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Dedicated to the 89th anniversary of the National leader, Heydar Aliyev and the
20th anniversary of the establishment of "Çağ" Educational Company
CONFERENCE
MATERIALS
Qafqaz University Press
Baku, 2012
Modern Approaches in English Language and Literature
2nd International Student Conference
Qafqaz University, Baku, 27 April 2012
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Saniç
Prof. Dr. Niftali Qodjayev
Prof. Dr. Cihan Bulut
Prof. Dr. Shahin Khalilli
Asst. Prof. Dr. Erdal Karaman
Dr. Tayyar Mustafayev
Dr. Heydar Eminli
Dr. M. Mustafa Gül
Ali Bereket
Ali Tatli
Venera Suleymanova
Mehmet Şahiner
Sandra Derrick
GENERAL COORDINATOR
Ali Bereket
CONFERENCE SECRETARY
Ali Tatli
ACADEMIC COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Saniç
Prof. Dr. Niftali Qodjayev
Prof. Dr. Cihan Bulut
Prof. Dr. Dunyamin Yunisov
Prof. Dr. Shahin Khalilli
Asst. Prof. Dr. Erdal Karaman
Asst. Prof. Dr. Narmina Aliyeva
Asst. Prof. Dr. Etrabe Gül
Asst. Prof. Dr. Natalya Lapaeva
Asst. Prof. Dr. Greg Jacob
Dr. F. Alexander Magill
Dr. Heydar Eminli
Dr. M. Mustafa Gül
Dr. Süleyman Sarıbaş
Ali Bereket
Ali Tatli
Sandra Derrick
Shirley Stanley
Kaitlin Ward
Venera Suleymanova
Mehmet Şahiner
Aziz Çankaya
Qafqaz University
Qafqaz University
Qafqaz University
Azerbaıjan University of Languages
Qafqaz University
Qafqaz University
Qafqaz University
Qafqaz University
Perm State Pedagogical University
Portland State University
Şifa University
Qafqaz University
Qafqaz University
Qafqaz University
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Qafqaz University
Fulbright Scholar
Qafqaz University
Montclair State University
Qafqaz University
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Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
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Russia
USA
Turkey
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan
USA
USA
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Azerbaijan
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DESIGN
Sahib Kazimov, Ilham Aliyev
The responsibility of the published papers in the
conference materials belongs to the authors.
ISBN 978-9952-468-06-9
Copyright©Qafqaz University, Baku 2012
Address: Qafqaz University, AZ0101 Khirdalan, Baku, Azerbaijan
Tel: (+99412) 448 28 62/66; Fax: (+99412) 448 28 61/67
e-mail: [email protected]; www.qu.edu.az; http://ell.qu.az;
CONTENTS
LINGUISTICS
1
ELLIPTIC FORMS OF COMPLEX SYNTACTIC UNITS
IN ENGLISH AND AZERBAIJANI
Professor Dunyamin Yunusov
2
THE INFLUENCE OF WORDS
Sandra Derrick
8
REVISITING AND RERUNNING WILLIAM LABOV’S STUDY: THE SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION OF (R) IN NEW YORK CITY DEPARTMENT STORES
Kaitlin Ward (first author), F. Robson Albuquerque (co-author)
10
MINIMIZING ABBREVIATIONS IN ENGLISH
Aygul Khalilova
12
COINING NEW WORDS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Aynur Abbaszade
15
INFORMALITY IN AMERICAN ENGLISH
Aynur Huseyneliyeva
17
DIFFERENCES IN EDUCATIONAL TERMINOLOGY IN
BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
Aytan Valiyeva
22
COMPARISON RELATING TO LANGUAGE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN
THE TURKISH AND JAPANESE LANGUAGE
Emine Kose
24
USE OF THE SUBJECT AS A RHEME IN AZERBAIJANI AND ENGLISH
Gunay Mammadli, Gunay Alizade
27
THE COLOR FACTOR IN THE USE OF ENGLISH
Gunay Poladova
32
THE LEXICAL NORMS OF AZERBAIJAN LITERARY LANGUAGE
Nofel Quliyev
35
SYNTACTIC AND MORPHOLOGICAL-SYNTACTIC
CONVERSIONS IN AZERBAIJANI POETRY
Gunel Mirzeyeva
41
VOCABULARY TEACHING THROUGH BODY
LANGUAGE AND FACIAL EXPRESSION
Nigar Orucova
45
COLOUR TERMS
Chinara Quliyeva
47
HISTORICAL FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS
Narmin Huseynova
49
i
MEANS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Sarvin Alizadeh
52
LEXICAL PARALLELS IN TURKIC “DIVAN” OF FUZULI
Sevinj Aliyeva
55
ENGLISH WORDS OF TURKIC ORIGIN
Turane Abdullayeva
57
THE USE OF MODAL VERBS IN AZERBAIJANI,
ENGLISH AND GERMAN LANGUAGES
Vefa Bayramova
59
TYPES OF EPONYMS
Khatira Ahmedova
61
THE PERIODS OF LANGUAGE CHANGES IN ENGLISH
Yegana Safarova
63
HOW AZERBAIJANI STUDENTS LEARN DEGREES
OF ADJECTIVE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Haqiqat Aliyeva
65
COMMUNICATION AS A PROCESS AND GLITCHES ASSOCIATED
WITH TEACHING THE ART OF COMMUNICATION
Ömer Düngel
67
ENGLISH NOMINAL CLAUSES: ANALYZING THE TRANSLATION OF
SUBORDINATE WH – INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES AND INFINITIVE
WH - CLAUSES IN AZERI
Parisa Farrokh, Abolfazl Rajabli, Kambiz Mahmoodzadeh
71
THE ROLE OF AFFIXES IN UNDERSTANDING THE
ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS
Pervine Valiyeva
82
THE IMPORTANCE OF COHESION AND COHERENCE IN DISCOURSE
Turana Aghayeva
85
ENGLISH'S GLOBAL TRIUMPH
Vineet Kaul
87
CONTEXTUAL NEGATIVE ELEMENTS AND IMPLICIT NEGATION
Venera Suleymanova
91
NÂBÎ DÎVÂNININ LEKSİKASINA MODERN AÇIDAN YAKLAŞIM
Salih Savaş
95
LITERATURE
105
AMERICAN NOVEL AND THE ORIENT:
ARGUMENTS AND COMMENTARIES
Shahin Khalilli
106
ii
MODERN APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEMS OF A MAN
AND SOCIETY IN THE CREATIVITY OF IRIS MURDOCH
Nurlana Alaskarova
108
SHEAKESPEARE‘S APPROACHES TO POLITICS
AND POLITICAL THEORY
Ali Tatli
111
THE ONLY WAY TO SAVE FROM LONELINESS
Ayten Zeynalli
114
APPROACHES TO JUSTICE AND MERCY IN RENAISSANCE DRAMA
Aziz Chankaya
115
MODERN APPROACHES TO AGATHA
CHRISTIE’S HERO HERCULE POIROT
Fidan Hacıyeva
117
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE'S CREATIVITY
Khonul Anvarzade
119
THE ANGRY YOUNG MAN : ‘JOHN OSBORNE’
Günay Allahverdiyeva
121
MODERN APPROACHES TO SHAKESPEARE’S LANGUAGE
Gunay Guliyeva
124
MODERN APPROACHES TO CHARACTER OF HAMLET
Tuğçe Özdemir
127
THE NEW APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF ORIENTAL
THEME IN ENGLISH LITERATURE
Lala Isayeva
128
OTTOMAN POETRY AND BRITISH CRITICISM
Ali Bereket
131
COINCIDENCES CHANGED TESS`S LIFE IN THOMAS
HARDY`S “TESS OF THE DÙRBERVILLES”
Aynur Hacıyeva
132
NEW AZERBAIJANI PROSE AND ITS STYLE VARIETY
Ayten Zargarova
134
JAMES JOYCE AND MODERNISM
Gunel Mammadkarimova
138
THE AMERICAN DREAM IN THE MASTERPIECE
OF FRANCIS SCOTT FITZGERALD
Naila Bandiyeva
140
A TALE OF LOST ILLUSIONS OF VICTORIAN PERIOD BASED
ON “GREAT EXPECTATIONS” BY CHARLES DICKENS
Rena Qurbanova
142
iii
REVENGE AND THE RESULT IN “WUTHERING HEIGHTS”
BY EMILY BRONTE
Saida Mehdiyeva
146
GREAT OPPORTUNITIES OF LITTLE GENRE
Shafa Jabiyeva
148
THE “PIE” WHICH LEADS “GREAT EXPECTATIONS”
Khanim Ahmadova
150
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE
(BASED ON THE THEORY OF FREUD)
Khayala Maharramova
153
PSYCHOANALYTIC READING OF MATERNAL
ISSUES IN “MADAME BOVARY”
Meryem Çelik
156
MODERN APPROACHES TO THE HUNNIC EMPIRE
IN THE WESTERN LITERATURE
Natiq Adilov
158
REVOLUTION THEME IN A TALE OF TWO CITIES
Aytekin Aliyeva
161
STUDY OF LITERARY TECHNIQUES OF STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS
ON JAMES JOYCE AND VIRGINIA WOOLF ‘S WORKS
Sevda Salayeva
163
SYMBOLISM IN JAMES JOYCE'S "ARABY"
Narmin Veledova
167
THE ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH CASTLES NAMES
Salmanli Aysel
170
APPROACHES TO SHEAKESPEARE ‘S OTHELLO
Sevda Huseynova
173
EDUCATION
175
MODERN APPROACHES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Shirley A. Stanley
176
“INTRODUCING AUTHENTIC LITERATURE TO AN EFL CLASSROOMS”
Aynur Bashirova
181
QUALIFIED EDUCATION AND ITS GLORIOUS FUTURE
Aygun Guliyeva
183
THE ROLE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Sadigli Aysel
185
MODERN APPROACHES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Echon Mendoza Alina
187
iv
USING POEMS TO DEVELOP PRODUCTIVE SKILLS
Hamidov Elchin
191
INCREASE INTERPERSONAL REGARD AND UNDERSTANDING
Elnara Sevdimova
193
THE NEED FOR ELECTRONIC LEARNING IN EDUCATION
Esra Arslan
195
INVESTIGATING THE USE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
STRATEGIES AMONG IRANIAN EFL STUDENTS
Hamidreza Bolhari
197
APPLICATION OF GAMES INTO THE TEACHING PROCESS
OF ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Leyla Alili
199
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER AND STUDENT INCREASES
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE LEARNING PROCESS
Matanat Rustamova
202
USING SITUATION COMEDIES AS A TOOL FOR ELT
Merve Turan
205
ORGANIZING LESSONS TO IMPROVE LANGUAGE SKILLS
Parvana Hajiyeva
206
TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN THROUGH STORIES
Sevda Kelbiyeva
208
COMMON PROBLEMS HINDERING AZERI LEARNERS
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Khazar Novruzov
211
TEACHING ENGLISH TO ARABIC- SPEAKING STUDENTS:
CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS
Yegane Memmedova
214
v
vi
CONFERENCE MATERIALS
LINGUISTICS
1
2 nd International Young Researcher’s Conference
ELLIPTIC FORMS OF COMPLEX SYNTACTIC UNITS
IN ENGLISH AND AZERBAIJANI
Professor Dunyamin Yunusov
Azerbaijan University of Languages
[email protected]
SUMMARY
The article explores elliptic forms of complex syntactic units in English and Azerbaijani. Depending
upon different situations there appear elliptic forms of complex syntactic units. The author tries to
prove that there are different kinds of elliptic sentences and they appear on the components of the
text and the previous and the following sentences.
Key words: incomplete, elliptic, construction, syntactical unit.
MÜXTƏLİF SİSTEMLİ DİLLƏRDƏ ELLİPTİK FORMALI MÜRƏKKƏB
SİINTAKTİK VAHİDLƏR
XÜLASƏ
Məqalədə ingilis və Azərbaycan dillərindəki elliptik formalı mürəkkəb sintaktik vahidlərdən bəhs
olunur. Müxtəlif situativ şəraitdən asılı olaraq, mürəkkəb sintaktik vahidlərin müxtəlif elliptik formaları yaranır. Müəllif sübut etməyə çalışır ki, müxtəlif növ elliptik cümlələr mövcuddur və onlar da
mətnin komponentlərindən və əvvəlki və sonrakı cümlələrdən asılı olaraq meydana gəlir.
Açar sözlər: natamam, elliptik, tərkib, sintaktik vahid.
FARKLI SİSTEMLİ DİLLERDE ELLEPTİK BİÇİMDE
KARMAŞIK SİNTAKTİK BİRİMLER
ÖZET
Makalede ingiliz ve Azerbaycan dillerindeki elliptik biçimdeki karmaşık sintaktik birimler anlatılıyor. Farklı situativ konuma bağlı olaraq, karmaşık sintaktik birimlərin farklı elleptik biçimleri
oluşuyor. Yazar, farklı tip elleptik cümlelerin mevcutluğunu ve onlarda yazının içeriklerinden ve
önceki ve sonraki cümlelerle bağlılığının yaranmasını ispatlamaya çalışıyor.
Anahtar kelimeler: tam olmayan, elliptik, içerik, sintaktik birim.
ЕЛЛИПТИЧЕСКИЕ ФОРМЫ СЛОЖНЫХ СИНТАКСИЧЕСКИХ
ЕДИНИЦ В РАЗНОСИСТЕМНЫХ ЯЗЫКАХ
The elliptic forms of complex syntactic units are those complexes which the
missing of either principal or the subordinate clause – in transform – construction
doesn’t seem to be incomplete either structurally or semantically.
Like the simple sentences, here the component undergone by ellipciss is not
needed to be restorated. It should be mentioned that not in all cases the ellipciss
of any component of complex syntactic units happens. On this account A.M.
Mukhin writes: “Incomplete sentences are not only those sentences one of which
components is missed/ usually the previous and the following parts of the text can
be reconstructed/ but also are those which have no in reality the missing of the
component but have the colouring of outer content in them” [1, p.178].
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April 27, 2012
Qafqaz University, Baku, Azerbaijan
The elliptic forms of different complex syntactic units happen in different
situation. This difference of form, furthermore, is closely connected with those
constructions and out of which structural forms they have been sourced. The initial
semantico-grammatical characters of structural forms and their ways of expressing
lexically affect on their later development of the transformation process. In some
complex syntactic units the subordinate clause of the first component is parallel
to the predicate of different mood, tense and person paradigms of the second
component. The predicates of these parallel components are expressed by the same
lexical unit. In these constructions the predicate of the principal clause is usually
expressed by the verbs “say” (“tell”) in English and “демяк” in Azerbaijani.
Sometimes they may be expressed by the verbs close in meaning to them. Two
elliptic forms are possible in such kind of complex syntactic units in compared
English and Azerbaijani languages.
I. In the first case consisting of a subordinate clause of object, the first component,
i.e. the principal clause undergoes the ellipciss.
In English
E.g. We are obeyed the order; pull down this building, we pull down, ruin this
street, we ruin, build a new building, we build a new one.
In Azerbaijani
Биз ямря табейик; бу бинаны сюк, биз дя сюкцрцк, бу кцчяни даьыт, биз дя даьыдырыг, йени бина уъалт, йенисини уъалдырыг
In the above mentioned examples the predicate of the principal clause can be
expressed by the verbs “say” (tell), “order”, “command”, “ask” etc. in English and
“демяк”, “ямр етмяк”, “сярянъам вермяк”, “тапшырыг вермяк” etc. in Azerbaijani.
But potentially the content of these structural units exist in elliptic constructions
themselves and they are thought to be easily reconstructed.
E.g. 1. We are obeyed the order, they say (order, command, ask) pull down this
building, we pull down, they say ruin this street, we ruin, they say build a new
building, we build a new one.
2. Биз ямря табейик, дейирляр (ямр едирляр, сярянъам верирляр, тапшырыг верирляр),
бу бинаны сюк, биз дя сюкцрцк, дейирляр бу кцчяни даьыт, биз дя даьыдырыг, дейирляр,
йени бина уъалт, йенисини уъалдырыг.
II. In the second case the subordinate clause of the first component which is
parallel to the second component is not used. It should be mentioned that this
case is not found in the English language.
E.g. Балаш: Ортадан гапыны баьла, бу йана чыхма.
Севил: Йахшы, Балаш, дейирсян, чыхмарам. (Ъ.Ъаббарлы).
Analysing the above mentioned complex syntactic unit, we can see that in the
second component the subordinate object clause “чыхма” isn’t used here. This
complex syntactic unit should be sounded like this.
3
E.g. Севил: Йахшы, Балаш, дейирсян, чыхма, чыхмарам.
It should be mentioned that though there is informatic alikeness between
complete and incomplete forms, we can’t find the semantic identity between them.
So the semantic shade of colouring in incomplete forms, especially emotional-expressive shades of colouring shows definite semantic separation. In such kind of
complex syntactic units there are some mixed types which exist not only two parallel components but more than two and in this case the previous components
remain wholly but the last component undergoes the ellipciss.
E.g. Ат дедин, вердик, ата арпа дедин, вердик, атын йящяр-ясбабы йохдур, ону да
алдыг. (С.Кяримов).
There are three parallel constructions in the above mentioned complex syntactic
unit. While comparing them in paradigmatic line, we may observe that the principal
clause of the third parallel construction undergoes ellipciss. In comparison with
two previous parallel construction, that component must be reconstructed, like
this: “атын йящяр – ясбабы йохдур, дедин, ону да алдыг”.
The ellipciss of the principal clauses happens to be widely used in direct speech.
So using the proverbs and sayings in our speech we usually use before them the
author’s words: “there is such a saying / proverb”, “беля мясял вар”, “father said”
“аталар дейибляр”, “they say so” “беля дейирляр” etc. and according to those expressions the sentence constructions are used like this.
E.g. 1. There is such a proverb - “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush”
2. Аталар дейиб ки, “соьан олсун, няьд олсун”.
3. They say so “don’t look a gift horse in the mouth”.
4. Беля дейирляр “бяй верян атын дишиня бахмазлар” etc.
Unlike the English language, in Azerbaijani even both of these stable constructions “мясял вар, дейярляр” are used simultaneously and they perform the function
of homogenous principal clause.
E.g. Бизлярдя беля бир аталар мясяли вар, дейярляр: Эюздян узаг, кюнцлдян ираг.
There is a proverb in our language, they say “out of sight, out of mind”.
Proverbs and sayings are widely used among the creators of that language and
there is no any additional information of showing the source of the expression
and there is no need of using separate sentence structure (the principal clause).
On this account M.Adilov writes: “The effect of proverbs is stronger than the
above mentioned principal clauses. It should be mentioned that the quantity of
words used in sentences and the effective feeling of words are non proportionate”
[2, p.49]. In reality the missing of that mentioned standard sentence gives the
lightness to the complex syntactic unit and increases its effective force, emotional
shades of colouring.
E.g. 1. Hey, men, a good beginning makes a good ending.
2. А кишиляр, кюнлц балыг истяйян суйа эирсин эяряк.
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April 27, 2012
3. It is your fault, don’t halloo till you are out of the wood.
4. Инди ъязандыр чяк, юзэяйя гуйу газан юзц дцшяр etc.
The predicate of the ellipciss of the principal clause expressed by the verbs “say”,
“демяк” is not only connected with the proverbs and sayings, but also the other
constructions are observed in languages of different system.
E.g. 1. Cliff – She’s hurt. Are you all right?
Alison – Well, does it look it?
Cliff – She’s burnt her arm on the iron.
Jimmy – Darling, I am sorry
Alison – Get out!
Jimmy – I’m sorry, believe me.
You think, I did it on pur…
Alison – Clear out of my sight (Modern English plays)
2. Киши йазыьы эюзляриндян о йана гойдулар бяйям.
Эетмя эюзцмдян, эедярик юзцмдян (Ш.Гурбанов)
Analysing the semantic interrelationship of the above mentioned complex
syntactic units it is proved that in English sentence the component “you say” is
abridged: Though they have structural completeness, that’s the outer case. Their
wholly informative thought reveals the incompleteness. It is the same about the
Azerbaijani complex syntactic unit. Here in the second sentence the predicate of
the principal clause which is expressed by the verb “дейирляр” is abridged.
The fact of ellipciss happens in such complex syntactic units the predicate of
which is expressed by the verb “to see” in English and “эюрмяк” in Azerbaijani
principal clauses. Without going into details it should be mentioned that such kind
of principal clauses demands the object subordinate clauses in both compared
languages. The results of investigation prove that in these complex syntactic units
the verbs “see” and “эюрмяк” are used in “wh” questions. And these sentences
express community and abstractness. In such type of complex syntactic units the
content of the question “what”, “ня” should be revealed. Here “what”, “ня” perform
the function of direct object in the sentence: “what did we see?”, “ня эюрдцк?”.
The following sentence of this question may be either a simple sentence or a
complex syntactic unit. In the second case the object subordinate clause is used.
E.g. 1. Going what did we see?
We saw that she was sitting with her hands on her knees and thinking
2. Эедиб ня эюрдцк? Эюрдцк ки, Ъащанэир отуруб яли чянясиндя дярин
хяйала далыб.
In answering to the verb “saw” “эюрдцк” which is used in the principal clause
and repeated twice. The usage and repetition of the verb “saw”, “эюрдцк” not only
hinders the speed speech but also restricts the effective and emotional force of the
expression.
The frequent usage of the verb “to look”, “бахмаг” is a lot. In such kind of
complex syntactic units the ellipciss of the verbal predicate “saw” “эюрдц” happen
5
and in the relationship of the semantic-grammatical relations of the components
behave strangely. Here the usage of the conjunction “that”, “ки” is not proved
itself. Here the semantic relation of the components is not on the surface but on
the deep structure of the complex syntactic units.
E.g. 1. He looked that the younger guests immediately had put one their skates.
2. Шащзадя Ябцлфяз бахды ки, Ряна ханымын рянэи-рущу гачыб.
3. Mr.Winkle looked that he was very pleased, but looked rather
uncomfortable.
4. Бахды ки, цч атлы тоз-торпаьын ичиндя чапараг она доьру эялир.
In reality double situation happens in such kind of complex syntactic units.
The first one is that the question “to what?” “няйя?” was borne out of the
principal clause and it has more determining character. If we take this item into
consideration, then these complex syntactic units are considered to be the object
subordinate clauses. But we can’t agree with this view point. In the second case the
interrelationship of the semantic and grammatical relations is one sided and it is
in outer frame, by means of it the corresponding relationship potentially seems to
be in the principal clause. On this account, it seems to us that those complex
syntactic units should be approached from the second position and they should
be presented as elliptic constructions. The verbs “say”, “демяк” and “see”, “эюрмяк” are widely used in compared English and Azerbaijani languages and they can
easily pass their semantic weight to the other language units which are linked. By
the result of it the predicates expressed by those verbs in the principal clause, they
sometimes miss these verbs and they don’t give any harm to the complex syntactic
units.
E.g. 1. Hearing this, one of Mr.Winkles’ friends immediately lay on the
ground, I’m dying.
2. Вуруланда тiр узаныб йеря, ял-айаьыны узадыб ки, юлцрям
3. One fine winter day Mr.Wardle entered the house that his friends
were staying and waiting for him.
4. Заман щяйятя эирди ки, атасы мцщяъъяря сюйкяниб фикирли щалда сигарет
чякир.
Analysing the above mentioned complex syntactic units we can observe that
the first two complexes embraced potentially the meaning of the verb “says” “дейир” but in the last two complex syntactic units potentially the verbs “saw”, “эюрдц”
existed. From this point of view those complex syntactic units are considered to
be object subordinate clauses. Some scholars don’t pay attention to the ellipciss
here and treat these complex syntactic units as adverbial clauses of time. Though
these complex syntactic units are not of the same structure but close in meaning
to them. This view point is widely spread in Azerbaijani.
E.g. Эялдик ки, мяълис гурулуб. (When we came the party was organized)
While investigating this complex syntactic unit it is clear that there is no
semantic interrelationship of the components due to the time.
6
April 27, 2012
It happens when the expression “о заман” “at that time” is used within that
complex syntactic unit.
E.g. О заман эялди ки, мяълис гурулуб.
But in the above complex syntactic unit it is impossible to add the expression
“о заман”. Here the object relation seems and it is realized with the homogeneous
predicate “эюрдцк” which underwent the ellipciss.
E.g. Эялдик эюрдцк ки, мяълис гурулуб.
(We came and saw that the party was organized)
Unfortunately the fact of ellipciss not always reconstructed resultatively but
also there are some elliptic complex syntactic units which are changed the types
of subordinate clauses by reconstructing them.
E.g. 1. Pilkins slowly stood up: who was that coming at this time?
2. Аста-аста диванdаn durdu, бу вахт эялян ким ола?
Analysing the above mentioned complex syntactic units it has been proved
that “who was that coming at this time?” “бу вахт эялян ким ола?” are not connected
with the principal clauses directly by the semantic-grammatical points wholly. The
reason is that in those complex constructions the subordinate clause, in reality, is
closely connected with the abridged expression in the principal clause. This may
be reconstructed by different ways. In the first case we may use the verb “thought”,
“фикирляшди” in the principal clause and we may be aware of the completing subordinate clauses. In this case the type of subordinate clauses will be the object subordinate clauses.
E.g. 1. Pilkins slowly stood up and thought who was that coming at this time.
2. Аста-аста диванdаn durdu вя фикирляшди ки, бу вахт эялян ким ола.
But in the second case not only the homogeneous predicate, but also the whole
principal clause which is interrelated with the subordinate clause is reconstructed.
E.g. 1. Pilkins slowly stood up and was in such a mind who was that coming
at this time.
2. Диванdаn durdu вя ону беля бир фикир апарды ки, бу вахт эялян ким ола.
By the result of this reconstruction the other relation between the components
may appear. Here the thought – logical relation is the same but the grammatical
relation is quite different. So, in the second reconstruction the attributive subordinate clauses are formalized.
There are some kinds of elliptic forms which depend upon the components of
the text within and without the previous and following constructions it’ll be
difficult to make the thought wholly. Such complex syntactic units are widely used
in Azerbaijani.
E.g. - Соба, ай Соба, де эюрцм газлар щара учду?
Soba, hey Soba, tell me where the geese flew?
- Човдар кюкямдян йе, дейим.
Eat my rye cookey, I’ll tell.
7
- Гыз бойун гачырды
The girl rejected
- Атамын евиндя буьда унундан бишмиш кюкями йемирям.
At my father’s I don’t eat wheat floured cookey.
In the above mentioned dialogue the last complex syntactic unit seems to be
complete but it is in external form. But in reality this complex syntactic unit has
got the elliptic form. If that sentence is used out of the text it’ll express quite other
meaning.
Атамын евиндя буьда унундан бишмиш кюкями йемирям, дейирсян, сянин човдар
кюкцндян йейим?
-I don’t eat wheat floured cookey at my father’s, you say, I’ll eat your rye cookey
This is the construction of concession having the relation in composite –
compound sentence but the second component of which is wholly the object subordinate clause. The ellipciss of that component causes the formation of an incomplete
form. So not going into the deep structure of this complex syntactic unit it is difficult
to show its semantic weight and reconstruct the whole structure by approaching
only the outer point.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Мухин А. Т. Структура предложения и их модели. Ленинград: Наука, 1968
Adilov M. Qəzet dili. Bakı: ADU nəşri, 1973
Abdullayev K. Azərbaycan dili sintaksisinin nəzəri problemləri. Bakı: Maarif, 1999, 281 s.
Abdullayev Ə. Müasir Azərbaycan dilində tabeli mürəkkəb cümlələr. Bakı: Maarif, 1974
Collier R. Intonation from a structural linguistic view point – A criticizm. Linguistics, 1974, vol
120, p. p. 5 – 28
Yunusov D. Constancy and variety of complex syntactic units in languages of different system.
Istanbul, 2007, 114 p.
Yunusov D. A Guide to English Grammar. Baku: Mutarjim, 2006, 282 p.
THE INFLUENCE OF WORDS
Sandra Derrick
Fulbright Scholar, USA
How can I grab my students’ attention when discussing academic writing at the
university level? Even I am bored by the sound of the topic, and this is my field. In
fact, students around the world admit to dreading the act of writing. They fear writing
assignments more than a menial job or a strict parent. Sometimes this fear is based on
receiving a critique from a teacher, sometimes this, a response to not being taught the
fundamentals of writing. But how, in this generation who knows technology better than
me and most of my colleagues here and abroad, can I entice you to delight in the writing
process? You text. You twitter. You write announcements in incomplete sentences and
abbreviate phrases such as “Oh my God” to “OMG,” abbreviations that drive a writing
professor batty.
8
April 27, 2012
Perhaps to love writing takes a particular kind of person, but I don’t think so. I
believe good writing comes in many forms and from sundry persons. Did you know
that there are academic articles about text messaging? One is titled “The Syntactic
Aspects of Text Messaging”(Ong’onda,), which was written a woman who analyzes
media’s influence on language. My students know what critical thinking is. Apply
analysis to text messaging and you have a cool project for an article. Consider Shakespeare
who has been written about for hundreds of years. The man still exists on the printed
page, not only in the classroom where his famous works are read, but also in relation
to academic analysis of literature. Topics of class division, love, jealousy, dysfunction,
and death never tire. To whom do we owe credit? To Shakespeare, of course, but also
to our scholars and their imaginations. Why? Because they thought critically and dared
to imagine a new way of seeing. If I were to give any advice, perhaps my colleagues
would want me to tell you to practice writing, to write an essay four times over, to
make it perfect, to study grammar more, to craft beautiful sentences. They are right.
These are elements of writing that are universal and, without such skills, you will not
be taken seriously as an academic or a specialist in your field. Do I love Chekov because
he wrote about a lady and her dog? Somewhat, yes, but I also love him for the rhythm
of his prose and the confidence in his writer’s voice, a distinct style that shaped his
adherents’ writing. My advice, if I were to give any, might be different. I might simply
want to say: dare to imagine, dare to create, and then don’t stop working until your
vision is accomplished.
Allow me to use the “bridge” metaphor, tired yet true: Writing is a bridge to just
about any other field. Articles are published in the sciences, in translation, literature,
and law. Writing connects us to friends and family. We send emails, text messages,
and nowadays, more than ever are reading the words of a person, not the gestures of a
person. Writing has power. What we read in the newspaper affects us. We whisper
news into friends’ ears; we call each other on the phone. When we read a good piece
of writing, words influence us more than we can understand. We carry words in our
heads. We carry memories of how we felt reading a particularly moving story or even
a well-written article. We remember when someone’s thoughts challenge our own,
especially when an opinion or idea makes us uncomfortable, and we remember when
someone has written so well, and we take that as a challenge to do better.
Learning to write in the international style that I have introduced to my class is not
only a bridge to other fields, but the international style is a bridge to other cultures
worldwide. Good research distinguishes a strong professor from a weak professor.
Good research sets a student apart from his or her peers not just in the classroom, but
internationally. And, good research connects students and professionals to others with
similar interests. A good researcher challenges what has been accepted and attempts
to shine a new perspective on a subject.
Good research excels you in your chosen field. Qafqaz is the leading university in
research. Perhaps, as young adults, you don’t yet realize how impressive this role is
for your university and your future. You are actually part of its growth and expansion,
9
and I ask you today to take an active role. You are, after all, molding your country by
what you write and by how you write. You have more power than you understand. Use
it, and use it well. Be a representative of Azerbaijan and, specifically, Qafqaz University.
REVISITING AND RERUNNING WILLIAM LABOV’S STUDY:
THE SOCIAL STRATIFICATION OF (R) IN NEW YORK
CITY DEPARTMENT STORES
Kaitlin Ward (first author), F. Robson Albuquerque (co-author)
M.A. Applied Linguistics Candidates
Montclair State University
SUMMARY
In our study we were able to reinforce the notion that NYC is becoming a more unified speech
community however the NYC department stores are still differentiated in a fixed order based on social
stratification and that those jobs in those places are evaluated by employees in the same order.
In 1962 William Labov studied one of New York City’s (NYC) most salient features
of its stereotyped accent; the r-lessness of its speakers. He believed that the (r) variable
(realized as either [r] or [∅] ) could mirror the city’s social stratification, “if any two
sub-groups of NYC speakers are ranked on a scale of social stratification, then they
will be ranked in the same order by their differential use of (r)” (Labov 2006: 41).
Because the [r] variant is considered to be the ‘better’ sounding than its [∅] counterpart,
it is said to carry overt prestige; Meyerhoff (2006: 37) defines an overtly prestigious
variant as the one, “associated with the highest social classes or more powerful speakers
in a community”. Labov set out to see if the prestigiousness of the (r) variable would
be related to the social stratification of three department stores and their workers. In
2009, we attempted to duplicate Labov’s study to verify whether the same predictable
stratification patterns he observed still remain intact in the social fibers of the speech
community. More specifically, we attempted to investigate whether the workers would
be socially (and linguistically) stratified along similar and predictable lines and if there
would still be a clear correlation between the (r) variable and the status ranking of the
department stores, i.e., the higher the stratification of the store, the more realizations
of (r). Using Labov’s Rapid and Anonymous (R+A) survey, we elicited two casually
uttered tokens of fourth floor (pre-consonantal and word-final [r] are unrealized in the
stereotyped pronunciation), and two carefully uttered tokens from the department stores’
workers. Like Labov our goal was to engage the sales people in a very simple and quick
speech event. It was also paramount that the exchange be as natural as possible, which
brings up the issue of the Observer’s Paradox; since [r] is considered to carry overt
prestige, people would theoretically be more likely to pronounce [r] if they were aware
that we were paying attention to their speech. Therefore, the tokens could be misrepresentative of natural NYC speech and result in the data possibly being skewed in terms
of overall realizations of [r]. One of the major advantages of Labov’s R+A methodology
is that it attempts to limit the effects of the Observer’s Paradox. As the ‘interviewers’
10
April 27, 2012
we individually approached a random employee and asked them where a particular item
could be found, which elicited the casual response “fourth floor”. The second exchange
occurred where the interviewer said “excuse me?” and the employee then more carefully
and emphatically repeated “fourth floor”. After the conclusion of the speech event,
we recorded the data of the (r) occurrences (the dependent variables) in both the casual
and emphatic speech and also included the same independent variables as Labov: the
store, occupation, floor within the store, sex, race, age [estimated in five year increments],
and any noticeable foreign or regional accent. Our data, consisting of 252 (r) variants
from 63 speakers, reveals that the (r) stratification is still a salient linguistic variable in
NYC’s speech community and that the phenomenon still occurs in a pattern that preserves
the social stratification between the three department stores. Most importantly, our data
also suggests that, although the r-less variant is still prevalent, [r] is becoming more
common in NYC. Comparing the data to Labov’s, a pattern emerges of an over-all,
though not evenly, increase of r-pronunciation. Our reproduction of Labov's study
reinforces the notion that NYC is a unified speech community and also suggests that
due to the increasing realization of [r], the city's speakers are becoming even more
unified.
Comparison of two studies for the Overall rate of (all-r)
Percentage of all realization of (r) by Store for Four Positions
11
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
Labov, W. (2006). The Social Stratification of English in New York City (2 ed.). New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Meyerhoff, M. (2006).Introducing Sociolinguistics. New York: Routledge.
MINIMIZING ABBREVIATIONS IN ENGLISH
Aygul Khalilova
Postgraduate student
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The essence of good writing is precision and clarity and the use of abbreviations seems an ideal way
to ensure these essentials. An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always
it consists of letters or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. The purpose is to provide readilyunderstandable substitutes for groups of words and so aid the reading effort. However there are very few
abbreviations that their forms have been standardised internationally. The phenomenon of abbreviation
reflects perfectly the spirit of our dynamic epoch. We use them frequently to transmit much information
during the shortest period of time.
Abbreviation is a comparatively new linguistic phenomenon. The practice of abbreviating terms became
convenient, because literacy rose, and advances in science and technology brought with them more complicated terms and concepts. Certain abbreviations can mean different things to different people. In some
fields, including chemistry, medicine, computer science, and geographic information systems abbreviations
are used so frequently that the reader can feel lost in an alphabet soup. However, the main purpose for using
these devices is to improve the reading process, fostering fluent readability and efficient comprehension.
Writers overuse abbreviations, not realizing the problems they cause readers. But they should only
use them for the convenience of the reader. We should better to remember what Shakespeare once observed:
“Who understands thee not, loves thee not.” The main aim of this paper is trying to provide solutions for
eliminating abbreviations.
Key words: abbreviation, acronym, stunt acronym.
An abbreviation (from Latin “brevis”, meaning short) is a shortened form of a word
or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from
the word or phrase.
Abbreviation is a popular way of forming words. It is a comparatively new linguistic
phenomenon. The last decade of the 20th century and the 21st century have brought
with them new abbreviations. Not everyone knows how to use them, because many
abbreviations are used in one sphere and we can not use them in other spheres. At first,
abbreviations were sometimes represented with different signs, not only full stops. For
example, ‹er› were replaced with ‹ɔ›, as in ‹mastɔ› for master.[3]
Abbreviations are used to save time and space, and to make long names of organizations and long technical terms easier to remember and less boring to refer to repeatedly
in an extended piece of writing such as a newspaper article or textbook.
There are two main types of abbreviations: graphical and lexical.
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April 27, 2012
Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only
in written speech while, orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for
the economy of space and effort in writing. For instance, sec. - second, D.M.- Doctor
of Medicine. These are English origin. But when we use graphical abbreviations of
Latin origin in the spelling we shorten Latin words, while orally we pronounce English
equivalents in the full form: p.a.-a year (per annum), lb - pound (libra), i. e.-that is (id
est) etc. Initial abbreviations are the bordering case between graphical and lexical
abbreviations.
There are three types of initialisms in English:
a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, MPA, CND etc.
b) initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. : UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc.
c) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, such initialisms
are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for Automated School
System).
We may unite group b and c into one group, which we call acronyms. Some scientists accept it, but others not. All acronyms are abbreviations, but not all abbreviations
are acronyms.
Lexical abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is
clipped. E.g.: intro (introduction), copter (helicopter), fanzine (fan magazine), tec
(detective). [4]
The abbreviations are the most intensively developing units of English. There is
the distinctive interest to them in modern linguistics. Abbreviations, the subject of our
analysis, make our life easier. However, when using them, we shouldn’t overdo it.
The more we use abbreviations the more our text will be vague to read. We should
introduce an abbreviation only if: 1. the term appear at least three times in each part
of our work; and 2. the term consists of at least three words. There are also some abbreviations that are better known than the words they stand for and do not have to be
explained in the text or added to the list of abbreviations. E.g.: AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), CD-ROM( compact disk read only memory),PIN(personal
identification number), UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund).If an abbreviation
is better known than the spelled-out form, we may give the abbreviation even if the term
is used only once.[2,1]
Some acronyms are truly “hidden names”. They are spelled out and treated as
ordinary words and follow the capitalization rules. After a while we may even forget
that they were once special creations:
Scuba= Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
Radar=Radio Detecting And Ranging
Laser=Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Not all acronyms are created. Some are discovered by attentive readers. Such “false”
abbreviations provoke unintended smiles. In the 1970s, Richard Nixon’s opponents had
13
great fun pointing to the acronym formed by the initials of the Committee to Re-Elect
the President: CREEP.[1,5]
Stunt acronyms, which are created for a specific, often political purpose can help
groups get attention. For instance, MADD -Mothers Against Drunk Driving. CAVECitizens Against Virtually Everything. These stunt acronyms are not the problem. They
can be useful and even entertaining. Acronyms can be handy. The real problem lies
with initial abbreviations, the greatest destroyer of meaning in modern publications.
Most initial abbreviations are difficult to understand.
Every business, school, laboratory and agency has its own language, which consists
of unique abbreviations. For instance, to the Shipping Department the abbreviation
“QA” may mean “Quick Action”, while for the Manufacturing Department, “QA”
means “Quality Assurance”. “CD” may refer to “certificate of deposit” in Accounting,
“coefficient drag” in Engineering and “Compact disk” everywhere else. Whenever
possible we should avoid using abbreviations.
Of course, if you are using a common abbreviation such as PC to mean personal
computer and the context makes this clear, there's no real problem. But if you are using
it for another term, such as: Postal Clerk or Production Control, then such a common
abbreviation can still be a problem. The abbreviation PC means different things to
different groups. In Law: probable cause, physical containment, personally corrupt,
police constable. In Medicine: peripheral clarity, perforated cranium, prostate cancer.
In Military: power converter, production control, pass certified, Peace Corps. Not only
common people, but also inexperienced members of any organization may misunderstand
an abbreviation or acronym. For example the “Federal Highway Administration” has
a program known as “ISTEA” (pronounced “ice tea”). Naturally enough, the acronym
gets spelled as “ICE TEA”(1,6)
Such confusion shows that these writers don’t really understand the term. Because
they clearly don’t know what the letters stand for, they only want to sound learned, wellinformed. But in reality, the words forming this acronym is - Intermodal Surface
Transportation Efficiency Act.
To eliminate the problems mentioned above we want to introduce the following
solutions:
1. We should better avoid abbreviations as many as possible.
2. We may use them only if they are convenient for our readers.
All readers must know exactly what we mean. Spelling abbreviations out may
irritate our readers.
3. Converting abbreviations into words as many as possible is also the effective way.
We should prefer to use the full words - Vice President, not VP.
It would be suitable to use an alternative - computer's memory, not RAM (Random
Access Memory).
4. If it is convenient for the reader to use an abbreviation in a long document, we must
try to spell out its meaning in brackets the first time we use it. For example: CBT
14
April 27, 2012
(computer-based training).But if the abbreviation is familiar to the reader, there is
no need to spell it out. For example, if we write to a government official, we would
not need to spell out any of the abbreviations in the following sentence: The CIA
has examined FAA’s security procedures at US airports.
5. We should better not use periods or stops between letters. The modern trend is to
leave out the periods or stops in abbreviations and acronyms.
For example: U.S.A. or USA. Both of them are true, but let’s try to prefer the second
one.
I want to finish the paper with the words of Confucius:
If language is not correct then what is said is not what is meant;
If what is said is not what is meant, then what ought to be done remains undone...
1.
2.
3.
REFERENCES
Dr. Helen Moody, “A Modest Proposal to Eliminate Acronyms”, Professional Training Company,
Corrales, New Mexico, 1996-2005
Handbook of Style and Usage, 2011 edition.
referat.allserver.ru
COINING NEW WORDS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Aynur Abbaszade
Undergraduate student
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Conforming circumstances every language has transition because of time requirements. So English
language had some changes due to various reasons from the time it was created until today and its lexicon
also changed. It can be considered as an advantage but sometimes entering of new words or coining neologisms in language can be out of control. Then the miserable picture we will get is inevitable. Basically,
the formation history of English language, entering and coining process of new words, pros and cons of
this matter were represented in this article.
Key words: Middle English, Early Modern English, Late Modern English, The Latest and Unsuccessful
Neologisms, Virtual Words.
İngilis dili adlandırdığımız dil ilk dəfə İngiltərənin Şimal dənizi sahillərinə eramızın
V-VI əsrlərində Danimarka, indiki Almaniya və Niderlandın şimal-qərbindən olan dənizçilər tərəfindən gətirilmişdir. Bu immiqrantlar Hind-Avropa dili ailəsinin German
qoluna mənsub olan əlaqəli dialektlərdə danışırdılar. Onların dili German dillərindən
ayrıldıqdan sonra öz fərqləndirici xüsusiyyətlərini inkişaf etdirməyə başladı və eramızın
600-cü illərindən indi bizim adlandırdığımız kimi “Qədim İngilis Dili” və ya “AnqloSakson” olaraq inkişaf edərək müasir İngiltərənin çox böyük ərazisini əhatə etdi.
1066-cı ildəki norman istilası Britaniya adalarına yeni sosial və linqvistik təsir gətirən başqa bir amil sayıla bilər. Həmin dövrdə ingilis dilinə latın və fransız dillərindən
15
minlərlə söz daxil oldu və onun qrammatikası da həmçinin kəskin dəyişikliklərə məruz
qaldı, lakin sonralar aristokratiyanın ingilis dilini öz dilləri olaraq qəbul etməsi fransız
dilinin istifadəsini tədricən sona çatdırdı. İstiladan dilin dirçəlməsinə qədər olan dövrdə
istifadə olunan ingiliscə “Orta Dövr İngilis Dili” adlanır.
İngilis dilinin sözlər axınına məruz qaldığı və “Erkən Müasir İngilis Dili”nin mövcud olduğu dövr təxminən 1500-1800-cü illəri əhatə edir. Bu dövrdə ingilis dili səs
dəyişmələri, sintaktik formalaşmalar və leksik zənginləşmə keçirmişdir. Bundan əlavə
XVI-XVII əsrlərdə yaşamış dramaturq V.Şekspirin də ingilis dilinin zənginləşməsində
böyük rolu olmuşdur. Şekspir heç vaxt “doğru” olaraq qəbul edilmiş lüğətdən istifadə
etməməmiş, dilin daha artığına qadir olduğuna inanaraq ona yeni sözlər əlavə etməyə
çalışmışdır. O ingilis dilinə 1700-dən çox yeni söz gətirmişdir. O sözlərin çoxu bu gün
də istifadə olunur və həmin sözlərin üzərində asanlıqla isimdən felə, sifətdən felə və s.
çevrilmələr aparmaq mümkündür. Məsələn: mimic, negotiate, torture, champion, rant,
bedroom, obscene, assaissination, accused, generous və s.
1500-1800-cü illəri əhatə edən Erkən Müasir İngilis dili və 1800-cü ildən bu günə
kimi istifadə olunan Son Müasir İngilis dili arasında bəzi fərqlər var. XV-XVIII əsrlərdə
dilin daha çox formasında dəyişikliklər oldu. Britaniyalıların ətraf ölkələrlə olan sıx
ticarət və iqtisadi əlaqələri dilə yeni söz və frazalar gətirdi. Son Müasir İngilis dilinin
əhatə etdiyi dövrdə isə dildə neologizmlərin yaranma mənbələri və sayı fərqlidir. Sözü
gedən dövrdə ingilis dili iki əsas səbəbdən neologizmlər qazanıb. Birincisi sənayedəki
inqilab, texnologiyanın inkişafı ilə əlaqədar olaraq, ikinci isə Britaniya imperiyasının
bu zaman kəsiyində dünyanın demək olar ki, dörddə bir hissəsi üzərindəki hakimiyyəti
onun xarici ölkələrdən daha çox söz götürməsinə səbəb olmuşdur.
Dünya dəyişir və qaçılmaz olaraq lüğət tərkibi də dəyişikliyə uğrayır. İyirmi il
bundan əvvəl insanlar “noob”, “twitter”, “facebook” sözləri haqda heç nə bilmirdi. Halhazırda isə ingilis dili söz yaratma partlayışı yaşamaqdadır. Bəzi yeni sözlər yazılışca
bəzən heç sözə də bənzəmir. Məsələn: “noob” sözü virtual aləmdə istifadə olunur və
“yeni istifadəçi” anlamına gəlir, amma bəzən internet istifadəçiləri bu sözü “noob” olaraq
deyil, “o”hərfini “0” rəqəmi ilə əvəz edərək “n00b” şəklində yazmağa üstünlük verir.
Müasir dövrdə dilin söz mənbələri tamam fərqlidir. Məsələn: yeni yaranan idman
terminləri, siyasi dəyişikliklər və ya virtual dünyada işlənən sözlər. Bütün bunları nəzərə alsaq dildə olan sözlərin sayını müəyyənləşdirmənin mümkünsüzlüyü reallığını
anlayarıq.
Məsələnin başqa tərəfi isə sürətlə yaranan və lüğət tərkibinə daxil edilən sözlərin
neologizm kimi qəbul edilib edilməməsidir. Alimlər bildirir ki, yeni yaranan bir söz
ən azından dünyanın 60% -ni təşkil edən ölkələrdə məna kəsb etməli, alternativə malik
olmalıdır. Bu daha çox yeni ixtiralar səbəbi ilə yaranan sözlərə aiddir. Çünki bəzi dillər,
o cümlədən ingilis dili sözləri olduğu kimi qəbul etmə xüsusiyyətinə sahib olsalar da
elə dillər var ki, yeni yaranan sözlərin tərcümə edilməsinə və ya mahiyyətinə görə dilin
daxili imkanları hesabına başqa alternativlərlə əvəz olunmasına üstünlük verir. Odur
ki, bu cəhətdən qəbul edilməyən və bəzi ölkələrdə anlaşılmayan sözlər neologizm kimi
qəbul edilmir və bir müddət sonra başqa sözlərlə əvəz olunur.
16
April 27, 2012
Oxford lüğəti müxtəlif sahələrdə baş verən dəyişiklikləri əks etdirmək məqsədi ilə
daim yenilənir, lakin əlavə olunan bəzi sözlər insanları gələcəkdə dilin necə olacağına
dair qorxuya salır. Lüğətə daxil edilmiş uğursuz neologizmlərdən bəziləri:
Blamestorming- Heç kimin məsuliyyətini üzərinə götürmədiyi bir günahı kollektivin bir nəfərin üzərinə atması metodu anlamına gəlir. Bu sözün uğursuz olma səbəbi
ona dildə gərəyin olmamasıdır, çünki bu sözü əvəz edən “blame” sözü artıq mövcuddur
və bu fikri tam ifadə edir. Başqa səbəb isə “blamestorming” sözü “brainstorming” sözünün bir növ təqlidi olaraq yaradılmasıdır ki, bu da gülüş doğurur.
Threequel- Hansısa bir kitabın, filmin və s. üçüncü hissəsi anlamına gəlir. Bu söz
bütün hallarda işlənə bilmədiyi üçün doğru sayılmır, çünki “-quel” hissəciyini digər
rəqəmlərə əlavə etdikdə tələffüzdə çətinliklər yaranır.
Bu misallardan aydın şəkildə görmək olar ki, heç də dilə daxil edilmiş sözlərin
hamısı mükəmməl şəkildə düşünülməmişdir. Lingvistik nöqteyi-nəzərdən dil kommunikasiya üçün ən sadə vasitədir. Yeni ideyalar və konsepsiyalar dilə nüfuz edərkən o
kommunikasiyanı asanlaşdırmaq üçün bu amillərə uyğunlaşmalıdır. Dil ya yeni sözlər
qəbul edərək və ya yaradaraq zənginləşə, inkişaf edə bilər, ya da əksinə həmin sözlərin
sayəsində bəsitləşib, nizamsızlaşa bilər. Mühüm olan dilə çox sözün daxil olması deyil,
dilə uyğunlaşan və dilin uyğunlaşacağı sözlərin daxil edilməsi və istehza doğurmayacaq
şəkildə dilin öz imkanları hesabına yeni sözlərin yaradılmasıdır. Bu qaydalara əməl edilərək dəyişdirilən və yenilənən dilin daha zəngin olacağına heç bir şübhə ola bilməz.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
REFERENCES
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words04/history/index.html
http://piksels.com/words-invented-by-shakespeare
http://www.answers.com/topic/english-language
http://www.wordlab.com/
http://www.wordinfo.info/words/index/info/view_unit/4214/?letter=E&spage=5
http://www.cracked.com/article_17408_15-words-you-won19-t-believe-they-added-to dictionary_ p2. html
INFORMALITY IN AMERICAN ENGLISH
Aynur Huseyneliyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something
arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its
bases broad and low, close to the ground. Its final decisions are made by the masses, people nearest the
concrete, having most to do with actual land and sea. (“Slang in America”, Walt Whitman, 1885)
Everyday English consists of non-standard or informal features of the language, especially slangs,
phrases and idioms which are popularly adopted in the U.S., U.K. and other English speaking countries.
17
This research paper contains of some information about idioms, slang, jargons, colloquialism and dialects
that are ingredients of informal language and the usage of them in informal American speech.
Key words: informal, slang, idiom, jargon, colloquialism, dialect.
No living language is simply one set of words which can be used the same way in
all situations. There are an infinite variety of different ways to arrange the elements of
language. It means that we can express the same thing in different ways, depending
where we are, who we are talking to and how we feel. We can’t talk to friend’s mother
in the same manner we would talk to our friend. We can’t talk to a bartender the same
way we would talk to a judge. The degree of formality of the situation in which we are
attending, one of the main factor that determine which words and expressions are
appropriate in given case.
As Antrushina stated that informal vocabulary is used in one’s immediate circle;
family, relatives or friends and this style is relaxed, free and easy, familiar and unpretentious. (“Лексикология английского языка”; Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В, Афанасьева,
Н.Н. Морозова. 2004; p.31) Informal language is allowed in our everyday life, such
as, while playing sports, while studying with friends, at the party, with close family
members, while shopping etc. Informal English gives us a chance to deliver our thoughts
easily with simple words, idioms, phrases and so on which are away of difficult constructions.
Tomasz P.Srynaski gave some peculiar characteristics of informal English (http://
www.antimoon.com/how/formal-informal-english.htm):
1. Typically used in “improvised” speech when the speaker is speaking without preparation, as in a conversation (in real life or over the phone). It also occurs in writing
usually when the writer is writing quickly and without editing. eg; in an internet
chat room or in personal e-mails.
2. Sentences are shorter and simpler, eg; Looks like the discounts have actually worked.
3. Informal English contains useful “everyday phrases” like Here you are. Come again?
4. Phrasal verbs are used frequently. People prefer to say found out instead of discovered, got away instead of escaped.
5. Words and phrases are sometimes pronounced in a shortened and simplified way,
eg; Lemme go! Whassup? Whatch a gonna do?
“An informal style approximates the cadence and structure of spoken English while
conforming to the grammatical conventions of written English. "(G.J.Alred, C.T.Brusaw,
and W. E. Oliu, Handbook of Technical Writing, 9th ed. St. Martin's Press, 2008)
Prof. Argenis A.Zapata (2008) stated that vocabulary use of informal English is
somehow liberal and includes lots of cliches, colloquialisms, idioms, phrasal verbs,
proverbs and slang.
Most idioms have a nonliteral meaning. The meanings of words are arbitrarily stipulated in memory. The meanings of phrases and sentences, however, are derived
compositionally from the meanings of their individual words and their syntactic structure.
18
April 27, 2012
Since the meanings of idioms cannot be derived compositionally by the morpho-syntactic rules of a language (e.g. the meaning of kick the bucket cannot be derived from
the meanings of the words ‘kick’, ‘the’ and‘bucket’), the standard belief is that they too
must be arbitrarily stipulated in memory .(Chomsky, 1980; Cruse, 1986; Fraser, 1970;
Katz 1973).
Most idioms are fixed and it’s impossible to change the order of its elements. It’s
allowed to make substitutions of synonymous words into idioms without loss of their
idiomaticity. For example, in the idiom John gave up the ghost (= John died), we cannot
replace ghost by apparition.
For most idioms, we can establish some relation between their meaning and their
form. In fact, the meanings of an idiom's elements often play a role in the way we use
and understand idiom strings in conversation (Cacciari, 1993; Cacciari & Glucksberg,
1991; Gibbs, 1990; Gibbs & Nayak, 1989; Gibbs et al, 1989 a, b ; Keysar & Bly, 1995,
1999)
Most idioms are single items of vocabulary and they are language and culture specific. So they make sense or meaning mainly to the speakers of a given language or the
members of a given culture and they can’t be translated word for word into other languages.
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2007) defines slang as “very informal
words and expressions that are more common in spoken language, especially used by
a particular group of people; for example, children, criminals, soldiers etc.
According to Keith Allan and Kate Burridge: "The most significant characteristic
of slang overlaps with a defining characteristic of jargon: slang is a marker of in-group
solidarity, and so it is a correlate of human groups with shared experiences, such as
being children at a certain school or of a certain age, or being a member of a certain
socially definable group, such as hookers, junkies, jazz musicians, or professional criminals." (Keith Allan and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006)
Carl Sandburg gives more metaphorical definition: "Slang is a language that rolls
up its sleeves, spits on its hands, and goes to work." (Carl Sandburg)
"Slang serves the outs as a weapon against the ins. To use slang is to deny allegiance
to the existing order, either jokingly or in earnest, by refusing even the words which
represent conventions and signal status” (James Sledd, "On Not Teaching English Usage."
The English Journal, Nov. 1965)
As we know most people are individuals who desire uniqueness, it stands to reason
that slang has been in existence. Even so the question of why slang develops within a
language has been debated. The Historical Dictionary of American Slang points out
that many groups “use slang largely because they lack political power”. It’s simply a
safe and effective way that people rebel against the establishment.
Besides this, slang can be used for number of reasons like to be picturesque, arresting,
and different from others, to avoid “common” words, to demonstrate one’s spiritual
independence, to sound “modern” and ‘up to date” and so on.
19
Jargon is similar to slang - it is a specific set of words and phrases which are unique
to a small group of people. Jargon is work-related slang.
"Jargon is the verbal sleight of hand that makes the old hat seem newly fashionable;
it gives an air of novelty and specious profundity to ideas that, if stated directly, would
seem superficial, stale, frivolous, or false." (David Lehman)
Jonathan Guthrie called jargon poetry of modern business: "Jargon is the epic poetry
of modern business. It can turn a bunch of windbags in a meeting room into a 'quick
wins taskforce.' I once asked a handyman toiling in an office doorway whether he was
installing a wheelchair ramp. 'No,' he said solemnly, 'it's a diversity access feature.'"
(Jonathan Guthrie, "Three Cheers for the Epic Poetry of Jargon." Financial Times,
Dec. 13, 2007)
"Generally, when people use jargon not to communicate but to impress their audiences with their importance . . . or use it to announce membership in a group, communication suffers and the jargon can quickly degenerate into something close to the twittering of birds."(W. Lutz, "Jargon." Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1992)
Most of the time, jargon evolves because the people in a certain job need to use
certain words and terms which don't mean much to people not working in those areas
or with those machines. However, sometimes you get "corporate jargon" in which large
companies or offices deliberately create slogans which become jargon-these are usually
elaborate ways of saying things which could be said much more simply, and are used
so show that you are a "team player."
K. Allen and K. Burridge states that many people think that jargon should be censored. However, close examination of jargon shows that, although some of it is vacuous
pretentiousness and its proper use is both necessary and unobjectionable.
Colloquialism would be the language, words and phrases used in casual situations
by the people, as opposed to formal language.
“Over the last generation writing has become more informal than it ever was before.
The area of highly formal writing has shrunk considerable, like state papers, articles
in learned publications, legal documents, court decisions and so on. Other writing has
become quite hospitable to so -called colloquialism, it has become more informal,
more relaxed, more familiar, more casual”. (Theodore Bernstein, The Careful Writer.
Simon & Schuster, 1995)
A really good example would be to look at the way different people refer to
carbonated drinks - in the United States, we can tell where you are from by how you
ask for your beverage! People in the northeastern and middle states call it "pop," while
people in the western states say "soda." People in the south ask for a "coke" or for "dope!"
According to November publication of “Time” magazine (1954) The United States
colloquialisms evolve slowly. 'Jag,' 'tops,' 'dude' stayed around for decades before they
began to lose their freshness” ("Far-Out Words for Cats" Time magazine, Nov. 8, 1954)
Colloquial language is the low variety language which is popularly used by people
most of the time, so it is an everyday language used at home; with families and friends;
20
April 27, 2012
at shops etc. but not used at offices, educational institutions, formal conversations, or
media.
Dialect is a regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation,
grammar, or vocabulary, especially a way of speaking that differs from the standard
variety of the language. The scientific study of dialects is known as dialectology.
"Some people think of dialects as sub-standard varieties of a language, spoken only
by low-status groups--illustrated by such comments as 'He speaks correct English,
without a trace of dialect.' Comments of this kind fail to recognize that standard English
is as much a dialect as any other variety--though a dialect of a rather special kind, because
it is one to which society has given extra prestige. Everyone speaks a dialect-whether
urban or rural, standard or non-standard, upper class or lower class." (D. Crystal, How
Language Works. Overlook, 2006)
Conclusion
This study allowed me to find out information about informal English of America. I
was able to know how people use informal elements like slang, idioms, jargons and
so on in their everyday speech. As we know people prefer changes and being special.
They maintain it in their speech as well and avoid using trite phrases, expressions and
word-combinations. English language is very rich and one can express his or her thoughts
in numerous ways. So people use some idioms, slang, and jargons in their speech in
order to avoid monotonous utterance and such elements of informal language make
speech more vivid. All languages are developing continuously and it creates favorable
condition for invention of new words to make speech more colorful.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
“Slang in America”, Walt Whitman, 1885.
“Лексикология английского языка” ; Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В, Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова. 2004; p.31
G.J.Alred, C.T.Brusaw, and W.E.Oliu, Handbook of Technical Writing, 9th ed. St. Martin's Press, 2008
Chomsky, 1980; Cruse, 1986; Fraser, 1970; Katz 1973
Cacciari & Glucksberg, 1991; Nunberg et al, 1994
Keith Allan and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2007)
Historical Dictionary of American Slang
James Sledd, "On Not Teaching English Usage." The English Journal, Nov. 1965
Jonathan Guthrie, "Three Cheers for the Epic Poetry of Jargon." Financial Times, Dec. 13, 2007
W. Lutz, "Jargon." Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1992
Theodore Bernstein, The Careful Writer. Simon & Schuster, 1995
“Far-Out Words for Cats” Time magazine, Nov. 8, 1954
Neil Rafferty, "Queen Opens a Pricey Piece of Scots History." The Sunday Times, Oct. 10, 2004
D. Crystal, How Language Works. Overlook, 2006
http://grammar.about.com/od/classicessays/a/whitmanslang.htm (12.02.2012)
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_colloquial_language (12.02.2012)
http://www.antimoon.com/how/formal-informal-english.htm
http://webdelprofesor.ula.ve/humanidades/azapata/materias/english_4/formal_vs_informal_ english.
pdf (15.02.2012)
21
20. http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words_list/idioms.htm (17.02.2012)
21. http://www.quotecosmos.com/quotes/21539/view
DIFFERENCES IN EDUCATIONAL TERMINOLOGY IN
BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
Aytan Valiyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The English language is the most widely spoken of the Germanic languages. More than one billion
people use this language as a native or a secondary language. As a matter of fact, such a large number of
people all around the world speak English means that there’re many dialects and varieties. No human
language is fixed, uniform, or unvarying; all languages show internal variation. Actual usage varies from
group to group, and speaker to speaker, in terms of the pronunciation of a language, the choice of words
and the meaning of those words. The two major varieties used by people that have English as a native
language are British English and American English. Between British English and American English there
are different variations of vocabulary, spelling and phonology. Probably, the major differences between
these two varieties lies in the choice of vocabulary. This article compares the forms of British and American
English vocabulary in the area of education are mainly reflected on the fields of school, university and some
general terms.
