.032
0.902
1.113
1.006
0.881
0.984
1.087
0.696
1.273
1.559
1.073
PECH
0.854
1.282
1.065
0.956
1.047
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
SECH
1.140
1.216
1.004
0.984
0.993
1.024
1.000
1.000
0.931
1.074
1.079
1.178
PECH
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
SECH
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.686
1.457
TFPCH
1.136
0.806
1.025
1.120
0.983
1.102
1.073
1.084
1.020
1.323
PECH
1.060
1.013
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.819
1.221
1.000
0.838
SECH
1.079
1.020
0.949
0.860
1.087
0.902
1.076
0.805
0.696
1.860
TFPCH
1.312
0.832
0.954
0.972
1.122
1.004
0.886
1.070
0.886
1.673
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
TFPCH
1.161
1.087
1.085
1.014
1.034
1.088
1.111
1.108
1.6
1.4
I
•effch
1-2 H
•techch
.5 1.0
•tfpch
0.8
0.6
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
tahun
Rajah 1 Arah Aliran Perubahan Kecekapan (effch), Teknik (techch) dan Jumlah
Produktiviti Faktor (tfpch} dalam Industri Pembuatan ICT
29
2.000
1.600 -
•effch
• techch
•tfpch
1.200 0.800 0.400
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
tahun
Ro/oh 2: Arah Aliran ej^Wi, techch dan tfpch dalam Industri Membuat Mesin Pejabat,
Pengiraan dan Perakaunan (38250)
2.0OO
1.800
1.600
1.400
•8
-o 1.200
c 1.000
0.800
0.600
0.400
effch
techch
tfpch
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
tahun
Rajah 3 Arah Aliran effch, techch dan tfpch dalam Industri Membuat Set Radio dan TV,
Perkakas Pengeluar dan Perakam Bunyi (38321)
1.800
1.600 -|
•S 1.200
-effch
- techch
"* 1.000 -
-tfpch
„ 1.400 -
0.800 0.600
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
tahun
Rajah 4 Arah Aliran effch, techch dan tfpch dalam Industri Membuat Firing Hitam dan
Pita Magnet yang telah Dirakam (38322)
30
effch
techch
tfpch
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
tahun
5 Arah Aliran effch, techch dan tfpch dalam Industri Separa Konduktor dan
Komponen Elektronik dan Alat Radas Ferhubungan lain (38329)
2.000 n
1.500 in
-3 1.000.5
0.500 0.000 -
89
90
91
92
93
94 • 95
96
97
98
tahun
Rajah 6 Arah Aliran effch, techch dan tfpch dalam Industri Membuat Kabel dan Dawai
(39391)
1.8 -i
1.6 1.4
1.2 -
0.8 0.6 0.4 89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
tahun
Rajah 7 Arah Aliran effch, techch dan tfpch dalam Industri Membuat Alat Prof esional
dan Saintifik serta Ukuran dan Kawalan (38510)
31
SERVICE QUALITY IN THE HOSPITALITY SECTOR: AN OVERVIEW
By
MOHHIDIN OTHMAN
The Scottish Hotel School, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
NOR FAZILA HASHIM
National Productivity Corporation
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
Abstract
This paper examines the concept of service quality, its developments, definitions, models,
instruments and issues relating to service quality measurements and performances in the
hospitality sector. Special attention is given to the works ofParasuraman et al and the proponents
of the North American School. On the other hand, the review also explores the works of the
researchers from the Nordic School led by Gronroos. The focus of the discussion is centred on the
arguments of both quantitative and qualitative methods aims at providing customers feedback
by measuring the different service quality gaps. Despite of being a popular tool, SERVQUAL is
not spared from criticism for being toofocussed on the process of the service delivery rather than
the outcomes of the service encounter. Meanwhile, the proponents of the qualitative method
pointed out that customers do not always evaluate service quality in terms of expectations and
perceptions. Other related issues discussed are the links between service quality to human resource
management practices, productivity and empowerment.
INTRODUCTION.
Service quality has become an important topic in business primarily during the last
two decades. Quality management systems have been identified as ways and means of
increasing the professionalism and social competence of the staff by making them more
sensitive to customer requirements. This paper will review the concept of service quality,
its developments, definitions, models, instruments and issues relating to service quality
measurements and performances in the hospitality industry.
J.M. Juran, (1994) a consultant on quality control and a pioneer in the development of
principles and methods for managing quality control programs, pointed out that all
institutions, whether for manufacturing, service or others purpose, face problems
pertaining to quality. However, for manufacturing industries, a lot of work has been
done, in the past three decades to find solutions to problems on quality issues. Some
33
successful universal solutions have been identified and are a great aid to the practitioners.
Among them are process capability, the Pareto Principle, quality cost analysis and
statistical methodology. However, some of the applications are not really suitable for
use in the service industries.
According to J.M. Juran, service is work, which is performed for someone else. The
recipient of the service, often called the client, can be an individual user, an institution
or both. In addition, service work may include sale of the product, for example, food in
restaurants and spare parts used during automobile repair. However, the sale of a
product is normally incidental to the work performed for client or customer. In his
definition of service industries, Juran includes public transportation, public utilities,
restaurants, hotels and motels, marketing finance, news media, personal services,
professional services and government services but excludes manufacture, agriculture,
mining and construction. The important contribution of services in the world economy
has been realized since the late 1970s. This point is reflected in the number of scholarly
articles mainly devoted to topics such as customer satisfaction, service quality, customer
service and services marketing. In addition to that, many companies are increasingly
re-examining their relationship with the customer. As a consequence, service quality
and customer satisfaction are being seen as an integral part of total quality management.
The evolution of service quality started in the 1980s, where the first wave of researchers
defined the frontiers of service quality. Among these pioneers in service quality research
are those who have made an impact on service management and also are 'household
names' in the more general business community (Rust, 1994). Some of these 'household
names' are Christian Gronroos, Len Berry, A. Parasuraman, Valarie Zeithaml, Lynn
Shostack, Steve Brown, Terri Swartz, Larry Crosby, Mary Jo Bitner and Steve Grove
(Rust, 1994). We can now consider some of the key contributors made by these influential
thinkers.
ed Service Quality
Figure 1 Gronroos' Model of Service Quality Delivery.
Source: Johns (1996:14)
34
Christian Gronroos of Finland established a research agenda for service quality
measurement. In 1983, Gronroos offers a model (Fig.l) based on the relationship between
corporate image, technical quality and functional quality. As can be seen in Figure 1
Gronroos defines the technical content of the service as the outcome received by the
service customer. As an example the quality of a hair cut. While the functional quality
is the way the service is delivered, as an example promptly or efficiently. In other words,
he stressed on the importance of gap between perceived and expected quality. Most of
GrSnroos' work is seen as representative of the approach of the Nordic School of Services.
In another work, Gronroos (1994), he stressed that the principles of 'scientific
management' are not applicable to the same extent as before in the industrial society. In
the earlier studies by Levitt (1972,1976), Levitt treated 'service' similar to products in
the factory. Levitt (1972) shows how companies like McDonald and Honeywell have
successfully applied manufacturing approaches to solve people-intensive service
problems. In industrialization of service, Levitt (1976) demonstrated how inefficiency
in service industries could be overcome through the application of assembly-line
techniques. In fast-food restaurants, like McDonald's, Burger Kings, Pizza Hut, Dunkin's
Donut, or Kentucky Fried Chicken, each applied the same rational system of division
of labour and specialization is rigorously followed to produce speed, quality control,
cleanliness, and low prices. On the contrary, Gronroos pointed that during the postindustrial society companies faced what are known as service competition, hence
managing services has become of strategic importance for service firms and
manufacturers of goods alike. In one of his recent works, GrOnroos' compares traditional
marketing models to service marketing models, stating that the most important
characteristics of services is the fact that services are processes, not things (Gronroos,
2001.) He further elaborates that a service firm has no products, only interactive processes
and the consumption of physical products can be described as 'outcome consumption',
while the consumption of services can be characterized as 'process consumption'. Most
of the publications from Gronroos were published in Swedish, Finnish, Danish or
Norwegian although a number of publications were in English.
On the other hand, the so-called North American school of service quality management
as led by A.Parasuraman, Len Berry, and Valarie Zeithaml. They devised an influential
service quality measurement scale known as SERVQUAL in 1988. Parasuraman et al.,
have become famous for their 'gap' model that identifies five discrepancies, or 'gaps'
which may develop in the service supply process and interfere with the service
experience. In 1991, Parasuraman et al. refined the questionnaire instrument called
SERVQUAL scale. As indicated later, SERVQUAL has eventually evolved to become
one of the most important tools in the service quality measurement, especially among
the proponents of quantitative researchers. Many of the subsequent works on service
quality was benchmark against Parasuraman et al.'s SERVQUAL.
The second wave of researchers in the 1990's consists of a new generation of researchers,
where most of them are highly trained in quantitative methods, psychology, sociology,
35
or anthropology {Rust, 1995). Among the quantitative modellers are Ruth Bolton and
Jim Drew at GTE, Claes Fornell, Wayne DeSarbo and Gene Anderson at Michigan, John
Hauser and Birger Wernerfelt at MIT, Rick Staelin and Bill Boulding at Duke, Steve
Shugan at Florida, Donna Hoffman at Vanderbilt, Valarie Folkes at USC, Aaron Ahuvia
at Michigan.
The above researchers merely expanded the field of investigation and built upon the
works of the first wave, which still continues to make important contributions. In 1990,
Vandebilt University founded its Centre for Services Marketing, which becomes a focal
point for cutting edge thought in the management of service quality; its Owen Graduate
School of Management also instituted an innovative curriculum in customer service
and service quality. Vandebilt's strong ties to both leading academic researchers and
the business community created a new opportunity to expand the scope of research in
service quality. Many of the second waves researchers are still making cutting-edge
contributions to service quality, much of their earlier works were looking at measuring
the various elements of service quality and the philosophising about nature of customers
value.
The followings literature examines the meaning of service and issues relating to service
quality.
SERVICE AND SERVICE QUALITY.
Unlike goods, services contain some intangible elements. In reality it is possible to see
that in services the intangible and tangible benefits are usually clustered together.
Nevertheless, services have always demonstrated varying degrees of the tangible
dominant and the intangible dominant. Service is defined by Palmer (1993:3) as:
The production of an essentially intangible benefit, either in its own right or
as significant element of a tangible product, which through some form of
exchange satisfies an identified need.
On the other hand, services to Regan (1963:57) are 'activities, benefits or satisfactions
which are offered for sale, or are provided in connection with the sale of goods'. He
further elaborates that services are either intangibles yielding satisfactions directly
(insurance), tangibles yielding satisfactions directly (transportation, housing), or
intangibles yielding satisfactions jointly when purchased either with commodities or
other services (credit, delivery). Meanwhile purchased meals, a joint commodity-service
group has been classified as a nondurable commodity and a shoe repair is classified as
s service. Again as Regan (1963) notes, the question is how much service is involved in
dining at a restaurant or a snack bar? Generally though the key point to note is that
Regan believes that the intangibility, perishability, heterogeneity, and ubiquitous nature
36
of services make total comprehension of services difficult. However, Regan added that
the above phrase may take on variables meanings depending upon whether the usage
is directed to employment, national accounting or marketing activities.
The core service features of intangibility, inseparability, variability, and perishablity
(Cowell, 1994) provide service organizations with some difficulties and dilemmas in
managing delivery of services. As has been already noted at the early stage of
conceptualisation of service quality, Gronroos (1984) identified technical and functional
elements for defining service quality. Technical elements are mainly concerned with
what is delivered, the quantifiable aspects of the service. While the functional elements
are dealing with how it is delivered, and focuses more on customer judgements of service,
based on the interaction between service deliverer and consumer.
On the other hand, Bitner and Hubbert (1994) defined service quality as the customer's
overall impression of the relative inferiority or superiority of the organization and its
services. According to Keiser, DeMicco and Grimes (2000), the two fundamentals of
service quality are:
1% Meeting or positively exceeding expectation through quality product
(food) and service ('doing the right things').
1% 'Doing things right' to ensure profitability through process engineering
and guarding.
Similarly, service quality is basically doing the right things for guest/customers and
doing things right (the process, defect free, including standard operation procedures
(SOP), guests policies and so on). Although a lots have been written on the service and
service quality, thus attracting endless debates among the researchers, nevertheless it
is still necessary to examine some of the important concepts of service quality in order
to better explain the whole concept of service quality.
THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF SERVICE QUALITY.
Kotler and Armstrong (1999) imply that service quality is harder to define and judge
compared to product quality. This is due to the fact that it is always varies, depending
on the interactions between employees and customers. However, in research conducted
by Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1988), they concluded that service quality
definition as a discrepancy between customer's expectations and perceptions. The key
factors, such as word-of-mouth, communications, and personal needs, past experience
and external communications influence customer's expectations. At the same time, they
identified ten general dimensions that represent the evaluative criteria customers use
to access service quality.
Table 1 shows the initial finding of Parasuraman et al. (1988), the SERVQUAL
Dimensions and Figure 2 shows customer assessment of service quality.
37
TABLE 1
The Customers View of Service Quality
Dimension
I
Tangible
2
Reliability
3
4
Responsiveness
Competence
5
Courtesy
6
7
8
9
Credibility
Security
Accessibility
Communication
10
Understanding
The Customers
Definition
Appearance of physical facilities, equipment, personal and
communication materials.
Ability to perform the promised service dependably and
accurately.
Willingness to help customers and provide prompt service.
Possession of the required skills and knowledge to perform the
service.
Politeness, respect, consideration and friendliness of contact
personnel.
Trustworthiness, believability, honesty of the service provider.
Freedom from danger, risk or doubt.
ApproachabiJity and ease of contact.
Keeping customers informed in language they can understand
and listening to them.
Making the effort to know customers and their needs.
DIMENSIONS
1.Tangible
2.Reliability
3. Responsiveness
4.Competence
5.Courtesy
6.Cr edibility
7.Security
8. Accessibility
9. Communication
10.Understanding
the customer.
Figure 2: Customer assessment of Service Quality.
Source: Parasumman et al. (1990:23)
Parasuraman et al. (1988) further indicated that consumers quality perception are
influenced by four distinct gaps which may occur in organizations and a gap which
may occur from the customers side. The gaps are as the followings:
Gap 1: Differences between consumer expectations and management
perceptions of the consumer expectations.
Gap 2: Differences between management perceptions of consumer
expectations and service quality specifications.
38
Gap 3: Differences between service quality specifications and actual service
delivered.
Gap 4: Differences between service quality delivery and what is being
communicated about the service to customers (external communications).
Gap 5: Differences between consumer expectations and consumer perceptions of
service.
At a later stage, Parasuraman et al. (1990) then summarized the ten dimensions into
five dimensions as shown in figure 3.
In 1988, Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry designed SERVQUAL, a 22 facet measure
that tapped service quality. In their argument, service quality is more about the
consumer's judgement about the entity's overall excellence or superiority. In many ways
it is similar to attitude, a psychological state indicative of an enduring affect orientation
while service satisfaction relates to specific transaction, (Parasuraman, 1988). The
instrument uses a 7- point Likert scale; from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Subjects
were asked to indicate the expectation (E) (the service that should be offered by the
firm) and the perception (P) (the actual delivery of the service). Hence, the service quality
(Q) is better expressed as Q= P - E. In relation to that, SERVQUAL also consists of five
stable dimensions (down from an initial ten dimensions): The dimensions are tangibles,
used to measure each dimension (Table 2). An analysis of SERVQUAL data can take
several forms: items-by -item analysis, as an example PI-El, P2- E2 or dimension-bydimension analysis, example (P1+P2+P3+P4/4) - (E1+E2+E3+E4/4), where PI to P4,
and El to E4, represent the four perception and expectation statements relating to single
dimension. The computation of single measure of service quality (P1+P2+P3...+P22/
22)- E1+E2+E3+...E22/22) is known as SERVQUAL gap (Buttle, 1996). In 1991,
Parasuraman et al. published a follow-up study, which has refined their previous work.
The revision includes changes in wording in the statements, as an example the revised
wording now focussed on what customers would expect from excellent service
companies. The authors further argued that SERVQUAL was a generic instrument and
highly reliable with a consistent factor structure and usable in many organizations with
some changes in wording if necessary.
TABLE 2
SERVQUAL dimensions.
Definition
Items in scale
The ability to perform the promised service dependably
4
and accurately
Assurance
The knowledge and courtesy of employees and their
5
ability to convey trust and confidence
Tangibles
The appearance of physical facilities, equipment,
4
personnel and communication materials
Empathy
The provision of caring, individualized attention to
5
customers
Responsiveness The willingness to help customers and to provide prompt
4
service
Dimensions
Reliability
Source: Buttle (1996:13)
39
Marketing research orientation
Upward communication
Levels of management
Tangible
Management commitment to
Reliability
quality of service
Goal setting
Responsiveness
Task standardization
Perception of feasibility
——
Assurance
Teamwork
1
—
Employee Job-fit
Empathy
——
Technology job fit
Perceived control
]
Supervisory control systems
Role conflict
-
Role ambiguity
Horizontal communication
Propensity to overpromise
Figure 3 The Extended Gaps Model of Quality of Service.
Source: Parasuraman (1990:131)
Parasuraman et al.'s work, according to Buttle (1996), provides a technology for
measuring and managing service quality. The technology has since being further
developed, promulgated and promoted by Parasuraman et al. through their publications.
The applications of SERVQUAL has since been tested is various industries, commercial
and non-profit settings by many researchers. Published studies in hospitality sectors
includes, hotels (Saleh and Ryan, 1992), travel and tourism (Pick and Ritchie, 1991),
hospitality (Johns, 1993), recreational services (Taylor et at., 1993) and airline catering
(Babakusetal.,1993).
40
TABLE 3
Evolution of Service Quality Instruments Since SERVQUAL.
