united nations confebence on desertification regional preparatory
Transcription
united nations confebence on desertification regional preparatory
UNITED NATIONS CONFEBENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS ANNOTATED DRAFT PROVISIONAL AGENDA 77-i-oi2if ANNOTATED DRAFT PROVISIONAL AGENDA 1. Election of officers A President, two Vice-Presidents, and a Rapi)orteur will be elected to officiate at the meeting. 2« ,. Adoption of the agenda , , The provisional ageyida will be .conisidered for adoption. Agenda items 4 and 5 are identical to the two., substantive items proposed for adoption in the provisional agenda for the: United Nations Conference on Desertification. 5° • Arrangements for the United Nations Conference on Desertification . The substantive preparations for the Conferejice will be reviewed, P^ocssses and causes of desertification The General Assembly in its resolution 3337 (XXIX), on international co-operation to combat desertification, in calling for a United Nations conference on desertification to be held in 1977, asked for "an assessment of all available data and information on desertification and its consequences on the development process of the countries affected, through the enlisting of all the expertise available from public and private institutions and organizations of Member States, including on-going and planned research, studies and activities within the United Nations system". To respond to this request, four component reviews dealing with climate and desertification, demographic, social and behavioural aspects, ecological change and desertification, and technology and desertification are being prepared. These will be background documents for the Conference and will be synthesized in an overview which will be a principal document for the Conference and will be before the regional meeting in provisional form. It is also expected that the world desertification map requested by the General Assembly will be discussed under this item. A number of case studies on desertification in specific locations in different countries are being prepared for the Conference, together with a synthesis of them. 77-l-012if It is expected /that those - 2 - that those that have been carried out in the region will be before the meeting. In addition to provisional or advance copies of the documents for the United Nations Conference on Desertification, the regional meeting will have before it, under this agenda item, a selection of countrypapers prepared by Governments in the region whose countries have experienced desertification. These papers will enable the meeting to share experience on the extent and degree of succéss of programmes to arrest desertification. Related to these papers;will be a statement submitted by the Executive Secretary of the Economic Commission for Latin America describing the nature and, extent of desertification in the region. In addition, a review of United Nations activities relating to desertification, prepared by the Environment Co-ordination Board, will be availaiale as a background documeht. 5. Draft Plan of action to combat desertification The General Assembly in calling for the Conference recommended in its resolution that the international community urgently take concrete measures to stem the spread of deserts and to assist the developing countries affected by the phenomenon to ensure the economic development of the areas affected. The General Assembly also recognized the urgent need to prepare a world integrated programme of development research and application of science and technology to solve the special problems of desertification in all its ramifications and reclamation of land lost to desertification. The resolution further expressed the conviction of the General Assembly that work in this field should be carried out at the national, regional and global levels through studies and meetings at the appropiiate technical levels, and that an "intergovernmental conference on desertificatioft would provide thé international community att opportunity to launch a broad plan of action with a view to resolving the problem of desertification. A draft of the Plan of Action will be before the meeting for review. It is expected to contain a short terra plan of activities that should be undertaken immediately as part of a longer range plan /designed to - 3 - designed to arrest the processes of desertification. It is envisaged that the Plan will also identify those activities which should be . undertaken regionally as well as nationally and globally. The meeting will also have before it feasibility studies that have been made of proposed transnational projects to be carried out co-operatively by groups of concerned countries in the region as part of the global plan» 60 Adoption of the report of the meeting A report which, it is expected, would not exceed five pages will be considered for adoption. Together with the reports of other regional meetings, it can be made available to the United Nations Conference on Desertification as a background document (and also to the next meeting of the regional commission). UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS ANNOTATED DRAFT PROVISIONAL AGENDA 1. Election of officers A P r e s i d e n t , two V i c e - P r e s i d e n t s , and a R a p p o r t e u r be e l e c t e d t o o f f i c i a t e a t t h e m e e t i n g . 2. Adoption of the will agenda The p r o v i s i o n a l a g e n d a w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r a d o p t i o n . Agenda i t e m s 4 and 5 a r e i d e n t i c a l t o t h e two s u b s t a n t i v e items proposed f o r adoption in the p r o v i s i o n a l agenda f o r t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . 3. Arrangements for the United Nations Conference on Desertification The s u b s t a n t i v e reviewed. 4. preparations for t h e C o n f e r e n c e will b e Processes and causes of desertification The G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y i n i t s r e s o l u t i o n 3 3 3 7 ( X X I X ) , o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , in c a l l i n g f o r a U n i t e d N a t i o n s c o n f e r e n c e on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t o b e h e l d i n 1 9 7 7 , a s k e d f o r "an a s s e s s m e n t o f a l l a v a i l a b l e d a t a and i n f o r m a t i o n on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s of t h e c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d , through the e n l i s t i n g of a l l the e x p e r t i s e a v a i l a b l e from p u b l i c and p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f Member S t a t e s , i n c l u d i n g o n - g o i n g a n d p l a n n e d r e s e a r c h , s t u d i e s and a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s system". To r e s p o n d t o t h i s r e q u e s t , f o u r c o m p o n e n t r e v i e w s d e a l i n g w i t h c l i m a t e and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , d e m o g r a p h i c , s o c i a l and b e h a v i o u r a l a s p e c t s , e c o l o g i c a l change' and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , and t e c h n o l o g y and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a r e b e i n g p r e p a r e d . These w i l l b e b a c k g r o u n d d o c u m e n t s f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e and w i l l b e s y n t h e s i z e d i n an o v e r v i e w w h i c h w i l l b e a p r i n c i p a l d o c u m e n t f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e and w i l . l b e b e f o r e t h e r e g i o n a l m e e t i n g in p r o v i s i o n a l f o r m . I t is a l s o e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e w o r l d d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n map r e q u e s t e d by t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y w i l l be d i s c u s s e d under t h i s i t e m . A n u m b e r o f c a s e s t u d i e s on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n s in different c o u n t r i e s a r e b e i n g p r e p a r e d f o r the C o n f e r e n c e , t o g e t h e r w i t h a s y n t h e s i s of them. It i s e x p e c t e d that t h o s e t h a t h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d out i n the r e g i o n will be b e f o r e the m e e t i n g . Na.76-3382 - 2 - In a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i s i o n a l or advance c o p i e s of t h e dociiments i o r t h e ü r i i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , the r e g i o n a l meeting w i l l have b e f o r e i t , under t h i s agenda i t e m , a s e l e c t i o n of c o u n t r y p a p e r s p r e p a r e d by Governments i n t h e r e g i o n whose c o u n t r i e s have e x p e r i e n c e d d e s e r t i f i c a tion. These papers w i l l enable the meeting t o share e x p e r i e n c e on t h e e x t e n t and d e g r e e of s u c c e s s o f programmes to arrest desertification. Related t o t h e s e papers w i l l be a s t a t e m e n t s u b m i t t e d by t h e E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y of t h e Economic Commission f o r L a t i n America d e s c r i b i n g the nature and e x t e n t of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e r e g i o n . In a d d i t i o n , a review of United Nations a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , p r e p a r e d by t h e E n v i r o n m e n t C o - o r d i n a t i o n B o a r d , w i l l be a v a i l a b l e as a background document. 5. Draft Plan of action to combat desertification The G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y i n c a l l i n g f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e recommended i n i t s r e s o l u t i o n t h a t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community u r g e n t l y t a k e c o n c r e t e m e a s u r e s t o s t e m t h e s p r e a d o f d e s e r t s and t o a s s i s t t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d by t h e phenomenon t o ensure the economic development of the areas a f f e c t e d . The G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y a l s o r e c o g n i z e d t h e u r g e n t n e e d t o p r e p a r e a w o r l d i n t e g r a t e d programme o f d e v e l o p m e n t r e s e a r c h and a p p l i c a t i o n o f s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y t o s o l v e t h e s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n a l l i t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s and reclamation of land l o s t t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . The r e s o l u t i o n f u r t h e r e x p r e s s e d t h e c o n v i c t i o n of t h e General Assembly t h a t work i n t h i s f i e l d s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d out at t h e n a t i o n a l , r e g i o n a l and g l o b a l l e v e l s t h r o u g h s t u d i e s and m e e t i n g s a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n i c a l l e v e l s , a n d t h a t an i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l c o n f e r e n c e on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w o u l d p r o v i d e t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y an o p p o r t u n i t y t o l a u n c h a b r o a d plan of a c t i o n w i t h a view t o r e s o l v i n g t h e problem of desertification. A d r a f t of the Plan of Action w i l l be b e f o r e the meeting for review. I t i s e x p e c t e d t o c o n t a i n a s h o r t term plan of a c t i v i t i e s that should be undertaken immediately as part of a longer range plan d e s i g n e d t o a r r e s t the p r o c e s s e s of desertification. It i s envisaged that the Plan w i l l a l s o i d e n t i f y those a c t i v i t i e s which should be undertaken r e g i o n a l l y a s w e l l a s n a t i o n a l l y and g l o b a l l y . The m e e t i n g w i l l a l s o have b e f o r e i t f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s that have b e e n made o f p r o p o s e d t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t c o - o p e r a t i v e l y by groups of c o n c e r n e d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n as part of the g l o b a l p l a n . 6. Adoption of the report of the meeting A report which, i t i s e x p e c t e d , would not exceed f i v e pages w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d f o r a d o p t i o n . Together with the reports o f o t h e r r e g i o n a l m e e t i n g s , i t c a n b e made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a s a background d o c u m e n t Cand a l s o t o t h e n e x t m e e t i n g o f t h e r e g i o n a l commission). DESCOHF /AMERICAS/l imiTED NATIONS CONl'EEENCE ON DESERTIFICATION DESERTIFICATION? AN OVERVIEW FIRST DRAFT ITEM 4 OF THE PROVISIONAL AGENDA FOR THE PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMIRICAS S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , 23-26 F e b r u a r y , 1977 S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United Nations Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n P.O. Box 30552 N a i r o b i , Kenya, January, 1977 GE.77-82178 ITííITED NATIONS CONFEEENCE ON DESERTIFICATION DESERTIFICATION: aH UVERVIE¥ FIRST DRAFT SUBMITTED FOR DISCUSSION AND COMMENT TO THE REGÍC;ÍÍAL PREPARATORY I'^EETINGS FOPrTEE CuSFERENCE ITEM 4 OF TBE PROVISIONAL AGENDA FOR TBE PREPARATORY MEETINGS FOR THE AMERICAS S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , 23-26 F e b r u a r y , 1977 AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHAFJi 12-16 A p r i l , 1977 THE MSDITEEFtANEAN AREA A l g a r v e , P o r t u g a l , 29 March-2 A p r i l , 1977 ASIA AITO THE PACIFIC New D e l h i , I n d i a , 19-23 A p r i l , S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n P.O. Box 30552 N a i r o b i , Kenya J a n u a r y , 1977 1977 - 1 - - . KQTE /TO THE REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETUGS FOR THE TMITED UATIOUS COMFE^EHCE OH DESERT IF.10 IT ION The a t t a c h e d Overview i s p r e s e n t e d t o , t h e Regional P r e p a r a t o r y Meetings f o r the United N a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n f o r d i s c u s s i o n and comment in conformance w i t h Item 4 of t h e D r a f t P r o v i s i o n a l Agenda f o r t h o s e m e e t i n g s . The Overview has two priniary p-arposes t o which d i s c u s s i o n and c r i t i c i s m should he d i r e c t e d ; (1) I t s h o u l d ' p r o v i d e - a r e a d a b l e b u t s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a c c u r a t e summary of t h e causes and p r o c e s s e s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and of t h e s t e p s t h a t can be t a k e n t o combat such p r o c e s s e s and, where p o s s i b l e , r e v e r s e them„ (2) I t should p r o v i d e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the recommendations c o n t a i n e d i n the proposed Plan of A c t i o n t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a d r a f t of which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d under Item 5 of t h e P r o v i s i o n a l Agenda f o r the Regional P r e p a r a t o r y Meetings. Comments made a t the Regional P r e p a r a t o r y Meetings w i l l be taken i n t o accovint i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e f i n a l d r a f t of t h e Overview. - 11 - The s o i l -which kept b r e a k i n g aviay from the h i g h l a n d s keeps c o n t i n u a l l y s l i d i n g aw8.y and d i s a p p e a r i n g i n t o the sea . . . . . . Wiat novj remains, compared with what e x i s t e d , i s l i k e t h e s k e l e t o n of a s i c k man, a l l the f a t and s o f t e a r t h having wasted away and o n l y ' t h e h a r e : framework of the l a n d , h e i n g l e f t . VJhat a r e now mountains were l o f t y ? s o i i ^ d a d h i l l s ; t h e s t o n y p l a i n s t h e p r e s e n t day were f u l l of r i c h s o i l , the mountains were h e a v i l y wooded — a f a c t of which t h e r e 8.re s t i l l v i s i b l e t r a c e s . There a r e mountains in A t t i c a which can now support n o t h i n g b u t b e e s , but which were c l o t h e d , n o t so v e r y long,agOy; w i t h ' f i n e t r e e s s u i t a b l e f o r r o o f i n g ' the l a r g e s t b u i l d i n g s — and r o o f s hewn from-.the timber- are s t i l l in existence The country produced b o u n d l e s s p a s t u r a g e f o r c a t t l e . The annual s u p p l y of r a i n f a l l was not l o s t , as i t i s a t present-, through being allowed t o flow over the denuded s u r f a c e i n t o t h e s e a , but wás r e c e i v e d by t h e c o u n t r y , i n a l l i t s , abundance, i n t p h e r bosom, where she s t o r e d i t in h e r impervious c l a y and so w a s ' a b l e t o discha.rge the d r a i n a g e from t h é h e i g h t s ' i n t o the hollows in t h e form of s p r i n g s and r i v e r s with an a.bujidant volume and a wide territorial distribution. The s h r i n e s tha,t s u r v i v e t o t h e - p r e s e n t day. on the s i t e s o f - e x t i n c t , w a t e r s u p p l i e s are evidence f o r t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of my p r e s e n t hypothesis. . .. " " " ~ Plato The C r i t i a s Ill - PEEFACE In December 197'^5 t h e United Nations General Assembly passed r e s o l u t i o n 5337(XXIX) c a l l i n g f o r an i n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , to be h e l d i n 197?. The General-Assembly s p e c i f i e d t h a t t o p r e p a r e f o r t h i s conference a world map should be developed showing a r e a s v u l n e r a b l e t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a l l a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a.nd i t s consequences f o r development tihould be g a t h e r e d a.nd a s s e s s e d , and a p l a n of a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n should be p r e p a r e d with emphasis on t h e development of indigenous s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y . In a. subsequent r e s o l u t i o n 3511(XXX), the General Assembly s t r e s s e d the need " f o r a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h to c l a r i f y a number of fundamental problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n " This a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h - t o o k t h e form of case s t u d i e s d i r e c t e d toward key a s p e c t s of the d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s . Six su6h case s t u d i e s were f i n a n c e d and c a r r i e d out by the s p e c i a l i z e d a g e n c i e s of t h e . U n i t e d Nations system. They analyzed the p r o c e s s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n ( l ) Chile and (2) T u n i s i a , both with predominately c o l d - s e a s o n r a i n f a l l , in (3) I n d i a a,nd (4) N i g e r , b o t h with predominately warm-season r a i n f a l l , and in (5) the Indus V a l l e y and (6) the T i g r i s E u p h r a t e s V a l l e y , b o t h i r r i g a t e d a r e a s s u b j e c t t o waterlogging and s a l i n i z a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , a number of Governments c o - o p e r a t e d by developing a s s o c i a t e d case s t u d i e s focused on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems w i t h i n t h e i r b o r d e r s . These governments include A u s t r a l i a , China, I r a n , I s r a e l , t h e Soviet Union and t h e United S t a t e s . Another s e t of s t u d i e s r e l a t e s t o the p o s s i b i l i t y of c o - o p e r a t i v e , t r a n s n a t i o n a l e f f o r t s to combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . These s o - c a l l e d f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s , p r e p a r e d by s p e c i a l i s t s , concern t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of g r e e n b e l t s on the n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n rims of the Sahara, t h e management of groundwater a q u i f e r s i n n o r t h e a s t A f r i c a and t h e Arabian p e n i n s u l a , the monitoring of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s in South America and t h e Middle E a s t , and l i v e s t o c k and r a n g e l a n d management i n f r a g i l e , dryland e c o s y s t e m s . The accumulation of t h e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n may be s a i d t o include t h e r e q u e s t e d d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n maps. A world map of a r e a s v u l n e r a b l e t o d e g r a d a t i o n was prepajred by UNESCO and PAO a t a s c a l e of one t o 25 m i l l i o n and maps of t h e d e s e r t area.s of n o r t h A f r i c a and South America ha-ve been p r e p a r e d a t a. s c a l e of one to f i v e m i l l i o n . In a d d i t i o n , some of t h e case s t u d i e s were accompanied by more d e t a i l e d maps of t h e a r e a s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . To p r e s e n t the a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n i n a coherent way, the b r o a d s u b j e c t of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n was broken down i n t o f o u r m a j o r e l e m e n t s , and r e c o g n i z e d s p e c i a l i s t s X'jere commissioned to w r i t e a review of each e l e m e n t . The a u t h o r s of t h e s e f o u r component reviews r e c e i v e d the advice and a s s i s t a n c e of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l p a n e l of experts. The revievj are e n t i t l e d Climate and D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , E c o l o g i c a l Change and D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , The Demographic, S o c i a l and B e h a v i o u r a l Aspects of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , and D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Technology. - IV - T h i s Overview s e e k s t o p r o v i d e a " b r i e f - a e e o u n t of t h e main f i n d i n g s of t h e f o u r component r e v i e w s . To do so p r o p e r l y , i t h a s sometimes gone "beyond t h e component r e v i e w s , a s , f o r example, i n making, r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c a s e s t u d i e s and the f e a s i b i l i t y studies,. L i m i t e d i n l e n g t h , , t h e Overview c a n n o t be r e g a r d e d as' a summary of a l l a s p e c t s o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n » ' . ' I t s v i e w p o i n t i s more s p e c i f i c a l l y d i r e c t e d t o showing how t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e Pl^ri o f A c t i o n t o Combat ' D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a s , s u b m i t t e d to. t h e c o n f e r e n c e , emerge d i r e c t l y from t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t l y ^ . a v a i l a b l e and f r o m p a s t e f f o r t s t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , as c a r r i e d o u t i n many p a r t s of t h e w o r l d . In t h e same s e n s e , t h e P l a n of A c t i o n h a s s e r v e d a s t h e f o c a l p o i n t around which a l l p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n f e r e n c e have b e e n o r g a n i z e d . The f o u r component r e v i e w s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Overview, r e p r e s e n t an a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e t h e d e l e g a t e s t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e o n ' D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a more o r g a n i z e d kind of documentation. I t i s t h e hope o f t h e ' C o n f e r e n c e S e c r e t a r i a t t h a t t h e d e l e g a t e s w i l l , f i n d t h i s system,more u s e f u l and c o n v e n i e n t t h a n t h e more c u s t o m a r y pro.c&dure o f p r o v i d i n g an e x t e n d e d , c a t a l o g u e of documents e a c h o f which c o v e r s one m i n i s c u l e a s p e c t , o f t h e s u b j e c t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . - V - T e t l e of C o n t e n t s Page Preface Xll I. The Problem of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n 1 II. P r o c e s s e s of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n 7 III. The Causes of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n 12 IV. D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n Action 18 V. The Human Consequences of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n 39 VI. i f e a s u r e s t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n 43 In Conclusion 62 1 - The Problem of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n I n t h e Sahelj, a s i n o t h e r d r y l a n d s j r a i n f a l l i s s c a n t y and h i g h l y The Sahel - v a r i a b l e . F o r a s long a s h i s t o r y remembersj nomads have p a s t u r e d a region t h e i r h e r d s i n t h e a r i d g r a s s l a n d s t h a t rim t h e s o u t h e r n edge of t h e at risk Sahar-^, d e s e r t | t h e y have seemed s u i t a b l e f o r l i t t l é e l s e , s i n c e only nomadism can t a k e f u l l a d v a n t a g e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r a i n ^ u n r e l i a b l e a s i t i s 5 may f a l l i n one p l a c e and n o t i n another» Yet even so, t h e p a s t o r a l i s t s of t h e S a h e l l i v e u n d e r t h e c o n s t a n t t h r e a t t h a t t h e r a i n s 5 such a s t h e y a r e 5 w i l l f a i l j and t h a t t h e l a n d w i l l be a f f e c t e d by d r o u g h t . Major d r o u g h t s t r u c k t h e S a h e l i n 1913 sxid a g a i n i n 1940= This great drought, 1968-1973 I n 1968 i t happened a g a i n . At Rosso i n w e s t e r n M a u r i t a n i a , which r e c e i v e s an a v e r a g e (l935~72) of 284mm of r a i n a y e a r , only 122mm f e l l i n I 9 6 8 . T h i s seemed a t t h e t i m e t o be a mere q u i r k i n t h e a s y e t u n p r e d i c t a b l e w e a t h e r p a t t e r n s , s i n c e t h e r a i n f a l l r e t u r n e d t o normal i n 1969 w i t h 2951™. But i n 1970, t h e r a i n s f a i l e d a g a i n w i t h a mere 149mm, t h e n a g a i n i n I 9 7 I {l2km) and w o r s t of a l l i n 1972 (54mm). By 1973 t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e S a h e l was c a t a s t r o p h i c . I t provided a s p e c t a c l e of d e a t h , d i s e a s e and m i g r a t i o n t h a t served a s t h e immediate s t i m u l u s f o r t h e 1974 c a l l by t h e United N a t i o n s G e n e r a l Assembly f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g a world conference on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t o váiich a p l a n of action would be s u b m i t t e d . i.'hat had happened t o t h e S a h e l by 19735 t h e f i f t h y e a r of d r o u g h t ? Lake Chad ha^d shrunlc t o o n e - t h i r d i t s normal s i z e . I n t h e p r e c e d i n g w i n t e r , t h e g r e a t íFiger and Senegal r i v e r s had f a i l e d t o f l o o d , l e a v i n g much of t h e b e s t c r o p l a n d i n f i v e c o u n t r i e s ( N i g e r , M a l i , Upper V o l t a , Senegal and M a u r i t a n i a ) cracked and b a r r e n . The w a t e r t a b l e d r o p p e d , d r y i n g up s h a l l o w e r w e l l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e S a h e l ' s f i v e m i l l i o n s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e s and p l a c i n g t h e nomadic p a s t o r a l i s t s i n d e a d l y p e r i l . A f t e r consuming t h e l a s t a c c e s s i b l e s h r e d s of d r i e d - u p v e g e t a t i o n , famished h e r d s were s o l d , s l a u g h t e r e d o r d r i v e n southv/ard i n a f r u i t l e s s s e a r c h f o r p a s t u r e . Behind them was a s t r i p p e d l a n d s c a p e , baking i n t h e s u n , where p a t c h e s of newly-ci-eated d e s e r t seemed t o grov/ and l i n k u p , p r o d u c i n g an i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e g r e a t Sahara d e s e r t was "marching s o u t h w a r d " . Also by 1973» t h e l a s t y e a r of t h e d r o u g h t , a l a r g e programme of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e had been mounted f o r t h e d i s t r e s s e d c o u n t r i e s of t h e Sahelc C o n t r i b u t i o n s , i n c a s h , b u t m a i n l y i n f o o d , by Governments, t h e United N a t i o n s system and p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s approached a v a l u e of $200 m i l l i o n by 1974» T h i s was emergency r e l i e f , p r i m a r i l y i n t e n d e d t o p r e v e n t s t a r v a t i o n . I t could do l i t t l e about t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l b a s e of f i v e c o u n t r i e s ( í í a u r i t a n i a , Upper V o l t a , i % l i , Niger and Chad), a l r e a d y among t h e p o o r e s t n a t i o n s i n t h e w o r l d , and s e v e r e damage t o t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l b a s e of two o t h e r (Senegal and Gambia)» For t h e s e c o u n t r i e s , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of 2 a g r i c u l t u r e meant a l o s s of t h e i r t a x b a s e and a s i t u a t i o n c l o s e to banliruptcy. I n t h e absence of r e l i a ^ b l e s t a t i s t i c s , e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n among nomadic p e o p l e s , i t i s not e a s y t o say how many people- died a s a d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h e drought but e s t i m a t e s have ranged laetween 100,000 and 250,000. That t h e t o l l of d e a t h W3.S n o t h i g h e r could be a t t r i b ^ i t e d only t o t h e r e l i e f programme. .;. • The ,amount of d r o u g h t - i n d u c e d d i s e a s e i s a l s o i m p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e p r e c i s e l y . M a l n u t r i t i o n was r i f e among c h i l d r e n , e s p e c i a l l y among t h e nomads, and o u t b r e a k s of m e a s l e s took on epidemic p r o p o r t i o n s . The l o s s 01 l i v e s t o c k vjas a p p a l l i n g , w i t h e s t i m a t e s r e a c h i n g a s h i g h as 90 p e r c e n t i n M a l i . C l i m a t o l o g i s t s a r e a s k i n g vrhether t h e prolonged drought i n t h e Saliel s i g n i f i e d a l o n g - t e r m c l i m a t i c s h i f t t o more a r i d c o n d i t i o n s i n t h i s immense t e r r i t o r y t h a t s u p p o r t s 25 m i l l i o n p e o p l e . But a r e v i e w of r e c o r d e d c l i m a t i c f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e a r e a h a s led t o a c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e S a h e l i a n d r o u g h t , however s e v e r e and however unexpected i t may have seemed t o t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e S a h e l , must p r o b a b l y b e , r e g a r d e d a s a p r e d i c t a b l e e v e n t u n d e r t h e c l i m a t i c regime t h a t e x i s t e d f o r m e r l y , something t o be e x p e c t e d a t long i n t e r v a l s , p e r h a p s two o r t h r e e t i m e s a c e n t u r y . The g r e a t d r o u g h t i n t h e S a h e l a l s o gave r i s e t o a number of o t h e r q u e s t i o n s . Can such o c c u r r e n c e s be p r e d i c t e d so t h a t p e o p l e can prepare, f o r them? I'.Tiat should be done t o see. p e o p l e t h r o u g h such s u c c e s s i o n s of l e a n yea^rs, i n t h e form b o t h of emergency r e l i e f and long term a c t i o n s ? '.'/ha,t a r e t h e b e s t r e h a b i l i t a t i v e measures t o be a p p l i e d a f t e r such an e v e n t ? These q u e s t i o n s a r e t h e more p e r t i n e n t b e c a u s e t h e Saliel d r o u g h t c o i n c i d e d w i t h r a i n f a l l - , f a i l u r e s , l o s s of c r o p s and l i v e s t o c k , and f a m i n e and d e a t h i n otheri p a r t s of t h e w o r l d s d r y l a n d s , i n c l u d i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y E a s t A f r i c a and t h e d e s e r t s of P ^ c i s t a n and I n d i a . The d r o u g h t h a s ended and f a v o u r a b l e r a i n f a l l s , have retTirned. t o Drought t h e S a h e l s i n c e 1974> b u t a t l e a s t a decade w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o r e s t o c k and t h e p a s t u r e s and a t l e a s t a s long a g a i n b e f o r e t h e ravaged land, r e t u r n s d e s e r t i f i c a - t o something l i k e i t s f o r m e r s t a t e . I t i s t h i s l o n g - t e r m s p r e a d of tion d e s e r t c o n d i t i o n s i n f o r m e r l y more p r o d u c t i v e l a n d s t h a t we c a l l d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , t o d i s t i n g u i s h i t from t h e temporary c l i m a t i c phenomenon of d r o u g h t . D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s f a r from a n o v e l e x p e r i e n c e f o r manlcind. It h a s been a m a j o r . f a c t o r i n t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of human c i v i l i z a t i o n from t h e e a r l i e s t t i m e s . For example because of improper d r a i n a g e , s a l t s c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e l a n d s i r r i g a t e d by t h e SiMierians and Babylonians, thus d e s t r o y i n g , t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r a l productivity. Prolonged and i n t e n s i f y i n g d e s i c c a t i o n of t h e land r u i n e d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l b a s i s of t h e H a r a p p a n s , who had c o n s t r u c t e d , a pre-Aryan c i v i l i z a t i o n i n what i s now P a k i s t a n . The M e d i t e r r a n e a n l i t t o r a l of A f r i c a was c e r t a i n l y more p r o d u c t i v e i n Roman t i m e s t h a n i t i s , t o d a y . 3 I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e a r e a l o s t t o m a n ' s u s e i n t h i s way may be of t h e same o r d e r of magnitude a s t h e t o t a l ajnount of land l e f t i n c r o p s o r p a s t u r e t o d a y . There i s g e n e r a l agreement t h a t t h e r a t e of l o s s of l a n d o r p r o d u c t i v i t y t h r o u g h d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n h a s i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y d u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e s t o t h e o r d e r of almost 50,000 km. squared p e r y e a r and t h a t 30 m i l l i o n Ion squared a r e v u l n e r a b l e t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n a world l i k e l y t o be f a c e d i n c r e a s i n g l y w i t h food s h o r t a g e s . Although d e s e r t s a r e n o t w i t h o u t l i f e ^ t h e y can be viewed a s a r e a s w i t h e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l p o t e n t i a l » There i s a v a r i e t y of d e s e r t t y p e s , h o t and cold5 s t o n y and s a n d y , b u t a l l a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r a i n f a l d e f i c i e n c i e s so marked t h a t c u l t i v a t i o n o r s t o c k - r e a r i n g a r e p o s s i b l e only w i t h s p e c i a l a d a p t a t i o n s . D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a s t h e e x t e n s i o n o r i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of d e s e r t c o n d i t i o n s , d i m i n i s h e s t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e l a n d , and i t i s t h i s which makes i t f u n d a m e n t a l l y a human problem. Desertification a f f e c t s t h e whole g l o b a l community5 f o r example loitered wheat y i e l d s i n t h e d r y l a n d s a f f e c t a l l vrho depend on wheat a s f o o d . But t h e human impact of l o n g - t e i m d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s f a r g r e a t e r on t h e p e o p l e who l i v e where i t i s happening and who depend upon a r i d l a n d s • f o r t h e i r - l i v e l i h o o d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the developing c o u n t r i e s . There d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n can b r i n g poverty, m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e , e r o s i o n of t h e economic b a s e , and t h e f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n of •-- • s o c i a l s e r v i c e s a l r e a d y hampered-by r e m o t e n e s s and t h e u n c e r t a i n t y of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . I t bréales up f a m i l i e s and may wipe out whole c u l t u r e s . I t lovrers r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e impact of s u c c e e d i n g d r o u g h t s , each of which may b r i n g f a m i n e , d e a t h and t h e c o l l a p s e of l i v e l i h o o d s y s t e m s , and each of which i n t u r n t e n d s t o advajice f u r t h e r t h a t d e g r a d a t i o n which i s i m p l i e d i n p r o c e s s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . The wide impact of desertification V u l n e r a b i l i t y t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and t h e s e v e r i t y of i t s impact a r e p a r t l y governed by c l i m a t e , i n t h a t t h e lower and more u n c e r t a i n the rainfall, the greater t h e t h r e a t of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , b u t o t h e r n a t u r a l f a c t o r s a l s o come i r . t o p l a y , such a s t h e s e a s o n a l o c c u r r e n c e of r a i n f a l l , a s between h o t s e a s o n and c o o l s e a s o n , t h e s t r u c t u r e - a n d t e x t u r e of t h e s o i l , t h e t o p o g r a p h y and t h e t y p e s of v e g e t a t i o n t o be f o u n d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , l i a b i l i t y t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n c r e a s e s a s p r e s s u r e s on t h e l a n d i n c r e a s e , a s r e f l e c t e d i n d e n s i t y o f " p o p u l a t i o n o r l i v e s t o c k , o r i n t h e e x t e n t t o which a g r i c u l t u r e i s mechaxLized, Areas r e g a r d e d a s s u b j e c t t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n on t h e s e v a r i o u s grounds a r e shown on t h e World Ifep of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , I t shows t h a t a r e a s a s s e s s e d a s b e i n g a t h i g h o r v e r y h i g h r i s k occupy most of t h e a r i d and s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n s and e x t e n d i n t o a d j a c e n t subhumid z o n e s . fTeglecting t h e extreme d e s e r t s and t h e v e i y c o l d d e s e r t s , which a r e s e v e r e and l i t t l e - u s e d e n v i r o n m e n t s u n l i k e l y t o undergo f u r t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t d e t e r i o r a t i o n , t h e r e remains an area, of p o t e n t i a l l y p r o d u c t i v e b u t t h r e a t e n e d d r y l a n d s c o v e r i n g 30 m i l l i o n s q u a r e k i l o m e t r e s , o r 19 p e r c e n t of t h e e a r t h ' s l a n d s u r f a c e . These o c c u r so w i d e l y t h a t a t l e a s t two t h i r d s of t h e I 5 0 n a t i o n s of t h e world a r e d i r e c t l y a f f e c t p d . Through i t s s h e e r e x t e n t , t h e r e f o r e , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s shovm t o be a g l o b a l problem. 5 - e v e r y o n e w i t h a d e q u a t e f o o d s h e l t e r and c l o t h i n g i s now r e c o g n i z e d a s an irrgent world problem^ one t h a t w i l l i n c r e a s e i n d i f f i c u l t y a s t h e w o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o expand. E f f o r t s t o r e s o l v e t h i s problem w i t h o u t t h e enormous o u t p u t of t h e d r y l a n d s \JOuld b e t i n g e d w i t h t h e most sombre p r o s p e c t s » The world s i m p l y c a n n o t a f f o r d t o abaxidon i t s d r y l a n d s t o d e s e r t i f i c a - t i o n . The d r y l a n d s a l s o s e r v e a s r e s e r v e s s h e l t e r i n g an importeint r a n g e of p l a n t l i f e , i n c l u d i n g t h e g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l from which h a v e been developed many of manlcind's s t a p l e g r a i n s - w h e a t , b a r l e y , sorghum and maize»- The Green R e v o l u t i o n h a s f o c u s e d new a t t e n t i o n on t h e c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s b o t a n i c a l h e r i t a g e , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s a r e s o u r c e which can be u s e d t o k e e p h i g h l y c u l t u r e d s t r a i n s , such a s t h e s o - c a l l e d " m i r a c l e w h e a t " , r e s i s t a n t t o d e s t r u c t i o n by d i s e a s e . As e c o t y p a l r e s e r v e s of a v a r i e t y of i n t e r e s t i n g and u s e f u l n a t u r a l s e t t i n g s , t h e d r y l a n d s c o n s t i t u t e a p r e c i o u s human h e r i t a g e . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e y have come i n c r e a s i n g l y t o s e r v e a s a r e a s t o which p e o p l e go - £tnd where t h e y o f t e n r e m a i n - i n q u e s t of h e a l t h and. r e c r e a t i o n . Land and people already affected But d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s more t h a n a, t h r e a t . A g r e a t many p e o p l e l i v e i n d i y l a n d s t h a t a r e now u n d e r g o i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , and. t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d s are already affected« I t i s d i f f i c u l t to determine how much l a n d i s b e i n g l o s t t o a g r i c u l t u r e a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , b u t t h e r e i s no q u e s t i o n t h a t a g r e a t d e a l of o n c e - p r o d u c t i v e land i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g l o s t t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , l.'idely a c c e p t e d e s t i m a t e s p l a c e t h e a n n u a l l o s s of a r a b l e . l a n d a l o n e a t between f i v e m i l l i o n and seven m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s . T h i s would b e from a l l c a u s e s - road c o n s t r u c t i o n , i n d u s t r y and uxban e x p a n s i o n a s w e l l a s g r a z i n g and cultivation. O t h e r e s t i m a t e s a r e more p e s s i m i s t i c , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e world w i l l l o s e c l o s e t o o n e - t h i r d of i t s a r a b l e l a n d s by t h e end of t h e c e n t u r y i f l o s s e s c o n t i n u e a t t h e p r e s e n t r a t e . Such l o s s e s , of c o u r s e , a r e t a k i n g p l a c e a t a. t i m e v/hen p o p u l a t i o n s a r e growing r a p i d l y , w i t h t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e food r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e human r a c e w i l l r i s e by a t l e a s t o n e - t h i r d , and p r o b a b l y more, by t h e end of t h e c e n t u r y . ' F u r t h e r , i f c u l t i v a b l e land, be v a l u e d a t an a v e r a g e of i j l , 0 0 0 p e r h e c t a r e , t h e n t h e a n n u a l l o s s would amount t o $50 m i l l i o n , a sura f a r - i n e x c e s s of t h e p r e d i c t e d c o s t s of t h e programmes t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . Of coixrse l o s s e s may be i n p a s t u r e valued a t much l e s s t h a n a r a b l e l a n d . But a s t h e d e s e r t e n c r o a c h e s on p a s t u r e on one s i d e , a r a b l e l a n d on t h e o t h e r i s degraded to p a s t u r e , keeping t o t a l l o s s e s c l o s e to the e s t i m a t e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y some of t h i s l a n d h a s a l r e a d y d e t e r i o r a t e d t o t h e extent t h a t f o r a l l . p r a c t i c a l purposes, r e h a b i l i t a t i o n i s economically impossible. - 6 - The n-umbers of p e o p l e i m m e d i a t e l y t h r e a t e n e d , t h e i r g e n e r a l l o c a t i o n and. l i v e l i h o o d s y s t e m s , a r e a s f o l l o w s ; ti\sle 2 ESTIMATES OP POPULATIONS kW LIVELIHOODS KESIDBffi: IN AEEAS RECEÍWLYTOIDERGOINGSEI'EPÜE DESERTIFICATION l / (in thousands) Region Mediterranean Basin Urban Based Total Population 9 820 Animal Based. Agriculture Based 2 995 5 900 60fo . 925 1 320 000 6 850 000 4 361 000 979 17 545 000 414 30 0 7 6 000 Sub-Saharan Africa 16 165 5 072 6 014 7 079 44% A s i a and t h e Pacific 28 482 7 740 14 311 54/0 6 431 19/0 683 13 417 56/0 2 490 39 642 51?i . Americas • 27 fo 24 079 7 78 546 21 21% . 17 Area 12'}í> 22% 1 / As e s t i m a t e d by H. Dregne ( i n c l u d e s b o t h s e v e r e an.d v e r y s e v e r e c a t e g o r i e s ) Of t h e s e 78 m i l l i o n , about a t h i r d , may be i n a p o s i t i o n , b e c a u s e of income o r o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t o a v o i d t h e v/orst consequences of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . T h i s s t i l l l e a v e s about 50 m i l l i o n p e o p l e who a r e i m m e d i a t e l y menaced by m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d s , t h e c o l l a p s e of such s o c i a l s e r v i c e s as h e a l t h c a r e and ed.ucation, and by t h e grim p r o s p e c t of u p r o o t i n g t h e m s e l v e s from e v e r y t h i n g f a m i l i a r and of m i g r a t i n g t o o t h e r a r e a s u s u a l l y i l l - e q u i p p e d t o r e c e i v e them. Urgency of t h e problem T h i s review,,of t h e problem shows t h a t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s more t h a n a g l o b a l t h r e a t t o t h e p e o p l e of t h e d r y l a n d s and t o t h e world community i n g e n e r a l j i t i s an a c t i v e p r o c e s s a l r e a d y d e s t r o y i n g t h e land, and l i v e l i h o o d , of t e n s of m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e . The need f o r a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a l l t h e more u r g e n t b e c a u s e t h e p r o c e s s i s a dynamic one, s e l f - a c c e l e r a t i n g a s i t f e e d s on i t s e l f . With d e l a y , r e h a - b i l i t a t i o n becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y l e n g t h y and e x p e n s i v e , and d e g r a d a t i o n may r e l a t i v e l y r a p i d l y r e a c h a t h r e s h o l d beyond which i t i s i r r e v e r s i b l e i n p r a c t i c a l and economic t e r m s . Fundamental p r e v e n t i v e measures should be i n t r o d u c e d a s soon a s p o s s i b l e i n t h e form of l a n d - u s e p r a c t i c e s which a r e b o t h s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a l l y and e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e , and which p r e v e n t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n from mal-cing i t s f i r s t e n c r o a c h m e n t s . - 7 II P r o c e s s e s of D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Water and energy balances To s e e pi-ecirjoly \-jliat h a p p e n s when d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n o c c u r s , a t t e n t i o n should be focusGocl on tlaat s h a l l o u i n t e r f a c e where s o i l and atraosphei-e meet, and T/hex-e a b a l a n c e must be m a i n t a i n e d between i n c o m i n g and o u t - g o i n g c n e r s ^ and between w a t e r r e c e i v e d and l o s t . When r a i n f a l l s , some of t h e w a t e r i s t a k e n up d i r e c t l y by t h e p l a n t s j s o r j G i n f i l t r a t e s i n t o t h e s o i l , where i t may r e m a i n i n . s t o r a g e , and t h e r e s t e v a p o r a t e s o r r u n e o f f . Some s o i l m o i s t u r e , and t h a t i n t e i - c o p t e d by t h e p l a n t , i s b r e a t h e d back i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e , b;^ t h e p l a n t s i n t r a n s p i r a t i o n , and some of t h e s o i l m o i s t u r e may s e e p i n t o d e e p e r l a y e r s t o c o l l e c t i n underjípround reservoirs or aquifers. The s o i l - a i r i n t e r f a c e a l e o s h a r e s i n a n e n e r g y b a l a n c e a c t i v a t e d by t h e rt^ys cf t h e sun o r t h r o u g h a t m o s p h e r i c h e a t i n g . Some e n e r g y i s r c f l o c t o d back i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e and i n t o s p a c e . Some i s h e l d by t h e s o i l i n s t o r a g e , t h e r e b y warming t h e e a r t h , and i t i s t h i s energy'- and t h a t from t h e sun d i r e c t l ^ r t h a t i s used by t h e p l a n t s t o carr^r o u t t h e p r o c e s s e s of p h o t o e ; T a t h e s i s and g r o w t h . Some of t h e p l a n t s a r e ea,ton by g r a z e r s o r b r o w s e r s , and t h e s e i n t u r n may be e a t e n b^'' co.mivoros^ w i t h a l l a n i m a l s r e t u r n i n g energj/- and m o i s t u r e to the atmosphere i n r e s p i r a t i o n . The e x c r e t a of a n i m a l s , t h e i r decomposing c a r c a s s e s and t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n of p l a n t s s u p p l y t h e s o i l w i t h n u t r i e n t s , most d e n s e l y i n t h e topmost l a y e r s and t i i i n n i n g o u t "below. (These r e l a t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i a g r a m s . ) Adaptation to the arid environment In s-rid s i t u a t i o n s t h e c y c l i n g of w a t e r and enei-gi'' t a k e s on s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e i - i s t i c s b e c a u s e of d e f i c i e n t and v a r i a b l e r a i n f a l l and a b u n d a n t s o l a r enor¡!^ from c l o u d l e s s s k i e s . V e g e t a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y s p a r s e r t h a n i n hui'iiid a r e a , s , p r o v i d e s l e s s covex' t o t h e ground s u r f a c e and r e t u r n s l e s s o r g a n i c m a t t e r t o t h e t o p s o i l . D u r i n g o c c a s i o n a l i n t e n s e r a i n f a l l s nmoff may o c c u r i n s p a t e , and i n t h e l o n g i n t e r v e n i n g Crry s p e l l s t h e s u r f a c e i s p a r c h e d pnd h e a t e d by the poi'jerful sim. D e s p i t e i t s s p a r s i t y however, t h e dr;)'-land v e g e t a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s a f u n d a m e n t a l resoLirce which t r a n s f o r m s s o l a r energy i n t o food and which a l s o p r o t e c t s and s t a b i l i z e s t h e ground s u r f a c e . I t s u r v i v e s by a d a p t i n g t o w a t e r d e f i c i t i n ways which a r e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e y d e t e r m i n e s e a s o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e u s e f u l n e s s of d r y l a n d p a s t u r e s . P a r t of t h e p l a n t p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t s of s h o r t - l i v e d e p h e m e r a l s wlrLch g e r m i n a t e and c o m p l e t e t h e i r l i f e c y c l e r a p i d l y a f t e r r a i n , r e m a i n i n g a s seed t h r o i i g h i n t e r v e n i n g d r y p e r i o d s . Such p l a n t s a r e commonly f l e s h y and p a l a t a b l e and a r e p r e f e r r e d by g r a z i n g a n i m a l s . O t h e r p l a n t s , s u c h a s p e r e n n i a l g r a s s e s , w i t h e r and d i e b a c k t o t h e r o c t s t o c k i n d r y s p e l l s and s h o o t anew w i t h f r e s h r a i n s . These p l a n t s form moi'e dLirable p a s t u r e s and a r e p . t t r e x t i v e and p a l a t a b l e f o r s t o c k when g r e e n , and may p r o v i d e va.luablo h a y , Soil Surface e f t , e n e r g y on t h e r i g h t . The d i a g r a m r e f e r s t e r e x c h a n g e s a r e on t h e s u r f a ce-whose temperature a partly vegetated (for radiative Most n a t u r a l s u r f a c e s i n d r y 3 convective forcing) is ve e x t e n s i v e a r e a s of bare s o i l , as.shown, P, a very intermittent p u t . The w a t e r r e a c h i n g tl e s u r f a c e may p e r c o l a t e , N q , o r r u n - o f f 5 surface, The lyer, of depth z , s t o r e s w a t e r - soil m a i n i n g r a i n f a l l may o u t f .ow l a t e r a l l y , t e r . With h i g h w a t e r r an-on. v e r s e , so t h a t t h e r e i s t h e r e i s no change i n the Ng, o r p e r c o l a t e t o t a b L s on s l o p i n g s i t e s , at typically p r e c i p i t a •ion when w e t . I f s t o r a g e i s f u l l , o r d e r 10 cm o f In t h i s case the convective fluxes force the net ground NQ, Ng and Ng may all and n o n e t s y n t h e s i s , evapotrans- R - 1(1-a) tending to rise hadow-casting) plus f o cced b y g l o b a l s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , d i f f u S 'e , a f r a c t i o n (a, the albedo) I, direct of which The s u r f a c e t e n ^ i e r a t u r e i s m a i n l y a f u n c t i o n o f sorfjed s o l a r radiati«pn ceived from t h e constant t c ^ O . a S i n sandy d e s e r t s in general r a i s e s (Oguntoyinbo, 1974). (usually >0.9), a i s = 1 ( 1 - a)-R,P + Rft. inual t e m p e r a t u r e a n d T q i s s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e . -R>r + R^ i s A s i a l l p a r t o f R, GQ, i s conducted t o the = 0, a n d Gg i s n e g l i g i b l e . l a l l y v a n i s h e s o v e r t h e yt a r . The r e m a i n i n g h e a t , c t i v e f l u x e s , H of is I f l e v e l z i s t h e depth a t which t h e r e i s cycle, < the h e a t . a n d LE o f l a t e n t h e a t . soil. Hence Gq v i r - R - Gq, f e e d s c o n I f T^, < Ta ( a i r temp- vegetation t h e a l b e d o , cis d o e s d r y i n g t h e s u r f a c e . A b s o r b e d solar ^ d . h e n c e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e TQ, a r e f t i n c t i o n s o f a , a s n e t longwave c o o l i n g (R;^ - Rp) , t h e s o i l h e a t f l u x GQ, t h e Hence c h a n g e s i n a l b e d o d r a s t i c a l l y are convective Ph. a l t e r t h e e n t i r e energy and w a t e r balances. use of vehicles, drought c o n t r a c t i o n or pan formation decrease the i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e , and h e n c e i n c r e a s e N^ a t t h e e x p e n s e o f N^, s o i n c r e a s i n g t h e c h a n c e o f s h e e t e r o s i o n a n d g u l l y i n g . They a l s o a l t e r t h e t h e r m a l a n d h e n c e G^. ecological no storage, vegetation Degradation of I n c r e a s e s i n s o i l c o m p a c t i o n due t o o v e r s t o c k i n g , radiation e n e t l o n g w a v e h e a t i n g , ' e n e r a l l y n e g a t i v e . The n e t r a d i a t i o n lere i t may b e s t o r e d . the R;^, a n d i n f r a r e d i s e m i t t e d f r o m p l a n t s where £ i s t h e e m i s s i v i t y d soil, efan-Boltzmann I ( 1 - a) . T h e r e i s d i f f u s e i n f r a r e d atmosphene is net f r o m v a l u e s n e a r 0 . 1 7 i n f r e s h g r e e n savcmna f l u x e s o f h e a t a n d l a t e n t h e a t , H + LE, and n e t p h o t o s y n t h e s i s , é e n e r g y exchcinges a r e radiation, - Rrp + R;^ - Gq = H + I E . N o t e t h a t a , t h e a l b e d o , i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e s t a t e o f t h e T o t a l w a t e r s u r p l u s N = NQ + NQ + N^. r a d i a t i o n , s t r a g e , P = N + E, where E i s t h e (dew g e n e r a l l y 2 o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e s m a l l e r t h a n R ( s e e com- p o n e n t r e v i e w on e c o l o g i c a l c h a n g e ) . I f t h e r e i s no c h a n g e i n and s o i l , ration. fleeted, al. formation). t h o u g h s m a l l , and LE may a l s o b e n e g a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n t h e r e v e r s e - t h e t y p i c a l n o c t u r n a l c o n d i t i o n . Ph i s t h e photosynthesis, f o r ;r e d b y p r e c i p i t a t i o n , B water exchanges are emission climates erature) , H is negative, x• n conductivity, T h e s e p r o c e s s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e component r e v i e w on change. TQ i s low b y day when t h e s o i l i s m o i s t , and h i g h e r when i t i s d r y - by 20 t o 30C i n t r o p i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . With m o i s t s o i l and low s u r f a c e t e m p erature, 0.10. R is large, and t h e Bowen r a t i o H/LE i s v e r y low - of W i t h d r y s o i l and h i g h s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e , Bowen r a t i o r i s e s t o v e r v h i a h valnPR. R i s lower, order and t h e _ 9 - b u t a r e of l i ' b t l e p a s t o r a l "/alue uhen t h o r o u g h l y d r i e d o-at. N e v e r t h e l e c s t h e i r e x t e n s i v e f i n e r o o t s y s t e m s r e m a i n t o "bind t h e t o p s o i l and c o n t r i b u t e i m p o r t a n t l y t o i t s o r g a n i c food a t o r e . Lastly, t h e r e a r e t h e l o n g e r - l i v e d p e r e n n i a l p l a n t s which r e s i s t \ ; a t e r l o s s by a d a p t a t i o n s cu.ch a s voody stems and l e a t h e r y l e a v e s » These n a t u r a l l y i n c l u d e t h e l a r g e r p l a n t s s u c h a s s h r u b s .and t r e e s . They a r e o f t e n n u t r i t i o u s and p r o v i d e an i m p o r t a n t food s o u r c e t o b r o w s i n g a n i m a l s dixring t h e dry p e r i o d s , a l t h o u g h t h e i r a d a p t a t i o n s may r e d u c e t h e i r p a l a t a b i l i t y and a t t r a c t i v e n e s s f o r some stoclc, and t h e y have t h e a d d i t i o n a l sjid e s s e n t i a l r o l e of p r o t e c t i n g t h e grotmd s u r f a c e and p r e s e r v i n g an e n v i r o n m e n t which f a v o u r s t h e r e s p o n s e of i r n o r t n j i t s h o r t e r - l i v e d p l a n t s . It i s this function t h a t i s t h r e a t e n e d when d e s e r t p a s t u r e s must s u p p o r t l a r g e s t o c k numbers d u r i n g urou.ght. Impact of land use on e q u i l ibriiim on diyland ecosystems Drought a s an e n g i n e of desert". ification Under n a t u r ? J c o n d i t i o n s and t l i r o u g h a p p r o p r i a t e s t r r / f c e g i e s , t h e d r y l a n d ecosystoras m a i n t a i n a balaaiced e:cchange of w a t e r and e n e r g y , b u t t h i s o f ^ u i l i b r i r i j i s r e a d i l y d l s t u r b e d by m a n ' s use of t h e lc?Jid. P o r example where meagre v e g e t a t i o n i s f u r t h e r reduced t o e::p0E0 t h e ground s u r f a c e 5 r a i n f a l l i n g d i r e c t l y on t h e s o i l may f o r n a t h i n c r u s t which p r e v e n t s w a t e r fx"oa sinld-ng- As t h e v;atei- b u d g e t d e t e r i o r a t e s i n t h e s o i l beneoA'h, t h e l e v e l of groimd^jater i n n e a r b y w e l l s may f a l l » The w a t e r l o s t t o t h e s o i l s t o r e now c o n t r i b u t e s t o o v e r - r a p i d r m a o f f , and where t h e s u r f a c e i s l o o s e o r d i s t u r b e d t h e topmost c o i l l a . y e r j t h a t ^;ith t h e b e s t s t r u c t u r e and c o n t a i n i n g t h e b u l k of p l a n t food5, may be washed aviay^ o r blown <away i n d u s t s t o r m s . The doinudod s o i l i s i n c r e a s i n g l y exposed t o t h e d i r c c t r a y s of t h e Sim and i t s r e f l e c t i v i t y may i n c r e a s e ; w i t h s t r o n g h e a t i n g a t t h e s o i l - a i r i n t e r f a c e . A l l t h e s e changes c o n s t i t u t e a clia/nge t o w a r d s a, raoro h o s t i l e en\'li'on3:nent• foi- p l a n t s , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e v e g e t a t i o n recr)onds l e s s w e l l t o r a i n s rnd p r o d u c e s l e s o nourishiíientJ r.nd nr^iy j j l a n t s T;Í11 t e n d t o d i e o f f a t a.n i n c r e a s i n g l y e a r l y st?,ge of d r o u g h t . Such changec c o n s t i t u t e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . I n itc i n i t i a l e t a g e s , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n may m e r e l y i n v o l v e a s l i i f t t o a more d c s c r t - l i l c e and l e s s p r o d u c t i v e e c o s y s t e m , t ; i t h w a t e r and energy b a l c j i c e s l e s s f a v o u r a b l e t o p l a n t growth t h a n b e f o r e . But l a n d u s e i n a r i d r e g i o n s p o s e s problems ^.'IrLch c o n t i n u a l l y menace t h e prevailing equilibrium, T M s i s pi-ira?.rily b e c a u s e of f l i i c t u a t i o n s i n r a i n f a l l bGt\;cen d r o u g h t and abundance w h i c h , n o t yet p r e d i c t a b l e , a r e d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e la,nd i i s e r t o respond t o e f f e c t i v e l y . ? o r example, i n d r y l a n d p a s t o r a J economies, l a r g o numbers of s t o c k tend t o b u i l d u p d u r i n g r u n s of good y e a r s , f a r t o o many t o be s u p p o r t e d t h r o u g h t h e i n e v i t a b l y e n s u i n g d r o u g h t . T h e r e i s a n a t u r a l r e l u c t a n c e t o c u t back on s t o c k numbers i n t h e f i r s t d i y y e a r , and a t e n d e n c y t o ha,ng on u n t i l d r o u g h t i s seen t o be established, But by t h i s time d r y l a n d p a s t u r e s a r e p r o b a b l y b e i n g ravaged by o v e r g r c , z i n g beyond hope of c o m p l e t e r e g e n e r a t i o n , w h i l e t h e l a s t s h r e d s of p l s j i t c o v e r a r e b e i n g t r a m p l e d t o d e a t h and t h e s o i l p u l v e r i s e d and r e n d e r e d v u l n e r a b l e t o wind e r o s i o n i n n i n i - d e s e r t s around w a t e r i n g p o i n t s o r w h e r e v e r s t o c k c o n g r e g a t e » By t i i i s time too^ - 10 - prices for Giiinjlurj stock vjill probaoly liave slirimlc and destocldng through s<alG of surplus numbers uill be opposed by econoaic forcGS, The untia,ntod rjolu.tion, death of livestock, may becomc inoyitable. Thu.s the dolc^ycd reeponce of the land user through cyclos of good ajid bad rainfall ijay convert periodic drought into a true engine of long-term dccei-tiiication. The laain "oroeesses and sta,ges of desertification can be summarised as follovjE, Initially, and especially in dr;^-- periods, there is a deterioration in the coraposition of desert pastures subject to e-cescive grazing, pc?.rticularly a reduction in the proportion of edible perennial plants and an increase in the proportion of inedible invaders usually \;ith less resistance to drought. The thinning and death of vegetation in dry ses-sons increases tlie ertent of bare groimd, and this is followed in tu.rn by a deterioration in the soil-surface conditions vital to plant growth, particulcMi-ly a.n irapoverisliment of plant-water relations. The response of ophci-iGr3.1s to rain suffers accordingly. I'ith consequent increase in nmoff, sheet and gTilly erosion set in on sloping grromid, and the topsoil and its organic store a.re lost. All those changes mean a decrease in produ.ctivity5 palata,bility and dimabili'cy of the native pastures. 1/ith continuing erosion, formerly productive Isjids ma;'" be lost through soil stripping <and gully extension, or through siltation in Vt?i.lley bottoms. These changes are even moro drastic where devegotation occurs in strategic areas, as on v.'atershed uplands, and the processes are naturally advanced where soils a.re exposed and disturbed in dryl.?»nd cultivation. Wind and ^.-ator erosion work together, as stripped surfaces ajid redeposited silt a,re increasingly liable to wind transport. The finer soil particles, including orgs^nic plant food, are blo\ai away as dust, and the cocirser fragments a,re drifted along as sand, wMch may accumulate into dunes, loca,lly helped where shrubs trap the moving sand. íTot only are siiifting sands sterile and difficult to colonize by plants, but as advancing dunes they may overrun and destroy valucabloj jiearby cropla,nd. Is soils dr;'' out with desertification, soluble salts are no longer so readily lea,ched sj.tay and may concentrate near the stirface through evaporation. Salinization and alkalinization of soils may eventually errclude all but worthless vegetation and advo,nce the process of erosion by Cc?.using the soil to c r a c k and crui'uble. This desertification i^henomenon is naturally most developed, and most costly in its consequences, on poorly drained irrigated lands, where salts introduced by irrigation cannot be leached from the soils. Desertification feeds on itself Desertification tends to be self-reinforcing, to feed on itself, as soils denuded of plajit cover are stripped to impez-vious, sterile horizons or powdered to fine dust. Biologica,! degradation is followed by accelerated pli^rsical erosion by wind and water. Comparatively e.asy to deaj with in its initia-l stages, desertifica,tion becomes incre<?,singly difficult to treat as the process adva,nces, - 11 - with the costs of x-eclamation rising eirponentially, i.mtil the stark equi-libriiur, of extreme desert is reached and the lend ha,s for all prs.cticr.1 purposes passoc "ooj^ond hope of reha/oilitation. The advance of desertification The spc?/cial diwonsion of such changes can be seen in a progressive orrtcnsion of desert landf;, as subhumid arcac taka on a semi-arid character and semi-arid ecosj^ctems deterioi-atc to arid statMS. In ooncidering the a.rea luider threat^ we muct thei-eforc include tho subhimid margins of the deserts, as \'3ell the soui-arid and arid regions. Only the hyperarid areas of extreme dcrjcrt nay be considered beyond care; elseuherop combo/bive measures are ca,lled for to halt and jrovcrsc the processes of desertificationj and conservationoJ- management of the land to maintain productivity. The advance of desertification ;:hould only rarely be tlioiight of in such theatrical iiaages as dmioo ad^^ancing over productive soil. It is usually a more insidiou.G. and irreg^ilar progress; r^id for tkat reason more difficult to come to gripe i;ith„ It seems to attack on all sidcrjp -Jith careas of degraded vegetation or denuded coil developing here ojid there, far in ad/cjice of any nebiilous 'front lino' This is becauso arid lands are patchi.'orks of small environments of differing vulnerability to desertification as determined by local topograpliyj soil and microclimate, and it is the more "vulnerable pieces th^at first succumb. Is desertification proceeds, the denuded pa.tchos may lijilc up and the desert extends, but more like a skin disease th?.n as a v;ave-like front. - 12 - "HI ' > . The Causes of Desertification Desertification is a prohlem of interaction "betiveen a difficult . and unreliable dryland environment and the impact of.man's use ^ d occupation of it in.his efforts to make a living. Some understanding of the controls of drji-land climates helps towards an appreciation of climatic factors in desertification. The' desert Although their boundaries have shifted over time, deserts must belts alx^rays have characterized the earth's subtropical zones. Global patterns of air' circulation dictate that the subtropics are regions of subsiding air. . Vihen air subsides it warms up and its capacity to hold moisture incres,ses, so inhibiting the fonnation of rain. This accounts for a prevalence of dry climates betireen latitudes I5. and 25 degrees north and south of the equator. However the dry climates are extended and their patterns complicated by additional factors, su.ch as distance from the rain-supplying oceans or moujitain barriers xihich spill air doxraxrard on their lee sides, creating rain shadows. The play of these factors is evident in the distribution of deserts as shown on the ¥orld Desertification Map. There are five main desert belts; (l)'the Sonoran Desert of northwestern Mexico and its continuation in the desert basins of the southwestern United States; (2) the Atacama desert, a thin coastal strip running west of the Andes from southern Ecuador to central Chile, whence dry climates extend eastx/ards into Patagoniai (3) a vast belt running from the Atlantic Ocean to China and including the Sahara, the Arabian desert, the deserts of Iran and the USSR, the Rajasthan desert of Pakistan and India, and the Talila-Malian and Gobi deserts in China and Mongolia, (4) the Kalahari and its surrounding deserts in southern Africa, (5) most of the continent of Australia. Outside these principal desert regions there are isolated patches of very dry lands in many parts of the world, such as the Guajira Peninsula in Colombia, southwestern Madagascar and part of northeastern Brazil. V/ithin the desert belts there are many climatic contrasts resulting from differences in temperature, from season when rain "alls (if any) and from ;.egree of aridity. At one extreme are the intensely cold deserts such as those of Siberia or the Tibetan plateau, where occupation is precluded by low temperatures and where the environmental degradation is accordingly small. On the other are hot deserts such as the inner Sahara, where plant growth and land use are absent because of hjrperaridity. These extreme deserts do not concern us - they are not subject to further desertification - and they remain unclassified, in neutral grey on the ¥orld Desertification ííap. More extensive than the extreme deserts are the world's arid lands, those with up to 200 mm of rain falling annually in definite seasons, with sufficient vegetation to support extensive pastoralism, although necessarily on a nomadic basis in the drier parts. Outside these are the semiarid lands, with as much as 6OO mm of rain, depending on temperattire ajid season, where cu.ltivation of drought-resistant crops - 13 - is generally possible vdtli the use of moisiTire-conserving: practices. Finally, on the greener margins of the dryland belts are the drier parts of the subhumid zones, where land use and settlement become more intensive, but which must be considered as ultimately threatened if desert conditions are peraitted to extend» Altogether the xisable :drylands occupy 45.6 million square kilometres, or 30 per cent of the world's land area» It is here, where desertification is talcing place, that its causes must be sought. Shifting Despite figiires on areas, it is evident that the boundaries of the limits of dryland belts are not fixed eternally on the map. Much, of the Sahel dryland for example consists of old sand ridges, now quite fossil under cover climates of vegetation, which indicate a former extension southwajrds of Saharan climates and moving sands, some ^00 1cm beyond, their present limit, about 20,000 years ago. In the same region, Lake Chad was much.more extensive 10,000 years ago, indicating semiarid or subhumid conditions in what is no\f ai'id. These climatic changes ha.ve been slioxm to be part of global shifts of the climate belts, relating to changes in the earthis atmospheric circulation. They are linlced to the gxeat changes of the Ice Age and of subsequent millenia, during which temperature shifts are Icnoim to have been accompanied by changes in rainfall patterns. Such changes, with durations of several centuries, have continued and have directly affected the possibilities of man's occupance and use of the drylands in the past. Por instance much of the presently hypera,rid Sahara was open to pastoralists and hunters under semiarid • conditions about 8,000 years ago» Unfortunately the definite records of later changes are mainly from higher latitudes and give temperatures rather than rainfall| from I 6 O O to 1850 for example those latitudes in the northern h<:ai.sphere underrrent a cooling Icnovrn as 'The Little Ice Age', then followed a warming x/hich continued into the 1940's, since when temperatures have again declined. It is being suggested that this cooling may marl: the resumption of another 'Little Ice Age' in the north. Climatic From this arises the question; "Do recent droughts in the Saiiel . change as and elsewhere form part of a change to a more arid clinate, expressed a cause as an equatorv/ard shift in the limit of the dryland belt?" Those of desert- replying j^-es vrould note that over the same period deficiency of rainfall ification in the drylands was compensated by greater rainfall in the wet equ.atorial belt. The consequences would be that the dryland inhabitants would face a long period of increased aridity in their part of the world following a century or more of relatively favourable climate. It would imply that man might be a vijrb^ of recently accelerated desertification rather than its active ageirt. Clearly the answer to the qu.estion has great significance for strategies to combat desertifica.tion. 14 - Unfor-t7an8.tely the question cannot be answered vitli confidence because the events are too recent to serve as a. basis for prediction, particularly with our present inadequate understanding of the global mechanisms of atmospheric circulation. The latest Sahelian drought was far from unprecedented, even in the relatively short historical record, and it cannot alone form evidence of a change of climate. At the same time, it would be unwise to rule out the possibility of change, and the conseqLiences of chan-^e should be looked at, particularly in areas of strong rainfall gradient such as the Sahel. It would certainly mea,n that droughts would become more frequent and more severe, and the.t plans for land management should talce into account the possibilitj'- of an even more rigorous climate in the future. Man made climatic changé Linlced with this postulated skiing to increased aridity is the suggestion that man himself may have contributed to such changes through modifications in the energy exchange that have followed man's degradation of desert ecosystems. These modifications include an increase of dust in the upper atmosphere, noted particularly in association with the recent African and Asian droughts, and the increased reflection of solar energy from denuded dryland surfaces. It has been argued that these factors have contributed to a lowering of temperatures above dryland surfaces and diminished convection in the atmosphere, with an ensuing rediiction in the frequency of rainstorms. At this time, however, the direction in which these factors move remains in doubt. It may be realistic to grant that man has accentue^ted climatic stresses but it is most unlikely that the factors named have been prime causes of any general deterioration of drjdand climates, v^hich are, after all expressions of fundamental patterns in the circulation of the atmosphere. It is also probable that the direct physical consequences of the man-made changes, such as the adverse effects of surface denudation on the local water balance, are many times more important than any indirect climatic effects. Climatic fluctuation contribute to desertification Climatic boundaries in the drylands are also subject to shorter-term shifts, corresponding to sequences of lean years and fat years. In general, the drier the climate, the greater the rainfall variability and the higher the drought risk. Such fluctuations are expressed in expansions and contractions of the dryland belts, such that a semiarid region may experience arid conditions at one time and subhumid conditions at another. These fluctuations, although not so regular as to be predictable, may nevertheless be classed as short-period, say two to four years, which merely introduce periodic, stress into livelihood systems, and those of greater amplitude and duration which lead to significant changes in the patterns and structure of land use, such as extensions of cultivation or large build-ups in stock numbers. These changes can - 15 - result in a potential imlsalance which may not he promptly adjus'ted when drought inevitably follows. It is at such timesj xihen dryland ecosystems are stretched to the limit of their resilience hy vrater deficiency, that the pressure of unhalanced land use can be disastrous. Recovery from such degradation will be slow» If land use pressures continue unabated recovery may be partial only^ to a lower plane of productivity than formerly. Desertification will then have occurred» Fragility Desertification may proceed relatively rapidly in dryland ecosystems of dryland because of• their fragility vmder land-use pressure. They generally ecosystems support only scanty amounts of plant ajid animal life, and because life is thinly spread, the soils are poor in organic nutrients, usually found only in the thin topmost layers. Thinly buffered by a skimpy plant cover, the soil is exposed io erosion which removes nutrients and results in structural deterioration. Lack of leaching and strong evaporation leave unwanted salts on the surface. All this creates ecosystems delicately balanced on the furthest edge of biological possibility, particularly during drought. Their necessary adaptation to water stress restricts dryland ecosystems to a limited range of response and hampers their flexibility. Life forms are limited in variety and highly specialized, and when one species is eliminated there may be nothing to replace it. Such systems have little slack as it were, and their recuperative processes are slow. They are especially vulnerable to the impact of land use. Misuse of drylands Any use of drylands that does not take account of this fragility and of their extreme variability in biological production will constitute misuse. This variability demands a flexibility and promptness to react which desert livelihood systems Imve rarely shoim, a response which is, indeed, very difficult to carry out in the absence of long-range weather forecasting. The situation is complicated by overoptimistic assessments, often made on the basis of remembered best years, of the potential of the land for sustained production. Excess optimism often results from pressures to vrhich arid-land agriculturalists are increasingly subjected from population growth, from distant commercial markets, i^om their ov/n rising expectations. Frequently, too, there is a failure to appreciate the relation between these particular environments and their use. Herdsmen, for example, tend to see their ultimate resource, their vrealth, in their breeding flocks or herds rather than in the land and vegetation that support them. Pastoralists often herd several kinds of animals, each capable of profiting from different portions of the ecosystem, just as dryland cultivators have tended to plant a mixed crop. Out of the push towards maximum output and toward the environmental limits of land use, the - 16 - current trend is toward specialization, which fails to spread the risk and lessens flexibility, . This is particularly so under the impact of commercial remching and farming, ?lexiDÍlity may also be hindered by inequitable systems of land omership and land tenure» Techniques such as deep ploughing or cleaxi tilling have on occasion been introduced into dryland 9,griculture even though they are unsuitable therr , Projects have sometimes been undertake"' without full regard for the tenuous equilibrium of these ecosystems. ií'or instance, deep tube wells introduced into pastoral areas have indeed improved the availability of water but at the same time have had the effect of increasing herd size while decreasing herd mobility, leading to local overgrazing and excessive trampling of the soil. Technological changes can give rise to desertification through increased, even excessive demands on limited natural resources. The misuse of arid lands is by no means restricted to inappropriate agricultural practices. Modern man is threading the arid lands with roads and highxiraysi he is exploring them for mineral resources, opening mines, s.inlcing oil wells, constructing pipelines and canals, establishing factories, and building cities in them. Increasingly, he is intruding into arid lands for pxirposes of health and recreation. These activities are seldom undertalcen with full understanding of or proper regard for the delicate natural balances that prevail there. Many such activities have been made possible by advanced technology, but it is this same ever-growing technological capacity that so enhances man's ability to disrupt and damage a sensitive environment. All such activities must take full account of the fact that the drylands reach to the edge of biological possibility. Generally impoverished soils^ scanty amounts of life and tenuous biological linkages among the life forms that do exist there make the drylands critical areas, their condition becoming ever more critical as aridity Rapidity increases. In such situations, very small changes can trigger of feedprofound effects.. V/here the equilibrium is delicate, even a small backs in change in one component will,radiate effects through the entire dryland ecosystem. Drylands are extremely sensitive to tiny changes in their situations water and energy balances, Changes brought on by seemingly minor events can follow with startling rapidity, sometimes suffijcient to throw the system beyond the critical threshold whence recovery TÍÍII not naturally occur. It might be objected that the drylands, wv-íÁ their highly variable rainfall and periodic drought, are continual!//'subjected to extreme conditions, and the question arises, how dp^their life forms persist at all? It has been shown how plant life iu'W-id lands is naturally adapted to such circumstances, Animal's in arid lands are characterized by similar adaptations and often by great mobility. "Vflaes rain returns after a drought, the water store is replenished in the soil, the - 17 - vegetation recovers and the animals wander "back. The extent and rate of restoration are a measure of the resilience of the ecosystems. All drylands exhibit ecosystems with natural resilience, although the process of natural restoration is sometimes very slow. If left alone, they id.ll almost always retiirn to what they were. Pull restoration will not tsike place if an area is undergoing climatic change in the direction of greater aridity. But climatic change takes place at a tempo which allows time for human adaptation. Desertificaptions a product of the interaction between man aJ^d a difficult environment More commonly5, failure in resilience ar-ises from severe disturbance and such disturbances5, in the present world, are almost always the work of man. Human áctivities may have less disastrous impact in more flexible environments, where a greater richness of land and life forms aids the process of restoration. Lands on the margin of life lack these resources. Disturbances there can easily become permanently destructive5 as evidenced by desertification, If man is the chief instrument of desertification, the process should not be viewed exclusively from the human side. Desertification results from the interaction between man and a difficult ajid changing environment. It occurs when man penetrates such environments and acts , there without an understanding of or proper regard for their sensitivities and limitations. - 18 IV ^Desertification in Action Desertification and livelihood systems The interaction between man and a difficult environment - since that is the main engine of desertification - can well "be examined in terms of what man does in the drylands, how he -wrests a living from this envirc .iment, as difficult as . b is. Dryland agriculture talíes three main forms; pastoralism or the herding of livestock, rain-fed agriculture, and irrigation agricultxire. All these systems have evolved strategies and traditional skills to cope with the stresses and risks imposed by dryland environments. Such tested practices should not be lightly dismissed; indeed, they should, be regarded as a basis for further development. Yet it cannot be said that any such practices have been so selfregulating or so far-seeing that they have incurred no cost to the environment. Desertification has accompanied all of them although its effects may, have been less destructive in the past. The accelerated desertification of recent years may in part be attributed to breakdowns in traditional practices. The old ways have come under intense pressures which have eroded ancient social, economic and-political constraints. Such pressures have come from population growth, the integration of the drylands into money economies, aspirations toward higher standards of living, the introduction of technological innovations and the incorporation of dryland agriculture into often remote commercial systems, into marketing systems where prices fluctuate. Dryland pastoral systems General aspects The extensive pastoral systems characteristic of the darylands use grazing or browsing animals to harvest a thin crop of natural vegetation. In semi-arid lands, stock raising is increasingly integrated with crop production. In arid regions, beyond the reach of the farm, pastoralism is dominant, and here the herdsman is subject to the extremes of climatic hazard. Herdsmen have found many ways of coping with the climatic stress that typifies arid zones. Ordinarily, they spread their stock thinly over large areas so that grazing pressure is lightened and they can take advantage of the patchwork ecosystems of arid lands. They are liighly mobile, often traversing great distances to reach seasonal pastures. They usually employ some measures to modify the ecosystems in xíhich they function. They will limit the size of their herds, if necessary by selling off surplus animals. They líill exercise some control of pastures by deferred or rotational grazing or by spelling certain rangelands to allow them to accumulate moisture over several years. They will develop additional watering points, extending the area and duration of grazing and diluting the pressure on older pastiires. They sometimes burn pastures to facilitate the growth of more palatable plants. Sometimes, too, they will provide supplementary feed by cutting hay or growing forage crops under irrigation. - 19 - Some herdsmen have access to alternative sources of income. They might engage in hunting and gathering;, or perhaps commercej a natural' adjunct to their mobility. They sometimes develop handicraft industries. Pastoral systems can range from traditional subsistence, systems, often nomadic, through more sedentary systems closely linked with cropp. _ig, to the great 'commer, ial ranches which lainly serve a.s exporters from tl:o-arid conci.-. All tend to have^ linlcs with the ou Ljide where the chief markets are to be found - for hides j- wool and stock on the hoof. In the more commerciaJ pastoral systems, stock i-rill be bred in the arid zones and fattened in ¿tree-s closer to the market. As breeding areas, arid zones have certain advantages, such as freedom from disease, long outdoor range periods and high protein levels in pastures. •For all its hard-won skxlls, pasto:.?alism frequently betrays failures of perspective. Identification of the'breeding stock, rather than the land and its vegetation, as the u?.tirQate resource leads to a poor understanding of the ecology of the plant communities on \íhich the stock feed. Comparatively little attention maj^- be paid to the performance of -pastures under stress, "co the rciiuir3m:ents for successful germination or to the impact of sel.ective grazing:on the. whole plant community, Kor do pastoralists always appreciate the difference bet\reen average stocking rates- and what happens wheT->e animtils cluster together', as around watering points or settlejnents» Concentrated grazing and excessive trampling vrill focus de^'xadation on'such spotá, Pastoralist systems are generally afflicted with what might be called a time-lag problem. ticreased'stock numbers built up in favourable years persist into drougVt, and c o n v e r s e l j , ' - , herds reduced by dry years will confront the rcttirn of better grazing with numbers too scanty to take full advantage of it. The l^ind of flexibility that vrould malee a fully opportun.iotic use of the l£i,nd is difficxilt to introduce into stable pastoral syE'tems. Huch misapprehensions an-"' difficulties mear ths.t pastoral lands exhibit a full range of deseroification, acivanccd v;here' pressures on the land are concentratéd, less in tho more remote and least attractive sections. Mien'deterioration comes to graaing l?rd, it is particularly important .to-observe its first :Gtages in vej-utation, no!; only because plants are the basic grazing resor.rce but also because of the part they play in the stability of dryland ecocystem. • First to be constimed are the more desirable plant species leaving the terrain to less desirable invaders. During drought stress when they constitute the oiily feed, vailiable, soil- holding perennials can bo grazed to extinction. Invasions by ;-.:ercphytes are a sign of increasing salinization,. The exposxire of over ¡¿ore bare ground diminishes the response of greer». feed following the rain and hinders the return of desired perennials. Stripped earth becomes particularly noticeable around concentration points-, such as watering places, \;here trampling is Severe, • - 20 - Nomadic Stoclc-herding nomads have found ways of using land too arid for any pastoralism other agricultural purpose. ¥ith a diet obtained from their herds and supplemented by food gathering, xíandering pastoralists have achieved standards of health and nutrition often superior to their more sedentary neighbours. • It is, of course, mobility that provides the nomad with his principal weapon against a harsh environment. His wanderings may be continuous, or he may move back and forth between, fixed^'seasonal pastures. Flocks and herds are generally oimed by families, but other resources pasture, watering places, fuel - are often communal and their use regulated by custom. Almost all nomadic pastoralists have mutually beneficial relationships with the farmers on their periphery. Such links may include nomadic ownership of cropland, provision of seasonal laboixr to oasis settlements and the right to graze stubble in exchange for the manure naturally dropped by grazing animals. If the resiliency of nomadic pastoralism resides principally in mobility, which spreads pressure on the land and dilutes risk, the system also contains other important adjustments. Nomads often herd a variety of animals, each species capable of exploiting a different portion of these mixed environments. They may do some rain-fed cropping on the edge of.the migratory range. As stated, they may supplement their diet by hunting and gathering, and they may have beneficial relations with adjacent farmers. As an adjunct to mobility, they may play a role in transportation in desert areas and its associated commerce. They may earn income through handicrafts. Finally, some of their numbers may emigrate to outside employment, whence they remit funds home. Yet for all its resilience, pastoral nomadism has not avoided all damage to its environment. If its impact- has been less in the past, there is still evidence, as in the Bible and elsewhere, that damage has occurred in ancient as well as modern times. Increasingly over the past fifty to one hundred years, pastoral nomadism has found itself at bay. The political status of the nomads had declined, and with it, their control of grazing rights, their relations vis-a-vis adjacent crop-based systems, and their role in desert transport and commerce. Their essential mobility has come into disfavour for political and administrative reasons, and has proved to be an obstacle in providing them xíith education, health care and other essential social services. In addition, imbalances have arisen in systems of pastoral nomadism which have heightened their potential for desertification. Among nomads, too, modem health care ha's reduced mortality and given rise to population growth even if at a lesser, rate than among their neighbours. Population growth has been a factor, together with improved veterinary care, leading to an explosion in livestock nxmibers. Expansion of the systems, together with breakdowns in traditional authority, have affected rational management and make improvements difficult within the existing structure. Traditional subsistence activities have increasingly - 21 fallen into a neglect hastened "bj the use of monoy. SedentarizatioU; lihether voluntary or enforced, lias resulted in severe degradation arounil permanent settlements vihere former nomads contim^e to herd livestocli, .Technology has been introduced without concern for all factors in the environment. The use of off-the-road vehicles for hunting or fuel gathering has "been particularly destructive. The provision of large central watering points, out of harmony with traditional migration pattei:.S5 have led to unusual concentrations of rtoclc and extreme looa'J. degradation. Gra:;irg rc-nges have shrunk •bcc?U3ñ of iiive^sion Ly cr^^, • based systems or political restrictions on the movements of animals. That nomadic pastoralism is in trouble is evident in increasing desertification associated with such systems. Pastures have widely deteriorated, showing increased surface instability especially in thei.r more vulnerable elements, such as once-vegetated sand dunes. Advancod physical degradation around watering points, stalls and settlements and along paths of stock movement is marked by accelerated wind erosion and local dune encroachment. Even though limits are imposed more by lac": of fodder than lack of water, an over-exploitation of grour.dwater reserves has lowered vratertables and affected water quality. Pastures show themselves to be increasingly vulnerable to drought with all that this implies - destruction of livestock, enforced abandonment of grazing lands, deterioration in the diet and health of the people involved.. increasingly, foimer nomads are migrating out of the rangelands, and there is some suspicion that the migrants are largely the young and the more innovative. Traditional Sedentary pastoralism is usually supported b.-y rain-fed croppiDg, more Evidence of stock losses during the recent drought in SompJia suggests sedentary that these sj'-stems are less resilient than nomadic pastoralism. pastoral Because it is sedentary, this stylo ox pastoralism usually encourages systems localized degradation vfherever the livitock tend to concentrate. Desertification also arises from the cropping elements in these systems, usually practiced on the most marginal farm land, where the herdsmaiifarmer may constitute an impoverished part of a commercial system. The farmin"^, a secondary activity, may suffer fron a sJiortage of labour, sometimes due to out-migration. Commercial Commercial ranching tends to specialize in one kind of ajiijjial or ranching breed, selected usuallji" for marketing reasons railier than becc.iicn the systems animal is physiologicalljr efficient in converting the local dryland vegetation into need. Such systems compensate for environmental risk and low prodiictivity by adopting very low stocking lates (lovjer than those of nomadic pastoralists.j for example)» They are rarely sited in the most arid5 remote or infertile regio:is. Yet since land is a low-cost item, commercial ranches tend to be large units put together out of chs vagaries of competitive stress. Such ranches tend to minimize labour' costs, especially in higheconomies» Stock is set to graze in large, fenced enclosures and controlled with a minimiim of handling, although winter stalling and feeding may be required in temperate to cold drylands. The - 22 - comparatively small laboixr force is highly mobile, whether on horseback, driving off-the-road vehicles or piloting aircraft. For special tasks, such as such as fencing or shearing, or at times of seasonal demand, contract labour v;ill often be employed. These systems have inherent wealcnesses, one of them stemming from animal specialization, which increases environmental risk and commercial vulnerability and results in inefficient use of the pasture complex. Laxity in grazing control is often combined in commercial ranching Tfith ignorance of the impact of grazing-on pastures. Despite the expansion of extension services., comparatively little attention may be paid to the relative performance of pasture species under grazing stress and to the requirements of soil and plant life-as they relate to grazing management - what is needed, for example, for the successful germination of desirable perennials. Since land and vegetation are the low-cost elements, they are not always viewed as the ultimate resource base, the livestock itself being.so regarded. Commercial ranching is dependent on external markets whose forces may or may not be in harmony with v/ise stocking policies and practices as called for by the local environment. The tendency to maximize profits can readily lead to poor ecological management and overstocking within short-term perspectives. Such ranching is often controlled by corporate managers or absentee landlords who tend to be less immediately concerned with the state of the range. These systems enhance their vulnerability by ignoring subsistance elements. Food and supplies are purchased at the market. The growth of large units and the labour economies imposed on them lead to a progressive decline in the populations they support with consequent out-raigration, particularly of the yoving and landless. The populations of ranching areas are generally on the decrease, with an accompanying decline in secondary service centres. Capitalization and technical improvements tend to buffer commercial ranching against the immediate consequences of overgrazing, and high prices for its products will yield cash returns which may further delay a response. Since a determination of range trends.is difficult in any case, delay can lead to irreversible deterioration of pasture long before economic collapse occurs or even before the situation is truly appreciated. The xieaknesses of commercial ranching have their inevitable sequence in desertification. Poor grazing control results in deterioration of pastures which can be severe at the most vulnerable spots and around places where livestock congregate and further the process by trampling the soil. Unlike more traditional systems, comiii.ercial ranching malíes large-scale use of heavy machinery for construction and road building. Such machinery distxirbs the environment, producing localized degradation. 23 The greater capacity for ecological manip-ulation in these technically advanced systems may have drastic feedback consequences. For example, the control of brush fires has resulted in invasions by undesirable scrub in such places as southern Australia, and the- southwesteiTL United States. Commercial ranching tendsj as time passes^ to deplete the soil of nutrients and organic matter. These elements can conveniently be returned to the soil wherever v/inter stall feeding is practised» Even if it might seem economically impractical to spread bam and feedlot manure on ra-ngelands, such a practice may be an essential health measure if cities are nearby or water supplies threatened with contamination. Depopulation might .be listed as a desertification phenomenon characteristic of commercial ranching, even though ,it may be caused by market forces xíorking independently from land degradation. Rainfed cropping systems Rainfed agricultural systems, referred to in general as "dry farming", are typical of the semi-arid lands, which •include those regions in v/hich agriculture was first practised by man. Rainfall in such regions, although generally more abundant than in lands dominated by pastoralism, is still limited. Farming is possible there only through the adoption of special techniques whose primary objective is the collection, storage, protection and utilization of every drop of water. Drought-resistant crops are selected for planting, notably the coreáis ~ wheat, barley, xye^ sorghum ~ so typical of dry farming. Special techniques and careful crop selection have carried dry farming to the climatic limits set by rainfall - its amount, seasonal incidence and variability - and by the length of the growing season, as fixed by the duration of rainfall and, in high latitudes, by light and temperature. This push toward the climatic limit has carried rainfed agriculture deep into areas that vrere once exclusively pastoral, displacing the herdsmen and pushing them ever further into drier lands. Although the productivity of dry farming is loxf when compared váth irrigated agriculture, its returns axe usually much higher than pastoral yields» Dry farming compensates for climatic risks by producing crops of high quality,, hard ^íheats for instance, which can coxomand good prices. The semi-arid regions are free from disease, notably rust. They provide extensive stretches of sparsely settled land suitable for tillage by large-scale mechanized agriculture. The cereal crops produced are easily handled, transported and stored. Clearing for agriculture involves a much more drastic transformation of natural ecosystems than does pastoralism. Dry farming exposes and disturbs the soil, increasing the risk of erosion^ Some dry farming techniques enhance this risk. - 24 - Shallow ploughing, for exajuple, or loosening of the soil in the preparation of seedheds can set the stage for erosion, just as does tillage of the subsoil to return organic matter to depth and to facilitate root penetration and moisture availability in soils that tend to form lime or clay pans. 33are-fallovdng is also a common practice. Here the land is left stripped of vegetation to allow the infiltration of an additional season's rainfall and to minimize losses through trans; iration. Such fields are also fine-tille to prevent capillary loss of moisture and to promote the aerobic nitrification of organic compounds. Many of these systems spread across open plains which are already subject to T'iind erosion. The wind picks up the silty soils, creating a dust nuisance and sometimes dust storms. Sand drift and dune formation are common on the sandier alluvial soils near old river channels« All such effects are enhanced by the removal of trees and high-standing vegetation over extensive areas. . Dry farming tends to specialize in both crops and techniques, and it does so at the expense of mixed farming, which would include crop rotations involving legumes and the raising of animals. . This results in an -undue removal of organic material, transported away in the offfarm sale of grain and in the burning of straxf and litter after harvesting with combines. Decades of producing one specialized crop have resulted in the depletion and breakdox-m of many semi-arid soils that once possessed excellent structure and fertility. When this happens, yields decline and erosion increases especially on finer textured soils such as those lying on wind-blom parent material (loess). These systems support much denser and more settled populations than do pastoral systems. Man and his works therefore exert a much stronger impact in them. Many such systems have been worked for millenia and provide a history of land rise and of land deterioration extending over thousands of.years. Regional Problems in rainfed cropping •'^ainfed cropping systems comprise several types as determined by clima'Ge and other environmentdl conditions. Each is marked by its characteristic crops, technology and cultural setting. Each is vulnerable to desertification, which takes on distinctive forms in each setting and calls on distinctive measures to combat it. The Mediterranean region The Mediterranean is a semi-arid region with printer cyclonic rainfall and warm to subtropical temperature regimes. It is a hilly region v/ith degradable limestone soils in which cultivation has been extended into, areas of vei:y low rainfall (locally less than 20Clnnn annually). Vilnter cereals may alternate with summer crops. Farming is often coinbined with animal husbandry, especially of sheep and goats. Tree farming is particularly important. Connexions between rainfed and irrigated cropping are particularly close in the Mediterranean, with the former also deeply involved in water management, as in the terracing of slopes i^hose upkeep requires not only much labour but social stability as well. - 25 The Mediterranean has a long history of land use by fairly dense populations. Its history is also one of cities, many of them large and important, Man has thus had _ a. profound impact on the l^fediterranean ecosystems5 xíhich provide,, in fact, the longest historical record of desertification. Land degradation appears to have been associated 'vith the spread of sedentary agriculture and its related settlements= In some parts of the Mediterranean, desertification has reached advanced stagey:. , . • . It appears there in the deforestation of once-wooded uplands. Forests have given way to dwarf, leather-leaved dryland shrubs, or to bare earth, with soil sometimes stripped completely from slopes to uncover calcareous crusts or naked rock» This stripping of upslope vratersheds has severely damaged doximslope water regimes o In many places, runoff has become ephemeral and spasmodic? sometimes giving rise to catastrophic flooding in the lowlands and to increased deposition of silt in valley bottoms, . Siltationj which.was a problem in ancient days (as among the Nabateans of the . liegev) continues to pose a major threat, as for example to the useful life of large reservoirs in modem water-control schemes. The region shows broad deterioration in groundx/ater reserves accompaxiied by a lowering of groundwater tables and a decline in water quality. Some areas, such as the coastal plain of Israel5 have suffered.invasions of seawater. Cultivated footslopes often shovr marked gullying, particularly where cultivation has been unwisely extended over the past 50 years because of rising population pressure. The loss of soil has been considerable and with it, the loss of potentially cultivable land. Despite growing populations, labour shortages have developed as a result of heavy migration to cities and settlements, and water management has been affected.. Terraces and qanat systems have suffered from lack of proper maintenance. The removal of trees and shrubs has accelerated wind erosion of light soils, stripping them of nutrients. In many places, as in southern Tunisia, wind erosion has led to the formation of coppice dunes and made the land unsuitable for cultivation. Some loxilands soils, particularly in basins of interior drainage, have suffered from the spread of salinization. MediterOther areas with a Mediterranean-tjrpe semi-arid climate are ranean-type distributed around the world» Such regions include, for example, regions semi-arid portions of southern Australia,, southvrestem Cape Province in South Africa and the'Colombia Plateau in the northwest of the United States. These are tjrpically regions of highly mechanized agriculture producing cereals for export. Their devotion to monoculture has resulted in a lack of leguminous rotation crops and a virtual absence of - 26 ^^ animal husTjandry, thus limiting the return of organic matter to the soil. associated with the export of the crop and .the' removal or burning of the vegetable litter produced by mechanical harvesting, has depleted the soil of mineral and organic nutrients. Light-textured gray-broim or; black-earth soils, depleted of nutrients, have increasingly been subject to wind erosion. Deterioration folloxíing continuous cropping was reflected in the inter-war years by falling yields. Depending on the setting, desertification in various forms has made its appearance in all Mediterranean-type regions. Extensive gullying Of slopes, as in Gape Province and the Colombia Plateau, has become a particular handicap to mechanized agriciilture. Tilled but unvegetated surfaces that occur where dead-fallowing is practised have been extensively subject to general sheet erosion by water. The almost complete clearance of vegetation associated with largescale mechanized'agriculture has resulted in wind erosion of light soils and once-stabilized dunes, causing sand drift and the mobilization of fresh dunes as in, for example, the Ifellee region of South Australia. The clearance of deep-rooted shrubs and their substitution by crops or fallow has reduced transpiration in favour of evaporation and increased runoff from cleared slopes. This has altered-the water balance in Valley' soils and brought on salinization. Such effects are particularly noticeable in areas of sluggish natural drainage, as in northern Victoria and southwestern Western Australia where saline groimdwater. has come to the surface xiith increased effluent seepage from loxirer slopes. Subtropical lii subtropical to warm-temperate regions of dry farming, transitional to warmrainfall regimes are characterized by viinter and siimmer rainfall. Under temperate such conditions, v;inter cereals can be combined with a variety of springregions sown crops, such as cotton in the southwest of the United Statés or sugarbeet and sunflower between the Ukraine and the Caapiah'Sea, resulting in a favourable mixed agriculture with a more continuous cover. Such farming systems are generally yoimg, having been established over the past two centuries in such rich soils as the black earths of the southern USSR. In these i^rstems, soil depletion with falling yields has only recently become evident. The application of mineral fertilizers and the replacement of organic losses are increasingly required. The plains topography of these regions, characterized by an absence of trees, has promoted desertification through wind erosion. Erosion, together with reduced- yields, has'also been encouraged by ' a moderate salinization and alkanization, arising from limited leaching, that have affected the drier parts of these regions. - 27 Cool ternperature semi-arid regions Cool-temperature semi-arid regions typically have rain in spring and early s-uimnero .. They include, for example, a "broad strip from southern Siberia into Manchuria and the dry prairies of Canadawhere exposed surfaces, severe winter temperatures and sunlight limitations result in a short growing season restricted to spring cereals and great difficulty in introducing cover crops other than grass. Under such conditions, animal husbandry is also very difficult. Wind erosion is the characteristic form of desertification in r.uch regions of open plains. Host affected during the dry vrinters or late summer ai-e the light-textured soils often lying on a carbonate or hardpan layer. Tropical semi-arid summer monsoon regions Tropical semi-arid summer monsoon regions are typified by the Sudanian belt, \-rith its JOCtam to 60Qmn annual rainfall, to the south of the Ifrican Sahel. They also include the margin of the Rajasthan Desert in northwest India and parts of northeastern Brazil. They tend to grade into subhumid savannas, lands which must also be considered at risk. In these regions, open savanna woodland is cleared, usually by burning to provide a seedbed, although clearance is not complete and many large trees may be left standing. , The,pattern is generally that of shifting agriculture» Pour to five years of continuous cropping are followed by abandonment, when successional regrowth may be harvested, • gum arable for example, or gxazed by cattle, with the growth of. grass encouraged by burning. • This is mainly subsistence farming by pes^sants, who grow grain crops such as sorghum or millet. The warm climate may allow a second crop., such as groundnuts or cotton in Africa, increasingly groxm for cash. Adjacent pastoral peoples may introduce an element of animal husbandry, into these systems, with the rights to graze on stubble obtained through various types of exchange or through cash payments. liuring periods of above-average rainfall, these systems have tended to encroach on neighbouring animal-based systems because of the pressirces of population groirbh or for the extension of cash cropping. Such encroachments are successful until the ralnd fail, as they inevitably do. The severe imbalances which then appear can act as a major accelerator of desertification, as they did in the recent Sahelian drought, affecting not only the fai-mland itself but also the pastoral areas which farming had invaded. Desertification in these systems often appears as a marked decline in fertility folloxíing the loss of organic matter and a deterioration in the structure of the typical red, sandy subtropical soils. This often comes about because population pressures and a resulting land hunger act to speed up the agricultural cji'cle, bringing the farmer back to the same piece of land in fifteen years, say, instead of twenty» The rise of cash cropping accelerates the removal from the soil of mineral and organic nutrients. The introduction of equipment unsuited to the particular conditions of these regions ha.s resulted in deeper tillage a,nd aeration and a consequent pulverization of the soil. - 28 - •• As fertility declines, crop yields are less, and adverse impacts iDecome self-accelerating. To malee up the difference,, the land-is worked even more intensively. Rainfall in these regions, \fhile localized, is often intense, causing pluvial erosion of cultivated surfaces. Soil surfaces "beconie puddled and soil structure severely damaged. The dry spells that alternate -with the onset of rains bake a crust on the surface, hindering the germination and development of seedlings. During the dry winters, wind erosion lifts clouds of dust from these lands, sometimes transporting it over enormous distances. • Soils in the Caribbean islands have been enriched by what has been lost from distánt northern Africa. Irrigated cropping systems Irrigation provides the main basis for agriculture in arid regions and serves as a vital supplement to crop production in semi-arid'regions, About I5 per cent of the world's cultivated lands are irrigated. Although not all of these 200 million hectares are located in drylands, still that is vrhere the impact of irrigation is greatest. World food production must increase if present nutritional deficits are to be ^ corrected and an eicpanding world population adequately •nourished. A 30 per cent increase in cereal production alone has been projected as essential between 1970 and I985. Some of this increase will have to be obtained by further development of irrigation. Compared with rainfed agriculture, irrigation can lead to a six-fold increase in yields of cereals and a four-to-five-fold increase in root crops. The importance of irrigation to agricultural development is revealed by the fact that the irrigated harvest area in developing countries is expanding at a rate of 2.9 per cent per year compared with •• an annual expansion of O.7 per cent for rainfed crops. Irrigation in arid lands can therefore be expected to play a critical role in satisfying the world's food requirements. Measures to combat desertification in such systems are accordingly of the utmost urgency. Its remarkable productivity is one aspect of the importance of irrigation in arid lands. The productivity of rainfed cropping as carried out in areas with less than 250-40Ctam of annual'rainfall, is much lov/er because of this limitation in available moisture. Not only does annual irrigation increase yields but it also alloxis the replacement of fallowing systems by annual cropping. The increased stability of crop systems viith the removal of drought risk and uncertainty is another advantage of irrigátion. Animal-based systems are made more stable and efficient v/hen they are carried out adjacent to irrigation, which can provide them with forage crops as supplementary feed and can store reserves against the threat of drought. Irrigation increases the efficiency of cropping systems. For instance, the application of fertilizer and the planting of higher-yield crop varieties are greatly facilitated wherever productivity is not limited by the availability of xiater. 29 - Irrigation diminishes the risk of desertification in cropping systems*;.. The planting .of.trees and a more consistent vegetation cover replace falloxiing and the open and exposed landscapes oharacteristic of other dryland systems. Irrigation provides i/ater which can be used to reclaim desert lands, whether by supporting a plant cover or by the leaching of salinized soils» As rich producers of cash crops, irrigation systems serve as important economic resources for arid lands. They provide a basis for dense settlement and its related social amenities in regions that once supported only sparse populations. • As such, irrigated lands can be ^^sed for the resettlement progTammes that desertification elsewhere sometimes makes necessaiy„ ; It is not- merely because they are short of rainfall that arid lands are particularly suited to irrigation» Situated as many arid regions are .in the cloudless subtropical zones of atmospheric subsidence5 they are favoured with long hours of sunshine» This makes irrigated lands suitable for multicropping and the growing of early maturing, warmth-demanding crops that command high prices in regions that are not so sunny. Algeria or Israel,.for instance, produce x/inter and spring : flowers and tropical fruits that are shipped off for sale in Europe. Again, under conditions of lov; rainfall, carefully irrigated soils suffer only limited leaching of fertilizers and nitrogen. Plants grown in low atmospheric humidity are relatively free of diseases, such as rust in cerea.ls, that flourish in moister conditions. Arid- lands are rich in terrain and soils, such as sloping piedmont plains of interior, well-drained river systems, that are remarkably productive when water is brought to them. Many such places still remain to be exploited by intensive cropping. Irrigation, hoT/over, is often a costly, technically complex procedure that requires skillful management and sound experience if its full advantages are to be realized. Furthermore, it gives rise to changes in all the major ecosy-tem regimes soil, vrater and atmosphere that may introduce unwanted effects leading to desertification unless appropriate precautions are incorporated into the system. A failure to apply efficient principles of - water management will lead to water wastage and hence loss of productivity. Such v/astage can occur at any point in the system - through seepage and evaporation during storage, conveyance or distribution or as a result of bad timing in water application, of over-v/atering or poor techniques of field application. Poor application can result in v;aterlogging of soils, vihich reduces productivity through inadequate aeration and its associated salinity, eventualljr leading to the loss of irrigated lands. This is a problem locally associated with low-lying tracts and areas of heavy soils. V/aterlogging is more generally related to the artificial raising of water tables because of seepage, inadequate drainage and over-watering. It is a major factor in the salinization of irrigated soils. - 30 - \'Jhen soils are inadeq-uately Reached of the minerals contained in irrigation water,, then excess evaporation and transpiration will result in salinization and alkalization of soils. li/here drainage is inadequate, x/hether nat-ural. or artificial, salts accumulate. The process commonly begins.where natural seepage occurs, as along the margins of irrigated land commanded by higher ground, in an irrigated terrace for instance, or where there is seepage from a network of channels. It spreads where irrigation has been carried into areas of unsuitable soil, such as alkaline clays, or into unsuitable terrain, such as flood plain sumps or the higher parts of poorly levelled lands. In such situations, when leaching is inadequate, salt crystals will appear on the stirface. Salinization and alkalization become general problems wherever artificially raised water tables, associated with waterlogging, capillary rise or pollution from salinized outflow, prevent the proper leaching of salts. Salinization also occurs xéien the irrigation water is too salty or when there is not enough of it to, leach the.:salts from the soils. It has been estimated that half of all irrigated soils in a;rid lands are affected by salinization to some degree. Kie eventual result can be found in lowered yields, restrictions in the choice of crops and the final loss of irrigable lands which can only be reclaimed at great expense. In monetary terms, no type of desertification is more costly to man. Alkalization, improper watering, inappropriate tillage of moist soils and the leaching of soils containing gypsum can lead to a deterioration of soil structure and compaction. This results in poor aeration, reduced transmission of irrigation water and finally to lovfered yields. Suffusion of the soil with water that fails to-drain properly can lead to catastrophic subsidence of"the gro^md. Further irrigation then becomes impossible without expensive relevelling. Eacycled irrigation water may become progressively more salty, aggravating a tendency toward salinization. Excessive watering can remove essential nitrogen from the soil. Since irrigation provides a basis for intensive agriculture in arid lands and for dense settlements there, often including people who lack traditional experience in agricultural methods and their associated societies, the development of irrigated agriculture often brings social problems to arid lands. These problems are linlced to profound modifications in local or adjacent ecosystems, ;notably soil and water regimes, involved in the development of irrigation. Irrigation calls for particular skills in the application of Tíater and the tillage of watered soils if its great potential for increased productivity is to be developed and sustained.. The efficiency of irrigation schemes rests in, the last analysis on the individual ciiltivator. Waen cultivators. lack the. appropriate agricultural experience, irrigation systems and the lands they water can suffer great damage. 