Artisanal Mining in Critical Ecosystems

Artisanal Mining in
Critical Ecosystems:
a look at Gabon, Liberia, and Madagascar
The Minkebe gold mining pit in the bufferzone of Minkebe National Park,
Gabon. Around 3,000 miners worked here before the camp was evicted in 2011.
Photo by Gustave Mbaza, WWF Gabon.
Cover Photo: Small scale mining of sapphires near Anstiranana, Madagascar,
April 2012.
Cover Photo by Rupert Cook.
FOREWORD
This publication is a summary of several larger reports, which were produced by ASM-PACE in collaboration
with the Program on Forests (PROFOR) and the World Bank. ASM-PACE is a multipartner program that
began as a partnership between Estelle Levin Limited and World Wide Fund for Nature (also known as the
World Wildlife Fund) to address the environmental impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in
some of the world’s most important ecosystems, particularly protected areas and critical ecosystems (PACE).
With support from PROFOR and the Oil, Gas, and Mining Unit (SEGOM), the World Bank’s Africa regional
staff contracted the ASM-PACE Program to analyze the impacts of artisanal mining activities on high-value
natural landscapes and the people who live nearby. The case studies, a global solutions study, and a
methodological toolkit offer recommendations on how to reconcile socioeconomic development based on
artisanal mining and preservation of important ecological sites. The global study looked at 36 countries and
found that artisanal and small-scale mining was taking place either inside or along the borders of 96 out of
147 protected areas in those countries. In the end, the project looked in more depth at experiences in five
African countries. This report focuses on three of these: Gabon, Liberia, and Madagascar.
The publication acknowledges and thanks Fauna & Flora International (FFI) for being a research partner on the
Liberia Case study and The Tiffany & Co. Foundation, for its generous funding for the ASM-PACE project.
The full reports of these studies can be found at: www.asm-pace.org
or: www.profor.info/knowledge/impact-artisanal-and-small-scale-mining-protected-areas
Artisanal Mining in
Critical Ecosystems:
a look at Gabon, Liberia, and Madagascar
A gold rush in March 2012 resulted in 1,000 miners panning
across about 2 hectares within the Soamahamanina urban
commune near Antananarivo, Madagascar, which will
cause sedimentation and silting. Photo by Rupert Cook
There are an estimated 20 million
artisanal miners in more than 80
countries around the world today.
Overview
A
n estimated 20 million people around the world rely on artisanal
and small-scale mining (ASM) for their livelihood, working in
more than 80 countries. They produce some 10 percent of the world’s
mined gold, 15 to 20 percent of mined diamonds, approximately 20 to
25 percent of mined tin and tantalum, and a staggering 80 percent of
colored gemstones.
Many people engage in ASM because it brings them more income and
faster economic returns than other locally feasible livelihoods, such as
agriculture. Some turn to ASM when displaced by conflicts and instability.
ASM can allow people to escape absolute poverty or improve their lives. It
often offers high incomes for unskilled or illiterate individuals.
The increasing price of precious minerals has launched rushes worldwide.
These rushes are attracting people to previously untouched places that
are important conservation sites, including within protected areas. A
global study found ASM is occurring in protected areas and critical
ecosystems in 32 of the 36 countries studied and in or around 96 of
the 147 protected areas evaluated. Affected sites include at least seven
natural World Heritage Sites and a range of critical ecosystems—arctic
landscapes (Greenland), tropical rainforests (Brazil and Gabon, among
many others), and coral reefs (Philippines).
ASM poses a growing threat to biodiversity and the integrity of protected
areas. Environmental impacts of mining methods—such as clear-cutting
forests, river dredging, or use of toxic chemicals—are compounded
by livelihood practices that support mining populations—gathering
firewood or hunting for food or trade. ASM activities in protected areas
are frequently the precursor for even more destructive impacts, opening
up areas to illicit exploitation. On a global scale, ASM of gold is the
Overview
5
biggest challenge in terms of negative environmental
The next sections focus on ASM in Gabon, Liberia,
impacts, although other minerals have significant
and Madagascar, exploring the complexity of ASM in
localized impacts.
these country studies.