AUTHORS
INSTRUMENT
SERVQUAL (1988)
LODGSERVE (1991)
SERVPERF (1992)
DINESERV (1995)
INTQUAL (1997)
INTERSERVQUAL (1999)
KNUTSON et al.
CRONIN AND TAYLOR
KNUTSON et al.
CARUANA AND PITT
WHITE AND RUDALL
HOLSERV (1999)
AMY WONG OOI et al.
PASARURAMAN et al.
INDUSTRY
GENERAL SERVICE
HOTEL / LODGING
GENERAL SERVICE
RESTAURANT
GENERAL SERVICE
INTERNAL SERVICE
QUALITY/
HOSPITALITY
HOTEL/ HOSPITALITY
Using, SERVQUAL as a foundation, Knutson, Stevens, Wullaer, Fatten, and Yokoyama
(1991) developed LODGSERV, a specific instrument to measure consumers' expectations
and perceptions of service quality in the lodging industry. They further confirmed the
five generic dimensions hypothesized by Parasurman et al. (1988). In this study
confirmatory factor analysis develop by Hunter and Gerbing was used to purify the
scale and confirm the five at dimensions of service quality. Originally 36 items were
developed, but they later found that only 26 items were contributing to the LODGSERV
index and it has the same five dimensions as SERVQUAL. In Knutson et al.'s research,
reliability was found to be the most important of the five dimensions, followed by
assurance, responsiveness, tangibles and empathy. The same instrument was used to
test consumers expectations based on the price segment: economy, mid-price and luxury
hotels in the United States. The findings proved that the five dimensions maintained
their ranking position across the three segments. They also determined that the higher
the hotel price, the higher the service quality expectations. Patton et al. (1994) even
translated LODGSERV into Japanese and Chinese and administered the instrument in
Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Australia and the UK. The studies found that LODGSERV
still retains its reliability even when administered in cultures outside the US. However,
the validity of LODGSERV was not measured in the latter study.
In 1992, Cronin and Taylor further investigated the concept of service quality as
developed by Parasuraman et al. (1988), by concentrating on satisfaction and attitude.
Cronin and Taylor however, identified the performance-based measure of service
quality, which raised concerns by Parasuraman et al. that the performance-minusexpectation is an inappropriate basis for use in the measurement of service quality. In
SERVPERF model Cronin and Taylor found that service quality has a statistically
significant effect in three industries (banking, pest control, and fast food). Similarly to
SERVQUAL, SERVPERF also uses 22 items measurement. They also examined the
relationship between service quality, consumer satisfaction and purchase intentions.
Using several interactions of expectations, perceptions and importance measures, Cronin
and Taylor developed several tests on the operation of service quality. Based on the
research Cronin and Taylor found using SERVPERF to measure the service perceptions
41
alone explained the most variance in the measurement of overall service quality. They
suggested that performance-based measures better reflect long-term service quality
attitudes in cross-sectional studies. Cronin and Taylor (1994) believe that the SERVPERF
scale can provide managers with a summation of overall service quality score that can
be plotted relative to time and specific consumer subgroups (e.g., demographic
subcategories, individual constituencies)
In order to adapt SERVQUAL into the restaurant setting, Knutson, Stevens, and Patton
(1995) developed DINESERV. DINESERV was drafted using the lessons learned in
developing and refining LODGESERV. Initially the instrument contained 40 statements
of what should happen. Responses were on a seven-point scale, from 'strongly agree'
to 'strongly disagree'. A random sample of people was selected from telephone
directories of a midsize city in the north central United States and DINESERV was used
to conduct telephone interviews with adults who said that they had eaten out six or
more times during the previous six months. The interviewers asked the respondents
whether and where they had dined out in the past week. The respondents were asked
about their expectations of the restaurants they had gone to whether it is a fine-dining,
casual dining, or quick service establishments. A total of 596 respondents were contacted,
consisting of 200 for fine dining, 198 for casual dining, and 198 for quick service
restaurants. The researchers insisted on a sample size of about 200 for each group because
the other scales developed in the marketing area had used similar sample sizes to purify
initial instruments. At the end of the day, the survey items were reduced to only 29,
consisting of 10 items representing tangibles, 5 representing reliability, 3 for
responsiveness, 5 for assurance and 5 for empathy. Again, the DINESERV proved to
have a high degree of reliability and the finding pointed out that there were no significant
differences in consumers' service quality expectations across the three restaurant
categories. This is because the distribution of total indexes scores suggested that
consumers have only small differences in their 'expectations' of service quality across
the three restaurant categories. According to Knutson et al. (1995) perceived quality is
a function of the interaction among three independent variables: normative expectations,
predictive expectations, and actual service quality. The lower the expectations the
consumers have about what should happen, the better their perceptions of the actual
service. And the higher their expectations about what will happen, the better their
perception of the actual service. Hence, in their opinion marketing can plays an important
roles in improving customers' perceptions about service, one of the ways is to improve
the service, lower the expectations of what should happen and raise the expectations
about what will happen (Knutson et al. 1995.) Consequently, Knutson et al. feel that
DINESERV is a valid, reliable, and a cost effective instrument. They believe to administer
DINESERV by telephone is easy and easy to respond to and using it will be well worth
the effort.
Caruana and Pitt (1997) investigated the relationship between internal service quality
and business performance by using two measuring instruments. First, the questionnaire
42
reliability was found to be the most important of the five dimensions, followed by
assurance, responsiveness, tangibles and empathy. The same instrument was used to
test consumers expectations based on the price segment: economy, mid-price and luxury
hotels in the United States. The findings proved that the five dimensions maintained
their ranking position across the three segments. They also determined that the higher
the hotel price, the higher the service quality expectations. Fatten et al. (1994) even
translated LODGSERV into Japanese and Chinese and administered the instrument in
Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Australia and the UK. The studies found that LODGSERV
still retains its reliability even when administered in cultures outside the US. However,
the validity of LODGSERV was not measured in the latter study.
In 1992, Cronin and Taylor further investigated the concept of service quality as
developed by Parasuraman et al. (1988), by concentrating on satisfaction and attitude.
Cronin and Taylor however, identified the performance-based measure of service
quality, which raised concerns by Parasuraman et al. that the performance-minusexpectation is an inappropriate basis for use in the measurement of service quality. In
SERVPERF model Cronin and Taylor found that service quality has a statistically
significant effect in three industries (banking, pest control, and fast food). Similarly to
SERVQUAL, SERVPERF also uses 22 items measurement. They also examined the
relationship between service quality, consumer satisfaction and purchase intentions.
Using several interactions of expectations, perceptions and importance measures, Cronin
and Taylor developed several tests on the operation of service quality. Based on the
research Cronin and Taylor found using SERVPERF to measure the service perceptions
alone explained the most variance in the measurement of overall service quality. They
suggested that performance-based measures better reflect long-term service quality
attitudes in cross-sectional studies. Cronin and Taylor (1994) believe that the SERVPERF
scale can provide managers with a summation of overall service quality score that can
be plotted relative to time and specific consumer subgroups (e.g., demographic
subcategories, individual constituencies)
In order to adapt SERVQUAL into the restaurant setting, Knutson, Stevens, and Patton
(1995) developed DINESERV. DINESERV was drafted using the lessons learned in
developing and refining LODGESERV. Initially the instrument contained 40 statements
of what should happen. Responses were on a seven-point scale, from 'strongly agree'
to 'strongly disagree'. A random sample of people was selected from telephone
directories of a midsize city in the north central United States and DINESERV was used
to conduct telephone interviews with adults who said that they had eaten out six or
more times during the previous six months. The interviewers asked the respondents
whether and where they had dined out in the past week. The respondents were asked
about their expectations of the restaurants they had gone to whether it is a fine-dining,
casual dining, or quick service establishments. A total of 596 respondents were contacted,
consisting of 200 for fine dining, 198 for casual dining, and 198 for quick service
restaurants. The researchers insisted on a sample size of about 200 for each group because
43
the other scales developed in the marketing area had used similar sample sizes to purify
initial instruments. At the end of the day, the survey items were reduced to only 29,
consisting of 10 items representing tangibles, 5 representing reliability, 3 for
responsiveness, 5 for assurance and 5 for empathy. Again, the DINESERV proved to
have a high degree of reliability and the finding pointed out that there were no significant
differences in consumers' service quality expectations across the three restaurant
categories. This is because the distribution of total indexes scores suggested that
consumers have only small differences in their 'expectations' of service quality across
the three restaurant categories. According to Knutson et al. (1995) perceived quality is
a function of the interaction among three independent variables: normative expectations,
predictive expectations, and actual service quality. The lower the expectations the
consumers have about what should happen, the better their perceptions of the actual
service. And the higher their expectations about what will happen, the better their
perception of the actual service. Hence, in their opinion marketing can plays an important
roles in improving customers' perceptions about service, one of the ways is to improve
the service, lower the expectations of what should happen and raise the expectations
about what will happen (Knutson et al. 1995.) Consequently, Knutson et al. feel that
DINESERV is a valid, reliable, and a cost effective instrument. They believe to administer
DINESERV by telephone is easy and easy to respond to and using it will be well worth
the effort.
Caruana and Pitt (1997) investigated the relationship between internal service quality
and business performance by using two measuring instruments. First, the questionnaire
items for the service quality, which were developed, based on Parasuraman et al/s
work and also a focus group involving 18 managers from service firms. They generated
41 measurement items, which later reduced to 34. These items were measured on a
seven-point Likert type scale. A mail survey was directed to the marketing director of
1,000 of the largest service firms in the UK. The list was taken from FAME CD-ROM
database. Even with a reply-paid envelope, only 131 usable responses were received
with an effective response rate of 13.1 percent. In their attempt to measure performance,
Caruana and Pitt resort to subjective perceptual measure based on Pearce et al. (1987),
which indicated subjective evaluations, are reliable means for measuring performance.
Although a subjective measure, a Likert scale consisting of three items was used to
measure performance, two of the items supposed to measure Return on capital employed
(ROCE) and sales growth of the respondent's firm in the last five years relative to other
companies in the industry. The third item asked respondents on their impression of
their firm's overall performance in the last five years, relative to others. Basically, the
study utilized Parasuraman et al. model, however INTQUAL focuses on internal actions
that management needs to implement to ensure a quality service to customers. The
findings suggested that the service quality delivered by a business has an effect on
performance. In their opinion, INTQUAL is fairly a reliable instrument, mainly as an
internal measure. Partly because it offers an opportunity to investigate links between
44
quality and performance among non-profit organizations where profitability is not the
main concerned.
While most of the earlier studies were focused on external customers perceptions, White
and Rudall (1999) also carried out an investigation of the dimensions and measurement
of internal service quality (the internal customers) in the hospitality industry. The
researchers developed INTERSERVQUAL, which focused specifically on the internal
service domain and included the dimensions that were not included in SERVQUAL.
INTSERVQUAL uses twenty-seven items, as compared to twenty-two items used by
Parasuraman et al. (1988) to capture the dimensions not contained in SERVQUAL. A
nine-point scale accompanied each item. The data was collected from a large
entertainment and gaming complex, the site was chosen because the organization was
interested in possible outcomes of the proposal and willingness to cooperate. For the
study, four departments were selected; with the maintenance department as the internal
service provider as it provide services to all departments within the complex. The service
receiving departments were identified as food and beverage, Housekeeping and gaming
department.
The study used a sample consisting of employees who worked in the receiving
departments and have had experienced the service of the maintenance department.
The sample size selected was representative of the actual organization's demographic
and profile. The human resource department distributed a total of 180 questionnaires,
which generated 140 usable responses. Employees were surveyed to determined their
perceptions and expectations of the services provided by the maintenance department.
The results indicated that there is high degree of reliability of both scales (as the
researchers used both instruments SERVQUAL and INTSERVQUAL in their studies)
and the use of INTSERVQUAL was more appropriate in conceptualising and measuring
of internal service quality. The study shows that internal customers use five distinct
dimensions that capture the area of empathy, reliability, tangibles, responsiveness, and
assurance when evaluating internal service quality.
Meanwhile, HOLSERV, which was developed, by Mei, Dean, and White (1999) is also
an extension of the SERVQUAL scale. HOLSERV however included eight new items
that specifically pertain to the hospitality industry. Some modifications on the
questionnaires items was done to suit the hospitality setting, changes were made to
certain items and inclusion of new items and deletion of items. A one-column format
questionnaire was used in this study with a single rating ten-point scale. A total of
1,000 questionnaires and covering letter were distributed to guests of five hotels in
Australia. The hotel standard ranges from three-star to five-star hotels. The study was
carried out for duration of four months and a sample size of 155 respondents were
collected. The response rate of 15.5 percent was considered good. The key findings of
the study are service quality is represented by three dimensions in the hospitality
industry relating to employees (behaviour and appearance), tangibles and reliability.
45
Based on this research Mei et al. found that the best predictor of overall service quality
is the dimensions referred to as "employees". In this study the researchers found that
the one-column format questionnaires provides a valid and reliable, but also much
shorter, survey. Meanwhile, Mei et al. felt that hotel managers in order to uncover the
causes of underlying problems area identified in the study should supplement and
refined HOLSERV scale with additional qualitative research such as in-depth interviews
or focus group discussions. However, HOLSERV is a good and useful starting point,
and it is not the final answer for assessing and improving quality (Mei et al. 1999).
In summary, SERVQUAL despite a number of theoretical and operational criticisms,
has endured as a highly valued and widely applied instruments in measuring customer
perceptions of service quality as shown in table below. Table 3 demonstrates various
instruments used in measurement of service quality and understandably some of the
dimensions used are very similar to Parasuraman et al. work. It has undoubtedly had a
major impact on the business, as well as academic community. Parasuraman et al. have
led the way in developing a conceptual model of service quality and introduced
SERVQUAL: a multiple-item scale which is very significance for future research.
However, most of the above mentioned techniques are quantitative in nature, which
may seem to assume that consumers and providers perceive service performance in
similar terms. Some researchers think this is very unlikely, as indeed advertising may
be view as an attempt to bring the two views into line (Johns 1996). Johns believe that
qualitative research is needed to identify the main features of consumers' and providers'
mythologies, such that the gap between the two may be reduced. On the other hand,
the qualitative research that focuses on profile accumulation (PAT) provides accessibility
to consumers owns words. While, the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) allows people
to say what they think about the service and their responses will be coded and counted
accordingly.
THE QUALITATIVE APPROACH IN SERVICE QUALITY MEASUREMENT IN THE
HOSPITALITY SECTOR.
Apart from Nick Johns, another key author who shares the same sentiment about the
quantitative approach of SERVQUAL instrument is Francis Buttle. Buttle (1996) has
criticised SERVQUAL for being too focused on the process of service delivery rather
than outcomes of the service encounter. Furthermore, he feels that many of the research
questions in service quality require contextually sensitive qualitative research. He
pointed that consumers do not always evaluate service quality in terms of expectations
and perceptions. But rather, the formation of expectations is a result of consumers
accumulates and processes of information about the service providers.
Being the strong proponents of qualitative method in service quality, Johns and Buttle
found CIT and PAT technique to be the best alternative for the SERVQUAL instrument.
They strongly believe that these qualitative approaches would be able to explore more
deeply into matter that would be difficult, if using survey method.
46
TABLE 4
Summary of Perception Dimensions associated with service quality instruments.
1.
2.
LODGSERV
3.
SERVPERV
4.
DINESERV
FARASURAMAN
KNUTSON
etal.
etal.
CRONIN
AND
TAYLOR
KNUDSON
etal.
SERVQUAL
Revised
1992
5.
6.
7.
INTQUAL
INTSERVQUAL
HOLSERV
CARUANA
WHITE
OOI
AND
AND
etal.
PITT
RUDALL
1997
1999
Tangibles
Reliability
Tangibles
Assurance
Tangibles
Tangibles
Employees
Reliability
Assurance
Reliability
Empathy
Reliability
Reliability
Tangibles
Responsiveness
Responsive
Responsiveness
Reliability
1988
1991
1995
Assurance
Tangibes
Assurance
Responsive
ness
Responsiveness Assurance
Empathy
Empathy
Empathy
Tangibles
ness
Empathy
1999
Responsiveness Reliability
Assurance
Empathy
Communication
Flexibility
Relevance
METHODOLOGY
Quantitative
Quantitative
Quantitative
Quantitative
Quantitative/
Qualitative
Quantitative
Quantitative
QUESTIONNAIRES ITEMS
22
26
22
29
34
27
27
2
2
1
Internal
Service
domains
Reliability of
Questionnaire Formal/ Column
2
2
2
2
Expectation &
Perceptions
Tested on
Performance
only
Expectation &
Perceptions
Internal
actions
* telephone
*Mail
survey
FOCUS
different
cultures
survey
one column
format
questionnairt
Likert-Scales
1-7
1-7
1-7
1-7
1-9
1-7
CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE (CIT)
Flanagan invented the critical incident technique (CIT) in 1954 (Paraskevas, 2001). He
describes CIT as a procedure for gathering certain important facts concerning behaviour
in defined situations. It was offered as an alternative approach to using scaled
questionnaires. This technique was used by Flanagan to identify critical requirements
47
in job performance. The concept was later developed in order to study satisfactorily
and unsatisfactory services in airlines, hotels and hotels. Bitner et al. (1990), have defined
'incident' as an observable human activity that is complete enough in itself to permit
inferences to be made about a person performing an act and the critical incident as 'an
event that contributes to, or detracts from, the general aim of the activity in a significant
way' (cited in Paraskevas, 2001pp: 286). Similarly, Clark et al. (1998) describe CIT as a
method of observing and analysing human behaviour within very limited parameters.
In their opinion, in order for the incident to be critical, the observer must be able to
identify what was intended to happen and what the effect in fact was. The following
table examine the applicability of CIT and PAT techniques in researching service quality
in hospitality sector.