31 - • Potentially beneficial to health through improved nutrition and water supplies, irrigation can also give rise to serious health problems. It can increase the risk of viater-borne, directly transmitted diseases such as bilharzia, malaria and typhoid fever. Ifelaria has been identified as a problem in the early irrigation civilizations of the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates. The transmission of disease is facilitated by water mismanagement which results in the formation of stagnant pools and bjr a lack of hygiene and sanitation under conditions of dense settlement. Chronic ill health gives rise to losses from labour inefficiency. Lavis and traditions can present obstacles to efficient irrigation by establishing curious restrictions on v/ater "use, illogical subdivisions of the land or contractual limitations on tenant activities. Irrigation gives birth to cities in arid lands and to the social stresses that arise when peoples of diverse backgrounds come into contact viith one another in a new social and economic environment. Dense settlements have a profound impact on the surrounding desert environment J and this impact can be very damaging v;here populations have no tradition of close settlement. Irrigation systems can be based on surface waters or on ground water. Sach type brings with it its osm characteristic problems. Systems involving the use of surface waters range from flood farming or flood-recession agriculture in floodplains, through annual basin irrigation using flood banks, to perennial irrigation using manmade storage reservoirs and canals. Systems of the last type, based on rivers flov/ing through or on large upland sources of runoff, support the largest popiilations and the most intensive agricultural production in. the arid lands» Such systems call for advanced, large-scale management» Devegetation, surface deterioration or gullying due to overgrazing or the extension of croplands, the breakdoxm of works such as terracing intended to control rimoff, all give rise to problems in the management of surface water. All such deterioration promotes increasingly spasmodic and violent local flooding wiiich complicates water management and gives rise to flood damage and siltation in storage reservoirs and on irrigated lands. It may also lead to a decline in x-iater quality through the exposure of saline soil layers« Irregularity of v;ater supplies is a frequent problem in such systems. Studies indicate that a given quantity of water is two to three times as effective if applied regularly and consistently rather than via a onetime flooding. Systems employing surface waters are confronted vriLth problems of storage. Reservoir capacity can be lost to siltation in erodible desert watersheds. Seepage can involve the loss or salinization of irrigation water. Evaporation, too, can enhance saiinity. - 32 - • Such systems are also confronted with problems relating' to water conveyamce. Water losses in travel, averaging:fifty per cent, arise from seepage and evaporation in networks of channels. Such problems can become acute in very large systems containing long distribution channels. .Irrigation water can become increasingly saline as it is recycled 'in. surface"runoff or subsurface flow, when it becomes contaminated by saline soils, particularly where discharge declines as the vrater moves dovm valleys. .When surface-water systems are adjacent to large rivers, they are subject to a risk of flooding. VJhen they are located in large :.desert river basins, they always involve problems of water resources and water rights at local, regional and international levels. Systems involving the use of groundv/ater suffer from their own distinctive set of problems. These are usually smaller schemes than the often elaborate systems that draw on surface water. , .told, they probably amount to less than 10 per cent, of the extent pf surface-water systems, but they are particularly important within oasis settings, including those within extreme deserts. Such systems sometimes exploit shallow subsurface water by means of hand-dug wells. In other settings, they go deeper and require the use of pumps. They may tap artesian supplies or they may "mine" non-renewable deep-water sources. Groundwater- is coimnonly more saline than surface water. Limitations in supplies and difficulties in terrain may present- great difficiilties in obtaining effective leaching and drainage. Salinization of soils, often xrorking through the mechanisms described in connexion with surface-water use, is a frequent problem in groundwater systems. Problems also arise from over-exploitation of limited supplies. As via,ter is used up, shallow sources may be abandoned, and pumping becomes increasingly expensive as draw-doxm affects,marginal wells. Less favourably sited wells may become so drained that marginal lands will be abandoned. , Heavily exploited water mas'" suffer from an increasing accumulation of salts throiigh recharge by salinized water, thus aggravating the problem of soil salinization. Seavrater- may,. ,-encroach on aquifers that are intensely exploited in coastal diylands. Problems can arise in gromdvrater systems due to the raising of the \iatertable as supplies are brought up from depth. When.drainage is hindered, this can lead to the pollution of aquifers by saline soil water. Conversely, watertables may be lowered in aquifers as supplies are drawn from them. This can cause land subsidence on a major scale, as in a.lifomia's Central Valley. Here, too, problems can arise in-connexion with water management and x^rater rights leading to conflicts and resulting in inefficiencies. - 33 - Pishing, hunting and gathering Hiere are communities that .persist in gaining :their subsistence by traditional methods of hunting, fishing or gathering or some combination' of these activities. More often¡, however,. such pursuits are supplementary to agricultural systems of livelihood^ and when compared with the latter, their environmental impact is generally local and .slight, \Ihen these activities are affected by desertification, it is likely that they have.been damaged by adjacent agricultural systems. Since, diminished biological productivity is the hallmark of desertification, that label can be applied to circumstances leading to reductions in wildlife populations or to the loss of their habitats. In addition to its value as a food supplement, dryland wildlife, an intrinsic part of its ecosystems, constitutes a vital element in the natural environmental balance. Its presence may therefore be essential in restorative measures to combat desertification. As part of the world's ecotypal heritage, wildlife is intrinsically worthy of preservation. As a tozzrist attraction, dryland animals may also serve as an economic resource. The larger native herbivores in .dryland ranges have become reduced in numbers almost everywhere. Some species are threatened with extinction. This is in part due to heightened himting pressure as man increasingly intrudes into the more remote dryland refuges in search of oil, minerals, or pleasure. Such intrusions are increasingly made in the off-the-road cross-country vehicles by men carrying sophisticated vreapons. It is also due to deterioration of animal habitats as described in connexion with animal-based livelihood systems. As their situations become ever more precarious, dryland animals decline in both vigour and numbers. Competition with domestic animals, vrhether real or merely perceived, is a factor leading to deliberate reductions in the popiilations of larger animals or to their exclusion from habitats they formerly occupied. Under these worsened conditions, the impact of supplementary hunting by pastoral peoples has become increasingly severe, especially when accelerated by the general increase in human populations. Dryland fishing communities, without considering ocean fisheries off coastal deserts, as in Peru, which are otitside the scope of this review, are also subject to desertification. Desert lalces, coastal lagoons and perennial dryland rivers support fishing industries which contribute important amoujits of protein-rich supplements to loqal diets. Por example, the Lake Chad fisheries reportedly produce an annual yield of 100,000 tonnes. - 34 - Lake Chad, however, ,v/as much reduced during the recent Sahelian drought, since drought reduces discharge by ;rivers and shrinlcs the lakes which they feed. Sliallow bodies, such as L ^ e Wanc'har in Pakistan, vrill suffer -shfinkage'when the waters that feed them are diverted for other purposes such as irrigation. Lakes and lagoóns can be salinized by excessive evaporation, by the increased salinity of entering wátérs in irrigated regions or by the encroachment of seawater. The Aswan.dam, for example, has prevented íTile sediments from reaching the beách barriers that once protected the lakes in the delta and has allowed seawater to' penetrate them. The degradation of river catchments increases siltation and generates turbidity in the lalces and lagoons fed by such rivers. This acts to kill aquatic vegetation and causes a decline in fish catches. (Conversely, the sardine fisheries"in the Eastern Mediterranean failed after the Aswan Dam cut off the Nile-bome nutrients that once supported them.) The desertification of watersheds brings on adverse changes in river regimes leading to increasingly spasmodic discharge, to siltation or flood scour in river channels and to the destruction of aquatic ecosystems. Mining, These livelihood systems are practised in all types of climate and tourism environment, but they take on special importance in the drylands as and alternative resources in conditions of relative scarcity. Oil revenues, recreation for instance, have fundamentally improved the prospects of a m;unber of developing desert nations and indeed have given them the means to combat desertification. These activities have provided a fundamental impetus to the establishment or development of dryland settlements and communications. Yet they have not been carried out without environmental impact, especially in the very fragile ecosystems that make up the diylands. Mining and mineral based industries, including the extraction and processing of oil, cause direct disturbance of vegetation, soil and terrain, not only in the actual mining operation itself, but also in such ancillary activities as the construction of roads and pipelines and the development of heavy vehicular traffic. Disturbed and denuded soil is subject to wind erosion with increasing dust nuisance and sand drift. Disturbed ground is also vulnerable to accelerated water erosion, with consequent siltation and obstruction of siorface drainage. These problems are exacerbated in drylands where,water for irrigation is in short supply and where denuded ground is recolonized by vegetation only at an extremely slow natural rate. Airborne or waterbome mining or industrial wastes cause pollution of soils and groundwater, a particularly hazardous problem in the drylands where there is rarely enough xirater to remove pollutants through leaching or surface drainage. - 35 - The patterns of air circiilation over drylands are characterized by limited atmospheric mixing and frequent temperature inversions which hold the lo\-/er layers of air firmly in place» In such conditions, atmospheric pollution tends to hang on instead of being carried away. Held in place under brilliant sunlight, pollutants are then subject to photochemical synthesis ^^rhich can transform them into even more noxious substances» liineral industries can bring about desertification by intense, localized competition for scarce resources such as water, wood (for fuel and construction materials), energy/ sources and labour. Such competition is often detrimental to local agricultural livelihood systems. Problems arise from the impact of mining settlements in drylands. Apart from the physical impact a,nd demands common to settlements anyifhere, dryland mining toi^ms bring with them an array of social problems related to their often temporary character, their remoteness, and to the unusual and chajiging composition of populations which may be wholly or partly foreign to the dryland setting. TourisDi and recreation have been dravm to deserts and drylands by warm sunny climates, a dry healthy atmosphere and natural landscapes with distinctive life forms x-zhere parks and reserves can be easily established. Drylands contain archaeological and folklore attractions and they provide ideal settings for certain kinds of sanatoria. Their popularity as tourist and recreation areas has been aided by the development of communications to and within them and has risen steeply with the increasing leisure and affluence of industrialized societies, especially those that experience cold winters. The tourist industiy is an increasingly important source of revenue and employment in diylands, although complaints are often heard that the control and benefits of tourism remain outside the dryland communities. Tourism and recreation can also serve as active agents of desertification. The construction of tourist roads and camps and the resulting increase of traffic, particularly by cross-country vehicles, is disturbing to and destructive of vegetation and soil cover in the usually sensitive landscapes that constitute the scenic attractions. Tliis leads to" accelerated erosion. Attractive plant or animal species can be reduced or even wiped out by the uncontrolled gathering of wild flovrers or by disturbing animals at critical periods in their life cycles. Tourist settlements give rise to problems of health and sanitation, and these can be exacerbated through contacts betv/een tourists and local populations. Commercial tourism can have an uncontrolled impact on traditional commimities resulting in interactive social complications, including the resentment of local populations at being regarded merely as objects of interest. Seasonal labour requirements have great effects on local life systems as does an increased demand for local craft products. ~ 36 - ryland , \AriMty stimulates the formation of, nucleated settlements since ettlements their necessary supports, such as water and agricxiltural land, tend to be localized in deserts and drylands. Depending.-on how "urban" is defined, between 20 per cent and 50 per cent of the 680 million people living in dryl^ds are urban. Dryland cities include some of the oldest in the world. • Today they function as irrigation centres (including oasis settlements), garrisons, communications and caravan centres, political, administrative and regional services centres, or they may be focused on tourism, sanatoria, mining or other industries. Deserts and dryl^ds have been subject to an accelerated urbanization over -the past 50 years, often superimposed on general population increases. In Iran, for example, where the population has tripled since I9OO to a present total of almost 50 million, the percentage of urban population has increased from 20 per cent to 40 per cent. Today, the world's drylands contain nine metropolitan centres with more than one million people each. Expanding/dryland cities share many of the problems of cities in more humid lands. But situated where they are, they have additional problems as agents of desertification. Di^i-land communities have a direct and often adverse impact on the lands s-urrounding them. As concentrations of people and traffic, including livestock traffic in agricultural settlements, they are often surrounded by naked perimeters of bare ground subject to constant disturbance. Movement on such perimeters is rarely confined to established roads or tracks. The result is intensified dust nuisance and localized Siand .drift. After rains, these bare surfaces become muddy and filled with stagnant pools which can constitute a health hazard. Such conditions may extend right into settlements built on an open grid pattern of large blocks, like most Australian outback towns, ;whÍGh contain extensive uncontrolled surfaces which cannot be grassed because of water shortages. V/aste disposal in dryland settlements is confronted with particular difficulties-. : The disposal of domestic or industrial wastes is hampered by a lack of water for flushing or leaching, by slow rates of biodegradation and by problems in revegetating vjaste dumps. This leads to chemical and bacterial: pollution of soils and groundwater with attendant health hazards, particularly in more primitive conditions. Included in this problem is the impact of feedlots and slaughterhouses located in to\'m perimeters. Rubbish is often dumped on the outskirts of dryland towns in sparsely settled areas difficult to supervise. Dumping is encouraged by a v/idespread attitude that desert land is inexhaustible and otherwise ,worthless. Atmospheric pollution from vehicles or the burning of fuels in cities is aggravated by the same dryland conditions that affect atmospheric pollution from mining or industry - low ratios of atmospheric mixing, temperature inversions and a high level of photochemical . synthesis. - 37 - Like; all to\ms¡, -dryland settlements malee demands on their hinterlands J and more ,so in developing nations where commxjnications may be poor. Desert toi-ms in developed economies may import many of their necessities from far away. Under any circxunstances, however, the impact of the modern city on its surroundings is considerable. Per capita consumption of water increases with urbanizationj and to meot its domestic, industrial and poxrer-geneiating needs, the torn may compete for water with adjoining agriciiltural systems, as Mexico City does. I'/here a city is dependent on groundwater, its rising needs may lead to a lowering of regional watertables, as in the Tucson basin of Arizona, irith adverse consequences for surface water regimes. In developing countries especially, demand for wood and charcoal tends to devegetate an expanding area around the city xfith the usual adverse consequences» As time passes, supplies must be brought in from farther and farther av;ay at continually rising cost to the consumer» Tlie expanding settlement may engulf the cultivated land that supported its earlier growth. Unrealistic land-boom sales in the United States have caused lots and roadv/ays to be scraped out of distances often remote from to\-ms, where they lie stagnant ivithout further development, constituting a source of accelerated erosion. Although the grovrth of cities in deserts or drylands ma.y entail smaller losses in agricultiiral productivity than in humid areas, such losses occur in environments that are very sensitive to disturbance and they may be very important locally» The demand for labour by urban services and industries, reinforced by higher wages, may dravr workers from adjoining livelihood systems to their great detriment. Forms of agriculture requiring intensive upkeep, such as rainfed terraced agriculture or qanat-fed irrigated cropping, have suffered particularly from labour shifts of this Icind. Just as settlements have an impact on their surro\mdings, so desertification of a region has an impact on cities and settlements located within or near it. During droughts, rural peoples suffering desertification stress migrate in large numbers to nearby tovms. This happened in the recent Sahelian drought, where urban population growth rates, already very high at 10 per cent per year, briefly doubled. Although towns provide a successful escape for the migrant in terms of wages and welfare, such movements impose severe burdens on urban housing and services and tend to intensify the adverse environmental impacts that cities and tovms already exert. The accelerated growth of cities, so characteristic of the contemporary world, places continuous stress on urban water reso^Jrces, a stress that is aggravated in periods of low rainfall. V/hen - 38 - desertification affects the hinterland or surrounding regions, the city's water supply can be fvirther stressed "by increasing siltation in surface water storages, reducing their useful life, and by lowered gromdwater tables and a deterioration in water quality. Desertification of surrounding lands will heighten environmental stress within the settlement. The tovm may experience hot winds and more frequent dust storms, particularly in periods of summer drought when local shade and shelter will also have diminished. These impacts will be most strongly felt when settlements and houses are unsxrLtably designed and particularly in the temporary dwellings of newly arrived urban immigrants. - 39 - V The Human Consequences of Desertification The Desertification is a human problem. Its most important aspect lies impact in its impact on man himself - on the individual, the family, the community of or the nation. The environmental degradation, the biological and physical desert- stress described as desertification in the different dryland livelihood ificat- systems have their direct counterparts in physical, emotional, economic and ion on social consequences for man. man As with the environmental manifestations, the impact of desertification on human beings shows a corresponding vulnerability, chronic or progressive, upon which are superimposed those critical periodic stresses that result in human disaster. Unless long-term remedies are found and applied, the passage of each crisis must leave dryland communities further weakened and still less equipped to deal with stress conditions or to confront the next crisis, which will inevitably occur, bearing with it its potential for catastrophe. The Sahelian drought, for example, meant a drastic slash in productivity and income in the six countries most affected. Two million nomadic pastoralists lost more than half of their livestock - in the worst local situations losses exceeded 90 per cent. For almost 15 million villagers, harvests yielded less than half of the usual crop during most of the years between 1968 and 1973The result was the destruction of already low standards of living. The repercussions were felt not only by individuals and families but resounded as disastrous cuts in national incomes. The consequences of the Sahelian drought cannot be grasped solely in terms of its severity. It must be appreciated that even before 1968, the six Sahelian countries and the people who live in them were already among the poorest in the world. In the list of the 13 least developed countries, four of them aire in the Sahel. These countries have gross national products that amount to less than JJlOO a year for each inhabitant. Chronic poverty and lack of capital are chexacteristic of desert and dryland communities in developing countries. This is a major reason why they are so vulnerable to drought disaster. As the Sahelian drought advanced, food stocks dwindled to extinction, and famine, prevalent by 1971s was general throughout the area by 1972. It is estimated that 100,000 people died of starvation and associated disease, most of them young children. Typically, famine and disease did not strike those who had been healthy and well-nourished5 it ravaged populations already debilitated by malnutrition. Seasonal hunger and epidemic disease are facts of life among desert and dryland p.oples in developing countries, where health services are usually inadequate if they exist at all. Malnutrition and low resistance to disease are among the more insidious aspects of desertification. They reduce the capacity of dryland communities to cope with periodic hardship, and they sap the will of dryland peoples to improve their condition. They must be dealt with as part of any set of measures to combat desertification. - 40 - In the pastoral areas worst affected by the Sahelian drought, there was a complete brealidown of livelihood systems and a mass exodus to towns sind refugee camps located in the less affected south. Some parts of Upper Volta lost 80 per cent of their inhabitants. Many died on these migrations, but to a large number of nomadic refugees, the journey brought survival, since they found food,,medical care and eventually wage employment in the towns towsird which they.headed. Surveys have since shown that a sizeable proportion of the pastoralist refugees may never return to their former homelands. Thus it is that the drought brought about what must be viewed as a social revolution. On the other hand, it is possible to view such an exodus as a temporary magnification of a regular and pre-existing out-migration, both seasonal and permanent, of the nomads to the towns. Although the pastoral systems receive some benefit from the remittance of money sent from wage-earners in towns, still, even before the drought, out-migra.tion had reached levels sufficient to cause local weaknesses and stagnation in the pastoral systems. Such movements, persisting through good years as vrell as bad, suggest chronic instability and the land's lack of capacity to support its populations. It is something that must be taken into account in remedial policies. The Sahelian drought generated an international relief effort which eventually reached substantial size. Nonetheless, the effort suffered failures indicative of underlying weaknesses which existed before the drought crisis and which have undoubtedly survived it. That food and medicine could not be brought in time to those who needed them most iinderlines the remoteness of such regions and their lack of transport facilities. Administrative failures and bureaucratic obstacles hampered relief operations locally. Such matters must be dealt with if measures to combat desertification are to succeed. The traditional antagonism between nomad and peasant in the Sahel, which led to inequities in the distribution of food to refugees, draws attention to the kinds of cultural conflicts and political bias which also face anti-desertification prograames. A lack of effective communication between refugees and those who were supposed to be helping them serves as a reminder that literacy rates in affected countries are sometimes very low, below 10 per cent in most countries of the Sahel, and that programmes of education must accompany measures for improving land use. Just as dryland ecosystems react with greater or lesser sensitivity to climatic stress and the pressures of land use, suggesting an order of priorities for measures directed toward physical improvement, so differences in the inherent vulnerability of dryland communities, as reflected in the greater or lesser sufferings of their inhabitants, suggest- priorities on human grounds. Full consideration should be given to whether or not international action should be directed toward the most vulnerable nations, and national action to the most vulnerable communities, rather than to areas of the greatest ecosystematic disturbance, although, of course, the two categories might on occasion coincide. However they ?j:e ordered> remedial progrnrnmos should have as their perspective the treatment of long-term disabilities, not merely relief from temporary hardship. 41 Hiiman and social mani" festations of desertification While the adverse human and social consequences of desertification become critical in periods of stress, their persistence provides evidence of chronic disabilities in marginal dryland communities. As such, they may not be specific to desertification but broadly common to families and livelihoods on the margin of the modern world, particularly in remote and hazardous environments and where tradition, social inequality or political indifference further isolate people and systems from the resources and capacity needed to effect improvement, Among these adverse consequences are hunger, disease and premature death brought on by continued crop failure or the massive destruction of livestock, particularly in marginal subsistence societies where transport facilities are inadequate. Malnutrition increases vulnerability to epidemic diseases such as measles. Few diseases are specific to desertification, eye diseases such as trachoma marginally so, and certain disea.ses, such as bilharzia, are linked with inefficiencies in irrigation systems. Debility leads to further inefficiencies in another kind of cycle that may become self-accelei'ating. In developed nations, such as the United States or Australia, the first noticeable sign of desertification may be loss of income. In subsistence societies, loss of income gives rise to acute problems of physical well-being and becomes increasingly important when income is dependent on the sale of crops or livestock. Loss of income is a constant problem in marginal societies, and there are a number of devices for coping with it, such as the sharing of resources or seasonal out-migration. When drought is long-continued, there may be an incipient breakdown in livelihood systems. In nomadic societies, this stage may be marked by self-enforced sedentarization, settling down on agricultural land. Outmigration to the towns, both seasonal and permanent, may show a marked increase on the part of nomads and of those who work traditional cropping systems as well. This offers immediate relief in the foim of remitted wages, but it can easily reach the point at which the local livelihood systems suffer from labour shortages, thus weakening them further. Although traditional societies have various ways of coping with such problems, some are particularly vulnerable to them, those especially which have become commercially or technologically more specialized or those in which traditional social bonds have broken down. V/hen the stage of incipient breakdown was reached in the disaster of the Sahelian drought, nomadic pastoral communities generally fared better than sedentary agriculturalists. In developed countries, buffering of the livelihood system at this stage may take the form of government drought relief and loans. It is likely that indebtedness will increase and the less viable holdings abandoned. Selective depopulation will occur in rural settings, vrhile the local tovms based on rural services and industries will suffer economic depression. This process can proceed until livelihood systems collpase utterly. V/hen this stage is reached, the greatest hardships fall on those communities that are most exposed environmentally and least equipped to transfer to a net-/ - 42 livelihood system. At this point in the Sahelian drought, the nomadic pastorálists suffeired most, with many areas• experiencing a mass exodus. stated earlier, there are indications that'-many of these refugees have permanently abandoned their former livelihood systems. As Apart from the physical hardships involved, such an upheaval brings with it severe emotional stress. Those most hard hit may succumb to an apathy stemming'from'their felt loss of status. Social disasters of this magnitude are more characteristic of marginal societies in marginal lands. Industrialized societies have access to resources that can blunt the impact of disaster. - 43 . . . . Measures to Combat Desertification Principles Any measures undertaken to com'bat desertification must be inioimed which . "by certain principles long recognised by the Member States which compose should . the United Nations. While some such principles may seem predom-nantly guide all. humanitarian in character, the fact is that they are also intensely measures practical. Desertification is a human,problem, and measures to combat against it involve people, especially those most affected, who must be convinced desertiof the virtue and practicality of participating in the measures proposed, fication Measures to coabat desertification must be seen as having human and social objectives. They must be inspired by an acknowledgement of the right of people living in drylands to acceptable standards of health education, livelihood and social well-being, consistent with human dignity,. Account must be taken of traditional social values and an appropriate respect shown for life styles and ancient knowledge developed in harmony with the dryland environment. Priorities in programmes to combat desertification should be influenced by the severity of its impact on the populations concerned, and by the degree of their vulnerability. The approach should be an integrated one, in,which proposals involving technological or environmental change are linked with social and economic measures. Measures to combat.desertification will not succeed without the willing participation of local communities. The need must be recognized to work through existing livelihood systems and established social patterns. The involvement of the community must be sought, as by enlisting the example of local leaders. Educational and publicity programmes must be designed with this in mind. It may be necessary to cisate incentives toward community participation, The practicality and advantages of proposed measures should be demonstrated at the earliest,stage through realistic pilot projects. Prom the outset, programmes should contain some measures selected because they relate to immediate local problems, .because they demon-^ strate prompt action within the community, because they are possible with existing resources, and because they promise convincing results within a reasonable time. Advantage should be taken of crisis situations, when societal and livelihood systems have been disrupted and people, are ,more prepared to consider change and to carry out whatever restructuring of dryland livelihood systems that conditions may, call for. Campaigns against desertification must be realistic and planning should not set goals which can neither be.,supported nor achieved in "regions of essentially low productivity. - The ideal objective is the recovery and maintenance of ecological "balance in the drylands in the interests of sustained productivity, hut this must he reconciled with the needs of local populations. Some degree of environmental disturbance must be tolerated in land management. On the other hand, it must be accepted that land-use pressures have been a major factor in existing problems of desertification. Any effort to improve conditions must recognize that fact. Accordingly, changes in land use will be required, and these bring with them a need for corresponding social changes. Some element of control will obviously be required, but it will not succeed without a sympathetic community response. This must be sought through education, demonstration projects, and a sense of involvement and shared decision among the local people. Where limits are set by rainfall, the productivity of drylands per unit area will never be anything but low. Such lands can command only modest investments in keeping with their productivity. Eeclamation and preservatory measures should be designed in accordance with this outlook, as should the goals of redevelopment schemes. Since rainfall will remain variable in the drylands, they will continue to be high-risk areas for most land-use systems, and this should be reflected in development plans. However, measures to stabilize their livelihood systems and buffer them against pex-iodic drought should not deprive them of their flexibility and the risk-spreading strategies characteristic of traditional dryland practices. Apart from limitations set by climate, dryland ecosystems will remain sensitive to land-úsé pressure because their soils and dynamics are delicately balanced. The best designed dryland livelihood system will still require constant surveillance if balance is to be sustained. It is therefore essential that campaigns against desertification should not be presented as sets of single episodes. Development plans must incorporate systems of monitoring and maintenance. This requirement strongly underlines the need to develop indigenous science and technology. The drylands and their threatened margins cover more than a third of the earth's land surface. As might be expected, a scope so immense comprises a vast variety of biophysical, economic and social settings. Desertification and its problems are correspondingly varied and complex. Any plan of action to combat desertification will recognize this, and with it that there can be no single set of remedies. Eecommendations must take account of different situations and be flexible enough to encompass a wide range of.conditions. Review of the desertification problem strongly supports the contention that past failure to maintain balanced livelihood systems in drylands is the outcome of an inability to apply existing knowledge of physical processes rather than from any lack of understanding of what the processes are. The same appears to be true of the design of measures to combat desertification. Accordingly, plans of action should address themselves particularly to the removal of obstacles to the application of existing knowledge, to the adaptation of existing knowledge to local s i t u a t i o n s in the social as well as i n the physical sphere, and to probr. ¡ j ^ - h r n n - n m n n g nnmrrmni-t.i-P'g-.—RI a n a action should stress action rather than future res&grch. nf - 45 - It should not te taken for granted that action to combat desertification will take first place among national commitments. The Plan of Action to Combat Desertification should not appear to pre-empt alreadyestablished national priorities. Nevertheless, it should be kept in mind that action on the ground will largely be carried out by national organizations, and presentation of the plan should accordingly aim to influence national governmental attitudes toward the problem of desertification and should seek to eccure the active c-:;irmitment of governments. This isfflostlikely to. occur when combative measures are linked to broad national plans for development and appear to be consistent with national goals. . Because dryland ecosystems are fragile, they are particularly vulnerable to misapplied technology. Techniques and equipment tried with success in more humid regions have contributed to desertification in drier environments. When innovations are suggested, attention should be paid to the impact they will have on the dryland environment and to their adaptability to local livelihood systems. In developing countries, attention must also be paid to low cost, simplicity of operation and acceptability by the local community. It follows that modifications of existing technology and practice are likely to prove more effective than radical innovation. Beyond these guiding principles, measures to combat desertification must take as their point of departure the identification of the process when it occurs and the assessment of its nature and severity. IdentifiExperience indicates that the long-term progressive deterioration cation of areas that constitutes desertification may not be readily identifiand able against the background of short-term environmental fluctuations that assessspring from periodic shifts in the rainfall. There is a consequent need ment of for regular monitoring of the status of dryland ecosystems to provide deserti- early warning of trends, to identify areas in which change is taking fication place, and to provide a basis for the investigation of causes and processes. It is in terms of such information that measures for prevention or reclamation will ultimately be designed. Because the problem is global, calling for international effort and a worldwide exchange of information, monitoring should be established in the form of uniform, worldwide surveillance. Such arrangements might usefully be identified and co-ordinated as a "world desert watch". Global surveillance of the status of dryland ecosystems and of land use can be achieved most economically through the remote sensing powers of specialized orbiting satellites. The so-called LAEDSAT system, already in operation, has this capacity. LAKDSAT now provides imagery at a scale of 1;250,000, with prospects that a scale of 1;100,000 will soon be achieved. The first step in the use of a satellite such as LAHDSAT is to employ it for the identification and mapping of distinct units on the ground. This can be carried out in false colour imagery (lAHDSAT bands 4, 5 and 7) or in black and white. Much of the world's drylands, perhaps pe"r-^ent,~-±s already'^covered" by-TarroSAT. The~ mafppiñg~would''define functional environment types as determined by their geology, landform - -46 and surface drainage, each type,characterized by certain soils and vegetation cover. The,, characteristics of each unit would'he established, from imagery and supported by already existing infoxination on geology,: soils and vegetation. The findings would be validated on the : grounds, this. ,so-called "ground truth" being ' determined by field sampling : and traverses. ... Initial demarcation of the topographical and soils units by a skilled photo-interpreter would be inexpensive, costing in the order of some dollars per thousand of hectaires. ''Ttie building up of ground truth would be a separate and continuing operation. Different combinations of boundaries .would allow the information so obtained to be expressed in terms, oí a variety of references, such as pasture land, vegetation or .salinity. „ The ,|achieva.ble scale would be'adequate for general, surveys of land status, for planning for exteriSive land use such pastoralism, or as a first stage in the identification of likely :,rareas,, for-more intensive kinds of íand use. The maps obtained, could ^pro^vide .a framework for the interchange of experience between comparable .environments. To fix trends in dryland ecosystems repeated monitoring on a uniform basis is required. This can be obtained from the LAKDSAT system via remote sensing satellite-to-ground receiving stations. Each of these has an effective radius of about 2,700 km. but at the present time, only a part of the drylands is properly covered. Access to a ground receiving station provides an opportunity for manipulating the data output to conform with local needs. ' The storage, handling and reproduction of the data from the groundreceiving station, and its integration with data from other sources, ' calls for linked computer-based data systems which will generally foiin part of a national land-data system. Information can be related to á given topographical unit or to another geographical subdivision" by the use of a standard system, and experience suggests that a one-to-two_ kilometre grid provides adequate definition for the general surveillance of drylands. A feasibility study set in,South America is proposing to validate a transnational approach.to monitoring;desertification on the above basis. The annual cost of establishing a,ground receiving station and linked data system would be $2 million, which amounts, as suggested, to dollars per thousands of hectares covered. The establishment and validation of such a system using pilot test areas would take about three years, and such systems are not likely to be generally established before five years. It looks as if world coverage would be most economically achieved through regional groupings of countries. MHDSAT imagery will have to be reinforced by ground truth from periodic field surveys, measured transects and other types of groundbased reporting. The further investigation of areas revealed by LAHDSAT as undergoing desertification or as potentially suitable for more intensive . i 47 - land use will call for mapping and monitoring at the finer scales provided by conventional air photography-» The evidence obtained from satellite imagery and other sotircesj linked through the data bank, should provide the basis for a number of important activities. The first of these should be the construction of a map showing types of desertification present and the relative vulnerability of the demarked ground units to further desertification. Then regional plans can be formulated for measures to combat desertification, linked with plans for improved land use, for resettlement, or for whatever else conditions call for. Following the regional plan, specific combative measures can be designed and sites selected for demonstration or pilot projects. . Monitoring will continue, both to maintain surveillance of land use systems and to provide assessment of the progress of combative measures. The conditions of dryland people must also be assessed. If measures to combat desertification require continuous assessment of vulnerable lands, they demand also a comparable understanding of the people who live in such places. Experience with existing programmes has indicated that physical problems associated with desertification are commonly more amenable to solution than the typically human problems. Assessments of physical conditions should therefore be accompanied by efforts to obtain a more precise understanding of the state of dryland peoples. Surveys should be undertaken, perhaps through a strengthening of census services and techniques, of their demographic characteristics of the state of their health, and of their social and economic circTmstances. On the basis of what the surveys reveal, measures can be designed to combat malnutrition, ill health, poverty, illiteracy and other social and economic disadvantages commonly suffered by people living in the drylands. Social and economic changes, such as resettlement or alternative livelihood systems, should be presented and proposed as integral parts of a plan to improve conditions and not as mere afte3>thoughts to environmental measures. If plans are to succeed, they must be acceptable to local communities. Social, economic and technological acceptance are likely to be as important as environmental compatability in detennining the effectiveness of what is proposed. Studies should be directed toward uncovering obstacles to community acceptance and to ways in which acceptance can be gained. In order to obtain the agreement of local communities and their participation in measures to combat desertification, the planning process should maintain close contact with community leaders and involve them at all stages, while preparatory studies are looking into a number of matters directly involving the local people. ¿8 -One such matter would concern how people can be best be^ approached through publicity and eSucatioii on- the .natur^ and consequences of desertification and the need for action to combat it. A study might by made of v;hat social and econo..nic incentives would best contribute to coinmunity. participation. Some demonstration projects are easy to do.and produce prompt be persuaded that, action against ijDprove their lives and.that such should be designed and executed that and desirable results. People must desertification will work, that it will campaigns are more than idle talk. Whether they concern land or people, plans must be flexible. They should incorporate periodic checks, .on the progress of measures put into operation and should allow for concurrent reassessment of the problem in human as well as in physical terms. Measures to combat desertification will take .on distinctive characteristics depending on the.nature of the land and the livelihood systems practised there. Measures to combat desertification in extensive pastoral systems In pastoral systems, desertification makes its appearance primarily in the degradation of natural pastures following over-grazing. . . It shows itself in-wind erosion, sand drift and dune advance,, in gullying where stock have concentrated and trampled the earth or where" cutting or uprooting of woody vegetation has laid bare the surface. To combat desertification in these circumstances means in general to adopt grazing practices that will allow the native vegetation to recuperate. In areas too dry for rainfed cropping, the natural vegetation usually forms the most efficient pasture in terms of upkeep, grazing returns and protection of the soil surface. The maintenance of a plant cover that will sustain the pastoral system under most conditions is the obvious goal of combative efforts. Anything more intensive reclamation, for example, by planting programmes or mechanical controls - will be feasible.only in restricted areas where the physical processes of desertification threatens installations, commurdcations, settlements or valuable cropland. It is basic that pastoral systems accept the principle that their fundamental resource'resides in the dryland pasture rather than in the livestock. The, experience of the Sahelian drought indicated that the death of livestock was chiefly due to the failure of pastures rather than of water supplies. Accordingly, conservation measures should be introduced for the control of'grazing access to dryland ranges where such measures do not exist, including fencing when necessary. As a first step, surveys should be initiated to deteimine the useful productivity of the main varieties of dryland pasture under differing seasonal conditions, the requirements of pasture plants for successful regeneration under grazing, and the dimensions of the grazing impact of a proposed system composed of certain animals in certain nxunbers. Surveys must take into account the dual role of perennials as - 49 - surface protectors and as fodder during drought» A logical first step in the assessment of dryland pastures is to map them, indicating the distinct topographic, soil and water conditions. Maps can be prepared inexpensively from satellite imagery or conventional air photographs. Surveys lead to assessments of carrying capacity under a variety of conditions and these, in tvrn, form the basis of appropriate grazing strategies. Such strategies should include a nuraber of elements. They should incorporate possibilities for deferred or rotational grazing and for the establishment of protected reserves as seed reservo irs, grazing reserves in the event of drought, and plant and wildlife refuges in which genetic variety can be conserved. As far as possible, they should preserve the mobility, flexibility, diversity and lovi stocking rates traditional in dryland grazing systems. Consideration should be given to fencing those parts of the rangeland subject to concentrated stock movements, those made up of particularly vulnerable pasture types because of soil or the formation of the land, or such sensitive areas as town perimeters. Opportunity should be taken to enrich natural pastures locally by developing simple water-harvesting schemes, such as by the construction of trenches and flood banks in areas of natural flooding. These areas should generally be treated as controlled reserves, available for the breeding of animals, as a resource against drought and for the harvesting of forage. Consideration should be given to using such areas for subsistence cropping. They should be fenced off from the open range and their use integrated into the general grazing scheme. Range conditions should be periodically surveyed to determine what grazing pressures are doing to the land and vegetation and with a view to adjusting the grazing system when required. Satellite imagery and air-photographs are now in use for continuing assessment of plant cover and productivity, but remote sensing must be supplemented by ground surveys in carefully selected areas. While grazing strategies refer to average ctocking rates, attention must also be given to localized concentrations, as along tracks and around watering points and settlements, and measures should be taken to avoid intensive local grazing and trampling. An example might be the establishment of watering points . of moderate size in a network that gives adequate access to all pastures being grazed. Measures should be introduced for the controlled and responsible use of such watering points, including the levying of charges on graziers who use communal supplies. When the trend of rangeland conditions indicates that grazing pressure should be reduced, a niamber of measures can be taken. They might include the improvement of transport facilities, assistance, with breeding programmes to improve productivity per animal and measures to reduce the risk of losses from breeding herds. Marketing outlets should be established for the efficient disposal of surplus animals, for example in stratified management programmes as suggested by the SOLAR feasibility study, with subsidies and price supports where necessary. - 50 - A l t h o u g h p a s t o r a l s y s t e m s have p r o v e n e f f i c i e n t i n t h e i r u s e oí e x t r e m e e n y i r o n m e n t s , expera.ence i i i d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s e l i v e l i h o o d s y s temía s h a r e f u l l y i n t h e c l i m a t i c r i s k s of such e n v i r o n i n e n t s , w i t h a d v e r s e human and . p h y s i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . Although t h e y s h o u l d n o t be b u t t r e s s e d t o t h e p o i n t of l o s i n g t h e i r a d a p t i v e " f l e x i b i l i t y , t h e y n e e d h e l p i n c o p i n g w i t h r e c u r r e n t d r o u g h t s t r e s s . A number of m e a s u r e s can be t a k e n t o . p r o v i d e t h i s h e l p , such a s t h e s e t t i n g a s i d e o'f g r a z i n g and f o r a g e r e s e r v e s i t h e p r o v i s i o n of t r r n s p o r t : f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e movement of s t o c k , f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e t o r e s t o r e "herd numbers f o l l o w i n g d r o u g h t , and.insurance a g a i n s t drought l o s s e s . Mutual support from adjoining" crop-"based systems has traditionally provided'pastora3.ists with an important safeguard. Such arrangement; should be maintained and stífehgthenéd where possible. They have included, market exchanges, arrangements-"for..stubble or fallow grazing (in exchange fbir natural fertilizerO, and the introdu.ction'of forage cro;:.s into crop-básed systems. Arrangfemsnts vary widely, from the incorporation of seasonal..noaadie pastoral systems into schemes for irrigated agriciilture, as in the south-eastern USSE, to the intégration of aniLalbased and rainfed crop systems in zones of controlled land use, as io. green belts around the Sahara. i basuras to iombat delertifica;ion iomadic )astoral jy steins ••• • ' " • Reicént years have shown an increased tendency for pastoral nomsds to settle down in fixed habitations. This happens because of chahgiig personal' goals or attitudes, because of drought disaster, or as a result of'goveipment programmes. Nomadic herding is then left to part of the former community, which comes increasingly to resemble more settled castor^ al systems. These changes will continue, and assistance should be given to accocjffiodate them. Such assistance might take several foims. Consideration might be given-to the.establishment of propérly designed settlements equipped with water supplies and community services.- Fomads can be-aided to develop'ancillary farming, -whether irrigated or rainfed, particularly for subsistence or forage crops. Vrherever nomads have settled down¡, measures should be taken to reduce the environmental impact of stock concentrations or fuel-gathering activities among people unaccustomed to living in permanent settlements. Woodland or range reser-res can be established near settlement perimeters. Oyer recent years,'nomadic pastoralists'have-been increasingly at a • disad-vantage relative'to adjacent farmers, particularly during periods of above-average rainf'áll when cropping tends' to er.croach on pasture lands. Care should be\taken to preoerve the traditional access by pastorafists to; rangelands and watering points, by legislation or taxation policies if necessary. Little had been done to strengthen nomadic pastoralism by usinj;; traditibnal practices, with all their adaptations, as a base. - iíeaBures could bp taken-'to- improve livestock quality' through breeding programmes in an effort to incréáse-yields • from smaller herds and de'cre'ase ios'-^es through''disease. • Control- of grazing can be effected through '-f-echnic^.l advide,! preferably directed toward the reinforcement of traditional 51 - practice and authority. Breeding and marketing schemes can te developed in harmony with traditional systems» Additional watering points can be provided that aare moderate in size, cheap to construct and easy to maintain, Here the use of windpumps should be investigated. The use of such waters should be controlled to conform with broad grazing programmes and should aim to bring all pastures into effective use. These animal-based systems are often at the extreme edge of environmental productivity and are therefore vulnerable to periodic extremes of protracted drought. This situation should be recognized by setting aside food reserves and in the advance planning of emergency measures» The seasonal or permanent out-migration characteristic of these communities has long provided them vjith supplementary income in the foEn of remittances from once-nomadic wage earners. Plans to combat desertification should seek to accommodate and assist such population movements through appropriate resettlement schemes. Alternative sources of livelihood might be provided in the local setting5 as through employment in tourism, craft industries and services or through the establishment of new industry or agricultural activities. Attempts should be made to reduce the selective out-migration of the most able workers whose loss tends to impoverish the local community. Measures to Commercial ranching differs from more traditional animal-based comlDat de- systems, and often in ways that make it more vulnerable to sertifica- desertification. tion in comCommercial ranching tends to be more settled, less free ranging, mercial with greater likelihood of disturbance around fixed installations. ranching Attention should be given to arrangements for moving and yarding stockj systems and some installations, such as yards, paddock gates and troughs, may have to be shifted periodically to avoid extreme effects. , The use of mechanized transport and other equipment characterizes commeircial ranching. Care should be taken in routing and grading tracks and roadways, especially where protective stone covers are involved. Attention should be paid to possibilities of stabilizing surfaces as an alternative to grading fresh routes. Particular care is required where runoff is channeled along tracks or their margins. High labour costs in commercial ranching mean a minimum use of manpower, which causes difficulties when labour-intensive measures, such as planting, are called for. Proposals for pastoral development should include an assessment of environmental impact and an estimate of the likely costs of reclamation measures, an expense that may be made taxdeductible. Vulnerability to .price'fluctuations, including those on distant, international markets, introduces an additional hazard into commercial ranching systems, reinforcing the hazard of climatic variability» Depressed markets may lead to the aband-onment of properties and the loss of xrstallations and may discourage appropriate long-term investment. Government-assisted marketing and price-stabilization schemes should be introduced when necessarji-. - 52 - vlt the same time, commercial ranchiiig has some characteristics which' give it advantages in combating desertification. These include lower stocking rates, "better control of stock movements and watering points, and improved facilities for the transport of stock and forage by road or rail. Such advantages point to the need for more, imaginative stocking policies, particularly those that avoid extreme grazing pressure. Enlightened policies would include the maintenarice of grazing reserves on the ranch and even more extensively on the unalloted or public rangelands within the pastoral district. Provision should be made in advance for the transport of stock to such reserves when circumstances require it, for de-stocking in times of drought and for re-stocking when the rains return, and for access to forage when drought occurs. Such provisions may call for outside assistance. I Mechanized equipment can be used to counter extreme desertification in local situations. Encouragement should be given to research on improved methods of revegetation, including soil treatment, pitting or furrowing, seeding and fertilizing. Assistance might include technical advice, the loan of plant stocks, the provision of seeds and fertilizers, and financial subsidies for approved measures. I In operation, commercial ranching can take advantage of economies of scale. It is also more subject to governmental regulation, either directly through lease provisions or indirectly through financial or taxation policies. Recommended stocking practices can be enforced through these means,, which can also be used to achieve the subdivision or amalgamation of holdings so as to favour operations on recommended lines. iorabating j Rainfed agriculture, embracing much of the world's production of iesertifi- staple cereals, extends across semi-arid and sub-humid lands subject to brief but intensive rainfall. In these systems, exposure,and loosening jation in of the ground surface facilitates erosion by wind and water. When the rainfed systems are mechanized, extreme clearing increases the impact of wind. cropping Desertification appears in the blowing away of topsoil, in sand drift systems and ;the local growth of coppi.oe dunes, in sheet erosion and gullying on sloping ground and the deposition of infertile alluvium on bottom lands. \'/hen these events occur, productivity declines and croplands are abandoned. Although it covers less territory than pastoral systems, rainfed cropping supports larger dryland populations, and the potential losses through desertification, in terms of both capital arid livelihood, are correspondingly greater. The impact of desertification is intensified because denser settlements and more intensive communications are associated with rainfed agriculture. Great problems have arisen through incursions by cropping systems into areas of excessive climatic risk. This commonly happeihs'during wetter years, when faimers are attracted by the prospect of short-term gains. Such invasions are usually made at the expense of adjacent pastoral systems, ahd they commonly end in the collapse of the intrusive cropping system when drier years return, sometimes with the land so damaged that it is no longer suitable for grazing. 53 Studies of...the relation between agriculture and climate, such as those carried out "by, the World Meteorological Organization in Western Asia aijd Saharan Africa, have done much to determine: the crnnexi"onB • between climate and the water needs of cereal crops, thus fixing the probability of the occurrence of effective seasons on the basis of climatic re cords o These studies should be extended and improved through additional meteorological recording and investigations into the water requirements of crops at different stages of grcth and under a range .of. soil conditions. .Such studies, by providing good estimates of climatic risk, will support policies of la.nd zoning-, and measures should'be taken to discourage the extension of cropping beyond certain climabic limits. At the same time and because cropping rapi-esents a more productive use of the land, attempts should be made to expand the safe-cropping area by introducing strains or types of crops that are more resistant to extreme conditions and through improved methods of cultivation and water conservation. Such actions should be supported by demonstration projects and extension services. Research should be encouraged that will lead to improved weather forecasting with accompanying warning systems, particularly for such critical periods as seedingj^ germination and harvesting. Hainfed systems have also been extended onto steep slopes and veiy fragile soils and into areas subject to flooding, particularly under the pressures of population increase. The result has been accelerated erosion, lowered yields and the loss of cultivable land» These are common occurrences when uplands have suffered deforestation with a consequent increase in runoff and water erosion at lower levels. Such developments are well exemplified on the Mediterranean margins of the Old World deserts. It. .is essential that plans for thfe reclamation and improved use of rainfed croplands should form part of integrated schemes for- the . use of funGtional:,areas such as drainage catchments and which recognize the interdependence of upland, piedmont and valley with their associated land use. . 1 first step in formulating a plan is to map land types and lahd use at a scale appropriate to cropping (is50,000 to Is250,000, depending on conditions)I The land units.mapped should be classified according to potential use as determined by the éxistence of'hazards, such as " steepness and length of slope, the presence of stones'or'íócks, the' risk of flooding, the quality of the drainage and vulnerability to witid erosion. • • • .'Becommendations as to how the various parts of tíñs -lánd should "fae used ^i.ill constitute the plan, which must iecognize appropriaté limits to rainfed cropping, as determined by rainfall, terrain, soils and • relationship with adjacent land uses such as forestry or grazing. The marginal lands outside these, limits should-"be removed from cropping by acquisition, such measures as financial inducements or'by the establishment of forest, grazing or water-catchment reserves» When such ineasuie's - 54 - involve the disruption of traditional livelihood systems, they are unlikely.to succeed unless they form part of larger schemes of rural reconstruction involving appropriate chaíiges in land tenure, such as the consolidation of holdings, or resettlement schemes offering alternative livelihoods. Clean fallowing, or allowing a field to rest while stripped of vegetation, provides a way of conserving the moisture in the soil. Like several such techniques, clean fallowing happens to increase the land's vulnerability to desertification. Safeguards can "be erected "by improved methods of rainfed cropping, measures which maintain ground cover and improve soil structure. The things that can he done to counter risks and improve productivity vary considerably among different situations and different systems of rainfed agriculture. In regions of a Mediterranean type, traditional combinations of tree and field crops should be encouraged. An element of livestock husbandry should be retained, increasing the diversity of the¿é systems, their resilience, and hence their resistance to climatic stress. In some Mediterranean regions, decay and disuse have affected certain traditional methods for the conservation of soil and water, such as terracing and water-spreading systems. These old systems should be brought back into service, maintained and even improved, and assistance should be provided for such puiposes. Tree planting should be encouraged, whether in shelter belts or in coppice groves for firewood. Tillage should avoid powdering light topsoils, and farm machinery, some of which may have to be designed, should be suitable for working such situations as terraced slopes. Strip cropping should be introduced as a counter to wind erosion. More use shoúld be made of crop rotations, including legumes, at the expense of fallow. Crop rotation, including cover crops to be ploughed back into the soil, should also be introduced into mechanized systems of rainfed .monocropping. Such systems should restrict the burning or removal of litter, and livestock should be introduced to graze on feed cropá or crop residues. Strip cropping should be encouraged, with inducements on occasion, as well as the planting of shelter belts on open plains. To combat salinization on valley floors, deep-rooted varieties or salt-tolerant pasture can be planted. In the svjidden system, the slash-and-bum agriculture so typical of rainfed cropping in drylands with summer rain, the farmer will return to ,a particular plot after its vigour has been restored by extended fallow, often after as long as twenty years. Shortening the cycle, coming back too soon, can have adverse effects on plant recovery and regrowth and on soil fertility. When this happens, measures should be taken to restore the cycle to its older rhythm, perhaps by expanding the area available to cultivation or by rremoving: population pressures through resettlement or the development of alternative livelihoods. In these systems, valuable substances, such as gum arabic, can SQusetimes be extracted from the natural regrowth during the fallow part of ,the cycle. Steps can be taken to increase the value of regrowth by introducing new trees or by adopting good forestiy practices. - 55 - Traditional crops and ancient tillage practices have sometimes Taecome fixed in these systems -í^íhere new varieties and alternative techniques would work better to maintain the fertility and structure of tropical soils and to diminish the effects of pluvial erosion and soil crusting. Swidden agricultxire should he closely scrutinized everywhere with a view to reducing its impact on the land. Once rainfed cropland h. 3 "been degraded, e 'forts to rehabilitate it should fona part of larger actions directed toward water managei:;ont<, improved land use and the control of erosion. Within broader plans, quite definite actions can be taken depending on the form that degradation takes. Gullying, a particularly unsightly form of erosion? can be arrested by planting trees in upper catchments and along gully margins and by grassing areas that feed the gullies with flows. Also helpful are the construction of diversion banks and furrows across gully heads and the installation of check dams and silt traps along gully courses. Under favourable conditions, gullies can simply be filled in and their banks regraded. Sheet erosion, which scours topsoil from wide areas, can be countered with contour banks and ditchess with grassed contour strips and by means of terraces. Wind erosion, which blows soil away from rainfed cropland and which causes sand drift and dune encroachment, can be countered by planting shrubs and trees in shelter belts (at a spacing four times as far apart as their eventual height). Fences can be constructed or lines of resistant shrubs and trees planted as barriers against oncoming sand, upwind of threatened areas. Bare sand dan be covered with matting, bituminous coating or mulches of vegetation litter. Sand surfaces can be stabilized by seeding and planting proper successions of vegetation, including plants whic^ thrive in sand, legumes and cover plants in association with shrubs and trees, supported by irrigation where necessaiy. Finally, dunes can be levelled or reshaped to remove slip faces. Combating desertification in irrigated cropping systems On turning to irrigation systems, a harsh fact is promptly encountered. The amount of irrigated land lost annually to desertification (some hundreds of thousands of hectares) is probably about equal to the amount of land newly brought under irrigation each year, Great costs are involved in the breakdown and abandonment of such intensive, highly-capitalized agricultural projects. Irrigable land is scarce, and new enterprises are enormously expensive. Such considerations stress the importance of maintaining existing irrigation schemes by countering desertification whenever it affects them. The most prevalent form of desertification in irrigated cropping systems occurs when waterlogging causes salts and alkalines to infect soils, particularly where drainage is poor and proper leaching fails to take place. - 56 - That particular problum.emphasizes the importance of preliminary .surveys and testing of proposed irrigation projects to assure adequate -design. Most salinizatipn. problems arise from design deficiencies, ,, Good design should be based, on an understanding of how much water is available for irrigation and,its silt and salt loads, including seasonal variations. A close study must be made of the' soils in the area,embraced by the project, their texture and salinity, and especially: of their water properties, as these will determine drainage requirements and how much water will be available to crops. .Water requirements should be determined for proposed cropping systems. The position and salt content of the groundwater table should also be determined as well as seasonal fluctuations in both. This will require some understanding of the hydraulic properties of the .soil's lower layers.., or how thope layers store, and transmit water. . These investigations should yield a map showing salt hazards and how they might restrict the proposed cropping system. On the basis of the map.and the surveys, design work can continue with particular emphasis on the distribution of the water and efjfective drainage systems and the subdivisions of the system as determined by estimated water needs. .Finally, design should take account of the services and communications the system will require and the settlements that serve and are served by it. Whether under development or in operation, irrigation schemes should be. run by operating authorities equipped with professional staff,- adequate funding and the powers to control land use. As a way of proceeding, especially with new schemes, the authority should undertake pilot projects which can be expanded into research and demonstration projects as they prove their worth. Irrigation schemes require extensive maintenance. The main distribution canals should be properly banked and lined, as with concrete, to reduce seepage. Canals and drainage ditches should be kept clear of silt and weeds and pools of stagnant water eliminated. Takeoffs or turnouts, -where water is drawn into the system, should be designed and maintained to keep silt loads to a minimum. The plots to be irrigated should be levelled to ensure even watering and leaching, and where local subsidence occurs, levelling should be carried out periodically. While provisions and requirements for adequate.leaching should be maintained, there should also be checks a against over-irrigation. , Irrigation ..schemes are" sometimes established where farmers have neither familiarity with nor tradition in this type of agriculture. Yet the tillage of heavy soils under irrigation'calls for particular skills,, as does-the application of irrigation water at prescribed stages in the, development of the crops. Extension services must be provided if irrigation schemes are to work successfully. Land-holders should also be given a.ssistance in. the form of credit, purchasing and marketing plans, and whqre suitable and desirable, in the development of agricultural co-operatives. Improved land use should be encouraged through such measures as economic incentives and tax concessions. - 57 - When irrigation schemes are designed, individual or family holdings should he shaped to ensure an appropriate level of intensive use, without being too large to preclude effective maintenance. Encouragement should he given to an appropriate balance of subsistance and cash-crops, tree and field crops. Forage crops may be included if circumstances favour a livestock component» Great care should he taken in the allocation of holdings and in the formulation and administration of regulations for their prop^^r management. When successful, irrigation schemes inevitably give rise to close settlement, to towns, usually inhabited by people unaccustomed to congestion and its attendant problems. Housing should be planned for and provided at the same time that land holdings are allocated. Houses should be equipped with potable water and sanitation services, and all the more so here, where diseases can be transmitted through the irrigation system itself. Indeed, new communities should be provided with all the standard community servicesj including health, education, welfare and cultural centres, and these should be sited as part of the land settlement plan. Transport services should be established; Irrigation projects based on groundwater supplies encounter special difficulties because groundwater quality is usually lower than that of surface waters and the threat of salinization is generally higher. Limitations in groundwater supplies may hinder proper leaching. Groundwater supplies must be kept in balance with the requirements of land use, and enough water must be provided for both irrigation and leaching. Generally, discipline applied to water use must be stricter when irrigation is based on groundwater rather than surface water. Such discipline may include central control over the siting of bores and wells and the installation of pumping equipment. Monitoring must be constant of such factors as groundwater levels, draw-down and salinity, and the proper staff must be on band to conduct such monitoring or any other investigations as required. When based on groundwater supplies, irrigation schemes often suffer from poor drainage, with increased chances that the groundwater supplies will be contaminatea by saline irrigati.on runoff. Such schemes are often characterized by networks of small distribution channels under individual control affected by wastage through seepage and higher risks of salinization. Many such problems arise because older groundwater-based irrigation projects often grew up without any planning, and their operations remain hampered because of entrenched rights to land and water. Some of these old projects should be rationalized, with compensation when necessary. Groundwater assessment together with the mapping and classification of land types ~ the information used to plan a new system - would provide a basis for rationalizing older systems and for their continuous reassessment» l//hen irrigated lands have suffered salinization or other forms of desertification, they should be surveyed as a first step to reclamation. By deteitnining what topographic changes have occurred, the degree .. 58 -- of saliíiization of soil and grounáwater. amounts and levels, an estimate • can 136 made of what is. needed to lea eh .a.nd drain affec-ted lands and what else might be -required to restore- the system "by. re levelling of -ground surfaces, for example,- or-renewal-of irrigation channels. How drainage will he effected - whether by tube wel-ls,, tile drainage or open -ditches - will. depend on groundwater conditions, soil: properties .' and costs of land and labour-. ¥hen the -situation has been made clear, decisions can be made on priorities, which might -include abandonment of.lands most severely affected, and a reclamation programme designed in. terms pi;, the availability of water,- labour and capital.- After the-programme-^ has been implemented, reclaimed, lands can be re-allocated,, but not \iithout clear regulations on what., can be done-with them. Reclamation provides an occasion for- the enforcement of practices, that will prevent-^ desertification from recurring. •Comba tingThe drylands have always held vast treasure in mineral resources, desertifi- including the modern world's petroleum^, and it can be expected that new cation in discoveries will be exploited there in a now familiar pattern: Revenues will be large compared with other local sources-of .income; direction mining and financing will come from outside the region,' and almost all financial benefits .will be. exported away. .,.>.... In the past, or so-it generally seemed,, such, resources would have been exploited whatever the, local human consequences and environmental impact. Nowadays, it is agreed that the region and the local community should be protected from the,worst, consequences of such exploitation, which is indeed expected to make a proper contribution to regional development ,and welfare. To assure this, mining proposals must contain an assessment of their environmental impact» and the prqprietors of the -mines will be expected to meet, the full costs-of environmental protection and reclamation. Their operations must,, be so conducted: that they contribute to the general development of the region. It may be difficult to maintain principles when great riches are involved, but in any competition for scarce .resources, such as water or land, the rights- and needs of the local community should receive priority.^ When mining or drilling operations are about to be introduced, the local people; should participate fully in planning and in all other decisions that concern them, and arrangements; should be made for continuing consultation. The ^drylands should be. favoured with the--same standards of environmental protection that are applied in more humid areas. Indeed, drylands may require additional precautions be-cause, of, the special sensitivity of-the arid environment, its. susceptibility to-air pollution, groundwater pollution., dust nyisance a.nd surface, disturbance. As an example, restriptions should be placed on the grading, of unsealed roads in drylands and on their use by heavy vehicles. .. - ., • The activity of mining or drilling .and the people who carry it out, many of - them brought in from, .outside,,.. w;i'll ha;ve. all. sorts of effects - 59 - on the surrounding region. Plant and animal reserves may have to "be established on the perimeter of the activity, with restrictions on hunting or plant removal over a wider surrounding area. Employees brought in from outside should be placed in suitably designed settlements equipped with proper services. Mining or drilling ventures -will view local communities as a sourc of labour and a supplier of food and matt--iaIs,and fulfilling these roles can affect a community adversely. It sometimes happens that a once-isolated, traditional society is brought into sudden contact with people of a very different kinds often rootless, sometimes violent, accustomed to a transient, unstable society» It will be difficult to maintain the principle that the rights and needs of the local community should be protected and local people are given every opportunity to participate in and benefit from the new development. Combating Many of the considerations relating to mining and drilling have desertifi- equal application to tourist activities and insxallations in deserts cation and drylands. Local communities should share in the benefits of tourism, associated It should provide them with opportunities for employment, improved with communications and access to other support services and improved markets tourism for local products, including those of craft industries. But before local communities can share in the benefits of tourism, they may have to be protected from it. For example, local livelihood systems, such as pastoralism, may have to be protected from interference by tourist activities. The information tourists are provided should include comments on the local people, their customs and way of life, to help ensure respect for their practices and for themselves as persons. Protection may have to be given to sites and objects of traditional cultural importance. In the competition for scarce resources such as water, land and pasture, the needs of local communities should be assigned first priority. This viewpoint and the protection required may best be achieved when local communities participate in the planning and management of tourist activities. The natural environment will also require protection against tourist activities. Great care must be taken in the siting, design and maintenance of tourist roads, camps and rest areas. Traffic restrictions will be needed, particularly on the use of cross-country vehicles, and roads subject to heavy traffic will have to be paved. Lodges and camps will have to be served with proper facilities, for water, sanitation, rubbish disposal and the control of local traffic. Penalties should be applied to combat littering. Plants and animals will require pTOtection, particularly of endangered or attractive species. Archaeological and scientific sites, interesting geological formations and natural monuments will all require special protection. The concept of environmental management, so important to productivity in agriculture, should be extended to the tourist This might involve the establishment of.reserves or wilderness from which tourists líould be excluded and which would serve as sustaining industry. areas refuges - -60 - and sources of regeneration for plants and animals. Or it might embrace ••'''the boncept of natural parks for controlled tourism in which the tourist < could 'view an interesting and typical range of natural ecosystems without causing them damage. -The management of such parks should incorporate the concept of "recreational carrying capacity" vith "deferred" or "rotational" uses to allow for the seasonal vulnerability of species and to spread'the impact of tourism. , It is obvious that such parks must be adequately staffed with professionals capable of providing tourists with expert guidance. • The'development of tourism should be generally controlled in the interest of environmentail protection. Such control can be exercised by tourism ministries or tourist boards on which local communities and land users are represented or can be heard. Each tourism proposal should be required to incorporate an environmental impact study, and approval of the proposal should be subject to the provision of adequate environmental protection. The costs of- such protectión and of reclamation, if subsequently needed, should be borne by the project. Combating desertification associated with human settlements Dryland settlements can range all the way from the''one-family homestead with its thorn-tree fencing to great, modern oities with millions of inhabitants. The usual dryland settlement, however, will be a village or small town that has growfi up to serve'the needs of the livelihood systems practised in arid settings. A number of measures can be taken to improve conditions in such settlements and reduce their adverse impact on the environment. Reserves should be established surrounding settlements and extending for a few kilometers out from their limits and within which grazings, farming and fuel gathering are restricted. Such reserves ínü'st be well fenced on their boundaries and wherever they are traversed'by roads. • They should be regarded as areas affording regeneration of natural • ' "vegetation, but they may be subject to land treatment and planting where degradation is advanced. ' ' Special measures will be required to check active physical degradation around settlements when it threatens urban land and gardens. It may be necessary, for example, td stabilize moving sands and to check gullies or fill them in. 'Roads in and near settlements should be paved or otherwise improved. Traffic should be confined to roads by fettc'iiig. ^ Open areas inside settlements which form sources of dust nuisance or which retain stagnant water after rain should be brought under control. ' Grassing and planting of shélter belts may be required, but attention should be given to types of wind-stable ground cover which require little maintenance and consume little water, as for example gravel surfaces relieved by the planting of local trees and shrabs. ; Adequate storm drainage should be provided to handle- the mnoff from'rains which if infrequent are often intense" when they-come. - 61 - - Services such as water supply, sanitation, waste disposal and street maintenance should not only meet general standards Tmt should be reinforced to cope with the special stresses due to the desert environment. Assistance and encouragement should be given to residents to improve, conditions in and around their own homes. Insulating or scree- ing materials might be rovided or help given in the reconstruction of homes or in the establishment of gardens, shelters and shade belts. If much can be done to improve the conditions of existing settlements, control must be exercised over their further growth. Proposals-to expand settlements or to establish new towns should incorporate environmental impact assessments which take into account the possibilities for desertification that such activities bring with them. The assessments should include estimates of future demand for water and energy and for land presently used for other purposes, and of the consequences of these projected demands. They must include estimates of requirements for waste disposal, sanitation and other services. New housing and settlements should be designed to reduce stresses-imposed by the desert environment, for example-by the layout and orientation of houses, by screening, insulation and cooling devices and the provision of outdoor living areas, all planned to be compatible with local life styles. Roofs should be designed to catch and store stormwater and should be adaptable to the use of solar heaters. Settlements should incorporate shelters and the control of open spaces to reduce the threat of wind, dust and moving sand. Perimeter reserves and controlled recreation areas should be included as a normal part of urban plans. Research should be encouraged into architectural and living problems in desert regions.- Studies shorld be. made of the use of solar e^exgy at various scales for domestic need? and industry, of the use of wind energy in small installations, and of o oner alternative energy sources which can reduce the use of wood as fuel. Local materials should be studied for their use in construction. Progress can be made in improving insulation and cooling systems, including those employing solar power. Trees and shrubs should be examined for their suitability as protection and ornaments in deserts settlements. Research should continue on techniques for the desalination of water, on recycling water, and on the use of brackish water in sanitation and industry. Studies can result in improvements in subsurface water storage and the purification of water supplies. Methods of waste disposal can be more compatible with the arid environment. Some control needs to be exercised over the relationships between settlements and their hinterlands. In recent decades, urban growth in and near deserts has been linked to out-migration from nearby rural areas. Since such migration will continue, it should be anticipated in plans for housing and community-services. Urban development plans sEould form an integral part of'-regional development and resettiement schemeSo - 62 - . Urban de'ws.lopinejnt, w i t h , i t s demands f o r . w a t e r , f u e l , c o n s t r u c t i o n material^.,.-, land,.and^^^^I^^ be c a r r i e d , .put t o t h e . d e t r i m e n t . o.f . a d j a c e n t : l i v e í i h d p d . - s y s t e m s . . . The. p r i o r needs and r i g h . t s .of t h o s e s y s t e m s s h o u l d be p r o t e c t e d from t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact o f . p l a n n e d s e t t l e m e n t g r o w t h , and t h e s i t i n g and d e s i g n of s e t t l e m e n t s s h o u l d be i n f l u e n c e d by sü'ch c o n s i d e r a t i o n s v . ,,At '^^e same t i m e , r u r a l p e o p l e s h o u l d , be; made aware of... the., P 9 s s i b i e ' , a d v a n t a g e s t o .them of n e a r b y s e t t l e m e n t s , and t h e y s h o u l d be i n v o l v e d i n p l a n n i n g new communities a n d p r e p a r i n g f o r the grow.th .of e s t a b l i s h e d s e t t l e m e n t s . In Conclusion ... This survey of desertification contains many suggestions, both explicit and implicit, for combating the process and for reclaiming land that has suffered the ravages of degradation. Many of these suggestions appear, as'recommenda.tion^ in the,. P.Ian of. ActiQ.n .to Combat I)e;sertifcatipn,. that w ü l be .submitted to., the. United Nations'Conference on .DeseriificaticnVrto be held.,in later summer of 1977:' - : Soine suggestions call for additional research and an improved understanding:of ways in which .desertification operates and of methods for combating it. This is all to the good, as is any proposal that would make the task of land reclamation easier. But the fact is that most instances of desertification can be dealt with through knowledge and esip.erience. that are available, right now. The Romans applied terracing;,to. Qon^ the North African littoral into the breadbasket of the Mediterranean.. G o o d ^ p r a c t i c e s transformed.the Great American Desert:into, the wheat empire that it is today. The SCARP project ill; Pakistan has reclaimed 45 per cent of one million waterlogged acres of once-productive irrigated land. The immense changes affecting the contemporary world have brought the problem of desertification into sharper focus than ever before, just as pressures on the sensitive dryland ecosystems are more intense than ever before;. Dqsertif i cation, can be halted and ravaged land reclaimed in terms of what is known now. All that remains is the political will and determination to do it. C U R R W IITSRmTIOML ACTIVITIES TO COÍÍMT DESERTIFICATION Introdttctioa lo At it® fifth session th© 'ivi^-onmeat Go-oMim-feioa Boani decided tha-fe its focal poiats should prmps^T® a psporfe OB the impleraeatation of pam^aph 1 of Gener&l AsseaWy resolutioa 3337(XSIX)o Through this resolution^ th© Assea'bly d<scid®d that coae®pt©d intenmtioml actios to combat des^rtificatio® was & priority responsibility for th© whole of the United MatioBS systesao Th© EnviroMeat Co-ordiaatioH Board considered that it could best serv© th® espeetatiom® of th© General Assembly through s review of curroat iatersmtioml activities to combat desertificatioa» assd an aimlysis of th© ©steat to ^hich these activities ar© co-ordimted or coacerledo 2o For yeare^ several orgaaisatioHi® of the Uaiied Hatioas ©ystam^ individually or joiatlyi, hav© Iseea engaged ia or provided resources for activities related to arid aad s©ai-®rid laMSg raagiag from research and th® disseaismtioa of irforraatiom to trainiag th® applioatioa of ©xistirag kaowledg®., Preseat dev©l©p®satsg hoMev®?^ ia certain part® of th© w r M j particularly th§ S«daBO-=-Sah©lian mgiom aM adjacent areas of Africaj have served to stisalate iaterast ia the iateractioa betwae® the incidence of droiagM -••M the process of dss^rtificatioag M d to iateaeif^ coac®ra about th© iapact of this iat®raotioM oa saa aad 013 drylaad ®cosystemso 3o This coaeera is reflected in th© large ataraber of receat áeoisioas affid iaitiativeg takes by various United Matioias orgaai sat ions. Among these aaay be meatioaed Gaaerjal A^sesbly resolutioa 3054iXX¥Il) coaceraing, araoKg other thiags^ th® search for a aediua and loag^terá solutioa'to the problems of desert eacroachraeat ia th© coimtries bordering oa th® Sahara aad other aross with similar geographical cowiitioasf the IMDP Goveraiag Council decisioa at its seveateeath se^sioa calling for actioa prograimnes correspoadiag to the aediuia aad loag~t@M implicatioas of the drought affectiag Africa and adjacent areasf th© UIEP Goveraiag Couacil deeisioa 8(11) adopting proposals for aa integrated research prograsmne aad other activities oa arid aad serai-arid laadsf General Assembly resolution 3202 (S-¥I) regarding th® PrograiMe of Action on the Establishment of a New lateraatioaal Ecoaomic Order which^ aaosrig other things^ called for concrete aad speedy, measures to arrest desertifieatioa? ECOSOC resolution 1874(L¥IÍ) oa the strategy for traasfomiag ecological eoaditions ia the Sudaao-Saheliaa region? ECOSOC resolutioa I878 (LVII) stressing th® aeed for a well ce-ordiaatedj systera-wide attack on th© drought probleia ia Africa! aad ECOSOC resolutioa 1898(L¥II) aiaed at the preparation of a world prograeaa© of developmeat research ató applicatioa of science aad techaolo®- to solve the Bpecial problems of the arid areas® 4o la r@spoas© to a auuter of th© deeisioas jiost leaatioaedj aa iaterag®aoy nseetiag was ©oiiveaed uader the aegis ©f th© Atoiaistrative GE.77-82317 Commi-ttee on Co-ordination (ACC) in Octoter 1974 (®e® C0-0RDIKATI0W/Ra058) for the purpose of working out an appropriate allocation among the concerned organizations of the various tasks stemming from these decisionse Pollomng the adoption of General Assembly resolution 3337(XXIX) on international co-operation to combat desertificationy another interagency meeting was convened by the ACC in March 1975 (s®® CO-ORDINÁTIOM/R.IO8I) in order, chiefly, to prepare the ground foi the work of the secretariat of the United nations Conference on Desertificat. jn, envisaged in that resolution, and of the interagency task for«e which, under the same resolution, was later convened to assist that secretariate The Conference, scheduled to be held 29 August - 9 September 1977» is aow seen as a principal mechanism for co-ordinating current international activities to combat desertification and for starting new activities which, together with cxirrent activities, will constitute a concerted international programme of action against desertification and for the rational social and economic development of drought-prone areas. Reviews of Desertification and Related Problems. 5o In its resolution 1898(LVII), the Economic and Social Council requested the Secretary-General to convene an ad hoc interagency task force on the arid zones, which would identify the obstacles to development of arid and semi-arid ssones, including social, economic, institutional, and other obstacles. The task force was also asked to prepare an inventory of current research and development actions and programmes with the view to preparing a world-wide research and development programme for the arid and semi-arid zoneso The task force was convened under the auspices of UNESCO on 29 January to 2 February 1975* It adopted a report on obstacles to development (E/C«8/if^o I/3) which was reviewed the Intergoverjsmental Woricing Group of the Coiraaittee on Science and Te'chnolo^ for Development (CSTD) guid submitted in its final revised form to the full Committee in February I9760 The repoirt has been issued by ÜHESCO» 60 Regarding the inventory of current research and development actions and programmes, the ÜIÍEP secretariat produced in late I974 a comprehensive survey of activities related to arid and semi-arid lands and soil loss (UMIP/GC/30). This survey was part of the review of UHEP^s priority subject ares "Land, Water and Desertification"c UBESCO is expected to convene a second meeting of the ad hoc interagency task force on arid lands to update and expand this survey to comply with the ECOSOC resolution. 7o The subsequent General Assembly resolution 3511(XXX) requested CSTD, with the assistance of the Advi'sojy Committee on the Application of Science and Technology to Developaent (ACAST), to include in its prograasne of work on arid areas, in pursuance of ECOSOC resolution 1898(LVII), proposals to close the gaps in scientific knowledge and technologies concerning desertification. The Office for Science and Technology of UH/ESA, which serves both Committees, is preparing these proposals for submission to the Conference on Desertification. 80 The Conference secretariat has arranged for the preparation by consultants of scientific reviews of four components of the desertification problems climatic change, ecological change, demographic, social, economic, and behavioural aspects, and technological suspects. These have been synthesized in aa overview document for presentation to the Conference. In a d d i t i o n , ÜIESCO has pr©paE=®dp u i t h ÜEDP fiasuaciagj, s i : : cas® s t u d i e s of d e s e r t i f i c a - f e i o a bM. © f f o r ^ s t o coa^at i t i n s e l e c t e d ax^as of C h i l e j I n d i S j I r a q , MgQ^c PrJcistan, aad Tuuaisiao Those s t u d i e s , aloEig w i t h s i M l a r cas© 'stradies t o ' b o ooatrlbrated by th© Co'íJ'es'Ments of A u s t m l i a , , ChÍM.5 Ira^o Is2=sy3lj USA axA USSRj have "been s y a t h e s i a o d for p r e s e a t a t i o n t o t h e Coafes^mceo F i a a l l y p a world a s p shoiiiag th® ©sterat of d e s e r f e i f i c a t i o a has b®©» px=©pa. by FáO ira co-operatioia m t h ÜISCO aad MOo These asid othes' prepi-. -..tioms f o r th® Coaf©3t»Qaee a r e r e p o r t e d i n UIS>/GC/67 aad TOEP/GC/^5o 9o Regardiag ©scharag® of i a f o r a a t i o n on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a aad r e l a t e d t o p i c s j t h e r ^ as^ som® r e c e a t d e w l o p a e a t s w i t h i a t h e U a i t e d tetioas systeffl which sooa h®lp raeet th® imforBatioia aeeds of r e o e a r c h e r s j p r o j e c t a d s i m s t s ^ - t o r s j m ú gov®rs2®©iat decisioffi—aakerso FAO i s d e v e l o p i a g AGRISs l a t e r s m t i o a a l l a f o r s a a t i o a System f o r th© A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e a c e s asud T©ehaolo®r¡, u h i c h i s a a a f e s t r a e t i a g s o r ^ c © p r o m d i a g suEEmrie® of r s s o a r c h r s s u l t s j and th© Ciarrsffit A g r i c ^ l t m r a l Research Infom&tioa 3jmt®m (CARIS)^ dhxQh. t i i l i c o l l o o t j o r g m i s e má d i s s e a i a a t © a c t i ' í r i t i e s isa th© f i e l d s of agrie®ltur®5 ©aiffial prodwctiomj f o r e s t s y , iffllaad f i s h e r i e s , axid foodo USIEP i© o r g a a i a i a g t h e l a t e r s m t i o a a l R e f e r r a l S y s t e a ( i R S ) , whieh w i l l i a t e r e o a a e c t u s e r s of ©aviromaantal bs t a k e a of t h e SGr.- -¿ary-GQaQralos r a p o r t ( s / 5 ^ 7 ) OH strsEigthemffig of Uffiited l a t i o E S iafor-^iatioa SQrmcon im th© n a t u r a l r©soTaTC©s f i e l d o This i s a p r o p o s a l t h a t th® Ceatr© f o r fetural Resoarces, Eijer®r aad T r a a s p o r t (CIRET) of th© W/SSA, i a do©© e o l l a b o r a t i o a w i t h th© U a i t e d Hatioas S t a t i s t i c a l Office„ m a focal poiat f o r collectioffij lOq Regardiag raomtoriag of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n m d r e l a t e d f e a t u r e ® oí a r i d asad sesíai^arid a r e a s , UHEP i s p l a a a i a g th© Global E a - r i r o s s e a t a l r-feaitoriag S y s t e a (GMS), which will i n c l u d e a ÜBIEP/FAO p i l o t p r o j e c t oa m o a i t o r i a g of raag® and p a s t u r e ecosystenaso l a a d d i t i o n , th© s e c r e t a r i a t of th© Coafereaee oa B e s e r t i f i c a t i o a has a í ^ a a g e d f o r two s t u d i e s of t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of r s g i o a a l c o = o p s r a t i o a i a South Aaierica aád s o u t h w e s t e r n Asia f o r s a o a i t o r i a g of d e s e r i i f i c a t i o a aad n a t u r a l llo Regardiag r e s e a r c h oa d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a aad r e l a t e d t o p i c s , UKSCO^s Arid Zone Prograiaie, 1951-=19^59 produced some t h i r t y p u b l i c a t i o a s which • 9 a r i d areaSo Aa achievemeat of t h i s prograssae has beea th® m o b i l i s a t i o n of s c i e n t i s t s fro® maa^ c o u n t r i e s i a t h e p u r s i i i t of a s h a r e d o b j e c t i v ® t h e developnseat of a a i n t e r d i s c i p l i a a r y and i n t e g r a t e d approach t o t h e s t u d y of djylasffid problesaso HuMrsd® of s c i e a t i s t s from de-yelopiag e o u a t r i e s have bsea t r a i a e d t h r o u g h f e l i o t j s h i p s aad r e g i o a a l c o u r s e s , ami a ausnber of permaaeat i a t e r d i s c i p l i a a r y r e s e a r c h c s a t r ® s have b©ea c r e a t e d o r s t r e a g t h e a e d , i a c l u d i a g th© C a a t r a i Arid Zoae Research I n s t i t u t o of JodhpuTj l a d i a , th® Hegev Research l a s t i t u t e of Boersheba, I s r a e l , th© D e s e r t Research l a s t i t u t e of E ^ p t , aad t h e N a t u r a l Resources Research 12o UNESCO's l o n g s t a n d i n g a c t i v i t i e s on a r i d zone problems r e c e i v e d f u r t h e r imp©t\is w i t h t h e l a u n c h i n g i n I97O o f t h e Man and t h e Biosphere Programme (MAB), an i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l programme o f s c i e n t i f i c c o o p e r a t i o n aimed a t p r o v i d i n g t h e s c i e n t i f i c "basis f o r t h e r a t i o n a l use o f n a t u r a l resources» I t i s p r i m a r i l y a prograasiíé o f r ® s e a M h and training® Two o f t h e f o u r t e e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t a r e a s o f MAB a r e o f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e t o problenr- o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , namely P r o j e c t 3 on t h e impacts o f human a c t i v i t i e s and l a n d use p r a c t i c e s on g r a z i n g lands ajid P r o j e c t 4 which i s concerned OTth man®s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h i r r i g a t e d systems i n a r i d and s e m i - a r i d zoneSo I n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h DNEP and o t h e r c o l l a b o r a t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s , plajns f o r a Mfflber o f p i l o t r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s have been p r e p a r e d , and a number o f t h e s e f i e l d p r o j e c t s have now Ijeen launched by c o u n t r i e s as p a r t o f MáB® Those i n c l u d e systems ainalysis o f M e d i t e i r a n e a n d e s e r t ecosystems o f n o r t h e r n Egypt5 develojaaent o f raügelands i n s o u t h e r n c e n t r a l T u n i s i a aad i n t h e W i l a y a o f Saida i n A l g e r i a , a p r o j e c t on t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f environment by S a h e l i a n p o p u l a t i o n s i n n o r t h e a s t e r n Upper V o l t a , a UMEP/UHESCO p r o j e c t on i n t e g r a t e d e c o l o g i c a l development o f a r i d lands ( i n i t i a l l y focused on t h e Acacias-dominated g r u a i n g ecosystems i n t h e Moimt K u l a l r e g i o n o f K e n y a ) , and a p r o j e c t i n a r i d a r e a s o f t h e s t a t e o f Durango, ifexico® In s e d i t i o n , a number o f c o u n t r i e s have d e s i g n a t e d a r i d a r e a s w i t h i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s as "biosphere r e s e r v e s " , n a t u r a l a r e a s p r o t e c t e d f o r t h e r o l e t h a t t h e y p l a y i n t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f p l a n t and a n i m a l g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l , i n e c o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , and i n e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g o 13o F o l l o w i n g on t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l I t y d r o l o g i c a l Decade, 1965-19749 UMESCO^s I n t e r n a t i o n a l ^ j r d r o l o g i c a l Programme ( I H P ) p l a c e s s p e c i a l emphasis on t h e i n t e g r a t e d management o f m t e r r e s o u r c e s and on t h e i n f l u e n c e o f human a c t i v i t i e s upon them. IAEA i s a l s o i n v o l v e d i n h y d r o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h u s i n g r a d i o a c t i v e i s o t o p e s f o r groundwater eissessment, e s p e c i a l l y i n checking t h e age o f g r o u n d w a t e r , i t s source, aad rate of recharge. The J o i n t P i o / I A E A D i v i s i o n o f Atomic Energy i n Pood and A g r i c u l t u r e i s p l a n n i n g i s o t o p e - a i d e d s t u d i e s on w a t e r and f e r t i l i z e r use i n s e m i - a r i d regions» 14o PAO, UNESCO and UWEP s«re j o i n t l y making a w o r l d assessment o f s o i l degradation ^hich could a s s i s t countries i n c o n t r o l l i n g the loss o f s o i l s throTigh e r o s i o n , s a l i z a t i o n , a l k a l i n i z a t i o n , and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ® A complementary gwstivity i s t h e PAO/UMESCO p r o j e c t j i n i t i a t e d i n 1961, t o p r e p a r e a World S o i l Sfep® 15® A number o f s t u d i e s and experiments were i n i t i a t e d xmder UNESCO's A r i d Zone Prograaase on the use o f s o l a r and wind energy i n a r i d l a n d s , where these sources a r e u s u a l l y a v a i l a b l e and where i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o a v o i d c u t t i n g wood f o r f i r e o These s t u d i e s a r e c u r r e n t l y r e c e i v i n g a new impetus i n UNESCO as a consequence o f t h e r e c e n t renewal o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e development o f u n c o n v e n t i o n a l sources o f energy^ 160 Woi^img groups and r a p p o r t e u r s o f t h e WMO Commissions f o r Atmospheric Sciences, f o r A g r i c u l t i i r a l M e t e o r o l o g y , f o r S p e c i a l A p p l i c a t i o n s o f M e t e o r o logy and C l i m a t o l o ^ , and f o r Efydrology a r e concerned w i t h subjects r e l e v a n t t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , such as meteoroloQr o f s e m i - a r i d zones, c l i m a t i c f l u c t u a t i o n s , and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l aspects o f l a n d use, a g r i c u l t u r e , s o i l d e g r a d a t i o n , sand dunes, and r e l a t i o n s h i p s between h ^ r o l o g i c a l regimes and droughto Th© ICSU/WM) Glo'bal Alsmospheric Research Prograrsnn® (GARP) has r e c e n t l y ©mbe.3£Íc0d upon a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e f i e l d of c l i m a t i c change o A long-teraij on r e s e a r c h on modelling c l i m a t e and c l i m a t i c change i s b e i n g ¿.cvelopsdo WO a M UHEP ar® a l s o s u p p o r t i n g agro= m e t e o r o l o g i c a l a M h y u r o l o g i c a l stiadies i n t h e Swdano-Sathelian zomo Th® FAO/UIESCO/TOO I n t e r a g e n c y Group on A g r i c u l t u r a l B i o m e t e o r o l o ^ , s i n c e i t s c r e a t i o n , has supers sed a ^ r o c l i m a t o l o g i c a l s u r v e y s of a r i d and serai-arid a r e a s i n t h e Mear ^astp t h e S a h e l j E a s t A f r i c a j and South America which a l l provide infor¿uóitioa r®levgat t o t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s i n t h e s e areaso 17o As f a r a s b o t h t r a i n i n g and r a s e a r c h a r e concerned, t h e p r o j e c t i n t h e Sahel c o u n t r i e s aimed a t s t r s s g t h e n i a g t h e n a t i o n a l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l s e r v i c e s aad a t th© e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a r e g i o n a l a g r o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l c e n t r e i s of p a r t i c u l a r importamceo I n t h e i n i t i a l phase of t h i s p r o j e c t , , which i s a l s o supported by a niunber of donor countrieSp th© t r a i n i n g of m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and l ^ d r o logical experts in these countries will greatly contribute to future r e s e a r c h on and a p p l i c a t i o n s t o th® problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and drought occurrence i n t h e Sahelo 180 Regarding t h e human and econosiiic i m p l i c a t i o n s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and droughtp ÍMDRO i s c u r r e n t l y u n d e r t a k i n g a World S u w e y of D i s a s t e r Dajmgep which w i l l i n c l u d e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e economic l o s s e s over t h e p a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s due t o drought 5 farainsj and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a o IMDRO i s a l s o prapariagj, - " t h Ü0EP f i n a a c i e l s u p p o r t asnd i n co=op®ra,tiora ráth MO and UlESCOj a e y r i e s of s t u d i e s on t h e s t a t e of e m s t i n g knowledge i n d i s a s t e r p r e v e n t i o n and m i t i g a t i o a » Porfeioas of th® s t u d i e s on hydrol o g i c a l j m e t e o r o l o g i c a l 5 v o l c a a o l o g i c a l y and laffid-^us® a s p e c t s concern d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y s ^ c i f i c n a t u r a l pheaoaana i-jhieh can cause or t o drought ©ffld 19o The I n t e m a t i o a s l Federatiosa of I n s t i t u t e © f o r Mvaac®d S t u d i e s (IFIAS) asd UliEP ar® s u p p o r t i n g a study5 e n t i t l e d "Drought and Man"5 which w i l l esasiine th® s o c i a l 5 economic, p o l i t i c a l , and e t h i c a l coffisequences of droiaghto UMT&Rp w i t h UIEP s u p p o r t s has a r r a n g e d f o r a s t u d y j accompanied by a syaposiisms on a l t e r n s t i v © economic s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e dev®lopa©at of a r i d aad semi-=arid laffldSf, s® p a r t of IMITARAS P r o j e c t on t h e Futurso Coraplesseatars^ t o t h i s s t u á y a r e two UKEP/UICTAD r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s 0 one on th© envirosMnental component i n t h e s o c i a l e v a l u a t i o n asd p r i c i n g of nstus^al resouifcesp th® o t h e r on t h e impact of environmental i s s u e s on t h e f o r e i g n tr&d© s t r a t e g i e s of d e v e l o p i n g i s p r e p a r i n g cas© s t u d i e s on a g r a r i a n s t m c t u r ® w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o a r i d and s e m i - a r i d area© of t h e l e a r East and Africa® ILO has prepared e a s e s t u d i e s i n I n d i a aad B r a z i l a s p a r t of i t s de"5'©lopasnt of emergency Qsaploysseat schemes under th© Morid Mgployíasat Prograsiasso l-JKO has m d s r t s l s s a survey® i n c o I l a = boratiom w i t h ÜHC1F amd F£.0 t o a s c e r t a i n th® h e a l t h mñ. m t - r i t i o j a i n droMght-»-striek©a siraas o i 20o S e v e r a l of t h e s p e e i a l i s e d a g s n e i e s m d b o d i e s of t h e United l a t i o n S y e s p e c i a l l y UIDP má ÍMEPj ar® esaesiniag w i t h t h e Saheliass Govemaents t h e p r o s p e c t s fos^ © o t a b l i s h i n g t h e l i s s t i t u t du Sahel ( S a h e l i a n I a s t i t u t e ) D th© main o b j e c t i v e s of tjhich would be promotion and c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h , d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f t h e f i n d i n g s , t r a n s f e r and a d a p t a t i o n o f technologjTp and t r a i n i n g o f r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s . This i n s t i t u t e c o u l d s e r v e as a p r o t o t y p e f o r r e g i o n a l r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p ment c e n t r e s i n o t h e r axeas a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . A p p l i c a t i o n o f Knowledge 21,, D u r i n g 1973 ? t h e Permaaeat I n t e r s t a t e Committee on Drought C o n t r o l i n t h e S a h e l (CILSS) m s c o n s t i t u t ® d hy r e p i r e s e n t a t i v e s o f Chad, M a l i , M a u r i t a n i a , K i g e r , Senegal and Upper V o l t a , They have s i n c e "been j o i n e d b y Cape Verde and Gambia and have e s t a b l i s h e d a s e c r e t e ^ r i a t i n Ouagadougou. CILSS, w i t h t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e U n i t e d H a t i o n s S a h e l i a n O f f i c e , i s becoming t h e p r i n c i p a l i n t e r g o v e m m e n - ^ a l c o - o r d i n a t o r f o r development p r o j e c t s i n t h e region» As such, t h e U^iited K9,tions and t h e s i ^ c i a l i z e d a g e n c i e s a c t i v e i n t h e r e g i o n a r e c o l l a b o r a t i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y w i t h CILSS® 22, I n March 1SJ6 t h e Club des Amis du S a h e l was formed a t a m e e t i n g i n D a k a r under t h e a u s p i c e s o f OECD and CILSS» The Club i s sponsored j o i n t l y "by t h e member c o i m t r i e s o f CILSS and a number o f donor c o u n t r i e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i s open t o a l l F r i e n d s o f t h e Sahel® I t s purpose i s t o support measures t a k e n by CILSS, t o encourage c o - o p e r a t i o n among d o n o r s , and t o p r o v i d e a forum where t h e S a h e l i a n S t a t e s can e x p l a i n t h e i r mediumt e m and l o n g - t e r m develojanent i ^ l i c i e s and p r i o r i t i e s and d i s c u s s them w i t h donorso 23c I n t h e Sudan, UHEP i s h e l p i n g t o o r g a n i z e a m e e t i n g o f donor c o u n t r i e s and o r g a o i i z a t i o n s t o encourage and c o - o r d i n a t e t h e i r f i n a n c i a l suppoirt f o r a s e r i e s o f n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g d e s e r t encroachment. 24= The p r i n c i p a l donor« o r l e n d e r s o f f i n a n c i a l support t o n a t i o n a l development pirograjmnes i n a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s , as e l s e w h e r e , a r e t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s , t h e World Bank ( I B R D ) , and UKDP, t h r o u g h b i l a t e r a l and m u l t i l a t e r a l p r o j e c t s f o r improvement o f smimal p r o d u c t i o n and h e a l t h , f o r e s t r y , a g r i c u l t u r e , l a n d and w a t e r u s e , development p l a n n i n g and p o l i c y f o r n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , w a t e r development, h e a l t h s e r v i c e s , and r e l i e f activities® R e g i o n a l banks and f u n d s , such as t h e A f r i c a n Development Bank, t h e Arab Bank f o r Economic Development i n A f r i c a , t h e Arab Fund f o r Economic and S o c i a l Development, t h e A s i a n Development Bank, and t h e I n t e i v American Development Baxik, a r e a l s o f i n a n c i n g p r o j e c t s i n t h e s e s e c t o r s . 25c The World Food Programme (WPP) p r o v i d e s food a s s i s t a n c e t o f o s t e r t h e advancement o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s by u s i n g s u p p l i e s o f f o o d as aji i n v e s t m e n t i n p r o j e c t s f o r economic and s o c i a l development, i n c l u d i n g l a n d development, r e f o r e s t a t i o n , and s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n . 26. A l a x g e p T O p o r t i o n o f p r o j e c t s a p p l y i n g e x i s t i n g knowledge i n t h e f i e l d a r e e x e c u t e d by t h e members o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s system w i t h funds p r o v i d e d by UHDPa A p p r o x i m a t e l y t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f t h e r e s o u r c e s d e v o t e d t o a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s a r e spent on a p p l i c a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g knowledge i n numerous l o c a l p r o j e c t s , m a i n l y i n A f r i c a . The p r i n c i p a l e x e c u t i n g a g e n c i e s and b o d i e s o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s a r e PAO, I L O , UWICilP, UN/OTC, WHO, and WMO® As many o f t h e i r p r o j e c t s a r e l i s t e d i n t h e UKEP r e v i e w on l a n d , w a t e r and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n (UHEP/GG/30), o n l y t h e g e n e r a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e agency programmes w i l l be r e v i e w e d h e r e . 27o PAO a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o d e s e i r f c i f i c a t i o n p r i n c i p a l l y i n v o l v e animal p r o d u c t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g t h e sub-prograsOTes on g e n e t i c r s s o t i r c e s and f e e d r e s o u r c e s , meat aad milk development5 and p r e v e n t i o n o r c o n t r o l of animal d i s e a s e s and p e s t s ) and f o r e s t r y ( i n c l u d i n g sand d m e f i x a t i o n , s h e l t e r b e l t s , watershed isanageraent, and w i l d l i f e management)o One s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t y d i r e c t l y "oanected w i t h p a s t o r a l a r e a s around d e s e r t l a n d s i s work s t a r t e d ir- 970 on t h e impsxtvsBient of nomadic ^ d transhumant animal p r o d u c t i o n systems,, 280 I n co<=operation w i t h UlEP, FAO i s about t o launch a prográsnme on t h e E c o l o g i c a l Management of Arid and S@mi-=Arid Rangslaisds i n A f r i c a and t h e Hear aad Middle East ( B i i S A R ) » A persnaneat secretax^iat i s t o promote and a s s i s t n a t i o n a l prograsaEas and r e g i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o range KsaiaigeEent and t o f a c i l i t a t e c o n c e r t e d a c t i o n a t s u b » r e g i o n a l , regional, and g l o b a l levelSo The programie w i l l i n v o l v e s u r v e y i n g and m o n i t o r i n g , e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g , ^advigiozy s e r v i c e s , and dev®lop0snt prograssneso 29o Complementajry t o FAO a c t i v i t i e s a r e t h r e e s t u d i e s of t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o = o p e r a t i o n i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n smd Eiarketing of l i v e s t o c k i n t h e Saiiel asad the' e s t á b i l s h a e n t of a s t a b i l i s a t i o n zone o r g r e e n b e l t of 3aaturally=regenerated o r p l a n t e d v e g s t a t i o a oa t h e a o r t h e r H assi s o u i h e M b o u n d a r i e s of t h e Saharao These s t u d i e s a r e sponsored by t h e s e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United Mations Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h FAO asid o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e from UlDPo 3O0 The U n i t e d m t i o a S p throtiigh t h e Water Resources Branch of CIRE^T/ESA, i s s p o n s o r i n g t j a t e r developaent p r o j e c t s i n a r i d amd s e m i ^ a r i d a r e a s i n a l l c o n t i n e n t s , w i t h s p e c i a l a t t e a t i o j a paid t o t h e Sahel r e g i o n and t h e i'liddle Easto These p r o j e c t s incliade t h e i n t e g r a t e d develcpsiont of s c a r c e w a t e r r e s o u r c e s , t h e t r a i n i a g of l o c a l t e c ^ s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l w a t e r p o i n t s , a M t h e s t r e n g t h e a i s i g of t h e w a t e r = r e l a t e d goverajTsent s e r v i c e s ^ U I / E S A has played a s i g a i f i c a a t r o l e i n t h e development of fractured™ compact rock a q u i f e r s , which cam b© f o m d isa l a r g e a r e a s of t h e a r i d zones affid v e r y o f t e a p r o v i d e t h e s o l e s o u r c e of wat©:^ i n t h e developmeat of a r t i f i c i a l r e c h a r g e u n d e r sx=id e o a d i t i o a s , and i a p l a a a i n g w a t e r u s e i n a r i d a^eaSy t h r o u g h siatheajatical m o d e l l i n g affid a d m i a i s t r a t i v e / l e g a l reformo r a t i o n a l xase of w a t e r i n a r i d amd s e m i - s r i d a r e a s i s one of t h e s u b j e c t s I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United l a t i o a s Conference on I t e s e r t i f i c a t i o n has cosraissioaed a stiaSj of t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of mgioa&l co-operatioa iffi t h e ^ise of s h a r e d a q u i f e r s i n n o r t h e a s t e r n A f r i c a a M t h e Arabiaa P e a i a s u l a o B e c m s e of t h e o v e r l a p i a t h e i r a r e a s of c o a c e r a , t h e s e c r e t a r i a t s of t h e s e two c o n f e r e n c e s have co«=»ordiaated t h e i r p r e p á r a t e ^ a c t i v i t i e s o Í 31 o MO sffid •¡OHICEP h a w t o g e t h e r d e f i n e d t h e f3?aE©work f o r aa a c t i o ® prograffisae for í3eáiua=ter® astd loiag--tera d e v e l o p s e a t s i n h e a l t h o Ssphasis i s placed o¡a f o w a d v e r s e e f f e c t s of drought s M d e s e i ^ l f i c a t i o n s íasln u t r i t i o n s outTbreaks of coHOBunicable d i s e a s e s ? enviroMnental he<h problems? and t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of h e a l t h laaapower t o p r o v i d e t h e necessaryh e a l t h s e r v i c e s o The MO Regional O f f i c e f o r A f r i c a i s g i v i n g p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o improving t h e f t o c t i o a i n g of t h e e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s and t o a d a p t i n g new s t r u c t u r e s t o t h e s o l u t i o n of probleras s p e c i f i c t o t h e a r e a s coacemedo A c c o r d i n g l y , MO i s e x p l o r i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r h e a l t h developmen-t i n t h e S a h e l i a n r e g i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e primary h e a l t h concept, which p l a c e s maximum r e l i a n c e on a v a i l a b l e commxmity manpower resources» 320 WMO i s p r o v i d i n g s h o r t - t e r m e x p e r t s t o d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s t o a s s i s t t h e i r a g r o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s e r v i c e s t o a i d food production» I t is expected t h a t about t e n c o u n t r i e s w i t h i n t h e a r i d and s e m i - a r i d zones o f t h e world w i l l be p r o v i d e d w i t h such support d u r i n g 1976-1978» 33. ILO i s c a r r y i n g o u t , i n close l i a i s o n w i t h CILSS, t e c h n i c a l coo p e r a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s concerned w i t h r u r a l development, quick employment g e n e r a t i n g schemes, v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g , and r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , which c o n t r i b u t e t o r e c o v e r y and r e s e t t l e m e n t programmes f o r people a f f l i c t e d by the drought i n t h e SaJiel. 34» The U n i t e d N a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w i l l produce a w o r l d p l a n o f a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . A d r a f t o f t h i s plsin o f a c t i o n has been r e v i e w e d by government-nominated e x p e r t s i n f o u r r e g i o n a l p r e p a r a t o i y meetings sponsored by t h e Conference s e c r e t a r i a t and t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s r e g i o n a l commissions i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e O r g a n i s a t i o n f o r Africgua Unity® While c u r r e n t a c t i v i t i e s a r e numerous and r e l a t i v e l y w e l l c o - o r d i n a t e d , new a c t i o n programmes a r e needed t o f i l l gaps i n t h e present r e s e a r c h and development e f f o r t » The Conference p r o v i d e s an o p p o r t u n i t y t o i d e n t i f y and f i l l t h e s e gaps and t o improve c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l 5 r e g i o n a l , and g l o b a l a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . . UNITED NATIONS CONFEKENCE ON DESERTIFICATION PLAN OF ACTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION SECOND PRELIMINARY DRAFT PREPARED ON THE OCCASION OF THE REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETINGS FOR THE CONFERENCE Corrigendum P a r a g r a p h s 73 and I n l i n e s 5 and 6 o f p a r a g r a p h 7 3 and l i n e 1 o f p a r a g r a p h 7 ^ , change " I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Research Council" to " I n t e r n a t i o n a l A d v i s o r y C o u n c i l on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n R e s e a r c h " . I n l i n e s k and 5 o f p a r a g r a p h 7 ^ , d e l e t e "The f u n c t i o n s o f t h e C o u n c i l would i n c l u d e " and i n s e r t a comma a f t e r "ÜNEP", f o l l o w e d by t h e words "and would a d v i s e t h e Chairman o f t h e E n v i r o n m e n t C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board on:". I n l i n e 1 o f p a r a g r a p h 7^ ( c ) , d e l e t e l e a v i n g " S u p p o r t i n g " a s f i r s t word o f 77-2-0368 " A d v i s i n g on means o f " , the sentence. thus DE SCOÜÍF/AMERICAS/2 UNITED NATIONS COHFERENCE ON DISERTIFICATIOM PLAB OF ACTION TO COMBAT DESERTIPICATIOM SECOl® PRELIMINARY DRAFT ITEM 5 Oí' THE PROVISIONAL AGENDA TOR THE PREPARATORY MEETINGS POR THE AMERICAS Santiago^ Chile 23 - 26 February 1977 S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United H a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , F , 0 , Box 30552s NAIROBI, January 1977 OE.77-82294 UIITED WÁTIOMS CONFERENCE ON DESSRTIFICATIOI PLAI OP ACTIOM TO COMBAT DESERTIPICATIOI SECOND PRELIMIMRY DRAFT PREPARED Ofi TH:Í: OCCASION OP THE REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETIMGS PGR THE COKPEREKCE ITEM 5 OF THE PROVISIOIAL AGENDA POR THE PREPARáfOOT MEETINGS POR THE AMERICAS S a n t i a g o , Chile 23 - 26 February 1977 AFRICA SOOTH OP THE SAHARA 12 ~ 16 A p r i l 1977 THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA , Portugal 29 March - 2 A p r i l 1977 ASIA AID THE PACIFIC New Delhis I n d i a 19 - 23 A p r i l 1977 S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United NatioBS Coaference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o a j P.O. Box 305528 lAIROBI, Jaamxy 1977 IMLE OP COITfflTS la-fepeáme-feos^ % -Séiq C©iaf®í^2¡ic® SeercitaFiat ii Paragraph» Ctep^Qj? Ic O m g i a a M Scops of t h e Plan 1 - Ctep-fe©? I I o 0"bj@ctiv©s aad P r i B c i p l e s 8-16 CSmp'SoF I I I o Recoffismdatioag f o r Act: jn 17 " 77 AsBQSsssn-^ s M F l a m i n g 21 » PspmlatioE a s á H e a l t h 28 » 35 7 21 Co Mates'9 La®i aad L i w l i h o o d B - Bo Mteraatiw ^ © r ^ - 57 ájo Iffisiaraac© a g a i s s t t h e Risk of Droiight 58-60 Fc S i r e n g t h e n i i ^ I m i ^ a o u s Soienc® and 61 ~ 62 G. H. lo Sources feehaolo^ 63-64 S a p p o r l i a g Measures i B B t i t u t i e a a l ArTwugBmentB Role of l E t e m a t i o n a l ChaptsK' I?o 54 F i m a o i a g th© P l a n Organizations 63 - 74 75 - 78 79 - 82 (ii) I N T R O D U C T O R T B O T E B T T H E SECRI?RARIAT O P T H E UFITED NATIONS COHPERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION i. I n accordance w i t h t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f G e n e r a l Assembly r e s o l u t i o n 3337 (XXIX) on i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a d r a f t P l a n o f A c t i o n t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s t o be p r e s e n t e d t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ( 2 9 August - 9 September 1 9 7 7 ) , f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n and a d o p t i o n . The p r e s e n t d r a f t o f t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n has been p r e p a r e d f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n by t h e f o u r r e g i o n a l p r e p a r a t o r y meetings f o r t h e Conference, T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e p o r t s on t h e r e g i o n a l c o n s u l t a t i o n s , t h i s d r a f t w i l l a l s o be p r e s e n t e d f o r review a t t h e F i f t h Session o f t h e Governing Council o f t h e I h i i t e d N a t i o n s Environment Programme a c t i n g i n i t s c a p a c i t y as t h e i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l p r e p a r a t o r y body f o r t h e Conference. ii. A p r e l i m i n a r y d r a f t was c i r c u l a t e d f o r coament i n August 1976 t o Governments, t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s system, i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s and o t h e r b o d i e s , and t h e p a n e l o f s e n i o r c o n s u l t a n t s , a p p o i n t e d by t h e E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r o f t h e U n i t e d Nations Environiaent Programme, t o a d v i s e t h e S e c r e t a r i a t o f t h e Conference, The present d r a f t has been e l a b o r a t e d , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e comments and suggestions r e c e i v e d , and w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e a d v i s o i y group o f e x p e r t s on t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n . iii. The t e s t remains p r e l i m i n a r y i n b o t h i t s scope and c o n t e n t . F u r t h e r d r a f t s w i l l be p r e p a r e d i n t h e l i g h t o f d i s c u s s i o n s a t t h e r e g i o n a l meetings and a t t h e f i f t h s e s s i o n o f t h e Governing C o t m c i l o f UNEP, a c t i n g i n i t s c a p a c i t y as t h e i n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l p r e p a r a t o r y body f o r the d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n conference. The f i n a l d r a f t i s t o be i s s u e d on 1 June 1977 as one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l documents f o r t h e Conference. I t is expected t h a t t h e s e l a t e r v e r s i o n s o f t h e P l a n w i l l i n c l u d e an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e o r d e r o f magnitude o f t h e funds r e q u i r e d f o r t h e r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n i n t h e immediate p e r i o d o f t h e P l a n t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ! i . e . , from 1978 t o 1984. iv. The p r e s e n t t e x t has been w r i t t e n t a k i n g i n t o account t h e c o n s o l i d a t e d a c t i o n recommendations f o r t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Water Conference (E/C.7/L.52). I t has a l s o been prepared i n t h e l i g h t o f d i s c u s s i o n s d u r i n g t h e twenty-second s e s s i o n o f t h e A d v i s o r y CoBBaittee on t h e A p p l i c a t i o n o f Science and Technology t o Development (E/AC.52/XXII/CRP,17)« The P l a n , because o f t h e t i m i n g o f t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t d r a f t , o n l y p a r t l y r e f l e c t s t h e f i n d i n g s and reconsnendations o f t h e component r e v i e w s , t h e o v e r v i e w , t h e case s t u d i e s and t h e f e a s i b i l i t y stxidies. The P l a n i n i t s subsequent d r a f t w i l l t a k e f u l l account o f t h e s e and o t h e r p r e p a r a t o r y m a t e r i a l f o r t h e Conference, as w e l l as t h e d i s c u s s i o n a t t h e regional pi^eparatoiy m e e t i n g s . CHAPTEH lo ORICIM Ai® SCOPS OF THE PLAI? lo More thsai o n s - t h i r d of t h e e a r t h " s l&ad spea i s s r i d o Eiaeh of i t has " b e c o i E S d e s e r t S Í B C S t h e dawn of c i v i l i g a t i o n , a M many v u l n e r a b l e a r e a s a r e evea xsow b s i a g turraed i n t o d e s e r t because of msffl's s c t i o a s o This pj'ocsss has i n t e n s i f i e d d u r i n g r e c e n t decades., The s p r e a d of d e s e r t coYiditioas t h r e a t e n s t h e f u t u r e of 680 m i l l i o a p e o p l e , o r t h a t 16 p e r cent of t h e tforld^s p o p u l a t i o n who l i v e i n t h e d r y l a n d s » I n t h e p a s t h a l f centurgcp oin th® s o u t h s r a edge of t h e Sahara a l o ñ e , a s rauch a s 65O5OOO square k i l o m e t r e s of lamd oiac© s u i t a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r e aad g r a s i a g s has becoa® d e s e r t o The SaJ-aelian drought of 1968=1973 aad i t s t r a g i c e f f e c t on t h e p e o p l e s of t h a t r e g i o n drew world a t t e n t i o n t o c h r o n i c problems of humas s u r v i v a l gad development on t h e d e s e r t raargias» 2o I n confosñcasice %?ith t h e Q i a r t e r of t h e United IstiosiiSc a aianber of rssolutiofSB bgr t h e Uaited N a t i o n s General Assembly hav© a d d r e s s e d t h e s e problsiaso Th© f i r a t á l l = Á f r i c a i í Semiraar oa th© HuiaM Efemroaments coHveiaeá i s Augxast 1971 usdsjp t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e Seoaoiaic Corssaiseioa fos^ Africa (BCA)g saade s p e c i f i c recoaasendatioas f o r (steps t o be t a k e n t o eosi'ibat th© s p r e a d of d e s e r t s i n A f r i c a o M tlhs this=d s e s s i o a of t h e EGA Coaf©?