means of transport and transport services

Transcription

MEANS OF TRANSPORT
AND
TRANSPORT SERVICES
Abebayehu Assefa, Dr.-Ing.
Mechanical Engineering Department
Faculty of Technology
Addis Ababa University
Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
Executive Summary
Pages
V
Introduction
1
1.1
Overview
1
1.2
Objectives
3
1.3
Scope of the Manual
4
Rural Transport and IMTs in Ethiopia
6
2.1
Rural Household Travel Demands
7
2.2
Consequences of Dependence on Traditional Transport Modes
7
2.3
Status of IMTs in Ethiopia
8
2.3.1
Wheelbarrows
8
2.3.2
Animal Drawn Carts
9
2.3.3
Bicycles and Motor Cycles
9
Background for Promoting Intermediate Means of Transport
10
3.1
Overview of Contextual Factors
11
3.2
Environmental Factors
12
3.2.1
Topography
12
3.2.2
Physical Infrastructure
12
3.2.3
Demography
13
3.3
3.4
Economic, Industrial and Social Factors
14
3.3.1
Economic Factors
14
3.3.2
Technological Factors
16
3.3.3
Financial Factors
17
3.3.4
Cultural Factors
19
3.3.5
Community Based Organizations
21
3.3.6
Complementary Agencies and Initiatives
22
Other Factors
22
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4.
5.
6.
3.4.1
Institutional Issues
22
3.4.2
Regulatory Issues
23
3.4.3
Policy Issues
23
Strategy for Expanding the Use of IMTs in Ethiopia
24
4.1
Justification
24
4.2
Objectives of IMTs Strategy
25
4.3
Sub-Sector Issues
25
4.3.1
25
4.3.2
Demand for IMTs
26
4.3.3
Technology
27
4.3.4
Production
28
4.3.5
Provision of Appropriate Infrastructure
28
Policies for Appropriate Rural Transport
30
5.1
Attitude towards "Appropriateness"
30
5.2
Policies for Appropriate Transport
31
5.3
Action
32
5.3.1
Information
32
5.3.2
Research and Development
33
5.3.3
Production and Marketing
34
Rural Roads and Transport Services
36
6.1
Types of Transport Services
36
6.2
The Role of Rural Roads
38
6.3
Rural Transport and Access to Services
38
6.3.1
Framework for Improving Access to Economic and Social
Services
38
6.3.2
Elements of Accessibility
39
6.3.3
Specific Tasks of Rural Transport
40
6.4
Rural Transport Services
45
6.5
Road Transport Strategy in Ethiopia
47
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7.
6.5.1
Features of the Transport Sector
48
6.5.2
Road Transport Operators
51
Design and Manufacture of Low-Cost Transport Systems
53
7.1
Introduction
53
7.2
Wheelbarrows and Handcarts
54
7.3
Design of Animal Drawn Carts
64
7.3.1
Selection Method
64
7.3.2
Cart Construction
66
7.4
Pedal Driven Vehicles
77
7.5
Motor Cycle Attachments
78
7.5.1
Motor Cycle Trailer
79
7.5.2
Motor Cycle Sidecar
81
7.5.3
Four-Wheeled Conversion of Motor Cycle
83
7.6
The Wheel Making Technology
83
7.6.1
Wheel Bending Machine
85
7.6.2
Wheel Assembly Jig
88
7.6.3
Design of Wheels
94
7.6.4
Construction of Bicycle Hub/Axle Assembly
97
7.6.5
Wheel for Motor Cycle Tyre
97
7.6.6
Wheels for Motor-Vehicle Tyres
99
7.6.7
Hub/ Axle Assembly for Vehicles
104
8.
Conclusion
107
9.
Recommendations
109
References
112
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
AADT
Average Annual Daily Traffic
EFTC
Ethiopian Freight Transport Corporation
EPTC
Ethiopian Public Transport Corporation
ERTTP
Ethiopian Rural Travel and Transport Programme
IBT
Inter-urban Bus Transport
IMT
Intermediate Means of Transport
MoF
Ministry of Finance
MoJ
Ministry of Justice
MoTaI
Ministry of Trade and Industry
MTSC
Maritime and Transit Service Corporation
NGO
Non-governmental Organization
RFT
Road Freight Transport
RRA
Regional Road Authority
RSDP
Road Sector Development Programme
RTA
Road Transport Authority
RTCB
Regional Transport and Communication Bureau
RTTSP
Rural Travel and Transport Strategy Programme
SFV
Small Farm Vehicle
SSA
Sub-Saharan Africa
UN
United Nations
UNCDF
United Nations Capital Development Fund
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
VARBAV
Village Access Roads and Bridges Assistance Unit
VLTTS
Village Level Travel and Transport Studies
VOC
Vehicle Operated Cost
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Transport facilities available to the rural Ethiopian population are few and primitive. The rural
transport infrastructure - the local roads, tracks, footpaths and bridges used to access farms,
markets, water supplies, schools and clinics - is often in poor condition for some months or all
months of the year. In addition, transport services, both large-scale motorized means such as
trucks, buses, pickups and cars and intermediate means such as handcarts, bicycles, motorcycles
and animal-drawn carts, are often inadequate and too expensive for rural inhabitants. In many
areas, a lot of village transport still involves people walking and carrying.
Efficient rural transport systems involve complementary large-and small-scale transport modes.
Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs) are important for the short distance demands created
by on-farm, within-village and village-to-market transport. Larger motorized vehicles are needed
for routes with high demands, such as rural-urban linkages. Trucks and buses depend on local
feeder transport for consolidation and dispersal of passengers and goods, notably at transport hubs
(markets, village terminals and truck parks).
In manufacturing low-cost vehicles, provision should be given to include local experience as well
as practices drawn from other developing countries. In view of the overall strategy outlined in
Ethiopian Rural Travel and Transport Programme (ERTTP), the development and improvement
of IMTs has become a crucial component in promoting rural transport and rural development.
Rural Transport and IMT in Ethiopia
Rural transport in Ethiopia is dominated by short-range animal assisted forms of transport. It
reflects the household generated demand for transport that facilitates the supply of goods and
services, primarily to satisfy basic needs.
Short- to medium-range transport for rural households includes daily travel and load carrying for
collection of water for domestic and animal consumption, collection of fuel and commuting
between agricultural fields and home. In some areas, households may have as many as four to
five small plots scattered in different ecological and soil zones. At less frequent intervals,
household members travel to and from animal grazing areas, grinding mill, markets and shops,
the church or mosque, a health facility, a school, etc. Travel to and from animal grazing areas
can entail long-distance trips in those areas where lack of grazing necessitates one or more
household members taking livestock to a distant place for the duration of the dry season.
While costs constrain the use of transport services, a lack of concentrated demand constrains the
development of cheaper and more efficient services. Improving rural mobility to reduce poverty
thus requires a combination of appropriate transport infrastructure and better transport services
using affordable means of transport.
A range of IMTs are used in Ethiopia, concentrated in few areas, mostly in or near to towns.
Wheelbarrows, animal-drawn carts, bicycles and motor cycles are among the range of wheeled
vehicles existing in Ethiopia.
Given the state of Ethiopia's rural transport system and prospects for economic growth, the only
likely source of such productivity increase is through the more widespread use of IMTs and lowcost vehicles.
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Background for Promoting Intermediate Means of Transport
Lack of appropriate IMTs has cut-off the rural people in Ethiopia from opportunities, markets,
services such as health and education. As a result, the rural communities and their economies tend
to become complex. They become caught in a self-perpetuating circle of low productivity, low
returns to labor and, hence, lack of purchasing power and diversification and chronic
disempowerment. The more this happens, the less the rural people are able to grasp new
opportunities for social and economic development. Improving access and mobility is one of
several fronts on which poverty must be tackled.
The rural transport problem in rural Ethiopia features lack of means of transport, diffused patterns
of human settlement and economic activities, lack of means of transport, relatively high costs in
owning and operating the means of transport, etc.
In selecting the appropriate type of IMTs for use in rural areas the following factors should be
given due attention: environmental factors – topography, infrastructure and demography,
economic, industrial and social factors, - economic factors, technological factors, financial
factors, cultural factors, etc., and institutional issues, regulatory issues and policy issues.
Strategy for Expanding the Use of IMTs in Ethiopia
The motor vehicle fleet is relatively small, ageing and operates at low and deteriorating utilization
levels. Increased use of IMTs would enable more extensive short-haul services to be provided, to
complement the longer distance services offered by the conventional motor vehicle fleet.
The lack of motor vehicle services results in a continuing reliance on traditional means of
transport (walking, animals and head loading) which, for the overwhelming majority of rural
households, remain the predominant means of moving people and goods. For many short-haul
transport activities, IMTs offers the only realistic prospect of replacing these traditional means of
movement by more efficient methods.
At the household level women carry out most transport activities. Personnel transport is a
constraint on the provision of government services to rural areas. Given the limited resources
available to expand the conventional motor vehicle fleet, increased use of IMTs for rural
movement of personnel and limited quantities of accompanying goods offers the only realistic
prospect of a significant improvement.
Strategy for improved use of IMTs in rural Ethiopia should be developed:
1. To expand the capacity and range of transport available to rural farming communities so
as to encourage increased farm output and to increase their access to markets and other
services;
2. To reduce the time associated with traditional means of movement, especially the time
required, predominantly by women, for transport activities which are essential, but nonproductive such as collection of water and firewood, taking grain to the fields, etc.;
3. To improve the efficiency of existing short-haul goods and passenger movement so as
to reduce the cost of the transport;
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4. To improve the provision of services to or from rural areas and from or to urban areas;
and
5. To create employment opportunities in the operation, supply and maintenance of an
expanded IMTs fleet.
Policies for Appropriate Rural Transport
The technologies applied in the past have been inappropriate to and ineffective in meeting many
of the transport needs of the rural sector and these needs can be met by alternative and more
appropriate transport technologies.
The likelihood of implementing such policies for the provision of more appropriate rural transport
facilities is dependent upon substantial changes in present attitudes. The most fundamental change
required in policy is to ensure that rural transport planning explicitly includes an appraisal of the
needs of the small farmer and the constraints within which a choice must be made.
More appropriate rural transport systems can be promoted through dissemination of information
on IMT technologies, research on and development of appropriate IMTs including socioeconomic
aspects and production of prototype IMTs, testing and marketing. The successful introduction of
basic vehicles will depend, in addition to the establishment of local manufacture, on the provision
of an adequate supply and distribution system for spare parts and the training of operators and
mechanics.
Different types of transport technologies exist that employ human energy, animal power or the
use of motors. They range from basic walking and carrying to large-scale motorized transport,
including motorcars, large trucks and buses, trains, aircraft and ships. Between these extremes,
there is a wide range of intermediate means of transport (IMTs) that can increase transport
capacity and reduce human drudgery without the high costs associated with large motor vehicles.
Options include single-wheel technologies (wheelbarrows), two-wheel hand carts, bicycles and
tricycles, motorcycles and animal-powered transport.
Roads and transport services are the two mutually necessary elements of the rural motor transport
system. Because very few motor vehicles exist in rural Ethiopia, rural households are linked to the
wider economy only through transport services that are provided by a range of passenger and
cargo-carrying motor vehicles operating on the available roads. Roads facilitate the operation of
transport services, and thereby increase the mobility of rural people and improve their access to
facilities and services.
The provision of good roads and of reliable transport services to rural communities would provide
them with “good” access and hence generate increased incomes. For agricultural systems which
are less transport-intensive, the quality of road access to the villages is less critical. Given the lack
of local-level transport services, the primary social function of access roads is to facilitate the
delivery of social services to villages. Access roads are also used by IMTs, particularly bicycles
and animal-carts, for trips outside the village.
Rural access to economic and social services is determined within a framework of elements of
accessibility on one hand, and transport tasks on the other. This framework will first identify the
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elements of accessibility: rural roads, paths and tracks, the means of transport (IMTs or
motorized), and the siting and quality of facilities linked to the principal tasks of rural transport:
water and firewood collection, crop production, crop marketing, access to economic and social
services and non-agriculture income generation.
To promote the operation of proper transport services:
1.
Unnecessary regulatory constraints to the provision and development of transport
services by the private sector should be removed;
2.
Supply of motor vehicles and spare parts should be improved by eliminating
unnecessary constraints on their imports; and
3.
Capability for vehicle maintenance and repair should be developed.
Design and Manufacture of Low-Cost Transport Systems
So far, the design, manufacture and construction of wheeled vehicles have been almost wholly
limited to capital intensive motorized means of transportation. Farmers, traders, private
households and manufacturers in developing countries have, however, to deal with simple and
low-cost transport systems. The result is that all people involved in low-cost transport suffer
burdensome and inefficient transport systems, or have difficulties to market their products.
Access to effective means of transport is an essential ingredient for the economic and social
development of rural people, particularly of farmers. Few people in Ethiopia can afford either to
own or use a conventional motor vehicle. Generally, the inadequacies of existing transport
systems are constraints on economic and social development. It is becoming increasingly apparent
that the conventional approach to local transport development cannot respond to the transport
needs of most of the low-income population.
Detailed guidelines on the design and manufacturing procedures of wheelbarrow and handcarts,
animal drawn carts, pedal driven vehicles and motorcycle attachments, and the design and
manufacturing of a rim bending machine – for different types of wheels – an assembly jig, design
of wheels for bicycle tyres, motorcycle tyres and motor vehicle tyres, and hub/axle assembly for
bicycle/motorcycle and motor vehicles are covered.
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1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
Technological developments have indicated that much of the technology applied to resolve
problems of developing countries have been inappropriate. These developments have also
revealed that alternative strategies can be devised to meet the needs of these countries. One of
the sectors where inappropriate technology seems to have been implemented is transport. This
has been evidenced by the fact that:
1. The technologies applied in the past have been inappropriate to and ineffective in
meeting many of the transport needs of the rural sector; and
2. There are alternative and more appropriate transport technologies that can better
meet many of these needs.
The choice of technologies is one of the most important collective decisions facing developing
societies. It is a choice that affects the whole pattern of income distribution and the framework
of the economic and social structure. It determines who works and who does not; where work
is done and therefore the urban/rural balance; what is produced; and for whose benefit
resources are used. Thus the choice of technologies is, or should be, a consequence of the
development objectives and priorities of the country.
In developing countries, there is a need for technologies which are "appropriate" to rural
conditions, since this is where the large majority of the population lives, and which suit the
mix of locally available resources. For a technology to be considered appropriate for
developing countries, it must be cheap enough for jobs to be provided in very large numbers,
and simple enough to be used and easily repaired by rural and small town populations without
the requirement of sophisticated technical or organizational skills and with very low incomes.
Evidence shows that the transport facilities available to the rural population are few and
primitive. In many developing countries, rural transport infrastructure - the local roads, tracks,
footpaths and bridges used to access farms, markets, water supplies, schools and clinics - is
often in poor condition for some months or all months of the year. In addition, transport
services, both large-scale motorized means such as trucks, buses, pickups and cars and
intermediate means such as handcarts, bicycles, motorcycles and animal-drawn carts, are often
inadequate and too expensive for rural inhabitants. In many areas, a lot of village transport still
involves people walking and carrying.
While costs constrain the use of transport services, a lack of concentrated demand constrains
the development of cheaper and more efficient services. Better mobility gives people better
access to services (education, health and finance), markets, income-earning opportunities and
social, political and community activities.1 Improving rural mobility to reduce poverty thus
requires a combination of appropriate transport infrastructure and better transport services
using affordable means of transport. Available evidence indicates that:
1
•
The rural population is significant in absolute terms and is ever increasing;
•
•
The standard of life of the rural population is static at best or declining;
The rural population is generally engaged in agriculture, working on small plots of
land;
P. Starkey, S. Ellis, J. Hine, A. Ternell, Improving Rural Mobility; Options for Developing Motorized and
Non-Motorized Transport in Rural Areas, World Bank Technical Paper.
Ethiopian Roads Authority
Means of Transport and Transport Services
•
Most of the rural population is engaged in subsistence farming or generate only
small marketable surpluses; and
•
Family cash income of the rural population is unlikely to exceed more than a few
tens of dollars a year.
The rural population is mostly located in areas poorly served by almost all public facilities
including transport and a large number of the rural population generally imposes considerable
resistance to any change that involves financial risk. It is against these factors that choice for
the implementation of appropriate transport facilities for rural communities must be
conducted.
Efficient rural transport systems involve complementary large- and small-scale transport
modes. Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs) is important for the short distance
demands created by on-farm, within-village and village-to-market transport. Larger motorized
vehicles are needed for routes with high demands, such as rural-urban linkages. Trucks and
buses depend on local feeder transport for consolidation and dispersal of passengers and
goods, notably at transport hubs (markets, village terminals and truck parks).
Without an integrated approach to transport infrastructure and services, investment in
transport is unlikely to bring adequate economic and social benefits. To this effect,
governments in developing countries are developing favorable policies and operating
environments, enabling the private sector and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to play
important roles in new initiatives.
There are still many obstacles to cheaper, more efficient rural transport and many factors
influence efforts to promote rural transport services, including the wide range of stakeholders;
the need for a critical mass of users, operators and suppliers; population density and income
levels; and patterns of transport services adoption.
At present, the greater proportion of the population in Ethiopia is not consistently served by
the conventional road transport system. The vehicle ownership rate in Ethiopia is the smallest
in the world (about 1.5 vehicles per 1000 people)2 and the road network is underdeveloped
with only a density of 21 km of roads per 1000 km2 of area or 0.43 km of road per 1000
people.3
Recognition of transport as an instrument in poverty reduction has also been a significant
recent development. One important aspect in this regard is the launching of the Rural Travel
and Transport Strategy Programme (RTTSP) and the subsequent Village Level Travel and
Transport Studies (VLTTS) in the Road Sector Development Programme (RSDP) to address
major problems in rural travel.
With regards to the potential applicability of IMTs, efforts have been made to assess
potentially available and utilizable resources for manufacturing different types of low-cost
vehicles. The implementation of strategies demands a multi-disciplinary approach; “rural
transport intervention requires a participatory situation analysis and prioritizing of
options with stakeholders”.4 The participation of the rural community in the production and
2
3
4
K. AtnafSeged, The Service of "Ghary" in Small and Medium Towns of Ethiopia, 1990.
Ethiopian Roads Authority: Road Sector Development Programme I (RSDP).
J. Hine and A.Ternell, Transport and the Village: Findings from African Village-Level Travel and
Transport Surveys and Related studies. SSATPP, Working Paper No. 23, July 2001.
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use of facilities - in the form of improved means of transport - remains, among other
interventions, the most important aspect of sectoral sustainability.
Though a range of low-cost IMTs are in use in the country, the geographic distribution and the
manner in which they are applied is diverse, due partly to technological limitations5. The wide
use of the "Gharries", for example, in the small and medium sized towns of Ethiopia for the
transportation of both goods and people, was an experience fully realised even before the early
1920s. They have, however, remained technologically crude without any modifications to
improve the operational efficiency.
Many developing countries, recognizing the introduction of IMTs as a necessary step in the
process of changing the livelihoods of low-output subsistence farming - using traditional
equipment - towards higher productivity, have embarked on using various forms of animal and
mechanical means for production and transportation. As a result, mobility - in terms of
personal travel and consignment of rural produce - which was formerly severely restricted to
short distances and usually to weekly markets - has changed significantly. More efficient
transport provision to rural societies implies higher farm gate prices and subsequent expansion
in agricultural marketing outlets, which in turn would raise the production of grains.
Improvement of the traditional modes of transport into IMTs can, therefore, offer simple,
manageable, affordable and sustainable means of transport over the existing traditional ways
of transport.
1.2 Objectives
The inefficiency of the entire transport strategy has greatly contributed to the low rate of
agricultural development and high rural underemployment. Rural transformation, therefore,
remained unattainable because policies and strategies developed hitherto fell short in
addressing rural mobility. The development of traditional transport modes into Intermediate
Means of Transport (IMTs) should not be viewed only as a natural development process but
also an area where policy and planning commitments towards rural development efforts
should be considered as values of practicality.
The purpose of this Manual is to provide a simplified guidance in the modification,
improvement and upgrading of the traditional forms of transport in Ethiopia into an
Intermediate Means of Transport (IMTs). It also intends to provide information for the
modification, improvement and upgrading of the existing IMTs in use. In manufacturing lowcost vehicles, provision would be given to include local experience as well as practices drawn
from other developing countries. Moreover, artisans are provided with sufficient information
on the design and manufacturing methodologies that could be applied in different production
processes and economic environments.
The core element in changing rural travel and transport is to enhance productivity of the rural
labor force, where the increased return can be explained through the indirect benefit that
accrue as a result of better mobility and access to facilities. Such indirect benefits may be
measured in rural productivity changes, time saved to perform other income generating
activities (for example, production and marketing of handicrafts and cottage industries) and
more leisure time to perform social and other functions. Moreover, the benefit that may relieve
child labor to participate in schooling has remained the important aspect of rural mobility
5
I. Barwell & A. Smith, The Design and Manufacturing of Low-Cost Motorized Vehicles, IT Transport Ltd,
ILO &UN Center for Human Settlements, 1988.
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enhancement through the transformation of available traditional transport modes to a level
where human effort and travel time are reduced. With improvements in village travel and
transport, it is expected to realize a formidable resource transfer from traditional to
intermediate technologies.
One of the major advantages in the use of IMTs is its potential in time saving. This is
profoundly related to time saving in domestic activities. Firewood and water collection, for
example, constitutes about 90% of the adult time spent on transport.6 The release of rural labor
force through improved mobility, which otherwise would be used for transport purpose only,
could be reallocated to productive activities.
1.3 Scope of the Manual
In view of the overall strategy outlined in Ethiopian Rural Travel and Transport Programme
(ERTTP), the development and improvement of Intermediate Means of Transport (IMT) has
become a crucial component in promoting rural transport and rural development.
As envisaged in the ERTTP terms of reference, the basic objectives and final output of the
expected activities is preparation of a Manual for:
•
•
•
The design of IMT systems,
Manufacture of IMT and low-cost vehicles and
Training on the development of IMT.
The development of the Manual focuses on enabling means of transport to cater for the
enhancement of service provision, increase access and reduce transport effort. As these
determine the adaptation of different types of IMTs and vehicles to different geographic
regions and the spatial distribution of settlements, specific requirements are provided. In the
preparation of the Manual for different IMTs and low-cost motor vehicles, provision has been
made to include local experiences as well as practices drawn mainly from SSA countries.