The incidents are collected through qualitative interviews or questionnaires. The subjects
are asked to recall a remarkable experience, which can be positive or negative in any
service situation and describe it. Then, content analysis is used to sort incidents into
groups according to topics and classifications. The collected incidents are then
inventoried and analysed using techniques such as Pareto analysis, cause-effect and
fish-bone analysis. Incidents are sometimes, classified into dissatisfiers, neutral incidents
and satisfiers, according to their absence dissatisfiers, their present satisfiers, or they
produce no effect at all. The list is then prioritised in order to identify the truly critical
incidents. Incidents then are traced back to their origins, and actions are to be taken on
the most significant satisfiers/dissatisfiers (Hemammasi, 1997).
In Paraskevas (2001) study he explored an'internal service chain' in the international
city hotels and identified the events and behaviours (service dimensions) that
distinguished a successful internal service encounter from a non-successful one. The
sample of the Paraskevas study consisted of employees from the room division service
chain of three international hotels in Athens. In this study, two forms of internal service
encounter were identified. First the front office efficiency is very much dependent on
the housekeeping department and on the other hand, the housekeeping department
efficiency depends on the response of the maintenance department. A random sample
of 82 employees from room division with an average of 3.9 years of work experience
participated in this research. Both the internal customers and service providers were
asked to describe the encounter. Instead of asking the respondents to use either/or
approach, both the negative 'and' positive service experiences were solicited by all
respondents, This was done to differentiate between aspects relating to minimum service
requirements and value-enhancing service aspects. In-depth interviews were used with
senior and middle management. Interviews were tape recorded with the agreements of
the participants and later transcribed verbatim. To ensure the reliability quotient in the
process, two analysts were asked to read, sort and re-read the incidents until they reach
an agreement. However, the Chi-square tests for homogeneity were also done, but it
shows no significant differences between the analysts' classifications at 0.05 level. Apart
from appointing another judge, an industry professional to check on the classifications,
48
the study also asked the two analysts to repeat the same tasks. The quotient this time
was higher than the prescribed level of acceptance (Paraskevas, 2001).
TABLE 5
The Qualitative Techniques in Service Quality Measurement.
(CIT)
CRITICAL INCIDENT
TECHNIQUE
WHAT
-Identifying a large number of
service incidents.
-A method of observing and
analysing human behaviours
within a very limited
parameter (Clark et al., 1998).
- An alternative approach to a
scaled questionnaire.
(PAT)
PROFILE ACCUMULATION
TECHNIQUE
-A free -response technique, verbal
rather than numerical, easy and
accessible for manager and staff to
understand.
-Investigate importance performance relationship using
PAT.
-A Semi-quantitative method.
-Eliciting customeris free responses.
-It is a verbal approach rather than
numerical.
WHO
Inventor
Flanagan (1954).
Inventor
-Johns and Lee -Ross (1993).
Other researchers:
Other researchers:
Manilla and James (1977).
-Bitner et al. (1990).
-Lockwood (1 994).
-Danaher and Mattsson
(1994).
-Bitner et al. (1994).
-Johns and Clark (1994).
Importance -performance analysis.
Johns and Howard (1998).
-Paraskevas (2001).
METHOD
ANALYSIS
-Respondents write down (PAT
-Qualitative interview or
questionnaires.
-In-depth interview.
-Content analysis.
-Inventories.
-Pareto and Fishbone analysis.
- Prioritised critical and non
critical incidents.
-Action taken to the most
significant satisfiers/
dissatisfiers.
- Two Analysts appointed.
-Judge appointed.
form) their best and worse aspects
of a particular service experience.
-Questionnaires were developed
based on attributes from PAT
survey.
-Researchers will code, count and
interpret data.
- PAT forms. Open ended
Software: iPasadena.i
- Quantitative and qualitative
evidence.
Data from PAT study and
questionnaires are use to construct
an importance -performance grid.
The study resulted in the development of an internal service provider framework,
consisting of five categories, professionalism, dependability, conscientiousness,
communication and consideration. Generally, the five categories only reflected the view
49
of the room division service chain employees and managers, but may also apply for the
entire hotel (Paraskevas, 2001). Parakevas, however, suggests it would not be appropriate
to generalise the findings of this study before more studies are done on other service
chains within the hotel. Furthermore, CIT records only the exceptional impressions,
which represent the subject's under or over-fulfilment of expectations. The next section
outline the Profile Accumulation Technique (PAT), which is quite similar to CIT,
nevertheless the PAT is unique tool as it is quite versatile. A part from being qualitative
in nature, it can also be use to generate statistical analysis.
PROFILE ACCUMULATION TECHNIQUE (PAT)
Profile Accumulation technique (PAT) was introduce by Johns and Lee-Ross (1996) as a
new technique for assessing perceptions of service quality. This technique was a result
of disappointment with SERVQUAL as a research tool and PAT was set to become an
important research tool. According to Johns (1996), most of the time people find
questionnaires ambiguous, so they tend to give their general impression rather than
their specific answer to what was asked. As an example 2000 respondents will reinterpret the questionnaire 2000 ways. John does not not believe the statistical treatments
such as averaging would be able to ironed-out the 'human error', because most often
respondents tends to answer the way they like.
On the other hand PAT, a semi-quantitative quality assessment methodology, which
allows respondents to say what they think about the service, and the researcher, is the
only person who will code, count and interpret the data. There are number of processes
involved in PAT, First respondents will write down their best and worse aspects of a
particular service experience on a simple form and give reasons for their choices. Then
the numbers of responses are counted to provide a profile of the strengths and
weaknesses of the service. Among the uses of the data are, to compare relative strengths
and weaknesses of several outlets and to differentiate between customers segments, or
compare changes in the quality of service over time.
The response forms, although simple are able to provide accessible feedback about
customer preferences, it allows respondents to say exactly what they want and the data
is not tainted by the possibly irrelevant assumptions of the service provider. The
approach is verbal rather than numerical and is a free-response technique. Thus,
customer perceptions of service experiences can be assessed without in any way
prescribing or influencing their responses (Johns, 2001). Specialised software called
'Pasadena' is available to aid the data entry and analysis- A novel statistical approach
has been developed, so that all the multivariate techniques used in the conventional
closed type questionnaires can also be applied to PAT data (Johns, 1996). PAT is an
extremely versatile technique, Johns has been using it to access the service quality of
various customers services, including hotels, restaurants, management associations,
training organisations and tourist attractions. As for the other statistical techniques, the
larger the numbers of responses collected the more reliable the quantitative data become,
50
but in case of PAT even as few as fifty completed response forms could provide
meaningful information.
Johns (2001) conducted a study of an importance-performance analysis using PAT. The
aim of the study was to produce an importance-performance analysis for a professional
association. Ninety PAT forms obtained from a random sample of association members
were used to draw up a 22 item closed questionnaire, which was later administered to
a different, randomly selected sample. Means from the items on 388 returned
questionnaires were used as the performance data for analysis. Meanwhile, PAT scores
obtained from the previous survey were use as the importance values. So, the resulting
matrix used comparable data from two different sources, reducing methodological bias.
The data collected are entered into the spreadsheet, listing the cases down the left hand,
while the aspects related attributes across the top of the data matrix. Then, the calculation
started with counting the occurrences of the aspects and attributes down the columns
and dividing it by the total number of responses. A more sophisticated statistical analysis
is carried out on this data by using 'Pasadena'. Data from PAT is then used to construct
an importance-performance grid, which used examines the performance and marketing
of the association's member services. PAT has been used to compare different service
incident, to differentiate between restaurants and hotels. This study suggested that PAT
is feasible and relevant to be use as a basis for importance-performance studies. The
data was robust and reliable and demonstrated good construct validity in terms of
Gronroos' dimensions of service quality but did not correspond very well with the
service quality dimensions of Parasuraman et al. {Johns, 2001).
i
....L...
Customeris
as perceived
by provider
D
ben ice
actu aUy
vcd * Sendee
V Ac
i EicinmeF t serv
bY
prov sion
custi mer
*
1
T
'-————.
Custc meris
Exper ences
elsevi
\i
D
4
^
vice
specil cation
......
"T/i
tthe
cust orner
expeels
i
Received
• •••••
information
Service
promotion
<••••••
"T™
+
Consumption
Production
cycle
cycle
Figure 4 Service Provision Model
Source: Johns (1996:2)
51
Both the quantitative and qualitative methods of analysing service quality can be best
explained by the above figure. Figure 4. sums up the current models of service provision.
The consumption cycle represented by solid lines the consumer forms an expectation
and compares it with service performance in a 'moment of truth'. While the provider
cycle (represented by the dotted lines) is the service provided being matched to the
requirements through consumer feedback. Both quantitative and qualitative methods
aim at providing the consumers feedback by measuring the different service quality
gap. However, SERVQUAL are targeting to measure the gap A-B, while the critical
incident analysis measures gaps C-D or perhaps A-C, depending on whether staff or
customers provide details of the incidents (Johns, 1996).
The next section will look at some of the crucial service quality management issues in
the service sector.
SERVICE QUALITY MANAGEMENT ISSUES IN THE SERVICE SECTOR.
The existence of many quality management systems, has been recognized as an effective
ways of increasing efficiency in the service sector. Some of the earlier systems that have
had made an impact in the service sector initiatives such as, quality assurance (QA),
quality control circle (QCC), total quality management (TQM) or BS5750 and ISO 9000.
However, the above systems are very much 'borrowed' or adopted from the
manufacturing sector. Although these systems may have similar intentions, or
conceptual origins and perhaps the same ideological roots, the real issue that needs to
be addressed is the characteristics of the services, especially in dealing with customers'
interactions involving also the service intangibility. The definition of quality in service
industry has become sophisticated since then, due to the interpersonal nature of the
service, difficulties in standardizing service, difficulties to rework or replace faulty
services, as they can neither be returned for correction or reworked. In other words,
service needs to be right the first time. The difficulties and dilemmas lie in dealing with
customers who are actors and audiences at the same time during the service delivery.
The introduction of the service quality concept should be seen as an attempt to move
away from the earlier methods of assessing service quality using the pattern set by the
manufacturing sector. The earlier approaches are very much focussed on the tangible
aspects of quality assessment. In the hospitality industry, the earlier approaches were
normally aimed at measuring the tangibles aspects such as the quality of food and
accommodation. Such mechanistic approaches were found to be very suitable for mass
catering or fast food where the intangible aspects of the service are less significant.
However, the methods were found to be of little assistance in assessing the full service
restaurants, when these establishments were really dealing with the total meal experience
(Johns 1996).
52
Another interesting issue pertaining to service quality is the relationship which links
service quality to human resource management (HRM) practices, productivity,
performances and empowerment. As Bolton and Drew (1994) point out customer's
satisfaction rating has become one element in a loop that links service operations and
outcomes (Figure 5).
Surveys
Customer Satisfaction
Perceived Service Quality
Internal Measures
Engineering, Operations
Operations
Outcomes
t______I
Statistical Analysis
Of Relationship
Figure 5: Customer Satisfaction Loop.
Source: Bolton and Drew, (1994:175)
Hence, organizations are said to become interested in the relationship between service
operations, primarily characterized by internal measures, market outcomes, which are
primarily characterized by external measures. As a result of this, managers in many
ways were able to predict service changes that affected customer satisfaction and
ultimately the revenues or profit. At the same time they were able to diagnose low
customer ratings and use it to evaluate the effectiveness of personal and organizational
units (Bolton and Drew 1994).
On the other hand, Parasuraman (2002) proposes a synergistic perspective to service
quality and productivity. He believes that services companies should broaden their
examination of productivity from the conventional company-orientated perspective to
a dual company-customer perspective. Productivity should not be narrowly defined
and viewed solely from the producer's standpoint but instead should consider the
customers' inputs into the process as well as the outputs experience by the customers.
He further proposed a conceptual framework for understanding the inter-linkages
among service quality and the various components of the company-customer perspective
of productivity (Figure 6).
53
Figure 6: A Conceptual Framework for Understanding the Interplay Between Service
Quality and Productivity.
The above framework proposed the idea how service quality influences outputs from
both the company and customer perspectives. Obviously, it is time to start viewing
productivity from two perspectives rather than traditional ways of viewing productivity
from a purely production perspective. To complement that, a broader definition of
company's output (e.g. sales, profits, markets share) needs to be adopted from a
previously narrow terms {e.g. number of customers served, number of transactions
processed). The Parasuraman's framework will encourages service executives to think
more broadly about productivity. In Parasuraman's opinion, the process of improving
service quality and boosting service productivity is halted when productivity is narrowly
defined and view solely from the producer's standpoint. Hence, the framework hoped
to highlight the potential synergy between service quality and productivity where
service executives can start leveraging on it, by examining the following questions in
their own contexts (Parasuraman, (2002: 8):
• What inputs do our customers and we currently channel into our service
processes?
• In what ways are changes on our inputs likely to effect customer inputs and
perceptions of service quality?
• Are we allocating our input resources in a manner that is consistent with
customer priorities?
• In evaluating the results of our service operations, do we define the outcomes
sufficiently broadly and from the perspectives of our customers as well?
• What is the nature and extent of the association between the outcomes
experienced by our customers and realized by us?
A part from these, Parasuraman hopes the proposed framework provides an impetus
for further research in the overlapping domain of service quality and productivity. In
54
particular, the mathematical models, which will help decision makers, determine the
optimum amount and allocation of company inputs for maximum outputs.
By the same token Gronroos (1994), also noted that currently the principles of 'scientific
management' are not applicable to the same extent as before in the industrial society. In
the post-industrial era, the critical issue is service competition; hence managing service
now becomes more important both for service providers and manufacturers of goods.
Meanwhile, productivity measurement is treated as an internal efficiency issue only,
where the impact on perceived quality and customers satisfaction is often neglected.
Even today, the practices of using productivity measurement is based on models
developed within the manufacturing context and these models are inappropriate for
the service environment, thus giving then wrong signal to the decisions makers in service
organizations. Most of the time the models are internally orientated, short term in nature,
unable to give a sense of long-term productivity and do not measure the productivity
of the whole operation. Pickworth (1987:43) who uses a restaurant example, noted that:
The issue is whether food-service managers should think of their outputs as
meals produced or customers satisfied. If customer satisfaction is the measure,
a quality dimension is also needed in productivity measurement
Hence, efforts to improve service quality will at the same time have a favourable impact
on productivity.
Haynes and Fryer (2000) point out that the relationship between HRM policies and
practices and organizational performance are not always well understood, although
over the past decade a number of studies have reported a positive relationship between
a high commitment or high performance HRM policies and practices, and organizational
performance. A case study approach was use by Haynes and Fryer to deepen the
understanding of the relationship between service quality and HRM. The study used a
number-of the organizations' own measures of organizational performance which
allowed a range of longitudinal examination of measures of interest to multiple
stakeholders. Schneider (1994) in his research points out the use of customer evaluations,
as an index of organizational effectiveness is more appropriate for the service sector.
The existence of organizational dynamics in the service sector will normally have a
direct impact on the people it serves. Haynes and Fryer further argue that, a hotel unlike
other service providers, is not a public company where their financial data are always
accessible for use to calculate financial performance indicators. Hence, they concluded
that although there are some indication of linkages between HRM and performance,
still further research is necessary in order to determine precisely the characteristics of
high performance bundles (HRM policies and practices) and the exact nature of the
relationship in the service sector.
55
Similarly, Ashness and Lashley (1995), propagate the idea that employee commitment
to service quality requires the development of a service driven culture or a total quality
culture. To ensure greater employee involvement and empowerment in the group's
restaurants HRM approaches were used. They believe, the emotional state of being
empowered will produce workplace behaviour which in return will leads to
improvement in organizational performance, increased customer satisfaction, more
repeat business, improved turnover and profits (Ashness and Lashley 1995). In case of
the Harvester restaurants, they found that the strategic approach to restructuring was
based on a model that have taken into consideration of culture, organization, people
and systems.
CONCLUSION.
Service quality has come a long way since its inception in the 1980s. The existence of a
lot of literature on the subject has proved that it has never failed to attract old and new
researchers across the globe to contribute. That said, obviously the most significant
contributors presently are both from U.S.A and Europe. Their contributions should not
go without recognition through the two schools of thought that existed: The Nordic
school consisting of important personalities like Gronroos, Gummesson, and others,
while the North American school consisting of Parasuraman, Zeithml, Berry, Brogowicz
and others. Their opinions and suggestions on the subject have continued to contribute
towards further debates.
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Managing Service Quality", 12,l,pp.6-9.
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customer perceptions and expectations" The Free Press, New York.
58
TFP AS ASIAN ECONOMIES' SOURCE OF ECONOMIC GROWTH: PAST
EVIDENCES, MEASUREMENT CONTROVERSIES AND RECENT FINDINGS
By
NAZIRUDDIN ABDULLAH
Kulliyah Economics and Management Sciences
International Islamic University Malaysia
ABDUL WAHAB MUHAMAD
SAMAUDIN RADIMAN
EAMIZAN HASHIM
NORAONI MOHD. SHARIFF
National Productivity Corporation
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
Abstract
Owing to Enke's remark, Young's findings, and Krugman's consequential Soviet resemblance,
studies on the Asian economies sources of growth and its potentials have not only become more
lively and interesting but also puzzling. In fact, the studies had triggered numerous works
devoted to investigate and analyze the actual contributory factors to growth process in Asia,
particularly South-east Asian (ASEAN) and East Asian economies. In the present paper, it is
shown that the sources of Asian economic growth in the past two decades or so were not
homogeneous. While in some countries the source was input-driven, in some others it was
productivity-driven. Specifically, in the case of ASEAN countries, with Vietnam being the only
exception, all other countries' source of growth was predominantly input-driven. However,
when the observation was extended to include East Asian and few West Asian countries the
results were in stark contrast to Young's and Krugman's findings. Thus, we conclude that the
growth of Asian economies was not fundamentally dominated by factor accumulation. As for
the growth accounting method, as adopted by the previous and present studies to measure the
sources of a country or a group of countries' economic growth and its attributes, it is still the
work horse of empirical growth analysis. For all its flaws, be it real or imagined, as discussed in
the measurement issues, many researchers have used it to gain valuable insights into the process
of economic growth. Not only thousands of research papers have been published but also the
residual (TFP) has consistently become a closely watched government statistics. Indeed, this
proves nothing but an evergreen and sustainable forty-year Solow vintage work.