®s\eG of l i m s t e r s s R e s o l u t i o n 264 (XII) on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a drew a t t Q a t i o a t c t-Ms mossac® md Tzrged t h a t EGA ts&Q step® iis c o l i g a 'bor&tioa ü i t h t h e iffit©s=aatioiaal c o P i a u s i t j t o se©k Bolmtiom to ths p^oblesso G s a s r a l Asseably R e s o l u t i o a 3202 ( S - ¥ l ) of 1 Ks^ 1974 «Iia^ t h s i a t e r a a t i o m l coasuusiity a r g s a t l y -feake c o a s r @ t e 'Sc otei?, t h e spyead of d e s e r t a as.d a s s i s t t k o seososiie e f e , f f o 8 t s á ejcsaso Bsonomic aad S o c i a l C o m s i l R e o o l u t i c s I878 {hlZl) ef 16 i'-aly 1974 r e g a e s t e d a l l t h e c o s e e r a s á os^gassinations of tiio United latioffis syste® t o pursue a broad att&ek on t h e dro^z^ht pro'blemo Beci GovsKaifig C o u n c i l s of th© U n i t e d l a t i o n s Developmant Px^ogi^aisse (üSB?) ajid t h e Oaited I s t i o B S Eavirorai^Et PsxjgraíSEe (üHEP) ©aphasiged th® aeed t o isadertei© s t u d i e s on th© © s t e s t of d r o u g h t s ^ ^ t o drau lap appx^opriate actiosa prograffljnss a g s i a s t t h e s p r e a d of deserts® 3o a s [email protected] Asseebly th©s d e c i d e d , h j R©solutioB 3337 (XXIX) of 17 D@c©0b0r 1974t, t o i a i t i a t © c o n c e r t e d i n t e r a s t i o i m l a c t i o n t o combat th© of d o s s r t c o a á i t i o a s j or "desertification®® a s i t ÍÍB aow c a l l e d » f o g^.v® iiT.pet'ss t o i n t e r a a t i o m l actioEy th© Geae^sl Assembly d e c i d e d t o Qowea® ü a i t e á í í a t i o a e CoBf®r@Bcs on D e s e r t i f i e s t i o í & j aow s e h a á u l e á f o r 29 iagffist <= 9 S s p t e a b s r 19779 which would prcdixc© a® e f f e c t i v e s e o a p r g h e a siv® bmS. cc=-ordiEstQd Plm of A c t i o n t o Combat D e s e r t i f i e a t i o a o 4o B e s a r t s a r e s,rm,e of sps-ysa o r a b s e a t v ^ g e t a t i o a asd low b i o l o g i e a l p s ^ d u s t i v i t j p:?ií3g,rily dus t o d s f i c i e i a t r a i a f s l i o B s s e r f e l f i e a t i e a i s s e e s S.S t h e srfeejisioia o r i a t s a s i f i c s t i o a of sueh © o a á i t i o a s o la for the Cosfe^^oaesp a t t e a t i o a í€&b f o c u s e d on t r o p i c a l s s i a M r o p i o a l md éj^XesEdSo 'i^e P l a a of A c t i o s cov&m ay©«® ásseytificatioa i s oQGm^ing sxm s a d o t h e r s x m l s o r a b l s t o f a t u s e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a ^ isssj.udijsg a ? i d 5 í3eEl" -ari ¿ areaso d i s t r l b - a t i o E as.d ipolativ© .istojRSity o f ¿ s s s i r S i f i e a t i o s problecis ajpo s3iO!m oa t^.s B e s e r t i f i c a t i o E Map of ti© 5o e a t i o E KPG (il/C02í=/74/ )o t h e p , \ f s i e s l sad "aiolcgi.©®! s f f e e t s of á e s e r t i f i - - . t c th© w r l d aoramusxty a a i a l y oeoamsa of t h e i r impact - 2 - on human b e i n p « , t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n focuses on t h e problems o f people a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n » 6. D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s an aspect o f t h e widespread d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f ecosystems under the combined pressures o f adverse and f l u c t u a t i n g c l i m a t e amd e x c e s s i v e o r i l l - a d v i s e d e x p l o i t a t i o n . Such e x p l o i t a t i o n has d i m i n i s h e d or d e s t r o y e d t h e p r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l o f food ajid f i b r e p r o d u c i n g ecosystems a t a t i m e when i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y i s needed t o support growing p o p u l a t i o n s i n quest o f development. Important f a c t o r s i n modem s o c i e t y - t h e s t r u g g l e f o r development, p o p u l a t i o n growth and change and t h e e f f o r t t o i n c r e a s e food p i ^ d u c t i o n - i n t e r l o c k i n a n e t work o f cause aond e f f e c t . Progress i n development, planned p o p u l a t i o n growth, and improvements i n food p r o d u c t i o n must t h e r e f o r e be d e a l t w i t h together. The d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i v e ecosystems i s an obvious and s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o human p r o g r e s s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e quest f o r ever g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i v i t y has i n t e n s i f i e d e x p l o i t a t i o n and has c a r r i e d d i s t u r b a n c e by man i n t o l e s s p r o d u c t i v e and mor« f r a g i l e l a n d s . O v e r e x p l o i t a t i o n gives r i s e t o d e g r a d a t i o n o f v e g e t a t i o n , s o i l and w a t e r , t h e t h r e e elements which serve as t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r development i n many n a t i o n s . Desertific a t i o n i s a s e l f - a c c e l e r a t i n g process, f e e d i n g on i t s e l f , and as i t advances, r e h a b i l i t a t i o n c o s t s r i s e e x p o n e n t i a l l y . I n exceptionally f r a g i l e ecosystems, such as those on t h e d e s e r t margins, t h e loss o f p r o d u c t i v i t y through t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f s o i l can e a s i l y become i r r e v e r s i b l e , permanently r e d u c i n g t h e i r c a p a c i t y t o support htunan l i f e . Action t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d u r g e n t l y b e f o r e t h e cost f a c t o r r i s e s beyond p r a c t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y or b e f o r e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o a c t i s lost forever. 7. T h i s P l a j i o f A c t i o n presents a set o f recommendations f o r i n i t i a t i n g and s u s t a i n i n g a c o - o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t on t h e s c a l e r e q u i r e d t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . CHAPTER l i o OBJECfnrES M D PRINCIPLES 80 ThQ iiaasdiat© g o a l of t h s P l a a of á c t i o a t o Coiabat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s t o a r y e s t t h e pg-oc®©®®© of d a s ® r f e i f i c a t i o n aad^ whera possil)!©^ t o r e c l a i a d e s ® ? t i f i © d Ismd f o r p r o d u c t i v e us©o Tli® ultiaaat© o b j e c t i v e i s to sustain t h e p ^ d u c t i v i t j of a,rid¡, s e r a i - a r i d acd swb-hiimid areas vulnerable to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n o i cafflpsiga a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n should^ therefore, t a k e i t s p l a c e a s a p r i o ? i t j a a o a g e f f o r t s t o a o h i a w op-^i m\:i)ii a auntaxnei production.. Fo^ d e v e l o p i a g e o i m t r i s s a f f e c t e d by i n c r e a s ng ar..<¿ ^y, the i m p l e e e a t a t i o a of t h i s P l a n of i c t i o a i m p l i e s la-- ; t h a n campaign against desertificatioa„ I t i s an e s s e n t i a l p a r t of t h e broad p r o c s s s of d e v e l o p ment» 9® D ® s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s not a problera s u s c e p t i b l e t o quick solutions. I t c a l l s f o r c o a t i a u o u s a s s e s s m s n t and losig-term plasming a M management a t a l l l e v e l s , s u p p o r t e d by i a t e r a a t i o a a l co-=op®ratioiie Such programmes, even when l o n g - t e r a , should be s t a r t e d w i t h o u t d e l a y . Since i t i s easier t o p r e v e n t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a t h a n t o '-eclaira d e s e r t i f i a d l a n d , d e l a y i n the i m p l e m e n i a t i o a of p r e v e n t i v e ise&sxires c a a only i n c r e a s e t h e u l t i m s t e cost and decpsase t h e ehaace® f o r euccesB» I n raasiy cas«©j t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l ® nowo Biatj evsia m t h s - o f f i c i e n t t i m e j iavestraent^ and labour^ t h e i r e v e n t m l impiesssatatioa fe® p r s w E i t e d b j s o c i a l p l e g a l j , and sometimes i a s t i t i a t i o H a l factoFiSo lOe Civea th® iEterdepsiideac© of t h e davelopmsnt p r o c e s s j population change and a g r i e u l t a r a l pFoducti^yitji, i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e e f f e c t s of d e s e r t i f i e a t i o a oa p r o d u c t i v e ©cosystems c m b e s t be a m e l i o r a t e d i f a c t i o s i s t a k e s i s a l l t h s ^ e S3cto:«So I n o t h e r woyds, e f f o r t s t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n must be p a r t of a b r o a d progrararae f o r p r o m o t i n g social a M eeoaomic p r o g r e s a o The U n i t e d Matioos h a s e x p r e s s e d a consmon a s p i r a t i o n t o isprov© t h e c j u a l i t j of l i f e f o r a l l p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s » T h i s a s p i r a t i o n m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n the Charter of the United l a t i o a s aad i a i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e c l a r a t i o n s , d e c i s i o n s and r e c o m m e a d a t i o M j p a r t i c u l a r l y of t h e p a s t decad©j e s p e c i a l l y i n the D e c l a r a t i o n for t h e E s t a b l i s h i a e a t of a Mew I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order and t h e programme of a c t i o n t o a c h i e v e i t , i n t h e Charter of Eksonomic R i g h t s aad D u t i e s of S t a t e s ^ is. t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development S t r a t e g y for t h e Second limited Mations Development Decade,, i a t h e Declaration on the Hujcan Environment stnd i n th© a c t i o n p l a n s of the U n i t e d Nations C o n f e r e n c e s on t h e Human ^ v i r o n m e n t , on S c i e n c e and T e c h n o l o ^ , Population, Pood, Women^ 'Prsde and Developtnsnt and Human S e t t l e m e n t s » These represent steps t a k e n by t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l eomnsunity t o m r d t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of essential p r o g r a m e s f o r deTOlopraeist ÍE i t s b r o a d e s t sanseo To be s u c c e s s f u l 5 t h e e f f o r t t o comsat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , must be seeE a s sm i n t e g r a l e l e m e a t i s t h i s l a r g e r e f f o r f c toward s o c i a l and e c o a c s i e a d v a n c e TOnt® 11, D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n fr®qy.estly a p p s a r s a s t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of land^ w a t e r and o t h e r jj^atiiral p®scuress "jar.dsr s z t r s m s c l i m & t i c e o n d i t i o n s . D e g r a d a t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t 8>ctiviti®s undsr'ásJcsa asi ars&s have "been u n s u i t a b l e s e i t h e r i a dsgx>®9 o r i n kindj, t o t h e reso-orees aad t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t p s w a i i t h e r e o Such a c t i v i t i e s may have been pursued ~ bocaus® a l t e n i & t i v Q S is®?® Xmking 4 - or "b@ca«s® of s-fetoapt© to aasisiz® s h o r t - t e m g a i a a t th® ©speas® o f l o n ® - t ® r a p r o d u c t i - y i t y o While aolu-tions p r o W b l y u l t i a a t s l y i n ©ducatiooj s o c i a l aad ©ooaomic a d v a n c e s a e a t asad th© adjustM®at o f p o p u l a t i o a growth t o g r o ^ h isa reoourcae, th® p r o s i m t © © o l u t i o n c s a t r e s on improved 1®M u®©» This invoXv®8 -ths^© ©iQjaeatiii a ) asi i H ^ e n t o r y o f l o c a l laad us® c a p s b i l i t i ® ® , b) a d e t e r a i a ^ t i o f f i of Mhleh az^ d@@irabl@ i n t@mii o f Irad-^mis® c a p a b i l i t i e s aisá ®oei®»®e©ao®ic goal® aad coas-tmiatSy asá c ) & sjst®® f o r i m p l e B e n t i a i r th® s ^ s u l t i a g p l a n f o r th® proper ® x p l o i t a t i o a a M p r o t e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l r®s©wo©s«, 12. S o c i a l probl@KS i a l©wi-use faaaagemeni ar© a p r i n c i p a l coaoera o f t h i s P l a a o f A c t i o n t o CoBubat B ® s ® r t i f i c a t i o a . As th® o f n a t i i r a l resources i s a c r i t i c a l component o f M y s t r a t a ^ f o r p h y s i c a l 5 s o c i a l , or economic d©¥®lop¡Ji®nt, the a d o p t i o n o f improved polici©® f o r t h e management o f n a t u r a l r®so\m;es i s e s s e n t i a l t o a l l ecosystems i f t h e i r p r o d u c t i v i t y i® t o be m a i n t a i n e d . The r e c o m e a d a t i o n s i n t h i s P l a n o f A c t i o n f o r assessment awi msiagement o f n a t u r a l resources have general a p p l i c a t i o n but^ i n t h e contest o f t h i s plaap t h e y focus on areas v u l n e r a b l e t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and on those d e s e r t i f i e d areas t h a t admit t o a degree of recovery. 13. The causes of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n v a r y among the a f f e c t e d region© o f t h e world owing t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r e c o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ® ajsd t h e i r s o c i a l ai»i econooic s t r u c t u r e s and a s p i r a t i o n s » Each r e g i o n insy r e q u i r e a d i s t i n c t i v e approach t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n probl®aSo, With n a t u r a l resource nssmgeaent as i t s primary concern, t h i s Plaia o f A c t i o n r^cossaends methods f o r s e t t i n g p r i o r i t i e s f o r a c t i o n a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , but i t leaves th® a c t u a l d e t e r m i i m t i o a o f p r i o r i t i e ® t o Goversaaat©.. There a r e , however, d e s e ^ i f i c a t i o a ppoblass which cross n s t i o s m l bous^iari®®, a M t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n aims a t st3E=^agtheni5ag r e g i o n a l s M i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a p a c i t i e s t o d e a l l i i t h such t r a n s n a t i o n a l problems and t o provide e f f e c t i v e i n t e r n a t i o n a l co~op®ration when r e q u e s t e d . 14. A c t i o n a f a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n should be supported by g o a l - o r i e n t e d research. This c a l l s f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f those s u b j e c t s on which research i s s t i l l needed and o f c e n t r e s i n a f f e c t e d c o u n t r i e s t h a t should be strengthened and supported t o carxy out the r e s e a r c h required» This i a t u r n n e c e s s i t a t e s aa i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i v e research e f f o r t i n v i t i n g exchange and a d v i s o r y v i s i t s asaong c e n t r e s and consultation® t o review progress and a d v i s e oa furfeh®^» While m c h of t h i s may be ®®©a a® a p p l i e d researohf bo®® b a s i c reseaiHjh m®y al©o be envisagedo 15. The b a s i c p r i a o i p l ® s g u i d i n g t h i s P l a a o f A c t i o n ar© theses (a) A l l a c t i o n a h a l l be consistent m t h the provisions o f t h e C h a r t e r o f th© I f a i t e d S a t i o n ® » (b) Th® p l a a i s t o be c a r r i e d out as effective, coaprehenisiv© and co=-ordinat©d a c t i o n prograioa® a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g th® b u i l d i n g up o f i M i ^ j a o i a s s o i e a t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l c a p s e i t i e s i a t h e areas conceraedo (e) i l l measm^s a r a t o b@ ps'imag'ilsf dis=®c-fe©d ibQ w a l l - b e i n g axd developsnent o f t h e paoplas a f f e c B í i d by o r •rulaera'ble t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a » (d) E f f o r t s s h o u l d te e o n s i s t e n t w i t h a M , n h e r s p r a ^ t i e a f e l s t , f o m p a r t ©f w i d e r prograisraes f o r a d v m o i n g ©coacraie m d s o c i a l prograese (@) ImplementatiOB ia based on t h e r e c o g a i t i o a o f e u l t u s m l aaad e c o l o g i c a l v a r i e t y i n t h e v u l n e r a b l e a r e a S j and t h e o v e r r i d i n g need f o r a s e n s i t i v e euad f l e x i b l e response® (f) A c e n t r a l theme w i l l be t h e immediate a d a p t a t i o n aisd a p p l i c a t i o n of e x i s t i n g knowledge. (g) There i S j however, t h e need f o r a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h t o c l a r i f y a number o f fundamental problems f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f which t h e r e q u i s i t o s c i e n t i f i c knowledge i s not yet available. (h) A d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h should be e o n s i s t e n t w i t h s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l c a p a c i t y o f t h e a f f e c t e d (i) Improved l a n d u s e , c a l l i n g for a s s e s s m e n t and p l a m i n g j a key t o s u c c e s s i n c o m b a t t i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ® (j) Improved is land use s h o u l d r e c o g n i s e t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y of p e r i o d i c drought i n drylaunds and t h e i r pienerally low agricultural potential. (k) Implementation c a l l s f o r a concentration of t h e r e s o u r c e s o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s systems i n l a u n c h i n g t h i s Plan o f A c t i o n and i n c a r r y i n g out an i n t e g r a t e d and worldwide progrsuume o f development r e s e a r c h and a p p l i c a t i o n o f science and t e c h n o l o g r t o s o l v e t h e s p e c i a l problems o f desertification. (l) Liuid management shov-ld t a k e i n t o account a number o f ecological principles? (i) u n i t s o f l a n d need t o be maaaiged as wholes ( e . g » an e n t i r e watershed, t h e t o t a l o f plaint and animal communities, an a r e a viewed as a complex o f m i c r o t o p o g r a p h i e s ) 5 (ii) t h e us© o f d r y l a n d s should be c a r e f u l l y timed t o conform w i t h f l u c t u a t i o n s i n c l i m a t i c conditions; (iii) t h e use of l a n d s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y a l l o c a t e d 00 a s t o g i v e maximTom s u s t a i n e d p r o d u c t i v i t y 1 i ^ s u s e must b® f i t t e d t o i t s c a p a b i l i t i e s ® - 6 - (n; While populations currenlily a f f e c t e d desertifioatioa u r g e n t l y require short-term r e l i e f Masxares, l o n ^ t e r a a s e l i o r a t i o n should not be delajred, eiaoe the c o s t of prevention i s l e s s than t h e ctire. (n) A t t e n t i o n should be given t o t h e a s s e s s a e n t of seoondaiy environmental problems which majr be t r i g g e r e d measures intended t o remedy a d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n s i t u a t i o n , a s w e l l as the e f f e c t s o f development a c t i v i t i e s undertaken outside a f f e c t e d areas. 16, The implementation of t h e Plan of Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s expected t o be c a r r i e d out by Governments t h r o u ^ t h e i r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , with the support, when requested, of i n t e r n a t i o n a l , b i l a t e r a l or p r i v a t e progranaes. CHAPTER III« RECOMMENDÁTIONS FOR ACTIO® 17® The f o l l o w i n g s e t o f reconsnendations i s proposed f o r c o - o p e r a t i v e a a t i o B a l aad i a t e r a a t i o a a l a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . Taken a l o n e no s i n g l e recommendation would "be s u c c e s s f u l a g a i n s t t h e "broad problem o f desertification. An i n t e g r a t e d complex o f mestsures i s t h e o n l y way t o a r r e s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and r e s t o r e t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y o f areas a l r e a d y desertified. I n t e g r a t i o n means t h a t each recommendation i s l i n k e d i n some way t o o t h e r recommendations. I d e a l l y , a l l t h e recommended a c t i o n s should be implemented t o g e t h e r , but T i n f o r t u n a t e l y many c o u n t r i e s do not have s u f f i c i e n t resoTirces t o do t h i s . Hard choices must be made i n t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f scarce resources t o a c t i o n programmes. National p r i o r i t i e s must be e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l and t e c h n i c a l resources a r e committed t o ' a c t i o n progranmes. 18. I t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d o r l i k e l y t o be a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a r e a t d i f f e r e n t stages w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o cope w i t h them. Depending on t h e l e v e l o f n a t i o n a l awareness and on t h e k i n d s o f a c t i o n a l r e a d y t a k e n , c o u n t r i e s w i l l f o l l o w a c e r t a i n seqixence i n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , e n t e r i n g t h e campaign a t an appropriate stage. The sequence o f stages might be as f o l l o w s t (a) F i r s t , e s t a b l i s h whether d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n e x i s t s , and i f so, d e f i n e i t s magnitude and impact as follows:— (i) (ii) (iii) (b) d e t e r m i n e t h e c r i t e r i a f o r i d e n t i f y i n g and assessing d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n j e s t a b l i s h a n a t i o n a l body f o r assessment and m o n i t o r i n g o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ? assess t h e problem on t h e b a s i s o f t h e c r i t e r i a and technicjufs odoptedi I f a s i g n i f i c a n t problem does e x i s t , (i) s e t up a system t o m o n i t o r then: it; 0 (ii) (c) draw up and implement programmes eis o u t l i n e d i n t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . Where r e m e d i a l progranmes have a l r e a d y been s t a r t e d : (i) (ii) m o n i t o r t h e progress o f t h e programmes, t h e i r usefulnessI d i s s e m i n a t e i n f o r m a t i o n on them t o t h e n a t i o n a l commtinity. assesing inters - 8 - F o r c o u n t r i e s a t aui advanced s t a g e , t h e second s t e p might s e r v e as a convenient p o i n t o f e n t i y , whereas c o u n t r i e s t h a t a r e s t i l l more advanced may wish t o e n t e r a t t h e t h i r d s t e p , o r t h e y may c o n s i d e r t h e i r c u r r e n t a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e recommendations i n t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n . 19. T a r g e t d a t e s f o r the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f recommended a c t i o n s a r e proposed i n the P l a n . I t i s not a l w ^ s p o s s i b l e t o s p e c i f y t i m e t a b l e s i n such a broad prograame, e s p e c i a l l y when l o n g - t e r m a c t i o n s axe r e q u i r e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , whenever a p p r o p r i a t e , t a r g e t d a t e s a r e suggested. The g o a l i s t o implement t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n by t h e y e a r 200C, s t a r t i n e i n 1978. 20. Given t h e premise t h a t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s b a s i c a l l y a problem o f t h e misuse o f n a t u r a l resources under extreme c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , and b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f areas a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s not f u l l y assessed, t h e proposals s t a r t w i t h arrangements f o r assessment and p l a n n i n g . They t h e n prx)ceed t o s p e c i f i c recommeodations f o r improved l a n d management and t o a c t i o n a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , c o n c l u d i n g w i t h s u p p o r t i n g measures, i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n and comments on f i n a n c i n g t h e p l a n , A. ASSESSMENT AND PLANNING Recommendation 1 21. Before u n d e r t a k i n g any a c t i o n a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o assess and e v a l u a t e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n the l o c a l s i t u a t i o n , i t s magnitude and e x t e n t , i t s causes and e f f e c t s . I t i s necessary t o know e x a c t l y what p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y a r e a f f e c t e d or v u l n e r a b l e . I t i s recommended t h a t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n be assessed and e v a l u a t e d as i t a f f e c t s b o t h l a n d and people i n c o u n t r i e s experiencing or l i k e l y t o experience i t . 22. To implement t h i s recommendation, n a t i o n a l a c t i o n i s d e s i r « . b l e , A system o f survey and m o n i t o r i n g should be e s t a b l i s h e d o r s t r e n g t h e n e d t o assemble i n f o r t n a t i o n on d r y l a n d resources and p o p u l a t i o n s and t o c a r r y out continuous m o n i t o r i n g o f d i y l a n d dynamics, i n c l u d i n g t h e human condition. The aissembly and e v a l u a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n should be a continuous process p r o v i d i n g a feedback mechanism f o r n a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g and a c t i o n . To c a r r y t h i s o u t , n a t i o n a l a c t i o n should be c o n s i d e r e d t o : (a) Improve networks o f raeteoix)logioal and h y d r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n s i n areas subject to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n order t o a l l o w c l o s e r and more continuous m o n i t o r i n g axÁ assessment o f c l i m a t i c and h y d r o l o g i c c o n d i t i o n s as t h e y r e l a t e t o t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n process. I n most o f t h e a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d where d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e such networics a r e d e f i c i e n t . They c o u l d be c o n s i d e r a b l y improved t h r o u g h a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n by n a t i o n a l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and hydi>ological s e r v i c e s , w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e World M e t e o r o l o g i c a l O r g a n i z a t i o n (WÍE>) i f requested. I n a r e a s o f sparse p o p u l a t i o n where s t a f f i n g o f s t a t i o n s may be d i f f i c u l t th® use o f automatic observing s t a t i o n s could be consider^sdo N a t i o n a l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l s e r v i c e s should provide continuous assessments o f c o n d i t i o n s based on these d a t a . (b) Monitor d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t^y o b s e r v i n g atmospheric processes5 th® s t a t e of v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l c o v e r , dust t r a n s p o r t J t h e s h i f t i n g o f sand dunes, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n , m i g r a t i o n and abundance o f w i l d l i f e , t h e c o n d i t i o n o f l i v e s t o c k , t h e phenology o f c r o p s , crop y i e l d s , and changes i n i r r i g a t e d l a n d s . (c) Compile d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n maps and see t h a t t h e y a i ^ r e v i s e d through p e r i o d i c r e s u r v e y s ixsing modem t e c h n i q u e s , i n c l u d i n g remote s e n s i n g , (d) M o n i t o r socio-economic, demographic and h e a l t h conditions of population a f f e c t e d or threatened, by s t r e n g t h e n i n g census procedures where n e c e s s a r y . Such m o n i t o r i n g should address these v a r i a b l e s and indicators? (i) Populations composition, s i z e , d e n s i t y , age and sex r a t e o f growth, m i g r a t i o n (ii) Human and e n v i r o n m e n t a l h e a l t h s incidence and p r e v a l e n c e o f m a l n u t r i t i o n and d i s e a s e , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of psychological factors a f f e c t i n g h e a l t h , t h e p h y s i c a l and psychol o g i c a l development o f c h i l d r e n ; (iii) Poods i t s a v a i l a b i l i t y , e a t i n g h a b i t s and food t a b o o s , s t a t u s o f n u t r i t i o n e d u c a t i o n ; (iv) Human s e t t l e m e n t s : housing, d r i n k i n g w a t e r and sewage d i s p o s a l , s a n i t a t i o n , f u e l and electricity; (v) (vi) (wii) Education: level; l i t e r a c y r a t e , mean e d u c a t i o n a l Sociocultural patterns: national or t r i b a l composition, income aaá s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g , s o c i a l impediments t o advancement, e x t e n t and impact o f s o c i a l w e l f a r e a c t i v i t i e s ; lisB a s a l a n d u s e r : how l a n d i s used and worked, what o b s t a c l e s e x i s t t o c a n y i q j out t h © changes c a l l e d f o r by measures t o combat desertification. - 23. 24. 10 - The recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s r e g i o n a l a c t i o n , such ass (a) The implemerrtation o f r e g i o n a l schemes suggested "by s t u d i e s on the f e a s i b i l i t y o f r e g i o n a l o r t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n i n t h e m o n i t o r i n g o f d e s e r t processes, i n c l u d i n g the use o f s a t e l l i t e i o a g e r y ( 1 9 7 8 - I 9 8 0 ) . (») The o r g g i n i z a t i o n o f , a system f o r t h e exchange o f i n f o r m a t i o n gained from m o n i t o r i n g amon^: t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e regions concerned ( 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 ) • Finally, t h e recommendation c a l l s f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o : (a) Make a v a i l a b l e t o Govenaments on r e q u e s t , a c o n s u l t i n g s e r v i c e f o r a s s i s t a n c e i n o r g a n i z i n g systems o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n monitoring (1978-8O). (b) Provide t e c h n i c a l assisteuice t o Governments on r e q u e s t , f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , expansion a M improvement o f netwoiics o f meteoirological and h y d r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n s i n areas subject to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 2 ) . (c) Compile, p u b l i s h and d i s t r i b u t e a d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a t l a s c o n t a i n i n g maps a t a s c a l e adequate t o show d e t a i l . Such an a t l a s should be p e r i o d i c a l l y r e v i s e d ( 1 9 7 S - 8 2 ) . (d) Promote t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d r y l a n d biosphere r e s e r v e s t h a t could preserve g e n e t i c d i v e r s i t y and p r o v i d e a baseline for monitoring ( I 9 7 8 - 8 2 ) . Recommerdation 2 25. I n t r o d u c t i o n o f improved and e f f e c t i v e l a n d management i n a r e a s s u b j e c t t o , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s a broad range o f s o c i a l , economic, i n s t i t u t o n a l , l e g i s l a t i v e , t e c h n i c a l and o t h e r measures. Among v a r i o u s c r i t e r i a which might guide t h e proposed changes t h e most i m p o r t a n t a r e : d e s e r t i . ' i c a t i o n hazards as d e f i n e d by c l i m a t e , t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of w a t e r , l a n d c a p a b i l i t y , and o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n s t r a i n t s , and by p o p u l a t i o n and i t s p r e s s u r e s , s o c i a l and economic g o a l s and c o n s t r a i n t s , c u l t u r a l and b e h / i v i o u r a l p a t t e r n s , h e a l t h c o n d i t i o n s , l o c a t i o n auid r e l a t i o n s h i p s with other areas. The wide d i v e r s i t y o f socio-economic s t r u c t u r e s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s i n d r y l a n d r e g i o n s demands f l e x i b i l i t y and suggests t h a t b l a n k e t proposals a r e u n s u i t a b l e . Each d r y l a n d a r e a has e s t a b l i s h e d i t s own land-use p r a c t i c e s on t h e b a s i s o f l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s and a s p i r a t i o n s , and these c o n s t i t u t e t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r proposed changes. At t h e same t i m e , some g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f l a n d - u s e p l a n n i n g and management, as w e l l as o f l a n d - u s e s u r v e y s , might be recommended i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y on t h e b a s i s o f e x i s t i n g knowledge. Whereas t h e p r e s e n t P l a n o f A c t i o n i s concerned o n l y w i t h a r e a s a f f e c t e d o r l i k e l y t o be; a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , changes i n l a n d - u s e management proposed f o r those a r e a s should be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h broaider n a t i o n a l o r r e g i o n a l development plains. I-fe i s FQooaBeaáQd t h a t i a a r e a s a f f e o t a á OF l i k © ] ^ t o "te a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o a , ehaages i n l&nd~its® p r a o t i o e s "based o a Q o o l o g i c a l l y asai e c o a o a i e a l l y s o m d p g i a c i p l e s shoxad be i a t r o d u c e d i a conforaanoe w i t h s8ooial Qcmity bM t o aconomio bM s o c i a l d9V0lo]i»8QBto 260 t©s f 0 isplsaga-fe t M © (®) a a t i o a a l a e t i o a i@ d®@irabl® Sts^agth©a a a t i o m l c a p a b i l i t i ® ® i a l a ^ - u s ® p l a a n i n g a M d i r a e t -feh®® t o w a M s ppol)l@ffis of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , ^ « y sm-feioB® Im^e a a t i o a a l or ( i a f e d e r a l s y s t e m s ) 0 t a t © / p r ® v i ! a c i a l ©comoaic p l ^ a a i a g c o j ^ i s s i o n s o It is l o g i c a l for p l a s m i a g t o fe® om of t h e laajor 2=aspoMi'biliti©s ©f higfe"l®y®l p l s a a i a g group® concerned w i t h a a t i o m a l o r s t a t e / p r o v i n c i a l d f e v e l o p s e n t . Where a p l a a m a g g r o u p do®@ a o t © s i s t ^ i t s h o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d &t s h i g h la-rol of m t h authority t o f o r s m l a t © p o l i c y aad plan® aad t o giaid® t h e implemeot®ti©a of tkos® p l a a s c I h c a r s y i a g ©at such a c t i o n ^ th«»« f a c t o r s s h o u l d r®e©ive c o n s i d e r a t i o m s (i) (ii) Loeal=l©TOl p l a a m i a g s h o u l d to e a c o u r a g e d whenever p s s s i b l © o r a p p r o p r i a t © o I t i® a l s o important to c a l l Mpea a l l a v a i l a b l ® t a l e a t t o jmrticipate i n t h e p l s m i i a ^ processo LaM=m@© planner® s h o u l d haTO a c c e s s t o ©xpertise i n laws economicsj deaograptyi s o c i o l o g y j urban p l a a a i n g j eoologys geogrsphjj, a g r i c u l t u r a l sciences, b y d r o l o g r s c l i m a t o l o ^ ^ r m o t ® sensing, s t a t i s t i c s , and cartograply® However, t h e p l a n n e r ' s p r i m a i y t i n n i n g should b e i n t h e theozy and techniqtxes ©f assessB^ntj, p l a n n i n g a M management o f human and a a t t a r a l resoiircea» Ifihes^ such t r a i n i n g i s not l o c a l l y a v a i l a b l e arrangements should be made t o t r a i a planners e l s e w h e r e ® (iii) (iv) (b) a © l a n d - u s © p l a n n i n g g r o u p should b e supported by a n a t i i r a l resources s u r v e y a n d m o n i t o r i n g proi However^ a c t i o n a g a i n s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n s h o u l d r o t u a i t oa t h e f o r r a a t i o a of a u n i t composed of s p e c i a l i s t s i n a l l p e r t i a e n t f i e l d s of land-usfe p l a a a i n g o When d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems 81» apparent;, a s t a r t s h o u l d b© made by c a l l i r ^ upon t h e b e s t t a l e n t aiai i a f o r i s a t i o n a v a i l a b l e Cor t h e f o m a l a t i o a and implemamtatioa of plan® t c combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o B p which ar© c o a s i s t e n t w i t h n a t i o n a l goalSo l a f o r a t h e p u b l i c o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e n i s u s e of l a n d sad o t h e r s m t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and of t h e need f o r l a n d - u s e - 12 - plaaming and management so as t o ensTir© g e n e r a l p u b l i c awareness o f and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n lanriing and a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . Successful land-use p l a n n i n g and management depends on p u b l i c c o - o p e r a t i o n . Plans or a c t i o n s t o change land use should t a k e account o f the wishes, needs, wisdom, and a s p i r a t i o n s of the people . f o r whose b e n e f i t t h e p l a n i s u l t i m a t e l y intended» This cam be done only by i n v o l v i n g the people i n p l a n n i n g and implementation, by c o n s u l t i n g them and o b t a i n i n g t h e i r agreement. To ensure p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n plaunning 2Uid a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n should be given t o : (i) (ii) (iii) t h e development and o p e r a t i o n o f a system o f community e d u c a t i o n and p u b l i c d i s c u s s i o n on problems o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n amd measures t o combat i t , u s i n g e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n , e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s and e d u c a t i o n ; t h e establishment o r strengrthening o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n land-use p l a n n i n g and management; programmes o f education i n the use o f l a n d and o t h e r n a t u r a l resources i n r u r a l schools, t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s and e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s , as w e l l as i n a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t i t u t e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s » (c) Survey n a t u r a l resources and the human c o n d i t i o n i n areas a f f e c t e d or l i k e l y t o be a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . To be r e a l i s t i c , land-use plans must be based on accurate d a t a . To provide c o n t r o l f o r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , the s o c i a l and environmental o b j e c t i v e s f o r an a r e a must be p r e c i s e l y d e f i n e d , t h u s producing a f l ^ e o f r e f e r e n c e f o r the survey work. Considerable i n f o r m a t i o n i s a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e f o r most areas o f t h e world® The f i r s t t a s k o f a land-use p l a n n i n g group and i t s a s s o c i a t e d survey programme i s t o assemble and analyse t h i s c u r r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n . The survey should t h e n be designed t o f i l l gaps i n e x i s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and t o update i t through continuous s u r v e y i n g or m o n i t o r i n g . A land-use p l a n must be f l e x i b l e enough t o accommodate changes i n t h e a r e a covered, as r e v e a l e d by m o n i t o r i n g . (d) Formulate a land-use p l a n f o r an a r e a small enough t o be managed e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h i n t h e resources immediately available. This can serve as a p i l o t a r e a f o r t e s t i n g p l a n s , t r a i n i n g managers and c o r r e c t i n g p l a n n i n g errox>s. Out o f t h i s w i l l a r i s e a comprehensive land-tise p l a n embraciag a broad a r e a . At t h e h e a r t o f land-use p o l i c y i s t h e d i f f i c u l t d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f what people realistically hops t o achieve w i t h the resoiirces a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l . Once a r e l a t i v e l y complete i n v e n t o r y o f n a t u r a l resources euad t h e human c o n d i t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e , t h e land-use p l a n n i n g group w i l l i d e n t i f y t h e mana^ment options f o r each s e c t i o n o f t h e a r e a w i t h i n i t s purview. Ifemagement o p t i o n s concern t h e types and i n t e n s i t y o f use which are p h y s i c a l l y and b i o l o g i o s l l y apps=©p^iat® t o ih© ©f th© 8«otioa® Th® p l M n a r ® w i l l ehooffl© from ©aoag th®©Q option® th® TM® whioh l a most © o s s i a t s s t wi-feh l o c a l Q u t r i t i o m l ¡seeds o M t h e [email protected]@ axid ©OBS-lmiBt® o f th® ^ o p l ® li'wimg m t h i a tli© dietion® The e o é i f i e a - S i o a o f th®®® goal© a M Qonstr&iat® l a s ^ l a t i o a t© laad-vi»® QoaBtitut®© pólipo á ©@®pi^h@a®iv® l^ad-ffise v o u l d ®esigffl a l l s s e t i o a s o f th® a r a a t o p a r t i c u l a r mseB; @uoh l i v e e t o o k , gass@ raacMii^p for3@t@¡, T0OT®&tions mimmgg i a d u s t i y j roads aod u r b a n i s a t i o a » (i) (ii) (iii) (e) I f f i i t i a l l ^ a t l e a s t s laad-mse p l a n a i a g raay "b© i a p r e e i s e j g i v e n t h e sia® o f th® aresis eonoeraed;, t h e abseaoe o f p r e v i o u s plems l i m i t a t i o s a s i a f i a a a e i a l aisd t e c h n i c a l support® These roogh p j r e l i m i a a r y ' plan® can b® e l a b o r a t e d and s p e c i f i e d l a t e r as survey Mad monitoran^r proceed. E r r o r s w i l l ussdoubtedlj be but a c t i o n should not be d e f e r r e d f o r f e a r o f makiB^ laistakes. Repeated © v a l u a t i o n s assd r e v i s i o n s o f t h e l a M - » use should be a n t i c i p & t e d o ¥he iispl@«@ntatioffl ®f laud-tt®® p l a n s should a l l o w f o r c o n t i n u i n g © v a l u a t i o n o f th® r@al impact o f th® pi=oj©ct s o c i a l l y 5 ©conoffiically and © n v i r o n a e a t s l l y j a u t h o r a t i e ® should be pr^paared t o learai f?om i f f i i t i a l fflist@ke@ má t o e o r a ^ c t thsm® Mhere th® p l a n n e r s d e t e m i a ® t h a t a s e c t i o n o f l a a d has b®coH® u n s u i t a b l e f o r human a c t i v i t i e s , t h e y should propose complete pi^otection, o r a use which proBotes n a t u r a l recovery® This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n a r e a s r e c e n t l y s u b j e c t t o severe d e g r a d a t i o n under t h e imimct o f huasan a c t i v i t i e s » Such a r e a s may r e c o v e r and b® u s e f u l i a t h e f u t u r e i f t h e y a r e c o a p l e t e l y pirotacted f o r a p r a s o r i b e d period® Develop procedures f o r i a p l e e e n t i ^ a eonprehensive l a n d use p l a n . A eonprehensiv® land-vuB® p l a n s p e c i f i e s t h e p r e f e r r e d use f o r each s e c t i o n o f th© a r e a covered5 but t h e c u r r e n t o r i n t e n d e d use o f t h e s e c t i o n i® a o t alway® t h e saae as t h a t i a t h e plaa® Th© problem o f e n f o r c i n g o r i a p l e a e n t i n ^ t h e piara i s t h e problem o f © h a n ^ n g a c u r r e n t o r imteaded ua@ t o eorrespoad w i t h what i® mended i n the piano (i) A process should be e s t a b l i s h e d by l e g i s l a t i v e a c t i o n to resolve national^ regional or l o c a l c o n f l i c t s aaong c o s p e t i a g u s e r s and uses o f land» T h i s p r o o e s s w i l l i n v o l v e compensation t o landowners and users who s u f f e r economic mid p e r s o n a l h a r d s h i p s f r o a th® r e q u i r e d chamge® i a land use. I t may a l s o i n v o l v e a system o f i n c e n t i v e s and p e n a l t i e s , such as g r a n t s - i n - a i d and d i f f e r e n t i a l t a x a t i o n . (ii) (iii) 27» Systems o f t a x a t i o n , lamd t e n u r e , w a t e r and mineral r i g h t s , a g r i c u l t u r a l c r e d i t , insurance, m a r k e t i n g , suid t r a n s p o r t a t i o n should t e reviewed t o ensure t h a t t h e y w i l l encourage compliance w i t h t h e comprehensive p l a n . Legislation relevant t o e x p l o i t a t i o n and p r o t e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l resources should be reviewed and when necessary r e v i s e d o r supplemented t o ensure c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h t h e p l a n . There a r e many p o s s i b l e enforcement or implement a t i o n schemes. Research and a n a l y s i s a r e r e q u i r e d t o determine the best scheme f o r t-. p a r t i c u l a r country or p r o v i n c e / s t a t e . Pi i.ot p r o j e c t s t h a t demonstrate t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a proposed l a n d - u s e p l a n a r e an e s s e n t i a l p r e l i m i n a r y t o l a r g e - s c a l e efforts, T h i s recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l to: action (a) O r g a n i z e t h e t r a i n i n g o f isuid-use planners a t t r a i n i n g centres (i97<>-85). international (b) S t r e n g t h e n t h a A f r i c a i i L n s t i t u t e f o r Economic Develop/;>'iat anil P l a n n i n g ilDEP) f o r t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g o f l a n d use planners ( 1 9 7 8 - ^ 2 ) . (c) S t r e n g t h e n t h e n a t u r a l and human resources survey u n i t s t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned, upon t h e i r request ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 0 ) . (d) Organize p i l o t p r o j e c t s f o r t h e implementation o f comprehensive land-use plans i n each o f f i v e major regions a f f e c t e d by or v u l n e r a b l e t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h o r i n a d d i t i o n t o n a t i o n a l p i l o t p x c j e c t s (SudanoS a h e l , Northernmost A f r i c a , Wesx A s i a , South A s i a , L a t i n America; 1978-85). (e) Organize short-t-^rm t r a i n i n g courses on the implementation o f comprehensive land-use plans f o r e x t e n s i o n o f f i c e r s o f t h e covintries concerned. (f) Make a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , a c o n s u l t i n g s e r v i c e on land-use p l a n n i n g ( I 9 7 8 - 8 5 ) , (g) Viork out and d i s t r i b u t e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , methodoloQi f o r l a n d - u s e p l a n n i n g ( 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 ) . (h) Organize t h e t r a i n i n g o f survey s p e c i a l i s t s a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g centres (1978-82). a existing in (i) Itev^lop assi á i s t r i l s u t ® io Goverasaents,, oa request5 educa-fcioaal prograaames on t h e d i y l a a d ©aviroament affiS d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n f o r inclusion i n the e u r r i c u l s of i n s t i t u t e s ^ t r ® . i a i n g c e n t r e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s aad o f r u i - a l schools ( 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 ) <> (j) Develop and d i s t r i í j u t e t o GoverxMBentSp on r e q u e s t , s ^ i o &nd t e l e v i s i o n progrsuaaes on t h e d r y l a n d e n v i r o a r o n t a M d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n (1978)® (k) Produce and d i s t r i l s u t e t o GovemmentSj on r e q u e s t , l e a f l e t s or b o o k l e t s 5 i a t h e languages o f t h e c o u n t r i e s conceraedj on th© d j y l ^ i d envirosanent and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n f o r taass e d u c a t i o n progr^saes ( 1 9 7 8 - 7 9 ) " (1) Make a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , a c o n s u l t i n g s e r v i c e f o r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l caiapaigns on d e s e r t i f i cation (1978-79)0 (m) Undertake comparative s t u d i e s on e x i s t i n g laws and i n s t i t u t i o n s concerned w i t h t h e tise o f n a t u r a l resources^ i n c l u d i n g l a n d j a n d dev®lop g u i d e l i n e s f o r legisla"^ i o n (1978-80)0 POPUMTIOM AID HEALTH Recommendation 3 28. Present r a t e s o f p o p u l a t i o n growth a r e xmprecedented i n human histoiy. P o p u l a t i o n growth i n t e n s i f i e s pressures on t h e d r y l a a d s by i n c r e a s i n g t h e number o f people who l i v e i n them - farmers e s p e c i a l l y and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t nomadic p a s t o r a l i s t s - amd by i n c r e a s i n g g l o b a l food r e q u i r e m e n t s , a l r e a d y on t h e r i s e because o f r i s i n g l i v i n g standards and h e i g h t e n e d expectations® At t h e same t i m e , p o p u l a t i o n growth i s accompanied by massive m i g r a t i o n s from r u r a l a r e a s t o t h e c i t i e s ® Is e x c e s s i v e p r o p o r t i o n s , r u r a l s i g r a a t s t e n d t o corae from t h e most a e t i v e , w o r k i n g ' - a ^ groups, c r e a t i n g t h e paradox o f l a b o u r shortages i n r u r a l a r e a s i n t h e midst o f p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e . Labour shortsiges, i n t u m j have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l works and have t h u s served as a cause o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . At t h e same t i m e , waves o f r u r a l m i g r a n t s have compounded t h e problems o f c i t i e s , o f t e n overcrowded t o b e g i n w i t h and unequipped t o r e c e i v e t h e m i g r a n t s a j i i p r o v i d e them employment smd t h e b a s i c a m e n i t i e s o f l i f e o Demographic p o l i c i e s designed t o r « s o l v e or a m e l i o r a t e such problems, should be seen as & n a t u r a l and necessary c o r o l l a r y t o p o l i c i e s d i r e c t e d toward improved l a n d ixse. I t i s recommended t h a t c o u n t r i e s should adopt demographic p o l i c i e s t h a t w i l l support programmes f o r i m p r o v i n g l a n d \ise, g i v i n g p r i o r i t y t o t h e maintenance o f an adequate r u r a l l a b o u r f o r c e and t o t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t o f those m i g r a t i n g from r u r a l t o u r b a n a r e a s so as t o minimiz® economic and p s y c h o s o c i a l d i s t r e s s » i- v - reduce r a t e a o f m o r b i d i t y a M m o r t a l i t y araoag "both mothers and c h i l d r e n , i n confonsiance w i t h t h e recommendations o f t h e World P o p u l a t i o n Conference» (b) Provide d r y l a n d peoples w i t h primaxy f a s a i l j h e a l t h care5 i n c l u d i n g a t t e n t i o n t o n u t r i t i o n and t h e spread o f coaimunicable disease» The d r y l s M s i t u a t i o n a®^ r e q u i r e i n n o v a t i v e methods f o r the d e l i v e i y of p r i m a r y h e a l t h c a r e , p o s s i b l y i n c l u d i n g t h e us® o f mobile h e a l t h u n i t s o r ""barefoot doctors"® 35* T h i s recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e w m t i o n a l a c t i o n , inclxading t h a t o f non-govemmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t o provide eidvisory s e r v i c e s t o Governments, on recfuest, on f a m i l y p l a n n i n g and f a r a i l y h e a l t h a M t o p r o v i d e t e c h n i c a l and f i n a n c i a l support t o programmes designed t o d e l i v e r h e a l t h care t o peoples l i v i n g i n drylands» CE WATER J U M D AND LIVELIHOODS Recommendation 5 36. Water i s t h e main f a c t o r l i m i t i n g p r o d u c t i o n a M s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e dryleuids, and l a c k o f w a t e r o r i t s i n e f f i c i e n t use a r e fundamental causes o f many d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems» Improved w a t e r s u p p l i e s , r e d u c t i o n i n w a t e r l o s s e s , more e f f i c i e n t use o f w a t e r and t h e d e v e l o p ment o f new w a t e r resources a r e c a l l e d f o r i n many o f the measures proposed t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . I t i s recommended t h a t e f f i c i e n t and e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y sound w a t e r management and development be i n t r o d u c e d as p a r t o f measures t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . ( T h i s recommendation may be r e d r a f t e d f o l l o w i n g t h e U n i t e d Nations Water Conference i n Llarch, 1 9 7 7 ) . 37» to; To implement t h i s recommendation n a t i o n a l a c t i o n should be considered (a) Improve d a t a on t h e q u a n t i t y sind q u a l i t y of water, through: available (i) p e r i o d i c assessments o f s u r f a c e and grotmd w a t e r , p r e f e r a b l y i n terms o f t h e w a t e r balance; (ii) expanding and e x t e n d i n g t h e network o f m e t e o r o l o g i c a l and h y d r o l o g i c a l s t a t i o n s „ and s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n and storage of data! — J.U — (iii) (iv) promoting t h e development and use o f a u t o m a t i c r e c o r d i n g i n s t r u m e n t s f o r remote s t a t i o n s ; d e v e l o p i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f remote sensing i n monitoring water supplies, ("b) Develop schemes o f w a t e r management, p r e f e r a b l y as p a r t o f n a t i o n a l p o l i c y , t o secure and i n t e g r a t e p r o j e c t e d needs f o r domestic u s e , a g r i c u l t u r e , l i v e s t o c k , i n d u s t r y amd o t h e r uses. (c) Promote t h e e f f i c i e n t use o f w a t e r g e n e r a l l y "by d e v e l o p i n g and a d o p t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g i e s and p o l i c i e s , i n c l u d i n g w a t e r use i n p u h l i c f a c i l i t i e s such as s a n i t a t i o n amd waste d i s p o s a l » (d) Provide adeqxiate domestic w a t e r s u p p l i e s , nation. (e) Improve t h e supply and q u a l i t y o f s u r f a c e w a t e r and i t s management, t h r o u g h ! (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (f) f r e e from c o n t a m i - catchment management and t h e r e v e g e t a t i o n o f w a t e r sheds, i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h measures t o reduce f l o o d hazards guid s i l t a t i o n : e s t a b l i s h i n g l o c a l w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g schemes; promoting t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s m a l l e a r t h reservoirs; r e d u c i n g r e s e r v o i r losses t h r o u g h seepage and evaporation; improved means o f w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e use o f p o l y v i n y l c h l o r i d e pipes and channels and l i n i n g s made from l o c a l m a t e r i a l s ; Promote measures t o improve t h e supply and q u a l i t y o f groundw a t e r eind i t s management, t h r o u g h ; (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) c o n t r o l l i n g t h e development and s i t i n g o f w e l l s and pumps; improved maintenance o f w e l l s amd pumps; continuous m o n i t o r i n g o f groundwater l e v e l amd q u a l i t y as p a r t o f managed u s e ; p r e v e n t i n g groundwater p o l l u t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e i n t r u s i o n o f s a l i n e groundwater i n t o a q u i f e r s ; t h e use o f s o l a r and wind energy f o r pumping; t h e promotion o f schemes f o r groundwater recharge and t h e substurface s t o r a g e and p u r i f i c a t i o n o f water. - 19 (g) Introduce a v a i l a b l e t e c h n o l o ^ e s f o r m t ® ? r o e y c l i a g , the use o f "brackish w a t e r , d e s a l i n a t i o a and p u r i f i c a t i o x i o (h) Promote research i n t o weather m o d i f i c a t i o n s e v a p o r a t i o n suppression^ and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f systems a n a l y s i s t o w a t e r resource p l a n n i n g and management i n d r y l a M s o (i) Launch g e n e r a l campaigns f o r e d u c a t i o n i n e f f i c i e n t a z d responsible water use, u s i n g p u b l i c i n f o n a a t i o n s e r v i c e s and seeking community p a r t i c i p a t i o n through a p p r o p r i a t e organisations, 38. This recommendation also i m p l i e s r e g i o n a l a c t i o n t o develop i^ater resources f o r r a t i o n a l use w i t h i n r e g i o n a l economieSj as sxiggested by the f e a s i b i l i t y study on t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o - o p e r a t i o n i n the shared use and management o f l a r g e a q u i f e r s i n North A f r i c a and t h e Arabian Peninsula (1978-85)» 39« F i n a l l y 5 t h i s recommendation i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n tos (a) Organize r e g i o n a l t r a i n i n g courses o n w a t e r management i n l o c a l languages a t t r a i n i n g c e n t r e s s t r e n g t h e n e d f o r t h i s purpose ( 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 8 5 ) . (b) Make a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , a s e r v i c e on water management ( 1 9 7 8 - 1 9 8 5 ) 0 consulting Recommendation 6 40. The d e g r a d a t i o n and d e s t r u c t i o n of d r y l a n d pastxires i s the most widespreeid form o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h animal-based l i v e l i h o o d systems, and has r e s u l t e d i n impoverishment and i n p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l hardship among maiiy d r y l j i n d p a s t o r a l communities. Regeneration o f p a s t u r e s and the establishment o f systems o f rangeland management t o provide improved and s u s t a i n e d p r o d u c t i v i t y a r e t h e main o b j e c t i v e s o f combative measures. Remoteness, s c a t t e r e d d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o b i l i t y o f p a s t o r a l peoples have made i t d i f f i c u l t t o provide them w i t h a d e q u a t e h e a l t h cind s o c i a l s e r v i c e s . These and o t h e r r e l a t e d disadvantages must b e remedied, w i t h measures t o a s s i s t s e d e n t a r i z a t i o n and r e s e t t l e n ^ n t w h e r e required. I t i s recommended t h a t measures be taken t o a m e l i o r a t e d e ^ a d e d c o n d i t i o n s i n d r y l a n d p a s t u r e s , t o i n t r o d u c e improved s y s t e m s o f rangeland and l i v e s t o c k management and t o improve t h e l o t o f d e s e r t p a s t o r a l communities. 41. This recommendation c a l l s f o r n a t i o n a l (a) action:tos Improve degraded pastiires throughs (i) svirveys o f t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p a s t u r e s a a d e x t e n t and i n t e n s i t y o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ? the -1; 16 - 29* Dryland, faxming p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d a r e growing a t around t h r e e percent per y e a r . Less i n touch w i t h modern m e d i c i n e , nomadic p a s t o r a l i s t s g e n e r a l l y have h i g h e r d e a t h r a t e s , w i t h somewhat lower growth r a t e s as a consequence. I t would he unreasonable t o expect e i t h e r r a t e o f growth t o d e c l i n e s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n t h e immediate f u t u r e — i n d e e d , growth r a t e s among p a s t o r a l i s t s may w e l l r i s e b e f o r e d e c l i n i n g . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , a c o n t i n u e d s t r o n g m i g r a t i o n from t h e d r y l a n d s t o urban a r e a s can be a n t i c i p a t e d . Problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m i g r a t i o n and r e s e t t l e ment can t h u s be expected t o p e r s i s t . 30. N a t i o n a l a c t i o n i s d e s i r a b l e t o ease t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f d r y l a n d m i g i ^ t s i n t o urban a r e a s . r4any d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s have a l r e a d y i n i t i a t e d programmes t o t h i s e f f e c t - t o assure migrants o f housing auid o t h e r s o c i a l a m e n i t i e s such as e d u c a t i o n ajid h e a l t h s e r v i c e s ajid t o supply them w i t h c o v i n s e l l i n g on employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s . C o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d by such l a r g e - s c a l e m i g r a t o r y movements can a n t i c i p a t e t h a t programmes t o ease t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f m i g r a n t s w i l l be needed u n t i l a t l e a s t t h e end o f t h e century. 31. At t h e same t i m e , n a t i o n a l a c t i o n would be d e s i r a b l e t o reduce t h e s e l e c t i v e o u t - m i g r a t i o n of t h e most a c t i v e age groups from r u r a l a r e a s . Improved l a n d - u s e p r a c t i c e s , as recommended elsewhere i n t h i s P l a n o f A c t i o n , w i l l a s s i s t t h i s t a s k by enhancing t h e p r o s p e r i t y of the d r y l a n d economies. A f t e r determining?: t h e s i z e and c h a r a c t e r o f d r y l a n d o u t m i g r a t i o n , c o u n t r i e s so a f f e c t - e d m.ay wish t o c o n s i d e r a d d i t i o n a l measures t o reduce excessive losses among those i n t h e most vigorous age groups. Such measures could c o n s i b t i n s u p p l y i n g s e r v i c e s t o d r y l a n d peoples, i n c l u d i n g t h e development of a l t e r n a t i v e sources o f income. 32. This recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o make a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on request, an a d v i s o r y s e r v i c e on problems r e l a t e d t o m i g r a t i o n from t h e d r y l a n d s and t h e r e s e t t l e m e n t o f m i g r a n t s . The i n t e r n a t i o n a l community should a l s o p r o v i d e , on r e q u e s t , f i n a n c i a l and t e c h n i c a l support t o programmes designed t o ease t h e t r a n s i t i o n o f d i y l a n d m i g r a n t s i n t o urban a r e a s . Recommendation 4 33. Areas v u l n e r a b l e t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n are o f t e n remote, f a r removed from c e n t r e s o f p o l i t i c a l power. T h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s are f r e q u e n t l y d i s p e r s e d and d i f f i c u l t to c o n t a c t . This r e s u l t s i n d e f i c i e n t h e a l t h s e r v i c e s , e s p e c i a l l y among nomads. I t i s recommended t h a t programmes should be underiiaken t o p r o v i d e d r y l a n d peoples w i t h h e a l t h care of a q u a l i t y comparable t o t h a t p r o v i d e d t o more a c c e s s i b l e elements i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r emphasis on f a m i l y h e a l t h and f a m i l y p l a n n i n g . 34. To implement t h i s recommendation, n a t i o n a l a c t i o n should be considered t o : (a) Provide v o l u n t a r y f a m i l y h e a l t h and f a m i l y p l a n n i n g s e r v i c e s t o d r y l a n d peoples so t h a t t h e y can e x e r c i s e t h e ' i u m a n r i g h t o f p a r e n t s t o decide f r e e l y on the number and spacing o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n conformance w i t h t h e Teheran D e c l a r a t i o n on Human R i g h t s , and t o - (iij (iii) ("b) (ii) (iii) water harvesting. through: assessing the p r o d u c t i v i t y of pasture under a v a r i e t y o f o o z i d i t i o n s ; associatioi&s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e impact o f graaixig on p a s t u r e a s s o c i a t i o n s and t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r r e g e n e r a t i o n under g r a z i n g ; d e v i s i n g methods o f r o t a t i o n a l and d e f e r r e d g r a z i n g and p l a n n i n g drought r e s e r v e s t o m a i n t a i n p a s t u r e c o n d i t i o n xmder g r a z i n g . thi>ough: d e t e r m i n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e c a r r y i n g c i ^ p a c i t i e s under a v a r i e t y of c o n d i t i o n s ; (ii) p r o v i d i n g managed w a t e r i n g p o i n t s t o f e u s i l i t a t e recommended use o f p a s t u r e s ; (iii) establishing p i l o t or denonstration projects to demonstrate range management. Improve l i v e s t o c k management, (i) (ii) (iii) (e) measxiros t o a i d r e g e n e r a t i o n , such as "temporary p r o t e c t i o n from g r a z i n g , s e e d i n g or p l a n t i n g o f d e s i r a b l e f o r a g e p l a n t s , and pfagrsical t r e a t a i e n t t o a i d t h e r e - e s t a h l i s h s e n t o f plsmt cover i n auded a r e a s ; E s t a b l i s h improved range management, (i) (d) - E s t a b l i s h improved g r a a i n g s t r a t e g i e s , (i) (c) 20 (ii) (iii) (iv) throu^; t h e improvement o f e x i s t i n g breeds and t h e d u c t i o n o f new breeds and s p e c i e s ; intro- t h e c o n t r o l o f a n i m a l d i s e a s e s and p e s t s ; t h e development o f improved methods o f l i v e s t o c k management arai t h e i r p r o m u l g a t i o n t h r o u ^ e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s and d e m o n s t r a t i o n p r o j e c t s . Reduce drought r i s k s , (i) the throughs t h e c r e a t i o n o f drought f o r a g e stocks and drought grazing reserves; t h e p r o v i s i o n o f means f o r removing stock from drought-affected areas; l o c a l w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g o r i r r i g a t i o n Bchemss f o r th® p r o d u c t i o n o f f o r a g e ; i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h a d j a c e n t f a m i n g systeraso (f) s t r e n g t h e n t h e economic b a s i s o f t h e p a s t o r a l ii^usti^ hyi (i) (ii) 42. e s t a h l i s h i n e n.. " f a c i l i t i e s and p r i c e s t a b i l i z a t i o n schemeBf consideration of price controls to protect the l i v e s t o c k breeder i n r e l a t i o n t o other p r i m a r y producers and t h e consumer» (G) P r o t e c t t h e r i g h t s o f p a s t o r a l i s t s through planned l a n d use supported by a p p r o p r i a t e l e g i s l a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n and education, (h) Promote t h e combination o f c o n t r o l l e d c u l l i n g o r r a n c h i n g o f w i l d l i f e with pastoralism. (i) Promote a l t e r n a t i v e and t o u r i s m . (j) Provide h e a l t h , w e l f a r e , and e d u c a t i o n a l s e r v i c e s compatible w i t h d i s p e r s e d and mobile p o p u l a t i o n s , f o r example through t h e use o f r a d i o . (k) A s s i s t w i t h r e s e t t l e m e n t or p a r t i a l (l) Prom t h e b e g i n n i n g , i n v o l v e p a s t o r a l i s t s i n t h e p l a n n i n g and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a l l measures t h a t a f f e c t them® l i v e l i h o o d sourcesj such as c r a f t industries sedentarization, T h i s recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o ; (a) Employ r e g i o n a l c e n t r e s i n t h e t a s k o f d e v e l o p i n g d r o u g h t r e s i s t a n t , h i g h y i e l d and n u t r i t i o u s f o r a g e p l a n t s amd o f o r g a n i z i n g meclianisms f o r t h e i r widespread d i s t r i b u t i o n . Such c e n t r e s should a l s o a p p l y themselves t o r e s e a r c h and a c t i v i t i e s d i r e c t e d toward t h e improvement and a d a p t a t i o n of livestock (1978-85). (b) Make a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , a c o n s u l t i n g s e r v i c e f o r improving l i v e s t o c k and rangeland management (1978-85). (c) Make a v a i l a b l e f o r c o u n t r y use methodologies (i) fori t h e meeisurement o f l i v e s t o c k c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f rangelands and improved p a s t u r e s , t a k i n g i n t o account seasonal v a r i a t i o n and drought r i ^ (197S-80)Í (ii) (iii) (iv) de-termimn^ the op-tinraa s i s e and coopoBi-kion of herds according t o the neaaxired c a r i y i n g c a p a c i t y of the land (1978-80); planning and carrying out pasture r o t a t i o n and def~,.?cd grazing (1978-8O); planning and c a n y i n g out the e c o l o g i c a l and geographical s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of l i v e s t o c k breeding, f a t t e n i n g and market l o g (1978-80). 43 o Areas of r a i n - f e d fanning i n semi-arid euad sub-humid lands have undergone e x t e n s i v e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n through g u l l y i n g and sheet e r o s i o n , the blowing away of s o i l , sand d r i f t , and the growth of dunes. Degradation has f o l l o w e d e x t e n s i v e c l e a r i n g , exposure and powdering of t o p n o i l , and c l e a n f a l l o w i n g t o s t o r e s o i l moisture. I t i s linked with the l o s s of s o i l f e r t i l i t y and the breakdown of s o i l structure a f t e r continuous cropping. A major f a c t o r i n degradation has been the e x t e n s i o n of farming i n t o areas of high drought risk or on t o marginal t e r r a i n , o f t e n under pressure of increased population. Some d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n has, however, r e s u l t e d from the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of s t r u c t u r e s f o r s o i l conservation due t o labour shortages, f o r t h e s e are areas of strong out-migration t o urban a r e a s . In the t r o p i c s , degradation i s a s s o c i a t e d with the shortening of c y c l e s i n farming and regrowth systems, again linked with population pressure. 44. The consequences have been lowered y i e l d s and l o s s of productive lands, with r e s u l t i n g economic, physical and s o c i a l hardship, o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d with high r a t e s of out-migration. D e t e r i o r a t i o n has adversely a f f e c t e d neighbouring amimal-based l i v e l i h o o d systems. Combative measures f o r s o i l and water conservation must form part of comprehensive reclamation schemes, i n c l u d i n g f o r example the r e f o r e s t a t i o n of watersheds, They may i n v o l v e the removal of marginal lands from c u l t i v a t i o n , the c o n s o l i d a t i o n of h o l d i n g s , and resettlement schemes linked t o the p r o v i s i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e forms of l i v e l i h o o d . Reconunendat i o n 7 I t i s recommended t h a t comprehensive p l a n s f o r s o i l and o o n s e r v a t i o n be i n t r o d u c e d t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n farming in drylands. 45® To implement t h i s desirable to; recommendation n a t i o n a l a c t i o a would be (a) Survey a f f e c t e d a r e a s t o d e t e r m i n e l a n d c a p a b i l i t y p d e g r a d a t i o n h a z a r d s and c l i m a t i c r i s k , and pait f o r w a r d p r o p o s a l s f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n a l land useo (b) A s s i s t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of improved c r o p s y s t e m s , l a e l u d i n g c o v e r c r o p s , r o t a t i o n a l systems w i t h legumesp aad th© u s e of o r g a n i c and chemical f e r t i l i z e r s , t o r e d u c e Qxposure of s o i l and m a i n t a i n f e r t i l i t y and s o i l s t r u c t u r e o (c) A s s i s t w i t h t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and i n t r o d u c t i o n of wo^ks such a s t e r r a c i n g f o r s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n and w a t e r (d) Encourage t h e a d o p t i o n of measures t o c o u n t e r ex^osioaB such a s s t r i p c r o p p i n g and s h e l t e r íselts® (e) Reclaim degraded l a n d s , by sucii a c t i o n s a s s t a ^ i g i n g sand s t i r f a c e s p l e v e l l i n g dunes and c h e c k i n g g u l l y s y s t ^ s s o (f) A s s i s t t h e a f f o r e s t a t i o n of w a t e r s h e d s m á t h e p r o t e c t i o n of u p l a n d p a s t u r e s from e x c e s s i v e g r a z i n g o r e a t t i n g f o r fuels (g) Encourage d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n i n f a r m i n g systSHSj w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e i n c l u s i o n of l i v e s t o c k and t r e e p l a n t i n g o (h) I n t r o d u c e a l t e r n a t i v e l i v e l i h o o d p o s s i b i l i t i e s , such ©s a g r i c u l t u r a l based i n d u s t r i e s and cash crops,, 46. regional improved resistant The recommendation i m p l i e s r e g i o n a l a c t i o n t o d e v e l o p , t h r o u g h i n s t i t u t i o n s such a s u n i v e r s i t i e s and t h e i r r e s e a r c h e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s which r e s i s t d e s e r t i f i e a t i o a , d5?©iaght= and more p r o d u c t i v e c r o p v a r i e t i e s , and new cash crops0 47. F i n a l l y , t h i s recommendation i m p l i e s i n t e r a a t i o a a l a e ^ i o a to§ (a) Develop and d i s t r i b u t e t o Governments, oa reques-s, iiaforsBation on t r a i n i n g f a r m e r s i n r a i n f e d f a r a i a g t e c h n i q u e s , ©¡a s t r s n g t h e n i n g e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s , and on f a r s n e r - t r a i n i E g ( l 9 7 8 - 8 o ) o (b) Develop and d i s t r i b u t e t o Gfoveraments, on r s q w e s t , a s©t of recormnendations ons t h e u s e of impro^tó f e r t i l i g s d r y l a n d f a r m i n g with s p e c i a l emphasis ©a o r ^ m i e and b i o l o g i c a l f e r t i l i z e r s t h a t improire s o i l t h e development of new p l a n t v a r i e t i e s r e e i s t a a t d i s e a s e s and p e s t s (1978-80)o Recommendation 8 48. ' ' I r r i g a t e d a g f i e u l t u ^ © s u p ^ r t s t h e eleses'^ s s t t l s M S i t ia'a:?id- lasi-da, represents t h e most i n t e n s i v e form of primary l a a d « s e , « i d i h i ^ l y productive® N e v e r t h e l e s s , many i r r i ^ t i o a s©ttl©2s®Bts a f f e c t e d hj;- d e s e r t i f i cat i on. W a t e r l o g g i n g and secondary s a l i n i z a t i o n or a l k a l i n i t i a t i o n o f s o i l s has caused a r e d u c t i o n i n crop y i e l d s and abandonment of i r r i g a b l e l a n d s , and farm incomes i n t h e s e a r e a s have commonly become too low f o r an adequate l i v e l i h o o d . I r r i g a t i o n is costly and r e q u i r e s s k i l l e d techniques i f i t s b e n e f i t s a r e t o be r e a l i z e d ; hoviever, many i r r i g a t o r s a r e i n e x p e r i e n c e d and l a c k e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s or support through c a p i t a l or m a r k e t i n g f a c i l i t i e s . These c o n d i t i o n s l e a d t o a l a c k o f i n c e n t i v e or o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s e l f - i m p r o v e m e n t . Many problems a r i s e from t h e c l o s e s e t t l e m e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i r r i g a t i o n schemes, such as d i s e a s e , inadequate housing and community s e r v i c e s , and l a c k o f a l t e r n a t i v e employment f o r t h e f a m i l i e s o f i r r i g a t o r s . I t i s recommended t h a t measures be t a k e n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n i r r i g a t e d lands by p r e v e n t i n g w a t e r l o g g i n g , s a l i n i z a t i o n and a l k a l i n i z a t i o n , by r e c l a i m i n g d e t e r i o r a t e d l a n d s , by m o d i f y i n g i r r i ^ t i o n and f a r m i n g techniques t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y , by d e v e l o p i n g new i r r i g a t i o n schemes where a p p r o p r i a t e , and t h r o u g h improvement o f t h e s o c i a l and economic c o n d i t i o n s o f people dependent upon i r r i g a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e . 49. To implement t h i s recommendation, n a t i o n a l a c t i o n i s c a l l e d f o r (a) Improve w a t e r management through such measures a s : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (b) to: r e d u c i n g water losses d u r i n g storage and d i s t r i b u t i o n , through improved d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n and maintenance o f canals and d i t c h e s ; adeq\iate watershed maaiagement t o reduce s i l t i n g and f l o o d risks; t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f crops and t h e establishment o f a p p r o p r i a t e i r r i g a t i o n schedules; a d v i s i n g f a r m e r s on t h e e f f i c i e n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f w a t e r said associated t i l l a g e t o r e t a i n s o i l moisture; t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n o f f i e l d and crop systems i n schemes based on groxindwater, i n an e f f o r t t o s u s t a i n water supplies. Improve d r a i n a g e and s a l t - l e a c h i n g through such measures a s ; (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) i n v e s t i g a t i n g s o i l - w a t e r p r o p e r t i e s and t h e hydrogeology and s a l i n i t y o f groundwater b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n schemes; p r o v i d i n g adequate d r a i n a g e systems t o m a i n t a i n groundw a t e r below t h e c a p i l l a r y zone; p r o v i d i n g adequate water f o r s a l t leaching; u n d e r t a k i n g t h e r e c l a m a t i o n o f s a l i n i z e d or lands; alkalinized e s t a b l i s h i n g a network of s t a t i o n s t o m o n i t o r cind^aai-iniiy-oondd=ti-onc-5—^^^— • • . groundwater • (c) Improve f a r m i n g systems through such measures a s ; (i) s o i l surveys a s a b a s i s f o r d e v i s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e crop systems i n t h e l i g h t of a v a i l a b l e w a t e r ; (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) 50, cablir.hing p i l o t or d e m o n s t r a t i o n p r o j e c t s ? a d v i s i n g f a r m e r s on farming and i r r i g a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s through e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s ; p r o v i d i n g c a p i t a l , a n d / o r p u r c h a s i n g and marketing f a c i l i t i e s , as through a g r i c u l t u r a l c o - o p e r a t i v e s ; t h e encouragement of a n c i l l a r y a g r i c u l t u r a l such as r e a r i n g l i v e s t o c k or t r e e c u l t u r e » activitie?, (d) Provid© p o t a b l e water s u p p l i e s , s a n i t a t i o n atnd h e a l t h services, (e) Provide a p p r o p r i a t e housing and s e t t l e m e n t s with commixnity services, This recommendation a l s o implies i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o s (a) Make a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , a c o n s u l t i n g s e r v i c e f o r improved technology i n i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e , , Elements of t h e United Nations now concerned with i r r i g a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e should be geared and c o - o r d i n a t e d t o provide a d v i c e on t h e p l a n n i n g , d e s i g n , and c o n s t r u c t i o n of i r r i g a t i r ; n systems, t h e r e c l a m a t i o n of waterlogged, s a l i n i z e d and a l k ^ ' l i nized l a n d s , t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g of soil-ra:fe=watpr r e l a t i o n s , and t h e c o n t r o l of w a t e r - r e l a t e d d i s e a s e s (l97B-B5)„ (b) MaJce a v a i l a b l e t o Ck)vemments, on r e q u e s t , a d v i c e on problems a s s o c i a t e d with s o c i a l smd economic c o n d i t i o n s in i r r i g a t e d a r e a s (1978-85)0 Recommendation 9 51» There i s need t o r e s t o r e and maintain v e g e t a t i o n cover and t o s t a b i l i z e and p r o t e c t s o i l s i n denuded arear;, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e affon-fcñd by i n t e n s e human impact, f o r excimple around s e t t l e m e n t s and n e a r mining i n s t a l l a t i o n s . This i n c l u d e s t h e requirementr; t o s t a b i l i z e moving sands and h a l t dime advance where land u s e , corarni-inications o r s e t t l s m e n t s a r e threatened® R e v e g e t a t i o n of d e s e r t uplands i s n e c e s s a r y f o r s o i l and water c o n s e r v a t i o n and f l o o d c o n t r o l » On a l a r g o r s c a l e , "green b e l t s " t o promote r e v e g e t a t i o n , s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n , planned land use and e n v i r o n mental p r o t e c t i o n a r e c a l l e d f o r along d e s e r t margins and in o t h e r sensi+.ive areas. I t i s recommended t h a t s p e c i a l measures f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n , s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n , and s t a b i l i z a t i o n of moving sands be undertaken in á r e a s of l o c a l i z e d hiaman impact, on w a t e r s h e d s , where r e s e t t l e m e n t s , , r o a d s and farai lands a r e t h r e a t e n e d , and along v u l n e r a b l e d e s e r t margins» 52. To implement t h i s recommendation n a t i o n a l a c t i o n i s d e s i r a b l e t o i ' " ^ a j ^ S t a f t i z e añd revegetate~Tands~ d e g r a d e d ' b y mining, i n d u s t i y , •toixrism o r o t h e r d r y l a n d a c t i \ / - i t i e s 5 and prevent f u r t h e r d e g r a d a t i o n through? (i) (ii) l e g i s l a t i o n r e q u i r i n g responsible organizations to i m d e r t a k e r e c l a m a t i o n , and c o n t r o l l i n g f u r t h e r developments through requirements f o r environmental impact assessments and o b l i g a t i o n s t o meet t h e cost o f r e q u i r e d environmental p r o t e c t i o n amd o f p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l ; r e s e a r c h i n t o methods f o r s t a U l i z i n g and r e v e g e t a t i n g degraded s u r f a c e s i n d e s e r t a r e a s , i n c l u d i n g s o i l t r e a t m e n t s and t h e development o f d r é u g h t - r e s i s t a n t smd s a l t - t o l e r a n t plants. (b) E s t a b l i s h fenced r e s e r v e s aroTind s e t t l e m e n t s and a l o n g roads i n o t h e r a r e a s o f i n t e n s e human p r e s s u r e , from which g r a z i n g , t r a f f i c and f u e l - g a t h e r i n g a r e excliided. (c) C o n t r o l open spaces i n s e t t l e m e n t s through r e v e g e t a t i o n or t h e p r o v i s i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t a b l e pavements and t h e p l a n t i n g of s h e l t e r b e l t s . (d) C o n t r o l t r a f f i c , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n and n e a r s e t t l e m e n t s and a t r o u t e i n t e r s e c t i o n s , through t h e s u r f a c i n g and f e n c i n g o f roeuis emd by p l a c i n g l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e use o f c r o s s - c o u n t r y vehicles. (e) Revegetate vra.tersheds f o r improvement o f t h e h y d r o l o g i c b a l a n c e amd s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n , as p a r t o f g e n e r a l programmes o f c a t c h ment management. (f) Check sand d r i f t and a r r e s t dune movement, w i t h p r i o r i t y f o r a r e a s where s e t t l e m e n t s , communications, f a r m l a n d s , and imiwrtant i n s t a l l a t i o n s are threatened, through: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (g) checking sand d r i f t by e r e c t i n g f e n c e s , r e v e g e t a t i n g source a r e a s and pleuating s h e l t e r b e l t s ; s t a b i l i z i n g dune s u r f a c e s by t h e use o f m a t t i n g , mulches, o r chemical or bitumenous c o a t i n g s , v e g e t a t i n g dime svirfaces, r e s h a p i n g dunes and removing s l i p f a c e s where necessary; c o n t r o l l i n g l a n d use i n areas o f s t a b i l i z e d dunes. Reduce t h e impact o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f p l a n t m a t e r i a l and manure f o r f u e l , through: (i) r e s t r i c t i o n s on f u e l - g a t h e r i n g i n s e n s i t i v e areas; (ii) establishing plantations for the controlled of fire-wood; production (iii) (h) s u r v e y i n g t h e e x t e n t o f sand d r i f t and dune advance, e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e wind regime and sand sources; making a v a i l a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e h e a t i n g and cooking d e v i c e s . C r e a t e " g r e e n b e l t s " c o n s i s t i n g o f mosaics o f r e v e g e t a t e d _areas_and_plant_ed_sh<je.rJbe.lts_in_z.one5_o.f_conse.rv^ c o n t r o l l e d l a n d use a l o n g d e s e r t margins and . i n a r e a s o f i n t e n s e human p r e s s u r e . ^ y IiÍ (i) S-ferengthsn n a t i o n a l f o r e s t p range managementp sad s o i l aad water c o a s e r m t i o n s e r v i c e s and o t h e r o r g a s i i z a t i o a s iwol'^'sd i n i s p l e m e n t i a g t h e s e reconaraendations, i a c l M i a g t h e i r advisory amse (j) Est-'' .h o r s t r e n g t h e n e d u c a t i o n , e x t e n s i o n aad p u b l i c i t y s e r v i c e s 5 u n d e r t a k e prognanases t o c r e a t e m. iafos«®d s M f a v o u r a b l e p u b l i c a t t i t u d e towards r e c l a a a t i o n aad e©sasQF!m=t i o n i n degraded a r e a s | a n d j s e c u r e t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n ©ad l ^ r t i c i i ^ t i o n of consaunities i n t h e proposed moasuresc (fc) Establish p i l o t or demonstration p r o j e c t s to t e s t the f e a s i b i l i t y of l a r g e - s c a l e u n d e r t a k i n g s 5 t r a i n t h e recmired s t a f f , aad d e m o n s t r a t e t h e l i k e l y b e n e f i t s t o come from l a r g e r progrsyimeso 53o This recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s r e g i o n a l actio?, t o implemmt s e a s t i r e s suggested by t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s on t r a n s n a t i o n a l co-op®ratio f o r t h e establishspent of "green b e l t s " (1978-85)^ 54° F i n a l l y , t h i s reconanendation i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n tos (a) Establish or strengthen t r a i n i n g centres f o r the s p e c i a l i s t s r e q u i r e d f o r r e v e g e t a t i o n , a f f o r e s t a t i o n , and sand s t ' V " •Smt i o n (1978-85)0 (b) E s t a b l i s h o r s t r e n g t h e n r e v e g e t a t i o n c e n t r e s f o r t h e produuxiyij and d i s t r i b u t i o n of p l a n t m a t e r i a l (1978-85)0 (c) Make a v a i l a b l e t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , a c o n s u l t i a ' ' s e r v i c e on dxylaad r e v e g e t a t i o n stnd a f f o r e s t a t i o n (l978-=85)o Do ALTERNATIVE HiJERCrr SOURCES Recoasaendation 10 55® The u s e of a l t e r n a t i v e o r \ m c o n v e n t i o n a l energy soiirces i n d r y l a n d s , u s i i a l l y so favoured with s t m l i g h t and wind, should be v i g o r o u s l y i n v e s t i ^ t e d a s a means of p r e s e r v i n g o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s , of r e d u c i n g t h e t e d i o u s huraaii l a b o u r so o f t e n involved with f u e l c o l l a c t i o n , and of p r o v i d i n g t h e peoples-, of t h e d i y l a n d s with s i m p l e , i n e x p e n s i v e and convenient d e v i c e s t o s e r v e their daily lives o I t i s recommended t h a t r e s e a r c h be v i g o r o u s l y pursued on t h e use of a l t e r n a t i v e o r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l ener^'' soTirces i n t h e d s y l a a d s t h a t w i l l y i e l d simple^ i n e x p e n s i v e and u s e f u l d e v i c e s t o seirve t h e needs of d r y l a n d peopleso 560 This recommendation i m p l i e s n a t i o n a l a c t i o n "fe®» (a) Establish manufacturing f a c i l i t i e s f o r the local production of whatever simple and e f f i c i e n t d e v i c e s a r e produced by i n v e s t i g ® ^ t i o n s i n t o t h e u s e of a l t e r n a t i v e energr s o u r c e s i n t h e dryla-aáso (TD) 57. E s t a b l i s h d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c i l i t i e s t o ensure t h a t such d e v i c e s r e a c h t h e people who can use them, a t a s u b s i d i z e d p r i c e when necessary. D i s t r i b u t i o n should be accompanied by i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e use o f t h e d e v i c e s which c o u l d be d e l i v e r e d by such agencies as e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s and f u e l d i s t r i b u t o r s . T h i s recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o : (a) Carry out r e s e a r c h on t h e use o f a l t e r n a t i v e energy sources, e s p e c i a l l y wind and s o l a r energy, i n t h e d r y l a n d s . Such r e s e a r c h should be keyed t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s i m p l e , i n e x p e n s i v e and e f f i c i e n t d e v i c e s f o r t h e use o f d r y l a n d peoples ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 5 ) . (b) Carry out t r i a l s on t h e use o f d e v i c e s employing a l t e r n a t i v e energy sources and see t h a t d e v i c e s which prove e f f i c i e n t a r e brought t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f Governments, s p e c i a l l y o f those f a c i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 5 ) * E. INSURANCE AGAINST THE RISK OP DROUGHT Recommendation 11 58. As a r e a s s u b j e c t t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a r e a t h i ^ r i s k o f droxight d i s a s t e r d u e t o n a t u r a l c l i m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s , t h e need f o r d i s a s t e r r e l i e f a n d r e h a b i l i t a t i o n m u s t be a n t i c i p a t e d . I f r e l i e f operations are c a r e f u l l y p l a n n e d b e f o r e t h e need a r i s e s , t h e o p e r a t i o n s w i l l not o n l y be more r a p i d a n d e f f e c t i v e , but o p p o r t x m i t i e s f o r s o c i a l change c r e a t e d by d i s a s t e r can b e c o n s t r u c t i v e l y used t o promote programmes recommended i n t h i s P l a n of Action. E x p l i c i t r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e r i s k o f drought l e a d s t o insurance a g a i n s t t h e r i s k . Planning f o r d i s a s t e r r e l i e f involves a s e t o f f i n a n c i a l and o t h e r measures t o insiire i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e a r e a s a t r i s k a g a i n s t l o s s o f c r o p s , livepto'^V. means o f l i v e l i h o o d , housing and food supply. I t i s recommended t o develop an¿ adopt insrurance schemes t h a t p r o v i d e f a c i l i t i e s f o r c o p i n g w i t h drotight d i s a s t e r and which promote t h e s o c i a l and economic changes r e q u i r e d t o reduce l o n g - t e r m r i s k s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . 59. 60. To implement t h i s recommendation n a t i o n a l a c t i o n w i l l be d e s i r a b l e (a) E s t a b l i s h o r r e i n f o r c e , whichever i s a p p r o p r i a t e , l i v e s t o c k insurance schemes. crop and (b) C r e a t e f o o d , f o d d e r , and f u ^ l r e s e r v e s a g a i n s t (c) P l a n i n advance f o r d i s a s t e r r e l i e f o p e r a t i o n s , b e a r i n g i n mind t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e present P l a n o f A c t i o n . (d) P l a n t o t a k e advantage o f d i s a s t e r t o a c c e l e r a t e development programmes and t o i n t r o d u c e changes. disaster. The recommendation a l s o i m p l i e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o : (a) Review t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f d i s a s t e r r e l i e f o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h ' a v i e w t o t h e i r p l a y i n g an enhanced r o l e , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e present Plan of Action ( 1 9 7 8 - 8 0 ) . to: " (b) ej Eíncourage and supíK)rt c l i m a t o l o g i c s l r a s e a r o h -fehat shows promise of making p o s s i b l e l o n g - r a a g e weather p r ^ i c t i o n ® S p e c i a l emphasis should be p l a c e d on i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h a t w i l l make p o s s i b l e t h e l o n g - r a n g e p r e d i c t i o n of drought o Fc irRMG-niMING INDICfENOUS SCIMCE MD TECHMOLOOr Recommendation 12 61. Á l a c k of s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l c a p a b i l i t y i n many d e i r e l o p i i ^ c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d by d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s a s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e t© s u c c e s s f u l n a t i o n a l c a m p a i g n B eigainst d e s e r t i f i c a t i o s o For t h i s Plaa of Action t o be s u c c e s s f u l , indigenotis s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h a o l o g i e a l c a p a b i l i t i e s must be s t r e n g t h e n e d , e s p e c i a l l y s i a c e t h e s t r u g g l e a ^ i a s t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a long continisasus p r o c e s s , and an e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t of n a t i o n a l dervelopmento Although i t i s expected t h a t d e t a i l e d recoasnendation in t h i s r e s p e c t w i l l be considered' in 1979 by t h e United l a t i o n s Conference on Science and Technology, i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s a p p r o p r i a t e t o xmdertake c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l measures w i t h i n t h e frainew©rk of t h e p r e s e n t Plan of Action, which could s e r v e a s an input t o t h i s l a t e r conference» I t i s recommended t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n be taken t o s t r e n g t h e n indigenous c a p a b i l i t i e s i n s c i e n c e and technology f o r t h e pj^jxüse of combating d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n » 62« Although t h i s recommendation concerns long-terra a c t i o n , t h e measuras o u t l i n e d should be i n i t i a t e d immediately i f r e s u l t s a r e t o b® achieved w i t h i n a r e a s o n a b l e time» The implementation of t h i s recoramsndation c a l l s f o r broad i n t e r n a t i o n a l support i n t h e form of a d v i c e , t e c h n i c a l and f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e , eind t r a i n i n g . This could be a c h i e v e ! through t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n of n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s , with t h e a i d of a ^ n c i e s of t h e United Nations system and governmental m d noa= governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g b i l a t e r a l arrangements® Kiatioaal a c t i o n would be d e s i r a b l e t o ; (a) D e s i g n a t e o r o r g a n i z e n a t i o n a l c e n t r e s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r of technology and t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n on c u r r e n t p r o g r e s s i n s c i e n c e and technolos?^ r e l a t i n g t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , and t o provide a d v i s o r y s e r v i c e s on how t o s t r e n g t h e n ejrtension s e r v i c e s t h a t give i n s t r u c t i o n on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of new technolot^iss. (b) E s t a b l i s h , c o - o r d i n a t e or s t r e n g t h e n , whichever i s a p p r o p r i a t e , n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s concerned with t h e problems of d e s e r t i f i c a s ^ tion. (c) Provide e x i s t i n g s c i e n t i f i c ajid t e c h n o l o g i c a l c e n t r e s with t h e e q u i p n e n t , m a t e r i a l and f u n d s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i r e f f i c i a a t operation; i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r o t h e r a g e n c i e s a r e i w i t é d and urged t o a i d e s t a b l i s h e d i n s t i t u t i o n s which f i n d i t d i f f i c u l - S t o o p e r a t e due t o l a c k of r e s o u r c e s o (d) E s t a b l i s h o r r e i n f o r c e , whichever i s a p p r o p r i a t e , with t h e h e l p of i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , raachinsry f o r d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n m o n i t o r i n g (See Recomsiendation l ) o (e) Stren,'7th9n e x i s t i n ; : ex-fcenr^ion s e r v i c e s f o r t h e proraotion of improved lajid-use» (f) C o n s i d e r o t h e r recommendations o f t h e present P l a n o f A c t i o n f r o m t h e p o i n t o f view o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g n a t i o n a l c a p a c i t i e s i n s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y , as t h i s i s a n important f a c t o r i n t h e implementation o f most o f t h e recommendations. G. SUPPORTING MEASURES 63A c t i o n s t o be xindertaken i n i n f o r m a t i o n , e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g a r e o r d i n a r i l y regarded as meas-ures i n support o f t h e key a c t i v i t i e s proposed as recormendations i n a p l a n o f a c t i o n , and a r e o f t e n l i s t e d separately. I n t h e present P l a n o f A c t i o n t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , such s u p p o r t i n g measures a r e not l i s t e d s e p a r a t e l y but a r e c i t e d i n t h e same s e c t i o n as t h e c e n t r a l a c t i o n they serve t o s u p p o r t . 64. F r e q u e n t l y , but not i n v a r i a b l y , s u p p o r t i n g measures v á l l be r e g i o n a l o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t a k e n on request o f a n a t i o n a l Govemrnent t o support t h a t Govemn;ent*s g o a l s and a c t i o n s . As an example, consider Recoinmendaticn 9 , paragraph 5 1 , on r e v e g e t a t i o n , s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o r and s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f moving sands. One proposed n a t i o n a l a c t i o n ( 5 2 - 3 ; t o s t r e n ^ h e n e d u c a t i o n , e x t e n s i o n and p u b l i c i t y s e r v i c e s can be regarded as a s u p p o r t i n g measure» A l l siiggested i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n under t h i s recommendation ( 5 2 - a - b - c ) can be regarded as s u p p o r t i n g measures. H. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS Recorrjnendation 13 65. D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s o f t e n a n a t i o n a l problem, and a c c o r d i n g l y a s t r o n g n a t i o n a l machinery i s necessary t o combat i t . I n many c o u n t r i e s , a c t i v i t i e s t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a r e s c a t t e r e d aunong v a r i o u s m i n i s t r i e s and departments w i t h no s p e c i a l arrangements t o c o - o r d i n a t e them. A v a r i e t y o f bodies w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e p l a n n i n g and development o f a r i d and s e m i - a r i d zones o f t e n have powers t h a t o v e r l a p . This c o n s t i t u t e s an obsxacle t o t e c h n o l o g i c a l progress amd t o t h e advance o f measures f o r t h e recovery o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a r e a s . I n these circumstances i t would be necessary t o c r e a t e n a t i o n a l nachinery f o r t h e e l a b o r a t i o n and implement a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l progra^jnes f o r combatting d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . I t i s recommended t h a t where none e x i s t s n a t i o n a l machinery t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n be e s t a b l i s h e d . 66. To irr.plement t h i s recommendation i t would be d e s i r a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h a n a t i o n a l d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n commission or t a s k f o r c e , c o n s i s t i n g o f h i g h r a n k i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m i n i s t r i e s , agencies and i n s t i t u t e s and coramxmity l e a d e r s sind non-governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; or t o a s s i g n t h e t a s k of c o - o r d i n a t i o n t o one o f t h e e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s ( m i n i s t r y , department o r b o a r d ) . The fvinction o f t h i s n a t i o n a l machinery would be t o c o - o r d i n a t e and c o n s o l i d a t e a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n impose a new a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e on an a l r e a d y overburdened c i v i l s e r v i c e . Even so, t h i s body must be a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y supported by a s m a l l t e c h n i c a l s t a f f . Many c o u n t r i e s have s e c r e t a r i e s o r commissions f o r t h e human environment or p l a n n i n g commissions which could provide t h e necessary s t a f f s u p p o r t . I n countries * where t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problem i s serious,, past and c u r r e n t a c t i " y i t i e s have a l r e a d y produced r.mch d a t a and inforr:,ation, t h e s e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s niay be v e s t e d i n t h e Council of M i n i s t e r s . 67o The r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of such n a t i o n a l b o d i e s might i n c l u d e s (a) The a r ^ l y s i s and e v a l u a t i o n of e x i s t i n g i n f o m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ; (b) The p r e p a r a t i o n of a n a t i o n a l plan of a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t h a t would c o - o r d i n a t e a l l n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s ; (c) Arranging f o r t h e implementation of a n a t i o n a l p l a x of a c t i o n throxigh n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ; (d) P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l or r e g i o n a l p r o g r a mes, and m a i n t a i n i n g l i a i s o n v i t h r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s on problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ; and (e) R e p o r t i n g t o t h e Govemment on p l a n s , r e s u l t s ^ o b s t a c l e s o r o t h e r r e l a t e d q u e s t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n e f f o r t s t o combat desertification» Recommendation 14 68. A f a c i l i t y f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e c o - o r d i n a t i o n of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y to combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s needed» Taking i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n e x i s t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and t h e i r f i e l d s of a c t i v i t y and t h e u n d e s i r a b i l i t y of c r e a t i n g new i n t e r n a t i o n a l bodiess I t i s recommended t h a t t h e Environir:ent C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board should be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f o l l o w i n g up implementation of t h e Plan of Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , and t h a t a D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Unit should be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n t h e United N a t i o n s Environment Programme t o c o - o r d i n a t e t h e implementation of t h e P l a n . 69» To c a r r y out t h i s recommendation, t h e Environment C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board should be r e q u e s t e d t o r e p o r t t o t h e General Assembly every two o r t h r e e y e a r s through t h e Governing Council of t h e United Mations Environment P r o gramme and t h e Economic and S o c i a l Council on t h e p r o g r e s s of implementing t h e Plan of Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n o l / 70. The D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Unit would s e r v e as a c o - o r d i n a t i n g o f f i c e f o r n a t i o n a l s r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n o I t would be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s 1/ General Assembly r e s o l u t i o n A / R S S / 2 9 9 7 ( X m i ) of 19 J a a i m y 1973, e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e ECB " d e c i d e s t h a t ^ i n o r d e r t o provid© f o r t h e raost e f f i c i e n t c o - o r d i n a t i o n of t h e United N a t i o n s Environment Programmes asi. Environment C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board, lander t h e chaizrcaaiship of t h e E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r ^ s h a l l be e s t a b l i s h e d imder t h e a u s p i c e s and w i t h i n t h e frsmework of t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Committee on C o - o r d i n a t i o n ; f u r t h e r d e c i d e s t h a t t h e I k v i r o s a e n t C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board s h a l l meet p e r i o d i c a l l y f o r t h e prarpos© of ens-oring coo p e r a t i o n and c o - o r d i n a t i o n among a l l b o d i e s oonceraed i n t h e implement ion of ©nvironmental progrOTiraes « . , " - iií - (a) The e f f e c t i v e c o - o r d i n a t i o n of i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y t o corrbat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ; (b) The p r e p a r a t i o n of peiriodic r e p o r t s on t h e s t a t e of d e s e r tification; (c) The p r e p a r a t i o n of recommendations on problems of d e s e r t i f ication; and (d) L i a i s o n among a g e n c i e s and coxintries concerned» 71o A Working Grooip on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n should be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n t h e Environment C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board t h a t would: (a) A s s i s t t h e D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n U n i t i n t h e f o l l o w - u p and coo r d i n a t i o n of the implementation of the Plan of Action; and (b) H e l p i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f p e r i o d i c r e p o r t s t o t h e Environment C o - o r d i n a t i o n Board on t h e same s u b j e c t . Recommendation 15 72o I n s p i t e o f t h e knowledge accumulated thro\igh past and c u r r e n t e f f o r t s t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , t h e r e remain gaps i n our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e processes and phenomer^a i n v o l v e d , and s t i l l l a r g e r gaps i n our xxnderstanding o f how t o a p p l y e x i s t i n g knowledge t o p a r t i c u l a r e c o l o g i c a l and socio-economic circumstances. There a r e many c e n t r e s and i n s t i t u t e s throiaghout t h e w o r l d , b o t h n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l , t h a t c a r r y out r e s e a r c h r e l a t i n g t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , but t h e i r programimes and methods may not always be c o - o r d i n a t e d , nor p e r t i n e n t t o t h e c e n t r a l problems. 73. Some o f t h e gaps i n knowledge w i l l vmdoubtedly be f i l l e d i n t h e coxirse o f a p p l y i n g present knowledge t o t h e a c t i o n s recommended f o r immediate i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . But o t h e r gaps w i l l recfuire a l o n g - t e r m n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e f f o r t . I t i s recommended t h a t an I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Research Council should be e s t a b l i s h e d t o be s e r v i c e d by t h e D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n U n i t , (see p r e v i o u s recommendation) t o c o - o r d i n a t e g l o b a l , com.prehensive r e s e a r c h programmes, embracing e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l p r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h c e n t r e s and i n s t i t u t e s , f o r t h e r a p i d and economical a c q i d s i t i o n and d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f new knowledge r e g a r d i n g t h e problems o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . 74. The I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Research C o u n c i l would i n c l u d e i n i t s composition d i r e c t o r s o f i n s t i t u t e s w i t h r e s e a r c h f u n c t i o n s , and would c o - o r d i n a t e t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e f f o r t . The Council would be s e r v i c e d by t h e D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n U n i t t o be e s t a b l i s h e d i n UNEP. The f u n c t i o n s o f t h e Council would i n c l u d e ; (a) E s t a b l i s h i n g r e s e a r c h p r i o r i t i e s and a l l o c a t i n g p r o j e c t s , g i v i n g s p e c i a l emphasis t o t h e need t o s t r e n g t h e n indigenous s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y . The Council would a l s o r e v i e w progress and a d v i s e on t h e f u r t h e r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p r o j e c t s . - 33 - (b) Arranging exchange and auivisory v i s i t s among r e s e a r c h b o d i e s . The Council would a l s o e s t a b l i s h a system f o r t h e prompt i n t e r n a t i o n a l exchange of inforrriation on r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s and i n n o v a t i v e d e s e r t t e c h n o l o g i e s . (c) Advising on means of sup3X)rting s e l e c t e d r e s e a r c h progranmes^ g i v i n g s p e c i a l emphasis t o t h e r e s e a r c h suggested i n t h e Plan of Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ^ such a s s t t i d i e s ons (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) dro\ight-resistant crops; dryland livestock? a l t e r n a t i v e energy sources5 w i t h s p e c i a l emphasis on s o l a r energy and wind energy devices? t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n of w a t e r use? desalination techniques; mechanisms f o r g e t t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and i n n o v a t i o n s i n t o the fieldo (d) S e l e c t i n g i n each e c o l o g i c a l r e g i o n , embracing s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s of a region or of a c o n t i n e n t , one of t h e e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l or i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e s e r t r e s e a r c h c e n t r e s t o be d e s i g n a t e d a s a r e g i o n a l c o - o r d i n a t i n g s c i e n t i f i c agency;, w i t h f m c t i o n s a s i n ( e ) below, but on a r e g i o n a l scale<= Where n e c e s s a r y such c e n t r e s should be given t e c l m i c a l and f i i ^ c i a l support» (e) D e s i g n a t i n g one of t h e e x i s t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e s e r t o r a r i d l a n d s r e s e a r c h c e n t r e s a s t h e co-oi°dinating c e n t r e f o r t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l campaign t o coir,bat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ; t h i s c e n t r e would ensure t h a t t h e r e s e a r c h programme c a r r i e d out through o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s i s comprehensive and c o - o r d i n a t e d , and i t s f u n c t i o n s would i n c l u d e t h o s e under ( d ) above, a s w e l l ass (i) t h e c o - o r d i n a t i o n and plaiming of r e s e a r c h work and t h e assignment of r e s e a r c h p r i o r i t i e s ; (ii) i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a r ( l i a b i l i t i e s of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s involved and a l l o c a t i n g p r o j e c t s of i n t e s ^ t i o n a l importance among them; (iii) t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n of s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n and new r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n v o l v e d ; and, (iv) o r g a n i z i n g c o - o p e r a t i o n among t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r s p e c i f i c research p r o j e c t s , special i s t e r - i n s t i t u t i o a a l t a s k f o r c e s , workshops and s c i e n t i f i c semiaarSo - 34 I. ROLE OF INTERHATIONAL ORGAMIZATICMS Recommendation 16 75* The i.nplementa-tion of the Plan of Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w i l l require c l o s e co-ordination of n a t i o n a l , r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l progra-mnes. The s e r v i c e s of the agencies o f the United Nations system should "be avadlable, and t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e implementation of the Plan of Action mtist "be ensiired. The gigencies of t h e United Nations system, i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s of a c t i v i t y and w i t h i n the scope of the Plan of Action, should g i v e advice t o Governments, on r e q u e s t , and should elaborate methodologies, co-ordinate and support s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n o l o g i c a l research, f a c i l i t a t e the exchange of information, and provide f i n a n c i a l and t e c h n i c a l support f o r the implementation of the recommendations o u t l i n e d here. I t i s recor.mended t h a t t h e G e n e r a l Assembly request t h e S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s a n d - t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e heads o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Development Programme, t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Environment Prograirime, t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s I n d u s t r i a l Development O r g a n i z a t i o n and t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Conference on Trade and Development, and i n v i t e t h e e x e c u t i v e heads o f t h e Food and Agriculture Organization, the United Nations Educational, S c i e n t i f i c and C u l t T i r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e World M e t e o r o l o g i c a l O r g a n i z a t i o n » t h e World H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n and t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Bsmk f o r R e c o n s t r u c t i o n and Development t o support i n t h e t y - r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s o f a c t i v i t y i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o combat d e e e r t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e context o f t h e P l a n o f A c t i o n and t o make a p p r o p r i a t e p r o v i s i o n s and a l l o c a t i o n s i n t h e i r programmes. 76. The implementation of t h i s recommendation would reqtiire a s e t of a c t i o n s by t h e a g e n c i e s concerned, incltiding: (a) The r e v i s i o n of current a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o the problems of a r i d zones, and t o the problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r , with a view t o adjtisting and co-ordinating them t o confonr. to the Plan of Action. The r e v i s i o n should be conducted i n c l o s e co-operation with t h e United Nations body entrusted by the General Assembly, on t h e recommendation of the United Nations Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , with coo r d i n a t i o n and f o l l o w - u p . P r i o r i t y should be given t o the a p p l i c a t i o n of e x i s t i n g knowledge r a t h e r than t o research programmes. (b) The planning of advisory, f i n a n c i a l and t e c h n i c a l support f o r the Plan of Action, including budgetary follow-up, i n the following f i e l d s : (i) (ii) the t r a i n i n g of land-use planners, natural resource and s o c i a l survey s p e c i a l i s t s and other s p e c i a l i s t s as reqiiired; t h e f i n a n c i n g and c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f r e g i o n a l programmes f o r r e s e a r c h i n land-Tise p l a n n i n g and management and i n t h e improvement o f s p e c i f i c l a n d uses i n areas v u l n e r a b l e t o d e s e r t i f i cat i o n ; - (iii) (iv) (v) 35 - the f i n a n c i n g - a n d c o - o r d i n a t i o n of r e g i o n a l survey and monitoring programmes; t h e p r o v i s i o n of f i n a n c i a l a i d t o GoveminentSp on r e q u e s t , which have formulated a c c e p t a b l e schemee f o r l a s d - u s e management; support f o r d i s a s t e r prevention and r e l i e f programmes» Recommendation 17 77. The p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e United Nations systeir., both intergovernmental and non-govemir.ental, w i l l b® añ important f a c t o r i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l implementation of t h e Plan o f A c t i o n . I t i s recommended t h a t t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s General Assembly should request t h e S e c r e t a i y - G e n e r a l t o i n v i t e governmental and nongovernmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s concerned w i t h d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problems to p a r t i c i p a t e i n the implementation o f the Plan of A c t i o n to Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w i t h a v i e w t o c o - o r d i n a t i n g t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s w i t h t h e worldwide progranme. 78. To implement t h i s recommendation such o r g a n i z a t i o n s may f i n d i t necessary t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r e f f o r t s t o r a i s e t h e r e s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f i n a n c i n g o f t e c h n i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n programmes and p r o j e c t s r e l a t e d t o research and the development o f s t r a t e g i e s , plans and programmes, f e a s i b i l i t y stxidies, and t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f i n s t i t u t i o n s engaged on combatting d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . C}L\PTER IV. FIKAíICING THE PLAM 79. i I i s perhaps not now a p p r o p r i a t e t o c o n s i d e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t c f nev f u n d s f o r f i n a r c i n f t s p e c i f i c o p e r a t i o n s of t h e magnitude of a f r l o b a l programme t o arrcsi- and, where p o s s i b l e , r e v e r s e t h e p r o c e s s e s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . Ncr wculd. such p r o p o s a l s be necessair,' i f e x i s t i n g developxerst a s s i s t a n c e funds have b u i l t i n t o them t h e d e g r e e of f l e x i b i l i t y r e q u i r e d to respond t o new and c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d r e q t d r e i r . e n t s . F o r t h e most pari, vh^t i s r e q u i r e d , a s f a r a s r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i n g oT t h e Pls-n i s concerned^, a r e s n i f t s i n emphases and i n priorities w e l l a s a r e g r o u p i n g of fijnding i n some cirCUTS*».anees t o resnond t c t h e needs of t h e P l a n . 80. In a d d i t i o n to t h e c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t n a t u r a l l y a r i s e i n a period of f i n a n c i a l s t r i n g e n c y , t h e r e i s a l s o t h e c o n s t r a i n t of l i r i t e d r e s o u r c e s a l r e a d y cor-mitted n a t i o n a l l y t o a c t i v i t i e s t h a t may be e x p e c t e d t o show a h i g h e r r a t e of r e t u r n . Hierh r e t u r n s cannot be r e a d i l y d e m o n s t r a t e d i n a P l a n d e s i ^ . e d t o a r r e s t t h e d e g e n e r a t i o n of f r a g i l e e c o s y s t e m s . Neverthel e s s , l o n g e r t e r r . o u t l a y s t o g u a r a n t e e t h e r e g e i n e r a t i o n of l o s t l a n d and t h e a v o i d a n c e of d i s a s t e r rr.a.y be j u s t i f i e d when s e t a g a i n s t t h e l o s s of p r o d u c t i v e land and t h e burden of er.ergency and c r a s h progra~jnes t o p r o v i d e r e l i e f from d r o u g h t and i t s e n s u i n g s o c i a l and econor.ic d i s l o c a t i o n . These a r e concerr.s s h a r e d by t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o r m u n i t y . 61. I t if. v d t h t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n mind t h a t t h i s P l a n h a s been p r e p a r e d . By t h e ti;ne t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i t i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o i n c l u d e i n t h e P l a n r e a l i s t i c and r e a l i z a b l e o r d e r s of magnitude o f t h e f i n a n c i n g i n v o l v e d f o r r e g i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r t h e seven y e a r s 1978-1984. T h i s seems t o p r o v i d e a r e a s o n a b l e span of t i m e f o r ir;mediate a c t i o n , a s w e l l a s t o g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n of e x t e r n a l s u p p o r t r e q x d r e d f o r a c t i o n i n t h e l e a s t d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s where d o m e s t i c r e v e n u e s a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o f i r j i n c e t h e c o u n t e r p a r t s e r v i c e s and f a c i l i t i e s n e e d e d , n o r i s t h e r e c a p a c i t y t o d i r e c t s c a r c e s k i l l s t o t h e s e new and demanding t a s k s . 