Marginalization of ASM and
its Link with Environmental
Degradation
The political marginalization of the ASM sector
Dangers of Mercury in
Mining
worsens the environmental degradation caused
Mercury, a highly toxic metal, poses a real
by artisanal mining. This is coupled with the lack
danger to mining communities when used to
of appropriate incentives and capacity to mine in
extract gold from ores. After the gold ore is
a more environmentally sensitive manner. ASM’s
ground up, mercury is added to bind the gold
marginalization within the mining industry primarily
into an amalgam; this is then heated to evapo-
stems from many governments believing that
rate the mercury and the gold is left behind.
large-scale mining should be prioritized whenever
possible over ASM, which does not contribute as
much direct (tax) revenue to the state as industrial
mining. Many governments see ASM as an informal
or illegal activity, making reforms economically
unattractive and politically challenging. Moreover,
some unscrupulous middlemen involved in gemstone
or gold markets have ties to those with the political
means to perpetuate the marginal and informal
condition of ASM so crucial for their businesses.
Artisanal gold mining is one of the most
significant sources of mercury release into the
environment in the developing world. The use
of mercury in small-scale mining techniques
has health and environmental consequences.
Mercury is discharged into the environment
when miners fail to recover mercury tailings,
either by dumping waste directly into rivers or
by releasing mercury vapors into the atmosphere when the mercury-gold compound is
Environmental education for artisanal miners has
burned. Mercury settles into the surrounding
focused largely on programs for increasing yield,
environment or circulates globally for future
rehabilitating mined out areas, and managing
deposition far from the site, thereby contami-
mercury, but there is much more that ASM
nating the food chain and fisheries.
miners could do to operate in ways that are less
environmentally damaging. These miners could use
training in such subjects as tailings management, use
of local resources to make tools, and managing fuel
and fuel containers to prevent water and air pollution
on site. There is also an education need among ASM
on conservation, ecology, and the importance of
Exposure to mercury can cause kidney
problems, arthritis, memory loss, miscarriages, psychotic reactions, respiratory failure,
neurological damage, and even death.
Children exposed to mercury are at risk for
developmental problems.
ecosystems to local communities.
6
Artisanal Mining in Critical Ecosystems: A Look at Gabon, Liberia, and Madagascar
Small scale miners operate within a forest concession in Liberia. They work in an uneasy relationship with
the forest concession owners who view their activities as detrimental to the trees. Although they do not use
chemicals, the miners acknowledge that their activities are bad for the rivers and trees. They use a separate
creek for drinking water. Photo by Flore de Preneuf/ PROFOR
Overview
7
Gabon, la Chute, Ndangui: Young gold miners work
the tailings near the mining camp using very basic
techniques.
Photo by Micha Hollestelle, © All Rights Reserved
The rise of precious minerals has launched rushes on
all continents, including into some of the world’s
most critical ecosystems.
Gabon
A
s in many other countries, Gabon faces the challenge of doing
ASM in a manner that helps local development, but does not harm
sensitive environments. The environmental stakes are particularly high
in Gabon, which has the highest tropical forest cover as a proportion of
national surface area of any African country. The forest hosts gorillas,
chimpanzees, and the largest density of elephants outside Kenya.
ASM in Gabon is a long-practiced but frequently informal activity that
can play a significant role in local development. There are between 5,000
and 10,000 artisanal and small-scale miners in Gabon who primarily mine
gold and, to a lesser extent, diamonds.
While those aiming to protect Gabon’s precious resources may view ASM
with suspicion, there is space for pragmatism. The Gabonese government
has expressed an interest in developing ASM in alignment with its “Green
Gabon” vision.
Challenges and Opportunities regarding
ASM and Critical Ecosystems in Gabon
It is a complex situation regarding artisanal miners and the laws affecting
them. A major concern from a miner’s right perspective is that miners can
be evacuated from their pits without compensation and without clear
motivation or clarity on their legal rights. An environmental concern is
that legal artisanal miners are not bound by environmental regulations.