INTRODUCTION
It was in 1963 when Enke, the then World Bank's chief economist, wrote that Asia as a
whole has the worst prospects among developing countries. He ranked them last in
59
development potential, after Latin America, sub-Saharan, and the Middle East. In fact,
he predicted in 1967 that Africa's economic future was brighter with seven of them had
the potential to reach or surpass a 7-percent growth rate (Easterly, 1995). Instead, in
1980s, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea, and to a larger extent, Malaysia
emerged as the most promising candidates to join the so-called Newly Industrializing
countries club. The subsequent years, i.e., 1990s onwards, had witnessed several more
Asian countries at the threshold of joining the "club" of which Thailand, Indonesia,
and the Philippines were the talented ones.
Then came 1994, Krugman, a prominent US economist, who argued based on Young's
(1992,1994) findings that" [The] newly industrializing countries of Asia, like the Soviet
Union of the 1950s, have achieved rapid growth in large part through an astonishing
mobilization of resources. Once one accounts for the role of rapidly growing inputs in
these countries' growth, one finds little left to explain. Asian growth, like that of the
Soviet Union in its high-growth era, seems to be driven by extraordinary growth in
inputs like labor and capital rather than by gains in efficiency" (Krugman, 1994, p.70).
Obviously, his findings also serve to deflate the idea that East Asia poses a fundamental
economic challenge to the United States. To put it differently, if the investment is subject
to diminishing returns, the region's astronomical growth rates are destined to fall back
to earth, which nothing to worry about, especially by the US.
Owing to Enke's remark, Young's findings, and Krugman's consequential Soviet
resemblance, studies on the Asian economies sources of growth and its potentials have
not only become more lively and interesting but also puzzling. While the former had
triggered numerous works devoted to investigate and analyze the actual contributory
factors to growth process in Asia, particularly South-east Asian (ASEAN) and East Asian
economies, the latter, due to the post-Young-Krugman's studies, have shown that the
future of Asian economies was not so gloomy. In general, studies conducted after 1995
have produced mixed results1. Some of them like Sonobe arid Otsuka (2001), Hayami
and Ogasawara (1999), and Singh and Trieu {1997,1999) attributed the high economic
performance of some of Asian countries to several factors ranging from capital
deepening, borrowed technology, to technological change (Han et al., 2004). Hulten
and Srinivasan (1999), and Hulten (2000), on the other hand, based on their empirical
findings have concluded that the Young's and Krugman's findings, "[Do] not take into
account the induced capital accumulation effect. The role played by total factor
productivity (TFP) growth ..... is actually larger ........... Exactly how much larger is
hard to say, because the induced-accumulation effect depends on several factors, such
as the bias in technical change and the elasticity of substitution between capital and
labor (p.36)".2 In fact, contrary to Young's and Krugman's findings, studies conducted
to investigate individual Asian countries' sources of economic growth found support
for the view that TFP growth in these countries was much stronger than their research
results suggest3
' See Collins and Bosworth (1996, Table 4) for the details of sources of growth by regions.
* When Huiten and Srinivasan (1999) made the correction using a different method of estimation called Harrodian correction, they found that the contribution
of
of
production.
,_
o(J
On the same subject, the World Bank has specifically attributed the East Asia high
growth to improvements in efficiency or TFP that is associated with policy reform,
openness to trade, and technological innovation (IMF, 1998). Collins and Bosworth
(1996), despite quite in agreement to both Young's and Krugman's conclusions, have
argued that there is some evidence that the East Asian economies were evolving toward
a greater emphasis on TFP gains, and the future can be sustained. This was then
supported by Crafts (1999) of the London School Economics (LSE), who showed that at
least in the case of few leading East Asian economies " [The] opportunity for further
rapid catch-up growth has not been completely eroded" (p.153). All of these findings
tend to suggest that TFP still remains crucial as Asian economies' source of sustainable
long-term economic growth for many years to come. Having said this, the question
now is, what was the factor that had influenced the Asian economic growth performance
after the 1997 financial crisis? Was it input-driven or productivity-driven? To the best
of our knowledge, this question has not been addressed by any of the researchers
mentioned above. Second, what happens, in terms of the sources of economic growth,
to countries like Nepal, India and Iran, among others, which were not reported in the
previous studies? Next, was the methodology used to measure TFP growth by the past
researchers appropriate and reliable? This question is very pertinent because it has
been frequently argued that the conflicting views, findings and conclusions of the abovesurveyed works could have also been the results of different methodologies or
measurements employed by the researchers to quantify the Asian economies' growth
and its attributes. In other words, measurement or methodological issues are at the
heart of the differences of those works' findings, which, in turn, gave rise to different
growth estimates of the Asian economies' TFP growth. Each question and issue that is
raised here will be addressed and incorporated into the analysis of the paper.
The schematic details of the paper are as follows. In Section 2, the focus and emphasis
will be to discuss the previous empirical studies conducted to measure the sources of
Asian countries economic growth. The discussion will show that the different results
obtained for the two sources, viz., from inputs accumulation and productivity, of Asian
countries economic growth by various studies stemmed from the difference in the
methodologies or measurements used. This clearly provides a reason for the previous
findings to be verified further. Section 3 of the paper will be devoted to address the
issue. In Section 4, using the recently Asian Productivity Organization (APO, 2004)
published data and disaggregating them into three regions4, the paper will demonstrate
the peculiarity of each region, in so far as the sources of economic growth are concerned.
Making this distinction in a cross-region analysis symbolizes the main contribution of
the paper. There is a concluding remark in Section 5.
FAST EVIDENCES
The admirable performance of a number of Asian economies has been the premise for
a large and diverged literature, much of which looks into reasons for the persistently
J
Examples are: Wong Fot-Chyi (1995) conducted a study for the case of Singapore; and, Tinakorn and Sussangkarn (1994) for Thailand. Both studies have
estimated strong TFP growth for Singapore and Thailand. Fatimah et al (2003) measured Malaysia's sources of growth and found thai the economy and
its manufacturing sector was primarily input-driven.
1
They are: East Asian countries or economies: South-east Asian (ASEAN) countries or economies; and, West Asian countries or economies.
61
high growth, and draws lessons for other countries that would like to follow suit. The
growth experienced by those countries not only dramatically changed people's lives,
but also raised issues such as what had been the contributing factors, and whether the
experience was replicable. In fact, it has become a stylized fact that the growth rates of
these countries have continued, even in recent years, at rates that exceeded by far the
normal historical and geographical experience of other regions in other parts of the
world. During 1980-95, for example, four ASEAN economies (Malaysia, Indonesia,
Thailand, and Singapore), more than doubled their real income per person, compared
with an increase of only 20% in the United States and other industrial countries and
even less than that in many other regions of the World (Sarel, 1997).
While some assessments of the sources of growth literature have questioned the
approach and its theoretical basis, it remains true that empirical studies have been
numerous and influential. Notwithstanding many differences in data and analytical
methodologies, most of the studies have the tendency to share one common feature in
analyzing the relative role of input accumulation and TFP change; they relied heavily
on a growth accounting approach.
Surprisingly, the growth accounting approach5 employed by the studies came out with
markedly different results. For example, using the approach and taking the case of four
East Asian countries; Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong and South Korea, Young (1995)
argued that the East Asian source of economic growth was not very different from that
of Latin America. However, Singh and Trieu (1999) showed that this conclusion might
be flawed, since it was based on comparing results from different measurements. Other
growth accounting exercises for individual East Asian countries have been found to
give mixed results (Felipe, 1999). Han et al (2004) have deviated somehow in their
approach. They have utilized frontier approach to measure the sources of a diverse of
countries economic growth. Specifically, an allowance was given for the possibility
that an economy might be producing output not using the inputs efficiently, or output
is produced inside the best practice frontier. For sake of comparison, these and other
studies' TFP results, which may be viewed as the pre-1997 empirical evidences, are
shown in Table 1.
1
A moie detailed discussion on the approach and the measurement issues is available in Section 3 of the paper.
62
TABLE 1
Estimates of a Selected Asian Economies TFP Growth (% a year)
Period
India
China
Indonesia
Korea
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Taiwan
Thailand
Japan
Young
1966-90
_
-
1.2
1.7
1.1
0.2
2.6
1.5
-
Collins and Bosworth
1960-94
Sarel
1978-96
Han et al.
1970-90*
1960-84
_
2.6
0.8
1.5
0.9
-0.4
1.5
2.0
1.8
-
_
1.2
2.0
-0.8
2.2
-0.01
0.03
-0.03
0.01
0.00
-0.02
-0.01
-0.06
_
-1.4
0.8
1.5
0.9
-0.4
1.5
2.0
1.8
3.6
2.0
-
Crafts
Source: Crafts (1999, Tables 3 and 9), and, Ran et al (2004, Tables A2-A5).
* Simple average. The TFP growth has been decomposed into technical efficiency change (TEC) and technological
progress (TP).
As evident from the table, Collins and Bosworth (1996) obtained a TFP growth estimate
of 2.6% for China during 1960-94, while Crafts (1997), despite utilizing the same
approach, obtained a TFP growth of -1.4% for 1960-84. Further investigation has shown
that the unique results obtained by the respective study can be attributed to the way in
which the sources of economic/output growth of a country are decomposed.
Traditionally (i.e., owing to Solow), the sources of output growth are decomposed into
two components; a component that is accounted for by increases in the factors of
production (capital and labor), and, a component that is not accounted by increases in
factors of production, which is the residual after calculating the first component. The
latter component actually represents the contribution of TFP growth. As shown by
Hulten (2000), by careful measurement and correct model specification one can rid the
residual (p. 17).
It seems from Hulten's (2000) comment, the problem actually originated from the way
the sources of economic growth of a country are measured. Simply put, different
measurements used will result in different findings, and hence different conclusions.
There are at least four major measurement issues that have led researchers to give
different pictures on the growth and its attributes of the Asian countries performance.
They are discussed in the next section.
MEASUREMENT CONTROVERSIES
To begin with, the underlying methodology employed by the previous studies to measure
the relative contributions of factor accumulation and productivity to the growth of an
63
economy and thereby determining whether the economy is input- or productivity-driven,
was the growth accounting framework. The standard neo-classical production function
is,
Q=AF<.K,-L>
a)
where Q, A, K, and L are output, technology, capital and labor, respectively.6
Differentiating (1) with respect to (hereinafter, w.r.t ) time (t), we obtain,
Q, 3Q KL K
L,
A
L +
=
+
TT
n
—
—
~n
—
—
Q, K Q' K, 3L Q- L A,
Equation (2) suggests that the growth of real output can be decomposed into the growth
rates of capital and labor, both weighted by their output elasticities, and the growth
rate of the Hicksian efficiency index. While the former rates represent movements along
the production function, the latter rate is the shift in the function.
The output elasticities in (2) are not directly observable. However, if each input is paid
the value of its marginal product, i.e., if
'and
where r, p and w are the price of capital, output and labor, respectively, then we get,
Q, P.Q.K, P ' - L A,
l
L+ C j l
K,
Sll
L
A
where and are the shares of capital and labor in the total production or output, and the
summation of both is equal to one. Equation (4), after rearranging, becomes
6
Note that A, should no! only he attributed to technical change but to some other meamrable and un-measurable variables (Hulten, 1986).
64
A,
=TFP
= TFP is a residual, the growth rate of output not explained by the growth in
inputs. It is from (5) that the controversies or issues on the measurement of the sources
of a country's economic growth originated. To reiterate, there are four issues, and each
will be dealt with in the same order as when they were highlighted.
K
L
First, the terms § and £ , which are intended to capture the elasticity of output
w.r.t. growth of capital and labor, are valid only under perfect competition. In most
cases, regardless whether the measurement of the sources is done for developed (where
the markets for both capital and labor are said to be more competitive) or developing
countries (where the markets for both capital and labor are said to be less competitive),
the terms are merely approximated. Studies conducted on the Asian economies have
chosen C and C on different grounds. Sarel, for example, derives weighted averages
for each economy according to their output composition {Crafts, 1999, p.147). The
estimated C was in the range of 0.28 to 0.35, which was much lower than Collins and
Bosworth (1996) estimation, 0.35. It goes without saying that the higher (lower) of V
will have influence on the lower (higher) value of C and AK the residual or TFP.
Second, an issue that has put many researchers at variance concerns the treatment of
improvements in the quality of labor (L), in particular through education. Whereas
Young (1995), and Collins and Bosworth (1996) adjust their raw labor force estimates
on the basis of assumptions about rates of return to observed increases in schooling,
Sarel (1999) prefers to make no adjustment, with the implication that any unmeasured
improvement in labor force quality will show up in the residual, i.e., TFP growth. As
implied by the results of both studies (see Table 1), the value of TFP growth of all selected
Asian economies measured using Sarel method was higher than that of Collins and
Bosworth.
Third, it has been argued that a more subtle reason to believe that the results of the studies
on sources of the Asian economies economic growth were biased is because they rely on
the nature of the production function that the technological change is Hicks-neutral.
When Hulten and Srinivasan (1999) rectified it using a different method of estimation,
called Harrodian correction, they found that the contribution of TFP has changed
significantly. While with conventional (Hicksian) method the TFP accounts for
approximately one-third of output growth in Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan over
the 1966-90/91 period, with Harrodian method the TFP figure magnifies to nearly 50
percent for the same period. In other words, employing a slightly different technique of
measuring the sources will change the result significantly, i.e., the sources change from
input-driven to productivity-driven.
65
Finally, the results of measurements of the sources of economic growth can also be biased
because the production function is assumed to be subject to constant returns to scale.
Collins and Bosworth (1996) were of the opinion that "[any] deviation of (the function)
from constant returns to scale is allocated to the residual of total factor productivity
(p.8)". Obviously, this will induce the estimate of TFP upwards (downwards) if the
production function is bound by increasing returns to scale (decreasing returns to scale).
It is interesting to note that all these biases, according to Hulten (2000)7and others8, do
not in any way indicate the inferiority of the neo-classical technique, pioneered by Solow,
of measuring the sources of economic growth of a country. The arguments pertaining
to the measurement issues highlighted above are addressed accordingly below.
K
/
On the first issue C and C that the terms and, which are intended to capture the
elasticity of output w.r.t. growth of capital and labor, are valid only under perfect
competition, Collins and Bosworth (1996) have resolved it when they employed fixed
weights in aggregating the factor inputs, capital and labor. They found that there is
surprisingly little evidence of major changes in factor shares over time. In fact, since the
share of capital ( C ) in both developed and developing countries are not so difficult
to obtain, the share of labor can be computed residually. That is to say, £ = 1- § .
Furthermore, even though various methods have been employed by many researchers
to measure the share of factor inputs of an economy, particularly the share of capital
($ ), like parametric estimates and fixed weights (Collins and Bosworth, 1996, p.17),
national accounts and regression approaches (Sarel, 1997, p.14), and "new method"
(Sarel, 1997), little evidence of major changes in factor shares over time. In fact, using
the "new method", Sarel (1997) found the level of development {measured by the average
stock of capital per person) did not significantly affect the share of capital in each
economic activity (p.16).
On the second issue of the treatment of improvements in the quality of labor and its
relationship with the sources of economic growth, it has always been the case that it is
confined to the number or years of schooling of the labor force. This is not to rule out
the fact that over years the quality of labor force is also influenced by the institutional
and policy changes. However, unfortunately the latter change could not be directly
quantified. The case at hand is the change of education policy from social sciencesbased to natural or physical sciences-based, and then to ICT-based. Even though
undoubtedly such changes will significantly affect the quality of labor nurtured at a
particular point of time when the development process is being undertaken, they are
difficult, if not impossible, to be measured quantitatively. Since an effective method to
quantify the quality of labor has not yet been found we are left with little choice but to
adopt the existing method, i.e., the measurement has to be based on number of labor force
schooling years.
7
This is based on Hulten (2000) work.
" Sarel (1997), and Collins and Bosworth (1996), among others.
66
A third issue concerns the implied nature of the technical change. The Hicksian-neutral
of technical change of the production function (5) is valid if innovation improves the
marginal productivity of all inputs equally. In this case, the production function shifts
by the same proportion at all combinations of labor and capital. This is/ however, a
strong assumption, if violated, may lead to biases. As shown by Hulten (2000), a more
general formulation allows costless improvements in technology to augment the
marginal productivity of each factor input separately:
Qr F (a,K,>b,L)
d')
This is the "factor-augmentation" formulation of technology or better known as the
Solow-augmented model. It replaces the Hicksian A; with two augmentation parameters,
a, and b(. If all the other assumptions of the Solow derivation are retained, a little algebra
shows that the residual can be expressed as9
S-+S
as
(5')
br
The residual is now the share-weighted average of the rates of factor augmentation, but
it still measures changes in total factor productivity. Indeed, when the rates of factor
augmentation are equal, and the sum of the shares is constant, it effectively brings us
back to the previous Hicksian case (equation 4).
On the final issue, which is presumably caused by the close link between the GDP
accounting identity and the production function, the problem is resolved as follows. If
the production function happens to exhibit constant returns to scale and the inputs are
paid the value of their marginal products, as in (3), the value of output equals the sum
of the input values. This product exhaustion follows from Euler's theorem, and it implies
that the value shares, and C and C , sum to one.1in
In a nutshell, what the preceding discussion tends to highlight is that the growth
accounting method, despite being put under unceasing criticisms since its inception, is
still robust and reliable, and thus valid to be used to measure the sources of economic
growth of any country. Perhaps, it was for this reason that until recently the same method
is utilized by the Asian Productivity Organization (APO) to measure the Asian countries
sources of economic growth. To recapitulate, the empirical results of the present study
are obtained from APO (2004) publication, which uses the growth accounting method
to measure the sources of Asian countries economic growth.