82. At t h i s s t a g e , t h e r e f o r e , i t would seem a p p r o p r i a t e t o p l a c e e m p h a s i s , not so much on t h e o r d e r s of magnitude i n v o l v e d , b u t , r a t h e r t h e gToxipings of s o u r c e s of f u n d i n g t h a t frcrm t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e , i n v o l v e m e n t o r c o n c e r n , r.ay be e x p e c t e d t o a s s i s t i n l a u n c h i n g o r u n d e r p i n n i n g d i f f e r e n t c o r p o n e n t s of t h e P l a n . The i n t e r n a t i o n a l commtmity, b o t h w i t h i n and o u t s i d e t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s s y s t e m , has ample p r e c e d e n t s i n t h i s . Lessons l e a r n e d have been a p p l i e d f o r exar.ple t o t h e o n c h o c e r c i a s i s c o n t r o l scherr.e i n t h e V o l t a R i v e r Basin a r e a , i n t h e f i n a n c i n g of i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h c e n t r e s t h r o u g h t h e C o n s u l t a t i v e Group on A g r i c u l t u r a l Research and, more r e c e n t l y , i n t h e approach t a k e n by t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s S a h e l i a n O f f i c e and by Club d e s Amis du Saliel t o w a r d s S a h e l i a n r e c o v e r y . / i t would seem t h a t t h e r e g i o n a l p r e p a r a t o r y m e e t i n g s c o u l d c o n s i d e r how s i m i l a r g r o u p i n g s could b e s t be drawn t o g e t h e r i n s e l e c t e d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e P l a n and t h e a r r a n g e m e n t s u n d e r which t h e s e could b e s t be made and maintained_^ UNITED MTIONS TRMSMTIONAL COÍTPERMCE COOPERATION TO ON DESERTIfTCiffiEON COMBAT DESERTIFICATION FEASIBILITY STUDIES A REPORT BY THE SECRETARIAT OP THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION PREPARED ON THE OCCASION OF THE REGIONAL PREPARATORY JIEETINGS FOR THE CONFERMCE ITM 5 OF THE PROVISIONAL AGENDA FOR THE PREPARATORY ICEETINGS FOR THE MERICAS Santiago, Chile 2 3 - 2 6 F e b r u a r y 1977 AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA Addis Ababa, E t h i o p i a 12 - l 6 A p r i l 1977 THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA Algarve^ P o r t u g a l 28 March - 1 A p r i l 1977 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC New D e l h i , I n d i a 19 - 23 A p r i l 1977 S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e United N a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , P. 0 . Box 30552 NAIROBI. February 1977 Na.77-496 I . . . GEtíERáL A. The r o l e of f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s i n "the p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e Conference 1» The main o b j e c t i v e of t h e United N a t i o n s Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s t o g i v e impetus t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . To t h i s end, t h e Conference w i l l p r o v i d e t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community w i t h a P l a n of Action t o Combat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , The proposed p l a n w i l l e s t a b l i s h p r i n c i p l e s and o b j e c t i v e s , recommendations f o r a c t i o n , and p r o p o s a l s f o r s t r e n g t h e n i n g i n d i g e n o u s c a p a c i t y i n s c i e n c e and technologyo 2„ One of t h e sources on which t h e P l a n h a s drawn i n f o r m u l a t i n g i t s recommendations i s a c o l l e c t i o n of s t u d i e s a s s e s s i n g t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of c e r t a i n t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i v e activities» Be S e l e c t i o n of t i t l e s and scope of t h e F e a s i b i l i t y Studies 3. The concept of t h e F e a s i b i l i t y S t u d i e s i s t o work towards t r a n s n a t i o n a l ( i n t e r g o v e r m - . c n t a l ) agreements which can a l s o serve a s models f o r l a r g e - s c a l e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n o Senior c o n s u l t a n t s t o t h e Conference S e c r e t a r i a t and t h e ad hoc i n t e r a g e n c y t a s k f o r c e e s t a b l i s h e d to assist the Secretariat i d e n t i f i e d four areas for these studies. On f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n , t h e p r o p o s a l s were developed i n t o t h e s e six f e a s i b i l i t y studies; Bo Management of l i v e s t o c k and r a n g e l a n d s i n t h e Sudano-Sahelian region? (SOLAR)» b. Management of major r e g i o n a l a q u i f e r s i n n o r t h e a s t A f r i c a and t h e Arabian P e n i n s u l n , c. E s t a b l i s h m e n t c^ a North Saharan Green B e l t . d. E s t a b l i s h m e n t of a Sahel Green B e l t . e. Monitoring of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s and r e l a t e d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i n South America. f« Monitoring of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s and r e l a t e d n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s i n southwest A s i a . 4 . I t was agreed t h a t a f e a s i b i l i t y study should s t o p s h o r t of e n g i n e e r i n g drawings, d e t a i l e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and f i n a n c i a l p l a n s . These would be i n c l u d e d i n t h e p r e - i n v e s t m e n t s t u d i e s t o f o l l o w l a t e r . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t should i n c l u d e e s t i m a t e s of t h e magnitude of t h e f i n a n c i n g , i n v o l v e d . 2. C. Procedure f o r Devgloping F e a s i b i l i t y S t u d i e s 5o I n each c a s e , a p r e l i m i n a r y p a p e r on t h e scope ajid c o n t e n t of t h e s t u d y was g r e p ^ é d by t h e Conference S e c r e t a r i a t ,and s e n t t o concerned Govemmonts, United N a t i o n s o f f i c e s and a g e n c i e s , s e l e c t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l and r e g i o n a l b o d i e s and c o n s u l t a n t s and e x p e r t s , A p a n e l of governnant r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and e x p e r t s who r e c e i v e d t h e p r e l i m i n a r y document was convened t o c o n s i d e r and ; guide t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e s t u d y . Whenever p o s s i b l e , an i n s t i t u t i o n from t h e r e g i o n concerned was chosen t o p r e p a r e t h e s t u d y which was t h e n c i r c u l a t e d t o Governments, United N a t i o n s . Bodies and i n t e r n a t i o n a l , o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r comments. Another d r a f t of t h e document was c i r c u l a t e d f o r d i s c u s s i o n b e f o r e a second meeting 6f t h e p a n e l s which s e r v e d a s t h e occasion on which t h e Governments conpemed e x p r e s s e d t h e i r agreement i n p r i n c i p l e , and p r o p o s e d , . w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e , i n i t i a l s t e p s f o r implementation and recommendations b e a r i n g on t h e Plan of A c t i o n . lio MANAGEMENT OP LIVESTOCK AND StIDANO-SAHELIM REGIONS RAHGELANDS IN THE Í (SOLAR) 6, Countries involved! C o u n t r i e s i n i t i a l l y s e l e c t e d i n c l u d e Chad, M a l i , M a i i r i t a n i a , N i g e r , S e n e g a l , Sudan and Upper Volt a . 7, The n a t u r e of t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o t l e m i n t h e s e countries The main c a u s e s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n t h i s r e g i o n a r e : o v e r g r a z i n g w o o d c u t t i n g , 'burning of ' v e g e t a t i o n and t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of m a r g i n a l l a n d s . Some r e s e a r c h e r s e s t i m a t e t h a t about 650,000 knr of l a n d s u i t a b l e f o r some form of a g r i c u l t u r e or i n t e n s i v e g r a z i n g have b e e n f o r f e i t e d t o t h e Sahara over t h e p a s t 50 y e a r s a l o n g i t s s o u t h e r n edge. The p r o d u c t i v i t y of a huge s u b - S a h a r a n zone i s s u f f e r i n g damage from o v e r g r a z i n g and o v e r l y i n t e n s i v e c r o p p i n g of m a r g i n a l a r e a s . In t h e Sudan, d e s e r t c r e e p s i n t o s t e p p e , s t e p p e c r e e p s i n t o t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g savanna which, i n t u r n , c r e e p s i n t o t h e f o r e s t , 8, I n N i g e r , w i d e s p r e a d d e a t h of t r e e s h a s o c c u r r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y of shallow r o o t i n g s p e c i e s i n d r i e r s e t t i n g s , . such a s A c a c i a and Cammiphora I n g r a z i n g l a n d s t h e r e was d e c l i n e i n d r y - m a t t e r p r o d u c t i o n from about 2,000 t o n n e s t o 360 t o n n e s p e r h e c t a r e . T h i s was c o u p l e d w i t h a r e l a t i v e d e c l i n e i n p a l a t a b l e s p e c i e s and an i n c r e a s e i n ephemerals a t t h e expense of p e r e n n i a l s or l o n g e r - l i v e d a n n u a l s . There was s e a l i n g of s o i l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e of m e d i u m - t e x t u r e t h r o u g h t r a m p l i n g by s t o c k n e a r w a t e r i n g p o i n t s and i n f a v o u r e d wet s e a s o n p a s t u r e s . M o b i l i z a t i o n of sand on c r e s t s of p r e v i o u s l y s t a b l e dunes t o o k p l a c e . T h i s p i c t u r e of N i g e r i s t r u e f o r most a r e a s i n t h e S a h e l , 9, N a t i o n a l c o n c e r n and e f f o r t s C o u n t r i e s i n t h e S a h a r o - S a h e l i a n and Sudaho-Sahelian zones a r e t h o s e i n which d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n h a s r e c e n t l y assumed t h e most d r a m a t i c f o r m . The n a t u r e of t h e problems f a c e d i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s and t h e s i m i l a r i t y of f a c t o r s a t p l a y , have prompted many of them t o p l a n and implement p r o j e c t s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t o v e r g r a z i n g and o v e r s t o c k i n g . The 1967-72 d r o u g h t i n t h e s e r e g i o n s i n f l u e n c e d t h e a t t i t u d e s of Governments t o w a r d s development p l a n n i n g , and h i g h p r i o r i t y was accorded t o i n t e g r a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e (embracing animal h u s b a n d r y , c r o p p r o d u c t i o n , f i s h e r y and f o r e s t s ) and t o t h e development of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s e c t o r . S e v e r a l n a t i o n a l and r e g i o n a l p r o j e c t s a r e i n o p e r a t i o n and programmes a r e imder c o n s i d e r a t i o n , some i n v o l v i n g b i l a t e r a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e , y e t s u c c e s s h a s been l i m i t e d . 10, S e r i o u s c o n c e r n w i t h problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and t h e i n t e n t i o n t o h a l t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s h a s been e x p r e s s e d on many o c c a s i o n s by t h e S a h e l i a n c o u n t r i e s and p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g t h e m e e t i n g s of t h e p a n e l of government r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and e x p e r t s convened f o r t h e p u r p o s e of t h i s f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y , 11, Problems and gaps i n knowledge The second m e e t i n g of t h e p a n e l of Government r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and e x p e r t s i d e n t i f i e d s e v e r a l problems and gaps i n knowledge which r e q u i r e t h e immediate a t t e n t i o n of n a t i o n a l Governments and t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community. Foremost among them a r e t h o s e of a s o c i o l o g i c a l n a t u r e . I n t h e r e g i o n s of e x t e n s i v e g r a z i n g , t r a d i t i o n a l p a s t o r a l i s m seems t h e most s u i t a b l e method of c o n v e r t i n g t h e r a n g e l a n d v e g e t a t i o n i n t o p r o d u c t s u s a b l e by man. The main d i f f i c u l t y l i e s i n t h e p a s t o r a l i s t s t h e m s e l v e s becoming r e p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of l a n d r e s o u r c e s . T h i s w i l l r e q u i r e t h e development of new p a t t e r n s of l a n d ownership and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , b o t h p r e f e r a b l y b a s e d on e x i s t i n g s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s . Problems r e l a t e d t o l i m i t e d 12. Gaps i n kncwledge a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h o s e r e l a t i n g t o i n t e g r a t e d r e s e a r c h and t o t h e t r a n s f e r of s u i t a l i l e modern t e c h n o l o g i e s . Research programmes should c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e development of r o t a t i o n systems comprising a p p r o p r i a t e crops,, p o s s i l s l y i n c l u d i n g animal draught and p e a s a n t opex-sted f a t t e n i n g programmes. P l a n s should i n t e g r a t e p l a n t and animal production:, t o e n s u r e h o r i z o n t a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e S a h e l i a n zone. To make t h e w e t t e r e c o l o g i c a l zones complementary t o t h e S a h e l , r e s e a r c h should be d i r e c t e d t o develop f o d d e r s p e c i e s adapted t o an A f r i c a n r e g i o n w i t h 4OO'- 8OO mm r a i n f a l l and t o p o p u l a r i z e simple a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s t o guard a g a i n s t e r o s i o n and t h e u s e of r u n o f f w a t e r s t o improve t h e t í a t e r b a l a n c e i n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s , 13o I h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t The proposed t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t h a s been f o r m u l a t e d w i t h due c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e major c o n s t r a i n t s of t h e v u l n e r a b l e zones and w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c aim of p r e s e r v i n g p o t e n t i a l n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s ' and t o combating d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . I t i s based on t h e f o l l o w i n g : a. D e s p i t e t h e danger of damage t o t h e environment caused by o v e r s t o c k i n g , t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of n a t u r a l p a s t u r e s by domestic and w i l d a n i m a l s must be r e g a r d e d a s t h e b e s t way of u t i l i z i n g t h e a r i d r a n g e l a n d s of t h e Sudano-Sahel, , • b. Emphasis must "be p l a c e d on an i n t e g r a t e d approach i n f o r m u l a t i n g and . e x e c u t i n g development p r o j e c t s ; t h e absence of such an approach i n t h e p a s t was one of t h e main c a u s e s of t h e d e t e r i o r a t i n g s i t u a t i o n i n t h e Sudano-Sahel, c. E x t e n s i v e or transhumant g r a z i n g seems t h e b e s t system f o r d r y r a n g e l a n d s . S e t t l i n g s t o c k - r a i s e r s on t h e land w i t h i n c l e a r l y • d i f i n e d p e r i m e t e r s , or s e t t i n g a s i d e a r e a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d . f o r .'grazing t o e s t a b l i s h r a n c h e s or i r r i g a t e d farms,, x i i l l p r o b a b l y a c c e l e r a t e t h e . d e g r a d a t i o n of• t h e r a n g e l a n d s and t h e worsening of socio-economic c o n d i t i o n s , d. Measures f o r t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n . o f l a n d r e s o u r c e s should not be c o n f i n e d t o t h e p r e v e n t i o n of o v e r s t o c k i n g i n t h e S a h e l , G u r r e h f a g r i c u l t u r a l methods'ajad systems of s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e r e g i o n a r e important f a c t o r s i n the d e g r a d a t i o n of i t s l a n d . The i n t r o d u c t i o n of r o t a t i o n ' , i n c l u d i n g f o d d e r c r o p s , and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a r t i f i c i a l p a s t u r e s could p r o v i d e a , partial solution, e. A s s i s t a n c e should be pirovided t o t h e c o u n t r i e s of t h e r e g i o n i n p l a n n i n g f o r t h e development of v a s t u n d e r - u s e d a r e a s vdiich could i n t h e f u t t i r e be opened up f o r major s e t t l e m e n t , f. Regional s t r a t i f i c a t i o n programmes which wotild l e a d t o an i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r i c e s p a i d t o p r o d u c e r s f o r young animals or t h o s e r a i s e d on t h e r a n g e u n t i l m a t u r i t y ^ f o r example,' t h r o u g h grovring-out r a n c h e s and programmes f o r p e a s a n t o p e r a t e d f a t t e n i n g on small f a r m s , could c o n t r i b u t e , s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o s o l v i n g t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problem. The Guinean r e g i o n seems t o o f f e r t h e b e s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r growing-out r a n c h e s , x-jhereas p e a s a n t - o p e r a t e d f a t t e n i n g and animal draught programmes a r e e q u a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o e i t h e r t h e Sudan or t h e Guinean r e g i o n . ' 5. 14<. The t r a n s n a t i o n a l . p r o j e c t i s composed of t h e f o l l o w i n g e l e m e n t s ; P r o j e c t 1. A Sah e l i an p a s t o r a l iinit i n an e x c l u s i v e l y c a t t l e r a i s i n g p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s i s an e x t e n s i v e g r a z i n g u n i t on r a n g e l a n d r e c e i v i n g l e s s t h a n '400 mm annual r a i n f a l l . P r o j e c t 2« An annex t o an i r r i g a t e d r e g i o n t o compensate t h e . t r a d i t i o n a l c a t t l e r a i s e r of t h a t r e g i o n f o r t h e damage i n c u r r e d , by t h e l o s s of d r y - s e a s o n grazing» 'In t h i s u n i t , a n i m a r ' p r o d u c t i o n (growing-out or f a t t e n i n g ) would be developed a s a complementary activity. P r o j e c t 3o Aii a g r o - p a s t o r a l tinit combining crop and l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e wet savanna» T h i s u n i t i s t o be l o c a t e d i n r e g i o n s r e c e i v i n g between 400 and 800 mm annual r a i n f a l l . P r o j e c t 4 . A ^ o w i n g - o u t and f a t t e n i n g u n i t f o r SaheTíaá: animals i n t h e wet savanna. I n t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n scheme f o r animal p r o d u c t i o n , t h i s x«iit combines t h e p r o d u c t i o n of f o d d e r i n ; r o t a t i o n i^rith food and: commercial c r o p s with animal draught and peasant-operated f a t t e n i n g . P r o j e c t 5 . To e n s u r e c o o r d i n a t i o n and complementarity between t h e s e b a s i c p r o j e c t s which could be s e p a r a t e d - a n d i s o l a t e d from each o t h e r a s components of t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l ; SOLAR p r o j e c t , - a c o o r d i n a t i o n u n i t i s envisaged a s a component of or associatesd w i t h Comité I n t e r E t a t s pour l a L u t t e Centre l a Sécheresse au Sahel (CILSS) a s t h e h o s t o r g a n i z a t i o n . 15, Views and recommendations of t h e p a n e l of GoveiTOnent r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and e x p e r t s .The second m e e t i n g of t h e panel was h e l d i n Ouagadougou a t t h e c o r d i a l i n v i t a t i o n of t h e Government of Upper V o l t a on 22-25 November 1976o The f o l l o w i n g a r e t h e main views and recommendations of t h e meetings a. The meeting e x p r e s s e d unanimous support t o t h e s t r a t e g y of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of c a t t l e p r o d u c t i o n both h o r i z o n t a l l y w i t h i n t h e Sahel and v e r t i c a l l y t h r o u ^ o u t e c o c l i m a t i c zones a s t h i s approach r e f l e c t s t h e n a t i o n a l development p o l i c i e s f o r animal p r o d u c t i o n i n a l l t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned. b. Unanimous support was given t o t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i v e a c t i o n i n o r d e r t o make p o s s i b l e t h e n e c e s s a r y c o o p e r a t i o n between t h e s t a t e s . Government r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i d e n t i f i e d b a s i c p r o j e c t s f o r implementation w i t h i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t r i e s . I n some c a s e s p r i o r i t i e s were a l l o c a t e d , c. A p r o j e c t must be designed i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h s t o c k r a i s e r s so t h a t i t w i l l be u n d e r s t o o d and a c c e p t e d by them, d. The meeting recommended t h a t t h e b a s i c p r o j e c t s must be c a r r i e d out under n a t i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , but f i r s t an i n v e n t o r y of a v a i l a b l e manpower must be c a r r i e d o u t , e. I t reccmmended t h a t a c o o r d i n a t i o n u n i t i) a s s u r e t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n of p r o j e c t s ; should; ii) iix) ensure t h e t r a i n i n g of t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l ; and, a c t a s an i n f o r m a t i o n c e n t r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e g a t h e r i n g of d a t a from t h e p r o j e c t s , and t h e i r s t o r a g e and d i s s e m i n a t i o n among t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g states. 16, Links w i t h t h e P l a n of Action t o Comhat D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n The proposed t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t h a s t e c h n i c a l , economic and s o c i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g many a s p e c t s of l i f e i n t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned. Its p r i n c i p l e s and o b j e c t i v e s have loeen i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e P l a n of A c t i o n . The s t r a t e g y of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and of t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o o r d i n a t i o n i n i t s implementation h a s been recommended f o r S i m i l a r e c o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n s , 17» Follow-up Action P a r t i c i p a t i n g c o u n t r i e s and e x p e r t s recommended t h a t a small m i s s i o n be sent t o v i s i t each of t h e c o u n t r i e s i n o r d e r t o : a« i d e n t i f y e x i s t i n g p r o j e c t s and programmes d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o or d e s i g n e d t o s e r v e t h e same o b j e c t i v e s a s SOLAR; b , • a s s e s s c o u n t r y needs and endorse n a t i o n a l c. priorities; look i n t o t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of manpower r e q u i r e d f o r implementation of SOLAR. This would a s s i s t i n advance p l a n n i n g of t h e t r a i n i n g component s t r e s s e d d u r i n g t h e discussions. 18. As a m a t t e r of u r g e n c y , t h e p a n e l r e q u e s t e d t h e S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e Conference and CILSS t o i n i t i a t e p r e l i m i n a r y a c t i o n t o implement, SOLAR, The panel a l s o r e q u e s t e d UNEP.and t h e Conference S e c r e t a r i a t . t o c o n t a c t donor a g e n c i e s and c o u n t r i e s t o get t h e SOLAR p r o j e c t o f f t h e ground and h e l p i n i t s implementation u n t i l i t a c h i e v e s i t s o b j e c t i v e s . Some donors who a t t e n d e d t h e meeting agreed t o t h e o b j e c t i v e s of t h e p r o j e c t and pledged t h e i r s u p p o r t . 7. III. MáMGMSíT. OF, THE MJOR REGIONAL AQUIEERS lU -NORTHEAST AFRICA AND THE ARABIAN' , . PENINSULA 19o C o i A t r i e s i n v o l v e d This study i n v o l v e s 12 c o u n t r i e s i n two s u b r e g i o n s l N o r t h e a s t A f r i c a i n c l u d e s Chad,. Egypt, Libya and Sudan; t h e Arabian P e n i n s u l a i n c l u d e s B a h r a i n , Kuv-iait, Oman, t h e P e o p l e ' s Democratic Republic of Yemen, Q a t a r , Saudi A r a b i a , t h e United Arab B n i r a t e s , and t h e Yemen Arab Republic, Duo t o s i m i l a r i t y ; i n • g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e and t h e p r e v a l e n c e of e s s e n t i a l l y a r i d c o n d i t i o n s i n modern t i m e s , . i t • a p p e a r s j u s t i f i e d t o i n c l u d e both r e g i o n s i n one p r o j e c t , 20, The Nature of t h e Problem N o r t h e a s t A f r i c a and t h e Arabian P e n i n s u l a r e p r e s e n t conspicuous c a s e s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . The a r e a of t h e r e g i o n i s about ^^ m i l l i o n km s u p p o r t i n g a p o p u l a t i o n of more t h a n 80 m i l l i o n » With t h e e x c e p t i o n of two c o u n t r i e s , Egypt and Sudan, t h e o t h e r t e n covered by t h i s study a r e almost e n t i r e l y dependent on groundwater f o r t h e i r n e e d s , whether d o m e s t i c , a g r i c u l t u r a l or i n d u s t r i a l . Away from t h e N i l e V a l l e y , t h e o n l y , source of water i n Egypt and Sudan i s a l s o groundwatero 21, A l l t h e c o u i i t r i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s t u d y l i e e s s e n t i a l l y i n an e c o l o g i c a l zone r a n g i n g from e x t r e m e l y a r i d t o a r i d , w i t h some s e m i - a r i d p a t c h e s . I n t h e extreme s o u t h e r n p a r t s of t h e Sudan and Chad t h e c l i m a t e p a s s e s i n t o t r o p i c a l , 22o Desert encroachment has o c c u r r e d i n the. Arabian P e n i n s u l a and north.east A f r i c a f o r t h e l a s t s e v e r a l t h o u ^ i d y e a r s and may have a c c e l e r a t e d i n r e c e n t t i m e s by t h e a c t i o n s of man. Problems caused by n a t u r e or man i n c l u d e i n t n i s i o n of s a l i n e sea w a t e r xíith d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s on groundwater p o t e n t i a l . The i n j e c t i o n of sea or b r a c k i s h water i n t o o i l f i e l d s h a s - a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on "the f r e s h v/ater a q u i f e r s , 2.3« N a t i o n a l concern and e f f o r t s Most c o u n t r i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h i s study have had l o n g concern m t h problems of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . Their e x t e n s i v e i r r i g a t i o n systems should be viewed a s e f f o r t s t o r e c l a i m v a s t a r e a s o t h e r w i s e l o s t t o d e s e r t . I n r e c e n t y e a r s e f f o r t s have been mounted t o a t t a c k t h e problem from s e v e r a l d i r e c t i o n s . These i n c l u d e improved management of groundwater r e s o u r c e s proper range management and sand dune f i x a t i o n . 24o Problems and fflps i n knowledge The s i m i l a r i t y of t h e g e o l o g i c a l and c l i m a t o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n n o r t h e a s t A f r i c a and t h e Arabian P e n i n s u l a h a s l e d t o t h e development of r e g i o n a l a q u i f e r s of comparable c h a r a c t e r i s t b s and with common problems. S u b s t a n t i a l knowledge h a s a l r e a d y been a c q u i r e d on t h e r e g i o n a l a q u i f e r s . Much remains t o be done, however, t o e s t a b l i s h a sound d a t a b a s e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g g u i d e l i n e s and a c t i o n f o r a q u i f e r management. Some v a s t a r e a s l a c k d a t a . I n o t h e r s , d a t a a l r e a d y g a t h e r e d have not been p r o p e r l y d i s s e m i n a t e d . How much y i e l d can be e x t r a c t e d without endangering groundwater p o t e n t i a l i n q u a n t i t y , q u a l i t y , and a v a i l a b i l i t y needs t o be d e t e r m i n e d . I n a d d i t i o n ^ t h e r e i s o f t e n l a c k of awareness of w a t e r problems by t h e water u s e r , a / Aa 8. 25» Problems i n c l u d e t m r e l i a b i l i t y of some d a t a on groundwater r e s o u r c e s , t h e l a c k of s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n i n d a t a p r e s e n t a t i o n and t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y of c e r t a i n d a t a c o n s i d e r e d c o n f i d e n t i a l . There a r e a l s o problems i n aquifer management caused by n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s or by t h e impact of human communities on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e s e a q u i f e r s ; f o r example, t h e i n t r u s i o n of s a l i n e water and t h e i n j e c t i o n of sea or b r a c k i s h w a t e r i n t o o i l f i e l d s , 260 The T r a n s i m t i o n a l P r o j e c t The study r e p o r t concludes t h a t t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t i n t e r c o u n t r y c o o p e r a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l f o r studying shared a q u i f e r s , f o r screening, processing, i n t e r p r e t i n g and i n t e g r a t i n g a l l d a t a a v a i l a b l e and f o r d e f i n i n g management g u i d e l i n e s . I t i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o achieve c o o p e r a t i o n a t t h e i n t e r - r e g i o n a l l e v e l f o r comparing e x p e r i e n c e , exchanging i n f o i m a t i o n on methods and t e c h n o l o g i e s and f o r c a r r y i n g out i n t e r r e g i o n a l surveys and combining c o n s u l t a n t assignments t o reduce c o s t s . Such c o o p e r a t i o n c a n b e s t be e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h t h e e x e c u t i o n of a transnational project, 27» Due t o t h e l a r g e a r e a of t h e p r o j e c t and t h e complexity of i t s problems, p r o v i s i o n i s made f o r a one-year p r e p a r a t o i y phase d u r i n g which a programme of a c t i v i t i e s c o v e r i n g a f o u r - y e a r o p e r a t i o n a l phase, would be e l a b o r a t e d , 28. The P r e p a r a t o r y Phase The b a s i c elements f o r a p r o j e c t c o v e r i n g t h e p r e p a r a t o r y phase a r e t h e s e ; a. Objectives; The l o n g - t e r m o b j e c t i v e of t h e p r o j e c t i s t o a r r i v e r a t i o n a l , economical and c o n t i n u i n g e x p l o i t a t i o n .of major r e g i o n a l a q u i f e r s of n o r t h e a s t A f r i c a and t h e P e n i n s u l a , This o b j e c t i v e i s t o . be reached t h r o u g h c o n c e r t e d a c t i o n of t h e c o u n t r i e s ' i n v o l v e d . at a the Arabian the Short-term objectives a r e ; i) . r. To c o o r d i n a t e p r e s e n t or f u t u r e o p e r a t i o n s f o r t h e e x p l o r a t i o n , assessment..^nd development of - ' groundvjater r e s o u r c e s i n t h e a q u i f e r s , e s p e c i a l l y when such o p e r a t i o n é have t r a n s n a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , This c o o r d i n a t i o n w i l l be achieved through t h e exchange of i n f o r m a t i o n on methods and t e c h n o l o g i e s and t h e r e s u l t s of t h e o p e r a t i o n s , ii) To s t a r t a d d i t i o n a l p i l o t s t u d i e s of a t r a n s n a t i o n a l n a t u r e and t o i n t r o d u c e a p p r o p r i a t e methods and technologies in t h e i r support. iii) To o r g a n i z e c o n t i n u i n g t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e management of t h e a q u i f e r s based on p r o p e r i n s t i t u t i o n a l arrangements, iv) v) To c a r r y out an i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g programme f o r national personnel, To p r e p a r e documents, such a s maps and r e p o r t s , p r o v i d i n g a b a s i s and g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e management of t h e a q u i f e r s . ....... b. Institutional arrangements would include-; i) A technical committee, organiised at the country level for all operations related to the aquifers, ii) A technical steering committee, organized at the regional level. It would include one representative from each country of the regions, The steering committee would designate a regional representative who would assist in coordinating regional activities, iii) An interregional coordinating office for the management , of the regional aquifers (ICOMRA) would be established as a project of the United Nations system. This office would "be directed by an international expert (coordinator) assisted by two regional representatives, consultants, and any other required experts, iv) The inter-regional coordination office would work in close cooperation with all institutions and-projecte dealing with the aquifers. The steering.committeestogether with the coordinating office would meet periodically. c. Work Programme The proposed pilot projects are: i) The exploration and development of an untapped sandstone aquifer on the borders of Egyptf Chad, Libya and the Sudan, Por this study the necessaiy coordination would be affected with the projects now operating in Kufra (Libya) and in the New Valley (Egyp-fc). ii) The exploration and development of an untapped sandstone aquifer on the borders of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, Saudi Arabia and the Yemen Arab Republic, iii) The exploration and development of sulmarine springs in the Arab Gulf, iv) The management of a limestone aquifer on the eastern border of the Arabian Peninsula threatened by seawater intrusion. d« Project support i) External contribution The external contribution is exclusively for the , orgamation ajid operation of ICOMRA. The costs for personnel and equipment run to US$190,000, ii) Governnont contribution One Government would put office space at the disposal of the project on a permanent basis. All Governments' would put such facilities at the disposal of the project on a temporary basis. 29. The Operational Phase; a. Objectives and ..iagráiutional arrangements are the same as for •file preparatory phaseo It is expected that after one year national, regional and interr-regional arrangements will have iD'een made, TD. 'GJIie work programme .1' i) would include five types of operations: coordination of national activities; ii) execution of transnational pilot projects; :iii) institution "building for regional and inter-regional activities; iv) training; and, ' , v) preparation of comprehensive reports and maps, 30. The Views and Recommendations of the Panel of Gcfvemment Representatives and Experts; The second meeting of this panel was held on 7-10 December 197^ at^Doha, Qatar, at the cordial invitation of the Government of Qatar, The following are the main views and recommendations of the panel meeting: a. The meeting expressed, -unanimous support for transnational cooperation for the management of regional aquifers and also for the proposed transnational project. b. Individual Government representatives identified the pilot projects in which their respective countries wished to participate, c. Government representatives gave statements on present projects which vrould "be complementary to or form part 'of the transnational project. They also provided" infonnation and data requested for more accurate formulation of the project, 31. Links to the Plan of Action to Com"bat Desertification The panel meeting recommended for inclusion,in the draft Plan of Action the following proposals, (They are not reflected in the Second preliminary draft of the Plan of Action "before the regional preparatory meetings as the draft Plan v;as completed before the following recommendation had been formulated), a. Every facility and assistance should be extended to promote inter-regional cooperation on matters related to the processes of desertification and groundwater which-transcend national boundaries, b. The plan should include a recommendation on the management of major regional aquifers in arid regions with emphasis on areas where the environment is threatened, and especially wherever the supply of water is endangered in terms of quantity, quality and availability. Special attention should be given to groundwater bodies crossing an international botmdary, for which transnational co-operation is essential. lio c. As this transnational project is a major venture in the field of technical co-operation between developing countries and, as such, contributes in a tangible manner to the build-up of an indigenous scientific and technological capacity in areas affected by desertification, the Plan of Action should bring, such activities into sharp focus and recommend them for high priority in financing and implementation. d, A recommendation on the establishment of a large-scale data bank, a water resources institute and a training institute for water specialists, as well as on the preparation.of comprehensive plans for the development of water resources, was passed to the consideration of the Secretariat of the United Nations Water Conference for inclusion in their Plan of Action, 32. Follow-up To start implementation of the transnational project the delegations of countries in the Arabian Peninsula intend to recommend to the Conference of Ministers of Agriculture of the Arabian Peninsula to be held in February 1977 that a technical steering committee be formed as described above, 33o Governments in both subregions were virged to express officially their interest and willingness to participate in a letter addrossod ta the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme, As soon as two or more countries from each region have expressed their interest, steps will be taken to organize ICOMRA,. 34. As a positive step for immediate action, the Panel recommended that countries involved should give priority to data collection on all aspects of the aquifers. 12. IV. TRANSNATIONAL PROCESSES PROJECT ON MONITORING DESERTIFICATION AND RELATED NATURAL RESOURCES IN SOUMffiST ASIA 35, Co-untries involved The study covers four coun-fcries: Afghanistan, India,, Iran and Pakistan. What is learned with respect to desertification is one vulnerable part of the region should "be readily related to an testable in other parts of the region. 36. The Mature of the desertification problem The deserts and their margins in the re^n stiffers from extremes of temperature, aridity and vdnd. Desertification in the form of deterioration and decrease of vegetative cover coupled with soil deterioration is widespread in the arid and semi-arid lands in the region. This has been mainly caused by overgrazing, overexploitation of the ligneous vegetation for fuel and construction, and clearing marginal land for opportunistic dry farming. Smaller in extent, but nevertheless very important economically, is the problem of waterlogging, salinization ánd alkalinization due to poor irrigation practices. 37o The whole of Afghanistan, excepting only small areas in the east and npiiiheast, is vulnerable to desertification, India is crossed by a zone of arid and semi-arid land. Natural resource surveys have show that 4«35 percent of western Rajasthan has already been.affegted by desertification processes and that 76.15 percent (l62,900 km ) is vulnerable. In western Rajasthan the cropping area has increased but the net productivity of nearly all crops has decreased. It is estimated that a forage deficit of 50 percent in I957 has increased to over 70 percent today. Of Iran's I64 million hectares, it is estimatéd that about 80 million are sparsely vegetated and vulnerable to desertification through excessive pressure by man. In Pakistan, desertification appears in waterlogging and salinization on the one hand, and the deterioration of rangelands on the other. 38. National concern and efforts The degree of concern with desertification problems and the efforts directed against them vary in the region. The Govemnent of India established a Desert Afforestation and Soil Conservation Station at Jodhpur in 1952. In 1955, "this station was upgraded as the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRl). Five other institutions in India are concerned with one or another aspect of desertification. Major efforts include the Rajasthan Canal started in the early sixties to provide irrigation water for 11 percent (2.7 million' hectares) of the total desert area, a World-Bank-assisted programme known as "Drought Prone Area Programme", and the creation of the Desert Development Commission for Rajasthan, 39* In Iran, consciousness of desertification problems has grown steadily since the fifties. Public and Government awareness reached a peak in 1975» a coordinated programme for the conservation and development of Iran's desert areas is novj being formulated. A numberof institutions are concerned with research and development in and around Iran's desert areas. Their activities include sand stabilization, watershed management and the improvement of rangelands and vegetation cover. 13 40o In Pakistan, salinity and xíaterlogging are major problems in irrigated areas, wind and water erosion in rainfed areas. The Government's concern with desertification has been grov/ing. As a result, several institutions and programmes have been set up, including the Drainage and Reclamation Institute of Pakistan and the Mona Reclamation Experimental Project, 41. Problems and gaps in knowledge The countries involved in this study are threatened with a similar range of desertification processes. The feasibility study report deals with these in some detail for each country. It goes on to state that the pressure of human use, which in most situations has been increasing over recent decades has lessened the productivity of ecosystems. As the ground 1 oses its cover, niicro«climates change and soils deteriorate and erode. These problems occur throughout most of the area covered in this study. 42o The ability to move investments and switch resources into drylands of low productivity is an important factor in the long term prospects for the human use of systems in and around deserts. The technological flexibility which characterizes most traditional land use patterns in these areas is being lost or reduced because of changes in the larger socio-economic system of which, they form a part and is a major cause of increased pressure on resources leading to desertification. 43o Gaps in knowledge and training are essentially related to the efficient monitoring of desertification processes and related natural resources which is required for improved planning, management and development. To be effective, monitoring requires a fairly complete survey of natural resources. At present there are gaps in the natural resource data base viiich camot be filled by conventional means except at h i ^ cost. For this reason, the programmes could be immensely assisted by the use of satellite imagery. Another gap relates to classification of areas as to their potential, 44» The proposed transnational project was revised and adopted by the panel in accordance with the following objectives? 45» The long-term objective of the project is to enhance the capabilities of the individual countries of the region to combat desertification and promote regional self-sufficiency. This objective would be pursued primarily by means of a co-operative monitoring programme, initially focused on pilot areas, in which satellite imagery would be processed and interpreted at a regional centre and the results reported to national committees for action,- The regional centre would also carry out other functions that would allow the four countries to make the best use of the total facilities and expertise available and maintain a working relationship with remote sensing and desert research agencies in other parts of the world. 9 4 46, The Institii^ional Framework Each country would set up a national . • committee on desertification and appoint a representative to a regional conimittee on desertification. The Regional Committee would function as ' the Governing Council of the Regional Centre, which would "be the physical focus of the project, and would appoint its director. 47. Budget The cost of setting up the project is estimated rou^ly at US$657000 for the first year and US$4 million from the second to the fifth years. The budget for the second five years m i l he estimated on the hasis of a budgetary review at the end of the first two years, 48. Work Programme The Regional Committee would begin work as soon as possible on the following tasks? a. Investigate possibilities for the establishment of the Regional Centre, b. Draw up a list of training institutions in the re^oh, select suitable institutions for regional •training responsibilities, ajld make reoommendations - to the appropriate Governments, c. Investigate and identify sources of financing, 49. The Regional Centre, as soon as established, shotild begin work on the following; i) a documentation centre; ii) the processing of satellite imagery for reports to National Committeesi iii) liaison with other international programmes and M S A | iv) assisting Governments to increase public awareness of desertification problems throughout the regioni v) vi) a detailed proposal for a regional training programmej remote sensing monitoring techniquesj and, vii) regional implementation of the Plan of Action voted on by the Desertification Conference, • 50, Vievjs and Recommendations of the Panel of Government Representatives and Bgperts The second meeting of this panel was held on 3-6 January ,1977 at Jodhpur at the cordial invitation of the Government of India, "I^e following are its main views and recommendationsÍ a. The meeting eaqjressed manimous support for transnational cooperative activity in monitoring desertification processes and related natural resources, approving the project as described in the previous section. It was considered important to start the project immediately in order to achieve some results before the Conference and not to lose the momentum already generated. The panel, therefore, recommended that the first and „immedi at e_-st ep _ ,sh oul d be _the_est.abl i shaent _ of, a Regional Committee on Desertification, « j,, 15. b. On the proposal included in the draft study regional centre in Iran to facilitate close with the satellite receiving station there, was expressed that Iran would consider this to site the cooperation, the hope favourahly, c. To establish a strong base at, the country level for effective work to combat desertification, the.Panel recommended the immediate cEcation of National Committees on Desertification representing the various disciplines relevant to the problem. d. In order to make the best use of existing facilities and to spread the activities of the project as ^íidely as possible through the region, several training centres instead of one should be established, 51» Links to the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification The panel agreed to present the following recommendations for inclusion in the proposed Plan of Action to Combat Desertifications a» It is recommended that regional centres be established for groups of countries that are particularly vulnerable to desertification and share ecological and ctiltiiral conditions to assist in the coordination of national programmes and organize maximum use of expertise available in the region, bo It is recommended táat specific international procedures be established for monitoring and assisting the progress of transnational and regional projects aimed at combating desertification» c. Since attention to the human factor in desertification has, until recently, been generally neglected, it is recommended that special attention be given at the international level to harnessing expertise in the analysis and treatment of the humanfactor, 52, Follow-up As it vias considered important to start the project immediately, each Government was urged to appoint its representative to the Regional Committee on Desertification. Governments were requested to convey their decision to the Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on Desertification» Each of the four Governments was urged to establish its National Committee with inter-disciplinary composition. The National Committee should embark immediately on preparations related to the requirements of the transnational project, particularly in the selection of pilot areas, and in inventories of training centres. Ifa, 53. Considering the -urgency of the desertification prohlem in Southwest Asia, the Panel requested the Secretary-General.of the United Nations Conference on Desertification to arrange the first meeting of the Regional Committee as soon as countries have designated their representatives to that body. The meeting may he held in one of the countries involved and representatives of the United Nations family and other interested international organizations may he invited to attend. 17. V. FEASIBILITY STUDY OF A PROPOSED TRANSNATIONAL PROJECT ON MONITORING DESERTIFICATION PROCESSES AND RELATED NATURAL RESOURCES IN CRITICAL AREAS OF SOUTH AMERICA 54. The couiitries involved in this study are Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Peru. Kie study focuses on the dryland regions extending from the Peruvian coast to Pc.tngonia- it also includes the semi-arid areas of northeast Brazil» The Nature of the desertification probleia in these countries The area identified in this study as vulnerable to desertification,includes 2.5 million km . As in other parts of the world desertification results here from an interaction between land-use pressures, climate, geology, soils £nd natural vegetation. The most important processes appear as a decrease in rangeland productivity due to -uncontrolled grazing, accelerated xiind and water erosion and a loss of irrigated land due to salinization, 5.6 There has been a significant loss of agricultural productivity in this region over the last 50 years, but neither the extent of loss nor its present rate can be estimated accurately» However, some losses have been identified in certain countrieso In Argentina, of an original 25 million hectares of hardwood forest, only 1-|- million remain, and of 60 million hectares of all forest, I6 million remain. Pire is destroying vegetation in the central area of the country at a rate estimated at 100 km" annually. Inadequate control of grazing has caused a decline in herbaceous and shrub varieties and an increase in less desirable vegetation. About two million hectares of irrigated land have declined in productivity due to salinization and alkalinization, while erosion has caused extensive degradation and gullying, 57, As in Argentina, desertification processes in Chile have been the result of extensive cutting of forests for timber, overgrazing andinappropriate cultivation practices. Ecological deterioration has followed, as evidenced bys a. the formation of sand dunes due to loss of stabilizing vegetationi b. the formation of gravel and rock surfaces due to loss of, soil J c. the accmulatinn of salts and loss of productivity of irrigated agricultural land due to the use of saline water in poorly drained soils| eni, do the loss of soil by water erosion on bare cultivated fields. 58. National concern and efforts All countries involved in this study have been concerned with dryland problems including the special problems of desertification. The reasons behind their concern include: the need to conserve natural resources threatened by irrational exploitation; • the need to expand crop production because of population growthj and, the need to improve standards of living in arid and semi-arid areas. 18. 59» In each of these countries, institutions and universities are involved in studies, e3q)erimentation and programmes relating to dryland problems in general and desertification in particular. Inventories of these institutions were presented to the first meeting of the panel of Government representatives and experts convened for this study in San Martin, Argentina, 26-29 April 1976» 60, Problems and Gaps in Knowledge The problem facing these countries is declining productivity and resultant economic losses. Related to • this is the need to assign priorities to areas according to their classification as to high or low potential. This cannot be done without a complete survey of resources. Several gaps need to be bridged. Declining productivity and resource potential cannot, be assessed without effective monitoring using satellite imagery combined with aerial photography and ground surveys. 61, The Transnational Project If the countries involved are to establish programmes to control desertification and to reclaim lost productivity, a better understanding of the extent and rate of desertification as well as the potential of natural resources must be developed. If such programmes are to be implemented, continuous monitoring will be reqiir-ed to evaluate the approach taken and to modify the programme when necessary. The proposed transnational project would be organized as follows; 62, While it is anticipated that measures to control and reverse desertification would be undertaken on a national basis, it is felt that regional cooperation vrould be valuable in order to share technical expertise, to develop standardized monitoring techniques and data bases, and to facilitate the transfer of successful measures for the control of desertification. 63, The monitoring of soil and vegetation patterns over the large area of concern can be done by a multistage approach based on satellite imagery analyzed in conj\mction xvith available aerial photography and ground-s-urvey data. Where the interpretation of data is uncertain or where more detailed informatdon is required, ground surveys or new aerial photography may be required, 64, The approach proposed in this study should first be tested in small pilot projects with test areas in each of the countries involved over a period of about five years. On the basis t)f theGOL.projécts, the approach would be refined; estimates of the required financial, technical and organization resources would be made and a programme to monitor the larger area of concern would be drawn up, 65, The long-term objective of the project is to enhance the capabilities of the countries involved to combat desertification, .. The immediate objective is to assess the technical, organizational and political feasibility of transnational cooperation in monitoring desertifLcation processes. Specifically, an assessment is required of: a, the use of satellite data as a basis for a continuing : •nTOi'T'cimmp n-F m n-n -i + ™. ly. b, the value of a computerized resource inventory Eystem for management and planning; and, c, the advantage of sharing facilities, expertise and experience among the countries involved. The duration of the project is five years and its estimated cost for the whole period is US$ 1,8 million¿_ 66, Institutionái Framework arid Implementation The implementation of the proposed project requires the following steps: i a. In order to continue the work which has heen done with ' . the least possible delay, the Governmenta should immediately designate a representative to a Regional Committee, and the Committee should meet to plan the transnational project in greater detail and investigate and identify sources of funding. b. The Gdvornnoot^, should establish Natiopal,Committees on Dcsertificafion'to"'coorjffliaie''national programmes with the transnational project, establish a national data base for monitoring desertification, and identify national institutions which can provide training in relevant disciplines, c. As the national data bases are established, and as satellite and other data are collected and guialyzed, the national committees and the regional committee should consider the need for facilities which could perform the following functions on a regional basis: i) provide a reference system for remote sensing imagery, maps, literature and other useful documentati on j ii) process satellite imagery and provide other data processing servicesj iii) establish efficient communication channels with M S A and other relevant organizations outside the region; iv) assist Governments in increasing public awareness of the processes of desertification in the region; and, v) develop training programmes to ensure that trained scientists and technicians in all relevant disciplines will be available to carry out an ongoing programme to combat desertification. 67, The second meeting of the panel is scheduled to be held 17 - 19 February in Lima, Peru, 20. VI. TRANSNATIONAL NORTHERN SAHARA GREEH BELT 68, The study covers the five countries on the northern side of the Sahara, namely Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. In each of them, a programme or a project to fight desertification is "being formulated or implemented. The great advant^e in coordina,-, ting these national programmes and"projects constitutes the basis for studying the feasibility of a transnational cooperative activity which links the cotintries' initiatives, A meeting of Ministers of the coimtries concerned is to be héld on 5 February in Cairo, VII. FEASIBILITY STUDY ON A GREEN TRMSNATIOML SAHEL BELT 69, The proposed Green Belt extends from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. The countries concerned are: Chad, Mali, Mauritanin, Niger, Senegal, Sudan and Upper Volta. Gape Verde and Gambia will also be considered in the study. These are the countries on the southern side of the Sahara and are most affected "by desertification processes accentuated by the recent drought, A study of whether such measures can be introduced is being completed. UNITED N A T I O N S C O N F E R E N C E O N DESERTIFICATION T R A N S N A T I O N A L C O O P E R A T I O N TO C O M B A T DESERTIFICATION Monitoring Desertification Processes and Related Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America: A Feasibility Study An Abridgement PREPARED O N THE O C C A S I O N OF THE R E G I O N A L PREPARATORY M E E T I N G FOR THE AMERICAS ITEM 5 OF THE P R O V I S I O N A L A G E N D A FOR THE PREPARATORY M E E T I N G FOR THE AMERICAS Santiago, Chile Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Desertification Lima 19 February 1977 23 - 2 6 February 1977 FEASIBILITY S T U D Y O N M O N I T O R I N G DESERTSFiCATiON PROCESSES A N D RELATED N A T U R A L RESOURCES I N CRITICAL AREAS O F S O U T H A M E R I C A I INTRODUCTION This study coneludes fhat remete sensing teshnsbgy ean be us©d f©r monitoring deserti- fication processes in th® arid and semi-arid regions ©f Argentina^, ChiS© and Peru, and pro poses a pilot project t© adapt the teehnebgy t© the needs this Fggien and evaluate the usefulness of monitoring as parr ©f pregiammes t© eemba*' deseft-iiiieaileri. It should be re- cognized that the teehnology proposed here is not unique te th© preblems ©f South America^ and if the proposed epproaeh proves t@ be vaiuabi®^ it eouid bo readily applied to other parts of the world. II NATURE A N D EXTENT Q j L D l S E j l l B C M l O N The area under eonsideration is the brood band of arid end semi-erid lands extending diagonally across the eontinent from the Peruvian eeast^, thfough ríorrhem Chile and western Argentina, to Patagonia, There are two factors which deminafe the atmespherle circulation in this region and determine the preeipitatien patterns^, the s@Sd Humboldt eyrrent flowing northward along the Paeific coast^ and th© Andes meuntain ebain whiel^ serves as a barrier preventing humid air masses from erossing the eontinent, The total area in this region vul - nerable to desertifieatien is about 2,500,000 Km^, g@vef»ng 6 0 % ©f AirgentínQ and Chile and 25% of Perú^ ineluding the most highly p@pul@)ted regiom. It is widely agreod that there has been a signSfieent i@ss ©f ag'ieulf-yrei prodyetivity In this region over the lest 50 years^. bur neither ih© ©«tent can be estimated aeeyrately. no» the present rate of loss As in other parts ©f the warid^ the d@se«tifieatÍ0n processes result from on interaetion between th© pressure ©f bnid uhQ,, the rjimatelogieaf ehotaetetistics of the region^, th© geology and soils of the region, ond the nafuial vegetation . _2 . ARGENTINA In a large part of Argentina, the vegetation exists in a precarious balance. While in many regions this balance has been respected and preserved, in others there has been a progressive deterioration and ultimately abandonment of the land® The population of the drylands tends to be rather mobile, and this factor, combined with the division of the land int© either very extensive or very small holdings, discourages the capital investment and the scientific management necessary to maintain and improve productivity. Although it is impossible to make accurate estimates of the total economic loss due to desertification, some losses can be identifiedo O f 25 million hectares of hardwood forest, only 1^/2 million remain. Cutting has con tinued since the 19th century in all of the warm semi-arid regions. O f 60 million hec_ tares of all forest, 16 million remain. Fire is destroying vegetation in the central areas of the country at a rate estimated at 100 Km2, annually. Inadequate control of grazing has caused the decline of the desirable herbaceous and shrub varieties and an increase in vegetation types that do not provide productive grazing» Some 2 million hectares of irrigated land have declined in productivity due to salinization, alkalinization, and contamination resulting from inappropriate irrigation systems and low quality water supplies. Erosion by wind, streamflow, and rainfall runoff has caused extensive soil degradation and gullying» CHILE In Chile as in Argentina, the important processes of desertification are uncontrolled cutting of forests for timber, overgrazing of natural pasture, and inappropriate cultivation systems. These processes are widespread throughout northern Chile particularly in the N^r te Chic© where the destruction of the natural vegetation has had the greatest impact. -3 There is no data available on the extent of economic losses caused by desertification in Chile, but a number of processes are evident: formation of sand dunes due to loss of stabilizing vegetation formation of gravel and rock surfaces due to loss of soil solidification of clay or bogs due to lack of organic matter and to alternating periods of drought and rainfall decreased retention of fresh water accumulation of salts and loss of productivity of irrigated agricultural land due to use of saline water in poorly drained soils loss of soil by water erosion on bare cultivated fields PERU In Peru the arid regions are of the greatest importance because of their contribution to the national economy, concentrating approximately 80% of its population and almost all the agricultural, industrial and mining activity of the country. This demographic pressure and the resulting economic and social disjustment have caused the misuse of the natural resources resulting in desertification. The overcutting of woods for various uses, the over-irriga- tion in the alluvial valleys, the over grazing, the over intensive utilization of the land under inappropriate conditions and with primitive methods and the deterioration of the en vironment by the solid, liquid and gaseous effluents from the mining activity is an example of this extensive process» While it is impossible to estimate the economic losses caused by desertification in Perú, some indication can be given of the areas affected by the desertification processes., O f 800,000 Ha o of irrigated agricultural land in the coastal desert, approximately 300,000 Ha, have been affected by salinization and poor drainage in different degrees. The Northern Coast forests, covering approximately i;000,000 Ha., suffering a dramatic yearly decrease through indiscriminate felling and over grazing. These woods now extend to the central and interior areas of the Lambayeque, Piura and Tumbes depart ments, whereas there are references indicating that they were previously very near to the sea and twice their present area» The "Coastal Lomas, covering an area of about 800,000 Ha., are decreasing in exten - - if s i o n and q u a l i t y o f v e g e t a t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e man-made ecological c h a n g e s and i n t h e p a s t e x c e e d e d 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 Ha. - The i n t e n s i v e u s e o f s t e e p l a n d on t h e W e s t e r n Andean S l o p e s and t h e i n t e r a n d e a n v a l l e y s and t h e o v e r g r a z i n g i n t h e h i g h Andean r e g i o n s h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e s o i l q u a l i t y and r e s u l t e d i n a r a p i d d e c r e a s e of t h e v e g e t a t i v e - cover. The d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e l a n d and v e g e t a t i o n i n t h e upper p a r t the r i v e r b a s i n s i n the c o a s t a l region cause periodic and l a t e r a l - erosion in the irrigated a l l u v i a l landslides valleys. The c o n t i n u o u s e o l i c a c t i o n i s a l t e r i n g m a r k e d l y t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on t h e s o u t h e r n s i d e o f t h e i r r i g a t e d soil coastal v a l l e y s a s w e l l a s i n t h e newly i r r i g a t e d r e g i o n s i n t h e that join these of areas valleys. I l l THE ROLE OF MONITORING T h i s study does not d e a l w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n of whether d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n is c a u s e d by t h e c l i m a t e o r by man. i s variable, Rather i t a s s u m e s t h a t t h e b o t h i n t h e s h o r t term and t h e l o n g term, and t h a t climate man's a c t i v i t i e s must b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e c u r r e n t c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s maximum p r o d u c t i v i t y i s t o b e a t t a i n e d . if I t i s a p p a r e n t from t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n t h a t i n a p p r o p r i a t e p a t t e r n s o f l a n d u s e e x i s t i n many areas i n Argentina, has d e c l i n e d . C h i l e and P e r u , and t h a t , as a result, To c o n t r o l and r e v e r s e t h i s d e c l i n e , productivity national a r e r e q u i r e d t o promote a p p r o p r i a t e s y s t e m s o f l a n d u s e . programmes While i t would b e t e c h n i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o b e d e t a i l e d p e r i o d i c s u r v e y s o f l a n d u s e eind land c a p a b i l i t y i n the region, and, would be a s l o w and e x p e n s i v e process s i n c e most o f t h i s l a n d i s i n h e r e n t l y o f l o w p r o d u c t i v i t y , s u c h an e x p e n s e c a n n o t be j u s t i f i e d . it The problem t h e r e f o r e i s t o d e v e l o p a r a p i d and i n e x p e n s i v e s y s t e m f o r i d e n t i f y i n g and s t u d y i n g t h o s e where s u b s t a n t i a l l o s s o f p r o d u c t i v i t y h a s o c c u r r e d , l i k e l y t o occur i n t h e near areas i s occurring, or future. The d a t a t h a t h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d by r e m o t e s e n s i n g s a t e l l i t e s the l a s t f e w y e a r s p r o v i d e s a new and u s e f u l t o o l w i t h w h i c h t o t h i s problem. in tackle S i n c e 1 9 7 2 t h e U . S . LAWDSAT s a t e l l i t e s h a v e b e e n c o l l e c t i n g data over the e n t i r e world, without r e s t r i c t i o n . times in the l a s t times a year. is and t h e d a t a h a v e b e e n For most a r e a s d a t a h a v e b e e n a c q u i r e d distributed several f i v e y e a r s and i n some a r e a s a r e b e i n g c o l l e c t e d many -5 While these satellites provide the best available data for large area surveys of ecological systems and ecological change, they cannot provide all the needed information. In areas where more detailed or quantitative data are required or where the interpretation of the satellite data is not clear, additional information must be obtained from other sources including high altitude aircraft, low altitude aircraft, and ground surveys. In general, more precise information is acquired on the ground or at low altitude but at higher cost. The design of a large areas survey, therefore must use various levels so as fo acquire a maximum of useful information at minimum cost. In general, the monitoring of vast areas of drylands that are generally of low economic productivity conljsts of the following steps: 1) determination of what information is required at what level of detail, and how recent; 2) evaluation of the existing satellite data, aerial photography, maps and ground survey data with respect to the required information; 3) extraction of as much information as possible from the satellite data; 4) acquisition of new aerial photography and ground survey data if necessary to complete the information required. The management of large quantities of data from diverse sources can be handled efficiently and Inexpensively by recently developed computer techniques for data storage and retrlevof o Resource data can be taken from various sources, at various scales,and with various degrees of accuracy and placed on a reliable base map for easy reference and use. The geographical area is divided Into elements of any convenient size on the basis of an appropriate coordinate system. The characteristics of each element, with respect to climate^ geology^ soils^ etc,, can then be classified from remote sensing imagery or other observations, and computer based maps of these factors can be generated. Given a model which relates potentiol for a particular land use to these features, the computer can then classify each element as more or less suitable for that use. As new data are added periodically, the old data are retained and maps of changes in land use patterns or soil and vegetation conditions can be generated. If satellite data are available frequently, the extent arid nature of seasonal change can be mapped, and as new satellites with new sensors such as thermal sensors are launched over the next few years, new data can easily be added to the system. -6 To adapt the technology to the ecological conditions and technical resources of the project region and to determine the value of the monitoring programme under the prevail ing economic and social conditions, a test project will prepare such an information system for pilot areas in each of the countries involved. From the results of such a test project, the proposed approach can be refined, the usefulness of such system can be evaluated and the costs of extending the system to cover the entire area can be accurately assessed, IV THE T E C H N O L O G Y OF M O N I T O R I N G To demonstrate the concept of the computerized data base and information system, a data base was set up for an area of one L A N D S A T image, 185 km. by 185 km.; centred around Mendoza, Argentina. This area was selected because considerable resource infor- mation was available and because the scope of this study did not permit field wor|c or aerial photography. The proposed project includes extensive field work and mapping of areas where little informotlon now exists. The sample maps that were generated are the following: Basic Data Maps Soils Vegetation Geology Salinity Evaluation Map Pasture Potential The advantages of such a computer based information system over conventional cartographic approaches are three: (1) the basic data are registered according to geographic coordinates in an easily accessible and easily updated form; from the basic data, the system can generate maps of development potential at any scale, and the models which relate development potential to basic data can be easily changed; and (3) for inventory purposes, the system can automatically measure the area of any feature. -7 V O R G A N I Z A T I O N OF THE PROJECT A, Institutional Arrangement-s The purpose of the pilot project is to assess organizational and political feasibility of transnational cooperation in monitoring the processes of desertification^ Specifically, an assessment is required of (1) the use of satellite data as a basis for a continuing programme of moniforing ecological change; (2) the value of a computerized resource inventory system for management and planning and (3) the advantage of sharing facilities, expertise and experience between the countries involved. The assessment of the technology requires a small scientific group with adequate technical and administrative support. All of the countries involved have competent scientists and institutions in the disciplines involved in ecological change, and appear to have computer facilities which could be programmed with the data base system. While information and expertise will be needed from a number of institutions in each country, it would seem appropriate that one scientific institution in each country, be given overall responsibility for the scientific aspects of the project. Some training in specific techniques of remote sensing interpretation will be required, and it is proposed that technical people from each country receive practical training at appropriate training institutions. In addition, international experts should work in the countries involved to assist with technical implementation and to assist the trained local personnel in further training. An objective of the programme should be to make the region self-reliant in the fight against desertification. Since this will require a large number of trained specialists, the project should include the identification of existing institutions in the region which can provide training relevant to desertification and which might serve as regional centres of expertise. The assessment of the value of the proposed information system for management and planning purposes Is complex and requires that the scientific team have close connections with and the full support of the planning agencies. It must be emphasized that the com - puterized data base is more a management facility than a scientific research facility, and its value can only be assessed by an agency with management and planning functions. Such - 8 - an agency should therefore be designated to work with the scientific institution to ensure that the information system is organized to serve national policy. To ensure that the activities of the various programmes and institutions concerned with desertification are coordinated with the project, National Committees on desertification should be established in each country. These Committees should include representatives of a range of disciplines including the social sciencies as well as the natural sciencies. Since resource management is basically a national responsibility, each country should designate a scientific institution and a planning agency to manage and evaluate the project« The problems of desertification are common to all of the countries, and since there axe similarities in the social and economic conditions of the countries, it would be wasteful for each country to carry out the proposed studies independently. The remote sensing and information system technology is common to all countries, and the exporiences of cach country in applying the information system to resource managemenb will certainly be valuable to the other countries» The facilities for receiving and processing satellite data are very expensive and should serve the entire region of coverage if possible, and the training programme and the visit of expert consultants can be more efficiently organized on a regional basis. To carry out these general policies of regional cooperation, a Regional Committee on Desertification should be established consisting of representatives of the governments concerned. The Regional Committee should meet at least twice a year with appropriate consultants and representatives of international organizations. If necessary the Committee might establish a peiraanent secretariat or technical centre to provide continuous coordination and expert assistance to the national programmes. If the project is to monitor ecological change, it should be continued for a minimum of five years since it will require several years to establish a solid data base and five to ten years to demonstrate significant changes in the ecology of the region. At the end of two or three years, however, it should be possible to evaluate the costs and the value of expanding the programme, and planning for the next phase could begin at that time. A preliminary evaluation of the project should therefore be prepared at the end of the second year and should make recommendations for the organization and funding of a permanent programme r.nmhat rtfi ration» -9B, Financial Requirements While it is not possible to establish the exact financial requirements of the proposed 5 year project, some estimates can be made of the initial expenditures and of the operational costs= !i is estimated that about $310^000 per country would be required as initial expenses for equipment, training and consultants^ and about $140^000 per country per year would be required for operational expenses, Vi iMPLEMENTATION The implementation of the proposed pilot project requires the following steps; 1, In order to continue the work which has been done with the least possible delay, the governments should immediately designate representatives to the Regional Committee, and the Committee should meet to plan the transnationol project in greater detail and invesHgate and Identify sources of funding» 2o The governments should establish National Committees on Desertification to coordinate national programmes with the transnotional project, establish national data bases for monitoring desertification, and identify national institutions which can provide train Ing In relevant disciplines^ 3o As the national data bases are established, and as satellite data and other data are col'iected and analyzed, the National Committees and the Regional Committee should consider the existence of and need for facilities which could perform the following functions on a regional basis; a, provide a reference system for remote sensing imagery, maps, literature and other useful documentation^" bo process satellite Imagery and provide other data processing services; c. establish efficient communication channels with N A S A and other relevant organizations outside the ragion; d= assist governments in increasing public awareness of the processes of desertification In the region; e. develop training programmes to ensure that (rained scientists and technicians In all relevant disciplines will be avoilable to carry out an ongoing programme to combat UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION TRANSNATIONAL COOPERATION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION FEASIBILITY STUDIES A REPORT BY THE SECRETARIAT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION PREPARED ON THE OCCASION OF THE REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETINGS FOR THE CONFERENCE Add. 1 ITEM 5 OF THE PROVISIONAL AGENDA FOR THE PREPARATORY MEETINGS FOR THE AMERICAS Santiago, Chile 23-26 February 1977 AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA . Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 12-16 April 1977 THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA Algarve, Portugal 28 March-l April 1977 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC New Delhi, India 19-23 April 1977 Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Desertification P.O. Box 30552 NAIROBI. February 1977 77-2-0359-150 - 1 - of -Governmenj: /JThevi^ws and recommendatioris jP.f ;jtiie R ^ re sen t a t iv e s and Experts» The secoiid meéting óf this Panel was held on 17-19 February 1977 at Lima, Peru, at the cordial invitation of the Peruvian. Government. The following are the main views and recommendations of the Panel meeting: (a) The meeting expressed unanimous support for transnational co-operative activity in monitoring desertification processes, approved the main elements of the transnational project aind endorsed a minimum, period of five years for the project» , (b) The Panel recognized that the proposed list of features to be. monitored should not be regarded as definitive and will likely be modified as the project progresses. Erosion was recommended for inclusion in the list and the use of remote sensing for studying historical land use and settlement patterns was recommended for consideration. (c) The budget and time periods proposed for experts and training in the draft feasibility study report were accepted as reasonable. . However, it: was recommended that a detailed proposal on equipment,1 training, staff, operational requirements:and costs should be prepared by a study group established by the regional committee. LA^kg- to an^ of Action to Combat Desei^t jfica.tion. The Panel recommended the following to be considered for inclusion in the proposed Plan of Action to Combat Desertificationi (a) Realizing the importance of surveys of natural resources and monitoring of desertification processes in vast areas under high or medium vulnerability maximxiin use should be made of the available advanced technology of remote sensing in combination with other techniques in obtaining results in the shortest possible time and at comparatively cheaper costs. (b) Since monitoring can serve a useful purpose only if it forms part of a programme to- combat, desertification, and since, in many countries, there exist project proposals, study groups and /committees related - 2 - committees related to desertification, it is essential thát monitoring projects be integrated with existing national and inteinatioiial programmes and policieso 69» Follow-up. As it was considered important to start the project immediately the Panel recommended that: (a) Each government concerned should be urgfed to appoint its representative to the ¡Regional co-ordinating committée and establish iiis national multidisciplinary co-ordinating committee = (b) The designation of a country representative to the regional committee should be communicated to the Secretary General of the United Nátions Conference on Desertification who has been-rte^uested by the Pánel to arrange administratively and financially for convening the first meeting óf the regional committee. VI= .-TRANSNATIONAL NORTHERN SAHARA GREEN BEIS' • 70. The study covers the five countries' on 'the northferri side of the Sahara, namely Algeria, ¡Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisiáo '- In each of them, a programme or a project to fight-d'esertificatiori is being formulated! or implemented. The gieat advantage in cd-brdiriating these national programmes and projects constitutes the basis for studying the feasibility of a transnational cb-operative activity which links tixe countries' initiatives. 71. Tj^ Natuige of the Deg_ertificat^ion :^roblems in these countries; Desert occupies three quarters or móre of the three big countries (Algeria, Egypt and Libya) in North Africa. Generally the gréater'" part of North Africa is characterized by an arid climate which gives rise to a vast desert north of lóQN. Rainfall over a large part of the area is less than 25 mm a year. 72. The climate of the North African arid zone could conveniently be divided into desert, sub-desert and Mediterranean.;'" The threat of desertification is faced in the latter two areas. In the sub- desert, about 25 per cent of the area is covered with vegetation," although much vegetation has been degraded over the millenia. /The forest - 3 - The forest has almost disappeared due to uncontrolled burning and overgrazing» Several thousand heC;tares of grazing steppe or, agricultural land are being lost annually to the deserto Soil : , erosion has affected extensive areas of land in all five countries and marching sand dunes blown by wind have decreased the area of productive agricultural lands, . They have also caused severe damage to villages and transportation routes., 73• - National Cone ern ... . ^ National concern with problems of desertification dates back several decades in all countries of North Africa» In Morocco, efforts have mainly been directed towards prevention of soil erosion and deforestation. In Egypt and Libya,.sand-dune fixation and land reclamation have been the principal goals. The .study cites several projects, which have been implemented, and the successes achieved and also records the amount of lands reclaimed. In Algeria, the most important measure undertaken to combat desertification is the.planning and initiation of a Green Barrier across the country to protect an area of 3»5 million hectares. In Tunisia, nearly two-thirds of the land is threatened by desert encroachment.. This serious situation has prompted the Government to formulate and initiate programmes of sand-dune fixation, development and tnanagement of natural range, afforestation and;other projects designed to prevent soil erosion and ecosystem degradation. Problems and Gaps., The .deserts in the five countries comprise extensive bodies of sand .dunes and sandy soils. Movement, of sand by wind, causes great damage when sand overwhelms villages, farms, roads and fertile soils which are under cultivation or used for grazing. Accordingly, it is essential that measures should be, taken to prevent and stop sand-dune mobility to avoid endangering the. present populations. The feasibility report describes the problems o-f soil degradation caused by various types of soil erosion and state.s that millions of hectares are vulnerable to desertification processes of one type or another in all five countries. /75. Effective _ if - 75» • Effective measures to combat desertification require a determination of the areas most vulnerable to the hazards of desertificationo Detailed maps showing degree of vulnerability do not exist and this constitutes a gap which calls for immediate attention. Although a great deal of work has' been done, there.still appears to be a need for mapping of vegetation and its classification, and the determination of the carrying capacities of natural pastures. Certain methods used in sand-dune fixation in some countries need to be tested and adapted to conditions in the other countries in the region facing the same problems. The report also points out the need to expand studies related to the control iof biotic and a.biotic agents which endanger plant life. The Transnational Project • The proposed transnational project is primarily directed towards co-ordination of national initiatives in the five, countriea an setting up the intergovernmental machinery required to. pursue this co-ordination. The'main features of the project are described in the following paragraphs. 77. The Green Belt, is an interconnected belt across these five countries at the fringes of the areas where rainfall rangea from • ^ 150 to 250 mm per year. The green belt should not be conceived as a wall of tress-grown perpendicular to the wind direction in order to reduce itsWelocity. It: is á zone comprising a variety of deyices for the prevention of further degradation of the ecosystem and the creation of an improved habitat. Soil stabilization, moisture conservation, afforestation, range improvement, appropriate plant, and animal husbandry and dryland farming are among these devices. These need tó be integrated within the green belt. The width Of the green belt will depend upon local climatic and topographic conditions. It may vary between a few to tens of kilometers. The exact location in each country will be determined after further study. Existing and on-going national schemes will be taken into considerationi /Within the - 5 - V/ithin the proposed green beltvthere may exist farms, shelterbelts, wóodlands, ranges and other forms of land use. Each type should be treated separately and,there may be variations in structure and tsomposition from one location to another. ' 78. Protocol on Co-operation between North African Countries in Combatting: Desertification It consists of a preamble which describes the dangers facing the countries concerned from desert creep, the need for international and transnational co-operation to put an effective barrier against desertification. In its operative sections the protocol establishes a permanent Joint Committee, with specific objectives and terms of reference. It also states the procedure and practical steps including a proposal for finances required to put the committee into action. 79. The Permanent Joint Committee is a regional body to be created by the protocol after signature by the five governments. Each government is to be represented by one member on the committee. The broad terms of reference of this Coraraittee are the planning of a "transnational Green Belt", its implementation, and the co-ordination of the existing national desertification projects. The Committee would have a technical and administrative secretariat. The Governments of the five countries would provide the funds necessary for the functioning of the Committee. 80. Views and Recommendations of the Panel of Government Representatives and Experts The meeting of the panel was held on 3-5 February 1977 in the building of the Arab League in Cairo. The following are its main views and recommendations: (a) The meeting expressed satisfaction with the draft feasibility study reporJ:,.and support for co-operative activity between the five countries in North Africa. (b) The panel endorsed the recommendations in the study report as guidelines for the work programme. (c) The draft protocol was polished and recommended for signature by the ministers of agriculture in the five countries. /8I. Signature - 6 81. Signature of the 'Protocol The Protocol &n the Co-operation between North African Countries in Combatting Desertification was signed ;by the Minister of ;Agriciilture in Egypt and "the delegates of Libya and Tunisia, both officially representing, their.ji^espective ministers of agriculture. The protocol is being taken for the signature of the Ministers in Algeria and Morocco. 82. Follo\ir-up Realizing the urgency of the desertification problems in North Africa, the páñel' requested: (a) The Secretariat of the Desertification Conference' and the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) to undertake the preliminary work of tlie technical secretariat of the Permanent Joint Committee until the latter has been formally eetablishedi ' _ (b) Each of the five governments concerned to appoint its representative in the Committee and to communicate that to the Secretary Geiaeral of the Desertification Conference. (c) The Conference Secretariat and ALECSO to complete all preliminary steps including the first meeting of the Committee by the'end of June 1977. (d) The Secretary General of the Conference and ALECSO to assume administrativfe, technical, a^d financial resj)onsibi^ for convening: the first meeting of the. Committee, VII. FEASIBILITY STUDY ON A TRANSNATIONAL . SAHEL GREEN BELT 83. The proposed Green Belt extends from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. The countries concerned are: Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Sudan and Upper Volta. considered in the study. Cape Verde and Gambia will also be These are the countries on the southern side of the Sahara and are most affected by desertification processes accentuated by the recent drought. A study of whether such meaáures can be .introduced is being completed. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 3337 (XXIX) Draft Report of the Second Meeting of the Panel on Monitoring Desertification Processes and Related Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America Lima, Peru 17-19 February 1977 Table of Contents Paragraphs I. Introduction 1- ^ II. Statements by Participants 5- 9 III. The Feasibility Study Report 10-13 IV. The Transnational Project 1^-15 V. Proposals on Implementation 16-20 VI. Proposals for the Plan of Action 21-23 VII. Closing Session Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Desertification Lima, Peru 19 February 1977 77-2-0372-80 2k-26 - 1 - I. INTRODUCTION lo The second meeting of the panel of government repreeentativee and experts on monitoring desertification processes and related natural resources in critical areas of South America was held at Lima, 17-19 February 1977 at the cordial invitation of the Peruvian Government. The meeting was held at the premises of the National Office for the Evaluation of Natural Resources (ONERN).. Dr. José Lizarraga Reye.s the Director General of ONERN opened the meeting extending a warm welcome to all participants and assured the panel of Peru's co-operation in such an important co-operative activity. The opening session was also addressed by Mr. J. Labbens, the UNDP Resident Representative and Mr. G. Karrar the Representative of the Conference Secretariat. 2. .Mr, Carlos Zamora Jimeno, leader of the Peruvian delegation was elected Chairman. The business of the moeting was conducted in eight sessions according to the agenda which was adopted at the beginning of the meeting and appears as Annex I. 3. Three of four countries invited attended the meeting, namely, Brazil, Chile and Peru. The meeting was also attended by representatives of international and regional organizations as well as consultants. 4. The list of participants, appears as Annex II. Documents before the meeting included the provisional agenda, the calendar of the meeting, a note by the Secretariat on the Conference preparations and the draft feasibility study report. The note on the Conference preparations was presented in the first session. II. STATEMENTS BY PARTICIPANTS ,5. The representative of Chile supplemented the information contained in the draft feasibility study report on Chile by giving more data on the conditions of arid zones in his country. He then expressed the interest of,his country in the transnational project /and their - and t h e i r a g r e e m e n t i n p r i n c i p l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e . He r e q u e s t e d , however, the panel t o c o n s i d e r preparing a f i n a l l i s t of and; r e a l i s t i c c o s t s of the equipment project,- 6. .The Peruvian representative summarized the characteristics of the arid ^nd semi-arid zones of, his .country, its economic importance and the urgent,need of protecting the natural resources in critical areas where desertification processes dominateb At the same, time, • he submitted a document on Peru to be .included in the Feasibility Study report. He added that Peru, in yi^w of the importance of monitoring among the actions to combat, the desertification as well as the use of the techniques of remote,sensing,.expresses its interest and agreement in principle to participate in the project.. 7. The representative of Brazil gave, a brief description of the arid and semi-arid zones in his country. He stated that .the conditions in these zones were 7 Sifferent from -those-prevailing similar zones in, the other countries, ... Although Brazil is interested in co-operating technically in realization of the.^ims, of the project it does not wish to have its arid and semi-arid zones included in the project areas a;t, the. present time. 6. In the absence of an official delegate from Argentina,, Mr. Virgilio Rpig informed the panel that hip country, through itis specialized agencies has given its approval to-support and participate in the project.. He added,that these agencies are willing to direct their efforts towards initiation of action as soon as possible. The texts of country statements appear in Annex III. . 9« The representative of the IDB stated that one of the main factors in the desertification process is the human action characterized by the overuse, of an eztremely fragile matrix of natural resources.. The purpose of monitoring is to facilitate the action of the Governments and the agencies and individuals that must take political and managerial decisions destined to stop or reverse the process.. It. iSi therefore necessary that, a socio-,economic, suaalysis of the . process is made at the time as the-physical analysis., For this purpose the national committee concerned in the desertification should /include economists -349- include economists and social scientists which can evaluate the social costs of the process of desertification and estimate the expected net benefits of the actions destined to combat the process. To ensure that the metho4ology to be used should be common to all th? countries participating, the national activities should be co-ordinated by a regional.committee. ,The financing of the socioeconomic studies could be. included, in the project budget or in the budget of existing national or international programmes. III.. THE FEASIBILITY STUDY REPORT 10, The leader of the study group, Dr. Eoig, presented the second draft of the feasibility study report. He gave a summary of the nature and extent of desertification in Argentina, Chile and Peru. This part also included information on climate and types of ecological zones in the countries involved. The presentation also included the features to be monitored and their significance. Finally the transnatiio^al character of the proposed project was emphasized and placed within the context of the general philosophy of the Desertification Conference. 11. In his presentation of the technology of monitoring, Dr. Myers stated that the technology of monitoring is presently a reality,and, is available for implementing a desertification programme. The main problems of-a technical nature that remain are concerned with transfer of the technology to South American countries and making plans for analysis of resources, preparing a data base, and placing the data in a resource, information system. It is suggested that a type of training be pursued that will qualify a few individuals from the respective countries thoroughly enough to enable them to conduct training seminars for additional scientists who become involved in the desertification programme. This transfers responsibility to individuals in South America and may be the most successful means of training scientists in the remote sensing technology. Such a training programme can be supplemented by short courses conducted by the United Nations and other groups. /Ultimately the - k - Ultimately the above procedures will contribute to a succesBful information retrieval and deoisipn-tm^ing mechanism which will aid inisolvirig the desertification problems., 12o The peinel recognized that the list of features to be monitorec^ should not be regarded a? definitive and will likely be modified as the project, progresses. In particular, the panel .agreed that erosion should be included in the, list of features, and consideration might be given to the use of remote sensing for studying historical land use and settlement patterns. Similarly the, numbers and time periods specified for consultants and training, while providing useful guidelines, should be left open for more detailed consideration later. 13. During the discussion on the technology, of monitoring it was pointed out that while for most areas satellite imagery exists for establishing the•proposed data base for pilot areas in the three countries,, an ongoing programme for monitoring desertificat^ion ; requires regular repetitive data which,can best be provided by, local or reigional satellite, data receiving stations. In-1973 Brazil established such a station with the capability pf receiving data for most of Peru and. the northern portions of Argentina and Chile. Recently Argentina and, Chile have signed agreements with NASA for establiehing receiving stations but no construction, schedules have been established. The United States, has committed itself to launching a third LANDSTAT satellite in late 1977 or early 1978, which will provide data thrPugh about I98O. Plans are well advanced in the United States for a new series of satellites with higher Resolution, about 30 m., to be-launched in the early 1980s, and other countries are considering plans, for such satellites^. „ /IV.. THE -5 IV. - THE TRANSNATIONAL PROJECT ' The p r o p o s e d transnatitM'ait p r o j e c t , c o n t a i n e d i n Chapter V o f t h e d r a f t f e a s i b i l i t y r e p o r t ' W a s t>i'esented by t h e l é a d é r of- t h e study group.' The f i r s t s e c t i o n c o v e r e d t h e o b j e c t i v e s and t h e institutional arrangements 'required, mainly the c r e a t i o n of a r e g i o n a l committee' and n a t i o n a l m u l t l d i s c i p T i n a r y ó o m m i t t e e s . • covered the f i n a n c i a r a s p e c t s . Chapter VI d e a l t w i t h s t e p s and t h e n e e d f o r one o r more i n s t i t u t i o n s f o l l o w i n g f u n c t i o n s on a r e g i o n a l The o t h e r section implementation to perform the basis: ( a ) p r o v i d e a r e f e r é n c e s y s t e m f o r remote s e n s i n g i m a g e r y , • l i t e r a t u r e and othéí" u s e f u l documentation; ( b ) p r o c e s s s a ; t e l l i t e imagery and provide' o t h e r d a t a services; maps ' processing - ( c ) e s t a b l i s h e f f i c i e n t c ó m m ü n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l s w i t h NASA and o t h e r r e l e v a n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s o u t s i d e the region; ( d ) a s s i s t governments i n i n c r e a s i n g p u b l i c awareness of the p r o c e s s e s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n the r e g i o n ; ( e ) d e v e l o p t r a i n i n g programmes t o e n á ú r e t h a t t r a i n e d and t e c h r i i c i a n s i n a l l r e l e v a n t d i s c i p l i n é i s w i l l scientists be a v a i l a b l e t o c a r r y o u t an o n g o i n g programme t o combat desertification. 15. project. The panel approved the main elements of the transnational On the duration of the project the panel endorsed a minimum period of five years to bé reviewed during the first years o f ^ implementation. The budget estimates proposed in the draft study were accepted as guidelines with the details to be worked out at a later date. V. PROPOSALS ON IMPLEMENTATION 16. I n v i e w o f t h e above p r e s e n t a t i o n s and d i s c u s s i o n s , p a n e l made t h e f o l l o w i n g recommendations: /I7. That the - 17. 6 - That the governments of the cóuntries involved/designate, as soon as possible, a representative to a regional co-ordinating committee to continue the planning and co-ordinate execution of the transnatiottal aspects of the pilot project. • 18. That the governments communicate the designated representative to the Secretary-General of the United Nations ^ Conference on Desertification with a request to convene a meeting . • 6f the regional committee with , representai;'ives of appropriate international agencies. 19. . ' That the governments establish na¿tional co-ordinating committees with representatives of the various agencies and disciplines concerned with desertification^: including the social and economic disciplines. Gonsideration should be given to the designation of existing committees for this purpose where possible» 20. ' That the; next step an the be the elaboration of a .detailed proposal. ? While the budget and the .time period.proposed in the feasibility study report appear reasonable, further, study, on equipment, training, staff, operational ..require,mente and .costs is required.. This further work should be carried out by^a stiady group establislied by the regional committee. VI. PROPOSALS FOR THE PLAN OF ACTION • 21. The panel suggests the .followittg ;recommendations for ^ inclusion in the proposed'plan of action to combat desertification. 22.Ó Realizing the importance of surveys of natural resources and monitoring of desertification processes in vast areas under high or medium vulnerability maximum use should be made of the available advanced technology of remote sensing in combination with other techniques in obtaining results in the shortest possible time and at comparatively cheaper costs. 25. Since monitoring can serve ,a useful purpose only if it forms part of a programme to combat desertification, and sincet in many countries, there exist project proposals, study groups and /committees related - 7 - committees related to desertification, it is essential that monitoring projects be integrated with existing national and international programmes and policies. VII. CLOSING SESSION 2k. . :,: Thei representative- of Brazil Mr. Pereira thanked the Government of Peru and ONERN for hosting this meeting and reiterated Brazil'is willingness to co-.operate In the project by providing satellite image data according to ,the needs of the project. He was followed by the representative of Chile Mr. del Pozo, who expressed gratitude for Peru's hospitality as well as satisfaction in seeing the meeting arrive at a clear conclusion on the objectives and means of implementation of the project. Dr. Roig then added his thanks to the Government of Peru for their hospitality and sincerely wished that that the plans formulated before and during the meeting will become a reality. 25. Mr. Ralph Townley, Director of the Secretariat of the Desertification Conference, expressed gratitude to the Government of Peru for hosting the meeting and to ONERN for offering their premises and facilities. He also congratulated the chairman for the able manner in which he conducted the meeting. In his address, he described desertification as a synthetic concept and also as a perceived problem seen from different angles by the various scientists. The wealth of knowledge on desertification, he added, accumulated so far by the secretariat of the Conference has been used to develop an overview and a plan of action, and what we have accomplished today contributes in establishing a strong corner of the plan of action. He concluded by emphasizing the need for follow-up action. /26. In .. 8 26. - Iti his clpsing address tíie Chairman Ing. C. Zamora expressed Peru's pleasure in hosting this meeting and offering the facilities of ONERN for the service of such an important transnational co-operative activity. He stressed the fact that environment and desertification processes dp not recognize political boundaries. Ecologica,l studies should therefore be performedl on this full coverage and not restricted by frontiers. He added that remote sensing was a valuable technique in the service of such studies and its use in this project should contribute to the realization of the'project aims. Annex III INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 3337 (XXIX) F e a s i b i l i t y Study on M o n i t o r i n g o f D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n P r o c e s s e s and r e l a t e d N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e s i n C r i t i c a l A r e a s o f S o u t h America Panel of Government Representatives and Experts Second Meeting Lima, Peru 17-19 February 1977 AGENDA 1. Opening of the meeting and election of chairman 2. Adoption of the Agenda 3. Report by the Secretariat on the Conference preparations k. Presentation of the draft feasibility study report 5. Country statements on the feasibility study report 6. Statements by other participants (United Nations agencies, international organizations and consultans) 7. General discussion and comments on the proposed transnational project in the feasibility study report S e c r e t a r i a t of the United Nations C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n U n i t e d N a t i o n s Environment Programme P . O . Box 30552 N a i r o b i , Kenya 17 February 1977 77-2-0363 Annex III INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 5337 (XXIX) ' • '' ' ' """ 1. Feasibility Study on Monitoring, of Desertification Processes and related Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America Panel of Government Representatives and Experts Second Meeting Lima, Peru 17-19 February 1977 List of Participants Countries Brazil Mr. José Maria Andrade Pereira Expert of the Departamento de Recursos Naturales Oficina de Desarrollo de la Región Brasilera Nor-Este (SUDENE) Av. Profo Moraes Regó s/n« Cidade Universitaria • Recife - Brasil Mrs. Vera Pedrosa Martins de Almeida Emba-jada de Brasil Cmte Espinar I8T ' Lima, Perú' Chile Mr. Genaro del Pozo Secretario General del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA) Av. Bilbao 5200 Santiago - Chile Peru Ing. Carlos Zamora Jimeno Director Ejecutivo de Estudios Integrados - ONERN Apartado >+992 Lima 1, Perú 77-2-036if - - I n g . M i g u e l C a l d e r ó n Gómez J e f e d e l Area de S e n s o r e s Remotos - ONERN A p a r t a d o ^992 ; ,; • ' . Lima 1 , Perú V I n g . J o s é E n r i q u e M i l l o n e s Olano A s i s t e n t e de l á D i r e c c i ó n G e n e r a l - ONEHN •Apartado ^992 — • Lima 1 , Perú ' , ; : .. I n g . L u i s Masson M e i s s • J e f e de . l a O f i c i n a de I n f o r m a c i ó n y G o m u n i c a c i ó n - ONERN Apartado'4992 ' ' Lima 1 , Perú . , .... , D r . C a r l o s López Ocaña D i r e c t o r C o o r d i n a d o r bf CIZA Los Q u í m i c o s Residencial Lá M o l i n a , Lima, P e r ú Ingeniería D r . Amaro Z a v a l e t a , S o i l S c i é ' n t i e t " - ooixS" ' D e p o i r t m e n t - üniversidad Nacional Agraria La M o l i n a , Lima, Perú D r a . Miriam V a l l e j o s Arce "Research Center of Arid Zones Universidad Nacional Agraria La M o l i n a , Lima, P e r ú . Organizations Mr. Manuel Valderrama ( o b s e r v e r ) I n t e r Americktí'-Development'Bank R e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n Perú A v . R e p ú b l i c a de C h i l é 3 8 8 - 7 9 P i s o Lima - Perú : -• Mr. A l b e r t o S o j i t ( o b s e r v e r ) I n t e r American D e v e l o p m e n t Bank R e p r e s e n t á t i v e - V/ashingto.n U n i t e d N a t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t . Progrgimme Santiago - Chile I n g . Odyer A. S p e r a n d i o ( o b s e r v e r ) Director, , Panamérítían "Center o f S a n i t a r y E n g i n e e r i n g and E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e s C a s i l l a 4337 Lima - Perú i., 1'; - 3 - I n g . J u l i o Burbano ( o b s e r v e r ) Area Engineer World H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n C a s i l l a ?117 Lima - Perú Mrso R i t v a J o l k o n e n United N a t i o n s Development A p a r t a d o khS Lima, Perú Programme Consultants Mr. V i r g i l i o R o i g Director R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e f o r A r i d Zones C a s i l l a de C o r r e o 5 0 ? Mendoza - A r g e n t i n a Mr. Ralph Chipman Box 20 - Room 3550A G.C.PoO, New York, N . Y . 1001? U.S.A. Mr. V i c t o r Myers Remote S e n s i n g I n s t i t u t e S o u t h Dakota S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y B r o o k i n g s , South Dakota 57006 U.S.A. Observers Mr, M i c h a e l G i a n t z National Center f o r Atmospheric Research Box 3000 Boulder, Colorado 80307 U.S.A. Mr. Fernando L i r a Zerpa P r i v a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f P i u r a - Perú A v . Pardo 2 2 3 - 72 P i s o Miraflores Lima - Perú (NCAR) ^ k^ Secretariat of the U.No Conference on Desertification Mr. Ralph Townley U.N.E^P, • P.O. Box 30332 Nairobi, Kenya Mr. Gaafar Karrar U.N.E.P. P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya Annex III INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 3337 (XXIX) Feasibility Study on Monitoring of Desertification Processes and related Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America Panel of Government Representatives and Experts Second Meeting Lima, Peru 17-19 February 1977 AGENDA 1. Opening of the meeting and election of chairman 2. Adoption of the Agenda 3. Report by the Secretariat on the Conference preparations k. Presentation of the draft feasibility study report 5. Country statements on the feasibility study report 6. Statements by other participants (United Nations agencies, international organizations and consultans) 7. General discussion and comments on the proposed transnational project in the feasibility study report Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Desertification United Nations Environment Programme P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya 17 February 1977 77-2-0363 Annex III INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION' TO' C-OMBiftT^ PESBRTIFICATION GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 3337 (XXIX) Feasibility Study on Mpi^toring,of Desertification Processes and related fíatural Resources in Critical Areas of South America Panel of Government Representatives and Experts Second Meeting Lima, Peru •17-19 February 19.77 List of Participants Countries Brazil Mro José María Andrade Pereira Expert of the Departamento de Recursos Naturales Oficina de Desarrollo de la Región"Brasilera Nor-Este (SUDENE) Av, Profo Moraes Regó s/n. Cidade Universitaria Recife - Brasil Mrso Vera Pedrosa Martins de Almeida Embajada de Brasil Cmte. Espinar. 181 Lima, Perú Chile Mr. Genaro del Pozo Secretario General del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias (INIA) Av. Bilbao 5200 Santiago - Chile Peru Ing. Carlos Zamora Jimeno Director Ejecutivo de Estudios Integrados - ONERN Apartado ^992 Lima 1, Perú 77-2-036'+ - 2 - Iiig. Miguel Calderón Gómez Jefe del Area de Sensores Eemotos - ONERN Apartado ^992 Lima 1 , Perú : ' ' Ing. José Enrique Millones Ólano Asistente de la Dirección General - ONEHN Apartado 1+992 Lima 1, Perú ;. Ing. Luis Másson'Meiss Jefe de la Oficina de Información y Comunicación - ONERN Apartado ^992 ' ' Lima 1, Perú Dr. Carlos López O.caña Director Coordinador of CIZA Los Químicos Q-8, Residencial Ingeniería La Molina, Lima., Perú Dr. Amaro Zavaleta Soil Scientist - SoiiB-Department" Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima, Perú ,. . • . Dra. Miriam Vallejos Arce i • Research Center of Arid Zones Universidad Nacional Agraria .., La Molina, Lima, Perú Organizations Mr, Manuel Valderrama (observer) Inter American.Development Bank Representative in Perú Av. República de Chile 388 - 70 Piso Lima - Perú Mr. Alberto Sojit (observer) Inter American Development Bank; Representative - Washington United Nations Development ..Programme Santiago - Chile Ing. Odyer A. Sperandip (observer) Director, . , Panamerican Center of Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences Casilla 1+337 Lima - Perú - 3 - Ing. Julio Burbano (observer) Area Engineer World Health Organization Casilla ?117 Lima - Perú Mrs. Ritva Jolkonen United Nations Development Programme Apartado kk8 Lima, Perú Consultants Mr. Virgilio Eoig Director Research Institute for Arid Zones Casilla de Correo 507 Mendoza - Argentina Mr. Ralph Chipman Box 20 - Room 3550A G.C.P.O. New York, N.Y. 1001? U.S.A. Mr» Victor Myers Remote Sensing Institute South Dakota State University Brookings, South Dakota 57006 U.S.A. Observers Mr. Michael Giantz National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Box 3000 Boulder, Colorado 80307 U.S.A. Mr. Fernando Lira Zerpa Private University of Piura - Perú Av. Pardo 223 - 7^ Piso Miraflores Lima - Perú - if Secretariat of the y.N. Conference on Desertification Mr. Ralph Townley , U.N.E.P. . P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya Mr. Gaafar Karrar U.N.E.P. P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya - Annex I I I INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 3337 (XXIX) Draft Report of the Second Meeting of the Panel on Monitoring Desertification Processes «md Related Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America Lima, Peru 17-19 February 1977 Statements by participants 77-2-0if56-50 - 1 - Argentina After the presentations submitted during the meeting of the panel of experts and representatives of the countries concerned in the project, and because of the absence of the official delegate of the Government of the Argentine Republic, Mr. Virgilio Eoig announces that his country's specialized national agencies (Argentine Institute for Research in Arid Zones (lADIZA), National Commission for Spatial Research (CNIE), and the Planning Ministry) have agreed to support and participate in the project and are willing to do all they can to secure its crystallization and initiation as soon as possible. For this purpose these agencies wi^l take the official steps to allow final approval at the level of a political decision by the Argentine Government. Without prejudice to this, the agencies in question also expressed through Mr. Roig their agreement to the modifications made in the project at the Lima meeting. Brazil I wish to clarify the Brazilian position on the matter under study. : Having in mind the consequences for many developing countries of the desertification processes that are taking place, the Brazilian Government has great interest in,the preparations being made for the Nairobi Conference. For this reason it is attending ,. this regional expert meeting, with the aim of giving all possible co-operation in the solution of problems that affect countries which are friends and neighbours. Because of not having participated originally in the drafting of the document under consideration, which proposes a programme applicable to regions with critical processes of desertification in Argentine, Chilean and Peruvian térritory, the Brazilian Government would like to join the development of studies oh this matter without, for the moment, taking.a position on the specific aspects of the project. /This attitude - 2 - This attitude of the Brazilian Goverame.nt derives mainly from the physical and socio-economical characteristics of the semi-arid zone of the Brazilian Northeast, which can not be related to the problems of the above critical areas. Although in the regions under consideration there may exist different features due mainly to the differences in climatic conditions, soils and vegetation, the problems of the semi-arid Brazilian zones are not identical with the desert and semi-desert areas covered by this study. Despite the différent characteristics of its Northeast region, however, Brazil is ready to co-operate with its neighbours in the study of this problem. For this reason, it is ready to examine with great interest the possibility of technical co-operation in the provision of LANDSAT data useful to this project. Chile The Chilean representative to the Panel approve the contains of the second draft of the study of feasibility of monitoring processes of Desertification, and agree in participate in a Transnational Project to combat and monitoring processes of Desertification. Peru The Peruvian Government acknowledges the efforts being made at the level of the world community to fight against desertification and views with special interest its participation in the Feasibility Study on the Monitoring of Processes of Desertification and Related Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America. In this light, the Peruvian Delegation, having participated fully iaiid jointly in the revision of the document so that it reflects the real problems concerning desertification, .has-also proposed a possible pilot area for study, subject to modification by the high-level decision makers. In addition, the Peruvian Delegation undertakes to take all necessary steps at the level of its Government to bring about, through the established official channels, the acceptance of the Project. A , , AKRANGEMENTS FOR THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE • ^ ;,0N DESERTIFICATION , : • 1. Note lay the Conference secretariat for provisional agenda item 3 • ;T.he-purpose of. ..this note is to place the individual documents before ,the regional prepara-tpry^meetings in the context of the diverse activities undertaken to prepare for the United Nations Conference on Desertification. The participa,nts in the meetings are invited- to discuss the results of this broad prograjnme of preparations. 2. . r., The United Nations General; Assembly, in its resolution 3337 (XXIX) on international co-operation to combat desertification, called inter g.lia for the convening of a United Nations Conference on Desertification to be held from 29 August to 9 September 1977. This Conference is now seen as the principal mechanism for giving impetus to current international activities to combat desertification and for starting new activities.which, together with current actions, will constitute a concerted international programme of.action against desertification, as part of the rational of desertification-pr.one areas. ., 3. social and economic development . , . As the Seo.re-^ary-General of the Conference is.also the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Pi^ogramme (U.NEP), the secretariat preparing the Conference is administratively attached to UNEF. An ad hoc inter-agency task force has met foiir times to review in detail the secretariat's work.. In addition, the secretariat has met several times,with senior scientific consultants from around the world to receive their advice on.the substantive preparations. . if-. The preparations involve three principal activities. The firet is assessment of available information on the causes and cures of . desertification. Ta .do this the secretariat.commissioned scientific reviews of four components, of the problem; climate, ecological change, technology, .and population and society^ These component reviews have now been synthetized in an overview of desertificatio^. In addition, UNESCO has prepared, with UNDP financing, case studies,of desertification 77-2-0206 /and efforts Á - 2 - and efforts to combat it. The case studies were carried out in dry areas with predominantly cool season rainfall (Chile and Tunisia),dry areas with predominantly Warm séason rainfall' (Northwest India ahd Niger), and irrigated areas suffering from waterlogging and salinization (Iraq and Pakistan). Additional case studies have been contributed by the Governments of Australia, China, Iran, Israel, United States and USSRo A synthesis of the lessons learned from these case studies has been prepared. . Several; countries and the Uniteid Nations regional r commissions have prepared papers on national, or regional experience in the combating of desertification. 5. Assessment activities also included the preparation of maps showing the areas affected or likely to be affected by desertification» In co-operation with UNESCO and WHO, FAO has compiled and produced a desertification map of the world at, a scale of 1:25 million. These organizations have also prepar.ed a more, detailed desertification map of Africa north of the Equator at, a scale of 1:5 million.. The secretariat has commissioned a similar map for South America, as well as three more world, maps at 1:25 million, one showing the degree to which the arid regions of the world have suffered damage due to desertification, a second showing the distribution of aridity and drought probability, and a third, a climate aridity index map, is incorporated into the component review on climate and desertification. 6. The second principal activity i'n preparing for the Conference was the formulation of a Plan of Action to Combat Desertificatipn which is a set ,Qf specific action recommendations to. governments and r.egional, and international organizations, based on the information . contained in the. component reviews, case studies,. ^nd. maps. The Plan if is also based on the six feasibility studies for, regional co-operation in the halting and reversal of the desertification process,. These proposed regional co-operative efforts are management of livestock and rangqlands in the Sudano-Sahelian regionr establishment of green belts of planted or naturally regenerated vegetation on the southern and northern margins of the Sahara, monitoring of desertification processes and survey of natural resources in South America and Southwest Asia, and management of the major regional ' aquifers in Northeast Africa and the Arabian Peninsula., Crafts of /these feasibility 1 - 3 - these feasibility studies have been prepared after discussions at meetings of government representatives, consultants, and secretariat staff. It -is hoped that regional arrangements to pursue th.ese proposals w i n be agreed by the governments involved before the Conference.- A summary of the feasibility studies has been prepared by the secretariat. 7. . A draft of the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification has been,circulated by the secretariat to all States Members of the United,Nations and the specialized agencies, to interested United Nations bodies and agencies, to other intergovernmental organizations, and to, non-governmental scientific experts and organizations for comments and suggestions. Based on the response to this wide circulation, a,revised preliminary draft has been prepared for the third principal activity, which consists of four regional preparatory meetings of.government-designated experts. These meetings are meant to give government experts the opportunity to discuss thé rélevance of the Plan of Action to their countries, to identify regional priorities, and to consider the institutions, technologies, and programmes needed to implement the Plan. On the basis of these discussions and a subsequent expert consultation on modalities for financing, the Plan will be revised for presentation to the Conference. 8. The regional preparatory meetings are being held in co-operation with the regional,commissions of the United Nations, for the Americas in .Santiago, Chile, 23-^6 February 1977; for the Mediterranean area, including the Arabian Peninsula, in the Algarve of Portugal\ aS.March to 1 April 1977; for Africa South of the Sahara, in co-operation with.the Organization of African Unity, in Addis Ababa, ¿thiopia, I27I6 April 1977;. and for Asia and the Pacific in New Delhi, India, 19-23 April 1977. The reports of these meetings, as well as the documents b.efor.e these, meetinigs will be submitted for discussion and review on 12-13 May 1977 to the Governing Council^of Ulfep, acting in its capacity as the intergovernmental preparatory body for the Conference,. •• , , ^ • ; ••• .. . .. •/9. As r ^ 9.. As approved by the General.Assembly, invitation to participate in the Conference will be,sent to all States. The, following organizations will be invited to . attend as, observers: (a) repréisentatives of organizations that, have received a standing invitation from the General Assembly to participate in the session and the work of all international conferences convened under its auspices; (b) representatives of .national liberation movements recognized by the Organization of African Unity; (c) the United Nations Council for Namibia; (d) the specialized agencies and ,the ,International Atomic Energy Agency, as .well as interested organs of the United Nations; (e) interested intergovernmental organizations; (f) interested non-governmental organizations that might have a specific contribution to make to,the, work of the Conferenceo The General Assembly also approved the use of Arabic, Chinese, English, French,.fiuesianand Spanish as laaguagea of the Conference. lOo, "" ' The Conference is scheduled to be held from 29 August to 9 September 1977. It will be ..preceded by two days of informal consultations with governments,to review procedural matters relating to the timetable and organization of the work of the Conference. The draft provisional agenda, as approved by the General Assembly, calls for the opening of the Conference to be followed by the election of a President, the adoption of the rules of procedure and the agenda, the establishment of committees and other sessional bodies, the . •election of officers, and the appointraeht of credentials committee. It .,is expected that the Conference will then wish to hold a general debate and discussion in Plenary. The Conference will consist of the Plenary and a Sessional Committee of the Whole. The report of the Conference will be forwarded through the Economic and Social Council ,to the General Assembly at its thirty-second session. 