The activity thus encompasses the development of a Manual for improvement of production
and maintenance processes of existing IMTs, and ultimately in providing improved, efficient,
appropriate and diversified working methods. The preparation of the Manual focuses also on
guiding artisans in manufacturing and assembly techniques indicating the necessary materials
and tools required in the production processes. The Manual will provide diagrams and
sketches for the production of IMT components, the type of maintenance required, the
workshop-layout, and types and quantity of the materials needed in the production process.
The detailed scope of the manual for Means of Transport and Transport Services
encompasses, among other things, the selection of appropriate IMTs, for which improvement
in rural mobility is anticipated. Other aspects include,
6

Improvement in the production process and use of animal-driven IMTs,
addressing the technological issues in which the use of animal power is transformed
into an efficient and affordable means, and made available to the communities in
different geographic areas.

Assessment of the possibilities and design of improved-types of mechanically
driven IMTs, specifically bicycle-based, with improvements both in carrying
Ethiopian Roads Authority: Village Level Travel and Transport Study in Ethiopia, Rural Transport, Case
Study, IT Transport Ltd., June 1999.
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capacity and range of operation. Technological applications remain the single most
important aspect in using bicycle-based IMTs, which require the involvement of
human power as a driving force.

Provision of designs for engine-driven types of IMTs, especially those that are
motorcycle based. Considerations in this respect are primarily focused on the issue
of affordability, based on their potential to meet basic transport needs in the rural
areas.

Provision of manufacturing guidelines for the assembly and production of
IMTs that are likely to have an immediate effect on transforming rural mobility and
enhancing accessibility. The prepared manual would incorporate methods of
manufacturing various components and assembly procedures of the components of
the IMTs.

Reference to gender issues, environmental impact and poverty reduction,
which occupy a central role in the process of Manual preparation. The production,
ownership and use of many IMTs are male predominant, yet women and small
children remain the main participants in rural transport efforts. Hence the design
and manufacturing process focuses mainly on ease of use to women. The issue of
poverty reduction is treated in perspective to the reduction of rural
underemployment through the use of IMTs.
In addition to the identification of those specific types of IMTs, the scope of the manual
includes references on practices drawn from other developing counties. These help in refining
designs, improving manufacturing processes and adopting specific types of IMTs and low-cost
vehicles in different parts of the country.
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2.
RURAL TRANSPORT AND IMTs IN ETHIOPIA
Even though “public transport” is one of man’s “public needs”, its importance is not
something that can be grasped as readily as the need for food, water, shelter and clothing. The
need for transport has no absolute meaning but rather it arises from man’s other needs and the
activities he has to engage in to achieve them: to fetch water from the river and wood from the
forest, harvest grains from the fields, etc. In those terms, transport is a derived need. The type
and intensity of transport needed is dictated by the type and intensity of other needs. The most
significant transport needs, as far as the rural population is concerned, are those which relate
to agricultural activities, since it is through the generation of marketable surpluses (and thus
income) that other goods and services become affordable.
Poor access to transport in the rural areas of developing countries constrains economic and
social development and contributes to poverty. Improving rural people’s access to essential
services requires improving mobility, through transport infrastructure and services, as well as
the location, quality and price of facilities. Better mobility gives people better access to
services (education, health and finance), markets, income-earning opportunities and social,
political and community activities.
In many developing countries, rural transport infrastructure - the local roads, tracks, footpaths
and bridges used to access farms, markets, water supplies, schools and clinics - is often in poor
condition for some or all of the year. In addition, transport services, both large-scale motorized
means such as trucks, buses, pickups and cars, and intermediate means such as handcarts,
bicycles, motorcycles and animal-drawn carts, are often inadequate and too expensive for rural
inhabitants.7 In many areas a lot of village transport still involves people walking and
carrying.
While costs constrain the use of transport services, a lack of concentrated demand constrains
the development of cheaper and more efficient services. Improving rural mobility to reduce
poverty thus requires a combination of appropriate transport infrastructure and better transport
services using affordable means of transport.
Efficient rural transport systems involve complementary large- and small-scale transport
modes. Intermediate means of transport are important for on-farm, within-village and villageto-market transport and short urban movements. Larger motorized vehicles are needed for
routes with high demand, such as rural-urban linkages. Trucks and buses depend on local
feeder transport for consolidation and dispersal of passengers and goods.
Local level transport is characterized by being predominantly for short-distances, for frequent,
daily travel and load carrying for the provisioning of the basic needs of the household. Longer
distance travel to markets is less frequent and more likely to involve pack animals.
Household transport activities:
•
•
•
7
Are extremely time and energy consuming and are performed by household
members who have competing demands on their labor time;
Seem certain to increase, irrespective of efforts to raise agricultural
productivity, due to worsening environmental conditions especially declining
firewood and grazing sources;
Have to increase if efforts to raise agricultural productivity are to succeed.
Starkey P., Ellis S., Hine J. and Ternell A., Improving Rural Mobility: Options for Developing Motorized
and Non-Motorized Transport in Rural Areas, World Bank Technical Paper, 2001
Unless the productivity of local level transport can be improved, so as to free more household
time for other activities, there seems little prospect of reversing the decline in ecological
conditions and of raising agricultural productivity. Given the state of Ethiopia's rural transport
system and prospects for economic growth, the only likely source of such productivity
increase is through the more widespread use of IMTs and low-cost vehicles.
2.1
Rural Household Travel Demands
The predominance in Ethiopia of short-range animal assisted forms of transport over
mechanical means is validated by transport studies in subsistence agricultural areas of subSaharan Africa.8 It reflects the household generated demand for transport that facilitates the
supply of goods and services, primarily to satisfy basic needs.
Short- to medium-range transport for rural households includes daily travel and load carrying
for: collection of water for domestic and animal consumption, collection of fuel and
commuting between agricultural fields and home. In some areas, households may have as
many as four to five small plots scattered in different ecological and soil zones. At less
frequent intervals, household members travel to and from animal grazing areas, grinding
mills, markets and shops, the church or mosque, a health facility, a school, etc. Travel to and
from animal grazing areas can entail long-distance trips in those areas where lack of grazing
necessitates one or more household members taking livestock to a distant place for the
duration of the dry season.
Naturally, households with only one or no pack animals, have to expend far more of their
energy in transporting goods. Women, serving as their households' daily water and firewood
collectors, are generally the most adversely affected by the absence of pack animal. Trips
from the water source or firewood collection areas involve carrying large water pots or
firewood bundles strapped to their backs, weighing 20 or more kg.
2.2 Consequences of Dependence on Traditional Transport Modes
Dependence on traditional forms of transport is a major factor limiting the extent of peasant
participation in the market economy and expansion in agricultural production. With even a
small increase in agricultural productivity, the demand for the transport of food crop will grow
considerably because most food production is consumed in the producers' households or in
local communities. Surplus production will need to be moved much further to deficit areas.
Thus, if agricultural development programmes succeed in raising yields of food and cash
crops, there will be an expanded demand for crop transport which peasant households will
find difficult to meet given their present labor constraint. This problem will be further
exacerbated by the labor demands imposed by increased weeding, harvesting and crop
processing.
The slowness and capacity limitations of traditional forms of transport also place constraints
on the cash crop industry. In view of the small unit load size between farm and retailer, nonmotorized transport can be cost-effective for the movement of, say coffee - the main cash crop
of Ethiopia. However, the main problem the producer faces is the choice between accepting
relatively low priced local transport services or devoting significant time and energy to taking
the coffee produce to a sebsaby (local collecting agent) collection point. Taking the produce to
a sebsaby, 20 – 40 km away, puts further strain on the household's labor availability during
8
I.T. Transport: February, 1989.
7
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
the busy coffee picking season. Surveys show that a significant number of farmers sell the
coffee produce illegally to door-to-door coffee collection traders.9
Under conditions of continued population growth and ecological degradation, people will be
forced to go further distances for fuel, water and animal grazing. The necessity for accelerated
conservation measures will put further labor demands on the household, especially for
transport.
2.3 Status of IMT in Ethiopia
Observation indicates that there is a range of IMTs in use in Ethiopia, but without any reliable
statistics on their numbers or distribution. They appear to be concentrated in few areas,
mostly in or near to towns. Among the range of wheeled vehicles that can be observed are:
•
•
•
•
Wheelbarrows
Animal-drawn carts
Bicycles and
Motor cycles.
There are about 3,700 horse-pulled carts (Gharries), which function as taxis in small towns, an
unknown number of rural ox, donkey and mule drawn carts, which probably do not exceed a
thousand or so in number, and about 38,000 bicycles and 5,400 motorcycles.
2.3.1
Wheelbarrows
The great majority of single-wheeled wheelbarrows are locally produced using either
crudely fabricated wooden or steel wheels, or a simple scrap ball-bearing race as the
wheel itself. Most are used around small market towns to provide both transport and
employment. For example in Awasa, they serve dual purposes in the commercial
biomass chain. During market days, dozens transport fuel - primarily wood - from the
marketplace to the houses of inhabitants in Awasa. This is a thriving business and a
major source of income. However, during non-market days, particularly during the peak
agricultural residue collection period, these traveling transporters carry residues from
the farms to town.
All locally manufactured wheelbarrows are of conventional design with a relatively
small diameter wheel positioned at the front of the load tray. Such a design has a
number of limitations for use in rural areas:
1. The use of a small diameter wheel gives high rolling resistance and makes the
barrow difficult to push over rough ground,
2. The construction is such that the wheel imposes the whole load on the arms of
the user causing rapid fatigue. This limits both the load that can be moved
with comfort and, more important, the range over which it is feasible to move
loads.
These fundamental problems are compounded by lack of attention to detailed design
such as weak bearings, lack of tray reinforcement, long and thin handles and inadequate
control over production leading to a short working life.
9
Ministry of Coffee and Tea Development/ULG: 1987.
8
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
2.3.2
Animal-Drawn Carts
The main carts visible in Ethiopia are horse-drawn and used as urban taxis in the smaller
towns. They tend to be one-off design products with individually made wheels and
axles. The wheel rims of the carts are salvaged from light motor vehicles or motor
cycles. Since these are in short supply, they act as one of the constraints on the number
of horse-drawn carts. Moreover, these carts are not suited to load carriage other than
small amounts of personal goods.
Donkey-drawn carts have been popular in the region of Lake Ziway in the southern
People's Democratic Region. They were introduced about 20 years ago. They are
produced from simple steel-wheels which are easily mounted on wooden axles by the
farmers themselves. The arrangement is very crude and results in high rolling resistance,
limiting loading capacity to only about 200 kg. Despite their limitations, farmers in the
area use donkey-drawn carts intensively for water and firewood collection and for the
harvesting and marketing of crops.
Normally, only men operate carts for women are considered not strong enough to free
the cart when it gets stuck, to handle donkeys and to load and unload the cart. Women in
the area, therefore, indirectly benefit from the presence of carts, since fetching of water
and collection of firewood are done by men only.
2.3.3
Bicycles and Motor Cycles
Both vehicles are wholly imported and are commonly supplied as part of aid packages to
provide low capital cost extension services. Demand is undoubtedly restrained by
incomes and the high relative price of both bicycles and motorcycles. Even though there
were year-to-year fluctuations, imports have been reasonably consistent over the years.
Annual average:
Last ten years
Last five years
Last two years
Bicycles
535/year
645/year
550/year
Motor cycles
537/year
657/year
580/year
Apart from price and supply constraints, bicycles are not everywhere popular in
Ethiopia. Terrain is the most often cited reason for this, but, to judge from experience
with other IMTs, unfamiliarity seems just as likely a reason. Given the acute scarcity of
bicycles, which of course increases their price, it is not possible to estimate the relative
importance of the different constraints on their wider use.
Observation suggests that, however crude in appearance, IMTs, wherever available, are
used enthusiastically. The existence of small numbers of wheeled carts in almost all
small towns is testimony to the demand for more efficient means of movement than
unaided human power or pack animals. The main constraints on wider use appear to be
the restricted availability of cheap, robust and efficient IMTs and awareness on the part
of many households of their existence and potential. There is a clear need to re-examine
the efforts being made in Ethiopia to promote IMTs so as to popularize them and make
them more effective.
9
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
3.
BACKGROUND FOR PROMOTING INTERMEDIATE MEANS OF
TRANSPORT
Even in densely populated countries, the rural people tend to be cut off from opportunities,
markets, and services such as health and education, and perhaps even ideas and innovations. As a
result, the rural communities and their economies tend to become complex. They become caught
in a self-perpetuating circle of low productivity, low returns to labor and, hence, lack of
purchasing power and diversification and chronic disempowerment. The more this happens, the
less the rural people are able to grasp new opportunities for social and economic development.
Indeed, being at the margin, risk aversion becomes the more powerful influence in their decisionmaking processes. Improving access and mobility is one of several fronts on which poverty must
be tackled.
The rural transport problem in SSA, including Ethiopia, has many features:
•
Lack of physical infrastructure;
•
Diffused patterns of human settlement and economic activities;
•
Lack of means of transport;
•
Relatively high costs in owning and operating the means of transport, etc.
Among the twenty-five low-income countries in SSA, only 0.35 km of paved road existed per
thousand people, whereas, in low-income countries elsewhere, it was 20 % greater.10
Ethiopia has only 3.5 km of paved road per thousand square km (seventh lowest in SSA) and less
than 0.1 km of paved road per thousand people (the third lowest in SSA). About 70 % of the land
area is more than 10 km from any road at all. In 1989 the government estimated that 90 % of the
road network had deteriorated to the extent that it could not be restored by routine maintenance
but required some form of rehabilitation.11
With a population of about half that of India, SSA has only about one-twentieth as many animal
carts – 700000 compared with 15 million.12
The World Bank has characterized transportation in SSA as suffering from a “missing middle”;
few IMT are available between motor vehicles and walking. With seven cars per thousand
inhabitants, SSA still has more than South Korea (six cars per thousand) and twenty-three times
more than Bangladesh (0.3 cars per thousand). In contrast, whereas China has about 270 bicycles
per thousand people, Africa has only about thirty-five per thousand.13
10
11
12
13
World Development Report, World Bank, 1994, New York: Oxford University Press.
John Howe. Aspects of Rural Transport in Ethiopia, International Institute for Hydraulic and Environmental
Engineering, IHE Working Paper IP-1, Delft, 1992.
P. Starkey, Animal-Drawn Transport in Africa, In Transport for the Poor, Eschborn: GATE, 1989.
World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth, Washingtonne D.C., 1989.
In northern Zambia, the price of a bicycle typically equals about 40 % of annual household
income, whereas in parts of Burkina Faso, it can be as much as 1.8 times annual household
income.14
In Malawi, the retail price of the least expensive bicycle in 1988 equaled 650 days of earnings at
the rural minimum wage (and 1000 days for a bicycle made in South Africa). Even a Taiwanese
bicycle tire represented over 24 days of earnings. In 1996 the price of a cheap bicycle had fallen
to the equivalent of only 160 days of earnings at the rural minimum wage - although still roughly
double the number of days of earnings is required to buy an inexpensive bicycle from casual wage
employment in agriculture in Bangladesh.15
In fact, a large part of the rural transport problem in SSA is not just due to a lack of infrastructure
and means of transport but the downstream effect of a lack of access to basic needs and services.
At the household level, much of the transport workload derives from pure subsistence - the need
to carry food, fuel-wood and water. In addition, many children have long journeys to school;
health facilities are hard to reach in some areas; the nearest agricultural extension officer may be a
two-day walk away or more, and so on. In this respect, access is not an absolute but a relative
concept: it is a question of the degree of difficulty - the time, effort and cost of gaining access to
something, somewhere.
The solution to access problems is not restricted to improved means of transport and better
provisions of the infrastructure they may require. Access can be improved by non-transport
solutions. One example would be to bring supplies of fuel and water closer to the users. Another
would probably be improving access to information by modern telecommunications. For the
designer/planner of initiatives to promote IMTs, it is important first to examine national targets
and policy norms for access to basic services, together with national and international investment
resources for realizing them. Only then will it be possible to decide the extent to which improving
access will depend on the wider promotion of IMTs. It will also help the designer/planner to
understand the types of tasks that IMTs will be expected to perform by users in terms of payloads,
distances and means of traction.
3.1 Overview of Contextual Factors
Below are listed twelve contextual factors, which are in a sequence reflecting their priority for
investigation in contextual analysis:16
I.
Environmental factors
1. Topography
2. Infrastructure
3. Demography
14
15
16
Ian Barwell, Synthesis Report: Local-Level Rural Transport in SSA, World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa
Transport Programme, Washington D.C., 1993.
Colin Relf and Khanyama Dixon-Fyle, Local-Level Transport in Rural Malawi: The Case for Intervention,
Report of an International Labor Office (ILO) Exploratory Mission, Infrastructure and Rural Works Branch,
1988.
World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy, Promoting Intermediate Means of Transport, SSATP
Working Paper No. 20, Oct. 1996.
11
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
II.
Economic, industrial and social factors
4. Economic factors
5. Technological factors
6. Financial factors
7. Cultural factors
8. Community organization
9. Complementary agencies and initiatives
III. Other Factors
10. Institutional issues
11. Regulatory issues
12. Policy issues
Two of the twelve factors - topography and demography - are static. While demographic patterns
change, but only gradually, in relation to the timescale being considered, topography is absolutely
unchanging. The rest are open to faster changes, although over widely different time horizons.
3.2
Environmental Factors
The first three factors - topography, infrastructure and demography - are of primary importance,
because they narrow the range of appropriate IMTs very sharply. Moreover, topography and
infrastructure are together the starting point, because they set the physical conditions for IMTs
and, hence, the boundaries for decisions about what to do.
3.2.1
Topography
Terrain is obviously a fixed factor relative to the types of IMTs that might be feasible. Nonmotorized means of transport become less feasible in hilly terrain. Examples exist of
relatively low-cost, usually slow, motorized IMTs, mainly in Asia, capable of coping with
hilly terrain with significant payloads.
3.2.2
Infrastructure
The type and condition of transport infrastructure are closely related to the issue of
topography, affecting the types of IMTs that may be suited to different transport functions.
Different IMTs require different types and standards of physical infrastructure in terms of
the quality and widths of running surfaces and supplementary structures. At this stage, it
may be important to note whether the design of activities to promote IMTs would also
include infrastructure development or could at least be coordinated with other initiatives
that do. Ensuring correspondence between provision of infrastructure and the use to which
it will be put is an important factor to be considered.
IMTs usually require less sophisticated and less costly physical infrastructure than cars and
trucks. This is an important dimension of the systems approach to rural transport.
In Malawi, for example, the U.N. Development Programme (UNDP) and the U.N. Capital
Development Fund (UNCDF) have been supporting a Village Access Roads and Bridges
Assistance Unit (VARBAU) project, which has incorporated community participation in
decision-making and community contributions to infrastructure development. In some
12
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
cases, village priorities have been expressed in terms of pedestrian and hand cart bridges
over creeks and small rivers, giving improved and safer access to cultivated areas. In others,
low-cost tracks have linked villages to the district or main road network. Bridges have been
built with restricted width, preventing their use by vehicles (and payloads) larger than
pickups. In all cases, beneficiary communities have contributed voluntarily to the collection
of building materials and to earthworks for access tracks. VARBAU has contributed steel,
cement, construction timber, engineering designs and skilled staff.
In Ethiopia, UNCDF is financing a local-level civil works project in North Gondar Zone,
including improving tracks, trails and the markets they reach. Accordingly, an important
output will be small bridges and other structures to provide better all-weather access.
Similar projects have been planned in Tanzania and Malawi.
3.2.3
Demography
The distribution of rural populations is another characteristic that must be taken as a fixed
determinant of the context for promoting the use of IMTs. However, it is rarely sufficient to
use aggregate data on population density, especially in countries with relatively low
aggregate population densities with often densely populated settlement clusters.
Topography, soil fertility, access to water and distribution of productive activities and,
hence, employment opportunities, all affect the distribution of human settlements. This is
especially the situation in countries with a low aggregate population density. These factors
can affect the distances to be traveled and the loads to be carried for different purposes and,
hence, the types of IMTs that might be appropriate. They also affect the options that may be
available for different IMTs. Three broad types of settlement patterns are outlined below,
together with their implications for the use of IMTs:17
1.
Dense Settlement: In SSA, uniformly dense settlement patterns over an extensive
area suggest a relatively strong production base. In turn, good potential should
exist for IMTs to make a broad contribution to the transport system.
Although population density is low in SSA as a whole, historical concentrations of
population have arisen in areas with good potential for subsistence, such as the
Ethiopian Highlands, central and southern Nigeria, Uganda, Rwanda, southern
Malawi, the Wabi Shebeele/Jubba basin in Somalia and many others.
2.
17
Clustered Settlement: Clustered settlements in an otherwise thinly populated
geographical area suggest a node of production, mainly agriculture, but also
mining, forestry or other natural resources. Here, depending on economic
conditions, scope may exist for new or adapted IMTs for internal, local-level
transportation. Larger, more expensive vehicles may be required for external trade
with the remainder of the national economy.
World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy, Promoting Intermediate Means of Transport, SSATP
Working Paper No. 20, Oct. 1996.
13
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
Population clusters may take a variety of forms. In the Sudan, clusters are small
and scattered, owing to the poor agricultural resource base. But the vital need for
water and the distances it must often be carried have led to extensive use of donkey
carts. Elsewhere, clusters of high population density have grown around centers of
mining and industrial activity, as in the Ghanaian gold fields and the Zambian
Copper-belt.
3.
Sparse Settlement: Areas that are only thinly settled are likely to be the poorest
and least well developed and heavily depend on subsistence production.
Irrespective of the nature and magnitude of the transport workload, little scope is
likely to exist for introducing and adapting IMTs, with the possible exception of
pack animals.
Sparse settlement patterns and subsistence production predominate throughout
most of SSA. Incomes are low and the transport workload devolves mainly onto
women. A number of animals and animal carts exist in rural transport only in some
SSA countries such as Botswana, Ethiopia, Somalia and Zimbabwe, where
livestock are an integral part of farming systems and the nomadic areas of the
Sahel, the Ogaden and most of Somalia.
In densely populated areas or places with a clustered settlement pattern, however,
particular care should be given when considering the potential for the use of animals in
rural transport and in the farming system as a whole. Primary soil cultivation probably
accounts for 90 % of animal power usage in Africa. Fewer than 10 % of animal owners
have carts. Depending on population pressure and the spatial and seasonal availability
of rough grazing, farmers may have to take special measures to conserve crop residues,
notably groundnut straw and maize stoker, as animal food supplements. This leads to
an association between the use of animals and the adoption of carts to carry bulky
residues, as in Senegal, the Gambia and Mali. In Ethiopia and throughout much of West
Africa, where animal transport has become an important source of income, specialized
markets supply feed, again, using pack animals or animal-drawn carts.18
3.3 Economic, Industrial and Social Factors
3.3.1
Economic Factors
The economic status of an area or community is not a fixed characteristic but has its own
dynamics, including the contribution that better transport can make to faster economic
development. Indeed, economic opportunity is often the best stimulus for the spontaneous
development of solutions to transport constraints. The prospects for wider use of IMTs
should be analyzed at two levels in sequence: at the level of local markets and in more
detail at the level of the individual or small groups of rural producers.