RECENT FINDINGS
To be precise, the sources of Asian economic growth are estimated using equation (5), and
the sample period by period together with the estimated results of the output, input and
9
10
For a detailed exposition of this, see Hulten (2000).
However, there is nothing in the sequence of (1) - (5), i.e., leading from the production function to the residual, that requires constant returns (Hulten,
1973). Constant returns are actually required far another purpose: to estimate the return to capital as a residual, as shown by Jorgensen and Griliches
(1967). If an independent measure of the return to capital is used in constructing the share-weights, the residual can be derived without the assumption
of constant returns.
67
RECENT FINDINGS
To be precise, the sources of Asian economic growth are estimated using equation (5),
and the sample period by period together with the estimated results of the output,
input and TFP for 1980-84,1985-89,1990-94,1995-99, and 1980-2000 of the twelve selected
Asian countries are shown in Table 2.6
As can be seen from the table, with Iran (1985-89) being the only exception, the output
growth was positive in all economies during the periods analyzed, and that the estimated
contribution of input accumulation to growth was also positive. The TFP growth,
however, showed some variations between the economies. While in the case of Japan,
the one and only one Asian developed economy, the TFP contributed not only positively
but very significantly (i.e., 68.46% per year throughout 1980-2000) to growth, other
developing economies including South Korea and Singapore the contribution of TFP
was not only far less than that of the Japanese but also negative in some periods. It is,
however, quite surprising but interesting to note here that in the seemingly least
developed economies like Nepal, India and Vietnam the contribution of TFP to growth
was relatively high compared to more developed ones like Malaysia, Thailand and
Indonesia. The latter countries are known to have achieved a high level of technology.
In the case of India (second huge economy after China), for instance, the contribution of
TFP for 1995-99 was 71.21 %, which was far higher than the contribution of inputs, 28.79%.
In a huge economy like China, the share of TFP in output growth was about one-fourth
that of inputs.
Putting this and other studies results side by side will reveal a number of interesting
facts. First, the present study results pertaining to sources of Asian economies growth
are closer to reality, simply because it takes into account the impact the of the 1998
financial crisis on the Asian economies, especially ASEAN countries. Specifically,
throughout the two-decade periods (1980-2000), the contribution of TFP to growth in
these countries was relatively higher, despite the crises of 1980s and 1990s came in the
middle. Second, in countries that were "overlooked" by the previous studies the TFP
seemed to have been the major contributing factor to their economic growth. India,
Vietnam, and Nepal with TFP growth per year of 2.08%, 3.27%, and 1.11 %, respectively,
were considered high, implying that they were in the process of catching-up with the
more developed countries
'The author of this paper lias the privilege to have access to the results published by APO by virtue of being a resource person to the Malaysia!! National
Productivity Corporation's (NPC) Macroeconomic Unit, and NPC is one of the APO members.
68
TABLE 2
Sources of Economic Growth, Selected Asian Countries: 1980-2000
(1)
(2)
4.78
6.53
5.10
Inputs growth rate (%)
2.95 (83.57)
2.70 (50.66)
2.77 (57.95)
1.88 (28.79)
3.02 (59.22)
TFP growth rate t%\
0.58 (16.43)
2.63 (49.34)
2.01 (42.05)
2.90 (71.21)
2.08 (40.78)
7.20 (106.65)
6.51 (107.78)
6.53 (88.84)
-0.32 (-4.65)
1990-94
6.88
6.04
7.35
1995-99
1.44
5.11 (354.86)
1980-2000
5.40
6.20 (114.82)
IRAN
1980-84
1985-89
1.78
-1.18
4.19 (235.39)
INDIA
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
GDP growth rate (%)
INDONESIA
1980-84
1985-89
(3)
1990-94
(4)
(5)
-2.41
-1.25
4.40
1.15
(-135.39)
(105.98)
(64.41)
(36.98)
6.83
3.11
1980-2000
2.63
2.16 (82.13)
0.47 (17.87)
4.22
1.04 (24.64)
3.18 (75.34)
4.64
1.02
0.87
1.82 (39.22)
0.42 (41.18)
0.12 (13.80)
2.60
0.82 (31.54)
2.82
0.60
0.75
1.78
6.51
9.39
5.76
6.61
6.04
3.11
5.40
(88.48)
(70.40)
(77.73)
(60.04)
(74.79)
0.75 (11.52)
2.75 (29.60)
1.73 (22.27)
6.13
4.00
5.95
4.80
5.19
(89.23)
(95.24)
(63.91)
(93.75)
(80.10)
0.74
0.20
3.36
0.32
1.29
JAPAN
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
1.96 (63.02)
(60.78)
(58.82)
(86.22)
(68.46)
ROK
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
7.77
5.18
7.22
MALAYSIA
1980-84
1985-89
6.87
4.20
1990-94
9.31
1995-99
5.12
6.48
1980-2000
(7)
-0.07 (-5.98)
2.43 (35.59)
-0.47 (-7.78)
0.82 (11.16)
-3.67 (-254.86)
-0.80 (-14.82)
1995-99
1980-84
(6)
3.53
5.33
NEPAL
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
4.69
5.48
5.43
4.25
5.04
69
2.07 (39.96)
1.82 (25.21)
(10.77)
(4.76)
(36.09)
(6.25)
(19.90)
4.12 (87.85)
0.57 (12.15)
4.24 (77.37)
3.16 (58.19)
4.11 (96.71)
1.24 (22.63)
2.27 (41.81)
0.14 (3.29)
3.93 (77.98)
1.11 (22.02)
TABLE 2
Sources of Economic Growth, Selected Asian Countries: 1980-2000 (...continued)
(8)
PHILIPHINES
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
(9)
4.21 (225.13)
2.30
1.28
3.96
2.51
1.81 (78.70)
2.96 (231.25)
2.93 (73.99)
2.88 (114.74)
7.91
6.03
7.74
6.70
7.12
8.20
4.74
5.41
7.11
6.34
(103.67)
(78.61)
(69.90)
(106.12)
(89.05)
-0.29 (-3.67)
1.25 (21.39)
2.33 (30.10)
-0.41 (-6.12)
0.78 (10.95)
7.47
9.08
6.95
5.87
7.34
7.24
6.19
4.18
4.34
5.49
(96.92)
(68.17)
(60.14)
(73.93)
(74.80)
0.23 (3.08)
2.89 (31.83)
5.30
8.60
8.64
5.93
4.93 (93.02)
4.94 (57.44)
6.50 (75.23)
3.34 (283.05)
4.93 (83.14)
0.37 (6.98)
3.66 (42.56)
2.14 (24.77)
-2.16 (-183.05)
1.00 (16.86)
DNA
3.61
6.80
7.66
6.36
DNA
1.59 (44.04)
2.68 (39.41)
4.44 (57.96)
3.09 (48.58)
DNA
2.02 (55.96)
4.12 (60.59)
3.22 (42.04)
3.27 (51.42)
-2.34 (-125,13)
0.49 (21.30)
-1.68 (-131.25)
1.03 (26.01)
-0.37 (-14.74)
SINGAPORE
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
(10)
1.87
ROC
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
(11) THAILAND
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
(12) VIETNAM
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
1.18
2.77 (39.86)
1.53 (26.07)
1.85 (25.20)
Source: Asian Productivity Organization (APO, 2004) and self computations.
DNA = Data Not available.
figures in the parentheses are the contribution of factor inputs and productivity in percentage terms to the respective
countries' economic growth.
Next, we perform a disaggregating analysis where the twelve countries are
disaggregated into three sub-samples: East Asian consisting of ROK, ROC, and Japan;
South-east Asian (ASEAN) comprising of Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, the
Philippines and Indonesia; and, West Asian made-up of Nepal, Iran and India.
These sub-samples provide an interesting experiment for a study on the different sources
of economic growth in Asian countries. Table 3 shows the empirical estimates of the
sources of economic growth for the respective sub-samples.
70
The evidence provided in this paper suggests that the sources of economic growth in a
group of Asian countries differ from one another. From the table, it can be seen that the
TFP growth rate registered by the ASEAN countries during the 1980-2000 (i.e., 1.00%)
was the lowest followed by West Asian countries with a TFP growth rate of 1.22%, and
East Asian countries with 1.62%. This tends to suggest that the West Asian countries' or
the late-comers, during the entire period, had the ability to efficiently make use of the
technology and management know-how acquired from the advanced industrial
countries. Indeed, the case for convergence appears to be true.
From the same table, what is also equally interesting is the fact that the 1998 financial
crisis-affected countries, especially among the ASEAN, were less able to manage the
crisis as compared with another sub-sample countries, East Asian countries. This is
evident from the TFP growth rate registered by the former countries as a whole was 0.28% throughout the 1995-99 period, which was far low than that registered by its
"counterparts". Thus, in general, the first sub-sample countries did not stand out in
terms of levels or improvements in technical efficiency compared to another group of
countries.
Concluding this section, based on these results it can safely be said that our finding is
not totally in line with that of Young and Krugman, though the methodology used is
the same.
TABLE 3
East Asian, South-east Asian (ASEAN) and West Asian Economies: GDP Growth Rate, Input
Growth Rate and TFP Growth Rate (Simple Average)
EAST ASIAN
(ROK, ROC, and Japan)
Period
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
GDP growth rate (%)
6.07
7.70
5.25
5.31
5.72
Inputs growth rate (%)
4.68
4.87
3.55
2.52
3.90 (68.18)
TFP growth rate (%)
1.37
2.82
1.50
1.45
1.82 (31.82)
SOUTH-EAST ASIAN (ASEAN)
(Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines and Indonesia)
Period
1980-84
GDF growth rate (%)
5.77
Inputs growth rate (%)
6.13
TFP growth rate <%1
-0.37
1985-89
5.13
3.93
1.19
1990-94
6.85
5.01
1.85
1995-99
1980-2000
4.34
5.63
4.62
4.77 (84.72)
71
-0.28
1.00 (15.28)
TABLE 3
East Asian, South-east Asian (ASEAN) and West Asian Economies: GDP Growth Rate, Input
Growth Rate and TFP Growth Rate (Simple Average) (... continued)
WEST ASIAN
(Nepal, Iran and India)
Period
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
1980-2000
GDP growth rate (°/o\
3.33
3.21
5.68
4.63
4.26
Inputs growth rate (%}
3.75
2.29
2.79
2.65
3.04 (71.36)
TFP growth rate (%)
-0.33
0.87
2.89
1.40
1.22 (28.63)
Source: Asian Productivity Organization (APO, 2004), and self computations.
Figures in the parentheses are the contribution of factor inputs and productivity, in percentage terms, to the
respectivecountries economic growth.
CONCLUDING REMARK
In this study, it is shown that the sources of Asian economic growth in past two decades
or so were not homogeneous. While in some countries the source was input-driven, in
some others it was productivity-driven. Specifically, in the case of ASEAN countries,
with Vietnam being the only exception, all other countries' source of growth was
predominantly input-driven. Obviously, the finding provides little support to Young's
and Krugman's, because when the observation was extended to include Vietnam and
few West Asian countries the results were in stark contrast to theirs. Thus, we henceforth
conclude that the growth of Asian economies was not fundamentally dominated by
factor accumulation.
As far as the growth accounting method, which was adopted by the previous and present
studies to measure the sources of a country or a group of countries' economic growth
and its attributes, is concerned, as aptly put by Hulten (2000), it is still the work horse of
empirical growth analysis. For all its flaws, be it real or imagined, as discussed in the
measurement issues, many researchers have used it to gain valuable insights into the
process of economic growth. Not only thousands of research papers have been published
but also the residual (TFP) has consistently become a closely watched government
statistics. Indeed, this proves nothing but an evergreen and sustainable forty-year Solow
vintage work. Bravo Solow!
72
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Assimilation", Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, vol.2,1996, pp.135-191.
Crafts, N., "East Asian Growth Before and After the Crisis", IMF Staff Papers, vol.46,
no.2 (June) 1999.
Easterly, W., "The Mystery of Growth: Shocks, Policies, and Surprises in Old and New
Theories of Economic Growth, The Singapore Economic Review, vol.40, no.l, 1995.
Enke, S., Economics for Development, London: Dennis Dobson, 1963.
Fatimah, S., Saad, M.S., Azhar, H., and Abdul Azid, C.I., "Sources of Growth Studies in
Malaysia: Methodologies and Results" Faculty of Economics and Administration
(FEA) Working Paper No. 2003-10, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 2003.
Felipe, J., "Total Factor Productivity Growth in East Asia: A Critical Survey", Journal
of Development Studies, vol.35, no.4,1999, pp.1-41.
Gan, W.B., and Soon, L.Y., "Input- versus Productivity-Driven Growth: Implications
for Malaysian Economy" in Soon and Nagaraj, Productivity for Sustainable
Development, University of Malaya Press, 1998.
Han, G., Kaliappa, K., and Singh, N., "Productivity, Efficiency and Economic Growth:
East Asia and the Rest of the World", The Journal of Developing Areas, vol.37,
no.2, 2004.
Han, G., Kalirajan, K., and Singh, N., "Productivity, Efficiency and Economic Growth:
East Asia and the Rest of the World", The Journal of Developing Areas, vol.37,
no.2, 2004.
Hayami, Y., and Ogasawara, J., "Changes in the Sources of Modern Economic Growth:
Japan Compared with the United States," Journal of Japanese and International
Economies, vol.13,1999, pp.1-21.
Hulten, C.R., "Divisia Index Numbers," Econometrica, vol.41, no.l, 1973.
Hulten, C.R., "Productivity Change, Capacity Utilization and the Source of Efficiency
Growth," Journal of Econometrics, vol.33, no.2,1986.
Hulten, C.R., "Total Factor Productivity: A Short Biography", NBER Working Paper
Series 7471, 2000.
Hulten C. R., and Srinivasan, S., "Indian Manufacturing Industry: Elephant or Tiger",
University of Maryland, October 1999.
IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook, various issues.
International Monetary Fund (IMF), "The Asian Crisis and the Region's Long-term
Growth Performance", 1998, pp.82-106.
Krugman, P., "The Myth of Asia's Miracle", Foreign Affairs, vol.73, no. 6,1994, pp.6277.
Sarel, M., "Growth and Productivity in ASEAN", IMF Working Paper, WP/97/97,
August 1997.
Singh, N., and Trieu, H., "Accounting for East Asian Growth: Japan, Korea and Taiwan"
Indian Economic Review, vol.20, no.l, 1999.
73
Singh, N., arid Trieu, H., "The Role pfR&D in Explaining Total Factor Productivity
Growth in Japan, Korea and Taiwan" UCSC Dept. of Economics Working Paper,
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Sonobe, T., and Otsuka, K., "A New Decomposition Approach to Growth
Accounting: Derivation of the Formula and Its Application to Prewar Japan" Japan
and the World Economy, vol.13, no.2, 2001.
Tinakorn, P., and Sussangkarn, C, "Productivity Growth in Thailand, Pattaya City
National Economic and Social Development Board and Thailand Development
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Sydney Economic Group, Reserve Bank of Australia, 1995.
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Asian Experience," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1995, pp.641-80.
74
HOW THOUGHT PROCESSES IMPACT TECHNOLOGY FOR PRODUCTIVITY*
By
EDGAR J.RIDLEY,
EDGAR J.RIDLEY & ASSOCIATES
INC. INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT CONSULTANTS.
In order for globalization and productivity to be effective for research and development
to introduce new products that will qualitatively change our lives for the better; there
must be a change in people behavior that will only occur when an attitudinal shift takes
place. This attitudinal shift has been emphasized by the former Prime Minister of
Malaysia, Mahathir Muhamad, and is one of the main drivers for Malaysia's success in
the Pacific Rim and the world at large.
When talking about productivity and the engine that runs productivity, we are talking
about people. We will first explore why traditional thought processes have failed to
produce effective behavior patterns that would allow decision-making that would enable
the masses of people to behave in such a way that the problems that we see now would
be drastically reduced or eliminated completely.
It is very important to understand that the most effective approach to problem solving
is multi-disciplinary. This approach has never been dealt with adequately. The attempt
to solve problems has been one-dimensional and the resulting solutions have been
inadequate and misleading. This applies to almost all disciplines but is especially
important for the critical disciplines of the behavioral sciences. The late consultant, W.
E. Deming (1982), stated,
Transformation can only be accomplished by man. Not by hardware
(computers, gadgets, automation, new machinery). A company cannot buy
its way into quality.
Deming (1982) continued,
In my experience, people can face almost any problem except the problems
of people. They can work long hours, face declining business, face loss of
jobs, but not the problems of people. Faced with problems of people
(management included), management, in my experience, goes into a state of
paralysis, taking refuge in formation of QC Circles and groups for
Employment Involvement, Employment participation, and Quality of Work
Life. These groups predictably disintegrate within a few months from
The Paper Presented at The International Quality Conference, August 17-JS 2004, Malaysia
15
frustration, finding themselves unwilling parties to a cruel hoax, unable to
accomplish anything, for the simple reason that no one in management will
take action on suggestions for improvement. These are devastatingly cruel
devices to get rid of the problems of people. There are of course pleasing
exceptions, where the management understands their responsibilities, where
the management participates with advice and action on suggestions for
removal of barriers to pride of workmanship.
I have often wondered why it is so problematic for management and leaders to deal
with the critical concern of people behavior, which is the core of management and
leadership. The engine that runs productivity is people and their mode of behavior,
which dictates their decision-making and creativity. To be sure, that is the lifeblood of
technology; it drives the effectiveness of that technology and its impact on productivity.