Key words: British English, American English, school, public school, college, student, pupil, professor,
graduate, take an exam.
There is a difference between American and British usage in the word school. In
British usage school by itself refers only to primary and secondary schools and to sixth
forms attached to secondary schools - if one "goes to school", this type of institution
is implied. By contrast an American student at a university may talk of "going to school"
or "being in school". US law students and medical students almost universally speak
in terms of going to "law school" and "med school", respectively.
While comparing school years in British (except Scotland) and American English
we can notice that the secondary school in the United States also includes middle school
or junior high school which is two or three year transitional school between elementary
and high school. Let’s pay attention the difference in the definition of public school in
these two countries. It is government-owned and supported by taxpayers in the US,
while in the UK it refers to ill-defined private independent schools funded by students’
fees. However, those schools supported by government are called state school in the
UK.1
The word college is different in its usage too. In the US it refers to a post-high
school institution that grants either associate's or bachelor's degrees, but in the UK it
refers to any post-secondary institution that is not a university. In both the US and UK
college can refer to some division within a university such as the "college of business
22
April 27, 2012
and economics" though in the UK "faculty" is more often used. Institutions in the US
that offer two to four years of post-high school education often have the word college
as part of their name, while those offering more advanced degrees are called a university.
Among high-school and college students in the United States, the words freshman,
sophomore, junior and senior refer to the first, second, third, and fourth years respectively.
Many institutes in both countries also use the term first-year as a gender-neutral replacement for freshman, although in the US this is recent usage, formerly referring only
to those in the first year as a graduate student. One exception is the University of
Virginia; since its founding in 1819 the terms "first-year", "second-year", "third-year",
and "fourth-year" have been used to describe undergraduate university students. In the
UK first-year university students are sometimes called freshers early in the academic
year; however, there aren’t specific names neither for those in other years, nor for
school pupils. Graduate and professional students in the United States are known by
their year of study, such as a "second-year medical student" or a "fifth-year doctoral
candidate."
In the UK a university student is said “to study”, “to read or informally to do” a
subject. In the recent past the expression “to read a subject” was more common at the
older universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. In the US a student studies or majors
in a subject .To major in something refers to the student's principal course of study; to
study may refer to any class being taken.2
At university level in BrE, each module is taught by a lecturer or tutor; professor
is the job-title of a senior academic. In AmE each class is generally taught by a professor
(although some US tertiary educational institutions follow the BrE usage). A British
professor is not exactly equivalent to a US professor, because the latter category divides
into three levels: full professor, associate professor, and assistant professor. In the UK,
the ranks below professor are reader, then senior lecturer (though some universities
treat these grades as equivalent in salary, but different in function), then lecturer.3
In the UK, a student is said to sit or take an exam, while in the U.S., a student takes
an exam. The expression he sits for an exam also arises in BrE, but only rarely in AmE.
American lawyers-to-be sit for their bar exams and American master's and doctoral
students may sit for their comprehensive exams, but in nearly all other instances,
Americans take their exams. When preparing for an exam students revise (BrE)/review
(AmE) what they have studied.
In the US anyone who finishes studying at any educational institution by passing
relevant examinations is said to graduate and to be a graduate, but in the UK only
degree and above level students can graduate. These days student itself has a wider
meaning in AmE. It is used more and more for people studying above the primary
school level, but pupil is still used in secondary school contexts as well. Pupil is
understood in AmE, but generally not used - all learners in institutions of education are
students in AmE. Whereas in BrE it tends to be used for people studying at a postsecondary educational institution and the term pupil is widely used for a young person
at primary or secondary school.
23
Of two major varieties of English, American English has begun to influence the
English spoken in Europe. Nevertheless, British English is still dominant in the schools
and universities. Furthermore, most teachers speak British English and most educational
material is based on the British English variety.
END NOTE
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1971. S. v., “public education”.
En.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_Englishdifferences#Education
O.М. Воевудская, О.В.Ивашенко. Практикум по лексикологии современнево английского
языка. p103.
REFERENCES
Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1971. S. v., “public education”.
En.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_Englishdifferences#Educatio
O.М. Воевудская, О.В.Ивашенко. Практикум по лексикологии современнево английского
языка. p103.
COMPARISON RELATING TO LANGUAGE SIMILARITIES
BETWEEN THE TURKISH AND JAPANESE LANGUAGES
Emine KOSE
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The goal of this study is to explain similarities between the Turkish and Japanese languages. According
to my research these two languages have similar property and also comes from paralel roots.This research is
support The Japanese and Turkish languages include similar words. All similarty is sign that, these two
different languages have language relationship.Language relationship and old roots are support to
connection between The Japanese and Turkish Languages.
Key Words:The Japanese Language and Turkish Languages, Similar Property, Similar Roots, Similar
words, Language Relationship.
Bugün dünyada 220 milyona yakın insan Türk Dilini konuşmakta ve yaşatmaktadır.
Türkçe dünyada en fazla konuşulan dil olarak 15.sırada yer almaktadır. Türk dili yapılan sıralandırmalarda Altay dilleri kümesine sokulur. Altay dilleri de Ural-Altay dil
ailesi içinde sayılır.Mehmet Fuat Bozkurtun ele aldığı makaleye göre, bu alanda ilk
araştırma yapan İsveçli Philipp Von Strahlenberg'dir. İlk gereçleri Avrupa ve Asya'nın
Kuzeyi ile Doğu Bölümleri adlı kitabında verilmiştir.
Winkler, Ural-Altay dil ailesini daha da genişleterek ölü dillerden Sümer ve Akad
dilleri bu aileden saymıştır. Japoncanın Altay dillerinden sayılması Boller, Grunzel,
Pröhle gibi bilim adamları tarafından ayrıca savunulmuştur.Türk dili, Altay dil ailesinin
Oğuz kolunda bulunur. Altay dilleri dünyanın birçok coğrafyasına yayılmış ve yaygın
olarak kullanılmıştır.Avrupadan, Orta Doğuya ve Orta Asyadan Uzak Doğuya kadar
24
April 27, 2012
varabilen büyük bir alanda konuşulan bir dil ailesidir.Ayrıca Altay Kolunda Türk dilleri,
Moğol,Mançu Tunguz ve Japon ve Kore dilleri bulunur.Türk Dilleri içinde Moğol,
Mançu, ve Tunguz dillerinin bu soydan geldiği kesin olarak kabul edilmekle beraber,
Japon ve Kore dillerinin Altay Dil Ailesine ait olup olmadığı halen tartışmalı bir konudur.
Altay Diller Ailesi kendi içinde de gruplara ayrılır:
Oğuz,Kıpçak,Çuvaş,Uygur,ve Yakut başıca kollarıdır.Oğuz Kolu içinde: Türkçe,
Azerice ve Türkmence yer alır.
Japon dili ve Kore Dili ise izole dil olarak adlandırılır. Ancak enteresan olan nokta
Türk dili ve Japon dilinin aynı gramatik özellikleri taşımasıdır.
Türk Dilinin özellikleri şunlardır:
1. Sondan eklemeli bir dildir
2. Ön ek almazlar
3. Ünlü uyumu gözetilir
4. Cinsiyet ayrımı yapılmaz
5. Soru eki kullanılır
6. Özne Nesne, Yüklem uyumu vardır
Yukarıda ki bu özellikler aynen Japon dilinde de geçerlidir.Bu benzerlikler, Japon
dilinin de Altay Diller Ailesi içinde olduğuna dair güçlü benzerliklerdir.Dil akrabalığını
güçlendiren düşünce, biçim benzerliğidir.Bu akrabalık günümüzde tam olarak kabul
gören bir düşünce değildir. Bazı araştırmacılar Japon dilini Kore dilinin bir lehçesi
olarak kabul ederler, ancak bu fikir de kesin olarak kabul görmemiştir.Japon dili ve
Türk dilinin biçim ve gramatik benzerlikler dışında dikkat çekici bir nokta da ses benzerliklerinin ve hatta kelime benzerliklerini olmasıdır.Buna örnek olarak aşagıdaki
kelimeleri gösterebiliriz:
Türkçe
Japonca
Türkçe
Japonca
Kyotonun
Ankaraya gitti
İmiş
Kara
Alaca
İçi
Kırar
Sonra da
Yaban
Kyotonu
Ankara itta
imas
Kuray
Akasa
Uçi
Kireru
Sore de
Yaban
Ara
Yukarı
Giy
Taksi de
Nedir ki?
İyi
Akasya
Yamaç
Koyu
Ada
Agaru
Gi
Takuşi de
Nan des ka?
İi
Akashia
Yama
Koi
Yukarıda yazılı örnekleri incelediğimizde kelimelerdeki mana, ses ve yazım benzerliği şaşırtıcı derece yakındır.Bu yakınlık, dil üzerine çalışmalar yapan dilcilere akrabalığı düşündüren ve araştırmaya iten somut sebeplerden sayılabilir.Yalnızca Türk
dilciler değil, Japon dili üzerine araştırma yapan dilciler de bu konuyla ilgilenmişlerdir.
Japoncanın dünya dilleri arasındaki yerini ilk kez inceleyen Katsuki Fujioka, Japoncanın ilk olarak Ural-Altay dilleri ile akrabalığı meselesinin ciddi olarak araştırılması
25
gerektiğini savunmuştur.Fujioka’ya göre Japonca ile bu diller arasında pek çok ortak
özellik bulunuyor.Ural-Altay dillerinin en belirgin özellikleri Japon dilinin içinde de
mevcuttur.Altay dillerinin birkaç özelliği şunlardır:
1. Ünlü Uyumunun bulunması
2. Eylem eklerinin çokluğu
3. Dilsel cinsiyet ayrımının bulunmaması
4. Adlarda belirli belirsizlik edatlarının olmaması
5. Öntakı yerine sontakı bulunması
6. Soru edatlarının azlığı
7. bağlaçların azlığı
8. Söz başında (r)ünsüzünün bulunmaması
9. Adılların Hint-Avrupa dillerinden farklı biçimde çekimlenmesi
Bu gibi örnekler, Japon dilinin Ural-Altay dil ailesi içinde olduğu savını güçlendirmektedir. Türkler dünya üzerinde geniş coğrafyalara yayılmışlar ve bunun sonucu
olarak da kendisi ile soy bakımından yakınlığı olan veya olmayan pek çok milletle ve
dille temasa geçmişlerdir. Bu yakınlık sonucunda Türkçe ile bu diller arasında karşılıklı
etkilenmeler olmuştur, Türkçe temasta oldukları bu dillere kelimeler vermiş ve başka
dillerden de kelimeler almıştır.
Özellikle Arapça ve Farsça en çok ortak kelimenin kullanıldığı dillerdir.Bunun yanı
sıra,Japonca gibi çok uzak gibi görünen bu dilin aynı mana ve ses benzerliğinde kelimelere sahip olması benim araştırmalarıma göre bu bir tesadüf olamaz.Öyle ki, Çin,
Sanskrit ve Slav dillerinden de Türkçeye birçok kelime girmiştir. Ancak tüm bu saydığımız dillerle Türkçenin yapıca ilişkisi yoktur. Bunun yanında Fin-Ugor, Moğol, Tunguz,
Kore ve Japon dilleri için aynı şeyi söyleyemiyoruz. Bu dillerin bazılarıyla Türk dilleri
arasında önemli benzerlikler vardır. Özellikle Türkçe ve Moğolca arasındaki benzerlikler
dikkat çekicidir.
Aynı dil ailesi içinde olduğuna dair bu kadar güçlü kanıtlar bulunan bu dillerin,
aynı kelimeleri kullanıyor olması da bir tesadüf değil,geçmişten günümüze uzanan
toplumlar arası etkileşimin bir göstergesidir. Bütün diller incelenirken sadece günün
koşullarına ve coğrafi konumuna göre değerlendirme yapmak, o dili kısır bir döngü
içine sokmaktır.Türkler, yüzyıllar boyu farklı milletlerle bir arada yaşamış ve farklı
coğrafyalarda kültürlerini, dillerini yaymışlardır.Bir dil içinde aynı gramatik yapı, ses
ve mana benzerliği taşıyan kelimeler bulunması ,dil akrabalığı meselesini düşündüren
en önemli işaretlerdir.Bütün bu tarihsel bilgiler ışığında 20.yy’ın başından itibaren
Türkiyeli Türkologlar Türk dilinin geçmişten günümüze kadar uzanan gelişimini en
ince ayrıntısına kadar incelemeye başlamışlar ve bu dönem araştırmaların geliştiği bir
dönem olmuştur.Sadece Türkiyeli Türkologlar değil,20.yy da dünyanın birçok ülkesinde
Türkoloji ile ilgili araştırmalar giderek artmaya başlamıştır.Japonya ve ABD’de Türkoloji çalışmaları yapan kurum ve kişilerin sayısında büyük bir artış yaşanmıştır. Dille
ilgili başlıca inceleme alanları fonetik, fonoloji, gramer (morfoloji, sentaks), etimoloji,
semantik, filoloji ve diyalektolojidir.Stilistikte son zamanlarda önemi artan alanlardan
biridir.
26
April 27, 2012
Prof.Dr.Ahmet Bican Ersilasun’un ‘Türk Dili Üzerine Yeni Yaklaşımlar’ adlı makalesinde Türk dilinin başka dillerle olan akrabalığı meselesi farklı bir açıdan incelenmiştir. Ersilasun makalesinde Avrasyatik Dil Ailesine dikkat çekmektedir.Bu makaledeki bilgiye göre; Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nde 1980’den sonra gelişen bazı yeni
akımlarda dünya dilleri daha geniş ailelere ayrılmakta ve hatta bütün dillerin aynı kökten
çıktığı ileri sürülmektedir. Joseph Greenberg’in ortaya koyduğu geniş ailelerden biri
de Avrasyatik Büyük Ailesi (Eurasiatic Macrofamily) adını taşımaktadır. Bu teoriye
göre Avrasyatik büyük ailesi içinde yedi dil ailesi vardır: Hint-Avrupa, Ural, Altay,
Gilyak, Kore-Japon-Aynu, Çukça, Eskimo-Aleut (Greenberg 2000). Görüldüğü gibi
Türkçenin içinde bulunduğu Altay ailesi de Avrasyatik büyük ailesinin bir koludur ve
diğer ailelerin içindeki diller de Türkçenin uzak akrabaları kabul edilmektedir.Bu bilgiye de dayanarak diyebiliriz ki, ana çerçeve içinde zaten bu iki dil, dil akrabalığına
sahiptir.Kuramsal Altay dilinden ilk olarak Japoncanın, ardından Korecenin ayrıldığı
düşünülmektedir.Türkologlar dilin tarihsel gelişimini tamamlama meselesini tam olarak
çözümlemiş değildir.Ana hatlarıyla belirlenen tasnifler kabul edilmekle beraber, tarihsel
dönemler arasındaki geçiş ve köksel bağlar tarihlendirme meselesi, bugün halen araştırılmakta ve tartışılmaktadır.
Dil,gelişen değişen ve büyüyen canlı bir olgudur.Sosyal yaşam,kültür,coğrafya
değişen yaşam koşulları, bu olguya beslenmesi için gıda sağlayan kaynaklardır Bu
kaynaklar,dilin öz benliği korunup saklanmak şartıyla, hangi tarih ve koşulda olursa
olsun dil üzerinde muhakkak güçlü bir etki yaratmakta ve dili zenginleştirmektedir.
Türk dili ve Japon dili, bu uzak, aralarında herhangi bir yakınlık olduğu ilk bakışta
akla gelmeyecek olan diller,aslında aynı dil ailesinin birbirine uzak akrabalarıdır.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Türk Dünyası El Kitabı (Osman Nedim Saba)2Cilt, Dil Kültür Sanat,Ankara, 2002
Altay Dilleri Teorisi, Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Yayını:6, Istanbul, 1983.
Türk Dilleri Araştırmaları (Talat Tekin)1992, Simurg Yayıncılık.
http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/ESKI TURK DİLİ
http://www.mainboard24.com
http://www.abercilasun.com
USE OF THE SUBJECT AS A RHEME IN
AZERBAIJANI AND ENGLISH
Gunay Mammadli, Gunay Alizade
Undergraduate students
Qafqaz University
[email protected], [email protected]
ABSTRACT
In this research paper our purpose is to indicate differences and similarities using of subject as a rheme
in Azerbaijani and English. From the point of view of communicative effective , the important positions
in the clause are the initial and final position. We have examined separately the two structures involved,
27
which are mapped on to each other. The Theme-Rheme thematic structure and Given-New information
structure.
Theme and Rheme is also called Active and Passive Alternative. It means that, the topic/ theme of
the sentence is called Active Alternative , and rheme is called Passive Alternative. In contrast to rheme,
theme gives information about previous talking or life experience to speaker.
We encounter using of subject as a rheme in literature. Logical stress and Intonation helps us to find
out rheme in a sentence . That is why we can understand the rheme in speaking more than writing.
Generally speaking, there some elements which can help us to distinguish Theme from Rheme: word
order, intonation, auxiliary verbs , lexical repetition.
Key word: theme, rheme, intonation, word order, auxiliary verbs.
Dilçilik ədəbiyyatında cümlənin bir neçə baxımdan, o cümlədən ənənəvi, aktual və
sintaqmatik üzvlənməsi göstərilir. Cümlənin ənənəvi üzvlənməsi onun formal qrammatik
təhlilinə görə aparılır.Cümlənin ənənəvi üzvlənməsində cümlənin baş üzvləri (mübtəda,
xəbər), ikinci dərəcəli üzvlər (təyin,tamamliq,zərflik) fərqləndirilir.Cümlənin qrammatik strukturu bu yolla şərh edilir.
K.Abdullayevə görə, cümlənin tərkibində ancaq sintaktik baxımdan bitkin üzvlərin
ayrılması,seçilməsi o qədər də düzgün sayıla bilməz.Belə ki, cümlənin quruluşunda
təkcə onun sintaktik üzvləri deyil,digər səviyyələri də (morfoloji, leksik) vahid ve elementlərini də nəzərə almaq vacibdir.Bu alimin fikrincə, cümlə quruluşunda onun tərkib
hissələri sintaktik səviyyədə cümlə üzvləridir, leksik səviyyədə cümlə vahidləri, morfoloji səviyyədə cümlə elementləridir.
“Əhmədin qardaşı dünən Baki şəhərinə gəldi” cümləsi sintaktik, leksik ve morfolji
səviyyələrdə aşağidaki kimi üzvləne bilər:
1. Cümlə üzvlərinə – Əhmədin qardaşi, dünən, Bakı şəhərinə, gəldi.
2. Soz formalarina – Əhmədin, qardaşi, dünən, Bakı, şəhərinə, gəldi.
3. Cümlə elementlərinə – Əhməd-in, qardaş-i, dünən, Bakı, şəhər-i-nə, gəl-di.
Cümlənin ikinci üzvlənməsi aktual üzvlənmədir.Dilçilikdə “cümlənin aktual üzvlənməsi” termini ilə yanaşı, “kommunikativ üzvlənmə”, “kontekstual üzvlənmə”, “tema”
və “rema” üzrə üzvlənmə “cümlənin funksional perspektiv”, “cümlənin aktual perspektivi” kimi terminlər də eyni anlayişi bildirmək üçün işlədilir.
Kommunikativ sintaksis əsasinda cümlənin sintaktik quruluşu və onun funksional
yükünün üzə cıxarılması aktual üzvlənmə hesab olunur.Aktual üzvlənmənin komponentləri “məlum olan” (köhnə), “məlum olmayan” (yeni) terminləri ilə ifadə olunur.
Aktual üzvlənmə belə bir cəhəti nəzərə alır ki,eyni bir formal qrammatik cümlə söz
sırası vurğu və intonasiyadan asılı olaraq müxtəlif anlamların ifadəsi üçün işlənə bilər.
Hər iki kommunikativ məqsədə xidmət ədən cümlə iki hissədən- tema ve remadan
ibarət olur.
Tema danışana,dinləyənə məlum olan informasiyadir.Tema sohbətin, verilən məlumatin predmetidir. Başqa sözlə, cümlədə nə haqqında söhbət gədirsə,o temadir. Cümlədə verilən yeni məlumat isə remadir.Eyni bir cümlədə rema müxtəlif yerdə ola bilər.
Məsələn:
28
April 27, 2012
He ‘shaved him’self (himself –rema), ‘He shaved himself (he -rema)
He ‘shaved himself (shaved –rema)
Söyləmlərdə remanı nişanlayan vasitələrə söz sirasi, kontrastiv vurğu və intonasiya
daxildir.Söz sırasını dəyişməklə eyni bir söz bir halda tema, digər halda isə rema ola
bilər. Məsələn:
Helen should be the first to receive her diploma.
The first to receive her diploma should be Helen.
Birinci cümlədə “Helen”- tema, ikinci cümlədə isə remadir.
Where are we going today?-To ‘watch the footbal match.
Bu sual cümləsinə verilən cavabda rema “football match” birləşməsidir. Burada
rema intonasiya vasitəsilə nəzərə çarpdırılır.
Where are we going today?- We are ‘going to ‘watch the ‘football match.
Rema dedikdə mueyyen aksent-melodik xüsusiyyətlərə malik soyləmin elə hissəsi
və ya soyləm nəzərdə tutulur ki,burada dinləyiciyə sadəcə olaraq hər hansı konkret
məlumat, fakt və s. deyil, modal və emosional xarakterli informasiya verilir.Rema yenini əhatə etsə də, bununla kifayətlənmir.Soyləmin rema hissəsi danışanın verdiyi məlumatda nəyi daha vacib saydığını,yəni dinləyicinin onu ən vacib hadisə, məlumat çatdırılmasına kömək edir.Bununla yanaşı, rema danışanın gercəkliyə, öz nitqinin məzmununa, ünsiyyət şəraitinə, müsahibinin fiziki və emosional vəziyyətinə münasibət
bildirir.
Remadan fərqli olaraq yuxarıda qeyd edildiyi kimi, tema söyləmin aksent-melodik
cəhətdən elə hissəsidir ki, burada dinləyiciyə əvvəlki söhbətdən və ya həyat təcrübəsindən məlum olan hər sey haqqında danışılır.
E.Sevyakovaya göre cümlənin aktual üzvlənməsi prosodik-intonasiya vasitələri
nəzərə alınmadan mümkün deyildir.Bu mənada kontrastiv vurgu cümlənin aktual üzvlənməsində, yəni remanın nəzərə çarpdırılmasında mühüm rol oynayır.Intonasiya sözlərdə, söz birləşmələrində məna birliyi yaradır, predikativliyi ifadə edir, cümlənin məna
mərkəzini – yəni remanı göstərir.
Əgər rema cümlənin əvvəlində olarsa, məsələn “’Jane has left for London”, bu
halda “Jane” sözü rematik vurğunun ,”left” ve “London” sözləri isə tematik vurgunun
daşıyıcısı kimi çıxış ədəcək.
E.M.Cavadov “Müasir Azərbaycan ədəbi dilinin sintaktik vahidlərinin sırası”adlı
tədqiqatinda cümlə üzvləri sırasının pozulmasından bəhs edərkən belə yazir: “Dilin daxili qanunları əsasında yaranan sırayla, danışanların arzusundan asılı olaraq bəzən edilə
biləcək dəyişiklik bir-biriylə qarışırılmışdır”.
Bizim fikrimizcə, bu dəyişiklik verilən yeni melumati –remanı qüvvətləndirmək
məqsədindən irəli gəlir.Bununla həm ingilis, həm də Azərbaycan dilində mübtəda “yaxud onun qrupu nəqli cümlədə rema ifaedici kimi çıxış etdikdə inversiyaya uğrayıb,
yəni mövqeyini dəyişərək xəbərdən sonra gəlir.
Inversiya yolu ilə mübtəda aşağıdakı hallarda temadan remaya keçir.
29
Mövcudiyyət (eksiztensional) mənasını bildirən cümlələrdə işlənən “to be, to lie,
sit, stand, hang, live, come, run, follow, swim, fly, and so on təsviri fellərlə ifadə olunan
xəbərdən sonra gələrsə Adv-v-s ardıcıllıgı nəzərə çarpır.Məsələn:
High above the city; on a tall column; stood the statue of the Happy Prince;-Seherden xeyli yuksekde;hundur sutun uzerinde Xosbext Sahzade heykeli dayanmisdi.
Misallardan göründüyü kimi,ingilis dilindən fərqli olaraq Azərbaycan dilində yaşamaq, dayanmaq, durmaq, gəlmək, qaçmaq, uzmək, uçmaq kimi hərəkət və vəziyyət
bildirən fellərlə ifadə olunan xəbərlə inversiyaya uğrayan mübtədaya nəsr əsərləri və
danışıq dilində təsaduf olunmur.
Inversiyaya uğramiş hər mübtəda rema ifaedici kimi çıxış etmir.Məsələn ismi
xəbəri ikiqat inversiyası olan cümləni nəzərdən keçirək:
Flame coloured are his wings, and coloured like flame in his body.
Onun qanadı və bədəni alov rəngdədir.
Belə quruluşa malik olan cümlələr mövcudiyyət mənasını bildirmədiyinə görə və
onunla əlaqədar yer zərfliyi olmadığına görə mübtəda rema ola bilməz.
Gozəl olur çöldə çəmənlər, çaylar.
Tema ve remanı ayırd etmək üçün formal göstəriciləri də nəzərə almaq lazımdır.
Aşağıdakılardır:
1. Söz sırası;
2. Intonasiya vasitələri (tempt,ritm,pauza)
3. Köməkçi vasitələr (ədat, işarə əvəzliyi və s.)
4. Leksik təkrarlar;
5. Monoloji nitqdə sual cümlələri;
6. Cümlə üzvü vəzifəsi daşıyan qoşulan konstruksiyalar, sözlərin,söz birləsmələrinin
əvvəlinə gəlib onları xüsusi olaraq nəzərə çarpdıran xüsusən, o cümlədən, özü də
illah və hətta kimi sözləri və s. (Hornby , Guide to Patterns and Usage in English,
Oxford , 1975)
Ədatlar
Mübtədanın rema kimi çixiş etməsindən həm Azərbaycan, həm də ingilis dilində
müəyyən məna çalarliği verən ədatlar mühüm rol oynayır.Bunlardan qüvvətləndirici
ədatlar da, də, bele, artiq, hətta, lap, axır, hec; ingilis dilində just, even ; məhdudlaşdirici ədatlar ancaq, yalnız, bircə, tək, təkcə, fəqət; ingilis dilində only,merely; qarşılasdıran ədat ilə dəqiqləsdirici elə, məhz-mainly,such as mübtədanın əvvəlində işlənərək
rematizator vəzifəsini gösterir.
There were only a few small bloody pieces of him left.- Ikinci anda isə onda
yalniz qanlı hissələr qalmışdır.
Even Cindy was watching him covertly. – Hətta Sindi belə ona gozalti baxırdı.
Qayıdış əvəzlikləri
Azərbaycan və ingilis dillərində remalasdirici ünsürlərdən biri də qayıdış əvəzlikləridir.
30
April 27, 2012
Ingilis dilində remalaşdırıcı qayıdış əvəzlikləri içərisində daha çox işlənən şəxs
bildirən qayıdış əvəzlikləridir.
The men themselves snow covered in their exposed position.- Sığınacaqsız olan
adamlar özləri də qara bələnmişdilər.
There is / are
Bu ifadə Azərbaycan dilinde vardir mənasini verir.Buna görə də “there” sözü yer
zərfliyi mənasını bildirməyərək,ifadənin düzəldilməsi üçün formal vasitədir.Yesperin
“there is /are” ifadəli cümlələri mövcudiyyet menali cumlələr adlandırır.Buna görə də
there is/are ifadəli sintaktik birləşməsi ilə işlənən mübtəda həmin mənanın hesabına
rema vəzifəsini daşıyır.
Tərkibinde 3 üzv olur:
There is phone in my car.
1. There formal sözündən sonra is/are – tema;
2. Mübtəda –rema;
3. Yer zərfliyində - tema
There was a little pause before answer. Cavabdan qabaq yüngül bir süküt çökdü.
Qoşa bağlayıcılı birləşmələr
Ingilis dilində korrelyativ qoşa bağlayıcılardan either...or, both...and, neither...nor;
Azərbaycan dilində sayca nisbətən çox məna cəhətdən qarşılıqlı olan gah-gah da, yaya da, ister-isterse de,hem-hemde,ne-ne de birlikdə işlənən mübtədalar rema ifadə edir.
Ingilis dilində neither...nor bağlayıcısının işləndiyi cümlənin xəbəri təsdiq formasinda olduğu kimi , Azərbaycan dilində də deyil,yaxud sözləri işlənmir.
Both horn and lights were signals of dangerously for pressure.
Həm səs,həm işiq siqnallari həyat üçün təhlükəlidir.
İnkar əvəzlikləri
None, noone, nobody, nothing, any, anybody, neither, Azərbaycan dilində hec kim,
hec kəs, heçnə, heç bir şey mürəkkəb quruluşlu inkar əvəzlikləri cümlənin mübtədası
kimi xüsusi vurğuyla deyilərək inkarlığı qüvvətləndirir və rema vəzifəsini daşıyır.
Nobody goes on that kind of journey without baggage.It doesn’t make any sense.
Hec kim belə uzaq səfərə yüksüz çıxmır.Hec ağila batan işə oxşamır.
Məlumdur ki,ingilis dilində inkar əvəzlikləri ilə ifadə olunan mübtəda yalnız təsdiq
formasında olan xəbərlə uzlaşır.Ingilis dilindən fərqli olaraq,Azərbaycan dilində inkar
əvəzlikli mübtəda inkarda ifadə olunan xəbərlə uzlaşır.( Ilyish B.A. The structure of
Modern English .1965)
Hər dildə oxşar cəhətlər:
1. Rema ifadə edən mübtəda isim,şəxs,qeyri-muəyyən və qayıdış əvəzlikləri substantivləşmiş sifət və sayla ifadə oluna bilər.
2. Mübtəda- rema söz sırasının pozulması,yəni inversiya.
31
3. Mübtəda mövcudiyyət mənasını bildirən cümlələrdə rema vəzifəsini daşıyır.
4. Qoşa baglayıcılı birləşmələr tərkibində mübtədalar rema kimi çıxış edir.
5. Qüvvətləndirici, məhdudlaşdırıcı və dəqiqləşdirici ədatlar mübtəda-rema ilə yanaşı
işlənərək remalaşdırıcı rolunu oynayır. (Abdullayev K. Azərbaycan dilinin sintaksisinin nəzərə məsələləri B.1999)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
REFERENCES
Abdullayev K. Azərbaycan dilinin sintaksisinin nəzərə məsələləri B.1999
Şevekova V. E. Sovremenniy anqliyskiy ezik . M. 1980
Harper’s English Grammar .N. Y. 1965
Hornby , Guide to Patterns and Usage in English, Oxford , 1975
Ilyish B.A. The structure of Modern English .1965
THE COLOR FACTOR IN THE USE OF ENGLISH
Gunay Poladova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to show the colorful sides of English language. Every time we learn the
grammar, tense forms, sentence structure and etc. Sometimes it can be boring during the learning process.
The exactness and expressiveness of the speech is dependent on using naturally words and expressions.
We build our speech on the basis definite grammatical rules. Like words, stable compounds, idioms also
play a role in the enrichment of language. The theme which I will talk in my research article is about Idioms
of English language, especially about the Color idioms. These idioms make the language more meaningful
and useful. In our daily life while conversation we can not use the formal language. Mostly we use informal
language and the different types of idioms make our speech impressive. By this way we can express our
feelings much more clearly. Also we must know the exact meaning of idioms. When we use the idiom
“to drink till all's blue” about a person who never tasted the alcohol of course you will be in a comic
situation. From the name of Colour Idioms we can find some amusing sides but when we enter to the deeps
of a topic we see that it is not possible as we imagine. It also have a great relation with grammar. Foreign
students or a person who is English is not their native language can learn this relation from books linguists
wrote about it.
Key words: English language, Colour idioms, formal and informal language.
Idiom is a Greek word-means special feature, special phrasing. It is an expression,
word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a
common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning or definition
of the words of which it is made .There are estimated to be at least 25,000 idiomatic
expressions in the English language. In linguistics, idioms are usually presumed to be
figures of speech contradicting the principle of compositionality; yet the matter
remains debated. In phraseology, they are defined in a similar way as a sub-type of
phrase whose meaning is not the regular sum of the meanings of its components. English
idioms differ from others for their difference and richness. The translation of these
32
April 27, 2012
idioms to other languages is important and difficult issue in linguistics. The main
reason of wrong translation of idioms is the choosing it wrongly from the context,
other reason is the wrong understanding of translator. John Saied defines an "idiom"
as words collocated that became affixed to each other until metamorphosing into a
fossilised term .This collocation—words commonly used in a group—redefines each
component word in the word-group and becomes an idiomatic expression. Moreover,
an idiom is an expression, word, or phrase whose sense means something different
from what the words literally imply. The idiom "beating around the bush" means to
hint or discuss obliquely; nobody is literally beating any person or thing, and the bush
is a metaphor. When a speaker uses an idiom, the listener might mistake its actual
meaning, if he or she has not heard this figure of speech before. Idioms usually do not
translate well; in some cases, when an idiom is translated into another language, either
its meaning is changed or it is meaningless. As defined by The New International
Webster’s College Dictionary, an idiom is an expression not readily analyzable from
its grammatical construction or from the meaning of its component parts. It is the part
of the distinctive form or construction of a particular language that has a specific form
or style present only in that language. Random House Webster’s College Dictionary
seems to agree with this definition, even expanding it further, stating that an idiom is
an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usual grammatical rules of a
language or from the usual meanings of its constituent elements. There are idioms
which mention different colours and people will recognize them as translations of their
own language, but often enough other words are used in the different languages. Some
of the common ones use the colours blue, green and red and are groups of words that
combine a preposition with the colour such as "out of the blue" or a verb and a preposition such as "He saw red." Since the idiom is supposed to give you a meaning which
is far from the meaning of the key word or object that creates it, new learners have
difficulties being able to image that colours have anything to do with something that
is not a refection of a light wave frequency. When the student sees that he "sees red"
in his language that is often a good beginning point for the person to see that there
may be other similar idioms. In the meantime he will likely absorb other idioms and
their expressions.at the end of my speech I want to say that there are other idioms he
may know from popular English songs which uses "feel blue," for example. if the learner
has a musical ear he might take advantage of his ability to perceive other idioms in
the future. he can also learn that colours have been associated to certain emotions, as
blue is associated with sadness and red with anger. green with envy and white with
fear as in "white as a ghost." Others like yellow may be just stated in a simple sentence
with the present of be, as in "you're yellow," mean you are a coward. Here I want to
show some colour idioms and their translations.
Idioms with “Black”- things look black – the works goes wrong / bad
Black looks – looking angry-When I started to tell the story,
Carol gave me a really dirty look
33
Black as hell (night, pitch, my hat)-very dark ( gecə qara cücə qara)-The streets
was black as hell.
Black as sin (thunder, thundercloud) black as sin (thunder, thundercloud) – başının üstünü qara bulud almaq- Like black as sin , she was sitting infront of the window.
To know black from white – ağı qaradan seçmək- I am already at the age of to
know black from white idioms with “White”
As white as a ghost- qorxudan rəngi ağarmaq- My sister became as white as a
ghost when she saw the man at the window as white as a sheet- solğun- I felt
terrible this morning and in the mirror I looked as white as a sheet.
As white as the driven snow- ağappaq-The fur on the dog was as white as the
driven snow.
Idioms with “blue”- cry oneself blue in the face –ürəyi partdıyana kimi qışqırmaqShe cried till blue in the face
Look blue –mısmırıqlı olmaq- Today she looks blue, because of bad marks
Blue in the face –əsəbdən göyərmək- He argued with her until he was blue in
the face.
Make the air blue –deyinmək- When I entered to the house he began make the
air blue
to drink till all's blue – içkinin küpünə girmək- Her father everytime drinks till
all`s blue
Once in a blue moon – ayda ildə bir dəfə- I saw him once in a blue moon
To look through blue glasses-pessimist person- My mother is the kind of person
who everytime looks through blue glasses
Blue chip company –company with high quality- This company is really blue
chip company
Idioms with “Green”- green with envy –hirsindən bozarmaq- Mr.Smith began
to be greeen with envy
Green wound – new wound that is not recovered- Her wounds is still green
To look through green glasses –to be jealous- My grandmother everytime looks
through green glasses
To get the green light – to be free everywhere
Green-belt area -the protecting area surrounding the city
Grey matter -başın yaxşı işləməsi
The grass is always greener on the other side-believe that life is beautiful in
other place
Idioms with “Red”- to have a red face –utancından qıpqırmızı olmaq
Be in the red –borc içində batmaq
see red –become very angry
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April 27, 2012
Red-letter day –memorable day- It was a red-letter day when she finally received
her graduation diploma.
Red tape –bruocratics
Catch (someone) red-handed –iş üstündə yaxalamaq
In the red -pik nöqtəyə çatmaq
Like a red rag to a bull / Like a red flag to a bull -kimisə cin atına mindirmək
Red carpet treatment - treat someone with great respect
Idioms with “Yellow”- To be yellow / yellow bellied- ağciyər olmaq
A golden opportunity- an exellent chance
Have a yellow streak- be coward
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
The Oxford Companion to the English Language(1992) pp.495–96.
Jackendoff, R. (1997). The architecture of the language faculty. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Mel’čuk Igor A. (1995). Pharisees in language and phraseology in linguistics. In Martin Everett,
Erik-Jan Vander Linden, André Schenk & Rob Schrader (eds.), Idioms: Structural and Psychological
perspectives, 167–232. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
4. Saied, John I. (2003), Semantics. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 60.
5. Saied, John I. (2003), Semantics. 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell.
6. Gibbs, R. W. (1987), "Linguistic Factors in Children Understands of Idioms." Journal of Child Language, 14, 569–586.
8. http://www.baidak.com/english-idioms-colour
9. http://www.english-at-home.com/idioms/idioms-using-colour/
10. http://www.learn-english-today.com/idioms/idiom-categories/colour-idioms.htm
11. http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/idioms-colour.htm
12. http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-HUAI199906020.htm
THE LEXICAL NORMS OF AZERBAIJANI LITERARY LANGUAGE
Nofel Quliyev
Doctoral student
Institute of Linguistics
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
In this paper the lexical norms as one of the most arguable branches of speech culture are considered.
Correct use of words is the most significant features of the lexical norms. The lexical norms of Azerbaijani
become apparent more evidently in the Mass Media. In this paper the lexical norms’ cases of breach in the
press’s, radio and TV programs’, speakers’ and reporters’ language and the way of its solution are also
mentioned.
Key words: lexical norms, Mass Media, radio, TV programs.
35
Ədəbi dilin leksik normaları
Dilin ən çevik və ən plastik vahidi olan söz (leksem, leksik vahid) xüsusi məna kəsb
edir. Bu söz dövrün və jəmiyyətin yeniliklərini operativliklə əks etdirir. Ona görə də
dəyişkənlik dilin leksik qatında daha sürətlə baş verir. Bu isə təbii ki, leksik normaların
rəngarəngliyinə, çoxvariantlılığına gətirib çıxarır. Ona görə də müasir dilçilik elmi leksik
normalar probleminin həllində vahid bir mövqedən çıxış etmir. Burda maraqlı cəhət
odur ki, orfoqrafik və qrammatik normalaşma məsələləri ilə daha çox mütəxəssilər,
birinci növbədə dilçilər məşğul olursa, leksik normalar ən müxtəlif peşə və sənət adamlarının mübahisə meydanı ola bilir. Xüsusilə terminologiya sahəsində uyğun elmlərin
nümayəndələri dil mütəxəssislərinə çox çətinliklə güzəştə gedirlər. Görünür, bu onunla
bağlıdır ki, nitq mədəniyyətinin ən çox mübahisə doğuran sahəsi məhz leksik normalardır.
Televiziya nitqindəki leksik normalarda anlayış və məniməsəmə qanunları özünü
göstərir. Anlayış və mənimsəmə qanunlarının özünəməxsus əlamətləri var. Birinci qanun öz sözlərimizə, mənimsəmə qanunu isə alınma sözlərə aiddir. Anlayış qanununda
əsas prinsip dilin müasir vəziyyətində işlədilən sözlərin ondan istifadə edənlər üçün
mənaca aydın olmasındadır. Danışan və dinləyən üçün isə mənası aydın olan sözlər
müasir dilin norması sayılır.Yəni, bir sözlə nitq aydın və anlaşıqlı olmalıdır.
Teleradio verilişlərinin dilində mili dilin öz daxili imkanları hesabına yaradılmış
sözlərdən fəal istifadəni müsbət hal kimi qiymətləndirmək lazımdır. Xüsusilə, ölkəmiz
müstəqillik yoluna qədəm qoyandan sonra bu prosesin genişlənməsi dilimizin də müstəqilləşməsi və ifadə imkanlarının genişlənməsi kimi başa düşülməlidir. Məs.: xüsusi
əvəzinə özəl, kvorum əvəzinə yetərsay, parlament əvəzinə məclis. Privatizasiya əvəzinə
özəlləşmə kimi söz və ifadələrin ədəbi dilimizin lüğət fonduna daxil edilməsində və
kütləviləşdirilməsində TV –nin və radionun rolunu danmaq olmaz.
Dilimizin lüğət tərkibi sözdən istifadə imkalarını genişləndirməklə jurnalistə söz
seçmək, məna incəliklərini fərqləndirmək üçün əlverişli və hərtərəfli imkanlar açır.
Sözdən düzgün istifadə leksik normalardan ən mühümü kimi onun işlənmə məqamı
dəqiqləşdirilməyəndə, yaxud ümumi mətnə ya gəlişi gözəllik xatirinə, ya da sadəcə
olaraq, lüğət ehtiyatının qıtlığı ucbatından gətiriləndə təbii ki, nitq qüsurlu olur. Bu,
xüsusilə telejurnalistin şifahi nitqində arzuolunmaz şəkil alır. Aparıcıların dilində teztez deməli, məhz, bu baxımdan, necə deyərlər, hansı ki, şey, tərəf-müqabil və s. ifadələrin işlənməsi, fikrimizcə səciyyəvi nümunələrdir.
A.İ.Yefimov rus ədəbi dili normalarının dəyişməsindən danışarkən yazır: «Ədəbi
norma dilin inkişafından asılı olaraq dəyişir. Məsələn, rus dilində Puşkin dövründən
indiyə qədər onun lüğət tərkibində və qrammatik quruluşunda bəzi dəyişikliklər baş
vermişdir. Başlıca vəzifə dil üçün yeni, həyati, tipik olanı ədəbi cəhətdən normalaşdırmaqdır. Buna görə ədəbi norma müasir olmalı və dilin zəruri inkişafını əks etdirməlidir»( 6,10).
A.V.Kalinin də «Ədəbi dilin inkişafının müəyyən dövründə qüvvədə olan qaydaları
- sözlərin işlənməsi, qrammatik forma, tələffüz və yazı qaydalarını dil norması adlandırır»(7,12).
36
April 27, 2012
K.Qorbaçeviç isə məsələyə bir balaca başqa yöndən toxunur. Alim dilin lüğət tərkibinin zənginləşməsində məna dəyişməsini norma kimi xarakerizə edir:»Öz inkişafında
dil yeni sözlərin yaranması yolu ilə deyil, daha çox mövcud leksik vahidlərin məna
dəyişməsi yolu ilə gedir»(5,117).
Maraqlı və dolaşıq fikirdir. Əslində, ekstra və intralinqvistik təsirlərin nəticəsində
dilin leksik qatında gedən dəyişmələr, xüsusilə leskik tərkibində baş verən yenilənmələr
məhz ümumilşləkləşməyə, neologizm və arxaizm anlayışlarının meydana gəlməsinə,
bu və ya digər sözün xəlqiləşməsinə, aktiv və passiv leksikanın yaranmAsına və s.
məsələlərin əmələ gəlməsinə zəmin yaradır. Dilin leksik vahidləri məhz bu müstəvidə
inkişaf edir və yeni sözlərin yaranması da bütün bu proseslərlə üzvi surətdə bağlıdır.
N.Cəfərov yazır:»XVII-XVIII əsrlərdə milli ictimai təfəkkürdə baş verən yeniləşmə
ədəbi dilin leksik normasına daha çox təsir edir, klassik üslubla folklor üslubu arasındakı dialektik münasibət lüğət tərkibininin funksional imkannlarını da müəyyənləşdirir:
folklor üslubu bir qayda olaraq xalq dilinin leksikasına dayanır» (2,64)
Doğrudan da, bu dövrdə, ictimai-siyasi şərait dilimizə və nitq mədəniyyətimizə,
təfəkkürümüzə xüsusi formada təsir edir. Dilimizin leksik normasıına, lüğət tərkibinə,
şer və təhkiyə üslubuna, yazı xəttinə, təfəkkürünə və s. ciddi təsir göstərən yeniləşmə
folklorun adi danışıq dilinə yaxınlaşması ilə müşahidə olunur.
Azərbaycan dilinin leksik normaları kütləvi informasiya vasitələrində özünü daha
aydın şəkildə göstərir. Leksik səviyyədə mətbuat dilinin lüğət tərkibi ədəbi dilin leksik
tərkibinə təsir edən mühüm vasitədir. Müstəqil mətbuatın dilinin lüğət tərkibinə ağırlıq
gətirən amillər, əsasən, bunlardır: bəzən lazımi əhəmiyyət daşımadan Türkiyə türkcəsindəki sözlər qəzet dilinə ağırlıq gətirir.Məs.: uyu («Yeni Müsavat», 23 avqust 2000),
törən (yenə orada), ilginc («Xalq qəzeti», 31 oktyabr), mücadilə, sayqı («Yeni Müsavat»,
1 noyabr) və s. bu tipli sözlər teleradio aparıcılarımızın da dilində işlənir və işlək
xarakter daşıyır.
Dialektlərlə bağlı məsələlər də leksikada mühüm yer tutur. Ədəbi dilin qaydalarına
zidd olsa da, ümumxalq dilinin(təbii ki, normanın) formalaşmasında mühüm və müstəsna rol oynayan dialektlər leksikaya mühüm təsirini göstərir:»Müasir Azərbaycan
dilinin lüğət tərkibində nəzər çarpan normalaşma meyllərinin biri də dialekt leksikası
ilə ədəbi dil leksikası arasında qarşılıqlı əlaqənin qüvvətlənməsi nəticəsində son illər
mətbuat dilində ədəbi dilin lüğət tərkibinin dialekt sözləri hesabına zənginləşməsi prosesinin aktivliyi ilə seçilir. Bu işdə mətbuat orqanları ilə yanaşı, kütləvi informasiya
vasitələri və bədii ədəbiyyatın da rolu böyükdür.(3,119).
Bədii ədəbiyyatda leksik normaya əməl olunması da vacib məsələlərdən sayılmalıdır. Xüsusən, şairlər, ədiblər, yazıçılar, söz xiridarları sözün bədii yükünü salmadan,
ucuzlaşdırmadan əsərlər yaratmalıdırlar. Akademik Ağamusa Axundov bu məsələyə
belə münasibət bildirir:»Rəsul Rza Peterburqu təsvir edərkən də lazım olan rəngləri –
sözləri bacarıqla seçir, təsvir olunan obyekti oxucuların gözü önünə gətirir:
Payızın dumanları
Məşhur operettalar
37
Sürünürdü havada»
Dolurdu, boşalırdı.
Ağır-ağır axırdı
Qızıl zərli akselbantlar
Əzəmətli Neva da
Gümüş qotaz epoletlər
Dünyadan küsmüş kimi.
Tamaşalar,
Ağaclarda səhərlər
Şux baletlər
Parlayırdı ilk qırov.
Kazinolar ,
Zağlanmış gümüş kimi
Keyf,
Taxtalı küçələrdən
Qumar.
Keçirdi karetalar
Günlərlə sürən xumar.
Paris töhfələriylə
Lazım olan sözləri seçə bilmək qabiliyyəti şair üçün böyük məziyyətdir. Çünki bu
bacarıq həmişə təsvir olunan hadisə və ya, sözün geniş mənasında, predmeti oxucunun
önünə gətirir.»(1,210). Lakin, təəssüf ki, bəzən ədiblər, şairlər, söz ustaları dilimizin
normalarını pozurlar, dil xətalarına yol verirlər:»Məmməd Rahimin «Leninqrad göylərində « poemasından aşağıdakı sətirlərə diqqət yetirək:
Sanma igidlərin asimandadır,
Aleksey Hüseynlə sıx ormandadır.
Nəhəng maşınları qalın budaqlar,
Meşə kənarında gizlində saxlar.
Onların yanında çatıb baş- başa ,
Mənim igidlərim oturub qoşa.
Bu parçadakı qədim Azərbaycan sözü orman Azərbaycan dilinin bəzi şivələrində
«meşə» mənasında işlənir. Şair orman sözünün üslubi mənasına daha çox fikir verdiyindən (belə ki, həmin söz burada asiman sözü ilə həmqafiyədir), lüğəti mənasına etinasız yanaşdığından təsvir olunan vəziyyətin reallığı pozulmuşdur. Başqa sözlə, Hüseyn
ilə Aleksey ikinci misrada sıx meşədə olduqları halda, axırıncı miss Ralarda meşənin
kənarındadırlar.» (1,206).
Qəzet dilində sintaktik normalar da kodifikasiya olunur (müəyyən dil qanunauyğunluqları əsasında sistemə salınır). Müxtəlif cümlə konstruksiyaları, söyləmlər mətnin
struktur-semantik karkasına görə qəzetlərin dilində sıralanır. N.Petrov qeyd edir ki,»
ədəbi dilin sintaktik norması ekspressiv kommunikativ ifadə formalarına yer verildiyi
detallarla kodifikasiya olunub» (8,38).
Sintaktik norma cümlədə eyni leksik vahidin təkrar olunması nəticəsində pozulur.
Məs.: Biz bu günlər bizimlə bir cərgədə dayananları unutmarıq.(«Şərq» 20 mart, 2003).
Cümlənin əvvəlindəki «biz» əvəzliyi artıqdır.
İndi orda yaşayan insanlar pis yaşamırlar. Bu cümlədə də «yaşamaq» feli iki dəfə
əhəmiyyətsiz yerə təkrar olunmuş cümlənin strukturu və ahəngi pozulmuşdur.
Leksik norma problemlərindən biri də dil saflığı, yad ünsürlərdən təmizlənmə siyasətidir. Buna dilçilikdə purizm deyilir. Purizm özünü heç bir vaxt doğrultmAmışdır.
Mərhum alim, akademik Xudu Məmmədovun rəhbərliyi ilə, ümumtürk lüğəti və dilinin
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April 27, 2012
hazırlanması, təmiz və ancaq öz sözlərimizdən ibarət Azərbaycan dili yaratmaq ideyası
bizə məlum idi. Bu proses reallaşmadı. Çünki, texniki, psixi, siyasi, filoloji – linqvistik
və sosial cəhətdən özünü doğrulda bilməzdi.
Rus dilçisi K.Qorbaçeviçin purizmlə bağlı qeydləri diqqəti cəlb edir:»Alınmalarda
münasibətdə purizm tərəfdarları hər cür sinfi və mühafizəkar müqavimətin müqabilində
saya danışıq dilindən , o jümlədən də müxtəlif funksional-professional leksikadan dil
vahidlərinin ədəbi dilə gətirilməsinin tərəfdarı kimi çıxış edirlər. Purizm heç də həmişə
«əhval-ruhiyyə» nəticəsi, hansısa subyektiv amilin nəticəsi kimi meydana gəlmir, belə
purizm mənasızdır.»(5,28-29).
Dünya praktikası sübut etdi ki, purizm hadisəsi özünü heç vaxt doğrulda bilməz.
Doğrultsa belə, bu prosesin həyata keçirilməsi insanlara, xalqlara, ən əsası dilə nə verəcək? Sünilik, dolaşıqlıq, qarışıqlıq, haçalanma. Türkiyədə hətta purizm cərəyanının
qatı tərəfdarları veriliş açmaq istəyirdilər. Bir-iki aydan sonra bu prosesin mənasız
olduğunu dərk edib verilişi dayandırdılar, sonra isə daha çox türk ədəbi dilinin gözəlliyi
məsələləri ilə məşğul olmağa başladılar və geniş auditoriya dəstəyi qazandılar .
«Purizm bütün dillərin ağrılı problemlərindən biridir. Puristlərin başlıca məqsədi
dilin paklığı uğrunda mübarizə olsa da, ifrat purizm dili bəzən öz məcrasından çıxarır,
hətta bir nəsil digər nəsli başa düşməkdə çətinlik çəkir. Bunun ən bariz nümunəsini
türk dilində görürük. Belə ki, «özləşmə siyasəti» adı altında bu dili elə bir vəziyyətə
saldılar ki, hal-hazırda həmin ölkədə yaşayan yaşlı nəsillə gənc nəslin dilində olduqca
mühüm fərqlər mövcuddur. Azərbaycanda da bu cərəyan bu və ya digər dərəcədə özünü
göstərir. Hesab edirik ki, əgər puristlər Azərbaycan dilinin daxili resursları hesabına
elə bir leksik vahid tapsalar ki, o bütün cəhətləri ilə dilimizin qanun-qaydalarına uyğun
gəlsin, dil daşıyıcıları onu öz lüğət tərkiblərində asanlıqla işlədə bilsin, onda bu sözü
alqışlayaq. Yox, əgər onların tapdığı leksik vahid dilimizin lüğət tərkibinə xələl gətirəcəksə, bu tipli gəlmələrin tərəfdarı deyilik.»(4,120).
Leksik norma problemlərindən biri də izahlı lüğətlərin az çap olunması, dilimizə
yeni daxil olan sözlərin lüğətlərdə izahlı şəkildə verilməməsi məsələsidir. Bir məqamı
xatırlayaq. 1996-cı ildə Portuqaliyanın Lissabon şəhərində dünya dövlətləri başçılarının
zirvə toplantısı keçirildi. Toplantıda bir sıra siyasi qərarlar, o cümlədən, Azərbaycan –
Ermənistan münaqişəsi ilə bağlı tarixi qətnamə qəbul olundu. Beləliklə, dünyanın bir
çox aparıcı informasiya agentlikləri - Röyter, Assoşieytid-Press, Frans-Press, İtarTASS və s. habelə mətbuat belə bir zirvə toplantısını «Lissabon sammiti» kimi qeydiyyata aldı. Həmin vaxtdan etibarən Azərbaycanın kütləvi informasiya vasitələrində də
«Lissabon sammiti» ifadəsi aktuallaşdı və o dövrün qəzet və jurnal səhifələrini vərəqləsək, televiziya və radio verilişlərini yadımıza salsaq, «Lissabon sammiti» ifadəsinin
nə qədər geniş yayıldığının şahidi olarıq. Həmin birləşmədəki «sammit» lekseminin
mənasını və tərcüməsini çox adam, hətta vəzifəli şəxslərin bəziləri də bilmirdi. Hətta
o vaxtkı vəzifəli şəxslərdən birinin geniş yığıncaqların birində «Portuqaliyanın sammit
şəhəri» kimi gülüş doğuran ifadəsi qəzetlərin, televiziya və radio verilişlərinin, əyləncəli verilişlərin məsxərə hədəfinə dönmüşdü. Ən mühümü budur ki, kütləvi informasiya
39
vasitələri özləri də bu sözün nə tərcüməsini, nə də izahını vermirdilər. Nəticədə yüz
minlərlə adam hələ də anlaya bilmir ki, «sammit» şəhərdir, yoxsa yığıncaq?
Dilimizin leksik normasının ən mühüm problemlərindən biri də tərcümə məsələsidir. Dəfələrlə bir dildən digər dilə tərcümə zamanı problemlərlə qarşılaşırıq. Əvvəllər
elmin, texnikanın olmadığı dövrdə bu proses ləng gedirdi. Cəmiyyət inkişaf etikcə texniki inkişaf da öz sözünü dedi.
Elektron hesablayıcı maşınların dilçiliyə tətbiqinin bir sıra mühüm nəticələri oldu.
Hər şeydən əvvəl maşın dilçini linqvistik məlumatların toplanması və işlənməsi kimi
ağır, yorucu, mexaniki işdən azad etdi. Bu isə öz növbəsində böyük həcmli dil materialları üzərində eksperimentlər aparmağa, yeni-yeni nəzəriyyələri sınaqdan keçirib irəli
sürməyə, müxtəlif həcmli və müxtəlif məqsədli lüğətlərin tərtibini sürətləndirməyə,
geniş mətnlər massivinin hərtərfli tədqiqinə şərait yaradır».
Avtomatik tərcümə problemi bir çox əməliyyatları özündə birləşdirən alqoritmlərin
qurulması ilə həyata keçirilir. Sonradan bu alqoritmlər vasitəsilə maşının girişinə verilmiş
mətn üzərində müəyyən ardıcıllıqla əməliyyatlar aparmaqla nəticədə tərcümə olunmuş
mətn alınır.
Avtomatik tərcümənin ən sadə növü sözbəsöz tərcümədir. EHM-in yaddaşına iki
sözlük, məsələn, Azərbaycan və rus dilinin sözlüyü verilir. Hər bir rus sözündə onun
Azərbaycan dilində olan ekvivalentinin ünvanı qeyd olunur. Bu ünvanın köməyi ilə
maşın hər bir rus sözünə uyğun Azərbaycan sözünü tapır və nəticədə alınmış tərcüməni
çapa verir.
Lakin, əəssüf ki, müasir dövrdə, kompüter əsrinin özünün yaratığı problemlər var.
Praktika göstərir ki, bir neçə qrup dillər üçün sözbəsöz tərcümə vasitəsilə lazımi kafi
nəticə alınır. Lakin bu tip tərcümə, adi real tərcümənin tələblərinə heç də tamAmilə
cavab vermir.Birincisi, dildə özünü göstərən sinonimlik və omonimlik hər bir sözə bir
neçə sözün uyğun gəlməsi, müxtəlif tərcümə nümunələrinin alınmasına gətirib çıxarır.
İkincisi, sözbəsöz tərcümədə idiomlar nəzərə alınmır. Belə ki, rus dilindəki «не выйдет» ifadəsi «baş tutmayacaq» kimi tərcümə olunur. Və ya göz vurmaq – глаза ударять.
Bundan başqa, sözbəsöz tərcümədə tərcümə olunan cümlədəki söz sırası eyni ilə saxlanır. Bu isə, tipoloji cəhətdən müxtəlif söz sırasına, sintaktik quruluşa malik dillərin
(məsələn, Azərbaycan və rus dilləri) sözbəsöz tərcüməsini çətinləşdirir. Ən son tərcümə
proqramları-LİNGVO, DİLMANJ, POLİQLOT da bu problemlərdən yaxa qurtara bilmir.
Sonda onu qeyd etmək olar ki, ədəbi dilin norması müəyyən qərarla təsbit olunub
qorunduğu halda, muasir dilin norması hamı tərəfindən qorunub saxlanmalı və gözlənilməlidir. Nitqin uzunmüddətli təcrübəsi əsasında yaranan normalar, başlıca olaraq, dilin
fonetik sistemini, qrammatik ifadə vasitələrini, söz yaradıcılığı qaydalarını, söz birləşmələri və cümlə strukturuna aid sıra qaydalarını ədəbi dil üslublarına məxsus standartlaşmaları, sözlərin öz leksik mənalarına müvafiq işlədilmə üsullarını və s. əhatə edir.
Ədəbi dil normalarının qorunub saxlanması üçün dildə ixtiyari sözlərin işlədilməsinə yol vermək olmaz. Həmçinin, söz birləşmələri və cümlələrdə ardıcıllıq prinsipinin qorunub saxlanılması ən vacib məsələlərdən biridir.
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April 27, 2012
Azərbaycan dili hazırda müstəqil, suveren azad ölkənin, dövlətin dilidir. Bu dil öz
imkanlarından müstəqil şəkildə istifadə etməklə yeni anlayışları bildirən sözlərin formalaşdırılmasına tamamilə qadirdir. Müstəqillik dövründə ədəbi dilin şifahi qolu, real
inkişaf imkanları əldə etmişdir. Xüsusən, son dövrlərdə şifahi ədəbi dilin yazılı ədəbi
dilin normalarına yaxınalşması müşahidə olunur. Ədəbi dilin bu iki qolu bir-birinə nə
qədər bağlı olsa, onun informasiya keyfiyyəti o qədər də çox olar, onun anlaşma səviyyəsi yüksələr.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
ƏDƏBIYYAT
A.Axundov. Dilin estetikası. Bakı, Yazıçı, 1985, 224 s.
Cəfərov N.Azərbayjan türkjəsinin milliləşməsi tarixi, Bakı,1995, 207 s
Məmmədova S. Kütləvi informasiya və dil. Bakı, Elm və Təhsil,2009 , 128 s
T.Yaqubova.Azərbayjan mətbuat dilində alınmalar.Bakı, MBM, 2008, 152
К.Горбачевич. Изменение норм русского литературного языка. Ленинград, 1971, 270 с.
Ефимов А. История Русского литературного языка. М. 1967. С.10
Калинин А. Лексика русского языка.москва, 1971. С 12.
Петров Н.Функциональное развитие и нормализация чувашского литературного языка в советскую эпоху: Автореф. Дис.док. филол.наук. Баку, 1982, 38 с.
SYNTACTIC AND MORPHOLOGICAL-SYNTACTIC
CONVERSIONS IN AZERBAIJANI POETRY
Günel Mirzəyeva
AMEA Nəsimi adına Dilçilik İnstitutu
Doctoral student
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The conversion is the process of the definite word’s transition from some parts of speech to other
ones without any word-building means. This process occurs in 2 stages: 1) at the first stage, a word loses
original grammatical categories. This is a grammatical conversion and this transition comes true in 2 ways:
syntactic and morphological-syntactic; 2) at the second stage, a word absolutely turning into other grammatical category accepts it’s all lexical-semantic meaning, morphological-syntactic markers and as a new
independent unit forms a part of vocabulary. This stage is called as semantic conversion. There are two
types of the conversion in the linguistics: a) Semantic-syntactic and b) semantic.
In this paper the syntactic and morphological-syntactic conversions in Azerbaijani poetry are considered.
It should be noted that the morphological-syntactic conversion in comparison with syntactic conversion
is more extend and the conversion’s degree is higher.
Key words: conversion, syntactic, syntactic, Azerbaijani poetry.
Azərbaycan şeirində sintaktik və morfoloji-sintaktik konversiya
Konversiyaların böyük bir qrupunu qrammatik konversiya təşkil edir. Qrammatik
konversiyaya uğrama zamanı sözün semantikasında heç bir dəyişiklik baş vermir, yalnız cümlə daxilində vəzifəsi dəyişir. Bu çevrilmə iki yolla mümkün olur: sintaktik və
morfoloji-sintaktik yolla.