1. Market Analysis: The first requirement in analyzing the economic context for IMTs
is to understand both the prevailing level of development of local markets for
18
P. Starkey and F. Ndiamé, eds., Animal Power in Farming Systems, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden: Friedr,
Vieweg & Sohn, 1986.
14
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
production, services and labor, and the potential for further growth and
diversification. The process will differ principally according to the actual level of
development, as outlined below.
•
Relatively well developed: Areas whose productive base and performance are
relatively strong are those in which IMTs might already be expected to be in
use, or in which IMTs have the strongest potential for promotion. In such
circumstances, examining the design of the devices currently in use, and the
materials and components in their manufacture, is generally useful. It may
sometimes be possible to introduce wholly “new” (to the area) IMTs, which
may be more efficient in terms of payloads, range, motive power and operating
costs - although usually with a trade-off against purchase price. It may also be
possible to introduce improvements or adaptations to increase the efficiency of
existing vehicle types - to reduce operating costs - or to reduce their price - to
put them within reach of a wider cross-section of people - or both. In the
promotion of IMTs, as in so many dimensions of development, it is usually
easier to build on what already exists rather than trying to introduce wholly new
technologies and systems.
•
Less well developed: In contrast, a low productive base will be demonstrated in
low incomes, lack of diversification and restricted markets for goods, services
and employment. In the extreme, whatever may be the technical or mechanical
capability for IMTs to make local transportation easier and more efficient, if
purchasing power is low, little opportunity may exist for translating potential to
real, effective demand, even for low-cost IMTs. The analysis does not, however,
end with characterizing prevailing conditions only. It is also necessary to
explore the scope for more broadly based development and the nature and
magnitude of investments needed to fuel growth in production, incomes and
economic diversification. Thereafter, it will be important to predict the
timescales over which growth may take place, and, hence, the timing of
supplementary initiatives to promote appropriate IMTs.
•
Special cases: The boundaries for analyzing rural economies are set by their
own localities. Some countries may have special cases, such as migration of
males in search of employment. If links between the men and their households
are intact, remittances in cash or kind can be a significant supplement to what
would otherwise be poor conditions. One example is Zimbabwe, where both
formal and informal employment is concentrated in and around Harare and
Bulawayo. This has adverse consequences for agriculture owing to the
difficulties faced by women who are left at home to plough and harvest. The
cash and consumer goods that are sent home by the men appreciably
supplement the poor conditions. Another example is the area around Kaya in
Burkina Faso, where a bicycle costs nearly 1.8 times the local annual household
income. Yet, nearly 70 % of households own a bicycle. Although Kaya is a poor
area, it lies only about 100 kilometers to the northeast of Ouagadougou, where
many men find well-paid employment. Because Burkina Faso is one of the few
SSA countries in which bicycles and mopeds have been firmly adopted, a
15
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
bicycle may be one of the first items sent back home. The popularity and social
desirability of bicycles is a key factor explaining the high rates of ownership.
2. Household Modeling: Apart from analyzing the characteristics of local markets,
understanding household models and potentials - with and without IMTs - is also
important. It is not sufficient for the project planner to note the amount of
household labor time devoted to carrying fuel and water, for example, and to
estimate the time savings that might be possible with IMTs. A payoff must be
demonstrated. A social payoff, such as more time for childcare, is unlikely to be
sufficient. Are there potentials for relatively high-value cash crops, non-crop
agriculture, or other forms of production that cannot be or are not being exploited
owing either to the household transport workload to meet subsistence needs or
transport constraints in gaining access to markets? If so, in relation to land holdings,
production costs, likely yields, crop shelf life and the market value of the products,
how much can be afforded to make transport more efficient while still generating a
viable overall return to land and labor? If the price of the most appropriate IMTs is
prohibitive out of current household income, are cheaper alternatives possible? If
not, can groups of farmers collaborate; sharing the financial cost of owning and
operating an IMTs to carry bulked output to local markets and bring necessary
inputs back?
3.3.2
Technological Factors
Every country has an existing “shelf” of IMTs, however poorly supplied. However slim,
production, distribution and repair capacity will also be on the supply side. Together, these
two factors represent the foundation on which any efforts intending to extend the use of
existing IMTs or to provide a richer stock of IMTs or both must build. South Africa has
long used animal power in agriculture and transport. A recent survey has estimated that in
the deeply rural areas 40 - 80 % of agricultural households make some use of animal power.
But problems have existed in the ex-“homelands” - shortages of grazing lands, pasture
degradation on communal land and drought. Oxen are used in teams of up to eight to draw
carts with two or four wheels, most of which are locally made and strong but rather heavy.
Meanwhile, donkeys have become considerably more popular for cultivation, owing to their
survivability, longevity, low cost and low management requirements, among other reasons.
However, donkeys are so far rarely used for transport, because experience in making
sufficiently lightweight carts is minimal. Only modest assistance would be needed to
familiarize local artisans with proven designs and to ensure a supply of reliable but cheap
axle and wheel sets.19
1. Homemade IMTs: At the lowest levels in the technology spectrum, the animaldrawn sledge is something that most users make for themselves. Most designs are
truncated triangles with two main poles bearing on the draft animal and their ends
trailing on the ground. As long as adequate supplies of timber and the means to
make joints exist, it can be replaced easily and cheaply. The need for external
intervention may, therefore, be limited to the introduction of the sledge as an option
19
P. Starkey, ed., Animal Traction in South Africa: Empowering Rural Communities, Development Bank of
Southern Africa in cooperation with the South African Network of Animal Traction, Gauteng, South Africa,
1995.
16
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
in areas where it is not yet used. In some cases, this may need to be complemented
by advice, preferably by practical examples, on best practice in manufacture.
Although low on the cost scale, sledges are equally low on the mechanical
efficiency scale. Moreover, if they are used on roads designed for motor vehicles
they can cause considerable damage. For this reason, some countries have banned
them on public roads.
Even among the range of types of wheeled vehicles, the simplest and cheapest are
usually those that are made by users themselves - principally handcarts with one or
two wheels. In Zimbabwe, the manufactured wheelbarrow is a common farm
implement, whereas homemade handcarts are less common. It is important to look
for indications of:
•
•
•
Preference;
Acceptability; and
Purchasing power.
2. Manufacture and Assembly of IMTs: Scarcity of small-and medium-scale
manufacturing and assembly enterprises has been one of the chief barriers to
promoting IMTs in SSA. Medium-scale enterprises are usually required when the
manufacture of IMTs calls for relatively complex technologies, such as bicycle
frames and components. But small-scale operations can undertake a potentially
wide range of work - from the assembly of bicycles and even simple motorized
vehicles down to the manufacture of accessories, such as load-carrying racks and
platforms for bicycles and carrying out modifications to existing vehicles. But it is
not unusual, for example, for a farming area in northern or western Zambia,
southwestern Tanzania or almost anywhere in Ethiopia to be 100 kilometers or
more from the nearest commercial metal workshop.
The steps required in the appropriate interventions are summarized as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
3.3.3
Identify which existing, modified or wholly new to an area type of IMTs is
best suited to the transport needs and the socioeconomic profile of a
particular area.
Estimate the likely numbers of IMTs needed to meet transport needs.
Identify existing entrepreneurs with the skills and capacities to manufacture
or assemble the required IMTs.
Assess what, if any, additional training entrepreneurs may need to produce
new or modified IMTs, and explore from what sources and by what means
could training services be supplied.
Explore, with entrepreneurs, the minimum production and assembly run
that would make it worthwhile for them to “jig and tool up.”
Devise a financing scheme to place the necessary minimum orders with
entrepreneurs and permit potential users to acquire them.
Financial Factors
The main issue to be investigated is the availability of financial services, their applicability
to different dimensions of the promotion process for IMTs, including manufacture, supply
17
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
and distribution of IMTs as well as their purchase and use, and the terms and conditions
surrounding them. Investigations should not be restricted to mainstream national banking
and credit services. They should also include traditional financial systems, NGOs and
internationally financed rural development projects with credit or hire purchase services
that can be tapped into.
Four main categories of financing the promotion of IMTs are explored in this background
analysis. These are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Financing the manufacture and assembly of IMTs;
Development of repair and servicing enterprises;
Financing of entrepreneurial transport services; and
Acquisition of IMTs by individuals or groups for their own purposes.
Guidelines for the investigations are outlined below.
1. Manufacture and Assembly: Depending on the type of IMTs under consideration
and the level of technology required several levels of financing exist. At the highest
level of technology, medium- or large-scale enterprises may be required. Ideally,
such enterprises should grow within the private sector. At the country level,
domestic financing may be possible through industrial development banks or their
equivalent. The manufacture and assembly of IMTs in SSA so far, however,
suggests that some form of intervention will be required. During the past ten years
or more, the World Bank and a number of bilateral development assistance agencies
have developed considerable experience in providing credit facilities to small- and
medium-scale private manufacturers.
2. Repair and Servicing: For most IMTs, the capital investments required are small
and private entrepreneurs can be expected to respond to demand rapidly. The key
issue is the number of similar IMTs required to trigger such a response - not just in
absolute terms, but also in terms of density of similar IMTs within a particular
radius or “catchments” for repair and servicing operations.
3. Transport Services: It is, again, preferable to rely on private sector initiatives to set
up transport services, once appropriate IMTs have become available. One of the
most likely patterns of development of services using IMTs will be first in and
around small- and medium-sized towns, followed by gradual extension into rural
areas with sufficient population density to generate the required demand for
commercial viability. Investigation and demonstration of the requirements for
viability would principally justify project-based initiatives.
4. Acquisition by Individuals or Groups: It will not just be cultural acceptability or
the capacity, range and simplicity of IMTs that will determine their appropriateness
for individuals and groups. Equally important will be the cost to acquire and to
operate them.
At the lowest level of the technology spectrum, users can make IMTs at home. Little may
be necessary beyond the introduction of new prototypes and perhaps some advice and
18
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information on best practice in making them. Rather, it is in the acquisition of larger or
more expensive IMTs, including those that are industrially manufactured or assembled, that
potential users may need help. Depending on rural purchasing power, the list may start with
the industrially manufactured wheelbarrow and go on to include bicycles, animal carts and
even more costly vehicles. In most countries already, a wide range of sources of finance
could be used to support the acquisition of IMTs - from local traders and informal
moneylenders, through NGO and public sector agricultural and rural credit schemes, to
formal banking services.
3.3.4
Cultural Factors
Cultural factors must always be taken into account in assessing both the need for and the
likely response to IMTs, especially as poverty induces conservatism and risk aversion.
Something that is different or perhaps wholly new will rarely be rapidly regarded as an
appropriate solution to a problem, which may not, however, be well articulated. Against
this background, cultural inhibitions or restrictions on the use of new or the more
widespread use of existing IMTs may even seem to belong with topography and
demography as unchanging factors within a specific setting. They can appear, at least
initially, to be intractable, because they are generally rooted in tradition, among other
reasons. However, experience has confirmed what common sense suggests, namely that
culture is flexible, its dynamics strongly affected by economic changes and by opportunities
for growth and development. The following main cultural factors should be taken into
account:
1. Aesthetics: In some countries, particularly in Asia, the appearance of IMTs can be
judged against aesthetic standards that are part of national cultures. Owing to lack
of experience, little understanding exists in Africa of how different IMTs may be
judged by their appearance.
2. Misapprehensions: Great scope exists for misapprehension about the use of draft
animals. It is widely believed that crossbred dairy cattle cannot or should not be
used for ploughing, although it is feasible to do so without loss of milk production
if they are given adequate food supplements. Donkeys, although popular in some
countries, are mistrusted or given low status in others.
3. Aspirations and Attitudes: Some SSA countries have experienced significant
economic decline over the past twenty to thirty years. But aspirations, for “modern”
probably motorized transport and attitudes toward simple IMT can take a long time
to change. One example is Zambia, whose wealth from copper and zinc led not only
to a high rate of urbanization but also high aspirations with respect to housing and
means of transport. Bicycles are still regarded as somehow inferior.
4. Gender and Labor Allocation: Because construction is a male’s task, a man may
well use a wheelbarrow or some other means of transport to carry water for building
a house. But he may not carry water for household consumption, for that is
traditionally considered a female’s task.
5. Restrictions on the Role of Women: In much of SSA, women’s role in transport is
most circumscribed by culture. This is just one specific manifestation of a
19
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significantly more complex set of attitudes affecting male-female roles,
relationships and divisions of responsibilities. Below are given a number of
examples, including situations in which attitudes have in fact changed, in some
countries.
In Zimbabwe, women are rarely seen driving ox-drawn scotch carts. One reason is that they
are not regarded as being capable of managing work animals. Yet, owing to extensive male
migration, many women in fact perform “male” tasks, including land cultivation with teams
of oxen and steel ploughs.20
In Malawi, most men say that bicycles are “inappropriate” for women. Yet, in some parts
of the country, women ride bicycles as well as simply push them as load carriers. They also
dismount when traveling through a village and generally try to minimize the number of
people who see them in the saddle. They would have used bicycles more if more women’s
models were available.21
In Ethiopia, a discussion with a peasant farmer about the means of transport may well be
interpreted as a conversation about his wife - unless he has a donkey. Such issues as the
time and effort involved in bearing loads on the head or back tend to be dismissed on three
grounds:
•
The general discount applied by men to the time and effort of women;
•
Compounded by the lack of alternative productive opportunities for women; and
•
The lack of cash in the household economy for the purchase of even the simplest
and cheapest IMTs.
Practical, even economic, arguments are often of little value in trying to overcome the
attitudes and perceptions on which cultural restrictions are based. Demonstration is far
more powerful. At the design stage of a project or a programme, it is neither appropriate
nor feasible to undertake wide-scale demonstration and promotional work. The best
approach would be to use films and photographs, on a limited scale, attempting to draw out
attitudes and, hence, understand how much further promotional work may be necessary
during implementation.
In Bangladesh, a Moslem country with correspondingly severe limits on the role and
freedom of women, it was always assumed that cultural restrictions on their mobility would
make it impossible to use female agricultural extension or health workers in rural areas.
Today, after some bold experiments in the southeast of the country, most women extension
workers put a motorcycle at the top of their list of priorities. They even joke that, although
being a woman extension worker is risky, with a motorcycle you can get out of trouble
more quickly!
20
21
Colin Relf, Appropriate Technology in Rural Zimbabwe: Problems and Prospects, Mimeo Technologies for
Employment Branch, Employment and Development Department, International Labor Office, Geneva, 1983.
Colin Relf and Khanyama Dixon-Fyle, Local-Level Transport in Rural Malawi: The Case for Intervention,
Report of an International Labor Office (ILO) Exploratory Mission, Infrastructure and Rural Works Branch,
Employment and Development Department, ILO, Geneva, 1988.
20
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3.3.5
Community-Based Organizations
1. Potential: The nature and strength of intercommunity relationships, linkages and
cooperative mechanisms can have a decisive effect in determining what types of
IMTs may be most appropriate. Where cooperative mechanisms are strong and well
established, it may be possible for groups to procure relatively more expensive
IMTs on a shared basis. This may make the financial burden more manageable for
individuals. But the viability of such an arrangement will depend on group
solidarity and clearly understood rules concerning entitlements and responsibilities.
Informal groups in some countries run saving systems in which members make
regular contributions to a central fund and then take turns in gaining access to the
“pot”. The iqub in the Amhara Highlands of Ethiopia is just one example.
Depending on group size and the value of contributions, these mechanisms may
raise sufficient capital for an individual member to buy IMTs.
2. Variety and Role: Different communities show widely different forms and degrees
of community linkages and cooperation. Some community organizations may have
appropriate frameworks for collaboration in the acquisition of IMTs. But care must
be taken to minimize conflict on access to shared IMTs, especially during periods of
peak demand. One test is to look at the rationale for community groupings and its
applicability or adaptability to collaboration in transport. Another is the depth of
tradition surrounding them, because groups with a narrow rationale may
understandably be reluctant to expand their role into “risky” territory. If they are
willing to do so, they may earnestly try to make cooperation for some new purpose
work if failure may undermine the main purpose of the group.
3. Group Size: Experience has shown that groups of five to a maximum of about
twelve households can collaborate closely with a convergence of interest, identity
and responsibility. Above this number, the risk of loss of cohesion and
responsibility rises disproportionately. This must be taken into account in relation
to: (1) household income levels; and (2) the load, range and cost of any IMTs
considered for shared ownership.
The starting point should be to look for whatever traditional groupings may exist,
explore their motivation and judge whether the purpose and strength of cohesion
may be sufficient to justify their adaptation to the acquisition of IMTs. Close
consultation with the groups themselves is critically important.
4. Nature of IMTs for Group Ownership: The feasibility and ground rules for group
ownership are likely to be affected by the complexity and value of the IMTs in
question. The more complex or costly the IMTs, the more difficult it is likely to be
to set up a management system for its use, including how to deal with breakages
and abuse. This is illustrated by practical experience in pooling resources in
agriculture. Most commonly, when farmers are willing to make their oxen available
for work on the fields of other farmers, they usually insist on handling the oxen
themselves, because they do not want to run the risk of abuse.
21
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3.3.6
Complementary Agencies and Initiatives
Appropriate attention should be given to existing agencies and to their initiatives and roles
in promoting IMTs. Four areas of focus for other agencies or projects should be given
priority, as outlined below.
1. Infrastructure Projects: Projects that have been designed to construct or
rehabilitate rural roads and other transport infrastructure often realize the need for
promoting wider use of IMTs. Promotion of the wider use of IMT adjacent to road
projects that have used labor-based methods may be most appropriate because the
roads should be in reasonable condition. On the other hand, the employment
generated can also be expected to have lifted purchasing power for IMTs. Projects
of this type can, therefore, be receptive “hosts” to separately financed but
complementary initiatives.
2. Work on Draft Animals: Agencies and projects focusing on the more widespread
use of draft animals correctly focus on their role in agriculture. But they sometimes
ignore the additional and year-round potential of animals in transport.
Complementary work on, for example, frames for the efficient use of pack animals
or the introduction of new or improved carts can be accepted.
3. Credit: Credit services are likely to be of critical importance in the more
widespread promotion of IMTs in many SSA countries. Two main reasons justify
exploring existing credit schemes. First, they may offer the prospect of being
extended to include credit for IMTs. Second, if some new credit service is required,
it will be important to learn from the experience of existing services in
management, supervision, costs and interest rates. In addition, existing credit
services may be useful sources of information about community-based
organizations and groupings, including their strengths and weaknesses.
4. Mechanical Engineering: Projects and agencies providing technical assistance in
small-scale mechanical engineering and production may already be working on
IMTs or may be receptive to new designs and ideas as a means of widening the
potential product range of their client enterprises.
3.4
Other Factors
Institutional, policy and regulatory factors, indicated above, are likely to be the least appropriate
to tackle in the design of specific projects or programs. They should rather be included in policy
review agendas at the national level, including sector work and policy dialogue on the part of
international development assistance agencies. Only a summary of these factors, all of which are
closely related, is given below.
3.4.1
Many national institutions and agencies may potentially affect the context for promoting
IMTs. They range from National Planning Commissions or the equivalent, through such
line ministries as Transport, Industry and Commerce, Agriculture and Livestock, Road
Authority, Cooperatives and Customs at the national level down to local government units
22
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
responsible for such functions as the maintenance of rural roads and licensing of transport
services. At the design stage for projects or programs, it will usually be sufficient to note
their strengths and weaknesses; identify gaps or hurdles that they impose and send the
appropriate signals upward for the attention of sector work.
3.4.2
Regulatory Issues
Regulatory frameworks can present difficulties. One of the main concerns of regulatory
authorities is safety, including the roadworthiness of vehicles and, hence, the safety of their
passengers as well as other road users. New or adapted IMTs can raise questions on
whether to relax regulations, risking ever less safe vehicles coming into use or to leave
them in place to provide a yardstick of responsibility.
3.4.3
Policy Issues
Formal policy statements only rarely cover rural transport in as much detail as the
mainstream areas of strategic road, rail, air, sea or even inland water transport. Several
dimensions of policy can, however, directly or indirectly affect promotion of IMTs. Direct
influence includes policies regarding importation of complete IMTs, kits for local assembly
or components. National policy with respect to import licenses can have major effects.
What often seems to be missing in policy decisions about import duties and licenses is an
analysis of net benefits. IMTs, in complete or knocked-down form, or components such as
bearings and axles around which IMTs can be locally manufactured, are not sizeable
imports. High prices owing to import duties, licensing restrictions or any other reason can
have a crushing effect on sales owing to the slim purchasing power of the rural population.
Yet, as sales stay low, high import duties will generate little revenue and save little foreign
exchange. The more important issue is to analyze more comprehensively the role of IMTs
in stimulating growth in production and economic activity in relation to what they cost in
foreign exchange.
Indirect influence includes policies affecting the development of industries that are or might
become involved in the manufacture of IMTs. It can also include policies on the
distribution and marketing of agricultural inputs and outputs. Most inputs can be carried the
last small part of their journey to the farm by IMTs, as can most farm outputs that begin
their journey into the marketing system.
23
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4.
STRATEGY FOR EXPANDING THE USE OF IMTS IN ETHIOPIA
4.1 Justification
There are a number of reasons why it is advisable that Ethiopia adopt an explicit strategy for
expanding the use of IMTs.
1. The road network in Ethiopia is limited in extent and unevenly distributed. Given the
present resource constraints, a significant improvement in this situation cannot be
expected for the foreseeable future. In the interim phase, therefore, a form of transport
whose operation is not dependent on a high quality road system should be adapted.
2. The motor vehicle fleet is relatively small, ageing and operates at low and deteriorating
utilization levels. These characteristics combined with the poor state of, especially the
secondary and tertiary road network, result in motor vehicle services being
concentrated on main routes only. Short-haul services for peasant farmers - either on
their own account for movements around the farm and to small market centers are very
limited. Increased use of IMTs would enable more extensive short-haul services to be
provided, to complement the longer distance services offered by the conventional
motor vehicle fleet.