11., ,; Immediately following the Conference the secretariat plans to organize a workshop on the implementation of the Plan of Action to Combeit Desertification, principally for. representatives of governments and those engaged in field operatjions concerned with problems of desertification. Journalists will also be invited to attend. A draft proposal for the workshop has been prepared by the secretariat, /12. As f' - 5 - 12, As the success of the Conference depends critically on the quality of its pre-session documentation, particularly the draft Plan of Action, the participants in the regional meetings can play a crucial role in the Conference preparations by ensuring that the documents are scientifically sound, practically oriented, and politically acceptable. N if) •ti fi DESERTIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES Jack D. Johnson Office of Arid Lands Studies University of Arizona for the U.S. Department of State February 1977 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 1 I. Overview 2 II. History of Land Use in Arid Regions of the United States 6 III. Range Resource Utilization 9 IV. Irrigated Agriculture 10 V. Mining 11 VI. Urbanization 12 vilo Recreation 12 VIII. Phreatophyte and Other Vegetation IX. Summary Controls 13 14 Appendix A Bibliography Appendix B A Partial List of U.S. Agency- 15 Supported Activities Associated with Appendix C Spanish Summary -X- Desertification 22 35 'A INTRODUCTION This paper is an attempt to indicate the extent of the desertification problem in the United States. It includes a historical review of the land-use problems in the arid and semiarid regions of the United States, discusses some of the current problems and emphasizes the need for concerted and sensible land-use planning and management if the U.S. is to curb its degradation of the semiarid and arid western lands and avoid the creation of deserts in those areas where land is being misused. Desertification is not a problem for the developing countries to tackle alone. Indeed it is a problem which the world must confront. The United States shares this problem, can offer some solutions, and will definitely benefit in the exchange of ideas and methodologies which will be presented throughout and following the U.N. Conference on Desertification. In addition to the text this paper contains three appendices, Appendix A is an annotated bibliography of reading material, most of which was used in the preparation of the text, although specific references and quotes are not included as a part of the text. Appendix B is a partial list of activities which the U.S. government is either conducting or funding. The list could have included many other activities which are funded or conducted by the Soil Conservation Service, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Department of Commerce, Agricultural Extension Service, state and local governments, universities or other public or private instituitions conducting research. To be all inclusive would require more time than was available, but Appendix B is representative of U.S. activities and interest in desertification. Appendix C is a summary of this paper in Spanish. -1- DESERTIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES By Jack Donald Johnson "•1 I. OVERVIEW The total population (based on 1970 census) of the United States presently exceeds 203 million. The population of the 12 western states exceeds 45 million and is a little over 22 percent of the total population of the U. S. These same 12 states comprise about 40 percent of the total land area of the U.S. and almost all of the arid portions of the nation. (See map, p a g e ^ . ) Approximately 23 million people reside in the arid regions of the U.S. The 12 western states constitute a land area of about 1.4 million square miles. Seventy-two percent of this land, or in excess of one million square miles, is within the region currently or potentially subjected to desertification processes. Population growth in the West during the last decade almost tripled that of the eastern states. The combination of T5 immigration, 2) migration from Mexico, north-central states and eastern states to the West, and 3) general population growth because of local birth rates is causing an alarming increase in the population of many of the western states. Land developers, chambers of commerce and individual businessmen expecting financial rewards are advertising and exploiting the arid regions, In the populous eastern states the population density is high. In New Jersey, for example, there are over 953 people per square mile of land area, and in Washington, D.C. there are more than 12,400. In California, even with its large urban centers, the population density is only about 128, and within the other western arid states the population density is considerably less. For example, Arizona has about 16 and Wyoming about 3.4 people per square mile. This seems to indicate room for growth, but unfortxmately growth from the large urban centers is rapidly expanding into the deserts and up into the mountains with little regard for the resources of arable land, water, vegetation and wildlife. -2- Reprinted from DESERTS OF T H E W O R I D : A n A p p r a i s a l o f R e s e a r c h Into T h e i r P h y s i c a l and B i o l o g i c a l E n v i r o n m e n t s . McGInntes, G o l d m a n , and P a y l o r e , e d s . , c l 9 6 8 , by p e r m i s s i o n U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a P r e s s . — 70° 70 — -60° 60°— —50° 50°— —40° 10° —30° 30°— —20° 20°— MEIGS CLASSIFICATIONS E — Extremely arid A — Arid S — Semiarid 10°— a — no marked season of precipitation b — summer precipitation e — winter precipitation —10° Digits 0°— 1st digit indicates mean temperature of coldest month 2nd digit indicates mean temperature of warmest month 0 — less than 0°C 1 = 0° to l O ' C 2 = 10° to 20°C 3 = 20° to 30°C 4 = more than 30°C 500 MILES Arid Lands of North America (after Meigs) -3- —0° Archaeological sites, ghost towns, abandoned ranches and empty farms that dot the arid West are dramatic examples of man's early failure to obtain a balance between his natural arid environment yid his desire for expansion. When the earth was sparsely populated or uninhabited, land was abundant; man could abandon old environmental failures and move onto new lands. Today, the situation is much different; with expanding world population it is impossible to abandon or ignore the arid lands of any country. Within the U.S. 60 to 70 percent of the arid lands are in federal or other public ownership. Some 130 million acres in arid lands states have been placed txnder multiple-use, sustained yield management within the national forests, which are administered by the U.S. Forest Service. Recent passage of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act has overcome some of the policy indeterminacy of the U.S. public lands, which are administered by the Bureau of Land Management. The n e w Act addresses the multiple-use and sustained yield management concept through an interdisciplinary land-use planning system. One of the attributes of the rugged, arid western United States is that one can drive from the hot desert floor or large urban area into the dense mountain forests, often within a matter of minutes and never more than a few hours. Irrigated agriculture is an important aspect of arid regions, and some irrigated portions o f Arizona and California deserts comprise the most productive land in the U.S. It may not, however, be the most desirable or economically efficient use of water, and the expansion of irrigation farming farther into the desert requires a critical review. Much of the arid and semiarid areas is used as grazing land, and some of the arid regions are rich in mineral deposits, particularly in copper and coal. (Over 50 percent o f U.S. copper is mined in Arizona.) Energy potential (solar, coal, uraniiim, oil and gas, and hydroelectric) is being exploited for use in large urban centers, particularly for Phoenix, Las Vegas and Los Angeles. Recreation is rapidly becoming an important economic use of arid regions in the U.S. Surveys in desert recreational areas of Southern California during 1958 indicated that there were 570,000 people on one-day field trips; 1.1 million overnight trips; and about $30.9 million expended by these recreation users. Projections based on 1968 statistics of 4.9 million visitor days are that Southern California deserts will see 7.8 million visitor days in 1980 and 13.2 million by the year 2000. -4- One of the recreational uses which has recently received much publicity (mostly negative) is the use of motorcycles, "dune buggies" and four-wheel drive vehicles in remote desert areas. Because of the climatic and biotic conditions, physical scars on the landscape remain for centuries before nature can hide them. (For example, some of the tracks left by wagon trains crossing the arid regions o f the western United States in the 1840s are visible today.) The lack of moisture slows natural decay processes and allows discarded waste products and containers to remain almost iinaltered for long periods of time. (For example, a discarded paper tissue on the desert floor may remain as a visible symbol of human thoughtlessness for many years.) Pits from mining operations could possibly serve as recreational facilities or as sitss for other industrial development, but usually they simply stand as a reminder that man can dig a big deep hole in the ground. Desertification, as a definitive process, has received only recent attention in the United States. But if w e accept the concern regarding misuse of arid and semiarid lands, desertification concerns began sometime in the 1800s. In 1947 Dr. Walter P. Cottam authored a University of Utah Bulletin (Vol. 37 No. 11) entitled "Is Utah Sahara Bound?" Had he been able to predict today's use o f the term "desertification," he might have used some other title such as "The Extent of Desertification in Utah." While economic data have not been researched for presentation herein, desertification does have serious economic impact. Arid land recreation and agricultural land are producers of a significant national income, and any reduction of that income through the desertification process has had and will have national consequences. A recent disastrous drought of a few months' duration on the Papago Indian Reservation required emergency funds and services from several federal agencies and brought crippling losses of cattle and crops. The earlier experiences of the "dust bowl" in Oklahoma, the land reclamation programs, and the assistance to Indian reservations have totaled billions of dollars — and both the benefits of these expenditures and the burden of these costs are borne nationally. It should b e emphasized that the U.S. experiences with desertification, reported herein, should be relevant to other arid and semiarid areas of the world, with the possible exception of some of the recreational uses. -5- II. HISTORY O F LAND USE IN ARID REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES There is evidence that man has lived in the arid and semiarid regions of the U.S. for as long as 11,000 to 25,000 years, and ecological adaptations to the arid environments indicate a zone of extreme aridity in the Great Plains between about 5500 and 2000 B.C. Evidence from caves in west central N e w Mexico indicates that the period from perhaps 4000 B.C. to a few centuries before the beginning of the Christian era was a time of life based on cultivation. Established agriculture, however, did n o t replace the ancient food gathering practices until about 300 B.C. It w a s with the growth of cultivation and the improvement o f agricultural techniques that the American Indian became capable of mastering m a n y of the arid and semi^ arid zones o f the continent. Until the middle o f the 19th century the vast arid/ semiarid region lying between the Rocky Motintains and the ranges bordering the Pacific Oceaa was virtually unknown to the anglo. A century earlier Spanish missionaries had penetrated a small part of southern A r i z o n a , introducting cattle to the scattering of Catholic missions they had f o m d e d there. They also made occasional trips across the intervening desert to the chain of similar missions along the California coast. These and other travelers, such as trappers and traders, did not write detailed descriptions of their travels; maps were not published prior to the 1840s. The discovery o f gold, which was in 1848 in California, brought tens o f thousands o f people across the desert region en route to the gold fields, but the arid area still lay virtually empty and unused until the latter part o f the 1860s. From the early 1800s through the late 1860s grazing animals were brought into the Southwest by Spanish and Mexican missionaries and cattlemen. In the late 1860s there occurred an influx of settlers, chiefly comprised o f cattlemen from the semiarid regions farther east. California presents some interesting statistics regarding sheep population which had increased to 1.9 million in 1860, 2.8 million in 1870 and 4.4 million by 1890. At that time, conditions in the arid West were far from stable and the nation was still recovering from the Civil War. Partially settled western territories were poorly administered, and the military and police forces were inadequate. The f o l l o w i n g h a l f c e n t u r y was t h e e r a o f t h e o p e n r a n g e . H e r d e r s l a i d c l a i m t o t h e w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d w a t e r i n g p l a c e s and thus h e l d p r a c t i c a l i f not l e g a l c o n t r o l over the v a s t waterless grazing lands. Land t e n u r e was t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m i n t h e United States. The f i r s t a t t e m p t a t c o n t r o l was t h e d e v e l o p ment o f a G e n e r a l Land O f f i c e as an a g e n c y o f t h e U . S . f e d e r a l -6- government to administer and apportion public lands of the U.S. Under the Homestead Act of 1862 any citizen could attain title to 160 acres, but this Act was principally created for the purpose of developing the agricultural land of the East and the Midwest = One hundred sixty acres in .the eastern and midwevStem United States was adequate for maintenance o f moderate to high standards of living, but land holdings o f such small size were totally inadequate for enterprises in a semiarid or arid pastoral region. In most o f the arid regions 160 acres would support no more than two head of cattle. The Desert Land Act of 1877 provided that title might be obtained to a full section (640 acres), but that Act had only limited effect since it required that part of the land be irrigated. Most of the land in the arid West was not irrigable. In 1879 a federal commission headed by John Wesley Powell turned in its report on the governmental policies concerning the public lands of the arid West. The report stated t h a t — "the Homestead and Preemption laws are not suited for securing settlement o f more than an insignificant portion of the country." Powell's report went on to suggest: 1) that land should be scientifically appraised and classified before settlement and that each category should be handled under laws specifically applicable to it; 2) that land must be disposed of ia quantities sufficient to the establishment of working enterprises, and that the price of such a grant must be kept low...at least four square miles (2,560 acres) was proposed as a minimum; 3) that farm and ranch residences b e grouped to permit a form of social life not possible on isolated ranchsteads; 4) that surveys should deviate from rectangular systems when necessary to divide irrigation waters properly; and 5) because of the great expense required to develop irrigation, irrigation schemes should be undertaken under the auspices of the federal government. Unfortunately, no action was taken by the Congress of the United States on Powell's suggestions, which proved to be -far ahead of their time. During the 1890s and on into the early 1900s, particularly xander the impetus provided by President Theodore Roosevelt, conservation measures were beginning to evolve. This was a rather stormy period in the grazing land areas where cattlemen fought farmers, sheepmen fought farmers, and cattlemen fought sheepmen. Pitched battles were waged over the right to build fences and section off land. In general the land was heavily overgrazed but the cattlemen were perceived as popular heroes with the "dirt farmer" and sheepmen getting the worst of most battles-- both physically and legally. -7- The Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 was the first major congressional action aimed specifically at the management of grazing lands of the arid and semiarid X\iest. The Taylor Act was stimulated by the result of a 1932 survey indicating that rangeland productivity had declined by 50 percent and that grass removal had exposed 80 percent of the range to erosion. The Act established grazing districts and created the Grazing Service. Under federal control the niomber of animals was regulated to approximate a balance between range use and the forage-producing capacity of the land. It was fortvinate that the Act was passed and implemented during the depth of the drought and the depression of the 1930s, for during that period the number of animals was already sharply reduced. The government therefore had to face principally the problem o f preventing an increase in the animal population rather than having to bring about a drastic reduction. For administrative purposes a system of range inspection and evaluation was inaugurated to check on different stocking and management programs. Although relative stability has characterized the western desert ranges since the late 1930s, many areas are still poorly managed, and attempts at scientific grazing control are often frustrated by the complications o f land tenure, multiple use of landS' and the ease with which legal actions against agencies can be brought into the courts. Many settlers migrating from the eastern United States brought their more htjmid region technology into the arid regions and attempted rain-fed farming. This usually accomplished nothing except to lay the land open to erosion by wind and rain, and in all cases failed to provide dependable crop production. The development of irrigation in the arid portions dates back to the Hohokam and Pueblo Indians, but it was not m t i l the 1840s that the anglos began irrigated agriculture. Among the first to establish successful irrigation farming were the Mormons in the Salt Lake City area. One of the reasons for their early success was the inseparability in the Mormon philosophy of church and state. Thus, it was relatively easy for them to establish a communal irrigation system and thereby allocate the land and water rights and obligations. It was during the reclamation era of the 1930s and 1940s that the arid regions saw the harnessing o f most of the major streams originating in the mountainous West. This resulted in multipurpose dams and the extension of irrigation to vast areas of the desert and semidesert. Other land uses in the arid Southwest included Indian reservations, large urban centers, electrical energy production, mining and industrial development, and recreation. - f i - III. RANGE RESOURCE UTILIZATION As a result o f the severe overgrazing wbj.ch occurred during the late 1800s, the U.S. government has attempted to develop range control on its publicly owned land. Private, state-owned and Indian lands are not under federal grazing control, but through the Agricultural Extension Service associated w i t h the Land Grant colleges and universities m a n y improved range management techniques h a v e been and are being adopted on hon-federal lands. Both the U.S. Bureau o f Land Management and the U.S. Forest Service lands are grazed, in keeping with the multipleu s e management concept. Multiple use m a y include recreation, timber production, mining, w a t e r resource development, transportation and p o w e r production. While multiple-use policy has its obvious advantages, it also leads to complications for the range manager. Range scientists are as yet m a b l e to predict accurately the s3naergistic effects of multiple use o n the carrying capacity of the land. * While severe overgrazing is generally prevented on most public lands, the result o f multiple use is that the associated impact on range vegetation and soil requires continual assessment and re •^evaluation of carrying capacity. Land tenure also complicates the problem in the U . S . , as grazing may occur in a geographical area which involves land in which various parts are owned by the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Indian reservations, the states or private parties. The Indian reservations are generally severely overgrazed, and control of animal numbers is through tribal councils or cattlemen's associations. Indian cattlemen are reluctant to reduce herd size because to m a n y the existence of a large herd is a source of savings, community power, influence and prestige. M o s t range scientists agree that m a n y o f the public and private lands are being degraded, and that controls must be stepped up. There are m a n y well-documented historical cases in which overgrazing caused the invasion of low woody plants of little nutritive value, the acceleration of erosion processes and depletion of groundwater. Western cattle ranches today average over 20,000 acres w i t h a carrying capacity o f about one grazing cow p e r 100 acres. The economic stability brought to the desert ranch is largely a result o f the transportation system, the development of w a t e r w e l l drilling and pumping equipment, and the application of m o d e m scientific methods in range management, breeding, feeding, veterinary medicine and marketing. -9- ^y IV. IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE Irrigation has literally transformed many parts of the deserts of the arid Southwest into agriculture production centers. Irrigation has, in the U.S., contributed to the desertification process v i a its constimptive use of scarce water supplies, salinization of soils, and, occasionally, the retirement of these agricultural lands to become barren wastelands. The water problem is most critical in areas in which groundwater is being constmed faster than the rate of recharge to the g r o m d w a t e r system. Several streams and rivers that once were perennial are n o w ephemeral. This problem is particularly acute in those parts of the semiarid Southwest where g r o m d w a t e r is the only source of water. In the Santa Cruz Valley in southern Arizona, for example, water withdrawal for the urban center of Tucson, for irrigated agriculture and for mining copper is so far in excess of natural replenishment that the groxmdwater level has declined 200 feet or more in some areas. One of the problems facing the irrigation farmer, who depends upon a declining groundwater supply, is that he must not only incur steadily increasing costs associated with the energy required to pump from ever-greater depths, but the rapidly increasing cost o f energy itself. This places farmers in a position of exponentially rising costs and has caused many of them to abandon their lands. This abandonment of formerly productive agricultural lands leaves vulnerable top soil, which is often saline and does not naturally revegetate with low rainfall. As a result, the barren land serves primarily as a producer of windblown dust and sand. So severe is this problem that many motorists on the highway between Tucson and Phoenix have perished in auto accidents caused by blinding duststorms. This highway now has special sensor signs posted to warn travelers when duststorms are anticipated. The salinization of soils is, of course, a well-known process associated with irrigation which may contribute to desertification. The general solution to the problem within the U.S. is simply to apply sufficient water to leach out the salts through a subsurface or well drainage system. While the solution clearly solves the problem locally, it results in other complications. It creates a downstream leachate that is higher in dissolved salts than the upstream waters, and, as our friends in Mexico are keenly aware, when the return flows are cycled through several uses, the end user receives water which may be too laden with salt to grow many crops. The Colorado River below Yuma, Arizona is just such an example, where the U.S. is n o w in the process of building a 100 million-gallon-a-day desalting plant. -10- Land abandoned because of salinity problems presents special difficulties in reclamation or revegetation with native plants. One of the greatest challenges of the future, one that numerous civilisations have failed to meet, is dealing with the effects of long-term arid lands irrigation. V. MINING r- While not particularly extensive in areal terms, mining can create a virtual desert locally. Mine reclamation is a field n o w receiving considerable attention. The effects of mining are different, depending upon the method and the ore body. This paper will discuss only two of the more obvious mining activities that have stimulated considerable public awareness. Copper mining is extremely vital to the economy of Arizona, and it constitutues the major industry o f the state. Most of the copper is mined in open pit operations that may be several square miles in top area and about bOO feet deep. There are several of these huge holes in the Arizona landscape, and the removed overburden plus evaporation ponds, holding processing wastes, create relatively large unproductive areas around the mine. Architects have looked at the possibility of locating housing developments on the overburden, but for n o w they lie as m u s e d waste, a tribute to man's ability to move a lot of dirt. This may be called desertification, but in general it is a local phenomenon and does not spread beyond the m i n e operation. Its visual impact is felt by residents or visitors for miles in all directions. The depletion of water resources required for milling may involve nearby or distant aquifers. Coal mining in Arizona, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Montana and Wyoming has the potential to lay waste large areas. To date, strip-mining reclamation has had only sporadic success. The Four C o m e r s area in New Mexico has such highly alkaline overburden that revegetation has failed, but in the Black Mesa area of Arizona and in parts of Montana and Wyoming strip-mine revegetation has been more successful. Huge deposits of coal and oil shale exist in the West, and exploitation seems inevitable. Many U.S. citizens, n o n - g o v e m m e n t a l agencies and governmental organizations are concerning themselves with the environmental impact of this exploitation, especially that which is related to the shale deposits that have both huge energy potential and huge land degradation potential. Recklessly approached, ^ ^ shale mining has the potential to desertify large expanses of land. -11- ^ VI. URBANIZATION Urban development may be one of the best uses of arid and semiarid lands, if proper planning and common sense accompany such use. While wasteful and improper water use in these cities may ultimately lead to ghost towns or concrete deserts, the most publicized problems are those caused by thoughtless land developers who carve up dry desert areas with roads in an attempt to sell these arid plots of waterless land to gullible easterners and m i d w e s t e m e r s . A flight over New Mexico, Arizona and Nevada will reveal hundreds of these unpaved roads simply cross-hatching the land with no housing at all. On the groxmd one sees that many of the "streets" have become gullies which carry away the thin topsoils that typify the arid areas. Another problem associated with urbanization is the demand for water and land. These demands often force agricultural lands to be retired, either to housing, as in the Los Angeles and Phoenix areas, or to simply unused lands so that the groundwater resource can be used by the city dwellers. Part of the once agriculturally rich Avra Valley in southern Arizona is in the process of becoming a wasteland and potential source o f windblown sand and dust, because Tucson needs the groundwater resource for its increasing population. Population growth with the attendant demands for scarce resources is the basis for most arid lands problems. Many of our western arid and semiarid areas were originally developed for irrigated agricultural usage. Recent population increases (largely attributable to the desirability of the climate for living), reductions in groundwater levels and quality, and increased costs of energy for high-technology agriculture that typifies these areas suggest that U.S. arid lands are on the threshold of a revolution in usage patterns. VII. RECREATION The plentiful sunshine of the arid regions, the general affluence of the average U.S. worker, plus more and more spare time have created an interesting and bothersome land degradation problem. As previously mentioned, motorcycles, "dune buggies," fourwheel drive off-road vehicles and campers have invaded the desert areas, and they leave their marks. -12- Although widespread, this problem is particularly acute in the Mojave and California deserts, on federal lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management. Eleven million Southern C a l i f o m i a n s view this unreserved public domain as "their own backyard." Use of the area by off-road vehicles was unregulated tintil 1972. During one 12-month period there were 151 organized competitive racing events for off-road vehicles involving more than 67,000 participants and 189,000 spectators. The most extraordinary of the "scramble" races was run each Thanksgiving weekend over a 160-mile course between Barstow, California and Las Vegas, Nevada. Three thousand motorcyclists spread across the desert, traveling at breakneck speeds as they compact the soil, devastate vegetation, stir up clouds of dust and terrorize wildlife. The long-term results o f such activities have been denudation of significant patches of the landscape. The Bureau of Land Management has subsequently canceled the races, but the damage remains. VTII. / PHREATOPKYTE A N D OTKER VEGETATION CONTROLS The demand for water resources in arid areas is always greater than the supply, causing agricultural, mining and municipal planners to be constantly devising n e w schemes for diverting larger portions o f the limited water resources through the human portion of the desert ecosystem. Recently great concern has been expressed about phreatophytes. Rivers and washes, the arteries of our watersheds, are frequently bordered by stands of tall trees in significant riparian communities. Many of the trees are heavy water users, phreatophytes, and their elimination has been advocated in some areas. Phreatophyte control programs frequently include channeling water courses. It has also been noted that vegetation could be stripped from several million acres of Arizona forest and desert (largely chaparral vegetation) to increase water runoff. Such schemes to remove large tracts of vegetation are possibly ill-advised because of the long-range degradation and desertification potential. In the short term, increasing water runoff through vegetation removal may mean less water infiltrating to groundwater, and sediment may accumulate more rapidly in water catchments and reservoirs. -13- Jr IX. SUMMARY While desertification is a relatively n e w term in the U.S. scientific vocabulary, land and resource misuse and degradation are not. Desertification is indeed a serious problem, with overgrazing, salinization of soils, depletion of water resources, land subsidence, population pressures, abandonment of lands, some mining operations, and destruction of vegetation or desert pavement through careless recreation, and other exploitations of the desert resources all contributing factors. To ignore the impact of desertification on the U.S. is a mistake. While very high-level U.S. technology (and capital expenditures) has tremendous capacity to produce, it has equally tremendous capacity to destroy. If resource planners and managers, private investors and government regulatory agencies do not establish and maintain awareness and vigilance of land degradation in the Southwest, desertification could become a problem of increasing national impact. We have the technical knowledge to control and in some instances to reverse the land degradation, but as in many countries the pressures from a too rapidly increasing population coupled with the social problems of implementing known technology do not permit a careless optimism. It is for these reasons that U.S. government agencies have undertaken a variety of activities aimed at control and possible reversal of arid lands degradation. For instance, in 1968 the Bureau of Land Management laimched a California desert study. Its purpose was to inventory current and prospective land uses in the first step toward introduction of integrated management. The study focused public attention on management needs of the fragile arid lands environment creating a gradual increase in management awareness. As part of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act, the Bureau of Land Management has been directed to effect an interim management plan pending development of a compre hensive multiple-use, sustained yield plan for the Southern California desert conservation area. The interim plan will emphasize orderly public use and authorizes a patrol to ensure public safety and to enforce orderly use o f the lands. The comprehensive plan will be developed through the Bureau of Land Management Land Use Planning System. A p e m a n e n t federal appropriation of $40 million has been authorized to support the \indertaking. -14- i APPENDIX A BIBLIOGRAPHY Arraillas, Pedro 1961 Land use in pre-Coliimbian America. ^ L.Do Stamp, ed. , A history o f land u s e in arid regions. UNESCO, Paris. Arid Zone Research 17: 255-276. U.S. coverage concentrates on the Great Plains, the Colorado Plateau and the Sonoran Desert, followed by Meso-America, Peru, the Andean Plateaus and the Chilean Desert. Particular emphasis is on the development of cultivation and irrigation agriculture. Bibliography. Ayres, J. E. 1971 Man, the desert faianer. ^ Hydrology and water resources in Arizona and the Southwest, Vol. 1. American Water Resources Association, Arizona Section/Arizona Academy of Science, Hydrology Section, proceedings o f the 1971 meetings, Tempe, Arizona, 373-379. 1 I The pre-Columbian Hohokam Indians occupied the major river drainages of central Arizona and have been the subject o f m u c h intense archaeological research. Evidence indicates that the Hohokam began using river water for crop irrigation about 300 B . C . and-modified and improved their irrigation systems over time until the maximum extent of these systems was achieved about 900 A.D. Two types of w a t e r control seem to have been utilized: 1) the direct exploitation of rivers through the use o f irrigation canals, and 2) indirect use through controlled runoff within microdrainages at higher elevations before it reached the rivers. At first, probably only those parcels of land with optimal soils and drainage w e r e used, but apparently population increases fostered by agriculture itself, combined with -increasing social and political complexity, necessitated more and more exploitation of marginal lands. Eventually, soil problems increased, imposing severe limitations on agriculture. These involved salt and alkali accumulation due to inadequate drainage, soil density and waterlogging. Additionally, the extension of cropping required the clearing of natural vegetation, which resulted in increased erosion and decreased available native food resources for periods when crops failed. The culture vanished completely about 1450 A.D., probably mainly because of their manner of river exploitation for irrigation. More recent archaeological studies are concentrating not only on river use but also on river abuse. -15- Bochert, J. R. 1971 The dust bowl in the 1970s. Association of American Geographers, annals 61 (1): 1-22. GA 72C-0326. Major droughts in the grassland region of the central have occurred rhythmically during the period of instrumental record. The time for the next one may be near. Early droughts disastrously reduced farm income through loss of crops and livestock. Since the 1930s they have accelerated contemporary basic changes in Americans within this region: fewer, bigger and more fragmented farms; public controls and subsidies; consolidation of urban business and services; and greater management. The next major drought will again accelerate long-term agricultural trends, but a sharp increase in urban federal assistance is likely, and revolutionary changes in settlement could b e initiated. Brown, G. W . , Jr., ed. 1968-1974 Desert Biology. Two volumes. London. 1236 p, 4i f Academic Press, New York, The first volume deals with the biological aspects of the world's deserts. It focuses on the forces causing desert and arid regions, the evolution of desert plants, water economy, desert ecology and limnology, poisons, desert animals, and the adaptation and behavior o f plants, reptiles, amphibia, birds, fish and mammals (including man). The second volume discusses hydrogeology o f arid regions, desert soils, physical and vegetational aspects of the Sahara Desert, desert algae, lichens and fungi. A new approach to water relations of desert plants, desert anthropods and fishes, and man in arid lands (particularly the Pima Indians of the Sonoran Desert and the Mada in Salih Valley in the northwestern c o m e r of Saudi Arabia) . Clyma, W./Young,R.A. 1968 Environmental effects of irrigation in the central valley of Arizona. American Society of Civil Engineers, national meeting on environmental engineering, Chattanooga, Tennessee, May 13-17, 1968. Preprint. 28 p. SWRA W70-07053. Irrigation has modified the environment of the central valley of Arizona for past 2500 years, beginning with the irrigation systems of the Hohokam'Indians. Modification of the physical environment has included changes in climate, groundwater, surface water and vegetation. The social environment has been changed from a rural economy to an urban industrial economic system. Present and future problems related to irrigation in the area are discussed. Some of the problems are water demand, land subsidence, salinity, groundwater management and allocation of Colorado River water. Solutions to some of these problems are suggested. -16- ^ t j 'Cooke, R.V./Reeves, R.W. 1976 Arroyos and environmental change in the American Southwest. Oxford Research Studies in Geography, Clarendon Press, Oxford, England. 213 p. Cottam, W.P./Evans, F.R. 1945 A comparative study of the vegetation of grazed and ungrazed canyons of the Wasatch Range, Utah. Ecology 26 (2): 171-181. Two canyons in the Wasatch Mountains near Salt Lake City were compared: Red Butte Canyon had been protected from grazing for 40 years, while Emigration Canyon had been grazed heavily since settlement in 1847. Evidence points to the complete substitution of the original grass type in Emigration Canyon to one with unpalatable shrubs and Bromus tectorum, while Red Butte Canyon has maintained a rich plant cover including ten native grasses not found in Emigration Canyon. Sheet and gully erosion are prominent in Emigration Canyon. Denevan, W.M. 1967 Livestock niimbers in 19th century New Mexico and problems of gullying in the Southwest. Association of American Geographers, annals 57(4): 691-703. GA 69A-990. I In the 1880s intensive accelerated erosion began producing large gullies throughout the southwestern U.S. This m o d e m arroyo cutting was originally attributed to deterioration of the protective vegetation cover because of belownormal rainfall and overgrazing by excessive niombers of livestock (4 million sheep in New Mexico in 1880). However, recent studies have stressed the greater importance of increased high intensity rainfall. Additional perspective is provided by an examination of livestock numbers in the upper Rio Grande region of New Mexico during the 19th century, particularly during the Mexican period when the ranges were heavily stocked with sheep (possibly 3 million head in the 1820s), but with little or no gullying. The incomplete record of livestock numbers in relation to climate and gullying backs up the climatic argument but also gives some new support to the older view that overgrazing was a major contribuíive factor causing severe m o d e m gullying. Dregne, H.E., ed. 1970 Arid lands in transition. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. Pub. 90. 524 p. Invited papers given at a 1969 conference in Tucson, Arizona, jointly sponsored by AAAS and UNESCO on "Arid Lands in a Changing World." (A summary appeared in Nature and Resources 5(3): 7-12.) -17- Humphrey, R.R. 1958 An analysis of causes. Botanical Review 24(4): 193-252. (Reprinted as Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 299.) Extensive portions of the desert grassland of southern Arizona, New Mexico and southwestern Texas have been invaded by woody species. Mesquite, creosote bush, cacti of the genus Opuntia, burroweed and snakeweed are among the principal invaders. The principal factors commonly believed to have caused this change- are change of climate, grazing by domestic livestock, plant competition, rodents and fire. Of these various factors, change of climate seems to have had the least effect. Fires that were formerly frequent and widespread were the chief agency restricting shrub invasion. Since fires have been controlled, the introduction of domestic livestock, plant competition and rodents have been effective agents favoring woody plants at the expense of grasses. ^ Law, J.P., Jr./Witherow, J.L. eds. 1970 Xiater quality management problems in arid regions. U.S. Federal XJater Quality Administration, Water Pollution Control Research Series 13030. 105 p. Available NTIS as PB=198 125. SWRA W71-06111. A selection o f papers presented at the AAAS committee on arid lands conference. Arid Lands in a Changing World, held in Tucson, Arizona, June 1969. Included are papers covering nitrate removal from agricultural wastewater, the effects of salinity standards on irrigated agriculture in the Colorado River Basin, problems of pollution of irrigation water in arid regions, salinity control in return flow from irrigated areas, natural pollution in arid land waters, distillation of wastewaters, animal waste runoff, water quality requirements, re-use of wastewater effluents, and water quality control problems in inland sinks. Logan, Richard F. 1961 Post-Col\imbian developments in the arid regions of the United States of America. to L.D. Stamp, ed., A history of land use in arid regions. UNESCO, Paris. Arid Zone Research 17: 277-297. ] / A companion review to Armillas' on pre-Columbian America (q.v.), this paper describes the physical setting, including landforms, climate and vegetation. It offers a brief history of the development of a national land use policy: grazing industry, dry f a m i n g , irrigation agriculture, recreation and urbanization. , • -406- Love, R.M. 1970 The rangelands of the western U.S. Scientific American 212{1): 88-96. GÁ 71C-1155. SWRA W70-04907. Cattle grazing is the primary use of the rangelands of the western United States, The western ranges fall into three distinct categories: northern Rocky Mountains, intermountain and Southwest. True grassland is rare in the Southwest. Instead, deserts and seraideserts predominate. Vegetation management is the major problem in improving the rangelands. Brush conversion programs have shown substantial increases in water yield in the treated areas. This is due to the fact that an acre of brush uses six more acre-inches of water than does herbaceous vegetation. With proper management of brush in the watersheds of the West, the land can provide more meat and lumber, suffer less from erosion and flood, and be more usable for recreation. The rapidly growing need for more recreational land is causing conflicts with other land uses. The advantages of brush control and the use of controlled fires, transhumance, canopy architecture, leaf-area index and exotic grasses are other topics discussed. McGinnies, W.G./Goldman, B.J./Paylore, Patricia 1968 Deserts of the world, an appraisal of research into their physical and biological environments. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. .788 p. A book intended for those seriously interested in planning, managing and executing research or development efforts in the arid world. It contains evaluative comments on the work accomplished in weather and climate, geomorphology and surface hydrology, surface materials, vegetation, f a m a and desert coastal zones. Extensive bibliographies for each section. Morris, E.H. 1948 M o d e m overgrazing by livestock as the direct cause of ruin of southwestern agriculture, with a note by H.H. Chapman. Journal o f Forestry 46(12): 929-931. Reprint of a portion (p.5-8) of the author's 1939 Carnegie Institution of Washington publication, Archaeological Studies of the La Plata District, southwestern Colorado and northwestern New Mexico, dealing with conditions in the pueblo area before the advent of white man and the grazing of sheep and cattle. Overgrazing disturbed the equilibrium o f a natural balance of forces such as rainfall, erosion and vegetation. -19- Paylore, Patricia, ed. 1976 Desertification: A world bibliography. University of Arizona, Tucson, Office of Arid Lands Studies. 644 p. ' Compiled for the International Geographic Union's 23rd Congress, Moscow, 1976. Consists of 1,750 citations, most with abstracts. Produced from the OALS computerized Arid Lands Information System. Divided into regions covering the Sahara-Sahel, East Africa, South Africa, the Middle East, the USSR, Pakistan, India, China, Australia, and South and North America, with regional introductions by world experts. Maps. é ' f Paylore, Patricia, ed. 1976 The Sonoroan Desert, a retrospective bibliography. Historical perspective, by W.G. McGinnies. University of Arizona, Tucson, Office of Arid Lands Studies, Arid Lands Abstracts 8. 777 refs. Citations selected from the computerized Arid Lands Information System (ALIS) cover such diverse topics as environment, fauna, geomorphology, geography, surface materials, vegetation, desert grassland, succulents, water, weather and climate. Full abstracts for each with computerized keyword and author indexes. Paylore, Patricia/Haney, Richard A., Jr., eds. 1976 Desertification: Process, problems, perspectives. Papers presented during a 14-week seminar series, November 1975-April 1976. University of Arizona, Tucson. 125 p. The topic of this series was addressed by several generalists speaking on its ecology, trends, causesj followed by several case studies to illustrate the theses advanced generally. These dealt with areas in Australia, eastern Oregon and southwestern Arizona and northwestern Mexico. Powell, J. W. 1962 Report on the lands of the arid region of the United States, with a more detailed account of the lands of Utah. Ed. by Wallace Stegner. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 202 p. • A first-hand account of the arid region of the U.S. written in 1878. Subjects covered include physical characteristics of the region, the land system needed, rainfall of western U.S., water supply, questions relating to irrigable lands of Salt Lake drainage system, valley of Sevier River and that portion of Utah drained by Colorado River and tributaries. Author considers character of lands and engineering problems involved in their redemption and suggestions for the legislative action necessary. •1 , ' ' ! ^ Sears, P.B. 1959 Deserts on the inarch. 3rd ed., rev. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. 178 p. This popular account of man's misuse of the land and failure to tinderstand its ecology centers around the historical development of land use in the United States. The cutting of forests, farming of cotton, plowing of prairies, polluting of rivers, overgrazing and general disregard for the welfare of the land are shown to be related to floods, mudslides, duststorms, erosion and natural calamities. The author argues that only through a broad ecological understanding of the environment and man's relationship to it coupled with moral commitment in the emplo3nnent of technical resources and in our way of living will we be able to change our historic precedents. Steward, George 1936 History of range use. In U.S. Senate Document 199, The western range, p. 119-IBI". Washington, D.C. U.S. Bureau of Land Management 1968 The California desert. A recreation study of the desert public domain lands of California. Preliminary review U.S. National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, Washington, D.C. Woodbury, R.B. 1963 Indian adaptation of arid environments. In C. Hodge and P.C. Duisberg, eds., Aridity and Man. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Pu. 74: 55-85. i I Briefly traces man's changing roles in the western U.S. Discusses food gathers, big game hunters, village farming life, villages and water sources, water control techniques, decline of village farming life, introduction of adaptable Athabascans, shift to wagework, collapse of Great Basin culture, rise and fall of the Sioux, adjustment to reservation life, Papago struggles in the desert, Indian adjustments and prospects. Climatic change in the 13th century was probably responsible for early decline of village farming life. Grazing abuses by Indians and whites have resulted in deteriorated rangelands. The plight of the Indian in the last century or so is not the result of environmental causes such as aridity; the causes are social. It can be seen as part of the worldwide problem of the nonliterate, non-industrial world confronted by the technology and social and ethical systems of the western world. Indian techniques and their philosophy of working with the environment rather than against it may be indispensible ingredients for the successful utilization of arid lands. -21- APPENDIX B u A PARTIAL LIST OF U.S. AGENCY-SUPPORTED ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH DESERTIFICATION I. U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (USAID) A. Programs in the Sahel region include assistance to the Comité Permanent Interetats de Lutte contra la Secheresse dans le Sahel (CILSS) in planning its regional development program; establishing a water data collection and processing system for the Sahel Water Data Network; and developing national capabilities to control food crop pests throughout the Sahel. B. Grants to institutions include one to the Florida Institute o f Technology and another to the University of Arizona. ! f a. The Florida Institute of Technology is conducting a project entitled "Solar Cookers for Haiti: A Feasibility Study." Haiti's firewood and charcoal resources are becoming scarce as are those in other developing c o m t r i e s . The project consists of a review of solar cooker designs, evaluation of their compatibility with Haitian cooking requirements and preliminary design of a solar cooker appropriate to Haitian needs. 2. The University of Arizona was awarded a grant to strengthen its response capability in "Multiple Use Planning and Management of Natural Resources in Arid and Semiarid Developing Areas." The interdisciplinary faculty at the University of Arizona involved in the program is establishing linkages with institutions in developing arid and semiarid regions to promote service, training and research aimed at developing solutions to their problems. C. ^ ^ ; f USAID projects w i t h specific coxmtries are listed below. 1. Chad--The"Chad Range and Livestock Development" project will develop the manpower capability to implement a national range management program and, in the process, design a national range management plan. The project will include training in principles and practices of range management and a position on a national range and livestock planning commission. -22- i 2. C a m e r o o n — T h e "North Cameroon Livestock and Agricultural Development" project involves regional development through resource management and will include a land use potentials inventory and development of range management practices, food crops and a livestock industry. 3. E t h i o p i a — A "Drought Rehabilitation and Development Strategy" project will guide government rehabilitation and development efforts in southern Ethiopia and will include aiding in the process of identifying proper donor assistance; studying and analyzing environmental, demographic and socioeconomic variables in Ethiopia; and formulating drought rehabilitation and development strategies for the southern lowlands. 4. G h a n a — T h e "Developmental Applications of Science and Technology in Ghana" program administers a pilot research program on the problems of desertification in northeast Ghana which includes application of the experience and methods derived from the pilot study to two areas and an examination of mechanisms to establish research priorities. 5o Kenya--The "Survey of Semiarid and Marginal Lands" will include quantitative, narrative and graphic descriptions of the hxirnan and natural resources and existing infrastructure in the project area. Core problems that constrain development will be identified and delineated including population, migration patterns, erosion, desertification, water availability, deforestation, credit, production technology, marketing, extension, elements of agricultural education and institutional infrastructure along with the potential sociocultural constraints. 6. Mali--There are several projects with Malian institutions„ a. The "Land Use Capability Inventory" will provide guidance in national resource allocation through development of a 1: 200,000 map showing economic land classes and movement m i t s and a tabular and narrative description of potentials and limitations of management units. -23- b. The "Mali Livestock Project" will test the vertical stratification of the livestock industry through range development, controlled grazing, post-season maintenance feeding, small-scale farm fattening and feedlot operations. c. "Mali Livestock Sector Development" will initiate development of the Malian livestock sector through light development and management o f the Dilly area (800,000 ha.), controlling the tsetse fly in a small area near Bamako, market development and training at all levels. , f^ : d. The "Mali Small Ruminant Survey" will determine the present position and appropriate place of sheep and goats in the Malian economy by surveying numbers, distribution, ownership and economic roles and by testing certain hypotheses of the role of sheep and goats in economic development. e. The "Mali First Region Integrated Agricultural Production" project involves the western panhandle of Mali and should, with its successors, bring 13,800 sq. km. into ecological balance. Activities include a project allocation survey, developing a cropping system compatible with the environment and a program of grazing management. f. The "Mali Operation Haute Vallee" will bring that portion of the Niger River bottom extending from just above Bamako to the Guinea border into ecologically balanced management through land-use condition and potentials survey, small-scale irrigation and village grazing and livestock programs. 7. Mauritania--Two projects in Mauritania are discussed below. a. The "Mauritania 10th Region Development" program aims at optimizing ecological balance for economic endeavors, sustained livestock production and output and increased food supply in the region through a range and livestock management controlled demonstration, adaptive trials of soil and crop management, extension adoption of the n e w practices and grass fire control. -24- H 'i ) i i b. The "Mauritania Reforestation" project will improve the institutional condition of the national forest service and increase the supply of cooking fuel. Improved capability to manage the renewable resources of the public domain are likely to be emphasized as the project design proceeds. 8. Niger--The "Niger Range and Livestock Development" project will develop a pilot, controlled grazing program and a national grazing management system. 9. Senegal--There are two projects in Senegal. a. The "Senegal Range and Livestock Project" is a pilot, integrated'range management activity and will initiate a national resource management program through balanced grazing within defined boundaries, veterinary support, stock water development and salt, minerals and trace elements. b. The "Senegal Land Conservation and Forestry" project will initiate a resource management program through the forest and wildlife program. 10. Upper Volta--The "Onchocerciasis-free Area Planning" project will develop an environmentally sound settlement plan for the "oncho-free" areas of Upper Volta and will include a land-use capabilities survey. II. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE A. ^ K (USDA) Wide-ranging research programs are discussed below. 1. Research directed toward classification procedures for range resources, formulating guidelines for predicting potentials and assessments of range responses to forage utilization regimes and vegetation manipulations alternatives is conducted at Tücson, Arizona. 2. Studies on the adaptation of plants to desert environments are conducted at the University of California, Riverside. 3. Methodology for the application of remote sensing to natural resources analyses is being developed at Tucson, Arizona. _ , B. Cold desert research programs are discussed below. 1. Research concerning ecology and management of salt desert shrub ranges is conducted at Provo, Utah. 1 2. Studies of shrub and tree improvement and culture for rehabilitation of wildlands is xmderway at Provo, Utah. 3. Investigations of ecology and management of pinon-juniper woodlands and associated shrub lands in the Great Basin are ongoing at Reno, Nevada. C. Arid range research programs are discussed below. 1. Plants for arid range conditions are being selected at the Plant Materials Center, Los Lunas, New Mexico. 2. Mechanical treatment for establishing plants in arid ranges is being studied at the University of Arizona, Tucson. 3. Research aimed at selecting techniques^^NÍ^^^ species for establishing range cover under arid conditions is being conducted at Tucson, Arizona at the -Plant Materials Center. D. Irrigated lands research includes a pilot projact to determine ways to reduce best the saline drainage flows from irrigated lands into fivers, with return flow desalinization being the focus of this study at Wellton, Arizona. E. Rehabilitation and Management Programs are discussed below. 1. Research directed toward developing methods for rehabilitating and managing mined spoils in the Southwest is conducted at Albuquerque; New Mexico. 2. Studies to promote reestablishment of plants, animals and hydrologic stability on surface mine spoils and water impoundments in the northern Great Plains are underway at Rapid City, South Dakota, 3. Investigations to develop methods for rehabilitating and managing mined spoils in the Intermountain and northern Rocky Mountains regions are ongoing at Logan, Utah. -26- i vr, III. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY A. (EPA) tiide-ranging research activities are discussed below. 1. A cooperative research project with Egyptian institutions will assess the environmental and health consequences of the Aswan High Dam. 2. A desert biome study with the University of Alexandria (Egypt) utilizes modeling techniques to predict responses should certain events occur such as deforestation or reforestation. 3. Arid lands research projects are underway in portions of the western United States. B. Specific animal and irrigated crop production environmental assessment projects are being conducted in both India and Pakistan. 1. Research is underway to develop management tools to dispose of animal wastes resulting from a production of animals and poultry in an environmentally safe manner. 2. Methods are being developed to control the quality of irrigation return flow along with investigating the bio-engineering aspects of agricultural drainage. IV. U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY A. (USGS) LANDSAT research activities are outlined below. 1. General applications of LANDSAT imagery are discussed in the following sections. a. Methods are being developed for terrain description and monitoring utilizing the Australian land systems research approach. Present experiments in Queensland, Australia will be continued in the western United States. The mapping system is an integrated system in which soils, vegetations and geomorphic features are combined into single mapping and land management units. -27- b. Methods of flood mapping with LANDSAT images are being researched which are particularly applicable to determination of flooded areas in arid and semiarid regions and which have potential for identifying recharge areas of both surface and deep aquifers. c. A prime example of the use of LANDSAT images in desert regions on a worldwide basis is a project entitled "Sand Seas of the World," although it is not speci-fically an Earth Resources Orbiting Satellite project. 2. A regional LANDSAT program involves the impact of strip mining on range resources and wildlife habitat. The environmental impact analysis is using LANDSAT and aerial data in southeastern Idaho, but techniques and methods are transferable on a worldwide basis. B. Two "Training in Remote Sensing Applications" courses for international students are given each year with the goal of teaching remote sensing data interpretative techniques. Other specific courses in various disciplines are given or requested. Courses can be tailored to address specifically land cover and other mapping of desert regions. C. Two research programs focus on mineral wastes. 1. Stabilization of mineral wastes research aims to develop new. or improved methods of stabilizing and/or reclaiming mined lands and mineral waste piles. Six field test sites which have either arid or semiarid climates are located in the states of Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. Testing has been done on wastes from mining and/or processing copper, lead, zinc, uranium and asbestos. 2. Research on purification and conservation of mineral processing wastewaters seeks to develop effective methods of decontaminating metallurgical wastewaters for process reuse or for discharge. Recycling of process wastewaters is particularly important in regions having either arid or semiarid climates. / D. Several projects address arid and semiarid lands vegetation. 1. Studies of desert shrub ecology and utilization of soil moisture under high moisture stresses are being conducted. 2. Many aspects of the "Gila River Phreatophyte Project" have worldwide applications, especially the use of remote sensing in monitoring water use by vegetation and analysis of evapotranspiration. 3. An analysis of soil moisture data from sampling desert ecosystems to estimate evapotranspiration led to the discovery that the greatest reduction in available soil moisture was in desert grassland rather than oak woodland. 4. A study of saguaro populations in the Arizona desert is being conducted to determine causes for fluctuations in plant establishment. Climate, disease and man's activities are being investigated. 5„ Abandoned agricultural land in the TucsonPhoenix (Arizona) area is being studied to determine the rate of reestablishment of native vegetation species. The fields have been abandoned for about 40 years. E. Hydrology research is also being conducted. 1. A study of grazing patterns aims to determine their effects on runoff and sediment yield in salt desert shrub terrain. The study site is in western Colorado. 2. The effects on arid lands hydrology of converting vegetation cover from woody shrubs to grassland are being investigated. 3. Another study involves assessing the effects of mechanical land treatments such as contour furrowing, pitting and ripping on hydrology including riinoff, soil moisture availability and plant communities. -29- V. NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION A. (NOAA) NOAA participates with the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and the U.S. Air Force Environmental Technical Applications Center (ETAC) in extending the global inventory of existiag climatic data. 1. Analyzed and observed data from the National Meteorological Center (NMC) flow into NOAA's National Climatological Center (NCC). 2. Similar data from the Air Force Global Weather Central go to ETAC and subsequently to NCC, where it becomes part of a common poll of global meteorological data. NCAR, using data from NCC and other sources, reformulates the data in ways convenient for research purposes, archives it and makes it available as a service to members of the research community. (A July 1975 NCAR report, "Data Sets for Meteorological Research," describes the types of data made available through the efforts of these three organizations.) B. Long-range predictions and satellite programs within NOAA furnish a starting base for a climate diagnostic activity. 1. The National Weather Service (NI^JS/NMC) longrange prediction program includes necessary analyses with diagnostic studies as circiamstances permit. Data sets are generated which extend back over the useful history of data used. 2. NMC ongoing programs include the study of year-to-year fluctuations in the stratospheric circulation, analyses of stratospheric warming and calculation of selected parameters related to the global stratospheric energy budget. Interrelationship between stratospheric and tropospheric circulations is explored. 3. NMC maintains a 30-day field of global weather data which, with similar data from the National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS), is the present source for compiling current climatic data sets. - 4. NMC is compiling, for the Environmental Data Service Center for Climatic and Environmental Assessment (CCEA) and the NWS Agricultural Weather Service Office (AWSO), weekly extracts of the x most elementary climatic parameters needed to assess current climatic and crop conditions over the world's major agricultural areas. 5. NVJS AWSO, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), analyzes and publishes the previous week's weather and crop conditions in the U.S. A monthly summary for major foreign agricultural areas is included (although monthly climatic data from many areas are incomplete). 6. To the extent limited resources permit, CCEA is developing experimental crop yield models and is participating in the NASA/USDA/ NOAA effort termed "Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment" (LACIE) to develop grain production forecasts. Current and potential applications include providing timely and early warning crop alerts, fresh water supply estimates and crop yields. 7. NESS prepares on an operational basis global charts of monthly and seasonal values of radiative heat budget and monthly and seasonal resultant wind fields at 200 and 700 millibars and their anomalies. 8. NESS is studying interrelations of cloudiness and circulation over large space and time scales. 9. NESS applies satellite imaging for detecting, measuring and mapping mean monthly winter snow cover over the Northern Hemisphere and is experimenting with snowfall prediction methods for North American and Eurasian winter months. 10. The Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) is examining variations in stanshine amount, total ozone and tropospheric temperature changes as part of a continuing investigation into climatic trends during the last few decades. 11. The Geophysical Fluid D3mamics Laboratory (GFDL) is investigating the sensitivity and stability of climate models to such external variables as the solar constant and atmospheric carbon dioxide to assess the value of using simple models in climate studies. -31- C. NOAA Experimental Research Laboratories conduct cloud seeding experiments in cumulus clouds over southern Florida for the purpose of inducing the merger and growth of cumulus towers developing in proximity to one another thereby increasing precipitation frora the larger cloud system and hopefully increasing net precipitation over a large target area. The technique once proven may have a potential application in semiarid regions when appropriate clouds occur; although successful transfer of the massive or dynamic seeding approach used in Florida to drought areas is unlikely. D. NOAA administers the World Weather Watch Voluntary Assistance Program for the Department of State. These funds: 1. Provide radio transmitting and receiving equipment to developing countries to improve national and international meteorological data exchange. 2. Provide wind-finding radar to tropical area countries. 3. Supply direct readout equipment to provide a capability for intercepting processed data from the GOES system. 4. Provide long-term and short-term fellowships to meteorologists in developing countries to increase their capability to use m o d e m equipment and to improve their understanding of atmospheric processes that result in eventual, longrange weather and climate change. 5. Support international efforts m d e r the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) to define the research required to advance knowledge on the physical basis of climate and climatic fluctuations. E. Understanding the physical basis o f climate is the "second" objective of GARP. NOAA is contributing directly to GARP by: 1. Processing, analyzing and archiving atmospheric and oceanographic data. 2. Developing mathematical models and data management systems. -32- 3. Specifying, developing and procuring special observing systems. 4. Conducting fundamental investigations of the dynamics of geophysical fluids, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the cryosphere over a wide range of time and space scales. 5. Expanding research efforts on cause-and-effect relationships between climate and atmospheric pollutants. 6. Conducting a comprehensive program to develop ground-based techniques for remote measurement of critical meteorological and oceanographic parameters. F. VI. NOAA input into the World Weather Watch (WWlO will impact on the United Nations Environment Program EARTHWATCH since the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), the monitoring segment of EARTHWATCH, will make use of the observing, processing and telecommunicating systems of WXiJW. NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (NSF) A. "Analysis of Structure and Function of Desert Ecosystems" has as its goal elucidation of patterns and magnitude of accumulation and transfer of biologically important resources such as water, nutrients and energy; discovery and quantification of mechanisms by which those processes are limited or augmented; modeling the system conceptually and mathematically; and advancement of the base of ecosystem theory and aid in making management decisions about renewable n atur al re s our ce s. B. "Structure, Function and Utilization of Grassland Ecosystems" will model the ecosystem; improve ecosystem theory; understand the biomass, trophic structure, water, nutrient and energy flow; and utilize and synthesize the results. C. "African Climate During the Last Ice Age" is designed to test the hypothesis that East Africa was dry during the height of the the last temperate glaciation; examine the movement o f the convergence zone between the dry Sahara Harmattan and cooler, moist air flows off the Gulf of Guinea; and understand the fvindamental nature of global climate change using East African lake cores. -33- D. Research about "Aerosol Transport over the Equatorial North Atlantic Ocean as Related to Weather, Climate and Land Use in North Africa" will establish an aerosol and atmospheric turbidity network across the equatorial North Atlantic for monitoring the aerosol output of North Africa; identify source areas, determine if increased aerosol output is derived from normally arid and/or desert use practices; measure the time required for soils to become stabilized against wind erosion once rains return to normal; and measure mass transport of mineral aerosols to the ocean. Eo "D3mamics of Large-Scale Atmosphere and Oceanic Processes" research is a model study of the Sahelian region indicting that feedbacks from the ground creates weather patterns that reinforce and accentuate the arid or desert region. Other NSF research includes "Formation of Deserts," "Midwestern Drought Indices and Drought Cycles Using Sea-Surface Temperature Anomalies from the Pacific," "Frequency and Power Spectral Analysis of Drought Cycles," "Arid Land Climate Patterns," "Southwestern U.S. Deserts and Their Similarity with African Weather and Climate," "Bovine Adaptation to Desert Environments Focusing on North Africa," "Adaptation of Large Mammals to the Sahara," "General Dynamics of Arid Land Ecosystems." Also "Ways in Which Disparate Organisms Evolved in the Desert," "Management of Environmental Systems to Prevent Desertification," "Studies of Nomadism," "Relationship Between Drought and Grazing Patterns," "Ancient Social Adaptation," "Hunting and Gaming Practices in Botswana and the Kalahari," "Social and Biological Anthropology in the Kalahari," "Drought and Population Resettlement in the American Southwest," and "Bedouin Use of Surface Water, Grazing, etc., in Northern Arabia." APPENDIX C Spanish Summary Introducción La presente es para indicar el estado del problema de desertificacion en los Estados Unidos. Se incluye un resumen histórico sobre los problemas del use de tierras en las zonas áridas y semi-áridas de los Estados Unidos, se discute algunos de lo.s' problemas actuales, y se delinea la necesidad de planeamiento y manejo racional de tierras en Norteamérica. La desertificacion no es un problema solo para los países en desarollo. Es un problema qué el mundo entero tiene que combatir.. Norteamérica comparte en este problema, puede ofrecer soluciones, y sin duda beneficiará del intercambio de ideas y metodologías que serán presentadas durante y despúes de la Conferencia de Desertificacion de las Naciones Unidas. Una sequía qué duro varios meses .en la Reservación de los Indios Papago en Arizona ocasiono fondos y servicios de emergencia de varias agencias federales, y causo severas perdidas de ganado y cultivos. Los programas de reclamación de tierras y la asistencia a las reservaciones Indias han alcanzado a los billones de dolares—y tanto los beneficios como los gastos tienen ramificaciones nacionales. Con la posible excepción de algunos de los usos de recreación, se deberá acentuar qué la experiencia nortecamericana sobre la desertificacion será pertinente y aplicable a otras zonas áridas y semi-áridas del mundo. Historia Se han utilizado las tierras áridas y semi-áridas en Norteamérica durante los últimos 11,000 años, y quizás mas, con el cultivo ocurriendo hace 6 ,000 años. Hasta el siglo XIX, la tenencia de tierra fué el problema principal en Norteamérica. ' Acción por parte del Congreso de los Estados Unidos trato de establecer controles sobre pastoreo, pero hasta hoy día el control científico del pasturaje se complica par el uso multiple y las numerosas acciones legales referentes a la propiedad y arrendamiento de tierras. -35- Pasturaje La mayoría de los especialistas sobre el control científico del pasturaje están de acuerdo que" muchas tierras publicas (federales) y privadas se están degradando, y qué se deberían aumentar los controles. Hay muchos casos bien documentados en los Estados Unidos en los cuales el sobre-pastoreo causo la . invasion de arbustos pequeños de poco valor nutritivo, la aceleración del proceso de erosion, y el agotamiento de aguas subterráneas. Agricultura de Riego El riego ha transformado literalmente muchas partes de los desiertos del suroeste árido de los Estados Unidos en centros de producción agrícola. Pero el riego ha contribuido al proceso de desertificacion debido al consumo de agua, salinizacion •. del suelo, y a veces el abandonamiento de estas tierras agrícolas, y su conversación a tierras estériles sin utilidad. Minería Aunque sus efectos-no son extensivos en area, la minería puede prácticamente crear un desierto local. Urbanización La urbanización puede ser uno de los mejores usos para las tierras áridas y semi-áridas, con tal de que" el buen manejo y el sentido común se use en cada caso. Aunque el mal uso de aguas urbanas podría resultar en "ciudades fantasmas" y desiertos de concreto, los problemas qué mas se comentan son causados por los comerciantes de tierras, quienes subdividen el desierto, construyen "calles," y tratan de vender terrenos áridos a personas crédulas. Centenares de estas "calles" sin pavimiento cruzan los desiertos dé Arizona, Nueva Mexico, y Nevada, sin ningún edificio visible, y se convierten én arroyos, los cuales destruyen las capas superficiales del suelo. -36- Recreación Debido al sol en las regiones áridas, el buen ingreso del trabajador americano, y mas tiempo para el recreo, se ha creado un problema de degradación de tierras tanto fastidioso como interesante. Motocicletas, jips de cuatro-traccion, y otros vehículos de recreo han invadido el desierto y han dejado sus marcas. Freatofitas y Otros Controles de Vegetación Muchos de los arboles que se encuentran al borde de los ríos y arroyos, y qué consumen mucho agua, las freatofitas, debrían, en la opinion de algunos, ser eliminados en ciertos lugares. También se ha sugerido la eliminación de vegetación de millones de acres de bosque y desierto en Arizona, para incrementar el drenaje de aguas. Tales planes, sinembargo, podrían tener consequencias serias al largo plazo .en cuanto al potencial de desertificacion, Al corto plazo, incrementando el drenaje de agua por medio de la eliminación de vegetación representará menos agua infiltrándose a las aguas subterráneas, y sedimento se accumulará mas rápidamente en las cuencas de captación. Resumen Aunque la palabra "desertificación" es relativemente nueva en el vocabulario científico inglés, el mal uso de la tierra y los recursos naturales no es nuevo. , La desertificacion es realmente un problema serio; entre otros, los factores contribuyentes son: sobre-pastoreo, salinización de los suelos, agotamiento de recursos de agua, presiones de población, abandonamiento de tierras, algunas actividades mineras, y la destrucción de la superficie del desierto por vehículos de recreo. Sería un error ignorar las consequencias de la desertificación en los Estados Unidos. Mientras que la alta tecnología americana tiene gran capacidad de producción, tiene igualmente gran capacidad de destrucción. Si los planificadores y administradores de recursos naturales, los intereses privados, y las agencias federales de regulación no mantienen vigilancia sobre la degradación de tierras en el suroeste, la desertificacion podría llegar a tener repercusiones nacionales de serias proporciones. Tenemos el conocimiento técnico para controlar, y en ciertos casos, hasta reversar la degradación de tierras. Sinembargo, las presiones de una población que está creciendo demasiado rápido, como en muchos otros países, junto con los problemas sociales relaciondandos con la aplicación de la tecnología conocida, no permiten un optimismo sin cautela. THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA ARID LANDS ^ Cover Photo Seemingly growing from space, this booium (Idria columnaris), photographed near the site of the former San Fernando H^ission in central Baja California, is characteristic of a droop that often occurs after maturity, possibly during periods of drought when the cells are less turgid and the total structure thus weaker. In this instance, either prior or subsequent to drooping, the end of the original main stem was broken off and several new stems developed. These latter, in contrast with the slender side branches, always grow upward, as these are doing. Flowers typically occur near the ends of the main stems as they have here. Blossoming occurs in mid-summer, after which the seeds ripen until they are shed in the fall. This photograph shows these ripening seeds. R. R. Humphrey I he primitive sun symbol appearing on the title page, opposit is internationally recognized as the colophon of the Universi of Arizona's Office of Arid Land Studies. Similar renditions t desert-dwelling man of five continents reflect his historic pn occupation and dependence upon the sun. Dune field, extreme southern portion of the Gran Desierto, northwestern Sonora, tal<en from the southern Pinacates looking west toward the Sea of Cortez. G. Donald Kucera Arid atth© ers Situated as it is on tfie edge of the Sonoran Desert, the University of Arizona forms a great research matrix of arid lands investigations. Its traditional commitment to this purpose is evident in its dedication to the needs of the state, in its scholarship, in its publications, in the intellectual accomplishments of its faculties and students, in the leadership it has exerted throughout the arid world in such fields as greenhouse agriculture, desert ecology, anthropology, water resources development, crop production and plant breeding. To select only these, however, is to do a disservice to the numerous other agencies of the University whose total contributions to arid lands research make it a truly multidisciplinary fulfillment of an historic obligation. In what follows, then, we set forth the dynamics of the University's present position, trusting that such an overview may be the instrument by which you will arrive at a better understanding of this arid lands design. i5 Text by Patricia Payiore R. R. Humphrey Reflection of an ocotillo (Fouefuieria splendens) in an intermittent canyon stream on the lower west-facing slope of the Rincón Mountains, east of Tucson. This odd conspicuous plant illustrates adaptive mechanisms that allow it to drop its leaves as soon as the soil dries but as quickly refoliate after a good rain. Cuttings, which root readily, are commonly used throughout the Sonoran Desert for living fences and ramadas. G E O H Y D R O L O G Y \ - - \ • \ \ \ : / \ I ) \ ,/ V "/ ai The extraordinary attraction tinat the world's deserts have had for man immemorial ly has accelerated in modern times, as he seeks refuge from other environments more crowded, more ugly, less satisfying, less pleasurable. From its founding, the University of Arizona has devoted its energies to making Arizona itself more habitable. Now well into the second half of its first century, the University recognizes its obligations beyond immediacy — to make sure that the arid land to which most of us came from elsewhere retains those qualities which Drought us here. Ancient Man in an Arid Land: Ancient man solved on a primitive level many of the environmental problems that persist more critically for our highly technological contemporary society. When he brought water by canals to his fields, he was able to create a stable society in a region of relatively limited resources, supported by land-use patterns designed to mitigate the restrictions of adverse climatic conditions. The University of Arizona through its Department of Anthropology and the Arizona State Museum has uncovered through several generations of research a knowledge and understanding of those earlier civilizations that went before us, not only here in the familiar southwest but in similar environments in the Near East, Africa, Mexico. Related research in dendrochronology, palynology, and the geósclences is being merged to provide us with the most complete picture possible of our arid lands predecessor, and how he managed, or, ultimately, failed to manage his environment. Field work at sites throughout Arizona and northern Mexico supports the laboratory findings, and the comprehensive academic program helps interpret the evidence. The Physiology of Adaptation: The total environment in which the university operates provides an unusual laboratory for the development of arid lands-oriented research. The College of Medicine is directing attention to the problems of thermal stress on human physiology, while the Department of Psychology, in a new program designed to parallel this, is emphasizing studies on the environmental psychology of living in an arid land and the relationship between psychological processes and the large-scale environment. In the College of Agriculture an interdisciplinary graduate program relates to the effects of high climatic temperatures on livestock and their productivity. Further studies on hormonal changes in people working outdoors in high temperatures, the effect of heat on reproductive processes, the effect of arid soil-borne organisms on humans and animals, and the comparative psychology of indigenous populations in various arid regions of the world are all avenues of exploration to be undertaken here by interacting teams from medicine, engineering, architecture, and others. Atmospheric Sciences is developing research in bioclimatology where the dynamic interaction of climate, plants, and man is shown in the context of those special micrometeorological and hydrometeorological conditions peculiar to arid lands. In Arizona State Museum, He/ga Teiwes-French View along excavated 14th century irrigation canal at Snaketown, a prehistoric Hohokam community in south-central Arizona. Dr. Emil W. Haury, excavator of the site, stands on the latest of four superimposed canal surfaces. This canal is part of an extensive irrigation system that began about 300 BC in the desert valleys of the Gila and Salt Rivers near present-day Phoenix, Arizona. Engineering, such relatively new concepts as bioengineering and biomechanics are being harnessed to probe the relation between medicine and engineering, with emphasis ah such topics as cardiovascular dynamics, body fluid and renal physiology, isotopesjand radiation, and solid state electronics in biology and medicine, all of which are dire<;tly affected by aridity. In the Biological Sciences, the University is seeking answers to survival and adaptation in an arid climate from the behavior of desertdwelling animals and plants. Social Institutions: Arizona State Museum, Helga Teiwes-French Although the Hohokam depended mainly on rivers and canals for domestic water, they also exploited groundwater in favorable spots by digging wells. These were of two types: a conventional tube-like well and a walk-in well which had a large diameter at ground level, tapering to a small diameter at the water table. In time, these wells were abandoned and the holes became convenient places for dumping refuse. In the Snaketown picture here, the deposits in one of these walk-in wells has been sectioned preparatory to the stratigraphic removal of the contained cultural materials. The physical and biological environment of the arid lands requires an unusual degree ()f comprehension on the part of desert-dwelling man, if he is to appreciate its uniqi e qualities, use them to improve the ambience of his own life, and leave behind him for the future as much of his inheritance as he can. To achieve this, he must d e i e n d on his institutions to guide him, educate him, enlarge his understanding of hi} special environment. In turn, these same institutions will depend upon him to devot3 his creativity, his skills, and his invention to those aspects of education by which W5 endure and broaden. in a ^university atmosphere we should find the ideal juxtaposition of these lines. Here wejseek through studies in Political Science, Economics, the Law, Anthropology, to relate man's best instincts to his dominant role in any environment, but especially in the aricl regions where the risk of failure is the more visible. The role of government in the management of energy, natural resources, and the environment, for example, is studied in the course in "Environmental Policy," where process and policy alternatives w i t i special reference to the arid southwest are reviewed. The role of Agriculture in ebonomic growth and development, including economic policies related to arid lanes agriculture and to world trade in agricultural commodities, is examined in courses h international rural economic development and natural resources economics. In A'chitecture, the University is exploring relationships between the built environme |it and the unique characteristics of the natural arid land environment. Lessons of (¡ariier indigenous architecture are being re-examined to discover the implications f()r our contemporary energy-short society. Students in this field are challenged to think Creatively in the search for new methods of achieving functional efficiency, structure ! simplicity, and environmental harmony in arid lands architecture. Consideration of í piar energy systems, natural means of cooling and heating, indigenous landscape applications, insulative construction, orientation, and other needs should result in the de velopment of a more appropriate aesthetic expression and community design for irid lands architecture. Architecture's "zero energy house," an autonomous living unit, provides actual student experience in the requirements for substitute sources of energy, including solar stills, sun shields, and mechanisms for the recycling of wastes. Pianning for the Future: Whil 5 it is possible to say that such technological amenities as air-conditioning, artificial akes for recreation, even the mobility that our automobiles afford us, have allowed IS to adapt to an arid environment, or to escape it, according to our needs, nevertheil ess a university has an obligation to help society plan in far-reaching ways. y^u'üuí^y •^u ¿^ij u¿i.^u ¡jtsj u^ ¡^u ^¡ij/wu .iw wñeireweir needed, teliewimg Stss th S'lom of yjcdd to She degree thst ñ is sií!llemp¡'¡ed ürame'jífoirk of undeirstsmdmg of aihe aire oñen suMle mn- rs ucyuMU uur immeaiaifci uuiivtíriifcíriütJ anu uuiiiiuii, lu iiisurt; luiiy-it!irri envinjiiiiiciuai qualiw and conservation. With proper planning by attention to certain functional aspecte of apid lands habitation, it is possible to minimize social conflicts deriving from fjpor planning, and turn them instead into acceptable, even pleasurable, interactive contacts. To these ends, other University departments than Architecture are pooling their con petence, notably Civil Engineering in courses in land development and water resou ces engineering, Systems and Industrial Engineering and Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering in courses in environmental engineering analyzing and designing Isystems and components for control of temperature, air distribution, air cleanliness, ana acoustics in building space in warm climates. The use of solar energy is contingent upon engineering research, to which much attention is being given here in an area of abundant solar heat, specifically through experimental designs for its use in both private dwellings and industrial buildings, as well as for the generation of electrical power, exemplifying how the stimulus of crisis can challenge students to think innovatively. Water: D C. B. Cluff In the multipurpose water harvesting system demonstrat 3d here, wine grapes have been planted in the channels of t he shaped compacted earth catchment. Excess water is collect 3d in a sodium-treated raft-covered tank to prevent seepage a nd evaporation. The rafts are constructed with coupled, expand ed polystyrene panels, coated with asphalt and chips. Cooperati ng departments: Soils, Water, and Engineering and the Water <esources Research Center. Water resources, their use and conservation, have been the classic concern of the University since its beginnings. Today, no less than earlier, much of its focus in the field of natural resources is on the groundwater and surface water available, its quality, w^ys of using it and conserving it for those needs most urgent, and methods of augmenting a diminishing and insufficient supply. To the execution of these purposes, departments such as Hydrology and Water Resources, Soils, Water, and Engineering, Civil Engineering, and the Water Resources Research Center and the School of Renewable Natural Resources are devoting their skills and experience. Such courses in water resources administration as "Water, Sociely, and the Environment," for example, deal with the role of behavioral sciences (social, legal, economic, political, and psychological) in the public administration of the use, development, and management of water resources, and the ecological relation of water in the biosphere. The Water Resources Research Center deploys its staff and associated personnel, including graduate students, in research into such problems as the harvesting of additional water from arid and semiarid watersheds, artificial recharging of groundwater aquifers, evaporation suppression, and systems modeling. Changes in desert agriculture resulting from increased costs and shortages of associated energy needs are being studied by the Department of Soils, Water, and Encineering. Courses on and research into the need to manage salt-affected soils, an aric lands problem of world-wide proportions, deal with diagnostic procedures for eva uating soil-water-plant relationships, reclamation, and the economics of irrigation pro.ect development. Drainage of irrigated lands, desert strip farming, reservoir engineering, erosion, and flood control are other facets of the interaction of water and the and, as we extend our traditional preoccupation with water to the management of arid lands in general. Autonomous Living Unit Number 2, designed and constructed by advanced Architecture students, is a highly portable low-cost housing unit, independent of external systems, relying on solar energy, energy storage, and other techniques for its selfsufficiency. Experience gained from ALU-2 is also being used to develop more advanced systems by the College of Architecture. After a decade of research into ways of overcoming problems of heat stress in dairy cows. University research in the College of Agriculture demonstrates Increased milk flow and calf production through use of evaporative coolers installed in corral shelters. Governor Alexander Lewis, Sr, Gila River Pima-l\/laricopa Indian Community, southcentral Arizona, where the University's Bureau of Ethnic Research is assisting in developing a plan for more effective tribal government and management. Autonomous Arizona Helga State Museum, Teiwes-French Interior of Living Unit Number 2 For (ixample, scientists in the Department of Plant Sciences are asking: Can economic plants be improved so ttiat they will produce more useable dry matter while using less water? and to answer, are conducting pioneering research in efforts to determine if ways can be found to assure more efficient use of water by crop plants. Our plant breeders have made great strides in developing varieties with high yields, insect and disease resistance, plant uniformity and other desirable characteristics. Similar prog "ess in improving water-use efficiency seems entirely possible. The University's research in these areas has had an incalculable influence on the agriculture of Arizona for over eighty years, and its focus during the next eighty will reflect the region's continuing need to redirect its energies in new and innovative ways that will keep pace with a changing dynamic society. Waters leds/Waterways: So c losely related to the overall focus on water in general as to be almost indistinguishable are studies relating to Water Management. Watershed hydrology, forest resource economics, autecoiogy/synecology dealing with the relationships betweenj organisms and biological communities and their environments, all affect the arid lanqs that lie below our watersheds and contribute to the surface water flow that comprises our streams, ephemeral or perennial. Our understanding of these processes constitu es one of the University's lodestars, as we combine these tasks with others relating o fisheries management, recreation resource planning, and natural resources conservation. Minerails/Energy: G. Donald Kucera We can no longer afford to scoff at tfie simple generation of wind power by the familiar windmill, visible throughout the western prairies of the last century. Despite the fact that it ranks far below solar radiation as a continuously available resource Ca ratio of 740 to 5, in units of current U.S. rate of energy consumption), and that its scientific feasibility, costs, and hazards have not yet been determined, the potential of wind power is undergoing scientific examination. Meantime, in isolated desert locations such as this one near Tule Well, Cabeza Prieta, extreme southwestern Arizona, it serves well the desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) population of this game refuge by pumping water during long periods of drought. Arizona, largely arid and semiarid, possesses a wealth of mineral and other energy sources solar, wind, geothermal, hydro, fossil. The exploration of these resources has been a (|haracteristic of the University's dedication to the needs of the State since its founding, and the increasingly sophisticated technology it is now able to employ in these amas will continue to place these considerations in the fore of its total commitments. The Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry, for example, applies radioactive dating techniques for the correlation of geologic events and trace element geochemistry. Much of its work has centered around the evolution of Basin-and-Range and Colorado Plateau physiographic features, and the use of isotope hydrology studies in the interpretation and analysis of dynamic groundwater problems. Arizona, at a crossroad of interest in natural resources, may be looked upon as a prototype of similar environments because of a number of factors: its aridity demands keener understanding of groundwater geology; the growing hunger for energy requires r3search into the area's petroleum, coal, geothermal, and nuclear fuel capabilities; a growing urban complex calls for planning and understanding of industrial mineral and rock geology; and the University's location at the hub of a multi-billion dollar copper-silver ore deposit province demands involvement in base metal exploration anc research. Int fie Laboratory of Economic Geology will be found broad instrument and laboratory support, with special capability in petrologic and mineragraphic techniques. In Mining and Geological Engineering, attention is now being given to minerals and View of a summer thunderstorm on the San Simon Valley, southeastern Arizona. Average annual precipitation in this area is about 9.5 inches. The sand dune mesquite (Prosopis) vegetation community in the foreground includes very little herbaceous vegetation as a consequence of heavy livestock grazing and recurring droughts in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The grass in the background is a result of brush control methods, species trials, and seeding research by the School of Renewable Natural Resources under a contract with the Bureau of Land Management. The established grass stand is effective in reducing soil erosion from this frail watershed of the San Simon. ijiMl i L. G. Wilson This Stabilization lagoon in use by the Pima County (Arizona) Department of Sanitation shows platform, water sampling wells and access well, facilities used for studies on subsurface water movement and quality transformations (including nitrate ion) during deep seepage. Cooperating University departments: Civil Engineering and the Water Resources Research Center. School N. F. Oebker and A.D. Halderman At the University's Mesa Farm in the Salt River Valley, bell peppers are being cultivated under a drip irrigation system that provides for timer valves, set for a given volume of water, and meters for measuring the amount (foreground), fertilizer injector pump, and half-inch diameter pipe laid along the rows under either alumnized or black-coated paper mulches. While this practice has the prime advantage of water savings, it also requires lower labor costs compared to conventional irrigation systems. Experimentation is still going forward into problems associated with these practices whose solution will help desert farmers everywhere utilize this system beneficially. ol Renewable Natural Resources environmental conservation, where tine impact of mining on tfie environment, and tine management of mine wastes and reclamation practices are being assessed. Biological: The biological resources of the arid Southwest are surprisingly rich and varied, and much of the University's efforts in this field are devoted to a deeper understanding of the area's natural history. Studies in plant geography and zoogeography provide abundant experiences with living laboratories available at such sites as the Marine Science Laboratory at Puerto Peñasco on the Gulf of California; the Desert Biology Station at Superior, Arizona, where arid zone flora and fauna are displayed in a relatively undisturbed 1,200-acre preserve; and Tumamoc Hill on the edge of Tucson proper, where a 75-year history of a desert environment little touched by man is one of the southwest's historic landmarks, now under the management of the University. G. Donald This banded gecko TColeonyx variegatusj at ease on the trunk of a fallen ironwood tree fOlneya tesotaj represents a species of lizard widely distributed throughout the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts. While largely nocturnal in habit, this specimen was photographed very early on a July morning in the Cabeza Prieta, extreme southwestern Arizona. R. R. Dept. of Nuclear Engineering TRIGA reactor operating at lOOkw of thermal power provides a wide range of research capabilities, covering in addition to nuclear engineering and material uses, projects in agriculture such as feed lot waste problems and analysis of livestock forage digestibility; in earth sciences, dating techniques in geochronology; and in engineering, activation analysis of trace maforlalQ Kucera Humphrey The combination of barbed spines and densely-armed easily detached joints of this teddy bear cactus COpuntia BigelovtU was no deterrent to the white-winged dove fZenaida asiatica^ who built her nest here. This species of Opuntia occurs in abundance on warm slopes throughout the Sonoran Desert, including this site west of Caborca, Sonora, Mexico, where the photograph was taken moments after the first egg was hatched. A large diversity of habitats and of game species native to the state provide the framework for a program of game management, with the School of Renewable Natural Resources sharing the course and research work with the Arizona Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. The Arizona Cooperative Fishery Unit participates in similar activities directed toward learning how to meet the demands for inland sport fishing opportunities in a state where much of the population is outdoor-oriented. Such wildlife and wilderness studies have occupied our research specialists traditionally, but now the emphasis is increased as the University invests its resources in the training of students, including those from foreign arid lands, to seek an understanding in greater depth of the interrelationships of all forms of desert life and the total desert environment. From its beginnings in 1958 as a loose collaboration of faculty and research associates with common arid lands interests, the OALS has evolved to its present position as a research and information center that coordinates University-wide arid lands programs aimed toward the solution of both local and worldwide problems in the understanding, regeneration, and development of the world's arid lands. Throughout its development to its present configuration, the Office of Arid Lands Studies has held fast to its primary concept, that desert and arid lands studies are interdisciplinary in nature, and that only through the interaction of many subject areas can the total arid environment be understood and dealt with intelligently and factually. The OALS seeks to identify arid lands research investigations on a broad spectrum of disciplines, and to bring together those research scientists whose interests are correlative. Such integration is being conducted not only locally, but internationally, as relationships are established to'vprovide opportunity for mutual cooperative undertakings. The research activities of the OALS itself are reflected in the design of the many international conferences and seminars it plans and conducts on such diverse topics as economic plants, energy, remote sensing, technology transfer, and desertification. This microcosm of world arid lands dilemmas and the efforts being made for global responses represents in itself the framework of interconnectedness in which arid lands research flourishes best. in addition to prime funding from the University, support for the OALS has come from such sources as the Rockefeller Foundation, U.S. Army Research Office, National Science Foundation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. AID, the U.S.-lsrael Bi-National Science Foundation, and many state and local governmental agencies. On the practical level, the OALS administers the unique Doctor of Philosophy degree in Arid Lands Resource Sciences for the Graduate College. This broadly-based interdisciplinary degree introduces a new dimension to opportunities for the unusually gifted mature student who may not fit into the traditional academic degree-granting structure but who has the qualities and experience to make an outstanding contribution to the worldwide problems of the arid lands. He must be able to demonstrate the research skills needed to stand up to the rigorous program required, and to show evidence of competence beyond that expected of the average doctoral candidate. In addition to furnisiiing information services to the public and the scientificgovernment community through custom computer print-outs from both the worldwide coverage available from the Arid Lands Information System (ALIS) and from the Arizona Water Information System (AWIS), the OALS is experimenting in cooperation with the University's Radio-TV-Film Bureau with the use of satellite transmission of its arid land information resources through remote terminals. OALS staff member goes over a computerized bibliography for visitors to the DocCenter. The OALS issues a series of publications entitled Arid Lands Resource Information Papers, Arid Lands Abstracts, and several series of newsletters and bulletins. Its University of Arizona Press books include Deserts of the World, Arid Lands in Perspective, Food, Fiber, and the Arid Lands, and Arid-Lands Research Institutions: A World Directory. Besides such OALS books as these, the University of Arizona Press has published other titles in its arid lands series, including The Sonoran Desert, Coastal Deserts, and Polar Deserts.- Left to right: Dr. Assibi O. Abudu, National Economic Planning Council, Ghana; Wade Sherbrooke, Office of Arid Lands Studies; and Mr. Mike Henry, instructor in agriculture, Baboquivari High School, Papago Indian Reservation, examining a jojoba plant. For over eighty years University applied research has been largely arid landsoriented to serve the people of a state more than ninety percent arid or semiarid. Withiri Arizona's boundaries are counterparts of the natural features of all arid lands except such cold continental deserts as the Gobi and such cool coastal areas as the Atacama. No desert area of comparable size contains a greater variety of arid landscapes: ' I In some areas of the state, average annual precipitation is less than 3.5 inches (compare As Samaway, Iraq). In others, sheep graze and crops grow where temperatures dip to minus 32 degrees Fahrenheit (compare southern portions of cold Asiatic deserts)... Climatic diversity in Arizona is caused largely by scattered mountains and tabular highlands, conditions similar to those of northern Algeria... I I ! Processes and results of weathering, erosion and deposition have been examined at less than 200 feet elevation along the Colorado River, just as on the Nile, while the Colorado Plateau stands at elevations comparable to portions of the plateau of Iran, the central Sahara, and the Kalahari... j. Since this state's portion of the American southwest has historically and currently a greater variety of human activity than any other desert area, it is a useful one for drawing human-use analogies. The seminomadic sheep grazing of the Navajo, for instance, is much like that of the Kirghiz of Asia and the Berbers of Africa, while flood agriculture has been practiced in Arizona by several Indian tribes, as in the Sahara. These similarities have sponsored an affinity between the University of Arizona and regions of the Earth with comparable environments. Students from arid lands outside the United States constitute fifty-two percent of the total University of Arizona foreign student body, with Saudi Arabia, Libya, Mexico, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, and Iran among those represented. Many such students are here for graduate studies in fields chosen to contribute a greater understanding of their homeland needs, and solutions to their own arid lands problems. Many former students have gone on to positions of responsibility in government, education, and technology. Their ties remain strong with Arizona, through contacts continued by mail, by visits in both directions, and by durable relationships based on mutual arid lands interests. Institutional programs of international scope have sent faculty and research personnel on ariii lands assignments in northeastern Brazil, Turkey, West Africa, Sudan, Pakistan, Peru, Israel, Australia, India, the Sahara, Argentina, and elsewhere. The experience of the University over a period of more than eighty years in research on arid soils, irrigation, climate, hydrology, native and introduced vegetation, and other aspects of this environment has been translated throughoutithe arid world into projects of incalculable benefits. As neighbors, our history of cooperative programs with the states of northern Mexico and those related to the Gulf of California is a long and close one, the most p .-i Gaud-I-Zirreh, Afghanistan spectacular being the Puerto Peñasco experimental facility that began with a desalting project and is now devoted to production of marine shrimp in controlled environment structures. Similar projects growing out of the original desalting program there have been undertaken under the direction of the University's Environmental Research Laboratory in Abu Dhabi and Iran, where large-scale power/water/food plants are in full-scale operation; and in Fort Yuma, California, where a comparable facility is in operation by the Quechan Indian tribe. international research on economic wild plants is another area where the University of Arizona's leadership is demonstrating its capacity to identify and explore arid lands potentials. Jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis), native to the Sonoran Desert, is presently the most visible, now being experimentally cultivated in Israel, Iran, Iraq, and Australia. Its spread under these conditions will eventually be assured, with the several benefits that can accrue from its products and use. Guayule (Parthenium argentatum) and the common buffalogourd (Cucurbita foetid i ssi ma) are other native plants with economic possibilities now being re-examined for research investigations through international collaboration. Beyond these formal and informal alliances with governments and institutions throughout the arid world, the University of Arizona is dedicating its experience and competence in a number of ways. Its membership in the Consortium for International Development (CID) assures that it has a role to play in determining the needs of lessdeveloped countries in arid and sub-humid areas, and in contributing to ways of meeting those needs. U.S. AID projects designed to develop training in natural resources management will have great impact in arid regions other than the southwest U.S., where pilot programs in microcosm can be extrapolated to the macrocosm of the world's arid lands. Such renewable natural resources as forests and their effects on watersheds, game management, recreation, and hydrology can be cited, where substantial academic effort is devoted to creating the kind of experiential background necessary to understand and direct programs of conservation and development. The influence of such unique research capabilities as those present in the Environmental Research Laboratory, the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research and its programs in dendrochronology, and the work of the Department of Geosciences in the fields of palynology and isotope geochemistry, for instance, is far-reaching. While research done in the arid environs of the University of Arizona provides the state of Arizona with an understanding of ways of responding to such demands as are made on us in the fields of groundwater, energy, the environment, such research can be extended in the service of comparable needs elsewhere, as indeed it has been traditionally. Comparable to installations in Abu Dhabi and the Arabian Gulf is this large-scale power/water/food plant in full-scale operation by the Quechan Indian Tribe at Fort Yuma, Arizona. Here five acres of tomatoes grown for the commercial market are being cultivated in the greenhouses shown in the photograph. The facility is operated and administered by the Tribe, providing employment and income. Well water is bracicish but used as it comes for the cooling aspects of the operation. A water treatment facility provides better quality water for irrigation. The Catalina Mountains, a gneissic massif uplifted 25 to 30 million years ago, form the northern boundary of the Tucson basin and rise to an elevation of 2,770 meters. Vegetation in the foreground is dominated by the Saguaro cactus {Carnegiea gigantea), a plant unique characteristic of the Sonaran Desert. The Desert from Space: The gaps in our knowledge of various aspects of the physical features of the world's arid lands are enormous, in part because of the inaccessibility of many areas, in part because of the inhospitable nature of deserts. Now we have an opportunity to conduct detailed natural resource and land-use inventories using aircraft and spacecraft imagery. The remote sensing techniques developed by NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey are being employed at the University of Arizona to give us the synoptic view that we urgently need to establish our development priorities. The worldwide search for scarce resources is being enhanced by this technology, as we use U-2 and satellite data to monitor hydrology and water, marine, soil and vegetation, minerals and fossil fuel resources, and land use and land use changes. In each of these areas, research data are being improved and expedited as we learn to corre-late information from space with ground surveys. For many reasons, this technology is most admirably suited to arid lands, and its employment here on an ever-increasing scale is a significant factor in our present and future investigations. Remote sensing technology is used throughout the University, with laboratories in the Office of Arid Land Studies (Applied Remote Sensing Program), Optical Sciences, Biological Sciences, Geosciences, Civil Engineering, Mines, and Agriculture. The campus-wide Remote Sensing Committee coordinates academic endeavor and serves as a focal point for the many and varied remote sensing activities. Computer Services: Apollo photograph 126 miles. of Colorado River Delta from an altitude of Aside from courses offered in computer science, the technical services of the University's Computer Center are employed in a number of ways related to the arid lands research program. The Arid Lands Information System (ALIS) of the Office of Arid Lands is a completely computerized system used in the preparation of its specialized bibliographies and in custom searches on arid lands inquiries. As a sub-system of ALIS, coverage of watershed management and related subjects is provided by the School of Renewable Natural Resources. Similar services are furnished by the Arizona Water Information System (AWIS), also a function of the Office of Arid Lands Studies in cooperation with the Water Resources Research Center and the Arizona State Water Commission. The new DEC-10, in addition to the CDC 6400 and smaller analog and digital computers in use across the campus, is giving the University computational capacity through individual terminals that will greatly accelerate the use of data acquired in several ways for the vital arid lands studies going forward in such areas as hydrology, land use planning, natural resource inventories, and particularly in modeling and simulation of desert biome sites. M n a L a n a s n e s e a r c n in Academic Departments The following departments and divisions of the University of Arizona offer courses and conduct research closely related to arid lands studies in all subject fields represented. For further information in any of these specific areas, please write to the Head of the individual unit, c/o University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA. College of Agriculture Agricultural Economics Animal Sciences Entomology Nutrition and Food Science Renewable Natural Resources Soils, Water, and Engineering College of Mines College of Architecture Environmental Research Laboratory College of Business and Public Administration Geography, Regional Development, and Urban Planning Office of Arid Lands Studies College of Earth Sciences Geosciences Hydrology and Water Resources College of Engineering Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics Electrical Engineering Nuclear Engineering Systems and Industrial Engineering College of Liberal Arts Anthropology Atmospheric Sciences Biological Sciences Oriental Studies Political Science Psychology Mining and Geological Engineering Computer Center Coordinator of Interdisciplinary Programs Coordinator of International Programs Special Research and Service Divisions Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station Arizona Bureau of Mines Arizona Cooperative Fishery Unit Arizona Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit Arizona State Museum Bureau of Ethnic Research Engineering Experimental Station Herbarium Institute of Atmospheric Physics institute of Government Research Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research Optical Sciences Center Radio-TV-Film Bureau Water Resources Research Center ARID LANDS Jojoba (Simmondsia ch native to the Sonoran L southern Arizona, souii California, and nortt Mexico including Baja C has several potential being explored u by the Arid Land Studies in coo with researchers Mexico, and Israel. ment of an Indian based on mentation with a in C The jojoba successfu number is being undertaken versity in several Arizona looking toward at conjuna Indie establisi large plantations to industrial uses such as waxes, lubricants, animal feed higt suppleme even as ornai lentals. E. F. iaase AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA Developing Countries . . . Environment . . . Arid Lands . . . Natural Resources ^ § w ; 8 S ARID LANDS NEWSLETTER c« S > ^ I ^ S H o? I>1 fi 0 1 i I ro I C . I§ eo i No. 4 October 1976 ^ 00 : > s3: I •S ^a2 Iia C ; C 3 I I1 UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA I Z a 5 Geothermal . . . ALIS . . . Desertification . . . Economic Plants . . . Research ARID LANDS NEWSLETTER* No. 4, October 1976 Published by the University of Arizona, Arid/Semi-Arid Natural Resources Program, for a U.S.AID 211(d) institutional grant. Editor: Patricia Paylore, Assistant Director (International), Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA. Distributed worldwide without charge. Address correspondence relating to contents, or requests for future mailing, to the Editor. •Originally issued (No. 1, March 1975) as Arid/Semi-Arid Natural Resources Program Newsletter. QUERY TO READERS: If you readers out there, whoever you are, wherever you are, whatever your concerns are, want to use Arid Lands Newsletter as a forum to speak out through letters to the Editor, I should like to add a page or two in each issue for this kind of exchange. Please keep them brief and to the point, and do not feel hurt if I cut or change or don't use at all. That's what mean editors are for. Next issue will be out by January 1, 1977, so take pen in hand and let me know what you are thinking about arid lands problems, or what you would like to see covered in future issues, or what you don't like about what has aheady appeared. _ pp MANAGEMENT OF BRACKISH WATERS IN ARID LAND AGRICULTURE: Modem Experiences with Ancient Problems by Marvin Twersky* II. WATER QUALITY AND SOIL SALINITY CRITERIA I. INTRODUCTION In those arid areas worldwide which conceal in their depths an abundance of water containing variable quantities of soluble salts, irrigation agriculture presents us with a modern challenge to utilize such water resources nevertheless for intensifying crop production to feed the i inhabitants of those regions. Since there is as yet no economical large-scale way to . .J eliminate salts from brackish water, we need to concentrate on ways of living with saline irrigation water whose varying salt composition can contribute to improper water management and to increased soil salinity. To achieve this, we need to define the vulnerability of soils and crops to the dangers of various water qualities, and to use this knowledge to correct irrigation technology accordingly. The objective of this paper is to point to modern opportunities in brackish water irrigation technology that make it possible to achieve economical production of foodfiber crops. In Israel, where 200 million cubic meters of brackish waters are available yearly for agricultural use, new techniques based on the national experience have contributed to successful cultivation of those desert regions employing brackish water irrigation (Fig. 1). A. Criteria of Water Quality The term "quality of irrigation water" implies a specific rating of the potential hazards water has for crops and soils (24, 34, 48). Waters vary from one source to another in one or all of the following: 1) total dissolved soUds (TDS); 2) cationic and anionic composition (Na+, CI", sodium adsorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate, permeabihty index); and 3) phytotoxic impairments (B- limits, NOj concentrations, pathogens and disease organisms). Water quahty can be expressed as total salt concentration in ppm, mg/1, pr ppm CI", especially where CI' sensitive crops are involved (e.g., citrus) (22, 34). The total dissolved salts (TDS) is most easily measured by electrical conductivity of water (ECw) and is expressed as mmhos per cm at a temperature of 25°C (mmho/cm). Specifically, waters having ECw ranging from 2-8 mmho/cm (1000-10,000 ppm) are considered brackish (i.e., slightly to moderately saline) (11, 37). Waters having greater salt concentrations are classified as saline. Brackish waters of up to 5000 ppm are of the most potential interest for irrigation agriculture. In practice, no singular set of criteria exists for brackish/ saline waters (21, 30, 34, 48). Available water resources for irrigation programs must be assessed in the context of the conditions under which they are to be used. Any classification system based on the composition of water alone can serve only as a general guide in water management programs because of the interactive effects of soil, plant, and climatic conditions in each locality. B. Salinity Criteria in Irrigation , - •«a^— ^ --ig. Fig. 1. Field of cotton seedlings irrigated with brackish water. Two factors are important for assessing the suitability of brackish water for irrigation: l ) t h e amount of salt accumulated with each irrigation in the soil profile, and 2) the degree of response of a specific crop to the level of soil sahnity in the root zone. Salts accumulate in the soil profile due to evapotranspiration, which is controlled by climatic demand and the physiochemical properties of the soil (1, 7, 28, 31, 44, 48). The movement of water and salt in the soil profile is less restricted in light (sandy) to medium-textured (loamy sandy) soils due to their high infiltration capacity. The salt resistance of crops largely determines the suitability of brackish water for irrigation. The salinity damage *Dr. Twersky, a University of Illinois Ph.D. (agronomy, 1964), is Senior Scientist, Research and Development Authority, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel, where he specializes in saline water-soil-plant problems. to a crop, however, is a combination of plant growth stage, rate of soil salinization, and duration of exposure to soil profile salinity in the irrigation interval. Due to the heterogeneity of soil in space and time within the soil profile, it is the weighted mean soil salinity that determines the performance of an individual crop. Weighting of soil salinity is done on the basis of water uptake by plant roots (46). Our experience suggests that the most singular soil salinity problem occurs during the first stages of germination, emergence, and plant establishment. The buildup of salts at the soil surface due to evaporation delays germination, and causes poor emergence and spotty seedling establishment. Sugar beets serve as a classic example, being very sensitive at the germination-estabUshment stage, though highly salt resistant at maturity (4, 29). Peanuts, on the other hand, are nonsensitive at initial stages of germination, but are highly salt-sensitive to brackish water as mature plants (35, unpublished results). It is possible to increase seed planting quantity in order to attain a higher density and more uniform plant population (Table 1), or substitute fresh water irrigation (if available) at these sah sensitive stages of plant growth. Table 1. Effect of Planting Rates on Seedling Establishment of Crops Sprinkle-Irrigated with Fresh or Brackish Water (27) PLANTING RATE ONIONS 1.0 CARROTS ALFALFA ECw mmho cm"^ 4.