An economic concern is that the government requires artisanal miners to
sell mined gold at fixed prices that may be uncompetitive with the black
market rates available.
Regarding miners’ rights, those miners who wish to organize have the
legal option of a cooperative available to them. In buffer zones of parks,
artisanal mining is explicitly allowed by law. By law, the Ministry of Mines
Gabon
9
technologies or to introduce new techniques with
Developing Partnerships with Natural
Resource Extractive Companies
regards to artisanal mining.
There is an increasing overlap between traditional
can support small-scale operators to improve existing
In terms of artisanal mining impacts on critical ecosystems in Gabon, the main effects relate to biodiversity,
forests, and water. The impact on biodiversity and
forest degradation stems from human pressure
and from ASM activity. Human pressure, both from
artisanal miners and other economic activities attracted by the presence of miners, results in clearing
of lands for agriculture and housing. In addition, the
occurrence of ASM in Gabon has attracted non-ASM
practitioners to engage in other, illegal, economic activities around or adjacent to ASM sites, in particular
ivory hunting. As a result, the linkage between ASM
activity and elephant poaching has arisen as a critical
issue, although researchers believe elephant poaching
ASM locations and the concessions of larger-scale
commercial mining and forestry companies, which
will lead to the displacement of ASM most likely to
existing or new ASM sites in sensitive ecosystems.
Gabonese authorities and companies could address
the impacts of displacement and improve community
relations via partnerships that would allow artisanal
miners to work in parts of the logging or mining concession, with suitable terms that would be mutually
agreed between the company and artisanal mining
communities (and government, where applicable).
Cooperation and potentially cohabitation between
industrial and artisanal mining entities should be part
of the companies’ community engagement strategy.
is not directly related to artisanal miners.
Adopting Mining-Mindful Land Use
Planning across Government Ministries
The impacts of ASM to the researched artisanal
When Minkébé Reserve became a national park,
mining sites of Longo and Ndangui, close to Ivindo
National Park, are generally mild as the zone is
not overpopulated and ASM practices are not
mechanized. The concerns are effects of ASM on
watercourses: derailing watercourses to bring water to
the pits; cluttering waterways by debris, and by mud
the new borders of the park took into account the
presence of large mineral reserves. (See text box for
more information on Minkébé). It is important to take
ASM activities into account in future land use planning
processes to prevent similar conflicts.
hosed away to find gold; affecting groundwater levels
Planning Evictions Well
as pits are kept dry; and changing turbidity levels of
While evictions are the most common strategy world-
the water, which affects water flora and fauna.
wide to address ASM in protected areas, they are very
prone to failure. In order for an eviction to succeed in
Recommendations
Improving Mining Laws and Code
The law in Gabon could be strengthened to
incorporate realistic and manageable environmental
demands on ASM. This should be paired with an
approach toward ASM in the new mining code that
emphasizes its rationalization and professionalization.
10
the long-term there needs to be a sustained security
presence. Depending on the structure, this can be
a costly endeavor and risks the corruption of the
security forces if they become involved in illegal mining. The permanent establishment of an effective law
enforcement regime in ASM zones could be a more
effective and less risky, yet very expensive, alternative
to evictions. If established in the early stages of ASM
Artisanal Mining in Critical Ecosystems: A Look at Gabon, Liberia, and Madagascar
site development, the need for evictions may be
avoided altogether.
Minkébé
Minkébé National Park is located within the
Considering Policy Measures to Enable
a Sustainable Supply Chains Approach
larger Minkébé Forest. Minkébé refers to the
Sustainable supply chains have increasingly
artisanal mining settlement just outside of the
become one of the cornerstones of multi-pronged
park perimeters.
strategies in other contexts around the world to
effectively professionalize, manage, regulate and
increase benefits from ASM and work toward
ecologically and socioeconomically responsive
ASM. Making ASM ecologically and socioeconomically responsive involves the organization and
formalization of both ASM and the downstream
trading chain; the introduction of environmentally
responsible and socially beneficial production
methods; financial benefit sharing and enhancement of the sector’s economic contributions.