3. The lack of motor vehicle services results in a continuing reliance on traditional means
of transport (walking, animals and head loading) which, for the overwhelming majority
of rural households, remain the predominant means of moving people and goods. These
traditional means are slow, of limited capacity and range, and occupy considerable
amounts of time that could be devoted to other more productive activities. For many
short-haul transport activities, IMTs offers the only realistic prospect of replacing these
traditional means of movement by more efficient methods.
4. Many rural demands for movement must necessarily take place over footpaths and
tracks, remote from the motorable road network. These demands cannot sensibly be
addressed by conventional motor vehicles and are precisely those where IMTs have a
significant comparative advantage.
5. At the household level women carry out most transport activities. Experience elsewhere
suggests that the introduction of IMTs will shift some of these activities to male
members of the household thereby reducing the burden on women, which may allow
them to undertake more productive work.
6. Personnel transport is a constraint on the provision of government services to rural
areas. This, for example, restricts the ability of education officials, health workers and
agricultural officers to visit rural areas deliver services, provide advice and manage
government activities. Again, this results in inefficient use of the scarce government
vehicle fleet. Given the limited resources available to expand the conventional motor
vehicle fleet, increased use of IMTs for rural movement of personnel and limited
quantities of accompanying goods offers the only realistic prospect of a significant
improvement.
7. Despite severe constraints on their supply, there are some successful applications of
IMTs in Ethiopia that meet specific movement demands and user preferences. These
include:
•
The widespread use of horse drawn carts to provide passenger and goods services
in small market towns;
•
The use of donkey drawn carts in the areas around Lake Ziway;
•
The use of wheelbarrows and handcarts in some areas around Awasa, for the
haulage of farm residues used as fuel;
•
The popularity of bicycles (and to a lesser extent motorcycles) in some areas
(Bahar Dar).
4.2 Objectives of IMT Strategy
There are five major objectives underlying the proposed strategy to expand the use of IMT in
rural Ethiopia:
1. The first and most general is to expand the capacity and range of transport available to
rural farming communities so as to encourage increased farm output and to increase
their access to markets and other services; this will be done by achieving the second and
third objectives which are:
2. To reduce the time associated with traditional means of movement, especially the time
required, predominantly by women, for transport activities which are essential, but nonproductive, such as collection of water and firewood, taking grain from the fields, etc.
Labor-time constraints are the major reasons for the stagnation of agricultural
productivity of many African peasant farmers; and
3. To improve the efficiency of existing short-haul goods and passenger movement so as
to reduce the cost of the transport.
4. The fourth objective is to create a cooperative scheme between the urban and the rural
populations and the government transport systems; improve the provision of services to
or from rural areas and from or to urban areas.
5. The achievement of these objectives would lead to a fifth, the creation of employment
opportunities in the operation, supply and maintenance of an expanded IMTs fleet.
4.3 Sub-Sector Issues
To achieve the objectives and expand the use of IMTs in Ethiopia a number of issues have to be
addressed.
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4.3.1
Ethiopia appears to lack a clear strategy for developing local level transport precisely
because the sub-sector straddles so many institutional boundaries. Because of the subject's
vital concern to the growth of agriculture, it may seem sensible to closely affiliate the
transport systems to the agricultural sector. On the other hand, without the close control and
support of the Ethiopian Roads Authority and other ministries, it would be difficult to
achieve the major objectives.
IMTs do not serve only agriculture. They can play a significant role in commercial, social,
domestic and general government administrative activities. The institution in charge of the
development of IMTs has, therefore, three important functions to discharge:
•
Study the totality of travel demands at the household level and not just those
concerned with agriculture,
•
Define and manage practical production programmes for IMTs; and
•
Promote and popularize IMTs in Ethiopia.
A central task will be to create a lead institution for the study, production and promotion of
IMTs.
4.3.2
Demand for IMTs
So far, the demand for IMTs in Ethiopia has received little attention. At this point in time
the limitations imposed by low incomes make both the level and type of demands for IMTs
at individual household level impossible to assess accurately. However, on the basis of
experience in Ethiopia and elsewhere, certain aspects of the demand for IMTs are clear:
•
Market demand is almost certainly segmented. For some would-be owners cost,
affordability and availability are the prime considerations with efficiency given less
importance. With other owners, efficiency is more important even if costs double
or triple. The implication is that manufacturers must produce a range of IMTs of
any one type, with the actual numbers dictated by relative market preference;
•
The level of most disposable incomes suggests that individual ownership of IMTs
is unlikely unless it can be made available at the cheapest possible cost. Only
locally produced wheelbarrows, handcarts and the cheapest of animal-drawn carts
seem likely to be affordable to meet household movement needs and to be operable
at least on some of the path and track characteristics of rural areas. Experience with
donkey carts around Lake Ziway confirms this supposition and indicates that some
market penetration is possible if the capital cost of the IMTs is low and the IMTs
bring immediate and demonstrable benefit;
•
High capacity and efficient IMTs are only likely to be affordable to higher-level
farmers and producers and should be targeted accordingly;
26
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•
Import figures suggest that there is a considerable unmet demand for both bicycles
and motorcycles, some of which must be generated by rural activities;
•
There is a need for a thorough investigation into the ownership/use of IMTs, and
demand/supply and affordability characteristics by carefully designed research,
marketing and pilot/demonstration projects.
4.3.3
Technology
There are two clear technology-related issues. The first issue relates to the actions
necessary to increase the utilization of those types of IMTs which are already in use in the
country and whose acceptability has therefore been demonstrated. The second issue
concerns the desirability of extending the range of IMTs operating in Ethiopia by the
introduction of types of IMTs new to the country. Consideration may be restricted to types
of IMTs which are successfully used elsewhere and which have proven operating
characteristics.
The first of these issues is the more straightforward and will be the main focus of the
Manual. The actions to be undertaken include:
•
Collate experience with the design and production of the most commonly
used/needed vehicles - wheelbarrow/handcarts/animal-drawn carts;
•
Define any necessary improvements so as to consolidate these designs;
•
Design, test and evaluate new prototypes;
•
Investigate the real nature of the rural demand for vehicles whose numbers are
currently restricted by supply difficulties (e.g. bicycles and motor cycles) and
the benefits that might result from measures to improve their supply;
•
Examine the need for complementary improvements in tracks and trails so as to
increase the utilization of existing IMTs.
The second issue has to consider the likely development of Ethiopia's conventional rural
transport system, its severe terrain and innovative forms of IMTs that have enjoyed
considerable success in other countries. Among the more promising are:
•
A single-wheel high capacity wheelbarrow - small farm vehicle (SFV) - to
increase load carrying in rural areas, for activities within and outside the village.
This represents the first stage improvement over head loading and offers 3-5 times
the carrying capacity, at similar speeds and with minimal investment by the
household. It can be used on footpaths and tracks, for transport of water, firewood,
farm inputs, crops and other goods. Although wheelbarrows are used in Ethiopia,
mostly in urban areas, due to their design, they are of limited capacity and range.
This fact, and their cost, probably accounts for their virtual absence from farm
households at present. Similar vehicles to the SFV are widely used in China and,
on an experimental basis, in Ghana, India and Tanzania.
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•
Adaptations of the bicycle - to increase goods carrying capacity. Rural bicycle
owners might also make the vehicles available for hire, in addition to meeting their
own goods transport demands. In small urban towns the main role of bicycle
adaptations is to provide short-haul goods transport services with a higher speed
and greater range of travel than walking or wheelbarrow. The adaptation with the
greatest potential is the well-designed two-wheeled cycle trailer. When hitched to a
bicycle this increases its load carrying capacity to at least 150 kg and also increases
the volume of goods that can be carried. Thus the trailer extends the capacity of the
bicycle by a factor of 2 - 3. Different types of body can be fitted to the basic trailer
chassis for specialized transport of goods. The trailer can quickly and easily be
detached from the bicycle when not required. Thus the trailer has the advantage
that it can extend the transport capacity of the bicycles already in use in Ethiopia.
•
Adoptions of motor cycle technology - to provide an intermediate means of
motorized transport with substantial capacity for the carriage of goods and people.
The main role is to provide short-haul transport services with much more extensive
coverage of rural and urban areas than is feasible using conventional motor
vehicles. An important element of this is to provide low-cost taxi services.
•
Adaptation of motor cycle and sidecar - to increase the goods carrying capacity.
These vehicles are extensively used in the Philippines and account for 75 % of the
motor cycles there. In rural areas they provide combined goods and passenger
services linking villages to market towns. They operate where road conditions are
inadequate and/or where the demand is insufficient to justify conventional vehicle
services. They also provide low cost taxi services in urban areas. In urban
operations, they carry 2 - 3 passengers, but in rural applications, move combined
passenger and goods loads of up to 450 kg. The sidecar has the advantage that it
can be fitted to standard motorcycles, including those already in use in Ethiopia.
4.3.4
Production
At present there is no clear strategy for the production of even one of the simpler and most
demanded IMTs in Ethiopia – the animal-drawn carts. However, experience with IMTs
projects in other countries indicates that these and other similar low-cost vehicles are
unsuited to centralized production because of the problems associated with distributing
finished products. Moreover, in resource scarce situations, similar to that prevailing in
Ethiopia, it is necessary to retain a very flexible approach to the design of products and thus
the implied production technology. Essentially this approach requires basing design on an
appraisal of locally available materials, components, skills and fabrication processes. In a
country as large and diverse as Ethiopia, these will not be the same everywhere.
Considerable progress would be achieved with the development of decentralized methods
of producing low-cost wheel/axle systems. It is considered that these methods are most
suited to the situation prevailing in Ethiopia.
4.3.5
Provision of Appropriate Infrastructure
Because of their limited width, speed and wheel loads, rural IMTs generally have lower
standard infrastructure requirements than conventional motor vehicles, although with non28
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motorized IMTs it is necessary to avoid steep gradients. In some circumstances, depending
primarily on the quality of the footpath, it is possible to use certain types of IMTs on
existing walking routes. In other situations upgrading of the route is necessary to improve
surface quality, to provide simple stream crossings or to increase width to allow passage for
a cycle trailer. There is an extensive network of walking routes created by people walking
from one place to another over the years. The strategy should be to provide the (often
minor) improvements to such infrastructure by low capital cost, labor-based methods of
route improvement and maintenance, using self-help methods where feasible, to maximize
the use of local resources and minimize cost. The provision of tracks adequate for wheeled
transport in Ethiopia would benefit from an evaluation of the existing system of caravan
routes and trails.
29
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5.
POLICIES FOR APPROPRIATE RURAL TRANSPORT
Technologies applied in the past have been inappropriate to and ineffective in meeting many
of the transport needs of the rural sector and can only be met by alternative and more
appropriate transport technologies. The likelihood of implementing such policies for the
provision of more appropriate rural transport facilities is dependent upon substantial changes
in present attitudes.
5.1 Attitudes towards ''Appropriateness"
Present attitudes in developing countries are extremely influenced by the developed world.
The major international companies have the resources and incentives to exert considerable
influence and pressure in promoting the transfer of capital-intensive technologies.
At present, there is no pressure group which is exerting a similar and counter-balancing
influence to promote the use of more appropriate transport technologies. The bilateral and
multilateral aid agencies influence attitudes through the provision of finance, expertise and
equipment. They can thus play an important role in changing attitudes in developing countries
by:
1.
2.
3.
Policies for the provision of finance and equipment which encourage the application
of appropriate transport technologies;
According greater importance to appropriate transport technology in their research
activities, thereby giving the subject greater visibility and status;
Taking care, in providing expert assistance, not to impose external standards and
procedures which may be inappropriate.
Attitudes towards appropriate transport technology will be affected by the priorities set to the
subject by individual governments. If the executive officials of government are to make the
effort necessary to develop expertise in the subject and to attempt to apply it in practice, then
they must perceive that the topic is accorded some status and that their efforts are likely to be
rewarded. If instead, government priorities are oriented towards large-scale capital-intensive
projects, then efforts to implement appropriate transport technology will be limited to a few
committed individuals.
Part of the process of changing attitudes will involve the development of expertise on
appropriate technology by those currently responsible for the planning and provision of
transport facilities. The concepts of appropriate transport technologies should be incorporated
into educational courses, particularly those of universities, which will provide the decision
makers of the future. The support, by donor agencies, of research institutions, training
schemes for government employees and improved information services, all oriented towards
more appropriate technologies, will assist in achieving this.
Necessary changes in attitude extend to the collection of information. At present official
national and international statistics include only motorized vehicles and, in many cases even
exclude motorized two-wheelers. Equally, existing statistics on road networks are based on an
arbitrary definition of what constitutes a road and, for the most part, exclude footpaths and
tracks not used by motor vehicles. The implication is that the characteristics of more "basic"
forms of transport are not sufficiently important to warrant official attention. For the rural poor
nothing could be further from the truth: to them the basic forms may be the transport system.
Undoubtedly the fact that basic forms of transport, both vehicles and routes, have not been
accorded any official recognition has contributed to their neglect. Correcting this situation will
not be easy since many of the vehicle types do not have to fulfill any registration requirements
and the routes are not part of public works maintenance inventories. However, information on
basic transport is essential both to change current attitudes and to create a basis for planning
improvements. It is vital that the surveys and presentation of results should be integral with
existing transport information so that basic facilities are seen to be a part and an important part
of the total land transport system.
5.2 Policies for Appropriate Transport
The most fundamental change required in policy is to ensure that rural transport planning
explicitly includes an appraisal of the needs of the small farmer and the constraints within
which his choice must be made. Poorly understood as these needs are, the implication is that
the most appropriate type of vehicle and the "track" it requires will be issues to be decided by
local circumstances rather than to be externally imposed by the assumed use of conventional
motor vehicles. A transport planning process, which includes the appraisal of the needs of the
small farmer, will be very different from that currently practiced.
1.
The first step would be making a specific analysis on a small-farmer of the
magnitude, frequency and duration of transport he needs and of the distances over
which movements were required;
2.
Cognizance would need to be taken of the proximity and structure of all existing
routes (footpaths, tracks and roads) and motor vehicle services;
3.
Consideration of 1. and 2., existing incomes and/or credit facilities and attitudes
towards different forms of transport would indicate the likely range of functionally
and economically appropriate vehicles;
4.
The consequences of 3. in terms of current availability, ease of manufacture and
repair from local resources and employment generation would then have to be
evaluated;
5.
Finally, a selection would be made of the vehicle(s)/route(s) combination that would
best meet local needs and consideration be given to the forms of assistance
provided.
Two crucial elements of this process are:
1. Greater flexibility in the methods of route design; and
2. The direct participation of government and aid institutions in overcoming the
problems associated with the provision of appropriate basic vehicles.
Present road design standards in the developing world are based largely on criteria originally
set to meet the very different requirements of western countries. There is a need for
developing countries to generate their own road design standards based on local conditions
which would incorporate, as appropriate, the requirements imposed by basic vehicles. Road
design has been based on the needs of motor vehicles for so long that there is little available
experience of designing for anything else, at least in the developed countries. However, some
developing countries have experimented with the provision of routes for basic vehicles.
31
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
Despite the apparently public nature of track and private nature of vehicles, it is now
necessary that governments and aid institutions should play as dynamic a role in the provision
of basic vehicles as they have done in the provision of roads. Indeed it seems irrational for
them to do otherwise, given that the track and vehicle are complementary and mutually
dependent parts of the road transport system. If it is in the public interest for government to
supply and maintain the “track” why, especially under conditions of great need, should they
not also supply vehicles?
The most compelling reason for arguing that governments and aid institutions should
intervene in the supply of basic vehicles is that without encouragement and assistance the
private sector is unlikely to do so. Developed country manufacturers appear to be willing to
play only a limited role in the development of appropriate basic vehicles. Most local
manufacturers that might engage in the production of basic vehicles lack the resources to carry
out the necessary research and development. Ultimately to be successful, any product of
appropriate technology must compete in the market place. However, before local "basic
vehicle" manufacturers can do so they will require assistance in the form of proven designs
and in initiating manufacture and marketing of the product. It is in these areas that specific
actions by governments and aid institutions can assist the supply of basic vehicles.
5.3 Action
Various actions have been identified to promote more appropriate rural transport systems.
These are now summarized and classified into three categories: (1) information, (2) research
and development and (3) production and marketing. Since there are institutions that are
actively involved in the development of basic vehicles, any programme of action ought to
consider how their efforts can be assisted.
5.3.1
Information
The solution to a technological problem often exists away from where the problem
arises. Good information systems are therefore essential. If information about
intermediate technologies is not widely disseminated, the bias in favor of sophisticated
technologies and the readiness of information about them may lead people in
developing countries to believe that sophisticated technologies are the only acceptable
answer to their problems.
There are two major aspects to any information system: the collection of data and its
dissemination. Because basic vehicles are a relatively new area of interest, the collection
of information is particularly important. Information needs to be collated on the design,
manufacture, operation and effectiveness of the following existing devices:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Head, shoulder and backloading aids;
Handcarts and wheelbarrows;
Bicycle carriers;
Bicycle and moped trailers;
Tricycles;
Carrying containers for pack animals;
Animal drawn carts;
Basic motorized vehicles.
32
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
Information also needs to be collated on experience with the design and operation of:
9. Routes for basic vehicles.
Many of these devices are the products of local artisans and therefore fall outside the scope of
conventional information collection systems. As a result, information is difficult to acquire but
may be particularly valuable. Good information on such devices can only be obtained by indepth case studies which could best be carried out by local appropriate technology
organizations with coordinating support from aid agencies.
A basic function of the international aid agencies should be to collate information on
existing devices, on research and development programmes, and institutions and
individuals with expertise in appropriate transport technology. This information can be
disseminated where needed by means of publications on particular topics and by inquiry
services.
5.3.2
Research and Development
The research and development requirements of appropriate transport technology can be
classified into socioeconomic aspects and hardware. The purpose of socioeconomic
research is to clarify transport needs and to supply the necessary background
information and justification for planning the provision of more appropriate facilities.
The socioeconomic aspects requiring study are:
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
The magnitude, frequency and duration of small farmer transport needs at
the farm level;
Other rural transport needs, particularly those associated with industry, and
with health, education and other services provided by the community;
The direct and indirect employment characteristics of different modes of
land transport;
The operational characteristics of existing basic vehicles; the capital, running
and maintenance costs, proportion of foreign to local resources, loads and
load factors, speeds and movement capability (terrain, ground conditions);
The economics of basic vehicle operation in relation to loads, distance, short
and long-term load factors, expected vehicle life and maintenance
expenditures, terrain and availability of alternatives;
The existing type and condition of the routes serving the rural communities.
The focus of such a study should be to assess:
•
The vehicular implications of the present route structure and
•
The type, cost and benefit of practicable route improvements.
The items of hardware requiring research and development are:
16. Chinese wheelbarrow;
17. Wheels and bearings for use on barrows, handcarts, cycle trailers, etc.;
18. Bicycle for local manufacture and use;
19. Bicycle carriers;
20. Single-wheeled cycle trailer;
21. Animal-drawn carts;
22. Motor cycle for local manufacture and use;
23. Motorized bicycle and tricycle and
24. Small boats, canoes, etc. for water transport.
Any programme of hardware research and development should, if it is to result in
products which are commercially viable, be market-oriented and take account of the
33
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
end-user's needs, the manufacturer's requirements and the economic and industrial
capabilities of the society. Despite the lack of capacity, expertise, resources and
organizational knowledge, all such programmes could be executed in developing
countries.
Thus, while some projects can be carried out in developing countries by national
appropriate technology organizations or research and development centers, there will be
a continuing and important role for the developed country institutions to play.
Basic vehicles evolved by developed country institutions must be specifically linked to
needs and conditions in developing countries. There are a number of ways in which this
can be achieved:
1.
Collaborative work by institutions of developed and developing countries to
meet particular needs;
Work carried out in institutions of developed countries to meet needs in one
or more locations with field-testing and evaluation done in conjuration with
local institutions;
Work carried out by international institutions located in one developing
country, aimed at meeting the needs of several countries.
2.
3.
The method of carrying out the research and development work will be influenced by
the capabilities and resources of the countries concerned and the type of basic vehicle
involved. Whatever method is used, there is an important role for the aid agencies to
play in providing technical and financial assistance. A significant part of this assistance
should be directed towards increasing the research and development.
5.3.3
Production and Marketing
The successful conclusion of a hardware research and development project is usually
marked by the satisfactory testing of a prototype. However, the successful transfer of
the technology is only achieved when the product is available to the people who need it.
Therefore, after research and development is completed there remains the need for fieldtesting and market evaluation in the place of intended use, and for the establishment of
the production system including making the technology known, financing, marketing,
training and servicing.
The developing country manufacturer may have a detailed knowledge of the market,
and of the rules and regulations with which he must comply. However, his technological
expertise may be limited and he is likely to need technical assistance in establishing
manufacture of a new basic vehicle. The small manufacturer will probably have little
spare capital and limited access to credit. He will tend to be reluctant to invest in the
production of new basic vehicles since these will involve considerable risk on his part.
He will, therefore, need financial support through the provision of credit, possibly at
preferential rates of interest. Governments can assist manufacturers in the provision of
credit and technical expertise through small industry development organizations. Aid
agencies have also roles to play either by providing assistance to specific projects or by
reinforcing the capabilities of government institutions.
The small manufacturer often has difficulty in obtaining materials and components of
specified quality. He can only purchase in limited quantity because of his small
production capacity and lack of capital to invest in stocks. He therefore has to pay
34
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
higher prices and has greater difficulty in obtaining supplies than larger manufacturers.
Government can assist here by intervening in the supply of materials and components.
The manufacturer may need both expert assistance in marketing his new product and,
more important, some assurance and protection of his market, particularly in the initial
period when his new product is being established. This can be provided by restricting
competing imports by means of tariffs, quotas, or exclusion, through government
taxation policy and by government purchasing procedures which give priority to the
products of small local manufacturers.
The successful introduction of basic vehicles will depend, in addition to the
establishment of local manufacture, on the provision of an adequate supply and
distribution system for spare parts and the training of operators and mechanics. Past
experience has shown that the provision of an adequate maintenance infrastructure is
essential if a new technology is to become permanently established in rural areas of
developing countries. This is particularly critical in the case of even simplified
motorized vehicles. The adoption of these devices in place of human or animal powered
forms of transport is a major technological step forward. The maintenance and
servicing procedures are more complex and very critical to the performance, running
costs and life of the vehicle.
35
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
6.
RURAL ROADS AND TRANSPORT SERVICES
Production, trade and daily life require the movement of goods and people. Different transport
technologies exist that employ human energy, animal power or the use of motors. They range
from basic walking and carrying to large-scale motorized transport, including motorcars, large
trucks and buses, trains, aircraft and ships. Between these extremes, there is a wide range of
intermediate means of transport (IMTs) that can increase transport capacity and reduce human
drudgery without the high costs associated with large motor vehicles. Options include singlewheel technologies (wheelbarrows), two-wheel hand carts, bicycles and tricycles,
motorcycles, animal-powered transport and low-cost boats.