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 4.0 number of seedlings m'^ 100* 130 200 17* 23 33 14 19 28 83* 56 126 72 198 120 29* 39 51 24 34 36 *Acceptable field practice in Israel. Although there is general agreement as to the relative salt resistance of various crops (4, 22, 27, 44), information on the influence of salinity on growth is scattered and difficult to evaluate (9). Salt tolerance tests should be carried out within an ecologically discrete area in order to have the greatest validity. The USDA SaUnity Laboratory, Riverside, California, has prepared a reevaluation of salt tolerance literature covering the last 80 years. C. Leaching Control Criteria When more water is applied than the plant requires, the extra water moves the salts past the root zone. This is known as leaching (22, 25, 28, 31, 33, 44) and is more efficient under unsaturated flow conditions (26). Proper leaching and drainage management prevents salts from building up in the root zones of plants. The effectiveness of leaching is determined by irrigation frequency, amount of water in each application, and specific irrigation methods. Surface flooding, sprinkler, and trickle/ drip irrigation have different effects on salt accumulation and soil salinity distribution. Control of soil salinity by leaching, therefore, is a function of the irrigation management system (7,32,46). in. IRRIGATION SYSTEMS USED WITH BRACKISH WATER A. Surface Methods Surface flooding methods are used in the traditional irrigation systems existent in 95 percent of the irrigated lands of arid regions (12, 13). These techniques are the easiest to operate and have lower initial capital costs than sprinkler or trickle/drip methods, even though they have certain inherent weaknesses for utilization of brackish water. (1) Flooding Surface flooding requires land leveling. This destruction of the physical structure of the soil surface decreases leaching efficiency. Distribution of the water is uneven, requiring more water per unit area, with constant vigilance of the surface coverage. Irrigation efficiencies are low, only 55-70 percent (37). In sandy soils, surface irrigation is very inefficient. More water is required per irrigation for leaching. On the other hand, a surplus of water may cause waterlogging and increased soil salinity. (2) Furrow Irrigation Furrows are used for the irrigation of row crops on gently sloping lands. However, there is more soil erosion with this method. The salt content of the soil will vary from place to place with brackish water furrow irrigation, with the greatest salt concentration being in the center of the bed near the surface. Accumulation of salts on the surface affects germination (16, 32). For highly brackish waters (>5000 ppm) the furrow method is less satisfactory. B. Sprinkler Irrigation There is a clear superiority of sprinkler irrigation over surface irrigation (12, 13, 37, 45, 46) in brackish water management. Irrigation efficiencies are higher (60-80 percent) than with surface irrigation methods. Watering can be controlled in time and intensity simply by choosing the right combination of sprinklers, nozzle size, line pressure, and spacing of sprinklers (Fig. 2). Sprinkler irrigation is comparatively more efficient for leaching salts in the soil (16, 46). By regulating sprinkling at a rate below the maximum infiUration capacity of the soil, the water content of the soil profile is controlled. Because of slower profile wetting, the zone of leached salts is extended deeper into the soil profile than with surface irrigation. Intermittent leaching has been found to be more efficient in salt removal per unit water applied (26). Table 2. Yields of Crops Sprinkle-Irrigated with Either Fresh or Brackish Water in the Negev Area ( 8 , 1 3 , 2 7 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 3 ) CROP ECw mmho cm"l 1.0 REMARKS 4.0 —yield, tons ha-1 Cotton Fig. 2. Demonstration of sprinkler equipment. Wheat Sorghum Sugar beets Forages Bermudagrass Rhodes grass Peas (canning) Onions Sweet corn Muskmelon Tomatoes The many existent types of sprinkler systems [portable, semi-permanent, and permanent (solid-set) installations] can be adapted to most crops. In Israel, a variety of crops have been grown successfully using brackish water (Table 2, Figs. 1-2). As with all irrigation systems, sprinkler irrigation also has its disadvantages, but to a great extent, these can be overcome by proper management (19,47). The small droplets of sprinkler spray are more subject to evaporation and wind drift, the latter causing a distortion of water application pattern (19). The resultant decrease in leaching efficiency can be particularly harmful when using brackish water. This can be partially overcome by irrigating at night (33). Large droplets can cause damage to salt-sensitive emerging plants and increase crusting of the soil surface. The impact of energy of the drops tends to destroy the aggregates at the soil surface causing particle dislodgement and soil splash (Fig. 3). — VF145 F5 Meacheast 22 VF198 NapoU a. b. c. d. e. 4.25 5.40 4.74 5.20d 6.70 6.70 10.0 8.40 80 60 seed cotton (2 locations) grain grain taproot — 33 21.oa 33 18.5 17.2 34 26 6.36 17C — 24 dry weight dry weight green pods bulb 78.0b 72.0 78.5 86.5 108 31.0® 38.8 57.1 49.1 73.5 table processing processing processing processing varieties varieties varieties varieties average for State of Israel water £ 0 ^ = 1.2 water ECyy = 0.4 water ECw = 4.6 water EC^y =3.6 The NaCl of brackish waters intensifies this effect. The plant establishment problems of salt tolerant crops (45) may also be due to this effect. Large droplet size can be controlled by decreasing nozzle diameter or increasing water pressure (19). Overhead sprinkler irrigation with brackish water must be avoided during daytime windy and dry hours. The process of mineral uptake of leaves is intensified when brackish water is Fig. 3. Soil splash damage of onion seedlings. Right: Heavy soil splash showing leaf tip damage before brushing. Left: After brushing off soil particles. applied by sprinkling (2, 40). Accumulation of salts, especially chlorides, on the leaves causes leaf burn and defoliation. By irrigating at night, the dangers of foHar salt adsorption are decreased (32). C. Trickle/Drip Irrigation Development of trickle/drip irrigation methods has introduced a new and exciting innovation for management of brackish water (2, 5, 6, 8 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 7 , 23). The common use of tricklers has grown rapidly in recent years with 29,000 ha being irrigated in the U.S. and another 29,000 ha in other areas of the world. This amount will more than double in five years. Trickle/drip irrigation has been found to be particularly suitable where land is difficult to level and where sandy soils predominate. In Israel, a variety of crops which have been considered too sensitive to brackish water irrigation have been grown efficiently and economically with tricklers (Table 3). Table 3. Yields of Crops Trickle/Drip-Irrigated with Brackish Water (EC^ = 4) in the Negev (8,13, 27) CROPS YIELDS tons ha'l Tomatoes Muskmelons Watermelons Cucumbers Sweet Corn Onions Eggplant 80-113 23-48 23-62 25-42 12a 50 35 a. Water ECw = 4.5 Trickle/drip irrigation gives greater water control. The system consists of plastic pipes (hoses) placed on the surface amongst the plants (the preferred method), or under the soil. The water is delivered in the pipes under low pressure where the water enters drippers (emitters), which reduces the line water pressure and is discharged as drops at a controlled rate (Fig. 4). Success of the surface approach is due to the formation of a low salt zone in the vicinity of the trickier where most of the roots tend to cluster (5, 33). The dripper is placed directly on the soil surface so that the area across which infiltration takes place is small compared with the total soil surface. Salts from the irrigation water are concentrated in a shallow surface layer (from evaporation) and in a deep layer with a leached zone between them. The result can be described as three-dimensional water flow as opposed to the one-dimensional flow of flood and sprinkler and two-dimensional of furrow irrigation. In drip irrigation, deUvery of the leaching water to the actual root zone is therefore more efficient than in either surface flooding or sprinkler irrigation. Furthermore, soil moisture in the immediate root zone is continuously high, maintaining a low salt concentration level. Like the other irrigation methods, trickle/drip systems also have inherent technical weaknesses which limit their usefulness (6, 13, 15, 23). Experience has shovm that these methods require more careful management than surface flooding or sprinkler irrigation. More skill is needed in design, installation and operation. Major problems are encountered with plugged drippers (emitters), rodent and bird damage, and fluctuating water pressure. There can be a buildup of accumulated salts in the regions between tricklers, where there is a predominantly upward water flow near the soil surface. This salt accumulation affects germination and establishment of plants in the regions between tricklers (16). Even though trickle/drip irrigation methods have contributed to the success of growdng salt-sensitive crops with brackish water, development of these methods lags behind that of others discussed (23). However, systems are being developed that should be more efficient and economical for a broadening variety of crops. IV. IMPROVING AND OPTIMIZING SOIl^ PLANT-FERTILIZER AGROTECHNICS New management concepts have become available for the control of soil water and salinity (6, 7, 18, 23, 25, 26, 28, 33, 46). A. Salinity Measurement Techniques Fig. 4. Trickle (dripper) emitter on onion seedlings. Practical methods are being developed that can provide immediate on-the-spot soil salinity information. One method estimates in situ soil salinity (ECe) with a 4-electrode conductivity probe (14). The information can be used by the farmer to plan a proper irrigation-leaching schedule which will minimize development of adverse root zone salinity levels. Salinity sensors and tensiometers can be utilized for continuous monitoring of soil water and soil salinity (25). This could provide in situ feedback information for automatic control of soil water and salinity within the root zone. However, salinity sensors and tensiometers are at present subject to control levels and appropriate depth placement restraints. B. High Frequency Irrigation (HFI) We can now apply water at a low enough flow rate so that the infiltration rate is controlled by the irrigation system rather than by the soil. By using frequent Ught appUcations of water, the irrigator no longer depends on storage of soil water to supply water demand of the crop between irrigations. High frequency irrigation (HFI) optimizes the water and salt balance in the root zone while drastically reducing water use (6, 7, 28, 46). This technique maintains high water content in the root zone and at the same time prevents excessive drainage. More frequent irrigations raise the time average of the soil water content even with leaching, thus assuring the average actual salt concentration and water suction to be lower. HFI salinity control will in turn modify crop response to the salt concentration of the irrigation water. Systems meeting requirements for HFI range from solid-set or travelling sprinkler to trickier/drip systems (28, 46). A hazard of HFI sprinkling with saline water is that it can cause damage to leaf tissue and reduce yields (1). This of course is not a problem in trickle/drip irrigation. plant canopy. This would decrease the danger of foliar absorption of salts already mentioned in sprinkler irrigation. The salinity sensors and tensiometers discussed under measurement techniques can be incorporated in automatic systems. D. Optimizing Chemical Fertilization Agrotechnics for leaching accumulated salts must be integrated with fertilizer programs (44). The leaching required when using moderately saline water also removes nutrients from the soil especially nitrates (10, 16). This requires higher fertilizer inputs with modern irrigation systems. Tomatoes fertilized daily with nitrogen have larger and stronger seedlings (Table 4, Fig. 6). In the Arava of Israel, 2 kg ha'^ of nitrogen fertilizer is applied daily to tomatoes irrigated with brackish water. The results vindicated the high fertilizer input in trickle/drip irrigation systems. Table 4. Effect of Nitrogen Fertilization on Tomato Seedlings Trickle/Drip Irrigated with Fresh or Brackish Water in a Sandy Loessial Soil (10) C. Automatic Irrigation Control Systems Changes in salinity control management require more precise control of large irrigation systems. The appUcation of automatics and electronics to irrigation is essential if resources of brackish water are to be optimally exploited (8, .13, 46). Since most brackish irrigation should be done at night, water losses have to be prevented by automatic detection of line leakage and breakage. Automatic water meters for quantity and flow control can be used to regulate brackish water delivery by amount rather than time (Fig. 5). This is particularly important in HFI. By utiUzing several valves, it is possible to operate Unes sequentially. Each line receives the amount of water necessary for leaching, which is calculated on the basis of updated records. DAYS AFTER PLANTING CONTROL KNO3 NH4NO3 , mmho cm" 1.0 4.0 11 78 462 9 48 250 1.0 4.0 1.0 4.0 dry weight, mg plant" 17 26 35 29 164 808 29 135 628 57 307 1,515 34 208 952 Fig. 6. Applying nitrogen fertilizer via trickle irrigation system to tomatoes. Fig. 5. Automatic water meters for quantity and flow control. If at least a small amount of fresh water is available, a network of lines can be designed to deliver alternately fresh and brackish water for the purpose of briefly washing the Fertihzer programs can be formulated to 1) alleviate nutrient imbalances, 2) counterbalance specific salt toxicities, or 3) increase the total salt tolerance level of particular plant species (44). Automated irrigation systems create new opportunities and strategies for placement and timely application of nutrients in combination with brackish water leaching management. E. Selection and Genetic Potential Selection of crop varieties should be made in accordance with local conditions. For example, it is k n o w n that vegetables generally do not have high salt resistance, but in recent experiments in the Negev o f Israel, out of seven varieties o f processing tomatoes, 2-3 varieties show a commercial potential with irrigation water o f ECy, = 4 , although there was a reduction in yield (Table 2). In a greenhouse experiment with grain sorghum, forty-eight cultivars were found to differ widely in their ability t o germinate and grow as seedlings under high-salt conditions (36). A Mexican wheat variety has been found that has 2-4 times greater salt resistance than three other wheat varieties ( 3 8 ) . Efforts must be increased t o look for those species and genotypes adapted t o higher levels of salinity. Plant breeders have k n o w n for some time that certain crops are more salt tolerant than others. However, virtually n o attempts have been made t o exploit the genetic potential o f desirable plant components. Brackish water may increase desirable plant components and improve the market and storage quality o f vegetable crops ( 2 0 ) . V . FIELD INDICATORS FOR IRRIGATION N E E D S Growers must be o n the alert for the macrophysiological responses of plants t o water-salinity stresses (3). A f e w indicators are: changes in leaf color, where leaves of stressed plants b e c o m e darker; changes in plant movement or elongation, where leaves curl or change their angle o f orientation; and leaf temperature, where stressed plants feel warmer to the touch. Commercial instrumentation to monitor macrophysiological stress changes in plants under field conditions is still far f r o m practical development. VI. CONCLUSION Modern research has not only contributed to an understanding of the dangers and shortcomings o f brackish water irrigation, but has also provided the farmer with modern technological means for overcoming them. Looking ahead, research developments indicate that w e are o n the verge o f significant management improvements leading t o a viable arid lands agriculture based o n brackish water irrigation. NOTE: My deepest thanks and appreciation go to Ms. Yaffa Glassman, Director, Documentation and Information Unit, R&D Authority, BenGurion University of the Negev, whose assistance and encouragement in the preparation of this paper was more valuable than this mere acknowledgment can convey. LITERATURE CITED 1. Bernstein, L. (1967). Quantitative assessment of irrigation water quality. American Society for Testing Materials, National Meeting on Water Quality Criteria, 1st, Philadelphia, 1966. ASTM Special Technical Publication 416:51. 2. and E.E. Francois (1975). Effects of frequency of sprinkling with saline waters compared with daily drip irrigation. Agronomy Journal 67:185-190. 3. Bielorai, H. (1973). Prediction of irrigation needs. In B. Yaron, E. Danfors, and Y. Vaadia, eds., Arid zone irrigation, p. 359-368. Springer-Verlag, New York, Ecological Studies, 5. 434 p. 4. Branson, R.L., P.P. Pratt, J.D. Rhoades, and J.D. Oster (1975). Water quality in irrigated watersheds. Journal of Environmental Quality 4:33-40. 5. Bresler, E. (1972). Control of soil salinity. In D. Hillel, ed., Optimizing the soil physical environment toward greater crop yields, p. 101-132. Academic Press. 6. (1975). Two-dimensional transport of solutes during nonsteady infiltration from a trickle source. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 39:604-613. 7. (1975). Trickle drip hrigation: Principles and application to water management in tropical soils. Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., Agronomy Department, Agronomy Mimeo 75-14. 81 p. 8. Bustanay, M. (1974). 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Halvorson, A.D., and J.D. Rhoades (1974). Assessing soil salinity and identifying potential saline-deep areas with field soil resistance measurements. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 38:576-581. 15. Heller, J., and E. Bresler (1973). Trickle irrigation. In B. Yaron, E. Danfors, and Y. Vaadia, eds., Arid zone irrigation, p. 339-351. Springer-Verlag, New York, Ecological Studies, 5. 434 p. 16. Hummadi, K.B., D.D. Fangmeier, T.C. Tucker (1975). Soluble salts and nitrate distribution in irrigated lettuce beds. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Transactions 18:686-689. 17. International Drip Irrigation Congress, 2d, San Diego, California, July 7-14, 1974. Proceedings. 569 p. 18. Karmeli, D., and G. Peri (1974). Basic principles of pulse irrigation. American Society of Civil Engineers, Division of Irrigation and Drainage, Journal 100(IR3):309-319. 19. Kohl, R.A. (1974). Drop size distribution from medium sized agricultural sprinklers. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Transactions 17:690-693. 20. Levitt, J., and M. Twersky (1976). Benefits of brackish water stresses to crop production. In A. Issar, ed.. Brackish water as a factor in development. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel, Institute for Desert Research. 21. Lunin, J. (1967). Water for supplemental irrigation. American Society for Testing Materials, National Meeting on Water Quality Criteria, 1st, Philadelphia, 1966. ASTM Special Technical Publication 416:66. 22. Meiri, A., and J. Shalhevet (1973). Crop growth under saline conditions. In B. Yaron, E. Danfors, and Y. Vaadia, eds., Arid zone irrigation, p. 277-289. Springer-Verlag, New York, Ecological Studies, 5. 434p. 23. National Academy of Sciences (1974). More water for arid lands. Promising technologies and research opportunities, p. 38-44, 97-110. Washington, D.C.. 153 p. 24 . 25. 26 . 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33 . 34 . 35 . 36. and National Academy of Engineering (1972). Watei quality criteria, p. 323-353. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (EPA-R3-73-033). Oster, J.D., L.S. Willardson, J. van Schilfgaarde, and J.O. Goertzen (1976). Irrigation control using tensiometers and salinity sensors. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Transactions 19:294-298. , , and G.J. Hoffman (1973). Sprinkling and ponding techniques for reclaiming saline soils. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Transactions 16:89-91. Pasternak, D., M. Twersky, and Y. de Malach (1975). Irrigation experiments with brackish water 1974/75. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beet Sheva, Israel, Research & Development Authority, Report BGUN-RDA-54-75. Rawlins, S.L., and P.A.C. Raats (1975). Prospects for high frequency irrigation. Science 188:604-610. Reiniger, P., J. Shalhevet, E. Mor, and R. Levy (1964). Irrigation of field crops in the western Negev with saline water, 1959-1962. Volcani Institute of Agricultural Research, Special Bulletin 70 (in Hebrew). Rhoades, J.D. (1972). Quality of water for irrigation. Soil Science 113:277-284. Shelhevet, J. (1970). The use of saline water for irrigation. In World Congress of Engineers and Architects, 2d, Jerusalem/ Tel-Aviv, 1970, Papers: Dialogue in Development, vol. 1, p. 437-442. (1973). Irrigation with saline water. In B. Yaron, E. Danfors, and Y. Vaadia, eds., ~Arid zone irrigation, p. 263-276. SpringerVerlag, New York, Ecological Studies, 5. 434 p. (1975). Aspects of soil salinity and sodicity in relation to irrigation and reclamation. In Ecological research on development of arid zones (Meditenanean deserts) with winter precipitation. Symposium Israel-France, 1974, Bet-Dagan, Israel, Centre Volcani, Organisation de la Recherche Agronomique, Publication Speciale 39, p. 117-140. and J. Kamburov (1976). Irrigation and salinity, a worldwide survey. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi, India. 106 p. , P. Reiniger, and D. Shimshi (1969). Peanut response to uniform and nonuniform salinity. Agronomy Journal 61:384-387. Taylor, R.M., E.F. Young Jr., and R.L. Rivera (1975). Salt tolerance in cultivars of grain sorghum. Crop Science 15:734-735. 37. Todd, D.K., ed. (1970). The water encyclopedia, a compendium of useful information on water resources. Port Washington, N.Y., Water Information Center. 559 p. 38. Torres, B.D., and F.T. Bingham (1973). Salt tolerance of Mexican wheat. 1: Effect of NO3 and NaQ on mineral nutrition, growth and grain production of four wheats. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings 37:711-715. 39. Twersky, M. (1971). Factors of chemical fertilization in saline irrigation: A review. Negev Institute for Arid Zone Research, Beer Sheva, Israel. 35 p. 40 . and F. Felhendler (1973). Effect of water quality on relationships between catonic species and leaf lipids at two different development stages in cotton. Physiologia Plantaium 29:396-401. 41 . and D. Pasternak (1972). UtUization of saline water for irrigation of salt tolerant crops. Negev Institute for Arid Zone Research, Beer Sheva, Israel, Report for year 1971/72, p. 61-62. 42 . , , and I. Borovic (1976). Effect of brackish water irrigation on yield and development of cotton. In A. Issar, ed., Brackish water as a factor in development. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel, Institute for Desert Research. 43 . , , Y. de Malach, and I. Borovic (1974). Irrigation of agricultural crops with brackish water. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel, Research & Development Authority, Scientific Activities 1973/74, p. 36-37. 44. UNESCO/FAO (1973). Irrigation, drainage and salinity: An international source book. N.Y., Hutchinson Co., Ltd. 510 p. 45. UNESCO/UNDP (1970). Tunisia: Research and training on irrigation with saline water, 1962-1969. Tech. Rtp./UNESCO/ UNDP(SF) TUN 5. 256 p.+. 46. van Schilfgaarde, J., L. Bernstein, J.D. Rhoades, and S.L. Rawlins (1974). Irrigation management for salt control. American Society of Civil Engineers, Irrigation and Drainage Division, Journal 100(IR3):321-338. 47. Willardson, L.S., B.L. Ertsgaard, C.F. EhUg, and A.J. MacKenzie (1974). H^h rate sprinkling of a low intake soil. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Transactions 17:280-281. 48. Yaron, B. (1973). Water suitability for irrigation. In B. Yaron, E. Danfors, and Y. Vaadia, eds.. Arid zone irrigation, p. 71-85. Springer-Verlag, New York, Ecological Studies, 5. 434 p. AAAS COMMITTEE ON ARID LANDS Directory of North American Arid Lands Scientists The A A A S Committee o n Arid Lands is preparing a directory of North American (including Mexican) scientists active in arid lands research, including geology and geography, biological sciences, anthropology, social and e c o n o m i c sciences, engineering, medical sciences, agriculture, atmospheric and hydrospheric sciences, and other related sciences. The directory will be on computer tape at the University o f Arizona's Office o f Arid Lands Studies, with continuous updating. If y o u have n o t already seen the announcement in a recent issue of Science, send your entry to either Dr. Gordon L. Bender, Department o f Zoology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 8 5 2 8 1 , or to Patricia Paylore, Office o f Arid Lands Studies, University o f Arizona, 8 4 5 North Park Avenue, Tucson, Arizona 8 5 7 1 9 . We need to k n o w your title, professional address, specific arid lands interests, b o t h geographical and subject. A computer-produced publication is anticipated in time for the United Nations Environment Programme's Desertification Conference in the late summer o f 1977. INFORMATION WORKSHOP IN GHANA by Mary Michael* At the request of Ghana's Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), the University of Arizona ^sent an information team to Accra for a two-week workshop in late February 1976, on goals of information management, document acquisition and processing, and information retrieval and dissemination. Techniques presented were those used by the University of Arizona-based Arid Lands Information System (ALIS) and its sub-system Mary Michael (WAMIS), with emphasis on arid — Julie Garrettson (1976) lands information, including the computerized documentation comprising the Tucson-stored data base. Other members of the team were Nancy Ferguson, Office of Arid Lands Studies Research Associate, and Linda White, Information Systems Specialist, Center for Quantitative Study. The workshop was one of a series of activities defined by the linkage between the University of Arizona and the CSIR under the auspices of the University's Natural Resources 211(d) Program. The primary objective of the workshop was to present information management techniques to facilitate identification, storage and retrieval of scientific literature pertinent to land and resource management in the semi-arid savannah area in the Upper Region of Ghana. Expanding on this objective, course work was designed so that it would be of value to all information personnel interested in methods for the operation and maintenance of a topically specific hterature collection. The broad scope of interests reflected by attendees of the workshop included not only library management of natural resources information, but a variety of disciplines in both the physical and social sciences as well. The text used for the workshop, A Handbook for Implementation and Maintenance of a Manually Operated Information Storage and Retrieval System, was prepared by the University of Arizona workshop team specifically for use at this workshop, and is based on the program developed by ALIS/WAMIS for the identification, acquisition, processing, and use of its respective users. The distinction between bibliographical information prepared for storage, with or without abstracts, and the actual handling of documentation for use in the library sense, was part of the instruction. The fifty workshop attendees included representatives from several of the CSIR Branch Institutes throughout Ghana, students from undergraduate and graduate programs from the University of Ghana Department of Library and Archival Studies, as well as from other Departments of the University; the Ghana Library Board, the Ghana National Museum, the Atomic Energy Commission, the National Development Bank, the Ghana News Agency, the Department of Civil Aviation, and the Association of African Universities. In addition to presenting basic techniques for management, storage and retrieval of information in the special collection, the workshop brought together special librarians from throughout the country and provided an opportunity to share common goals, problems and solutions. Following the workshop, two of the team members, Ferguson and Michael, made various contacts with existing information systems in Upper Volta, particularly the Comité Inter-Africain d'Etudes Hydrauliques, Ouagadougou; and in Senegal, with the Organisation pour la Mise en Valeur du Fleuve Senegal, Saint Louis. •Coordinator of Information Systems, Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, and Team Leader, Ghana Information Workshop 1976. Editorial VIVA LA CUCARACHA! To be an animal is to be capable of ingenuity and of joy; of achieving beauty and of demonstrating affection. These are surely not small things, though there is danger that we are forgetting how far from small they are. They are godlike attributes whether or not there is anything else godlike in the universe. To be alive at all, even if only as an amoeba is alive, is to be endowed with characteristics possibly unique and certainly exceptional throughout that vast expanse of space which extends for billions of light years beyond us, farther than telescopes—and much farther than thought—can reach. Joseph Wood Krutch The Great Chain of Life Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, ©1957 Historically, man has been ambivalent in his relationships with animals. He has worshipped them, feared them, domesticated them, used and abused them, and now he is in a fair way to exterminating them. It is somewhat of a tangled web in which desert-dwelling man has entrapped himself, needing animals as those in more temperate environments may not, to survive, as a source of food, to pull his plow, to turn his water wheel, to transport him and his household from place to place as he follows the seasons. With none of these needs do we find a conflict between our role as sentient beings and the uses we make of other sentient creatures. We justify the necessity to slaughter, shoot, club, harpoon, and in all other ways our imagination can devise to kill, because as human beings, we believe we need to eat meat to survive, miUions of vegetarians - willing or unwilling - notwithstanding. We see nothing wrong, wicked, evil, or immoral in raising animals to satisfy this hunger. We do this deliberately, expertly, scientifically, whether we Uve in Arizona or in Kenya. Animals aUve are the index of many men's status in desert societies, or elsewhere for that matter. We equate a nomad's wealth with the number of camels he owns. [What manifestations of this status will be substituted when he is sedentarized?] We build our drought reUef programs around the need to replace the desert pastoralist's decimated herd. [Do we help him understand the limitations of the drought-ravaged rangeland, when it is rehabiHtated, so that its carrying capacity will be in balance with his animal assets?] Well, let us not concern ourselves with these nagging problems. Others are worrying about such matters, great international organizations are assembling and preparing position papers to deal with these issues, and generous single governments are fielding expert teams to advise and assist. So let us think about those other animals, the wildhfe supposedly under no man's control. Well, who needs them? Take the kids to the zoo and let them see there the coyote, the Gila monster, the buffalo, the ferret — sorry about the carrier pigeon; or the oryx and the addax and the dama gazelle, far from the desert homeland in the Sudan where they are no longer to be seen in the wild. Who cares? Certainly not the greedy poacher who defies with impunity the feeble laws that do exist some places on paper. Certainly not the evil owner of that wretched U.S. roadside display of animals confined under unbelievable conditions of filth, hunger, thirst, and abuse. Certainly not those Texans celebrating their rattlesnake hunts. Certainly not the western sheepman who cries piteously when a coyote kills a lamb but who cheerfully sends thousands of lambs, if he has had a good year, to the slaughterhouse. Who cares? Jeremy Swift cares, when he writes: " . . . It seems that the addax, a beautiful animal whose presence extends the boundaries of the habitable world into the heart of the world's harshest desert, is too exceptional an animal to be allowed to live, even in the deserted dunes for which it alone has been prepared by thousands of years of evolutionary hardship." {The Sahara, Time-Life International, ©1975, p. 108.) And we'll tell you who else cares: the mighty hunters of the world who kill pour le sport, killing for killing's sake, those rich potentates who do their hunting from the air, like gods, from helicopters and low-flying aircraft, guns blazing as they race the impalas across the desert landscape. Is it possible that such human beings — and I use the word human advisedly — can indulge in the exquisitely cruel and senseless ways that he now commands as his authority over the world's diminishing wildlife, and not in the indulgence thereof be diminished himself? We think not. And can governments which continue to issue Ucenses to big game hunters, themselves willing victims of professional hunting firms, when all the evidence already in dictates that the species for which the hcense is issued will soon be extinct - can such governments command the respect of the world community? Can the insignificant income from such activities really mean the difference between survival of a country and non-survival? We think not. Has the technological cruelty that we have cleverly invented protect any of us from the extinction that we have brought about for our fellow creatures? When the deserts' wildhfe is gone — pour le sport, or indeed for food — will the deserts be more useful for man's needs, much less his enjoyment? We think not. In the twentieth century, our increasing contempt for life, initiated by our overwhelming capacity to destroy hfe, is bringing closer the day when our world will be despoiled and plundered irrevocably. Today the impala, tomorrow the desert world's wretched humans. What difference? So we say angrily and bitterly, without apology, viva la cucaracha! - Patricia Pay lore MAN'S PAST AND FUTURE IN ARID LANDS: AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE by Theodore E. Downing' Farming, the second preindustrial adaptive strategy, primarily refers to the irrigation of floodplains in arid zones using surface waters. This adaptation increased man's affluence and allowed him a more sedentary life. Preindustrial irrigation has not been without difficulties, however, as salinity problems and waterlogging have helped lead several great civilizations into extinction in both the Old and New Worlds.'* These early arid land civiUzations also faced an additional difficulty: the provision of fuel sources for the increased demands of pottery and metal work that accompanied the sedentary life made possible by irrigated agriculture. MohenjoDaro, an ancient city in southwestern Asia, found its immediate hinterlands increasingly deforested as demands for high-temperature kindling increased with the complexities of human material wants.® Once one of the world's most advanced civilized cities, today it is an archaeological ruin. In the short run, man may reclaim the desert, but in the long run man himself is outdone. To grow or not to grow? To encourage or discourage industrialization? To support large-scale irrigation projects or not? These and similar questions are crucial issues currently facing the citizens of arid lands not only in the United States but also in the Middle East and subSahara Africa. Because the gravity of these issues demands that scientists and policy makers keep their field of vision as clear as possible, perhaps an anthropological outlook can assist in placing contemporary issues in the longer time perspective of man's different adaptations to arid conditions. ^ , . Theodore E. Downing —HelgaTeiwes (1976) Two factors appear to have held these early adaptations in check: a low transport efficiency (high cost to move goods) and low storage efficiency (high cost to store products). Both factors restrained the extent of man's search for food and energy to a limited range. This meant that preindustrial adaptations captured httle energy outside their immediate surroundings and depended primarily on long distance trade in luxury goods. Arid zones in the preindustrial period, from the perspective of energy exchange, were (and a few still are) closed systems. Early Adaptations Food collecting has been man's most stable adaptation to arid lands. Either directly through human efforts, or indirectly through the use of animals, man has been a food collector, since over 90 percent of the several billion humans who have lived on this earth since the dawn of man have been hunters, herders, or food collectors.^ More recently, that is within the past few thousand years, the agricultural revolutions forced the few remaining food collectors into the most marginal arid and tropical lands. Early anthropologists propagated the misimpression that these marginal peoples eke out their subsistence in a constant struggle for food. We were wrong. New evidence reveals that even with marginal environments, contemporary food collectors have considerable leisure.^ It has been found that primitive food collectors provide for all their subsistence needs working less than four hours a day! This primitive affluence is restricted by several conditions including a low standard of living, constant exposure to the elements, limited human wants, and an exceedingly low population density. Moreover, it requires constant moving from one area to another as the renewable resources are temporarily exhausted. Industrial Adaptations Industrialization was a temperate zone revolution requiring vast quantities of raw materials and energy. Its impact on arid lands was delayed for at least a century while energy was being tapped within the immediate hinterlands of industriaUzed regions. Transport and storage efficiency and the demand for arid zone energy sources were still too low to make their exploitation profitable. These inefficiencies and demands quickly changed with the invention of the railroad and intemal combustion engine. As resources near the great industrial centers of Westem Europe and the United States became limited and expensive, the expanding industrial areas stretched 1. Research Specialist, Bureau of Ethnic Research, and Assistant Professor of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson. 2. Lee, R.B., and I. DeVore, eds. (1968). Symposium on Man the Hunter, University of Chicago, 1966. Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago. 415 p. 3. Lee, R.B. (1968). What hunters do for a living, or. How to make out on scarce resources. Op. cit, p. 30-48. Woodbury, J. (1968). An introduction to Hadza ecology. Op. cit., p. 49-55. Sahlins, M.D. (1972). Stone Age economics. Aldine-Atherton, Chicago. 348 p. 4. See articles by R. Adams, S. Neely, M. Gibson, and B. Spooner (1974) in T.E. Downing and M. Gibson, eds.. Irrigation's impact on society. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Anthropological Papers, No. 25. 181 p. 5. Whyte, R.O. (1961). Evolution of land use in south-Western Asia. In L. Dudley Stamp, ed., A history of land use in arid regions. UNESCO, Paris, Arid Zone Research 17:57-118. 10 giant umbilical cords-rails, highways, and pipelines-into arid zones. The age of extraction began. The extraction adaption consisted of transferring energy, resources, and materials from arid zones to temperate areas for industrial use. This adaptation produced social patterns distinct from the preindustrial adaptations of food collecting and irrigated agriculture. A new type of society emerged, the one-company town, primarily based on the exploitation of mineral deposits, and characterized by a single company which controls most of the social, economic, and political power in those settlements heavily dependent on an extractive economy. The company's powers might include control of banking, transportation, schools, churches, libraries, health care, and commercial stores. In the United States, this economic dependency led Dr. Courtney Cleland to observe that "southwestern man meshes with the national economy of abundance, not with the regional economy of aridity."® In nations whose territory was confined entirely to arid zones, this economic dependency has led to economic, social, and sometimes political intervention by nonarid powers into the arid nation's internal affairs. The belief in the possibility of self-sufficient adaptation for all arid lands was strengthened by a handful of success stories: the southwestern United States, Israel, and Kuwait. These cases, however, were oddities brought about by an enormous influx of capital generated either in nonarid sectors within the country, or resulting from a favorable balance of payments whose ultimate sources were the extractive industries. Following the second World War, the optimism for self-sufficiency was further stimulated by the emergence of an international community of scientists and engineers interested in arid lands development. More than one arid lands scientist has felt that the arid zones have begun to "shake off the shackles of the extractive economy." The lesson from the past, however, suggests that an epitaph for extractive adaptation to arid zones may be premature. This lesson has been that the social future of arid lands is heavily dependent on outside factors. Discovering the future social and economic patterns of arid zones should begin with a consideration of what future demands placed on them by the rest of the world will be. Other social patterns are common to the extractive phase, including short-lived boom towns, highly mobile populations, and the destruction or marginalization of native peoples who previously inhabited the regions. In sectors of arid zones suitable for large scale irrigation, heavy capital outlays have brought the development of a new style of irrigation farming based on large scale farms employing seasonal labor. The tapping of groundwater resources has permitted an earlier subtype of food collection adaptation, nomadic herding, to increase to levels adequate to make vegetation rather than water the key Hmiting resource on herd size. Intra-zonal energy demands increased greatly, but most of the flow of resources and energy was for export to nonarid lands. Arid zones acquired a reputation for being lands of hidden wealth. As Antione de Saint Exupery's infamous Little Prince suggests, "What makes the desert beautiful... is that somewhere it hides a well." Man's demands on arid lands were strongly influenced by a perspective and ideals based upon temperate zone experiences, including what constituted a "good" society for arid lands. Under this moral scheme, the instability of settlement and the sensitivity of intra-arid developments to extra-arid zones were considered the antithesis of a good society. The ideal was expressed by desires for another form of social adaptation. Arid Lands in World Perspective It is becoming increasingly clear that world demands for food and nonrenewable energy will create greater and greater extractive demands on arid lands. ^ Arid lands (and humid tropical lands) will be asked not only to fee and fuel themselves, but also to assume part of the burden for the rest of the world. The future relationship between nonarid and arid powers may become one of parasitism, with arid lands being the host, rather than symbiosis some had hoped for. Above all, the exact demand for arid zone resources by the nonarid world depends on how the consumers of energy in nonarid zones solve their own technological and social problems so that they need not depend on arid zone sources. The demand will also depend on technological innovations developed by arid land scientists and engineers. Many of these future technological developments, such as low-cost solar refrigeration, transportation, and electricity, might serve only to improve the abilities of nonarid zone people to extract energy from arid regions. Such innovations may prove to be technological demons to those engineers and scientists whose goal is to improve the self-sufficiency of arid lands. On the other hand, these innovations may be viewed as blessings which drastically increase employment in the extractive industries. Whichever perspective is taken, the futures of Arizona, New Mexico, Saudi Arabia, and Libya are inexorably linked to decisions of consumers in New York, Illinois, Japan, and Germany. This new social ideal emerged, based on the philosophy of "self-sufficient adaptation." Arid man began his search for a viable, socio-political and economic organization that would be less dependent upon the instabilities inherent in an extraction-based economy. On the ground, this idealism meant building permanent settlements based upon agriculture, industry, trade, and in some cases, tourism. 6. Cleland, C. (1966). Do we need a sociology of arid regions? In J.W. Bennett, ed.. Social research in moisture-deficient regions. American Association for the Advancement-of Science, Southwestern and Rocky Mountain Division, CODAZR Contribution 9, p. 9. 7. Meadows, D.H., et al. (1972). The limits to growth. A report for the Club of Rome's project on the predicament of mankind. Universe Books, N.Y. 205 p. 11 The overall pattern seems clear. Arid lands have moved from an early condition of self-sufficiency into iacreasing dependence on nonarid regions. This trend is reversing, and now arid regions are becoming increasingly crucial to the world's future demands for food and energy. The goal of self-sufficiency for arid regions stressed by some planners and implied in technological schemes is coming into direct conflict with world demands for their energy and resources. What appears important is that each technological scheme, each innovation, and each opportunity should be carefully evaluated not only as to its ecological and economic impact on arid lands, but also as to its long range social impact on those who call an arid land home, WEST AFRICA CONFERENCE The University of Arizona, under the auspices of the Arid/Semi-Arid Natural Resources Program and the Ghanaian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), cosponsored a West Africa Conference in Tucson in April 1976, to discuss problems of natural resources development and management in the countries of West Africa, and their related social, economic, and poUtical constraints. While the Sahel region has been experiencing severe drought conditions that have disrupted traditional demographic patterns and regional economies, other countries in the semi-arid tropics have also begun to be affected. Topics discussed included historical perspectives, the use of natural resources, increasing population, agricultural practices, physical geography, and land degradation. Visitors to this conference from out of country included: K.B. ASANTE, Ghanaian Ambassador to Belgium. Albert BALIMA, Economic Counsellor to the President, Ouagadougou, Upper Volta. Albert BARON, Regional Development Officer, AID, Niamey, Niger. John BUURSINK, Project Manager, Interafrican Committee for Hydraulic Studies, Ouagadougou, Upper Volta. Neil CARPENTER, Chief of Farm Management, Agricultural Services Division, FAO-Rome. Robert DODOO, Secretary, Planning and Analysis Group, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Accra, Ghana. Kobena Gyapea ERBYNN, Department of Economics, University of Ghana, Legon/Accra. R.J. HARRISON-CHURCH, Department of Geography, London School of Economics. Samuel E. QUARM, Ghanaian Ambassador to the United States. AJN. TACKIE, Executive Chairman, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Accra. T. YAGUIBOU, Upper Voltan Ambassador to the United States. ARID LANDS RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS: A New Edition The University of Arizona is pleased to announce that the Office of Arid Lands Studies is undertaking a completely revised and énlarged edition of its 1967 directory of arid zone research institutions. Instructions are going out worldwide for submission of entries for this new version, but Arid Lands Newsletter takes this opportunity to urge all those agencies not represented in the original edition to communicate with the Office of Arid Lands Studies before December 1, 1976, to insure consideration for inclusion. 12 FOREIGN STUDENT PROFILES III: losef Weiss losef Weiss -Patricia I was remembering driving up through the Negev Desert from Eilat one winter evening, listening on our car radio to the Voice of America about our moon landings, and thinking that the surface of that "familiar" heavenly object must be very like what we were travelling through, with the geomorphology of the landscape laid bare as it must have been when the world was new. These fanciful and unscientific thoughts came Paylore (1976) ^^ j^g yg^^^ j^jg^ ^^ I sat in my office in faraway Arizona and talked with losef Weiss, a 27-year-old Israeli citizen, now in residence at the University of Arizona as a graduate student in chemical engineering. We talked about the difference between the hauntingly beautiful desert he now calls home, and our comparatively lush Sonoran Desert, with its greater vegetative cover. In my mind I have always thought the Negev corresponded more nearly to our Great Basin Desert, but Weiss reminded me that as far north as Beer-Sheva, the marginal semiarid aspect there is one I should not find strange. During his undergraduate years at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, where he obtained his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering under Professor David Wolf, he lived with his emigre Rumanian parents, which led our conversation back to "Old Town" Beer-Sheva where our mutual recollections of the most marvelous Rumanian restaurants there made us both hungry. Typical Negev landscape near Arad. Dead Sea. —Patricia Paylore (1972) —Patricia Paylore (1975) Eyn Avdat, Negev. —Patricia Paylore (1972) 13 In a more serious vein, I brought up the presence of the great Research and Development Authority associated with the Ben-Gurion University that emphasizes the commitment of the State of Israel to the development of the Negev and its resources for industrial uses. Potash from the Dead Sea Works and phosphate deposits inland are examples of those applications of desert technology for which the R&D Authority has responsibility. Committee on the Ben-Gurion University campus, helps create a situation within which the many problems in common can be reviewed in the context of faculty-student exchanges and coordinated research efforts. Weiss' Israeli mentor, David Wolf [see Visitors, this issue of the Newsletter], is chairman of the Arizona Committee, and his good offices in serving as Uaison between our institutions helped bring Weiss here for his graduate work. But not to be overlooked is the academic training at the Ben-Gurion University in such fields as chemical engineering that underwrites this development technically, and Weiss spoke gratefully of the skills imparted to him there that enabled him to slip into a tough sophisticated graduate program here such as transport phenomena, mass transfer, and thermodynamics, without missing a beat. The existence on the University of Arizona campus of the Negev Committee, together with its counterpart, the Arizona losef Weiss and his charming IsraeH wife are typical perhaps of the enormous reservoir of brainpower potential at the service of the State of Israel, and their determination to contribute to a peaceful and stable society there. The development of the Negev will depend on the knowledge and dedication of such students. We hope that this couple will remember the Sonoran Desert after their return home with the same sense of a shared environment and landscape that we remember the Negev. _ pp VISITORS PARTICIPATING IN THE DESERTIFICATION SEMINARS The University of Arizona's 211(d) Natural Resources Program conducted a 14-week series of seminars on Desertification: Process, Problems, Prescriptions, November 1975-April 1976, that took advantage of visiting and invited scholars as well as its own faculty to cover a wide-ranging look at the topic. Dr. Harold E. Dregne, Director of Texas Tech University's ICASALS, spoke on the subject as a "symptom of a crisis"; and Dr. Sherwood B. Idso, Research Physicist with the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory, Phoenix, Arizona, took up desertification from the view of the effects thereon from atmospheric dust and surface albedo. Two other visitors presented case studies: Ian Douglas, Professor of Geography, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, speaking on desertification and the salinity problem in Australia; and Dr. Harold F. Heady, Associate Dean, College of Natural Resources, University of Cahfornia, Berkeley, who described "a desert repaired" in southeastern Oregon through a successful Bureau of Land Management program of range rehabiUtation. Other authors than the visitors noted above include the University's Terah L. Smiley, William G. McGinnies, W. Gerald Matlock, Wilham B. Bull, Bernard L. Fontana, and Julian D. Hayden. All papers have been edited for publication and are Ian Douglas points out to Directoi Jack D. Johnson, Office available at $15.00 per copy from the University of Arizona's of Arid Lands Studies and Program Director of the Natural office of Arid Lands Studies, 845 North Park Avenue, Tucson, Resources Program, an area m Australia subject to desertification. - Patricia Payiore (1976) . . oc-7in t t c » t^ ui- j ^ í trsnr • Arizona 85719, USA. It carries a pubhcation date of 1976, is illustrated by numerous photographs, and runs to 125 pages. 14 NEW ARID LANDS PUBLICATIONS: A Random Selection BREAD FROM THE DESERT. 1976. Scala, special issue [English edition], p. 20-25. Popular account of engineering activities sponsored by the Federal Republic of Germany designed to create what are called artificial irrigation systems involving extensive net awnings of varying thicknesses over cultivated areas, climatized domes, and novel shade-providing tent roof designs. Dlustrations show helicopters ferrying in prefabricated components to distant deserts without adequate transportation systems. DESERTIFICATION: A WORLD BIBLIOGRAPHY. ©1976. Compiled and edited by Patricia Paylore for the International Geographical Union's 23rd Congress, Moscow, 1976. University of Arizona, Office of Arid Lands Studies, 845 North Park Ave., Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA. 644 p., paper. $21.00 US, or $25.00 for foreign orders shipped air parcel post. Consists of 1,750 citations, most with abstracts, produced from the OALS computerized Arid Lands Information System. Divided into regions covering the Sahara-Sahel, East Africa, southern Africa, the Middle East, the USSR, Pakistan, India, China, AustraUa, and South and North America, with regional introductions by world experts. Maps. Eckholm, Erik P. 1976. LOSING GROUND. ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS AND WORLD FOOD PROSPECTS. Foreword by Maurice F. Strong. Norton, N.Y., 223 p. Jointly sponsored by the United Nations Environment Programme and the Worldwatch Institute, this anguished book vividly documents the global extent of ecological stress, its political causes, and its human consequences. The author calls for massive tree-planting campaigns, agricultural reforms to benefit peasant farmers, and a slowdown in world population growth, predicting that unless there is a major shift in global political priorities, a third of mankind will become mired in hopeless destitution, a tragedy with ominous implications for world order. Global food shortages with attendant inflation will undoubtedly intensify if the undermining of foodproducing systems is not arrested. Special attention is devoted to deforestation, desert encroachment, salting/silting of irrigation systems, and the third world fuel crisis triggered by increasingly scarce firewood. Firouz, Eskandar. 1974. ENVIRONMENT IRAN. National Society for the Conservation of Natural Resources and Human Environment, Tehran. 51 p. Iran is one of the most advanced countries in the Middle East in the area of environmental protection. The author is Director of the Department of the Environment, and in this slight and charming book, beautifully illustrated with his own photographs, he states the firm determination of the country to implement an action program to recognize and protect the aquatic ecosystems, preserve habitats, manage the country's enormous arid lands through conservation, environmental engineering, and monitoring. A little recognized aspect is the bilateral arrangements made with countries with which Iran shares some of these unusual and historic preserves. Maps. Gomez-Pompa, A., and A. Butanda C., eds. 1975. INDICE DE PROYECTOS EN DESARROLLO EN ECOLOGIA TROPICAL (Index of Current Tropical Ecology Research), vol. 1. Instituto de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Bióticos, A.C., H. Colegio Militar No. 7 ó AP-63, Xalapa, Ver., México. 227 p. A directory of over 500 names of specialists in tropical ecology, including the following additional information about each: title of project, objectives, date of initiation and probable date of completion, name of institution responsible for the research, names of scientific personnel participating locally, citation of most recent contribution on the subject, and country or region where the research is being carried out. Computerized geographical index of authors, name index of authors, and two keyword indexes, English and Spanish. Goodall, David W., ed. 1976. EVOLUTION OF DESERT BIOTA. University of Texas Press, Austin & London, 250 p. Papers explore evolution of animals and plants on the deserts of North and South America and Australia, and their adaptations to these environments. Goodman, Gordon T., and Shirley A. Bray. 1975. ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE RECLAMATION OF DERELICT AND DISTURBED LAND. An Annotated Bibliography. Natural Environment Research Council, London/Geo Abstracts, Ltd., Norwich. 351 p. A bibhography of over 1,500 citations, with annotations, relating to problems of estabUshing and maintaining vegetation on derelict land in the north temperate region which has been disturbed or polluted by urban or industrial activity. Categories include coalspoil, acid mine drainage, bauxite, sand and gravel (including sand dunes), domestic refuse and sewage disposal, disused airfields, bombing ranges, canals and railways, soil erosion, and several other specific waste materials or substrates. There is an accompanying "commentary" that gives definitions, discusses the extent of damaged land, why damaged land is a problem, why derelict land is not reclaimed faster, the importance of revegetation, a survey of revegetation problems, and the physical and chemical factors inhibiting plant growth. There is a computerized subject index of kevwords-in-title, plus an author list. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Office of Information Services, Technical Information Center. 1974. SOLAR ENERGY, A Bibliography. Reprinted by ERDA. Available National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161, TID-3351. 356 p. $10.60 paper. Israel, Prime Minister's Office, Environmental Protection Service. 1975. SELECTED PAPERS ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN ISRAEL. 3 Hakirya Bldg., 3, Jerusalem. This issue includes a comprehensive listing of Israel's environmental laws, plus an article by Ralph Mitchell of the Weizmann Institute on "Environmental Deterioration in Israel." Over 3,500 citations on the economic use of solar energy in the generation of electricity and for heating and cooling of buildings. References are arranged in broad subject categories, including site geology and meteorology, economics, environmental aspects, conversion, photovoltaic powerplants, solar thermal powerplants, ocean thermal gradient powerplants, solar radiation use, and solar collectors and concentrators. Kelly, Kathleen, and R.T. Schnadelbach. ©1976. LANDSCAPING THE SAUDI ARABIAN DESERT. Delancey Press, Phüadelphia. 182 p. Includes chapters on the Saudi Arabian Desert, its water, climate, geology and topography, vegetation, and desert wildlife. Factors important for landscape design are wind, sun and heat, and water; elements organic to landscape construction are soils, irrigation, and maintenance. The extensive section on recommended plants includes under each species information on its uses, its wind resistance qualities and water requirements, with black-and-white photographs of many. The appendices include a discussion of ecological communities, and a list of more than 180 species known to have been observed growing naturally in Saudi Arabia or cultivated there long enough to have developed local strains. BibUography. Université Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg, U.E.R. de Géographie. 1975. TYPES DE CROUTES CALCAIRES ET LEUR REPARTITION REGION ALE. Comptes-Rendus du CoUoque, Strasbourg, 9-11 janvier 1975. 146 p. + 8-page bibliography laid in. 25F. Papers on structure and petrography, micromorphology and pedology, processes and genesis, and regional distribution, with examples from Israel, Morocco, Spain, Algeria, Afghanistan, and Senegal. Wehmeier, E. 1975. DIE BEWAESSERUNGOASE PHOENIX, ARIZONA. Stuttgarter Geographische Studien 89. 176 p. National Academy of Sciences. 1975. UNDEREXPLOITED TROPICAL PLANTS WITH PROMISING ECONOMIC VALUE. Available NAS Commission on International Relations (JH 215), 2101 Constitution Ave., Washington, D.C. 20418, USA. 188 p. Starting from the premise that ecological imperatives often are superseded by economic imperatives, this author develops the following ideas relating to the irrigated "oasis" of Phoenix: irrigation agriculture is the only possible form of crop production within the oasis; different methods of irrigation result solely from variabiUty of crops rather than terrain; degrees of soil salinity seem not to have had any significant impact on cultivation of specially adapted crops; the effects of intensive urbanization on the irrigated areas and on the water balance of the oasis are shown; and finally, the possibility of extensive Indian irrigation agriculture around the periphery of the oasis in future is explored as a trend of importance for increased food supplies for an expanding oasis. The 36 plants described, selected from among 400 reviewed, were chosen on the basis of several criteria: Can it be grown in the tropics? Does it have significant potential as a source of food, forage, or industrial raw material? Can it help make developing countries (or areas within them) more productive? Divisions are: cereals, roots and tubers, vegetables, fruits, oilseeds, forage. Each plant within these categories is described, its limitations and special requirements, and research contacts and germ plasm sources noted. Arid lands species include buffalo gourd, jojoba. Acacia albida, Cassia sturtii, saltbushes, and guayule. Resumes in French and Spanish. Weise, O.R. 1974. ZUR HANGENTWICKLUNG UND FLAECHENBILDUNG IM TROCKENBEBIET DES IRANISCHEN HOCHLANDES (Contributions to slope development and plain formation in the deserts of the Iranian highland). Wuerzburger Geographische Arbeiten, 42. 382 p. + portfolio of maps. River Niger Commission, Documentation Centre. 1975. INDEX OF THE RNCDC, No. 1. B.P. 933, Niamey, Niger. 273 PThe Commission is responsible for the collection, analysis, and circulation by means of this index, of documentation of use in the economic and social development of the Niger basin. Included: a bibUographical listing giving references and indexing synopsis for each document, a computer-produced analytical index (KWIC), and an author index. Available in both English and French. The 2d vol. is due later this year. Landforms in Iran may be divided into those regions with basin-and-range structure and young tectonic movements (especially high mountains with bajadas in the forefront), and those in the so-called Lut block, a relatively stable region on which extensive pediplains and desert domes are developed. In the deserts, slopes are formed chiefly by areal fluvial degradation and weathering. The erosional processes affect mountains, mountain rims, cuestas, and their surroundings equally, with the levelling plain formation from the interior of the mountains having its greatest effects. Ruiz Leal, Adrian. 1972 [received 1976]. FLORA POPULAR MENDOCINA. Special issue of Deserta, No. 3, Instituto Argentino de Investigaciones de las Zonas Aridas, Casilla de Correo 507, Mendoza, Argentina. 16 VISITORS FROM OUT OF COUNTRY February 1976 5P00NER, Brian Division of Human Environment Department of Environmental Conservation Tehran [ran July 14,1976 WOLF, Dr. David Department of Chemical Engineering Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Beer-Sheva Israel ^prÜ 1976 :>ENA, Carlos director of Coordination "National Council for Science & Technology Viexico, D.F. July 2 7 , 1 9 7 6 SCHICK, Dr. Asher P. Department of Geography Hebrew University Jerusalem Vpril 1976 'UEBLA, Manuel ^ociate Technical Director National Council for Science & Technology (iexico, D.F. August 5 , 1 9 7 6 BRAUN, Rolando H. Ingeniero Agronomo lADIZA Mendoza, Argentina day 1976 lAID, Rushdi Mrector, Geological Survey of Egypt "airo ígypt August 10,1976 DALIN, Moseph S. Head, Flood Water Utilization Department TAHAL - Water Planning for Israel, Ltd. Tel-Aviv lay 3 , 1 9 7 6 IBU-IZZEDDIN, Faisal ivestock Consultant badieh £banon August 13, 1976 AL-KUBAISI, Mohamed President Organization of Soil & Land Reclamation Baghdad Iraq une 1976 /ISNIAK, Dr. Jaime ¡en-Gurion University of the Negev teer-Sheva ¡rael August 13,1976 HANNA, Dr. Augustine B. Director General, Scientific Research State Organization of Soils & Land Reclamation Baghdad Iraq une 14,1976 HEKO, Ibrahima conomic Counsellor to the President amako laH August 17,1976 RIMAWI, Dr. Walid Chairman, Civil Engineering Department University of Kuwait Kuwait ily 6 , 1 9 7 6 ELIMIROVIC, Dr. Boris hief. Field Office US-Mexico Border Pan American Sanitary Bureau I Paso, Texas August 18,1976 Del CASTILLO DAVILA, Tito Javier Ingeniería Industrial Universidad de Guadalajara Guadalajara Mexico 17 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 1 I. Overview 2 II. H i s t o r y o f Land Use i n Arid Regions of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s 6 III. Range Resource 9 IV. Irrigated Agriculture 10 V. Mining 11 VI. Urbanization 12 VIX. Recreation 12 VIII, Phreatophyte and Other V e g e t a t i o n IX. Summary Utilization Controls 13 14 Appendix A Bibliography Appendix B A P a r t i a l L i s t o f U.S. Agency- 15 Supported A c t i v i t i e s Appendix C Associated with D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n 22 Spanish Summary 35 -i- A INTRODUCTION T h i s paper i s an attempt t o i n d i c a t e t h e e x t e n t o f t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problem i n the United S t a t e s . I t includes a h i s t o r i c a l r e v i e w o f t h e l a n d - u s e problems i n t h e a r i d and semia r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , d i s c u s s e s some o f t h e current problems and emphasizes t h e need f o r c o n c e r t e d and s e n s i b l e l a n d - u s e p l a n n i n g and management i f t h e U.S. i s t o curb i t s d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e s e m i a r i d and a r i d w e s t e r n lands and a v o i d t h e c r e a t i o n of d e s e r t s i n t h o s e a r e a s where l a n d i s b e i n g m i s used. D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s n o t a problem f o r the d e v e l o p i n g countries to tackle alone. Indeed i t i s a problem which the world must c o n f r o n t . The United S t a t e s s h a r e s t h i s problem, can o f f e r some s o l u t i o n s , and w i l l d e f i n i t e l y b e n e f i t i n t h e exchange o f i d e a s and m e t h o d o l o g i e s which w i l l be p r e s e n t e d throughout and f o l l o w i n g t h e U.N. Conference on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n t o the t e x t t h i s paper c o n t a i n s t h r e e appendices, Appendix A i s an a n n o t a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h y o f r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l , most o f which was u s e d i n the p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e t e x t , although s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s and q u o t e s are not i n c l u d e d as a p a r t o f the t e x t . Appendix B i s a p a r t i a l l i s t o f a c t i v i t i e s which t h e U.S. government i s e i t h e r c o n d u c t i n g or f u n d i n g . The l i s t c o u l d have i n cluded many o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s which are funded or conducted by t h e S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e , Bureau o f Indian A f f a i r s , Department o f Commerce, A g r i c u l t u r a l E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e , s t a t e and l o c a l governments, u n i v e r s i t i e s or o t h e r p u b l i c or p r i v a t e i n s t i t u i t i o n s conducting research. To be a l l i n c l u s i v e would r e q u i r e more time than was a v a i l a b l e , but Appendix B i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f U.S. a c t i v i t i e s and i n t e r e s t i n d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . Appendix C i s a summary o f t h i s paper i n Spanish. -1- DESERTIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES By Jack Donald Johnson I. OVERVIEW The t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n (based on 1970 c e n s u s ) o f t h e United S t a t e s p r e s e n t l y e x c e e d s 203 m i l l i o n . The p o p u l a t i o n of t h e 12 w e s t e r n s t a t e s e x c e e d s 45 m i l l i o n and i s a l i t t l e over 22 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e U. S. These same 12 s t a t e s comprise about 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l l a n d a r e a o f the U.S. and almost a l l o f t h e a r i d p o r t i o n s o f t h e n a t i o n . (See map, p a g e ^ . ) Approximately 23 m i l l i o n p e o p l e r e s i d e i n the a r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e U.S. The 12 w e s t e r n s t a t e s c o n s t i t u t e a land a r e a of about 1 . 4 m i l l i o n square m i l e s . S e v e n t y - t w o p e r c e n t of t h i s l a n d , or i n e x c e s s o f one m i l l i o n square m i l e s , i s w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n c u r r e n t l y or p o t e n t i a l l y s u b j e c t e d t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s . P o p u l a t i o n growth i n t h e West during t h e l a s t decade almost t r i p l e d t h a t of t h e e a s t e r n s t a t e s . The combination of 1) immigration, 2) m i g r a t i o n from Mexico, n o r t h - c e n t r a l s t a t e s and e a s t e r n s t a t e s t o t h e West, and 3) g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n growth because of l o c a l b i r t h r a t e s i s c a u s i n g an alarming i n c r e a s e i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f many o f t h e w e s t e r n s t a t e s . Land d e v e l o p e r s , chambers o f commerce and i n d i v i d u a l businessmen e x p e c t i n g f i n a n c i a l rewards are a d v e r t i s i n g and e x p l o i t i n g t h e a r i d r e g i o n s , In t h e populous e a s t e r n s t a t e s t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i s high. In New J e r s e y , f o r example, t h e r e are over 953 p e o p l e per square m i l e of land a r e a , and i n Washington, D.C. t h e r e are more than 1 2 , 4 0 0 . In C a l i f o r n i a , even w i t h i t s l a r g e urban c e n t e r s , t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i s o n l y about 1 2 8 , and w i t h i n the o t h e r w e s t e r n a r i d s t a t e s t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y i s considerably l e s s . For example, Arizona has about 16 and Wyoming about 3 . 4 p e o p l e per square m i l e . This seems t o i n d i c a t e room f o r growth, but u n f o r t u n a t e l y growth from t h e l a r g e urban c e n t e r s i s r a p i d l y expanding i n t o the d e s e r t s and up i n t o the mountains w i t h l i t t l e r e g a r d f o r t h e r e s o u r c e s o f a r a b l e l a n d , w a t e r , v e g e t a t i o n and w i l d l i f e . -2- Reprinted f r o m DESERTS OF T H E WORLD-. A n A p p r a i s a l o f R e s e a r c h Into T h e i r P h y s i c a l and B i o l o g i c a l E n v i r o n m e n t s . McGlnnles, G o l d m a n , and P a y l o r e , e d s . , c l 9 6 8 , b y p e r m i s s i o n U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a P r e s s . — 70° 70°— 50°-- 50°— W— 30° 20°— MEIGS CLASSIFICATIONS E — Extremely arid A — Arid 10° S— a— b— c— Semiarid no marked season of precipitation summer precipitation winter precipitation Digits 1st digit indicates mean temperature of coldest month 2nd digit indicates mean temperature of warmest montfi 0 = less ttian O'C 1 = 0° to 10°C 2 = 10° to 20°C 3 = 20» to 30°C 4 = more than aO'C —10° KEY Extremely Arid S S £'233 Arid Semiarid 500 MILES Arid Lands of North America (after Meigs) -3- -0° A r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s , g h o s t towns, abandoned ranches and empty fa:ms t h a t dot t h e a r i d West are dramatic examples of man's e a r l y f a i l u r e t o o b t a i n a b a l a n c e between h i s n a t u r a l a r i d e n v i ronment y i d h i s d e s i r e f o r expansion." When t h e e a r t h was s p a r s e l y p o p u l a t e d or u n i n h a b i t e d , land was abundant; man c o u l d abandon o l d e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a i l u r e s and move onto new l a n d s . Today, t h e s i t u a t i o n i s much d i f f e r e n t ; w i t h expanding world p o p u l a t i o n i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o abandon o r i g n o r e t h e a r i d l a n d s o f any c o u n t r y . Within t h e U.S. 60 t o 70 p e r c e n t o f t h e a r i d l a n d s are i n f e d e r a l or o t h e r p u b l i c o w n e r s h i p . Some 130 m i l l i o n a c r e s i n a r i d l a n d s s t a t e s have been p l a c e d m d e r m u l t i p l e - u s e , s u s t a i n e d y i e l d management w i t h i n t h e n a t i o n a l f o r e s t s , which a r e administ e r e d by t h e U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e . Recent p a s s a g e o f t h e Federal Land P o l i c y and Management Act has overcome some o f t h e p o l i c y indeterminacy o f t h e U.S. p u b l i c l a n d s , which are a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e Bureau o f Land Management. The new Act a d d r e s s e s t h e m u l t i p l e - u s e and s u s t a i n e d y i e l d management c o n c e p t through an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y land-use planning system. One o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e rugged, a r i d w e s t e r n United S t a t e s i s t h a t one can d r i v e from t h e h o t d e s e r t f l o o r or l a r g e urban area i n t o t h e dense m o m t a i n f o r e s t s , o f t e n w i t h i n a m a t t e r o f m i n u t e s and n e v e r more than a few h o u r s . I r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e i s an important a s p e c t o f a r i d r e g i o n s , and some i r r i g a t e d p o r t i o n s o f A r i z o n a and C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t s comprise t h e most p r o d u c t i v e l a n d i n t h e U.S. I t may n o t , however, be t h e most d e s i r a b l e or e c o n o m i c a l l y e f f i c i e n t u s e o f w a t e r , and t h e e x p a n s i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n farming f a r t h e r i n t o t h e d e s e r t r e q u i r e s a c r i t i c a l r e v i e w . Much o f t h e a r i d and s e m i a r i d a r e a s i s u s e d as g r a z i n g l a n d , and some o f the a r i d r e g i o n s are r i c h i n m i n e r a l d e p o s i t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n copper and coal. (Over 50 p e r c e n t o f U . S . copper i s mined i n A r i z o n a . ) Energy p o t e n t i a l ( s o l a r , c o a l , uranium, o i l and g a s , and hydroe l e c t r i c ) i s b e i n g e x p l o i t e d f o r u s e i n l a r g e urban c e n t e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r P h o e n i x , Las Vegas and Los A n g e l e s . R e c r e a t i o n i s r a p i d l y becoming an important economic u s e o f a r i d r e g i o n s i n t h e U.S. Surveys i n d e s e r t r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s of Southern C a l i f o r n i a during 1958 i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e were 5 7 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e on one-day f i e l d t r i p s ; 1 . 1 m i l l i o n o v e r n i g h t t r i p s ; and about $ 3 0 . 9 m i l l i o n expended by t h e s e r e c r e a t i o n u s e r s . P r o j e c t i o n s b a s e d on 1968 s t a t i s t i c s o f 4 . 9 m i l l i o n v i s i t o r days are t h a t Southern C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t s w i l l s e e 7 . 8 m i l l i o n v i s i t o r days i n 1980 and 1 3 . 2 m i l l i o n by t h e year 2000. -4- One o f t h e r e c r e a t i o n a l u s e s which has r e c e n t l y r e c e i v e d much p u b l i c i t y ( m o s t l y n e g a t i v e ) i s t h e u s e of m o t o r c y c l e s , "dime b u g g i e s " and f o u r - w h e e l d r i v e v e h i c l e s i n remote d e s e r t a r e a s . Because o f t h e c l i m a t i c and b i o t i c c o n d i t i o n s , p h y s i c a l s c a r s on t h e l a n d s c a p e remain f o r c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e n a t u r e can h i d e them. (For example, some o f t h e t r a c k s l e f t by wagon t r a i n s c r o s s i n g t h e a r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e w e s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s i n the 1840s are v i s i b l e t o d a y . ) The l a c k o f m o i s t u r e slows n a t u r a l decay p r o c e s s e s and a l l o w s d i s c a r d e d w a s t e p r o d u c t s and c o n t a i n e r s t o remain almost x i n a l t e r e d f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e . (For example, a d i s c a r d e d paper t i s s u e on t h e d e s e r t f l o o r may remain as a v i s i b l e S3nnbol o f human t h o u g h t l e s s n e s s f o r many years.) P i t s from mining o p e r a t i o n s c o u l d p o s s i b l y s e r v e as r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s o r as s i t s s f o r o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l development, but u s u a l l y t h e y s i m p l y s t a n d as a reminder t h a t man can d i g a b i g deep h o l e i n t h e ground. D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , as a d e f i n i t i v e p r o c e s s , has r e c e i v e d only recent a t t e n t i o n i n the United S t a t e s . But i f we a c c e p t the concern r e g a r d i n g m i s u s e o f a r i d and s e m i a r i d l a n d s , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c o n c e r n s began sometime i n t h e 1 8 0 0 s . In 1947 Dr. Walter P. Cottam a u t h o r e d a U n i v e r s i t y o f Utah B u l l e t i n (Vol. 37 No. 11) e n t i t l e d " I s Utah Sahara Bound?" Had he been a b l e t o p r e d i c t t o d a y ' s u s e o f t h e term " d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , " he might have u s e d some o t h e r t i t l e such as "The E x t e n t o f D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n Utah." While economic d a t a have n o t been r e s e a r c h e d f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n h e r e i n , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n does have s e r i o u s economic impact. Arid l a n d r e c r e a t i o n and a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d are produc e r s o f a s i g n i f i c a n t n a t i o n a l income, and any r e d u c t i o n o f t h a t income through t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s has had and w i l l have n a t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . A r e c e n t d i s a s t r o u s drought o f a few months' d u r a t i o n on t h e Papago I n d i a n R e s e r v a t i o n r e q u i r e d emergency funds and s e r v i c e s from s e v e r a l f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s and brought c r i p p l i n g l o s s e s o f c a t t l e and c r o p s . The e a r l i e r e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e "dust bowl" i n Oklahoma, t h e l a n d r e c l a m a t i o n programs, and the a s s i s t a n c e t o I n d i a n r e s e i r v a t i o n s have t o t a l e d b i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s - - a n d b o t h t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e s e e x p e n d i t u r e s and t h e burden o f t h e s e c o s t s are borne n a t i o n a l l y . I t should be emphasized t h a t t h e U . S . e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , r e p o r t e d h e r e i n , s h o u l d be r e l e v a n t t o o t h e r a r i d and s e m i a r i d a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d , w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f some o f the r e c r e a t i o n a l u s e s . -5- li^ II. HISTORY OF LAND USE IN ARID REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES There i s e v i d e n c e t h a t man has l i v e d i n t h e a r i d and s e m i a r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e U.S. f o r as l o n g as 1 1 , 0 0 0 t o 2 5 , 0 0 0 y e a r s , and e c o l o g i c a l a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e a r i d environments i n d i c a t e a zone o f extreme a r i d i t y i n t h e Great P l a i n s between about 5500 and 2000 B.C. Evidence from c a v e s i n w e s t c e n t r a l New Mexico i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p e r i o d from perhaps 4000 B.C. t o a few c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a was a time o f l i f e b a s e d on c u l t i v a t i o n . Established agriculture, however, d i d n o t r e p l a c e t h e a n c i e n t food g a t h e r i n g p r a c t i c e s u n t i l about 300 B.C. I t was w i t h t h e growth o f c u l t i v a t i o n and the improvement o f a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s t h a t t h e American Indian became capable o f m a s t e r i n g many o f t h e a r i d and semi^arid zones of the continent. U n t i l t h e middle o f t h e 19th c e n t u r y the v a s t a r i d / s e m i a r i d r e g i o n l y i n g between the Rocky Movintains and t h e ranges b o r d e r i n g t h e P a c i f i c Ocean was v i r t u a l l y unknown t o t h e a n g l o . A c e n t u r y e a r l i e r Spanish m i s s i o n a r i e s had p e n e t r a t e d a small p a r t o f southern A r i z o n a , i n t r o d u c t i n g c a t t l e t o the s c a t t e r i n g o f C a t h o l i c m i s s i o n s t h e y had f o m d e d t h e r e . They a l s o made o c c a s i o n a l t r i p s a c r o s s t h e i n t e r v e n i n g d e s e r t t o t h e chain o f s i m i l a r m i s s i o n s along t h e C a l i f o r n i a c o a s t . These and o t h e r t r a v e l e r s , such as t r a p p e r s and t r a d e r s , d i d n o t w r i t e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e i r t r a v e l s ; maps were n o t p u b l i s h e d p r i o r t o the 1 8 4 0 s . The d i s c o v e r y o f g o l d , which was i n 1848 i n C a l i f o r n i a , brought t e n s o f thousands o f p e o p l e a c r o s s t h e d e s e r t r e g i o n en r o u t e t o t h e g o l d f i e l d s , but t h e a r i d area s t i l l l a y v i r t u a l l y empty and vinused x m t i l t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 1 8 6 0 s . From t h e e a r l y 1800s through t h e l a t e 1860s g r a z i n g animals were brought i n t o t h e Southwest by Spanish and Mexican m i s s i o n a r i e s and c a t t l e m e n . In t h e l a t e 1860s t h e r e o c c u r r e d an i n f l u x o f s e t t l e r s , c h i e f l y comprised o f c a t t l e m e n from the s e m i a r i d regions farther e a s t . C a l i f o r n i a p r e s e n t s some i n t e r e s t i n g s t a t i s t i c s r e g a r d i n g sheep p o p u l a t i o n which had i n c r e a s e d t o 1 . 9 m i l l i o n i n 1860, 2 . 8 m i l l i o n i n 1870 and 4 . 4 m i l l i o n by 1890. At t h a t t i m e , c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e a r i d West were f a r from s t a b l e and t h e n a t i o n was s t i l l r e c o v e r i n g from t h e C i v i l War. P a r t i a l l y s e t t l e d w e s t e r n t e r r i t o r i e s were p o o r l y a d m i n i s t e r e d , and t h e m i l i t a r y and p o l i c e f o r c e s were i n a d e q u a t e . The f o l l o w i n g h a l f c e n t u r y was t h e e r a o f t h e open r a n g e . Herders l a i d c l a i m t o t h e w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d w a t e r i n g p l a c e s and thus h e l d p r a c t i c a l i f n o t l e g a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e v a s t w a t e r l e s s g r a z i n g l a n d s . Land t e n u r e was t h e major problem i n t h e United S t a t e s . The f i r s t attempt a t c o n t r o l was t h e d e v e l o p ment o f a General Land O f f i c e as an agency o f t h e U . S . f e d e r a l -6- government t o a d m i n i s t e r and a p p o r t i o n p u b l i c l a n d s o f t h e U.S. Under t h e Homestead Act o f 1862 any c i t i z e n c o u l d a t t a i n t i t l e t o 160 a c r e s , but t h i s Act was p r i n c i p a l l y c r e a t e d f o r t h e purp o s e o f d e v e l o p i n g t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d o f t h e East and t h e Midwest. One hundred s i x t y a c r e s i n .the e a s t e r n and m i d w e s t e m U n i t e d S t a t e s was adequate f o r maintenance o f moderate t o h i g h s t a n d a r d s o f l i v i n g , but l a n d h o l d i n g s o f such small s i z e were t o t a l l y inadequate f o r e n t e r p r i s e s in a semiarid or arid pastoral region. In most o f t h e a r i d r e g i o n s 160 a c r e s would support no more than two head o f c a t t l e . The D e s e r t Land Act o f 1877 p r o v i d e d t h a t t i t l e might be o b t a i n e d t o a f u l l s e c t i o n (640 a c r e s ) , but t h a t Act had o n l y l i m i t e d e f f e c t s i n c e i t r e q u i r e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e land be irrigated. Most o f the land i n the a r i d West was n o t i r r i g a b l e . In 1879 a f e d e r a l commission headed by John Wesley Powell t u r n e d i n : i t s r e p o r t on t h e governmental p o l i c i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p u b l i c l a n d s o f t h e a r i d West. The r e p o r t s t a t e d t h a t . . . "the Homestead and Preemption laws are n o t s u i t e d f o r s e c u r i n g s e t t l e m e n t o f more than an i n s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f the c o i m t r y . " P o w e l l ' s r e p o r t went on t o s u g g e s t : 1) t h a t land s h o u l d be s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a p p r a i s e d and c l a s s i f i e d b e f o r e s e t t l e m e n t and t h a t each c a t e g o r y s h o u l d be h a n d l e d under laws s p e c i f i c a l l y applicable to i t ; 2) t h a t l a n d must be d i s p o s e d o f i n q u a n t i t i e s s u f f i c i e n t t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f working e n t e r p r i s e s , and t h a t t h e p r i c e o f such a grant must be k e p t l o w . . . a t l e a s t f o u r square m i l e s (2,56Q a c r e s ) was proposed as a m i n i mum; 3) t h a t farm and ranch r e s i d e n c e s be grouped t o permit a form o f s o c i a l l i f e n o t p o s s i b l e on i s o l a t e d r a n c h s t e a d s ; 4) t h a t s u r v e y s s h o u l d d e v i a t e from r e c t a n g u l a r systems when necessary to divide i r r i g a t i o n waters properly; and 5) b e c a u s e of t h e g r e a t e x p e n s e r e q u i r e d t o d e v e l o p i r r i g a t i o n , i r r i g a t i o n schemes s h o u l d be undertaken under t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e f e d e r a l government. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no a c t i o n was t a k e n by t h e Congress o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s on P o w e l l ' s s u g g e s t i o n s , which proved t o be - f a r ahead o f t h e i r t i m e . During t h e 1890s and on i n t o t h e e a r l y 1 9 0 0 s , p a r t i c u l a r l y m d e r t h e impetus p r o v i d e d by P r e s i d e n t Theodore R o o s e v e l t , c o n s e r v a t i o n measures were b e g i n n i n g t o e v o l v e . T h i s was a r a t h e r stormy p e r i o d i n t h e g r a z i n g l a n d a r e a s where c a t t l e m e n f o u g h t f a r m e r s , sheepmen f o u g h t f a r m e r s , and c a t t l e m e n fought sheepmen. P i t c h e d b a t t l e s were waged o v e r t h e r i g h t t o b u i l d f e n c e s and s e c t i o n o f f land. In g e n e r a l t h e l a n d was h e a v i l y o v e r g r a z e d but t h e c a t t l e m e n were p e r c e i v e d as p o p u l a r h e r o e s w i t h t h e " d i r t farmer" and sheepmen g e t t i n g t h e w o r s t o f most b a t t l e s — b o t h p h y s i c a l l y and l e g a l l y . -7- The T a y l o r Grazing Act o f 1934 was the f i r s t major cong r e s s i o n a l a c t i o n aimed s p e c i f i c a l l y a t the management o f g r a z i n g lands o f t h e a r i d and s e m i a r i d West. The Taylor Act was s t i m u l a t e d by the r e s u l t o f a 1932 s u r v e y i n d i c a t i n g t h a t rangeland product i v i t y had d e c l i n e d by 50 p e r c e n t and t h a t g r a s s removal had e x posed 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e range t o e r o s i o n . The Act e s t a b l i s h e d g r a z i n g d i s t r i c t s and c r e a t e d t h e Grazing S e r v i c e . Under f e d e r a l c o n t r o l t h e nximber o f animals was r e g u l a t e d t o approximate a b a l a n c e between range u s e and t h e f o r a g e - p r o d u c i n g capacity of the land. I t was f o r t u n a t e t h a t t h e Act was p a s s e d and implemented during t h e depth o f t h e drought and t h e d e p r e s s i o n of the 1 9 3 0 s , f o r during t h a t p e r i o d t h e nxamber o f animals was a l r e a d y s h a r p l y reduced. The government t h e r e f o r e had t o f a c e p r i n c i p a l l y t h e problem o f p r e v e n t i n g an i n c r e a s e i n the animal p o p u l a t i o n r a t h e r than having t o b r i n g about a d r a s t i c r e d u c t i o n . For a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s a system o f range i n s p e c t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n was i n a u g u r a t e d t o check on d i f f e r e n t s t o c k i n g and management programs. Although r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y has c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e w e s t e r n d e s e r t r a n g e s s i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 s , many a r e a s are s t i l l p o o r l y managed, and a t t e m p t s a t s c i e n t i f i c g r a z i n g c o n t r o l are o f t e n f r u s t r a t e d by the c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f land t e n u r e , m u l t i p l e u s e o f landS' and t h e e a s e w i t h which l e g a l a c t i o n s a g a i n s t a g e n c i e s can be brought i n t o the c o u r t s . Many s e t t l e r s m i g r a t i n g from the e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s brought t h e i r more htraiid r e g i o n t e c h n o l o g y i n t o t h e a r i d r e g i o n s and attempted r a i n - f e d farming. This u s u a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d n o t h i n g e x c e p t t o l a y the l a n d open t o e r o s i o n by wind and r a i n , and i n a l l c a s e s f a i l e d t o p r o v i d e dependable crop production. The development o f i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e a r i d p o r t i o n s d a t e s back t o t h e Hohokam and Pueblo I n d i a n s , but i t was n o t m t i l t h e 1840s t h a t t h e a n g l o s began i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e . Among t h e f i r s t t o e s t a b l i s h s u c c e s s f u l i r r i g a t i o n farming were t h e Mormons i n t h e S a l t Lake C i t y a r e a . One o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r e a r l y s u c c e s s was t h e i n s e p a r a b i l i t y i n t h e Mormon p h i l o s o p h y o f church and s t a t e . Thus, i t was r e l a t i v e l y e a s y f o r them t o e s t a b l i s h a communal i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m and t h e r e b y a l l o c a t e t h e land and w a t e r r i g h t s and o b l i g a t i o n s . I t was during t h e r e c l a m a t i o n e r a o f t h e 1930s and 1940s t h a t t h e a r i d r e g i o n s saw t h e h a r n e s s i n g o f most o f t h e major streams o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e moimtainous West. This r e s u l t e d i n m u l t i p u r p o s e dams and t h e e x t e n s i o n o f i r r i g a t i o n to v a s t a r e a s o f the d e s e r t and s e m i d e s e r t . Other land u s e s i n t h e a r i d Southwest i n c l u d e d I n d i a n r e s e r v a t i o n s , l a r g e urban c e n t e r s , e l e c t r i c a l energy p r o d u c t i o n , mining and i n d u s t r i a l development, and r e c r e a t i o n . -8- III. RANGE RESOURCE UTILIZATION As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e v e r e o v e r g r a z i n g which o c c u r r e d during t h e l a t e 1 8 0 0 s , t h e U . S . government has a t t e m p t e d t o d e v e l o p range c o n t r o l on i t s p u b l i c l y owned l a n d . P r i v a t e , s t a t e - o w n e d and I n d i a n l a n d s are n o t under f e d e r a l g r a z i n g c o n t r o l , but through t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Land Grant c o l l e g e s and v i n i v e r s i t i e s many improved range management t e c h n i ques have been and are b e i n g adopted on ñ o n - f e d e r a l l a n d s . Both t h e U.S. Bureau o f Land Management and t h e U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e l a n d s are g r a z e d , i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e m u l t i p l e u s e management c o n c e p t . M u l t i p l e u s e may i n c l u d e r e c r e a t i o n , timber p r o d u c t i o n , m i n i n g , w a t e r r e s o u r c e development, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and power p r o d u c t i o n . While m u l t i p l e - u s e p o l i c y has i t s o b v i o u s a d v a n t a g e s , i t a l s o l e a d s t o c o m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e range manager. Range s c i e n t i s t s are a s y e t u n a b l e to predict accurately the s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t s of multiple u s e on t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e l a n d . While s e v e r e o v e r g r a z i n g i s g e n e r a l l y p r e v e n t e d on most p u b l i c l a n d s , t h e r e s u l t o f m u l t i p l e u s e i s t h a t the a s s o c i a t e d impact on range v e g e t a t i o n and s o i l r e q u i r e s c o n t i n u a l assessment and r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y . Land t e n u r e a l s o complic a t e s t h e problem i n t h e U . S . , as g r a z i n g may o c c u r i n a geographic a l a r e a which i n v o l v e s l a n d i n which v a r i o u s p a r t s are owned by t h e U . S . F o r e s t S e r v i c e , t h e U.S. Bureau o f Land Management, Indian r e s e r v a t i o n s , the s t a t e s or p r i v a t e p a r t i e s . The Indian r e s e r v a t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y s e v e r e l y o v e r g r a z e d , and c o n t r o l o f animal numbers i s through t r i b a l c o u n c i l s o r c a t t l e m e n ' s associations. I n d i a n c a t t l e m e n are r e l u c t a n t t o reduce herd s i z e b e c a u s e t o many t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a l a r g e herd i s a s o u r c e o f s a v i n g s , community power, i n f l u e n c e and p r e s t i g e . Most range s c i e n t i s t s agree t h a t many o f t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e l a n d s are b e i n g degraded, and t h a t c o n t r o l s must be s t e p p e d up. There are many w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d h i s t o r i c a l c a s e s i n which o v e r g r a z i n g c a u s e d t h e i n v a s i o n o f low woody p l a n t s of l i t t l e n u t r i t i v e value, the a c c e l e r a t i o n of erosion proc e s s e s and d e p l e t i o n o f groundwater. Western c a t t l e ranches t o d a y average o v e r 2 0 , 0 0 0 a c r e s w i t h a c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f about one g r a z i n g cow p e r 100 a c r e s . The economic s t a b i l i t y brought t o t h e d e s e r t ranch i s l a r g e l y a r e s u l t o f t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m , t h e development o f w a t e r w e l l d r i l l i n g and pumping equipment, and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f modem s c i e n t i f i c methods i n range management, b r e e d i n g , f e e d i n g , v e t e r i n a r y m e d i c i n e and m a r k e t i n g . -9- IV. IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE I r r i g a t i o n has l i t e r a l l y transformed many p a r t s o f the d e s e r t s o f t h e a r i d Southwest i n t o a g r i c u l t u r e p r o d u c t i o n c e n ters. I r r i g a t i o n has, in the U.S., contributed t o the d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s v i a i t s cons\imptive u s e o f s c a r c e water s u p p l i e s , s a l i n i z a t i o n o f s o i l s , and, o c c a s i o n a l l y , the r e t i r e m e n t o f t h e s e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s t o become barren wastelands. The w a t e r problem i s most c r i t i c a l i n a r e a s i n which groundwater i s b e i n g consimed f a s t e r than t h e r a t e o f recharge t o t h e groiandwater system. S e v e r a l streams and r i v e r s t h a t once were p e r e n n i a l are now ephemeral. This problem i s p a r t i c u l a r l y acute i n t h o s e p a r t s o f t h e s e m i a r i d Southwest where groundwater i s the o n l y s o u r c e o f w a t e r . In t h e Santa Cruz V a l l e y i n southern A r i z o n a , f o r example, water withdrawal f o r t h e urban c e n t e r o f Tucson, f o r i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e and f o r mining copper i s so f a r i n e x c e s s o f n a t u r a l r e p l e n i s h m e n t t h a t t h e groxindwater l e v e l has d e c l i n e d 200 f e e t o r more i n some a r e a s . One o f t h e problems f a c i n g the i r r i g a t i o n farmer, who depends upon a d e c l i n i n g groxindwater s u p p l y , i s t h a t he must not only incur s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g costs a s s o c i a t e d with the energy r e q u i r e d t o pump from e v e r - g r e a t e r d e p t h s , but t h e rapidly i n c r e a s i n g cost o f energy i t s e l f . This p l a c e s farmers i n a p o s i t i o n o f e x p o n e n t i a l l y r i s i n g c o s t s and h a s caused many o f them t o abandon t h e i r l a n d s . This abandonment o f f o r m e r l y p r o d u c t i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s l e a v e s v u l n e r a b l e t o p s o i l , which i s o f t e n s a l i n e and does n o t n a t u r a l l y r e v e g e t a t e w i t h low r a i n f a l l . As a r e s u l t , t h e barren land s e r v e s p r i m a r i l y a s a producer o f windblown dust and sand. So s e v e r e i s t h i s problem t h a t many m o t o r i s t s on t h e highway between Tucson and Phoenix have p e r i s h e d i n auto a c c i d e n t s caused by b l i n d i n g d u s t s t o r m s . This highway now has s p e c i a l s e n s o r s i g n s p o s t e d t o warn t r a v e l e r s when d u s t s t o r m s are a n t i c i p a t e d . The s a l i n i z a t i o n o f s o i l s i s , o f c o u r s e , a well-known p r o c e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i r r i g a t i o n which may c o n t r i b u t e t o desertification. The g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n t o t h e problem w i t h i n t h e U.S. i s simply t o apply s u f f i c i e n t water t o l e a c h o u t t h e s a l t s through a s u b s u r f a c e o r w e l l drainage s y s t e m . While t h e s o l u t i o n c l e a r l y s o l v e s the problem l o c a l l y , i t r e s u l t s i n o t h e r c o m p l i cations. I t c r e a t e s a downstream l e a c h a t e t h a t i s h i g h e r i n d i s s o l v e d s a l t s than t h e upstream w a t e r s , and, as our f r i e n d s i n Mexico are k e e n l y aware, when t h e r e t u r n f l o w s a r e c y c l e d through s e v e r a l u s e s , t h e end u s e r r e c e i v e s water which may be t o o laden w i t h s a l t t o grow many c r o p s . The Colorado R i v e r below Ytima, Arizona i s j u s t such an example, where t h e U.S. i s now i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b u i l d i n g a 100 m i l l i o n - g a l l o n - a - d a y d e s a l t i n g p l a n t . -10- Land abandoned b e c a u s e o f s a l i n i t y problems p r e s e n t s s p e c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e c l a m a t i o n or r e v e g e t a t i o n w i t h native plants. One o f t h e g r e a t e s t c h a l l e n g e s o f t h e f u t u r e , one t h a t nxamerous c i v i l i z a t i o n s have f a i l e d t o meet, i s d e a l ing with the e f f e c t s of long-term arid lands i r r i g a t i o n . V. MINING While n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y e x t e n s i v e i n a r e a l t e r m s , mining can c r e a t e a v i r t u a l d e s e r t l o c a l l y . Mine r e c l a m a t i o n i s a f i e l d now r e c e i v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n . The e f f e c t s o f mining are d i f f e r e n t , depending upon t h e method and t h e o r e body. This paper w i l l d i s c u s s o n l y two o f t h e more o b v i o u s mining a c t i v i t i e s t h a t have s t i m u l a t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e p u b l i c a w a r e n e s s . Copper mining i s e x t r e m e l y v i t a l t o t h e economy o f Arizona, and i t c o n s t i t u t u e s t h e major i n d u s t r y o f t h e s t a t e . Most of t h e copper i s mined i n open p i t o p e r a t i o n s t h a t may be s e v e r a l square m i l e s i n top area and about 800 f e e t deep. There are s e v e r a l o f t h e s e huge h o l e s i n t h e A r i z o n a l a n d s c a p e , and t h e removed overburden p l u s e v a p o r a t i o n ponds, h o l d i n g p r o c e s s i n g w a s t e s , c r e a t e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e u n p r o d u c t i v e a r e a s around t h e mine. A r c h i t e c t s have l o o k e d a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l o c a t i n g h o u s i n g developments on t h e overburden, but f o r now t h e y l i e as unused w a s t e , a t r i b u t e t o man's a b i l i t y t o move a l o t of d i r t . This may be c a l l e d d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , but i n g e n e r a l i t i s a l o c a l phenomenon and does n o t spread beyond t h e mine o p e r a t i o n . I t s v i s u a l impact i s f e l t by r e s i d e n t s or v i s i t o r s f o r m i l e s in a l l d i r e c t i o n s . The d e p l e t i o n o f w a t e r r e s o u r c e s r e q u i r e d f o r m i l l i n g may i n v o l v e nearby or distant aquifers. Coal mining i n A r i z o n a , Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Mont a n a and Wyoming h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o l a y w a s t e l a r g e a r e a s . To d a t e , s t r i p - m i n i n g r e c l a m a t i o n has had o n l y s p o r a d i c s u c c e s s . The Four C o m e r s area i n New Mexico has such h i g h l y a l k a l i n e overburden t h a t r e v e g e t a t i o n has f a i l e d , but i n t h e Black Mesa a r e a o f A r i z o n a and i n p a r t s o f Montana and Wyoming s t r i p - m i n e r e v e g e t a t i o n has been more s u c c e s s f u l . Huge d e p o s i t s o f c o a l and o i l s h a l e e x i s t i n t h e West, and e x p l o i t a t i o n seems i n e v i table. Many U . S . c i t i z e n s , non-governmental a g e n c i e s and governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s are c o n c e r n i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact o f t h i s e x p l o i t a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t which i s r e l a t e d t o t h e -^sat s h a l e d e p o s i t s t h a t have both huge e n e r g y p o t e n t i a l and huge land d e g r a d a t i o n p o t e n t i a l . R e c k l e s s l y approached, e ^ á . s h a l e mining has t h e p o t e n t i a l t o d e s e r t i f y large expanses of land. -11- VI. URBANIZATION Urban development may be one o f t h e b e s t u s e s o f a r i d and s e m i a r i d l a n d s , i f proper p l a n n i n g and common s e n s e accompany such u s e . While w a s t e f u l and improper water u s e i n t h e s e c i t i e s may u l t i m a t e l y l e a d t o g h o s t towns o r c o n c r e t e d e s e r t s , t h e most p u b l i c i z e d problems are t h o s e caused by t h o u g h t l e s s l a n d d e v e l o p e r s who carve up dry d e s e r t a r e a s w i t h roads i n an attempt t o s e l l t h e s e a r i d p l o t s o f w a t e r l e s s land t o g u l l i b l e e a s t e r n e r s and midwestemers. A f l i g h t o v e r New Mexico, A r i z o n a and Nevada w i l l r e v e a l hundreds o f t h e s e unpaved roads s i m p l y c r o s s - h a t c h i n g the land w i t h no h o u s i n g a t a l l . On t h e grotond one s e e s t h a t many o f the " s t r e e t s " have become g u l l i e s which c a r r y away t h e thin t o p s o i l s that t y p i f y the arid areas. Another problem a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u r b a n i z a t i o n i s t h e demand f o r water and l a n d . These demands o f t e n f o r c e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s to be r e t i r e d , e i t h e r t o h o u s i n g , as i n t h e Los A n g e l e s and Phoen i x a r e a s , o r t o simply xmused lands so t h a t t h e groundwater r e source can be u s e d by t h e c i t y d w e l l e r s . P a r t o f t h e once a g r i c u l t u r a l l y r i c h Avra V a l l e y i n southern A r i z o n a i s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f becoming a w a s t e l a n d and p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e o f windblown sand and d u s t , b e c a u s e Tucson n e e d s the groxmdwater r e s o u r c e f o r i t s increasing population. P o p u l a t i o n growth w i t h t h e a t t e n d a n t demands f o r s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s i s the b a s i s f o r most a r i d l a n d s problems. Many o f our w e s t e r n a r i d and s e m i a r i d a r e a s were o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d f o r i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l u s a g e . Recent p o p u l a t i o n increases (largely attributable to the d e s i r a b i l i t y of the c l i mate f o r l i v i n g ) , r e d u c t i o n s i n grotmdwater l e v e l s and q u a l i t y , and i n c r e a s e d c o s t s o f e n e r g y f o r h i g h - t e c h n o l o g y a g r i c u l t u r e t h a t t y p i f i e s t h e s e a r e a s s u g g e s t t h a t U.S. a r i d l a n d s are on the t h r e s h o l d o f a r e v o l u t i o n i n usage p a t t e r n s . VII. RECREATION The p l e n t i f u l stinshine o f t h e a r i d r e g i o n s , t h e g e n e r a l a f f l u e n c e o f t h e average U . S . worker, p l u s more and more spare time have c r e a t e d an i n t e r e s t i n g and bothersome l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n problem. As p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , m o t o r c y c l e s , "dune b u g g i e s , " f o u r wheel d r i v e o f f - r o a d v e h i c l e s and campers have invaded t h e d e s e r t a r e a s , and t h e y l e a v e t h e i r marks. -12- Although w i d e s p r e a d , t h i s problem i s p a r t i c u l a r l y acute i n t h e Mojave and C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t s , on f e d e r a l l a n d s adminis t e r e d by t h e Bureau o f Land Management. E l e v e n m i l l i o n Southern C a l i f o m i a n s v i e w t h i s u n r e s e r v e d p u b l i c domain as " t h e i r own b a c k y a r d . " Use o f t h e a r e a by o f f - r o a d v e h i c l e s was vinregul a t e d u n t i l 1972. During one 12-month p e r i o d t h e r e were 151 organized competitive racing events for o f f - r o a d v e h i c l e s inv o l v i n g more than 6 7 , 0 0 0 p a r t i c i p a n t s and 1 8 9 , 0 0 0 s p e c t a t o r s . The most e x t r a o r d i n a r y o f t h e "scramble" r a c e s was run each T h a n k s g i v i n g weekend o v e r a 1 6 0 - m i l e c o u r s e between Barstow, C a l i f o r n i a and Las Vegas, Nevada. Three thousand motorc y c l i s t s s p r e a d a c r o s s t h e d e s e r t , t r a v e l i n g at breakneck s p e e d s as t h e y compact t h e s o i l , d e v a s t a t e v e g e t a t i o n , s t i r up c l o u d s o f d u s t and t e r r o r i z e w i l d l i f e . The l o n g - t e r m r e s u l t s o f such a c t i v i t i e s have been denudation o f s i g n i f i cant patches of the landscape. The Bureau o f Land Management has s u b s e q u e n t l y c a n c e l e d t h e r a c e s , but t h e damage r e m a i n s . VIII. PHREATOPHYTE AND OTHER VEGETATION CONTROLS The demand f o r w a t e r r e s o u r c e s i n a r i d a r e a s i s always g r e a t e r than t h e s u p p l y , c a u s i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l , mining and m u n i c i p a l p l a n n e r s t o be c o n s t a n t l y d e v i s i n g new schemes f o r d i v e r t i n g l a r g e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e l i m i t e d w a t e r r e s o u r c e s through t h e human p o r t i o n o f t h e d e s e r t e c o s y s t e m . R e c e n t l y g r e a t concern h a s been e x p r e s s e d about p h r e a t o p h y t e s . R i v e r s and washes, t h e a r t e r i e s o f our w a t e r s h e d s , are f r e q u e n t l y bordered by stands o f t a l l t r e e s i n s i g n i f i c a n t r i p a r i a n communities. Many o f t h e t r e e s are heavy w a t e r u s e r s , p h r e a t o p h y t e s , and t h e i r e l i m i n a t i o n has been a d v o c a t e d i n some a r e a s . P h r e a t o p h y t e c o n t r o l programs f r e q u e n t l y include channeling water courses. I t has a l s o been n o t e d t h a t v e g e t a t i o n c o u l d be s t r i p p e d from s e v e r a l m i l l i o n a c r e s o f A r i z o n a f o r e s t and d e s e r t ( l a r g e l y chaparral v e g e t a t i o n ) to increase water r u n o f f . Such schemes to remove l a r g e t r a c t s o f v e g e t a t i o n a r e p o s s i b l y i l l - a d v i s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e l o n g - r a n g e d e g r a d a t i o n and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n p o t e n t i a l . In the s h o r t term, i n c r e a s i n g w a t e r r u n o f f through v e g e t a t i o n removal may mean l e s s w a t e r i n f i l t r a t i n g t o groundwater, and sediment may accumulate more r a p i d l y i n w a t e r catchments and reservoirs. -13- ? : ; | / / IX. SUMMARY While d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a r e l a t i v e l y new term i n t h e U.S. s c i e n t i f i c v o c a b u l a r y , land and r e s o u r c e m i s u s e and d e g r a dation are n o t . D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s i n d e e d a s e r i o u s problem, w i t h o v e r g r a z i n g , s a l i n i z a t i o n o f s o i l s , d e p l e t i o n o f water r e s o u r c e s , land s u b s i d e n c e , p o p u l a t i o n p r e s s u r e s , abandonment of l a n d s , some mining o p e r a t i o n s , and d e s t r u c t i o n o f v e g e t a t i o n or d e s e r t pavement through c a r e l e s s r e c r e a t i o n , and o t h e r e x p l o i t a t i o n s of the desert resources a l l contributing f a c t o r s . To i g n o r e t h e impact o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n on t h e U . S . i s a m i s t a k e . While v e r y h i g h - l e v e l U . S . t e c h n o l o g y (and c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e s ) has tremendous c a p a c i t y to produce, i t has e q u a l l y tremendous c a p a c i t y t o d e s t r o y . I f r e s o u r c e p l a n n e r s and managers, p r i v a t e i n v e s t o r s and government r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s do n o t e s t a b l i s h and m a i n t a i n awareness and v i g i l a n c e o f l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n i n t h e S o u t h w e s t , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c o u l d become a problem of i n c r e a s i n g n a t i o n a l impact. We have t h e t e c h n i c a l knowledge t o c o n t r o l and i n some i n s t a n c e s t o r e v e r s e t h e l a n d d e g r a d a t i o n , but as i n many c o u n t r i e s t h e p r e s s u r e s from a t o o r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n c o u p l e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l problems o f i m p l e menting known t e c h n o l o g y do n o t permit a c a r e l e s s optimism. I t i s f o r t h e s e r e a s o n s t h a t U.S. government a g e n c i e s have undertaken a v a r i e t y o f a c t i v i t i e s aimed a t c o n t r o l and p o s s i b l e r e v e r s a l o f a r i d lands d e g r a d a t i o n . For i n s t a n c e , i n 1968 t h e Bureau o f Land Management laxmched a C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t s t u d y . I t s purpose was t o i n v e n t o r y current and p r o s p e c t i v e l a n d u s e s i n the f i r s t s t e p toward i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n t e g r a t e d management. The s t u d y f o c u s e d p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n on management n e e d s o f the f r a g i l e a r i d l a n d s environment c r e a t i n g a gradual i n c r e a s e i n management awareness. As p a r t o f t h e Federal Land P o l i c y and Management A c t , t h e Bureau o f Land Management has been d i r e c t e d to e f f e c t an i n t e r i m management p l a n pending development o f a compre h e n s i v e m u l t i p l e - u s e , s u s t a i n e d y i e l d p l a n f o r t h e Southern C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t c o n s e r v a t i o n a r e a . The i n t e r i m p l a n w i l l emphasize o r d e r l y p u b l i c u s e and a u t h o r i z e s a p a t r o l t o e n s u r e p u b l i c s a f e t y and t o e n f o r c e o r d e r l y u s e o f t h e l a n d s . The comprehensive p l a n w i l l be d e v e l o p e d through t h e Bureau o f Land Management Land Use P l a n n i n g System. A permanent f e d e r a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f $40 m i l l i o n has been a u t h o r i z e d t o support t h e u n d e r t a k i n g . -14- J APPENDIX A BIBLIOGRAPHY A r m i l l a s , Pedro 1961 Land u s e i n pre-Columbian America. In L.D„ Stamp, e d . , A h i s t o r y of land use i n arid r e g i o n s . UNESCO, P a r i s . A r i d Zone Research 17: 2 5 5 - 2 7 6 . U.S. coverage c o n c e n t r a t e s on the Great P l a i n s , t h e Colorado P l a t e a u and t h e Sonoran D e s é r t , f o l l o w e d by Meso-America, Peru, t h e Andean P l a t e a u s and t h e Chilean Desert. P a r t i c u l a r emphasis i s on t h e development of c u l t i v a t i o n and i r r i g a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e . Bibliography. Ayres, J. E. 1971 Man, t h e d e s e r t farmer. to Hydrology and w a t e r r e s o u r c e s i n A r i z o n a and t h e Southwest, Vol. 1. American Water Res o u r c e s A s s o c i a t i o n , Arizona S e c t i o n / A r i z o n a Academy of S c i e n c e , Hydrology S e c t i o n , p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e 1971 m e e t i n g s , Tempe, A r i z o n a , 3 7 3 - 3 7 9 . The pre-Columbian Hohokam I n d i a n s o c c u p i e d t h e major r i v e r d r a i n a g e s o f c e n t r a l Arizona and have been t h e s u b j e c t o f much i n t e n s e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . Evidence i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e Hohokam began u s i n g r i v e r water f o r crop i r r i g a t i o n about 300 B.C. a n d - m o d i f i e d and improved t h e i r i r r i g a t i o n systems o v e r time u n t i l t h e maximum e x t e n t o f t h e s e systems was a c h i e v e d about 900 A.D. Two t y p e s o f w a t e r c o n t r o l seem t o have been u t i l i z e d : 1) t h e d i r e c t e x p l o i t a t i o n of r i v e r s through t h e u s e o f i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s , and 2) i n d i r e c t u s e through c o n t r o l l e d r u n o f f w i t h i n microd r a i n a g e s at h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n s b e f o r e i t reached t h e r i v e r s . At f i r s t , probably o n l y t h o s e p a r c e l s o f l a n d w i t h optimal s o i l s and drainage were u s e d , but a p p a r e n t l y p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e s f o s t e r e d by a g r i c u l t u r e i t s e l f , combined w i t h , i n c r e a s i n g s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o m p l e x i t y , n e c e s s i t a t e d more and more e x p l o i t a t i o n o f marginal l a n d s . Eventually, s o i l problems i n c r e a s e d , imposing s e v e r e l i m i t a t i o n s on agriculture. These i n v o l v e d s a l t and a l k a l i accumulation due t o i n a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e , s o i l d e n s i t y and w a t e r l o g g i n g . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e e x t e n s i o n o f cropping r e q u i r e d t h e c l e a r i n g of n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n , which r e s u l t e d i n i n c r e a s e d e r o s i o n and d e c r e a s e d a v a i l a b l e n a t i v e food r e s o u r c e s f o r p e r i o d s when crops f a i l e d . The c u l t u r e v a n i s h e d c o m p l e t e l y about 1450 A . D . , probably mainly b e c a u s e o f t h e i r manner of river exploitation for irrigation. More r e c e n t archaeol o g i c a l s t u d i e s are c o n c e n t r a t i n g n o t o n l y on r i v e r u s e but a l s o on r i v e r a b u s e . -15- B o c h e r t , J. R. 1971 The d u s t bowl i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . A s s o c i a t i o n o f American Geographers, annals 61 ( 1 ) : 1 - 2 2 . GA 72C-0326. Major droughts i n t h e g r a s s l a n d r e g i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l U.S. have o c c u r r e d r h y t h m i c a l l y during t h e p e r i o d o f i n strumental record. The time f o r t h e n e x t one may be n e a r . E a r l y droughts d i s a s t r o u s l y reduced farm income through l o s s o f crops and l i v e s t o c k . S i n c e t h e 1930s t h e y have a c c e l e r a t e d contemporary b a s i c changes i n Americans w i t h i n this region: f é w e r , b i g g e r and more fragmented farms; p u b l i c c o n t r o l s and s u b s i d i e s ; c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f urban b u s i n e s s and s e r v i c e s ; and g r e a t e r management. The n e x t major drought w i l l a g a i n a c c e l e r a t e l o n g - t e r m a g r i c u l t u r a l t r e n d s , but a sharp i n c r e a s e i n urban f e d e r a l a s s i s t a n c e i s l i k e l y , and r e v o l u t i o n a r y changes i n s e t t l e m e n t c o u l d be i n i t i a t e d . Brown, G. W., J r . , e d . 1968-1974 D e s e r t B i o l o g y . Two volumes. London. 1236 p, t Academic P r e s s , New York, The f i r s t volume d e a l s w i t h the b i o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f t h e world's deserts. I t f o c u s e s on t h e f o r c e s c a u s i n g d e s e r t and a r i d r e g i o n s , t h e e v o l u t i o n o f d e s e r t p l a n t s , water economy, d e s e r t e c o l o g y and l i m n o l o g y , p o i s o n s , d e s e r t a n i m a l s , and the a d a p t a t i o n and b e h a v i o r o f p l a n t s , r e p t i l e s , amphibia, b i r d s , , f i s h and mammals ( i n c l u d i n g man). The s e c o n d volume d i s c u s s e s h y d r o g e o l o g y o f a r i d r e g i o n s , d e s e r t s o i l s , p h y s i c a l and v e g e t a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e Sahara D e s e r t , d e s e r t a l g a e , l i c h e n s and f u n g i . A new approach t o w a t e r r e l a t i o n s o f d e s e r t p l a n t s , d e s e r t anthropods and f i s h e s , and man i n a r i d l a n d s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e Pima I n d i a n s o f t h e Sonoran D e s e r t and t h e Mada i n S a l i h V a l l e y i n t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n c o m e r o f Saudi Arabia) . Clyma, W./Yoimg,R.A. 1968 Environmental e f f e c t s o f i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e c e n t r a l v a l l e y of Arizona. American S o c i e t y o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s , n a t i o n a l m e e t i n g on e n v i r o n m e n t a l e n g i n e e r i n g , Chattanooga, Tenness e e , May 1 3 - 1 7 , 1968. P r e p r i n t . 28 p . SWRA W70-07053. I r r i g a t i o n has m o d i f i e d t h e environment o f t h e c e n t r a l v a l l e y o f Arizona f o r p a s t 2500 y e a r s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e i r r i g a t i o n systems o f the Hohokam'Indians. Modification o f t h e p h y s i c a l environment has i n c l u d e d changes i n c l i mate, groundwater, s u r f a c e w a t e r and v e g e t a t i o n . The s o c i a l environment has been changed from a r u r a l economy t o an urban i n d u s t r i a l economic s y s t e m . P r e s e n t and f u t u r e problems r e l a t e d t o i r r i g a t i o n i n t h e area are d i s c u s s e d . Some o f t h e problems are w a t e r demand, land s u b s i d e n c e , s a l i n i t y , groundwater management and a l l o c a t i o n o f Colorado River water. S o l u t i o n s t o some o f t h e s e problems are s u g g e s t e d . -16- ^ t I ^ ' • Cooke, R . V . / R e e v e s , R.W. 1976 Arroyos and environmental change i n t h e American S o u t h w e s t . Oxford Research S t u d i e s i n Geography, Clarendon P r e s s , Oxford, England. 213 p. Cottam, W.P./Evans, F.R. 1945 A c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y of t h e v e g e t a t i o n of g r a z e d and u n g r a z e d c a n y o n s of t h e Wasatch Range, U t a h . E c o l o g y 26 (2) : 1 7 1 - 1 8 1 . Two canyons i n the tiasatch Mountains n e a r S a l t Lake C i t y were compared: Red B u t t e Canyon had been p r o t e c t e d from g r a z i n g f o r 40 y e a r s , w h i l e Emigration Canyon had been grazed h e a v i l y s i n c e s e t t l e m e n t i n 1847. Evidence p o i n t s t o t h e complete s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l g r a s s type i n Emigration Canyon t o one w i t h u n p a l a t a b l e shrubs and Bromus tectorum, w h i l e Red B u t t e Canyon has m a i n t a i n e d a r i c h p l a n t c o v e r i n c l u d i n g t e n n a t i v e g r a s s e s n o t found i n Emigration Canyon. Sheet and g u l l y e r o s i o n are prominent i n Emigration Canyon. Denevan, ¥.M. 1967 L i v e s t o c k numbers i n 1 9 t h c e n t u r y New Mexico and problems o f g u l l y i n g i n t h e Southwest. A s s o c i a t i o n of American Geographers, a n n a l s 5 7 ( 4 ) : 6 9 1 - 7 0 3 . GA 69A-990. In t h e IBBOs i n t e n s i v e a c c e l e r a t e d e r o s i o n began producing l a r g e g u l l i e s throughout t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n U.S. T h i s modem arroyo c u t t i n g was o r i g i n a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e p r o t e c t i v e v e g e t a t i o n cover b e c a u s e o f b e l o w normal r a i n f a l l and o v e r g r a z i n g by e x c e s s i v e numbers o f l i v e s t o c k (4 m i l l i o n sheep i n New Mexico i n 1 8 8 0 ) . However, r e c e n t s t u d i e s have s t r e s s e d t h e g r e a t e r importance of increased high i n t e n s i t y r a i n f a l l . Additional p e r s p e c t i v e i s p r o v i d e d by an examination o f l i v e s t o c k ntimbers i n t h e upper Rio Grande r e g i o n o f New Mexico during t h e 19th c e n t u r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y during t h e Mexican p e r i o d when t h e ranges were h e a v i l y s t o c k e d w i t h sheep ( p o s s i b l y 3 m i l l i o n head i n t h e 1 8 2 0 s ) , but w i t h l i t t l e or no g u l lying. The i n c o m p l e t e r e c o r d o f l i v e s t o c k numbers i n r e l a t i o n t o c l i m a t e and g u l l y i n g backs up t h e c l i m a t i c argument but a l s o g i v e s some new support t o t h e o l d e r v i e w t h a t o v e r g r a z i n g was a major c o n t r i b u t i v e f a c t o r c a u s i n g s e v e r e modem g u l l y i n g . Dregne, H . E . , ed. 1970 Arid lands i n t r a n s i t i o n . American A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e Advancement o f S c i e n c e , Washington, D.C. Pub. 90. 