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I. Sintaktik konversiya
“Sintaktik konversiya bütün nitq hissələrinə aid olub, hər hansı nitq hissəsinə daxil
olan sözün heç bir dəyişikliyə uğramadan başqa nitq hissəsinin yerində işlənməsini
nəzərdə tutur. Məsələn, Anıldı yaz günü, əridi soyuq” (S.Vurğun) cümləsində “soyuq”
sifəti yalnız sintaktik cəhətdən təcrid olunaraq isim yerində işlənmişdir. “Bu evdən köç!
Bu meyvədən dad!”-cümləsində “köç” və “dad” isimləri sintaktik cəhətdən felləşmişdir”(3,68).
“Sintaktik cəhətdən konversiyanın 10-dan yuxarı müxtəlif modeli vardır. Bu növ
konversiyanın ilk mərhələsi sayılır.”(4,146)
Sintaktik konversiyanın aşağıdakı növlərindən bəhs etmək istərdik:
1. Substantivləşmə. Substantivləşmənin səbəbini Azərbaycan dilçiləri prof.Musa
Adilov və prof.Ə.Cavadov belə izah edirlər:“Əvvələn, dildə hər bir söz başqası ilə o
qədər qaynayıb-qarışır, birləşmə o qədər adi, işlək və mexaniki olur ki, bu sözlərdən
biri (və ya bir neçəsi) asanlıqla ixtisar edilir. Digər tərəfdən, substantivləşən sözlər
daha çox insanların daxili və xarici əlamət və keyfiyyətlərini bildirdiyindən adətən belə
birləşmələrin ikinci tərəfləri çox ümumi mənalı - adam, şəxs, insan kimi sözlərdən ibarət olur ki, bunu söyləməyə o qədər ehtiyac qalmır. ... Substantivləşmə hər hansı bir
üslubla əlaqədar və ondan asılı deyildir”(2,52)
1. Odur bax! ... Şir kimi atılır suya, Sənin and içdiyin o gənc qəhrəman. (S.Vurğun)
Yuxarıda göstərilən cümlələrdə sifətin müvafiq sintaktik mühitə düşərək isimləşmişdir. Sifətlərin substantivləşməsi səbəblərini izah edərkən B.Məmmədov yazır:
“Azərbaycan dilində bəzən substantivləşmiş sifətdə bu morfoloji əlamətlərin heç birinə təsadüf edilmir. Bu, əlbəttə, sifətin öz qrammatik mənasını dəyişməzdən əvvəl təyin
etdiyi ismin morfoloji əlamətsiz işlənməsindən irəli gəlir. Buna görə də bu növ substantivləşmiş sifətlər təkdə, adlıq halda işlənir: O gündən ziyafət başlandı. Naxoş gəldi,
sağaldı getdi. Çolaq gəldi, ayaqla getdi. Gənc yerindən sıçrayıb Ninninin dalınca getdi.”
(7, 36-40)
Beləliklə, sifətin substantivləşməsi müxtəlif dərəcədə olur: 1) sifət kimi, demək olar
ki, işlənməyən isimləşmiş sifətlər (ölü, diri, yağış və s.); 2) həm sifət, həm də isim kimi
işlənən substantivləşmiş sifətlər(cavan, qoca, xəstə və s.); 3)yalnız mətn daxilində
substantivləşən sifətlər (yaxşı, pis, uzun və s.).
Sifət kimi say da substantivləşir, cümlədə başqa nitq hissəsinə çevrilir: Beşincilər
təhsildə və idmanda yüksək göstəricilərinə görə fərqlənirdilər.
Daha çox rast gəlinən konversiya hadisələrindən biri də feli sifətin substantivləşməsidir. Məsələn: 1)Şirin bir xatirə tək qalacaqdır dünyada, Sevərək yaşayanlar, sevilərək ölənlər. (S.Vurğun);
Qeyd edək ki, -an,- ən formantlı feli sifətlərin substantivləşməsinə daha tez-tez təsadüf edilir. B.Məmmədov haqlı olaraq göstərir ki, “substantivləşməni doğuran səbəblərdən biri sözün qrammatik mənasının dəyişməsi və nəticədə yeni sözdə yeni anla-yışın ifadəsi olsa da, sözə qənaətin, yığcamlığın da bu işdə az rolu yoxdur”(8, 67-72)
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2. Adyektivləşmə. Sintaktik konversiyanın geniş yayılmış növlərindən biri də adyektivləşmə və ya sifətləşmədir. Azərbaycan dilində, eləcə də digər türk dillərində bu
tipli konversiyaya tez-tez rast gəlinir. Məsələn: Tüstü çıxıb səs qoparmış daş hasarlı
çalalardan... (S.Vurğun).
İsimlərin digər isim qarşısında təyin kimi işlənməsi bütün türk dillərində, o cümlədən tatar dilində adi hal kimi mövcuddur. Tatar dilçisi F.Qəniyev belə bir fikir yürüdür:
“Bəzən deyirlər ki, bu adyektivləşmiş isimlə əvvəlki isim formasında heç bir morfoloji
dəyişiklik baş vermir. Bu zahirən belə görünsə də, əslində dəyişiklik olur. Belə ki, bu
sözlər artıq əşyalıq vəzifəsi deyil, təyin vəzifəsini yerinə yetirir və bütün türk dillərindəki sifətlərdə olduğu kimi, əşya qarşısında heç bir şəkilçi qəbul edə bilmirlər(11, 108113). Alimin bu fikri ilə razılaşmaq mümkündür. Çünki belə birləşmələrdəki sözlər
zaman-zaman bir-biri ilə elə qaynayıb-qarışır ki, komponentlər tərkib daxilində daşlaşır, nəhayət, semantik dəyişikliyə uğrayaraq sabit söz birləşmələrinə çevrilir.
3. Adverbiallaşma. Sintaktik konversiyadan danışarkən adverbiallaşmaya da xüsusi
diqqət yetirmək lazımdır. Çünki adverbiallaşma hadisəsi ilə bağlı mübahisəli məqamlar kifayət qədərdir. Məsələn, “Nə gözəl yaraşır Muğana ceyran!” (S.Vurğun) cümləsində gözəl sözü zərf yerində işlənmişdir. Yaxud tez-tez nümunə gətirilən “Yaxşı tələbə
yaxşı oxuyar” cümləsinə nəzər salaq. Bir sıra müəlliflər, o cümlədən prof. M.Hüseynzadə buradakı yaxşı sözünü əşya bildirən söz qarşısında işlənərkən sifət, fel qarşısındakı
mövqedə isə zərf adlandırırlar (10,61). Bəzi dilçilərin fikrincə isə yaxşı sözü morfoloji
baxımdan, yəni nitq hissəsi kimi sifət, sintaktik vəzifəsinə görə zərflikdir. Tatar dilçisi
F.Qəniyev göstərir ki, yaxşı sifəti fel qarşısında işlənərkən əlamətin əlamətini bildirir.
Bu isə zərfə aid xüsusiyyətdir. Alim bu tipli sözlərin sifət olub, zərflik funksiyasında
işlənməsi ilə bağlı iddiaları qəbul etmir bu sözlərin tamamilə zərfləşdiyini göstərir. O
bunu belə əsaslandırır: “1) bu sözlər əşyanın əlamətini deyil, hərəkətin və ya əlamətin
əlamətini bildirir; 2) bu sözlər zərf kimi hal, kəmiyyət və mənsubiyyət baxımından dəyişmir; 3) sintaktik funksiyalarına görə də zərf kimi tərzi-hərəkət zərfliyi vəzifəsini
daşıyır, zərfdə olduğu kimi yalnız fel, yaxud sifətin qarşısında işlənir. Belə sözlər maldov
və ingilis dillərində “konversiyalaşmış sözlər” adlanır”(11, 112).
Doğrudan da, əgər “Yaxşı bacarıqlı və işgüzar qızdır” cümləsindəki Yaxşı sözünü
xüsusi isim sayırıqsa, “O yaxşı oxuyur” cümləsindəki yaxşı sözünü də zərf hesab etməyə
haqq verir. Çünki xüsusi isim olan Yaxşı əslində sifətin semantik baxımdan konversiyalaşması, yəni bir nitq hissəsindən digərinə keçid alması nəticəsində meydana gəlmişdir.
II. Morfoloji-sintaktik konversiya.
“Morfoloji-sintaktik konversiya hər hansı bir nitq hissəsinə mənsub sözün başqa
bir nitq hissəsinə keçərkən həmin nitq hissəsinə məxsus qrammatik kateqoriyaların
şəkilçilərini də qəbul etməyi nəzərdə tutur”(3,68). Sözdüzəldici şəkilçilər vasitəsi ilə
bir nitq hissəsindən digərinə keçən sözlərdən istər Azərbaycan dili, istərsə də başqa
dillərin qrammatika kitablarında geniş bəhs olunmuşdur (5;6). Bu əsasən semantikmorfoloji konversiyaya aiddir.
Morfoloji-sintaktik cəhətdən konversiyaya uğrayan söz substantivləşmə zamanı
hal, kəmiyyət mənsubiyyət və xəbərlik şəkilçilərini, eləcə də artikl və köməkçi hissəcik43
ləri qəbul edir. Sifətlər aid olduğu sözün qarşısında heç bir formal əlamət daşımır. Halbuki konversiyaya uğramış, yəni isimləşmiş sifətlər hal, kəmiyyət, xəbərlik şəkilçiləri
qəbul edir, eləcə də artikllərlə işlənir. Məsələn, 1) Yadın köhnəsi də dilin əzbəri, Ənənən
çiyninə niyə yük oldu?! (B.Vahabzadə); 2) O da insan kimi hiss edib duyur, Yaxşınıyamanı üzdən oxuyur(S.Vurğun). Burada substantivləşmiş yadın və yaxşı-yamanı
sözləri müvafiq olaraq yiyəlik və təsirlik halda işlənmişlər.
Yeri gəlmişkən qeyd edək ki, sifətlər kimi, feli-sifət və saylar da konversiyaya
uğradıqda müxtəlif hal şəkilçiləri qəbul edə bilər. Məsələn, 1)Yaz ilham deyəni, ürək
deyəni; 2) Otuzdan adladıqca gündə otuz min kərə, Başımı yellədirəm hədər keçən illərə
(B.Vahabzadə).
Maraqlıdır ki, Azərbaycan dilində sıra sayı funksiyasında çıxış edən ilk, son və
axır sözləri də substantivləşərək hal şəkilçisi qəbul edir. Məsələn, Yüz illər ötsə də,
unutmaz ürək, Vətənin ilkini, andın ilkini (S.Vurğun).
Yeri gəlmişkən qeyd edək ki, ilk, son və axır sözlərinin hansı nitq hissəsinə aid
olması ilə bağlı mübahisəli fikirlər mövcuddur. Belə ki, “Azərbaycan dilinin izahlı lüğəti”ndə ilk sözü sifət kimi təqdim və izah olunur. Lüğətdə yazılmışdır: “İlk. Sif. 1)
birinci, əvvəlinci, ən əvvəl olan, ən qabaq (son qarşılıqlı) - ilk uşaq, ilk təəssürat, il
əsər...; 2) başlıca, əsas, ən vacib, ən mühüm. Elimin olsa da aslan ürəyi, Ehtiyatdır
igidin ilk bəzəyi (A. Şaiq)(1).
Bu sözlər semantik baxımdan da say, sıralanma mənasında çıxış edir və sintaktik
mövqedə təyin olur. Sayların cümlədə təyin funksiyası daşıması isə təbiidir.
Konversiya zamanı sifət, feli sifət və sayların mənsubiyyət kateqoriyasının morfoloji göstəricisini qəbul etməsi də müşahidə olunur. Məsələn, Köhnəsinə çatmamış
təzə arzular gəlir(B.Vahabzadə).
Göründüyü kimi, substantivləşmə zamanı sifət, feli-sifət və saylar əsasən III şəxsin təkinin mənsubiyyət şəkilçisini qəbul edir.
Azərbaycan və digər türk dillərində təkdə olan sözlər cəm şəkilçisi qəbul etməklə
isimləşə bilir. Məsələn, Sazında eybəcər səslər uyduran, Saxta xallar vuran cavanlar
da var (B.Vahabzadə); Bir söyüd altına yığışdı qızlar, şairi görməyən o vəfasızlar (S.
Vurğun); Salon böyük, gələnlərin sayısa min-min, Divar boyu ayaq üstə duranlar da
var (B.Vahabzadə);
Uzaq, yaxın, axşam, gündüz, səhər, gecə, sabah kimi zərfləri də kəmiyyət şəkilçisi
qəbul edərək substantivləşir. Məsələn: Mən sahili olmayan dənizlər istəyirəm, axşamları olmayan gündüzlər istəyirəm (B.Vahabzadə).
Nəticə etibarı ilə demək istərdik ki, morfoloji-sintaktik konversiya sintaktik konversiyaya nisbətən daha geniş yayılmışdır və burada konversiya dərəcəsi daha yüksəkdir.
ƏDƏBİYYAT
1.
2.
44
Azərbaycan dilinin izahlı lüğəti. II c., “Elm” nəşriyyatı, Bakı,1980
Adilov M., Cavadov Ə. Azərbaycan dilində substantivləşmə. Azərbaycan SSR EA Xəbərləri (ədəbiyyat, dil və incəsənət seriyası), 1966, № 2,
April 27, 2012
3.
Axundov A. Azərbaycan dilində konversiya. “Azərbaycan dili və ədəbiyyatı tədrisi”, 1977, № 1.
4.
Axundov A. Ümumi dilçilik. Bakı, 1988.
5.
Cəfərov S. Azərbaycan dilində söz yaradıcılığı, Bakı, 1960;
6.
Hüseynzadə M. Müasir Azərbaycan dili. Morfologiya, Bakı, 1973
7.
Məmmədov B. Müxtəlif sistemli dillərdə sifətlərin substantivləşməsinin səbəbləri haqqında. “Azərbaycan məktəbi”, 1970, №7.
8.
Məmmədov B. Müxtəlif sistemli dillərdə feli-sifətlərin substantivləşməsi məsələsinə dair. “ADUnun elmi əsərləri” (dil və ədəbiyyat), 1971, №1.
9.
Müasir Azərbaycan dili. “Elm”, II hissə, Bakı,1980
10. M.Hüseynzadə. Müasir Azərbaycan dili. Morfologiya. “Maarif” nəşriyyatı, Bakı,1973,
11. Ф.А.Ганиев. Конверсия как один из способов словообразования в современном татарском
языке. «Ученые записки АГУ», серия язык и литература, 1969, № 5-6
VOCABULARY TEACHING THROUGH BODY LANGUAGE
AND FACIAL EXPRESSION
Nigar Orucova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
All languages have words. Vocabulary learning and teaching is urgent matter in the learning new
word or in the second language acquisition. The coining of new words never stops. Even there are some
words that are not active, we never use them in our communication process. A word is more complex
phenomenon and it has different functions- grammatical functions. One word may have a variety of
overlapping meanings. Also the word can have the same or similar meaning but be used in different situation.
Therefore language teachers looks for different techniques such as visual, aural and verbal techniques. In
order to improve vocabulary miming, jesting and role-play are efficient activities.They are related to body
language and facial expressions. Learning vocabulary through body language and facial expression helps
to learners easy remembering this word when they need. Nonverbal activities can develop learners comprehension in language because of the fact that the use of language and physical action.
Key words: teaching vocabulary, techniques, body language, facial expression.
Language learning is a difficult task which requires a long period of time and effort
to understand and produce. With the advent of communicative language techniques,
learners communicating in the target language became as the focal point in language
classrooms. However, it should not be neglected that the learner has to have sufficient
vocabulary knowledge as well as structural and cultural knowledge in order to comprehend
the message and in order to express himself. Therefore, vocabulary teaching has a significant value in language teaching. Without grammar very little can be conveyed, but
without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. Nevertheless, memorizing long lists of
words is not the best way to develop and to enlarge vocabulary knowledge because of
45
the fact that it is not a natural way of learning and students are not able to internalize
the subject matter.
Consequently, communicative techniques such as games and drama activities that
give students an opportunity of using the words in meaningful learning conditions can
be helpful. Vocabulary cannot be taught. It can be presented, explained, included in all
kind of activities, but it must be learned by the individual. The vocabulary we understand
and the vocabulary we can use varies in nature and in quantity from one person to
another even in our native language. Consequently, teachers can help their students by
giving them ideas on how to learn vocabulary and some guidance on what to learn. It
should also be stressed that passive vocabulary knowledge of learners as well as active
vocabulary knowledge should be taken into consideration. Not all of the words a learner
hears during an instructional period need become a part of active vocabulary. Some
words in the target language will possibly remain passive; that is, we will be able to
understand them when we hear or read but will not use them in speaking or writing.
Vocabulary, as a subsystem of language, followed grammar during the days when the
structural linguists and video-lingualism were at their most popular days. In video-lingual
method depended on the idea that learners should concentrate on mastering the basic
sentence patterns of the language and when they mastered all these patterns, they could
use new vocabulary. 1
Vocabulary teaching is one of the most important key concepts in English language
teaching classes. Nevertheless, in previous years, language teaching programs were
prepared to teach basically the grammar. It was believed that after the students had
mastered the grammar, they should be taught most words. Therefore, language teachers
gave little attention to techniques for helping students learn vocabulary. And the language
study was done as a word memorization with long lists of words. Lots of strategies are
used to teach vocabulary today. A teacher may use them in an integrated way according
to his students` needs, abilities and levels.
The model which has been used in teaching process is based on the principles of
John Dewey`s “Learning by doing”2. The aim of this study is to increase the vocabulary
success level of the students. The objectives of teaching process and activities can be
summarized as follows:
1. Increasing vocabulary comprehension and vocabulary retention of the students
through the use of body language and facial expressions.
2. Activating students abilities in the classroom through physical activities such as
miming and role-play and increasing their motivation and acquisition level
through learning by doing principle.
3. Encouraging students to take part actively in their own learning process.
4. Encouraging students to use and to practice the words which they have been
taught.
Miming and the play have provided more permanent learning because of the fact
they have been able to do and to see while learning.
46
April 27, 2012
END NOTE
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Sarıçoban, Arif. The Teaching of Language Skills. Ankara: Hacettepe-Taş 95, 2001
Paul, Ekman and Wallace, Freisen, Unmasking the Face: A Guide to Recognizing
Emotions from Facial Clues, Los Altos, Malor Books, 2003
REFERENCES
Alvino E. Fantini, New Ways in Teaching culture, 1997
Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman Publications, 2001
Maley Duff, Drama Techniques in Language Learning, 1987
Nelie McCaslin, Creative Drama in the Classroom and Beyond, 2006
Paul, Ekman and Wallace, Freisen, Unmasking the Face: A Guide to Recognizing Emotions from
Facial Clues, Los Altos, Malor Books, 2003
Ray L. Birdwhistell, Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication, 1970
Sarıçoban, Arif. The Teaching of Language Skills. Ankara: Hacettepe-Taş 95, 2001
Susan Holden, Drama in Language Teaching, 1981
Nunan, David. Second Language Teaching and Learning. Newyork: Heinle Heinle Publishers, 1999
COLOUR TERMS
Chinara Quliyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
We have different terms to define colours; e.g: hue. Hue is somewhat synonymous to what we usually
refer to as "colors". Red, green, blue, yellow, and orange are a few examples of different hues.
So we differentiate them within Berlin and Kay’s eleven basic color categories white, black, red,
yellow, green, blue, brown, grey, purple, pink, orange. If a language has only two colors – and all languages
have at least two colors – they are always white and black; if a language has three colours, the one added
is red; if a fourth is added, it will be either green or yellow; when a fifth is added, it will then include both
green and yellow; the sixth added is blue; the seventh added is brown; and if an eighth or more terms are
added, it or they will be purple, pink, orange, or gray (Brown 1991: 13-14). The basic colors are black and
white, plus the primary colours, red, blue, yellow and green. But the value is a measurement of the brightness
of a colour. The brighter a color is, the higher is its value. For example, a vivid yellow is brighter than
dark blue, therefore its value is higher than that of the blue.
These are terms to describe how a color varies from its original hue. If white is added, the lighter
version of the color is called a tint of the color. On the other hand, if black is added the, darker version of
the color is called a shade of the color.
Key terms: basic colour terms, hue, value, tint and shade
Today every natural language that has words for colors is considered to have from
two to twelve basic color terms. All other colors are considered by most speakers of
that language to be variants of these basic color terms. Italian and Russian have twelve,
distinguishing blue and azure(goy). That doesn't mean English speakers cannot describe
47
the difference of the two colors, of course; however, in English, azure is not a basic
color term because one can say bright sky blue instead, while pink is basic because
speakers do not say light red.
Color words in a language can also be divided into abstract color words and descriptive color words. Abstract color words are words that only refer to a color. In
English white, black, red, yellow, green, blue, brown, and gray are abstract color words.
These words also happen to be 'basic color terms' in English as described above, but
colors like maroon(tund qirmiz) and magenta(moruq rengi0 are also abstract though
they may not be considered 'basic color terms', either because they are considered by
native speakers to be too rare, too specific. Descriptive color words are words that are
secondarily used to describe a color but primarily used to refer to an object or phenomenon. "Salmon", "rose", "saffron", and "lilac" are descriptive color words in English.
Colors in some languages may be denoted by descriptive color words even though other
languages may use an abstract color word for the same color. The word "orange" is
difficult to categorize as abstract or descriptive because both its uses, as a color word
and as a word for an object, are very common and it is difficult to distinguish which
of the two is primary.
The study shows that many color terms due to economical and cultural changes
were borrowed from French and Latin. Much of the color vocabulary of a particular
language is to a considerable degree the product of culture (McNeill 1972: 24, Lyons
1999:55). Different cultures have different terms for colors. Cultural color associations
can differ widely. Western brides consider a white dress to be traditional, and in AngloAmerican culture, wearing "something blue" is equally traditional. In some Asia/Pacific
countries, however, it is customary for brides to wear red. We wear black to funerals;
in India it is common to wear white.. Christians think of heaven as white or blue – in
the Koran, the term for "greenness" is found as inhabitants of paradise. For the Chinese,
the color red is strongly associated with good luck, an association most Westerners
don't have. Not only does the mother tongue determine how we see, observe, notice,
and classify colors, but also the state of technology, industryColors are used in very
different ways in different color idioms across languages. Let's just take green as an
example. In English alone, "he is green" can mean, depending on the context: 1. He is
inexperienced 2. He is envious 3. He is environmentally aware.
A comprehensive list of such color idioms used in English and many other languages
has been compiled..E,g:
• in the black - successful or profitable
• once in a blue moon - to occur extremely rarely or only once in a life-time.
The world we live in is a world of color. Our eyes can perceive everything. At last I
can say that colour terms are in everywhere.
1.
2.
48
REFERENCES
Brent Berlin and Paul Kay (1969) Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution
Giordano Beretta and Nathan Moroney, 2008. “Cognitive Aspects of Color.”
April 27, 2012
HISTORICAL FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS
Narmin Huseynova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
As in some ancient and modern languages compounds play the very important role in English language
system. In the investigation we have found new definitions that have been given to compounds, their models
arising on the basis of ancient, middle and new time and the most productive compound words have been
grouped for their different peculiarities.
Investigated literature linguistics shows that, the issue of existing compound word in languages and
its composition part was one of the problems of linguistics involving the attention of the linguists even
before century. Here we have also showed the place of stress in compound words belonging to modern
time and their way of using. The unfinished “full formation theory” that was based on the origin of the
compound words has been involved to the investigation in Modern Times.
Key words: Old English, Middle English, Modern English, compounds.
When we say the origin of compound words it is usually intended the expanding
and enriching of language vocabulary system. Of course, the creation of the new words
is the main function of compound words.
Though the formation of compounds in the language system is connected with
following stage of the mentality, there is no any information about exact history of
compounds in literature linguistics. But it doesn’t mean that the linguists didn’t pay
attention to the issue of the formation of compound words, on the contrary to it, this
subject has been analyzed by linguists in different times. The subject of the formation
of compounds has been investigated not only by English linguists but also German,
Russian and other linguists.
In English linguistics L.V. Arnold, O. Jespersen, H. Marchland, H. Sweet, B. Ilyish,
V. Vinogradov and others made different investigations on the origin of compounds
and their way of using. Let us look through the thoughts of some linguists.
A prominent English linguist H. Sweet in his book “A new English Grammar,
Logical and Historical” he mentioned detailed information about compounds. He wrote
that “Compounds or complex words consist of joining of the two words and for their
form and logic they are equal to simple words” [1.24]
H. Sweet also mentioned that “If the complex words don’t have special meaning,
it is impossible to distinguish them from word-combination. In complex words structural
parts are more closely connected to each other than in word-combinations”. [1.26]
V.Vinogradov mentioned 2 methods of forming compound words: I - turning the
word to the word-combination and II – compound words forming on the word-building
models affermed in the language system. Vinogradov calls the first method as “sintactical method” and the second one as “Syntactic morphological method”.[2.13]
49
In German linguistics different theories on compounds were mentioned by Y. Grimm
and he devided compond word into 2 parts as common and proper compounds. He
writes that, there is no relation between the components of compound words and that’s
why compouunds are not same with word-combinations.
In his book “A course in modern English Lexicology” R.S.Ginsburg the following
classifications of compounds and changing on their formation:
First, from Phonetic side he mentions that, the place of stress in compound words
is changable. Two words have their own stress, but when they combine the place of
stress changes.
Second, from Structural side Ginsburg shows that, there is special row and succession in complex words. Thus from the combination of two words there form copmlex
words belonging to different parts of speech.
Finally, from Graphic side he shows the correct way of writing of complex words.
Complex words can be written with a hyphen and joint.[3.141-142]
A Russian linguist A.I.Smirnitski analyzed the subject of compounds under the
“fullformation theory”. But his exploration remained incompleted. The “full formation
theory” has internal and external elements such as phonetic, morphological and
orphographic elements.
According to our researches, we have found that the history of English is divided
into 3 periods: The first is Old English (it encompasses V-XI centuries). It also calls
Anglo Saxon Period. The second is Middle English (it encompasses XI-XV centuries)
and finally, Mordern English (it suurounds from XV time up to now). Let us analyze
the formation of compounds according to above mentioned periods.
Compounds belonging to Old English include itself compund nouns, compound
adjectives and compound verbs. Compound nouns were formed from the following
combinations:
1. Noun stem+noun stem: raindrop, heartache, rainbow, zod-sunu, winte-tid
2. Adjective +noun stem: holiday, sweetmeat, mid-night OE, neah-bûr
3. Verb stem+noun stem: bæc-hûs, writ-bred
Formation of compound adjectives :
1. substantives+adjective: wîn-sæd OE/ “satied with wine” ME
2. adjectives+substansives: zlæd-mod OE/ ”glad-minde” ME
3. adjective+adjective: wid-cûp OE/ “widely-known”ME
Formationof compoud verbs:
1. Noun stem+verb stem: dæl-niman OE/ “take part” ME
2. Adjective stem+verb stem: fiu-fyllan
There is also auxilary compounds in English word stock: OE rædes-man “councillor”,
MidE “man of advice” ,“man” ModE
50
April 27, 2012
I.A.Arnold showed 2 kinds of formation of compounds: Endocentric (looking-glass,
sunbeam) and excocentric (pickpocket, dare-devil) [5.108]
As we mentioned above, the Modern Period of English begins from XVth century.
Compounds in Modern English formed in the folling ways:
Substantive compounds:
1. Final determinative compounds: air-pilot, gas-light, air-force
2. Initial determinative compounds: tiptoe
3. Copulative Compounds: Schlesrving-Holstein
4. Appositional Compounds: maid-servant, servant-girl
5. Bahuvrihi Compounds: red-coat
String compounds: Here the first element is a complex word: moonlight nights,
biy-girl attitude. The compounds used with “and”are also included here: debtor and
creditor fashion, a cat and a dog life etc.
And the final is Clipped Compounds. In compoarison with String Compounds
here the first element is independent: foot-and-mouth= foot and moth disease, Steinway
=Stain Way Piano etc.
In Modern English some compounds were formed with the help of “inner syntax”.
Here the stucture of the words reminds the structure of sentences and phrases. Such as:
well-to-do, well-meaning, out-of-way.
The Modern Linguist Rochelle Lieber divided compounds into 2 part for their
productivity: Root compounds (the second element is not a verb (textile mill, towel
rack, prince consort)) and synthetic compounds (the second element is a verb (truck
driver, meat eating, waste diposal etc. [4.15]
According to our survey, some compounds in Modern English are fully idiomatic:
blackmail-getting money or some other profit from other person by threats, bluestockinga woman affecting literary tastes and learning etc. Some simple words existing in
Modern English are formed from the compounds belonging to OE and they are called
Hidden Compouds: OE windaga = wind + aga / window ModE
Fianally, as a result of our research, we have come to conclusion that, though it is
possible to define some general criterias of compounds, there is no given full definition
of compounds. According to our research, it is easy to find examples compunds in Old
and Modern English in comparison with Middle English. Besides it, we have come to
a conclusion that, many copmound words formed in Old English were also used in
Modern English.
1.
2.
3.
4.
REFERENCES
H.Sweet “Enlish Grammar, logical and historical” Great Britain. London 1900
В.В.Виноградов “Курс лекций по истории Английского языка” Москва 1977
R.S.Ginsburg, S.S.Khidel, G.Y.Knyazeva, A.A.Sankin “A course in Modern English Lexicology”.
Vyssaja Skola. Moscow. 1979
Rochelle Leiber “Morphology and Lexical Semantics” Cambridge 2004
51
5.
6.
“A Handbook of the English Grammar” London 1966
http://englishtips.org/1150804550-compound-words-dominoes_taskmaster-ltd.html
MEANS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Sarvin Alizadeh
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
In my research, there are scores of definitions that researchers and scholars use to define non-verbal
communication. Non-verbal communication consists of all the messages other than words that are used in
communication. In oral communication, these symbolic messages are transferred by means of intonation,
tone of voice, vocally produced noises, body bearing, body gestures, facial expressions or pauses. When
individuals speak, they normally do not imprison themselves to the mere discharge of words. A great deal
of meaning is conveying by non-verbal means which always accompany oral discourse – intended or not.
In other words, a spoken message is always sent on two levels at the same time, verbal and non-verbal.
Key words: Verbal, Non-verbal communication, eye movement, neurophysiologic aspects.
In this research paper, I introduce means of non-verbal communication. It is quite
usual to forget about many aspects of non-verbal communication when hearing this
notion. In fact, what come to mind immediately are body gestures or facial expressions.
However, there are many more aspects. People assume that non-verbal actions do not
lie and therefore they tend to believe the non-verbal message when a verbal message
contradicts it. This was proven in tests in which subjects were asked to react to sentences
that appeared friendly and inviting when reading them but were spoken angrily. In short,
people try to make sense of the non-verbal behavior of others by attaching meaning to
what they observe them doing. Consequently, these symbolic messages help the hearer
to interpret the speaker’s intention and this indicates the importance of non-verbal
communication in the field of interpretation.
When we don’t know someone, we use their body language to get first impressions
of them. In most cases, the impressions we make are wrong, as a positive form of body
language may mean something negative about them. For example, someone who moves
around a lot may be seen as energetic and efficient. In some cases, this may be correct,
but it can mean that they are uncomfortable in the situation and also nervous.
Intonation
Intonation is the way that the sender’s pitch of voice rises and falls when speaking.
For example, it shows the interpreter whether the speaker expresses his or her message
in the form of a question or statement. In the first case, the voice rises at the end of the
phrase or the sentence and in the second case, it falls. At the same time, intonation indicates the end of an entity of information, which-in written communication -is shown
52
April 27, 2012
by means of a comma, semicolon, point, exclamation mark or question mark. Another
function of intonation is to lay emphasis on a particular word or idea, a detail that the
interpreter must not fail to be aware of.
Tone of voice
The tone of voice is a means by which the speaker implies his or her attitude to
the message. It is also a means by which he seeks a reaction from the hearer. In a political debate, for instance, the tone of voice is likely to be rousing, whereas on television
the daily news is communicated in a more factual tone. Other examples of tone of voice
are: aggressive, critical, nervous, disappointed, monotonous, friendly, enthusiastic,
vivid, persuasive, etc.
Vocally produced noises
Spoken discourse can be accompanied by vocally produced noises that are not
regarded as part of language, though they help in communication for the expression
of attitude or feeling. Such non-lexical expressions differ in important respects from
language: They are much more similar in form and meaning, i.e. Universal, as a whole
in contrast to the great diversity of language.
Vocally produced noises include laughter, shouts, screams of joy, fear, pain, as
well as conventional expressions of disgust, triumph, etc., traditionally spelled “ugh!”,
“ha ha!”…
Body posture
Body posture is the bearing or the position of the speaker’s body. It is a more or
less stable state and thus not to be confused with body gestures which are movements.
Body posture can be characteristic and assumed for a special purpose or it can correspond to the normal expectations in the context of a particular situation. Obviously one
can be lying down, seating, or standing. Normally, these are not the elements of posture
that convey messages.
Facial expressions and eye movement
Facial expressions are dynamic features which communicate the speaker’s attitude,
emotions, intentions, and so on. The face is the primary source of emotions. During oral
communication, facial expressions change continually and are constantly monitored
and interpreted by the receiver. Examples are: a smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn or
sneer.
Pause
A pause can have two different functions:
1. It can be a brief suspension of the voice to indicate the limits and relations of sentences and their parts. A pause then assumes a similar function in oral discourse to
intonation.
2. It can consist of a temporary vocal inaction revealing the speaker’s uncertainty,
hesitation, tension or uneasiness. In this context, a pause can also be judgmental
53
by indicating favor or disfavor, agreement or disagreement. Consequently, the nonverbal cue of a pause can give rise to problems when interpreting it because its
meaning can vary considerably. It can have a positive or negative influence on the
process of communication.( http://aiic.net/ViewPage.cfm/page1662.htm#3)
According to the Alison Doyle’s ideas it’s better to do these points during the
interview:
1. Make eye contact with the interviewer for a few seconds at a time.
2. Smile and nod (at appropriate times) when the interviewer is talking, but, don't
overdo it.
3. Don't laugh unless the interviewer does first.
4. Be polite and keep an even tone to your speech. Don't be too loud or too quiet..
Don't slouch.
5. Do relax and lean forward a little towards the interviewer so you appear interested
and engaged.
6. Don't lean back. You will look too casual and relaxed.
7. Keep your feet on the floor and your back against the lower back of the chair.
8. Pay attention, be attentive and interested.
9. Listen.
10. Don't interrupt.
11. Stay calm. Even if you had a bad experience at a previous position or were fired,
keep your emotions to yourself and do not show anger or frown.
12. Not sure what to do with your hands? Hold a pen and your notepad or rest an arm
on the chair or on your lap, so you look comfortable. Don't let your arms fly around
the room when you're making a point. (http://jobsearch.about.com)
Non-verbal communication does not only play a role in face-to-face situations. It
is also important in mediated communication, for example, as this is the case for telephone interpreting, where the interpreter does not see the speaker.
Non-verbal communication is emotionally expressive as people from all cultures
smile, cry, caress, or then repress their emotions through body or facial action. Many
emotional expressions seem to be displayed universally. However, non-verbal behavior
varies from culture to culture, which means it is specific to each culture and may be
interpreted differently.
Non-verbal communication is not only crucial in a plain daily communication situation but also for the interpreter. Non-verbal communication can take various forms,
each of which illustrates or replaces a certain part of the verbal communication. It includes
many more elements than one might think at first. Whether non-verbal communication
supports the interpreters in their task or presents a difficulty, it will always play an
important role.
REFERENCES
1. http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/00451/nonverbalcom.htm
2. http://www.andrews.edu/~tidwell/lead689/NonVerbal.html
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April 27, 2012
3. http://www.scribd.com/doc/24114395/Non-Linguistic-Communication
4. http://jobsearch.about.com
5. http://aiic.net/ViewPage.cfm/page1662.htm
LEXICAL PARALLELS IN TURKIC “DIVAN” OF FUZULI
Sevinj Aliyeva
Doctoral student, the Institute of Linguistics
The National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
M. Fuzuli one of the nice presented poets - polyglots of the Azerbaijan people which successfully
wrote and created in three languages of the east-on Azerbaijan, persian and on arabian languages.
M. Fuzuli's creativity had deep influence on development medieval a Turkic literary language in
general. M. Fuzuli's creativity has ennobled level of the Azerbaijan literary language on high boundaries.
M. Fuzuli has created literary school which has exemplified and others turkic peoples.
Key words: Days, time, harm, joyful, separation, equal, to rebuke, to upbraid.
Development of Azerbaijan literary language and he has played the strong part in
the history of development of the mother tongued poem. It is necessary to say that he
occurs from necessity of to reimburse definite demand of each word in the dictionary
structure of the language and it is used from him.
Research of a literary language of valuable monuments of verbal art of Azerbaijan
XVI centuries allows a rich material to find out history, specificity of formation of
dictionary fund (3,465), lexical structure of literary Azerbaijan language, to track process
of assimilation of loans.
During glance at the vocabulary of modern literary language we see loanwords
adjoining with own national words. So events in the lexicography informing that people,s
gets the economic and cultural relations between other nations.
The turkic “Divan” of Fuzuli most valuable treasury literary-art language of XVI
century.
The analysis of language of products of M. Fuzuli, in particular their dictionary
structure and character of use of loans in a context of dictionary language gives an
interesting material for reflexions. Specificity of use by the poet of loans, originality
of its approach to this problem is found out. Some of words used in “Divan” by Fuzuli
are not existing in modern literary and people‫׳‬s languages. So that, some of these words
are met in written monuments before and after XVI century.
The poet it is masterful used polysemantism, having given to a verse additional
expressiveness and beauty. For the products the poet always preferred words, earn the
citizenship right in native Azerbaijan language (5,12).
55
In M. Fuzuli's language of means poetic graphics, being used in the primary value,
or being enriched by additional value, serve deepening of understanding of all verse in
its part. For example: Ruzigarım xoş keçirdi kaş Kim dövran dönüb, Oldu əhvalım xərab,
ol ruzigarım qalmadı (Days I perfectly spent, it is a pity, time has changed, the Harm
became me, alas, days of that of a trace does not remain.)
Words «ruzigar» are meant by""life", but speaking« Ruzigarım xoş keçirdi» the
enamoured means days of meetings, appointments to a beloved. The bitterness of
separation expressed here a combination« ol ruzigarım qalmadı », that is, a trace of
those days does not remain, deepens the information that former joyful days are not
present more (1,142).
In "Divan" of Fuzuli the word "ten" in modern literary Azerbaijan language is used
already in two values: "beraber" - "equal" and "danlamaq", "mezemmet etmek" - "rebukes", to "reproach" (2,400). For example: Let urub qalibi-fersudemi geh hebs qılır,
Geh serasimevü üryan buraxır sehraye (I.267). (That I smother tired to me breaking
off, it captivates, poor, naked, in desert it expels). A word "üryan" in "Divan" XVI
centuries it is used by the poet in value "naked", "nude". In a modern literary language
it is used not independently, and in a combination to an auxiliary word "lüt" also with
value "naked" in shape "lüt-üryan".
Researches show, that M.Fuzuli's literary influence took place also on creativity
of national writers which were engaged in record of folklore genres of time. M.Fuzuli's
huge influence and on «Оghuzname» which has been written down in the end of XVI
- the beginning of XVII centuries is observed in this connection by us is revealed some
parallels about which speech will go.
Parallel nouns: dush (dream), iye//issi (owner), tanuq (witness), ün (voice).
Parallel verbs: önmək//önülmək (to recover, become better), saqınmaq (to be protected, preserve itself), savmaq (to be given), səgritmək (to dance, force to dance).
Lexical parallels in "Divan" and in «Оghuzname» show M. Fuzuli, that these words
were active lexical units in public Azerbaijan language of XVI century. As show researches, great M.Fuzuli as national sings, in the poetic creativity attached huge significance to the words full from live national language. Communication of these parallels
that «Оguzname», a folklore genre, also contained numerous national elements. For
this reason the use of lexical parallels in "Divan" of M.Fuzuli and in «Оghuzname» is
a natural case.
REFERENCES
1.
Alizade S. Shah beytler. Bakı: Elm, 1995, 171 s
2.
Axundov A. Azerbaycan dilinin izahlı luğeti. Bakı, 2005, 451 s.
3.
Azerbaycan edebi dili tarixi. I cild. XIII-XVI esrler. Bakı: Şerq-Qerb, 2007, 478 s
4.
Mir Celal. Fuzuli senetkarlığı. Bakı: Maarif, 1994, 249 s
5.
Hacıyev T. Fuzuli : dil senetkarlığı. Bakı: Genclik, 1994, s.4-69
56
April 27, 2012
ENGLISH WORDS OF TURKIC ORIGIN
Turane Abdullayeva
Qafqaz university
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
None of language is developed under the glass cover. Environment always influences the language
and traces it in every step. (В.А.Серебников,’Об относителъной самостоятелъносты развития системы
языка’, М. 1968., с.11) Ch.X.Bakayev showed that process of the development of human society, nations
and their languages always contact each others. It is impossible to describe a nation who quite isolates from
other nations. Loanwords are words adopted by the speakers of one language from a different language
(the source language). A loan word, borrowed word or borrowing is a word taken over from another
language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of
the English language. The English language has vast debts. 70% of the entries are borrowed (I. V. Arnold,
lexicology of English). Languages of Turkic peoples left numerous traces in different languages, including
the English language. Turkic borrowings, which belong to the social and political vocabulary, are
generally used in special literature and in the historical and ethnographical works, which relate to the life
of Turkic and Muslim peoples. The ethnographical words are generally used in the scientific literature,
and in the historical and ethnographical texts.
Key words: borrowing, loan words, acquire, trace, penetrate.
The adoption of Indian words, among which there were some Turkic borrowings,
became one of the ways for the words of the Turkic origin to penetrate English. Additionally, several words of Turkic origin penetrated English through East European
languages like Russian and Polish. German, Latin, Spanish, Italian, French, Hungarian
and Serbo-Croatian were also intermediary languages for the Turkic words to penetrate
English, as well as containing numerous Turkic loanwords themselves (e.g. SerboCroatian contains around 5,000 Turkic loanwords, primarily from Turkish).
In the nineteenth century, Turkic loanwords, generally of Turkish origin, began to
penetrate not only through the writings of the travelers, diplomats and merchants, and
through the ethnographical and historical works, but also through the press. In 1847,
there were two English-language newspapers in Istanbul – The Levant Herald and The
Levant Times, seven newspapers in French, one in German and 37 in Turkish. Turkish
contributed the largest share of the Turkic loans, which penetrated into the English
directly. This can be explained by the fact that Turkey had the most intensive and wide
connections with England. Nevertheless, there are many Turkic loans in English, which
were borrowed by its contacts with other peoples – Azerbaijanis, Tatars, Uzbeks,
Kazakhs and Kirghiz.
Most of the Turkic loans in English carry exotic or ethnographical connotations.
They do not have equivalents in English, do not have synonymic relations with primordial words, and generally are used to describe the fauna, flora, life customs, political
and social life, and an administrative-territorial structure of Turkic regions. But there
57
are many Turkic loans, which are still part of the frequently used vocabulary. Some
Turkic loans have acquired new meanings, unrelated to their etymology.
To conclude, the words of the Turkic origin began penetrating English as early as
the Middle Ages, the Turkic loanwords found their way into English through other
languages, most frequently through French. Since the 16c, beginning from the time of
the establishment of the direct contacts between England and Turkey, and Russia, in
English appeared new direct borrowings from Turkic languages. German, Polish,
Russian, Serbo-Croatian, French, Arabic, Armenian, Afrikaans, Hungarian, Yiddish,
Indian, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Malayan, to a different extent, took part in the process
of the transfer of the Turkic words into English. The main language from which the
borrowings were made, was Turkish. Let’s look many examples, which words entered
English from Turkish.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Altilik-from Turkish altılık. A coin, originally of silver and equivalent to 6
piasters, formerly used in Turkey
Araba-from Russian arba, which is from Turkish araba. A carriage used in Turkey and neighboring countries.
Arnaut-from Turkish arnavut, "an Albanian". An inhabitant of Albania and neighboring mountainous regions, especially an Albanian serving in the Turkish army.
Bairam-from Turkish bayram, literally "a festival"
Baklava-from Turkish baklava
Bashaw-from Turkish başa, a variant of pasha
Bashi-bazouk-from Turkish başıbozuk
Bashlyk-from Turkish başlık, "a hood", from baş, "a head"
Kasseri-from New Greek kaseri, from Turkish kaşer, kaşar
Kavass-from Turkish kavas
Dey-from Turkish dayı, literally "a maternal uncle"
Dolma-from Turkish dolma, which means "filled" or "stuffed"
Cafeneh-from Turkish kahvane, kahvehane "a coffee shop, café", from kahve
"coffee" + hane "house"
Caique-from Turkish kayık
Shawarma-ultimately from Turkish çevirme, which literally means "turning"
Shish-from Turkish şiş, which literally means "a skewer"
Tavla-from Turkish tavla, a version of the board game backgammon
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
58
I.V.Arnold, lexicology of English, Moscow, 1986.
Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff, Oxford Dictionary, 1973.
В.А.Серебников,Об относителъной самостоятелъносты развития системы языка’, М.1968, с.11
Ч.Х.Бакайев, Ролъ языковых контактов в развитии языка курдов СССР, М.1977, с.3
Robert. K. Barnhart, Dictionary of Etymology, 1988.
Web site: (Prince, John Dyneley (1931). Surviving Turkish Elements in Serbo-Croatia. http://www.
jstor.org/pss/593448. Retrieved 2008-10-21
April 27, 2012
THE USE OF MODAL VERBS IN AZERBAIJANI, ENGLISH
AND GERMAN LANGUAGES
Vefa Bayramova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Modal verb differs from auxiliary and modal (defective) verbs. An auxiliary verb has no independent
meaning of its own but helps to build up the analytical forms of the English verb. The verbs can, may, must,
ought, shall, will, need and dare are called modal verbs. Modal verben ist sollen, müssen, können, mögen,
durfen, möchten, wollen. In Azerbaijan language modal words differ from in English and German languages:
modal words announce with affirimation, modal words announce with supposition an doubt, modal words
announce with result and generalizing, modal words announce with source of the thought and so on...
Keywords: Modal verbs, used three languages, meaning.
İngilis dilində işlənən modal fellər demək olar ki, “to”suz və məsdər formasinda
işlənirlər. Bu felləri işlənmə yerinə və ən əsası isə mənalarına daha çox fikir vermək
lazımdır. Bu fellər bəzi hallarda biri digərinin yerində işlənə bilir. Məsələn: can modal
feli bacarıq, qabiliyyət bildirir və onu be able to ilə əvəz etmək olur. Vasitəli nitqdə
could işlənir. be able to bütün zamanlarda işlənə bilir. Must modal feli məcburiyyət,
vaciblik bildirir və have to forması must-ın yerinə digər zamanlarda işlənir. Həmçinin
may modal felinin yerinə vasitəli nitqdə might işlənir. Məsələn: she said she could speak
Turkish. The teacher said that you might do tasks. Need feli həm modal fel kimi, həmdə
əsas fel kimi işlənir. Modal fel kimi işləndikdə sualı və inkarı özü ilə düzəlir. Əsas fel
kimi işləndikdə isə felin sonunda s, ed işlənir, sual və inkarı do, did ilə düzəlir. Məsələn:
I need go there. Need I go there? I don’t need to go there. (Galiniskaya M., English
Grammar for Pedogogical Institutes, 1953) 1
Alman dilində cəmisi altı modal fel var. Bunlar wollen, mögen, müssen, sollen,
können felləridir. Bu dildə işlənən modal fellər ingilis dilində işlənən bəzi modal fellərlə
təxminən eyni məna ifadə edir. Məsələn: wollen feli alman dilində istəmək mənasındadı,
can feli də ingilis dilində eyni mənanı ifadə edir. Işlənmə yerləri isə fərqlidir. Modal
fellərin əsas fellərdən fərqi odur ki, modal fellər hərəkət bildirmir, sadəcə hərəkətə
münasibəti bildirir. Məsələn: Mən alman dilini öyrənirəm. Ich lerne deutsche Sprache.
Bu cümlədə «öyrənmək» (lernen) əsas feldir və hərəkət bildirir. Yəni nə etdiyimizi
bildirir. Mən alman dilini öyrənmək istəyirəm. Ich will deutsche Sprache lernen, cümləsindəki «istəmək» feli, yəni «wollen» feli hərəkəti deyil, hərəkətə münasibəti bildirir.
Mögen modal felindən əmələ gələn və istərdim kimi başa düşülən möchten feli də bu
fellər sırasına daxil edilir, daha çox wollen felini yerində işlənir, yəni onu əvəz etməklə
daha çox etika, nəzakət və felin arzu formasını bildirir. Fellərin şəxsə görə dəyişilməsi
zamanı möchten feli də modal fellərin şəxsə görə dəyişilməsi qaydasına tabe olur. (de/
grammatik/verben/modalverben) 6
59
Alman dilində modal fellər sual sözsüz və sual sözlü olmaqla iki yerə ayrılır. Tərkibində modal fel olan sual sözlü sual cümlələrində 1-ci yerdə sual sözü, 2-ci yerdə
modal fel, sonra qalan cümlə üzvləri və nəhayət cümlənin sonunda əsas fel məsdər
formasında yazılır. Məsələn: will ich in Baku Deutsch lernen?-sual sözsüz sual cümləsi. Wer will in Baku Deutsch lernen? - sual sözlü sual cümləsi. Alman dilində işlənən
bəzi modal fellər şəxslərə görə dəyişdikdə kökdən dəyişir. Alman dilində işlənən modal
fellər hərəkət bildirmir, sadəcə hərəkətə münasibət bildirir. Şəxslərə görə dəyişən modal
fellərin birinci və üçüncü şəxsin təkində şəxs sonluğu qəbul edilimir. Yəni birinci və
üçüncü şəxsin təki eyni formada olur. (www.canoo. net/services/OnlineGrammar) 7
Azərbaycan dilində İngilis dili və Alman dilindən fərqli olaraq modal sözlər adlanır.
Çünki modal sözlər köməkçi nitq hissəsinə aid bir termindir. Məsələn:Sözsüz, qələbə
gec-tez bizim olacaqdır. Azərbaycan dilindəki modal sözlər bunlardır: təsdiq bildirən
modal sözlər, güman və şübhə bildirən modal sözlər, nəticə və ümumiləşdirmə bildirən
modal sözlər, sıra və ardıcıllıq bildirən modal sözlər, fikrin mənbəyini bildirən modal
sözlər, təəssüf bildirən modal sözlər, bənzətmə və müqayisə bildirən modal sözlər.
Modal sözlər quruluşuna görə sadə və mürəkkəb olurlar. Azərbaycan dilində işlənən
modal sözlərin hamısı ayrı yazılır. (Hüseyinzadə M., Müasir Azərbaycan dili Morfologiya, 2007 ) 2
Azərbaycan dilində işlənən modal sözlər söylənən fikrə aid müəyyən münasibət
ifadə edir. Modal sözlər cümlə üzvlərindən vergüllə ayrılır. Cümlənin əvvəlində, ortasında və sonunda işlənə bilir. Müasir vəziyyətinə görə modal sözləri iki qismə ayırmaq
olar: 1. Əsas nitq hissəsi ilə omonim olanlar- görünür, deyəsən, demək, deməli, şübhəsiz,
olsu ki, müxtəsər, demə. Məsələn: yenə hər guşədə bar tazə görünür. 2. Yalnız modal
söz kimi işlənənlər- görünür, demək, deməli, müxtəsər, görəsən, demə. Azərbaycan
dilində işlənən modal sözlər feli və ismi modal sözlərə ayrılır. Feli modal sözlər görünür, deyəsən. Olsun ki, demə. Ismi modal sözlər təəssüf ki, dogrusu, düzü, əlbəttə, həqiqətən. (Nağısoylu M. Zeynallı M., Azərbaycan dili, 2008) 4 , (M.Ə.Sabir, Müasir
Azərbaycan Ədəbiyyatı) 3
Hər üç dildə işlənən modallar bir-birindən fərqləndikləri kimi qismən oxşarlıqları
da var. Ingilis dilində işlənən modal sözlər Alman dilində işlənən modal sölərlə mənaca
oxşayirlar ancaq, Azərbaycan dilində işlənən modal sözlər bu iki dildə işlənən modal
fellərdən mənaca fərqlənir. Cümlədə işlənmə yerləri də fərqlidir. Ən əsası fel və söz
olaraq, işlənmə yerlərinə görə, mənalarına görə, sadə və mürəkkəbliyinə görə bir-birindən
fərqlənirlər.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
60
REFERENCES
Galiniskaya M., English Grammar for Pedogogical Institutes, 1953
Hüseyinzadə M., Müasir Azərbaycan dili Morfologiya, III hissə, 2007
M.Ə.Sabir, Müasir Azərbaycan Ədəbiyyatı
Nağısoylu M. Zeynallı M., Azərbaycan dili, VIII nəşr, 2008
Palmer, F.R., Mood and Modality, Cambridge University Press, 2001
deutsch.lingo4u.de/grammatik/verben/modalverben, January 14
www.canoo.net\ Modalverb.html, January 14, 15
April 27, 2012
TYPES OF EPONYMS
Khatira Ahmedova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
There are so many ways of expanding the general vocabulary. Affixation, compounding and conversion
are the major sources of the great expansion of the vocabulary in the late modern period, but there are also a
number of minor ways in which words have been acquired. [ 2 ]
One of the minor sources of word-formation in the late modern period is to create common nouns
from the names of people or places. This way of word formation is termed as eponym. An eponym is the
name of a person or thing, whether real or fictitious, after which a particular place, tribe, era, discovery,
or other item is named or thought to be named. Most eponyms originate from a person's surname: ampere,
for instance, from the French physicist André Marié Amperé. Many eponymous words come from literary,
biblical or mythological sources: scrooge (a miser) - from Dickens's "A Christmas Carol"; cereal- from
Roman goddess of grain and agriculture, Ceres; as old as Methuselah, from the age of the Old Testament
petriarch.[ 2 ]
Created about a century ago, the term eponym is a coinage from two Greek words, epi, "on" or "upon",
and onama, "a name". One who is referred to as eponymous is someone who gives his or her name to
something. Some eponymous words are still capitalized like a proper noun, so those not capitalized are
most clearly eponyms. The important, defining property is that the word does not refer exclusively to the
person or place named by the proper noun, as does Marxism or Christian, but is used to refer to a general
category, as do quisling, boycott and fuchsias. [ 1 ]
Key words: eponym, eponymous, name, proper noun, place.
There are thousands of eponyms in everyday use in English today. Studying of them
develops an interesting insight into the rich heritage of the world’s most popular language
and its development. The greater part of these eponyms comes from world history and
literature.
Eponyms are roughly divided into 5 groups :
1. Product eponyms: These eponyms include brand names which has fallen into
general use. The commonplace products and services of today become the household
word of tomorrow. Kleenex, for example, is a brand of facial tissues, yet the word is
used today to refer to facial tissues of any brand. Xerox is a brand of photocopy machine;
that word, too, has been since adopted to refer to any brand of photocopy machine and,
moreover, also employed as a verb to describe the act of photocopying. More surprising
examples include escalator, heroin, and zipper. In the United Kingdom (but not in the
United States), biro and hoover are eponymous terms for pens and vacuum cleaners,
respectively. In Azerbaijani language, for instance, pampers has become an eponym
for diaper.[ http://www.rinkworks.com/words/eponyms.shtml ]
2. Historical and Geographical Eponyms: Common nouns deriving from geographical names describing names where certain things were found, produced, sold, are
sometimes called geographical eponyms. For instance, angora - 1. fabric or wool from
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the hair of the angora goat or rabbit; 2. long-haired variety of cat, goat, or rabbit. (Angora (= Ankara) in Turkey) [ 4 ]
Historical figures lend their names to ideas associated with them: The words boycott,
chauvinism, quisling, and sandwich all derive from personal names. For instance,
chauvinism -super patriotism of the fanatically mindless sort, lately expanded to include
blind loyalty to or a blinkered view of any group or issue. Named for Nicolas Chauvin, a
French soldier wounded seventeen times while serving under Napoleon. Retired with
honors, Chauvin did not stop singing Napoleon's praises and the glories of France, and
he was ridiculed for his unbridled boasting. [ 1 ]
Famous people have also been associated with items or components of clothing,
or material, for example, bloomer, cardigan, raglan, etc. Cardigan - James Thomas
Brudenell (1797-1863), who became the seventh Earl of Cardigan upon his father's
death, and for whom the cardigan sweater was named because he was frequently seen
wearing that collarless sweater with buttons down the front, was the sole heir to a fortune and a famous English name. [ 1 ]
Various groups of people are associated with proper names for locations. These
include bohemian, lesbian, and philistine. Lesbianism is the practice of homosexuality
by females. On the island of Lesbos in the Aegean Sea during the earlier half of the
sixth century lived the Greek poet Sappho. She became the leader of a group of women
whose behavior was characterized by strong homosexual feelings. Hence from the name
given this manifestation we have sapphism, an eponymous derivative from her name,
and lesbianism, an eponymous derivative from her birthplace. [ 1 ]
3. Literary Eponyms: Fictional characters often evoke such strong qualities that
their names are assigned to those qualities. People who exhibit qualities of literary
characters are associated to them by being called for instance, a Casanova, a Romeo,
or a Svengali,etc. Azerbaijani language is also rich in such kind of literary eponyms.
For example, Majnun from " Leyli and Majnun " is an eponym for someone who has
deep affection.Other examples include Koroglu, Haji Gara and so on.
Storytellers with a noticeable quality have given their names to literary criticism
for the purposes of analogy, as in Dickensian (suggesting melodramatic poverty,
eccentric characters, or joyfulness), Homeric (epic), and Proustian (effecting personal
memories).
4. Scientific Eponyms: In science and technology, discoveries and innovations
are often named after the discoverer or popularizers as in the cases of Rudolf Diesel,
Alessandro Volta, “Alzheimer’s disease” and James Watt. For example, Celsius is a
scale and unit of measurement for temperature. It is named after the Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years
before his death. Eponyms role is great in fixing the names of discoverers and inventors
in history. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsius]
5. Mythological Eponyms: One of the sources inspiring eponyms is mythological
characters. For instance, fauna - all animals taken together. This word has been taken
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April 27, 2012
from the name of Faunus, the Roman god of pastures and forests. [http://www. alphadictionary.com/articles/eponyms/eponym_list_f.html]
It is always interesting to study the origin of words. By defining the origin of words
it is possible to get much information not only about the language but also about its
history.
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
" A New Dictionary of Eponyms "; Morton S. Freeman. 1997,p1
" The English Language. A Historical Introduction" ; C.Barber, Joan C, Beal, Philip A. Shaw; Second
edition, p.251
" Молодой учёный " Ноябрь, 2011 г. Том I; № 11 (34)
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2007)
http://users.tinyonline.co.uk/gswithenbank/eponyms.htm
http://wordcraft.infopop.cc/eponyms.htm literary
http://www.dailywritingtips.com/5-types-of-eponyms/
http://www.alphadictionary.com/articles/eponyms/eponym_list_f.html
http://www.rinkworks.com/words/eponyms.shtml
THE PERIODS OF LANGUAGE CHANGES IN ENGLISH
Yegana Safarova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
In the world everything changes with time. Human society changes, too. Language as a social phenomenon - the most important means by which people communicate with each other - changes, too. But
language changes rather slowly. From year to year, even from generation to generation, we may hardly
notice any change in any language at all. All living languages change with time. It is fortunate that they do so
rather slowly compared to the human life span. Many language changes are revealed in written records.
All languages are continually changing – their sounds, their syntax and their meaning. This gradual
alteration is mostly unnoticed by the speakers of a language. English has undergone great, fundamental
changes in its development. A speaker of Modern English would find Old English unintelligible, because
it is quite different from what he speaks. The works of Chaucer or Shakespeare shows how much English
has changed in short time. Old English did not look like Standard English of today.
Key words: Old English, Middle English, Modern English, period, change.
The division of English into Old English (119-1066), Middle English (1065-1500)
and Modern English (1500-present) is marked by the dates or events in the English
history which profoundly influenced the English language. This division is really some
what arbitrary. So, according to Victoria Fromkin, the history of English and the changes
that have taken place in the language reflect non-linguistic history to some extent, as
suggested by the following dates:
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449 – 1066
Old English 449 Saxons invade Britain
6th century Religious literature
8th century Beowulf
1066 Norman Conquest
1066 – 1500 Middle English 1387 Canterbury Tales
1476 Caxton’s printing press
1500 Great Vowel Shift
1500 – Modern English 1564 Birth of Shakespeare
Old English was the language spoken by Saxons, Angles, and Jutes after they settled
on the British Islands. They came to the islands and brought with them their dialects
of the Germanic language. Since then they considered themselves as Englishmen. These
tribes set up seven kingdoms called the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy that included: Mercia,
Northumbria, Kent, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, and East Anglia. Four dialects were spoken
in these kingdoms: West Saxon, Kentish, Mercian and Northumbrian. So, the Old English
period began with several different dialects.
Old English is a West Germanic language and is closely related to Old Frisian.
According to Adrian Akmajian, Old English grammar was similar in some ways to
Classical Latin and much closer to modern German. It was fully inflected with two
grammatical numbers (singular and plural), five grammatical cases (nominative, dative,
genitive, accusative and instrumental) and three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine and neuter). The most famous surviving work of the Old English period is the
epic poem Beowulf epic composed by an unknown poet.
The period of Middle English started with the Norman Conquest of England by
Northmen under the leadership of William the Conqueror. William invaded England,
and killed King Harold I at the battle of Hastings in 1066. The French occupation of
England continued for over four centuries, and was followed by the Modern English
Period. Middle English was influenced by both Anglo-Norman and, later, Anglo-French.
During this period the changes may be noted in every aspect of the language; its sounds,
words and the nature of its word stock. Many Old English words were replaced by
French ones. The most famous writer of the Middle English period was Geoffrey
Chaucer, and his best-known work is The Canterbury Tales.
The Modern English period probably started in 1500. This period is related to that of
Middle English by the Renaissance, which began in Italy in the fourteenth century but
reached England in the late fifteenth century. During this period there were the greater
and more important phonological, lexical, semantic and syntactic changes in the language.