Identifying Models for
Responsive ASM
It could help Gabon deal better with ASM and
critical ecosystems by identifying a “model
mine” site in the country—a site where the
social, economic, and political risks are managed,
and opportunities enhanced. The site could be
used to develop models for ecologically and
socioeconomically responsive ASM around the
country, giving the miners a role in environmental stewardship. Given the right trade and export
conditions, the model mine could become part
of a sustainable supply chain initiative, too.
national park by that name as well as to a large
The government evicted all miners from
Minkébé on June 1, 2011, because of local
discontentment with foreigners financially
benefitting from uncontrolled illegal ASM,
concerns by the State as to the illegality
and lack of revenues from the gold sector
in Minkébé, and concerns that poaching for
bushmeat, ivory, and other illegal activities
were increasing at an alarming rate. The purge
led to between 2,000 and 5,000 (mainly
Cameroonian illegal immigrants) leaving the
Minkébé ASM zone. The military have remained
in the area, also evicting illegal fishing and
hunting camps. Camps are still occupied by the
military to prevent the miners from returning.
There is government and local interest in
re-opening the Minkébé camps to local
Gabonese miners. Throughout the last decade
reports on Minkébé and other mining camps
consistently show a desire of Gabonese
miners for their trade to be formalized and
for the government to address the influx of
foreigners. Combined with the government’s
desire to control the gold trade and coupled
with the Park Authorities’ desire to safeguard
Studying and Monitoring the Impacts of
ASM on Forest Degradation in Gabon
the conservation purposes, the notion of
The government could use aerial footage to
ASM gold seems appealing to all parties as a
monitor ASM impact. This information could
viable solution. The time may be ripe to begin
help establish the amount of deforestation
work towards a win-win, shared vision.
ecologically and socioeconomically responsive
resulting from ASM.
Gabon
11
Panning for gold in forest concession in Liberia. Small-scale
miners say the gold is “hard to find” and wish “as many
people as possible” would come to the site to help find
more gold.
Photo by Flore de Preneuf/ PROFOR
Miners are often mining blind—mining on hunch
and hope. Updated geological data can guide mining
activity and prevent unnecessary destruction of lands.
Liberia
A
biodiversity hotspot, Liberia abounds in richness of species and
endemism. Sapo National Park (SNP), the only national park, is at
the center of one of the largest intact blocks of the Upper Guinea Forest,
with high rates of endemism. National legislation forbids any economic
activity from taking place in SNP, including mining.
The ASM sector for gold and diamonds in Liberia is estimated to involve
as many as 100,000 artisanal miners. For the past century, ASM activities
have been taking place in Liberia. The miners, who are mainly Liberian
nationals, are attracted to ASM as a primary source of livelihood, because
agricultural production often does not serve to be a viable incomegenerating activity for many Liberians. Agriculture declined heavily during
the civil war because of a lack of inputs, capacity, and technical knowhow in the sector.
Challenges and Opportunities regarding
ASM and Critical Ecosystems in Liberia
The Ministry of Lands Mines and Energy (MLME) focuses on large scale
mines, viewing ASM as an impediment to progress in the mining sector.
The ASM provisions in the mining code are unsupportive of its realities,
making it extremely difficult and unrealistically expensive for an artisanal
miner to be legal. Furthermore, the mining code neglects the dispersed,
alluvial, easy-access nature of most artisanally mined diamond and gold
deposits.
Artisanal gold miners working close to SNP borders pose a growing threat
to the park. Mercury is currently not used by mining communities to
the north of SNP. Maintaining this situation will become increasingly
difficult, especially if, as suspected, legal ASM will continue to grow
north of the Park. Siltation is a major issue affecting drinking water
Liberia
13
in the area. Researchers noticed only one small
demonstration projects. They need to be sensitized
creek with clear water; all the others were highly
on legal and regulatory environmental requirements.
disturbed, potentially from ASM activity. Other major
environmental issues observed were forest clearance
for mining and no backfilling or reclamation of
abandoned sites.