524 p . I n v i t e d papers g i v e n at a 1969 c o n f e r e n c e i n Tucson, A r i z o n a , j o i n t l y sponsored by AAAS and UNESCO on "Arid Lands i n a Changing World." (A summary appeared i n Nature and Resources 5 ( 3 ) : 7 - 1 2 . ) -17- Hiimphrey, R.R. 1958 An a n a l y s i s of c a u s e s . B o t a n i c a l Review 2 4 ( 4 ) : 1 9 3 - 2 5 2 . ( R e p r i n t e d as A r i z o n a A g r i c u l t u r a l E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n B u l l e t i n 299.) E x t e n s i v e p o r t i o n s of t h e d e s e r t g r a s s l a n d of southern A r i z o n a , New Mexico and s o u t h w e s t e r n Texas have been i n v a d e d by woody s p e c i e s . M e s q u i t e , c r e o s o t e b u s h , c a c t i of t h e genus O p u n t i a , b u r r o w e e d and snakeweed a r e among t h e principal invaders. The p r i n c i p a l f a c t o r s commonly b e l i e v e d t o h a v e c a u s e d t h i s change- a r e change of c l i m a t e , g r a z i n g by d o m e s t i c l i v e s t o c k , p l a n t c o m p e t i t i o n , r o d e n t s and f i r e . Of t h e s e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s , change o f c l i m a t e seems t o h a v e h a d t h e l e a s t e f f e c t . F i r e s t h a t were f o r m e r l y f r e q u e n t and w i d e s p r e a d were t h e c h i e f agency r e s t r i c t i n g shrub invasion. S i n c e f i r e s have b e e n c o n t r o l l e d , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of domestic l i v e s t o c k , p l a n t competition and r o d e n t s h a v e b e e n e f f e c t i v e a g e n t s f a v o r i n g woody p l a n t s at the expense of g r a s s e s . Law, J . P . , J r . / W i t h e r o w , J . L . eds. 1970 Water q u a l i t y management problems i n a r i d r e g i o n s . U.S. F e d e r a l X'Jater Q u a l i t y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Water P o l l u t i o n Control Research S e r i e s 13030. 105 p. A v a i l a b l e NTIS as PB-198 125. SWRA W71-06111. A s e l e c t i o n o f papers p r e s e n t e d a t the AAAS committee on a r i d l a n d s c o n f e r e n c e . Arid Lands i n a Changing World, h e l d i n Tucson, A r i z o n a , Jime 1969. I n c l u d e d are papers c o v e r i n g n i t r a t e removal from a g r i c u l t u r a l w a s t e w a t e r , the e f f e c t s o f s a l i n i t y s t a n d a r d s on i r r i g a t e d a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e Colorado River B a s i n , problems of p o l l u t i o n o f i r r i gation water in arid r e g i o n s , s a l i n i t y control in return f l o w from i r r i g a t e d a r e a s , n a t u r a l p o l l u t i o n i n a r i d land w a t e r s , d i s t i l l a t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r s , animal waste r u n o f f , water q u a l i t y requirements, r e - u s e of wastewater e f f l u e n t s , and w a t e r q u a l i t y c o n t r o l problems i n i n l a n d s i n k s . Logan, Richard F. 1961 Post-Columbian developments i n t h e a r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f America. ^ L.D. Stamp, e d . , A h i s t o r y of land use i n arid r e g i o n s . UNESCO, P a r i s . Arid Zone R e s e a r c h 17: 2 7 7 - 2 9 7 . A companion r e v i e w t o A r m i l l a s ' on pre-Columbian America ( q . v . ) , t h i s paper d e s c r i b e s t h e p h y s i c a l s e t t i n g , i n c l u d i n g l a n d f o r m s , c l i m a t e and v e g e t a t i o n . It offers a brief h i s t o r y o f t h e development o f a n a t i o n a l l a n d u s e p o l i c y : g r a z i n g i n d u s t r y , dry farming, i r r i g a t i o n a g r i c u l t u r e , r e c r e a t i o n and u r b a n i z a t i o n . -489- Love, R.M. 1970 The r a n g e l a n d s o f t h e w e s t e r n U.S. S c i e n t i f i c American 222(2): 88-96. GA 71C-1155. SWRA W70-04907. C a t t l e g r a z i n g i s t h e primary u s e o f t h e r a n g e l a n d s o f the western United S t a t e s . The w e s t e r n ranges f a l l i n t o t h r e e d i s t i n c t c a t e g o r i e s : n o r t h e r n Rocky Mountains, i n t e r mountain and Southwest. True g r a s s l a n d i s r a r e i n t h e Southwest. I n s t e a d , d e s e r t s and s e m i d e s e r t s predominate. V e g e t a t i o n management i s t h e major problem i n improving the rangelands. Brush c o n v e r s i o n programs have shown s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e s i n water y i e l d i n t h e t r e a t e d areas. This i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t an acre o f brush u s e s s i x more a c r e - i n c h e s o f w a t e r than does herbaceous v e g e t a tion. With proper management o f brush i n t h e watersheds o f t h e West, t h e land can p r o v i d e more meat and lumber, s u f f e r l e s s from e r o s i o n and f l o o d , and be more u s a b l e for recreation. The r a p i d l y growing n e e d f o r more r e c r e a t i o n a l land i s c a u s i n g c o n f l i c t s w i t h o t h e r l a n d u s e s . The advantages o f brush c o n t r o l and t h e u s e o f c o n t r o l l e d f i r e s , transhumance, canopy a r c h i t e c t u r e , l e a f - a r e a index and e x o t i c g r a s s e s are o t h e r t o p i c s d i s c u s s e d . McGinnies, W.G./Goldman, B . J . / P a y l o r e , P a t r i c i a 1968 D e s e r t s o f t h e w o r l d , an a p p r a i s a l o f r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e i r p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . U n i v e r s i t y of Arizona P r e s s , Tucson. 788 p. A book i n t e n d e d f o r t h o s e s e r i o u s l y i n t e r e s t e d i n p l a n n i n g , managing and e x e c u t i n g r e s e a r c h o r development e f f o r t s in the arid world. I t c o n t a i n s e v a l u a t i v e comments on t h e work a c c o m p l i s h e d i n weather and c l i m a t e , geomorphol o g y and s u r f a c e h y d r o l o g y , s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s , v e g e t a t i o n , faima and d e s e r t c o a s t a l z o n e s . Extensive bibliographies f o r each s e c t i o n . Morris, E.H. 1948 Modem o v e r g r a z i n g by l i v e s t o c k a s t h e d i r e c t cause o f r u i n o f s o u t h w e s t e r n a g r i c u l t u r e , w i t h a n o t e by H.H. Chapman. Journal o f F o r e s t r y 4 6 ( 1 2 ) : 9 2 9 - 9 3 1 . Reprint o f a p o r t i o n ( p . 5 - 8 ) o f t h e a u t h o r ' s 1939 Carn e g i e I n s t i t u t i o n o f Washington p u b l i c a t i o n . A r c h a e o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s of t h e La P l a t a D i s t r i c t , s o u t h w e s t e r n Colorado and n o r t h w e s t e r n New Mexico, d e a l i n g w i t h c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e pueblo area b e f o r e t h e advent o f w h i t e man and the g r a z i n g o f sheep and c a t t l e . Overgrazing d i s t u r b e d the e q u i l i b r i u m o f a n a t u r a l b a l a n c e o f f o r c e s such as r a i n f a l l , e r o s i o n and v e g e t a t i o n . -19- Paylore, P a t r i c i a , ed. 1976 D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n : A world b i b l i o g r a p h y . U n i v e r s i t y of A r i z o n a , Tucson, O f f i c e o f Arid Lands S t u d i e s . 644 p . Compiled f o r t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Geographic Union's 23rd Cong r e s s , Moscow, 1976. C o n s i s t s o f 1 , 7 5 0 c i t a t i o n s , most with abstracts. Produced from t h e OALS computerized Arid Lands I n f o r m a t i o n System. D i v i d e d i n t o r e g i o n s c o v e r i n g t h e S a h a r a - S a h e l , East A f r i c a , South A f r i c a , t h e Middle E a s t , t h e USSR, P a k i s t a n , I n d i a , China, Aust r a l i a , and South and North America, w i t h r e g i o n a l i n t r o d u c t i o n s by world e x p e r t s . Maps. Paylore, P a t r i c i a , éd. 1976 The Sonoroan D e s e r t , a r e t r o s p e c t i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y . H i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , by W.G. McGinnies. U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a , Tucson, O f f i c e o f Arid Lands S t u d i e s , Arid Lands A b s t r a c t s 8. 777 r e f s . C i t a t i o n s s e l e c t e d from t h e computerized Arid Lands I n f o r m a t i o n System (ALIS) c o v e r such d i v e r s e t o p i c s as e n v i r o n m e n t , f a u n a , geomorphology, geography, s u r f a c e materials, vegetation, desert grassland, succulents, w a t e r , w e a t h e r and c l i m a t e . F u l l a b s t r a c t s f o r each w i t h computerized keyword and author i n d e x e s . P a y l o r e , P a t r i c i a / H a n e y , Richard Desertification; Process, Papers p r e s e n t e d during a November 1 9 7 5 - A p r i l 1976. Tucson. 125 p . A., J r . , eds. 1976 problems, p e r s p e c t i v e s . 14-week seminar s e r i e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f Arizona, The t o p i c o f t h i s s e r i e s was a d d r e s s e d by s e v e r a l g e n e r a l i s t s s p e a k i n g on i t s e c o l o g y , t r e n d s , c a u s e s ; f o l l o w e d by s e v e r a l c a s e s t u d i e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e t h e s e s advanced g e n e r a l l y . These d e a l t w i t h a r e a s i n A u s t r a l i a , e a s t e r n Oregon and s o u t h w e s t e r n Arizona and n o r t h w e s t e r n Mexico. P o w e l l , J . W. 1962 Report on t h e l a n d s o f t h e a r i d r e g i o n o f t h e United S t a t e s , w i t h a more d e t a i l e d account o f t h e l a n d s o f Utah. Ed. by Wallace S t e g n e r . Belknap P r e s s o f Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s . 202 p . A f i r s t - h a n d account o f t h e a r i d r e g i o n o f t h e U.S. w r i t t e n i n 1878. Subjects covered include p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r e g i o n , t h e l a n d s y s t e m needed, r a i n f a l l o f w e s t e r n U . S . , water supply, questions r e l a t i n g t o i r r i g a b l e lands o f S a l t Lake d r a i n a g e s y s t e m , v a l l e y o f S e v i e r River and t h a t p o r t i o n o f Utah d r a i n e d by Colorado River and t r i b u taries. Author c o n s i d e r s c h a r a c t e r o f l a n d s and e n g i n e e r i n g problems i n v o l v e d i n t h e i r redemption and s u g g e s t i o n s for the l e g i s l a t i v e action necessary. _9n_ V S e a r s , P.B. 1959 D e s e r t s on t h e inarch. 3rd ed. , r e v . U n i v e r s i t y o f Oklahoma P r e s s , Norman. 178 p. ^ This popular account o f man's m i s u s e o f t h e l a n d and f a i l u r e to imderstand i t s e c o l o g y c e n t e r s around t h e h i s t o r i c a l development o f land u s e i n t h e United S t a t e s . The c u t t i n g o f f o r e s t s , farming o f c o t t o n , plowing of p r a i r i e s , p o l l u t i n g o f r i v e r s , o v e r g r a z i n g and g e n e r a l d i s r e g a r d f o r t h e w e l f a r e of t h e land are shown t o be r e l a t e d t o f l o o d s , m u d s l i d e s , d u s t s t o r m s , e r o s i o n and natural calamities. The author argues t h a t o n l y through a broad e c o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the environment and man's r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t coupled w i t h moral commitment i n t h e employment o f t e c h n i c a l r e s o u r c e s and i n our way o f l i v i n g w i l l we be a b l e t o change our h i s t o r i c p r e c e d e n t s . Steward, George 1936 H i s t o r y o f range u s e . In U.S. Senate Document 199, The w e s t e r n r a n g e , p. 119-133". Washington, D.C. U.S. Bureau o f Land Management 1968 The C a l i f o r n i a d e s e r t . A r e c r e a t i o n study of the desert p u b l i c domain l a n d s o f C a l i f o r n i a . Preliminary review U.S. N a t i o n a l Park S e r v i c e , Bureau o f Land Management, X'iashington, D.C. Woodbury, R.B. 1963 Indian a d a p t a t i o n o f a r i d e n v i r o n m e n t s . to C. Hodge and P.C. Duisberg, e d s . , A r i d i t y and Man. American A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e Advancement o f S c i e n c e , Pu. 74: 5 5 - 8 5 . B r i e f l y t r a c e s man's changing r o l e s i n t h e w e s t e r n U.S. D i s c u s s e s f o o d g a t h e r s , b i g game h u n t e r s , v i l l a g e farming l i f e , v i l l a g e s and w a t e r s o u r c e s , w a t e r c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s , d e c l i n e o f v i l l a g e farming l i f e , i n t r o d u c t i o n o f adaptable Athabascans, s h i f t t o wagework, c o l l a p s e o f Great Basin c u l t u r e , r i s e and f a l l o f t h e S i o u x , adjustment t o r e s e r v a t i o n l i f e , Papago s t r u g g l e s i n t h e d e s e r t , Indian adj u s t m e n t s and p r o s p e c t s . C l i m a t i c change i n t h e 1 3 t h c e n t u r y was probably r e s p o n s i b l e f o r e a r l y d e c l i n e o f v i l l a g e farming l i f e . Grazing abuses by I n d i a n s and w h i t e s have r e s u l t e d i n d e t e r i o r a t e d r a n g e l a n d s . The p l i g h t o f t h e Indian i n t h e l a s t c e n t u r y o r so i s n o t t h e r e s u l t o f environmental c a u s e s such as a r i d i t y ; t h e c a u s e s are s o c i a l . I t can be s e e n as p a r t o f t h e worldwide problem o f the nonl i t e r a t e , n o n - i n d u s t r i a l world c o n f r o n t e d by t h e t e c h n o l o g y and s o c i a l and e t h i c a l systems o f t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d . Indian t e c h n i q u e s and t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y o f working w i t h t h e environment r a t h e r than a g a i n s t i t may be i n d i s p e n s i b l e ingredients for the s u c c e s s f u l u t i l i z a t i o n of arid lands. -21- APPENDIX B A PARTIAL LIST OF U.S. AGENCY-SUPPORTED ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH DESERTIFICATION I. U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (USAID) A. Programs i n the Sahel r e g i o n i n c l u d e a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e fj; Comité Permanent I n t e r e t a t s de Lutte c o n t r a l a S e c h e r e s s e dans l e Sahel (CILSS) i n p l a n n i n g i t s r e g i o n a l d e v e l o p ment program; e s t a b l i s h i n g a w a t e r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n and p r o c e s s i n g system f o r t h e Sahel Water Data Network; and d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s t o c o n t r o l food crop p e s t s throughout the S a h e l . B. Grants t o i n s t i t u t i o n s i n c l u d e one t o t h e F l o r i d a I n s t i t u t e o f Technology and another t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Arizona. a. The F l o r i d a I n s t i t u t e o f Technology i s cond u c t i n g a p r o j e c t e n t i t l e d "Solar Cookers f o r H a i t i : A F e a s i b i l i t y S t u d y . " H a i t i ' s firewood and c h a r c o a l r e s o u r c e s are becoming s c a r c e as are t h o s e i n o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . The p r o j e c t c o n s i s t s of a r e v i e w o f s o l a r cooker d e s i g n s , e v a l u a t i o n of t h e i r c o m p a t i b i l i t y with H a i t i a n cooking r e q u i r e m e n t s and p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n o f a s o l a r cooker a p p r o p r i a t e t o H a i t i a n needs. 2. The U n i v e r s i t y o f Arizona was awarded a grant t o s t r e n g t h e n i t s r e s p o n s e c a p a b i l i t y i n "Multiple Use P l a n n i n g and Management o f Natural Resources i n Arid and Semiarid D e v e l o p i n g A r e a s . " The i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y f a c u l t y at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a i n v o l v e d i n t h e program i s e s t a b l i s h i n g linkages with i n s t i t u t i o n s in developing arid and s e m i a r i d r e g i o n s t o promote s e r v i c e , t r a i n i n g and r e s e a r c h aimed a t d e v e l o p i n g s o l u t i o n s t o t h e i r problems. C. USAID p r o j e c t s w i t h s p e c i f i c c o u n t r i e s are l i s t e d below. 1. Chad--The"Chad Range and L i v e s t o c k Development" p r o j e c t w i l l d e v e l o p t h e manpower c a p a b i l i t y t o implement a n a t i o n a l range management program and, i n t h e p r o c e s s , d e s i g n a n a t i o n a l range management p l a n . The p r o j e c t w i l l i n c l u d e t r a i n i n g i n p r i n c i p l e s and p r a c t i c e s o f range management and a p o s i t i o n on a n a t i o n a l range and l i v e s t o c k p l a n n i n g commission. -22- / i , / j (A 2. Cameroon--The "North Cameroon L i v e s t o c k and A g r i c u l t u r a l Development" p r o j e c t i n v o l v e s r e g i o n a l development through r e s o u r c e management and w i l l i n c l u d e a l a n d u s e p o t e n t i a l s i n v e n t o r y and development o f range management p r a c t i c e s , f o o d crops and a l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r y . fti 3. E t h i o p i a — A "Drought R e h a b i l i t a t i o n and Development S t r a t e g y " p r o j e c t w i l l guide government r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and development e f f o r t s i n s o u t h e r n E t h i o p i a and w i l l i n c l u d e a i d i n g i n t h e p r o c e s s o f i d e n t i f y i n g proper donor a s s i s t a n c e ; s t u d y i n g and a n a l y z i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l , demographic and s o c i o e c o n o m i c v a r i a b l e s i n E t h i o p i a ; and f o r m u l a t i n g drought r e h a b i l i t a t i o n and development s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e southern l o w l a n d s . 4. Ghana--The "Developmental A p p l i c a t i o n s o f S c i e n c e and Technology i n Ghana" program administ e r s a p i l o t r e s e a r c h program on t h e problems o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n n o r t h e a s t Ghana which i n c l u d e s a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e and methods d e r i v e d from t h e p i l o t s t u d y t o two a r e a s and an examinat i o n o f mechanisms t o e s t a b l i s h r e s e a r c h p r i o r i t i e s , ' j i I 5 . Kenya--The "Survey o f Semiarid and Marginal L a n d s " w i l l i n c l u d e q u a n t i t a t i v e , n a r r a t i v e and g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e human and n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i n the project area. Core problems t h a t c o n s t r a i n development w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d and d e l i n e a t e d including population, migration patterns, eros i o n , d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , water a v a i l a b i l i t y , d e f o r e s t a t i o n , c r e d i t , production technology, marketing, e x t e n s i o n , elements of a g r i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e along with the p o t e n t i a l s o c i o c u l t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s . 6. M a l i - - T h e r e are s e v e r a l p r o j e c t s w i t h Malian institutions. a. The "Land Use C a p a b i l i t y Inventory" w i l l p r o v i d e guidance i n n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n through development o f a 1: 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 map showing economic l a n d c l a s s e s and movement u n i t s and a t a b u l a r and n a r r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f management' u n i t s . -23- b . The " M a l i L i v e s t o c k P r o j e c t " w i l l t e s t the v e r t i c a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of the l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r y through range development, c o n t r o l l e d g r a z i n g , p o s t - s e a s o n maintenance f e e d i n g , s m a l l - s c a l e farm f a t t e n i n g and f e e d l o t o p e r a t i o n s . •- c. "Mali L i v e s t o c k S e c t o r Development" w i l l i n i t i a t e development o f the Malian l i v e s t o c k s e c t o r through l i g h t d e v e l o p ment and management o f t h e D i l l y area (800,000 h a . ) , c o n t r o l l i n g the t s e t s e f l y i n a small area n e a r Bamako, market development and t r a i n i n g at a l l l e v e l s . | ffi ; -<' d. The "Mali Small Ruminant Survey" w i l l determine t h e p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n and app r o p r i a t e p l a c e o f sheep and g o a t s i n the Malian economy by s u r v e y i n g numbers, d i s t r i b u t i o n , ownership and economic r o l e s and by t e s t i n g c e r t a i n h y p o t h e s e s o f the r o l e o f sheep and g o a t s i n economic development. e. The "Mali F i r s t Region I n t e g r a t e d A g r i c u l t u r a l Production" p r o j e c t involves the w e s t e r n panhandle o f Mali and s h o u l d , w i t h i t s s u c c e s s o r s , b r i n g 1 3 , 8 0 0 s q . km. into ecological balance. A c t i v i t i e s inc l u d e a p r o j e c t a l l o c a t i o n s u r v e y , devel o p i n g a cropping s y s t e m c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the environment and a program o f g r a z i n g management. f. The "Mali Operation Haute V a l l e e " w i l l b r i n g t h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e N i g e r River bottom e x t e n d i n g from j u s t above Bamako to the Guinea border i n t o e c o l o g i c a l l y b a l a n c e d management through l a n d - u s e condit i o n and p o t e n t i a l s s u r v e y , s m a l l - s c a l e i r r i g a t i o n and v i l l a g e g r a z i n g and l i v e s t o c k programs. 7. Mauritania--Two p r o j e c t s i n Mauritania are d i s c u s s e d below. a. The "Mauritania 1 0 t h Region Development" program aims a t o p t i m i z i n g e c o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e f o r economic e n d e a v o r s , s u s t a i n e d l i v e s t o c k p r o d u c t i o n and o u t p u t and i n c r e a s e d f o o d supply i n t h e r e g i o n through a range and l i v e s t o c k management c o n t r o l l e d demons t r a t i o n , a d a p t i v e t r i a l s o f s o i l and crop management, e x t e n s i o n a d o p t i o n o f the new p r a c t i c e s and g r a s s f i r e c o n t r o l . -24- • i i ¡[ • ! b. The "Mauritania R e f o r e s t a t i o n " proj e c t w i l l improve t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l condition of the national f o r e s t service and i n c r e a s e t h e supply o f c o o k i n g f u e l . Improved c a p a b i l i t y t o manage t h e r e newable r e s o u r c e s o f t h e p u b l i c domain are l i k e l y t o be emphasized a s t h e proj e c t design proceeds. 8. N i g e r - - T h e "Niger Range and L i v e s t o c k Development" p r o j e c t w i l l develop a p i l o t , c o n t r o l l e d g r a z i n g program and a n a t i o n a l g r a z i n g management system. 9. S e n e g a l - - T h e r e are two p r o j e c t s i n S e n e g a l . a. The "Senegal Range and L i v e s t o c k P r o j e c t " i s a p i l o t , i n t e g r a t e d range management a c t i v i t y and w i l l i n i t i a t e a n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e management program through b a l a n c e d g r a z i n g w i t h i n d e f i n e d boundaries, veterinary support, stock w a t e r development and s a l t , m i n e r a l s and t r a c e e l e m e n t s . b. The "Senegal Land C o n s e r v a t i o n and Forestry" project w i l l i n i t i a t e a res o u r c e management program through t h e f o r e s t and w i l d l i f e program. 10. Upper V o l t a - - T h e " O n c h o c e r c i a s i s - f r e e Area Planning" p r o j e c t w i l l develop an e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y sound s e t t l e m e n t p l a n f o r t h e " o n c h o - f r e e " areas o f Upper V o l t a and w i l l i n c l u d e a l a n d - u s e c a p a b i l i t i e s survey. Ii II. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE A. ^ I I (USDA) Wide-ranging r e s e a r c h programs are d i s c u s s e d below. 1. Research d i r e c t e d toward c l a s s i f i c a t i o n procedures f o r range r e s o u r c e s , f o r m u l a t i n g g u i d e l i n e s f o r p r e d i c t i n g p o t e n t i a l s and a s s e s s m e n t s o f range r e s p o n s e s t o f o r a g e u t i l i z a t i o n regimes and v e g e t a t i o n m a n i p u l a t i o n s a l t e r n a t i v e s i s conducted at Tiicson, Arizona. 2. S t u d i e s on the a d a p t a t i o n o f p l a n t s t o d e s e r t environments are conducted at t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f California, Riverside. 3. Methodology f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f remote sensing to natural resources analyses i s being d e v e l o p e d a t Tucson, Arizona. „ , B. Cold desert research programs are discussed below. <5 1. Research concerning ecology and management of salt desert shrub ranges is conducted at Provo, Utah. 2. Studies of shrub and tree iitiproveirient and culture for rehabilitation of wildlands is ijnderway at Provo, Utah. 3. Investigations of ecology and management of p i n o n - j m i p e r woodlands and associated shrub lands in the Great Basin are ongoing at Reno, Nevada. C. Arid range research programs are discussed below. 1. Plants for arid range conditions are being selected at the Plant Materials Center, Los Lunas, New Mexico. 2. Mechanical treatment for establishing plants in arid ranges is being studied at the University of Arizona, Tucson. 3. Research aimed_ at_ selecting techniques^^^jand species for establishing range cover under arid conditions is being conducted at Tucson, Arizona at the Plant Materials Center. D. Irrigated lands research includes a pilot project to determine ways to reduce best the saline drainage flows from irrigated lands into fivers, with return flow desalinization being the focus of this study at Wellton, Arizona. E. Rehabi-litation and Management Programs are discussed below. 1. Research directed toward developing methods for rehabilitating and managing mined spoils in the Southwest is conducted at Albuquerque; New Mexico. 2. Studies to promote reestablishment o f plants, animals and hydrologic stability on surface mine spoils and water impoundments in the northern Great Plains are underway at Rapid City, South Dakota, 3. Investigations to develop methods for rehabilitating and managing mined spoils in the Intermountain and northern Rocky Mountains regions are ongoing at Logan, Utah. - 4 9 7 - .¿r III. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY A. (EPA) Wide-ranging research activities are discussed below. 1. A cooperative research project with Egyptian institutions will assess the environmental and health consequences of the Aswan High Dam. 2. A desert biome study with the University of Alexandria (Egypt) utilizes modeling techniques to predict responses should certain events occur such as deforestation or reforestation. 3. Arid lands research projects are imderway in portions of the western United States. B. Specific animal and irrigated crop production environmental assessment projects are being conducted in both India and Pakistan. 1. Research is underway to develop management tools to dispose of animal wastes resulting from a production of animals and poultry in an environmentally safe manner. 2„ Methods are being developed to control the quality of irrigation return flow along with investigating the bio-engineering aspects of agricultural drainage. IV. U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY A. (USGS) LANDSAT research activities are outlined below. 1. General applications of LANDSAT imagery are discussed in the following sections. a. Methods are being developed for terrain description and monitoring utilizing the Australian land systems research approach. Present experim.ents in Queensland, Australia will be continued in the western United States. The mapping system is an integrated system in which soils, vegetations and geomorphic features are combined into single mapping and land management units. -27- b. Methods of flood mapping with LANDSAT images are being researched which are particularly applicable to determination of flooded areas in arid and semiarid regions and which have potential for identifying recharge areas of both surface and deep aquifers. c. A prime example of the use of LANDSAT images in desert regions on a worldwide basis is a project entitled "Sand Seas of the World," although it is not speci-• fically an Earth Resources Orbiting Satellite project. 2. A regional LANDSAT program involves the impact of strip mining on range resources and wildlife habitat. The environmental impact analysis is using LANDSAT and aerial data in southeastern Idaho, but techniques and methods are transferable on a worldwide basis. B. Two "Training in Remote Sensing Applications" courses for international students are given each year with the goal of teaching remote sensing data interpretative techniques. Other specific courses in various disciplines are given or requested. Courses can be tailored to address specifically land cover and other mapping of desert regions. C. Two research programs focus on mineral wastes. 1. Stabilization of mineral wastes research aims to develop new. or improved methods of stabilizing and/or reclaiming rained lands and mineral waste piles. Six field test sites which have either arid or semiarid climates are located in the states of Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. Testing has been done on wastes from mining and/or processing copper, lead, zinc, uranium and asbestos. 2. "Research on purification and conservation of mineral processing wastewaters seeks to develop effective methods of decontaminating metallurgical wastewaters for process reuse or for discharge. Recycling of process wastewaters is particularly important in regions having either arid or semiarid climates. '23 D. Several projects address arid and semiarid lands vegetation. 1. Studies of desert shrub ecology and utilization of soil moisture under high moisture stresses are being conducted. 2. Many aspects of the "Gila River Phreatophyte Project" have worldwide applications, especially the use of remote sensing in monitoring water use by vegetation and analysis of evapotranspiration. 3. An analysis of soil moisture data from sampling desert ecosystems to estimate evapotranspiration led to the discovery that the greatest reduction in available soil moisture was in desert grassland rather than oak woodland. 4. A study of saguaro populations in the Arizona desert is being conducted to determine causes for fluctuations in plant establishment. Climate, disease and man's activities are being investigated. 5. Abandoned agricultural land in the TucsonPhoenix (Arizona) area is being studied to determine the rate of reestablishment of native vegetation species. The fields have been abandoned for about 40 years. E. Hydrology research is also being conducted. 1. A study of grazing patterns aims to determine their effects on rvinoff and sediment yield in salt desert shrub terrain. The study site is in western Colorado. 2. The effects on arid lands hydrology of converting vegetation cover from woody shrubs to grassland are being investigated. 3. Another study involves assessing the effects of mechanical land treatments such as contour furrowing, pitting and ripping on hydrology including runoff, soil moisture availability and plant communities. -29- V. NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION A. (NOAA) NOAA participates with the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and the U.S. Air Force Environmental Technical Applications Center (ETAC) in extending the global inventory of existing climatic data. 1. Analyzed and observed data from the National Meteorological Center (NMC) flow into NOAA's National Climatological Center (NCC). 2. Similar data from the A i r Force Global Weather Central go to ETAC and subsequently to NCC, where it becomes part of a common poll of global meteorological data. NCAR, using data from NCC and other sources, reformulates the data in ways convenient for research purposes, archives it and makes it available as a service to members of the research community. (A July 1975 NCAR report, "Data Sets for Meteorological Research," describes the types of data made available through the efforts of these three organizations.) B. Long-range predictions and satellite programs within NOAA furnish a starting base for a climate diagnostic activity. 1. The National Weather Service (Nía7S/NMC) longrange prediction program includes necessary analyses with diagnostic studies as circumstances permit. Data sets are generated which extend back over the useful history of data used. 2. NMC ongoing programs include the study of year-to-year fluctuations in the stratospheric circulation, analyses of stratospheric warming and calculation of selected parameters related to the global stratospheric energy budget. Interrelationship between stratospheric and tropospheric circulations is explored. 3. NMC maintains a 30-day field of global weather data which, with similar data from the National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS), is the present source for compiling current climatic data sets. - 4. NMC is compiling, for the Environmental Data Service Center for Climatic and Environmental Assessment (CCEA) and the NWS Agricultural Weather Service Office (AWSO) , weekly extracts of the /• most elementary climatic parameters needed to assess current climatic and crop conditions over the world's major agricultural areas. 5. mis AWSO, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), analyzes and publishes the previous week's weather and crop conditions in the U.S. A monthly summary for major foreign agricultural areas is included (although monthly climatic data from many areas are incomplete). 6. To the extent limited resources permit, CCEA is developing experimental crop yield models and is participating in the NASA/USDA/ NOAA effort termed "Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment" (LACIE) to develop grain production forecasts. Current and potential applications include providing timely and early warning crop alerts, fresh water supply estimates and crop yields. 7. NESS prepares on an operational basis global charts of monthly and seasonal values of radiative heat budget and monthly and seasonal resultant wind fields at 200 and 700 millibars and their anomalies. 8. NESS is studying interrelations of cloudiness and circulation over large space and time scales. 9. NESS applies satellite imaging for detecting, measuring and mapping mean monthly winter snow cover over the Northern Hemisphere and is experimenting with snowfall prediction methods for North American and Eurasian winter months. 10. The Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) is examining variations in sunshine amount, total ozone and tropospheric temperature changes as part of a continuing investigation into climatic trends during the last few decades, 11. The Geophysical Fluid D3mamics Laboratory (GFDL) is investigating the sensitivity and stability of climate models to such external variables as the solar constant and atmospheric carbon dioxide to assess the value of using simple models in climate studies. -31- C. NOAA Experimental Research Laboratories conduct cloud seeding experiments in cumulus clouds over southern Florida for the purpose of inducing the merger and growth of cumulus towers developing in proximity to one another thereby increasing precipitation from the larger cloud system and hopefully increasing net precipitation over a large target area. The technique once proven may have a potential application in semiarid regions when appropriate clouds occur; although successful transfer o f the massive or dynamic seeding approach used in Florida to drought areas is xmlikely. D. NOAA administers the World Weather Watch Voluntary Assistance Program for the Department of State. These funds: 1. Provide radio transmitting and receiving equipment to developing countries to improve national and international meteorological data exchange. 2. Provide wind-finding radar to tropical area countries. 3. Supply direct readout equipment to provide a capability for intercepting processed data from the GOES system. 4. Provide long-term and short-term fellowships to meteorologists in developing countries to increase their capability to use m o d e m equipment and to improve their understanding of atmospheric processes that result in eventual, longrange weather and climate change. 5. Support international efforts m d e r the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) to define the research required to advance knowledge on the physical basis of climate and climatic fluctuations. E. Understanding the physical basis of climate is the "second" objective of GARP. NOAA is contributing directly to GARP by: 1. Processing, analyzing and archiving atmospheric and oceanographic data. 2. Developing mathematical models and data management systems. -32- 3. Specifying, developing and procuring special observing systems. 4. Conducting fundamental investigations of the dynamics of geophysical fluids, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the cryosphere over a wide range of time and space scales. 5. Expanding research efforts on cause-and-effeet relationships between climate and atmospheric pollutants. 6. Conducting a comprehensive program to develop ground-based techniques for remote measurement of critical meteorological and oceanographic parameters. F. VI. NOAA input into the World Weather Watch (WWW) will impact on the United Nations Environment Program EARTm^7ATCH since the Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), the monitoring segment of EARTHWATCH, will make use of the observing, processing and telecommijnicating systems of Wl\fW. NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (NSF) A. "Analysis of Structure and Function of Desert Ecosystems" has as its goal elucidation of patterns and magnitude of accumulation and transfer of biologically important resources such as water, nutrients and energy; discovery and quantification of mechanisms by which those processes are limited or augmented; modeling the system conceptually and mathematically; and advancement of the base of ecosystem theory and aid in making management decisions about renewable natural resources. B. "Structure, Fxmction and Utilization of Grassland Ecosystems" will model the ecosystem; improve ecosystem theory; imderstand the biomass, trophic structure, water, nutrient and energy flow; and utilize and synthesize the results. C. "African Climate During the Last Ice Age" is designed to test the hypothesis that East Africa was dry during the height of the the last temperate glaciation; examine the movement of the convergence zone between the dry Sahara Harmattan and cooler, moist air flows off the Gulf of Guinea; and understand the fundamental nature of global climate change using East African lake cores. -33- D. Research about "Aerosol Transport over the Equatorial North Atlantic Ocean as Related to Weather, Climate and Land Use in North Africa" will establish an aerosol and atmospheric turbidity network across the equatorial North Atlantic for monitoring the aerosol output of North Africa; identify source areas, determine if increased aerosol output is derived from normally arid and/or desert use practices; measure the time required for soils to become stabilized against wind erosion once rains return to normal; and measure mass transport of mineral aerosols to the ocean. Eo "Djmamics of Large-Scale Atmosphere and Oceanic Processes" research is a model study of the Sahelian region indicting that feedbacks from the ground creates weather patterns that reinforce and accentuate the arid or desert region. Other NSF research includes "Formation of Deserts," "Midwestern Drought Indices and Drought Cycles Using Sea-Surface Temperature Anomalies from the Pacific," "Frequency and Power Spectral Analysis of Drought Cycles," "Arid Land Climate Patterns," "Southwestern U.S. Deserts and Their Similarity with African Weather and Climate," "Bovine Adaptation to Desert Environments Focusing on North Africa," "Adaptation of Large Mammals to the Sahara," "General Dynamics of Arid Land Ecosystems." Also "Ways in Which Disparate Organisms Evolved in the Desert," "Management of Environmental Systems to Prevent Desertification," "Studies of Nomadism," "Relationship Between Drought and Grazing Patterns," "Ancient Social Adaptation," "Hunting and Gaming Practices in Botswana and the Kalahari," "Social and Biological Anthropology in the Kalahari," "Drought and Population Resettlement in the American Southwest," and "Bedouin Use of Surface Water, Grazing, etc., in Northern Arabia." APPENDIX C Spanish Summary Introducción La presente es para indicar el estado del problema de desertificacion en los Estados Unidos. Se incluye un resumen historico sobre los problemas del use de tierras en las zonas áridas y semi-áridas de los Estados Unidos, se discute algunos de lo.s problemas actuales, y se delinea la necesidad de planeamiento y manejo racional de tierras en Norteamérica. La desertificacion no es un problema solo para los países en desarollo. Es un problema que el mundo entero tiene que combatir-, Norteamérica comparte en este problema, puede ofrecer soluciones, y sin duda beneficiará del intercambio de ideas y metodologías qué serán presentadas durante y despúes de la Conferencia de Desertificacion de las Naciones Unidas. Una sequía qué duro varios meses .en la Reservación de los Indios Papago en Arizona ocasiono fondos y servicios de emergencia de varias agencias federales, y causó severas perdidas de ganado y cultivos. Los programas de reclamación de tierras y la asistencia a las reservaciones Indias han alcanzado a los billones de dolares—y tanto los beneficios como los gastos tienen ramificaciones nacionales. Con la posible excepción de algunos de los usos de recreación, se deberá acentuar qué la experiencia nortecamericana sobre la desertificacion será pertinente y aplicable a otras zonas áridas y semi-áridas del mundo. Historia Se han utilizado las tierras áridas y semi-áridas en Norteamérica durante los últimos 11,0 00 años, y quizás mas, con el cultivo ocurriendo hace 6 ,00 0 años. Hasta el siglo XIX, la tenencia de tierra fué el problema principal en Norteamérica. ' Acción por parte del Congreso de los Estados Unidos trato de establecer controles sobre pastoreo, pero hasta hoy día el control científico del pasturaje se complica par el uso multiple y las numerosas acciones legales referentes a la propiedad y arrendamiento de tierras. -35- Pasturaje La mayoría de los especialistas sobre el control científico del pasturaje están de acuerdo que'' muchas tierras publicas (federales) y privadas se están degradando, y qué se deberían aumentar los controles. Hay muchos casos bien documentados en los Estados Unidos en los cuales el sobre-pastoreo causo la . invasion de arbustos pequeños de poco valor nutritivo, la aceleración del proceso de erosion, y el agotamiento de aguas subterráneas. Agricultura de Riego El riego ha transformado literalmente muchas partes de los desiertos del suroeste árido de los Estados Unidos en centros de producción agrícola. Pero el riego ha contribuido al proceso de desertificacion debido al consumo de agua, salinizacion del suelo, y a veces el abandonamiento de estas tierras agrícolas, y su conversación a tierras estériles sin utilidad. Minería Aunque sus efectos- no son extensivos en area, la minería puede prácticamente crear un desierto local. Urbanización La urbanización puede ser uno de los mejores usos para las tierras áridas y semi-áridas, con tal de que' el buen manejo y el sentido común se use en cada caso. Aunque el mal uso de aguas urbanas podría resultar en "ciudades fantasmas" y desiertos de concreto, los problemas qué mas se comentan son causados por los comerciantes de tierras, quienes subdividen el desierto, construyen "calles," y tratan de vender terrenos áridos a personas crédulas. Centenares de estas "calles" sin pavimiento cruzan los desiertos dé Arizona, Nueva Mexico, y Nevada, sin ningún edificio visible, y se convierten en arroyos, los cuales destruyen las capas superficiales del suelo. -36- Recreación Debido al sol en las regiones áridas, el buen ingreso del trabajador americano, y mas tiempo para el recreo, se ha creado un problema de degradación de tierras tanto fastidioso como interesante. Motocicletas, jips de cuatro-traccion, y otros vehículos de recreo han invadido el desierto y han dejado sus marcas. Freatofitas y Otros Controles de Vegetación Muchos de los arboles qué se encuentran al borde de los ríos y arroyos, y qué consumen mucho agua, las freatofitas, debrían, en la opinion de algunos, ser eliminados en ciertos lugares. También se ha sugerido la eliminación de vegetación de millones de acres de bosque y desierto en Arizona, para incrementar el drenaje de aguas. Tales planes, sinembargo, podrían tener consequencias serias al largo plazo .en cuanto al potencial de desertificacion. Al corto plazo, incrementando el drenaje de agua por medio de la eliminación de vegetación representará menos agua infiltrándose a las aguas subterráneas, y sedimento se accumulará mas rápidamente en las cuencas de captación. Resumen Aunque la palabra "desertificacion" es relativemente nueva en el vocabulario científico inglés, el mal uso de la tierra y los recursos naturales no es nuevo. , La desertificacion es realmente un problema serio; entre otros, los factores contribuyentes son: sobre-pastoreo, salinización de los suelos, agotamiento de recursos de agua, presiones de población, abandonamiento de tierras, algunas actividades mineras, y la destrucción de la superficie del desierto por vehículos de recreo. Sería un error ignorar las consequencias de la desertificacion en los Estados Unidos. Mientras que la alta tecnología americana tiene gran capacidad de producción, tiene igualmente gran capacidad de destrucción. Si los planificadores y administradores de recursos naturales, los intereses privados, y las agencias federales de regulación no mantienen vigilancia sobre la degradación de tierras en el suroeste, la desertificacion podría llegar a tener repercusiones nacionales de serias proporciones. Tenemos el conocimiento técnico para controlar, y en ciertos casos, hasta reversar la degradación de tierras. Sinembargo, las presiones de una población que está creciendo demasiado rápido, como en muchas otros países, junto con los problemas sociales relaciondandos con la aplicación de la tecnología conocida, no permiten un optimismo sin cautela. DESERTIFICATION IN LATIN AMERICA FROM AN ECOLOGICAL AND AGRICULTURAL VIEWPOINT F e r n a n d o S u á r e z de C a s t r o This document was presented at the Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Americas held at Santiago, Chile, from 23 to 26 February 1977 in preparation for the United Nations Conference on Desertification to be held at Nairobi, Kenya, from 29 August to 7 September 1977. 77-2-411 ' D E S E E T I F Í C A T I O N I N L A T I N AMERICA FROM AN ÉCOLOCSICAL AND AGRICULTURAL VIEWPOINT b y F e r n a n d o S u á r e z de C a s t r o A, 1. It with i t it to attempt before to define so a s t o e n s u r e t h a t or s i t u a t i o n is GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS m i g h t be as w e l l , this subject, entering.into 2o , The f i r s t term desertification. that Only w i t h c l e a r l y defined to to i n the understanding must be d e f i n e d i s it is the recently D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n would t h e r e f o r e reasons, t a k i n g place over w h i c h we s h a l l try fairly which 3. or areas w i t h s u f f i c i e n t zones, deserts. in this of the study. scope r e a c h i n g o n l y t o which excludes the rainfall for the the extensive continuous thus d e l i b e r a t e l y omits the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of l a r g e areas s i t u a t e d outside as a r e s u l t for crops. The d i s c u s s i o n o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n problem of the culminates l o n g p e r i o d s and to give l a t e r b o r d e r s o f t h e zones w i t h s c a r c e r a i n f a l l , production of a g r i c u l t u r a l c o i n e d word be a f o r m o f d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f a . The t e r m i s i n t e n d e d t o h a v e a g e o g r a p h i c humid r e g i o n s , and intended to i d e n t i f y i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f such zones i n t o u n p r o d u c t i v e different apparent described. We u n d e r s t a n d t h a t ecosystem, terminology misunderstandings, o r e v e n more s e r i o u s , process of degradation of a r i d or s e m i - a r i d zones, specific connected t h e y a r e u s e d t h e same phenomenon agreement which c o n c e a l s marked d i f f e r e n c e s the s i t u a t i o n s of some t e r m s t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n which g i v e s r i s e d i v e r g e n c e s and even c o n f l i c t s , evaluation of a discussion the meaning o f wherever i s being described» possible ^ i m p r o p e r use o f a g r i c u l t u r a l land the the which Director of Operation Analysis, Inter-American I n s t i t u t e of A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s , San J o s é , Ccvsta S2 ca o The a u t h o r w o u l d l i k e t o e x p r e s s h i s g r a t i t u d e f o r t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n o f D r . P e t e r D u i s b e r g , who r e v i e w e d t h e s t u d y and c o n t r i b u t e d some i n t e r e s t i n g s u g g e s t i o n s . /causes or arid - 2 - causes or fávctíiií's W a t é r e r o s i ó n o r . t h é p r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l by rain. ko this I n L a t i n Awerica, great significance since a r e a s and t h r e a t e n s We r e f e r , it deterioration affects territories i n the f i r s t case, the boundaries of H a i t i , destruction of extensive and d e n s e l y w i t h a v^ist p r o d u c t i v e potential. a n d i n t h e second c a s e t o a r e a s . o f the future of the continent Therefore, the d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n referred to i n this of populated t o r e g i o n s such as those l o c a t e d for within such a s t h e Amazon r e g i o j j . s t u d y does n o t c o m p l e t e r a n g e o f phenomena c a u s i n g t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f l a n d L a t i n America, present 5. but is very special c o n f i n e d t o a r i d and s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n s , f e a t u r e s and r e q u i r e The t e r m s e x t r e m e l y a r i d , arid, d e s i g n a t e r e g i o n s i n which r a i n f a l l scarce, so t h a t is treatment "impossible" to agricultural "very difficult either infrequent it and i r r e g u l a r ; so t h a t not i n f r e q u e n t l y in the f o r m o f one o r two non-existent or very when i t from occurs i n a r i d zones, almost the whole o f the annual r a i n f a l l is. heavy, occurs showers. the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n the c l i m a t i c relates rainfall with temperature, relates with potential and T h o r n t h v / a i t e ' s evapotranspiration completely covered w i t h v e g e t a t i o n , moisture permajiently a v a i l a b l e ) , taking into (or index the of characteristics Among them may be m e n t i o n e d M a r t o n e ' s e q u a t i o n rainfall and c o v e r s s m a l l a r e a s and i s o f t e n v e r y a n d t h e s e c a n be u s e d t o e s t a b l i s h zones. range Under or merely " d i f f i c u l t S e v e r a l i n d e x e s have been d e v e l o p e d f o r from a s u r f a c e which , accordingly. activities and l i m i t e d " Rainfall, of a r i d in and s e m i - a r i d a r e used t o and l i v e s t o c k requiring special care". climates, cover ecosystems develop w i t h s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . such c o n d i t i o n s , 6. soil's o f humid r e g i o n s i s importance the the which which evaporation when t h e r e is account the l e n g t h o f the day a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e . 1 / , P r o f e s s o r M e i g s was c o m m i s s i o n e d by UNESCO 1/ I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t t h e r e i s much d i p c u s s i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e accuracy or usefulness of the various indexes developed f o r the c l i m a t o l o g i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of geographical regions. From a p r a c t i c a l p o i n t o f view, however, the p r e d o m i n a t i n g f a c t o r f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g d e s e r t s ( o r e x t r e m e l y a r i d z o n e s ) a r i d z o n e s and s e m i - a r i d z o n e s , a l l o t h e r f a c t o r s b e i n g e q u a l , s h o u l d be t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y c a n be u s e d b y man a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y those r e l a t e d t o the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water f o r ü l a n t s and a n i m a l s . - 3 - ,to w o r k o n t h i s b a s i s o n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a map s h o w i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n of a r i d land i n the world, America i n c l u d e d here 7. f r o m w h i c h t h e map o f ( w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n s ) Needless to say, has b e e n relative humidity, Latin extracted. although the e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a r i d zones i s t h e s m a l l q u a n t i t y a n d i r r e g u l a r i t y t h e r e a r e many o t h e r the factors of the vegetation, of rainfall, i n v o l v e d such a s t e m p e r a t u r e , evaporation, factor insolation, and c o m p o s i t i o n o f the soil.2/ 80 With the purpose o f aridity differentiating zones w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s on an e c o l o g i c a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l according to the c r i t e r i a agriculture basis, applied in Argentina,3/ t o be s u c c e s s f u l rain that even i f precipitation extensive a r i d regions, for for their the storage, part, receive d r y f a r m i n g t e c h n i q u e s a r e used t h e r e in extremely a r i d regions there t h e needs o f any k i n d o f n a t u r a l a few w i d e l y - s c a t t e r e d 12 m o n t h s . j j / for is that, o r common conservation so i s not little enough insufficient vegetation except, specialized plants, from a complete l a c k of r a i n f a l l 2j for t o c o v e r t h e needs o f s u c h common c r o p s as c e r e a l s cotton,^/ while for m i g h t be s a i d i n a s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n i t w o u l d h a v e ,to be p r a c t i s e d w i t h the a i d of s p e c i a l techniques a n d use o f r a i n - w a t e r ; it of and rainfall i n some c a s e s , such r e g i o n s o f t e n suffering c o n t i n u o u s p e r i o d s o f as much a s Some a u t h o r s a d d t h a t a f e a t u r e of these desert zones A sound d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e h y d r o m e t e r e o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s u s e d i n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a r i d z o n e s may be f o u n d i n t h e s t u d y by C.C. W a l t e r , "Climatologyand hydrometeorology w i t h s p e c i a l regard t o t h e a r i d l a n d s " i n The p r o b l e m s o f t h e a r i d z o n e s . P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e P a r i s Symposium. UNESCO, 1 9 6 2 . For a f u l l d e s c r i p t i o n o f a r i d and s e m i - a r i d l a n d i n A r g e n t i n a , t h e r e p o r t p r e s e n t e d by t h e d e l e g a t i o n o f t h a t c o u n t r y a t t h e L a t i n A m e r i c a n C o n f e r e n c e f o r t h e S t u d y o f A r i d R e g i o n s , h e l d a t Buenos A i r e s i n 1 9 6 3 , may be c o n s u l t e d . (Comité Argentino p a r a e l E s t u d i o de l a s R e g i o n e s A r i d a s y S e m i á r i d a s . Laa t i e r r a s á r i d a s y semiá r i d a s de l a R e p ú b l i c a A r g e n t i n a , I n f o r m e N a c i o n a l , Euenos A i r e s , 1963, pages.") E . S . H i l l s , Ed. Arid lands. A geof^raphical a p p r a i s a l . a n d C o . a n d UNESCO, London, 1 9 6 9 , pages. /is Methuen that - it - is that it even a f t e r has never been p o s s i b l e t o u s e them f o r p e r m a n e n t t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s have been o c c u p i e d f o r which i s a c l e a r sign of t h e i r absolute most e x t e n s i v e - a n d meagre a g r i c u l t u r a l B, 9« inhospitability 10. these regions are located f o r it UNESCO. t h e most p a r t i s estimated that m i l l i o n hectares country), even'for the a r i d or semi-arid shown i n It the w i l l be in Argentina, seen Chile, V e n e z u e l a and M e x i c o . I n Argentina area of the d r y , the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f which i s a t t a c h e d map p r e p a r e d b y P r o f e s s o r M e i g s f o r Peru, years, use. These d a t a c a n be u s e d t o ' c h a r a c t e r i z e Brazil, over 50 ARID AND S E M I - A R I D ZONES OF L A T I N AMERICA regions of L a t i n America, that pasture, while ( o r 15 per the s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n c o v e r s an cent of t h e whole a r e a o f t h e a r i d r e g i o n covers 170 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s , 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e whole t e r r i t o r y , so t h a t the or more t h a n 7,5 p e r cent of t h e c o n t i n e n t a l a r e a o f A r g e n t i n a i s a f f e c t e d by " a r i d c o n d i t i o n s " footnote 3) o The s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o tvio s u b - r e g i o n s i t h e Pampa a n d t h e C h a c o ; and t h e a r i d r e g i o n i n c l u d e s f i v e t h e Chaco, pre-puno, The economic gauged n o t existence Andean p u n o , importance of monte a n d P a t a g o n i a o f o v e r 10 m i l l i o n h e a d o f h e c t a r e s sown t o c e r e a l s and i n d u s t r i a l to forage (see footnote 3 m i l l i o n head o f Over h a l f cattle it covers, but also cattle, over 5 from t h e million c r o p s and a s i m i l a r i s worth n o t i n g a r e a sown that there are over and a b o u t 20 m i l l i o n s h e e p ( s e e f o o t n o t e the t e r r i t o r y a r i d or s e m i - a r i d . is situated; T h i s huge r e g i o n i n c l u d e s t h e N o r t e the Norte Chico, and t h e C e n t r a l especially because o f agricultural while Grande,wwith There i s the Central important mining Desert activity, Zone i s t h e h e a r t of t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n t h e r e and and i n d u s t r i a l arid, w i t h t h e p r o v i n c e s o f A t a c a a a a n d Coquimbo; Zone ( s e m i - a r i d ) . i n the north, 3). o f C h i l e may b e c o n s i d e r e d e x t r e m e l y t h e p r o v i n c e s o f T a r a p a c a a n d A n t o f a g a s t a i n w h i c h t h e Atacama country, 3). crops. I n the a r i d region, 11. sub-regions: t h e s e m i - a r i d r e g i o n o f A r g e n t i n a may be only from the extensive area i t in i t (see production. /12, In the its - 5 - 12. In Peru,the a r i d zone c o m p r i s e s a n a r r o w c o a s t a l s t r i p extends the l e n g t h o f the P a c i f i c r a i n f a l l . , than the Sahara, and c u l t u r a l l i f e , since it it wealth of t h i s Indian inhabitants In Brazil, iirhose w o r s t is p o p u l a t i o n and t h e a r i d i t y irrigation foothills of constitute for a sizable together raining, mainly where country. irregular found i n t h e rainfall north-east, which t h e p r o b l e m s o f p o v e r t y due t o the s o i l of with a n d e x t e n d i n g up t o B o l i v i a , the the population depressed r e g i o n populated the exceedingly severe droughts i n the r e g i o n ; large-scale economic of n a t u r a l grasses t h e a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s a r e feature less I n the highlands, f a m i l y a n d 'sheep w h i c h , i s t h e most d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a o f 13» country's i n t h e Andean extensive plains c a p a c i t y p r o v i d e s sustenance the main by t h e o r i g i n a l rise irrigated agriculture. of animals o f the Camelidae constitute that receives h a v e c r e a t e d soiafe 5 0 o a s e s w h i c h semi-arid Altiplano with i t s low s u b s i s t e n c e although i t the centre of the the r i v e r s and f l o w i n t o t h e P a c i f i c as many r i c h c e n t r e s o f is coast; which a r e very s e r i o u s and, causes overalthough p r o j e c t s have been c a r r i e d out i n t h i s region o v e r t h e p a s t hO y e a r s a n d t h e r e h a s b e e n mass m i g r a t i o n t o more humid areas, t h e b a s i c e c o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l p r o b l e m s h a v e n o t y e t completely solved. I n Venezuela the extends to t h a t northern part part d r y zones c o m p r i s e G u a j i r a of G u a j i r a which i s on t h e G u l f o f C a r i a c o , I n Mexico, ( t h e d r y zone i n Colombia), of the Maracaibo depression, the Paraguaná P e n i n s u l a , 15» been the land i n the west coast o f the Barquisimeto highlands, 8 m i l l i o n persons are c l a s s i f i e d as a r i d ; p a r t o f the S t a t e s of Baja C a l i f o r n i a , 2/ approximately t h i s huge t e r r i t o r y Sonora, bordering Island.^ i n h a b i t e d by the Falcon, the lands and v a r i o u s p a r t s o f M a r g a r i t a a b o u t 57 m i l l i o n h e c t a r e s also Chihuahua, covers Coahuila, ^ An e x c e l l e n t s t u d y w h i c h was w i d e l y c o n s u l t e d i n p r e p a r i n g t h i s a r t i c l e i s t h a t by A . L . C a b r e r a , " L a t i n A m e r i c a " i n UNESCO, P l a n t e c o l o g y . R e v i e w o f r e s e a r c h , P a r i s , 1955» PP. 7 7 - 1 1 3 » The a t t a c h e d b i b l i o g r a p h y i n c l u d e s 2 S Í p u b l i c a t i o n s which r e p r e s e n t a v e r y w i d e c o l l e c t i o n o f s t u d i e s on t h i s s u b j e c t p u b l i s h e d up t o 1 9 5 5 . 2/ Marco A u r e l i o V i l a , Las s e q u í a s en V e n e z u e l a . Común, S . C . , C a r a c a s , 1975» 1 7 ^ p a g e s . " Fondo Editorial /Durango, Zacatecas, - 6 - Durahgo, Zacátecas, San Luis Potosí, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, Quérétaro, HidaigÓ, Puebla, Oaxacá, and Territorio de Baja California. arid zones .cover about The semi- million hectares, mostly bordering on the arid z o n e . ^ 16. Owing to the lack of moisture and consequent absence of vegetation in the arid zones, the soil is generally undeveloped, the degree of immaturity being such that it frequently consists of simple accumulations of partially decomposed rock material. There is no vegetable mould and there oiay be quite á high accumulation of minerals that are not dissolved in water and so cannot be assimilated by the plants. The organic material content of the surface horizon is generally less than 1 per cent, and the neighbouring^horizons show calcium accumulations which may become consolidated in the form of saline crusts. This type of soil tends to accumulate sodium salts if there is contact with water and poor drainage, and it is commonly found to contain materials that are carried by the wind and deposited on the surface (see footnotes 3, 6 and 8). Sometimes the removal by erosion of the surface horizon, which consists of a very few centemetres of useful soil, uncovers a deserty-type paving with a great quantity of pebbles and ruts which show the tírilliant burnished surface of the desert (see footnote 3). It may be added that since no mineral elements are lost through leaching, the soil in arid zones is often rich in minerals and capable of producing abundant crops when irrigated, 17. The vegetation has been studied in the various phytogeographical regions, domains, and provinces. Some studies which máy usefully be consulted are those by MacDougal and his colleagues of the Carnegie _§/ For a description of the arid and semi-arid zones of Mexico, sefe Comité Mexicano de Zonas Aridas, Informe Nacional, México. Conferencia Latinoamericana para el Estudio de las Regciones Aridas. Mexico City, 52 pages. On the utilization of these areas, it is worthwhile consulting the following study: M. Lorenzo Martinez and L.J. Maldonado, Iicportancia, de las zonas áridas en el desarrollo general del país. Productora Nacional de Semillas, Mejcicó City, 1973, 29 pages. /Institute in - 7 - Ins1;itute in Washington, D.C.; Nelson, Mueller and Johnston of Harvard University; X. Hernández, etc. for Mexico; Svenson,-Williams, etc» for the coastal strip on the Pacific extending from Peru to Chile; while Pitier and Williams have made a study of the vegetation on the arid coast of Venezuela and Sampaio, Nobrona, Smith, etc. have described the vegetation of the arid zones in the north-east of Brazil (see footnote 6). 18. According to several authors (although the nomenclature they give of phytogepgraphical territories varies somewhat) it may be accepted that a functional classification of the arid zones of Latin America would be to consider them as lying in the neo-tropical phytogeographical region, with five domains (the Caribbean, the Brazilian extra-Amazon domain, the Pacific coast, the Chaco and the Andean domain) and a varying number of "phytogeographical provinces" within each.9/ 19» It is not the intention in this schematic outline, however, to go more deeply into such specialized analyses as those presented in many scientific studies, among which mention may be made of several prepared by UNESCO in its ambitious programme of studies on arid zones carried out actively since 1950.10/ 11/ 2/ In the important study comprising a bibliographical review and synthesis referred to in footnote 6, a schematic description is given of the various phytogeographical domains, from Mexico in the north to Argentina in the southern cone of South America. 10/ In order to enlarge on these concepts expressed here in broad outline, it is worth consulting the UNESCO reports of the Programme Series on Man and the Biosphere (MAB), particularly the Final Report of the Panel of Experts on Project 3' Impact of human activities and land use practices on pastureland: savannas, pastures (from temperate to arid areas), tundra. This Panel met at Montpellier, France, from 2 to 7 October 1972. 11/ Conferencia Latinoamericana para el Estudio de las Regiones Aridas. Comunicaciones y resúmenes de traba.jo. Buenos Aires, 1963» This includes the summaries of over I50 studies presented at the Conference. These studies, most of them by Argentine authors (although there are also valuable contributions from Chilean and Mexican specialists), cover a wide range of subjects connected with the evaluation of available resources and their utilization in arid zones. /20. For - 8 - 20, : For the purposes of this study, suffice it to say that in the arid 'zones of Latin America there are various natural communities of low forest. species which grow in the rainy season, among v/hich grasses predominate .(such as some species of the Agrostié, Eragróstis, Pañicum, Paspalum, Festuca, Setaria and Bronus genera); in some cases there are also leguminous bushes (Cassia, Prosopis) and succulent plants (Cactaceae) all of which are of some value for animal feed and in a few cases for industrial use. The fact that the annual plants used as forage dry up and die if the dry season is prolonged, and that there are many species of plants and bushiss which are of-little or no value as forage, greatly ireducés the "subsistence capacity" of arid zones, the maximum usé to which they could be put, uride'r-natural conditions, being no doubt for extensive grazing, combined in á few cases with the exploitation of plants of some commercial value (Prosopis, Opuntia,'Parthenium, Agave, etc). Some indigenous tribes which still exist and other which have been exterminated by the white man subsisted or subsist at very low levels of living by exploiting several of these products of commercial value (Candelilla, Guayule, Sisal, etc,). It should also be noted that the arid and semi-arid zones of the continent have generally been utilized on the basis of permanent occupation and that nomadism is not a common practice. C. 21b DEGRADATION OF ECOSYSTEMS The growth of vegetation as a result of rainfall gives the false impression during a short period of the year that the land in arid zones may have a greater subsistence or productive capacity than it actually has, resulting in. too many animals being put on the land. As the drought continues these animals have less and less forage and, consequently, the vegetation is destroyed by over-grazing. A similar but even more serious situation arises in years with more than average rainfall, which are frequently followed by several years of severe drought. If to this is added the effect of being /extensively trodden - 9 - extensively trodden by cattle, which hardens the surface layers of the soil and hampers the renewal of the plant cover, it is easy to assess the cumulative effect of the exploitation of arid zones by over-^grazingo The soil, denuded of all vegetation, is then an easy victim first of wind erosion, and later of water erosion with the rains, and a cumulative process of degradation is set in motion which culminates in the desertification of the affected area. 22. Wind erosion, especially the "suspension" type l^rhich removes and carries the lighter particles of the soil, often over considerable distances, in a direction parallel to the air currents, is very frequent in the arid zones and its effects are particularly harmful as it carries precisely the most valuable part of the soil, which is that formed by the lighter particles.12/ 23. An extreme case of ecological deterioration caused by wind is the massive drifting of sand in the form of dunes or loose deposits which invade agriculturally usable land and literally convert it into desert by covering it with thick layers of fine sand which inexorably follow their course in the direction of the prevailing winds. This phenomenon is significant in the arid zone of Argentina and the Pacific coast strip of Peru and Chile, and in many arid areas of Latin America the stabilization of the dunes is one of the most urgent needs in the fight against desertification. The process of the deterioration of arid and semi-arid pastureland already described is shown schematically in figure 1, adapted from a UNESCO publication (see footnote 10). 2k, Another serious form of deterioration is that caused by ploughing and the sowing of crops which require weeding in arid areas, taking advantage of the short period of humidity produced by the sporadic and irregular rainfall» Misled by the possibility of cultivating annual food crops, populations which live at subsistence 12/ Suárez de Castro, Fernando. Conservación de suelos. Colección Agrícola Salvat. Salvat Editores, S.A., 2nd edition, Barcelona, 1965, 519 pages, /level, in - 10 - level, in virtually arid areas generally located on the limits betweeii arid and semi-arid regions plough and sow this type of land. The torrential downpours which are the characteristic, of rainfall in very arid areas then hit soil which is bar%, and cleared and thus in a state of extreme vulnerability for?the waters to wash aifay the upper layersi causing damage which in some cases is irreversible and contributing to the deterioration of the fragile ecological system of the type of area concerned and the consequent merciless advance of the desert (see footnote 12). 25. Among the effects deriving from desertification which can be termed reversible, but nevertheless serious,, mention may be made of the loss of livestock through lack of fodder, which is an intermediate link in the chain of events beginning with the poor use of land and ending with the deterioration of the economic situation, health and general standard of living, of the population affected. Even the death of human beings through starvation, especially children and old people, is not unknown in some arid areas of the continent where the process of ; ecological deterioration has reached its greatest extremes, 26. The tree cover of the arid areas generally.consists of high thickets or slow-growing drought-resistant arboreal, plants which in many cases form patches within areas covered by herbaceous vegetation and in others constitute vegetal areas of varying extent which are sometimes developed commercially (for example, thickets of izote and mesquite). These have suffered continuous and intense destruction because they are used for firewood in the homes of the families which ixüiabit , the region or for raw material to make charcoal; because ;of excessive grazing (especially when the herbaceous cover has been dried out by prolonged drought and goats have been reared) . /which causes - 11 - which causes the progressive weakening and death of the trees; because of the burning.of pastureland, a practice which is widely used on a periodic basis as a means, of destroying weeds and encouraging the reemergence of natural pastureland and which, while advantageous in that respect, in many cases destroys the trees; and, lastly, because of direct cutting in order to extend pastureland or sow fresh crops, especially in the short periods of rainfall and above all in the years when the rainfall is more abundanto In such cases the destruction of the forests through the generally combined action of these factors represents a serious damage to the ecological system, since it destroys the tree cover and breaks a delicate balance, thus unleashing the multiple action of high temperatures and the active agents of erosion. 27. In their natural state, semi-arid areas can be more intensely utilized since the conditions of drought are not so extreme. The supportive capacity of the land is greater, so.that it is possible to cultivate forests of economic value by choosing the species with care and to rear livestock permanently with a much higher density per unit of area than that possible in the arid stretches. Harvests of annual crops can be produced with precautions which could be termed of medium intensiveness related to the prolongation of the period during which the vegetation can utilize the available quantities of water. In some countries a large proportion of the most productive agriculture is found in this area: Argentina, for example, produces over per cent of all its cereals and forage crops in the semi-arid Pampa subregion and about 50 per cent of the total area of cotton is sown in the semi-arid Chaco subregion (see footnote 3)« This ecosystem is also very fragile, however, and needs careful management to protect it from water and wind erosion. /D. UTILIZATION - 12 - D. 28. UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ARID AND SEMI-ARID AREAS As may be gathered from the foregoing, there are three objectives which should be sought in designing systems for the utilization and control of arid and semi-arid areas. In the first place, vigorous action to protect the existing production capacity is essential; secondly, there is a need for careful work to increase that production capacity in order to seek a higher stable ratio (or perhaps a better dynamic balance) between the available resources and the society which lives from them, at a much higher or more intensive level of utilization than the natural level; thirdly, it is important to design systems of land management in keeping with this level or dynamic balance which will make possible the intensive and permanent use of the resources without decreasing or damaging them. 29. Since water is the main limiting factor in the utilization of arid areas, it is not surprising that in the search for a much higher and more intensive level of utilization than the natural level the task of providing this element in order to complement the quantities which are supplied by the scarce and sporadic rainfall has had very high priority since the most distant times. Irrigation is the system which has, been most used in the past, and will assuredly continue to be used, to t increase the production potential of the arid and semi-arid areas. When man became sedentary he began to carry out works designed to capture available or excess cjuantities of water at one point and convey it to an arid area for application to the soil so as to provide for the needs of thé vegetables he wished to cultivate and produce. Run-off, which during the rainy months originates in the arid regions themselves (and can constitute high volumes since, as has already been pointed out, the rainfall in arid areas is intense and largely falls during the periods of a few days or weeks); ground water originating from the vertical and lateral movements of this element under the surface of the land, and the deposits or currents existing in areas some distance from the place where the water is to be used are all sources v/hich can be used to irrigate land, although obviously the use of each of the three /sources mentioned - 13 - s o u r c e s m e n t i o n e d r e q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n t mechanism and g i v e s r i s e t o v e r y d i f f e r e n t e c o l o g i c a l problems. I t c o u l d however be s a i d t h a t in g e n e r a l t h e s u p p l y o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r i s c o s t l y and t h a t i n more t h a n one j u s t i f i a b l e r e s o u r c e s o f c a p i t a l , cases t e c h n o l o g y and l a b o u r ( w h i c h a r e s c a r c e i n t h e r e g i o n ) have b e e n i n v e s t e d i n constructions w h i c h have o f t e n s u b s e q u e n t l y o p e r a t e d a t a much l o w e r l e v e l of e f f i c i e n c y t h a n t h a t f o r w h i c h t h e y were d e s i g n e d , w h i l e i n o t h e r cases s e r i o u s e c o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s have o r i g i n a t e d i n a d j o i n i n g a r e a s , o r e v e n i n t h e a r e a s w h i c h were t o be a s s i s t e d , and t h i s h a s s o m e t i m e s l e d t h e abandonment o f t h e work w i t h h e a v y e c o n o m i c and s o c i a l c o s t s , u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e system a t a v e r y low l e v e l of e f f i c i e n c y , d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n some a r e a s a s a r e s u l t o f e r o s i o n , of the phreatic l e v e l , etc. or salination, the serious the I t h a s a l s o b e e n found t h a t i n many o f c u r r e n t i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s i n L a t i n America o n l y a f a i r l y s m a l l (as l i t t l e to a s 30 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e w a t e r c a p t u r e d r e a c h e s t h e fall the percentage irrigable l a n d b e c a u s e o f l o s s e s by e v a p o r a t i o n and s e e p a g e w h i c h c o u l d be a v o i d e d ; f u r t h e r m o r e , a l a r g e amount o f t h e r e m a i n i n g w a t e r i s t h e n because of inadequate a p p l i c a t i o n to the land. lost I t i s therefore easy to s e e t h e need t o s t u d y a l l t h e e f f e c t s wl^ich i r r i g a t i o n h a s o r may have i n p a r t i c u l a r regions u n t i l they are f u l l y understood; t h i s provides a b a s i s f o r s e e k i n g t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e ways o f u s i n g t h i s important method o f i m p r o v i n g a r i d a r e a s , w h i l e , a v o i d i n g a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e any d a n g e r of p r o v o k i n g s e r i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n which c o u l d r e p r e s e n t a major c o n t r i b u t i o n t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and e n s u r i n g t h e mqst u t i l i z a t i o n of the a v a i l a b l e 13/ efficient iifater.l3/ The i m p a c t o f i r r i g a t i o n bn v a r i o u s c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s o f t h e e c o s y s t e m s o,f a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s and p o s s i b l e . t o p i c s f o r r e s e a r c h i n t h i s f i e l d a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e " F i n a l Report o f t h e Export P a n e l on P r o j e c t 4 : Impact o f human a c t i v i t i e s on t h e dynamics o f a r i d and s e m i - a r i d zone e c o s y s t e m s , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e f f e c t s o f i r r i g a t i o n " , UNESCO, 1 9 7 6 . /B. INTEGRAL - 14 - E. 30, INOEGRAL RESEARCH inae thi-ee o b j e c t i v e s m e n t i o n e d i n p a r a g r a p h 28 a s parameters f o r t h e d e s i g n o f s y s t e m s f o r d r y l a n d u t i l i z a t i o n and management ( i n two o f w h i c h i r r i g a t i o n h a s a predominant i n f l u e n c e ) must be s o u g h t on t h e b a s i s o f i n t e g r a l f u n d á m e n t a l r e s e a r c h , on t h e one h a n d , and i n t e g r a l a d a p t a t i v e and a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h on t h e o t h e r . This does n o t mean t h a t e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h h a s n o t a l r e a d y b e e n c a r r i e d o u t on t h e most v a r i e d a s p e c t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n o f a r i d and semi-arid areas. On t h e c o n t r a r y , l i t e r a l l y innumerable t h e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s c a r r i e d out are ( s e e f o o t n o t e s 6 and 1 1 ) . k n o w l e d g e g a i n e d and t h e i n n o v a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d , c a r r i e d out a t a very l o c a l l e v e l , The a p p l i c a t i o n o f the however, has been i n v e r y p a r t i a l t e r r a s , and t h e r e is no s i g n t h a t t h e v a l u a b l e new k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s b e i n g a c c u m u l a t e d i n . e a c h s p h e r e h a s b e e n a p p l i e d i n a b r o a d , o r g a n i c and i n t e g r a l 31. way. I t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e c e n t r a l aim o f t h e r e s e a r c h , i n i t s s t a g e s j i s and must c o n t i n u e t o be on t h e one hand, t h a t o f t h e components of t h e e c o s y s t e m s , first discovering i n c l u d i n g f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o the . p e o p l e who i n h a b i t t h e a r e a , t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n w h i c h i t b e e n o r g a n i z e d and t h e economic m o t i v a t i o n s o f t h a t s o c i e t y , o t h e r , t h a t of undérstanding the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s between t h o s e has and on t h e components, s o a s t o have f i r m b a s e s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g what m e a s u r e s c a n be t a k e n f o r t h e r a t i o n a l and l o n g - t e r m u t i l i z a t i o n o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s . . The p a r t w h i c h c o u l d be termed " t a k i n g s t o c k " i n c l u d e s s t u d y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and current use of the r e s o u r c e s i n v o l v e d : p o p u l a t i o n and i t s s o c i o - c u l t u r a l vegetable, environment, l o o k i n t o t h e p a s t s o a s t o t r y and e x p l a i n , a n i m a l , t h e human and i t a l s o i n c l u d e s a through an a n a l y s i s of the g e o g r a p h i c a l - e c o l o g i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d , how and why t h e current s i t u a t i o n has a r i s e n , and c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e a s p i r a t i o n s the p o p u l a t i o n as regards the use of r e s o u r c e s . All this of integrated m a t e r i a l , a f t e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s between the c o m p o n e n t s , makes p o s s i b l e a j o i n t e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e c o l o g i c a l and t e c h n o l o g i c a l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e s y s t e m and an a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e gap /which separates - 15 - w h i c h s e p a r a t e s t h e c u r r e n t and p o t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n s . Finally, i s t a k e n t o i T i i l t h i s g a p and p r o c e e d t o a new dynamic l e v e l action of i n t e r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p o p u l a t i o n and i t s n e e d s on t h e one h a n d , and t h e a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s on t h e o t h e r 32. (see footnote 10). This simple e x p l a n a t i o n of such ambitious p r o j e c t s naturally i g n o r e s t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s itfhich h a v e t o be f a c e d i n e a c h p h a s e , b u t h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e o f s c h e m a t i c a l l y o u t l i n i n g t h e main f e a t u r e s o f o f t h e programmes a l r e a d y i n o p e r a t i o n and o t h e r s w h i c h i t w i l l be necessary to i n i t i a t e . to On r e a c h i n g t h i s p o i n t , i t i s necessary it some s e l e c t a l t e r n a t i v e s w h i c h a r e n o t o n l y v i a b l e b u t a r e a l s o t h e most s u i t a b l e from t h e e c o n o m i c , e c o l o g i c a l and s o c i a l p o i n t o f v i e w provide f o r the growing needs of the p o p u l a t i o n , and t h e s e to alternatives must be c h a n n e l l e d i n t o c o n t r o l programmes c o v e r i n g s p e c i f i c g o a l s and objectives, means o f a t t a i n i n g t h e m , and t h e l o g i s t i c and i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e 33» labour, f o r a t t a i n i n g the finance objectives. I t s h o u l d p e r h a p s be s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t must have p h y s i c a l , b i o l o g i c a l , e c o n o m i c and s o c i a l d i m e n s i o n s , w h i c h means t h a t i n s t e a d o f c a r r y i n g o u t i s o l a t e d s t u d i e s i n t h e s e . s p h e r e s and l i n k i n g them, s t u d i e s must be p l a n n e d i n a n i n t e g r a l way, t o g e t h e r the s e t of circumstances of the four c a t e g o r i e s then, linking mentioned w h i c h t y p i f y e a c h p r o b l e m o r s i t u a t i o n and t h u s s t u d y i n g them a s i n d i v i s i b l e w h o l e s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e of each of the 3^» components. The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s c r i t e r i o n i n e v i t a b l y leads, to the s e l e c t i o n o f a m e t h o d o l o g y o f " s y s t e m s a n a l y s i s and d e v e l o p m e n t m o d e l s " , w h i c h makes i t of necessary to formalize the r e l a t i o n s between the components of the e c o s y s t e m ( t h r o u g h m a t h e m a t i c a l e q u a t i o n s and a n a l y s e s ) i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a f u n c t i o n a l model w h i c h i s logical tested /agairxst real - 16 - against real situations until i t i s . v a l i d a t e d a n d c a n t h e n be A l l "this i s p a r i ' ó f a ( s t o c i i a s t i c ) p r o c e s s o f s u c c e s s i v e to r e a l i t y . ^ approximations ' F. 35. applied. CO-ORDINATION MACHINERY With an a p p r o a c h o f t h i s n a t u r e , the b a s e s are c r e a t e d ensuring troader u t i l i z a t i o n than at present of research for resources, s i n c e i t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t t h a t one o f t h e s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s i s t h e v e r y l i m i t e d u s e made o f l o c a l l y - d i s c o v e r e d current innovations, e v e n i n c a s e s where t h e r e c o u l d be b r o a d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e m . The s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m a c h i n e r y f o r t h e c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f work and t h e e x c h a n g e , a s s e m b l y and d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n a r i d a r e a s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l l e v e l would a l s o be very b e n e f i c i a l f o r L a t i n America. The e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a (Latin A m e r i c a n ) r e g i o n a l c e n t e r f o r t h e , i n t e g r a l p r o t e c t i o n and d e v e l o p m e n t of arid areas ( i n c l u d i n g not o n l y a g r i c u l t u r a l a s p e c t s but a l s o i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r and t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f n o n - r e n e w a b l e n a t u r a l s u p p o r t e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o d i e s and w o r k i n g i n c l o s e with national i n s t i t u t i o n s , the resources), co-operation w i t h i n an a p p r o a c h b a s e d on s y s t e m s and m o d e l s , would be a good way o f c h a n n e l l i n g towai-ds t h e region t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s and knov/ledge d e v e l o p e d and a c c u m u l a t e d other l a t i t u d e s , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f e x p e r i e n c e and p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r t i s e of f o r e i g n s c i e n t i s t s t e c h n i c i a n s of r e c o g n i z e d a u t h o r i t y i n problems of the a r i d Ih/ in the and regions. With r e g a r d t o p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m s i t i s u s e f u l t o c o n s u l t t h e work s u b m i t t e d a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Seminar on R e s e a r c h i n t o P r o d u c t i o n S y s t e m s i n A g r i c u l t u r e , h e l d from 28 S e p t e m b e r t o 3 O c t o b e r 1 9 7 5 i n B r a s i l i a , u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e Empresa B r a s i l e i r a de P e s q u i s a s A g r í c o l a s (EMBRAPA) and t h e I n s t i t u t o I n t e r a m e r i c a n o de C i e n c i a s A g r í c o l a s (IICA)o The p a p e r s p r e s e n t e d by J o h n L, D i l l o n "Guidélines systems research priorities", J . R . Anderson " I m p l i c a t i o n s of r i s k f o r s y s t e m s r e s e a r c h " and HoA. N i x "Models o f c r o p p r o d u c t i o n s y s t e m s and t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s " are o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t . / T h e same - 17 - The same c o u l d be s a i d o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n and i n f o r m a t i o n machinery w h i c h would be c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e R e g i o n a l C e n t r e m e n t i o n e d and c o u l d t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e network o f t h e AGRIS and AGRINTER s y s t e m s ; 1 5 / primarily with the c o l l e c t i o n , s u c h machinery would d e a l p r o c e s s i n g and d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f relevant information as i t appears. I t would a l s o n o t be the difficult, and v e r y u s e f u l t o e n v i s a g e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a t r a i n i n g programme L a t i n American t e c h n i c i a n s and s c i e n t i s t s w o r k i n g i n a r i d a r e a s , t h e b a s i s o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e R e g i o n a l C e n t r e and t h e and d o c u m e n t a t i o n programme. on information Thus common c o n c e p t u a l b a s e s and p r o c e d u r e s would be c r e a t e d i n a l l t h e c o u n t r i e s w i t h a r i d while for regions, a t t h e same t i m e r a i s i n g t h e l e v e l o f t r a i n i n g o f t h e t e c h n i c a l teams and p r o v i d i n g e f f e c t i v e c o - o r d i n a t i o n a t t h e national continental level, 36. As an i n i t i a l s t e p t o implement t h e above s u g g e s t i o n s i t might be worth t a k i n g advantage of the time remaining b e f o r e the Nairobi meeting t o make a s i t u a t i o n s t u d y a t t h e r e g i o n a l l e v e l and e v a l u a t e a s a w h o l e t h e many r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s c a r r i e d o u t i n r e c e n t y e a r s i n L a t i n America on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n and management o f e c o l o g i c a l complex i n c l u d e d i n t h e d r y r e g i o n s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t . the On t h i s b a s i s , and w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e n a t i o n a l t e c h n i c i a n s who work i n these regions, a proposal e n j o y i n g the approval of the countries i n v o l v e d c o u l d be worked out f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n a t t h e N a i r o b i 15/ meeting. On t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f AGRIS ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s and T e c h n o l o g y ) and AGRINTER ( S i s t e m a I n t e r a m e r i c a n o de I n f o r m a c i ó n para l a s C i e n c i a s A g r í c o l a s ) m e n t i o n may be made o f t h e following papers: IICA. S i s t e m a I n t e r a m e r i c a n o de I n f o r m a c i ó n p a r a l a s C i e n c i a s AKrí'c'olas-AGRINTEfí; Bar.es p a r a s u e s t a b l e c i m i e n t o , T u r r i a l b a , C o s t a R i c a , lÍGA-CIRA, 1 9 7 3 , I 8 pp, and M a l u g a n i , M . D . , AGRINTER. The L a t i n American and C a r i b b e a n i n f o r m a t i o n n e t w o r k ; a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e AGRIS l e v e l o n e . San J o s é , C o s t a R i c a , IICA-CIDIA, 1 9 7 6 , 16 p p . IKJ- !»• 160- IW IW ISO- 120- IW MO- W jr Or UT « - W W tf OPEtTIETa STATTÍMEHT BY DR. MOSTAPA K. TOLBA E'XSGUTIVP; DIRECTOR UNITED 1ATI0ÍÍS EKYIROÍÍÍCTT PROGRAMME MD SECRETÜRI GENERAL IMITED UATIQMS COEFERMCS 0 1 D5SERTIFIC1TI01T AT THE REGICaiAL PREPARATORY ^EETIRG FOR THE AMEIR.ICAS SMTIAGO, CHILE FEBRUARY 23-27^ 1977 Check a g a i n s t delivery - 1 Mr. M i n i s t e r , Mr. E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y , d i s t i n g u i s h e d p a r t i c i p a n t s and o b s e r v e r s , l a d i e s and g e n t l e m e n , 1. I t g i v e s toe g r e a t p l e a s u r e t o g r e e t you a t t h i s o p e n i n g s e s s i o n of Regional Conference f o r the Americas. With t h i s m e e t i n g we a r e our entering upon t h e f i n a l s t a g e i n o u r p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a u t h o r i z e d by t h e G e n e r a l Assembly i n December 197^» 2. T h i s i s t h e f i r s t of f o u r s u c h r e g i o n a l p r e p a r a t o r y m e e t i n g s . It be f o l l o w e d i n March and A p r i l by m e e t i n g s f o r t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r e a , A f r i c a s o u t h of t h e S a h a r a , and f o r A s i a and t h e 3« will for Pacific. I would like, at this point, to express my grateful thanks to my friend and colleague Enrique Iglesias, the Executive Secretary of the Economic Commission for Latin America, for the kind words he extended to me at the beginning of his statement and for the considerable effort he and his colleagues have made to bring this meeting together at short notice. I share the thoughts that he has already expressed to us about Latin American concerns. I wish to address more or less the same questions but with perhaps somewhat more emphasis on the state of preparations for the Conference and on what we expect from this meeting. ^o May I a l s o e x p r e s s my p l e a s u r e i n t h e w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t m e e t i n g , e v i d e n c e d by t h e p r e s e n c e of p a r t i c i p a n t s in this from so many c o u n t r i e s . Our p r o c e e d i n g s , I am s u r e , w i l l be f o l l o w e d w i t h k e e n i n t e r e s t by many p e o p l e b o t h i n t h e d e v e l o p e d and t h e d e v e l o p i n g 5. countries. I w i s h t o e x p r e s s d e e p g r a t i t u d e t o t h e C h i l e a n Government t h r o u g h you Mr. M i n i s t e r f o r t h e k e e n i n t e r e s t you showed t o s e e t h i s m e e t i n g h e l d i n ECLA i n t h i s b e a u t i f u l c i t y of S a n t i a g o . here T h i s came a s no s u r p r i s e t o me. We h a v e been c l o s e l y f o l l o w i n g i n UNEP, t h e c o n c e r n of t h e C h i l e a n Government f o r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a t l a r g e and t h e p r o b l e m o f c o m b a t t i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n particular. You h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d a c t u a l l y i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , The c a s e s t u d y on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n C h i l e and t h e f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y on m o n i t o r i n g t h e p r o c e s s d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n on a number of L a t i n A m e r i c a n c o u n t r i e s a r e ample 6. in of evidence, V/hy d i d t h e G e n e r a l Assembly a s k f o r a C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n ? What were t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t l e d t o t h i s d e c i s i o n ? As v/e a l l remember, i t was t h e g r e a t d r o u g h t w h i c h a f f e c t e d t h e c o u n t r i e s of t h e S a h e l f o r some s i x y e a r s p r i o r t o 1973 t h a t a r o u s e d w o r l d c o n c e r n , f i r s t t o h e l p r e l i e v e mass human s u f f e r i n g i t c a u s e d , and s e c o n d t o t r y t o u n d e r s t a n d what may l i p hpVn'nrl Rlirh woa-hVioT» f l ii ol-nja+•-i nne . the - 2 - 7. L a r g e l y a s a r e s u l t of t h e S a h e l i a n d r o u g h t , a number o f r e s o l u t i o n s by t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e General Assembly began t o a d d r e s s t h e p r o b l e m s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e 1970s. At i t s s i x t h s p e c i a l session recommended t h a t the international i n ; 197^» the General development, of a f f e c t e d a r e a s . Assembly commurjity- u r g e n t l y t a k e m e a s u r e s t o s t e m t h e . s p r e a d of d e s e r t s and a i s c i s t t h é concrete economic The Economic- a n d S o c i a l C o u n c i l t h e same y e a r r e q u e s t e d a l l t h e c o n c e r n e d o r g a n s o f t h e U n i t e d s y s t e m t o p u r s u e a b r o a d a t t a c k on t h e . d r o u g h t p r o b l e m . of t h e G o v e r n i n g C o u n c i l s o f t h e ; U n i t e d among o t h e r b o d i e s o f U n i t e d N a t i o n s o r g a n s and . s p e c i a l i z e d a g e n c i e s , , t h e n e e d t o u n d e r t a k e s t u d i e s on t h e e x t e n t o f d r o u g h t , up a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i o n 8. Finally, iii' Nations Decisions N a t i o n s Development and, t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s E n v i r o n s i e n t P r o g r a m m e , early Programme, governing emphasized and t o draw programmes'. on 1 7 December 1 9 7 ^ , a t i t s tv/gnty-ninth session, the G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y p a s s e d a r e s o l u t i o n on d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . p r e s e n t e d the African group. T h e r e was a r e m a r k a b l e c o n v e r g e n c e of v i e w on t h e n e e d t o u n d e r t a k e now a w o r l d programme of e f f e c t i v e a c t i o n c o n t a i n d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and, where p o s s i b l e , i n v o l v e d and r e v e r s e t h e m . of p r i o r i t y , to i n i t i a t e desertification. by And i t to a r r e s t the The G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y d e c i d e d , to processes as.a matter c o n c e r t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c t i o n t o combat f u r t h e r d e c i d e d t o c o n v e n e i n 1977 a . U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t o g i v e i m p e t u s t o s u c h international actions S i n c e t h e G e n e r a l Assembly p a s s e d i t s i n 197^, d r o u g h t h a s been o c c u r r i n g i n vsirious a r e a s of t h e L a s t y e a r F r a n c e and t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, l e n g t h y p e r i o d s of d r o u g h t , f o r example, suffered t h e immediate e f f e c t s which a r e a n t i c i p a t e d by United S t a t e s s c i e n t i s t s agricultural world. R i g h t now we a r e w i t n e s s i n g s e v e r e i n the w e s t e r n p a r t of the United S t a t e s , restricted resolution output, to drought of. include a s h o r t a g e of a d e q u a t e g r a z i n g land, p o w e r s h o r t a g e i s i n a r e a s t h a t r e l y h e a v i l y on h y d r o e l e c t r i c i t y and s e v e r e f o r e s t f i r e s by l a t e summer. Some U n i t e d S t a t e s c r o p scientists f e a r t h a t s p r i n g w i n d w i l l b e g i n n e x t month e r o d i n j g t h e t o p s o i l across the Midwest, crop. wi-^h s e v e r « damage t o t h e . g e r m i n a t i n g w i n t e r w h e a t - 3 9- A l t h o u g h d r o u g h t , a r i d i t y and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a s you a r e fully a w a r e , ^ r e n o t synonymous, y e t the. . f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n s m i g h t explain their interrelations: - A r i d i t y i s an g e o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n which w a t e r income l e s s than p o t e n t i a l , water e x p e n d i t u r e . ( r u n - o f f etc.). is evapotranspiration, I n s e m i - a r i d and s u b - h u m i d r e g i o n s , d r o u g h t i s p a r t of the s e a s o n a l r h y t h m of t h e y e a r and a : d e l i c a t e b a l a n c e may be m a i n t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e p a r t of t h e y e a r when r a i n f a l l s . Under t h e s e conditions;, human i n t e r f e r e n c e may e n t a i l i r r e p a r a < b l e damage t o t h e dynamic f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e ecosystem. - D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a p r o c e s s c a u s e d by human a c t i v i t i e s whereby the p r o d u c t i v i t y of s e m i - a r i d or sub-humid h a b i t a t s i s reduced t o a level characteristic of d e s e r , t s . D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n shows i t s e l f i n p h y s i c a l t e r m s : r e d u c t i o n of p l a n t . c o v e r , r e m o v a l of deposits ( s o i l ) , of sand b o d i e s , 10. l o s s of o r g a n i c m a t t e r f r o m t h e . s o i l , increased run-off, primarily surface deposition etc. A few f a c t s and f i g u r e s , a t t h i s j u n c t u r e , - m i g h t a l s o d e f i n e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f . t h e p r o b l e m s we a r e help facing: - Based on c l i m a t i c d a t a , a r i d and s e m i - a r i d , l a n d s make u p , 56 p e r c e n t of t h e e a r t h ' s l a n d s u r f a c e and a r e i n h a b i t e d b y , • . 628 l a i l l i o n p e o p l e , I 6 p e r c e n t of t h e v j o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n . . However, b a s e d on s o i l and v e g e t a t i o n d a t a t h e t o t a l a r e a i s e q u i v a l e n t p e r c e n t of t h e e a r t h ' s l a n d s u r f a c e . The d i f f e r e n c e i s to accounted f o r by t h e e s t i m a t e d e x t e n t of nan-made, d e s e r t s ( 9 , 1 1 5 , 0 0 0 Km2), a c o l l e c t i v e area l a r g e r than Brazil. - At l e a s t t w o - t h i r d s of t h e w o r l d ' s n a t i o n s a r e a f f e c t e d by t h e d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n directly process. - I n t h e S a h e l i a n d r o u g h t , . e m e r g e n c y r e l i e f by 197^ a p p r o a c h e d a v a l u e of USS 2 0 0 ' . m i l l i o n . .Even w i t h t h i s , . e s t i m a t e s of d e a t h s as a d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h e d r o u g h t h a v e r a n g e d betv/een 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 and 250,000. The l o s s of l i v e s t o c k i s e s t i m a t e d t o h a v e b e e n a s h i g h a s 90 p e r c e n t i n M a l i and 2. m i l l i o n . n o m a d i c p a s t o r a l i s t s l o s t more t h a n h a l f of t h e i r livestock. k - Today the world's drylands contain 9 meti-opólitán centres with more than,: 1 million people eachv' which aggravates 'the problem. During the Sahelian drought, where urban population growth rates, already Very high at 10 per cent' per year, briefly douliíed, intensifying the adverse: environmental impacts that these urban settlements already exert. : - A l t h o u g h no a u t h o r i t a t i v e ' f i g u r e s e x i s t j i t is estimated t h a t b e t w e e n 5 0 , 0 0 0 t o 7 0 , 0 0 0 sq.kttl. o f ' l a n d a r e l o s t a n n u a l l y to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n arid i f ah a r b i t r a r y v á l u e of USS 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 per' s q . k m . i s p u t on t h i s , t h e a n n u a l economic l o s s due t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o h is i n e x c e s s of USf 10 b i l l i o n . 11. The G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y ' i n d e c i d i n g on t h e c o n v é n i n g o f a V/orld C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c á l l e d f b r t h r o e t h i n g s . First, it c a l l e d f o r a l l d a t a r e l a t i n g t o d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and i t s e f f e c t on economic development.^^ S é c o n d , on t h e b a s i s o-f t h i s g l o b a l assessment i t a s k e d f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a w o r l d p l a n of a c t i o n t o Cbiaibat desertification. Third, i t - a s k e d t h a t thfe U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n c o n s i d e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , action, and p u t t h e n e c e s s a r y p o l i t i c a l a d o p t a w o r l d p l a n of inípétüs behind' i t s ' implementation. 12. In response, t h e C o n f e r e n c e . S e c r e t a r i a t h a s . given, p r i o r , a t t e n t i o n t o r e a c h i n g an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o b l e m of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . The s t u d i e s which form t h e s c i e n t i f i c s u b - s t r a t a on w h i c h o u r P l a n o f Action i s b u i l t , and w h i c h I w i l l d e s c r i b e i n more d e t a i l l a t e r j have r e v e a l e d t h r e e b a s i c f i n d i n g s on w h i c h t h e r e i s U n a n i m i t y among o u r s e n i o r c o n s u l t a n t s and 13. scientists. The f i r s t i s t h a t d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a r e s u l t of t h e of man and an a d v e r s e e n v i r o n m e n t and ishows i t s e l f p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e a r e & a a f f e c t e d . in interaction declining T h i s i s a s e l f - f e e d i n g mechanism; d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s a p r o c e s s t h a t s p r e a d s by i t é own g e n e r á t i o n ¿ Secondly, t h e y a g r e e t h a t f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s h i g h l y t o be • d e s i r e d and w i l l make t h e t a s k of c o m b a t t i n g d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n easier. - 5 - Yet t h é y m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e p r o b l e m c a n be a t t a c k e d and c o u n t e r e d now on t h e b a s i s of p r e s e n t knowledge,^ , T h e r e f o r e o u r P l a n of A c t i o n p l a c e s i t s e m p h a s i s on a c t i o n now» 15- The third consensus reached by our scientists and senior consultants is that the key to the attack on problems of desertification lies in proper land use» 16. Desertification, then, i s a human problerao It is the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of d r y l a n d e c o s y s t e m a s a r e s u l t of human t o t h e p o i n t Where r e s t o r a t i o n i s i m p o s s i b l e e x c e p t a t cost. activities, enormous D e s e r t s a r e b e s t t h o u g h t of a s a r e a s of s p a r s e o r no vegetation, and low b i o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i v i t y , due t o e f i c i e n t rainfall. D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i s s e e n a s t h e e x t e n s i o n o r i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of such conditions. 17- Both G o v e r n m e n t s , i n t h e i r p o l i t i c a l j u d g e m e n t , and f r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of t h e i r own s p e c i a l i t i e s , for consolidated international a c t i v i t y , scientists, have seen t h e need under the United Nations, t o s t o p t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e g r a d a t i o n of f e r t i l e and p r o d u c t i v e which, as I mentioned e a r l i e r , hectares a year. land amounts, t o betv/een 50 t o 70 t h o u s a n d The G e n e r a l Assembly saw t h e n e e d f o r a c t i o n , however, d i f f i c u l t t h a t m i g h t be t o o r g a n i z e and r a t h e r than t o p r o v i d e emergency, s t o p - g a p , preventive finance, short-term relief which d o e s n o t s t r i k e a t t h e b a s i c p r o b l e m s , and i s c o n s i d e r a b l y more 18. At t h i s p o i n t , L a d i e s and G e n t l e m e n , I s h o u l d p e r h a p s summarize way i n w h i c h we h a v e p r e p a r e d f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e . I w i l l then proceed t o comment on t h e b a s i c d o c u m e n t s , by which we h a v e r e a c h e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o b l e m of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , t o t h e s h a p i n g o f t h e P l a n of 19. costly. our and w h i c h . h a v e led Action. As r e q u i r e d by t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y , a s m a l l S e c r e t a r i a t v/as e s t a b l i s h e d a t UNEP i n N a i r o b i . A United'Nations inter-agency t a s k f o r c e was e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e G e n e r a l Assembly t o a s s i s ' t S e c r e t a r i a t i n i t s xiork. of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s , This t a s k f o r c e comprised the representatives i t s o f f i c e s and p r o g r a m m e s , a s w e l l a s f r o m the specialized agencies most"concerned. the -.6 - . 20. We h a v e drawn up á p a n e l of s c i e n t i s t s iii. t h e many d i s c i p l i n e s which h a v e . a b e a r i n g oh- t h e p r o b l e m o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . • T h i s g r o u p comprises s p e c i a l i s t s from a l l over the w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g of d i s t i n c t i o n :from t h i s - c o n t i n e n t . scientists T h e s e p e o p l e h a v e come t o g e t h e r , o f t e n i a t s h o r t n o t i c e , , t o g i v e u s t h e b e n e f i t of t h e i r a d v i c e and guidance. V/e h a v e a l s o drawn i n t o o u r s c o p e a number of s c i e n t i f i c and o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s conc.érned w i t h t h e s e the questions. Some of t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e m a j o r o n e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l repute, o t h e r s a r e s m a l l , and l i t t l e known, b u t whose work i s of g r e a t .; significance. 21. The f i n a n c i n g has. b e e n a r r i v e d a t f o r -the m o s t p a r t f r o m t h e E n v i r o n m e n t .Fund. . There, was a l s o f i n a n c i a l , s u p p o r t ^froni t h e U n i t e d , N a t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t Programme and t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Fund f o r Population Activities.. 22. m./ ' Our f i r s t t a s k i n . t h e S e c r e t a r i a t , ; a s I h a v e s a i d , was t o try- t o r e a c h a more p r o f o u n d unde^rptariding of t h e c a u s e s and c o n s e q u e n c e s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . I t \\ras n o t p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y t o u t a g l o b a l of a l l known d a : t a . . I n s t e a d , w i t h t h e s u p p o r t of t h e G o v e r n i n g . review C o u n c i l of UNEP, which was named t h e I n t e r - G o v e r n m e n t a l Preparatoi'y Body f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e , we made some c r i t i c a l c h o i c e s . V/e d e c i d e d t h a t we n e e d e d t h e b e s t p a s s i b l e s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l e d g e i n f o u r a r e á s in t h e i r r e l a t i o n to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n : climate, p o p u l a t i o n and s o c i e t y , and t e c h n o l o g y . e c o l o g i c a l change, " T h e s e p a p e r s havé now b e e n p r e p a r e d , o n e o f thera a t C h a p i n g o i n M e x i c o , by A g r o n o m i s t Manuel Anayo G a r d u ñ o . 23. \ You h a v e b e f o r e yo.u. L a d i e s a n d G e n t l e m e n , a d r a f t o f t h e : s y n t h e s i s of t h e f o u r component r e v i e w s which we h a v e . t i t l e d An O v e r v i e w " . It:, i s . a p r e l i m i n a r y : t e x t , "Desertification: and I l o o k f o r w a r d t o l e a r n i n g t h e v i e w s o f - t h i s m e e t i n g on t h i s d r a f t . I t has been ' prepared d e l i b e r a t e l y i n . a popular, n a r r a t i v e s t y l e . The f o u r component r e v i e w s , a s we now c a l l t h e m , a r e somewhat more technicals The r e v i e w and t h e o v e r v i e w r e p r e s e n t , our to a large extent, a s s e s s m e n t of t h e c a u s e s and c o n s e q u e n c e s of desertification. " - .7 24. - As t h e component r e v i e w s t h e m s e l v e s . a r e now i n t h e p r o c e s s of reproduction, meetings. they are not being presented to thé regional They w i l l , preparatory h o w e v e r , be b e f o r e th-e C o n f e r e n c e a s b a c k g r o u n d d o c u m e n t s . . We w i l l h a v e h o w e v e r , • befo-re: t h i s m e e t i n g , v a l u a b l e country s t a t e m e n t s d e s c r i b i n g t h e é x t e n t and n a t u r e of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and t h e measure of t h e s u c c e s s of programmes t o a r r e s t t h i s p r o c e s s . V/e a l s o have t h e . v e i y i l l u m i n a t i n g s t a t e m e n t j u s t made by my c o l l e a g u e , Mr. I g l e s i a s , t h e E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y , ' on t h e a s p e c t s of desertification i n t h e L a t i n American r e g i o n ^ and a p a p e r p r e p a r e d by Mr. J o s é E m i l i o A r a u j o f r o m t h e I n t e r - A m e r i ó a n I n s t i t u t e of Agricultural S c i e n c e s a t T u r r i a l b a on t h e n a t u r a l phenomena of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n South America. 25. in y ; Our g l o b a l s t u d i e s a r e r e f l e c t e d i n s i x : c a s e s t u d i e s of specific locations. The s e l e c t i o n of t h e s e h a s b e e n on t h e a d v i c e of o u r scientists, i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e s p e c i a l i z e d a g e n c i e s and of U n i t e d N a t i o n s , of c o u r s e , w i t h t h e Governments t h e m s e l v e s . t r i e d in these case s t u d i e s to cover, as f a r as p o s s i b l e , ecological regions, the We h a v e t h e main and to- s t u d y what h a p p e n s v / h e n - d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n • t a k e s p l a c e , and v;hen t h e r e i s a n a t t e m p t t o i n t r o d u c e - r e g e n e r a t i o n . 26. The c a s e s t u d i e s were t w i n n e d . Two i n - I r a q an.d P a k i s t a n w i t h w a t e r l o g g i n g and s a l i n i t y . i n i r r i g a t e d a r e a s . The two i n N i g e r and E a j a s t h a n i n I n d i a a r e of warm s e a s o n r a i n f a l l a r e a s , and t h e two i n S o u t h e r n T u n i s i a . a n d Northern- C h i l e a r e o f , c o l d s e a s o n The C h i l e a n c a s e s t u d y h a s o n l y r e c e n t l y b e e n 2?. deal rainfall. completed. Me a r e most g r a t e f u l f o r t h e f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e made a v a i l a b l e by t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s D e v e l o p m e n t Programme, and f o r t h e a s s i s t a n c e UNESCO t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t s c o n c e r n e d i n p r e p a r i n g t h e 28. T h e r e was s o much i n t e r e s t of studies. i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t of o u r work t h a t s e v e r a l G o v e r n m e n t s o f f e r e d t o p r e p a r e s t u d i e s of t h e i r own. Those we c a l l a s s o c i a t e d c a s e s t u d i e s . Gascoyne c a t c h m e n t i n W e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a , eastern Iran, t h r e e from China, T h e r e i s a s t u d y of one on r e c o v e r y i n the north- two f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , one f r o m I s r a e l and one f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o v e r i n g a c o l d d e s e r t i n e a s t Oregon. south- T h e s e a r e now b e i n g r e p r o d u c e d and v / i l l be a v a i l a b l e the Conference. to 29. vWe w i l l p r e s e n t a s y n t h e s i s : o f ^ t h e a e c a s e s t u d i e s : a t €ónferenc:e,^ along with the case s t u d i e s themsalveso This the synthé^Sis, • we h o p e , w i l l s t r e s s t h e e x p e r i e n c e igairied i n pi?ogrammes of from d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , and t h e l e s s o n s which c a n be g e n e r a l l y -when we come t o c o n s i d e r t h e Viiorld P l a n of 30. recovery applied Action. I s h o u l d p e r h a p s add,' b e f o r é g o i n g "on j t h a t t h e G e n e r a l Assembly when i t a d o p t e d i t s e n a b l i n g r e s o l u t i o n , P l a n of A c t i o n i t s e l f stressed that should strengthen the indigenous capacity s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e a r e a s c o n c e r n e d . t o do t h i s was t o s t a r t immediately, the in We f e l t t h e b e s t way and for- t h a t r e a s o n t h e Studies and t h e o t h e r p r e p a r a t o r y work l e a d i n g up t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e h a v e , f o r t h e most p a r t , institutions b e e n c a r r i e d o u t i n s c i e n t i f i c and other i n t h e c o u n t r i e s most a f f e c t e d by d é B é r t i f i c a t i o ñ p a r t i c u l a r l y developing countries. I h a v e m e n t i o n e d C h a p i n g b and I w i l l be able= t o t o u c h l a t e r on o t h e r i n s t i t ü t ' i b h s i n t h e A m e r i c a s which h a v e p l á y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e ' p r e p a r a t i o n s for the Conference. 31. The G e n e r a l Assembly a l s o a s k e d u s t o p r e p a r e a w o r l d map s h o w i n g a r e a s a f f e c t e d , ^afid a r e a s l i k e l y t o b e a f f e c t é d by t h e p r o c e s s of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , and g i v i n g some i n d i c a t i o n s of r e a s o n s why d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e . Through FAO, the in c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h UNESCO and V/MO^ we h a v e p r e p a r e d a World • D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map, a t a s c a l e of 1 : 2 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 on a new p r o j e c t i o r i \ prepared s p e c i a l l y f o r the Conference. - 32. Now, a map o f s u c h a s m a l l s c a l e cannot'.be a scientific-tool. So vje have had FAO p r e p a r e a n e x p e r i m e n t a l map o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i b h ' f o r A f r i c a n o r t h of t h e e q u a t o r , and lADIZA ( I n s t i t u t o ' A r g e n t i n o d e - I n v e s t i g a c i o n e s dé l a s Zonas A r i d a s ) ' h a s p r e p a r e d á n e x p e r i m e n t a l map of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n c o u n t r i e s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a . B o t h maps show a s c a l e o f 1 : 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 and I am h a p p y t o s e e t h e S o u t h A m e r i c a n map b e f o r e us i n t h e h a l l today ( a s w e l l a s the" D i r e c t o r o f Engineer V i r g i l i o Eoig). 