According to Victoria Fromkin, The Great Vowel Shift had great influence on the
phonological system of English. The Great Vowel Shift took place mainly during the
15th century and was completed in the early period of Modern English. By the time
of William Shakespeare, the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern
English. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors:
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April 27, 2012
firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly,
the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the Earth's surface, and the English
language adopted foreign words from many countries. Since the seventeenth century
with the policy of expansionism and colonialism carried out by the British colonialists.
English was widely spread to many parts of the world, such as America, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand and some other countries. English in the post-Renaissance
period has become a world language.
1.
2.
3.
REFERENCES
Jean Aitchison. Linguistics. 2005
Victoria Fromkin. Robert Rodman. Nina Hyams. An Introduction to Language. 2003
Adrian Akmajian. Richard A. Demers. Ann K. Farmer. Robert M. Harnish. 1995
HOW AZERBAIJANI STUDENTS LEARN DEGREES OF
ADJECTIVE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Haqiqat Aliyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
It is clear that, there are a lot of significant differences between all languages. They can be differing
typologically or genesically.For example: from morphological structure the Azerbaijan language included to
agglutinative groups but English included to analytical groups.
So when Azerbaijan students know degrees of comparison they can easily acquire English language.
The main purpose in my researching paper is to present you that how degrees of adjective is made,
what is the distinctive and similaritive qualities between them, also to show you that how Azerbaijani
students acquire or learn degrees of adjective in English language.
Key words: degrees of adjective, similaritive and distinctive qualities.
Dil cəmiyyətdə formalaşdığı üçün ictimai hadisə sayılır və insanlar arasında ünsiyyət yaratmaq,fikri ifadə etmək üçün əvəzsiz rol oynayır.Deməli, bir millətin toplum
kimi yaşaması üçün lazım olan başlıca şərtlərdən ən əsası ana dilinin mövcudluğudur.
Ana dili adicə bir söz deyil,ürəklərə hərarət gətirən,insanı öz keçmisinə bağlayan,
gələcəyə səsləyən mənəvi xəzinədir.Təsadüfi deyil ki, məşhur rus pedoqoqu Uşinski
dilin varlığını belə qiymərləndirmişdir. Bir millətin var-dövlətini, torpağını alsan məhv
olmaz, ancaq dilini alsan fövt olar, məhv olub gedər.
Dilin mövcudluğunun maddi bazası sayılan insan cəmiyyəti də inkişaf tarixi boyunca milli sərhədlər çərçivəsində qalmayaraq,bu çərçivədən kənara çıxır.Məhz bu
səbəbdən millətlər arasında ünsiyyətə ehtiyac duyulur.Müxtəlif dil daşıyıcıları olan
65
toplumlar,xalqlar millətlər bir-birilə ünsiyyətə girmək üçün mütləq bir-birlərinin dillərini öyrənmək məcburiyyətində qalırlar.
Bu cəhətdən Azərbaycan Respublikasında beynəlxalq dil olan İngilis dilinin öyrənilməsinə böyük ehtiyac var.Çünki,bazar iqtisadiyyatının geniş vüsət aldığı bir dövrdə
hər birimizin müstəqil fikir yürütməkdə,biznesmenlərin dünya ticarət arenasına daxil
olmasında ingilis dilini bilməyin təkzibedilməz rolu vardır.Buna görədə biz ingilis dilini yalniz ünsiyyətə girmək üçün deyil,həm də qrammatik quruluşunu qanun qaydalarını bilməliyik.Bax bu cəhətdən mən sizə İngilis dili ilə Azəbaycan dili arasında həm
eynilik,həm də müəyyən xüsusiyyətləri ilə fərqlənən sifətin dərəcə əlamətlərini araşdırarkən gəldiyim son nəticəni açıqlamaq istəyirəm.
Həm leksik,həm də qrammatik mənası olan əsas nitq hissərindən biri də sifətdir.
Sifət şəxs və əşyanın əlamət və keyfiyyətini bildirir.
Bir çox dillərdən fərqli olaraq Azərbaycan və İngilis dilində sifətin nə cins,nə
hal,nə də kəmiyyət kateqoriyası var.O,hər zaman təyin etdiyi isimdən öncə gəlir.Eləcə
də sifət digər nitq hissələrindən daha çox bir xüsusiyyətinə görə fərqlənir.Bu da onun
dərəcə əlaməti bildirməsidir.Sifətin dərəcələri ayrı-ayrı dilçilər tərəfindən,(həmçinin
müəyyən dərslik kitablarında)müxtəlif cur qruplaşdırılıb.
Məsələn: 1948 ci ildəki dərsliklərdə sifətin beş dərəcəsi verilmişdir.Bunlar 1 azaltma,
2 kiçiltmə ,3 müqayisə ,4 üstünlük, 5 şiddətləndirici.
1947 ci ildə isə Ə.Dəmirçizadə sifətin dərəcərini üç yerə bölmüşdür:
1 adi, 2 azaltma, 3 çoxaltma
Müasir dövrümüzdə də ingilis dilində olduğu kimi sifətin üç dərəcəsi var. Lakin,
Azərbaycan dilində sifətin normadan azlığı, yaxud çoxluğu əsas götürülürsə, İngilis
dilində əşyaya xas olan əlamət digər əşyayla müqayisə olunur.
Hər iki dildə sifətin dərəcələri həm morfoloji, həm də sintaktik üsulla düzəlir.
Morfoloji üsulla düzəldiyi zaman ingilis dilində tək hecalılarda –“er” və -“est” şəkilçisindən, Azərbaycan dilində isə azaltma dərəcəsində –“ımtıl”,-“ımtraq”,-“şın”,“sov”,-“ımsov”,çoxaltma dərəcəsində isə-“ca” və sözün ilk samiti yerinə m,p,r,s səsləri
əlavə olunur.
Məsələn:Low-lower-lowest, Big-bigger-biggest
Yaxud: Sarımtıl, ağımsov, qırmızımtraq, sarışın.
Sintaktik üsulla düzəldiyi zamansa sifətin əvvəlinə köməkçi sözlər əlavə olunur.
İngilis dilində əgər səs çox hecalıdırsa müqayisə dərəcəsində “much”, ”more”, üstünluk
dərəcəsində “most” ilə işlənir.Azərbaycan dilində azaltma dərəcəsində “ala”, ”təhər”,
”kəm” və “açıq” sözlərindən,çoxaltma dərəcəsində isə sifətlərin əvvəlinə qüvvətləndirici ədatlardan “ən”,”lap”,”daha”,”çox”,”olduqca” sözləri əlavə edilir. Məsələn ala-çiy,
qırmızıtəhər,kəmşirin,açıq-sarı,ən dadlı,lap şirin və.s
İngilis dilində elə sifətlər var ki,onlar supilativ yolla,yəni müxtəlif kökdən olan sifət
şəklində işlənir.Bunlar:
Adi-Müqayisə-Üstünlük
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April 27, 2012
good-better-best
bad-worse-worst
little-less-least
many(much)-more-most dur.
Bəzi sifətlərdə vardır ki,onların müqayisə və üstünlük dərəcəsi iki şəkildə olur.
Far-farther,further-farthest,furthest
Near-nearer-nearest,next
Late-later,latter-latest,last
Old-older,elder-oldest,eldest
Beləliklə,araşdırmalarim nəticəsində dəqiqləşdirdim ki, dillər morfoloji quruluşlarına görə nə qədər oxşar olsalarda, hər birinin özünəməxsus fərdi quruluşları vardır.
Biz Azərbaycanlı tələbələr də məhz öz ana dilimizin fonetik, leksik, semantik və morfoloji quruluşlarını o qədər mənimsəməliyik ki, digər dilləri də onun əsasında şüurlu
surətdə dərk edib gündəlik həyatımızda istifade edək. Axı, öyrəndiyimiz nəzəri materialları praktiki surətdə tətbiq etməsək onda öyrəndiklərimizin nə mənası var?
Əgər biz öyrənməsək və öyrətməsək vətənimizə necə xidmət etmiş olariq?
Ona görə də öyrəndiyimiz dili sevməliyik ki, sevdirə bilək.Xalqımızın, dilimizin
necə qədim,zəngin və mədəni olduğunu bütün dünya ölkələrinə çatdıra bilmək üçün
bu əsas şərtdir.Məhz bu səbəbdən və bu nöqteyi-nəzərdən biz Azərbaycanlı tələbərə
daha çox çalışmaq lazımdır.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
M.Hüseynzadə Müasir Azərbaycan dili 1973
L.G.Alexander Longman English grammar 1997
Oruc Musayev.İngilis dilinin qrammatikası 1979
Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics K.Allan 2009
Azərbayan SSR Elmlər Akademiyası 2 cild 1973
www.encyclopedia.com 27.03.2012.
COMMUNICATION AS A PROCESS AND GLITCHES ASSOCIATED
WITH TEACHING THE ART OF COMMUNICATION
Ömer Düngel
Baku Slavic University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The modern world is overwhelmed with information. Nowadays we are not concerned with the process
of getting the information as much as we are concerned with filtering the available information. The modern
world is indeed intertwined and interconnected. It is difficult to overestimate the role of communication
in our contemporary life. We express ourselves as individuals through communication. Being limited in
the ability to communicate can be compared to imprisonment. During the process of teaching, the aim of
67
the educator should not be teaching a system of a language, but rather a speech activity in its productive
form, not by itself, but as a means of interpersonal and intercultural communication.The process of teaching
languages should be built on the process of forming communicative competence in people.
Key words: communication, speech, teaching, language.
It is difficult to overestimate the role of communication in our contemporary life.
We express ourselves as individuals through communication. Being limited in ability
to communicate can be compared to imprisonment.
Modern science defines communication as a process of intellectual and emotional
exchange, in which the information is collected, redistributed, and interpersonal contact
is established.1 It should be noted that, unfortunately, in the process of language teaching,
communication is not specifically taught. This negligence even applies to the process
of learning the mother tongue. As a result, many people remain dissatisfied with the
results of conversationafter the act of communication. Some walk away feeling that
they said a wrong thing, others are not happy with the tone of voice they used, some
feel that they did not say enough, and some regret that they did not have enough time
to fully unveil their thoughts through speech; the list can go on and on. In order to teach
a person to speaking a given language, the instructor must train the person the skills
of communication.
Communication has various forms:
- Performance of one person to a large audience - presentation at a meeting,
reading, lectures, etc., similar to a monologue;
- Exchange of information between two people, this communication takes place in
the form of a dialogue;
- Multilateral exchange of views in a group, it is called polylogue;
It is common to divide communication into the following sub-groups based on the
nature of speech:
1. companionship - the participants are in equal positions. Such communication can
flow evenly, efficiently, and rationally;
2. pre-conditioned communication - each party complies with certain roles in accord
to their social statute;
3. authoritarian communication- one party dictates the terms, occupying a dominant
position;
4. conflicting communication - parties cannot come together in a single opinion. This
form of communication is often filled with manipulations; each side defends its own
position and interests. With such communication failures occur frequently, jumping
from one problem to another, sometimes without any reason, simply for the sake
of protecting the taken side on the issue.
While exploring the main problems with communication, it is appropriate to dwell
on the nature of a modern man. A modern man, by virtue of continuous growth and
availability of information is no longer able to simply listen and accept what he/she is
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April 27, 2012
told by a companion. In general, there are few people who have the ability to actually
listen. According to various sources, only 4-10% of us have the talent of a good listener.
With faster pace of life our attention span has shortened. To dedicate 7-9 minutes to a
short video, presentation, or article on the internet is now considered an enormous
amount of time, so generously dedicated.
During the process of teaching communication, teachers should be considered is
the inability of people to listen well and absorb information. Lectures and lessons must
be exciting and intriguing to the students; they must be interactive. Statistics show that
traditional views on the process of communication are distant from reality. For example,
according to some studies, only 7% of the information is transmitted by means of words
during the interpersonal communication.2 38% of the content of the message is transmitted by various means of intonation. The remaining 55% of the speech is transferred
through facial expressions, gestures, and various body movements. Clearly, these indicators of the communication process must be taken into account in process of teachinga
language.
The success of learning the skills of communication is dependent on the teacher’s
pedagogical skills. The communication process must be emotionally comfortable, and
personally-enriching. Only through such a teaching approach can the students gain
confidence in their communicative competence. It is no accident that modern methodological literature stresses creativity, which is manifested through cooperation of teachers
and students, and not the old authoritarian approaches that fail to engage the students
and therefore fail to educate them.
In general, to ensure successful communication, it is necessary to pay attention to
the following provisions:
- Any communication should start with a smile, and in a good mood;
- Everyone needs to learn to listen to others. No wonder they say that those who
know how to listen have more friends;
- Students should not be ashamed of their mistakes and mistakes of their peers
- It is important to experiment with speech, using nice words, good manners of
communication observed in other people.
Most of us simply want to be heard and understood –being understood is happiness.
In order to make people happy you must teach them to communicate. The process of
teaching languages should be built on the process of forming communicative competence
in people. This requirement applies equally to the process of learning the mother tongue
and foreign languages.
Language is the primary means of communication between people. It is hard to
imagine a society without a language, however, the problems of formation and development of communication skills, in the process of learning a language, is given a special
attention only recently.
Modern linguistics define language as an opportunity, speech as a product, and
communication as an activity. Therefore, when teaching a language, including mother
69
tongue,it is important to teach the skills of using all opportunities that the language can
offer; while the process of teaching should be built on the process of teaching the skill
of communication.
The objectives of language teaching have evolved in the recent decades and can
be presented in the chronological order:
- Learning the language, i.e. grammatical structure of a given language;
- Training of speech - ability to speak in different situations with a variety of topics;
- Learning to communicate – the ability to verbally react to the surrounding reality
and express one’s opinion on a given subject.3
Nowadays, the system of language teaching has experienced positive changes due
to the widespread introduction of new pedagogical and information technologies.
The ongoing changes in the education system must concentrate on the ultimate goal
of language teaching. Therefore, the aim of language teaching should not be a system
of a language, but rather a speech activity in its productive form, not by itself, but as a
means of interpersonal and intercultural communication.
A person studying any language, eventually turns into a linguistic individual. His
main indicators may take the form of communicative skills. Given that these qualities
can vary in different people, we can present them as the following indicators.
1. Linguistic skills related to compliance with the rules of grammar, orthopedic and
stylistic norms of the language.
2. Social indicators of native speakers are shown in communication with different
interlocutors. In this case, it is necessary to choose the right words, tone, intonation
and other language features; depending on where and with whom communication
is taking place.
3. The physical situation in which communication is taking place dictates its own terms:
limited time, the presence of various types of interference (noise, long distance
between the speakers, presence of outsiders), make their impact on the result of
communication and require the speakers to choose the most appropriate language,
and sometimes non-verbal communication.
4. National and cultural indicators of ability to communicate in the target language
is manifested in a variety of compliance requirements associated with the traditions
and customs of the carriers of the language. This indicator, when applied to the
native language, can be manifested in the form of high tone. With respect to the
second language, it may be satisfactory in exceptional cases. It should be noted
that lacking the possession of the national-cultural level of language often leads to
confusion when there is a dialogue between speakers of two different languages.
5. A person fluent in the language must know not only the lexical meaning of words,
but also plunge into the "world" of these words. This means that a good native
speaker needs to know a number of words meaning the same notion, and all of the
concepts expressed in one word.4
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In conclusion, I would like to say that a person possessing the above indicators, in
the process of communication; can be considered a linguistically free person. Raising
such a person should be set as the core purpose of language teaching.
END NOTE
1.
2.
3.
4.
http://spot.colorado.edu/~craigr/Communication.htm
http://www.skillsyouneed.co.uk/IPS/Interpersonal_Communication.html
http://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/Alternative%20methods/communicative_language_teaching.htm
http://answers.yourdictionary.com/language/what-is-communication.html
1.
W. Littlewood (1981) Communicative Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press. An introduction to the principles of communicative language teaching, with practical examples.
J. Harmer (1983) The Practice of English Language Teaching (Chapter 8: Communicative activeties),
Longman. A description of various kinds of communicative activity, with examples of exercises.
http://spot.colorado.edu/~craigr/Communication.htm
http://www.skillsyouneed.co.uk/IPS/Interpersonal_Communication.html
http://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/Alternative%20methods/communicative_language_teaching.htm
Passov E.I. Communicative foreign language education. — Мinsk, 2003.
REFERENCES
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6.
ENGLISH NOMINAL CLAUSES: ANALYZING THE TRANSLATION
OF SUBORDINATE WH – INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES AND
INFINITIVE WH - CLAUSES IN AZERI
Parisa Farrokh, Abolfazl Rajabli, Kambiz Mahmoodzadeh
English Translation Department, Lahijan Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Lahijan / IRAN
P –farrokh @ Yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This paper considers the Azeri translation of English nominal clauses with subordinate wh –interrogative
clauses in complex sentences. Moreover, in this research, infinitive wh – clauses have been studied.
Nominal clauses (clauses approximating in function noun phrases) fall into six major categories: That –
clause or subordinate declarative clauses, Subordinate interrogative clauses, Subordinate exclamative
clauses, Nominal relative clauses, To - infinitive clauses and Ing clauses. An infinitive wh – clause can
be formed with all wh –words. The infinitive clause has an obligational sense .In this paper, the data are
drawn from studies based on the English – Azeri translated texts. Based on the results of the present study,
78% of these sentences in Azeri, translated as simple sentences involving verb combinations, 12% translated
as simple sentences without verb combinations, 6% translated as complex sentences and 4% translated as
compound sentences. Regarding the structures involving infinitive construction, the findings indicate that
68% translated as simple sentences consisting verb combinations, and 32% translated as complex sentences.
It can be said that, in Azeri, there is a tendency of using simple sentences instead of compound or complex
ones. The results of this research also show that there are some mistranslations regarding the nominal
clauses involving both wh –interrogative and infinitive constructions, due to ignoring of the "obligational
sense of these clauses in Azeri translation, the percentage of these mistranslations is 86%. In this research,
the most frequent wh –interrogative word used in original texts, is "what" in 32 sentences and the least one,
is "whom" in 7 sentences, in addition, the most frequent wh – interrogative word used in subordinates in-
71
volving both wh – words and infinitive construction in original texts is "how" with the percentage of 53%
and the least one is "where" with the percentage 11%.
Key words: Translation, Translator, Linguistics, Complex Sentences, Nominal Clauses.
Introduction
Translation is an activity of increasingly vital importance in the educational, political,
economic and cultural fields of human endeavors. Translation is a complex process
beset by several difficulties and many problems, yet at the same time it has a wide scope
with almost unlimited applications and prospects. Newmark defines translation as the
attempt to produce approximate equivalence or respectable synonymy between two
chunks of different languages on various levels of which two main ones are thought
and linguistic form. Newmark adds that translation is partly an exercise in the art of
writing as well as a field of comparative applied linguistics (1988,p.26). Newmark
believes that grammatical meaning is more significant, less precise, more general and
sometimes more elusive than lexical meaning (ibid). Basically, it will have attained
this fact that syntactic differences existing among languages may cause problem in
translation. Here it seems necessary to mention some characteristics of the Azeri language generally, which differ from English and should be considered in order to produce
an acceptable translation. The Azeri language which is also known as Azeri, Azeri
Turkish and Azerbaijani, is the Republic of Azerbaijan's official language, though some
dialects of the language are spoken in several parts of Iran. The Azeri language can be
heard in parts of eastern turkey, northern Iraq, and in southeastern area of the Republic
of Georgia. Worldwide, there are about 27 million native speakers of this language.
The Azeri language is derived from the Oghuz family of language and linguistically,
it is most closely related to Turkish, Persian and Arabic. As part of the Oghuz family
of languages, it was brought from central Asia by Seljuk Turks and in the Middle East
it was greatly influenced by the vocabulary and grammar of Persian and Arabic.
Eventually, it replaced Tat, old Azeri and Middle Persian in Iran and became the most
dominant language in a multi – lingual area by the 1500s. Regarding the grammar of
Azeri, it can be said that it is an agglutinative language and frequently used affixes and
specifically suffixes - Most of them indicate the grammatical function of the word.
Word order in Azeri is generally subject – object – verb as in Korean and Latin but
unlike English. In more complex sentences, the basic rule is that the qualifier precedes
the qualified; this principle includes, as an important special case, the participial modifiers. The definite precedes the indefinite. It is possible to alter the word order to
stress the importance of a certain word or phrase. The main rule is that the word before
the verb has the stress without exception. Moreover as Azeri is a pro–drop language,
the subject may not be mentioned in the sentence. This research focuses on the analyzing
of English complex sentences with nominal subordinate clauses which involve both
wh – interrogative clauses and infinitive construction and their translation in Azeri
language. The importance of this research is showing some methods for translating of
these sentences into Azeri language, due to existing syntactic peculiarities and differ72
April 27, 2012
rences between languages which may cause some problems in the process of translating.
The underlying assumption of this research is that the translator must have enough
knowledge and information about the structures of English and Azeri while translating
these sentences in order to translate effectively. Since Azeri language does not have
such complexity-packaged constructions, Azeri learners, and translators find it difficult
to cope with these structures which are widely used in English writing. To this end
English fictions are studied to identify those structures in English and their Azeri
equivalents. In this relation the following research questions have been formulated:
How are English nominal clauses involving subordinate wh – interrogative clauses
translated into Azeri?How are English nominal clauses involving both subordinate wh
– interrogative clause and infinitive construction translated into Azeri? Are these structures translated as complex sentences in Azeri language? What are the most frequent
wh –interrogative words found in original texts?
Translation and Translator
Translation deals with language. As language is a means of communication, so
does the function of translation. Nida (1981, p.12) states that translation means communication because it has three essential elements to form a process of communication.
The three essential elements are source, message and the receptor, and these elements
must be found in all communication activities. So, it can be said that translation is the
medium of the source language and target language. We transform the meaning in
source language in the form of target language by translation, so the renders in the
target language understand the meaning in the source language. Successful translating
involves one of the most complex intellectual challenges known to mankind. Moreover,
in our present world, the need for extensive, accurate and effective communication
between those using different languages, gives the translator a position of new and
strategic importance (Nida, 1964, p. 155). Therefore translating from one language into
another language is a complicated task. There are many factors that should be considered
in the process of translation in order to make translation result be appropriate to be
comprehended. Based on Catford's idea (1965) translation is the replacement of textual
material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another
language (target language). Larson (1984) believes that translation consists of studying
the lexicon, grammatical structure which appropriate in the receptor language and its
cultural context,i.e."translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language. The
closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first interms of meaning and
secondly interms of style". Newmark says that translation is rendering the meaning of
a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (1988, p.73).
In translation, the translator possesses a satisfactory knowledge of the source language. He must understand not only obvious content of message but also, the subtleties
of the meaning, the significant emotive values of words, and stylistic features which
determine the flavor of the message. Even more important that knowledge of the resources
of the language is a control of the receptor language. (Nida, 1964, p.150).
73
Therefore, a translator must have reliable knowledge and experience in this field.
As a communicator, moreover, the knowledge and skills related to all communicators
have to possessed. He has to access the target language knowledge, text type knowledge,
source language knowledge, subject area (real world) knowledge and cultural knowledge
(Bell, 1991, p.36).
Generally, in translating, it is important to ensure the surface meaning of the two
languages in translation, are approximately similar and at the same time to ensure that
the structure of the source language preserved as well as possible but not so closely
that the target language structures will be seriously distorted.
Linguistics
Many researchers have still doubts about the importance of linguistics in translations
studies which is also reflected in the majority of scholarly papers devoted to the subject.
The linguistic relevance of information structure in the case of translation is even more
evident if Azeri and a language such as English are involved. Azeri is a free word order
language, as mentioned in introduction, in which grammatical structure is largely
determined by the articulation in theme (logical subject) and rheme (logical predictate),
whereas English does not permit much variation in word order, and syntactic structure
is defined in terms of grammatical subject and grammatical predicate. This fact alone
has important consequences for the theory and practice of translation. In addition, some
word order variation in Azeri language is due to a second type of articulation (which
may, but need not coincide with the first one), which concerns information structure
proper, i.e. distribution of known and new information in the sentence and its structural
consequences. So linguistics plays an important role in the investigation of the joint
functioning of two languages, i.e. "the translational behavior of languages". Dynamic
contrasts are differences in encoding strategies characteristic of different languages;
which become manifest only when these languages clash in the process of translation
and also, information structure is one such domain where drastic dynamic contrasts in
encoding may be encountered. The linguistic description of contrasting structures is
indespensable for adequate translation. Regarding the recognition of the importance
of context, it is quite clear that we normally do not translate sentences in isolation but
sentences which are part of a larger text or discourse. Klaudy points out research into
the translational behavior of languages and the decision making and problem solving
strategies behind translational operations may result in a systemic translation oriented
description of various language pairs. It is an adequate description of the linguistic
structure of languages. In addition to descriptive and theoretical linguistics, translation
studies may also profit from insights gained in sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics.
klaudy (1981) argues that the translator mediates not only between two languages but
also between two cultures. He must thus have certain ideas about the source language
society and the target language society, which need not always be very explicit. Sociolinguistics attempts to reveal the relationship between language and society independently
of translation and provide scientifically well – founded descriptions of this relationship.
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April 27, 2012
In this way, sociolinguistics may contribute to the clarification of the basis of the translators' decisions. Psycholinguistics may offer an explanation of how the translation
process works. Klaudy reports, among other things, on experiments which have tried
to find out whether or not it is possible to listen and speak simultaneously. Some of the
results seem to indicate that simultaneous interpreters do not listen and speak at the same
time, but they alternate between these two activities, using the pauses of the speaker
as well as their own pauses (ibid).
In sum, then, socio – and psycholinguistics, too, are important branches of research
for translation studies. As translators, we must not only know what we are doing but
also why we are doing something in the way we are doing it (ibid).
Therefore, the importance of linguistics in translation studies is obvious and clear.
Complex Sentence
Complex sentences are widely used in English writing and specially literary works.
Since in literary work the writer expresses himself in many kinds of sentences and
making complex sentences is more challenging of the very large variety of clauses
signals to choose from many combinations.
Complex sentences can be used to judge whether a work is written in a good way
or not. By which, the accuracy and variety of the work can be known. Complex sentences
are the best means of eliminating choppy sentences and giving accuracy of literary
work. It will not be satisfied until he has at down the number of simple or compound
sentences and increase the number of complex sentences. (Fauzanah, 2009, p.15).
To make his writing more accurate and everything equal, a writer will build his
main idea into part of the sentence and tuck the detail into clause, in other words, he
writes more complex sentences. Moreover, the using of more complex sentences in
work, does not show the dullness of the sentences because of the variety of the sentences
in its paragraphs and subordinate clauses, on the other hand, expresses the relations of
the writer's ideas.
Complex Sentences in English
In English, sentences are either simple or multiple. A simple sentence consists of
a single independent clause. A Multiple sentences contains one or more clauses as its
immediate constituents. Multiple sentence are either compound or complex. In a compound sentence the immediate constituents are two or more coordinate clauses therefore,
the clauses of a compound sentence provide classic instances of a paratactic relationship
that is they have equivalent function. (Quirk et al, 1985, p.987). In a complex sentence,
one or more of its element, such as direct object, adverbial and etc are realized by a
subordinate clause. A complex sentence is like a simple sentence in which it consists
of only one main clause, but unlike a simple sentence, it has one or more subordinate
clauses functioning as element of the sentence. Subordination is an asymmetrical relation:
the sentence and its subordinate clauses are in a hypotactic relationship that is they form
a hierarchy in which the subordinate clause is a consistent of the sentence as a whole
(ibid).
75
On the basis of their potential functions, several major categories of subordinate
clauses are distinguished: Nominal, Relative, Adverbial and Comparative.
Since the study of subordinate wh – interrogative clauses is the aim of this research
which are subcategorized in nominal clauses, here the syntactic and semantic function
of nominal clauses are mentioned briefly.
Nominal clauses (clauses approximating in function noun phrases) fall into six
major categories: That –clause or subordinate declarative clauses, Subordinate interrogative clauses, Subordinate exclamative clauses, Nominal relative clauses, To –
infinitive clauses and Ing clauses. (Quirk et al, 1985, p.1049).
Subordinate wh –interrogative Clauses
Subordinate wh-interrogative clauses occur in the whole range of functons available
to the nominal that –clause and in addition may function as prepositional complement:
for example:
How the book will sell depends on the reviewers.
subject
I can't imagine what they want with your address.
direct object
The problem is who will water my plants when I am away.
subject complement
Your original question, why he did not report it to the police earlier, has not
appositive
yet been answered.
I am not sure which she prefers.
adjectival complementation
They did not consult us on whose names should be put forward.
prepositional complement
These subordinate clauses resemble wh –questions semantically in that they leave
a gap of unknown information, represented by the wh –element. An infinitive wh –
clause can be formed with all wh –words, though instances with "why" are rare. The
infinitive clause has an obligational sense (ibid). For example:
I don't know what to say: what I should say
I'm wondering where to put my coat: where I should put my coat.
As mentioned, in this research, English subordinate wh –interrogative and infinitive
wh –clauses have been investigated.
Complex Sentences in Azeri
In Azeri, a sentence can be either simple or complex by its structure. (Habibli, 2008,
p.241). Simple sentences are divided into four types according to their purpose and
intonation: Narrative sentences, Imperative sentences, Interrogative sentences and exclamatory sentences. The sentence that consists of two or more sentences is called a
complex sentence. In Azeri, there are two types of the complex sentences: compound
sentence (Tábesiz Mürəkkəb cümlə) and complex sentence with one or more subordinate
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April 27, 2012
clauses (Tabeli Mürəkkəb cümlə). Like English, in Azeri also, there is one main clause
(Baş cümlə) and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses (Budaq cümlə). For
example: Mən bilmirəmki, o sizin suallιnιza necə cavab verdi.
I do not know
how he answered your
Semantically,based on the meaning of wh –words used in subordinate clauses, the
are categorized; such as; time subordinate clauses (zaman budaq cümlə) or reason subordinate clauses (səbəb budaq cümlə) and etc.
It is necessary to mention that in Azeri instead of wh –interrogative words used in
subordinations, some words and combinations are used and called connective words
(bağlayιcιlar).
Syntactically connectives classified into two groups: coordinate connectives (Tabesiz bağlayιcιlar) and subordinate connectives (Tabeli bağlayιcιlar). In contrast to
compound sentences, in which coordinate connectives are used like və (and), ya (or),
Lakin (but) and so on, in complex sentences subordinate connectives are used, such as
hara (where), necə (why), kimi/ kimə (whom), kim (who) and etc. Therefore, in subordinate wh – interrogative clauses, in Azeri, wh –words, are replaced by subordinate
connectives or tabeli baglayιcιlar (Rosta mova, 2010).
Research Method
The purpose of this study is to investigate and analyze Azeri translations of English
subordinate wh – interrogative clauses and infinitive wh – clauses. This research deals
with the analysis of data in order to study Azeri translations of English complex sentences, subordinate wh –interrogative clauses, wh – words used in subordinate clauses,
infinitive used in subordinate wh – interrogative clauses. Moreover, finding the most
frequent "wh –words" used in these two types of structures in original texts.
Materials
The material chosen for analysis are English fictions which involve the novels of
"For whom the Bell Tolls" written by Hemingway, "400 subjects in English" written
by vitalyevna, "Life essays" written by Gurbanov, "The Alchemist" and "By the River
Piedra I Sat Down and Wept", written by Coelho and Joyce's Dubliners (short stories).
200 subordinate wh – interrogative clauses, which 100 sentences involving infinitive
constructions, along with their translations into Azeri taken from Hajiyev (2006), vitalyevna (2006), Gambarov (2010), Qojabayli (2006), Aslanlι (2011) and Nijat (2011)
have been analyzed.
Procedures
The data classified into two main categories: subordinate wh – interrogative clauses
and infinitive wh – clauses.
Subordinate wh – interrogative clauses translated as simple sentences
involving verb combinations.
* I don’t know even what alchemy is.
Mən kimyagərlyin nə demək olduğunu belə bilmirəm.
77
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
78
I read only what the birds wanted to tell me.
mən yalnιz quşlarιn anlat maq istədikləri şeyi oxudum.
The camel driver understood what the boy was saying.
Cavan oğlanІn ona dediyi şeyi başa düşürdü.
She couldn't hear what Pilar was saying.
O, Pilarιn nə danιşdιğιnι eştitmirdi.
You will show me when we get there.
Düşərgəyə çatanda göstərərsən.
I don't know who is prepared to stand that.
Buna kimin tab gətirə biləcəyini bilmirəm.
You know why we didn't kill them.
Sən onlarι nə üçün öldürmədiyimizi bilirsən.
He was repeating something which he had learned by heart.
O, əzbər bildiyi ifaddələri təkrar edir.
I don't know where he is posted.
Poçt üçün harda yer seçdiyini bilmirəm.
Subordinate wh – interrogative clauses translated as
simple sentences without verb combinations.
Oxford gives them what they need.
Oksford onlara hər şey verir.
He understood why the owner of the bar had been so upset.
Qəhvəçinin ümidsiz cəhdlərini indi anayιrdι.
Subordinate wh – interrogative clauses translated as complex sentences.
I don't know why I worried about it before.
bilmirəm nə ücün bu məni əvvəllər çox təşvişə salιdι.
No one know how he achieved the stern task of living.
Heç kim bilmirdi ki o yaşamaq vasitələrini hansι yolla əldə edir.
Subordinate wh – interrogative clauses translated as compound sentences.
His mother was a clever woman whom he always loved.
Onun anasɪ ağιllι idi və o anasιnι çox sevirdi.
we have to turn a question why the man cannot go with man again though it is the
question of millenniums.
Niyə insane insanle yola getmir, deyə millərin arxasιndan gələn suala dönməyə
məcbur oluruq.
Subordinate wh – interrogative clauses and infinitive construction
translated as simple sentences involving verb combinations.
You don't know how to continue the conversation.
söhbət necə davam etdirəcəyiniz bilməzsiniz.
April 27, 2012
*
*
*
He teaches people how to live.
O adamlara necə yaşamağι öyrədir.
Subordinate wh – interrogative clause and infinitive
construction translated as complex sentences.
I didn't know what to answer.
Bilmədim ki necə cavab verim.
Juliet didn't know what to do.
Gülyetada bilmir ki nə etməlidir.
Data Findings
In this research there are two main categories, namely, subordinate wh – interrogative clauses and subordinate involving both wh – words and infinitive. Analyzing
100 data related to the Azeri translation of English subordinate wh-interrogative clauses
shows that most of them in Azeri are translated as simple sentences involving verb
combinations with the percentage of 78% and some translated as simple sentences
without verb combinations with the percentage of 12%.
Moreover, these structures, in Azeri, have been translated as complex sentence with
the percentage of 6% and as compound sentences with the percentage of 4% (Table 1).
According to table (2), it has been cleared that 68% English subordinates involving
both wh – words and infinitive translated as simple sentences involving verb combinations and 32% translated as complex sentences. Table (3) indicates the percentage
of errors of the mistranslation of English subordinates involving both wh-words and
infinitive in Azeri, that is 86% .
Based on table (4), it will be understood that the most frequent wh – word found
in subordinate wh-interrogative clauses of original texts is "what" with the percentage
of 32% and the least one is "whom" with the percentage of 7%.
According to findings of this research, the most frequent wh-word used in subordinates involving both wh-words and infinitive construction in original texts, is "how"
with the percentage of 53% and wh – word "where" with the least one, 11%.
Discussion and Conclusion
Based on 200 data, it has been cleared that in Azeri, English subordinate wh –
interrogative clauses and subordinates involving both wh – words and infinitive construction, are translated as simple sentences consisting verb combinations.
Here it seems necessary to mention that verb combinations in Azeri, are generally
three types: verb conjunctions (Feli bağlama) which are some suffixes added to the verb
and semantically expressing notions like time, manner, reason and etc. For example,
"Düşərgəyə çatanda göstərərsən".
anda = feli bağlama
Some verb conjunctions' suffixes are – anda, əndə, araq, ərək, dιqda, dikdə, and so
on. Another verb combination is participle (Feli Sifət), which involve some suffixes
added to the verb, functioning both like verb and adjective.
79
Suffixes like acaq, əcək, dιq, dik, duq, dük, acaq, əcək ,… are a number of participle
making suffixes. In the sentence, "Döyüşdə özümü necə aparacağιmɪ bilmirəm".
acağ in "aparacağιmɪ" named as participle making suffix. The word regarded as
particple or Feli sifət.
The last verb combination is verb – noun combinations.
They are also made by adding some suffixes such as
- a-a- , -ə-ə, -ar, iyi, and ets. These combinations functioning both as the verb and
noun, such as: cavan oğlanιn ona dediyi şeyi başa düşürdü".
verb - noun
It should be noted that "participle" (Feli sifat) is the most frequent construction
found in Azeri translation of subordinate wh – interrogative clauses and subordinates
consisting both wh – words and infinitive construction. Generally it can be concluded
that these complex sentences are translated as simple sentences and there is a tendency
in Azeri, that is using of simple sentences involving verb combinations.
These structures are used for translating of majority of English sentences such as
complex sentences. Regarding the subordinates involving both wh-words and infinitive
construction, which have the obligational sense, it should be said that in Azeri translation
of these structures, the meaning of them has not been considered and majority of translated sentences do not express the obligational sense. For example the sentence "I learned
how to care for sheep" translated as "Qoyunlara baxmağι bilirəm", which should be
translated as " Qoyunlara necə baxmaliyəniyə, bilirəm", because the suffix "mal" in the
verb "baxmaliyəniyə" shows the obligation sense in Azeri. Another important point in
Azeri translation of these complex sentences, is that unlike English, subordinate clauses
come before main clause and the verb of subordinate clauses translated as verb combination and the verb of main clause regarded as the main verb of the sentence. In
addition, the infinitive construction is not translated as infinitive in Azeri. Based on
findings of this research, it has been translated as verb combinations specially verb
conjunctions form (Feli bağlama).
As mentioned earlier, in translation, translator is transferring meaning of the source
language in the form of target language. Moreover paying attention to the structure of
the source language is necessary, and should be preserved as well as possible but not
so closely that target language structures will be seriously distorted. Therefore translation is always more than simply writing in the sense of putting words to paper. It is
suggested that in the literature of translation studies, in translation classrooms even in
language learning classes, students and learners compare and contrast translation with
their originals. It is useful for language learning, translation, education, lexicography,
finding equivalents for source language expressions, terms, structures and so on. It is
hoped that the results of the research may be used as additional information for the
teachers, especially in teaching English grammar and translation courses. Also, the results
may help Azerbaijanian translators, English learners and translator trainees for being
able to provide the translation of English subordinate wh- interrogative clauses and
subordinate involving both wh- clause and infinitive construction.
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April 27, 2012
Table 1. The translation of subordinate wh – interrogative clauses
Percentage
78%
12%
6%
4%
Total
78
12
6
4
simple sentences involving verd combinations
simple sentences without verb combinations
complex sentences
compound sentences
Table 2. The translation of subordinates involving both wh – clause and infinitive
Percentage
68%
32%
Total
68
32
simple sentences involving verb combinations
complex sentences
Table 3. Mistranslation of subordinates involving wh – clause and infinitive
Percentage
86%
Total
86
ignoring of obligational meaning
Table 4. The frequency of wh – words in subordinates wh – interrogative clauses in original texts.
Percentage
32%
17%
15%
12%
9%
8%
7%
Total
32
17
15
12
9
8
7
wh - words
what
how
when
where
who
why
whom
Table 5. The frequency of wh -words in subordinates involving wh-clause and infinitive in original texts.
Percentage
53%
23%
13%
11%
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Total
53
23
13
11
wh - words
how
what
when
where
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13. Nijat, A. (2011). Dubbliners. (pp.27 – 307) Baku: Ghanun Publication.
14. Qojabayli, N. (2006). The Alchemist. (pp . 5- 122). Baku: Chinar Punlication.
15. Quirk, R. Greenbaum, S. , Leech, G,. & Svartvik, S. (1987). A comprehensive grammar of the English
language. (5th ed). London and NewYork: Longman.
16. Rostamova, T. (2010). The comparision of Azeri and Persian grammar . (pp. 312 – 317). Baku: Adiloghlu Publication.
17. Vitalyevna, K.Y. (2006). 400 Subjects in English. (pp.70-275). Baku: Sorghu and Enycylopedia
Publication.
THE ROLE OF AFFIXES IN UNDERSTANDING THE
ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS
Pervine Valiyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
We observe that many linguists carried out researches about the etymology of English words. The
vocabulary of English language, as well as any other language in the world, has a lot of borrowed words.
In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words and 70% of them are borrowed ones.
Usually most of the borrowed words belong to a specific semantic group which enables us to understand
its origin: names of fruits and vegetables; people, objects and ideas associated with church and religious
rituals are mainly from Latin origin. Numerous terms of everyday life were borrowed from French. Educational, military, legal and administrative words are from Norman-French origin. Especially the researches
on the structural features to understand the origin of words attracts the attention. Above mentioned article
deals with the ways to recognize the origin of English words due to its affixes. Affixation has always been
one of the productive and long –lasting word building processes in English. In some words affixes are so
assimilated to a word that it is quite impossible to separate them from the stem of a word. The article
examines such affixes and their derivation. Moreover, the list of some affixes, the original language that
they belong to, as well as example words are given to make the purpose clear.
Key words: Etymology, affixation, suffixes, prefixes, origin of words and affixes.
Etymology - is the study of the origin of words, including an account of their original meaning, form and subsequent linguistic history. The word “etymology” is derived
from a Greek word “etymologia”: “etymon”-“truth” and “logos”-“word, science”. [5,101]
There is no language in the world that its word-stock would have consisted only
of purely native words. Etymologically the vocabulary of English language is far from
being homogenous. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and the borrowed
stock of words. The words that have been inherited from the language, or dialects, of
the Anglo-Saxon invaders of Great Britain in the fifth century A.D. are called native
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words and are to be distinguished from borrowed words, those that have entered English
vocabulary from other sources, such as Latin and Greek. [1, 21] Borrowed words or
loanwords are words taken from another language and modified according to the patterns
of the receiving language. The number of the borrowings in the vocabulary of the language and the role played by them is determined by the historical development of the
nation speaking the language. In English vocabulary the borrowed stock of words is
considerably larger than the native stock of words. In fact native words comprise only
30% of the total number of words1 and 70% of them are borrowed ones. [6]
English itself belongs to the German languages group and it has “borrowed” a lot
of words from Roman and Greek languages groups. When analyzing borrowed words
one should distinguish between two terms - source of borrowing and origin of borrowing.
There is certain confusion between these two terms. So when describing the words as
Latin, French or Scandinavian borrowings we point out their source but not their origin.
The term “origin” of the word should be applied to the language the word may be traced
to. Thus the French borrowing “table” is Latin by origin. (Latin “tabula”). The Latin
borrowing “school” came into Latin from the Greek language (Greek “schola”), so it
is described as Greek by origin.
In many cases a borrowed word, especially one borrowed long ago is practically
indistinguishable from a native word without a thorough etymological analysis. But
there are certain structural features which enable us to identify some words as borrowings and even to determine the source language. For example, it is already established
that the use of sk (sc) group in a word, usually indicates Scandinavian origin: sky, skill,
skin, ski, skirt, to scowl, to scare, to bask. [3, 38], [4, 117]. Another way of distinguishing
a borrowed word is through analyzing the affixes in it.
Affixation has been one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout
the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of
speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.
French affixes
The suffix -ance
The suffix -ence
Nouns
The suffix -ment
The suffix -age
The suffix -ess
Adjectives The suffix -ous
The prefix enVerbs
The suffix -ion
The suffix -tion
The suffix -ate [eit]
The suffix -ute [ju:t]
Verbs The remnant suffix -ct
The remnant suffix -d(e)
The prefix dis-
Nouns
arrogance, endurance, hindrance, etc.
consequence, intelligence, patience, etc.
appointment, development, experiment, etc.
courage, marriage, passage, village, etc.
tigress, lioness, actress, adventuress, etc.
curious, dangerous, joyous, serious, etc.
enable, endear, enact, enfold, enslave, etc.
communion, legion, opinion, session, union, etc.
relation, revolution, starvation, temptation, unification, etc.
appreciate, create, congratulate, etc.
attribute, contribute, constitute, distribute, etc.
act, conduct, collect, connect, etc.
applaud, divide, exclude, include, etc.
disable, distract, disown, disagree, etc.
83
The suffix -able
The suffix -ate [it]
The suffix -ant
Adjectives The suffix -ent
The suffix -or
The suffix -al
The suffix -ar
detestable, curable, etc.
accurate, desperate, graduate, etc.
arrogant, constant, important, etc.
absent, convenient, decent, evident, etc.
major, minor, junior, senior, etc.
cordial, final, fraternal, maternal, etc.
lunar, solar, familiar, etc.
Suffixation: The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part
of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the
same part of speech, e.g. educate v – educatee n, journal n-journalist n.
Prefixation: Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to
the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. The main function of prefixes
in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech, e.g. happyunhappy, head – overhead.
We can recognize words of Latin and French origin by certain suffixes, prefixes
or endings. The two tables below will help us in this2.
Here is a list of some more affixes’ origin:
Origin of suffixes:
a. Native (Germanic): -er teacher, -ful careful, -less painless, -ly swiftly, -dom freedom,
-ed educated, -en shorten, -hood priesthood, childhood, -ing king (O.E. word),
meeting, -ish childish, -ness darkness, -ship friendship, -teen seventeen, -ty ninety, ward upward;
b. Romanic: -tion attention, -ment development, -able/-ible terrible, moveable, -age
package, -ance/ence reference, attendance, -ate cultivate;
c. Greek: -ist taxist, -ism capitalism, -ize organize;
Origin of prefixes:
a. Native (Germanic): un- unable, unrest, unhappy, over- over-nice, over-time, overfeed, under- underestimate, to underlie, to undergo, to understand, undercoat, withwithdraw, up- uphold, bе- behind, to behead, to become, fore- to forecast, to forestall;
b. Romanic: in- inactive, co-coexistence, ex- expresident, re- rewrite, en- enlarge;
c. Greek: sym- sympathy, hyper- hypertension, dis- dissyllable, poly- polysemantic,
anti- antisocial, a- atypical.
1.
2.
END NOTE
http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/etymology.htm
Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В, Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова, Лексикология Английского Языка English
Lexicology, Издательский дом "Дрофа”, Москва, 1999, ст. 39.
REFERENCES
1.
84
Charles W. Dunmore, Studies in Etymology, Focus Books, Focus Information Group, Inc., Newburyport
MA 01950, 1993.
April 27, 2012
2.
Г.Б. Антрушина, О.В, Афанасьева, Н.Н. Морозова, Лексикология Английского Языка English
Lexicology, Издательский дом "Дрофа”, Москва, 1999.
3.
Н. Н. Амосова, Этимологические Основы Словарного Состава Современного Английского
Языка, Издательство Литературы на Иностранных Языках, Москва 1956.
4.
А. А. Реформатский, Введение в Языковедение, Издательство “Просвещение”, Москва 1967.
5.
http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/etymology.htm
THE IMPORTANCE OF COHESION AND
COHERENCE IN DISCOURSE
Turana Aghayeva
Undergraduate Student
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This article deals with the relationship between cohesion and coherence and its importance in discource.
An awareness of cohesion and coherence in all texts is a very important skill for language learners, students
to develop.
A text is cohesive if its elements are linked together. Cohesion can be thought of as all the grammatical
and lexical links that link one part of a text to another. Cohesive devices also include transitional words
and phrases ,repetition of key words and use of reference words. It means that for language learners it is
too important to understand cohesitive devices in a text. Otherwise in some occasions we can see some
misunderstanding .
A text is coherent if it makes sense. When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, discourse
can be understood easily and it will be coherent. It should be clear that cohesion and coherent are not the
same things. However, a text may be cohesive (linked together), but incoherent and this incoherentness
can lead some misunderstanding. The problem here is not so much that we cannot understand what is being
said but we cannot see the point of saying it.
The general point to be made is that no matter how many cohesive devices are used or the extent to
which it is interpreted as coherent, discource will always depend on contextual realities that readers are
familiar with in the particular socio-cultural world they live in. That is why in written discourse ,writers
should always “keep their readers in mind”.
Key words: discourse ,textual connections, cohesion, coherence, contextual realities.
An awareness of cohesion and coherence in all texts is a very important skill for
language learners,students to develop.
Text processing has always occupied a prominent place in discourse research. On
the one hand ,text researchers are interested in the mechanism of textual cohesion. On
the other hand, they propose hypothesis to explain assumptions of coherence in the
mind of the reader. Text discusses cohesion as the setting up of meaning relations across
sentences by means of a set of linguistic devices which links sentences together.[2,10]
Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of discourse together. In other words, if a
paper is cohesive, it sticks together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to
85
paragraph.Cohesion can be thought of as all the grammatical and lexical links that link
one part of a text to another. This includes use of synonyms, lexical sets, pronouns,
verb tenses, time references, grammatical reference, etc. For example, 'it', 'neither' and
'this' all refer to an idea previously mentioned. 'First of all', 'then' and 'after that' help
to sequence a text. 'However', 'in addition' and 'for instance' link ideas and arguments
in a text.
Cohesive devices also include transitional words and phrases, such as therefore,
furthermore, or for instance, that clarify for readers the relationships among ideas in a
piece of writing. However, transitions aren't enough to make discourse cohesive. Repetition of key words and use of reference words are also needed for cohesion. For
example:
Tony Blair was on his way to Bucharest…The Prime Minister astonished his advisers by suddenly announcing on the airplane that he was going to promise Romania
early membership of the European Union in return for its continued asking.[4,43]
Here he is identified as having a referential link to The Prime Minister and Tony
Blair. Let’s consider another pronoun ,its, as it occurs in the second part of this text. Its
encodes the semantic features of singular and non-human and these features are to be
found in Romania, the European Union ,and even in memberhip of the European Union,
so it could be linked linguistically to any of these three. Here the cohesive devices helps
us. The appropriate connection corresponds most closely with the reader’s contextual
knowledge of the world. The identification of connections that are linguistically signalled, like these between a pronoun and a noun phrase, enables us to recognize the
cohesion of a text.
It means that for language learners it is too important to understand cohesion connections in a text. Otherwise in some occasions when writers use minimal pro-norms,
we can see some misunderstanding:
Unfortunately in the weeks to come autumn leaves will create a dangerous hazard,
especially to the elderly when they fall and become a soggy mess on the pavement.
Here the pronoun they copies only the semantic feature of plurality. There are two
plural noun phrases in the text which are linguistic candidates for co-textual linkage;
autumn leaves and the elderly. Here if we do not think about cohesion not paying
attention to the previous mention one-autumn leaves, we can call up a fanciful,comic
context which sets up an anaphoric connection with the pronoun and the elderly,so
that it is they who fall and become a soggy mess on the pavement.
As we have seen, how far texts are made cohesive depends on the judgement of the
producers of the texts about what meanings they can assume .Cohesive devices are only
aids to understanding and can only be effective to the extent that they enable readers
to construct meaning that makes contextual sense to them.In other words to the extent
that the cohesion in the text enables them to derive a coherent discourse from it.
Coherence can be thought of as how meanings and sequences of ideas relate to
each other. Typical examples would be general>particular; statement>example; problem
> solution; question> answer; claim> counter-claim.[1,29]
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April 27, 2012
When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along
easily, and the writing is coherent. The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly. The
cohesive devices link parts of a text together. It is important to note ,however they link
parts of the texts together so that new content is understood in relation to the context
that has been established in the reader’s mind by what has been said before .
The process may seem complicated but actually it is not really, so long as you
prepare things in advance and know what has to be done in what order. Some of the
things you need you may already have but others, of course, you may need to get. They
are not always readily available and when they are they can be quite expensive. But the
find result will make all the effort and cost worthwhile. [78,5]
It follows from this that it is possible for a text to be cohesive but incoherent. Here
we have a text that is co-textually well connected with cohesive devices.The trouble is
that the reader cannot key the text into a context so as to make sense of it.We cannot
tell what this text is supposed to be .The problem here is not so much that we cannot
understand what is being said but we cannot see the point of saying it and so we find
it incoherent as discourse , though it is as text.
Good writers are able to "keep their reader in mind". Keeping your reader in mind
does not guarantee coherence, but it would seem to be a prerequisite because discourse
will always depend on how far it can be related to contextual realities.
So, finally, we can come to such kind of conclusion that for texts being cohesive
and coherent is very important. Inspite of the fact that we can have such texts that lack
of cohesion or coherence, they are not considered well organized.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bublitz W., Lenk U. and Ventola E. Coherence in spoken and Written Discourse. John Benjamins,
1999, 300 p.
Halliday M.A.K., Hasan R. Cohesion in English. London, 1976, 374 p.
McCarthy M. Discourse Analysis for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2006, 213 p.
Widdowson H.G. Discourse Analysis. Oxford University Press, 2007, 136 p.
Yule G. Pragmatics. Oxford University Press, 1996, 138 p.
ENGLISH'S GLOBAL TRIUMPH
Vineet Kaul
Student of Ph.D –Linguistics
DA-IICT University, Gandhinagar(Gujarat State), India
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
English today is one of the most hybrid and rapidly changing languages in the world. New users of the
language are not just passively absorbing, but actively shaping it, breeding a variety of regional Englishes,
87
as well as pidgins and English-lexified creoles. Also, as in an increasing number of countries English is
becoming an element of core education, a near-universal basic skill, native-speaker norms are losing both in
relevance and in reverence. This unique linguistic phenomenon has immediate consequences for the language classroom which is the subject of this present paper.
Keywords: English, power, status, diversity, young.
Historically, English originated from the fusion of languages and dialects, now
collectively termed Old English which were brought to the eastern coast of Great Britain
by Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) settlers by the 5th century – with the word English being
derived from the name of the Angles. A significant number of English words are constructed based on roots from Latin, because Latin in some form was the lingua franca
of the Christian Church and of European intellectual life. The language was further
influenced by the Old Norse language due to Viking invasions in the 8th and 9th centuries.
Today the spread of English so unprecedented that the "non-native English-speakers"
worldwide outnumber native ones 3 to 1. In Asia alone, the number of English users
has topped 350 million - roughly the combined populations of the United States, the
UK and Canada. There are more Chinese children studying English - about 100 million than there are Britons (that's nearly twice as many) Some scholars maintain that you
cannot actually count the number of words in the language because it is impossible to
say exactly what a word is, talking rather of memes and other linguistic constructs, are
afraid that Global English is just another form of cultural Imperialism. One possibility
of its phenomenal growth could the plethora of localized “lishes”, such as Chinglish,
Hinglish (a Hindi-English hybrid) and Spanglish (an English-Spanish hybrid) branching
from English, they become mutually unintelligible tongues sharing a common root,
much as Latin did in Medieval Europe.
Many linguists agree that if the lishes splinter, Hinglish will likely become the most
prominent offshoot by virtue of sheer numbers, giving Indian primary ownership of the
language
GLM (Global Language Monitor) take the classic view of the language as understood
in Elizabethan England, where a word was ‘a thing spoken’ or an ‘idea spoken’. Others
say that English is undergoing a rebirth unlike any seen since the time of Shakespeare,
when English was emerging as the modern tongue known to us today. (Shakespeare,
himself, added about 1700 words to the Codex.) English has emerged as the lingua
franca of the planet, the primary communications vehicle of the Internet, high technology,
international commerce, entertainment, and the like.
There are different ways in which English as a means of communication is evolving,
developing into literally separate languages, yet which are still understandable by those
who speak any version of English. The beauty of English is that from the earliest times it
has been able to incorporate and adapt words from other languages," said Jeremy Butterfield, editor-in-chief of Collins Dictionaries. "Already we probably can't get through
the day without using words derived from Indian languages. At least 26 new words of
joint Hindi and English derivation - have found their way into the dictionary.
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April 27, 2012
The new English-speakers aren't just passively absorbing the language-they're
shaping it. New Englishes are mushrooming the globe over, ranging from "Englog," the
Tagalog-infused English spoken in the Philippines, to "Japlish," the cryptic English
poetry beloved of Japanese copywriters ("Your health and loveliness is our best wish,"
reads a candy wrapper. "Give us a chance to realize it"), to "Hinglish," the mix of Hindi
and English that now crops up everywhere from fast-food ads to South Asian college
campuses. The great number of Hindi speakers in the United Kingdom has produced
a strain of the language unlike that spoken on the Indian subcontinent where it began.
This has given rise to Hindlish, also known as Hinglish, an informal term for the mixture
of Hindi and English that includes such phrases as city kotwali or "city police station."
Hinglish is not considered a full-blown diaspora language but it appears to be developing
into one. Nevertheless, the abundance of new words and phrases, unlikely as this may
seem, can and will impact Global English as it evolves through the twenty-first century”.
As a language with many origins—Romance, Germanic, Norse, Celtic and so on—
English was bound to be a mess. But its elasticity makes it messier, as well as stronger.
When it comes to new words, English puts up few barriers to entry. Every year publishers bring out new dictionaries listing neologisms galore. The past decade, for instance,
has produced not just a host of Internettery, computerese and phonebabble (“browsers”,
“downloading”, “texting” and so on) but quantities of teenspeak (“fave”, “fit”, “pants”,
“phat”, “sad”). All are readily received by English, however much some fogies may
resist them.
All languages are works in progress. But English's globalization, unprecedented
in the history of languages, will revolutionize it in ways we can only begin to imagine.
In the future, there could be a tri-English world, one in which you could speak a local
English-based dialect at home, a national variety at work or school, and international
Standard English to talk to foreigners.
With native speakers a shrinking minority of the world's Anglophones, there's a
growing sense that students should stop trying to emulate Brighton or Boston English,
and embrace their own local versions. Researchers are starting to study non-native
speakers' "mistakes" - "She look very sad," for example - as structured grammars. In a
generation's time, teachers might no longer be correcting students for saying "a book
who" or "a person which."
Linguist Jennifer Jenkins, an expert in world Englishes at King's College London,
asks why some Asians, who have trouble pronouncing the "th" sound, should spend
hours trying to say "thing" instead of "sing" or "ting." International pilots, she points out,
already pronounce the word "three" as "tree" in radio dispatches, since "tree" is more
widely comprehensible.
English has become the common linguistic denominator. Whether you're an Indian
executive on business in Shanghai, a German Eurocrat hammering out laws in Brussels
or a Brazilian biochemist at a conference in Sweden, you're probably speaking English.
And as the world adopts an international brand of English, it's native speakers who
have the most to lose. Cambridge dons who insist on speaking the Queen's English
89
could be met with giggles - or blank stares. British or American business execs who
jabber on in their own idiomatic patois, without understanding how English is used by
non-natives, might lose out on deals.
Technology also plays a huge role in English's global triumph. Eighty percent of
the electronically stored information in the world is in English; 66 percent of the world's
scientists read in it, according to the British Council. "It's very important to learn English
because [computer] books are only in English," say many Gujarati students, learning
English in coaching classes. New technologies are helping people pick up the language,
too: students can get English-usage tips on their mobile phones. English-language
teachers point to the rise of Microsoft English, where computer users are drafting letters
advised by the Windows spell check and pop-up style guides
The world is changing. Inevitably, so are our words. Ten years ago, no one had
heard of “H1N1″, “Web 2.0″, “n00b”, or talked about “de-friending” someone on
“Twitter” or “Face book”. Now these are part of people’s everyday vocabulary. The
English language is going through an explosion of word creation. New words are coined
– some, like “n00b”, may not even look like words; old words take on new meanings
– “twitter” today bears little relation to the Middle English twiteren. According to the
Global Language Monitor (GLM), in 2009 the English language tipped the scales with
a vocabulary of one million words. .
GLM, the San Diego-based language watcher, publishes annual lists of top words
and phrases by tracking words in the global print and electronic media, the Internet,
blogs, and social media such as Twitter and YouTube. Each year’s list reflects major
concerns and changes taking place that year. For instance, from the 2009 list, we have
to acknowledge the fact that technology is reshaping our ways of living (twitter, web
2.0). We need to face up to the after-effects of a “financial tsunami” (stimulus, foreclosure), a pandemic (H1N1), the death of revered pop icon (MJ, King of Pop) and the
debates over “healthcare reform” and “climate change” that mark the year.
The extinction of most languages is probably unstoppable. Television and radio,
both blamed for homogenisation, may, paradoxically, prolong the life of some by narrowcasting in minority tongues. And though many languages may die, more people may
also be able to speak several languages: multilingualism, a commonplace among the
least educated peoples of Africa, is now the norm among Dutch, Scandinavians and,
increasingly, almost everyone else. Native English-speakers, however, are becoming
less competent at other languages: only nine students graduated in Arabic from universities in the United States last year, and the British are the most monoglot of all the
peoples of the EU. Thus the triumph of English not only destroys the tongues of others;
it also isolates native English-speakers from the literature, history and ideas of other
peoples. It is, in short, a thoroughly dubious triumph. But then who's for Esperanto?
Not the staff of this newspaper, that's for sure.
REFERENCES
1.
90
http://www.webpronews.com/the-globalization-of-english-2005-03
April 27, 2012
2.
3.
4.
http://inclusionparadox.com/as-more-of-the-world-speaks-english-who-is-a-native-speaker
http://www.languagemonitor.com/no-of-words/globalenglish/chinglish
http://www.economist.com/node/883997
CONTEXTUAL NEGATIVE ELEMENTS AND IMPLICIT NEGATION
Venera Suleymanova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This article contributes to the study of the category of negation and its explicit and implicit components
by providing linguistic evidence. Explicit negation denotes direct and clear denial while implicit negation
conveys indirect and confidential absence, lack and objection. Though the category of negation was learned
over and again in the history of linguistics implicit negation has not still been well investigated in comparison with explicit one. Therefore , the aim of this article is to give full description of implicit negation, its
usage, components and lexical, semantical, morphological, phraseological and syntactical characteristics. In
other words, implicit negation is analyzed as a syntax-morphology, lexic-semantical interface phenomenon.
Key words: negation, implicit negation, negative constituents.
Funksional-kommunikativ baxımdan məlum neqatorlarla eyniləşən və dilin dərinlik
strukturunda yerləşən inkarlıq daşıyıcıları demək olar ki, bütün nitq hissələrini, söz
kateqoriyalarını əhatə edir. İnkarlıq hadisəsinə kommunikativ kateqoriya kimi yanaşdıqda müəyyən olur ki, inkarlaşdırma funksiyası dilin başqa səviyyələrində olduğu kimi
leksik səviyyədə eksplisit indikatorlarla yanaşı, müxtəlif implisit ifadə formaları ilə də
reallaşır. Burada affiks inkarlığı və privativ inkarlıq önəmli yer tutur. Fodor D.J,
Fodor A.J, Garrett M.F inkarın dörd fərqli ifadə formasını müəyyənləşdirirlər, başqa
sözlə, onlara görə inkar semanın ifadəsi dörd fərqli leksik formada təqdim olunur:
1. İnkarlıq müstəqil inkar morfem olan “not” vasitəsi ilə eksplisit, yəni vasitəsiz şəkildə ifadə olunur.