On the official side, government officers need
adequate resources for support, monitoring, and
enforcement. There needs to be collaboration
among authorities, miners, communities and others
Illegal miners within SNP were successfully evicted
to develop and implement strategies for ASM in
in 2010, but it is not known how long the eviction
biologically sensitive areas.
will hold. With regard to the eviction strategies,
researchers have concluded: eviction alone is not
sustainable unless investment in improved national
park governance is made. Since a typical artisanal
digger at legal sites adjacent to SNP is estimated to
earn equal to or more than the average local income,
it is unlikely that miners would be willing to abandon
mining and move into another livelihood activity for
economic reasons alone.
Formalizing and Improving the ASM
Sector
To formalize the ASM sector, the Liberian government
needs multiple agencies to commit to improved
economic, environmental and social performance
of ASM. Gender concerns need to be built into
formalization efforts.
To improve the development performance of ASM
in the region, ASM should be mainstreamed within
Recommendations
poverty reduction and development strategies. ASM
Improving ASM Governance and
Coordination
should be included within national budgets through
An important way to improve ASM-sector
relevant line ministries. Value chain development
governance and coordination in the SNP-area is to
implement feasible mineral rush-mining response
plans. These plans should contain on-site monitoring,
collaboration between Ministries of Finance and other
can also improve ASM, whereby linkages can be
established between miners and markets through
collaboration with investment authorities, other
infrastructure, community health, and control
government agencies, and registered buyers.
measures.
Improving Social Performance of ASM
Managing and Mitigating Environmental
Impacts
The social performance of ASM in Liberia can be
ASM has been found to be conducted in a strict
the empowerment of women working in conjunction
hierarchical system in Liberia, with the miner being
with ASM communities. Other concerns are
the central point for establishment of mining rules.
eliminating child labor and implementing mechanisms
Environmental interventions would be best organized
to ensure the fair distribution of mining benefits.
from this control point. Miners and other community
Overall, it is important to get the community involved
members should receive training in environmental
in initiatives to monitor and improve the social and
management, environmentally responsible methods
environmental performance of Liberia’s ASM.
improved by identifying and eliminating barriers to
and related guidance through education and
14
Artisanal Mining in Critical Ecosystems: A Look at Gabon, Liberia, and Madagascar
George Davis, in a red T-shirt, has been mining at a site inside a forest concession in Liberia since 2007. Small scale miners at this site say
they have licenses and pay fees to the Ministry of Lands Mines and Energy, although the land has also been awarded by the Forestry
Development Authority to a logging company. “There’s nothing to do, that’s why we’re here,” he said. “It has an impact on trees,
but I want to grow up and make a living.” Photo by Flore de Preneuf/ PROFOR
Gold boys
Artisanally mined Gold in Liberia is produced
through the physical labor of “gold boys” or
diggers, most of who are Liberian men or boys,
ranging in age from teenagers to those in their
mid-40s. The men and boys organize themselves
into groups of four to six people who dig and
wash in a particular pit. The groups of diggers
share the gold produced among themselves and
sell predominantly to the miner on whose claim
they are working, to the sponsor that has prefinanced their food and equipment, or (less often)
directly to a visiting gold broker.
An example of a typical gold boy at an ASM site is
a man from Tapita, in Grand Gedeh county, who
began gold mining in early 2011. The Tapita man
has a wife and two young children who live in
Zwedru, the county capital, 60 km north of the
mining site. He was encouraged to take up mining
after the success of his brother who had moved to
the site to mine in 2010 and saved enough to buy
his own water pump. The man, who had previously worked for nongovernmental organizations
in Zwedru, feels ASM is a more profitable source
of work. He was in the process of building his
own house at one of the mining camps but now
plans to send remittances to his family. He doesn’t
The gold boys live in the mining camp run by the
think that his mining work has any impact on the
miner who owns the claim on which they work.
environment, especially as the national park is a
Some gold boys are investing their returns from
long way away (it is actually three km away). He is
digging for the payment of their children’s school
positive about the gold business and feels it offers
fees or funding small market businesses.
the best form of income available to him.