I have come to realize that in solving the problems of people, you are dealing with the
most critical area of human life that one can face. As a result, it is extremely difficult for
managers and leaders to face the ultimate realities that accompany the problems
associated with people, people behavior, and ultimately, a just and civilized civilization.
Indeed, if one attempts to skip over these issues, then the critical research and
development along with an effective mode of technology transfer will never be realized.
The average procedures for problem solving in today's highly advanced, technological
world are totally in adequate. Unfortunately, it starts with the basic assumption that
the current thought processes that dictate human behavior are sound. Subsequent
research and development, built on these same thought processes, drives a technology
again assumed to be not only sound but also adequate for creativity and advancement
of civilization.
Research is a crucial and critical part of productivity and its growth, since its function is
to elicit knowledge and data to perpetuate a useful product. Development is essential
for a product to reach its ultimate qualitative ness. Once these events have taken place,
the transfer of that technology has to be accomplished or all work has been for naught.
That is the reason why the thought processes that drive these events must be sound.
The current use of technology does not emphasize this methodology, simply because
management and leaders do not want to confront uncomfortable, threatening issues.
A core problem affecting research and development is the tendency to proceed with
isolated concepts that are unrelated to the multiple problems faced in today's civilization.
Due to a one-dimensional approach to problem solving, there is a disconnect. There is
a fear derived from connecting problem solving and research and development with
the real problems of people taken in context with the cultural problems that emanate
from real-world experiences. We are all familiar with the critical problems evident in
Africa, Asia and the Middle East today. The problems of war, cultural conflict, and
76
famine have to be implicitly tied to technology and its development. Today's economic
issues arising from globalization have to be accounted for when conducting research
and development and technology transfer. Nothing can be done in isolation; all things
are related. If that is not understood, then the methodologies used to advance technology
and productivity will never be effective.
The point that I am trying to make here is that people and their behavior drive the
achievement of technology and its effectiveness. Deming (1982) stated,
The wealth of a nation depends on its people, management, and government, more
than on its natural resources.
This is especially true when we look at the problems in Africa and other areas of the
world that are rich in natural resources. When people behavior is ineffective and good
management is lacking, those natural resources cannot be taken advantage of by the
people. As noted by APO Secretary General Tajima (2003),
The new development scenario in the region and the world, rapid advances in
technology, new concepts in business, and new demands from society will require new
perspectives and strategies in our productivity endeavor.
SYMBOLS VS. SYMPTOMS
One thing has to be made absolutely clear. It is understood by almost all scholars that
there are two possible approaches to the problems and disturbances that life presents.
They are the symptomatic approach and the symbolic approach. AT this point it is
important to define symbolism. Carl Jung (1964) gave a very good working definition
of the symbolic when he stated:
A word or an image is symbolic when it implies something more than its obvious and
immediate meaning.
This can also be the meaning of myth.
Conversely, a sign, in its concrete form, is a symptom. Therefore, a good working
definition of a symptom is a natural sign, as smoke is symptom of fire. As Deacon
(1997) says,
Laughter indicates something about what just preceded it as a symptom of a person's
response to certain stimuli.
There are two ways to use symptoms: one is the analysis of data (natural signs or
symptoms) like genetic material or fossils" as a part of a greater event or a complex
77
condition," as Langer (1948) states. Secondly, we use symptoms in our behavior when
we see things as they really are without adding myth to what we see. We do not add
more than its obvious and immediate meaning. A tree is a tree; there is no magic in
trees. A stone is a stone; there is no magic in stones. We do not apply superstition to
events or things. Even more basic, when we see someone who does not look like us
from another culture or country, we do not add connotations that stem from individual
idiosyncrasies or prejudices. We see each other as we really are, no more, no less. This
is living without myth. Indeed, we experience the energy that creates whatever stimuli
are present as symptoms of our experience. Living without myth is the ultimate
experience as a non-symbolic-behaving human. This is the engine that must be operable
when we enter the phase of research and development and technology transfer, and
any other starting point is fruitless and will lead to faulty results.
It has been traditionally understood that we think and live not merely symptomatically,
but also symbolically. This has been the problem. It is not possible to think
symptomatically and symbolically at the same time and behave soundly. What this
actually produces is a schizophrenic person who is very ritualistic and superstitious.
In traditional psychological circles, especially Carl Jung, the aim is to always turn
symptoms into symbols. This produces a symbolizing attitude where humans make
decisions based on myth and superstition, subsequently reversing symptoms into
symbols. This phenomenon started in pre-history and continues today. It cannot be
stressed enough that the critical interaction is a new, logical one that involves a dynamic
relationship between symbols and symptoms. Everything must start from this. There
is no other starting point.
It is essential to understand that whether a thing is a symbol or not depends chiefly
upon the attitude of the observing person. For one person, an object can be a symbol;
for another person, that same object can be a natural sign. Depending on the individual
neurological process, anything can be a symbol. As Langer (1948) stated:
A natural sign is a part of a greater event or a complex condition, and to an experienced
observer, it signifies the rest of that situation of which it is a notable feature. It is a
symptom of a state of affairs.
Although the traditional thought process has been to think symbolically, symbolicbehaving man cannot solve the problems that we face in today's world. Symbolic
behavior has produced people who cannot deal with reality, so they mask that inability
by mythologizing events and concepts. They then manipulate data in order to fit their
own agenda. We experienced this with the meltdown of American firms such as Enron
and Arthur Andersen.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT THAT CAN CORRECT HISTORY
78
Symbolic thought is the engine that influences the effectiveness of Research and
Development, and it eliminates any possibility of having an effective mode of
technological transfer. Research that is approached with a symbolizing attitude is
accompanied by assumptions that are based on myths that seriously damage the research
methodology. For example, a scientist educated in the West will in all probability have
assumptions based on Western democratic principles, inclusive of history, anthropology,
and other disciplines that formulate the complete educational network of the Western
world. The scholar, Martin Bernal (1985) states,
In his Book II, Herodotos gives details of many cultic parallels between the Greeks and
Egyptian religious systems and explicitly reasons that as they were closely far older in
Egypt, that must be their place of origin (11:49). It is interesting to note that at the
University of Oxford all books of Herodotos are required reading except for Book II.
The situation is not so clear cut an Cambridge but there too Book II is omitted with
some others.
Institutions like Oxford and Cambridge do not encourage students to read Heordotos
Book II, due to the emphasis Herodotos placed on Egypt's influence on Greece.
Additionally, these institutions object to Heordotos' infamous passage, when he stated
"that the Egyptians had black skin and woolly hair", Herodotos was saying that the
Egyptians were indeed Black Africans.
This attitude of the Western world is compatible with the uproar over UNESCO's project
to rewrite the history of Africa. This objection to UNESCO's great work had far-reaching
impact on UNESCO's ability to accomplish its objectives in the areas of science and
technology. UNESCO is the multilateral United Nations body responsible for education,
culture, and science. In 1984, the United States pulled' out of UNESCO, with Britain
leaving a year later. Britain return to UNESCO in 1997 when it was assured that the
organization has been restructured; the U.S. finally rejoined in 2003. The withdrawal
of the United States and Britain was driven primarily by their disagreement with then
Secretary General of UNESCO Amadou M'Bow and his stated direction for the
organization. UNESCO's science and engineering programs were cut by 37 percent
due to its lowered budget.
In the process of challenging Western principles for the sake of research and
development, Secretary General M'Bow had researched African history without
mythologizing it. For the General History of Africa Series, he gathered eminent scholars
to record an African history that was void of the paternalistic, racist ideas of the West.
UNESCO's noble initiative would put to rest what the late Cheikh Anta Diop called the
"most monstrous falsification in the history of humanity by modern historians". This
point is important for it illustrates how UNESCO's seminal work was destroyed by a
group of people who did not want to see a fair reinterpretation of history. The
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mythologizing of historical research is taught in Western educational institutions,
perpetuating those assumptions that are brought into research. That mythologized
research elicits products and ideas that fail to serve the interests of the entire population.
Those products and ideas, developed without objective scrutiny, are geared to keep in
place the prevailing status quo. Had Secretary General M'Bow's program been permitted
to proceed, an accurate portrayal of world history would have demythologized previous
false assumptions. This development would have led the way to the kind of sound
research that would deliver an attitudinal change. The late physicist, Cheikh Anta
Diop states:
The attitude which consists of resorting to an insane misinterpretation of texts instead
of accepting the evidence, is typical of modern scholarship. It reflects the special state
of mind that prompts one to seek secondary meanings for words rather than give them
their usual significance.
The late linguist, Max Muller, stated:
What intellectual condition was our race when mythology originated? Was
there a period of temporary insanity through which the human mind had to
pass, and was it a madness identically the same in the South of India and in
the north of Iceland?
What I am saying is that the moment man started to symbolize, the human mind
underwent a period of temporary insanity. That is what we call a Neurological
Misadventure. Diop and muller both were at a loss to explain the dynamics that created
a situation where the human mind underwent a strange metamorphosis. Muller
continued,
Even if we take only that part of mythology which refers to religion, in our sense of the
word, or the myths which bear on the highest problems of philosophy - such as the
creation, the relation of man to God, Life and death, virtue and vice - myths generally
the most modern in origin, we find that even this small portion, which might be supposed
to contain some sober ideas, or some pure and sublime conceptions, is unworthy of the
ancestors of the Homeric poets, or the Ionic philosophers.
These are the dynamics that produce the engine that directs Research and Development.
There is an old technology saying which states "garbage in - garbage out". If mythology
is fed into Research and Development, the results will be more mythology. Products
and ideas will be defective, will never stand the test of time, and will lapse into
irrelevance.
Denting (1982) further states,
What is the world's most undeveloped nation? With the storehouse of skills
and knowledge contained in its millions of unemployed, and with the even
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more appalling underused, misuse, and abuse of skills and knowledge in the
army of employed people in all ranks in all industries, the United States may
be today the most underdeveloped nation in the world.
Although Deming wrote this over 20 years ago, I think it is the one of the most revealing
statements ever made about a so-called superpower in modern history. Deming was
actually describing symbolic behavior. The United States has mastered the manipulation
of symbol systems, which only reinforces its underdevelopment. Additionally, Deming's
statement begs the question of why some of America's most talented and knowledgeable
people are not being used in Research and Development? In fact, the predominance of
underutilized members of society are people of color. Due to racism, poverty, unequal
employment and an unjust system, people with the ability to solve problems are strongly
discouraged. Contributions to research and development, when made by people of
color, are resisted, due to myths, superstition and even physical force.
America's underdevelopment became most visible in the tragic bombing of the World
Trade Center, on September 11,2001. It is well-documented that U.S. law enforcement
agencies competed instead of cooperating with each other both in the months prior to,
as well as during critical, time-sensitive moments following the attack. Instead of
allowing all her people to participate fully in the critical disciplines that could have
avoided September 11, the United States spends zealous and time-wasting energy
dividing and oppressing people of color. Notwithstanding our advanced technology,
interdepartmental conflicts led to failure in technology transfer due to abhorrent people
behavior. This is symbolic behavior that will ultimately cause not only destruction in
the United States, but globally, and it must be eradicated wherever it is practiced.
Research and development are extremely important to make the world truly civilized.
Objective research is not only critical for organizations, but for life itself. Research
scientists know that data can produce information that may or may not be desirable.
There is an old saying: "You must be able to look truth in the face and not blink."
When one is overcome with his or her personal agenda or prejudices, there is a tendency
to manipulate the research findings, especially if those findings have a different outcome
than expected. This is why it is imperative to perform research and development without
a symbolizing mind-set. This would mitigate any desire to manipulate conclusions
that do not coincide with what was expected.
The development of a product or idea is critical to the ultimate success of a product,
whether material or intellectual. Development must reach established standards, and
technology transfer can be successful only if it is free of mythology. When transferring
technology, multidisciplinary data must be seriously considered, which means issues
like religion, language, and other cultural differences must be carefully evaluated.
A principal illustration of the promises of research, development and technology transfer
has to be the global quest to find a cure for AIDS. Pharmaceutical companies have
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done a splendid job fast-tracking this technology; in fact, breakthrough research has
confirmed through clinical trials that generic AIDS drugs have as much efficacy as
brand-name drugs. However, the implementation of generic drugs is being constrained
due to lack of funds - the Bush administration does not agree that the generic drugs
have been proven to be as effective, even though they are chemically identical to the
brand-name drugs. The U.S. bureaucratic system has prevented a method of distribution
that will allow affected people to take advantages of these drugs. I want to be very
clear about this: the technology is in place, but it is the destructive people behavior that
allows the HIV virus to continue its devastation, especially in poor areas of the world.
THE TECHNOLOGY OF FISH PRODUCTION
A study done by Dr. Ka He at Harvard's School of Public Health is an excellent example
of the need for evolving research and development. Accepted wisdom over the last
two decades has found that fish consumption, the more the better, reduces the risk of
stroke and heart attack. The Harvard study found that men consuming seafood as
seldom as once a month can cut their risk of the most common kind of stroke by more
than 40 %. The significance of this study was it illustrated how even when a low quantity
of fish was eaten - one to three meals monthly - maximum benefit was produced.
Previous studies had dictated that fish ahd to be eaten at least once or twice a week,
suggesting a correlation between additional fish consumed and the amount of benefit
maximized. Comparatively, a conflicting Harvard study involving 8,000 female nurses
found that women that ate fish five or more times weekly had a 50% lower risk of
stroke than women consuming fish less than once a month. Dr. He could not explain
why his study found a threshold level, while the womens' study found a progressive
benefit.
Another mystery evolved out of Dr. He's research project. Science has concluded for
years that the presence of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish wards off heart
disease and stroke. This led consumers to create demand for fish oil capsules. But Dr.
He's study, like other recent ones, found no definitive connection that fish with larger
amounts of omega-3 fatty acids conferred larger protection against stroke. This left
experts to wonder whether the protection from stroke derived from some other
components of the fish, some combination, or what? This does not mean that omega-3
fatty acids do not have other kinds of benefits.
What is exciting about Dr. He's study is that it can only reach a positive conclusion by
symptomatic analysis. The long-standing assumption that omega-3 fatty acids are the
entity in fish that protects against heart disease and stroke is called into question. Because
of the resulting assumptions of the study, other components are being looked at besides
omega-3. Due to the analysis of symptoms, the myth of omega-3 benefits is being
rethought. Dr. He's study illustrates how a symptomatic approach is the only viable
analytical tool for any research projects. The Orientalist, Martin Bernal (1985) states:
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It is my contention that there is no scholarship that can stand outside the social and
intellectual paradigms held by the community or communities to which the scholar
belongs.
What is paramount here, and I want to emphasize this, is that no finding, no concept,
can be viable unless it can be intrinsically tied and implemented within the cultural and
global communities of the world. The Ivory Tower approach to scholarship is gone
forever and should never raise its head again. All research and development has to be
linked to the multiple issues that confront us today. Nothing can be separated.
What are the global implications of the technology of fish production? The overexportation of fish stocks could have disastrous consequences in developing countries.
Global fish productions will probably not keep pace with population growth, and that
could impact heavily on the developing world, where the demand greatly exceeds
supply.
European industrial fishing fleets are heading south to African borders, with European
Union diplomats clearing the way with inequitable fisheries pacts. The European Union
is desperate to preserve the domestic fishing industries in European regions (Spain,
Portugal, Britain, etc.) to save jobs dependent on employment in fishing. This gives the
European Union a technological edge against commercial challenges from the East. By
and large, the diplomatic and technological infrastructures of developing nations are
inadequate to effectively contest the European claim to fish their waters.
This feeds right into the perception and reality that the so-called developed world cares
nothing about the so-called developing world. This fits perfectly with what former
Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad meant when he stated,
'The Western world believes that a western life is much more valuable than
anyone else's. It is alright for others to die but don't you dare touch the
westerners.'
Dr. Mahathir believed this attitude was symptomatic of a new racism, reminiscent of
that practiced by the British in Colonial times (Thonhill & Burton, 2002).
We owe it to the global community to incorporate today's tensions and controversies
into the results of research and development. We must have the objectivity and courage
to look at the results of our research, even if we dislike the outcome, and implement the
date accordingly.
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ANALYSIS OF SIGNS IN FOSSIL RESEARCH
A classic study reported in Nature involved the discovery of the fossilized skulls of two
adults and a child found in Ethiopia. Scientists claimed they see for the first time the
immediate ancestors of modern humans. There have been continuous debates on the
origin of man and whether all humans derive originally from Africa or a multi-regional
approach, which states that there were several regional Homo sapiens.
All conclusive evidence from almost all disciplines rule out a multi-regional approach.
All evidence points to a direct line to Africa for all humans, and the recent fossil finds in
Ethiopia prove without a doubt that the multi-regional concept is null and void. The
fossils that were found in Ethiopia must be remembered as natural signs. In other
words, they are symptoms that show that Africa is the cradle of humanity. The new
fossils proved that homo sapiens, with almost entirely human characteristics, had
evolved in Africa before the Neanderthals evolved into their classic form. These fossils
prove conclusively that the Neanderthals had no relationship with modern humans.
The results of the finds and the evaluation of the symptoms concluded the fact that we
are all Africans. Only those with a symbolizing attitude will deny the results of the
research, which is evident to all objective people.
Spencer Wells, an evolutionary scientist, began his research on the genetics of human
population in Central Asia. Using DNA, Wells confirmed the African origin of humanity,
and he was able to trace man's roots as he left Africa to populate the rest of the world.
As we know, DNA is a natural sign, or symptom, of the dynamics of our genetic code.
This phenomenon makes it possible for us to have a clear understanding or our past
and the dynamics of the migration that humans embarked on. Wells' research was
void of any mythology - the symptoms, or natural signs were analyzed free of the
flaws that mythological thinking would introduce.
Research and development carried out by individuals who do not think symbolically is
free of superstition - unlike a project that starts from a symbolic base. A technology
free of mythology can be effectively transferred, free of the conflicts that accompany a
transfer that has symbol systems throughout.