The many transport options available have different ranges, capacities and operating costs.
These overlap and provide a continuum of complementary transport options, each with
advantages and disadvantages. They vary in purchase price, payload, complexity and their
requirement for work animals, mechanics, foreign exchange and road quality. Some of the
options and different requirements are summarized in Table 6.1.
6.1
Types of Transport Service
Roads and transport services are the two mutually necessary elements of the rural motor
transport system. Rural roads are the lowest level of the road network, providing the physical
link from particular villages to the higher levels of the road network and hence to the regional
and national economy. Because very few motor vehicles exists in rural Africa, rural
households are linked to the wider economy only through transport services that are provided
by a range of passenger and cargo-carrying motor vehicles operating on the available roads.
Transport services can be categorized into two as:
1. Transport services which operate “for hire” on the rural roads and are used to
transport rural people their goods. In SSA, these transport services exist in the
following forms:
•
Bus services - large buses are used to transport passengers and accompanying
goods, operating on fixed routes and at fixed timetables (though timetables are
not strictly adhered to);
•
Pick-ups and mini-buses - typically operate from main centers and transport
passengers and accompanying goods. While bus services operate on fixed
routes, pick-ups and mini-buses have flexible stopping points and do not
operate at fixed timetable;
•
Trucks available for hire - the practice is that trucks are hired for specific tasks;
•
Informal transport services – sometimes rural people are picked-up by passing
vehicle owners, often paying some sort of fare to the driver.
2. Services which are brought to rural communities by motor vehicles operated by
government and the private sector. These services include:
•
Delivery, for example by cooperatives, of farm inputs to local depots from
where the inputs can be collected by farmers;
Table 6.1
Means of Transport with Indicative Characteristics and Important Requirements 22
Some Important Requirements
Indicative characteristics
Transport Type
Cost
($)
0
Load
[kg]
20
Low
Good Roads
or Tracks
Low
Sledge
10
100
4
3
0.80
Low
High
Low
Low
Wheelbarrow
30
100
4
1
0.40
Low
None
Low
Low
Hand cart
60
150
4
5
0.35
Low
None
Low
Medium
Pack donkey
60
80
7
20
0.70
Low
High
Low
Low
Bicycle
100
60
10
20
0.60
Medium
None
Medium
Medium
Cycle rickshaw
170
150
8
15
0.45
Medium
None
Medium
High
Donkey Cart
300
400
6
15
0.60
Medium
High
Medium
Medium
Ox cart
500
1000
5
10
0.20
Medium
High
Medium
Medium
Motor cycle
900
100
50
50
1.30
High
None
High
Medium
5000
1000
10
15
0.70
High
None
High
Medium
Pick-up
12000
1200
80
200
0.70
High
None
High
High
Truck
60000
12000
80
200
0.50
High
None
High
High
Carrying/ head load
Power tiller trailer
Speed
[km/hr]
5
Range
[km]
10
Cost /tonne/km
[$]
1.50
Foreign
Exchange
Low
Animal
Services
None
Mechanics
Note: This table provides order-of-magnitude indicative figures only. The costs, prices, loads, speeds and distances vary greatly with the
country, the people, the environment, the infrastructure and the vehicles or animals. It is not uncommon for the transport systems
mentioned to carry much greater loads and to travel much longer distances. The figures are simply indications of what is commonly
achieved. The costs per tonne-km are very approximate, and highly sensitive to assumptions on costs, loads and distances: they are
mainly based on the model of Crossley and Ellis (1999) for 5 km journeys.
22
Paul Starkey, Local Transport Solutions, People, Paradoxes and Progress, SSATP Working Paper No. 56, May 2001.
37
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
38
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
•
Crop purchasing services provided by cooperatives, marketing boards or private
traders at the village level;
•
Delivery of consumer goods such as soft drinks and beer to local shops;
•
Agricultural extension and community development services;
•
Delivery of services and supplies to rural health and educational facilities,
including mobile health clinics and emergency evacuation of sick people.
6.2 The Role of Rural Roads
The main agricultural function of access roads is to allow passage by motor vehicles at critical
periods in the agricultural cycle to deliver farm inputs such as fertilizer to the farmers and to
collect crops after harvest. For agricultural systems which are less transport-intensive, the quality
of road access to the villages is less critical. In such systems, marketed crops can be transported
outside the village to a bulking point within the area, on foot or using IMT. Given the lack of
local-level transport services, the primary social function of access roads is to facilitate the
delivery of social services to villages. Access roads are also used by IMTs, particularly bicycles
and animal-carts, for trips outside the village.
The function of roads is to facilitate the operation of transport services, and thereby to increase
the mobility of rural people and to improve their access to facilities and services. The provision of
good roads and of reliable transport services to rural communities would provide them with
“good” access and hence generate increased incomes. Good access is determined to a significant
extent by the physical proximity of the community to an active local center and to a main road,
rather than to a road in good condition. The realities of spatial distribution of communities dictate
that only a minority will be in this fortunate situation.
6.3
Rural Transport and Access to Services
Rural access to economic and social services is determined within a framework of elements of
accessibility on one hand, and transport tasks on the other. This framework will first identify the
elements of accessibility: rural roads, paths and tracks, the means of transport (IMT or
motorized), and the siting and quality of facilities. These elements will then be linked to the five
principal tasks of rural transport in SSA:
•
•
•
•
•
6.3.1
Water and firewood collection;
Crop production;
Crop marketing;
Access to economic and social services and
Non-agriculture income generation.
Framework for Improving Access to Economic and Social Services
Physical accessibility is the ease or difficulty of reaching a particular service. The level of
physical accessibility is dependent on two factors:
1. The level of mobility and
2. The siting and quality of facilities. 23
Mobility is the ease or difficulty with which rural people can move and transport their
goods. The siting and quality of facilities affects the distances and routes between the
places of production or residence and the facilities which people choose to use. There is
often an overlap between these two factors. The provision of access roads and cooperative
transport services results in a reduction in the distance that farmers have to travel to a crop
marketing point - cooperative trucks come to villages to collect the crops. However, there is
an important difference between the two factors:
•
Measures to improve the transport system can increase mobility and accessibility
for a variety of different trip purposes – for example, the introduction of IMT can
improve mobility for harvesting, movement of farm inputs, crop marketing, etc.,
but only for those whose mobility is improved.
•
Measures to improve the location and/or quality of facilities increase the
accessibility of a particular service – for example, the installation of an improved
water supply improves accessibility for water collection in the community.
6.3.2
Elements of Accessibility
1. Rural Roads, Paths and Tracks
Rural roads link rural communities to the higher levels of the road network and
make it possible for motor vehicles to operate down to the village-level. It is,
however, not the mere existence of a road, but its condition, which determines
whether it is possible for motor vehicles to operate down to the village-level.
Given that so much rural travel is on foot or using IMT remote from the road
network, the improvement of the condition of footpaths and tracks can have a
significant impact on the efficiency of rural travel and transport. Improvements can
take the form of:
•
Increasing the safety of footbridges or other water-crossings so that
people do not have to make long detours to avoid dangerous river
crossings;
•
Straightening paths so that they are not unnecessarily long and indirect;
•
Reducing the length of those sections of the route that are steep and/or
slippery, cause falls, loss of time, and injury and
•
Making a route which is passable only on foot passable also by an IMT
such as a bicycle or an animal-drawn cart.
2. Means of Transport
Ownership by rural people of motor vehicles (apart from small motorcycles) is
extremely rare in most parts of rural SSA. Therefore, it is mostly through the
23
G. Edmonds and I. Barwell, Accessibility and Siting of Facilities and Services, June 1993.
40
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
operation of Motorized Transport Services that rural people can benefit from the
provision of rural road access. These services are, although only to a modest
extent, complemented through the use of IMTs.
The IMTs most commonly used for cargo transport in SSA are ox-, horse-, and
donkey-drawn carts, ox drawn sledges and pack donkeys. Wheelbarrows and handcarts are also used to some extent, though more commonly in urban than in rural
areas. None of these IMTs offer an improvement in the speed of travel compared
with walking, even though they allow substantially greater loads to be moved per
trip. In the case of the animal-powered IMTs, the physical effort of moving the
load is transferred from the human to the animal. In the case of the wheelbarrow
and hand-cart, the efficiency of use of human energy for moving loads is
increased. Bicycles and small motorcycles are most relevant for personal travel bicycles are much more widely owned in rural Africa than motorcycles - though
donkeys/horses can also be used for personal travel as well as load-carrying. The
bicycle trailer provides a means of increasing load-carrying capacity, while
maintaining the speed advantage of travel at the same time.
3. Siting and Quality of Facilities
One of the determinants of the rural transport problems in SSA is the long
distances that many people have to travel, in most cases on foot, to reach facilities
that they need to use.
Further, the poor quality of service offered by the facility closest at hand may
provoke travel to a more distant facility, which offers a better quality of service.
The siting of high-quality facilities and services closer to rural people can make a
significant impact on transport efficiency, on the time and effort spent on transport
and on the frequency of utilization of the services offered.
6.3.3
Specific Tasks of Rural Transport
The five principal tasks of rural transport in SSA identified as: water and firewood
collection, crop production, crop marketing access to economic and social services and
non-agricultural income generation are treated separately. However, since farmers will not
increase their output unless they are reasonably assured that they can market the additional
surplus, the transport problems of crop production and crop marketing are closely related.
An increase in the level of production of a particular crop generates a much greater increase
in the marketing transport demand. As a simple example, a farming household operating at
near-subsistence may be producing a surplus of 10 % above its consumption needs of a
particular crop. A 10 % increase in the production of that crop by the household would
double its demand for transport to market the surplus output.
1. Water and Firewood Collection
Water and firewood collection are very time-consuming and burdensome tasks for
rural women of all ages. They involve frequent trips (several times per day to
collect water and several times per week to collect firewood) and it is common for
women to spend an hour or more every day on the transport component of each of
the tasks. With the progressive degradation of fuel-wood sources in Africa, the
distance to firewood and hence the transport burden is likely to increase.
41
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
A common theme, which underlies many of the projects which have had only a
limited impact, is the lack of involvement of women in their design and
implementation. This argues that, if such projects are to be effective in addressing
the access problem of water and firewood collection, their design must be based on
an understanding of the local situation of women; must incorporate the expertise
and perceptions of women on the water and firewood collection and cooking tasks,
and must substantially involve women in their implementation, including
maintenance.
2. Water Collection
The main determinant of the access problem for water collection is the distance to
the existing source. For a particular society, per capita consumption of water
remains relatively constant up to trip distances of 15-20 minutes. 24 For higher trip
distances, there is a tendency for the number of trips and hence consumption, to
decrease to compensate for the difficulty of the collection task. Thus, the most
effective means of addressing the access problem of water collection, to the benefit
of the whole community, is better siting of facilities, specifically, the installation of
an improved community water supply system which is closer to the households
than the existing, natural source and the introduction of procedures for the
financing, operation and maintenance of the system to ensure its sustainability.
Complementary means of addressing this problem include: the provision of
suitable IMT and containers to carry and store the water and the improvement of
footpath routes linking the houses to the water sources.
Although IMTs are unlikely to have a major impact on the transport burden of
water collection, a carefully-designed pilot project could reveal more about their
use. Such a pilot project would need to pay attention to such issues as control over
use of IMTs by women; provision of suitable IMTs and containers to carry and
store the water, and condition of the footpath routes connecting the houses to the
water sources. A second complementary means of addressing access to water is
improving footpaths and tracks. However, such interventions are unlikely to
achieve the same level of impact as better siting of facilities.
3. Firewood Collection
Similar to water collection, there are also a range of options for addressing the
access problem of firewood collection, including:25
•
24
25
Development of community woodlots closer to the household. This would
reduce the trip time for, and hence the time and effort devoted to firewood
collection. The development of community woodlots is a long-term
intervention since it takes several years for the trees to mature and produce
firewood. However, it offers a sustainable means of addressing the
environmental degradation that is occurring in SSA as a result of
deforestation.
Ian Barwell, Transport and the Village, World Bank Discussion Paper No. 344, Africa Region Series
Ibid.
42
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
•
Introduction of fuel-efficient wood burning. This focuses on the use of
more efficient stoves.
•
Substitution of more efficient, alternative fuels to firewood, e.g. charcoal.
This is most likely to take place first amongst the richer members of a
community and to result from increased incomes generated by agricultural
development.
•
Use of IMTs. This option, however, also could increase the rate of
degradation of fuel-wood reserves, and would therefore need to be assessed
carefully.
•
Improving paths and tracks. As with access to water, the paths that provide
access to sources of firewood may be difficult, particularly in hilly or
mountainous terrain.
4. Crop Production
Different agricultural systems have varying levels of transport-intensity. For
example, the cultivation of permanent crops producing low-bulk, high-unit value
outputs, for example, spices or coffee requires only limited transport inputs.
However where agricultural production is based on land-extensive cultivation of
large quantities of seasonal, bulky, low unit-value crops:
•
The production system is inherently transport-intensive.
•
Increased output will result from an increase in the area of land worked and
the greater use of inputs, particularly fertilizer. This increased output
generates a greater than proportional increase in the on-farm agricultural
transport demand.
The best means of reducing the transport constraints for production are:
•
•
Introducing IMTs to facilitate increased mobility. IMTs that increase the
efficiency of personal travel with accompanying loads will facilitate the
marketing of crops.
Siting local storage facilities for farm inputs such as fertilizers close to the
community.
•
Improving footpaths or tracks.
•
Developing and improving rural roads and rural transport services so that
farmers can hire and bring in trucks to move bulk harvests.
5. Crop Marketing
A farmer's decision about whether and how to market his crop depends upon his
mobility, the siting of markets, the price he expects to be paid, when he will
receive payment and the degree of marketing risk involved. There is a range of
options for addressing the access problem of crop marketing including:
43
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
•
The improvement of rural transport services;
•
The development of rural roads;
•
The introduction of IMTs and
•
The siting of local markets closer to rural communities.
The introduction of rural transport services can have the greatest impact on crop
marketing. However, for the motor transport service to be provided:
•
There must be the necessary level and quality of road access to allow motor
vehicles to come to or close to the village level at crop marketing time.
•
Truck services, operated by cooperatives or by the private sector, must be
available at marketing time.
•
A storage facility must be provided to allow bulks of crops delivered by
individual farmers prior to transferring to the truck.
IMTs are complementary means of addressing the crop marketing problem.
Whether the point at which bulk crops are transferred to motor vehicles should be
in the village or at a local center outside the village depends on the availability of
IMTs in the community, the volume of surplus crops produced by the community
and the settlement pattern. For the marketing of low-bulk, high value crops, or for
the continuous marketing of bulky crops in small quantities, the use of IMTs can
extend the range over which they are marketed and increase the quantities sold per
trip. IMTs that increase the efficiency of personal travel with accompanying loads
- most notably the bicycle, but also the bicycle and trailer - will facilitate the
marketing of crops in this way. The concentrated marketing of seasonal, bulky,
low-value crops is dependent on the transfer of the crop to a motor vehicle
relatively close to the point of production. In such agricultural systems the role of
load-carrying IMTs, particularly animal-drawn carts, is in the initial movement of
the crop to a bulking point for transfer to the motor vehicle.
The final option for addressing the access problem of crop marketing is the siting
of the markets themselves. Typically, there is a hierarchy of markets:
•
Local markets provide an opportunity for households to sell small
quantities of crops to traders or to meet local demand; to sell other
products; to buy food, household and consumer items; and to meet for
social interaction;
•
Main markets that serve large areas, provide an opportunity to sell crops to
meet a wider demand, offer a wider range of consumer items, and are
usually in main centers where people can also deal with business and
administrative matters, and meet socially. People tend to make regular,
frequent use of the services provided by local markets when it is
44
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
convenient to travel there, do business and return home within daylight
hours. Travel to the main markets is less frequent.
6. Access to Economic and Social Services
Improving access can be achieved through the following measures:
•
Developing additional facilities closer to rural communities or improving
the quality of the facilities that already exist by increasing their reliability
and/or the level of service offered;
•
Introducing IMTs;
•
Developing and improving rural transport services and
•
Improving footpaths or tracks.
Siting facilities close to communities can have the greatest impact of any of the
measures listed above. Travel to these social facilities is essentially on foot, so that
it is the distance to the facility that determines the level of access. In most of SSA,
the physical access to facilities tends to depend upon:
•
Government policy for the provision of social services;
•
The population size and density of an area (people in areas with lower
population density will tend to have poorer access) and
•
Whether a village is nucleated or has broadly distributed housing -facilities
can be provided close to people cheaply and more efficiently if the villages
are nucleated.
In Sub-Saharan African societies where the staple food must be converted into
flour, there is a strong preference for using motorized grinding mills both to avoid
the arduous and time-consuming task of hand-pounding and to produce a more
flavorsome product. The siting of mills within convenient walking distance of rural
communities will minimize the transport time and effort devoted to the task.
Personal mobility can be increased through the development of passenger-carrying
rural transport services. Such services will improve access to health centers and to
rural markets. However, given the present state of passenger services in rural
Ethiopia, it is highly unlikely that those provided by conventional motor vehicles
will reach in a reliable manner down to or close to most rural villages. A more
innovative approach would be the development of local-level services provided by
motorized IMTs.
7. Non-Agricultural Income Generation
The use of IMTs, which increase the efficiency of personal travel and allow the
transport of accompanying goods, facilitates local-level income-generating
activities in the following ways:
45
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
•
For regular travel to and from paid employment, if the place of work is
within cycling distance and beyond convenient (about 30 minutes) walking
distance, and if the terrain and route conditions are suitable, then:
-
Travel by bicycle is likely to be cheaper than travel by passenger
transport service and
The time saved by using the bicycle as a means of transport, rather than
walking on foot, would be cost-effective if the time saved can be put to
some productive use.
•
For trading and operation of small businesses involving movements of
relatively small quantities of goods over distances that are within cycling
range, use of a bicycle is economical, even in quite difficult terrain
conditions.
•
The use of trailers to increase the carrying capacity of the bicycle can,
where the terrain is reasonably flat, increase the effectiveness of the use of
this means of transport for local trading and for delivery of supplies.
For longer-distance travel in relation to income-generating activities, the role of
motor vehicle transport services, and of suitable roads on which to operate,
becomes important. However, for many rural people, income-generating activities
tend to take place on a small scale and within the local area. It is likely to be the
minority of more successful businessmen in an area who will have a greater
demand for long-distance, motor vehicle transport services.
6.4 Rural Transport Services
Policy measures to be considered by national and local government to promote the operation of
transport services provided by motor vehicles include:
1. Removal of unnecessary regulatory constraints to the provision and development of
transport services by the private sector. Regulation should focus on safety and insurance
measures and should not inhibit:
•
The types of vehicle used to provide transport services;
•
The routes on which they operate;
•
The type of service they offer - passenger, goods or both; fixed route or flexible
route and
•
The fare rates that they charge - controlled rates can be counterproductive by
reducing the extent of transport services. Sustainable low fare rates are more
likely to result from a competitive market, efficient operation and pressure from
users on local service operators.
46
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
2.
Facilitating the supply of motor vehicles by eliminating unnecessary constraints on the
import of vehicles and, most important, spare parts and by developing capability for
vehicle maintenance and repair.
3.
Supporting and promoting innovative schemes for operation of services targeted at
local-level needs, including services provided by 'non-commercial' operators such as
local development associations. The support might involve:
•
Measures to encourage the financing of the services, but only if there is clear
evidence that the transport operation is financially viable;
•
Provision of training in transport management and
•
The adoption of a regulatory and licensing framework that facilitates innovative
services, for example, using motorized IMTs.
Long distance trips, which are external to the village, are predominantly undertaken by
motor vehicle, although there is evidence suggesting that headloading and IMTs are also
used over long distances. For an efficient transport system, however, a diversity of modes is
required. Conventional motor vehicles are most viable when they are carrying a large
amount of goods or passengers over long distances, but less viable over short distances with
small loads. Choice is restricted to headloading and infrequent vehicle services. Bicycles are
gradually becoming more prevalent, but the use of animal carts, motorcycle technology and
simple tractor based technology is still uncommon. Many reasons have been forwarded to
explain this lack of diversity including cultural factors, an unwillingness to promote vehicles
that are regarded as a backward step, low incomes and a low density of demand.
Deciding on the vehicle which is most likely to minimize total operating costs requires an
understanding of the environment in which the vehicle will be expected to operate. There
are certain characteristics of rural transport in SSA: 26
26
•
Transport is seasonal; the bulk of transport is required during the harvest
season;
•
Other transport movements are most likely to be undertaken on a weekly basis;
•
The vehicle must be suitable for carrying passengers and goods;
•
Distances to markets and other facilities are long, typically between 10 and 50
km;
•
The skills and repair facilities available in rural areas are basic;
•
The infrastructure is very often in poor condition and so speed will always be
low.
Simon D. Ellis and John L. Hine, The Provision of Rural Transport Services, SSATP Working Paper No. 37,
April 1998.
47
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
6.5 Road Transport Strategy in Ethiopia
The road transport strategy of the Ethiopian Government is based on the rehabilitation of the main
road network and the development of an efficient road transport industry, even if the dispersed
population will still rely on human and animal transport till the nearest all-weather road. The
Government has developed huge investment programmes for the road network
rehabilitation/extension and has taken action to establish the foundations of a competitive road
transport market.
Transferring the basic principles of economic development policy adopted by the Government, it
can be said that Ethiopia's road transport policy is today based on competitive and free market
principles. The role of the Government should be limited to formulation and enforcement of
rules/regulations, control of monopoly situations, promotion of competitive markets, liberalizing
entry/exit and prevention of safety and environmental problems. The Ethiopian Government
ensures the promotion of investments through access of domestic operators to commercial credit,
also for garages, fuel stations, spare-parts shops and through promotion of local manufacturing,
local assembly and manufacturing of critical spare parts and equipment.
Only ten years ago (1991), road transport services in Ethiopia were totally regulated by the
Government. The Ministry of Transport centrally controlled the transport sector while publicly
owned corporations (EFTC and EPTC) provided freight and passenger services. RTA's role was
to set and enforce licensing, tariff rates and routes according to the so-called "ketena" ("zone")
system. Private activities were confined to a few single-truck owners and small garage operations
under the two corporations and there was no incentive for improvement of private services.
Transit services were administered through the MTSC (Maritime and Transit Service
Corporation) under tight government control, requiring bureaucratic and cumbersome
documentation and high transit times.