Liberia
15
Mining site in the north of Madagascar near Ambanja, where a
rush of 2,000 small-scale sapphire miners took place in April 2012.
This area is not a protected site. Photo by Rupert Cook
Protected areas are increasingly vulnerable
to mineral rushes because of the escalating
price of certain minerals (especially gold).
Madagascar
M
adagascar is an island of exceptional biological importance, hosting
a remarkable number of endemic animal and plant species. Among
the island’s many unique species are the baobab (bottle) tree, 97 different
types of lemurs, and the Madagascar flying fox.
Concomitant with Madagascar’s status as a biodiversity hotspot has been
the country’s emergence, especially over the last 20 years, as a significant
locus for ASM activity. An estimated 500,000 miners are involved in ASM,
with about 350,000 artisanal gold miners. Artisanal miners produce
significant quantities of gold and gemstones (including sapphires, rubies,
aquamarine, tourmaline, topaz, amethyst, and emerald). Rubies and
sapphires are the country’s major gemstone exports.
Challenges and Opportunities regarding
ASM and Critical Ecosystems in Madagascar
Over the last 20 years, ASM activity in Madagascar has been marked by
a succession of rushes, sometimes with miners in the tens of thousands
converging on specific areas. Many, if not most, ASM rushes have taken
place in or very near to protected areas and critical ecosystems. This
has resulted in serious environmental impacts on key conservation sites,
besides the socioeconomic ramifications of mass migration in a country
already beset by problems of limited infrastructure.
The rise in ASM activity and rushes has coincided with a series of three
major political crises, over the last two decades. These crises have
enfeebled an already fragile state, with deteriorating economic conditions
also contributing to the expansion of ASM activity. Given Madagascar’s
status as resource rich but economically poor, ASM in protected areas
provides a rare opportunity for people to engage in entrepreneurial and
independent income generation without having to worry about the
Madagascar
17
property holder. Political instability, with its impact
on the capacity of the country’s institutions of
Recommendations
governance, has exacerbated the problem.
Establishing Regional or Centralized
System for Mining Rush Surveillance
In theory, the artisanal gold panners or prospectors
A competent and fast-reacting system for the surveil-
should possess a permit. However, this formal value
chain is largely academic in that most gold passes
through an informal value chain without formal
payment to the state or commune. It is generally
accepted that the difficulty of regulatory compliance
effectively invites actors in the gold value chain to
lance of ASM rush activities is critical to prevention
and mitigation of ASM rush impacts on protected areas and other biodiversity-rich areas. Without such a
system, it is almost impossible for the state authorities
to mobilize sufficient resources to intervene decisively
before a critical mass of ASM miners have gathered
operate informally, rather than formally.
at the site, whether protected areas or otherwise.
The vast majority of gems exported from Madagascar
Setting up Formal Local Purchase Offices
are informally mined and traded. The enforcement of
In interviews, miners and local government figures
governing laws is usually not applied until the export
requested installing a system of formal local purchase
stage. The gemstones are usually exported to Asia in
offices. These offices would provide miners with
a rough, unprocessed state.
a more equitable transaction, as well as allow the
commune and government authorities to monitor
more efficiently the payment of royalties.
Enforcing and Applying Relevant Laws
Madagascar’s laws proscribing mining in protected
areas are rigorous and strict, on paper. However,
these theoretical penalties bear little connection to
the reality on the ground. Enforcing and applying
relevant laws would help preserve critical ecosystems.
Currently, when the forces of law and order do on
occasion intervene against illicit mining in protected
areas, they sometimes detain a number of artisanal
miners. The most common scenario is that the
arrested miners will have to endure a short-term
imprisonment before being transferred to the remit of
the courts and judicial authorities. At that point, the
cases tend to disappear from the judicial system.