2. İnkarlıq asılı morfem in-, un-, im-, dis-,de- və s. vasitəsilə reallaşır ki, bunu müəlliflər morfoloji inkarlıq adlandırırlar.
3. İnkarlıq implisit inkar morfemlər (any, much, give a damn, doubt, deny, fail və s.)
vasitəsilə ifadə olunur ki, bu zaman inkarlıq vasitəli yolla təqdim edilir.
Qeyd edək ki, bir çox hallarda morfoloji inkarlıqla implisit inkarlığın sərhədlərini
müəyyənləşdirmək çətin olur.
4. İnkarlıq sadəcə mənasında inkar sema daşıyan, heç bir inkar morfemi olmayan,
inkarlığın ifadəsi üçün sintaktik mühit əmələ gətirə bilməyən bir qrup söz vasitəsilə
ifadə olunur. Məsələn, bachelor – a man has not ever been married, subay-evli olmayan adam, kill-cause to become not alive, öldürmək-yaşamağı davam etdirməməyə səbəb olmaq.[1, 242]
Eksplisit inkarlıq inkarlığın ifadəsində implisit inkarlığa nəzərən daha aparıcı rol
oynayır. Bir sıra linqvistik ədəbiyyatda da qeyd edildiyi kimi, eksplisit inkarlığın açıq,
91
aydın, vasitəsiz, implisit isə inkarlığın gizli, imalı və vasitəli ifadəsidir. Gizli inkar
komponentlərin tədqiqi hər hansı mətnin və ya fikrin incə məna çalarlıqlarını diqqətə
almağa məcbur edir. Burada sözün leksik-semantik mənası, sintaktik, morfoloji quruluşu əsas rol oynayır.
Qeyd edək ki, implisit kateqoriyanın xüsusi aşkar markeri olmadığı üçün dildə müstəqil ifadəsi mümkün olmur. Lakin bunu da demək olmaz ki, dildə aşkar bir inkar komponentin olmaması implisit inkarlığın ifadəsini çətinləşdirir. Əksinə, digər eksplisit
komponentlər kimi xüsusi bir formaya malikdirlər, lakin inkarlığı birbaşa deyil, vasitəli
yolla və gizli, təsdiqlik prizmasından təqdim etmiş olurlar.
İmplisit inkarlıq vasitələrinin ifadə variantlığı, geniş mətn daxilində onların digər
inkarlıq komponentləri ilə əlaqə və təsir vəziyyətləri ümumən təsdiq və inkarın müxtəlif məna incəliklərinin, məntiqi və emosional-ekspressiv çalarlıqlarının fərqləndirilməsində əhəmiyyətli rol oynayır, ünsiyyət prosesində həmin yarusda funksional-semantik və üslubi variativlik imkanlarının zənginliyini aşkara çıxarır. A.Ligeza implisit inkarı “inkarın pozitiv təqdim edilməsi, inkarın təsdiq çaları” adlandırır.[2, 61]
İmplisit inkarlıq ifadə vasitələrini aşağıdakı kimi təsrif etmək mümkündür:
1. Privativ sözlər – (privativ sifət, isim, zərf və s. bold, empty, scarcely, rarely, hardly;
kar, keçəl, subay, kosa; сухой, глухой, пустой)
2. Privativ fellər – (refuse, deny, omit, reject, fail, lack, postpone, ignore; susmaq,
imtina etmək, rədd etmək, inkişafdan qalmaq, dirənmək, itmək; oтсутствоватъ)
3. Privativ frazeoloji vasitələr-(Dash me if I do, like hell, like devil, God knows, skate
on thin ice, fall at a first hurdle, cut it out, go haywire; Sənə nə?, O hara, oğurluq
hara?, Bu nədir, sənin dediyin nədir?, Sənə nə düşüb?(=Bunun sənə dəxli yoxdur?)
4. Ritorik suallar – (Who cares? (= Nobody cares), What do I care? (= I care nothing),
What difference does it make? (= It makes no dofference/ It doesn’t make any
difference), What’s the good of doing it? (= There isn’t any good of doing it),
What right do you have? (=You don’t have any right), Who can make the sun rise
in the West and set in the East? (= No one can); Sən elə bilirsən o bizim yaxşı olmağımızı istəyir? (= istəmir), Kim bilir neçədir dünyanın yaşı? (= Heç kim bilmir.)
Qeyd edək ki, sual cümləsində, ritorik sualda inkarlıq elementi olduqda təsdiq ifadə
olunur. Dil faktları təsdiq edir ki, sual cümlələri ilə implisit inkarlığın ifadəsinin intensivliyi başqa dillər üçün də xarakterikdir [3, 9]. “Wouldn’t you like to be a star?” “Who
wouldn’t?”, Bəs yazın gəlişi şeir deyilmi?
A.T.Əmirov implisit inkarın indikatorlarını linqvistik və ekstra-linqivistik olaraq
iki yerə bölür. Fikrimizcə, bu indikatorları verbal və qeyri-verbal da adlandırmaq olar.
Ekstra-linqivistik implisit inkarlığa mimika, gest, əl-qol hərəkətləri (başını yırğalamaq,
qaşlarını qaldırmaq, çiyinlərini çəkmək vəs.) daxildir ki, bu həm də paralinqivistikanın
tədqiqat obyektidir.
“It is impossible”, I said at last. “A well-known man like Hector Blunt.”
Poirot shrugged his shoulders. “Who knows? At last he is a man with big ideas…
(A. Christie)
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April 27, 2012
Yuxarıdakı cümlədə onun danışmadan əvvəl çiyinlərini çəkməsi ifadə edəcəyi cümləyə mənfi sema yükləmişdir.( Who knows?- Nobody knows.)
Bu haqda daha bir şeyi də qeyd etmək lazımdır ki, implisit indikatorları kontekstualsituativ indikatorlar da adlandırmaq olar ki, bunlar implisit inkarlığın ümumi-universal
indikatorlarıdır:
1. - Do you love him?
- I loved him. (= I don’t love him now.)
- Is he your husband?
- He was my husband. (= He is not my husband at the moment)
2. - Mənə bir siqaret ver.
- Siqareti atmışam. (= Artıq siqaret çəkmirəm)
A.T. Əmirov linqvistik implisit inkarlıqdan danışarkən onun leksik-semantik, frazeoloji, morfoloji və sintaktik xarakteristikasını göstərməyə çalışmışdır.
İmplisit inkarın leksik-semantik indikatorlarını öyrənərkən sual və təsdiq konstruksiyaları dərindən nəzərdən keçirmək lazımdır. İngilis dilində good, much, a lot, swell,
excellent, well və s. kimi ironiya əmələ gətirən sözlərin iştirakı maraq doğurur. Məsələn,
A lot you know about Physics! (= You don’t know anything about Physics), Well she
speaks English! (= She doesn’t speak English well), Çox tez gəlmisən! (= vaxtında
gəlməyibsən)
İmplisit inkarın əsas indikatorlarından biri də leksik təkrarlardır. Leksik təkrar danışanın eşitdiyinə reaksiyasının ekspressiv çalarlığını əks etdirir. Məsələn,
- If you need any help, inform me, please.
- Help? From you….(= You never help anyone)
- Are you going to change your mind?
- Me? Change my mind? (You won’t catch me doing a U-turn.)
- Bu dərmanı içdikdən sonra bəlkə rahat yatasan.
- Yatmaq? Mən.... (=Yata biləcəyimi düşünmürəm).
Göründüyü kimi, eksplisit inkarlıqla müqayisədə implisit inkarlıq vasitəli, gizli
yolla ifadə olunsa da bu tip implisit inkar indikatorların köməyi ilə daha rəngarəng ifadə
variantlığı, məntiqi və emosional-ekspressiv çalarlıqlar meydana çıxır.
İmplisit inkarlığın leksik indikatorlarından biri də mətn daxilində müqayisədir.
- We need to do housework.
- Am I your mule? Do you want to make me an ass of yourself? (=I am not your
mule/ I don’t want to work like an ass)
- Mən sənin atanın nökəriyəm? (= Atanın nökəri yoxdur)
Bu tip sual cümlə strukturlarının ifadə etdikləri mənaları onların hərfi mənalarından
çox fərqli olub nisbətən frazeoloji xarakterə malikdir.
- Why is she still waiting there?
- How do I know? (= I don’t know)
- Bu qapı niyə yenə bağlıdır?
93
-
Mən hardan bilim? (= Mən bilmirəm)
Qeyd edək ki, privativlik anladan vasitələr də implisit inkarın leksik indikatorlarından hesab olunur. Bu vasitələr, yuxarıda verilən indikatorlar kimi, dildə pozitiv görünüm çalarlanmasında, təsdiqlik perifrazlarının yaranmasında fəal iştirak edərək müəyyən bir əşyanın, hərəkətin və ya onlara aid olan hər hansı bir əlamətin yoxluğunu, naqisliyini bildirir (fail, reject, dissuade, ignore, omit, absent, hell, nonsense və s.)
At the moment I failed to answer. I was shocked./I couldn’t answer/I tried to answer;
Hamı axıra qədər vuruşdu, o isə vəziyyətlə barışdı (= vuruşmadı, mübarizə aparmadı.)
Frazeoloji indikatorlar implisit inkarın, fikrimizcə, ən zəngin indikatorlarındandır.
Frazeoloji (privativ) vasitələr verbal naqislik və inkarlaşdırmanı məcazi-ideomatik
görümdə, sintaktik metafora qəlibində zəngin ifadə variyasiyası əmələ gətirir:
I wish the ground would swallow you up/I wish you would die/I wish you didn’t live.
- Bəs pullar hanı, pullar ver bəri!
- Pul nə gəzir, başına daş saldıq!
Göründüyü kimi, müəyyən obraz əsasında qurulan privativ frazeologizmlər (frazeoloji indikatorlar) aydın semantik motivliyi və daxili ekspressivliyi ilə fərqlənir.
Yuxarıda verilən ideomatik cümlə quruluşları- sintaktik frazeologizmlər müvafiq olaraq
sintaktik səviyyəli sahə konstituentləri kimi çıxış edir, ucqar sahə komponentlər olmaqla
bir sıra məna çalarlıqlarının, emosional ekspressivliyin də reallaşmasında iştirak edir.
R.X.Volpert sintaktik frazeologizmlərin paradiqmatik konnotasiyaya malik olduğunu
qeyd edir, onlara mütləq emosionallıq markerləri kimi yanaşır.
İmplisit inkarlıq, yuxarıda qeyd etdiyimiz indikatorlarla yanaşı, morfoloji indikatorlarla da reallaşa bilir ki, bununla felin aspekt və zaman kateqoriyasındakı dəyişikliklər
nəzərdə tutulur. Morfoloji indikatorlar digər implisit indikatorlarla müqayisədə implisit
inkarın təqdim olunmasında zəif iştirak edirlər. Məsələn:
She is seeing her grandfather (= She doesn’t see, but she is imagining)
He is hearing a noise (= He doesn’t hear, but he is imagining)
Keçmiş zamanda verilən cümlələr də bir çox hallarda implisit inkar ifadə edə bilir:
- Don’t you have a car?
- Oh, I had a car. (= I don’t have it now)/ I wish I had it now (Kaş olsaydı).
İmplisit inkarın sintaktik indikatorları bir çox hallarda təkbaşına işlənə bilməsə
də vasitəli inkarlığın ifadəsində böyük rol oynayır. İngilis dilində “as if” və “as though”
bağlayıcıları ilə əmələ gələn tabeli mürəkkəb cümlə strukturlarının bir çoxu sintaktikfrazeologiya səciyyəsi daşıyır, hər hansı mətndən kənarda ekspressiv təsdiq və ya inkar
ifadə edir.
He treats me as if I were a child. (= I am not a child)
Mürəkkəb cümlələrdə ekspressiv inkarlıq çalarlıqlarının, struktur variativlik hallarının yaranmasında sahə konstituentlərinin işlənib-işlənməməsi əhəmiyyətli rol oynayır [5, 194].
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April 27, 2012
İngilis dilində even if, even when, even while, though, although bağlayıcıları ilə
düzələn güzəşt budaq cümləli tabeli mürəkkəb cümlələrdə həm baş, həm də budaq cümlə
təsdiqdə gəlməklə ekspressiv inkarlıq ifadə olunur, qətilik semantik şərti və kontrast
düşüncəsi sintaktik formanı bütövlükdə inkar hökmün ifadəsinə tabe etdirir. Məsələn:
Although the sun was shining, it was cold. (= it was not hot/ The sun was shining/
I expected it to be warm), Jim has to go to work although he is ill. (= Jim is ill, I expect
he doesn’t have to go to work), We’ll have a great time even if it rains (= It may rain,
but it won’t stop us); Qadın çox xəstə olsa da bütün işləri özü görürdü. (= O, xəstə idi.
Onun bütün işləri görməsi mümkün deyildi.)
Göstərilən tabeli mürəkkəb cümlə quruluşlarında ifadə olunan aktual informasiya
haqqında danışılan iş, hal, hərəkətin icra olub-olmamasını, baş tutub-tutmamasını müəyyən şərtə bağlamaq deyil, məhz bunların icra olunma, baş tutma imkanını emosional
şəkildə inkar etməkdir.
Ümumiyyətlə, vasitəli ifadə tipləri emosional səciyyə daşıyır ki, bu da ümumən
dildə ekspressiv təsdiq və inkar hökmlərin, eləcə də ekspressiv təhrikin ifadə variyasiyalarını daha da genişləndirir.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ƏDƏBİYYAT
Fodor D.J, Fodor A.J, Garrett M.F The Psychological Unreality of Semantic Representation in the
Block N. Readings in philosophy of psychology, Volume 2, 1981, 242
Ligeza A. Logical foundation for rule-based systems, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2006, 61
Danec Fr. The Relation of Centre and Peripheru as a Lanquage Universal. Travaux linquistiqnes de
Pragne, 2. Les problemes du centre et de la peripheru du sustems de la langue – Prague, 1966
Амиров А.Т Имплицитное отрицание в современном английском языке: Автореф: дис.. канд.
филол. наук- М.1981, 32
Abdullayev S. Müasir alman və Azərbaycan dillərində inkarlıq kateqoriyası, Maarif, Bakı-1998.
A MODERN APPROACH PERSPECTIVE TO THE
LEXICOLOGY OF NABI’S DIVAN
Salih Savaş
Qafqaz Üniversitesi
Bakü / Azerbaycan
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Nâbî, whose real name was Joseph, was born in Urfa in 1642. In his early twenties he went to Istanbul,
the scientific and cultural center of the Ottoman Empire, and participated in discussions on science where at
the same time he was given a chance to meet the sultan and his viziers. Nâbî wrote several appraisals to the
rulers of the Empire, and consequently became famous soon and was recognized by the most significant
poets of the age.
One of the most important works of Nâbî, who was also considered to be the founder of "hikemî ekol"
that aimed at making people use their thinking and reasoning skills, was the Turkish Divan. Nâbî was using
Hikemi style, especially much in Ghazals.
95
There has not been any study done so far with regard to the lexicology of Nâbî Divan. We hope
that this study will fill in the existing huge gap on this subject.
Keywords: Nâbî, Divan, poet, literature.
NÂBÎ DÎVÂNININ LEKSİKASINA MODERN AÇIDAN YAKLAŞIM
ÖZET
Asıl adı Yusuf olan Nâbî 1642 yılında Urfa'da doğmuştur. Gençlik yıllarında Osmanlı'nın ilim ve
kültür merkezi olan İstanbul'a giderek buradaki ilim sohbetlerine katılmış ve aynı zamanda padişah ve
vezirlerle tanışma imkânı bulmuştur. Devlet büyüklerine yazdığı mersiyelerle kısa zamanda tanınmış ve
dönemin önemi şairlerinden övgü dolu sözler almıştır.
İnsanları düşündürmeyi amaçlayan "hikemî ekol"ün kurucusu olarak kabul edilen Nâbî'nin en önemli
eserlerinden biri Türkçe Dîvânıdır. Nâbî hikemi üslubunu özellikle gazellerinde çok kullanmıştır.
Nâbî Dîvânının söz varlığı ile ilgili bugüne kadar herhangi bir çalışma yapılmamıştır. Ümit ediyoruz ki
bu çalışma bu konudaki mevcut olan büyük bir boşluğu dolduracaktır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Nâbî, dîvan, şair, edebiyat.
XIII. yüzyıldan başlayarak XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısına kadar büyük bir değişikliğe uğramadan devam etmiş olan Divan Edebiyatı, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde
oluşmuştur. İslam kültürüne bağlı olarak gelişen bu Edebiyat, Arap ve Fars Edebiyatlarından etkilendiğinden dolayı yazılan eserlerde Arapça ve Farsça kelimelere sıkça
rastlanmaktadır.
Dîvân Edebiyatı en parlak dönemini XVI. ve XVII. yüzyıllarda yaşamıştır. Bu
Edebiyatın en lirik şairi olan Fuzûlî ile “Sultânu’ş-şuarâ” lakabıyla anılan Bâkî, XVI.
yüzyılın en meşhur şairlerindendir. Kaside ve hiciv ustası Nef’i, Gazel tarzının üstadı
Şeyhülislam Yahya Efendi ve “hikemî ekolü”nün kurucusu büyük şair Nâbî ise XVII.
yüzyıla damgasını vuran şairlerdendir.
Edebiyatımızda “hikmetli söz söyleme üslûbu” olarak da kabul edilen, insanları
düşünmeye ve düşündürmeye yönelten “hikemî üslûb”un en önemli temsilcisi Nâbî
olmuştur. Bu yönüyle Nâbî, gerek yaşadığı dönemde ve gerekse daha sonraki donemlerde birçok şair tarafından övgüyle anılmış ve takipçileri olmuştur.
Divan Edebiyatı ve bu edebiyat bünyesinde yazılmış eserler Tanzimat Edebiyatının
ortaya çıkması ve Batı hayranlığının başlamasıyla arka plana itilmiştir. Eserlerdeki sanat
anlayışı ve Arapça, Farsça kelimelerin fazlalığından dolayı bu edebiyata “Yüksek Zümre
Edebiyatı” ya da “Saray Edebiyatı” denilerek sadece belli bir zümreye aitmiş gibi
gösterilmeye çalışılmıştır.
Osmanlı imparatorluğu döneminde şair ve yazarlar eserlerini Arap alfabesi ile yazıyorlardı. 1928 yılında Latin alfabesinin kabulü ile birlikte bu kıymetli eserlerden daha
fazla okuyucunun istifade etmesi için Latin alfabesine çeviriler yapılmaya başlanmıştır.
Nâbî, manzum ve mensur tarzda eserler yazmıştır. En önemli manzum eseri Türkçe
Dîvânı'dır. Bu Dîvân'ın 1841 Bulak'ta ve 1875 İstanbul'da olmak üzere eski harflerle
basılmış iki ayrı baskısı bulunmaktadır. Ali Fuat Bilkan yaptığı doktora çalışmasında,
Nâbî Dîvânı adı altında eski yazıyla kaleme alınmış orijinal nüshaları karşılaştırarak
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April 27, 2012
Latin alfabesine çevirmiş ve 1997 yılında 2 cilt halinde "Nâbî Dîvânı" adlı eserini yayınlamıştır. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı'nın bilim ve kültür yayınları arasında bulunan bu
eser sayesinde Nâbî'nin şiirleri daha geniş bir okuyucu kitlesinin hizmetine sunulmuştur.
Yaklaşık altı yüz yıllık bir mazisi olan Divan edebiyatı her ne kadar Arap ve Fars
edebiyatlarından etkilenmiş olsa da kaynağını İslâm kültüründen alarak gelişmiş ve
kendine has tarzıyla bünyesinde yüzlerce şair ve yazar yetişmiş, kütüphaneler dolusu
eserler yazılmıştır. Her ne kadar belli dönemlerde değişik çevreler tarafından kötülemek maksadıyla adına “ Saray Edebiyatı” ya da “Yüksek Zümre Edebiyatı” şeklinde
adlandırılıp sadece belli bir zümreye ait gibi gösterilmiş olsa da herkesin faydalanacağı
tarzda büyük bir marifet ve sanat özelliği taşıyan eserler kaleme alınmıştır. Nasıl ki
Halk edebiyatının kendine has bazı özellikleri varsa, Divan edebiyatının da kendine
has özellikleri bulunmaktadır. XIII. yüzyıldan başlayarak XIX. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar
uzun bir zaman dilimi içerisinde İstanbul merkezli olarak özellikle Anadolu topraklarında gelişen Divan edebiyatında manzum olarak yazılan mesnevi, gazel, kaside, rubâi,
tuyuğ, terkib-i bend gibi nazım çeşitlerinin yanında tarihler, hikâyeler, tercümeler ve
biyografik eserler de mevcuttur. Bu denli geniş bir alanda eserler yazılan bu edebiyatı
sadece sarayda yaşayan belli bir zümreye aitmiş gibi göstermek doğru olmaz.
Divan edebiyatındaki şairlerin mesleklerine ve makamlarına baktığımızda padişahlardan, vezirlerden, eyalet valilerinden tutun da demircilere, ipekçilere, kunduracılara
kadar değişik kademelerden insanların olduğunu görmekteyiz. Yani halkın en alt tabakasından devletin en üst kademesine kadar değişik meslek gruplarından şairler olmuştur.
Divan şairleri sadece saraylarda değil kahvehanelerde, meyhanelerde, şuara meclislerinde bir araya gelerek hünerlerini gösterirlerdi. XVI. yüzyılın meşhur şairlerinden
olan Zâtî’nin mesleği remilcilikti. Aynı zamanda şiir yazarak da para kazanıyordu.
Beyazıt camisinin avlusunda açtığı dükkânı ise şairler için uğrak yeri olmuştu. Yine
XV. yüzyıl şairlerinden Enverî okuma-yazma bilmeyen Divan edebiyatı şairidir. Yâni
Divan edebiyatı sadece belli kesime has, anlaşılmayan, yüksek zümreye hitap eden bir
edebiyat değil; genel olarak o dönemde toplumun her kesimini içine alan geniş bir alana
yayılmış bir edebiyat türü olma özelliğini göstermektedir.
Halk edebiyatında şiirler hece vezni ile yazılırken, Divan edebiyatında aruz vezniyle yazılmıştır. Tabiî ki sanat yapma anlayışı ön planda olduğu için Arapça ve Farsça
kelime ve terkipler daha fazla kullanılmış, süslü ve mecazlı ifadelere daha fazla yer
verilmiştir. Ayrıca Divan edebiyatının teşekkül ettiği dönemde Arapça bilim dili, Farsça
ise kültür ve sanat dili olarak kullanılmaktaydı. Medreselerde Arapça ve Farsça öğretiliyordu. Yazılan eserlerde edebî sanata ve mânâya önem veriliyor, daha önce kullanılmamış orijinal ifadeler kullanılmaya gayret ediliyordu. Edebî sanat yapma gayesi ön
plana çıkınca yazılan eserler halkın konuşma dilinden uzak kalıyordu.
Divan edebiyatının meşhur şairlerinden olan Nâbî, XVII. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında
yaşamıştır. Onun yaşadığı bu dönem Divan edebiyatının zirvede olduğu bir dönemdir.
Çok küçük yaşlardan itibaren şairliğe kabiliyeti olan Nâbî, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun
ilim ve sanat merkezi olan İstanbul’a kilometrelerce uzakta olan Urfa’da dünyaya gelmiş
olsa da bu yeteneğini göstermek ve geliştirmek maksadıyla daha genç yaşlarda İstan97
bul’un yolunu tutmuştur. Yeteneği sayesinde kısa zamanda sarayda kendine yer bulmuş
ve nâmı etrafa yayılmaya başlamıştır. Padişahlara ve vezirlere sunduğu methiyelerle
onların hoşnutluğunu ve itibarını kazanmış, iltifat görmüştür.
Nâbî, kendine has olan “hikemi üslubu” ile de farklılık göstermektedir. Boş konuşmayı, boş ve faydasız şeyler yazmayı sevmediği gibi ona göre her söylenilen söz insanları düşündürmeli ve onlara öğüt verme gayesiyle söylenmelidir.
Nâbî’nin dikkat çeken en önemli özelliklerinden bir de şahit olduğu toplumsal olaylara sessiz kalmamasıdır. (Kontantamer, 1984:84) Yeri geldiğinde imparatorluğun en
üst makamlarında bulunan şahısları isim vermeyerek usta kalemiyle eleştirmiş ve insanları yanlış tutumlarından dolayı uyarmıştır. Oğluna nasihat etme tarzında “Hayriyye”
adlı eserinde bunu en güzel şekilde ifade etmiştir.
La'net ol devlete kim ola gıdâ
Eşk-i çeşm-i fukarâ subh u mesâ (Pala, 2003:116)
(Gıdası, sabah akşam fakirlerin gözyaşı olan o devlet ve ikbale lânet olsun!)
Yaşadığı dönemde mahkemelerde hüküm veren kadıları ve aldıkları rüşveti eleştirmiştir.
İlmi yok ekseri bî-mezheb ü dîn
Çeşmi mahsûlde vü rüşvetde hemîn (Pala, 2003:170)
(Kadıların birçoğunda ilim olmadığı gibi bunların dini ve mezhebi de yoktur.
Gözleri daima kazançta ve rüşvettedir.)
Nâbî’nin eserleri, sanatsal olma özelliğinin yanında o dönemde yaşayan insanların
sosyal yaşantılarını, gelenek ve göreneklerini, kültürlerini, ekonomik düzeylerini ve
aralarındaki ilişkilerin seviyesini açıkça göstererek dönem hakkında kesin ve kalıcı
bilgiler vermektedir. Dîvânda yer alan 156 tane tarih de yaşadığı dönemde meydana
gelen önemli olayları göstermede tarihi bir belge niteliği taşımaktadır.
Her şairin örnek aldığı, etkilendiği şairler olduğu gibi Nâbî de “Sebk-i Hindi” tarzında şiirler yazan Sâîb-i Tebrîzî, Molla Câmî ve Şevket-i Buhârî gibi şairlerden etkilenmiştir. (Üzgör, 1978:18)
Nâbî’nin kullandığı “hikemî tarzı”ında olduğu gibi “Hint tarzı”nda da mânâya önem
ve verilir. Az sözle çok şey anlatma amaçlanır. Nâbî, klasik şiirimizin en güçlü bir temsilcisi ve kendisinden sonra gelenlere en çok tesir eden üstad bir sanatçıdır. (Karahan,
1987:71)
Nâbî’nin etkilendiği şairler olduğu gibi Nâbî’den etkilenen şairler de olmuştur.
Bunların başında, Sadrazamlık makamına kadar yükselen Râmî Mehmed Paşa, Sâbit,
Nâzîm, Samî, Râşid, Seyid Vehbî, Hâmî, Münîf, Çelebizâde Âsım, Koca Râgıp Paşa,
Sümbülzâde Vehbî, Şinâsi ve Ziya Paşa gelmektedir.
Nâbî, genç yaşlarda doğduğu memleketinden ayrılarak geldiği ve hayatının üçte
birini geçirdiği İstanbul’a ömrünün son yıllarında tekrar gelerek burada vefat etmiş ve
İstanbul’da defnedilmiştir.
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April 27, 2012
Daha önce Orhun ve Uygur alfabelerini kullanan Türkler, İslâmiyeti kabul ettikten
sonra Kur’an’ın da Arapça olmasının tesiriyle Arap alfabesini kullanmışlardır. İslâmiyetin Türkler arasında hızla yayılması sonucunda dînî terimler başta olmak üzere Arapçadan Türkçeye kelime girişi hızlanmıştır. Ayrıca İran’la olan ilişkiler sonucunda Fars
edebiyatının da tesiriyle Farsçadan binlerce kelime Türkçeye girmiştir.
Özellikle Selçuklu devleti zamanında Arapçanın ilim dili, Farsçanın da edebiyat
dili olarak kabul edilmesi sebebiyle Türkçe ihmal edilmiştir. Fakat Selçukluların yıkılmasıyla Anadolu’da kurulan Beylikler zamanında Türkçeye önem verilmiş ve halk arasında yaygınlaşmasına çalışılmıştır.
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde gerek ilim yuvalarında Arapçanın ve Farsçanın
okutulması ve gerekse şairlerin eserlerini yazarken Arapça ve Farsça kelime ve tamlamalardan aşırı derece istifade etmeleriyle bu dillerden Türkçeye binlerce kelime girmiştir.
Osmanlının son dönemlerine kadar kelime girişi devam etmiştir.
Bu dönemde Türkçeye önem veren, onun güzelliklerini ve üstün yönlerini sade ve
anlaşılır dilde yazmış oldukları eserlerinde gösteren şair ve yazarlar olmuştur. Bu şairler
arasında Nâbî de bulunmaktadır. Fakat Nâbî, her ne kadar sade ve anlaşılır yazmaktan
yana olsa da döneminin gerektirdiği bazı sebeplerden dolayı bu düşüncesini birçok
yerde uygulayamamıştır. Meselâ, gazellerini anlaşılır tarzda yazdığı halde kasidelerinde
ağır ve süslü ifadeler kullanmıştır.
XIII. yüzyıl Türk edebiyatı şairi Yunus Emre’nin Dîvânında Arap ve Fars kökenli
kelimeler %53, Türk kökenli kelimeler %47; XVI. yüzyıl Divan edebiyatı şairi Bâkî’nin Dîvânında ise Arap ve Fars kökenli kelimeler % 77, Türk kökenli kelimeler %23
oranındadır. XVII. yüzyıl Divan edebiyatı şairi Nâbî’nin Türkçe Dîvânında Arap ve
Fars kökenli kelimelerin Türkçe kelimelere göre çok daha fazla kullanıldığını görmekteyiz. Nâbî’nin on binden fazla farklı sözcük kullandığı Türkçe Dîvânındaki kelimelerin
%85’ini Arap ve Fars kökenli kelimeler, %15’ini ise Türk kökenli kelimeler oluşturmaktadır. XVIII. yüzyıldan itibaren ise mahallileşme ve Batıya yönelme neticesinde
Arap ve Fars kökenli kelimeleri kullanım oranı düşmüştür.
Dilde kullanılan kelimeler zaman içerisinde fonetik ve morfolojik yönden değişime
uğrayabilmektedir. Nâbî Dîvânında kullanılan Türk kökenli kelimelerin büyük bir çoğunluğu değişmeden günümüz Türkiye Türkçesinde de kullanılmaktadır. Mesela; ne,
başka, biraz, şimdi, böyle vb. Ancak belli bir değişime uğramış kelime sayısı da az
değildir. Örneğin Nâbî Dîvânında (ND); altun, barmak, ana, degül, yohsa, içre, yalunuz,
gice, yir, vü, kapu, içün, kendü, bellü, canum, çünki, kimün kelimeleri günümüz Türkiye Türkçesinde (TT) altın, parmak, ona, değil, yoksa içinde, yalnız, gece, yer, ve,
kapı, için, kendi, belli, canım, çünkü, kimin şeklinde kullanılmaktadır. Ayrıca fiillerin
kök ve eklerinde de değişim olmuştur. ND. itdükçe, atdı, aldatdı, geçdi, düşdi, dimek,
giçse, idelüm, virdüm, getürdi, viricek, urmışdı, kalmasun, çevürdi, bitürdi, bastun,
bakup, irüşüp, göçdi, bozdı, oldı, dökilen, görüldi, düşmiş, bulınmaz vb. Bu kelimeler
TT. ettikçe, attı, aldattı, geçti, düştü, demek, geçse, edelim, verdim, getirdi, verecek,
vurmuştu, kalmasın, çevirdi, bitirdi, bastın, bakıp, erişip, göçtü, bozdu, oldu, dökülen,
görüldü, düşmüş, bulunmaz.
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En eski Türk alfabesi olan ve Orhun-Yenisey kitabelerinin yazıldığı Runik Türk
alfabesinde “v” sesi bulunmamaktadır. “v” sesi yerine “b” sesi kullanılmaktadır. “var”
kelimesi “bar”, “varmak” kelimesi de “barmak” şeklinde geçmektedir. (Orkun, 1994:17)
Aynı zamanda o dönem uygulanan imlâ kuralları ile günümüzdekiler arasında farklılıklar bulunmaktadır. Özellikle bazı fiillerin başında kullanılan “t” ünsüzü günümüzde
“d” ünsüzüne dönüşmüştür. ND. toldı, tayanmaz, tağıldı, tokunsa, tolar, tolaşur, turur
TT. doldu, dayanmaz, dağıldı, dokunsa, dolar, dolaşır, durur. Ayrıca Cumhuriyetten
sonra Türkiye Türkçesindeki imlâ kurallarının uygulanmasında yapılan değişikler neticesinde kelimelerin yazılışında ve telaffuzunda farklılık görülmektedir.
Türkçeye başka dillerden X. yüzyıldan itibaren başlayan kelime girişi bin yıldan
beri devam etmektedir. Türklerin İslâmiyeti kabul etmeleri ve alfabe olarak da Arap
alfabesini kullanmaya başlamalarıyla Arap kökenli kelimeler hızlı bir şekilde Türkçeye
girmeye başlamıştır. Anadolu’da XII. yüzyılın sonlarına kadar etkisini sürdüren Arapçadan sonra XIII. yüzyıldan itibaren hem devlet dili hem de edebiyat dili olarak kabul
edilen Farsçaya karşı rağbet artmıştır. Medreselerde Arapça ile birlikte Farsça da öğretilmiştir. Yine bu dönemde ortaya çıkan Dîvân edebiyatında şairlerin şiirlerini yazarken aruz veznini kullanmaları, Arap ve Fars kökenli kelimelerden daha fazla istifade
etmeleriyle Türkçeye bu dillerden kelime girişi çok fazla olmuştur. Ayrıca İstanbul’un
fethinden sonra İran’dan birçok bilgin ve şairin saraya getirilmesi Farsçanın önemini
arttırmıştır.
Türklerin yeni ülkeleri fethetmeleri ve komşularıyla olan ilişkileri neticesinde de
tarım, denizcilik, tıp, askerî, spor vb. gibi alanlardan kelimeler ve terimler Türkçeye
girmiştir. Türkçeye giren kelimelerin birçoğu Türkçenin ses yapısına uygunlaştırılarak
değişime uğramıştır. Fakat bazı kelimeler ise hiçbir değişiklik yapılmadan aynen alınmıştır. Bu kelimeler dilin imlâ kurallarına uymadıkları için istisna kelime olarak kabul
edilmişlerdir. Bu istisna kelimeler, belli kurallara göre Türkçeyi öğrenen yabancılar
açısından zorluk çıkarmaktadır.
XVII. yüzyıldan itibaren Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Avrupa devletleri ile olan
ilişkilerinin artması ve 1789 Fransız İhtilâlinden sonra Türklerde Batı hayranlığı ve
taklitçiliği başlamıştır. (Tanpınar, 1956,10-11) Tanzimat döneminde ise Avrupa’dan
öğretmenlerin getirilip okullarda ders vermesi, Türk öğrencilerin eğitim için Avrupa’ya
gönderilmeleri ve fikir, sanat, edebiyat adamlarının Avrupalıları taklit ederek onların
dillerini ve kültürlerini benimsemeleri sonucunda özellikle Fransızcadan olmak üzere
diğer Avrupa dillerinden de binlerce kelime Türkçeye girmiştir.
Günümüz Türkiye Türkçesindeki alıntı kelimelerin %45’inin Arapça, %32’sinin
Fransızca ve %10’unun da Farsça kelimelerden oluştuğunu görmekteyiz. Fransızca
kelimelerin Farsça kelimelere göre üç kat daha fazla olması kısa bir dönem içerisinde
Fransızcadan ne kadar hızlı bir şekilde kelime girdiğini göstermektedir. XX. yüzyılın
başlarında Osmanlı Devletinin üst kademelerinde görevli şahısların Alman hayranlığının yanında Anadolu’da açılan Alman liselerinde ve enstitülerinde Almancanın öğretilmesiyle Almancadan da yüze yakın kelime Türkçeye geçmiştir.
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April 27, 2012
Son zamanlarda teknolojinin gelişmesi ile gelen yenilikler, internet aracılığıyla
basın-yayın organlarına kolay erişim ve insanların yabancı dil öğrenmeye karşı istekleri
vb. sebeplerden dolayı Türkçeye her geçen gün onlarca yeni kelime girmektedir. Bu
kelimelerin birçoğu Türkçenin ses yapısına uygun gelmediği halde olduğu gibi alınmakta ve Türkçe okunduğu gibi yazılan, yazıldığı gibi okunan bir dil olma özelliğini
koruyamamaktadır. Bu sebeple başka dillerden alınan kelimeler halkın diline yerleşmeden önce denetleyici bir kurum tarafından değerlendirilerek Türkçenin ses ve gramer
yapısına uygunlaştırılmalıdır.
Nâbî döneminde yazı dilinde kullanılan alfabe Arap alfabesine birkaç harf eklenerek
oluşturulmuş Osmanlı alfabesi idi. Arap ve Fars kökenli kelimeleri bu alfabe ile yazmak kolaydı. Uzatılarak okunması gereken harflerin yanına uzatma harfleri konularak
bu harflerin uzun okunması sağlanıyordu. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti kurulduktan sonra 1928
yılında Arap alfabesinden Latin alfabesine geçildiğinde Arap ve Fars kökenli kelimelerdeki uzatma görevini yapacak bir işaret ya da harf yoktu. Daha sonra bu ihtiyacı
karşılamak ve farklı anlama gelen kelimelerin farklı biçimde yazılmasını göstermek
maksadıyla a,ı,u seslilerin üzerine düzeltme (uzatma, inceltme) işareti (^) konularak
bu problem çözülmüştür.
Nâbî Dîvânında geçen yaklaşık beş bin Arap kökenli kelimeden iki yüz tanesi (%4)
günümüz Türkiye Türkçesinde ses değişikliğine uğramıştır. Diğer kelimelerde ise ciddi
anlamda bir ses değişikliği olmamış ve o dönemde kullanıldığı şekliyle günümüzde de
kullanılmaktadır.
Âbide, acabâ, acem, âciz, adn, âfet, âfiyet, âhiret, ahkâm, ahlâk, ahmak, alâm, âmil,
arş, asâlet, asker, azrâil, beden, belde, beşer, câhil, câiz, cârî, cefâ, cehennem, celâl,
cennet, cevher, cezb, cilve, dâimâ, dâir, defter, devlet, devre, dikkat, dirhem, diyanet,
duâ, ecel, elem, emel, Enver, eser, evvel, ezel, fakat, fark, farz, felek, ferş, Firdevs,
gamze, gayb, gayret, gaye, gazel, hamd, harem, harf, hasret, hayret, hedef, heves, heybet, heykel, hukuk, huzur, iflâs, imkân, inkâr, islâm, istifa, kader, kalem, kamer, kasem,
kefe, kerem, kıymet, kudret, kuvvet, lâzım, lezzet, mahrem, mahşer, masraf, mâye, mâzî,
menzil, meselâ, mesken, meslek, millet, mukaddes, mübârek, mülk, münevver, müstesna, nefes, nihayet, rağbet, rakam, raks, râzı, risâlet, rivayet, ruhsat, sâhil, sâlih, sâlim,
secde, sefer, seher, selef, sevk, silâh, şeref, şey, tenezzül, unsur, vâlide, vecd, zafer,
zekât, zelzele, zirve, ziyâfet, ziyâret, zümre
Arap kökenli kelimelerdeki tüm sesleri Latin alfabesindeki harfler karşılayamadığı
gibi Türkçe kelimelerdeki tüm sesleri de Arap alfabesindeki harfler karşılayamamakta
idi. Meselâ, bazı Arap kökenli kelimelerin başında bulunan ayn (‫ )ع‬gırtlak seslisinin
karşılığı Latin alfabesinde yoktur. Bundan dolayı Arap kökenli “ışk” ( ‫ ) ﻋﺸﻖ‬kelimesi
Türkçe “aşk” olarak değişmiştir. Bunun yanında Arap alfabesinde Türkçe kelimelerdeki “p,ç,j” sessizlerini karşılayacak harfler bulunmadığından yazıda bu ihtiyacı karşılamak maksadıyla Farsçada kullanılan (‫) پ‬, (‫ ) چ‬ve ( ‫ ) ژ‬harfleri alındı.
Nâbî’nin yaşadığı 17. yüzyılda kullanılan alfabe Arap alfabesi olduğu için Arap
kökenli kelimelerdeki uzun sesleri göstermede uzatma harfleri olan elif (‫) ا‬, ye (‫ ) ى‬ve
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vav (‫ ) و‬harfleri kullanılmaktaydı. Meselâ; (‫ )ﻋﺎدت‬kelimesinde “a” seslisi uzun okunmalıdır. Latin alfabesinde bu sesi verecek bir işaret bulunmadığından düzeltme (uzatma,
inceltme) işareti adında a, ı ve u seslerinin üzerine (^ ) konularak (â, î, û ) seslileri
oluşturulmuştur. Ayrıca Arap alfabesindeki kaf (‫ ) ق‬ve kef (‫ ) ك‬seslerinin karşılığı
olarak Türkiye Türkçesinde “k” sesi kullanılmaktadır. Arapça “kalem” kelimesi “kaf”
ile ( ‫“ )ﻗﻠﻢ‬kâmil” kelimesi “kef” ile (‫ ) آﺎﻣﻞ‬yazılmaktadır. Bu ses farkını belirtmek için
Türkiye Türkçesinde “a” ve “â” seslileri kullanılır. M. Ergin’e göre bu işaret, doğru
okumayı sağlayacak ve karışıklığın giderilmesine yardımcı olacak yerlerde mutlaka
kullanılması gerekmektedir. (Ergin, 1999:178) T.N. Gencan, bu işaretin üç yerde kullanılması gerektiğini belirtmektedir. Yabancı kökenli kelimeleri uzun söylenişli kelimelerden ayırmada, k, g seslerinden sonra gelen a, u kalın seslileri ince okumada ve
nispet “i”sini belirtmede kullanılmalıdır. (Gencan, 2001:623) Türk Dili Kurumunun
resmi internet sitesindeki imlâ kılavuzunda da düzeltme işaretinin kullanılması gerektiği vurgulanmaktadır.
Günümüz Türkiye Türkçesinde düzeltme işaretinin kullanılmaması anlam karışıklığına sebebiyet vermiyorsa yazıda kullanılmamaktadır. Fakat kelime seslendirilirken
düzeltme işareti varmış gibi söylenmektedir. Mesela; adet (tane), âdet (gelenek, görenek) burada anlam farklı olduğu için hem yazıda hem de söylenişte belirtilmesi gerekmektedir. Fakat silah, mübarek, mazi, razı vb. kelimelerin eş seslileri olmadığı ve kullanılmaması durumunda herhangi bir anlam karışıklığına sebep olmayacağından düzeltme (uzatma, inceltme) işaretinin yazıda konulması gereksizdir. Söylenişte ise düzeltme işareti varmış gibi telaffuz edilir.
Türkler ve Farslar tarihin çok eski devirlerinden beri siyasî, medenî ve iktisadî
olarak sürekli etkileşim içinde bulunmuşlardır. Bu etkileşim neticesinde Türkçeden
Farsçaya kelimeler geçtiği gibi Farsçadan da Türkçeye binlerce kelime geçmiştir. Özellikle Selçuklular döneminde devletin resmi dilinin Farsça olması, Osmanlılar döneminde
medreselerde Farsça öğretilmesi ve Dîvân edebiyatı şairlerinin şiirlerini aruz vezniyle
yazarken Farsça kelime ve terkiplerden faydalanması vb. sebepler çok sayıda Fars kökenli kelimenin Türkçeye geçmesinde etkili olmuştur.
Arap alfabesinde olduğu gibi Fars alfabesinde de Türkçedeki tüm sesleri karşılayacak harfler bulunmamaktadır. Türkçe, Farsçadan gelen birçok kelimeyi kendi ses
sistemine uygunlaştırmıştır.
Nabî Dîvanında üç bine yakın Fars kökenli kelime bulunmaktadır. Türk edebiyatında XVIII. yüzyıldan itibaren hızlanan mahallileşme hareketleri, ardından Batı hayranlığı ve Batıya yönelme ve Cumhuriyet döneminde gerçekleştirilen Dil Devrimi ile
Türkçedeki Arapça ve Farsça kelimelerin birçoğu dilden tasfiye edilmiştir.
Türk Dil Kurumu’nun 2005 yılında yayımladığı Türkçe Sözlükte 1363 adet Fars
kökenli sözcük bulunmaktadır. Bu da Nâbî Dîvânında kullanılan yaklaşık iki bin Fars
kökenli kelimenin günümüzde kullanılmadığını ve Türkçe sözlükte yer almadığını göstermektedir.
Asıl adı Yusuf olan Nâbî’nin mahlasını oluşturan heceler Farsçadaki olumsuzluk
ekleri olan “nâ” ve “bî”dir. Bu ekler, önüne geldiği kelimeyi olumsuz yapar. Günümüz
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April 27, 2012
Türkiye Türkçesinde nâmert, nâmahrem, nâmağlup ve bîçare şeklinde kullanılmaktadır. Halkın diline yerleşmiş olan ve aktif olarak kullanılan alıntı kelimeleri dilden bir
anda söküp atmak imkânsızdır. Bir kelime halk tarafından benimsenmezse zamanla
unutulur ve sadece sözlüklerde yer alır. Belli bir dönemde dile giren kelimeleri alıntı
kelime oldukları için dilden söküp atmak yanlış bir davranıştır.
Nâbî Dîvânındaki alıntı kelimelerin büyük bir çoğunluğunu Arap ve Fars kökenli
kelimeler oluşturmaktadır. Fakat az sayıda da olsa başka dillerden gelen kelimelere de
rastlamaktayız. Türklerin Anadolu topraklarına gelmeleriyle buralarda bulunan Rum
ve Ermenilerle olan ilişkiler neticesinde bu halkların dillerinden kelimeler alınmıştır.
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu zamanında Avrupa’ya yapılan seferlerle oradaki ülkelerin fethedilmesi neticesinde Türkçeye yeni kelimeler girdiği gibi o bölgelerde yaşayan halkların dillerine de Türkçeden kelimeler geçmiştir. Meselâ; Macarca, Sırpça, Arnavutça,
Hırvatça vb. dillerde binlerce Türkçe kelime bulunmaktadır. Özellikle Osmanlı İmparatorluğunun siyasî ve askerî olarak büyük bir güce sahip olduğu dönemde Rus ve Avrupalı dilbilimciler Türkçe ile ilgili araştırma yaparak gramer kitapları ve sözlükler hazırlamışlardır.
Nâbî Dîvânındaki Avrupa dillerinden gelen kelimelerin büyük bir çoğunluğu Yunan
kökenlidir. Mesela; alay, efendi, ırgad, kiras, liman, namus, sınur gibi.
Türkler, Anadolu’ya geldiklerinde karşılaştıkları ilk Avrupalı millet Yunanlılardı.
Ayrıca Yunanca, yaklaşık dört bin yıllık bir geçmişi olan Hint-Avrupa dil ailesine
mensup bir dildi. Yunancadan Arapçaya ve Farsçaya birçok kelime geçmiştir. "kiraz"
kelimesi de bunlardan bir tanesidir. Yunanca κεράσι “kerasi” kelimesinden gelmiştir.
Genellikle yaprakları çıkmadan önce çiçek açan, bazı türlerinin odunu ince marangozculukta kullanılan ağaç ve bu ağacın kırmızı, sarı renkli, tek çekirdekli sulu meyvesine
denilmektedir. (Ayverdi,2006:1712) Bu kelime Farsçaya ‫( ﮔﻴﻼس‬gîlâs), (Şükûn, 1996:
1726) Arapçaya ise ‫( اﻟﻜﺮز‬kiraz) (Sarı, 1980:1299) şeklinde geçmiştir. Kiraz genel olarak kırmızı olduğu için bazen benzetme maksadıyla dudak için “kiraz dudaklı”; yâni
etli ve kırmızı dudaklı anlamında kullanılır.
“Kirâs” kelimesi Nâbî Dîvânında iki yerde geçmektedir.
Virdi nergis sepîd-gûn kırtâs / Kırmızı bal mumı
getürdi kirâs (Bilkan, 1997:427)
Lal-i lebi kurtlandı mânend-i kirâs / Def’oldı
gözinden eski bîmârlıgı (Bilkan, 1997:1233)
Nâbî Dîvânında diğer Avrupa dillerinden kelimelere de rastlıyoruz. İtalyancadan
gelen "tavolo" Latincede "tabula" Dîvânda "tabla"; Macarcadan gelen "csaszar" Latincede "caesar" Dîvanda "Çâsâr" şeklinde geçmektedir. Bunlardan başka Dîvânda çâr ve
kıral gibi kelimelere "Çâr-ı Moskov" ve "Kırâl-ı Moskov" olarak geçtiğini görmekteyiz. Kral kelimesinin Frank hükümdarı Carolus’un (Karl) adından geldiği söylenmektedir. (Ayverdi, 2006:1771)
Budur tafsîli icmâlün ki Çâr-ı hâ'in-i Moskov/Mukaddem Çâr-ı İsvecle vegâ bâbın
güşâd itdi (Bilkan, 1997:343)
103
Tamâm-ı gûşe-i zeyl-i arûs-ı memlekete/Kırâl-ı Moskov iderken itâle-i müddet
(Bilkan, 1997: 256)
Çok eski ve köklü bir geçmişe sahip olan Türkçemize, tarihi seyri içerisinde yaklaşık otuz farklı dilden on binden fazla kelime geldiği gibi binlerce kelimesini de başka
dillere vermiştir. Böylece sürekli canlı kalarak dünyanın sayılı dilleri arasında yerini
korumuştur.
KAYNAKLAR
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Ayverdi İ. (2006) "Misalli Büyük Türkçe Sözlük",Kubbealtı Neşriyat, İstanbul
Bilkan, A.F. (1997) “Nâbî Dîvânı” MEB Yayınları, İstanbul
Ergin, M. (1999) “Üniversiteler için Türk Dili” Bayrak Yayınları, İstanbul
Gencan, T. N. (2001) “Dilbilgisi” Ayraç Yayınevi, Ankara
Karahan, A. (1987) “Nâbî Türkçe Şiirinden Seçmeler”, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara
Kontantamer, T. (1984) "Nâbî’nin Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Eleştirisi", Ege Ünv. Ed. Fak. Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi, Cilt XI, s. 84
7. Orkun, H.N. (1994) “Eski Türk Yazıtları”, TDK Yayınları, Ankara
8. Pala, İ. (2003)"Hayriyye" L&M Yayınları, İstanbul
9. Sarı, M. (1980) “Arapça-Türkçe Lûgat” Bahar Yayınları, İstanbul
10. Şükûn, Z. (1996) “Farsça-Türkçe Lûgat” MEB yayınları, Milli Eğitim basımevi, İstanbul
11. Tanpınar, A. H. (1956) “XIX. Asır Türk Edebiyatı”, İstanbul Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları, İstanbul
12. Üzgör, T. (1978) "17, 18, 19. Yüzyıl Eski Türk Edebiyatı", Toker Yayınları, İstanbul
104
LITERATURE
105
AMERICAN NOVEL AND THE ORIENT: ARGUMENTS
AND COMMENTARIES
Shahin Khalilli
ABSTRACT
The article deals with the richness and complexity of American novel and of Oriental theme which
binds some major elements together in the unity of an American culture. The research on “American Novel
and the Orient” by the scholar Nigar Isgandarova is a valuable contribution to the comparative study of
Literature in Azerbaijan.
The value of this critical monographical research is presumably in its realistic approach to the above
mentioned theme. And the most impressive feature of the book is the way that the author expresses her
thoughts and arguments in a well-built style.
All the possibilities that Nigar Isgandarova explores, might be regarded as formulating her criticism
on intercultural relations.
Key words: American nowel, Oriental theme, relations.
Amerika Novellası və Şərq: Arqumentlər və şərhlər
“Novellae” sözü ilk dəfə XVI əsrdə dünya ədəbiyyatı tarixində mühüm simalardan
biri, florensiyalı Covanni Bokkaçonun (1313-1375) “Dekameron” (10 gün mənasını
verir – Ş.X.), Marqarit de Navarrenin (Marguerite de Navarre (1492-1549)) fransız
dilində yazdığı 72 sayda (yazıçı onları 100 sayda yazmaq niyyətində olsa da, toplu
yarımçıq qalmışdır – Ş.X.) “Heptameron” (Bokkaçonun “Dekameron”unun analoqu
əsasında yazılmış əsərin adı “7 gün” deməkdir, əsər ilk dəfə toplu şəklində 1559-cu ildə
nəşr edilmişdir – Ş.X.) və buna bənzər əsərlərə verilən termin kimi diqqəti cəlb edir.
Lakin İngiltərədə “novel” sözü XVII əsrin ortalarında əsas etibarı ilə qeyri-qanuni sevgidən bəhs edən romanslarla əlaqədar olan hekayətlərə şamil edilmişdir. Lakin sonrakı
əsrlərdə roman janrına “yüksələn” novella daha geniş mənada XVIII əsrdən etibarən
Daniel Defo, Səmuel Riçardson, Henri Fildinq..., XIX əsrdə Valter Skottun tarixi romanları ilə ədəbi tarixin yeni formasında çıxış etməyə başlamışdır.
Bu baxımdan Nigar İsgəndərovanın “Amerika novellası və Şərq” adlı yenicə nəşr
edilmiş monoqrafiyasında kiçik annotasiyanı təqdim etdiyimiz novella janrının, eləcə
də Amerikada Şərq mövzusunda yazılmış əsərlərin bir araya gətirilməsi istər-istəməz
kitabın əhatə etdiyi mövzu dairəsini müəyyənləşdirir. XVIII əsrin axırlarında və XIX
əsrin əvvəllərində Amerika ədəbi-bədii düşüncə tarixində novella janrının formalaşması,
eləcə də Şərq mövzusunda novella janrında yazılmış əsərlərin ideya-bədii təhlilə gətirilməsi əhəmiyyətli və aktual bir problemin sirlərinə bələdçilik edir.
Ön söz, giriş, iki hissə və müəllifin yekun sözünü 250 səhifədə ardıcıl və məntiqi
şəkildə özündə təcəssüm etdirən monoqrafiya sözün həqiqi mənasında tədqiqatçı alimin
axtarış və əvəzsiz xidmətindən xəbər verir.
Amerika mədəniyyəti və ədəbiyyatının tarixini ələk-vələk edən, daha doğrusu,
dünya tarixində öz doğum günü ilə az qala dünyanın sonbeşiyi olan və bu gün dünyanın
hegemon ölkəsinə çevrilən ABŞ-ın ədəbiyyat sahəsində qazandığı uğurlar onun zənginlər ölkəsinin ədəbiyyat estafetində ön cərgədə dayandığına zərrə qədər də şübhə yaratmır.
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April 27, 2012
Nigar İsgəndərovanın iki hissədən ibarət olan monoqrafiyasının birinci hissəsi
Amerika xalqının tarixi kontekstində 1776-cı il inqilabından sonra Amerika nəsrinin
yaranması tarixi, elmi və ədəbi faktlar əsasında şərh və təhlillər ilə məntiqi ardıcıllıqla
təqdim edilmişdir. “Yeni sivilizasiya”nın təşəkkülünün tarixi əsaslarından tutmuş
Amerika nəsrində (XVIII-XIX yüzilliklərdə) gender problemi, xüsusilə qadın yazıçıların novella janrının yaranışında və onun inkişafında rolu, xidmətləri haqqında elmi
əsaslı mühakimələri polemik tərzdə oxucu ixtiyarına verilmişdir. Qadınların novella ilə
münasibətləri, xüsusilə novellada “qadın ənənələri”nin axtarışı, 1970-ci illərdə feminist
tənqidçilərin qadın yazıçıların ədəbiyyat tarixindən çıxarılması haqqında qərarı istəristəməz bu problemin daha diqqətlə çözümünü, yaxud araşdırılmasını tələb edir. Əlbəttə, bu barədə müxtəlif rəylərin olması təbii görünür. Qadınların bədii əsər yazması
müxtəlif stereotiplərin yaranmasına rəvac vermişdir.
1987-ci ildə Nənsi Armstronqun araşdırmasında belə bir mühakimə istər-istəməz
hər kəsi düşünməyə vadar edir: “İngilis novellasının tarixinə nəzər salanda mən hələ
də başa düşə bilmirəm ki, nə üçün qadınlar özlərinin ən böyük nəsr əsərini yalnız XVIII
əsrin axırlarında yazmağa başlamış, XIX əsrdə yazıçı kimi tanınmışlar və bunun əsasında müasir dövrdə bədii sənət adamı statusunu almışlar”.
Belə bir təqdimat prizmasından Amerikada yaranan qadın yazıçıların, bütövlükdə
isə Amerika novellasının təşəkkülü və inkişaf yollarını kitabının birinci fəslində təhlilə
gətirən Nigar İsgəndərova dövrün ictimai-siyasi fonunda novella haqqında oxucuda
müəyyən təsəvvür yaratmağa çalışmışdır.
Monoqrafiyanın “XIX əsr Amerika romantik novellası. Amerika novellasında Şərq
mövzusu” adlı hissəsi əslində müəllifin araşdırdığı problemin nüvəsini təşkil edir. Novella və Amerika arasında heç bir ümumi oxşarlığın olmadığını qeyd edən müəllif 17761784-cü illərdə İnqilabın Amerikaya “həyatın romantikası”nı bəxş etdiyini söyləməklə
Amerika nəsrinin Vaşinqton İrvinq, Uolt Uitmen, Nataniel Qotorn, Herman Melvill,
Edqar Allan Po, Emili Dikinson və transendentalistlərin Amerika ədəbiyyatında birinci
nəslin ilk böyük yazıçıları kimi yaratdığı orijinal obraz və personajları ilə ədəbiyyatın
unudulmazları sırasına daxil olduğunu ön plana çəkir.
Nigar İsgəndərovanın ən böyük uğuru onun mövzu seçimidir: Amerika novellası
və Şərq. Bu iki “qanad” tədqiqatçının fantaziyası deyil, axtarış-yaradıcılıq düşüncəsində
bir-birinin məntiq və reallıqla vəhdətini yaradan mövzu bütövlüyünün mənzərəsində
fakt və onu oxucu diqqətinə çatdıran dəyərli bir tədqiqatın ifadəsidir.
Monoqrafiyanın ikinci hissəsində XIX əsr Amerika romantik novellası və novellada
bədii əksini tapmış Şərq mövzusu haqqında ədəbi-tənqidi düşüncələrini ümumiləşdirən
müəllif romantik dövrün məxsusi özəlliklərini və səciyyəvi xüsusiyyətlərini ümumiləşdirərək mövzu dairəsində Şərqin ədəbiyyata gətirdiyi ecazkarlıq və qeyri-adiliyinin
nəzərə çarpan əhəmiyyətinə xüsusi diqqət yetirmişdir.
Orta əsrlər dövrünün müdhiş kölgəsi altında “mürgüləyən” Qərb elə bu dövrün
“oyanış” çağında Şərq üzərində özünün üstünlüyünü bəyan etmişdir. Lakin tarixin yaddaşında qalan Şərqin Qərbə göstərdiyi təsir, yaxud Qərbin Şərqlə çox ilgili bağlantısı
unudulmaz tarixi faktdır.
107
XVIII əsrdə Amerika ədəbi jurnallarında Şərq nağıllarının çapı bu tarixi mənzərədə
Şərqə marağın ilk qaranquşları olmasa da, amerikalıların Şərq ölkələrinə səyahəti, xüsusilə bir sıra tanınmış yazıçıların (Mark Tven, Herman Melvillin) yaradıcılığında hind
fəlsəfəsi ilə mükaliməsi unudulmamalıdır.
Uilyam Counzun Şərq tədqiqatları Amerika ədəbi-mədəni düşüncə tarixində mühüm
rol oynamışdır. Xüsusilə, XIX əsrdə Amerika ədəbiyyatında Şərqə marağın, bu ədəbiyyatda Şərq motiv, süjet və obrazların bədii inikası bir sıra tanınmış yazıçıların yaradıcılığında ifadəsini tapması monoqrafiyada təhlil və şərhlərlə təqdim edilmişdir.
Amerika ədəbiyyatının böyük yazıçısı Vaşinqton İrvinqin yaradıcılığında Şərq mövzusu ilə tədqiqatçı alimin fakt və təhlil materialı aydın elmi dildə ifadə olunmuşdur.
Eləcə də Edqar Allan Ponun hekayələrində Şərq (onun 25 hekayəsindən 20-ci Yaxın
Şərq mövzusundadır-Ş.X.) mövzusunun spesifikasının yaradıcı təhlili müəyyən maraq
doğurur.
Hər hansı tədqiqat o vaxt unudulmaz olur ki, o, ədəbi elmi dairənin marağına səbəb
olur, həmin araşdırmadakı problemlər səni düşündürür. Nigar İsgəndərovanın “Amerika
novellası və Şərq” adlı monoqrafiyası düşünmək və ondan bəhrələnmək üçün keyfiyyət
dərəcəsi ilə seçilən, oxucuda məmnunluq hissi doğuran araşdırmadır.
ƏDƏBİYYAT
1.
2.
3.
Nigar İsgəndərova. Amerika novellası və Şərq. Bakı: 2011 (rus dilində).
The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Printed in the United States of America, 1986.
Quliyev Qorxmaz. XX əsr Amerikan ədəbiyyatşünaslığında aparıcı cərəyanlar. Bakı: 2011.
MODERN APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEMS OF A MAN AND
SOCIETY IN THE CREATIVITY OF IRIS MURDOCH
Nurlana Alaskarova
Qafqaz University, Doctoral Student
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Dame Iris Murdoch (15 July 1918-8 February1999) an Irish-born British novelist philosopher and
poet,. one of the most famous and respected writers of the XX century, the author of 28 fiction, 5 philosophy
works, 6 plays and two poetry collections. She is the winner of the Booker Prize and other prestigious
literary awards, honorary member of the Royal Literary Society, a nominee for the Nobel Prize. “The Times”
named her among their list of “The 50 Greatest British Writers Since 1945.” She was made a Dame
Commander of the British Empire She became a classic during her lifetime.