In order to improve road transport performances in terms of operating costs, level of service,
reliability, safety and being respondent to freight and passenger demand and needs, a series of
actions, regarding the sector general framework, are being undertaken. These are:
• Enlargement, upgrading and maintenance of the national road network in order to
facilitate access to rural areas and decrease vehicle-operating costs. This task is already
considered by the programme of investments contained in the RSDP and will continue to
be implemented in the next seven years. The RSDP's objective is to improve road density
and quality in the country and to lower the road transport costs.
• Renovation and modernization of the vehicle fleet, through decrease of custom duties,
development of local manufacturing of parts or vehicle assembly, improvement of
garage licensing and services, improved vehicle road-worthiness and making compulsory
the third-party vehicle insurance.
• Improvement of road safety, through renovated vehicles, improved licensing
procedures and co-operation among institutions for engineering, regulation, enforcement,
education and medical services.
• Complete liberalization of road transport market, with finalization of the
privatization process of parastatals, restructuring of the major public own-account
48
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
(private-commercial) fleets, avoiding general subsidies to urban transport, deregulating
entry for fuel transport and opening to regional transport operators.
• Promotion and information of the existing road regulations to all stakeholders in
order to avoid misunderstandings and stop attempts to re-create sort of "ketena" systems
inside associations or public institutions.
• Improvement of the transport management and organization, with training of
managers, drivers, operators, freight forwarders, institution functionaries, in order to
enhance brokerage of loads and diminish truck overload.
• Clarification of the respective role of RTA and RTCBs, to facilitate flow of
information,
improve
and
homogenize
driver
licensing
and
vehicle
registration/inspection procedures and increase safety on the roads.
Different institutional sectors are directly or indirectly involved in road transport
regulation/administration/control. The Ministry of Transport and Communication (MoTaC) and
its institutions RTA, RTCBs and Zonal Departments are naturally directly involved in
regulation/administration, while ERA and the RRAs are involved in administration and control of
road infrastructure and the newly formed Road Fund is responsible for collecting capital for road
maintenance. Ministry of Justice (MoJ), federal and regional traffic police are mostly involved in
road transport control and enforcement. Ministry of Trade and Industry (MoTaI) and regional
bureaus are involved in commercial road transport licensing (business license). Ministry of
Finance (MoF) and the Custom Authority are involved in taxation of road transport and trade
activity. MoF is also directly controlling movement of freight in the country (a residual concept of
command economy, still applied in Ethiopia, is that “freight belongs to the State” and any freight
movement in the country has to be taxed.
In Ethiopia there is no declared transport policy and no specific road transport policy. The road
transport administration framework in Ethiopia is complex and disarticulated horizontally among
the different administrative sectors (transport, infrastructure, trade, traffic police, finance) and
vertically among the federal states and each single regional state. There is no co-operation into an
operative road transport policy in which regulations, taxation, enforcement and information are
conceived as means for appropriate, efficient and sustainable road transport services.
6.5.1
Features of the Transport Sector
With an estimated population of more than 60 millions, spread over a territory of more than
one million km2, Ethiopia can count on a road network of only about 27,000 km of roads of
which 75% are unpaved or gravel roads. It is estimated that 95% of motorized transport
activity is carried out by road but an important share is covered by non-motorized transport
in rural areas. The road network is limited in extension (with only 24 km/l000 km2 surface
covering), poor in quality (only 20% of roads are in good conditions), expensive for
operators (VOC weighed average is around 1 US$/km, 10% higher than in previous years),
expensive for users (tariffs can reach 1.4 US cents/pass/km and 12 US cents/ton/km), low in
traffic volumes (AADT between 350-700 vehicles on main roads), unsafe (due to accident
fatalities with 155 deaths/l0,000 vehicles per year), expensive to build; to rehabilitate or to
maintain, due to difficult terrain.
According to RTA registered data, the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia totals around 103.000
vehicles in 1998 composed by: 39,200 private cars, equal to 37% of total fleet, 21,400
49
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
trucks (dry and liquid cargo) equal to 21% of total fleet, 13,200 Government vehicles equal
to 13% of total fleet; 12,600 buses (90% mini-buses) equal to 12% of total fleet; 10,000
taxis equal to 10% of total fleet; 5,200 international vehicles (5%); 1,600 motorcycles (2%).
Table 6.2 shows the total vehicle registration in the last ten years available (1988-1998). In
this period the average growth of registered vehicles has been equal to 5% per year, but
after libera1isation of the market, in the period 1995-1998 the annual increase has reached a
10% value in comparison with the average 1.5% of the previous years.
Table 6.2 Vehicle Registration 1987 – 1998 27
Type of Vehicle/Service
Year
Dry
Cargo
Buses
Liquid
Cargo
Taxis
Govt.
Private
Cars
International
Motor
Bikes
Total
1987
8243
4062
1437
3454
13720
24744
5324
1686
62670
1988
9092
4107
1626
3530
15783
23582
4627
1924
64271
1989
7965
4201
1541
2610
15930
23316
5803
2010
63376
1990
6576
3467
1418
2097
15906
22585
5415
1864
59328
1991
6301
3172
1149
3811
14683
24513
5109
1838
60576
1992
7299
3660
846
4325
10800
27736
5086
1017
60769
1993
12327
2042
1536
5233
10553
27555
2755
2519
64520
1994
9624
6342
1080
4869
11776
29463
5100
1465
69719
1995
12526
6893
2075
6305
13446
33290
5443
1501
81479
1996
17135
9954
1901
6595
13858
33915
5847
2252
91457
27
Study on Road Transport Regulations – Final Report, Ethiopian Road Transport Authority, Dec. 2001.
50
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
1997
16078
12260
1977
6524
14749
37532
5913
1469
96502
1998
19360
12603
2070
9847
13183
39176
5209
1632
103080
Figure 6.1 shows the vehicle fleet in Ethiopia as obtained from the 1998 data. As described
above, the private cars form the highest number with 37 % and the motorcycles form the
lowest number with 2 % of total.
Vehicle Fleet in Ethiopia
(Total = 103,000)
12%
13%
10%
21%
5%
2%
Buses
Taxis
Int. Vehicles
Motorcycles
Private Cars
37%
Trucks
Figure 6.1 Percentage Distribution of Vehicle Fleet in Ethiopia
Motorization: Individual Motorized Transport in Ethiopia accounts for 57% of total
registered vehicle fleet in 1998. In fact over 103,000 total vehicles registered, 43,880
vehicles are commercial vehicles (dry and liquid cargo, buses and taxis) and 59,200 are
vehicles for individual use (private, Government, international and motorcycles). The
average vehicle age is over 15 years and mechanical standards are generally obsolete and
frequently not roadworthy. Capacity of maintenance is limited due to high import duties for
spare parts and garage equipment. Ethiopia has one of the lowest vehicle ownership rates in
the world with only 17 vehicles every 10,000 persons but at the same time the highest
fatality rate with 155 deaths every 10,000 vehicles. Road accidents are one of the major
causes of death for economically active persons in Ethiopia and cause high losses in
production capacity and costs of medical treatment and recovery. Traffic management
regulations are based on proclamation 279/63, which is based on the old English Road
51
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
Code with the only difference of introducing the right side driving instead of the English
left. The respective regional traffic police, with different capacities, procedures and
frequency operate road traffic enforcement on the country road network. ERA is
responsible for axle load control, while RTCBs inspectors act in parallel with police (but
rarely) to control the respect of road transport regulations. Road congestion and pollution
are frequent in the capital city, due to absence of traffic control devices (proper signs,
markings and signals) and the lack of any form of traffic planning at the municipal level.
Traffic management tasks are under a Municipal Commission formed by the Addis Ababa
RTCB, the Regional Road Authority and the Traffic Police, but they don't have clear duty
or operative agenda.
Urban public transport (UPT) is assured by taxis and buses, which are divided into large
(more than 45 seats), medium (21-44 seats) and small buses (7-20 seats). Large buses are
owned by Anbessa public organization, while the majority of small buses (minibuses) are
privately owned and operate in urban areas and surroundings. Urban public transport
statistics are available only for Addis Ababa and Jimma, where Anbessa buses are
operating. In 1998 Anbessa was operating about 350 buses in Addis Ababa and 4 buses in
Jimma. Besides the Anbessa buses, around 8 thousands minibuses and 6 thousands taxis are
estimated to operate in Addis Ababa. The Government service, with 189 millions of annual
passengers, is supposed to cover not more than 25% of the total urban passengers using
public transport, which leads to a total estimation of 750 millions urban passengers
annually in Addis Ababa. Tariffs are market-regulated and agreed for minibuses and taxis
and depend mostly from fuel prices. Insurance is not compulsory. Last available tariffs are
comprised between 0.55 and 1.65 ETB/trip depending from the urban distance traveled.
High percentage of taxis and minibuses are practically not road-worthy and not insured,
neither for third party nor passengers transported. Anbessa tariffs are Government regulated
and subsidized for about 50% of the transport costs. Present tariffs are 0.50 ETB/trip and
have been recently increased from a 0.25 ETB due to increasing fuel price.
Inter-urban Bus Transport (IBT): it is estimated that around 30-35% of the national bus
fleet is operating outside urban areas serving as inter-urban passenger transport. The interurban bus fleet is composed by 25% of minibuses, 35% medium buses owned by
associations and 40% of large buses mostly owned by share companies and Walia
(parastatal company). Passengers transported were 24 millions in 1990/91, but the number
has increased to 54 millions in 1997/98, with an estimated production of 4.2 billion passkm. The highest density of inter-city passengers is radiating from the capital along the main
national roads or from the main towns of Makalle, Dire Dawa and Jimma. Inter-urban
tariffs are liberalized and settled by the market according to fuel prices and conditions of
roads. Present tariffs are between 4 and 11 cents/pass/km.
Road Freight Transport (RFT): Dry and liquid cargo vehicles account for 20% of the
total registered vehicle fleet in the country and ensure the transport of 92% of the total tons
covered by all modes of transport. Registration of cargo vehicles has increased markedly
from the liberalization of the trucking industry in 1991. Dry cargo industry is dominated by
three concentrations of commercial operators: Parastatals and Associated/Affiliated,
Transport Associations and Share Companies, which together constitute more than 97% of
the commercial transport capacity in the country. The market has been completely
liberalized in terms of entry/exit, routes, tariff freedom, but a few refinements are needed to
52
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
avoid imperfect competition. Fuel transport is a particular sector where the tariffs are
indirectly fixed by the level of pump prices and government taxation.
Transit Transport (TT): Ethiopian international transport is represented almost entirely
by overseas import/export passing through ports and hence transiting through a neighboring
country (Djibouti, Sudan, Kenya, Somalia or Eritrea). Transit transport represents two
thirds of total cargo moved in Ethiopia and is presently originating from/to Djibouti port
with a very minor portion from Berbera port. In 1998 transit transport accounted for 3.8
million tons including fuel, with a marked prevalence of imports (92%) over exports.
6.5.2
Road Transport Operators
According with RTA available statistics28 the main groups of freight transport
organizations/operators are:
1. Three Parastatal Enterprises (Comet, Bekelcha and Shebele) and Addis
Mechanical Maintenance Centre, formed after the split of the EFTC and
owning 472 trucks with trailers. The total transport capacity is equal to 15,000
tons and the average capacity of their vehicles is 30 tons. They present
sufficient initial capital inherited from EFTC.
28
2.
Vehicle owners who operate exclusively as associates to the parastatal
enterprises, owning 4,022 trucks. Their total capacity is estimated at 34,000
tons and the average vehicle payload is between 8 - 9 tons. Associates are
expected to produce a waybill (permit) issued by a parastatal company, to
transport freight that they themselves have marketed.
3.
Transport Associations (about 40), formed by individual owners, with a
total of 4,164 vehicles. Their transport capacity is about 45,000 tons with an
average vehicle payload of 9 - 12 tons. They are made up by a number of
small own-operators (1 - 3 trucks); often associating in the shape of "ketena"
system, but marketing is going through personal/informal channels. The age
of fleet is over 15 years and hence serviceability is low. They operate on a
cash basis and often do not charge for depreciation or fixed costs.
4.
Share Companies (about 30), both private and public, owning 1,183
vehicles, with a total capacity of about 38,000 tons and vehicles with 30 -35
tons average payload. Only 11 private companies have formally registered
since 1991. Some of them are originating from regional development
associations over which neither RTA nor RTCBs had mandate for license or
registering.
5.
Individual Entrepreneurs, working outside the three main conglomerates
(parastatals and associated, associations and share companies) owning 286
vehicles with a total estimated capacity of 7,000 tons.
6.
Own-account (private-commercial) government organizations (about 80),
made up by ministries, industries and services, owning 957 vehicles with a
Ibid.
53
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
total transport capacity of 8,000 tons and average vehicle payload of 7 - 9
tons.
7.
Individual Owners, carrying out own-account (private-commercial)
transport, owning pick-ups and small trucks. Their capacity can be estimated
at 25,000 tons with an average vehicle payload of 3 tons.
54
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
7.
DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE OF LOW-COST TRANSPORT
SYSTEMS
7.1 Introduction
The design, manufacture and construction of wheeled vehicles have so far been almost wholly
limited to capital intensive motorized means of transportation. Farmers, traders, private
households and manufacturers in developing countries have, however, to deal with simple and
low-cost transport systems. This is an indication of how appropriate technologies, which are
required by economically weak regions for their development, have been neglected. The result is
that all people involved in low-cost transport suffer burdensome and inefficient transport systems,
or have difficulties to market their products.
Access to effective means of transport is an essential ingredient for the economic and social
development of rural people, particularly of farmers. It enables more produce to be moved and
marketed, encourages greater inputs of fertilizer and manure, to increase yields, and reduces the
time and effort spent on household tasks such as collecting water and firewood, so releasing time
for more productive activities.
Few people in developing countries can afford either to own or use a conventional motor vehicle.
Therefore, human porterage is still the main way by which the poor move goods in many areas
and a great number of personal trips are made on foot. Generally, the inadequacies of existing
transport systems are constraints on economic and social development. It is becoming
increasingly apparent that the conventional approach to local transport development cannot
respond to the transport needs of most of the low-income population. Among various measures
which would change the present situation, is the wide-scale promotion of efficient low-cost forms
of transportation. There is a range of such transportation forms, both motorized and nonmotorized, found in many countries and considerable potential for the transfer of technologies.
There are also possibilities for improving traditional designs.
This chapter intends to provide a simple guide to the design and manufacture of low-cost nonmotorized and motorized vehicles with greater emphasis given to the design and manufacture of
their components. This approach intends to:
• Make a wide audience, of decision-makers and planners aware of the technology and
potential range of proven low-cost vehicles; and
• Provide information and guidelines on the design and manufacturing procedures of lowcost vehicles to the producers.
This chapter provides the basic ideas of how different types of non-motorised rural transport
devices can be made in rural workshops using basic equipment. The devices illustrated here are
designed with small rural farms in mind. These basic designs can, however, be modified to suit
local conditions, material supply and, most importantly, what the customer really wants.
Local manufacture of wheels and hubs is probably the most useful aspect of the wheelbarrows
and animal carts. Experience has shown that the manufacturing technology does not require very
expensive equipment, like a lathe, for making strong, reliable axles and wheels.29 All that is
29
Low-Cost Transport Devices, IT Zimbabwe & ILO, 1997.
needed is careful and good quality work. Making, wheels and axles means less time spent
searching for scrap and al1ows you to provide good quality carts and barrows at a price that rural
customers can afford.
7.2
Wheelbarrows and Handcarts
Wheelbarrows and handcarts have one to four wheels and one or two handles to push or draw the
vehicle by hand. The most common wheelbarrow had one wheel, two handles and a small load
container in between.
All kinds of private, commercial and public sectors use wheelbarrows and handcarts to transport
agricultural products, fertilizer, soil, stones, building material etc. (high load flexibility). The
maximum payload of wheelbarrow is relatively low (for standard types up to 100 kg, for
improved versions up to 150 kg). The operator has to carry part of the load himself and must keep
the vehicle in balance while driving. On the other hand, wheelbarrows are very handy and
qualified to roll on narrow and uneven footpaths and rough terrain. The maximum payload of
handcarts is generally higher. All vehicles of this kind have a small transport range and are not
suitable for use in steep gradients.
As wheelbarrows and handcarts are mainly operated by one person and sometimes off road, their
construction should fulfill some basic requirements:
•
•
•
•
Low centre of gravity (with regard to balanced driving);
Low rolling resistance;
Low burden for the carrying person; and
Simple, cheap and strong design.
The technical solution of these and other requirements face some difficulties. For example, a low
rolling resistance calls for big wheels which are in contradiction to a low centre of gravity.
Wheelbarrows are either made from wooden or structural steel parts. Steel carriages, if
manufactured properly, are generally lighter than those made of wood. Dependent on the kind of
load flat or open, box-type or partly closed load platforms and containers are used. Appropriate
wheels must be selected according to road surface, load, driving comfort, production capacity of
wheelwrights, purchasing power of users, etc. If loads beyond 100 kg are to be transported
modified wheelbarrows with the wheel directly under the platform or handcarts must be
introduced. In this case the load is placed close to the wheels axle and the operator only has to
support a small proportion of the load. Thus, more of his energy can be devoted to propelling the
vehicle forward.
Figure 7.1(a) and 7.1(b) show the assembly of a typical wheel barrow design of its various
components. In the drawing, in addition to the assembled views of the wheel barrow, the marking
out of the various components: the wheel barrow frame, the wheel – which is made from readily
available angle iron and fitted with a special solid rubber tyre – and the axle-clamp are indicated,
with the proper dimensions.
56
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
57
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
58
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
Figure 7.1(a) Assembly of Typical Wheel Barrow
59
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
Figure 7.1(b) Design Components of Typical Wheel Barrow
The wheel barrow can be made with limited tools and can be used on narrow paths. The wheel of
the wheel barrow is just as strong, but cheaper than a conventional wheel.
Figure 7.2 Completed Wheel Barrow in Operation
(Design of Components is indicated in Figure 7.1)
60
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
61
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
62
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Figure 7.3(a) Assembly Drawing of a Water Barrow
63
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
64
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
65
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
7.3(b) Design Components of a Water Barrow
66
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7.3(c) Design Components of a Water Barrow (continued)
67
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7.3(d) Design Components of a Water Barrow (continued)
68
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Figure 7.4
Completed Water Barrow in Operation
69
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
Figure 7.5 (a) Assembly Drawing of an 18” Push Cart
70
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
Figure 7.5 (b) Design Components of an 18” Push Cart
Figure 7.6
Completed 18” Push-Cart in Operation
71
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
The push cart shown in Figure 7.6 is ideal for farm use, collecting firewood, moving building
materials, carrying agricultural produce and supplies, etc. The push cart is balanced, easy to push
and having a maximum carrying capacity of 300 kg. It, however, requires relatively wide and
reasonably flat roads or tracks. A single donkey can be hitched to this cart making it more suited
to the traditional tasks of women.
7.3
Design of Animal Drawn Carts
This section provides a description and assessment of the characteristics of different types of
animal-drawn carts. Selection of any type animal-drawn cart depends on parameters such as:30
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Cost;
Load carrying capability;
Speed of travel;
Efficiency;
Terrain capability;
Use of local resources; and
Ease of maintenance.
These analyses provide the information necessary to assess the potential of different types of
animal-dawn carts, and to prepare an overall specification of the most appropriate type to suit a
particular set of conditions of manufacture and operation.
The specification of a particular type of cart can be divided into two basic elements:
• Cart Construction:
Frame, body, etc.
• Wheel/Axle Assembly: Wheels, hubs, bearings and axles.
The specification of each of these elements depends, to a significant degree, on the others. It is,
therefore, useful to assess the characteristics of carts based on the specific elements. This
information can then be assembled to make an overall assessment of a particular design of cart
using the 'selection method' described below. The information can also be analysed to prepare an
appropriate cart specification to suit particular conditions.
7.3.1 Selection Method
In order to provide information necessary to prepare an overall specification of the most
appropriate type of cart to suit a particular set of conditions, it is necessary to define those
features of the cart which are essential if it is to perform its required function, given the
conditions imposed by local geography, culture, and availability of resources and skills. The
selection method presented here consists of a set of key questions aimed at defining the
essential features of a cart to suit local circumstances. By comparing the answers to these
questions with the information on the characteristics of different cart elements, presented in
the following sections of this chapter, an overall specification for an appropriate cart can be
developed. In putting together a specification, it is important to distinguish between those
30
The Design and Manufacture of Animal-Drawn Carts; ILO, Intermediate Technology Publications, 1986.
72
AWS/ARDCO j.v.
features which it is essential to incorporate and those which are only desirable. Both must
be balanced against cost considerations. 31
Q. 1
What types of draught animals are used or available?
The selection should be restricted to the types of draught animal already in use in the
area and to animals which are owned locally and, with suitable training, could be
adapted to draught work. Even if the available animals are not ideal for transport there
are good reasons for preferring them. The local breeds will be well suited to climatic
conditions and resistant to prevalent diseases, the necessary animal husbandry skills
will already exist and the cost of buying the animals locally should be relatively low.
Also in many agricultural applications, the animals will be used for ploughing and
other tasks as well as for transport. All these factors should outweigh any operational
advantages which might be gained by introducing new types.
The type of animal and its weight will determine the tractive effort it will be able to
produce and the length of time it will be able to work in a day. This will be a key
factor in determining the payload that can be carried and the number of animals to be
used, which will in turn affect the economics of operation. It may be necessary to
decide whether it is preferable to use small carts drawn by a single animal or fewer
larger carts drawn by a pair.
Q2.
What will the cart be used for?
The types of goods to be carried and the frequency and method of loading and
unloading will determine the type and size of bodywork required. The overall
quantities of goods to be moved, and the amount which the cart must be capable of
carrying in one trip, will determine the load capacity within the limitations imposed by
other factors. If a cart is to be used intensively for one specific purpose the payload
will have a significant effect on the economics of its operation and maximizing this is
likely to be a major objective, possibly to the extent of using a four-wheeled rather
than two-wheeled cart. For less intensive use, keeping the cost of the cart to a
reasonable level may be more important than maximizing payload.
Clearly the goods to be carried will influence the type of bodywork to be fitted to the
cart and if low-density loads are to be moved, the volume of the load space will be
important. If passengers or delicate goods are to be carried frequently then pneumatic
tyres or even suspension may be essential.
Q3.
What are the route conditions?
The roughness and hardness of the typical route surfaces and the variation in
conditions during the year will also affect the tractive effort needed and will play a
major part in deciding what type of wheels and tyres should be used. Local route
conditions such as the track width or the ground clearance may also impose limitations
on the dimensions of the cart. The presence of gradients on local routes will have a
significant influence on the cart design. Hilly terrain will require a fairly small and
light cart. Brakes are likely to be essential if a cart is to be used regularly on inclines.