Dealing with Corruption Arising from
Mining Rushes
Gold mining site in Soamahamanina urban commune, Itasy,
near Antananarivo. Photo by Rupert Cook
18
Corruption is one of the most critical challenges in
terms of preventing, or at least limiting, the damage
Artisanal Mining in Critical Ecosystems: A Look at Gabon, Liberia, and Madagascar
wrought by ASM rushes on
critical ecosystems. In late 2005,
a Sri Lankan company announced
on television that they had paid
corrupt park and government
officials so as to be able to mine
unimpeded in the ZombitseVohibasia National Park. These
types of corruption need to be
dealt with through monitoring
and effective measures.
Promoting Value-added in
Madagascar
To enable improved generation
of added value in Madagascar,
the Institute of Gemology of
Madagascar (IGM) was set up as
a training center for gemologists,
lapidary artists and cutters of
stones. Currently, almost all
Golden Local Development: Building
Capacity to Better Manage Mineral Wealth
As in other mining countries around the world, thousands of artisanal
miners in Madagascar are in dire need of technical assistance and
capacity building to make sure that the subsoil riches drive local
development. In Madagascar’s Maevatana area, the joint efforts of
artisanal miners and local authorities have paid off: quarterly production jumped from 13.8 kg of gold in November 2005 to 53.5 kg in
November 2007. At the same time gold prices went up from 17,000
Ariary (about $7.70) per gram to 35,000 Ariary (about $15.84/gram).
This allowed much needed social infrastructure and services to be put
in place.
How did artisanal mining catalyze local development? The government of Madagascar together with the World Bank Communities
and Small Scale Mining (CASM) initiative supported a project aimed
not only at bringing artisanal miners into the formal economy but
also at strengthening the management and technical capacity of the
municipal authorities so that the revenues from artisanal mining were
integrated into the local development plans.
the value-added for gemstones
During the project’s implementation (led by a national NGO), dozens
is done overseas, benefiting
of municipal officers, council members, and village leaders were
neither Malagasy artisans nor
trained to facilitate the formalization of some 1,500 artisanal miners.
the state. Most students at IGM
Programs focused on increasing awareness about how to enforce
study gemology, rather than
recent artisanal mining legislation. Artisanal miners and gold traders
specializing in the key value-
were then officially registered and encouraged to pay small fees to the
added subjects, like lapidary
local administration.
cutting. While the advantages
of adding value in Madagascar,
rather than overseas, may be
self-evident, the statutory regime
does nothing to encourage its
taking root. More needs to be
done to promote training in key
value-added subjects and support
for efforts to keep the work in
country.
As a result, the local administration developed a strong commitment
toward active management of the sector and formalization of the
informal artisanal mining activities. The financial return from fees and
levies were then invested into development projects, such as schools
and health centers and into social infrastructure to expand access to
electricity and public lightning. This initiative shows how having local
government and ASM miners work together can provide financial
returns, promote local development, and support social infrastructure.
The lessons learned from this project can be applied to ASM situations
near and in critical ecosystems.
Madagascar
19
High quality rubies and sapphires attracted large numbers of miners (15,000
people in the first 10 days) to an area in the east of Madagascar in the heart
of a new protected area that adjoins a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the
Zahamena National Park. Photo by Rupert Cook
The problem is not a lack of knowledge on ASM
Impacts or how to technically manage or mitigate
them: the problem is finding a politically and
logistically feasible solution.
Conclusion
“
Small-scale gold mining is now a global movement.
Big problems remain but it represents a huge global
development opportunity.
”
— Dr. Kevin Telmer, Artisanal Gold Council
ASM exists in many diverse settings around the word and as such is a
complex sector marked by a shifting set of problems. A one-size-fits-all
approach is not the answer to dealing with ASM. In one country, a
well-organized program of training might be needed and in another, a
sudden migration of thousands of people in a mineral rush might call
for immediate health and security responses. A common understanding
of the many problems inherent in the ASM sector, in concert with a
coordinated strategy to address issues as they arise, is necessary to
improve conditions in ASM communities and reduce treats to the highly
vulnerable populations.