Murdoch defines a novel as a picture and a comment of human existence. She is a supporter of the
philosophy of the novel, which restores a sense of fullness and complexity of human life. The novel should
include a "tragic discovery." Iris Murdoch said that the literature has assumed some of the tasks previously
carried out by philosophy. The novel requires eloquence and reasoning. However, the truly philosophical
can only be the novel, where the man isn’t theorizes, but represents the unique human personality. Roman
must tell the truth about the man. The writer appreciates romance, dreams and rebellion in a man and his
108
April 27, 2012
desire for spiritual values. E. Dipple points out: «One of Murdoch s primary aims as a novelist is to convince
her reader of the unpredictable, uncontrollable nature of real people in the real world .. . » . 1
Key words: Iris Murdoch, prestigious literary awards, Philosophy, novel, human personality,
spiritual values.
Всякий художник - несчастный влюбленный. А несчастные влюбленны любят
рассказывать свою историю. (Айрис Мердок)
Романы Айрис Мердок принадлежат к интеллектуальной прозе. Интеллектуальный роман расцвел в ХХ веке во время самых больших в истории катаклизмов и духовных стрессов когда мировая интеллигенция стремилась переосмыслить путь общества, цивилизации, природу человека и возможность его познания.
Творческую эволюцию Мердок исследователи обычно связывают со сменой
ее философской ориентации. Так в начале своего пути романистка испытывала
влияние лингвистической философии («Под сетью»), а также экзистенциализма
(«Бегство волшебника»). Экзистенциалистские мотивы преобладают и в группе
романов, относящихся к началу 60-х гг. («Колокол», «Отрубленная голова»,
«Единорог»). В конце 60-х – начале 70-х гг. у Мердок возникает интерес к философии древнегреческого мыслителя Платона, под влиянием которой читательница
создает романы “Приятное и доброе”, “Сон Бруно”, “Черный принц”. Однако писательница сторонница такого философского романа, в котором восстанавливается ощущение полноты и сложности человеческой жизни. Роман должен заключать в себе «трагическое открытие». Айрис Мердок говорит о том, что литература
приняла на себя некоторые задачи, которые раньше выполнялись философией.
В романе необходимы красноречие и рассуждение. Однако подлинно философским может быть только такой роман, который не теоретизирует о человеке, а
изображает неповторимую человеческую личность. Роман должен говорить о
человеке правду. Писательница ценит в человеке романтику, мечты, непокорство,
стремление к духовным ценностям. Некоторым читателем Айрис Мердок кажется, что им не хватает эрудиции, знаний философских проблем или мифологии
для того, чтобы понять закономерности и внутреннюю логику поведения персонажей. В психологически насыщенном, отражающем сложные отношения индивида с миром романе эмоционально вовлеченный читатель сталкивается с неожидаемым им финалом.
Однако, произведения Айрис Мердок зачисляют в разряд трудной литературы,
ведь круг общения писательницы во многом определен ее профессией и местом
работы: интеллектуалы, люди творческих профессий. Она пишет об интеллигенции и для интеллигенции. Ее персонажи-писатели, ученые, художники, журналисты. Не только они, разумеется, но и другие лица, с другим занятием и положением: предприниматели, чиновники, лица без определенных занятий и безо
всяких занятий. Ее существенная тема-судьба духовности и духовных ценностей
в среде, чуждой духовности, духовностью пренебрегающей и ее уродующей. Ее
особо занимает судьба творческого человека в этой среде.
109
В романе «Черный принц», одном из лучших произведений Айрис Мердок,
игра случайностей в жизни писателя Брэдли Пирсона не только мешает ему осуществить свое стремление поехать в такое место, где бы он в уединении мог спокойно творить – писать новый роман; но, более того, эта игра случайностей втягивает его в сложные отношения с семьей писателя Арнольда Баффина, которые
в конце концов завершаются трагедией; невиновного Брэдли Пирсона обвиняют
в убийстве Арнольда Баффина, осуждают на тюремное заключение, обрекают
на смерть в тюрьме. За игрой случайностей явно проглядывает злая воля типичных представителей буржуазного общества – жены Арнольда Рейчел Баффин и
других. Рейчел из ревности убила своего мужа, но на суде говорит о том, что
убийцей был Брэдли Пирсон. Любовь в этом романе показана как роковая страсть,
как таинственный аффект, как «черный эрос», который неожиданно овладевает
душой и телом человека и заставляет его совершать странные поступки. Немолодой уже Брэдли Пирсон влюбился в юную дочь Баффинов-Джулиан. Их счастью
противится Арнольд, который добивается их разрыва. Гуманистическое содержание романа – не только в выражении идеала добра, но и в теме творческого
труда. Идея добра сливается с идеей духовной силы творчества. Трагедия Брэдли
Пирсона-это также и трагедия художника. Он относится к писательскому труду
как к святому делу, оно составляет смысл его жизни, и он создает подлинные
художественные произведения, не думая о вознаграждении, о житейской суете.
Брэдли Пирсон, истинный творец духовных ценностей, противостоит другому
писателю-Арнольду Баффину, который, профанируя искусство, публикует бесчисленные ремесленные поделки на потребу обывателю и ради своего преуспеяния в обществе. Важную роль в романе играет символический образ «черного
принца». Это и тема Гамлета, воплощающая серьезные философские раздумья о
мрачных сторонах бытия, это и тема «черного эроса», который всецело подчиняет себе эмоции и разум человека, это и тема непреходящего значения истинного
искусства, возникающего на основе сложной жизненной борьбы и человеческих
страданий. Сам текст романа «Черный принц» представлен Айрис Мердок в качестве рукописи, созданной Брэдли Пирсоном в тюрьме и изданной уже после
его смерти. По мнению Мердок, трагическая жизнь творца стала залогом подлинной художественной ценности произведения.
Под сетью» ( Under the Net)-дебютный роман британской писательницы написанный в 1954 году. Одно из самых известных и значительных произведений
писательницы. Роман входит в сотню непревзойдённых романов (англ. All-time
100 novels), написанных на английском языке, по версии журнала Time .
Роман был создан в начале 50-х годов XX века, когда в британской литературе появились зачатки так называемой литературы «сердитых молодых людей»,
яркими представителями которой были Кингсли Эмис и его «Счастливчик Джим»,
Джон Уэйн и его роман «Спеши вниз», Джон Осборн и его пьеса «Оглянись во
гневе», и др. Роман «Под сетью» сначала также причисляли к этому литературному течению, однако роману Айрис Мёрдок не были свойственны такие атрибуты сердитой литературы, как антигерой, социальный протест, и прочее. Критик
110
April 27, 2012
характеризовали «Под сетью» как первое и единственное вышедшее из под пера
Айрис Мёрдок юмористическое произведение.
Повествование ведётся от лица молодого человека, Джейка Донахью, чей быт
не обустроен, а жизнь неприкаянная. Он-переводчик художественной литературы,
не слишком удачлив, не особо талантлив. Жизнь пробует его на прочность. Сначала он теряет бесплатное жильё и начинаются его мытарства в поисках собственного угла. Затем, страдая от безденежья и перебиваясь так называемой литературной подёнщиной, он какое-то время даже работает санитаром в больнице.
При этом Джейк не теряет присутствия духа, не впадает в депрессивные настроения, не жалуется на жизнь, а лишь удивляется, почему всё не идёт так, как было
задумано. Неожиданная встреча с Анной Квентин, девушкой, оставившей заметный след в душе Джейка, становится началом цепочки фантастических и авантюрных событий в его судьбе.
Сеть у Мёрдок толкуется как хаос бытия, затягивающий человека и подпитывающийся от взаимного непонимания, эгоцентризма и глухости людей к себе и
окружающим. В шестой главе приводится отрывок из романа Джейка Донахью
Молчальник, где есть строки, оканчивающиеся словами under the net: «Всякое
теоретизирование-это бегство. Мы должны руководствоваться самой ситуацией,
а каждая ситуация неповторима. В ней заключается нечто такое, к чему мы никогда не можем подойти вплотную, сколько бы ни пробовали описать это словами,
сколько бы ни старались забраться под эту сеть».2
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
END NOTE
Elizabeth Dipple : «Iris Murdoch: Work for the Spirit»
«Под сетью» / англ. Under the Net (1954) Айрис Мердок
REFERENCES
Special Collections Department PAPERS OF IRIS MURDOCH (англ.). University of Iowa
Libraries (ноябрь 1997).
«Под сетью» / англ. Under the Net (1954) Айрис Мердок
Чёрный принц / The Black Prince (1973), номинация на Букеровскую премию. Айрис Мердок
Lenora Clary McCall The Solipsistic Narrator in Iris Murdoch.-University of South Carolina, 1990.
Peter Wolfe The Disciplined Heart: Iris Murdoch and Her Novels.-University of Missouri Press, 1966.
Автореферат «Художественный мир Айрис Мёрдок» С. Толкачев.
SHEAKESPEARE‘S APPROACHES TO POLITICS
AND POLITICAL THEORY
Ali Tatli
Qafqaz Universty
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
From the ocean of Sheakespeare one may expect tolerance, death, suicide, assault, history, glory and
many other ornaments .These are mostly of human nature . It would be meagre to think Sheakespeare
111
without having ideas and practical writings on Politics.Sheakespeare has given attention to Polictics is
generally revealed on Richard II and Henry IV.Sheakespeare has brough out the instincts of Politics and
social life .
Key Words: Politics , Humankind, Political Theory.
Şekspirin siyasət və siyasi məsəsələlərə yanaşması
Şekspirin siyasətə və siyasi nəzəriyyəyə dramaturq kimi yanaşması onun şəxsi
mədəniyyətinə çox münasib olan tarixi müzakirələrin sıralarındakı ideyaların əsəri həvəsləndirici bir mahiyyətdir. O tez-tez qeyri-müəyyən olan müzakirələrdə tərəflər tuturdu. (1) Qeyri adi fikirlər ilə və iddia edilmiş nəticələrin lazımınca ifadə edilməsinə
onun etdiyi cəhdlər necə də aydındır. Şekspir siyasi nəzəriyyəçi deyildir, ancaq onun
analitik bacarıqları əhəmiyyətlidir və dramaturq kimi unudulmaz dəqiq xarakterlərin
fəaliyyəti və sözləri səhnədə canlı müzakirə obyektlərinin gətirməsi onun bacarığıdır.
Nəticə onun tamaşaçıları üçün maraqlı və faydalı olmasıdır.(2) Əsərlər İngilis xalqının
dərin qayğısının, hər hansı seçilmiş siyasi əqidələrinin onun öz nəslinin əhəmiyyətinin
saxlanılmasıdır və onlar təxminən dörd yüz ilin keçidinə zidd olaraq bizi bu gün də
maraqlandıran dəyərlərdir. (3)
Şekspirin ən yaxşı iki tarixi əsərləri olan Richard II (1595-6) və Henry IV (1596-7)
əsərlərində siyasi konfliktin təsvirini əsas nümunə kimi götürək. Mövzu on beşinci əsrin
əvvəllərində İngiltərədə vətəndaş vuruşmasının bütöv əsrinin kənarında qalan vətəndaş
müharibəsidir. Müharibə 1485-ci ildə Şekspirin həyatının ilk otuz yeddi ili ərzində İngiltərəni idarə edən kraliçanın babası Tudor sülaləsinin əsasını qoyan olan VII Henrinin
taxta gəlməsi ilə bitmişdir və konflikt Elizabetin hakimiyyəti altında olmasına geniş
məna vermişdir. (3)Ümumiyyətlə onlar bunu öz külündən sirli yenidən bərpada yaranan
əfsanəvi bir möcüzə kimi İngiltərənin təşəbbüsünün kənarlaşdırılması kimi qiymətləndirmişlər. Əziyyətli müharibə müasir İngilis xalqının idarə edilməsi idi.
Uzunmüddətli vətəndaş konfliktinin idarə edilməsi nə idi və bu səhvdə günahkar
kimi idi? Richard II əsərində Şekspir məşhur qərəzsizlik ilə cavabdehliyi yaymışdır.
Richard zəif və məsuliyyətsiz bir hökmdar idi, ancaq o şübhəsiz İngiltərənin qanuni
kralıdır və o əzəmətli karizma ilə dövləti idarə edirdi. Təhlükəli erkən yaşlarından (tarixən, Richardın atası Edward The Black Prince (Qara Şahzadə)vəfat edəndə onun on
yaşı var idi) o taca varis olmuşdur, o özünü güclü və şöhrətpərəst əmilərinin əhatəsində
tapdı. Birinciliyin feodal qaydasına görə onu atasının ölümünündə böyük oğlu varis
olmalıdır, bu isə o deməkdir ki, kral olan Richard digərlərinə nisbətən olduqca yaşlı
və ailə üzvlərindən daha təcrübəli idi. Bu xüsusi hadisədə əməli nəticə böyük əmisi
Gaunt John, Lancaster Hersoqudur. Richardın həddi buluğa çatması vaxt ərzində dövlətin işləri vəzifəsində o hökmranlıq edirdi. Cavan əmisinin, Thomas of Woodstock,
Glouceste Hersoqur, əsəbinin səbəbi gənc kral idi. Tarixən, Richardın beş tərəfdarının
ittiham ediləndə və günahkar bilinəndə Woodstock uğurlu səy göstərmişdir. Bu mübahisə Richard II əsərində verilməmişdir, ancaq bu aqibət əsərdə davam etmişdir. (4)
Woodstock, Thomas Mowbrayinin, Norfolkun hersoqu, himayədarlığı ilə Calaisdə öldürülür, Richard Mowbarridən şübhələnir. Richardın siyasi düşmənlərinin təqsiri olmadığı məlum idi. Woodstockun dul arvadı öz qaynın belə deyir: “Oh, Herefordun ni112
April 27, 2012
zəsində oturmaq mənim həyat yoldaşımın səhvi idi, Buna cəllad Mowbarrinin vicdanı
daxil ola bilər! (5). Hereford Gauntun oğludur, Henry Bolingbroke, Herefordun hersoqu,
Mowbrayi Glaucesterin hersoqunun ölümü sui-qəsdində təqsirləndirmək üzrə döyüşə
çağırır.
Bu çağırışla, siyasi konflikt güclənir, indi Richard Mowbrayin əsl sifətinin açıq
aydın görsəndiyi döyüşə rəhbərlik etməlidir. Richard və onun böyük əmioğlusu, Bolingbroke, Gaunt John varisi və oğlu, ilə aralarında məhəbbət itməmişdir. Richard Bolingbroka qarşı çıxmağa cəsarət etmirdi, çünki Richard Woodstockun ölümünə onu qarışdırmırdı. Gənc kralın həlli hər iki antaqonistləri sürgün etmək idi. O Mowbrayini həmişəlik qovur, ancaq Bolingbrokun 10 il məhkum edilməsində siyasi təzyiqlə razılaşaraq onu altıya salır (6). Bu qərar əsərdə qanuni olaraq ifadə edilmişdir, bu Gaunt John
və Kralın müşavirəsi üzvləri tərəfindən olan həvəssiz razılaşmadır (124), ancaq bu Richardın tərəfindən qəti açıq-aşkar olmasa da məqsədəuyğunluq məsələsində aydındır.
Kral ailəsinin müxtəlif üzvlərinin cavabları ləğv edilmiş təşəbbüsün və qovulmanın
seçilməsidir. Woodstockun dul arvadı qan üçün ağlayırdı. Onunku, qan qohumluğunun
bağlanmış hər hansı bir insanın ölümündə günahkarın cinayətə qarşı çıxması üçün
Aeschlusun Erinyes və ya Furiesin tələbatları daxilində əxlaqi intiqamdır. Gloucester
Duches onun qaynını təkid edir:
Ah, Gaunt, onun qanı seninki idi! Bu yataq, bu qucaq,
Bu metal, naxışlıdır sənin öz forman
İnsan yaratmışdı: və baxmayaraq ki, sən ən canlı nəfəs (7)
O həmin çağırış ilə Hamletin əmisi tərəfindən edilən “yaman və qeyri-təbii qətl”
intiqamının onun oğluna inandırılmasında Hamletin atasının xəyalından istifadə etdiyi
intiqam şifrəsi haqqında deyir. Bu şifrə qədimdir: bu həmişə səlahiyyət tərəfindən əhatə
edilmiş vətəndaş cəmiyyəti üçün məsələni qoyur, bu məsələyə dövlət üçün olan intiqam
aid deyildir. Ancaq bu qətlə yetirilmiş xüsusi ailələrdə qisas və əks qisasın qaçılmaz
dövrəsinə gətirib çıxarır. İntiqam şifrəsinin özünəməxsus mənası vardır, və bu çağırışlar
güclü qohumluq əlaqəsinin baş tutmamasıdır. Çağırış və əks-çağırış üçün tələblər vətəndaş müharibəsinin hərəkətverici qüvvəsi on beşinci əsrdə olmuşdur. Bu qüvvəni Şekspirin akopaliktik şərtlərdə görür.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
REFERENCES
Bevington, David M. Sheakespeares ideas, Wiley –Blackwell (great minds) 2008 Page 41.
Alexsandr, Catherine, Skhakespeare and Politics.Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.2004 Page 34
Sabir Mustafa,Ismihan Rahimov(On sozun muellifi) VilyamSekspir,Secilmis Eserleri,Onder
Nesriyyat Baki,2004 Page 4
Calderwood,James, Meatadrama in SheakespearesHenriad:Richard II to Henry V,Berkley, University
of California Press ,1979
Greenblatt Stephen ,The Northorn Shakespeare (The Tragedy of King Richard the Second) W.W.
Northorn and Company Page 931.2.47-8
Greenblatt Stephen ,The Northorn Shakespeare (The Second Part of Henry the 4th )W.W.Northorn
and Company Page 9311.3.140-212
Greenblatt Stephen ,The Northorn Shakespeare (The Second Part of Henry the 4th )W.W.Northorn
and Company Page 9311.3.140-212
113
THE ONLY WAY TO SAVE FROM LONELINESS
(ON THE BASIS OF VLADIMIR NABOKOV’S “THE LUZHIN DEFENSE”)
Ayten Zeynalli
Azerbaijan University of Languages
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Vladimir Nabokov was a Russian-born writer who wrote both in russian and, after emigrating to
America, in english, and is one of the great literary figures of the 20th century. He was known to be a great
chess problemist,he wrote several books containing chess references,most notably The Luzhin Defence,
the story of a chess genius descent into madness,which was adapted in a movie in 2000. In 1929, he wrote
“Luzhin’s Defense” which was published in 1930 in Berlin. The plot concerns Aleksandr Ivanovich Luzhin
who learns how to play chess and becomes a world class player. He is later paired against Turati ,a world
class player from Italy, to determine who would face the current world champion. Before and during the
game, Luzhin has a mental breakdown.He later climbs out a window and falls to his death, committing
suicide.The character of Luzhin is based on Curt von Bardeleben,who committed suicide by jumping out
a window in Berlin on January 31, 1924.
I want to analyse this novel not only as a ordinary reader, because “Luzhin Defense” attracted me as
a chessplayer.So, Luzhin is the main character of novel and he is chessplayer.Chess is the game ,but it
becomes the real life of Luzhin. In my opinion, Luzhin is weak – willed person and feels himself so alone in
real life, therefore he wants to live in chess life. Even he comprehends the world as a chessboard. Furthermore,
he can not understand that it is possible to lose the game, but to lose in your real life is horrible. The writer
describes two Luzhin-real life’s Luzhin (Aleksandr Ivanovich) and chess world’s Luzhin. ”Beauty, cruelty
and time” is the main idea of novel. The last line of the novel reads: “The door was burst in. 'Aleksandr
Ivanovich, Aleksandr Ivanovich,' roared several voices. But there was no Aleksandr Ivanovich.” It shows
that death was the only way for Luzhin to save himself .
Key words: Nabokov, Luzhin, chess, Vladimir Nabokovun “Lujinin Müdafiəsi” romanında şahmat
tənhalıqdan xilas yolu kimi.
“Əsl həyat şahmat həyatı gözəl,aydın və macəralarla doluydu və Lujin ləzzətlə hiss
edirdi ki,bu dünyaya ağalıq etmək necə də asandır” sətirlərinin müəllifi, rus ədəbiyyatının sirli yazıçısı Vladimir Nabokovdur.
Vladimir Nabokov 1899-cu ildə aprelin 10-da Sankt-Peterburq şəhərində anadan
olmuşdur.Uşaqlığının ən gözəl anlarını Vətənində keçirən Nabokov 1917-ci il inqilabından sonra mühacir həyatı yaşamışdır. Əvvəlcə, Berlində yaşamış,faşistlərin hakimiyyətə gəlişindən sonra isə ailəsi ilə birlikdə ABŞ- a köçmüşdür. Rus ədəbiyyatında bilinqvizmin nümayəndəsi olan V.Nabokov əsərlərini iki dildə qələmə almış,eyni zamanda
A.S.Puşkinin, M.Lermontovun əsərlərini ingilis dilinə tərcümə etmişdir. Qiymətli yaradıcılığı Nabokova Nobel mükafatını qazandıra bilərdi, ancaq nədənsə yazıçının “Lolita“
romanı onu bu ali mükafatdan məhrum etdi.
Nabokov yaradıcılığı müəyyən oyun qaydaları üzərində qurulmuşdur və bu oyunun
qaydaları təkcə özünə bəlli idi. Onun şahmat oyununa böyük marağı vardı və bu maraq
məşhur “Lujinin Müdafiəsi “romanında öz əksini tapmışdır. Əsərdə bütün hadisələr
114
April 27, 2012
Lujinin ətrafında cərəyan edir.Lujin melanxolik bir obrazdır. Əsər boyu ruhi- psixolji
sarsıntılar keçirən Lujin böyük şahmatçıdır,onun bütün həyatı bu oyunla bağlıdır. Belə
ki, şahmat Lujinin yaşadığı həyat ,fiqurlar isə onun sevdikləridir. Ümumiyyətlə, Nabokov yaradıcılığında gerçəklik və təxəyyül (oyun) daim mübarizədədir. Əsərin qəhrəmanı
Lujin gerçək həyatda arzuolunmazdır və özgələşmiş cəmiyyətdə təkdir. Bəlkə də bu
tənhalıq onunla real həyat arasında uçurumlar yaradır və o şahmat həyatını seçir. Beləcə
Lujinin həyatı da özü kimi ikidünyalı olur.Çünki romanın əvvəlindən Lujini soyadı ilə
görürük. ” Onu ən çox heyrətləndirən bu oldu ki, bazar günündən etibarən “Lujin” çağrılacaqdı.”Elə roman da bu cümlə ilə başlayır və yazıçı qəhrəmana ilk cümlədən soyad
maskası geyindirir. Yalnız əsərin sonunda biz Lujinin əsl adını tanıyırıq.”Aleksandr
İvanoviç, Aleksandr İvanoviç“!-bir neçə səs bağırmağa başladı.
Luji dünya çempionu uğrunda italyan şahmatçısı Turati ilə oyundan məğlub olmaqdan çox qorxur və bu oyun üçün xüsusi müdafiə kombinasiyası qurur.Lakin oyun
tamam başqa debütlə başladığından bu kombinasiya uyğun olmur və oyun vaxta görə
yarımçıq qalır. Axı, vaxt şahmat dünyasında çox amansız şeydir. Beləcə,yazıçı qeyd
etmək istəyir ki, şahmat bir oyundur ,onunla uduzmaq belə olar.Ancaq gerçək həyatda
məğlubiyyət dəhşətlidir. Real həyatda tək olan Luji bu həyatla mübarizədə yeganə çıxış yolunu - müdafiəsini ölümdə görür. Fikrimcə,dünyanı şahmat taxtası kimi təsəvvür
edən Lujin qalib oyunçudur,onun müdafiə mexanizmi həm şahmatda ,həm gerçək həyatda onu xilas etdi. ”Artıq hər iki ayağı bayıra sallanmışdı və yalnız yapışdığı şey nə
idisə ,əlini ondan buraxmaq lazım idi – beləcə xilas olmuş olardı.”
1.
REFERENCES
Vladimir Nabokov “The Luzhin Defense”.
APPROACHES TO JUSTICE AND MERCY IN RENAISSANCE DRAMA
(On the basis of Shakespeare’s Tempest and Merchant of Venice)
Aziz Chankaya
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Shakespeare's uses the themes of Justice and Mercy in the Tempest and the Merchant of Venice in
order to focus the attention of audience on justice and mercy. He wants to define what they are and
expect the audience to take their lesson from them.Sheakespeare correlates the similar endings in both
plays.
Key Words. Justice , Mercy ,Tempest , Merchant of Venice .
In Renaissance period of plays Merchant and The Tempest, Shakespeare proposes
ideas of justice and mercy that hold true in both plays. In order to understand that they
mean we should look up dictionaries but in order to judge if something is merciful, one
115
must look to see if it fulfills the qualifications of mercy in the Holy Books especially
the New Testament. Now that we have firm definitions on what mercy and justice are
in the context of Shakespeare's time, it is possible to see how each of these played a
role in these plays.(1)
In The Merchant of Venice, mercy and justice play an important role in determining
the results of it. It would be fair to say that mercy was given to Antonio and not Shylock.
For Antonio, the other cheek was turned and he was able to be spared the loss of his
life, even though he had entered into a contract in which he put this on the line. On the
other hand, money was not given to Shylock who was also harmed by being forced to
convert. However, when looking at why mercy was given to one and not the other, we
must look at how justice was applied. In Antonio's case, he is a Catholic merchant from
Europe, unlike the prince of Morocco. However, even though Shylock was also a European, he was not a Christian , justice did not apply. However, in context, was justice
served? Of course it was served, for not only was the spirit of it upheld but it was also
carried out how it was meant to be carried out. (2)
In The Tempest, Shakespeare again uses the concepts of justice and mercy in order
to have his audience think about what just and merciful actions were taken. At the end
of the play, when Prospero releases Caliban from his bondage, this action, by definition,
is merciful, but in no way is it just. By releasing Caliban from his control, Prospero has
taken a love thy neighbor as yourself mentality and, this, is merciful. However, when
determining if these actions are just, they are only just if Prospero wanted to give up
his control. In lines 163 - 175 of act four, scene one, Prospero gives up his control over
nature. In these lines we see that Prospero is troubled and in general just worn out, but
we do not see if he wants to do it. (3)When he arrived on the island and imprisoned
Caliban, this was just because Prospero was doing what he wanted to do and was not
harming any other Catholic European in the process. However, this behavior of mentally
imprisoning someone else is and was not merciful. In this play, Shakespeare's views
of justice and mercy again come into conflict when dealing with Prospero and Caliban.
(4)However, by applying the same idea of mercy in this play, as he did in Merchant,
Shakespeare is able to correlate a merciful end in both plays.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Gurr , Andrew ,The Shakespeare Stage ,1574-1642 ,Cambridge, Cambridge University Press ,1996
Wells Stanley , The Oxford Shakespeare , OUP .2005
3.
Wells Stanley , The Oxford Shakespeare , OUP .2005
4.
Lambert Robert ,Houghton Mifflin Company ,1967
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April 27, 2012
MODERN APPROACHES TO AGATHA CHRISTIE’S
HERO HERCULE POIROT
Fidan Hacıyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Agatha Christie is known as Queen of Crime and she is the best-selling novelist of all time. Christie`s
most famous and long-lived character is a Belgian detective Hercule Poirot. He is a Belgian refugee and
he begins his career as a police officer then he becomes a private detective. He always uses his little grey
cells for every case and it is the most famous phrase of his personality.
Agatha Christie used Poirot in thirty-three novels and fifty-four short stories and he became a star.
He is a real hero and idol of a modern life. Poirot dies in Christie`s last book Curtain from complications
of a heart in 1975.
Key Words: detective, novel, famous.
Agatha Christie`nin efsanevi karakteri Hercule Poirot
Cinayet edebiyatının ‘ölüm düşesi’ olarak da bilinen Agatha Christie, 15 Ekim 1890
yılında, İngiltere`nin Torquay kasabasında doğmuştur. Dünyanın en ünlü yazarları arasında ilk sıralarda yer alan ve kitapları 103 dile çevrilen tek yazardır. Agatha Christie`nin
bu inanılmaz başarısının sırrı; tabii ki ondan önce yazılmış birçok dedektif romanın
etkisi, kitaplarında olay-zaman-mekan birliğini profesyonelce kullanması, ‘aldatmadan
şaşırtma’ kuralını benimseyip, bunu en güzel şekilde kullanması ve tabii ki literatüre
geçen birçok önemli, ölümsüz kahraman yaratmasında yatar. Miss Marple, Tommy and
Tuppence, Ariadne Oliver, Harley Quin, Başmüfettiş Battle, Müfettiş Japp gibi birçok
önemli karaktere hayat veren polisiye romanların kraliçesi, kahramanların en ünlüsünü
1920 yılında The Mysterious Affair at Styles (Ölüm Sessiz Geldi) adlı kitabında okuyucuyla buluşturmuştur. İlk olarak bu romanda karşımıza çıkan Hercule Poirot için, Agatha
Christie otobiyografisinde şunları söylemiştir; “Neden dedektifimi Belçikalı yapmayayım ki? Onu titiz, küçük, her daim bir şeyleri düzelten, simetri hastalığı olan biri gibi
göstermeliyim. Ve tabii ki zeki olmalı, küçük gri hücrelerini en iyi şekilde kullanabilmeli.” Ve böylece edebiyatın en ünlü dedektiflerinden biri doğmuş oldu!
Bu küçük, Belçikalı mülteci, kariyerine polis müfettişi olarak başlar ve daha ileriki
yaşlarda özel dedektifliğe soyunur. Christie, Poirot`nun cinayetler hakkındaki özel bilgilerini, önemli tanıdıklarını, onun eskiden polis olmasına dayandırırak okuyucuya ulaştırır.
Poirot, kendisine mükemmel diyen ve mütevazilikten hoşlanmayan ilk karakterdir.
Her çözdüğü olayın sonunda, dramatik bir şekle bürünüp; kötülerin her zaman cezalarını çekeceğini, Hercule Poirot var olduğu sürece hiçbir cinayetin karanlıkta kalmayacağını dile getirir. Buradan da anlaşılacağı üzre, Poirot oldukça kendini beğenmiş,
bencil ve ukaladır. Fakat bu, okuyucuda kesinlikle bir antipati yaratmaz, hatta tam tersine kendisine hayranlık uyandırır. Bu yönüyle Agatha Christie bir ilke de imza atmıştır.
Bu kadar kibirli bir dedektifin, insanlar tarafından beğeniden çok nefret kazanacağını
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düşünen Christie, bu konuda yanılmıştır. Okuyucu, Poirot`yu her haliyle benimsemiş
ve en sevilen dedektif karakteri olarak, Christie`nin diğer bütün dedektifleri arasında,
kısa sürede ön plana çıkmayı başarmıştır.(1)
Christie kitaplarında, Poirot`nun güzellik ve zerafete olan tutkusunu her zaman ön
plana çıkarmıştır. Onun hastalık derecesinde düzenli olması, midesine düşkünlüğü, etrafındaki herkesin demode bulduğu fakat kendisinin oldukça beğendiği pos bıyıkları,
yumurta şeklindeki kafası ve tabii ki meşhur gri hücreleri Hercule Poirot`yu efsane yapan en önemli özelliklerdir.
Belçikalı dedektif, Christie`nin 33 romanında ve 54 kısa hikayesinde başlıca karakter
olarak yerini almıştır. Bu romanların en ünlülerinden bazıları şunlardır: Murder on the
Orient Express (Doğu Ekspresinde Cinayet), The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (Roger
Ackroyd Cinayeti), Death on the Nile (Nil`de Ölüm), Three Act Tragedy (Üç Perdelik
Cinayet), The Big Four (Büyük Dörtler).(2)
Agatha Christie`nin birçok roman ve kısa hikayesi, günümüze kadar, birçok kere
sinema ve tiyatro sahnesine taşınmıştır. Hercule Poirot da birçok başarılı aktör tarafından canlandırılarak seyirci karşısına çıkmıştır. Peter Ustinov, 6 filmde Poirot karakterini canlandırarak 2 Akademi Ödülü almaya layık görülmüştür.
Fakat Poirot ile en çok özdeşleştirilen oyuncu David Suchet olmuştur. İlk olarak
1989 yılında Belçikalı dedektif olarak karşımıza çıkan Suchet`yi, 1976 yılında vefat eden
Agatha Christie hiç izleme şansına sahip olmamıştır. Fakat Agatha`nın torunu Matthew;
“Agatha`nın David Suchet`yi görememesine çok üzülüyorum. Fikrimce, Poirot`ya fiziksel olarak en çok benzeyen, onun fikirlerini ve mükemmelliyetçiliğini en iyi yansıtan
aktör o oldu.” demiştir.
Agatha Christie, ölümünden bir yıl önce yazdığı son polisiye romanında, Hercule
Poirot`yu öldürmüştür. Poirot, okuyucuyla ilk buluştuğu romandaki gibi gene Styles
köşküne, en yakın arkadaşı Hastings ile gider ve orada esrarengiz olaylar olmaya başlar.
Kitap; Poirot`nun ölümünün ardından, işin içinden çıkamayan arkadaşı Hastingsìn,
Poirot`nun yazdığı mektubu almasıyla sonlanır. Poirot müthiş zekasını, hastalığına ve
ihtiyarlığına rağmen gene en güzel şekilde kullanmıştır. İntihar ettiği zannedilen katilin,
cezasını kendi elleriyle verdiğini, yani katili kendisinin vurduğunu mektubunda itiraf
eden Poirot, sonrasında, onu bekleyen ölüme kendisini teslim etmiştir. Arkadaşına yazdığı mektup da, Poirot`nun kişiliğini bilen okuyucuya hem tebessüm ettirir, hem de onun
küçük gri hücreleriyle bir daha buluşamayacak olmanın hüznünü yaşatır. (3) Agatha`nın kitaba verdiği isimde olduğu gibi (Ve Perde İndi – Curtain), perde gerçekten inmiş
ve seyirciler Poirot`nun muhteşem sonundan sonra dağılmıştır.
Hercule Poirot tarihte, adına ölüm ilanı verilen tek roman kahramanıdır. The New
York Times gazetesi ‘Hercule Poirot is dead’ başlığı altında, Belçikalı Dedektifi uğurlamıştır.
1.
2.
3.
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KAYNAKLAR:
Orient Express , Agatha Christi , Millwood Press 1923
Death in Nile , Agatha Christi , Millwood Press 1923
Ten Little Niggers Agatha Christi , Millwood Press 1929
April 27, 2012
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE'S CREATIVITY
Khonul Anvarzade
Scientific adviser: Qasimova Azade
Azerbaijan Cooperation University
ABSTRACT
William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in
the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and
the "Bard of Avon". Amazingly, we know very little about Shakespeare’s life. Even though he is the world’s
most famous and popular playwright, historians have had to fill in the gaps between the handful of surviving
records from Elizabethan times. So, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the
age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and
Judith. Between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an aactor, writer, and part owner
of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. He appears to
have retired to Stratford around 1613 at age 49, where he died three years later.
Key Words: Creativity , Globe , Plays.
Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613.His early
plays were mainly comedies and histories, genres he raised to the peak of sophistication
and artistry by the end of the 16th century. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about
1608, including Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest
works in the English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known
as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published
in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime. In 1623, two of his former
theatrical colleagues published the First Folio, a collected edition of his dramatic works
that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare's.
Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day. In the 20th century,
his work was repeatedly adopted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship
and performance. His plays remain highly popular today and are constantly studied,
performed, and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the
world. His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays,
154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been
translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those
of any other playwright.
Shakespeare's dramatic career falls naturally into four successive divisions of increasing maturity. The first of the four periods thus disclosed is that of experiment and
preparation, from about 1588 to about 1593, when Shakespeare tried his hand at virtually
every current kind of dramatic work. Its most important product is 'Richard III,' a melodramatic chronicle-history play, largely imitative of Marlowe and yet showing striking
power. At the end of this period Shakespeare issued two rather long narrative poems
on classical subjects, 'Venus and Adonis,' and 'The Rape of Lucrece,' dedicating them
both to the young Earl of Southampton, who thus appears as his patron. Both display
119
great fluency in the most luxuriant and sensuous Renaissance manner. Probably at about
the end of his first period, also, he began the composition of his sonnets, of which we
have already spoken.
The second period of Shakespeare's work, extending from about 1594 to about 1601,
is occupied chiefly with chronicle-history plays and happy comedies. The chroniclehistory plays begin with the subtile and fascinating, though not yet absolutely masterful
study of contrasting characters in 'Richard II'; continue through the two parts of 'Henry
IV,' where the realistic comedy action of Falstaff and his group makes history familiarly
vivid; and end with the epic glorification of a typical English hero-king in 'Henry V.'
The comedies include the charmingly fantastic 'Midsummer Night's Dream'; 'The
Merchant of Venice,' where a story of tragic sternness is strikingly contrasted with the
most poetical idealizing romance and yet is harmoniously blended into it; 'Much Ado
About Nothing,' a magnificent example of high comedy of character and wit; 'As You
Like It,' the supreme delightful achievement of Elizabethan and all English pastoral
romance; and 'Twelfth Night,' where again charming romantic sentiment is made believable by combination with a story of comic realism. Even in the one, unique, tragedy
of the period, 'Romeo and Juliet,' the main impression is not that of the predestined
tragedy, but that of ideal youthful love, too gloriously radiant to be viewed with sorrow
even in its fatal outcome.
The third period, extending from about 1601 to about 1609, includes Shakespeare's
great tragedies and certain cynical plays, which formal classification mis-names comedies.
In these plays as a group Shakespeare sets himself to grapple with the deepest and
darkest problems of human character and life; but it is only very uncertain inference
that he was himself passing at this time through a period of bitterness and disillusion.
The theory persistently advocated during the last half century that Shakespeare's
works were really written not by himself but by Francis Bacon or some other person
can never gain credence with any competent judge. Our knowledge of Shakespeare's
life, slight as it is, is really at least as great as that which has been preserved of almost
any dramatist of the period; for dramatists were not then looked on as persons of permanent importance. No poet bending his energies to the composition of such masterpieces as Shakespeare's could. Second, the cipher systems are absolutely arbitrary and
unscientific, applied to any writings whatever can be made to 'prove' anything that one
likes. Third, it has been demonstrated more than once that the verbal coincidences on which
the cipher systems rest are no more numerous than the law of mathematical probabilities
requires. Aside from actually vicious pursuits, there can be no more melancholy waste
of time than the effort to demonstrate that Shakespeare is not the real author of his
reputed works.
In the scientific area his creative works have been used by great pleasure in abstracts,
course works, articles, diplomas up today. Because of modern life his plays are being
reviving in the films. Especially the youngs love his masterpiece “Romeo and Juliet” that
deals with love. The thousand of centures had been already passed and after this will
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April 27, 2012
be passed, but Shakespeare' s valuable and irreplaceable creativity will be read, lived,
preserved by the world proudly.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Oruch, Jack B., "St. Valentine, Chaucer, and Spring in February," Speculum, 56 (1981): 534–65.
Oruch's survey of the literature finds no association between Valentine and romance prior to Chaucer.
He concludes that Chaucer is likely to be "the original mythmaker in this instance."
http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf
Thomas Weber, "Gandhi as Disciple and Mentor," Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 28–29.
David, Deirdre The Cambridge companion to the Victorian novel p.179. Cambridge University Press,
2001.
Elleke Boehmer (2008). Nelson Mandela: a very short introduction. p. 157. Oxford University Press,
2008. "'Invictus', taken on its own, Mandela clearly found his Victorian ethic of self-mastery"
Beebe, Maurice (Fall 1972). "Ulysses and the Age of Modernism". James Joyce Quarterly (University
of Tulsa) 10 (1): p. 176.
The Cambridge companion to Virginia Woolf. By Sue Roe, Susan Sellers. p.219. Cambridge University
Press, 2000.
THE ANGRY YOUNG MAN : ‘JOHN OSBORNE’
Gunay Allahverdiyeva
Qafqaz University
Instructor at Cult, Ph.D Student
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Wars and revolutions has dramatically changed the lives of human beings since the earth was created,
so has World War II. In England postwar period caused to rise the movement of ‘Angry Young Men.’
Angry Young Men became the voice of desperate generation of England. Kingsley Amis, John Osborne,
Arnold Wesker and John Braine can be counted as the pioneers of this movement. In this essay, it is aimed
to examine the postwar situation and its effetcs in England by giving the biography of John Osborne who
played a far-reaching role in pushing many young dramatists along sociopolitical paths by his play Look
Back in Anger.
Keywords: Angry Young Men, John Osborne, Look Back in Anger.
Introduction
Society is a human community, usually with a relatively fixed territorial location,
sharing a common culture and common activities. There is cultural and institutional
interdependence between members of the society and they are, to some extent, from
other communities and groups1. Sharing a common culture and common activities society can be easily affected and changed by the convulsive events such as world wars
and revolutions. After World War II all European countries included England faced
innumerable predicaments and shifts. Labour Party which governed England during the
121
1950s did not meet people’s demands. Having lost the domination on its colonies such
as India and Burma inequality, unemployment, class consiousness still existed in their
governing period. All these conditions which can be seen as ‘predicament’ for society
caused desperation, unwillingness on new generation’s minds which led them dissatisfaction. The plans for postwar secondary education in Britain aimed to remove the
inequalities which remained in the system. The proportion of 'free places' at grammar
schools in England and Wales increased from almost a third to almost half between
1913 and 1937. However, when poorer children were offered free places, parents often
had to turn them down owing to the extra costs involved2. The Education Act which
was aimed to bring equality for lower class people did not work out. Graduated from
universities the youth was unemployed.
Angry young men movement
In this gloomy atmosphere British theatre became a mirror reflecting sociopolitical
events and changes which means society’s attraction on sociopolitical events got more
deeper than before because after postwar period a new sociocultural movement was
born in England ‘Angry Young Men.’ It was based on the disaffection and anger that
a group of writers felt towards society. John Osborne, Arnold Wesker, John Braine,
Kingsley Amis were the pioneers of the ‘Angry Young Men’. One could say that John
Osborne’s play Look Back in Anger first produced in 1956 started the ‘Anger’ movement. Both the ‘Angries’ and their protagonists exhibited the need to voice the ills of
society, to tell the truth at all costs. Angry Young Men became the voice of dissappointed
generation and minority who was aware of hypocrisy of the society. Their main characters shared really similar characteristics as rebelliousness, criticism and contempt
towards the society in which they lived and also they describe the monotony, mediocrity
and injustice of their lives.
John Osborne
The man who turned anger into art ,John Osborne, changed the face of British
Theatre. His play ‘Look Back in Anger’ was the turning point in postwar British theatre.
He was an 'Angry Young Man' who spent his happiest years in Shropshire3. John James
Osborne was born in London, England in 1929 to Thomas Osborne, an advertisement
writer, and Nellie Beatrice, a barmaid. His father died in 1941, leaving Osborne an insurance settlement which he used to finance a boarding school education at Belmont College in Devon. Osborne was expelled after only a few years for striking the headmaster.
After coming back home, Osborne worked several jobs before he found a niche in
the theatre. He began working with Anthony Creighton's provincial touring company
where he was a stage hand, actor, and writer. Look Back in Anger was written in a short
period and was finally accepted by George Devine for production with his failing Royal
Court Theatre. Both Osborne and the Royal Court Theatre were struggling to survive
financially and both saw the production of Look Back in Anger as a risk. After opening
night, the play received mixed reviews, however, Osborne was soon pronounced to be
one of the most promising young playwright's in British theatre.
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April 27, 2012
In the late 1950s, Osborne was persuaded by Lawrence Olivier, the famous actor,
about writing a play for him. Osborne wrote The Entertainer, a play that metaphorically
explores the decline of the British Empire through the eyes of a failing music hall.
Olivier played the lead role in the production and the play received critical praise. Osborne would continue to write for the stage through the 1960s. He produced a number of
critical and commercially successful works including Luther, a play based on the life
of Martin Luther. In 1963, Osborne won an Academy Award for his screen adaptation
of Tom Jones.
Osborne continued to work in the artistic and entertainment worlds through the
1970s and 80s. He wrote plays, but also turned into writing screenplays, television
adaptations, and autobiography. Osborne made several appearances as an actor during
this period. He starred in several popular Hollywood films including Get Carter and
Flash Gordon. Later in life, he received considerable awards for his work including a
Lifetime Achievement Award from the Writer's Guild in Britain. Osborne died at the
age of 65 from complications related to diabetes.
Conclusion
To sum up, before Osborne arrived on the theatrical scene, the British theatre just
composed of melodramas and middle class drawing-room comedies. But in 1956, Osborne's play Look Back in Anger shocked audiences and "wiped the smugness off the
frivolous face of English theatre," as John Lahr put it in a New York Times Book Review
article. Osborne's protagonist, Jimmy Porter, caught the angry and rebellious nature of
the postwar generation, a dispossessed people who were clearly unhappy with things
as they were in the decades following World War II. Jimmy Porter came to represent
an entire generation of ‘Angry Young Men.’ Look Back in Anger established Osborne,
the struggling actor and playwright, as a leading writer for theatre, television and film.
It also had a profound effect on British culture. The play threw cold water in the face
of a sleepy popular culture. All manner of writers, actors, artists, and musicians (including the Beatles) soon reflected the influence of Osborne's ‘Angry Young Man.’
END NOTE
1.
2.
3.
http://bitbucket.icaap.org/dict.pl Online Dictionary of Social Sciences
www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transforming ociety/livinglearning/school/overview/educationalact1944/
www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/content/articles/2005/04/07/great-salopians-john-osborne feature-shtml
REFERENCES
1.
Colby, Douglas. As The Curtain Rises: Contemporary British Drama. London: Associated Univ
Press, 1979.
2.
Hayman, Ronald. John Osborne. London: Heineman, 1968.
3.
Taylor, John. R. Anger and After: A Guide to the New British Drama. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1963.
4.
http://bitbucket.icaap.org/dict.pl Online Dictionary of Social Sciences
123
5.
6.
www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/transforming society/livinglearning/school/overview/educationalact1944/
www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/content/articles/2005/04/07/great-salopians-john-osborne-feature-shtml
MODERN APPROACHES TO SHAKESPEARE’S LANGUAGE
Gunay Guliyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
West…. from which side, which point of view to analyze West? Let’s see ,not impressive sidetechnology for nowadays, look to the literature from the past bevel. Lived in Victorian and Elizabethan
period, carrying the West conception form and thoughts of his epoch, without any restrictions – but sometimes as they are, sometimes with exaggerating to the literature was eminent writer – Shakespeare. From
centuries he was recalled, proved himself and precious works which he left behind, have difficulties in
understanding but stating sayings, imagery beauty are inestimable in his work. So, I wont to cite you about
the person who had such kind of values.
Key words: Eminent Shakespeare ,West conception form ,difficult language ,personal precious.
One of eminent writers of world’s literature , who was recalled mostly with his
name, who tried to quote West man’s sentiment to the humanity accurately was forceful
pen user – Shakespeare. Born in England, was neither a genius nor a superman with
special powers. Just born in the village but actually started robust words and could use
precious thoughts. He was an important nominee of word’s literature. In his time “the
globe” was under the pressure of his writings. Saying efficiency, we mean that, actually
W. Shakespeare indicated such kind of points that life truths could find like their
“shadows” in the literature. And this was the most striking feature of Shakespeare .(1)
The English language has changed a great deal over the last few hundred years,
and it is still changing like other languages. Several words in use during those periods
either have different meanings today or have been nearly forgotten. Also Elizabethan
dialect differs slightly from Modern English, but the principles are generally the same.
On those times there were no dictionaries. Although especially grammar issues organized
but they would not appear until the 1700 s. So Shakespeare as a youth would have no
more systematically studied his own language. But he was well – educated conversationalist in the language from inside . Shakespeare could use words where they fitted.
Maybe that is why Shakespeare is as relevant today as he was in his own time? The best
answer for this question is that: From my point of view he is relevant and important
person for all ages because people die, but words never die. If he left memorable and
unforgettable sayings behind himself, so he would never die. But actually for many
people today, reading Shakespeare’s language is a problem but it is a problem that can
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be solved. 2 In Shakespeare’s works there are many wordplay, also compressions,
omissions that readers must recognize and understand. But for this we-Modern readers
need to develop the skills for understanding this writing. But really in Shakespeare’s
works there are many unusual sentence structures which can bored reader from beginning
and may have trouble with Shakespeare’s words. Because most of his immense vocabulary is still in use, but a few of his words are not, worse, some of them now have
meaning quite different from they were in 16 and 17 centuries. That’s why as a literature learner I can say that, if readers of Shakespeare want understand him it is essential
“Solving Shakespeare’s puzzle” in his thoughts and get the message behind his words.
In the words of Louis Marder: “Shakespeare was so facile in employing words that he
was able to use over 7.000 of them-more than occur in the whole King James version
of the Bible-only once and never again” From my point of view, it is evidence that
Shakespeare was master of his work. As we said before, in Shakespeare’s plays we can
face with sentences which very difficult to understand. For ex: “Wherefore dost than
leave?” Like a foreign language, yes? That is why we must know all words in sentences
otherwise we can’t solve puzzle. Shakespeare used in his works certain words which
created as if William Shakespeare’s Glossary. Today we can find them from different
sources. For ex: especially from internet or from library. Let’s see some examples
Shakespeare’s diction.
aery – nest ( Hamlet )
bewray – reveal ( King Lear )
cubiculo – room , chamber ( Twelfth Night )
dunnest – darkest ( Macbeth )
ensteeped submerged ( Otello )
Flirt-gills-loose women “Gill” was a familiar or contemptuous
term for a girl (as “Jack” for a boy) (Romeo and Juliet)
gouts – drops (Macbeth)
husbandry – thrift (Hamlet)
intermit – hold off (Julius Caesar)
jowls – bumps (Hamlet)
Leman – sweetheart (Twelfth Night)
moe – more (Julius Caesar) (The Merchant of Venice)
nimble – footed – madcap (King Henry IV . part I)
out – angry (Julius Caesar)
pignuts – peanuts (The Tempest)
quillest – quips (Othello)
theumy – moist (Julius Caesar)
sooth – truth (Macbeth)
tristful – sorrowful (Hamlet)
unsinew’d – weak (Hamlet)
vizards – masks (Macbeth)
wilt – must (Romeo and Juliet)
125
wot – know (Romeo and Juliet)
thee – you … “When will I see thee next?”
thou – you … “Thou art a villain”
thy – your … “Thy name is more hateful than thy face”
hark – listen … “Hark to the owl”(3)
In the theatre sometimes most of these difficulties are solved for us by actors who
study the language and articulate it for us so that the essential meaning is heard – or,
when combined with stage action, is at least felt. When reading on one‘s own, one must
do what each actor does; go over the lines until the puzzles are solved and the characters
speak in words and phrases that are, suddenly, rewarding and wonderfully memorable.
Also the New Folger Library Shakespeare editions of Shakespeare’s plays and poems
offer readers assistance in understanding Shakespeare’s language with notes and images
placed beside the play text.
They also include essays on how Shakespeare uses language in each work. Also
Shakespeare is known for his prolific use of figurative language. He used many metaphor,
smile, personification, alliteration and allusion. That’s why for Shakespeare’s readers
it is hard to get the message behind his words. Below are examples where Shakespeare,
used these literature devices.
“My bounty is as boundless as the sea,
My love as deep, the more I give to thee,
The More I have, for both are infinite.
(Romeo and Juliet) (4)
So, Shakespeare was famous “man of letters” over the world. But he gained with
friends more enemies, too. Even some of his enemies claimed that Shakespeare didn’t
exist or his works, plays were written by different unknown people. 5 As we said about
Shakespeare there are different points of view. Plus, in another claim they said Shakespeare
gave some religion points in his works. Last but not least, I think Shakespeare was a
great writer. He could use his world outlook in better form. Also maybe sometimes he
was able to appear “a cultural shock” with his writings but Shakespeare’s plays inestimable of course. That’s why we say Shakespeare as relevant for today as he was in his
time. 6
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
126
Shakespeare William, The Library Shakespeare Really Useful Map Company Ltd.India, 2007, 183-218
Shakespeare William, Romeo ve Juliyet , Remzi Kitapevi ,2000, 142
Kolcu Ali Ihsan,Batı Edebiyatı ,Akçağ,Ankara 2003,238
http://www.william-shakespeare.info/william-shakespeare-dictionary-c.htm
http://www.bathcsd.org/webpages/edepartment/shakespearean_terms.cfm
http://www.bardweb.net/language.html
April 27, 2012
MODERN APPROACHES TO CHARACTER OF HAMLET
Tuğçe Özdemir
Baku State University
Faculty of Azerbaijan Language and Literature Department
ABSTRACT
Today, English writer William Shakespeare's great works as tragedies, historic plays, drams, comedies
are very popular. The main characteristic features of his works, is that, his heroes are not the character of
the book and their brightness have survived four hundred years until today. And, the common similarities
of the characters are crimes and the revenge sense to enemy. All these features, characteristic of the macabre
killings and revenge sense is shown the writer’s famous tragedy by the character of Hamlet. The topic of
the tragedy was created Hamlet’s entering to Denmark from Germany where he got University education,
knowing his father’s enemy by his father’s ghost and revenge on his uncle.
Key words: hamlet, revenge, human nature.
Shakespeare her biri birbirinden farklı komedi ve trajedi türünde eserler kaleme
almıştır. Komedi türündeki eserlerinde benzersiz güldürü yeteneğini ortaya koyarken,
trajedilerinde tüylerimizi diken diken eden bir gerilim yaratmaktadir. Hamlet eseri de
tüylerimizi diken diken eden trajedi türünde bir eseridir. Shakespear eserlerinde daha
çok hadiselerin derinliyine inmiştir.Onun eserlerinde ilk bakişta önemsiz görünen küçük
bir olayın arkasında aslında toplumu ilgilendiren meseleler durmaktadir. Hamlet eseride
sadece intikam alma duygusu üzerine yazılmış gibi gözükse de aslında dönemin sosyal
ve siyasi meseleleri ile bağlı yazdığı bir eseridir. Hamlet hakkında çok sayıda yazılar
yazılmıştır ve bu yazıların çoğu da baş kahramanımız Hamlet karakterinin tahlili üzerine
olmuştur. Karakterimiz hakkında bir birine zıt ve muhtelif fikir söyleyenler olduğu gibi
eserin esas ideasını Hamletin düşünceleri ile iradesi arasında olan zıtlıklarda arayanlarda
olmuştur. Rus yazarı Turgenyev 1860 yılında yazdığı “Hamlet ve Don Kişot” adlı makalesinde Hamlet’in bencil ve her şeye şüphe ile yanaşan biri, Don Kişot’un ise işgüzar
biri olduğunu yazmıştır. Ona göre Hamlet düşünen insandır lakin fealiyetsizdir. Don
Kişot ise iradelidir, ama, akıllı değil demiştir. Turgenyev şunu da belirtmiştir ki, Hamlet de Don Kişot gibi kötülüklerin karşısında duran bir karakter olmuştur (Dünya Edebiyatı William Shakespear seçilmiş eserleri). Evet, Hamlet toplumda olan haksızlıkları
kanunların ikiyüzlülüyünü saf ve temiz olan duyguların önemsenmediğini insanların
ne kadar alçaldığını ve yalancı olduklarını görür fakat Hamlet bütün bunlara karşı birşeyler yapmak istese de başaralı olamaz. Bunun en önemli nedeni ise karakterimizin
iradesinin zayıf olması ve içinde bulunduğu ikilemlerden kurtulamamasıdır. Hamletin
yaşadığı bu ikilemleri babasının hayaleti ile karşılaştıktan sonraki davranışlarşında
daha da net görmekteyiz. Hamletin cevabını veremediği bir soru vardır ki, o babasının
intikamını almalı mi, yoksa almamalı mı? Hamlet karakterini incelediğimizde yazarımızın,diğer eserlerinde olduğu gibi bu eserinde de kitap karakteri oluşturmak yerine
hemen hemen, günlük hayatta karşımıza çıkabilecek sıradan bir karakter oluşturduğunu
görürüz. Hamletin tam olarak anlaşılamayan bir kişiliği vardır. Bu da onu her çağda
127
yoruma açık bir karakter yapmaktadır. Hamletin en önemli sorunu ise kendi zayıflıkları
olmuştur. Esere dönüp baktığımızda Hamlet, babasının amcası tarafından öldürüldüğünü
öğrendikten sonra acı çekmeye başlar. Hamlet ya bu acıyı çekecek ya da kendini öldürerek bu acıyı dindirecektir. Karakterimizin bu ikilemini Shakespeare “Olmak ya da
olmamak” işte bütün sorun bu dizesiyle dile getirmiştir.
1.
KAYNAKLAR
Vilyam Şekspir 1564-1616, Seçilmiş Əsərləri (“Şərq-Qərb”, Bakı-2009).
A NEW APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF ORIENTAL
THEME IN ENGLISH LITERATURE
Lala Isayeva
Qafqaz University
ABSTRACT
Richard Knolles’s (?1550-1610) “The General History of the Turks” (1603) was much appreciated
by Samuel Johnson, the most eminent Literary figure of the XVIII century. He took from the history of
the Turks the plot for his verse tragedy “Irene”. They say that Samuel Johnson was disappointed by the
play’s mixed reception. The oriental colouring much affected the XIX century Romanticists, especially
the inspiration of the Oriental history made the poets write their some works on that theme.
So it was a magnetic theme that appeared in Medieval Ages and further on periods of Literature.
The article presents the characteristic elements of Oriental conception that appeared through-out
various periods of English culture and literature.
Key words: Orientalism, oriental colouring, Medieval Literature, complex identities, the history of
the Turks, Western audience.
İngilis ədəbiyyatında Şərq mövzusunun öyrənilməsinə yeni baxış
İngilis ensiklopedik nəşrlərində “oriental (or Eastern) novel”, eləcə də “oriental
(or Eastern) tale” kimi təqdim edilən Şərq hekayələri Orta (Yaxın), yaxud Uzaq Şərqdə
vaqe olan hadisələri, xüsusilə XVIII əsr Qərbi Avropa, o cümlədən ingilisdilli ədəbiyyatda bədii inikasını yaradan xeyli sayda ədəbiyyat toplusunu ifadə edir. İngilis tarixçisi
Riçard Knollesin (Richard Knolles (?1550—1610)) 1603-cü ildə yazdığı “Türklərin
ümumi tarixi” (“The General History of the Turks”) əsəri ədəbiyyat aləmində XVIII
əsrin görkəmli sənət adamı Səmuel Consonun (1709-1784) (o, özünün məşhur “Ayrin”
(“İrene”) əsərinin süjetini bu kitabdan götürmüşdür – L.İ.), habelə “Türk poemaları”
ilə şöhrət qazanan Corc Qordon Bayronun (1778-1824) yaradıcılığında, poeziyasında
“Şərq koloriti”nə müəyyən təsir izini qoymuşdur.
XX əsrin əvvəllərində - 1900-1920-ci illərdə Azərbaycanın elmi, ədəbi və bədii düşüncə tarixində mühüm və əhəmiyyətli mərhələnin daşıyıcıları olan “Füyuzat”çıların
işıqlı və dünyəvi baxışları onların Şərq və Qərb mədəniyyətlərinin ideologiyasını vəhdət
şəklində öyrənməsi ilə bağlıdır. Təbii ki, belə bir yol milli intibahın yaradılmasında ən
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düzgün və yeganə mütərəqqi yoldur. Prof. Şamil Vəliyev (Körpülü) bu haqda yazır:
“... “Füyuzat”çıların Şərq və Qərb, müsəlman və xristian aləminin mədəniyyət və ədəbiyyatının qarşılıqlı əlaqə və müqayisədə təhlili onların bütöv dünyanı anlamaq istəyinə
əsaslanırdı” (1, 135).
“Füyuzat”çıların Şərq və Qərb əlaqələrinin öyrənilməsində qazandığı uğurlar nə
qədər diqqəti cəlb etsə də, indiki günlərimizdə də ənənəvi tədqiqat prizmasında bu əlaqələrin daha əhatəli şəkildə tədqiq edilməsinə ehtiyac olduğunu söyləməliyik.
İngiltərədə Şərq ölkələrinə, xüsusilə onun mədəniyyət və ədəbiyyatına hədsiz marağı ərəb ədəbiyyatının klassik toplusu olan “Min bir gecə”nin XVIII əsrin əvvəllərində
- 1705-1708-ci illərdə anonim “Grub Street” adlı versiyasının ingilis dilinə tərcüməsi
ilə başlanmışdır. Lakin ərəb dilində yazılmış bu sənət abidəsinin Qərbi Avropada tanınması Antoni Qallandın (Antoine Galland (1646-1715)) tərcüməsi ilə əlaqələndirilir.
Antoni Qallandın tərcümə versiyası 1704-1717-ci illər arasında çap olunmuşdur.
Lakin “Min bir gecə”nin ilk mükəmməl tərcüməsinin Con Peynə (John Payne
(1842-1916)) məxsus olduğunu söyləmək lazımdır və onun tərcüməsi çox az nəşr tirajı
ilə 1882-1884-cü illərdə ingilis oxucusuna təqdim edilmişdir. Ser Riçard Börtonun (Sir
Richard Burton (1821-1890)) ərəb erotologiyasının mükəmməl sənət nümunəsi “Min
bir gecə”sinin 1885-1888-ci illərdə tərcüməsi ona tənqidin və maliyyənin böyük uğurunu gətirən əsərə çevrildi.
Əvvəla, onu da vurğulamaq yerinə düşər ki, Şərq və Qərb məfhumları heç də coğrafi trayektoriyaları, yaxud coğrafi məkanları bütövlükdə özündə ehtiva etmir. Əslində,
Şərq – İslam, Qərb isə Xristian dünyasını ifadə etmək məramı daşıyır.
Anqlo-Sakson dövrünün VII əsrin əvvəllərində meydana çıxması İslam dini dünyagörüşünün, o cümlədən İslamın pərvəriş tapdığı dövrə təsadüf edir. Erkən ingilis yazarlarının nə ölkələrin artıq məlumatlandırıldığı İslam konsepsiyası, nə də sonrakı əsrlərdə Qərb yazarlarının sarasinlərə (Orta əsrdə qərblilərin Afrika müsəlmanlarına verdiyi
ad-L.İ.) həsr edəcəyi əsərlərə xüsusi, yaxud fantastik diqqət yetirilmədiyini qeyd edən
İova Universitetinin ingilis dili və ədəbiyyatı alimi Keyti Lavezzo (Kathy Lavezzo)
yazır: “Erkən və indiki günlərimizə gəlib çatan Anqlo-Sakson dövrünün ərəb işğallarının
təsviri Bidin (The Venerable Bede (673-735)) “Genezis” (“Bibliya: Varlıq kitabı”) kitabına dair şərhində səhnəyə çıxdı” (2, 435-436).