31
Ibid.
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Q4.
What are the local market conditions?
Local cultural and social preferences will often influence the specification of a cart in
terms of selection of draught animals, appearance, materials to be used, or by
imposing limitation on the use of carts. The availability of maintenance skills and
facilities will influence many aspects of the design, including the specifications of
wheels and bearings and decisions on whether to include complexities such as braking
and suspension. Most important, the economic circumstances of local users are likely
to impose cost constraints on the carts.
7.3.2
Cart Construction
This section of the manual presents guidelines on the design and construction of two-wheel
and four-wheel animal drawn carts.32 A cart is basically a very simple vehicle and in an
ideal situation would comprise axles having wheels with pneumatic tyres and rolling
contact bearings, a steel chassis and a sheet steel or wooden body. However, in most
African countries the design and construction of carts is considerably more complicated
because of restricted access to materials and components, limited manufacturing resources,
severe limitations on affordability of carts by rural households, and a limited infrastructure
for repair and maintenance of carts. A fairly wide range of options is therefore needed to
meet different situations.
1. Features of Good Cart Design
A good cart design is one which performs as efficiently and reliably as possible within the
constraints of affordability and acceptability to rural households. The important features of
good design are:
•
Efficient performance: this is dependent mainly on the wheel/axle assembly in
which the wheels should rotate smoothly with low rolling and frictional resistance;
•
Convenient to use: the cart should be convenient to load and unload. It should be
safe for the user, stable and with effective brakes if used in hilly areas. The cart
should be comfortable for the towing animal(s) to reduce injuries and improve
performance. It should be well balanced and jerky loads at the hitch from
movements of the cart and impacts at the wheels should be minimized;
•
Low cart weight: since the draft effort available from the animals is relatively low it
is important not to waste it in towing unnecessary vehicle weight. It has been
recommended that the weight of ox-carts should not exceed 200 kg (FAO, 1972),
which suggests upper limits for donkey carts of 100 kg (single) and 150 kg (pair);
•
Reliability: this implies a robust, durable construction requiring minimum
maintenance and repair. Of particular importance are low wear of bearings, reliable
performance of critical components, such as wheels, and avoidance of failures or
deterioration of frame and body members;
Affordability: it is likely that material and component costs will account for over
50% of cart cost, possibly up to 70% in smaller workshops. It is therefore important
•
32
Low-Cost Transport Devices, IT Zimbabwe & ILO, 1997.
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to use materials efficiently and as far as possible to use low-cost materials, which are
readily available. Labor costs can be reduced by minimizing the number of
components, and keeping the manufacture and assembly of components as simple as
possible.
It is clear that these desirable features involve conflicting requirements, especially the need
to achieve good performance and reliability whilst minimizing the weight and cost of
materials and components. The achievement of efficient designs, which are also affordable
and acceptable, is therefore a considerable challenge.
2. Recommendation for Minimum Design Standards
Cart Size and Capacity: This should match the towing capacity of the animal(s), the types
of loads to be carried and the terrain on which the cart will be used. Recommendations are
given in Tables 7.1 and 7.2.
Table 7.1
Recommended Cart Size and Capacity 33
Type of Cart
Pair of Oxen
Pair of Donkeys
Single Donkey
Load Capacity
(kg)
1000
550
300
Upper Limit of
Cart Weight (kg)
250
160
100
Cart Weight: In general the cart weight should not exceed 25% of the specified load
capacity. However, this is difficult to achieve in smaller carts. Design aims should therefore
be:
•
Ease of Maintenance: It should be possible to maintain and repair carts in local
workshops, which have basic metalworking and carpentry facilities. Components
which may need to be replaced, such as bearings and tyres, should be readily
available.
•
Safety: Carts should be stable and well balanced. The height above ground of the
centre of gravity of the loaded cart should not exceed the track width. Carts which
will be used in hilly areas where gradients exceed 1 in 15 (about 7%) should be fitted
with brakes.
•
Durability: A lifespan of at least 10 years (roughly 15000 km) before any major
repairs are needed. This should apply to all components apart from tyres. Scrap tyres
should have a life of at least 5 years.
The cart capacity depends on matching the draught available from the towing animals to the
draught requirements of the cart:
•
33
The recommended average, continuous draughts of animals are 10% of body weight
for oxen and 15% of body weight for donkeys. Draughts of at least double this can
be sustained for short periods to overcome localized obstacles and short gradients;
Ibid.
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•
The draught requirements of carts depend on the rolling resistance of the
wheels/tyres and the friction in the wheel bearings.
Table 7.2 Recommended Load Capacities for Various Types of Carts
Type of
2-Wheel Carts:
• Single donkey
• Pair of donkeys
• Pair of oxen
4-Wheel Carts:
• 2 pairs of oxen
Draught
Available
(kg)
All-Up
Weight of
Cart (kg)
Load Capacity
(kg)
Range
Design Load
20 to 40
38 to 76
90 to 170
250 to 450
450 to 850
900 to 1700
150 to 350
300 to 700
700 to 1400
300
550
1000
170 to 320
1700 to 3200
1400 to 2800
2000
3. Construction of Two-Wheel Carts
Good cart designs comprise a durable sheet steel or wooden body attached to a robust frame,
which is preferably fabricated from steel sections, but may also be made from wood, with an
axle assembly which is bolted to the cart frame.34
•
Base Frame
The base frame, or chassis, must adequately support the floor (load platform) of the cart
and transfer the loads by the most direct route to the axle support positions in order to
minimize bending of the frame members.
•
Cart Bodies
The body comprises the floor, side and end panels of the cart. Careful consideration
should be given to the need to have a fully enclosed body since this can add significantly
to the weight and cost of the cart-the side and end panels can make up about 30% of the
weight of a cart.
A set of completed two-wheel animal drawn carts are shown in Figure 7.7. Figure 7.8 (a)
and 7.8(b) show the assembly views and the design components of a two-wheel cart. The
wheels and axels of the cart can be made in small workshops without lathe machine needed.
The basic tools required in the making of the wheels and axels are arc welding machine,
drilling machine and angle grinder. Split-rims made from mild steel section can be used that
fit 13”, 14”, 15” and 16” pneumatic tyres.
34
Ibid.
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Figure 7.7
Two-Wheel Animal Carts in Operation
(Assembly drawings and Component drawings are indicated in Figure 7.8 (a) and 7.8(b))
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Figure 7.8 (a) Assembly of a Two-Wheel Animal Drawn Cart
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Figure 7.8 (b) Component Drawings of a Two-Wheel Animal Drawn Cart
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4. Construction of Four-Wheel Carts
A conventional four-wheel cart requires a method of steering for the front axle. The simplest
method is to mount the front axle on a turntable frame which can rotate relative to the main
chassis of the cart. The drawbar or draw bar is also attached to this frame.
Even though the four-wheel cart is expensive and some what complicated to make, it is less
strenuous for animals pulling it as they do not carry any vertical load.
A completed four-wheel animal drawn cart is shown in Figure 7.9. Assembly views and the
various design components of a four-wheel animal drawn cart are shown in Figure 7.10.
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Figure 7.9
Four-Wheel Animal Cart
(Assembly Drawing and Component Drawings are indicated in Figure 7.8(a) and 7.8(b))
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Figure 7.10 Assembly and Component Drawings of a Four-Wheel Animal Drawn Cart
5. Construction of Cart with Tipping Body
A cart with a tipping body is very useful in construction work, particularly road
construction, where sand, gravel and dirt have to be transported. A standard cart can easily
be converted into a tipping cart by modifying the draw bar attachments so that the cart frame
and body can rotate about the axle. A typical design is shown in Figure 7.11.
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Figure 7.11
Animal-Drawn Cart with Tipping Body
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The front attachment of the draw bar needs to have an easily removable pin so that the cart
body can lift clear of the draw bar during tipping. As the body tips it rotates about the axle,
so that the rear attachment of the draw bar also rotates about the axle. The rear attachment
therefore needs to be relocated so that the draw bar does not interfere with the axle and there
is no significant rear movement of the draw bar during tipping. The best position is in front
of the axle. Since most of the towing force will now be through the rear attachment, it needs
to be adequately supported with stays from the frame members. The rear attachment of the
draw bar needs to be through a pivot pin so that it can rotate as the body tips.
1. Water Cart
Carts are often used for transporting water, usually in 200 liter drums. Three options are
possible.
•
The drums are carried in a normal cart with wooden wedges (chocks) to prevent the
drums from moving.
•
A specific type of frame is constructed to carry the drums so that the cart is used
only as water cart.
The frame is designed to carry drums, but removable floor planks are fitted so that
the cart can also be used for more general transport activities.
•
An example of the last option is shown in Figure 7.12. The base frame is designed to
support 200 liter drums, but is extended so that floor planks can be dropped into position to
carry other types of loads. It is best if the drums rest on some form of padding, for example
strips of scrap rubber, and are held in position by straps. If the cart is only to be used as a
water cart, then the end parts of the frame and the body panels may be removed.
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Figure 7.12
Design Components of a Combined Cart/Water Cart
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Figure 7.13
Combined Cart/Water Cart in Operation
7.4
Pedal Driven Vehicles
Pedal driven vehicles are either two-wheel (bicycles) or three-wheel vehicles (tricycle). The
wheels typically have a diameter of 28” or 710 mm. Transport by bicycle is about four times as
efficient as walking.35 Its most popular type has deadweight of about 30kg and is mainly used to
transport one person, the driver himself. As the two wheels roll in one track, the bicycle is
qualified for paved and unpaved roads and narrow footpaths as well. Payloads up to 150 kg can
easily be carried if adequate platforms or containers are fixed to the bicycle frame. In order to
obtain stable driving conditions and a higher transport capacity the tricycle is constructed. Most
widely used in Asia, it allows carrying two or three passengers and even bulky cargo up to 250
kg. Its deadweight ranges between 40 to 80 kg and its track is more than 1 m. Thus its application
depends on prepared and surfaced roads with enough width.
The standard cycles which at present predominate in developing countries for the transport of
passengers and cargo are, by comparison, old fashioned. Their heavy frames are joined by lugs,
which are produced with highly mechanized methods in medium scale industries or imported. To
35
Gert Thoma, Low-Cost Transportation, German Appropriate Technology Exchange (GATE), 1989.
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meet the conditions of local small-scale production and the specific transport needs some
improved cycles are illustrated.
For bicycles, besides passenger transport, different kinds of carriers are used to move cargo:
wood container, steel hoops to insert water tanks, wicker panniers, steel platforms etc. In most
cases these devices are fixed on both sides of the rear wheel to the frame but there are also sturdy
containers to be found directly over the front wheel. A bicycle transporter has been developed
where two platforms welded from angle bars are fixed to the conventional frame on both sides
and a front carrier over the front wheel of the bicycle. Thus, it is possible to push a 150 to 200 kg
load on narrow tracks while walking on the left side of the vehicle. Efficient operation is gained
by a special push bar, a broad steering bar and handbrakes on each of these bars.
Figure 7.14
Simple Transport Tricycle
7.5 Motor Cycle Attachments
The following three different types of motor cycle attachments are described in this section. All
the attachments are suitable for “independent” local production by small- or medium-scale
industries.
7.5.1
Motor Cycle Trailer
It consists of a two-wheeled, load-carrying trailer attached to the rear of a motor cycle by
means of a hitch, which allows it to be connected and disconnected quickly and easily.
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Since it is considered unsafe to carry passengers in a vehicle towed behind a motor cycle,
the trailer should be used for transport of goods only. Motor cycles with trailers are suitable
for both rural and urban use. A major advantage of the trailer is that, because it can quickly
be connected and disconnected, it is suitable for use by existing owners of motor cycles, and
does not detract from the convenience of the original vehicle for personal transport. It
therefore has considerable potential for ownership by individuals to meet their personal
transport needs. In rural areas, such owners are also likely to make the vehicle available to
other users on a 'for-hire' basis. It also has potential for the provision of goods delivery
services in urban areas.
The useful payload that can be moved by the trailer depends on the power output of the
motor cycle. For lightweight 50cc motor cycles, the payload should be restricted to about
100kg. For 100-125cc motor cycles, a payload of up to about 250kg is appropriate. In some
developing countries, motor cycle trailers are used to carry over double these loads. Travel
speeds will be somewhat slower with a loaded trailer, because the extra weight being moved
will reduce the performance of the motor cycle. The range of travel is essentially that of a
motor cycle.
A motor cycle and trailer can be used on earth roads and rough tracks of sufficient width to
allow the vehicle to pass. However, it is not suitable for use on routes consisting of two
parallel wheel tracks separated by a grassed central section since the motor cycle must
travel along the central section.
The manufacture of a trailer is relatively simple, the essential requirements being basic
metal fabrication, machining and bodywork construction skills and facilities. The trailer is
suitable for production by small, well equipped metal workshops.
An efficient, safe motor cycle trailer will have the following features:
•
An overall configuration which ensures that the trailer does not affect the
normal handling of the motor cycle;
•
A hitch mechanism which allows free rotational movement between the motor
cycle and trailer, but prevents any free play in the joint which would cause
snatching between the motor cycle and trailer;
•
A simple and effective method of attaching and detaching the trailer.
The most common type of trailer has two wheels - one on either side of a load-carrying
container. The motor cycle acts as the third point of support, carrying part of the weight of
the trailer and its payload. It is, therefore, important that the wheels of the trailer are
positioned so that the centre of gravity of the load acts just in front of the axle line. This
results in small downward force acting on the motor cycle which contributes to the stability
of the motor cycle/trailer combination.
The hitch mechanism connects the trailer to the motor cycle and allows free rotational
movement when cornering, going over rough ground, etc. Normally, one part of this
mechanism is permanently attached to the motor cycle and the other to the trailer. The part
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which is attached to the motor cycle should be securely and rigidly fitted to the frame and
should not affect the operation of the rear suspension members.
Theoretically, the height of the coupling between the trailer and motor cycle should be
below the motor cycle's rear axle line so that the momentum of the trailer when stropping
presses down on the rear wheel, thereby increasing rear wheel braking force. A low
coupling height also minimizes the extent to which vibrations of the trailer are transmitted
to the motor cycle, thereby increasing stability. Because of the position of the rear
suspension members, however, hitches have often to be located slightly above the axle
height.
Mounting the hitch at seat height above the rear wheel is suited to small motor cycles
equipped with a single seat, as Figure 7.15 shows. This configuration enables the total
length of the combined motor cycle and trailer to be kept to a minimum and requires a
relatively simple hitch mounting bracket. However, because of the decreased stability of
this configuration, this mounting position should only be used on light duty, low-speed
motor cycle trailers. The carrier should be rigidly attached to the motor cycle chassis.
Figure 7.15
Hitch Mounting
To mount the hitch at, or just above, axle height a hitch-mounting bracket will be needed.
The preferred mounting areas of the bracket are shown in Figure 7.16. They are the region
immediately adjacent to the top rear damper mounting and the lower part of the main rear
chassis member.
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Figure 7.16
7.5.2
Trailer Hitch Located Behind Rear-Wheel of Motor Cycle
Motor Cycle Sidecar
This consists of a single-wheeled, load-carrying attachment rigidly fixed to the side of a
motor cycle. They provide efficient, economical short-haul transport services in a variety of
conditions and for a range of applications.
The motor cycle and sidecar can be used for the short-haul movement of passengers, goods
or, most typically, a combination of the two. A motor cycle and sidecar may be used for
personal use but the most important application is to provide transport services. In the large
cities they provide flexible route feeder services for passengers, operating from fixed
stations and linking into major routes where conventional public transport services operate.
In smaller urban centres they provide extensive fixed-route passenger services, again from a
fixed station. However, perhaps of most interest is their transport role in rural areas. They
provide an extensive network of regular, combined passenger and goods services, linking
villages to markets and other local centres. They, thus, constitute the first stage of the rural
transport system, out of the village to local centres on the secondary or highway network
where conventional motor vehicles operate. Therefore a key feature of the motor cycle and
sidecar is the capability of the same basic vehicle design to be used for a variety of rural and
urban services. However, for rural use the vehicle must be strengthened to withstand
operation on rough surfaces with heavy loads.
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Figure 7.17
Attachments of Motor Cycle Sidecar Chassis
These vehicles are usually based on 100cc or 125cc motor cycles. In urban applications they
carry 2-4 passengers, depending on the bodywork. In rural areas the motor cycle and sidecar
typically carries 6-8 passengers or combined loads of up to about 500 kg. The range of
travel is essentially that of a motor cycle. For rural and rural-urban trips services are
typically provided over a range of up to 25 km.
A major advantage of the motor cycle and sidecar is its ability to operate on rough or
muddy tracks. This capability results from the ‘two-wheel track” configuration, the high
ground clearance, the large diameter wheels and good traction. They can be operated in
steep terrain but payload decreases with increasing gradient.
The manufacture of a sidecar is relatively simple, the essential requirements being basic
metal fabrication, machining and bodywork construction skills and facilities. The sidecar is
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suitable for production by small, but well-equipped, metal workshops. An example for the
attachments of a motor cycle sidecar chassis is shown in Figure 7.17.
7.5.3
Four-wheeled Conversion of Motor Cycle
It consists of a chassis and load-carrying body with a two-wheeled axle which is securely
attached to the motor cycle so that the load is carried on either side of, and behind, the
motor cycle.
Figure 7.18
Typical Configuration of Four-Wheeled Conversion of Motor Cycle
Because of its unusual configuration this vehicle is unsuitable for use on rough roads and is
therefore restricted to paved roads. It thus lacks the flexibility of the motor cycle and
sidecar, but does provide greater load space for the carriage of passengers and goods. Its
major applications are goods delivery and collection and the provision of similar urban
passenger services to those offered by motor cycles and sidecars.
The manufacture of a four-wheeled conversion is relatively simple, the essential
requirements being basic metal fabrication, machining and bodywork construction skills
and facilities. It is suitable for production by small, well-equipped metal workshops.
7.6 The Wheel Making Technology
Simple wheeled vehicles such as handcarts, bicycle-trailers and animal-drawn carts can have a
major impact on reducing the transport burden but at present they are used for only about 10 to
15% of goods transport. Although limited affordability and lack of credit facilities are usually the
main limitations on their wider use, problems with the production and supply of these vehicles are
also often serious constraints.
The main problem in producing low-cost vehicles, particularly in rural areas, is usually the lack of
suitable wheels and axles. The quality of the wheel-axle assembly is the most important factor
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affecting the performance of simple vehicles and the wheel-axle is also the main cost item,
usually comprising at least 50% of total cost. Assisting workshops to overcome problems with the
supply of wheel-axle assemblies and to upgrade the quality of these items therefore has the
potential to provide major benefits for rural communities in increasing the availability of
appropriate vehicles, possibly at lower cost.
The high capital-cost, large production methods used to produce wheels in industrialised countries
are generally not appropriate for developing countries, nor is it feasible to use imported wheels.
Scrap wheel-axle assemblies from motorised vehicles are quite widely used but in general the
supply of these is not adequate or reliable enough to sustain the required level of production of
low-cost vehicles. Some large workshops may produce wheels for animal-drawn carts and lowspeed trailers fabricated from steel sections.
The common type of fabricated steel wheel produced in developing countries has a rim bent or
rolled from flat bar and spokes cut from flat, round or angle section. The wheels are heavy and
often suffer from failure of the welds between the rim and spokes. The rim may run directly on
the ground or may be fitted with a strip of rubber - often cut from a scrap tyre. Bending of the
rims is often a major problem because of the limited equipment available and consequently the
wheels are often fairly crudely constructed and their performance is generally poor. The quality
and performance of these wheels could be greatly improved if more structurally efficient sections
were used for the rim, better equipment was available to form the rims, and rubber tyres were
used which give some degree of cushioning on rough roads.
The wheel manufacturing technology described in this manual has been adopted from a technical
manual on wheel manufacturing, Making Wheels.36 Experience has clearly shown the need to
provide small to medium sized workshops with a simple technology for producing good quality
wheel-axle assemblies in order to improve their output of efficient, low-cost vehicles. It is
considered that localized production in smaller workshops is more appropriate than large-scale,
centralized production as these workshops are more closely integrated with their local
communities and are in a better position to respond to local needs for both supply and
maintenance of vehicles. However, experience has indicated that some degree of specialized
manufacture may be desirable in an area to achieve the best standards of production with some
more capable workshops being encouraged to concentrate on producing wheels and axles supply
to other workshops.
The wheel manufacturing technology comprises a hand-operated bending machine which can
bend a range of steel sections into good quality wheel rims of various sizes and an assembly jig
to set up the wheels for welding. The rim-bender works on the principle of feeding the rim
material through the bender in small lengths and bending it continuously so that an accurate circle
is produced. A large leverage is used so that quite stiff sections can be bent without too much
effort. The bender can be continuously adjusted so that any rim diameter greater than a minimum
of 300 mm can be formed. The rim and hub are clamped in the assembly jig so that the wheel is
accurately made with the hub exactly at the centre of the rim. The assembly jig therefore ensures
that accurate wheels of consistent good quality are obtained.
The wheel manufacturing equipment allows construction in workshops with basic metal-working
skills and tools. The design minimises the number of steel sections that are needed and attempts to
use only sections that are commonly available. It is also flexible so that, wherever possible,
36
Making Wheels, A Technical Manual on Wheel Manufacture, R.A. Dennis, IT Publications, 1994.
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alternative sections can be substituted for materials that are not available. The wheel
manufacturing technology requires basic tools for cutting, drilling and welding steel, anglegrinder for grinding some of the welds flat. Hand tools can be used for cutting but obviously a
power-saw will save considerable effort. The maximum bore size needed is 12mm which can be
drilled with a hand-drill but again a pedestal drill saves effort. Most of the sections used are 6mm
thick flat bar and angle, and arc-welding is relatively straight forward. However, since accuracy,
and for the bender, strength, are very important, good welding skills are needed. The major skill
needed in making the equipment is accuracy in cutting and setting up the pieces. A methodical
and careful approach is needed to check and recheck the accuracy and alignment of parts.
7.6.1
Wheel Bending Machine
This is a simple, hand-operated device which can be used to bend a variety of steel sections
into good quality wheel rims (or circular shapes required for other purposes). Materials,
skills and equipment requirements for the making of two varieties of wheel bending
machine are given in Table 7.3 and Table 7.4.