Known Policy Responses to ASM Occurring
in Critical Ecosystems
There are many ways to respond to ASM in protected areas and critical
ecosystems. To manage ASM in critical ecosystems, countries can use
market-based interventions and sustainable supply chain initiatives
centered on specific sites and aimed at achieving positive social and
environmental outcomes by capacity building throughout the supply
chain and use of standards and certification. Negotiated or conditioned
access and voluntary agreements negotiated between governments or
NGO partners and mining communities can specify environmental rules
in exchange for authorized access to specific parts of a protected area.
Selected de-gazettement of protected areas can allow existing artisanal
Conclusion
21
mining to continue. Governments can promote
Another factor making managing ASM in critical
alternative livelihoods, via the introduction of new
ecosystems difficult is that local people do not always
employment opportunities outside of protected areas.
accept or recognize protected areas. Moreover, in
They can introduce responsible mining methods
the development-conservation balance, addressing
or “mining mindful” conservation strategies early
threats to critical ecosystems is not always among
on in conservation planning, such as park border
the top priorities of governments and consequently,
considerations, as well as those for specialized
incursions may continue unabated. In addition, there
staffing and government-provided services.
can be conflicting mandates that require sorting
To stop ASM in protected areas or critical ecosystems,
governments can evict artisanal miners from a
protected area by force or threat of force in response
out, particularly when mining, conservation, and
forestry laws directly conflict or where there is no
coordination in practice.
to its illegality. Or they can gazette artisanal mining
Regarding environmental impacts, the issue is not
sites as new protected areas, or confer stricter
a lack of knowledge of ASM’s impacts or how to
protected status to mining sites.
manage them from a technical standpoint: the
problem is how to do so in a way that is politically
Key Challenges Affecting the
Feasibility of Managing ASM in
Critical Ecosystems
Various factors can compound investigating and
managing ASM in critical ecosystems. It can be
difficult to convince governments and other
stakeholders that engaging with miners does not
signify condoning their behavior or presence. In
addition, some solutions may not be possible;
finding a workable solution then becomes even
more challenging or requires clear prioritization
feasible in a precious ecosystem. This involves
hard questions involving policy, engagement,
incentives, assigning resources, and which options
are logistically feasible and politically palatable. It is
about constructive policies, engagement, and deep
consideration as to how engagement may be best
done in order to achieve the goal of minimizing
the negative impacts ASM may have on ecological
health where it occurs in critical ecosystems, while
maximizing the development potential of artisanal
mining.
backed by budgets, improved capacity, and planning.
For reasons of local or national security, protected
areas in remote areas or along international borders
sometimes house ex-combatants and armed groups
and may be perceived as sites where existing
insurgents or the disaffected may gather to plan an
uprising. Where this is the case, accessing these areas
to investigate ASM is difficult owing to the level of
politicization of the park.
22
Artisanal Mining in Critical Ecosystems: A Look at Gabon, Liberia, and Madagascar
Significant degredation in a critical mangrove habitat resulting from an ASM rush for green garnets/
demantoid beginning in 2009, in the region of Diana, Madagascar. Photo by Rupert Cook
Conclusion
23
This work was funded by the Program on Forests (PROFOR), a multidonor
partnership managed by a core team at the World Bank. PROFOR finances
forest-related analysis and processes that support the following goals:
improving people’s livelihoods through better management of forests
and trees; enhancing forest governance and law enforcement; financing
sustainable forest management; and coordinating forest policy across sectors.
PROFOR’s donors include the European Commission, Finland, Germany, Italy,
Japan, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the World Bank.
Learn more at www.profor.info.
All omissions and inaccuracies in this document are the responsibility of
the authors. The views expressed do not necessarily represent those of the
institutions involved, nor do they necessarily represent official policies of
PROFOR or the World Bank.
The World Bank
African Region
Sustainable Development Department
Environment, Natural Resources, Water and Disaster Risk Management Unit
1818 H Street, NW
Washington DC 20433
www.worldbank.org/africa
contact: Erik Reed
[email protected]
design and layout: Corporate Visions Inc.