Ser Con Mandevillenin (Sir John Mandeville) ilk dəfə 1356-1357-ci illərdə AnqloNorman fransız dilində yazıya aldığı məşhur səyahət əlyazması XIV əsr ingilis ədəbiyyatında Şərq ölkələrinin coğrafiyasının, romans və möcüzələri ilə təbii tarixinin yadda
qalan səhifələrinin təsvirini verən təsiredici, cəzbedici əsər kimi dəyərləndirilir. Sonralar bu əsər ədəbi aləmdə qüdrətli ingilis yazarları kimi dünya şöhrəti qazanan Cefri Çoserdən Vilyam Şekspirə kimi bir sıra sənət adamlarının yaradıcılığına mühüm və əhəmiyyətli təsirini göstərmişdir. Ser Con Mandevillenin səyahət kitabı ingilis ədəbiyyatında yaranan əfsanəvi səyahət kitabının məşhur janrının prototipi kimi qəbul edilmişdir. Oxucunu Türkiyəyə, Tatar ölkəsinə (orijinalda “Tartary” kimi təqdim edilən bu ölkə
əslində Azərbaycan ölkəsi kimi nəzərdə tutulmuşdur-L.İ.), İrana, Misirə və Hindistana
129
aparan səyahət kitabında Şərq tarixi, coğrafiyası ilə bağlı elementlərin öyrənilib tədqiq
edilməsi ayrıca bir tədqiqat mövzusu ola bilər.
İlk dəfə bu əlyazmanın təxminən 1357-ci ildə Fransada yayımından sonra onun bir
sıra Avropa dillərinə tərcümə edildiyini qeyd edən araşdırıcılar həmin dövrdən “Səyahətlər” əsərinin 22 versiyasının indiki günlərimizə gəlib çıxdığını söyləyirlər. Əslində
bu əsər öz dövründə Müqəddəs torpağa-Şərq ölkələrinə çıxan zəvvarlar üçün həm coğrafi, həm də etik məlumatları özündə təcəssüm etdirən bələdçi kitabıdır. Bir faktı da
qeyd etmək lazımdır ki, bu əlyazma Boldenseleli Uilyamın (William of Boldensele),
Pordenoneli Frayer Odorik (Friar Odoric of Pordenone) və Beauvaisli Vincentin (Vincent of Beauvais) əsərləri əsasında tərtib edilmiş bir toplu kimi də dəyərləndirilir.
Qərb təcrübəsinin və dəyərlərinin tənqidçisi kimi Ser Con Mandevillenin kitabı
ekzotikləşdirilmiş Şərqin yenidən sınaqdan keçirilməsi prizmasında bir çox tarixi hadisələrin öyrənilməsi baxımından təəccüblü deyildir. XIX əsrin ortalarında yazılan kitabın Avropada qısa müddətdə və geniş şəkildə yayılıb populyarlaşmasının səbəbi təbii
ki, Qərb oxucusu üçün qəribə və ecazkar görünən Şərq dünyasının real görüntüləri olmuşdur. İngilis, ispan, daniya dillərində yayımlanan bu səyahət toplusu ən azı iki əsrlik
bir zamanda Şərqə dair mötəbər məlumatların mənbəyi olaraq öz aktuallığını və əhəmiyyətini qoruyub saxlamışdır. Səyahət ədəbiyyatının qeyri-adi populyarlığı bir də ona
görə yüksək dəyərləndirilir ki, o digər ədəbiyyat jurnallarından fərqli şəkildə birinci şəxsin dilindən təqdim edilən mətnin faktiki müşahidəsi əsasında əfsanəvi qəhrəmanın deyil, əsl səyahətçinin dili ilə təqdim edilən inandırıcı təhkiyəni özündə ehtiva edir.
Sonrakı dövrlərdə, xüsusilə ingilis romantizmi dövründə Şərq mövzusunda əsərlər
yazmış müəmmalı həyatı və türk dünyasına qarşı qərəzli siyasi mövqeyi və fəaliyyəti
ilə dünyada yaxşı tanınan Corc Qordon Bayron, gözəl və oxunaqlı mahnıların və poemaların müəllifi, irland əsilli Tomas Mur, “Min bir gecə” nağılları kimi macəra janrında
yazdığı romanları ilə məşhur olan Ceyms Yustinyan Moriyerin Şərq mövzusunda yazdığı əsərləri ədəbiyyat tarixinin “yaddaş”ına yazılmış, oxucu marağının və heyrətinin
unudulmaz stolüstü kitabı kimi dəyərləndirilmişdir.
XIX əsr ingilis romantizmində Şərq konsepsiyası ayrı-ayrı yazıçı və şairlərin Şərq
dünyasına ictimai-siyasi baxışlarının görüntüləri çevrəsində araşdırılıb tədqiq edilməlidir. Fikrimizcə, Şərq dünyasının Qərb ədəbi arealında bədii əksi verilən mənzərəsində
ruhani dünyamız, tarix və mədəniyyətimiz haqqında deyilən hər sözün, hər obrazın arxasında heyrət və həsədlə yanaşı, tədqiqə ehtiyacı olan o qədər də açıq-aydın görünməyən
“üsyan” və “təhqirlər”in də təhlil və şərh edilməsinə ehtiyac vardır.
1.
2.
3.
4.
130
ƏDƏBİYYAT
Veliyev (Körpülü) Şamil. Füyuzat edebi mektebi. Ankara: Edjat yayınları, 2000.
Lavezzo Kathy. Complex Identities: Selves and Others.-The Oxford Handbook of Medieval Literature in English. Printed in Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Knolles Richard. The General History of the Turks. London, 1603.
Gower Roger. Past into Present. Longman, 1990.
April 27, 2012
OTTOMAN POETRY AND BRITISH CRITICISM
Ali Bereket
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The work deals with the Ottoman poetry in British criticism based on some serious researches. It is
important to note that study of Ottoman poetry within the frame of British orientalism is nearly a profound
view to the history of Ottoman Literature. The ideas of some critics such as, Sir Philip Sidney and George
Puttenham on Ottoman poetry are analyzed and reviewed in the report. E.J. Gibb noted in the preface of
his research “A History of Ottoman Poetry” that he had endeavoured to trace the successive phases through
which Ottoman poetry has passed, to discover the influences which have brought these about, and in this
way to present as it were a panorama of the rise and progress of this poetry. So we can say that research
of Ottoman poetry which had been carried by E.J. Gibb is of great value. The author of the article concerning
the conclusion states that the Turks had no literature “was a shock for some scholars”. So the author of the
article presents his commentaries on Ottoman poetry which was mainly composed in mesnevi form.
Key words: Ottoman poetry, British criticism, Turkey, orientalist.
As antique Greek poetry and the works by Greek philosophers as well as poems
of Ottoman and of an ancient East literature had a vast influence on English literature
and scientific circles. So in British criticism different investigations have been made
on Ottoman poetry and scientific explanations have been rendered in English.
While thinking about investigation of Ottoman poetry, we feel under obligation of
mentioning the names of critics, Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) and George Puttenham
(?1529-1591) who wrote some sharp statements on poetry problems. Those critics faced
with the decline in the English poetry. “The Arte of English Poesie” by Puttenham1
(1589) and “The Defence of Poesie”(1595) by Sidney2 attracts attentions as the characteristic of arguments and trials to return back to poetic traditions of the ancient English
poetry. From this point of view it is important to mention the logical scientific discourses
of Sidney against those are of the opinion that poetry is unnecessary. He wrote: “…
neither Phylosopher nor Histoririographer could at the first have entered into the gates
of popular judgements, if they had not taken a great Passport of Poetry, which in all
Nations at this day, where learning florisheth not, is plaine to be seene, in all which they
have some feeling of Poetry.”3
After such kind of judgments Philip Sidney remind the way that the poetry was
created and developed in Turkey. H noted: “... in benighted Turkey besides their lawe
– giving Divines they have no other Writers but Poets.”4
It is not coincidence that Philip Sidney who created the first scientific work of criticism in the English literature mentioned such kind of judgments. The extraordinary
poetic samples of literature touched the cords of hearts of people not only in Turkey
but also in other parts of the world.
Prof. Hamid Araslı noted one sided characteristic of works written about Turkic
as well as Eastern poets by European orientalists: “Generally European orientalists
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couldn’t go beyond regulating scientific information about oriental poets. Instead of
giving scientific analysis of the poets they were under impacts of memoirs.”5
Naturally the demands of considerations, praise and writing peculiar for that period
by Indian, Persian and Turk memoirs experts reveal the limitations and one sidedness
in their memoirs. And Western Europe scholars and literary figures had to follow the
same way and they avoided presenting detailed analysis.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ENDNOTE
http://www.poetspath.com/Dave_Cope/Puttenham.htm
http://www.poetryfoundation.org/learning/essay/237818
Sanders Andrew, The Short Oxford History of English Literature, Second Edition, London: Oxford
Univ. Press 1999, p.107
Ibid., p.107
Araslı Hamid, The life and creativity of Saib Tebrizi; Araslı Hamid, Azerbaijan Literature: history
and problems, (selected works) I volume, Baku: Youth, 1998, p.562
REFERENCES
Sanders Andrew, The Short Oxford History of English Literature, Second Edition, London: Oxford
Univ. Press 1999
Araslı Hamid, The life and creativity of Saib Tebrizi; Araslı Hamid, Azerbaijan Literature: history
and problems, (selected works) I volume. Baku: Youth, 1998
E.J. Gibb, A History of Ottoman poetry, Volume I, London1958
http://www.poetspath.com/Dave_Cope/Puttenham.htm
http://www.poetryfoundation.org/learning/essay/237818
COINCIDENCES CHANGED TESS`S LIFE IN THOMAS
HARDY`S “TESS OF THE DÙRBERVILLES”
Aynur Hacıyeva
Postgraduate Student
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Some people thinks that fate is something that directs their life and they can do nothing to change it
because the order of things is determined beforehand. That`s why we have to live what we are meant to
have. Despite this, others believe that coincidence is the only explanation for the way their lives turn out.
Great English novelist Thomas Hardy portrays chance and coincidence as having very significant role in
“Tess of the dÙrbervilles”. In this novel three such coincidences had a great impact on Tess`s future. The
first being that Tess Durbeyfield`s father knew that their family came from the oldest and the wealthiest
family in England. Another one occurs when Tess slips a letter of confession underneath both her lover`s
door and the carpet which is resulted with him losing sight of it. The last coincidence would be the death
of Tess`s father which leaves the whole family in a state of disappointment, and after this Tess had to step
up and take care of the family. Each of these coincidences were the beginning of Tess`s further misfortune
and changed her life. Of course, she had not chosen this fate, this fate had chosen her.
Key words: coincidence, consequence, fate, change.
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April 27, 2012
Tess Durbeyfield and her family which belonged to a middle class lived in the town
of Marlott in a state of destitution. Her father`s, John Durbeyfield`s rank was above the
farm laborers. He does not put much interest in working and instead spends time drinking.
One evening his meeting a man upon returning to his home was the first coincidence
in Tess`s life. This man named Parson Tringham makes him aware about the fact that
the Durbeyfield family is the lineal representative of the ancient and knightly family
of the dÙrbervilles who came from Normandy with William the Conqueror.(1,18)
This news suddenly changes Durbeyfield`s view on his family`s lifestyle and decides
that they should be living as their noble ancestors once did. If all the things had gone
as they planned, they should have lived in prosperity and wealth. But the events tended
to other direction.
Being aware of this news John`s wife Joan Durbeyfield says that a man by the name
of dÙrberville lives not far from their home and considers that he might be able to help
them in their hard times. After the death of their only horse, the Durbeyfield family
have to do something to earn for living, but Mr. Durbeyfield refuses to sell the horse
due to his newfound d` Urberville pride. Because this knightly family never sold their
chargers for cat`s meat. (1,45) So, the family decides to send their eldest daughter,
Tess to see if the d` Urberville family would help them, with hopes of Tess marrying
a gentleman and restoring their family`s status. This egoist decision of sending Tess to
the dÙrberville would be the change in her life that would lead to so many other events
for her and would be the beginning of her life`s destruction. Had Tess not been sent to
the dÙrberville home, she would not have met Alec nor would bore his child and her
life would have been completely different.
With hopes of finding work at a diary called Talbothay`s Tess left her birthplace
of Marlott after her son`s death. The people there was unaware of her past because he
told nothing to them about it. After much time, Tess would accept the marriage proposal
of a co-worker named Angel Clare, who was in love with her. She decides to tell him
everything about herself to Angel before getting married him. But she couldn`t tell it
face to face that is why she sat down and wrote a succinct narrative of those events and
put it into an envelope. Despite this letter, Tess`s confession did not reach Angel Clare.
By chance, her letter was not only slipped underneath his door, but also slipped underneath his carpet, where he could not see it. Tess did not discover this until her wedding
day, when she decided to tear up the letter and not let him know of her past.
Tess`s life again had been changed by another coincidence. Writing a letter and
putting it under Angel`s door, Tess felt much ease knowing that he would know all of
her past. Now she hoped that despite of every disaster happened to her Angel would
still love her as much as he did before.
Little after their marriage, Tess confesses to Angel of her past. Angel goes to Brasil
to find land where he might be able to start a farm and also think about Tess`s confession
and decide which step to take next. Soon after Angel`s leaving, she decides to leave
Marlott and find work. But due to the time of year, she was forced to go to FlintcombAsh, where she works to death.Tess struggles through the work and finds the courage
133
to ask her father-in law for help because of bad condition and lack of money. All this
time there was not any information of Angel, even he did not write any letter to her.
On her way back to the farm, Tess mets Alec who persues her for some time trying to
persuade her in his love. “Remember, my lady, I was your master once! I will be your
master again. If you are any man`s wife you are mine!” (2) The main coincidence is
that during the time dÙrberville is pursuing her, Tess`s mother becomes ill and her
father soon dies.
After the death of Tess`s father, the Durbeyfield family loses its the only shelter.
So, DÙrberville gets great opportunity to move in on Tess. He convinced Tess that
Angel would never come back and by this way he had Tess to get marry him. He then
gives her family a home and money, and he himself lives with them. All of these events
happens just in time because he does return, but it is too late and Tess had already
married.This coincidence of Tess`s father dying at just the right moment for Alec to
marry her and Angel returning only a little after, leads to the murder of Alec. If her
father had not died and Angel had not returned at just the right moment, she would not
have killed Alec and would not have been sentenced to an execution for her crimes.
All of these coincidences had a great impact on Tess`s life and changed it dramatically. Each event that occurred by chance left Tess in a predicament where she was
compelled to take control and do something to improve the situation.
1.
2.
REFERENCES
Thomas Hardy “Tess of the DÙrbervilles” , 2004.
http://classiclit.about.com/od/ttitles/a/aa_tessquote.htm
NEW AZERBAIJANI PROSE AND ITS STYLE VARIETY
(YENI AZƏRBAYCAN NƏSRI VƏ ONUN ÜSLUB ƏLVANLIĞI)
Ayten Zargarova
Institute of Literature, ANAS, doctoral student
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
In the article we endeavored to reveal style diversity in new Azerbaijani prose. It is undeniable that
the prose of 60’s or a new prose literature is recorded in our history as a new stage not only for its subject,
content, heroes, characters, but also for its genre-style quest diversity. Thereby, one of the facts drawing
attention in exploration of new prose is its style quantity. Certainly, it is not reasonless. Changing atomsphere and environment required new approach and style. Although new Azerbaijani prose styles have passed
a rather short period, their development is profoundly rich as far as context is concerned. New prose representatives apply mostly traditions of the previous centuries’ writers (J. Mammadguluzada, A. Hagverdiyev etc). Creative styles of new prose are as follows: intellectual style, analytic style, psychological style,
dramatic style, lyric-psychological style, publicist style. Usage of psychological analysis as a manifestation
form of style happens to be one of the most important incentives familiarizing us with the prose of 60’s.
Though, we consider that the usage of psychological analysis in Azerbaijani literature is not in appropriate
level.
Key words: style, psychological analysis, Azerbaijani prose.
Açar sözlər: üslub, psixoloqizm, azərbaycan nəsri.
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April 27, 2012
Danılmaz bir həqiqət var ki, 60-cı illərin nəsri, və ya yeni nəsr ədəbiyyatı tariximizə
təkcə mövzu, məzmun,qəhrəman, xarakterlər və s. fərqləri ilə deyil, eləcə də janr-üslub
axtarışları, fərqləri ilə yeni bir mərhələ kimi daxil olurlar. 50-ci illərin sonu, 60-cı illərin
əvvələrində ortaya çıxan “yeni nəsr”in ədəbiyyatımızda özünütəsdiq mərhələsi artıq
arxada qalmışdır. Aradan keçən bu müddət ərzində ədəbiyyatımızda bir mərhələ təşkil
edən “yeni nəsr”in tədqiqi ilə bağlı müəyyən tədqiqat işləri də aparılmışdır. Hələ də
mübahisəli olaraq qalan müxtəlif məsələlərə baxmayaraq, tənqidçi və ədəbiyyatşünasların yekdilliklə təsdiq etdiyi kimi, “yeni nəsr” müasir Azərbaycan nəsrinin aparıcı
istiqamətini təçkil edir. Yeni nəsrin yaranması, formalaşması prosesini izah edərkən,
tənqidçi və ədəbiyyatçünasların arasında mübahisələrə səbəb olan fikirlərdən biri “yeni
nəsr”in təkcə zaman, yaxud nəsil, və ya keyfiyyət anlayışları ilə bağlı olduğunun göstətrilməsidir. Tanınmış ədəbiyyatşünas və təngidçi Yaşar Qarayev “Nəsrin yeniliyi”
adlı yazısında yeni nəsrin yaranması prosesində ədəbi nəsliln iştirakını qeyd edir: “Altmış-yetmişinci illərdə qənclər nəsrə dəstə ilə gəldilər və məcbur elədilər ki, həm oxucu,
həm ədəbi–elmi-estetik fikir öz diqqət və marağını onlarda cəmləşdirsin. “Yeni Azərbaycan nəsri”, “yeni dalğa” ifadələrini də bizim cari leksikonuna elə onlar daxil elədilər.
Həmin ifadələr bu nəslin müasir milli nəsrə gətirdiyi yeniliyi (istər məzmun, ideya,
mövzu yeniliyi, istərsə də forma, yaxud indi deyildiyi kimi, struktur baxımından təzətərliyi) ehtiva və ifadə eləyə bildi.” (3,124).
Başqa bir ədəbiyyatşünas alim, Arif Hacıyev isə o zamankı gənc nasirlərin gördükləri işi, həmin illərdə rus ədəbiyyatında və ölkənin digər ədəbiyyatlarında baş verən dəyişikliklərə, təmayüllərə cavan yazıçıların sadəcə olaraq reaksiyası kimi qiymətləndirir.(5,8)
Şübhəsiz, hər iki fikirdə təkzib olunmayaz həqiqət vardır. Yeni nəsrin məhz 60-cı
illər ədəbi nəslinin fəaliyyəti ilə bağlamaqda tənqid tamamilə haqlıdır, çünki bəhs olunan dövrdə ədəbiyyatımızda yeniliyin, novatorluğun əsas daşıyıcıları məhz gənclər
oldular və yeni nəsrin ideya-estetik platformasını ərsəyə gətirməyin, müdafiə etməyin
bütün ağırlığı da onların çiyinlərinə düşdü. Buna görə də, “almışıncılar”,adlandırılan
ədəbi nəslin yeni nəsrin təşəkkulündə və formalaşmasındakı önəmli rolu təbii və qanunauyğun sayılmalıdır, lakin bunu mütləqləşdirərək, ancaq bu meyar əsasında konkret
bədii əsər və onun məziyyətləri haqqında mühakimə yürütmək birtərəfliyə mexaniki
qiymətləndirməyə gətirib çıxara bilər. Yeni nəsrin tədqiqində diqqəti cəlb edən məsələlərdən biri də onun zəngin üslublara malik olmasıdır. Bu da səbəbsiz deyil. Dəyişən
ab-hava , mühit özünə yeni yanaşma tərzi ,yeni üslub tələb edirdi. İnsanın daxili-psixoloji aləminə yönələn əsərlərin ənənəvi metodlarla təsviri artıq mümkün deyildi. “60ci illər nəsrində həyat materialına münasibətdə baş vermiş dəyisiklikliyi, şübhəsiz ilk
növbədə həyat materialına münasibətdə baş vermiş dəyişikliklərdə axtarmaq lazımdır.
Bu material-real gerçəkliyin özünə yeni münasibət tələb edirdi, bu yeni münasibət isə
yeni yanaşma tərzində, yeni ifadə tərzində və nəhayət yeni yazı manerasında, stilində
reallaşırdı” ( 2,137). Yeni nəsr nümayəndələrini bədii təsvir predmetinə ümumi baxış,
eyni ovqat və dünyaduyumu, gəhrəmanların hiss və duyğularına həssas münasibət birləşdirir. Ənənəvi ədəbiyyatdan fərqli olaraq, yeni nəsrin qəhrəmanları adi adamlar oldu.
Hər biri mürəkkəb psixoloqiyaya malik bu adamların, təsvir etmə missiyasını isə sovet
135
nəsri yerinə yetirə bilməzdi, çünki sosialist realizmi canlı, real insanlardan daha çox
müxtəlif hadisə və epoxal dəyişmələri qələmə alırdı. Bununla demək olmaz ki, yeni
nəsr həmin stereotip və çərçivələrdən birdən-birə çıxdı.
Yeni Azərbaycan nəsrinin üslubları zaman etibarilə çox qisa , məzmunca isə dolğun tarixi inkişaf yolu keçmişdir. Bu yolun elmi-nəzəri tədqiqi fərdi yaradıcılıq xüsusiyyətlərinə görə bir-birinə yaxın olan sənətkarların təşkil etdikləri üslub istiqamətlərinin hər birinin novator xarakterinini aşkarlamağa imkan verir. Şübhəsiz, üslub təmayüllərin, üslubların novator xarakterini aşkar edərkən onların ənənəyə nə dərəcədə bağlı
olduqları da nəzərə alınmalıdır.Yeni nəsr nümayəndələri ənənəyə əsaslanmaq mənasında
yaşlı nəsil yazıçılarına deyil,daha əvvəlki dövrün ənənəsinə müraciət edirlər (C.Məmmədqluzadə, Ə.Haqverdiyev və b.).Bu da yəgin ki, hər iki dövr sənətkarlarının insanın
mənəvi-daxili aləminə olan marağı, şəhsiyyətin mənəvi aləmində baş verən təbədduatları təhlil etmələri ilə bağlıdır. “60-cı illərdə üslub probleminin kəskinləşməsi (əgər belə
demək mümkündürsə) mənəvi xarakter daşıyır, üslubi tendensiyalarda gərginliklə aydın insan mövgeyi nəzərdən keçirilir” (6,164) .
Beləliklə, ədəbiyyatda müasir həyat haqqında artıq köhnəlmiş təsəvvür və ifadə
vasitələri ilə yazmağın mümkün olmaması qənaətinin doğurduğu qüvvəti, səmərəli
axtarış ruhu, yeni vəzifələrə uyğun gələn fərqli, orijinal estetik boyalar tapmaq cəhdinin bədii fikrin inkişafının mahiyyəti və istiqamətini müəyyən etdiyinin şahidi olduq.
Yeni nəsrin yaradıcılıq üslubları bunlardır: intellektual üslub, analitik üslub, psixoloji
üslub, dramatik üslub, lirik-psixoloji üslub, publisistik üslub. Bu yaradıcılıq üslubları
ənənə və novatorluğun qısa zaman kəsiyində çox mürəkkəb qarşılıqlı münasibətlər şəraitində yarandığından diqqəti onların hansının daha aparıcı rol oynadığında deyil, onları birləşdirən bədii estetik xüsusiyyətləri müəyyənləşdirməyə yönəltmək lazımdır. Hər
biri öz yazı manerası, stili ilə maraqlı olan “ yeni nəsr” nümayəndələrini həyata ümumi
baxış, dünya duyumunun bənzərliyi, qəhrəmanların hiss və duyğularına həssaslıq birləşdirir. İlk baxışda problemlərin qoyuluşu tematika baxımından bir-birinə yaxın olan
sənətkarları üslublarına görə məhz həyata, real gerçəkliyə subyektiv, yaxud obyektiv
münasibəti ayırır. Yeni nəsrin üslub istiqamətlərini bu baxımdan müəyyən edən tənqidçilər tamamilə haqlıdırlar.
Üslub müxtəlifliyinə, rəngarəngliyinə malik olan yeni Azərbaycan nəsrinin başlıca
üslub təmayüllərindən olan analitik və lirik-psixoloji üslub xüsusiyyətləri bir növ əkslik
təşkil edirlər. Bu üslub istiqamətindən istifadə edən sənətkarlar psixologizmi bütöv bir
sistem səviyyəsində təzahür etdirərək, qəhrəmanların düşüncəli, mürəkkəb təbiətli olduğunu göstərirlər. S.Əhmədovun “Toğana” romanının qəhrəmanı Adilin daim öz-özü
ilə mübahisəsini, dialoqunu ziddiyyətli dolaşıq fikirlərlə dolaşdığını görürük. Bununla
yanaşı, biz onun düşüncələrində bütün yaylaq qonşularının rəftar və davranışlarını,
xasiyyətlərini, onun yaşadığı mühit və təbiətin ümdə cəhətlərini, eyni zamanda bunların
hamısı haqqında onun rəyini öyrənirik. Bədii təsvirə nisbətən təhlilin nisbətən üstünlük
təşkil etdiyi bu cür əsərlərdə müəllif təhkiyəsi ənənəvi nəsrdən fərqli olaraq, bədii strukturda çox az, bəzən də əhəmiyyətsiz yer tutur. Anarın “Macal” povestini qəhrəmanı
Fuadın daxili aləmindən başqa əsərdə həm də biz onun vasitəsilə, bilavasitə onun təq136
April 27, 2012
dimi, təsviri və təhlili vasitəsilə digər adamlarla, onların arasındakı münasibətlərlə tanış
ola bilirik.
Analitik üslub istiqaməti bir növ əkslik təşkil edən lirik psixoloji üslub istiqamətinə
aid olan yazıçılarin (Ə.Əylisli,İ.Məlikzadənin,Elçinin) əsərlərində psixologizmdən
geniş istifadə olunur. Bu yazıçılar psixologizmdən şəhsiyyətin daxili aləminin açılmasında üslubi məqam kimi istifadə edir, lakin bu onların heç də eyni üsluba malik olduqlarını deməyə əsas vermir.Əgər analitik üslub istiqamətinə daxil olan sənətkarların əsərlərində hadisələr, ətraf mühit qəhrəmanın təqdimi və təhlili ilə göstərilsə, müəllif təhkiyəsi bir növ “sıxışdırılsa”, lirik-psixoloji təmayüllü nəsr nümunələrində isə qəhrəman
mövqeyində yazıçı “mən”inin özü çıxış edir. Bu zaman lirik psixoloji üslubun tələbinə
uyğun olaraq, məlum məsələdir ki,düşüncəvilik, hissi-emosional fəallıq, daxili aləmin
psixoloji çalarları ,bir sözlə desək, obyektiv həyatın subyektiv təsviri ön plana keçir.
Əgər lirik nəsr üslubunda gerçəkliyə münasibət qəhrəmanın subyektiv qavrayışında
əks olunursa, psixoloji üslubda təsvir olunmuş konkret düşüncənin şüurda əks olunması
nəsrdə qəhrəmanın dünyaduyumunun bütövlüyü və özünəməxsusluğu saxlanılmaqla,
onu “daxildən göstərmək”üçün istifadə olunur. Bu cür fərqli cəhətlər onların üslubi
müqayisəli təhlili nəticəsində daha aydın olur.
Anarın “Macal” povestində qəhrəman hadisələr içərisində təqdim edilməkdən daha
çox, hadisələr qəhrəmanın qavrayışında təqdim olunur, bədii mətn əsasən onun düşüncələri əsasında qurulur. Psixoloji nəsrin məhz bu xüsusiyyətindən bəhs edən Baxtin
qeyd edir ki, qəhrəmanı yad düşüncənin tamhüquqlu subyekti kimi təsdiq etmək cəhdini Dostoyevski “qəhrəmanı lirik qəhrəman etməyərək”, onun səsini öz səsiylə qarışdırmayaraq, duymayaraq, eyni zamanda təsvir olunan psixoloji gerçəkliyi nüfuzdan
salmayaraq onu yad, başqa adam kimi göstərmişdir. (4,19).
Psixoloji üslublu nəsr əsərlərində çox vaxt qəhrəmanların əsl təbiətini əks etdirmək
üçün daxili monoqlardan istifadə olunur. Psixoloji üslublu nəsr əsərlərində çox vaxt
qəhrəmanların əsl təbiətini əks etdirmək üçün daxili monoloqlardan istifadə olunur.
Anarın “Macal” povestinin qəhrəmanı Fuadın daxili nitqinə diqqət yetirək : “Qəribədir,
niyə mən öz içimdə bu qədər mübahisə edirəm, Oqtayla, oqtaylarla, hətta hirslənirəm,
qızıram onlara. Niyə fikrimi bu qədər məşğul edirlər? Niyə mənə elə gəlir ki, Oqtay
da, onun dostları da nə səbəbdənsə özlərini məndən yuxarı tuturlar, məni özlərinə tay
bilmirlər. Halbuki tərsinə olmalıdır məntiqnən” (1,63)
Elçin psixoloji hekayələrində qəhrəmanın özünütəhlil formasından bədii üsul kimi
istifadə edir. Bu baxımdan, onun “Beş qəpiklik motosikl” hekayəsində Sabir Məlikov
obrazı uğurla seçilmişdir. Göründüyü kimi, yeni nəsrin nümayəndələri insanın daxilimənəvi aləminin, xüsusən də, şüuraltı proseslərin əks etdirilməsində psixologizmdən
əvəzedilməz vasitə kimi istifadə etmişlər. Bu isə “xarakterlər nəsri” adlanan 60-cı illər
nəsrinin insanı ön plana çəkməsi, insana diqqətin artması ilə bağl ı idi.
Demək olar ki,bu nəsrin qoyduğu problemlərdən, bu problemlərin bədii həllindən
asılı olmayaraq, onların hamısında ümumi bir fon var: insan, nəsrin qəhrəmanı xarici
mühitdə üz-üzə gəldikdə, toqquşanda,o,acizləşir,tənhalaşır. Düzdür, ədəbiyyatın məhz
137
insan problemi ilə məşğul olduğunu nəzərə alsaq, bu cür problemlərin heç də yeni olmadığını görərik. Lakin onlar hansı insanı qələmə alıblar? Yeni nəsr nümunələrində
ənənəvi nəsrdən fərqli olaraq, həyatda “baxtı gətirməyə nlər”, mühit tərəfindən qəbul
edilməyənlərdir. Hər birinin öz individual yazı ədası, üslubu ilə seçilən yeni nəsr nümayəndələrinin hamısı üçün mövcud olan ümumi bir üslub var: bu isə həyat materialını
əks etdirməsində psixoloqizmdən geniş istifadə olunmasıdır.
Beləliklə, üslubun təzahür formalarından biri sayılan psixoloqizmdən istifadə olunma
60-cılar nəsrini yaxınlaşdıran, doğmalaşdıran ən mühüm amillərdən biri sayılmalıdır,
lakin bizə elə gəlir ki, Azərbaycan ədəbiyyatında psixoloqizmdən hələ lazımi səviyyədə
istifadə olunmamışdır.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ЯДЯБИЙЙАТ
Anar. Macal.B.,Gənlik,1978,264s.
Əliyeva N. 60-80-ci illərin Azərbaycan nəsrindəqəhəman və üslub axtarışları. Bakı:Elm,1997,159s.
Гарайев Й. Мейар-шяхсиййятдир. Бакы: Йазычы, 1988, 456с. Rus dilində
Бахтин М.М. Проблемы поэтики Достоевского. М., Наука, 1973, 318 с.
Гаджиев А. В поисках героя. Баку: Язычы, 1981, 128c.
Гусев В. Герой и стиль. М.,1983,286с.
JAMES JOYCE AND MODERNISM
Gunel Mammadkarimova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
James Joyce was an Irish novelist and poet. Joyce’s major works are the short-story collection “Dubliners” (1914); novels “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man” (1916) and “Finnegans Wake (1932). But
at the top of his creative activity stands his best known work “Ulysses” (1922), which the episodes of ancient
Greek writer’s – “Homer’s Odyssey” are paralleled with the contrasting literary styles. With the appearance
of the Ulysses (also T.S Eliot’s poem “The Waste Land”) 1922 was a key year in the history of English
language – literary modernism. Stream of consciousness technique, careful structuring, and experimental
prose-full of puns, parodies and allusion, as well as its characterization and broad humor, made this book
a highly regarded novel in the modernist grade. In 1988 the Modern literary, ranked “Ulysses” first on its
list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century.
Key words: James Joyce, “Ulysses”, “Homer’s Odyssey”, modernist grade.
James Joyce Augustine Aloysius was an Irish novelist and poet, regarded to be one
of the most effective and influential writers in modernist grade of the early 20th century.
He was born to a middle class family in Dublin, where he studied as a student at
the Jesuit schools Clongowes and Belvedere, then at University College Dublin. From
his early ages, Joyce emigrated to the different parts of Europe, lived in Trieste, Paris
and Zurich. Though Joyce’s fictional creative activity was not beyond Dublin, most of
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his characters resemble family members, enemies, friends from there. As he claimed:
“For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I
can get to the heart of all cities of the world.” (Elman,p505.Citing power, From an Old
Waterford House(London,n.d)p-63-64)
Joyce’s major works are the short- story collection “Dubliners” (1914); novels “A
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man” (1916) and “Finnegans Wake (1932).But at the
top of his creative activity stands his best known work “Ulysses” (1922), which the
episodes of ancient Greek writer’s-“Homer’s Odyssey” are paralleled with the contrasting literary styles. With the appearance of the Ulysses (also T.S Eliot’s poem “The
Waste Land”) 1922 was a key year in the history of English language-literary modernism. In Ulysses, Joyce employs stream of consciousness which is the base of modernism according Sigmund Freud.
Joyce also used in this novel parody, jokes, and virtually other literary technique
to present his characters. The action of the novel, which takes place in a single day, 16
June 1904, sets the characters and incidents of the Odyssey of Homer in modern Dublin.
And Joyce presented Homer’s characters Odysseus, Penelope and Telemachus in the
image of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom and Stephan Dedalus, parodically
contracted with their lofty models. In this novel we can come across various areas of
Dublin life. Ulysses is a book of privacies and subjectivities, a remarkable number of
its scenes are set in public space-library, museum, bar, cemetery, and, most of all, the
street (www.guardaian.co.ok/books/2009/jun16/jamesjoyces classics). So, the book is
also detailed study of the city. Joyce said that if Dublin were to be destroyed, in some
catastrophe it would be rebuilt, brick by brick, using his work as a model.
The book consists 18 chapters, each covering about one hour of the day, beginning
around 8a.m and ending some time after 2a.m the following morning. But at first glance
much of the book may appear unstructured and chaotic. Joyce once said that he had put
in so many puzzles that it will keep the professors busy for centuries arguing over what
I meant which would earn the novel immortality. (“Hefferman, James A.W. (2011)
Joyce’s Ulysses Chantilly,VA.The teaching company)Each chapter employs its own
literary style and parodies a specific episode in Homer’s Odyssey.
The book is also unusual in the history of modernism for its suggestion that there
need be no conflict between bohemian and bourgeois. At its climax the ad-canvasser
Bloom invites the poet Dedalus home with him for conversation and cocoa. In recording
the dailiest day possible, Joyce teaches us much about the world: how to cope with
grief and loss; how to tell a joke and how not to tell a joke; how to be frank about death
in the age of its denial; how to walk and think at the same time; how to purge sex of
possessiveness; how the way people eat food can tell us who they really are. (Kebard
Declan (2009-06-16)”Ulysses modernism’s most sociable masterpiece”London Guardian.co.ok.retrieved june 28,2011)
Before Joyce, no writer of fiction had so foregrounded the process of thinking. The
soliloquists of Shakespeare and the nineteenth-century novel were aristocrats conside139
ring ultimate questions of death or suicide. Joyce offers the stream-of-consciousness
of an ordinary citizen as prelude to nothing more portentous than the drinking of a cup
of tea.(Kebard Declan(2009-06-16)”Ulysses modernism’s most sociable masterpiece”
London Guardian.co.ok.retrieved june 28,2011).
Stream of consciousness technique, careful structuring, and experimental prose-full
of puns, parodies and allusion, as well as its characterization and broad humor, made
this book a highly regarded novel in the modernist grade. In 1988 the Modern literary,
ranked Ulysses first on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. (Kebard Declan(2009-06-16)”Ulysses modernism’s most sociable masterpiece”
London Guardian.co.ok.retrieved june 28,2011).
At the end I want to finish by Joyce’s own words: "If Ulysses isn't fit to read."
replied its author, "then life isn't fit to live". But he never took his extraordinary celebration of the ordinary over-seriously. When a fan asked to kiss the hand that wrote
Ulysses, Joyce laughed and said "no-that hand has done a lot of other things as well".
1.
2.
3.
4.
REFERENCES
Elman,p.505. Citingpower,From and Old Waterford House(London,n.d)p-63-64
Kebard Declan (2009-06-16) “Ulysses modernism’s most sociable masterpiece” London: Guardian.
co.ok Retrieved June 28,2011
Hefferman, James A.W(2011)Joyce’s Ulysses Chantilly,
VA:The teaching company LP
THE AMERICAN DREAM IN THE MASTERPIECE
OF FRANCIS SCOTT FITZGERALD
Naila Bandiyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Henry David Thoreau says: “Dreams are the touchstones of our character”. The American Dream is
one of the most familiar and resonant phrases in American national lexicon, so familiar that they seldom
pause to ask its origin, its history, or what it actually means. The American Dream, or rather the several
American Dreams have both reflected and shaped American identity from the Pilgrims to the present. The
United States, unlike most other nations, defines itself not on the facts of blood, religion, language, geography, or shared history, but on a set of ideals expressed in the Declaration of Independence. The American
dream is conceived of in terms of success and of material success in particular; getting rich quick is what
it is all about. It was to go to the WEST and become a millionaire. All American literature- like all of
American life- it often about the American dream and Scott Fitzgerald has been identified with the American
dream. It was his subject of matter and it was a subject that had come to fascinate readers everywhere. His
masterpiece The Great Gatsby is an exploration of the American dream as it exists in a corrupt period and it
is an attempt to determine that concealed boundary that divides the reality from the illusions.
Key words: American dream, nation, American life, literature.
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Since the end of the Second World War the United States of America has been the
most powerful country in the world. American power has included its cultural power,
too. Writing or talking about America means invoking the American Dream, which
remains a major element of the national identity. People believed that American dream
was a part of American history, culture and language so they said: “America was born
out of a dream”. “Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness’- this is the soul and heart
of American dream.
The concept of American dream could enter the national lexicon during the time
of political and cultural upheaval. The true origin of the phrase was first mentioned in
1931, by a historian James Truslow Adams in his book The Epic of America. In the
Preface, when Adams refers to the ‘American dream of a better richer and happier life,
”adding“ that dream or hope has been present from the start” the phrase was first time
used. In the Epilogue, Adams goes into more detail and broadens the scope of the American dream concept, explaining that the most distinctive gift that America has made
to the world is the American dream. It is such a dream of a land where life should be
better, richer and fuller for every man, with opportunity for each according to his ability
or achievement.
All American literature - like all of American life - it often about the American
Dream and Scott Fitzgerald has been identified with the American dream. It was his
subject of matter and it was a subject that had come to fascinate readers. Fitzgerald’s
novels have been based o a concept of class. He is the first American writer seems to
have discovered that such a thing as American class really existed.
Who wants really to understand it, one has to dig into the fresh insides. On the
surface of The Great Gatsby Fitzgerald portrays a romantic love between a man and a
woman, but inside the real meaning is much deeper. Fitzgerald depicts the 1920’s as a
time of decay social and moral values, evidence of this is the greed and the pursuit of
pleasure. Jay Gatsby’s constant parties epitomized the corruption of the American Dream
as the desire for money and worldly pleasures overshadowed the true values of the
American Dream.
The Great Gatsby is an exploration of the American dream as it exists in a corrupt
period, and it attempted to determine boundaries between the reality and illusion. The
illusion seems more real than the reality itself. Embodied all characters in novel, they
threaten to invade the whole of the picture. Here the reality is a thing of the spirit, a
faith in the half-glimpsed, but hardly understood, possibilities in life, the reality is undefined to itself. It is inarticulate and frustrated. Nick Carraway, Gatsby’s friend and
also, Fitzgerald’s narrator, says of Gatsby:
“Through all he said, even through his appalling sentimentality, it was reminded
of something-an exclusive rhythm, a fragment of lost words, that I had heard somewhere
a long time ago. For a moment a phrase tried to take shape in my mouth and my lips
parted like a dumb man’s, as though there was more struggling upon them than a wisp
of startled air. But they made no sound and what I had almost remembered was incommunicable forever.” (F. Scott Fitzgerald “Great Gatsby”, pg.89)
141
On the last page of the novel Nick compares the “green breast of the new world”
to the green light at the end of Daisy’s dock. The “green breast of the world” represents
the dreams of the immigrants that came to the new world seeking religious freedom,
opportunity, love, and democracy, along the way instilling universal family values. As
they settled with these goals in mind, they strived and created what is America today.
Gatsby realized that the illusion was there-there where Tom and Daisy, and generations
of small-minded, ruthless Americans had found it-in the dreamless. After this recognition, Gatsby’s death is only a symbolic formality, for the world into which his mere
body had been born rejected the gift he had been created to embody-the traditional dream
from which alone it could awaken into life. As the novel closes, the experience of Gatsby
and his broken dream explicitly becomes the focus of that historic dream for which he
stands. Nick Carraway is speaking:
“Most of the big shore places were closed now and there were hardly any lights
except the shadowy, moving glow of a ferryboat across the Sound. And as the moon rose
higher the essential houses began to melt away until gradually I became aware of the
old island here that flowered once for Dutch sailor’s eyes- a fresh , green breast of the
new world. Its vanished trees, the trees that had made way for Gatsby’s house, had once
pandered in whispers to the last greatest of all human dreams...” (F. Scott Fitzgerald
“Great Gatsby”, pg.330)
Gatsby fades into the past forever to take his place with the Dutch sailors who
had chosen their moment in time so much more happily than he.
REFERENCES
1. Charles D. Hayes “Beyond the American Dream”, USA, 1998, 369 pg
2. Francis Scott Fitzgerald, Ruth Prigozy “The Great Gatsby”, Oxford University Press, 1998, 151 pg
3. F.S. Fitzgerald “The Great Gatsby”, Microcard Edition Books, 1973, 336 pg
4. Hildegard Schne “The American Dream”, Verlag, 2010, 36 pg
5. James Truslow Adams “The Epic of America”, Taylor& Francis edition, 1938, 446 pg
6. Jennifer L. Hochschild “Facing up to the American Dream”, New-York, 1996 , 412 pg.
7. Jim Cullen “The American Dream”, New-York, 2003, 214 pg
8. “The American dream and the power of wealth”, Routledge, 2006 , 231pg
9. http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/fitzgerald/gatsby/gsix.html
10. http://books.google.az/books?id=FV5R6_FgLUAC&pg=PA89&lpg=PA89&dq
A TALE OF LOST ILLUSIONS OF VICTORIAN PERIOD BASED
ON “GREAT EXPECTATIONS” BY CHARLES DICKENS
Rena Qurbanova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
During the novel’s journey towards modernity in English literature, Charles Dickens was the main
figure in the Victorian Period who responded to the changes taking place in contemporary society through
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realistic point of view with his brilliant novels. “Great Expectations” is Charles Dickens’ thirteen’s novel,
one of the greatest examples that he gifted to the world fiction. In this work, Dickens confronted an orphan
boy, Pip, who could not find himself in society, was absorbed with hopes that the future would be as he
wanted, and believed in possibility of getting anything, with the real face of life; throughout the novel, Pip
steps towards to see the world of truth, to perceive the people around him and the life itself by dint of his
dashed hopes and ruined expectations.
Edgar Johnson, perhaps, the greatest Dickens biographer of our times, called “Great Expectations”
(barring the changed ending, which he thought a flaw) “ the most perfectly constructed and perfectly written
of all Dickens’s works.” 1
Key words: Charles Dickens, Victorian Period, Pip, expectation, hope, illusion, life, identity, society.
Charles Dickens is known as a master of the serialized novel; “Great Expectations”
as a weekly serial appeared in “All the Year Round” from December 1, 1860 to August
3, 1861. This serial periodical, like others, both was determined and to some extent
controlled by the readers’ response and demand; and with it the writer hit the financial
rescue for his periodical.
Charles Dickens was drawn especially to social justice and to commenting on the
inequalities inherent to Victorian society. While England was growing rich and powerful
in the era of colonialism and the Industrial Revolution, Dickens saw the injustice that
ran rampant among the working and lower classes and saw the people who couldn’t
find himself in society in a complexity time of such wealth and run away with the
desperate, fatuous hopes which would ruin their life. “Great Expectations” is the ironic
title given to the novel in which the Victorian Period is described as a world of expectations and in which Dickens celebrates the human will and capacity to stay alive against
great odds. The autobiographical mode of the novel focused on the development of
the main character, Pip.
The novel opens the presentation of Pip in the graveyard, viewing his family. We
basically grow up with him over the course of 59 chapters. Threatened by the convict,
Magwitch little Pip helps him, towards the end of the novel he appears as Pip’s benefactor in exchange for his goodness. This is one of the main points of the novel, but the
core theme rests on Pip’s love to Estella, adopted girl by the rich, old lady Miss Havisham
who influences greatly his life. After their first meeting in Miss Havisham’s house Satis House, the world of expectations begins for Pip.
Dickens laid out three chronological episodes of the novel : the first takes us through
Pip’s childhood and early youth to the moment when he leaves to discover where his
newly announced “Expectations” will bring him. The second show the working out of
these “Expectations” to the moment of their shattering by the arrival of Magwitch. The
last leads Pip and Magwitch through struggle and catastrophe and so to deatch in Magwitch’s case and near-death in Pip’s. “Expectations” are demolished, and past and future
are at last annealed in a sober, responsible present.2
Wishing to be loved, at least to be noticed by Estella, little Pip devotes his time to
learning how to become ‘uncommon’; in his new self-absorption he begins to ignore
143
everything, everybody important around him; he is now discontented with his life, way
of living, begins to hope something better. When it is revealed that Pip has inherited a
large sum of money from an anonymous benefactor on the condition that he moves to
London to become a gentleman. He expects Estella to be affected by his becoming a
‘gentleman’ and new life with new expectations will wait him…
But soon Pip considers himself lost even in his most familiar surroundings, because
he could not define his place in community. He realizes that the relation between society
and a person is mutual, it is not just changing your place from one class to another.
Throughout the novel Pip undergoes internal changes that separate him from the ephemeral world of great expectations and guides to the eternal world of Truth. For Pip,
the indication of this truth – disappointed expectations, comes gradually, for instance,
when he puts on his new suit, when he sees his new home, when he lunches at his first
London restaurant:
“We went and had lunch at a celebrated house which I then quite venerated, but
now believe to have been the most abject superstition in Europe”. 3
Pip’s expectations are not the only illusory ones. So Dickens didn’t give such a
title to the novel in vain: almost every character in the story experiences disappointed
hopes from time to time. Those characters in “Great Expectations” who dream the most,
hope the most, and plan the most are ultimately wounded by their dreams, hopes, and
plans. The first is Miss Havisham, desolated by her elated expectation as she prepares,
dresses for her wedding; then the crushing of Magwitch’s hope for freedom; Mrs. Joe’s
hopes for benefit from Pip’s connection with Miss Havisham; Biddy’s hope for lifelong
partnership with Pip; Compeyson’s plans to catch Magwitch and gain a revenge; Joe’s
expectation of Pip being a blacksmith and living with him, etc. Likewise, when characters
realize their dreams, they do not find the happiness that they expected, they only find
loneliness and loss. We love what we cannot have and the world of illusions don’t give
them what they want, at times there occurs changes, getting entagled by the life they
see the new facets of life. Even the main figure here, Pip discerns that the contours of
his goal have been changing all this while. He learns that the gap between perception
of a little boy and reality is never bridged; life is a world of great expectations and his
expectations, impressions are nothing more than self-deception.
“Miss Havisham's intentions towards me, all a mere dream; Estella not designed
for me; I only suffered in Satis House as a convenience, a sting for the greedy relations,
a model with a mechanical heart to practise on when no other practice was at hand;
those were the first smarts I had.” 4 - here Pip comprehends that his greatest dream has
only led him to his suffering and this helps him to grow in life and become a wiser. The
ferocity and strength of his love for Estella in spite of her scorn for him is stunning in
light of the fact that he himself ignores the people who love him most in life. But Joe’s
and Magwitch’s love and Herbert’s friendship which are not tied to any of his expectations teach him the valuables of life. Pip’s extreme remorse is obvious, and he looks
back from the assurance of knowledge gained by experience: in the moments of defeat
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and shame, he accepts that he had been wrong to give up his old happy life for his
‘expectations’.
Fundamentally, this is a novel of hope, not one of despair. G.K.Chesterton points
out that of all Dickens’ novels, “the only book to which he gave the name “Great Expectations” was the only book in which the expectation was never realized” 5, but he
notes too that the novel’s best moments chronicle the “vacillations of the hero between
the humble life to which he owes everything and the gorgeous life from which he expects something.” 6
In Pip, Charles Dickens creates a truly evolution of the character from simplicity
through deceptive, ostensible success to an authentic self-reliance. Pip fails as a fortunate orphan but ultimately prevails as a self-made man.
“Great Expectations” is a tale of illusions and an illusoriness of expectations or
assumptions about what the future holds. The world of “Great Expectations” heralds
only one thing: suffering which brings experience…
ENDNOTE
1.
Johnson Edgar. Charles Dickens: His Tragedy and Triumph. 2 vols. New York, 1952. p.993
2.
George Newlin. Understanding Great Expectations: A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and
Historical Documents. USA, 2000. pp.3-4
3.
Charles Dickens. Great Expectations. Great Britain, 2010. Volume 2, chapter 3, p.166
4.
Charles Dickens. Great Expectations. Great Britain, 2010. Volume 2, chapter 20, p.287
5.
G.K.Chesterton. Appreciations and Criticism of the Works of Charles Dickens, in Chesterton on
Dickens. San-Francisco, Ignatus Press, 1989. p.383
6.
G.K.Chesterton. Charles Dickens, in Chesterton on Dickens. Great Britain, Wordsworth Editions
Limited, 2007. p.172
REFERENCES
1.
Charles Dickens. Great Expectations. Great Britain, 2010.
2.
G.K.Chesterton. Appreciations and Criticism of the Works of Charles Dickens, in Chesterton on
Dickens. San-Francisco, Ignatus Press, 1989
3.
G.K.Chesterton. Charles Dickens, in Chesterton on Dickens. Great Britain, Wordsworth Editions
Limited, 2007.
4.
George Newlin. Understanding Great Expectations: A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and
Historical Documents. USA, 2000.
5.
Harold Bloom. Modern Critical Interpretations: Ch. Dickens’ Great Expectations. New York, 2000.
6.
Johnson Edgar. Charles Dickens: His Tragedy and Triumph. 2 vols. New York, 1952.
7.
http://www.shmoop.com/great-expectations/ 02.03.2012
145
REVENGE AND THE RESULT IN “WUTHERING HEIGHTS”
BY EMILY BRONTE
Saida Mehdiyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
I want to explain my topic on Wuthering Heights written by Emily Bronte. This novel is full of love,
hate and revenge. Though there are different themes revenge is the most important theme in this novel.
Why did I choose the name revenge? In real life we can come across to such feelings. I want to show
psychological situations of heroes when they cannot get the things which they want too much. While reading
this novel I understood that an honest man can be known as a cruel person for the people’s attitude around
him. Some group of people overcome their bad feelings and try not to lose their humanism. But I want to
show the other group of people who yield to their weak points and suffer from this. With the help of my
hero I want to show how poor people grow unpleasant feelings in their hearts and how they live with the
aim of revenge and what can be the result of revenge. Even Sigmund Freud told in his psychoanalytical
theory that if someone dreams something much and cannot get it he can be mad. In this novel we see the
result of this dream.
Key words: love, loss, cruelty, hate, revenge and result.
Wuthering Heights tells us about the relationship between Catherine Earnshaw and
an orphan boy Heathcliff, who was adopted by the girl’s father. At the beginning of the
novel Heathcliff is introduced as a kind and strong man. He barred for difficulties. But
he heard that his lover was going to get married to a rich man Edgar and on that day
he left home for three years. He did not give any information about his life and I think
that it was his first step towards the feeling of cruelty. Catherine married to Edgar not
for love but for her comfortable life that she dreamt. Both Robert McKibben and John
Hagan who wrote about this play prove that neither Catherine nor Heathcliff are guilty
for their wrong actions.1 Because in the Victorian period good life and marriage were
the main aim for girls.
Some people who don’t get the things they want from life have to accept their troubles. Even they want to show themselves as happy people and they put up with their fates.
But people like Heathcliff live with the feeling of revenge. With such feelings he made
his life harder even though he knew that he couldn’t get the previous life and love.
While reading this novel a reader can understand the hero’s sorrow. But when the
hero lives only with the feeling of revenge a reader begin to hate him as in real life. This
feeling even made Heathcliff as a mad man. He is shown as a character of evils.
He got married to the sister of Edgar Linton who was Catherine’s husband. But,
of course, not for the feelings of love but for the revenge. He wasn’t happy himself and
he made some people unhappy who were around him.
Day by day he became cruel and even when he learnt that his lover Catherine got
ill for him, he was happy.
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When Catherine died the author showed Heathcliff’s troubles and he didn’t deny
his cruelty. A reader may think that after losing his lover he can change his character
but he had more aims to revenge. He didn’t forgive her. His wife Isabella also left him
for this reason.
After some period he got information about his son. He was glad for son’s
coming. We can think that he is going to change his life. But it is not so. His aim of
revenge made him so cruel that he used his son to reach his bad aims.
His second aim was to make Catherine’s daughter-Cathy and his own son Edgar
unhappy. He made them get marry in order to get the inheritance of the Catherine’s
family. But even when his son became ill he didn’t give his love to him. He showed
his bloody feelings. A reader both hates and feels sorry for Heathcliff till the end of the
novel.
But Cathy acknowledged her feeling to her cousin Hereton. Hereton also was one
of the heroes who became cruel and careless to Cathy’s feelings. He explains his indifference with his words to Cathy: “When I was in trouble nobody helped me that’s why I
hate everyone around me”.
In real life we can see such facts. When we have difficulties we expect care from
our close friends, parents or lover.
Unlike Heathcliff, Cathy could get her love. She found a way to get Hereton’s heart,
they got married and became happy but at the end of the novel the author showed that
Heathcliff who lived with the feeling of revenge was defeated by love.
People like Heathcliff admit their faults when they are alone. Even he said: “What
will I get if I revenge”. He decided to be free and he stayed alone in his room. Heathcliff
refused to eat or drink something. Finally he died alone in his room. He believed that
he would be together with Catherine after death.” We recognize in them tragedy of passionate natures whom intolerable frustration and loss have stripped them of their humanity” (Critic Hagan).2 E. Bronte shows that we can solve conflicts with better ways
but not with revenge. Because the result of revenge is hurtful.
At the result, we can see that cruelty and the feeling of revenge give us nothing but
hard life which is far from peace and love. Revenge can take the best things from us.
END NOTE
1.
2.
www.123.helpme.com-WutheringHeights
www.123.helpme.com-WutheringHeights
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Emily Bronte. Wuthering Heights. England, by Cox and Wyman Ltd.1994
www.123.helpme.com-wutheringheights
147
GREAT OPPORTUNITIES OF LITTLE GENRE
(BASED ON RAFIG TAGI’S LATEST STORIES)
Shafa Jabiyeva
Doctoral Student
ANAS, Institute of Literature named after Nizami
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
It was researched the story problem of epic genre of contemporary literature in this article. Especially,
this theme was investigated based on Rafig Tagi’s latest stories. Because, Rafig Tagi’s stories draw
attention to its themes and writing style. And his stories informed us about starting a new stage of this
genre. Specific limits and known schemes belonging to Azerbaijani story is not repeated in these
stories. Reality and unreality, allegory, symbol is striking widely in the stories of this author. Rafig
Tagi’s stories is interesting just because, it is impossible to speak about these prose works with traditional, standard canons.
Key words: Rafig Tagi, Azerbaijani story, modern period, epic genre.
Kiçik janrın böyük imkanları (Rafiq Tağının son hekayələri əsasında)
Hekayə epik növün olduqca geniş yayılmış janrıdır. Və süjetli nəsrin üç janrının
həcmcə ən kiçiyidir. Əsasən tək süjetdən, yaxud bir neçə süjet üzərinə köməkçi süjet
vasitəsi ilə əlavə edilmiş fikirlərdən ibarət olan hekayənin adətən ən çətin ədəbiyyat
janrı olduğu düşünülür. Hekayə ilə ədəbiyyata gəlmək çox asandır, amma hekayə ilə
tanınmaq və oxucuların diqqətini cəlb etmək çox çətindir.
Romanda həyatı təsvir etmək, cəmiyyətdə, hətta dünyada baş verən hadisələri qələmə
almaq üçün meydan var, roman janrı buna imkan verir, povestdə də bu mümkündür.
Amma əsl istedad bir romana, povestə sığa biləcək hadisələri, məqsədi, qayəni, xarakterləri həcmcə qat-qat kiçik olan hekayədə əks etdirə bilər. Deməli, kiçik janr adlandırdığımız hekayənin böyük imkanlarını istedadlı qələm sahibi göstərə bilir.
Çağdaş Azərbaycan hekayəsinin struktur dəyişikliyə uğraması öz əksini bir sıra
nümunələrdə, xüsusilə də yazıçı Rafiq Tağının yaradıcılığında öz əksini tapdı. Son 20
ildə Rafiq Tağının xeyli sayda hekayələri müxtəlif qəzet və jurnallarda, ədəbi portallarda
dərc olunub. O hələ sovet dövründə yaradıcılığa başlasa da, Rafiq Tağı imzası ilə çap
olunan əsərlər 90-cı illərdən sonra daha çox tanındı. Yazarın 1987-ci ildə “Yanaşı ulduzlar”, 1991-ci ildə “Düşmənimin xatirinə”, 1996-cı ildə “Pozitiv. Neqativ” nəsr kitabları çap olunub. 2005- ci ildə, iki cilddə nəşr etdirdiyi əsərləri isə “Şahzadə Dipendranın
məhəbbəti” və “Ucaboy liliput” adlanır. Bu cildlərdə müəllifin əvvəlki kitablarında çap
olunmayan, hər biri üzərində yenidən işlədiyi hekayələri toplanmışdır.
Rafiq Tağı bir nasir kimi incə müşahidə qabiliyyətinə maikdir, bu rəngbərəng ilmələr hekayə məkanında bir-birinə hörülə-hörülə gedir, çox çevik, ani bir hərəkətlə
birləşərək hekayənin məğzini, mətləbin içində olan hərəkət stixiyasını canlandırır. Rafiq
Tağının dialoqları öz təbiiliyi ilə təsirlidir. Bəzən adama elə gəlir ki, bu dialoqların səsi
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də qulağına çatır; sözlərin, cümlələrin içindəki hirsi-hikkəni, sevinci-kədəri, nəhayət,
ovqatın özünü görə bilirsən.
Ümumiyyətlə, bu yazıçının hekayələrinin demək olar ki, əksəriyyətində ironiya,
sarkazm var. Bütün nəsr əsərlərində həyata, dünyaya bir etiraz duyulur. Bundan başqa,
Rafiq Tağı bəzən ən kiçik bir problemi qlobal hadisə kimi, dünyəvi hadisələri, böyük
məsələləri isə əhəmiyyətsiz, xırda bir nüans kimi təqdim edir. Bu, onun yazı üslubudur.
Rafiq Tağının ən maraqlı nəsr əsərlərindən biri “Anna Karenina ilə məhəbbət çəkişməsi
perspektivləri” hekayəsidir. Yazıçı yenə də ədəbi priyoma müraciət etmişdir. Onun
yumorla yazılmış cümlələrində incə bir kinayə hiss olunur. Müəllif Anna Kareninaya
münasibətini göstərməklə əslində mətləbi belə həyat tərzi keçirən bütün qadınlara şamil
edir. Və Annanın əsərdə intihar etməyini hesabdan saymır (xəyanət edən qadınların
sonda intihar etməsini belə doğru əməl hesab etmir). “Əxlaq əbədi vacib şeydi. Tolstoy
istəsəydi, romanda onu kötəklətdirə bilərdi. Kötək - eləsi üçün yeganə dərs vəsaitidir.
Amma o boyda əsərdə bir kəs ona gözün üstə qaşın var demədi, yüngül bir çırtma da
vurmadı...”1
Rafiq Tağını oxuyarkən Cəlil Məmmədquluzadənin hekayələrini xatırlamamaq
mümkün deyil. Məsələn, götürək elə bir az əvvəl bəhs etdiyimiz hekayəni. Bu hekayəni
oxuyanda insanın simasında azacıq təbəssümün olmaması mümkünsüzdür. Həqiqəti
yumorla, gizli bir istehza ilə söyləmək! Rafiq Tağı məhz bu yolu seçdiyindən yumor
və ironiya onun demək olar ki, bütün əsərlərində var. Nədənsə Rafiq Tağını oxuyarkən
Cəlil Məmmədquluzadənin “Bizim obrazovannılar” hekayəsi yada düşür: “mən tatarski
panimat eləmirəm”, “da, da, qofta, qofta.” Qəhrəmanın öz dili ilə özünü ifşası, bundan
əlavə incə yumor, gizli istehza, kinayə və ən nəhayət nəticə çıxarmağı oxucunun öhdəsinə
buraxmaq! Bütün bu nüanslar Rafiq Tağının nəsr yaradıcılığının ana xəttini təşkil edir.
Məhz bu səbəbdən hekayələr darıxdırcı deyil, əsərlərin dili sadə və asandır, ən əsası
insanı düşünməyə vadar edir.