In conclusion, the dilemma we face for effective technology transfer is whether to think
symbolically or symptomatically. This is the all-encompassing issue here and it cannot
be escaped. In order for productivity to be effective, the engine that runs all technology
must be driven by a symptomatic approach.
When a symbolic approach is taken, we end up in the situation that the United States
finds itself in, in Iraq. As is well known, it has been concluded by a U.S. Senate
Intelligence Committee that the United States acted on deeply flawed data in going to
war with Iraq. It has even been suggested by U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell that
84
the data was intentionally flawed. Whatever the case, the people of the United States
were deliberately fed false information regarding Iraq. The study concluded that if
Congress had known the real facts about weapons of mass destruction, they would
never have gone to war. This is indeed tragic. It demonstrates how the symbolizing
attitude of the U.S. government mythologized facts and developed a plan of action
based on those facts that was not only deeply flawed, but totally incorrect and without
merit. This led to the unnecessary death and injury of thousands of people, and the
grief of untold thousands of families. The United States went into Iraq based on research
data that was mythological in content and ritualistic in application. The final results
were indeed horrific.
In my research, all evidence points to a barbaric civilization based on superstition and
myth that is circling with no end in sight. The only way out of this circular endeavor is
to eradicate all symbol systems and put in its place symptomatic approach that is
thoroughgoing in every segment of civilization. This would produce a civilization that
is truly where man is no longer Homo symbolicus but Homo symptomaticus.
REFERENCES
Deming, W. Edwards, (1982i). Out of the Crisis, Massachusetts institute of Technology
Center for Advances Engineering Study, pp.18.
Deming, W. Edwards, (1982ii). Out of the Crisis, Massachusetts institute of Technology
Center for Advances Engineering Study, pp.85.
Deming, W. Edwards, (1982iii). Out of the Crisis, Massachusetts institute of Technology
Center for Advances Engineering Study, pp.6.
Deming, W. Edwards, (1982iv). Out of the Crisis, Massachusetts institute of Technology
Center for Advances Engineering Study, pp.18.
APO Secretary General Takashi Tajima, (2003). 45th Session of the APO Governing Body
Meeting, 3-5 September, Korolevu, Fiji.
Jung, Carl G., Ed., (1964). Man and His Symbols, Doubley, New York,
Deacon, Terence W., (1948). The Symbolic Species: The Co-Evolution of Language and
the Brain, W.W. Norton & Co., New York, pp. 94-95
85
PRODUKTIVITI SEKTOR PERTANIAN MALAYSIA
Oleh
FATIMAH SAID
SAAD MOHD SAID
Jabatan Ekonomi Gunaan
Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pentadbiran
Universiti Malaya
AZMAH HAJI OTHMAN
Jabatan Pengajian Pembangunan
Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pentadbiran
Universiti Malaya
Abstrak
Kajian ini menggunakan data siri masa dari tahun 1966-2000 untuk menganalisis perubahan
jangka panjang perhubungan antara input dengan output dan melihat kesan pembangunan
pertanian terhadap produktiviti sektor pertanian. Penemuan kaftan menunjukkan walaupun
usaha dilakukan untuk memoden dan memajukan sektor pertanian, namun kadarpertumbuhan
tahunan purata pengeluaran pertanian Ynerosot dari 8.23 peratus pada tahun 1966-1970 kepada
1.13 peratus pada tahun 1996-2000. Sepanjang tahun 1966-2000, produktiviti buruh mencatat
kadar pertumbuhan purata tahunan yang paling tinggi iaitu 4.59 peratus berbanding dengan
2.18 peratus produktiviti buruh dan 2.94 peratus produktiviti total. Di sepanjang tempoh kajian,
kesemua ukuran produktiviti merekodkan kadar pertumbuhan yang semakin merosot. Keadaan
ini mencerminkan kemerosotan kecekapan pengeluaran sektor pertanian Malaysia yang mungkin
disebabkan masalah penyelarasan teknologi dan subsidi input.
PENGENALAN
Pertumbuhan produktiviti pertanian merupakan syarat penting untuk pertumbuhan
ekonomi negara (Hayami dan Ruttan, 1971). Peningkatan produktiviti pertanian secara
langsung memberi sumbangan ke arah peningkatan pendapatan, mengatasi masalah
kemiskinan dan memperbaiki taraf hidup penduduk luar bandar. Di samping
menyediakan sumber bekalan makanan yang mantap kepada penduduk yang semakin
meningkat, peningkatan produktiviti sektor pertanian juga akan memastikan penawaran
input pertanian yang mencukupi kepada sektor perkilangan, khususnya industri
berasaskan pertanian dan sektor perkhidmatan.
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Reformasi pertanian di Malaysia bermula semenjak awal tahun 1960an apabila kerajaan
melancarkan Rancangan Malaysia Pertama, 1960-1970. Reformasi pertanian di Malaysia
dilaksanakan melalui pembangunan tanah, pembangunan wilayah, penyelidikan dan
pembangunan (P&P) dan dasar pertanian (Pazim, 2001). Pembangunan tanah
dilaksanakan melalui program penerokaan dan pembukaan tanah baru dan program
in-situ. Pembangunan in-situ dikendalikan melalui program penyatuan dan pemulihan
tanah, penanaman semula, pengairan moden dan pembangunan pertanian bersepadu.
Pembangunan wilayah memberikan penekanan kepada pembangunan seimbang antara
kawasan luar bandar dengan bandar melalui strategi menempatkan industri kecil di
kawasan pertanian moden. Penyelidikan pertanian dilaksanakan oleh institusi seperti
Institut Penyelidikan dan Pembangunan Pertanian Malaysia (MARDI), Institut
Penyelidikan Getah Malaysia (RRIM), Institut Penyelidikan Hutan Malaysia (FRIM)
dan universiti tempatan. Di samping terlibat dalam aktiviti penyelidikan, agensi tersebut
juga terlibat dalam usaha menyebarkan penemuan hasil kajian kepada para petani.
Semenjak tahun 1984, Malaysia telah memperkenalkan tiga dasar pertanian negara,
iaitu Dasar Pertanian Negara Pertama (1984-1991), Kedua (1991-1998) dan Ketiga (19982010). Teras utama Dasar Pertanian Negara ialah untuk menjadikan sektor pertanian
negara sebagai sektor yang moden, dinamik dan berdayasaing. Pada amnya,
pembangunan pertanian di Malaysia memberikan penumpuan kepada peningkatan
produktiviti pertanian melalui penggunaan sepenuhnya sumber pertanian secara lebih
cekap.
Objektif kajian ini ialah menganalisis perubahan jangka panjang perhubungan antara
input-output aggregat dan menilai kesan pembangunan pertanian terhadap kadar
pertumbuhan produktiviti sektor pertanian. Di samping menganalisis dan menganggar
pertumbuhan input dan produktiviti sektor pertanian untuk keseluruhan tempoh kajian
1966-2000, analisis juga dibuat terhadap tujuh sub-masa yang berbeza.
PENGUKURAN PRODUKTIVITI DAN DATA
Produktiviti pertanian didefinisikan sebagai kecekapan penggunaan input dalam
menghasilkan output berdasarkan proses pengeluaran tertentu. Peningkatan
produktiviti pertanian dapat menjimatkan penggunaan sumber-sumber terhad dan
menggambarkan peningkatan kecekapan produktif dan perbaikan prestasi sektor
pertanian. Pelbagai ukuran produktiviti telah diperkenalkan dalam penulisan terdahulu
oleh Crosson {1955 & 1970), Kendrick (1966) dan Yamada (1975). Produktiviti dapat
diukur melalui dua ukuran iaitu produktiviti separa dan total.
Ukuran produktiviti separa mengukur perhubungan antara output dengan input
tunggal, misalnya tanah atau buruh. Nisbah produktiviti separa mencerminkan bukan
sahaja perubahan kecekapan produktif, malah menggambarkan perubahan dalam
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perkadaran input, ataupun penggantian input. Peningkatan produktiviti total, dalam
jangka pendek mencerminkan perubahan kecekapan buruh dan kadar penggunaan
loji dan kelengkapan. Dalam jangka panjang, ianya mencerminkan perbaikan teknologi
dan organisasi pengeluaran {Kendrick, 1966). Dalam kajian ini kedua-dua ukuran
produktiviti tersebut digunakan yang diukur berdasarkan persamaan berikut:
Produktiviti buruh
= jumlah output pertartian / jumlah input pertanian
Produktiviti tanah
= jumlah output pertanian / jumlah tanah pertanian
Indeks produktiviti total = indeks output total / indeks input total
Indeks output total merujuk kepada indeks jumlah output pertanian. Indeks output
total didefinisikan sebagai purata pemberat indeks tanah, buruh, baja dan jentera,
dengan bahagian setiap input digunakan sebagai pemberat (Yamada, 1975; Mya Than,
1988 dan Mad Nasir, Abdul Aziz dan Mohd, Arief, 1989). Indeks input total dianggar
berdasarkan persamaan berikut:
(1)
di mana:
It : indeks input total tahun t
s : bahagian input i tahun t
q.t : indeks kuantiti input i tahun t
i : input 1, 2, 3 dan 4
t
: tahun 1,2,3........ T
Oleh kerana data bahagian setiap input tidak diperolehi, maka data ini boleh
dianggarkan dari persamaan fungsi pengeluaran seperti yang dilakukan oleh Bank
Dunia (1993). Dalam kajian ini s^ dianggarkan dari persamaan fungsi pengeluaran
sektor pertanian, iaitu dengan meregresikan log output tahunan terhadap log tanah,
buruh, baja dan jentera. Pekali keanjalan output yang dianggarkan diambil sebagai
bahagian input. Jadual 1 menunjukkan anggaran ganda dua terkecil biasa fungsi
pengeluaran sektor pertanian Malaysia dari tahun 1966-2000. Pekali tanah dan buruh
didapati signifikan dan sektor pertanian Malaysia mengalami pulangan berkurang
ikut skala.
Kajian ini menggunakan data siri masa output agregat, tanah, buruh, baja dan jentera
pertanian dari tahun 1966-2000 yang diperolehi dari World Development Indicators, 2003
dan pelbagai terbitan Laporan Ekonomi. Output pertanian diukur dengan menggunakan
data Keluaran Dalam Negara Kasar (KDNK) sektor pertanian pada harga malar tahun
1987. Input tanah diukur berdasarkan jumlah hektar tanah pertanian. Input buruh
didef inasikan berdasarkan jumlah gunatenaga sektor pertanian dan input modal diukur
berdasarkan jumlah jentera pertanian. Input baja diukur dalam metrik ton baja
digunakan.
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SEKTOR PERTANIAN MALAYSIA
Pada tahap awal pembangunan ekonomi, sektor pertanian memainkan peranan penting
dalam ekonomi negara dengan menyumbangkan kira-kira 31.5 peratus kepada KDNK
dan 52.1 peratus gunatenaga tahun 1965 (Jadual 2). Walau bagaimanapun, dalam proses
peralihan ke arah pembangunan perindustrian, sektor ini menjadi semakin kurang
penting apabila ianya hanya menyumbangkan masing-masingnya 10.5 peratus dan 13.1
peratus kepada KDNK dan gunatenaga tahun 2000. Sebaliknya, kepentingan sektor
perkilangan dan perkhidmatan semakin meningkat sejajar dengan kepesatan proses
perindustrian Malaysia.
PERTUMBUHAN OUTPUT PERTANIAN
Prestasi output pertanian antara tahun 1966-2000 ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 3 dan Rajah
1. Output sektor pertanian Malaysia meningkat sebanyak 273.3 peratus sepanjang
tempoh kajian ataupun bertumbuh pada kadar 4.04 peratus setahun. Manakala kadar
pertumfauhan pada setiap sub-masa pula menunjukkan prestasi sektor pertanian yang
semakin merosot. Kadar pertumbuhan tahunan purata pengeluaran pertanian merosot
dari 8.23 peratus pada tahun 1966-1970 kepada negatif 0.56 peratus pada tahun 19911995 dan meningkat semula kepada 1.13 peratus pada tahun 1996-2000.
Pertumbuhan pesat output pertanian pada awal tahun 1970an disumbangkan
terutamanya oleh pertumbuhan pesat pengeluaran minyak kelapa sawit, ikan dan
ternakan (Malaysia, 1981). Manakala kemerosotan output pertanian dari tahun 1991
sehingga 2000 pula adalah akibat dari pertumbuhan negatif pengeluaran perhutanan,
pembalakan, getah dan koko. Prestasi lembab output pertanian dalam tempoh ini
disebabkan beberapa kekangan yang dihadapi sektor pertanian, misalnya kekurangan
buruh, keterbatasan kawasan tanah pertanian yang sesuai, pelaburan modal yang
rendah, kemelesetan ekonomi dunia dan harga komoditi pertanian yang rendah
misalnya koko dan lada (Malaysia, 2001)
Bagi melihat perhubungan antara pembangunan pertanian dengan keadaan ekonomi
Malaysia keseluruhannya adalah penting untuk kita membandingkan kadar
pertumbuhan output pertanian dengan kadar pertumbuhan penduduk. Seperti yang
dapat dilihat dalam Jadual 3, dari tahun 1966 sehingga tahun 1990, kadar pertumbuhan
purata output pertanian melebihi kadar pertumbuhan purata penduduk.
WaJau bagaimanapun, di samping usaha bersungguh-sungguh untuk memajukan sektor
pertanian, keadaan sebaliknya terjadi pada tahun 1990an. Kadar pertumbuhan purata
output pertanian dalam tahun 1990an jauh lebih rendah dari kadar pertumbuhan purata
penduduk. Keadaan ini mencerminkan pengeluaran pertanian yang tidak mencukupi
bagi memenuhi permintaan dalam negeri. Jni sudah pasti menimbulkan masalah
90
kekurangan sumber makanan yang serius dan meningkatkan kebergantungan terhadap
import makanan dari luar negara. Ini terbukti daripada perangkaan tahun 2002 yang
menunjukkan Malaysia membelanjakan lebih kurang RM12.43 bilion terhadap import
makanan berbanding dengan eksport makanan yang bernilai hanya RM7.42 bilion
(Utusan Malaysia, 14 Febuari 2005).
PERTUMBUHAN INPUT PERTANIAN
TAN AH
Dari tahun 1966-2000, jumlah tanah pertanian bertambah pada kadar purata 1.87 peratus
setahun. Kadar pertumbuhan tanah pertanian didapati agak tinggi pada tahun 19861990. Ini disebabkan keutamaan yang diberikan terhadap program pembangunan tanah
baru yang dimajukan oleh agensi sektor awam khususnya di negeri Perak, Sabah, Johor
dan Kelantan. Dalam tempoh masa tersebut, FELDA telah memajukan 49.7 peratus
daripada jumlah keseluruhan seluas 353,300 hektar, dengan 88.3 peratus ditanani dengan
kelapa sawit, 5.9 peratus getah dan 1.3 peratus koko. Bakinya telah dimajukan oleh
agensi pembangunan tanah negeri {Malaysia, 1991).
Kadar pertumbuhan tanah pertanian yang rendah dalam tahun 1990an akibat dari
langkah kerajaan memberikan penekanan yang lebih untuk memajukan kawasan
pertanian sedia ada melalui program pembangunan pertanian bersepadu,
perkembangan program penanaman semula serta parit dan taliair. Di samping itu,
kemerosotan kadar pertumbuhan tanah juga disebabkan kekurangan kawasan tanah
baru yang sesuai untuk pertanian serta f aktor ekologi dan alam sekitar yang memerlukan
pemuliharaan kawasan hutan yang sedia ada. Dalam menghadapi kos yang tinggi untuk
memajukan tanah marginal, maka teras strategi pembangunan pertanian dalam tahun
1990an ialah memberikan tumpuan terhadap pembangunan in-situ melalui penanaman
semula dan pemulihan tanah pertanian yang sedia ada (Malaysia, 1991).
BURUH
Pertumbuhan buruh pertanian di Malaysia mengalami arah aliran yang semakin merosot
di sepanjang tempoh kajian. Pada tahun 1966, terdapat seramai 1,690,000 buruh di sektor
pertanian, dan bilangan ini merosot kepada 1,408,000 pada tahun 2000, iaitu kemerosotan
sebanyak 16.7 peratus dalam tempoh 34 tahun. Buruh pertanian mengalami kadar
pertumbuhan purata yang negatif pada keseluruhan tempoh masa kajian.
Pertumbuhan buruh pertanian yang merosot berbanding dengan jumlah penduduk
menunjukkan terdapat penghijrahan buruh dari sektor pertanian ke sektor perkilangan
dan perkhidmatan. Perubahan struktur gunatenaga ini ternyata dari Jadual 2 di mana
gunatenaga sektor pertanian merosot dengan ketara dari tahun hingga tahun 2000.
91
BAJA
Jumlah penggunaan baja meningkat dari 115,000 ton metrik pada tahun 1966 kepada
1,428,000 ton metrik pada tahun 2000, iaitu peningkatan sebanyak 1,142 peratus
sepanjang tempoh 34 tahun ataupun meningkat pada kadar purata 8.25 peratus setahun.
Peningkatan penggunaan baja adalah tinggi pada tahun 1970an. Pertumbuhan perlahan
penggunaan baja pada berikutnya disebabkan pengurangan secara berperingkat
pemberian pelbagai jenis subsisdi, termasuklah baja. Semenjak tahun 1984, kebanyakan
skim yang menyediakan input percuma kepada para petard telah digantikan dengan
skim yang mengenakan bayaran minimum. Langkah ini dilakukan bertujuan melahirkan
masyarakat petard yang kukuh dan berdikari (Malaysia, 1986).
JENTERA
Jumlah jentera yang digunakan di sektor pertanian meningkat dari 2,600 unit pada
tahun 1966 kepada 43,300 unit pada tahun 2000, iaitu meningkat pada kadar purata
8.94 peratus setahun. Kadar pertumbuhan penggunaan jentera yang tinggi
menggambarkan penekanan terhadap proses penjenteraan bagi menggantikan buruh
dengan modal akibat dari kekurangan buruh pertanian.