Table 7.3 Recommended Materials and Equipment
Model
Basic Model
Equipment:
Material
Materials
Specification
Length [m]
Angle iron
40 x 40 x 6
3.8
Flat bar
75 (or 80) x 6
1.5
25 x 6
1.0
Round bar (for pins)
Mild steel Ø38 or 40
0.95
Threaded rod
M20
0.15
Steel pipe
2” medium wall
0.15
Welding machine; drilling machine (up to 10 mm dia.); hand
grinder; hand tools for measuring, cutting and accurately
setting up parts.
Table 7.4 Recommended Materials and Equipment
Model
Alternative Model
Equipment:
Material
Specification
Length [m]
40 x 40 x 6
3.8
65 x 12
2.0
25 x 6
1.0
Round bar (for
Mild steel Ø32
0.3
Mild steel Ø38 or 40
0.6
pins)
Threaded rod
M20
0.15
Steel pipe
2” medium wall
0.15
Welding machine; drilling machine (up to 32 mm dia.); hand
grinder; hand tools for measuring, cutting and accurately
setting up parts.
Materials
Angle iron
Flat bar
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Figure 7.19
Wheel Bending Machine in Operation
(Design of Components and Assembly of the Wheel Bending Machine are indicated in Figure 7.20)
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Figure 7.20
Design Components and Assembly of Wheel Bending Machine
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7.6.2
Wheel Assembly Jig
The use of an assembly jig in the production of the wheels is very important:
1. To hold the parts in the correct positions for welding;
2. To ensure consistent quality of construction in terms of maintaining the correct size
and shape of the wheels; and
3. To minimize distortion of the wheel arising from the welding process.
The most important aspect of the jig design is to ensure that the wheel rim is correctly
located with respect to the hub so that the wheel runs true with minimum side to side
wobble. The rim needs to be clamped firmly in position so that it is centralized with the hub
and square to the hub.
Details of the assembly jig are shown in Figure 7.21. It comprises a base frame with 8 arms
on which are bolted rim clamps to hold the rim in the correct position relative to the centre
post which is fixed at the centre of the base. Each arm has sets of holes so that the rim
clamps can be bolted in position for standard size rims from 12" to 18" sizes and also 26"
and 28" bicycle tyre sizes. Each rim clamp has 2 locating holes and 2 slotted holes. A
locating hole is used to locate the rim clamp for the standard rim sizes whilst the slotted
holes allow some adjustment for other sizes of rims or to cater for variations in tyre size.
When the slotted holes are used, a gauge should be used to ensure that all the rim guide
posts are the same distance from the centre post.
The inside of the rim is clamped against the guide posts by the screw clamps and the
wheel spokes should be fitted as closely as possible to the guide posts so that distortion
caused by welding the spokes to the rim is kept to a minimum. The arms of the assembly
jig are positioned to cater for 4 and 6 spoke wheels - 8 and 12 spoke wheels can be
accommodated by welding in half the spokes and then rotating the wheel to allow the fitting
of the other half.
It is very important that the hub is centrally mounted on the centre post and it is
recommended that machined bushes or collars are used to locate the hub correctly on the
post. These collars should also support the hub at the correct height relative to the rim. The
collars are the only components which need to be machined on a lathe -if this is not
available it is possible to fabricate locating collars for the hub but it would be better to get
sets machined up by a workshop which does have a lathe.
The rim should sit evenly on the bases of all the rim clamps. Normally this will occur
naturally but if problems arise, 4 posts can be welded to the arms of the base and 2
clamping bars used to clamp the rim down in position.
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Figure 7.21
Wheel Assembly Jig
(Design of Components and Assembly of the Wheel Assembly Jig are indicated in Figures 7.22 and 7.23)
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Figure 7.22
Center of Wheel Assembly Jig Components
Figure 7.23(a) Cutting Details of Wheel Assembly Jig Arms
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Figure 7.23(b) Cutting Details of Wheel Assembly Jig Arms
The bent rim is placed in the assembly jig as shown in Figure 7.24 and the bolts are
tightened in the sequence shown. Tack-weld the joint on the rim and try the size for the tyre
type. When a satisfactory fit of the tyre has been achieved, complete the weld on the joint of
the rim.
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Figure 7.24
Setting up the Wheel in the Assembly Jig
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7.6.3
Design of Wheels
The efficiency and reliability of carts, bicycles, motorcycles and vehicles are largely
dependent on the design and performance of the wheel/axle assembly. The acquisition or
construction of this assembly also constitutes the main problem for workshops involved in
cart, bicycles, motorcycles and vehicles production and is often a major bottleneck for
smaller workshops. The cost of the wheel/axle assembly is likely to make up between 50
and 60% of the production.
The construction of good quality wheel/axle assemblies requires components such as tyres
and bearings - which may not be readily available or are affordable. Production, therefore,
often involves a compromise between performance and cost, and availability of materials.
This means that a range of options is needed to suit different needs and resources.
Two types of wheel designs to take bicycle tyres and one type of wheel design to take
motorcycle tyres are discussed below. These wheels can be manufactured with simple hand
operated equipment and basic metal working tools including welding equipment. The rims
are bent from flat steel bar in a hand operated bending device and a jig is needed to
assemble the parts for welding to ensure that the wheels are accurately made.1
The wheels designed to take bicycle tyres have rims bent from 25 x 25 x 3 angle sections.
The shown designs have rim dimensions to take 28 x 1½” or 28 x 1¾” bicycle tyres. The
sizes of the rim can, however, vary to fit other types of tyres.
Figure 7.25 has spokes cut from the same angle as the rim. This is the most robust of the
designs but is also the heaviest and the most difficult to construct - also the overlap of the
spokes onto the rim prevents the use of rim brakes on the wheel. The welding of the spokes
to the rim tends to cause more sideways distortion (wobble) of the rim than the other
designs, especially if the spokes are offset to the ends of the hub as shown in the figure. The
offset is to provide more space to weld all around the angle at the spoke to hub joint; it does
not make the wheel stronger. Therefore, if there are problems with too much sideways
wobble of the wheel, the spokes can be moved more towards the centre of the hub.
Figure 7.26 has spokes cut from round bar (reinforcing bar) of diameter 8 mm. The spokes
are used in pairs to give adequate strength against side loads on the wheel. This wheel is the
simplest to make but good penetration welds are needed at each end of the spoke to provide
adequate strength for the wheel. The wheel can be fitted with rim brakes and could therefore
be used as a strengthened wheel on a bicycle. Although the wheels are significantly heavier
than a standard bicycle wheel they are also considerably more robust and more suited to
operation on rough earth tracks where large side loads caused by hitting rocks or pot-holes
would be likely to cause bicycle wheels to buckle.
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Figure 7.25
Design of a Wheel for 28” Bicycle Tyre – Type 1
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Figure 7.26
Design of a Wheel for 28” Bicycle Tyre – Type 2
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7.6.4
Construction of Bicycle Hub/Axle Assembly
The design of a bicycle wheel axle is shown in Figure 7.27. It uses a 3/8" axle together with
ball bearings and cups - these parts can be obtained from a bicycle spare parts supplier. The
bearing cups are fitted into each end of a hub machined from 1" medium-wall pipe and are
located in position by a sleeve cut from 3/4" pipe and plug welded inside the hub. The bore
of the hub must be machined on a lathe, or the ends opened out by pressing or hammering in
a punch tool of the required diameter. The cups must be a tight fit in the hub so that they
have to be pressed or tapped into place. Sealing washers should be used to keep sand and
dirt out of the bearings. Although this design is efficient, if the wheels are continually used
to carry heavy loads on rough roads the bearing cups may be damaged causing the bearing
to collapse. However, the assembly can easily be repaired at relatively low cost.
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Figure 7.27
7.6.5
Assembly of a Hub with a Standard Bicycle Wheel Axle
Wheels for Motorcycle Tyre
Figure 7.28 shows the design of a wheel to take a 17” motorcycle tyre. The rim of the wheel
is manufactured by bending an angle section of 40 x 40 x 3. The inside diameter of the rim
is 400 mm and its outside diameter is 456 mm. 6 spokes are prepared from 25 x 25 x 3 angle
section, with one end of each spoke cut at 45 0 to fit neatly over the rim.
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Figure 7.28
Design of a Wheel for 17” Motorcycle Tyre
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7.6.6
Wheels for Motor-Vehicle Tyres
This section gives details of the design and manufacture of wheels which can be fitted with
motor vehicle tyres. The wheel designs cover car tyre sizes from 12" to 16" and motorcycle
tyre sizes 17" and 18". Tyres may be new or used -inner tubes are needed.
Details of two wheel designs to take car and truck tyres are discussed in this section. These
wheels are designed for loads up to 600 kg and are suitable for animal-drawn carts and lowspeed trailers.
1. A split rim wheel in which the rim is made in two parts, a main part which is
connected to the hub or axle and a bolt on part which can be removed to allow the
tyre to be fitted or removed.
2. A detachable bead wheel in which the rim is in one piece but one bead is bolted
on and can be detached to allow the tyre to be fitted or removed.
In both cases the tyre is easily slid onto the rim without the need for it to be levered onto the
rim and is held in position by the bolt on part of the wheel. The detachable bead wheel is
simpler and quicker to make since only one rim has to be bent and assembled but a wider
material section is needed for the rim and more spokes are needed to support the rim.
1. Design of Split-Rim Wheel
The wheel is made in 2 parts which are clamped together by 4 joining bolts, Figure 7.29:
PART A - is the main part to which the hub or axle is attached.
PART B - is the "bolt-on" part which is the outer part of the wheel.
The tyre and tube are fitted over PART A and then PART B assembled so that the tyre is
held in position. This allows easy assembly and removal of the tyre with the use of only a
spanner. It also simplifies puncture repair since only PART B has to be removed and PART
A is left in position on the cart.
The design of the wheel may be varied to suit the size of tyre to be used and the materials
that are available. Some of the alternatives are as follows:
Wheel Rim
• The rim is formed from 2 pieces of flat bar - the overall width of the rim should
be between 120 and 150mm. Some of the sizes of flat bar which can be used are
as follows:
75 wide plus 75 wide
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Figure 7.29(a) Design of a Split-Rim Wheel – Part A
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Figure 7.29(b) Design of a Split-Rim Wheel – Part B
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•
Where unequal widths are used, the wider section should be in PART A of the
wheel.
•
6mm thick material is recommended - for strength considerations the rim section
should not be less than 5mm thick -sections greater than 6mm thick will be more
difficult to bend and will add unnecessary weight to the wheel.
•
16mm diameter round bar is preferred for the rim bead but a suitable pipe may
also be used.
Wheel Centre
• The wheel centre joins the rim to the hub or axle.
2. Design of Detachable-Bead Wheel
The detachable-bead wheel, Figure 7.30, is simpler to make than the split-rim wheel as
only one rim has to be bent and set up in the assembly jig.
The rim is formed from 100 x 6 flat bar. If this is not available, two lengths of flat bar which
give a total width of 100 to 105mm (for example, 2 lengths of 50 x 6 flat bar) may be placed
side by side, tack-welded together at their ends and then formed together in the rim bender.
When the rim has been bent, the two pieces of bar should be fully welded together on the
inside surface of the rim, leaving gaps in the weld where the rim will fit over the guideposts in the assembly jig. The rim width should not be less than 100mm.
The preferred design of the wheel centre is to use 6 spokes of 50 x 50 x 6 angle section.
More spokes are needed to support the rim than for the split-rim wheel because the rim is
only reinforced on one edge by a welded on bead.
The beads may be 16 or 20 diameter round bar or a similar size tube. The beads should be
set right at the edge of the rim, half-on and half-off the rim, to give the greatest width
between the beads to fit the tyre. The bead should only be welded to the rim on the outside
but strong welds are needed. Strong welds are also very important between the flat pads and
the bead on the detachable bead.
The same hub and axle assemblies may be used for both the split-rim and detachable-bead
wheels. These are detailed in Section 7.6.7.
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Figure 7.30
Design of a Wheel for a Car or Truck Tyre
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7.6.7
Hub/Axel Assembly for Vehicles
The design of the hub/axle assembly depends mainly on what type of bearing is available or
affordable and whether a lathe is available to machine the hub and axle. Depending on the
availability of a lathe machine, either of the following methods can be implemented for the
manufacture of the axle and hub.
1. If a lathe machine is available - the axle can be machined from 'black' mild steel round
bar. The hub can be machined from thick-wall pipe (steam pipe) or a cylinder fabricated
from flat bar using blacksmithing methods.
2. If a lathe machine is not available - the axle can be made from 'bright' mild steel round
bar (sometimes known as shafting). The surface, roundness and dimensional accuracy of
this bar are usually good enough for it to be used without machining. A length of
threaded rod, M16 or M20, can be welded centrally to one end of the axle for the nut to
hold the wheel in place. The hub can be made from medium wall steel pipe (water pipe)
by slitting it along its length, squeezing it up (or opening it out) so that the bearings are a
tight fit in it and then welding along the slit.
Table 7.5
Suitable Axle-Beams for Various Vehicle Loads
All-up Vehicle Weight
400 – 500 kg
(Single donkey cart or 2-man
handcart)
700 – 800 kg
(Cart for pair of donkeys)
1000 – 1200 kg
(Ox cart)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Suitable Design of Axle-Beam
40 x 40 x 6 angle section
Box formed from 2 lengths
of 40 x 40 x 4 angle
Figure 7.31 the design of hub/axle assembly using deep-groove ball bearings. The figure
shows a hub assembly for a 40 mm diameter stub axle and two Type 6208 ball bearings. The
axle is a 190 mm length of 40 mm diameter Bright Mild Steel (BMS) bar with a M16 or
M20 stud welded to one end.
It is best to use ball bearings which are sealed and lubricated for life, if these are available.
These are specified as Type 6208 2RS (2RS means sealed on both sides). Scrap bearings
may be used to reduce cost but these should rotate freely without excessive sticking or tight
spots.
The hub is made from 3" medium-wall water pipe. Cut a slot along the length of the pipe
about 4 or 5 mm wide, removing the pipe seam. Squeeze up the pipe so that the bearings can
be tapped tightly into the ends. A gap of 1 to 2 mm should be left so that a good penetration
weld is obtained.
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Figure 7.31
Hub Assembly using two Ball-Bearings
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The outer sleeve is to locate the bearings in the hub. Drill a large hole (at least 13 mm
diameter) near the centre of the hub, fit the sleeve centrally inside the hub and plug-weld it
in position.
The bearing spacing sleeve is to prevent the bearings being damaged when the end .c nut
on the axle IS tightened. It should be 1 or 2 mm longer than the outer sleeve.
It is important that the ends of the hub and both sleeves are made square with the axis of the
pipe otherwise the bearings and/or the hub may be pulled out of line during assembly. It is
very important also to fit dust caps over each end of the hub to keep out sand and dirt. This
will greatly increase the life of the bearings. The caps should be as close fitting as possible.
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8.
CONCLUSION
Rural travel and transport, accessibility to and from rural areas, and personal mobility of rural
people in Ethiopia are highly dominated by head-loading and walking as the means of personal
and goods transport.
In rural Ethiopia where low population density, poor infrastructure and less developed means of
transport prevail, rural women and men devote much of their time for essential transport tasks
involving walking and carrying. This reduces the time available for more productive activities and
reinforces their state of poverty. Agricultural production, trade and economic activity are often
constrained by inadequate transport between fields, villages, local markets and the large-scale
transportation networks. The main transport burden falls on women, particularly for timeconsuming, domestic transport tasks. Improving the means of transport for rural women and men
through intermediate means of transport should help alleviate poverty and stimulate rural
development.
While local transport solutions should reduce hard work and stimulate the overall economic
development of communities, the benefits will not be shared equally. Women and old people are
unlikely to benefit proportionally unless there is specific targeting, in relation to technological
choice, information, subsidies, credit, income-generating opportunities and/or empowerment
group formation. Poverty reduction, economic development and enhanced rural transport need
more than roads and motorized transport. Rural development also requires local transport
solutions, with increasing use of intermediate means of transport. Success will depend on
stimulating numerous, local initiatives that are clearly appropriate to specific areas and particular
stakeholders.
The inclusion of intermediate means of transport in national transport strategies and the
development of policy environments conducive to their use will influence success. Progress will
be faster if there is improved information exchange at project, national, regional and international
levels, facilitated by networking activities. Broadly based national and international networks
should encourage information exchange and programme collaboration, and promote greater
understanding of the many factors that influence the adoption, ownership, use, social value and
economic benefits of intermediate means of transport as local transport solutions.
Women's involvement in rural development projects is motivated not only by equity concerns, but
because their participation often makes the difference between achieving or not achieving project
objectives, particularly with regard to the long-term sustainability of interventions. Projects need
to have a well-defined goal to improve the situation of women and their status. An appropriate
choice of technology may also make it easier to win male acceptance of women's participation.
This involves the introduction of less advanced and locally acknowledged technologies for which
women are already responsible.
Use of IMTs would save large amounts of time and energy, particularly for women. Planners can
play great role during their planning and monitoring studies if the contribution of IMTs to,
improving rural accessibility and personal mobility improvement are accounted for. The
development of institutions for the improvement of rural accessibility and personal mobility,
including the introduction of IMTs, would require different approaches to suit particular country
situations. But, for all countries, the primary requirement for the success of new initiatives is a
clear understanding, by government and local officials, of the policy issues involved and a
commitment to pursue solutions applicable to local situations. Once the relevant issues are
accepted and the required commitment is attained, it will be necessary to identify suitable existing
institutions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), or private entrepreneurs for the
development and promotion of new IMTs. Successful promotion will also depend on creating the
enabling environment for the participation of the private sector by the government.
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9.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The combination of low income and low population density is the largest setback for providing
reliable, frequent and cost effective transport services in rural Ethiopia. Rendering services to
poor, small and dispersed populations highly reduces the feasibility of transport services. Some of
ways in which the demand for rural transport services can be maximized are cited below.
1.
Improved Provision of Rural Markets
Transport services can be made more viable for both goods and passenger by creating
more rural markets, in areas where markets are far-off. Regular markets for
agricultural produce and household goods may also increase incentives for farmers to
buy IMTs to travel the relatively short distances to rural markets. It would also
encourage transport operators and traders from the towns to visit the markets because
they can guarantee sufficient demand to warrant the trip. If rural communities are too
dispersed to justify one common rural market, mobile markets can be introduced
which shift from one place to another.
2.
Interconnectivity of Routes and Infrastructure of Rural Road
Transport demand on any one route can be increased by introducing road networks
which have few dead-end routes and a reasonable degree of inter-connectivity. An
operator can service more villages on a circular route than on a dead-end route.
Infrastructure is commonly cited as the major constraint to the greater availability of
rural transport services. This in part is true because operators will undoubtedly incur
higher operating costs and have reduced utilization from poor quality infrastructure.
Improved infrastructure of rural roads and interconnectivity of routes would certainly
enhance better rural transport services.
3.
Appropriate Vehicle Types
The most appropriate vehicle for a given rural area will vary according to a variety of
factors which need to be assessed for each situation. The most appropriate vehicles
will depend on income, demand, distance, usage, terrain, infrastructure, culture,
managerial and technical skills, and availability of servicing. However, in making a
decision, initial consideration should be given to the vehicle with the lowest cost. The
decision on an appropriate vehicle should be done taking into account the types of
vehicles that already have successful track records in the particular rural area.
Having identified a particular vehicle that may be appropriate for use in the rural area,
the major problem is its sustainability. For example, vehicles such as tractors, animal
transport and bicycles, which exist at the village level, because of the seasonal nature
of their demand, will have low levels of utilization. In this regard, a multi-disciplinary
approach should be carried out to the promotion of appropriate vehicles involving the
coordinated efforts of different rural development agencies such as agricultural
extension officials, roads authorities and transport planners.
4.
Price Incentives
The cost of operating vehicles in rural areas is clearly much higher than in other areas.
In the rural areas where the quality of infrastructure is poor, distances are far-off,
demand dispersed and incomes low incentives should be provided to make operation
of vehicles cost effective and encourage operation in rural areas. Two types of price
incentives are recommended in this regard.
•
Price incentives to reduce the variable costs of operation of conventional
vehicles on rural routes.
Reducing the capital costs of conventional vehicles by reducing taxes and
duties may dramatically increase vehicle numbers but may not have much
effect on the availability of these vehicles in rural areas. The vehicles may just
be bought for operation on urban and inter-urban routes. However, by
providing incentives to operate in rural areas through lower variable costs of
operation may persuade some operators that rural operations are worth
undertaking. A major component in these variable costs is the price of fuel.
While subsidizing rural fuel through reductions in taxes and duty would send
clear signals to potential operators the mechanisms by which this could be
achieved would need addressing on a case by case basis. The other major
component to variable costs is that of tyres, spare parts and servicing.
•
Incentives to reduce both the fixed and variable costs of operation for
primarily rural vehicles.
The case for price incentives on primarily rural vehicles is easier to make
because they can more easily be targeted at rural areas. Reductions in duty and
taxes on tractors and power tillers would increase demand for vehicles that can
only really be used in rural areas. It is also easier to target tax relief on spare
parts. These types of policies can also apply to bicycles and other nonmotorized means of transport. For example, a major component of an animal
cart is the axle, wheels and tyres. Imported second-hand components such as
these could also be exempt from import duties and taxes. The local
manufacture of vehicles in this category could also substantially reduce the
capital costs. Vehicles that may be appropriate for local manufacture or
assembly include bicycles, tractors and farm vehicles.
5.
Increasing Competition in the Market for IMTs
The utilization and efficiency with which the existing fleet of vehicles is operated can
be improved through a more competitive transport market strategy. Even though the
market for transport services in Ethiopia is liberalized, the market for transport
services is actually regulated by unions, transport associations or other informal
cartels. They regulate fares, routes, commission charges and queuing for loads. The
system often leads to under utilized vehicles and inefficient operating practices. While
this system may not optimize the use of the existing fleet of vehicles there is nothing
wrong in groups of people with common interests setting up associations and
recommending operating practices. The management and membership of the unions
and association should be persuaded to adopt new operating practices which make
their industry effective and profitable while delivering appropriate transport to the
rural population.
6.
Training in the Provision of IMTs
To improve the frequency and cost of IMTs, the business of operating vehicles must
be well understood by operators and owners. Training can be offered to operators and
vehicle owners in two different areas:
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•
Vehicle maintenance and operations - educating drivers and owners to the
benefits from routine maintenance and slow running.
•
Business management - increasing awareness of total vehicle operating costs,
the importance of long term planning and increasing the responsibility of
drivers for keeping records and finding business.
Rural areas need small scale enterprises to repair and maintain their vehicles as well as
larger enterprises which manufacture spare parts and make vehicle modifications.
These entrepreneurs also need support and training with technical and business
management skills.
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