53. lADIZA, - ' We h a v e a r r a n g e d w i t h t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Bonn f o r t h e of a c l i m a t e / a r i d i t y t h e S o v i e t Union preparation i n d e x map, a n d w i t h t h e U n i v e r s i - t y of Moscow Academy o f S c i e n c e s f o r a map on d r o u g h t We w i l l a l s o h a v e , probability. f o r t h e C o n f e r é n c e , a map on v u l n e r a b i l i t y by P r o f e s s o r D r e g n e , C h a i r m a n o f t h e AAAS D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n and prepared Committee. These t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t a l maps, w i t h an accompanying b r o c h u r e , will p r e s e n t e d a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e , a n d o n e " w i l l be' f e a t u r e d i n o n e of"the component 3^. reviews. Finally, on t h e q u e s t i o n of m a p s , when vie p r e p a r e d t h e s t u d i e s a n d a g r e e d - u p o n a common a p p r o a c h , m e t h o d o l o g y a n d case terminology, we p r e p a r e d a s y n o p t i c map o f e a c h of t h e a r e a s c o v e r e d by t h e studies. V/e s e e , a s a r e s u l t of t h i s e x p e r i e n c é , the heed i n case the f u t u r e f o r a d e t a i l e d d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n a t l a s iiAhich iiAOuld be b r o u g h t t o d a t e from time t o 35. • The a c t i v i t i e s t h a t I - h a v e s o f a r d e s c r i b e d h a v e b e e n on t h e c a u s e s a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f r e s p e c t e r of f r o n t i e r s . for the essentially Conference desertification. ,I t u r n now t o q u e s t i o n s o f f e a s i b i l i t y . Desertification is I n many r e g i o n s o f t h e w o r l d t h e r e So we e x a m i n e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y transnational projects, that is, of c a r r y i n g . o u t p r o j e c t s of a r e g i o n a l i n v o l v i n g groups of concerned and a f f e c t e d G0untries¿ no are p r o b l e m s w h i c h c o u n t r i e s h a v e i n common a n d c o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m together. up time. t h o s e of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e most u p - t o - d a t e . " k h o i í l e d g e 36. be tackling what we c a l l character - 1 0 -- 37. • A c t i v i t i e s of t h i s kind a r e , etmbitious, f a r - r e a c h i n g and ariti- a r e n o t a l w a y s e a s y t ó d e s i g n b e c a u s e o f t h e many constraints that 38. nátürally, apply. However we h a v e c a r r i e d o u t ' a " s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s on t h e f e a s i b i l i t y of such t r a n s n a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s . a r e a of g r e a t e s t v u l n e r a b i l i t y We s t a r t e d w i t h which i s t h e S a h e l . the H e r e we s t u d i e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o i j e c t oh t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f livestock, region. involving, initially, We t h o u g h t i t seven c o u n t r i e s of t h e would b e p o s s i b l e t o r e d u c e t h e p r e s s u r e v u l n e r a b l e g r a z i n g á r e a s by t a k i n g o f i m m a t u r e c a t t l e , to raoister already taking the i n i t i a l Secondly, fattening* and we a r e s t e p s to c a r r y out t h i s long-range t h e Governments of p r a c t i c a l l y project. every country in A f r i c a a r e e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h m a j o r programmes f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g belts, or shelter b e l t s , to contain desert on and m b v i n g them a r e a s c l o s e r t o t h e m a r k e t f o r f i n i s h i n g and T h i s s t u d y h a s b e e n w e l l r e c e i v e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t s , 39- Sudano-Sahelian encroachment. North tree The g o v e r n m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s h a v e a g r e e d t o p o o l t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i n a common effort. I atfl h a p p y t o r e p o r t t h a t on 5 F e b r u a r y i n C a i r o , Ministers o f A g r i c u l t u r e o f t h r e e c o u n t r i e s s i g n e d a p r o t o c o l which,- i n effect, accepted the f e a s i b i l i t y study f o r a t r a n s n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t to establish a green b e l t in the northern Sahara. Governments a r e e x p e c t e d t o s i g n 'fO. A feasibility considered f o r are vastly The two r e m a i n i n g N o r t h A f r i c a n shortly. study of á siiiiilar proposal i s the Sahelian region. different There the from those p r e v a i l i n g will be p o s s i b l e project t h i s k i n d on t h e s o u t h e r n m a r g i n o f t h e and we t o c a r r y out a I n N o r t h e r n A f r i c a and i n t h e A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a i n A s i a which the groundwater i s fossil, pre-historic Because o f the changes t h a t times. i n these management o f areas, aré the groundwater which these becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y irreplaceable, these a q u i f e r s ecological important, but also no l o n g e r there accumulated have rechargeable. c o u n t r i e s have i n common not o n l y because t h e w a t e r because i n some p l a c e s it ' Sahara. a r e deep a q u i f e r s i n place being' conditions i n North A f r i c a , know t o what kl. it ecological do n o t y e t of extent currently is may d e c l i n e in in taken The is -.11- q u a l i t y t h r o u g h i n t r u s i o n of s e a v / á t e r . The G o v e r n r j e n t s c o n c e r n e d h a v e r e v i e w e d a f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y , and i n Q a t a r t o v / a r d s t h e end of l a s t y e a r an a g r e e m e n t v/as r e a c h e d on a cordmon programrae i n b o t h a r e a s , 42. I n a n y w o r l d programrae t o c o n t a i n d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , a c o n t i n u o u s m o n i t o r i n g and a s s e s s m e n t of t h e s i t u a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l . t o choose tv/o c r i t i c a l a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d t o s t a r t desertification processes. and now B r a z i l , We d e c i d e d monitoring The Governments of P e r u , A r g e n t i n a , have j o i n e d t o g e t h e r t o s t u d y how b e s t Chile, desertification p r o c e s s e s c a n be m o n i t o r e d and a s s e s s e d ' i n t h e c r i t i c a l a r e a s of countries. their I n a d d i t i o n t o g r o u n d lcnov;ledge, i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be d e r i v e d from s a t e l l i t e i m a g e r y and a v a i l a b l e a i r p h o t o g r a p h s . My c o l l e a g u e s h a v e j u s t r e t u r n e d f r o m Limá where t h e Governments met t o complete t h e arrangements f o r such a p r o j e c t . ' T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t i n S o u t h America h a s b e e n r e p l i c a t e d Southwest A s i a . The Governments of I r a n , in I n d i a and P a k i s t a n h a v e a g r e e d i n p r i n c i p l e t o t h e m o n i t o r i n g and a s s e s s i n g of t h e critical a r e a s i n t h e i r c o u n t r i e s i n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r , and t h e Government of Afghanistan has formally agreed to j o i n this transnational project. kk. I h a v e m e n t i o n e d t h e s e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s i n some b e c a u s e we b e l i e v e we s h o u l d n o t w a i t t i l l t a k e s p l a c e t o d e c i d e v/hat s h o u l d be d o n e , on a c t i o n t o c o n t a i n a n d , where p o s s i b l e , detail, the Conference fiather we s h o u l d s t a r t to reverse now desertification. I am happy t o s e e t h a t t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s have b o r n e f r u i t in Government a g r e e m e n t s and t h e d e c i s i o n t o v/ork t o g e t h e r , and t h a t t h e s e common p r o j e c t s h a v e r e c e i v e d a b r o a d m e a s u r e o f international support. A l l t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s form p a r t of t h e P l a n of A c t i o n t o combat desertification. You h a v e b e f o r e y o u , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e summary of t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s t h e m s e l v e s , a d r a f t of t h e P l a n . The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h were t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t d u r i n g t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of P l a n of A c t i o n a r e s t i p u l a t e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y p a r t of t h e But I s h o u l d p e r h a p s , a t t h i s j u n c t u r e , m e n t i o n t h r e e of o u r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n p r e p a r i n g t h e P l a n of Action. the Plan. guiding -•'l^- - The f i r s t environment, i s . t h a t we a r e c p n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h tóain i n and n o t e x c l u s i v e l y i v i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a s his such. S e c o n d l y , w h i l e we s e e t h e . d e s t r u c t i o n w h i c h h a s t a k e n p l a d e a s r e s u l t to a l a r g e , e x t e n t of.man's, a c t i v i t i e s , we s e e man a l s o a s a v i c t i m n o t o n l y a s t h e a g g r e s i s o r . , For: t h e most p a r t , t h e p e o p l e who l i v e i n t h e s e - v u l n e r a b l e a r e a s must f i n d t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d i n n o t o f , t h e i r own m a k i n g . changes take p l a c e , á ecosystems Me know t h a t many e m i g r a t e , we know t h a t t h a t i n d u s t r y .is i n t r o d u c e d , . b r o a d e n e d ; , b u t » , by. a n d l a r g e , that occupations are t h e p e o p l e of t h e s e a r e a s remaiii v i c t i m s of a . c o n d i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n merely t h e c r e a t o r s - o f it. This 'is t o b e a r . i n m i n d , b e c a u s e much t h a t h a s b e e n w r i t t e n h a s a l o n e a s c a u s i n g havoc i n t h e s e í e x t r e m e l y impoi-tant portrayed-man friable areas. ,Wé dó n o t s h a r e f u l l y t h i s v i e w , o r t a k e e x a c t l y t h e same a p p r o a c h . Thirdly, increase w h i l e we n a t u r a l l y s e e t h e n e e d f o r e v e r y e f f o r t f o o d p r o d u c t i o n , . we a r e h o t c o n c e r n e d i m r a e d i a t l y w i t h the productivity of.these areas. as areas increasinf . F o r we .see t h e m , f o r t h e most t h a t w i l l n o r m a l l y b e o f low u n i t a g r i c u l t u r a l We a r e c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e r e s t o r a t i o n , of a r e a s t h a t have to part, productivity. Wherever possible, degenerated. I s h o u l d h a s t e n t o add t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e s e a r e a s ' a r e o f low u n i t productivity, t h e i r t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n , i s enormous i n terras of food supply. In f a c t , in drylands, 49. t h e m a j o r p a r t of t h e w o r l d ' s c e r e a l s a r e grown i n c l u d i n g t h e g r e a t p l a i n s of N o r t h A m e r i c a . The P l a n of A c t i o n w h i c h you s e e b e f o r e you b e g i n s , feasibility studies, w i t h a s s e s s m e n t and p l a n n i n g . an e x a m i n a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e provide r i s k insurance against drought; water, energy sources; and t h e including institutional l a n d and the need to how we c a n s t r e n g t h e n s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y t o U n d e r p i n t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s ; q u e s t i o n of s u p p o r t i n g m e a s u r e s , a s do t h e I t t h e n goes on t o p r o p o s e m e a s u r e s d e a l i n g w i t h p o p u l a t i o n and h e a l t h , livelihoods; world indigenous whole arrangements, the role o f international organizations, a n d the f i n a n c i n g o f the Plan i t s e l f . As f a r a s i n s t i t u t i o n a l w i l l s e e t h a t we do n o t opt a r r a n g e m e n t s á.ré c o n c e r n e d you f o r a new i n s t i t u t i o n . I feel strongly t h e e x i s t i n g United N a t i o n s mechanisms can c a r r y t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t h e follow-up of t h e r e s u l t s of t h e C o n f e r e n c e . that of I n my v i e w t h e Environmental C o n d i t i o n B o a r d (ACB) i s well e q u i p p e d to carry t h e .lob. - 13 - 50. The d r a f t P l a n you h a v e b e f o r e you w i l l be f u r t h e r elaborated, i n t h e l i g h t of t h e d i s c u s s i o n s w e , a r e h o l d i n g h e r e t h i s week, the examination the Plan w i l l receive i n , t h e other regional.meetings, and t h e r e v i e w t h a t w i l l t a k e p l a c e a t t h e G o v e r n i n g C o u n c i l of UNSP i n May. 51. Vi/e a r e a l r e a d y t a k i n g s t e p s t o s t r e n g t h e n t h o s e p a r t s of P l a n which, i n o u r judgement, r e q u i r e improved f o r m u l a t i o n » we a r e d o i n g t h i s i s t o c a l l t o g e t h e r s m a l l g r o u p s of h i g h s p e c i a l i s t s v/ith e x p e r i e n c e on s p e c i f i c t o p i c s . the The way level We a r e h a v i n g one g r o u p c o n s i d e r how b e s t we c a n m o n i t o r t h e huraan c o n d i t i o n and i m p r o v e family health in the areas concerned. A n o t h e r g r o u p i s c o n s i d e r i n g how t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community can i n c r e a s e i n s u r a n c e f o r p e o p l e s a t b e a r i n g i n mind t h e n e e d n o t t o t a m p e r w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l s y s t e m s which e x i s t i n e v e r y s o c i e t y . insurance We a r e , a l s o w o r k i n g on t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e s e c t i o n of t h e P l a n which d e a l s w i t h energy 52. risk, alternative sources. We a r e a l s o , w i t h o u r c o l l e a g u e s i n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s IVater, C o n f e r e n c e , s e e i n g hoiif b e s t t h e P l a n of A c t i o n can be strengthened by a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e f r o m t h e Water C o n f e r e n c e i n A r g e n t i n a . forthcoming P e r i o d i c c o n s u l t a t i o n s have already t a k e n p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e two s e c r e t a r i a t s and t h e c o n s u l t a n t s who h a v e w r i t t e n p a p e r s i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e tv/o c o n f e r e n c e s , 53. F i n a l l y , we a r e c o n v e n i n g a h i g h l e v e l g r o u p of t h o s e who h a v e e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e f i n a n c i n g of programmes n a t i o n a l l y , internationally, bilaterally t o s e e how b e s t t o o r g a n i z e and a d m i n i s t e r and the f i n a n c i n g of t h e programmes t h a t v / i l l a r i s e o u t of t h e P l a n of Action, t o combat d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n . VJe a l s o hope on t h i s o c c a s i o n t o determine w i t h some more p r e c i s i o n t h e o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e of t h e f u n d s i n v o l v e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y for the i n i t i a l period, i n 1978. t h a t i s the seven years beginning Our p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e of t h e o u t s i d e f i g u r e r e q u i r e d i n t h e r e g i o n of f o u r b i l l i o n d o l l a r s , a l t h o u g h I h a s t e n t o add t h i s would o n l y i n p a r t c a l l f o r n e t a d d i t i o n a l can f o r e s e e as b e i n g available. is that f u n d s o v e r t h o s e we ^ 11+ - 3k. Additional a c t i v i t i e s , in preparation f o r the Conference, are the i n f o r m a t i o n conipaign, t h e workshop p l a n n e d t o f o l l o v / t h e C o n f e r e n c e where n a t i o n a l o f f i c e r s d e a l i n g w i t h programmes of d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n would meet t o combatting d i s c u s s ways and means of implementing t h o s e r e s o l u t i o n s of t h e C o n f e r e n c e meant f o r i m m e d i a t e implementation. The l a s t o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s i s t h e p l a n n i n g f o r N o n - G o v e r n m e n t a l Organizations to play a s i g n i f i c a n t role in the preparations f o r C o n f e r e n c e and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of i t s r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . the Also a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e , we i n UNÉP, t h r o u g h b u r t r a i n i n g c e n t r e i n Madrid f o r S p a n i s h s p e a k i n g c o u n t r i e s w i l l s h o r t l y be h o l d i n g j o i n t l y w i t h lADIZA i n Mendoza, (CIFCA), Argentina, a c o u r s e on t h e e c o l o g y of t h e e c o s y s t e m s of a r i d and s e m i - a r i d of L a t i n A m e r i c a . areas I am s u r e my c o l l e a g u e s w i l l b r i e f you f u l l y on a l l t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s i f you s o wish;, 55. I now come. L a d i e s and G e n t l e m e n , f o r from t h e r e g i o n a l m e e t i n g s . t o t h e q u e s t i o n of v/hat úe Gc-.n l o These m e e t i n g s a r e h e l d i n accordance w i t h t h e G e n e r a l Assembly r e s o l u t i o n which r e q u e s t e d " a s p a r t of p r e p a r a t o r y p r o c e s s f o r t h e C o n f e r e n c e and i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h Governments c o n c e r n e d - . . ( a n d ) . . . in co-operation with the 56. the regional c o m m i s s i o n s , t e c h n i c a l m e e t i n g s a t t h e r e g i o n a l and s u b r e g i o n a l as the levels appropriate". These m e e t i n g s a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l o c c a s i o n s on w h i c h we c a n s h a r e o u r t h o u g h t s w i t h G o v e r n m e n t s i n t h e v a r i o u s r e g i o n s on t h e preparations f o r t h i s i m p o r t a n t C o n f e r e n c e and l e a r n f r o m t h e i r a p p o i n t e d specialists t h e i r viev/s on t h e a p p r o a c h we a r e t a k i n g t o t h e C o n f e r e n c e . particular, In we w i l l r e v i e w t h e main d o c u m e n t s and p r o p o s a l s f o r the U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n w h i l e t h e s e p a p e r s are s t i l l at a formative 57. stage. B a s i c a l l y , we a r e e x p e c t i n g t h r e e t h i n g s f r o m t h e meetings: regional • ( i ) An u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e g i o n ' s own e x p e r i e n c e , a s reflected i n i t s c o u n t r y p a p e r s , and any v i e w s t h a t t h e G o v é r n m e ñ t s wish to e x p r e s s , i n o r d e r t o e n l a r g e o u r knowledge of the processes related to d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , consequences, have. all i t s c a u s e s and and t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n we a l r e a d y - 15 - ( i i ) V/e want t o know how t h e c o u n t r i e s of t h e r e g i o n s e e t h e P l a n of A c t i o n , what r e f i n e m e n t s t h e y iirould l i k e t o s e e i n i t . want you i n t h i s m e e t i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , f o r m a t and p o s s i b i l i t i e s Action» We to discuss f u l l y the f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e P l a n of We v/ant you t o i d e n t i f y f o r u s v/hat w i t h i n y o u r r e g i o n r e q u i r e s i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n and c o u l d be a c h i e v e d at the national or regional l e v e l s within the c a p a b i l i t i e s t h e c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n e d and t h e l i m i t s of international support. reasonable To p u t i t a n o t h e r way, we want you t o h e l p a s e n s u r e t h a t t h e P l a n of A c t i o n i s s o u n d , and a c h i e v a b l e and n o t s i m p l y a l i s t and w i s h f u l of feasible of l o f t y r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o thinking, ( i i i ) We a l s o want t o knovj t h e v i e w s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t s concerned i n e a c h r e g i o n on t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s t o which t h e y a r e p a r t i e s ; p a r t i c u l a r l y we want t o know w h e t h e r t h e G o v e r n m e n t s concerned intend to s t a r t implementing the transnational a c t i v i t i e s b e f o r e t h e C o n f e r e n c e so t h a t t h e y c a n r e p o r t t h e C o n f e r e n c e on t h e s t e p s a l r e a d y 58. to taken. I n c o n c l u s i o n , may I e m p h a s i z e t h a t h i g h h o p e s a r e p i n n e d on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r meeting to set the tone f o r the o t h e r three regional meetings. exchange I l o o k f o r t h a t f r a n k , c r i t i c a l and c o n s t r u c t i v e of vievis w h i c h i s t h e h a l l m a r k of m e e t i n g s of e x p e r t s . I sincerely hope t h a t you w i l l r e a c h c o n c r e t e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t h a t may be r e f l e c t e d i n o u r f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n of t h e P l a n of A c t i o n and i n o u r o t h e r preparations f o r the Conference. Your t a s k i s d i f f i c u l t , and t h e i s s h o r t , but I have u t t e r c o n f i d e n c e i n your e x p e r t i s e i n t h e and i n y o u r a b i l i t y t o a c h i e v e o u r common g o a l s . time field, UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS I n f o r m a t i o n Document NQ-l O r g a n i z a t i o n of work 1. Officers Chairman Mro C a r l o s A l b e r t o D u l c i c (Chile) Vice-Chairmen .^r. Rapporteur 2. 3» ^ Belloni M y . , A l e j a n d r o Quesada R a m i r e z (Costa Rica) Mr« D i l l a r d Ho G a t e s ( U n i t e d S t a t e s ) Mr, G u s t a v o A. v a n G e l d e r e n ( A r g e n t i n a ) Hours 9:30'to 12:30 2:30 to k'.OO h:30 to 6:30 R u l e s of Procedure Normal r u l e s of t h e Economic Commission f o r L a t i n A m e r i c a 'f. • Wednesday 23 F e b r u a r y 9 : 3 0 t o 1 1 : 0 0 - M e e t i n g of Heads of Delegations 1 1 : 0 0 t o 1 2 : 3 0 ~ S t a t e m e n t s by Mr. E n r i q u e V. I g l e s i a s , E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y , ECLA G e n e r a l M a r i o Mac-Kay, M i n i s t e r of A g r i c u l t u r e , Chile D r . M o s t a f a K, T o l b a , E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r , UNEP ( i n h i s c a p a c i t y a s S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l of t h e C o n f e r e n c e ) 2:30 to ^ 6 : 3 0 - Agenda i t e m 4 Overview of c a s e s t u d i e s and maps t o be d i s c u s s e d ( 2 0 m i n u t e p r e s e n t a t i o n by Prof. Kassas, Assistant to the SecretaryGeneral of the C o n f e r e n c e ) Country s t a t e m e n t s As a p p r o v e d by t h e i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g of Heads o f ?7-2-OifOO- Delegations. - 2 - 5. Thursday 24 February . 9:30 to 12:30 - Continue discussion of agenda item 4 2:30 to :i 6. 6:30 - Agenda item 5 Summary of feasibility studies (15 minute presentation by Dr. Karrar, Assistant to the Secretary-General of the Conference) Monitoring in South America (10 minute presentation by Dr. Karrar) Plan of Action (20 minute presentation by Dr. Rosahov) Discussion of Plan of Action and specific recommendations Friday 25 February 9:30 to 12:30 Continue discussion of agenda item 5 2:30 to If necessary, continue discussion of agenda item 5 and, when concluded, take up item 3 Presentation by Mr, Ralph Townley, Director of the Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Desertification 6:30 Additional background documents (including UNITAR study and p i A S study on Drought and Man) Arrangements by the Conference (including information campaign, postCoriférénce workshop for implementation of Action Plan sind involvement of non-governmental organizations Saturday 26 February 11:00 to 12:30 - Adoption of the report of the Meeting, which is to consist of five pages of generally agreed topics. Some countries may have specific considerations;and récommendations which could be added as annexes UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS I n f o r m a t i o n Document NQ 1 / R e v . l O r g a n i z a t i o n of work 1. Officers Chairman Mr, C a r i o s A l b e r t o D u l c i c (Chile) Vice-chairmen Mr. A l e j a n d r o Quesada R a m i r e z (Costa Rica) Mr, D i l l a r d Ho Gatfes ( U n i t e d S t a t e s ) R a p p o r t e iur 2. ' Belloni A l b e r t o E m i l i o Montbrun (Argentina) Hours 9:30 to 12:30 2:30 to k:30 3. R u l e s of to k:00 6:30 Procedure Normal r u l e s of t h e Economic Commission f o r L a t i n America Wednesday 23 F e b r u a r y 9 : 3 0 t o 1 1 : 0 0 - M e e t i n g of Heads of Delegations 1 1 : 0 0 t o 1 2 : 3 0 - S t a t e m e n t s by Mr. E n r i q u e V. I g l e s i a s , E x e c u t i v e S e c r e t a r y , ECLA G e n e r a l M a r i o Mac-Kay, M i n i s t e r of A g r i c u l t u r e Chile D r . M o s t a f a K. T o l b a , E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r , UNEP ( i n h i s c a p a c i t y a s S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l of t h e C o n f e r e n c e ) 2:30 to ft/ 6 : 3 0 - Agenda i t e m k Overview of c a s e s t u d i e s and maps t o be d i s c u s s e d ( 2 0 m i n u t e p r e s e n t a t i o n by Prof. Kassas, Assistant to the SecretaryG e n e r a l of t h e C o n f e r e n c e ) Country s t a t e m e n t s As a p p r o v e d by t h e i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g of Heads of 77-2-OifOO- Delegations. - 2 - T h u r s d a y Zk F e b r u a r y .9:30 t o Í 2 : 3 Ó - C o n t i n u e d i s c u s s i o n of a g e n d a i t e m ^ 2:30 to > 6« 6 : 3 0 - Agenda i t e m 5 Summary of f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d i e s ( 1 5 m i n u t e p r e s e n t a t i o n by D r . K a r r a r , A s s i s t a n t t o t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l of the Conference) M o n i t o r i n g i n S o u t h America ( 1 0 m i n u t e p r e s e n t a t i o n by D r . K a r r a r ) P l a n of A c t i o n ( 2 0 m i n u t e p r e s e n t a t i o n by Dr. Rosanov) D i s c u s s i o n of P l a n of A c t i o n and s p e c i f i c recommendations F r i d a y 25 F e b r u a r y 9:30 to 12:30 2:30 to 6:30 C o n t i n u e d i s c u s s i o n of a g e n d a i t e m 5 I f n e c e s s a r y , c o n t i n u e d i s c u s s i o n of agenda i t e m 5 a n d , when c o n c l u d e d , t a k e up i t e m 3 P r e s e n t a t i o n by Mr. R a l p h Townley, D i r e c t o r of t h e S e c r e t a r i a t of t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n f e r e n c e on D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , A d d i t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d documents , ( i n c l u d i n g ÜNITAR s t u d y and IFIAS s t u d y on D r o u g h t and Han) A r r a n g e m e n t s by t h e C o n f e r e n c e ( i n c l u d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n campaign, p o s t C o n f e r e n c e workshop f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o r o f A c t i o n P l a n ^ñd i n v o l v e m e n t of non-governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s 7. S a t u r d a y 26 F e b r u a r y 1 1 : 0 0 t o 1 2 : 3 0 - A d o p t i o n of t h e r e p o r t of t h e M e e t i n g , which i s t o c o n s i s t of f i v e p a g e s of g e n e r a l l y agreed t o p i c s . Some c o u n t r i e s may have s p e c i f i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s which c o u l d be added a s a n n e x e s ADDRESS DELIVERED BY GENERAL MARIO MAC-KAY JARAQUEMADA, MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE, AT THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY METING FOR THE AMERICAS, : . SANTIAGO, 23 FEBRUARY 1977 It is a source Qf deep satisfaction to the people and tH'e' Government of Chile that their country should have the honour of serving as the venue for the United" Nations Conference on Desertification - Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Americas. V/e extend our warmest welcome to the; distinguished delegations of fhe various countries represented here, to the high officials of the . United N^itions and to all those who. are ooiuing us on an occasion when the serious problem of the desertic or semi'-desertic areas-'is to be studied with a view to drawing:up a programme of specific ' action for their control or recovery?; : -i' ? Since the very dawn of the history of man such processes of deterioration of his lands have taken place, with disastrous consequences. The earth is full of dumb witnesses to these happenings, and if we could acquire a thorough knowledge of how and why they have come about, we should perhaps be able to forestall similar phenomena. Vie do know, of course, that it is man himself vtho is largely responsible for the devastation of land that once v;as fertile. Today no one can remain indifferent to the fact, still less to the imperative necessity of making a study in depth of the arid regions and the process of their encroachment, in order to discover methods of control v/hich will not affect their intrinsically delicate ecology» The United Nations could not have taken a more praiseviorthy step, considering that almost one-third of the earth's whole surface is desertic or semi-desertic, and that fifteen per cent of its population live - if that is the right word - in those regions. 77-2-0597 - 2 - Chile too has a large and important aff'ected area, and can well understand the world significance of the problem with which we are concerned. It is by joining forces, on a regional and world scale, with complete* exchange of information, that'we shall be able to attain the United Nations' objective: the d'rawing-up of a plan of action to combat desertification. i V/e are presenting to this meeting a caise: study of the existing situation in an area in Chile, which we hope will help to serve ends pursued here. • < ' ' : In welcoming you to the present meeting,' we should like to wish you a pleasant stay in our country, arid, above all, every success in obtaining positive results that M i l signify a valuable contribution to the World Conference in Nairobi. Thank you very much UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION IÍEGIONAL PREPAEATOEY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Santiago, Chile, 23-26 February 1977 STATEMENT BY MR. ENRIQUE V, IGLESIAS, EXÉCUTIVE SECRETARY OF CEPAL, AT THE OPENING MEETING It is a great pleasure for us in CEPAL to have this opportunity of collaborating with the United Nations Environment Programme, to which the General Assemblj'' entrusted the organization of the Conference on Desertification, in the holding of this Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Americas which represents a further step in the series of joint activities undertaken by our tiirc agencies. The f u n d a m e n t a l p u r p o s e where t h e c o u n t r i e s so t h a t of of this meeting is t h e r e g i o n c a n exchange e x p e r i e n c e t h e y can t a k e p a r t in a better-informed t r u e r e g i o n a l a p p r o a c h j.n t h e W o r l d C o n f e r e n c e which i s t o be h e l d i n ro s e r v e as a forum and v i e w s manner and v ; i t h a on Desertification Nairobi. With this nev; conference, the United Nations is pursuing its task of tackling the main problems which affect the deveD.opment and well-being of mankind. Closely related as it is with the subjects discussed at the Conferences on Water and on Science and Technology, the problem of desertification was an aspect which could not be left aside. The distinguished Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme, whom we are honoured to have here with us today, will deal more fully with the objectives and organization of the VJorld Conference on Desertification and v/ill thus provide us with the frame of reference of the present Regional Preparatory Meeting. For my part, I simply wish to stress CEPAL's interest in adding its efforts to those of the Governments, so that this Meeting may produce a realistic view of the problems of the arid and semi-arid 77-2-0378-80 - 2 - zones in America. This, together with the contributions of the other regions, will provide a concrete basis for the work of the World Conference. The CEPAL secretariat is particularly interested in desertification. This could hardly be otherwise, considering that roughly 25 per cent of the region's area is arid or semi-arid and to a greater or lesser extent exposed to the process of desertification. Despite the fact that it is the continent with the greatest water resources, South America also has some of the world's most arid areas,, and among the countries of the region there are some, such as Argentina and Mexico, whose area is more than 60 per cent ,arid or serai-arid. CEPAL has not, to date, undertaken any specific activity on desertification, but it has touche<^ indirectl^y on some of the questions which form the subject of this Meeting in its studies on the development of v;ater resources, and on socio-economic development in general. The arid and semi-arid zones of Latin America I shall now venture to outline the situation and extension; of the arid and semi-arid Kones in our region and the risk they run of undergoing desertification processes. These zones fall into four, main areas: north-western Mexico; the extreme North of South America (La Guajira and north-western Venezuela) also Including the neighbouring islands; north-western Brasil; and the great diagonal desert covering south-western Ecuador, the Peruvian coast, northern Chile, the, Bolivian altiplano and, north-western, v/estern centrsil and southern central Argentina. In addition, much of Chilean and Argentine Patagonia is semi-arid, although its characteristics are very different from those of the above areas. In these zones the risk of undergoing a process of desertification ranges from very high in-hilly land where population pressures are heavy, as in much of Mexico and the foothills of the Andes, to . rather remote in the sparsely populated plains such as the Chaco (Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay) or Patagonia. The stable natural deserts of Baja California, the Peruvian coast and northern Chile are - 3 - another m a t t e r : because o f c l i m a t o l o g i c a l i s not r e v e r s i b l e ^ and t h e o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e from s o u r c e s s i t u a t e d o u t s i d e All these zones, development factors the however, the countries is the to b r i n g i n productive for On t h e c a u s e s o f The p e r i o d i c s h a r e a common problem» n e e d t o make use o f a l l future their recurrence of drought w i t h its at the c a r r i e d out» generally less despite that available there the l i v e s t o c k , its Furthermore, importance in since to survive, fertile of the droughts during destroy the because the erosion year I960-1969 alone the d i r e c t current Ox h y d r o e l e c t r i c is the estimated that losses i n the values; if power and t h e one c a n a p p r e c i a t e f r e q u e n c y and i n t e n s i t y i n advance (water r e g i o n s because in of periods the necessary precautions north in of sectors losses studying o f d r o u g h t so" as -co to reduce the the addition indirect the value of agricultural t h e l o s s e s s u s t a i n e d by t h e m i n i n g and i n d u s t r i a l r e p r e s e n t e d by unsown f i e l d s soil, great D u r i n g the severe drought which ravaged because o f t h e s h o r t a g e the l i k e l y the themselves are a problem of s e c t o r amounted t o US5? 1 7 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 a t one c o n s i d e r s been elements. and c e n t r e o f C h i l e betv;een 1 9 6 8 and 1 9 7 0 i t agricultural meteorological betvreen is groat conclusions the agents o f t h e c o u n t r i e s w h i c h have s e m i - a r i d t h e damage c a u s e d . it to cycles s t u d i e s w h i c h have c o v e r . w h i c h does n o t r e g e n e r a t e once exposed t o t h e s u b s e q u e n t a c t i o n and w i n d ) l o s e s definite is a relationship i n order economic i n the since climatic than 100 y e a r s , the i n t e r e s t i n g Nevertheless, vegetable their of the region particularly However, f r e q u e n c y o f d r o u g h t and d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n , droughts highest sequel of the c l i m a t o l o g i s t s i n S o u t h America» c a n n o t be d r a w n , take resources, e x t r e m e l y l o n g and t h e p e r i o d c o v e r e d by e x i s t i n g observation is their desertification trend of diminishing r a i n f a l l , diagonal desert may t e For generations. l o s s and s o c i a l p r o b l e m s has l e d study the water o f use c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e n e e d t o c o n s e r v e potential itself area. and t h e a r i d and s e m i - a r i d a r e a s s h o u l d be e x p l o i t e d possible l e v e l desert damage. - /f - ; The semi-arid areas a:re subject to droughts periodically and inevitably, but man has sufficient ingenuity to be able to find,a way of developing and selecting the. necessary measures in good time to prévent thesé'critical periods from turning into catastrophes. . ; Although it is true - that the destructive;cycle which leads to desertification begihs in periods of droughty it is man's persistence ill overexploiting areas of limited productivity and the lack of knowledge of the appropriate technology which lead,to desertification as such. Social and dethógraphic aspects In the areas of Latin America which are most affected by the desertification process there is a combination of various elements» In the first place.the semi-arid areas and especially those situated on mountain slopes have exceptionally mild climates and . have alv;ays been free of malaria, yellow fever and other endemic diseases, so that as a result these areas were the first to be settled and worked by many generations. This demographic pressure, combined v;ith the topographical conditions typical of the sierras, makes the land highly vulnerable to erosion. The introduction of the goat, with its indiscriminate grazing habits, considerably accelei^ates the process. : ' Mining, the main source of income of some arid areas, hais led to the felling of forests so as to use .the wood for props and fuel, thus adding a.new.factor to the desertification process» The very antiquity of the human settlements in these,areas explains why types of social organization and land ownership which differ considerably from those prevailing in the remainder-of the various countries still subsist, and,this adds an additional difficulty to the solution of. their problems. , In addition to this phenomenon there is the need.tp subsist of the people who inhabit the semi-arid areas, and it would not be . realistic merely to indicate the need to avoid overexploiting these areas-or the measures to replant vegetation without•solving the problem of the subsistence of their rinhabitants. . , - Desertification of i s n o t so much a p r o b l e m o f k n o w l e d g e as one t h e . l a c k of resources proposing v i a b l e the world, for explaining alternative and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c strategies conditions. cases, but resources which the c o u n t r i e s It is thus extremely the study of Ecological cultural w i t h the as i n t h e r e s t the transformation of are not always the desert investment in a position of of to major devote important the demographic, of o r 15 p e r c e n t o f it use o f soils was s u b j e c t is applicable is reported that the of end o f to species of l i t t l e hectares, serious and i t is t h e r e g i o n as a the previous it may be o b s e r v e d t h a t o r no v a l u e remain. I n Ecuador p r o d u c t i o n w h i c h u s e d t o be o b t a i n e d p e n i n s u l a and t h e s o u t h - e a s t this the cradle in to t h e 25 m i l l i o n f o r a g e p l a n t s have a l m o s t become e x t i n c t s e e i n g how, vegetation hectares century, remain. I n the north of C h i l e d e s o l a t i o n of and to the Plan H a c i o n a l H i d r á u l i c o o f hardihood f o r e s t s p r o s p e c t e d a t agricultural behavioural I n Mexico 50 m i l l i o n territory, t h e same p r o p o r t i o n I n Argentina species of the areas. the r e g i o n . the n a t i o n a l e r o s i o n i n 1969 a c c o r d i n g o n l y 16 m i l l i o n on t h e agenda o f s o c i a l and these the inappropriate can be o b s e r v e d t h r o u g h o u t estimated that to include damage The e f f e c t s their i n accordance this, involves a s p e c t s o f t h e p e o p l e who i n h a b i t Lara, and areas. Conference whole. t h e e x i s t i n g knowledge V/ithin the r e g i o n , t h e r e a r e many e x a m p l e s o f areas i n t o v e r i t a b l e to these 5 - region. of the indigenous and o n l y the vegetable abundant i n the Santa r e g i o n may be c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e I n Venezuela first t h e v/ake o f the the s t a t e s s t a b l e p o p u l a t i o n s of the herds o f g o a t s , Elena current o f F a l c o n and this erosion is country, are destroying soils. I n the areas of s t a b l e deserts l i f e v a l l e y s which cross them and a r e the nigh c o r d i l l e r a or from o t h e r v a l l e y transverse channels. alongside v a l l e y s is concentrated in i r r i g a t e d w i t h v/ater e i t h e r T h i s means t h a t which are always b a s i n s by means areas of green. total the from of desert are found ' - Highly these types of arise, ' specialized valleys, - technology i s needed to s u c c e s s f u l l y s i n c e piroblems o f s o i l and t h e r e g i o n has had some b i t t e r It is irrigation interesting jointly from the p o i n t a very high a g r i c u l t u r a l the l a c k obtain several agricultural completely At t h e same t i m e , output from t h i s crops a y e a r ; product i n Peru, from i r r i g a t e d existing of the Special in this techniques technological aspécts other Chilean experience for arid in the s a l t provide deserts food f o r i n the the of zones, research designed to this in a product zones. of irrigated valleys and many the r e g i o n on v a r i o u s in several it Among t h e interest the c u l t i v a t i o n of the the n o r t h , zo^e. identify w i t h a view to promoting t h e i r cases agencies original of f o r e i g n species' s u i t e d to gross which l i e options, is in that obtain precisely t o l e a r n about zones; t o mention tamarugo, reproduction, to the c o n d i t i o n s animal the foragé as w e l l a s t h e prevailing growing can Also h i g h l y promising is of the a tree permitting a high autochthonous'species and experiences whose l e a v e s and b e r r i e s s h e e p and' e v e n c a t t l e , population density of cultivation to zones to a r i d institutions. in sponsored possible 30 p e r cent of in field. related crops i n a r i d and which is possible i s p r o v i d e d by U n i t e d N a t i o n s s p e c i a l i z e d international of s p e c i a l it 50 per cent o f interesting Research i s being c a r r i e d out assistance scheme, type of v a l l e y , r e g i o n w o u l d be i n t e r e s t e d experience these. the environment areas w i t h i n semi-arid and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s r a i s e s eásily types of probléms v/hich makes i t I n Argef^^tiha, cultivate o u t i n P e r u on comes f r o m t h e c o a s t a l v a l l e y s , The c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e countries of (ADEMA) p r o j e c t o f any r a i n y s e a s o n , desert area. obtained these of view of D e v e l o p m e n t and E n v i r o n m e n t by UNEP and CEPALo owing t o experience t h e c a s e o f t h e San L o r e n z o i r r i g a t i o n has a l s o b e e n s t u d i e d the W a t e r , salinization to note the research c a r r i e d s y s t e m s Which have p r e s e n t e d in particular is 6 in.the bushes introduction region. - 7 - It is also interesting autochthonous flourished those techniques in arid to noté thé p o s s i b i l i t y of reviving o í pre-Colombian c u l t u r e s which, o r s e r a i - a r i d ¿i'eas', ' c o ü l d be e s p e c i a l l y since they suited to zones» As regards the use of solar energy for household purposes, sotné interesting experiments are being tnade. In some desert areas, as in the north of México and Chilej the atmosphere is completely clear almost throughout the year, so that they offer great advantages for the use of solar energy. In other cases, as in some parts of the Altiplano, wind energy can be used to raise water from the sub-soil. Another question that has also been studied in the region is the use of mists and dew both to obtain water for houEehold purposes and to help restore the vegetable cover on coastal hillsidés. In Peru, in particular, interesting techuiques have been developed in this field. íPilí^-tutional o:-f: in 1 za'':ion The managom^Lt of aria and semi-arid regions (prone to desertification) is soraowhat complex; it requires the co-ordination of action and knov/lcdge in variours speciaD.tioP such as climatology, ecology, soil management in the broadest meaning of the term, social action in some cases at a very low educational level, and the promotion of sometimes fairly complex techniques, all ti'iis under the menace of periods of drought v;hen emergency me^^tjiires have to be taken which in some cases may'mean delaying tá3 'ác tiort already initiated. Some special type of institutional organization is necessary for the purpose. There is evident interest in the region in setting up commissions to co-ordinate the vrork of the various institutions, either orJ.y during drought periods or on a more continuous basis so that such disasters can be confronted with more efficient preparation and a trained administrative structure. In this field, too, it is extremely useful to learn about other experiences in order to adopt the best measures and avoid failures. We therefore v;elcome this venture of the United Nations aimed at making a complete study of the many causes leading to desertification and at disseminating appropriate information and experience not only - 8 - in order to arrest the advance of the desertification.process and as .far- as possible reverse/it, but also to enable . the" inhabitants c.; o f arid.and semi-arid zones to have mean& of subsistence and economic incentives comparable with those of the inhabitants of other regions in each country».. •:. . ^Included in the agenda of this meeting is consideration-of the draft Plan of Action proposed by the secretariat of the Conference. We believe that this Plan should refle<yt the eoncerns. of the countries of the region and lead,to specific proposals that will genuinely serve their interestsi. The proposed draft is very broad in scope and not ,all its recommendations are necessarily.applicable to the region. Its content should be reviewed at this .meeting and perhaps it will be possible to devise a gx'oup of measures that will be of real significance for Latin America. Whatever the resorirces available for the future activities that will havé to be undertake.?), as part óf the Plan of Action,, their success will depend on the c r é a t i c n of artificial ecosystems designed within the, restrictions imposerl by the lo'-ial environmental conditions of •:each arid or semi-arid i n the region. The implementation of .the Plan' of Action will require the co-ordinated efforts oi' the governments., the United .Nations family, of institutions and other iy. terrea tiorba 1 ugencios. CEPAL will be glad to undertake the tasks assigned to it and will co--operate with all the other institutions in .'seeking, solutions to the problems created by • desertification. It only' remains for me to reiterate the interest of this • secretariat in the subject you are going to discuss. The- contribution of . your knówle.dgé about such difficult areas as arid . and semi-arid zones will be tnost helpful to us in broadening. our view of both the problems, themsdlves and the ways of solving them. ÜNITiD NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NQ 1 Proposal by the delegation of Costa Rica It is proposed that out of respect for the integrity of the Spanish language and as a basic reference for our future discussions the term "desertificación" should be replaced in Spanish by desertizacion, and that this term should be appropriately defined. To this end the delegation of Costa Rica ventures to suggest the following definition: DESERTIFICATION; (from desertum = desert) Direct or indirect human activity which results in the diminution or elimination of normal biological production in any part of the globe. Desertification occurs equally on land, in salt or fresh waters and in the atmosphere itself; in torrid, temperate and cold sectors, and in ecological conditions ranging from typically arid to extremely fertile. Desertification alters to a varying degree the climax of the ecosystem in which it occurs, interrupting the normal phylogenetic process. Its action is always harmful to the biological environment most favourable to man» The fundamental causes of desertification include the following: improper deforestation; overgrazing; mismanagement of agricultural land; land-cleaning by burning; contamination; urbanization and other infrastructural works. To prohibit desertification wherever possible and mitigate its harmful effects in all other cases is one of the fundamental tasks of ecologists and planners. 77-2-0391 ÜNITiD NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NS 2 Proposal submitted by the delegation of Costa Rica Bearing in mind that the struggle against desertification in degraded ecosystems includes the restoration and amelioration of the flora and fauna; that, in ecologically similar but geographically distant conditions, evolution has produced different useful animals and plants which could be complementary for agricultural purposes; and that the Himalayan (Pamir-Tibet-Kashmir etc.) and Andean (Altiplano, intermontane valleys, etc.) mountain ranges are in such a position, the delegation of Costa Rica proposes that this Meeting should request FAO to promote exchanges of biological packages between Andean and Himalayan experimental stations and agricultural extension centres» These packages would include, on the one hand, llamas, alpacas, vicuñas, pacovicuñas, guanacos, chinchillas, etc.,, in exchange for yaks, highland zebus, dzos, horses, sheep, kiangs, bharals, etc.; and on the other, high altitude potatoes (imillas), ollucos, ocas, quinoa, cañigua, tarhui, long-spiked wild barley, carretilla, huacatai, tumbo, lucraa, molle, etc. in exchange for suitable forest and fodder species, oats, barleys, peas, etc. An exchange of this kind could double the agricultural possibilities of both areas, with obvious socio-economic benefits for the inhabitants of the two "Roofs of the World" which are undergoing a process of desertification. 77-2-0409 ÜNITiDNATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NQ 3 Proposal by the delegation of Costa Rica Since the time when the first herds of horses and cattle appeared in the new continent, a process of desertification by overgrazing began. In the course of four and a half centuries the adverse selection of forage by the herds themselves has eliminated the soft and edible forage plants in some areas, such as the altiplano of the Andes, so that their place has been taken by secondary cover with such sharp spines that they may even put out the eyes of the grazing cattle. Overgrazing, for its part, has extended and intensified the aridity of such desert or semi-desert areas as those on the borders of the United States and Mexico. Overgrazing is accompanied by excessive t r a m p l i n g and the two phenomena lead to compression of the soil and wir.d and water erosion. In lateritic land with heavy rainfall, on hillsides and even in plains, overgrazing has produced incongruous strips of quasi-desert. The delegation of Costa Rica feels that it is unnecessary to go into great detail on this subject since it is so well known to all, but considers it advisable that the Meeting should recommend the countries of America to take measures to arrest the overgrazing which extends deserts and reduces forests in critical areas. Such measures should be aimed at obtaining more and better meat, milk, leather, wool and work from considerably smaller areas than those currently used for grazing. To this end the Meeting should recommend more liberal credit for: fencing designed to reduce the area of grazing land; rotation of pasture land; improvement of pastures; improved breeding of livestock; an increase in the number of drinking-places; health; scientific timetables for cattle management; experimentation and extension work; etc. In this way large areas could be released for intensive agriculture, the excessive pressure on forests unsuitable for other purposes would be alleviated and the process of desertification by overgrazing would be halted, 77-2-0403 1 . ;. • . 1• UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NO k Proposal by the delegation of Costa Rica In view of the fact that fire is one of the determining causes of desertification^ although it apparently benefits certain types of forest such as those of sequoias and certain types of pasture land such as those of guinea grass; that it is a destructive and uneconomic element, although it apparently assists the poorest country dwellers in establishing their farms and deriving profit from their lands; that the burning of forest or pasture land generates temperatures at the soil level of around kOOQ C which destroy the micro and macro organisms and disintegrate the colloids and together with them the soil granulation and the optimum system of base exchange; that it mineralizes the soil; that it favours the leaching of useful soluble compounds and wind and xirater erosion; and that it produces other types of serious damage v/hich strike at the very basis of agricultural cultivation, the delegation of Costa Rica proposes that the Meeting should suggest to the FAO that it formulate the most effective dissemination procedures, to be incorporated into the legislation of the countries involved with a view to preventing and controlling all accidental or intentional burning of vegetation which contributes to desertification or reduces the natural fertility of the soils» 77-2-OkOk UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NS 5 Costa Rica In view of the catastrophic levels being reached by indiscriminate deforestation in the Third World countries, the delegation of Costa Rica proposes that this assembly, through the FAO or directly, should press the governments of the countries concerned to enforce their forest legislation, modernize it or formulate it in order to effectively secure, inter alia, the following goals: lo On hillsides and watersheds unsuitable for grazing or agricultural purposes: to conserve forests, restore them, or at the most, permit their rational exploitation only under strict control. 2o In all types of water basins: to maintain or restore the forests, which prevent erosion, ensure the normal percolation of rainfall and consequent maintenance of the underground water tables, assist the natural recycling of the elements of fertility, reduce the likelihood of destructive floods and silting in dams, correct divergent water-courses and avert other negative consequences caused by irrational deforestation» 3' To maintain or restore strip forests along the rivers of the steppes; To establish a complementary and scientific rotation between forests, pastures and arable land. 5» To prohibit any use of forests which is not authorized by the national body responsible for scientific forest administration. 77-2-0^05 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NS 6 Proposal submitted by the delegation of Costa Rica Road and industrial facilities, urbanization and many other infrastructural works which are unavoidable in achieving progress, are converting considerable areas into desert at an increasing pace. No less than ^00 million hectares of the earth have been made waterproof in this way. Rain neither wets nor is retained by such soil and it runs off with varying intensity towards the sea. The 200 million metric tons which the viorld's population weighs have replaced a much bigger tonnage of plants and animals of the original ecosystems, and this is preventing the natural return to the soil of an equally large quantity of waste necessary for fertility and soil development. Of the 2,000 million tons of human excreta a year, plus a further large quantity of various kinds of waste, a major part is carried to the sea, taJcing it away from the soil to which it belongs and thus altering the neritic ecosystems in particular. The oxygen stored by micro-organisms for breaking down this material asphyxiates enormous quantities of marine fauna, inverts the vegetable/animal ratio of the biomass and, although there is a greater abundance of phytoplajikton, reduces the possibilities of its faunal utilization. If to this we add the considerable and sometimes definitive loss even of such immobile elements as assimilable phosphorus, which is carried to the bottom of the sea, the problem becomes even more serious. On the basis of the alarming developments in connexion xirith these facts, the delegation of Costa Rica proposes that this meeting should bring pressure to bear on governments and on the sources of international credit so that they will introduce or intensify the treatment and agricultural use of waste waters and will as far as possible reduce the unnecessary desertification caused through urbanization and other related works. 77-2-0if06 ÜNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Santiago, Chile, 23-26 February, 1977 Conference Room Paper _Na _7 Item 3 Arrangements for the United Nations Conference on Desertification A STATUS REPORT ON THE LINKS BETl>/EEN THE UNITED NATIONS WATER CONFERENCE (l4-25 MARCH, 1977 AT MAR DEL PLATA, ARGENTINA) AND THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION A NOTE BY ALAGAPPA ALAGAPPAN (United Nations V/ater Conference and CNRET representative) 23 February, 1977 77-2-0'H'f - 1. A Secretariat colleague remarked today that the count down has begun for the United Nations Water Conference to begin from Ik March 1977 until 25 March 1977 at Mar del Plata, Argentina, This Conference will be of particular interest to participants ot t h i s r e g i o n a l p r e p a r a t o r y meet'inig f o r on Desertification. 2. the United Nations Conference The Secretary General of the United Nations Water Conference Mr» Yahia Abdel Mageed, former Minister of Irrigation and Hydroelectric power of Sudan has requested me to convey his greetings to all members of this group and to state that the United Nations Water Conferencé will transmit a report on Desertification with recommendations of relevance to the United Nations Desertification Conference» This report will be dráwn from the documentations prepared for the United Nations Water Conference both at the regional and global levels. A perusal of the récommendat-ións of the regional preparatory meetings indicates that they do deal with some subjects of central concern to the United Nations Desertification Conference. These include especially, droughts mitigation, conservation and efficient use of water, etc. Attention of this group is especially invited to the cotnprehensive report of the regional preparatory meeting of the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean for the United Nations Water Corife-rence held at Lima, Peru, from 30 August t o '3 September 1 9 7 6 . 3" (E/Conf,70/5.) The ECOSOC in its resolution 1979 (LIX) of 31 July 1975 specified that links be established between the United Nations Water Conference and the United Nations Desertification Conference. This resolution requested the Secretary General of the United Nations Water Conference to ensure that throughout the process of the preparatory work for the United Nations Water Conference full co-ordination with the preparatory v/ork for the Desertification Conference in order to ensure that there is no duplication at all but the fullest co-ordination and complementarity. In accordance with this resolution, the United Nations Water Conference Secretary General has made efforts to co-ordinate with the Secretary General 2 - of the United Nations Conference oh .DeB'irtifination through the exchange of information and periodic meetings between the two secretariats. Representatives of tie ÍJnited Nations Water Conference have attended the meetings of the Inter-agency Task Force which has assisted the preparation of the Desertification Conference. Representatives of UNEP have participated in meetings of the ACC Sub-Committee .on Water Resources Developtiient which has co-ordinated the contributions of the United Nationis system to the V/ater Conference. k. ' Some, of the objectives of the United Nations Water Conference such as organization of national water committees and regional preparatory meetings have been accoriiiplished. The Secretary General of the United Nations Water Conference wishes to record his appreciation to the UNEP for the assistance received in planning and finsincing the regional preparatory meetings to the United Nations Water Conference. 5. The documentation now available to the United Nations Water Conference include the'"Consolidated actian recommendations" (E/Conf.70/9), which brings together and synthesisek all action proposals approved by Governments at the five regional preparatory meetings held under the auspices of each of the regional-commissions during the second half of 1976. (E/Conf.70A to E/Conf.70/8. ) 6. The Secretary General of the United Nations Water Conference in order to draw attention of the world to some of the key problems took the initiative to have the following reports issued as indicated below: (a) "Water for Agriculture" prepared' by the United Nations Water .Conference Secretariat and FAO. ; (b) "Community Water Supply and Sanitation" prepared by . WHO in- co-operation with the IBRD. (c) "Technical co-operation among developing countries in the water sector" prepared in co-operation with the CNRET. - 3 - (d) "Network, resources and training requirements on water assessment" prepared in co-operation with UNESCO and WMO. 7» In addition the major documents that have been prepared as background material for the Conference are: (a) "Resources and Needs: Assessment of the World Water Situation" (E/Coñf.70/CBP/l)o (b) "Promise of Technology: Potential and Limitations" (c) "Policy options" (E/Conf.70/CBP/3). Mention must be made of the report of the ACC and the EC3 "Present and Future Activities of the United Nations System in Water Resources Development" (E/Conf.70/CBPA). 8. Member Governments have presented more than 230 thematic papers covering a broad range of technical arid policy experience. An overview summary and analysis of these papers has also been issued indicating the gaps as well. 9. At the request of the Water Conference Secretariat some important reports have been prepared including "Water Law and Legislation: How to use them to obtain optimum results from Water Resources" by Mr. Guillermo J. Cano; "The Design and Evaluation of Institutional Arrangements for Water Planning and Management" by Prof. Charles V. Home and "Non-conventional water resources: some advances in their development" by Mr. M. Kantor. A special session was organized by the International Association for Water Law at Caracas, in February 1976 to support the United Nations Water Conference. The IWRA held a special congres?: at New Delhi from 12-15 December 1975 on a special theme "Water for Human Needs" and recommendations emanating from this congress have also been made available. Of special interest is the report of the IWRA on "Appropriate technology for water resources development". The Centre for National Resources, Energy and Transport in co-operation with the Government of Hungary have issued tiiro volumes covering the proceedings sind documentation of the Seminars on River Basin and Inter-basin Development held in Budapest in September 1975. As a supplementary activity the Government of Argentina through its National Commission - if - is organizing a series of Ik scientific and tnchnical meetings on important themes covering the spec;trum of water resources subjectso 10. The preparations for the United Nations Water Conference have been initiated and supervised by the Committee on Natural Resources which has also acted as the Preparatory:Committee for the Conference and held a special second session for this purpose in early 1977» 11. The United Nations Water Conference is endeavouring to promote a level of preparedness at all levels, nationally, regionally and internationally. Integrated water management and formulation of appropriate national water policy in each ,casfe is the aim. Much effort has gone into the preparations for the United Nations Water Conference by Member Governments» the United Nations system of organizations and non-governmental organizations, co-operation of the two Conference Secretariats h^s helped,-to achieve better results. UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NS 9 Ajgenda item_ 3 A NOTE BY ALAGAPPA ALAGAPPAN REPRESENTA:?T.VE OF THE UNITED NATIONS WATER CONFERENCE GECRÜITMRIAT AND THE CS^i•TRE FOR NATURAL RESOUiUKS. ENERGY AND TRANSPORT 77-2>Oif33 - 1 - 1« A global United Nations Conference on Technical Co-operation Among Developing Countries is to be convened by UKDP in Argentina from 27 March to 7 April 1978. The concepts and mechanisms that are currently being developed for this Conference will be of interest especially under Section F, Strengthening of Indigenous Science and Technology and also probably under Sections G, H and I depending upon the type of actions the Desertification Conference wishes to take. It is recommended that the scope for TCDC in desertification be assessed and steps be taken to initiate actions in this field. 2. An improved information base and exchange of experience among the concerned developing countries is a first step to be taken. Where research centres and institutes highly specialized in some of the concerned disciplines exist within a developing country or within a region they aay be designated as Ic-r.d afcr.cies to collect and disseminate infor-a^tion. Division of laboui- among the institutes and institutional arranger.;ents to ensure a regular and continuous flow of reliable data will be of value. 3» An inventory of research, education and training facilities that already exist and the extent to which these can be shared with other developing countries will be of practical value. ko A roster of experts at the national, sub-regional and regional levels should be established. Where appropriate, consideration should be given to the promotion of national consultancy firms. 5. Joint programmes may be developed among neighbouring countries having common problems. 6o A pilot project may be established for a region at the request of the countries concerned by forming a group of experts from within the countries concerned as far as possible to travel from country to country within the region and: - 2 - Ca) Establish the needs .and matqh the capabilities of the countries through a detailed on-the*-spot study of the situations and;'"' ^ . ' . (b) Help the countries to. v/ork out arrangements for the ' joint utilization of technical personnel and other.^resources available, 7. : The CNRET will be glad, if called upon, to co-operate in implementing the above ideas. UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON,DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conferencé Room Paper NQ 10 The delegation of Costa Rica, taking up a suggestion by the representative of H A S , has the honour to submit the following proposal: Bearing in mind: (a) The importance of the arid and semi-arid zones of Latin America. (b) The need to promote basic and applied research aimed at: (i) acquiring knowledge about the components of the ecosystems of such zones, including questions relating to the inhabitants of those areas, the social structure in which they have organized themselves and their economic motivations; (ii) learning the interrelations between those components; (iii) determining suitable action to be taken in order, as appropriate to protect the existing productive capacity, increase that capacity, and develop management systems for the intensive and continous use of the resources. (c) The desirability of adopting an integral approach in which the physical, biological, economic and social circumstances typifying each problem or situation which affects the fragile ecosystems of arid and semi-arid regions are studied as inseparable factors. (d) The pressing need to set up machinery at the Latin American level to co-ordinate activities and exchange, assemble and disseminate information in the region. Recommends: (a) That consideration be given to the possibility of setting up a Latin American regional centre for the protection and integrated development of arid and semi-arid areas, to work in close co-operation with the national institutions preferably along the lines of systems analysis and the development of models. 77-2-438-60 (b) That arrangements should be made for the functioning, as part of such a centre^' of documeritatiqn éind information machinery connected with the AGRIS and AGRINTER systems and directed towards the collection, procéssing and disséminatioñ of information On arid and semi-arid areas¿ (c) That the activities of the regional centre should also include a training programme for Latin American technicians and scientists who work in arid areas. UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATOBY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NQ 11 Presented by the Delegation of Argentina With reference to the remote monitoring programme, the Argentine delegation stated that the Argentine Republic was not officiallyrepresented at the Lima meeting» While it recognized the value of the proposed system for monitoring desertification processes, the delegation considered that that system could be vieii/ed as supplementary to other means of combating desertification. Moreover, no official information had yet been given regarding the form and source of financing for the project in question» To sum up, the Argentine Republic's position is as follows: (1) It recognizes the importance of the problem of desertification and its priority with respect to other problems; (2) It considers that the project in question is supplementary to other more direct means of combating desertification; ( 3 ) There is no provision in the national plans for the financing of such a project. .i 'I,,- UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NQ ll/Rev.l Presented by the Delegation of Argentina With reference to the remote monitoring programme, the Argentine delegation stated that the Argentine Republic was not officiallyrepresented at the Lima meeting. While it recognized the value of the proposed system for monitoring desertification processes, the delegation considered that that system could be viewed as supplementary to other means of combating desertification. Moreover, no official information had yet been received regarding the form and source of financing for the project in question. To sum up, the Argentine Republic's position is as follows: (1) It recognizes the importance of the problem of desertification and its priority with respect to other problems; (2) It considers that the project in question is supplementary to other more direct means of combating desertification; (3) There is no provision in the national plans for the financing of such a project. UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOB THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NS 12 JPr.oposal by the delegation of Honduras The delegation of Costa Rica has submitted for consideration by this meeting a very sound proposal to change the term "desertificacion" used up to now in the Spanish versions of resolutions and other documents of the United Nations by the word "Assertizacion". The delegation of Honduras, which supports the Costa Rican proposal, considers that the definition proposed for the word "desertification", in referring only to direct or indirect human action in diminishing or destroying normal biological production, is somewhat restrictive since it excludes other possible causes of desertification. The delegation of Honduras therefore proposes the following definition: DESERTIFICATION; Red'iction or elimination of biological production in any part of the globe. 77-2-Ohkk-kO UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NQ 13 Observations by Dro Guillermo Adriasola, representative of the International Planned Parenthood Federation, on the second preliminary draft of the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification Chapter III~B - "Population and Health" lo Observations It is suggested that questions relating to population should be placed in a separate section from those relating to health, since each of these subjects is sufficiently important to warrant a separate section, their relations with aridity are very different, and the programmes for the control of such relations are also different. Thus, the study of population dynamics shoT/s that human communities are both causes and victims of aridiiy. They generate aridity through: - excessive or faulty extraction and consumption - pollution - destruction of ecosystems - a host of other actions all of which are aggravated by over-population. Differences in levels of health, in contrast, do not affect aridity. Aridity, for its part, causes migrations, changes in population structures, want and misery, but it is only a secondary cause of health problems. 2. Suggestions 2.1 If it is decided to deal with the relation between aridity and population in a separate section, this should enumerate the factors which produce or condition aridity and should describe the grounds for procedures designed to control such factors. 2o2 The section on Aridity and Health should include the appropriate public health recommendations. UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Conference Room Paper NQ Ik Proposal submitted by the delegation of Costa Rica With regard to the perusal, comments and proposed modifications of the document DESCONF/AMERICAS/2, "Plan of Action to Combat Desertification: Second preliminary draft" (item 5 of the provisional agenda of the Preparatory Meeting for the Americas), the delegation of Costa Rica considers it useful to propose: lo That in the light of the strictest planning criteria, the whole document be reduced to a typical classified plan, in which only the broad lines universally valid for the various aspects of the problem of combatting desertification are sustained. Each concept sustained there should expressly or implicitly have the socio-economic and scientific content required by any component of a plan. 2. That all other ccncepts which are useful and not redundant be included, according to their nature, in two appendixes: one on programmes (indicating economic and technical resources, dates and places) and the other on projects (relating to specific activities in this field). 77-2-045^-^0 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Convened by the Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Desertification in co-operation with the Economic Commission for Latin America Santiago, Chile, 23 - 26 February 1977 DRAFT REPORT - IIX - CONa?ENTS Paragraphs Opening meeting Election of officers 1o.. o..c» Adoption of the agenda o...,............»«<.<.... Processes and causes of desertification (Item if of the agenda) Draft Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Item 5 of the agenda) 3 Page 1- 4 2 5 2 6 - l8 2 19-30 6 . - 9 Annexes: 1. Agenda 2. List of participants - 10 3. List of documents - 15 /Opening meeting - 1 - Opening meeting 1. The meeting was opened by the Executive Secretary of the Economic Commission for Latin America (CEPAL) who pointed out that in spite of possessing the world's greatest water resources, Latin America had four arid zones - northwest Mexico, northernmost South America, northeast Brazil and the great diagonal desert running from southwest Ecuador to southern Patagonia - as well as much land exposed to the risks of ecological damage and desertification. He said that the draft Plan of Action to Combat Desertification would be reviewed at the meeting, which should help to make it "of real significance for Latin America", and that CEPAL would be glad to undertake the tasks assigned to it by the Plan of Action as utlimately approved» 2. The Minister of Agriculture of Chile, General Mario Mackay Jaraquemada, welcomed the participants on behalf of the people and Government of Chile, a nation, he said, much concerned with the, problems of its arid zones, which occupied 30 per cent of,the country. 3. The Executive Director of the United Nations Environment . Programme, in his capacity as Secretary-General of the Conference, outlined the problem of desertification as a global issue whose irapqrtance was brought home to the world by the in the African Sahel. 196.7-1972 drought In the course of the prepara,tions for the Conference consensus had been reached among the scientific community on various important points: that desertification was the result of the interaction of man and an adverse environment; that the process could .be halted by the proper use of present knov;ledge , and that the key to the attack lay in proper land, use. The Plan of Action therefore stressed the need for action .now. With emphasis on correct land-use practices such as those endorsed by the scientific, studies and investigations effected as part of the Conference preparations and all culminating in the Plan of Action. It was hoped that three things would emerge from the Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Americas: (i) an understanding of the region's own experience; (ii) the improvement that the region v;ould like to see incorporated in the Plan of Action, and (iii),the views of Governments on the /feasibility studies - 2 - feasibility studies in which they were participating. It v/as also hoped that this regional meeting would set a frank and constructive tone for those that followed. Election of officers k. The meeting elected the following Officers: Chairman: Carlos Alberto Dulcic Belloni (Chile) First Vice-Chairman: Alejandro Quesada Ramirez (Costa Bica) Second Vice-Chairman: Dillard H. Gates (United States) Rapporteur: Alberto Emilio Montbruh (Argentina) Adoption of the agenda 5. The meeting adopted the Agenda reproduced in Annex 1. Processes and causes of desertification (item ^ of the agenda) 6. The Conference documentation,, reflecting an effort to assemble the available knowledge on desertification, was described.^ The subject had been divided into four aspects - climate, ecology, technology and population and society - each covered in reviews which would be available as background documents at the Conference. The four component reviews, prepared in Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom and the United States, had been synthesized into Desertification: An Overviei^f, one of the principal documents of the Conference and one which provided (a) a description of th^ causes and consequences of desertification and (b) justification for the recoimendations in the Plan of Action. Contributions to the assembly of knowledge were made by scientists from all parts of the world and by specialists from throughout the United Nations family. 7. The Overview had access also to the Feasibility Studies and the Case Studies, with two of the latter carried out in the Region. 8. The findings of the Chilean Case Study, as presented, supported the conclusions of the Overview. The Coquimbo region, an area of cold-season rainfall, was shown to have suffered marked eind constant deterioration for which man was. a responsible agent. Declines in rainfall in ,this century indicated a pattern of recurrent droughts /rather than - 3 - r a t h e r than a long-term c l i m a t i c s h i f t . S o l u t i o n s t o the p r o b l e m s must i n v o l v e t h e l o c a l i n h a b i t a n t s , a s p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n s were a t i s s u e . area's since social as well I t was a l s o f o u n d n e c e s s a r y t o i n t e g r a t e s o l u t i o n s i n t o g e n e r a l programmes of s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c development. 9. The United States Case Study involved the rehabilitation of rangeland in a cold desert in southeasterh Oregon, and the findings of this study, too, were consonant with the conclusions presented in the Overviev?; that resource degradation was a fünction of land use and not of climate change; that proper land management cost less than rehabilitation; that project success ultimately depended on the people vrho used the land; that social and political factors were as important as purely ecólogical factors^' and that corrective action should begin on the basis of present knowledge and not wait for further research. lOo The D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f t h e World ( 1 : 2 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) prepared by FAO and UNESCO, and t h e D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f A f r i c a North o f t h e Equator ( 1 ; 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) p r e p a r e d by FAO wére i n t r o d u c e d . The D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f S o u t h America a t a s c a l e o f 1 : 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 was p r e s e n t e d vrith t h e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t i n i t s p r e s e n t s t a t e t h e map r e p r e s e n t e d a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o be r e f i n e d l a t e r . s h o u l d be g i v e n c l o s e r s t u d y were 11. Areas which indicated. I n i n t r o d u c i n g t h e document D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n L a t i n America w i t h Regard t o E c o l o g y and A g r i c u l t u r e , the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e I n t e r - A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e of A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s of the (HAS) reviewed g e n e r a l c a u s e s o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n L a t i n America and i n d i c a t e d areas a f f e c t e d . the The p r o c e s s b o u l d be h a l t e d o r r e v e r s e d by p r o p e r l a n d u s e , ' w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n and r e g e n e r a t i o n o f p l a n t c o v e r degraded a r e a s : the c o n c l u s i o n s consonant with those i n the Among h i s recommendations viere t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s y s t e m s and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s , in Overview. analysis the establishment of a r e g i o n a l c e n t r e f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n and i n t e g r a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t of a r i d a r é a s , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f an i n f o r m a t i o n and d o c u m e n t a t i o n /centre linked - if - centre linked with the AGRIS and AGRINTER systems network which would work in close co-operation with the regional ,centre, and the organization of training programmes for Latin American technicians and scientists who worked in arid areas. 12¿ A suggestion that in Spanish, the term "desertificación" be replaced by "desertización" led to a distinction between the two terms in that language, the former being taken to refer to man's impact on ecosystems and the latter to natural ptrocesses» 13. The delegate of Honduras supported the foregoing proposal but suggested that "desertification" should be defined as "the reduction or elimination of biological production in any part of the globe". The Costa Hican delegation presented a series of Conference Room Papers proposing: (a) that the meeting ask FAO to promote the exchange of biological packages between Andean and Himalayan experimental stations and agricultural extension centres; (b) that,the meeting should recommend that the countries of the Americas take measures against overgrazing; (c) that the meeting suggest that FAO disseminate procedures to prevent or control the burning of vegetation, v/hich promotes desertification; (d) that, the., meeting should recommend to governments that they enforce or modernize forest legislation to prevent, uncontrolled deforestation, and (e) that the meeting recommend to Governments that they introduce or intensify the treatment or agricultural use of waste waters to reduce desertification caused by urbanization. 15» The suggestion that a regional centre be established was supported and reference was made to the possibility of using the Grupo Internacional para el Desarrollo Agropecuario para América Latina y el Caribe (GIDA/ALC) for that purpose.. 16. Representatives of the Organization of American States (OAS), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Water Conference described their current and planned activities in the region. On the basis of these comments and those by other participants, /it became - 5 - it became clear .that there iifas general agreement on the. following points: desertification ivas one of mankind's major problems; it was amenable to solution, but the process might accelerate before it was solved because of rising demands for increased food production; it was the result of improper land use, in v;hich overgrazing bydomestic animals was a major factor; case studies in arid zones of similar climate, e.g., Chile and Tunisia, should be looked at side by side and conclusions compared so that knowledge gained in one place could be used in others; sufficient knowledge was nov; available on desertification to begin action without awaiting further research, however valuable that research might probe to be; all campaigns against desertification should be carried out with the full understanding and co-operation of the local people involved; the social and political aspects of desertification were less well knovra that the physical aspects but xi?ere just as important in halting or reversing the process. 17. A summary of the feasibility studies on transnational co-operation to combat desertification was presented. The meeting v;as informed that official support had been given to the projects on the management of livestock-in the Sudano-Sahel area, on the management of groundwater aquifers in northeast Africa and the Arabian'peninsula, on the establishment of a Green Belt on the northern rim of the Sahara, and on the monitoring of desertification processes in southwest Asia. While awaiting official confirmation from Governments, the first steps toward implementation were being organized, 18, The discussion on the feasibility studies concentrated on the project proposed for Latin America - the monitoring of desertification and related natural resources in arid regions' of South America. representative of Peru supported the project. The The representative of Argentina stated that the project was supplementary to other moredirect means of combatting desertification. He said that his Government had not set aside any financing for the project, nor had it received any official information on the matter. The Argentine /position was - 6 - position was supported by Chile. The Ünited States delegation recognized that the information which could be obtained was of limited v a l u e and would have to be linked up by, aerophotpgraiametry. The/representative of Bolivia requested that his Government be formally invited to participate in the prpject. The representative of Brazil submitted a statement saying that his Government was interested i,n the project and wished to be associated with it but felt that it could not at this stage be a participant since the ecology of Brazil's arid areas was so different from that of the arid areas of the other participating countries. Draft Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Item 5 of the Agenda) , 19. The Plan of Action to Combat Desertification was introduced by the Conference Secretariat, It was agreed that the meeting would deal with the Plan chapter by chapter, suggesting changes, additions or deletions for the second preliminary draft iñ accordance with a regional perspective and the viewpoints of the delegates'. Suggestions for changes were submitted iá written form. 20. In the discussion of the Plan of Action, the following points were made: Recommendation 1 should be déleted since it gave' the impression that action was impossible in the absence of coriipléte planning and assessment. It was agreed that thé desirability of planning and assessment should be stated somewhere in the Plan, possibly in Chapter F on strengthening indigenous science and technology, and would not appear as a recomraehdation. Since paragraph 56 stated that water was the main factor limiting productivity in tile clrylands, a statement would be added to the opening chapter pointing out that social and political structures were often among the factors limiting dryland productivity. It was suggested" that great care must be taken in phrasing statements proposing se sedentarization of nomads, since sedentarization often gave rise to serious problems of desertification. Recommendaitioh 6, it was noted, seemed to refer almost exclusively tb pastoral'nomadism, whereas the recommendation should be phrased so as to r e f e r also /to stock - 7 - to stock raising in semi-arid areas. It was proposed that specific references to the technical measures proposed in recommendations 8 and 9 be eliminated, since technical specialists v/ould i^hat to do in specific situations of desertification. know To this, the secretariat replied that the Plan ,of Action would ,be reviewed bymany people other than technical specialists, and these people needed to be given some sense of what the problem involved. 21. It was further proposed that all recommendations relating to the human condition, such as population, family health, and human settlements, should be collected together in one chapter, although it was recognized that such restructuring would not in any case be made until the reviews of the Plan of Action were completed, 22, It was suggested that Chapter G on supporting measures be deleted since it contained no substantive matters. 23„ It was suggested that recommendations and 15 be .deleted on the grounds that existing United Nations, machinery, such as, for example, the United Nations Development Programme, could carry out follow-up measures as renuired by the Plan of Action ttfhich the Conference approved. 2.h, The representative of the United Nations Water Conference extended greetings to the meeting from the Secretary-General of that Conference. He suggested that existing United Nations bodies capable of carrying out the various provisions of the Plan of Action should be named in the appropriate places in the next drafts. He presented a Conference Room Paper on links between the Water and Desertification Conferences, 25. Arrangements^ for the United Nations Conference on Desertification (Item g of the Agenda), A paper was presented to the meeting on arrangements for the Desertification Conference, to be held from 29 August to 9 September 1977 in Nairobi, Kenya. The Conference would be preceded by two days of informal consultations on procedural matters. As it would be a major United Nations Conference convened by the General Assembly, the report of the Conference would be submitted to the General Assembly at its next regular session. /26. Provision - 8 - 26a Provision had been made for the Conference to work as a Plenary and as a Committee of the Whole. The latter would be expected to handle the tvro substantive items on the agenda - Desertification: Its Causes and Consequences, and the Plan of Action to Combat Desertificationo 27o Immediately following the Conference, a Workshop would be held for technical advisers to delegations and Governments to discuss v;hat national action could best be taken to implement the Plan of Action adopted at the Conference, 28. Prior to the Conference, a symposium of non-governmental organizations having a scientific interest in desertification problems would discuss how selected topics in the Plan could involve action by private groups and, scientific bodies. Also prior to the Conference, interested journalists would meet in an Encounter organized by the United Nations Centre for Economic and Social Information (CESI). 29. The suggestion was made that following the Conference, a meeting of Latin American experts should be convened to consider how best to carry out the provisions of the Plan of Action that were applicable to the region. In arranging such a meeting, the assistance of UNDP and CEPAL would be welcomed, as would that of the Secretary-General of the Conference. 30. Several other Conference Room Papers were submitted v/hich made specific recommendations for appropriate action to deal with the problem of desertification. The Meeting decided that these papers vjould be grouped and transmitted to the. Secretary-General of the Conference forthwith for consideration in his definitive submissions to the Conference, /Annex 1 - 9 - Aiiríéx 1 AGENDA 1. Election of officers 2. Adoption of the agenda. 3« Arrangements for the ühiteá Nations Conference oh Desertification» ^ Processes and causes of desertification^ 5o Draft plan of action to combat desertification. 6, Adoption of the report of thé meeting. . r 10 - Annex 2 LIST OF.PAETICIPMTS States Members of the United Nations ARGENTINA Representative; Gustavo A» van Gelderen Members of Delegation; Eduardo Bustamante, Santos Goñi Marenco Alberto Emilio Montbrun BOLIVIA Representative; . . : , , . Antonio Sainz Unzueta BRAZIL Representative; Luiz Felipe Teixeira Scares CANADA Representative; Michael F. Kergin COLOMBIA Representative; José Maria de Guzman Noguera COSTA RICA Representative; Alejandro Quesada Ramirez CHILE Representative; Carlos Alberto Dulcic B. Members of Delegation; Enrique Melkonian S., Fernando Silva, S., Sergio Bonilla B., Jenaro del Pozo P., Miguel Angel Capella S., Cristian Crempien L., Gonzalo Sepülveda R., Juan Enrique Bernstein L., Fernando Squella, Mario Silva, Sergio Lailhacar, Mario Peralta P», Patricio Azocar, Mauricio Araya, Juan Gasto, Loreto Martin, Ernesto Hajek, Pedro Sutter L., Romulo Garcia To, Fernando Espinoza, Raiil Sánchez, Hugo Bodini, Pilar Cereceda, Luis Velozo, Rodolfo Walther, Carlos Correa, Gabriel Seisdedos. - 11 - ECUADOR Representative; . . Manuel Granizo Romero ^ V UNITED STATES Representative; í . ' Dillard Ho Gates Members of Delegation: James H. Cheatham, Jack D. Johnson FRANCE Representative; Rene Dubois GUATEMALA Representa,tive; Wiland Gundersen López Member of Delegation; Hugo Abraham Óréllana Paz HAITI . • .. Representative; Leonard Pierre-Louis HONDURAS Representative;• Virgilio R. Gálvez Madrid Member of Delegation; Ramon Benedetto Leiva NETHERLANDS Representative; Albert Van Der StrUik PANAMA Representative; Ricardo Moreno Villalaz PERU Representative; Igor Velazquez Rodriguez Member ojf Delegation; Carlos E. López-Ocaño URUGUAY Representative; Artigas Duran -.-12 - States not members of the United Nations attending on a consultative basis SWITZERLAND Representative; Fernando Vuffray United Nations United Nations Water Conference Secretsu'iat Centre for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport Alagappa Alagappan ^ United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Eduardo F, Gutierrez. Dietrich von Graevenitz United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) Jack Carmichael Specialized agencies United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Luis Santiago Botero Mario A. Habit United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Alberto Sireau Intergovernmental organizations Organization of American States (OAS) Braulio Oreja,s-Miranda , Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) Alberto A. Sojit Yigal Harpaz - . - - 13 Inter-American Institute for AKricultural Sciences ( H A S ) Fernando Sueirez de Castro José Marull Non-Governmental Organizations International Council of Environmental Law (ICEL) Rafael Valenzuela Fuenzalida International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) Guillermo Adriasola E» International Union for Conservation of Nature (lUCN) Felipe Matos Co-sponsors United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Mostafa K» Tolba Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Desertification Ralph Townley Manuel Anaya Garduño Mohammed Kassas Fernando Medellin-Leal Virgilio Roig Gaafar Karrar Boris Rozanov James Walls Christopher Dunford Economic Commission f o r L a t i n America (CEPAL) E n r i q u e V. I g l e s i a s Manuel B a l b o a J o r g e V i t e r i de l a HüérVa J o s e p h EL Haj Eduardo G a r c i a ; ^ Carlos Plaza Daniel Blanchard Marta B o e n i n g e r Juana E y z a g u i r r e E u g e n i c Lobo;-./' t, ' , - - 15 - Annex 3 LIST OF DOCUMENTS Documente presented b^ the Conference Secretariat Annotated Draft Provisional Agenda Desertification: An Overview (First Draft) Summaries and Abstracts of Desertification Case Studies Current International Activities to Combat Desertification Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Second preliminary draft) Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Second preliminary draft). Corrigendum Transnational Co-operation to Combat Desertification: Feasibility Studies Transnational Co-operation to Combat Desertification: Feasibility Studies. Addendum 1 Monitoring Desertification Processes and Related Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America: A Feasibility Study (An Abridgement) Draft Report of the Second Meeting of the Panel on Monitoring Desertification Processes and Related Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America (Lima, Peru, 17-19 February 1977) Arrangements for the United Nations Conference on Desertification Documents presented by Governments Desertification in the United States (Jack D. Johnson, Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona for the United States Department of State) Lucha contra la Desertificación: La experiencia de Chile (Estudio Nacional sobre la Desertificación presentado por Chile) A/ El problema de la desertificaci6n en la provincia de Manabí-Ecuador (instituto Ecuatoriano de Recursos Hidráulicos) A/ Documento preliminar sobre la experiencia mexicana en el combate de la desertificación y el aprovechamiento de las zonas áridas ^ A/ Only in Spanish- - 16 - Documente p r e s e n t e d by o t h e r organizations N o t a e x p l i c a t i v a s o b r e e l Mapa m u n d i a l de d e e e r t i f i c a c i ó n a una e s c a l a de 1 : 2 5 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 - U n i t e d l í a t i o n s Food and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e >Uri!it.ed N a t i o n s (FAO) ^ La d e s e r t i z a c i S n en A m é r i c a L a t i n a d e s d e una p e r s p e c t i v a e c o l ó g i c a y a g r í c o l a ( F e r n a n d o S u a r e z de C a s t r o ^ I n t e r - A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s ( H A S ) - OAS) A/ Only i n Spanish. DESCONF/AMERICAS/10 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON DESERTIFICATION REGIONAL PREPARATORY MEETING FOR THE AMERICAS Convened by the Secretariat of the United Nations Conference on Desertification in co-operation witli the Economic Commission for Latin America Santiago, Chile, 23 - 25 February 1977 REPORT 77-3-0552 - Ill - CONTENTS Paragraphs 3 Page 1 Opening meeting .........................o.. 1 - Election of officers .0=.................... ^ 2 Adoption of the agenda 3 2 Processes and causes of desertification (Itera k of the Agenda))..................... 6 - I8 2 Draft Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Item 5 of the Agenda) ..... 19-28 6 Arrangements for the United Nations Conference on Desertification (Item 3 of the Agenda) ............................. 29 - 3^ Adoption of the report of the Meeting (Item 6 of the Agenda) 35 - 36 11 37 11 Closing meeting Annexes: 1. List of participants ................... 12 2. List of documents ...................... 17 /Opening meeting Opening: meeting 1o , The Meeting v/as opened by the Executive Secretary of the Economic Commission for Latin America (CEPAL) v/ho pointed out that in spite of possessing the world's greatest water resources, Latin America had four arid zones - northwest Mexico,, northernmost South America, northeast Brazil and the great diagonal desert running from southwest Ecuador to southern Patagonia - as well, as much land exposed to the risks of ecological damage and desertification» He said that the draft Plan of Action to Combat Desertification would be reviev;ed at the meeting, \iihich should help to make it "of real significance for Latin America", and that CEPAL would be glad to undertake the tasks assigned to it by the Plan of Action as utlimately approved. 2, The Minister of Agriculture of Chile, General Mario Hackay" Jaraquemada, welcomed the participants on behalf of the. people and Government of Chile, a nation,; he said, much concerned, ii^ith. .the . problems of its arid zones, which occupied 30 per cent of the country. 3» The Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme, in his capacity as Secretary-General of the Conference, outlined the problem of desert'ification as a global issue vjhose importance was brought home to the world by the in the African Sahel, 1967-1972 drought In the course of the preparations for the Conference consensus had been reached among the scientific community on various imioortant points: that desertification was the result of the interaction of man and an adverse environment; that the process could be halted by the proper use of present- knoviledge, and that the' key to the attack lay in proper land use. therefore stressed the need for action now. The Plan of Action With emphasis on correct land-use practices such as those endorsed by the scientific studies and investigations effected as part of the Conference preparations and all culminating in the Plan of Action. It v/as hoped that three things would emerge from the Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Americas: (i) an understanding of the region's own experience; (ii) the improvement that the region would like to see incorporated in the Plan of Action, and Ciii) the viev/s of Governments on the /feasibility studieá . - 2 - feasibility studies in which they were participating. It was also hoped that this regional meeting would set a frank and constructive tone for those that followed. Election of officers . The Meeting elected the following Officers: Chairman: Carlos Alberto Dülcic Belloni (Chile) First Vice-Chairman: Alejandro Quesáda Ramírez (Costa Rica) Second Vice-Chairman: Dill^rd H. Gates (United States) 'Rapporteur: Alberto Emilio Montbrun (Argentina) Adoption of the agenda 5. The participants 1/ adopted the following Agenda for the Meeting: 1. 2. 3. 5. 6. Election of officers Adoption of- the agenda Arrangements for the United Nations Conference on Desertification Processes and causes of desertification Draft plan of action to combat desertification Adoption of the report of the Meeting Processes and causes of desertification (Item k of the Agenda) 6. The Conference documentation, reflecting an effort to assemble the available knowledge on desertification, was described. The subject had been divided into four aspects - climate, ecology, technology and population and society - each covered in reviews which would be available as background documents at the Conference. . The. four component reviews, prepared in Canada, the United States, Mexico and the United Kingdom, had been synthesized into Desertification: An Overview, one of the principal documents of the Conference and one which provided.(a) a description of the causes.and consequences of desertificatipA and (b) justification fpr the recommendations in.the.Plan of Action. Contributions to the assembly of knowledge were made by scientists from all parts of the world and by specialists from throughout the United Nations family. 7. The Overview had access also to the Feasibility Studies and the Case Studies, with two of the latter carried out in the Region. 8. Thf findings of the Chilean Case Study, as presented,, supported the conclusions of the Overview. The Coquimbo region, an area of cold- season rainfall, was shown to have suffered marked and constant deterioration for which man was a responsible agent. 1/ Declines in See list of participants in Annex 1. /rainfall in r a i n f a l l i n t h i s , c e n t u r y i n d i c a t e d r e c u r r e n t d r o u g h t s r a t h e r than a l o n g term c l i m a t i c , s h i f t . local inhabitants, issue. S o l u t i o n s t o t h e a r e a ' s problems .must i n v o l v e s i n c e s o c i a l a s w e l l a s p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n s were a t I t was a l s o found n e c e s s a r y t o i n t e g r a t e s o l u t i o n s i n t o programnes o f s o c i a l and economic 9. the general development The United States Case Study involved the rehabilitation of rangeland in a cold desert in southeastern Oregon., and the findings of this study, too, were consonant with the conclusions presented in the Overview: that resource degradation was a function of land use and not of climate change; that proper land management cost less than rehabilitation; that project success ultimately depended on the people viho used the land; that social and political factors were a s i m p o r t a n t a s p u r e l y e c o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s ; and t h a t c o r r e c t i v e action s h o u l d b e g i n on t h e b a s i s of p r e s e n t knowledge and n o t viiait f o r further 10. research. The D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f t h e Viorld ( 1 : 2 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) , p r e p a r e d by FAO and:UNESCO, and t h e D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f A f r i c a North o f t h e Equator (1 : 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 Q 0 . ) p r e p a r e d by FAO were i n t r o d u c e d . The D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n Map o f S o u t h America a t a s c a l e o f 1 : 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 was p r e s e n t e d v.dth t h e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t i n i t s . p r e s e n t s t a t e t h e map. r e p r e s e n t e d a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o be r e f i n e d l a t e r . - . A r e a s v/hich s h o u l d be g i v e n c l o s e r s t u d y were 11. indicated. I n i n t r o d u c i n g th^ document D e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n L a t i n America w i t h Regard t o Ecolof^y and A g r i c u l t u r e , Inter-American I n s t i t u t e the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s of the (HAS) reviewed g e n e r a l c a u s e s o f d e s e r t i f i c a t i o n i n L a t i n America and i n d i c a t e d areas a f f e c t e d . the the The p r o c e s s c o u l d be h a l t e d or r e v e r s e d bj' p r o p e r l a n d u s e , water c o n s e r v a t i o n and r e g e n e r a t i o n of p l a n t c o v e r i n d e g r a d e d areas. These c o n c l u s i o n s wore c o n s o n a i j t w i t h t h o s e in. t h e Among h i s recoraraendations were t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s y s t e m s Overview. analysis and the d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a r e g i o n a l c e n t r e f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n and i n t e g r a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t arid areas, of t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f an i n f o r m a t i o n and d o c u m e n t a t i o n /centre linked . if - centre linked with the AGRIS and AGRINTES systems network which.yould \ v;ork in close co-operation v;ith the regional centre, and the organization of training programmes for Latin American technicians and scientists who worked in arid areas. 12. A suggestion that in Spanish, the term "desertificacion" be replaced by "desertización" led to a distinction between the tv;o terms in that language, the former being taken to refer to man's impact on ecosystems and the latter to natural processeso 13» The delegate of Honduras supported the foregoing proposal but suggested that "desertification" should be defined ,as ''the reduction or elimination of biological production in any part of the globe". The Costa Rican delegation presented a series of Conference Room Papers proposing: (a) that the Meeting ask FAO to promote the exchange of biological.,packages between Andean and Himalayan experimental stations and agricultural extension centres; (b) that the Meeting should recommend that the countries of the Americas take measures against overgrazing; (c) that the Meeting suggest that FAO disseminate procedures to prevent or control the burning of vegetation, v;hich promotes desertification; (d) that the Meeting should recommend to governments,that they enforce or modernize forest legislation to iorevent uncontrolled deforestation, and (e) that the Meeting, recommend to Governments that.they introduce or intensify the treatment or agricultural use iof v;aste \vaters to reduce desertification caused by urbanization. 15« The suggestion that a regional centre be established v/as supported and reference was ,made to the possibility of using the Grupo Internacional para el Desarrollo Agropecuario para América Latina y el Caribe (GIDA/ALC) for that purpose.. 16.. Represenfcatíives of the Organization of American States (OAS), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the United Nations Food and Agriculture; Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Vi/ater Conference and the Centre for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport (CNRET) described their .current and planned activities in the re,-ion. On the basis of these comments and those by other participants, /it becamc - 5 - it became clear that there was geneiral agreement on the following points: desertification vias one of'mankind's major problems; it was amenable to solution, but the process might «accelerate before it was solved because of rising demands for i-^hcreásed food production; it was the result of improper land use, in v/hich overgrazing bydomestic- animals was a major facfór; casé' studies in arid zones of similar''climate, e.g., Chile and TUhisia, should be looked at side by side 'and conclusions compared so that knowledge gained in one place could be used'iri bt'hers; suff i-fcient knowledge vias now available on desertification to begin action- without awaiting further research, however valuable that, researchffligh,tprobe to be; all campaigns- against desertification should be carried .out with the full understanding and co-operation of the. local people involved; the soqial and political aspects of desertificatior. were less well knovm that the physical aspects but were just as important in halting or reversing the process. 17. A summary of the feasibility studies on transnational co-operation ,to combat desertification was presented. ,.The Meeting v/as informed that official support,had been given tq. the. projects on the management of livestock in tiie Sudano-Sahel ;area, on the management of- groundwater aquifers.in northeast .Africa and the Arabian peninsula,, on the establishment of a .Green .Belt on.the northern rira of the Sahara, and on the monitoring of desertification processes in southwest Asia. .While awaiting official confirmation from Governments, the first steps tov/ard implementation, .vjere being organized. 18. , . i The discussi.on, on the feasibility studies concentrated on the project proposed for Lati.rj Amei:ica - the monito.ring of desertification and related natural resources in ..arid regions of Squth. America. . The representative of Peru supported ,the basic technical project. The representative of Argentina s t a t ^ that the .project wnti supplementary to other, more direct-means of combatting desertification. He, said that his Government had not set aside any financing for jthe project, nor had it received any official information on the matter^. The Argentine /position vms - position was supportedtíj?;Chile. 6 - The United State® delegation recognized that if the information obtained from saiiiellite imagery was to be used for detailed plarining then it wouldi be useful if it were supplemented by air photography. The representative of Bolivia requested that his Government be formally invited! to participate in the project. The representative of Brazil submitted a statement saying that his Government was intereéted in the project but felt that it could not at this stage b¿ a partiOipant since the ecology of Brazil's arid areas was so different froni that of the a:rid areas of the other participating countries. Draft Plan of Action to,Combat Desertification (Item 5 of the Agenda) 19- The Plan of Action to Combat Desertification was introduced by the Conference Secretariat. It was agreed that the Meeting would deal vfith the Plan chapter by chapter, suggesting changes, additions or deletions for the second preliminary draft in accordance with a regional perspective and.the viewpoints of the delegates. Suggestions for changers were submitted in written form. 20. In the discussion of the Plan of Action, the following points were made:. Recommendation 1 should be deleted since it gave the impression that action v/as impossible in the absence of complete planning and assessment. It v;as agreed that the desirability of planning and assessment should be stated somewhere in the Plan, possib;Ly in Chapter F on strengthening indigenous science and technology, and would not appear as an independent chapter. Since paragraph 36 stated that water was the main factor limiting productivity in the drylands, a statement would, be added to the opening chapter pointiiig out that social and political structures were often among the factors limiting dryland, productivity. It was suggested that great c^re must be taken,in,phrasing statements proposing sedentarization of nomapds^ since sedentarization often gave rise to serious problems pf desertification. 21. Recommendation 6, it was noted, seémed to refer almost exclusively to pastoral nomadism, whereas the recommendation should be phrased so as to refer also to stock raising in semi-arid areas. . The representative /of Chile - 7 - of Chile noted that Pvecommendatlon 6 proposed the adoption of a series of measures to amteliorate degraded conditions in dryland pastures, to introduce improved systems of rangeland and livestock management and to' improve the lot of desert pastoral communities. That would mean leaving out the pastoral communities of semi-arid areas, which were not necessarily characterized by the Miraditional mobility" referred to in paragraph Paragraph 41, for its part, listed a number of measures very much to the point v;hich should be taken at the national level to put that recommendation into effect, but it was not pointed out that in order for these improved practices to be successful they must be incorporated in a system of production, and their application in an isolated manner could even make matters worse. It was therefore suggested that the.-following words should be inserted in paragraph kO immediately af:ter the first sentence: "The forest/ agricultural ecosystem must be tireated as a functional unit: it is therefore necessary to study, design and apply forestry, agricultural and stock-raising production systems v/hich take account of their mutual connexions and inter-relations so as to give rise to economically and socially stable systems". The rest of paragraph "Regeneration" to "where required" would be deleted. from The underlined Recommendation, for its part, would read as follows: "It is recommended that measures be taken to ameliorate dep;raded conditions in dryl_and pastures, to introduce improved systems of rangeland and livestock management; to develop integrated systems of production, and to improve the lot of pastoral communities". In paragraph kl (e) it was suggested that a new sub-paragraph (ii) should be inserted, reading as follows: "Optimization of the use of dryland crop residues, agroindustrial waste and low-quality forage in general", with the existing subparagraphs (ii), (iii) and (iv) becoming (iii), (iv) and (v) respectively. In paragraph 4l (g) it was proposed that the words "and improved land tenure systems" should be inserted between "planned land use" and "supported by ...". Finally, it was suggested that in paragraph 42 (c) sub-paragraph (ii) should be amended to reádt "determining the optimum size of agricultural units in accordance with the carrying capacity of their grazing land". /22. It -•8 . , 22.^.., ..jlt-íJppposed that specific references to the technical meaeupesftpiroppsed in recommendations 8 and 9 be eliminated, since technical specialists would know what to do in specific situations of desertification.. To. this, the secretariat replied that the Plan of would be reviewed by many people other than technical specialists, and these people needed to be given some sense of what the problem involved. 23. iWith regard to Recommendation 10 on Alternative Energy Sources, the representajbive of Brazil proposed that the following sentence should be add^d at the end of paragraph 55: "Investigations should also,be carried out, if judged advisable by the Governments concerned, into other energy sources which could solve the energy problems of the.drylands", while in the underlined part of the Recommendation itself the words "that will yield simple, inexpensive and useful devices to serve the needs of dryland peoples" should be deleted and replaced by the words "that will enable the energy needs of those areas to be satisfied". In paragraph 56 (a) the words "simple and efficient" shoyld be deleted, while a third sub-paragraph (c) should be added at the end of the paragraph, reading: "Take such other measures to solve the energy problems of the drylands as are considered advisable by Governments". Finally, the words "simple, inexpensive and convenient" should be deleted from the fifth line of paragraph 55. 2^. ' . The participants noted, that the Conference on Technical Co-operation among Developing Countries, sponsored by UNDP, was to be.held in Argentina from 27 March to 7 April 1978^ and the seventeenth session of CEPAL, to be held in Guatemala from 25 April to 5 May 1977, would also include that subject in its agenda. In rview of that, the Meeting supported the recommendations on technical coT-operation among developing countries in matters concerning desertification and assinged the highest importance to regional co-operation in that and other spheres and to the strengthening of regional and national institutions. /25. It - .9 - 25. It was further proposed that all recommendations relating to the human condition, such as population, family health and human settlements, should be collected together in.one chapter, although it was recognized that such restructuring would not in any case be made until the reviews of the Plan of Action were completed. 26. It was suggested that Chapter G on supporting measures be deleted on the grounds that it contained nOi: substantive matters, unless it included a codified and updated listing of the legal enactments On the conservation of natural resources. 27. It was suggé^sted that recommendations l4 and 15 be deleted because existing national, international and United Nations machinery could carry out follou-up measures as required by the Plan of Action approved by the Conference. 28. The representative of the United Nations Water Conference extended greetings to the Meeting from the Secretary-General of that Conference. He suggested that existing United Nations bodies capable of carrying out the various provisions of the Plan of Action should be named in the appropriate places in the respective drafts- He presented a Conference Room Paper on links between the Water and Desertification Conferences. ' Arrangements for the United Nations Conference on Desertification (Item 3 of the-Agenda). ' ^ ~~~ 29. A paper was presented to the Meeting on arrangements for the Desertification Conference, to be held from 29 August to 9 September 1977 in Nairobi, Kenya. The Conference viould be preceded by tv;o days of informal consultations on procedural matters. As it would be a major United Nations Conference convened by the General Assembly, the report of the Conference would be submitted to the General Assembly at its next regular session. /30. Provision t. - 10 - 30. Provision had been made for the Conference to v/ork as a Plenary and as a Committee of the V/hole, The latter would be expected to handle the two substantive items .on the agenda - Desertification: Its Causes and Consequences, and.the Plan ofAction to Combat Desertification. 31. Immediately follo^^^ing the Conference, a Workshop would be held for technical advisers to, delegations^ to discuss what national action could best be taken to implement the Plan of Action adopted at the Conference. 32. Prior to the Conference,, a symposi.ür? of non-governmeatal organisations .having a scientific interest in desertification, problems v/ould discuss how selected topi:cs in the Plan could involve; action by private groups and scientific bodies. Also prior to the Conference, interested journalists v/ould meet in an Encounter organized .:by the United Nations Centre for-Economic and Social Information (CSSI). 33. .. .. _ • The suggestion .was made that following the Conference, a meeting of Latin American experts should be -convened to consider hov; best to carry out the provisions of the .Plan of Action that were applicable to the region'. In,'arranging s^uch a meeting, the assistance of UNDP and CEPAL v/ould be welcomed,, as would that of the Secretary-.General of the Conference. 3^' . ; '• Several other Conference Room Papers "were submitted v;hich madé specific recommendations for appropriate action to deal with the problem of desertification. The Meeting decided that these papers would be grouped and transmitted to the Secretary-General of the Conference forthwith for consideration in his definitive submissions to the Conference. /Adoption of - • Adoption of the report of the Meeting (.Item 6 of the Agenda) 35» The present report was approved at the final meeting, held at 6 . 3 0 p.m. on Friday 25 February. 36. The Executive Secretary of CEPAL stated that because the Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Americas, which was the first of the Preparatory Meetings for the United Nations Desertification Conference, had been organized rather hastily, some of the participating Governments had not received the documents and proposals from the Secretary-General of the Conference sufficiently in advance. Furthermore, not all the member countries of CEPAL had participated in the Meeting. Consequently, any comments on the subjects covered in the Meeting which interested Governments might wish to submit to the secretariat of CEPAL before 51 March 1977 would be distributed as Annexes to the present report. Closing meeting 37. At the closing meeting, statements were made by Mr. Enrique V. Iglesias, Executive Secretary of CEPAL; by Mr. Ralph Townley, Director of the Secretariat of the United Nations Desertification Conference, on behalf of the Secretary-General of the Conference; and by the Chairman of the Meeting» All stressed the importance of the work done and thanked participants for their valuable contribution to the enrichment of knowledge on the subjects discussed. /Annex 1 - 12 - Annex 1 .. LIST OF PARTICIPANTS States Members of the United Nations ARGENTINA • '' Representative; ' Gustavo' A» van Gelderen Members of Delegation: Eduardo Bustamaij.te, Santos Gqñi Marenco Alberto ^Eitiilio Montbrun • '' BOLIVIA / • Representative: ' Antonio Sainz Uri^uet'a BRAZIL Representative; CANADA Luiz Felipe Teixeira Soares • • •.• •'••• Representative; Michael Fo Kergin COLOMBIA •• •. ,. . . T, • • ' . T' • • = f • • . • Representative; COSTA'RICA Representative: José Maria de Guzman Noguera ' . • : ^ Alejandro Quesada Ramirez CHILE Representative; Carlos Alberto Dulcic B. Members of Delegation; Mauricio Araya, Patricio Azocar, Juan .Enrique Bernstein L-, Hugo Bodini, Sergio Bonilla B., Miguel Angel Crpslla S., Pilar Cereceda, Cristian Crempien L., Carlos Correa, Jenaro dol Pozo P., Fernando Espinoza, Rómulo Garcia T., Juan Gasto, Ernesto Hajek, Sergio Lailhacar, Loreto Martin, Enrique Mci;:onian,S., Mario Peralta P., Raúl Sánchez, Gabriel Seisdedos, Gonzalo Sepúlveda R., Mario Silva, Fernando Silva S., Fernando Seuella, Pedro Sutter L., Luis Velozo, Rodolfo Wolther. - •• . - 1 3 ECUADOR , . Representative; ^ - •• . . Manuel Granizo Romero UNITED STATES Representative; Dillard H» Gates Members of Delegation: James H. Cheatham, Jack D» Johnson FRANCE Representative: Rene Dubois GUATEMALA . Representative: Wiland Gundersen Lopez Member of Delegation: HAITI •• - Representative; Hugo Abraham Grellána Paz • :. ..' Leonard Pierre-Louis HONDURAS Representative; ... Virgilio R» Gálvez Madrid Member of Delegation: Ramón Benedetto Leiva NETHERLANDS Albert Van Der Struik PANAMA Representative: Ricardo Moreno Villalaz PERU Representative: Igor Velazquez Rodriguez Carlos E. López-Ocaño URUGUAY ^presentative: • • Artigas Duran - States not members of the United Nations attending in a consultative capacity SWITZERLAND' ' • Repr esenj at_ive; Fernando Vuffray • United Nations United Nations V/ater Conference Secretariat Centre for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport Alagappa Alagappan United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Edus.rdo F- Gutierrez Dietrich von Graevenitz United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) Jack Carraichael '.'T Specialized agencies United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Luis Santiago - Botero Mario Ao Habit United Nations EdugA'^.ip^^^^^ Scientific arid Cultural Org an i z"a t i o n"^NESCO^)~ " Alberto Sireau •Intergovernmental organizations O^rganization of American States (OAS) Braulio Orejas-Miranda Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) Alberto Ao Sojit Yigal Harpaz - 15 - Inter-American Institute for AKricultural Sciences (HAS) Fernando Suárez de Castro José Marull Non-governmental organizations International Council of Environmental Law (ICEL) Rafael Valenzuela Fuenzalida International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) Guillermo Adriasola E» International Union for the ConGervntion of Nature (lUCN) Felipe Matos Co-sponsors United Hat_ions_ Environment _Pro^rajii_m_e (UNEP) Mostafa ^ o f Tolba the United Nations Conference on Desertifica^tion •Ralph Townley Manuel Anaya Garduño Mohammed Kassas Fernando Medellin-Leal Virgilio Roig Gaafar Karrar Boris Rozanov James Walls Christopher Dunford - 16 - Economic Commission .fjy^ Enrique V. Iglesias Manuel Balboa Jorge Viteri de la Huerta Joseph El Haj Eduardo Garcia Carlos Plaza Daniel Blanchard . , Marta Boeninger Juana Eyzaguirre Eugenio Lobo America (CEPAL) . - 1? - Annex 2 ..LIST OF DOCUMENTS Documents presented by the Conference Secretariat Annotated Draft Provisional Agenda Desertification: An Overview (First Draft) Summaries and Abstracts of Desertification Case Studies Current International Activities to Combat Desertification Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Second preliminary draft) Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (Second preliminary draft). Corrigendum Transnational Co-operation to Combat Desertification: Feasibility Studies Transnational Co-operation to Combat Desertification: Feasibility Studies» Addendum 1 Monitoring Desertification Processes and Related Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America: A Feasibility Study (An Abridgement) Draft Report of the Second Meeting of the Panel on Monitoring Desertification Processes and Related Natural Resources in Critical Areas of South America (Lima, Peru, 17-19 February 1977) Arrangements for the United Nations Conference on Desertification Documents presented by Governments Desertification in the United States (Jack D. Johnson, Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona for the United States Department of State) Lucha contra la Desertificación: La experiencia de Chile (Estudio Nacional sobre la Desertificación presentado por Chile) k/ El problema de la desertificación en la provincia de Manabí-Ecuador (Instituto Ecuatoriano de Recursos Hidráulicos) Documento preliminar sobre la experiencia mexicana en el combate de la desertificación y el aprovechamiento de las zonas áridas k/ k/ Only in Spanish« - 18 - Documents presented by other organizations Nota explicativa sobre el Mapa mundial de desertificación a una escala de 1:25 000 000 - United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) k/ La desertización en America Latina desde una perspectiva ecológica y agrícola (Fernando Suarez de Castro, Inter-Araerican Institute for Agricultural Sciences (HAS) - OAS) A/ Only in Spanish.