Arah aliran indeks buruh, tanah, baja dan jentera pertanian sepanjang tahun 1966-2000
ditunjukkan dalam Rajah 2. Pertumbuhan tanah dan buruh pertanian agak stabil dan
pada tahun 1980an tanah pertanian mengalami pertumbuhan yang lebih pesat dari
pertumbuhan buruh. Di antara semua input pertanian, jentera dan baja mengalami
pertumbuhan yang paling pesat yang mencerminkan pertambahan penggunaan input
moden bagi menggantikan input tradisional buruh dan tanah, yang semakin
berkurangan di sektor pertanian.
ARAH ALIRAN PRODUKTIVITI PERTANIAN
Arah aliran indeks produktiviti separa dan total diberikan dalam Apendiks 1 dan Rajah
3. Jadual 4 pula memaparkan kadar pertumbuhan tahunan purata produktiviti separa
dan total.
PRODUKTIVITI BURUH
Rajah 3 menunjukkan di sepanjang tempoh kajian produktiviti buruh mengalami arah
aliran yang semakin meningkat, namun pada kadar yang semakin perlahan. lanya
meningkat pada kadar 4.59 peratus setahun dalam tempoh 1966-2000 dan merupakan
kadar pertumbuhan produktiviti yang paling tinggi berbanding dengan kadar
pertumbuhan produktiviti lain. Produktiviti buruh mencatat kadar pertumbuhan
tahunan 7.33 peratus pada tahun 1966-1970 dan merosot kepada 2.29 peratus di akhir
tempoh kajian.
92
PRODUKTIVITI TAN AH
Dalam tahun 1966-2000, produktiviti tanah meningkat pada kadar tahunan purata 2.18
peratus. Kadar pertumbuhan produktiviti tanah secara relatif lebih tinggi pada 1960an
dan 1970an berbanding dengan tahun 1980an dan 1990an. Produktiviti tanah bergantung
kepada jumlah input lain yang digabungkan secara bersama, maka pertambahan
penggunaan input moden, iaitu baja dan jentera, akan meningkatkan produktiviti tanah.
Oleh kerana purata pertambahan tanah pada tahun 1966-2000 hanyalah 1.87 peratus
(Jadual 3), maka peningkatan produktiviti tanah dalam tempoh ini disumbangkan oleh
peningkatan penggunaan input moden.
Dalam tempoh 1966-2000, walaupun penggunaan baja dan jentera meningkat dengan
pesatnya, masing-masingnya sebanyak 8.25 peratus dan 8.94 peratus {Jadual 3), namun
pertumbuhan produktiviti tanah dan output pertanian masing-masingnya hanyalah
meningkat sebanyak 2.18 peratus dan 4.04 peratus. Fenomena yang sama dapat dilihat
dalam setiap sub-masa di mana peningkatan pesat input moden memberikan
peningkatan yang sedikit dalam produktiviti tanah dan output pertanian. Keadaan ini
mungkin mencerminkan ketakcekapan kombinasi dan penyalahuntukan input
pertanian.
PRODUKTIVITI TOTAL
Sepanjang tempoh kajian, produktiviti total sektor pertanian Malaysia meningkat pada
kadar 2.94 peratus setahun. Kadar pertumbuhan produktiviti total adalah tinggi, iaitu
6.44 peratus pada awal tempoh kajian, namun berterusan merosot serta mencatat kadar
pertumbuhan 0.92 peratus pada tahun 1996-2000.
KESIMPULAN DAN IMPLIKASI DASAR
Kajian ini menunjukkan sepanjang tempoh 1966-2000, produktiviti buruh mencatat
kadar pertumbuhan tahunan yang pesat iaitu 4.59 peratus berbanding dengan kadar
pertumbuhan produktiviti tanah, 2.18 peratus dan produktiviti total 2.94 peratus.
Kesemua ukuran produktiviti tersebut menunjukkan kadar pertumbuhan yang semakin
merosot.
Kadar pertumbuhan produktiviti total yang semakin rendah mencerminkan
kemerosotan kecekapan pengeluaran. Tmjauan kajian masa lepas menunjukkan terdapat
dua sumber ketakcekapan pengeluaran iaitu masalah penyesuaian teknologi dan subsidi
input (Barker, Gabler dan Winklemann, 1981; Arnade, 1998).
Penggunaan input moden memerlukan petani mengubah teknologi atau amalan
pengeluaran. Penyesuaian teknologi ini dapat mewujudkan ketakcekapan dan
menyumbangkan kepada kemerosotan produktiviti total sekiranya tiada usaha dibuat
untuk menyediakan perkhidmatan sokongan berkualiti bagi membimbing petani ke
93
arah meningkatkan lagi kecekapan penggunaan teknologi moden. Kekurangan
maklumat pertanian dan kemudahan perkhidmatan sokongan telah dikenalpasti sebagai
faktor yang menyumbang ke arah kemerosotan produktiviti dan kecekapan petani
{Aminah dan Narimah, 1998).
Ketakcekapan penggunaan input moden juga terbukti dari Jadual 3 di mana
penggunaan baja dan jentera meningkat dengan pesat berbanding dengan peningkatan
output. Keadaan ini mungkin mencerminkan penyalahgunaan sumber di mana
pertumbuhan pesat input tidak diikuti oleh pertumbuhan pesat output. Ketakcekapan
penggunaan teknologi baru juga boleh terjadi sekiranya petard tidak mempunyai masa
yang mencukupi untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan teknologi tersebut. Dalam kajian
kecekapan yang dilakukan Huang (1971) di tiga kawasan penanaman padi, beliau dapati
dengan tempoh masa yang mencukupi, ketakcekapan akan terhapus apabila petani
dapat menyelaras kepada teknologi baru.
Dari awal tahun 1960an dan sehingga tahun 1970an, kebanyakan negara sedang
membangun telah memberi subsidi baja, jentera dan kemudahan kredit kepada para
petani untuk menggalakkan penjenteraan dan pemodenan sektor pertanian. Namun
begitu, subsidi input juga telah dikenalpasti sebagai faktor penyumbang kepada
ketakcekapan teknik dan peruntukan, kemerosotan produktiviti serta pembaziran input
{Arnade, 1998). Dalam kajian Arnade (1998) terhadap sektor pertanian di negara sedang
membangun, beliau dapati ketakcekapan teknik di Brazil, India dan Pakistan semakin
meningkat disebabkan pemberian subsidi yang berlebihan.
Malaysia juga tidak terkecuali. Subsidi baja untuk penanaman padi telah mula
diperkenalkan pada tahun 1951. Pada tahun 1979 skim subsidi baru diperkenalkan di
mana baja percuma diberi kepada pesawah yang menanam kawasan sawah seluas 2.4
hektar atau kurang. Bagi setiap hektar sehingga 2.4 hektar padi yang ditanami, pesawah
akan mendapat sebanyak 309 kilogram baja percuma (Zaleha dan Mohd. Ariff, 1986).
Dalam kajian mereka terhadap kesan baja percuma ke atas kecekapan ekonomi pesawah
padi, Zaleha dan Mohd. Ariff (1986) mendapati skim subsidi baja telah menggalakkan
pesawah menggunakan baja secara tidak cekap dan melebihi dari jumlah yang
sepatutnya.
Beberapa implikasi dasar dapat dilihat dari penemuan kajian ini. Kemerosotan
kecekapan pengeluaran dapat dikaitkan dengan ketakcukupan perkhidmatan sokongan
sektor pertanian. Peruntukan perkhidmatan sokongan telah dikurangkan dari 10.6
peratus daripada jumlah peruntukan pembangunan sektor pertanian (RM241.6 juta
daripada RM2279.4 juta) dalam Rancangan Malaysia Kedua, 1971-1975 kepada hanya
4.9 peratus (RM409.5 juta daripada RM8286.9 juta) dalam Rancangan Malaysia Ketujuh,
1996-2000 (Malaysia, 1971 dan 1996). Oleh itu, pengurangan peruntukan terhadap
perkhidmatan sokongan pertanian, yang meliputi kredit pertanian, penyelidikan dan
pembangunan dan perkhidmatan lain, memberikan kesan jangka panjang
mengurangkan pertumbuhan produktiviti dan output pertanian.
94
Kejayaan aktiviti P&P dalam memperkenal dan menyebarkan teknologi baru untuk
meninggikan produktiviti memerlukan sokongan dan penglibatan padu kakitangan
sokongan. Kakitangan sokongan haruslah terdiri daripada mereka yang terlatih dan
berkelayakan. Kekurangan kakitangan sokongan terlatih adalah ketara di Malaysia.
Misalnya, pada tahun 2004 daripada 3,800 pegawai pertanian di Jabatan Pertanian, hanya
420 adalah lepasan universiti dan 650 pemegang diploma. Manakala bakinya terdiri
daripada juruteknik dengan kelulusan di peringkat sijil dari institut pertanian (New
Starits Times, 27 Jun 2004).
Pemberian subsidi telah dianggap sebagai sumber kemerosotan produktiviti dan
ketakcekapan pengeluaran. Walau bagaimanapun, di Malaysia kebanyakan petani dapat
meneruskan kehidupan kerana kewujudan pelbagai jenis subsidi (Muhammad Ikmal,
1998).Walaupun pengurangan pemberian subsidi dapat meningkatkan kecekapan dan
mengatasi pembaziran, namun penarikan pemberian subsidi sudah pasti menjejaskan
kehidupan petani miskin luar bandar. Bukti empirik menunjukkan penarikan pemberian
subsidi telah meninggikan kadar kemiskinan petani luar bandar (Muhammad Ikmal,
1998; Firdausy, 1997).
Di sini kita menghadapi masalah tukar-ganti antara kecekapan dan kemiskinan. Masalah
ini mungkin dapat diatasi dengan mengintegrasikan operas! pertanian secara kecilkecilan menjadikan syarikat perladangan besar-besaran, memperbaiki amalan pertanian,
menggunakan sumber dan teknologi lebih berkualiti dan memperkenalkan kaedah
pengurusan perladangan dan perkhidmatan sokongan yang lebih cekap. Bermula dari
Rancangan Malaysia Ketujuh (1996-2000), kerajaan telah mengambil langkah secara
berperingkat-peringkat mengurangkan unsur subsidi dalam input pertanian, namun
kesan positif dari tindakan ini sudah pasti memerlukan masa.
JADUAL1
Fungsi Pengeluaran Sektor Pertanian Malaysia, 1966-2000
Pembolehubah
Tanah
Buruh
Baja
Pekali
0.404
0.405
0.011
Jentera
Pemalar
-0.004
3.293
^2
Stat. Durbin-Watson
0.99
2.36
95
Statistik-t
1.66
2.16
0.18
-0.05
1.27
JADUAL 2
Perubahan Struktur Ekonomi Malaysia, 1965-2000 (peratus)
Sektor
Bahagian KDNK
Bahagian Gunatenaga
1965 1970 1980 1990 2000
1965 1970 1980 1990 2000
Pertanian
31.5 30.8 22.8 18.7
Perlombongan 9.0
6.3 10.0 9.8
Perkilangan
10.4 13.4 20.0 26.9
4.1 3.9 4.6 3.6
Pembinaan
Perkhidmatan 45.0 45.6 42.6 41.0
10.5
5.7
37.5
4.8
41.5
52 .1 50.5 39.7
2.5 2.6 1.7
8.4 11.4 5.7
3.5 4.0 5.6
33.5 31.5 37.3
26.0 13.1
0.5
0.6
19.9 28.9
6.3 9.3
47.2 48.2
Sumber: Laporan Ekonomi, Kementerian Kewangan Malaysia, pelbagai terbitan.
Rancangan Malaysia Kedua, 1971-1975.
JADUAL 3
Kadar Pertumbuhan Purata Output dan Input Sektor Pertanian dan Penduduk Malaysia, 19662000 (peratus per tahun)
Tahun
Output
Tanah
Buruh
Baja
Jentera Penduduk
1966-1970
1971-1975
8.23
2.19
0.94
14.39
13.32 2.66
7.02 0.21
1.46
6.58
4.10 2.46
1976-1980
5.50 1.57 0.40 12.98
1881-1985
1986-1990
1991-1995
1996-2000
1966-2000
3.19
2.38 -1.55 7.42
10.24 2.64
4.61
4.66 1.45
8.09
16.75 3.03
-0.56 2.16 -4.59 3.88 10.77 2.52
1.13
0.00
-1.14 5.64 0.00 2.46
4.04
1.87
-0.47 8.25 8.94
2.59
8.27 2.34
Sumber: Laporan Ekonomi, Kementerian Kewangan Malaysia, pelbagai terbitan.
World Development- Indicators, 2003.
96
JADUAL 4
Kadar Pertumbuhan Produktiviti Separa dan Total Sektor Pertanian Malaysia,
1966-2000
Kadar Pertumbuhan Purata Produktiviti (peratus per tahun)
Tahun
1966-1970
1971-1975
1976-1980
1981-1985
1986-1990
1991-1995
Tanah
Buruh
Total
5.86
6.79
3.98
0.91
0.01
7.33
6.44
6.00
4.18
2.55
1.34
-0.13
1996-2000
-2.67
1.13
1966-2000
2.18
5.46
5.23
4.94
3.17
4.24
2.29
4.59
0.92
2.94
Rajah 1 Indeks Output Sektor Pertanian Malaysia, 1966-2000
(1966=100)
1966
1970
1988
1976
Tahun
97
1994
2000
Rajah 2 Indeks Input Sektor Pertanian Malaysia, 1966-2000
(1966=200)
1966
1970
1976
1988
1994
2000
Tahun
Rajah 3 Indeks Produktiviti Buruh, Tanah dan Total Sektor Pertanian Malaysia, 1966-2000
(1966=200)
Produklivili Tanah
Produktiwti Buruh
Produktivifi Total
1966
1970
1976
1982
1988
Tahun
98
1994
2000
APENDIKS 1
Indeks Produktiviti Separa dan Total Sektor Pertanian
Malaysia, 1966-2000
Tahun
Produktiviti Tanah
Produktiviti Buruh
1966
1967
100
108
100
113.
100
110
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
111
120
125
132
135
154
164
174
195
199
202
218
210
220
231
213
217
218
212
224
221
220
218
215
213
205
195
190
199
199
190
195
201
118
133
132
137
140
155
163
172
190
191
186
198
220
229
244
243
249
279
283
292
303
331
325
335
370
371
386
399
418
426
427
429
447
114
126
128
134
137
152
162
171
190
192
190
202
209
219
232
219
225
236
234
244
245
254
252
253
262
255
249
250
260
261
248
252
261
99
Produktiviti Total
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101
JURNAL PRODUKTIVITI
ISSN: 0127-8223
NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
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CHIEF EDITOR
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National Productivity Corporation
P.O.Box 64, Jalan Sultan
46904 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
Enquiries and submission can be forwarded to [email protected]. my
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matters with ideas, research findings, case examples and discussion on productivity
and quality related fields.
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who are interested in knowledge, and discussing ideas, issues and challenges in
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practical implication of their work for those involved in productivity and quality
enhancement.
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fit with the editorial objectives of the journal).
MANUSCRIPT REQUIREMENT
Manuscript should be written in English/Bahasa Melayu and should not be more than
6500 words in length or not more than 25 pages {including appendices and references).
Using Microsoft word (. *doc) format and Times New Roman 12 font, typewritten on
one side of A4 paper only, double-spaced, leaving top and left hand margin at least 2.5
cm. All authors should be shown and author's details must be printed on a separate
sheet and the author should not be identified anywhere else in the article. A title of not
more than eight words should be provided. A brief autobiographical note should be
supplied including full name, affiliation, e-mail address and full international contact
details. Authors must supply an abstract of 100-150 words. Up to six keywords should
be included which encapsulate the principal subject covered by the article.
Where there is a methodology, it should be clearly described under separate heading.
Heading must be short, clearly defined and not numbered. Notes or endnotes should
be used only if absolutely necessary and must be identified in the text by consecutive
numbers, enclosed in square brackets and listed at the end of the article.
Figures, charts and diagrams should be kept to a minimum. They must be black and
white with minimum shading and numbered consecutively using Arabic numerals with
a brief title and labeled axes. In the text, the position of figure should be shown typing
on a separate line the words "take in Figure 2". Good quality originals must be provided.
Tables should be kept to a minimum. They must be numbered consecutively with roman
numerals and a brief title. In the text, the position of the table should be shown by
typing on a separate line the word "take in Table IV).
Photos and illustrations must be supplied as good quality black and white original
half tones with captions. Their position should be shown in the text by typing on a
separate line the words "take in Plate 2".
References to other publications should be complete and in APA style. They should
contain full bibliographical details and journal titles should not be abbreviated. For
multiple citations in the same year use a, b, c immediately following the year of
publication. Reference should be shown within the text by giving the author's last name
followed by a comma and year of publication all in round brackets, e.g. (Porter, 1974).
At the end of the article should be a reference list in alphabetical orders as follows:
(a) For books.
Surname, initials and year of publication, title, publisher, place of publication,
e.g. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundation of thought and action: A social cognitive
theory, Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall.
(b)For articles
Surname, initials, year "title", journal, volume, number, pages, e.g. Bandura,
A., Taylor, C. B., Williams, S. L., Medford, I. N., & Barchas, J. D. (1985).
Catecholamine secretion as a function of perceived coping self-efficacy, Journal
of consulting and clinical Psychology, 53, and 406-414.
Electronic sources should include the URL of the electronic site at which they
may be found as follows:
Abubakr S., liles, P. (2000). Is continuance commitment beneficial to
organizations? Commitment-performance relationship: A new look [On-line]
Available htpp:// www.emerald-library.com/brev/05015ebl.htm