“Stansiya aptekçisi” hekayəsinə diqqət yetirsək, Rafiq Tağının öz qəhrəmanına
münasibətində kiçik də olsa müdaxiləsinə rast gəlmirik. Yazıçı Miri obrazına göründüyündən artıq heç bir əlavə məziyyət, üstünlük bəxş verməyib və buna ehtiyac da
duyulmur. Ancaq sirr deyil ki, Rafiq Tağının yazıçı mövqeyi Mirinin tərəfindədir. Yazıçı nəsrdə qəhrəman olaraq adidən də adi bir adamı-stansiya aptekçisi Mirini seçir, onun
mənəviyyatını, insanlara necə qiymət verməsini təsvir edir. “Yağlı müştəri yalnız importnu dərmanlar uda bilən alicənab insana deyilir”. 2Bu, əlbəttə, Mirinin uzun illərin
təcrübəsi ilə gəldiyi şəxsi qənaətdir. Miri aptekində kasıb insanlar üçün olan dərmanları
vitrinə düzür, bahalılarını isə varlı müştərilər üçün saxlayır. Hekayəni oxuduqca Miri
kimi stansiya aptekçiləri gözümüzün önündə canlanır. Çünki, onların sayı ölkədə yetərincədir və çox dəqiq, incəliklə təsvir olunmuş Miri haqqında oxuyarkən sanki bu obrazı
çoxdan tanıyırsan. “Miri müştərini adla yox, başqa cür tanıyır: beşqəpiklik dərmana
beşlik atan müştəri, qəpiyə güllə atanı, qalını, naziyi. Müştərinin mərdi-namərdi var.
Əsas da kasıb iki gözünün düşməni idi”.3 Zəmanə adamı olan Miri o qədər real və canlı
təsvir edilmişdir ki, bu da yazıçının yeni xarakter təsvir etməsinin uğurlu nəticəsidir.
149
Əgər yazıçı istedadı və uzun illərin müşahidəsi, təcrübəsi ilə birləşirsə, o zaman ədəbiyyatda “kiçik adamlar”ın içindəki böyük iddiaları və onların həyata, dünyaya baxışlarını
oxucuya göstərməyə nail olmaq mümkündür. Rafiq Tağı da bu insanları hekayənin
qəhrəmanına çevirdi və milli ədəbiyyatda yeni, bədii obrazlar yaratdı.
Azərbaycan hekayəsinə məxsus ölçü və kanonlar, məlum sxemlər bu hekayələrdə
təkrar olunmur, reallıqla irreallıq, alleqoriya, simvol, bədii şərtilik, bir sözlə, maraqlı
bədii təsvir vasitələri müstəqillik dövrünün hekayələrində daha qabarıq nəzərə çarpır.
Adını qeyd etdiyimiz bu müəllifin hekayələri həm də ona görə maraqlıdır ki, bu nəsr
nümunələri haqqında ənənəvi, standart ölçülərlə danışmaq mümkün deyil. Və ən başlıcası
bu hekayələrdə müəllif artıq ehkama çevrilmiş donuq təhkiyə tərzindən imtina etmişdir.
END NOTE
1.
2.
3.
Rafiq Tağı. Şahzadə Dipendranın məhəbbəti. I cild. Bakı, Adiloğlu, 2005, s.106
Yenə orada, s.131
Yenə orada, s.131
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
Cabbarlı Nərgiz. Yeni nəsil ədəbiyyatı. Bakı, Elm, 2006, 374 s.
Həbibbəyli İsa. Mirzə Cəlilə qayıtmaq zərurəti // “Ədəbiyyat” qəzeti, Bakı, 1995, 29 dekabr
Hüseynov Akif. Nəsr və zaman. Bakı, Yazıçı, 1979, 185 s.
4.
Tağı Rafiq. Şahzadə Dipendranın məhəbbəti. I cild. Bakı, Adiloğlu, 2005, 374 s.
THE “PIE” WHICH LEADS “GREAT EXPECTATIONS”
Khanim Ahmadova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Great Expectations is one of Dickens's later novels, a work of his artistic maturity. The narrative is
symbolic rather than realistic. It depicts the growth and personal development of an orphan named Pip.
The story is set in England.
The novel was first published in serial form in “All the Year Round” from 1 December 1860 to August
1861. Two chapters were published every week. The narrator of the story is a Pip who aspired to be a
gentleman and win over the beautiful Estella. People waited anxiously every week for the next episode to
arrive in the newsstands. Great Expectations has been filmed several times.
The main character of the novel is Pip. In the beginning chapters Dickens paints an extremely vivid
picture of Pip’s childhood. The reader is able to enter Pip's mind and see the world through the eyes of a
child. This is possible because Dickens understood the thoughts and feelings of children and applied this
to Pip's every thought and action when he wrote the novel. The word "pip" itself refers to a seed from a
plant. Seeds need to be nurtured if they are to grow and flourish. In Dickens' view of childhood, he felt
that children have certain needs: guidance in a nurturing home, to be free from emotional and physical
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April 27, 2012
abuse, to have a good education, and to be allowed to use their imaginations. He also shows how little
goodness can bring great expectations to little Pip.
Key words: great expectations, pie, Pip, Estella, Miss Havisham, Abel Magwitch.
The story is set in England on Christmas Eve, around 1812. The first part of Great
Expectations is an account of the childhood of, Pip, the main character of the novel.
Pip is an orphan of about six. He’s adopted by his older sister and her husband Joe
Gargery, a blacksmith. But his sister behaves very rudely to him. So Dickens shows just
how alone Pip is, as he sits on the gravestones of his parent in the churchyard. While
coming back Pip encounters an escaped convict. The convict scares Pip into stealing
him a file to grind away his shackles, from the home he shares with his older sister and
her husband Joe Gargery. Frightened, Pip agrees to help the convict and aids him by
giving him food and cutting his handcuffs. Pip encounters another stranger as he heads
back to the marsh. He is frightened again, and runs home without stopping. Pip goes
home, where his sister's husband Joe reads an advertisement about a Miss Havisham
who is a wealthy spinster and lives in the dilapidated Satis House. She asks Pip's Uncle
Pumblechook to find a boy to play with her daughter. The next day, soldiers recapture
two convicts engaged in a fight and return them to the prison ship. Pip is taken to Miss
Havisham's manor. He begins to visit Satis House where meets Estella. Estella is Miss
Havisham’s adopted daughter. She constantly insults Pip. Miss Havisham hires Pip and
throughout their playtimes he eventually is affected by Estella. Miss Havisham knows
about Estella’s love to Pip. So she pays money to Joe Gargery for teaching Pip the
secret of blacksmith. Joe visits Satis House to finish Pip's papers. But Pip is angry at
the current turn of events. He is devastated by Miss Havisham's decision.
Pip works diligently for Joe at the forge, but continually longs to return to Satis
House. Pip is approached by a lawyer, Mr Jaggers, who tells him he is to receive a large
sum of money from an anonymous benefactor and must leave for London immediately
where he is to become a gentleman. Pip fears Estella could never marry a commoner
like him and so that he accepts a large sum of money from an anonymous benefactor
to become a gentleman. Pip assumes the benefactor is Miss Havisham and so that accepts
a large sum of money. Pip prepares to leave for London feeling guilty about his behavior.
Pip and Jaggers travel to London. In London, Pip meets his roommate Mr. Pocket and
gives anonymous assistance to him. Mr. Pocket tells the story of Miss Havisham: she
got engaged but was left at the altar, causing her to stop all the clocks in the house and
never leave the house again. Pip spends the rest of his time in London learning how to
be a gentleman.
Joe visits Pip in London. Pip is informed of Estella's return to Satis House. Pip
believes Miss Havisham to be his benefactress and visits her and Estella. Miss Havisham
tells Pip that he can find Estella at a party at the palace. News arrives concerning Mrs.
Joe. Pip returns home for his sister's funeral. Joe Gaggery wants him to stay but Pip
refuses. So he has promised to Estella to go to the party with her. At the ball, Pip and
Estella dance, and talk about how Pip is now a fine young gentleman. Estella says that
she has no heart, and cannot love. Because Miss Havisham has raised her to break men’s
151
hearts, as revenge for the pain her own broken heart caused her. Pip was merely a boy
for the young Estella to practice on; Miss Havisham delighted in Estella’s ability to toy
with his affections. Right before Pip asks Estella to be his girlfriend. Then Estella’s
boyfriend Bentley Drummle comes in. Pip, saddened, runs to tell Miss Havisham, only
to find that she approves of Steve. So Miss Havisham is glad that Estella has broken
Pip's heart. Because Miss Havisham thinks that all the men are savage and she is sure
that Estella will triumph.
Pip is visited by his benefactor, and although horrified by the implications, Pip feels
a loyalty to his benefactor. His benefactor is revealed to be Abel Magwitch, the convict
he helped, who was transported to New South Wales where he eventually became
wealthy. There is a warrant for Magwitch's arrest in England and he will be hanged if
he is caught. Magwitch tells the story of his life to Pocket and Pip. While in hiding,
Wemmick says that there is going to take a little time and there are no guarantees. So
Abel is pursued both by the police and by Compeyson. Compeyson was his former
partner in crime and the man who abandoned Miss Havisham at the altar. Compeyson
puts a thousand pounds on his head. Pip learns of Estella's marriage. He confronts Miss
Havisham with Estella's history. Miss Havisham begs for Pips forgiveness. Estella refuses writing to Miss Havisham. Miss Havisham stands too close to the fire which
ignites her dress and she eventually dies from her injuries.
Pip cannot understand why Magwitch gives him a large sum of money. He does
not want to receive this benefactor. Pip wants to know the reason Magwitch’s help: Pip.
I was hasty. Compeyson was the second man on the marshes. Abel. I tried killing him
that night. I should have tried harder. Pip. Why? Abel. He owes me. Pip. Were you
partners? Abel. What are you asking for? Pip. I need to know. Abel. Once Pip. And
this once, did you hear of a Miss Havisham of Satis House? Abel. Should I? That turns
your guts, don’t it? You think I murdered for that? I’ve taken lives for less. Pip. I don’t
know what you did to get it. Abel. No, you don’t. Pip. Why me? Why do this for me?
Because I stole you a file? I only did that because I was scared. You said you’d cut my
throat. Abel. I know what I said? And it weren’t the file, it was the pie. Pip. I’d forgotten
about the pie. Abel. The file you took because you were scared, but... that pie… that
was out of goodness.
Herbert and Pip construct a plan for Magwitch's escape. A plan is therefore hatched
for him to flee by boat. It is also revealed that Estella is the daughter of Magwitch and
Mr Jaggers's housemaid, Molly, whom Jaggers defended in a murder charge and who
gave up her daughter to be adopted by Miss Havisham. While attempting to escape,
Magwitch is captured and sent to jail where he dies shortly before his execution. Pip
is about to be arrested for unpaid debts when he falls ill. Joe nurses him back to health
and pays off his debts. Pip decides to return home. On the way to forge Pumblechook
tells him that Estella is a widower and she’s coming back. The store ends in two forms.
In the first ending of Great expectation, Estella finally declares her love for Pip and the
narrator states that all the characters lived happily, except Pocket died of Hepatitis B.
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April 27, 2012
The Second Ending of the novel was urged by Bulwer-Lytton, a close friend of
Dickens. This version was originally published in 1861. It includes an extra chapter
(chapter 59) for the revision. In this ending, Pip returns to the forge after eleven years,
instead of the eight, that Dickens had originally intended. Also, the last part of the final
sentence went through further revision as the novel when through subsequent publishings.
The original sentence was:
. . . I saw the shadow of no parting from her but one.
During the proof stage, Dickens dropped the last two words. In 1861, it appeared
in All the Year Round as:
. . . I saw the shadow of no parting from her.
In 1862, the final revision was to the first published edition of the novel. The sentence then read:
. . . I saw no shadow of another parting from her.
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Dickens, Charles. (1861).Great Expectations. Chapman and Hall, 193, Piccadilly.
Dickens, Charles. (1996). Great Expectations. Ed. Janice Carlisle. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins.
Dickens, Charles. (1999). Great Expectations. Ed. Edgar Rosenberg. New York: Norton.
Crawford, Shawn. (1991). No Time to Be Idle: The Serial Novel and Popular Imagination.
Washington, D.C.: Washington P.
5. Hughes, Linda K., and Michael Lund. (1991). The Victorian Serial. Charlottesville: UP of Virginia.
6. Rawlins, Jack P. (1983). "Great Expectations: Dickens and the Betrayal of the Child." Studies in
English Literature.
7. Sutherland, J.A. (1976). Victorian Novelists and Publishers. Chicago: U of Chicago P.
8. Jordan, John O., and Robert L. Patten. (1995). Literature in the Marketplace. Cambridge:
Cambridge UP.
9. Bell, Vereen. (1965). "Parents and Children in Great Expectations." Victorian Newsletter 27.
10. Collins, Philip. (1964). Dickens and Education. New York: St. Martin's P.
11. http://www.dizimag.com/great-expectations
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE
(BASED ON THE THEORY OF FREUD)
Khayala Maharramova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The Psychological Approach to literary criticism is very controversial and is easily abused. Some
critics argue that it was already used by Aristotle in his Poetics in the 4th century B.C, when hi defined
153
tragedy as combining the emotions of pity and terror to produce “Catharsis”. The “compleat gentleman”
of the English Renaissance, Sir Philip Sidney, with his statements about the moral effects of poetry, was
psychologizing literature, as were such Romantic poets as Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Shelley with their
theories of the imagination. Every literary critic has been concerned at some time with the psychology of
writing or responding to literature. Psychological approaches consider literature as the expression of personality, of inner drives of neurosis. It has resulted in an almost exhausting and exhaustive psychological
analysis of character, of symbols and images, of recurrent themes, and the likes. During the twentieth century,
however, psychological criticism has come to be associated with a particular school of thought, the pschoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and his followers.
Key words: psychoanalytic, conscious and unconscious aspects, psychoanalytic criticism, mental
processes, human psychology.
All psychoanalytic approaches to literature have one thing in common-the critics
begin with a full psychological theory of how and why people behave as they do, a theory
that has been developed by a psychologist, psychiatrist, and psychoanalyst outside of
the realm of literature, and the apply this psychological theory as the standard to interpret
and evaluate a literary work. This psychological criticism is one of the approaches to
literature. This approach reflects the effect that modern psychology has had upon on
both literature and literary criticism. Fundamental figures in psychological criticism
include Sigmund Freud. Sigmund Freud was interested in literature because he ac
knowledged the great authors of the past to be intuitive psychologists. According to
Sigmund Freud (A handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature. Wilfred L. Guerin.
2005), psychoanalytic theories changed our nations of human behavior by exploring
new or controversial areas like wish-fulfillment, sexuality, the unconscious and repression
as well as expanding our understanding of how language and symbols operate by demonstrating their ability to reflect unconscious fears desires. Psychoanalytic literary
criticism has a number of approaches, but in general, it usually employs one (or more)
of three approaches:
1. the author: the theory is used to analyze the author and his/her life, and the literary
work is seen to supply evidence for this analysis. This is often called “psychobiography”.
2. the characters: the theory is used to analyze one or more of the characters; the
psychological theory becomes a tool that to explain the characters` behavior and
motivations. The more closely the theory seems to apply to the characters, the more
realistic the work appears.
3. the audience: the theory is used to explain the appeal of the work for those who read
it; the work is seen to embody universal human psychological and motivations, to
which the readers respond more or less unconsciously.
A Freudian approach often includes pinpointing the influences of a character`s id
(the instinctual, pleasure seeking part of the mind), superego (the part of the mind that
represses the id` impulses) and ego (the part of that controls but does not repress the id`
impulses, releasing them in a healthy way). According to Jacque Lacan (Modern Criticism and Theory. David Lodge. 2000.), the symbolic is the point of organization, the
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point where sexuality is constructed as meaning, where what was heterogeneous, what
was not symbolized, becomes organized, becomes created round these two poles, masculine and not-masculine; feminine. Freudian critics like to point out the sexual implications of symbols and imagery, since Freud`s believed that all human behavior is
motivated by sexuality. Repressed to an unconscious state, they emerge only in disguised
forms: in dreams, in language (so-called Freudian slips), in creative activity that may
produce art (including literature), and in neurotic behavior. According to Freud, all of
us have repressed wishes and fears; we all have dreams in which repressed feelings and
memories emerge disguised, and thus we are all potential candidates for dream analysis.
One of the unconscious desires most commonly repressed is the childhood wish to
displace the parent of our own sex and take his or her place in the affections of the parent
of the opposite sex. This desire really involves a number of different but related wishes
and fears. Freud referred to the whole complex of feelings by the word “oedipal”, naming the complex after the Greek tragic hero Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father
and married his mother. Freud`s theories are either directly or indirectly concerned with
the nature of the unconscious mind. Freud didn`t invent the notion of the unconscious;
other before him had suggested that even the supposedly “sane” human mind was
conscious and rational only at times, and even then at possibly only at times, and even
then at possibly only one level. But Freud went further, suggesting that the powers
motivating men and women are mainly and normally unconscious. It is important to
point out that among those who relied on Freud`s models were a number of critics who
were poets and novelists as well. Probably because of Freud`s characterization mind
as “clamorous” if not ill, psychoanalytic criticism written before 1950 tended to psychoanalyze the individual author. Poems were read as fantasies that allowed authors to
indulge repressed wishes, to protect themselves from deep-seated anxieties, or both. In
the view of the critics attempting to arrive at more psychological insights into an author
than biographical materials can provide, a work of literature is a fantasy or a dreamor at least so analogy to daydream or dream that Freudian analysis can help explain the
nature of the mind that produced it. The author`s purpose in writing is to gratify secretly
some forbidden wish. In particular an infantile wish or desire that has been repressed
into the unconscious mind. To discover what the wish is, the psychoanalytic critic
employs many of the terms and procedures developed by Freud to analyze dreams.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature. Wilfred L. Guerin, Earle Labor, Lee Morgan, Jeanne
C. Reesman, John R. Willingham. 2005.
An Introduction to Literary Criticism. Richard Dutton. 1984.
Modern Criticism and Theory. David Lodge. 2000.
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PSYCHOANALYTIC READING OF MATERNAL
ISSUES IN “MADAME BOVARY”
Meryem Çelik
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
“Madame Bovary” is one of the most important French novels of the 19th century. It is vastly regarded
as Gustave Flaubert's most important work and masterpiece even thought it was his first novel. Madame
Bovary is story of a woman named Emma imprisoned in an unsatisfactory marriage, trying to escape from
her monotonous life with adulterous affairs in search of romanticism. However, Emma’s struggles turns
into her own disaster in the end. Since its publication, novel has been read and criticized from different
point of views. When you search, it is possible to find various types of critical essays about “Madame
Bovary”. Here in this article, the most important thing in a woman’s life period “pregnancy and motherhood”
will be dealt with in aspect of Flaubert’s famous heroine Emma Bovary. Looking at maternal issues from
representations in novel will give a way to understand psychological situation of character during pregnancy.
One of the most famous feminist psychoanalyst Karen Horney’s “Masculinity complex” term and her
pioneer Alfred Adler’s “Masculine protest” term will be applied to read psychoanalytically the maternal
issues in Madame Bovary.
Key words: Madame Bovary, Psychoanalysis, Maternal, Motherhood, Pregnancy, Male-baby desire,
Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Masculinity complex, Masculine protest.
“Madame Bovary” is famous also controversial French novel by Gustave Flaubert.
Story takes place in 19th century France and deals with Emma Bovary who trapped in
unsatisfactory marriage, trying to escape her situation through adulterous affairs in search
of romance and passion. In this article, representations of maternal issues in Madame
Bovary are analyzed through Flaubert’s adulterous heroine “Emma Bovary”. At the end
of Part 1, the last line of Chapter 9 is “When they left Tostes in the month of March,
Madame Bovary was pregnant”. (p,58) After this sentence Emma’s pregnancy is not
mentioned again until birth. As story is about a woman, one might think “Emma’s pregnancy” would be a major event in the book. However Flaubert does not describe situation
as much detailed as he does the dress Emma wore at the ball or wedding scene. (p,25)
Here we get the impression of this is an unwanted pregnancy for Emma. After several
chapters there comes birth scene. Here this time we encounter Emma Bovary’s malebaby desire:
“She hoped for a son; he would be strong and dark; she would call him: George;
and this idea of having a male child was like an expected revenge for all her impotence
in the past. A man, at least, is free; he may travel over passions and over countries, overcome obstacles, taste of the most far-away pleasures. But a woman is always hampered.”
(p,76)
In 1910 Alfred Adler, founder of individual psychology, introduced the concept
“Masculine Protest”.(Nelson, 490) Affected by Adler, first feminist psychoanalyst Karen Horney wrote a paper on “The Flight from Womanhood: The Masculinity Complex
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April 27, 2012
in Women, as viewed by Men and Women” (1926). According to Adler in many societies,
both men and women place an inferior value on being a woman. Boys are frequently
taught early that being masculine means being courageous, strong, and dominant. The
essence of success for boys is to win, to be powerful, and to be on top. In contrast, girls
often learn to be passive and to accept an inferior position in society. In women it gives
expression to a rejection of their feminine condition.(Adler,1956) Horney did not deny
that women often envy men and are uncomfortable with their feminine role. (Horney,
1967) Rejection of the feminine role is also the consequence of the mother’s preference
for son. (Adler, 1926) Emma thinks “a man is free but she is not” so wishes for baby
boy. When Charles says; "It is a girl!" Emma turns her head away and faints. Emma
Bovary’s son desire can be understood in terms of her masculine protest; as she sees
women as constantly held by society she wishes for a son through whom she can fulfil
her own desires. She attempts to resist a role she finds limiting. In “Feminine Psychology”
Horney also states that as living in a male dominant society woman has the feeling of
being discriminated against so she envy man and try to discard her female role. (Horney,
1967) In 19th century France women could not have freedoms as they have today. Under
the terms of Napoleonic Code Civil, women were regarded as perpetual minors; fathers
and husbands were time-honored guardians of women. (Levasseur,1989) Emma was
victim of suffocating patriarchy that demanded she be no more than wife and mother.
While the men are self-defined; women are defined by their husbands, fathers and sons.
Even the title “Madame Bovary” show us she is defined by her husband’s last name:
Bovary. She is “Madame Bovary” in the eyes of society. Although the story is about
main character Emma, book does not introduce us Emma firstly. Firstly we learn the
history of Emma’s future husband Charles Bovary, after reading the man who will be
the keeper of Emma, we meet our main character. As not have the first words, Emma
Bovary could not have the last ones as book finishes with another male character.
Emma Bovary lacks maternal instincts and also she does not believe she has time
for such trivial things as children. She leaves her daughter “Berthe” to be raised by the
house help. She sometimes visits her at nurse’s house but when child is at home she
treats her as a burden. The presence of little Berthe does little to cheer her, for Berthe
is a girl; Emma wanted a boy. Perhaps if Berthe has been born a boy, Emma’s romantic
illusions might have carried on a bit longer. As Janette Johnson stated in her research,
Emma Bovary rejected motherhood and never felt the sacred calling that patriarchy
demanded of her. (Johnson, 1983) Although Emma resents motherhood, she pretends
to have the maternal instinct of a “good mother” to protect her image in society that
surrounds her. She worries about her appearance and what people will think of her. She
wants the outside world including her husband to think she is a good mother. (Brooks
and Watson, 30)
2.
3.
REFERENCES
Flaubert, Gustave. (2005) Madame Bovary. Trans. Eleanor Marx Aveling and Paul de Man. New York:
W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. Print.
Nelson, Marven O. (1991) “Another look at masculine protest” Individual Psychology: Journal of
Adlerian Theory, Research & Practice, Vol 47(4), Dec 1991, 490-497.
157
4.
Adler, Alfred. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. H. L. Ansbacher and R. R. Ansbacher (Eds.). New York: Harper Torchbooks.
5.
Adler, Alfred (1926) “The neurotic constitution; Outlines of a comparative individualistic psychology
and psychotherapy” Trans. Bernard Glueck and John E. Lind, New York: Dodd, Mead.
6.
Horney, Karen. (1926) “The Flight from Womanhood: The Masculinity Complex in Women as Viewed
by Men and by Women” International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 7: 324-39. Reprinted in Feminine
Psychology, 54-70.
7.
Horney, Karen. (1967) “Feminine Psychology” ed. Harold Kelman. New York: W. W. Norton
8.
Levasseur, G. (1989) “Legal analysis of the Code of Criminal Procedure” (Napoléon et l’élaboration
des codes répressifs) Mélanges en homme à Jean Imbert, p. 371
9.
Johnson, Janette Suzanne. (1983) Mother Love and Mothers in Love: The Novel of Adultery. Champaign:
Chicago University Press.
10. Brooks, Marilyn and Nicola Watson. (2001) “Madame Bovary: Becoming a Heroine.” The NineteenthCentury Novel: Identities. Ed. Walder-Dennis. Routledge: Open University Press, 29-47.
MODERN APPROACHES TO THE HUNNIC EMPIRE
IN THE WESTERN LITERATURE
Natiq Adilov
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Although Asia and Europe are geographically separated, they have a lot in common. The Huns,
nomadic people in Asia established their empire in Asia BC and then they moved to Europe in the fourth
century and they had their own Empire there. Attila, the king of the Huns between 434 and 453 was the
leading figure of its time and nearly invaded all of the Europe. Although many centuries have passed he
and the Huns are still in the minds of people and this situation affects the people in all spheres including
literature. Beginning from nearly tenth century a lot of legends and manuscripts were written about Attila.
Many of these legends were transmitted from generation to generation orally and then they were written.
Such kinds of legends were generally in German and Hungarian.
In our modern century, especially in the last ten years, a lot of novels have been written both in English
and other languages and some of them have been translated into English. After analyzing these novels it
has been revealed that foreign writers respect Attila and in the face of him to all Huns. In these novels
generally Huns are not presented as barbarians but brave fighters.
Key words: The Huns, Attila, legends, novels, barbarians, historical novels.
The Huns were a group of nomadic people who, appearing from east of the Volga
river migrated into Europe AD 370 and established the vast Hunnic Empire there. (1)
However, before Europe, the original Hunnic Empire was established in 220 BC in Asia
and the founding Emperor was T’ouman. That Empire was strengthened under the reign
of Moutin, the son of T’ouman. (2;10). It is a historic fact that the Chinese built the
Great Wall to protect themselves from the attack of the Huns. Under leadership of Balamir some groups of Huns moved to the Eastern Anatolia. This movement is also called
Great Migration of nations in the history. After the death of Balamir, his son (in some
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sources he is considered to be the grandson of Balamir-N.A) Uldin went over the Carpathian mountains and founded the European Hunnic Empire in the place of present
day Hungary. (3) During the reign of Attila (434-453) the Hunnic Empire was in its
strongest time and emperor Attila invaded a lot of places in Europe and attacked several
times to Roma and Constantinople. Peter Heather and Bryan Ward-Perkins agree that
it was Huns who were largely to blame in the fall off Roman Empire. (4; Acknowled
gement). After his sudden death in 453 the Empire lost its former power.
Though 15 centuries have passed since the death of Attila, he and the Empire he
led for a while are always remembered by writers (poets, playwright), scientists and
other people in all pockets of the world, especially in Europe. The Huns and their Empire
are not only the subject of history books but also in literary books. Since the medieval
times a lot of legends, sagas, poems, novels have been written about the Huns. Memories
of the Hunnic conquests were transmitted orally among Germanic peoples and are an
important component in the Old Norse Volsunga Saga and Hervarar saga and in the
Middle High German Nibelungenlied. These stories all portray Migration Period events
from millennium earlier. (5;ix) No doubt Das Nibelungenlied is one of the greatest and
heartbreaking literary works of Middle Ages. It is widely recognized that The Lord of
Rings draws many of its special effects from store house of medieval saga and especially
from medieval Nibelungenlied. (5;x) In this book the name of Attila was shown as
Etsel, the second husband of Krimhild.
In Volsunga saga, Attila (Atli in Norse) defeats the Frankish king Sigebert and Burgundian king Gunthram but is later assassinated by Queen Fredugund, the sister of the
latter, the wife of the former. In this chronicle he is described as a noble and great king.(6)
Afore mentioned literary works are not the only books or documents that speak
about Attila and the Hunnic Empire. Many nations still in Europe claim that they are
successors of Huns. For instance, the “Nomanalia of Bulgar Khans” which is old, short
manuscript, written in old church Slavic, may indicate that Bulgars have ascended from
Attila. This manuscript contains the names of some early Bulgar rulers and their clans.
(7; 32) There are many similarities between Hunnic and Bulgar cultures and some archeological facts prove these similarities.
It would be worth mentioning Magyar (Hungarians) legends which may have
contained some elements of historical truths. These legends say that Magyars joined the
people who were descendants of Attila. The city Buda comes from the name of Bleda,
the brother of Attila. (1)
The Hunnic Empire and its famous and powerful king Attila were not only mentioned
in afore said legends and manuscripts but in modern time so many historical novels have
been dedicated to the Huns and Attila. Attila could achieve to include his name in the
list of the most distinguishing leaders of the world. When we analyze the subjects of
the historical novels it becomes clear that modern writers (especially in the USA and
Great Britain) are inclined to choose Ancient Roma, Greek and the Huns as a topic for
their novels.
159
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, a historical novel is “a novel that has as its
setting a usually significant period of history and that attempts to convey the spirit,
manners, and social conditions of a past age with realistic detail and fidelity (which is
in some cases only apparent fidelity) to historical fact. The work may deal with actual
historical personages...or it may contain a mixture of fictional and historical characters”.1
From what is said, it becomes obvious that when writers write historical novels they
refer to historical notes of different historians. Unfortunately, a variety of opinions, some
of which are negative, have been written about the Huns and their leader Attila as well.
Jordanes, a Goth writing in Italy in 551, a century after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire, describes the Huns as a "savage race, which dwelt at first in the swamps, a stunted,
foul and puny tribe, scarcely human, and having no language save one which bore but
slight resemblance to human speech."2 But of course not all historians and researchers
had negative opinion about Huns and Attila. For example, Otto Maenchen-Helfen, who
spent great majority of his time investigating Huns were of positive opinions about
Huns. As an answer to claims by Thomson who tried to make Huns seem barbaric by
stating that they used primitive bone tipped arrowheads Otto Maenchen-Helfen wrote:
“Had the Huns been unable to forge their swords and cast their arrow-heads, they never
could have crossed the Don. The idea that the Hun horsemen fought their way to the
walls of Constantinople and to the Marne with bartered and captured swords is absurd”3.
The examples from different historians reveal the fact that the opinions and submission
of facts vary. Peter Heathrow, Bryan Ward-Perkins, Peter J. Heather, E.A. Thomson,
Micheal Bobcock, Wess Roberts are among those who wrote historical materials about
the Huns and Attila. Basing on these facts and books writers of different countries
produced different novels about Attila.
While analyzing the dates of novels we see that this subject was not in the center
of attention for a short of period but still a lot of writers address this subject. It must
also be emphasized that different countries’ citizens wrote and have written on this topic.
Hungarian writer and journalist Geza Gardoniy wrote his famous novel “slave of the
Huns” in 1901. Later, we can see that Canadian writer and journalist Thomas B. Costain
wrote his novel about Attila which is called “The darkness and the dawn” in 1959. The
figures show that in the last ten years several writers turned their attentions again to that
subject. The following novels were written in that period: “Attila: barbarian’s love story”
by Peter Hargitai (2003), “Attila: The Scourge of God” by Ross Laidlow (2004), “The
Scourge of God” by William Dietrich (2006), “The Death of Attila” by Cecelia Holland
(2008), “The Sword of Attila: A Novel of the Last Years of Rome” by Micheal Curtis
Ford (2008). (8) Special attention must be given to William Napier who wrote trilogy
about Attila-“Attila” (2005), “Attila, the gathering of storm” (2007) and “Attila-Judgement” (2008). In these novels, generally Attila and the Huns are introduced as positive
characters and as well as historical heroes, imaginative characters are spoken about. In
William Napier’s trilogy, Attila’s life is thrown light beginning with his hostage in
Roman Empire until his death. After his novels had been published The Times wrote: “If
you think you don’t like historical fiction, you haven’t read William Napier”4. Another
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April 27, 2012
point that attracts attention is that generally all authors used the same sources for their
novels. Instead of showing Attila and his people as barbarians, they referred to historical
facts and created very positive brave heroes.
Besides in the English language, there are samples of the novels written about Attila
in different languages too. German novelist and historian wrote his famous novel “Attila,
Konig der Hunnen” in 1998.
All these facts about the ancient legends, manuscripts and modern novels betray
the fact that the Huns were and are respected for their brevity and courage and Europe
and other parts of the world are still under impact of the Huns and Attila, the dreadful
enemy for the ancient Empires.
1.
2.
3.
4.
END NOTE
www, brittanica.com.retreived 27.03.2012
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns 27.03.2012
Maenchen-Helfen The World of the Huns. University of California Press. 1973. p 12
The Times. 10 February 2008.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Kevin Alan Brook, The Jews of Khazaria, Rowman & Littlefield, 2009,
Attila-the gathering of the storm. William Napier. Orion Books. London 2007.
Nibelungenlied-song of the Nibelungs. Translated from the Middle High German by Burton Rafell.
Yale University Press. 2006
R. G. Finch (ed. and trans.), The Saga of the Volsungs(London: Nelson, 1965)
Именник на българските ханове – ново тълкуване. М.Москов. С. 1988 г.
www.historicalnovels.info/Ancient
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns.
az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avropa_Hun_İmperiyası.
REVOLUTION THEME IN A TALE OF TWO CITIES
Aytekin Aliyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
A Tale of Two Cities is a novel with the fictionalized description of the events leading up to the birth
of the new French Republic. Charles Dickens’s novel has helped to shape generations of readers’ understanding of one of the most important events in modern history. It is not just a history but a good fiction that
can be as influential as history itself. This novel distinctly reveals violence of authority and gives perfect
representation of the million wasted lives by stating that while tyranny will inevitably lead to revolution,
revolution will lead just as inevitably to tyranny and it is obviously seen that power shades actual intentions
gradually by its magical enchantment.
Key words: French Revolution, Class Distinctions, Mob Mentality, England.
161
A Tale of Two Cities created the image of a stable England by using revolutionary
France as a setting to highlight the contrasts between the two countries, although Dickens
seemed to believe in the eighteen-fifties that England was heading towards an uprising
on the scale of the French Revolution. Dickens decided to write about the French Revolution as a sort of comparative study, because the violence that broke out in the French
Revolution was something that terrified countries across Europe. So, revolution broke
out in France and France isn’t so far from England. In fact, conditions in France aren’t
that different from conditions in England. He wanted to send a message that the English
royalty should have been scared.
Dickens warns his readers and this warning is addressed not to the British lower
classes, but to the aristocracy. He repeatedly uses the metaphor of sowing and reaping
by stating if the aristocracy continues to plant the seeds of a revolution through behaving
unjustly, they can be certain of harvesting that revolution in time and because of this
reason he gives long comparison of two countries at the beginning of the book.
Much of the action of A Tale of Two Cities takes place in Paris during the French
Revolution, which began in 1789. In A Tale of Two Cities, Dickens shows how the
tyranny of the French aristocracy-high taxes, unjust laws, and a complete indifference
toward the well-being of the poor-fed a rage among the commoners that eventually
erupted in revolution.
Dickens's outlook on revolutionary violence differed significantly from others. As
Irene Collins points out “Dickens dislikes the violence of the revolutionaries, both in
its popular form (the mob) and in its institutionalized form (the terror). Unlike others,
he can no longer see justice in the violence”. Dickens suggests that the French revolutionaries begin to abuse their power just as much as the nobility did. While the French
commoners’ reasons for revolting were entirely understandable, and the French Revolution was widely praised for its stated ideals of “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”,
Dickens takes a more pessimistic view by showing how the revolutionaries use oppression
and violence to satisfy their own selfish and bloodthirsty desires.
In A Tale of Two Cities we see deep distinction between the rich and the poor. While
one needs four servants to make his hot chocolate every morning others are on their
hands and knees in the street to lick up drops of spilled wine, are left with nothing but
onions to eat and are forced to starve. Every time the nobles refer to the life of the
peasants it is only to destroy or humiliate the poor. With his depiction of a broken wine
cask outside Defarge’s wine shop, and with his portrayal of the passing peasants’ trying
to drink the spilling wine, Dickens creates a symbol for the desperate quality of the
people’s hunger. This hunger is both the literal hunger for food-the French peasants
were starving in their poverty-and the metaphorical hunger for political freedoms.
Dickens deeply sympathizes with the plight of the French peasantry and emphasizes
their need for liberation. Although Dickens condemns this oppression, however, he
also blames the peasants’ strategies in overcoming it. The peasants could not get appreciation of reader by fighting cruelty with cruelty. They only intensify the violence that
they themselves have suffered. Dickens makes his position clear while giving descriptions
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April 27, 2012
of the mobs with deep aversion. Though Dickens sees the French Revolution as a great
symbol of transformation and resurrection, he emphasizes that its violent ways were
completely antithetical and immoral.
The French Revolution began as a critique of the aristocracy; as Dickens demonstrates, however, the "classless" formation of the new French Republic becomes another
form of class violence. Someone’s always in power. And the powerless always suffer.
As the poor of France take to the streets, they fire a bloody and violent revolution. Blood
runs through the streets of Paris, entire families depend on new and unjust laws, and
no one can be sure of their future in the first years of the New Republic. Throughout
the novel, Dickens approaches his historical subject with some ambivalence. While he
supports the revolution, he often points to the evil of the revolutionaries themselves.
Righteous, justice-seeking people turn out to be bloody murderers. In other words, war
tends to confound most people’s expectations. Once blood starts spilling in the streets,
telling the difference between right and wrong becomes extremely difficult. A Tale of
Two Cities explores the dark sides of revolution, such as how "freedom" can easily
change its color and become another title for fanaticism.
Dickens’s novel explores the complicated relationship that emerges between the
political and the social consequences of revolution. As French citizens take to the streets,
demanding justice for themselves and their families, they also construct a justice system
that becomes anything but fair and impartial. Throughout the novel, Dickens sharply
criticizes mob mentality, which he condemns for committing the very cruelty and
oppression from which the revolutionaries hope to free themselves. In A Tale of Two
Cities Dickens suggests that whoever is in power, nobles or commoners will use their
power in cruel ways and forget the reasons that brought them to this position. He is not
taking side, nor tries reader to be in sympathy with one of them. He just believes that the
only way to break the cycle of tyranny is through the application of justice and mercy.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
Collins, Irene. "Charles Dickens and the French Revolution." Literature and History 1.1 (1990): 40-57.
Collins, Philip, ed. Dickens: The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge, 1971.
http://www.shmoop.com/tale-of-two-cities/http://www.litcharts.com/lit/ataleoftwocities/themes
STUDY OF LITERARY TECHNIQUES OF STREAM
OF CONSCIOUSNESS ON JAMES JOYCE
AND VIRGINIA WOOLF ‘S WORKS
Sevda Salayeva
Azerbaijan University
ABSTRACT
Stream of consciousness is a narrative mode that helps the author to portray the inner world of his/her
characters through their thoughts, feelings and memories. This technique is characterized by flow of thoughts,
163
images with coherent structure. It was first introduced by William James , American psychologist and
philosopher in the 19th century.
As a literary technique, stream of consciousness was first employed by modernists writers such as
Dorothy Richardson (Pilgrimage), Marcel Proust(In search of Lost Time), James Joyce (Ulysses), Virginia
Woolf (Mrs Dalloway) and William Faulkner (The Sound and the Fury).
In British Literature Virginia Woolf and James Joyce used stream of consciousness technique as a
way of getting inside the head of their characters. No one has ever entered the characters’ inner world as
James Joyce did. Perhaps, that’s why he is considered one of the most difficult writers.
Key words: consciousness, British, literature, inner world.
Şüur yalnız insana xasdır. İnsanı heyvandan fərqləndirən, onu insan edən onun
şüurudur. Şüur insan beyni və onu əhatə edən mühit arasında bir növ əlaqələndirici rolunu oynayır. Şüur insana dünyanı dərk etmək imkanı verdiyi kimi həmçinin ona öz
hərəkətlərinə məqsədyönlü şəkildə nəzarət etmək imkanı yaradır.Şüur və onun fəaliyyəti haqqında qədim dünya və orta əsr filosofları şox danışmışlar. Əlbəttə şüur haqqında
daha çox danışmaq, onu həm bioloji həm də psixoloji cəhətdən təhlil etmək olar. Lakin
toxunduğumuz problem bir qədər fərqli, şüurun daha doğrusu şüursuzluğun bir forması
olduğu üçün biz də elə ondan yəni şüur axınından söhbət açacağıq.
Bəs nədir şüur axını nədir? Ümumiyyətlə bu termin haqqında bəzi faktlara aydınlıq
gətirək və sonra şüur axınını bir ədəbi texnika olaraq təhlil etməyə cəhd edək.
“Bizim fikirlərimizin axını çay kimidir. Bütün asan, sadə yollarda axın üstünlük
təşkil edir. Amma maneə ortaya çıxdıqda geri qayıtmalar, irəli atılmalar baş verir, cərəyan dayanır, burulğan yaranır, və hər şeyi yolunu dəyişməyə məcbur edir”. ¹
Bir qayda olaraq qərb düşüncə tərzində “şüur axını” daxili monoloqla eyniləşdirilir.
Lakin qeyd etmək lazımdır ki, bir çox cəhətdən ruhi həyatın bu iki təzahür forması arasında həqiqətən bir sıra ortaq cəhətlərin olmasına baxmayarq mahiyyət etabarı ilə “şüur
axını” şüurun tamailə nəzarətindən çıxmış, bir növ öz- özünə cərəyan edən “daxili monoloq”dur.
“Şüur axını” terminini ilk əvvəl irəli sürən Amerikalı psixoloq William James
olmuşdur. O 1892-ci ildə yazdığı “ Psixologiyanın prinsipləri” əsərində insan psixikasında “şüur axını” prosesindən bəhs edir və bu konsepsiyanın əsasını qoyur. XI bölümü
“şüur axını”ına həsr olunana bu əsərdə William James qeyd edir ki, insan şüur axını
daşıyıcısıdır, insan beynində eyni anda müxtəlif fikirlər cərəyan edir və bu fikirlər insan
beynində mütəmadi olaraq birindən digərinə keçir, fikirlər bir-birini rədd edir, bir-birini
təsdiq edir, bir-biri ilə assosasiyaya girir, müxtəlif nisbətlərdə bir-biri ilə çuğlaşırlar.
William James, American philosopher
and psychologist, The principles of psychology
William James’i şüur axını ilə məşğul olmağa nə vadar etmişdi? Sözsüz ki, məşhur
filosofun uzun müddət şüur və onun fəaliyyəti barəsində apardığı tədqiqatlar.
Çox keçmədən bu termin ədəbi tənqiddə də istifadə olunmağa başladı. Ədəbiyyatda
şüur axını Dorothy Richardson, Virginia Woolf və James Joyce tərəfindən irəli sürülən
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April 27, 2012
ədəbi texnikadır. Şüur axını rabitəsiz və bütöv struktura malik olmayan fikirlərin, şəkillərin toplusudur. Şüur axını bir-biri ilə çuğlaşmış fikirlərin, hisslərin və xatirələrin insan
beynində davamlı hərəkətidir. Ədəbiyyatda isə bu belə hisslərin qarışığının bədii obrazın
beynində təzahürüdür. Süjet xətti bir zaman və məkan daxilində və ya onlardan kənarda
cərəyan edən hadisələri və qəhrəmanın fikirlərini ifadə edir. Şüur axını texnikasından
istifadə edən yazıçılar əsas diqqəti bir və ya bir neçə obrazın beynində gedən fikri və
hissi proseslərə yönəldirlər. Bu prosesin əsl xarakterik xüsusiyyətləri beyində baş verənləri tədqiq etməklə ortaya çıxarıla bilər.
Şüur axını texnikası ilə yazılmış bir mətn bəzən rabitəsiz cümlələr və durğu işarələrinin buraxılması ilə xarakterizə oluna bilər və bu cəhət də bədii əsərin qavranmasını
bir qədər qəlizləşdirir. Bədii ədəbiyyatda şüur axınını başqa sözlə daxili monoloq da
adlandırırlar. Bu onunla bağlıdır ki, şüur axınını bədii əsərdə iki formada görmək olar.
Biri obrazın daxili nitqi vasitəsiylə, digəri isə onun hərəkətləri vasitəsiylə. Məhz bu
baxımdan ona daxili monloq da deyirlər. Lakin şüur axınının daxili monoloqdan fərqi
vardır: birincisi, psixoloji aspektdən yanaşdıqda şüur axını mövzu ilə bağlıdır. Halbuki
daxili nitq onu ifadəetmə formasıdır. Belə ki, Marcel Prouts’un “İtirilmiş zaman axtarışında” romanı şüur axını, xüsusilə hiss, təssüratlar və xatirələr haqqındadır. Amma
burada daxili monoloqdan bir dəfə də olsun istifadə olunmayıb.
İkinci tərəfdən, yəni ədəbi cəhətdən yanaşdıqda şüur axını daxili monoloqun bir
tərzidir. Lakin daxili monoloq heç zaman rabitəsiz cümlələr və buraxılmış durğu işarələri ilə xarakterizə oluna bilməz, daxili monoloqda emosiyaların və təəssüratların olmasi da vacib deyil. Amma bunların hər biri şüur axını üçün xarakterikdir.
Modernist nəsrin nümayəndələrinin və onun sonrakı davamçılarının əsas aləti olan
şüur axını ilk olaraq Dorothy Richardson’un “Ziyarət” (Pilgrimage) əsərində (1915- 35)
istifadə olunmuş sonralar isə James Joyce’un “Ulysses” (1922), Virginia Woolf’un
“Mrs Dalloway” və William Faulkner’in “Səs və qəzəb” (The sound and the fury) (1928)
əsərlərində daha da inkişaf etdirilidi.
XX əsrin əvvəllərində psixoloji roman janrı inkişaf etməyə başladıqda bir çox yazıçılar şüur axını texnikasından istifadə edərək əsərlər yaratmağa başladılar. İngilis dilli
ədəbiyyatda bu texnikadan istifadə edərək yazan yazıçılar James Joyce, Virginia Woolf
və William Faulknerdir. James Joyce iki əsərini Finnegance Wake və Ulysses əsərlərini şüur axını texnikasından istifadə edərək yazmışdır. Ulysses Homerin qəhrəmanı
Odyssey’in Latın variantıdır. Ulysses əsəri nəinki müəllifin və İngilis ədəbiyyatının
hətta dünya ədəbiyyatının ən çətin əsərlərindən hesab olunur. James Joyce öz əsəri
haqqında danışarkən belə demişdi: “Mən elə bir əsər yaratdım ki, professorlar, ədəbi
tənqidçilər hələ üç yüz bundan sonra da bu əsər üzərində baş sındırsınlar. Bu da mənim
əsərimin ölməzliyini göstərsin”. James Joyce’dan əvvəl bədii yaradıcılıqla məşğul olan
heç bir yazıçı insan düşüncələrinin dərinliyinə bu qədər varmamışdır. Joyce bu əsəri
on səkkiz bölümə ayırmışdır. Bu bölümlər əsərdə epizodlar adlanır. Ümumilikdə əsər
bir qədər çaşdırıcı və xaotikdir. Əsərin üçüncü bölümü bütövlükdə şüur axını texnikası
üzərində qurulmuşdur. Belə ki, əsərin qəhrəmanlarından biri Stephen qayalar arasında
uzanarakən eyni anda beynində xaotik olaraq gah hansısa fəlsəfi konsepsiyaları təhlil
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edir, gah Parisdəki tələbə həyatını xatırlayır, gah da anasını ölümü barəsində düşünür.
Bütün şüur axını texnikası üzərində qurulmuş əsərlərdə olduğu kimi bu əsərdə də zaman tarazlığının pozulması öz əksini tapmışdır. Gah irəli atılmalar, gah geri çəkilmələr
eyni anda birindən digərinə elə keçir ki, çox vaxt oxuculara bəzi məqamların qaranlıq
qalmasına səbəb olur və ümumilikdə nəsri çətinləşdirir. Anlaşılmamzlıq yaradan digər
bir cəhət isə James Joyce’un tez-tez xarici sözlərdən və ya portmanteau² sözlərdən istifadə etməsidir. Digər qəribəlik eyni zamanda obrazlardadır. Əsərin altıncı epizodu da bütövlükdə şüur axını texnikasında yazılıb. Belə ki, bu epizodda dəfn mərasimi təsvir
olunub və müəllif əsərin qəhrəmanlarından biri Bloom’un ölüm və həyat haqqında fikirlərini şüur axını texnikasından məharətlə istifadə edərək oxucuya çatdırır. İki təzad
arasında fərqi və oxşarlığı müəyyən edən fikirlər oxucuya Bloom’un daxili monoloqu
şəklində təqdim olunur.
İki sözü birləşdirb yeni söz almaq. Məs: smog-smoke və fog
Digər bir qəribəlik isə on ikinci bölümdə obrazların adsızlığıdır. Bu bölümü nəql
edən sadəcə Dublinli adlandırılır. Hadisələr barda cərəyan edir və buradakı digər şəxs
isə sadəcə vətəndaş adlandırılır.
Bəzi tənqidçilər qeyd edir ki, James Joyce bununla oxucuları daha da çaşdırmaq,
bir az daha çox qəlizlik yaratmaq məqsədilə belə bir texnikaya müraciət edib. Lakin
bu da James Joyce nəsrinin özünəməxsus xüsusiyyətlərindən biridir.
Əsərdə James Joyce Bibliya əfsanələrindən, İrland mifologiyasından bol-bol istifadə
etmişdir. Əsərin on səkkizinci bölümündə James Joyce ardıcıl səkkiz cümlədə durğu
işarələrindən istifadə etməmişdir. Belə cümlələr şüur axını üçün xarakterikdir. Belə olan
halda cümlələr arasında əlaqə tamailə itir və bu da nəsri ağırlaşdıran əsas xüsusiyyətlərdən bridir. James Joyce şüur axını texnikasının bu cəhətindən də məharətlə yararlanmışdır.
Eyni texnikadan istifadə olunaraq yazılmış digər bir əsər Virginia Woolf'un “Mrs
Dalloway” əsəridir. Bu əsərin qəhrəmanı Xanım Dalloway'dir. Əsərdə olan digər bir
obraz isə Septimusdur. O ruhi xəstədir. Birinci dünya müharibəsinin şahidi olmuş bu
şəxsin qulağına qəribə səslər gəlir. Bu iki obrazın əslində bir-biri ilə heç bir bağlılığı
yoxdu. Mrs Dalloway intihara hazırlaşır. Əsərdəki hadisələr yalnız bir gün ərzində baş
verir. Mrs Dalloway intihar etmir,çünki Virginia Woolf Septimus obraznı yaradır ki,
onun əsərinin baş qəhrəmanı sağ qalsın. Əsərin sonunda onlardan birincisi həyatı, ikincisi isə ölümü seçir.
Çox maraqlıdır ki, həm Virginia Woolf, həm də Amerika yazıçısı William Faulkner
şüur axınından istifadə etmək üçün ruhi xəstə obrazı seçmişlər. Əvvəldə qeyd etmişdik
ki, şüur axını assosasiyası olmayan fikirlərin axınıdır. Hər birimizin beynində şüur axını
vardır. Lakin nitqimizdə biz onları tənzimləyib normal fikirlər formasında ifadə edə
bilirik. Lakin bu hal ruhi xəstələr və yeni danışmağa başlayan körpələr üçün xarakterik
deyil. Və mənim fikrimcə hər iki yazıçının ruhi xəstə obrazı seçməsi məhz bununla
bağlıdır. Digər tərəfdən isə Faulknerin özünün qeyd etdiyinə görə o tamam fərqli bir
təhkiyə üsulu yaratmaq üçün bunu seçmişdir.
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İngilis ədəbiyyatında şüur axını texnikası üzərində qurulan digər bir əsər elə Virginia
Woolf 'un “Mayak” (To the Lighthouse) əsəridir. “Mayak” əsərində Virginia Woolf öz
obrazlarının beyninə daxil olur və və onların fikirlərini şıüur axını texnikası ilə əks etdirir. Şüur axını üçün xaraterik olan bir cəhət bu əsərdə də öz əksini tapıb: əsas yer
obrazın fikirlərinə və hisslərinə verilib. Bədii əsərlər üçün xaraterik olan mobillik və
dialoq zənginliyi bu əsərdə ikinci plandadır. Virginia Woolf əsərləri üçün xarakterik
olan bir cəhət bu əsərdə də öz əksini tapıb: o öz qəhrəmanlarını onların fikirləri, xatirələri,
bir-birinə olan münasibəti və reaksiyası vasitəsilə təqdim edir və bu yolla inkişaf etdirir.
Əsərin başlanğıcıdakı səhnədə stol arxasında oturmuş Mrs Ramsay'nin düşüncələri vasitəsilə müəllif səhnəni bizə təqdim edir. Xanıma görə otaq çirkin, insanlar düşüncəsizdirlər. Amma ondan savayı stol ətrafında oturanların heç birini otağın çirkli olması maraqlandırmır. Onun öz əri haqqında düşünücələri də burada öz əksini tapır. O bilmir
ki, öz ərini sevirmi yaxud nə vaxtsa sevibmi. Müəllif Mrs Ramsay haqqında isə digər
bir obrazın vasitəsi ilə oxucuya məlumat çatdırır. Əsərin digər bir hissəsində Lily vasitəsi
ilə biz Mrs Ramsay haqqında öyrənirik.
Beləliklə, nə qədər çətin, anlaşıqsız, kimi tənqidlərə məruz qalsa da həm James
Joyce, həm də Virginia Woolf İngilis ədəbiyyatını çox böyük yazıçıları sırasında hər
zaman qeyd olunur. Hər iki müəllif şüur axını texnikasından istifadə edərək nəinki İngilis ədəbiyyatının hətta dünya ədəbiyyatını ölməz əsərlərini yaratmışlar. Elə James
Joyce’un özünü dediyi kimi bu əsərlər hələ çox təhlil olunacaq.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Anderson, Deland (1990). Through Days of Easter: Time and Narrative in The Sound and the Fury.
Literature and Theology
Eagleton, Therry Literary Theory, Blackwell Publishing 2008, (pp,28,164)
Faulkner, William The Sound and the fury Vintage International 1984
Friedman, Melvin. Stream of Consciousness: A Study in Literary Method, 1955. (p 32-38)
Guerin, Wilfred et al A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature, Oxford University Press 2005
(pp,104,180,192,291,300-301,372)
Humphrey, Robert. Stream of Consciousness in the Modern Novel, 1954. (p p,122-124)
http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/w/woolf/virginia/w91md/
http://www.online-literature.com/james_joyce/ulysses/
SYMBOLISM IN JAMES JOYCE'S "ARABY"
Narmin Veledova
Qafqaz University, Undergraduate Student
ABSTRACT
Joyce, James Augustine, was one of the most radical innovators of twentieth century writing, who
dedicated himself to exuberant exploration of the total resources of language . He was an Irish novelist and
poet, considered to be one of the most influential writers in the modernist avant-garde of the early twentieth
century.
167
Dubliners is a series of short, interrelated stories which deal with the lives of ordinary people, whose
actions are invested with a symbolic profundity. Joyce explores what would become central themes in his
work: youth, adolescence, adulthood and maturity, and how identify is affected by these different stages in life.
Araby is the third of the fifteen stories in Dubliners. “Araby” is a short story centering on an Irish
adolescent emerging from boyhood fantasies into the harsh realities of everyday life in his country. Joyce
based this coming-of-age tale, which he wrote in 1905, on his own experiences while growing up in Dublin
in the late nineteenth century.
Key words: James Joyce, works, Dubliners, Araby , symbols.
Giriş
Ceyms Avqustin Aloizius Coys İrland yazıçısı və şairidir, iyirminci əsrin ən nüfüzlu
yazıçılarından biri hesab olunur. Coysun ilk nəşr olunmuş “Chamber Music” adlı kitabı
otuz altı poemadan ibarətdir. “Chamber Music” muxtəlif üslublarda yazılmış sevgi
haqqında şeirlərdən ibarətdir . Ceyms Coysun sevilən işlərindən bıri də “Dublinliler”
olmuşdur. Bu, qisa hekayələrdən ibarət kitabdır. “Sənətkarın bir gənc olaraq portreti”
Coysun ilk romanıdır ve oz tecrubesine dayanaraq tertib etmisdir. “Surgunlər” əsəri
Coysun yeganə səhnəyə qoyulmuş əsəridir. Coys “Uliss” romanına göre daha çox məşhurdur . Ceyms Coysun sonuncu əsəri “Finneqans Veyk” olmuşdur, bu əsər on yeddi
hissədən və dörd kitabdan ibarətdir. Coys həmçinin tənqidi oçerklər və nəsr əsərlərinin
de müəllifidir.
Coys Dublində orta səviyyəli bir ailədə anadan olub, onun atası Con həvəskar aktyor
və məşhur tenor olub, onun anası Meri isə istedadlı pianist olub. Coys Klongoves və
Belvedere kolleclərində sonra isə Dublin Universitetində oxumuşdur. Burada o daha
çox fəlsəfə və dil üzrə ozünü təkminləşdirmişdi. Təhsilini başa vurduqdan sonra o İrlandiyanı tərk edib, lakin anasının xəstəliyinə görə bir ildən sonra Parisdən qayıtmalı olub.
Anasının vəfatından sonra gələcək həyat yoldaşı Nora ilə Parisə qayıdıb və həyatlarına
burada davam etdirmişlər. Ceyms Avropanın Triest, Paris ve Surix şəhərlərində daimi
olaraq yaşamışdır. Baxmayaraqkı, onun həyatının yetkin dövürləri xaricdə keçib, Dublinə qarşı olan istəyi, sevgisi çox böyük olub. Bunu əsərlərındə də qeyd edib.
Dublinlilər
Dublinlilər Ceyms Coys tərəfindən yazılmış on beş qısa hekayədən ibarət kitabdır,
ilk dəfə 1914 cü ildə nəşr olunmuşdur. Onlar əsasən iyirminci əsrin əvvəllərində İrlandiya və Dublinin həyatından bəhs edir. Hekayələr İrlandiyanın milliyətçilik zirvəsində
olan vaxtı yazılmışdır. Tarix və mədəniyyət kəsişməsi zamanı İrlandiya muxtəlif ideyaların təsiri altına düşmüşdü. Coysun ideyalarının əsas məğzi görünüş olmuşdur “Dublinlilər”dəki xarakterlərin bir çoxu sonra “Uliss” əsərinde kiçik rollar şəklində toplanır.
Toplu şəkildə götürsək hekayələr yaşı az olan baş qəhrəmanlar tərəfindən deyilir, bununla belə, hekayələr oxunduqca yaşlı insanların həyatından və qayğılarından danışılır.
Bu uşaqlıq, yeniyetməlik və yetişkinlik Ceyms Coysun üçtərəfli bölgüsü ilə əlaqəlidir.
Arabi
Arabi “Dublinlilər” romanında on beş müstəqil hekayədən üçüncüsüdür.
Hekayənin danışanı ilk olaraq hansı küçədə yaşadığını təsvir edir. Oğlan bu evə
köçməmişdən əvvəl burada yaşayan indi isə ölü olan bir kahindən danışır. O, burada
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April 27, 2012
xalası və dayısı ilə yaşayırdı. Oğlan eyni zamanda bu küçədə dostu ilə oynadığı oyunları
xatırlayır. Dotunun adı Manqan olub. Oğlan Manqanın bacısının qabağını kəsmək üçün
kölgələrdə gizlənirdi.
O, Manqanın bacısına vurulmuşdu. O, qız haqqında hər an düşünürdü və qorxurduki,
onun həç zaman qızla danışmağa cəsarəti çatmaz.
Bir gün səhər qız oğlana yaxınlaşaraq onun Arabiyə gedib getməyəcəyini soruşur,
bu Dublində bir bazardır. Qız məktəbi ilə əlaqədar ora gədə bilməyəcəyini deyir.
Oğlan böyük məmnuniyyətlə gedəcəyini və ona bir hədiyye də alacağını deyir.
O, dayısından icazə alır və ancaq o günün gəlməsini səbirsizliklə gözləyir. Nəhayət
o gün gəlir və o dayısına axşam bazara getmək istədiyini deyir və xaiş edirki, dayısı evə
vaxtında gəlsin, ona bazara getmək üçün və xərcləmək üçün biraz pul versin. Həmin
axsam amma dayısı gecikir onun getməli olduğunu unudur. Dayısı artıq gec olduğunu
getməməyini deyir amma oğlan getmək istəyində israrlı olur və dayısından qatar üçün
biraz pul istəyir.
O, çatanda bazar artıq bağlanırdı , ancaq bir iki yer açıq idi. Onun baxdıqlarına isə
pulu çatmırdı. İşıqlar yavaş yavaş sönür və oğlan ümüdini itirərək geri dönür.
Simvollar
Simvollar mücərrəd fikirləri və konsepsiyaları təmsil etmək üçün istifadə olunan
obyeklər,xarakterlər ,fiqurlar və yaxud rənglərdir.
Pəncərələr
“Dublinlilər” də pəncərələr baş verəcək hadisələri və ya toqquşmaları ardıcıl sürətdə
göstərir. Misal olaraq, “Bacılarda” rəvayət edən hər gecə pəncərədən baxır, həmçinin
“Arabi” də rəvayət edən şəxs öz otağının pəncərəsindən Manqanın bacısına tamasa
edir. Pəncərələr burada daxili və xarici aləmin mərkəzi nöqtəsidir.
Toranlıq və Gecə vaxtı
Coysun “Dublinlilər”hekayələr toplusu demək olarki,qaranlıq səhnələrdən ibarətdir.
Gün işığı və yaxud şən mənzərələrin heç biri bu hekayələri işıqlandırmır. Əvəzində boz
tonlar və qara onların zülmət tonlarını göstərir. Xarakterlər Dublinin qaranlıq vaxtlarında
canlandırılır və onlar həyatları ilə bağlı hadisələri sonuncu saatlarda, qaranlıq vaxtlarda
yaşayırlar.. Bu tünd fonlar ‘Dublinlilər’də yarı həyatı canlandırır. Biz bu qaranlığı
“Arabi’ hekayəsində görmüşük.
Manqanın bacısı
Manqanın bacisı onun diqqətini dağıdan qız olub və onun ağlından heç çıxmayib.
Manqanın bacısı onun arzusu olmuşdu lakin hekayə boyu o qızın adı verilməyib. Niyə?
çünki, o bilirdiki onun arzusu xəyali bir şeydir.
Arabi
“Arabi” sözü əsərdə çox mühüm yer tutur, elə bu adından da görünür. „Arabi“
ərəblər üçün çox qədim bir addır. „Arabi“ Dublində olan Şərqi ətirlər satılan bir yerdir.
Oğlanın ora getmək istəyi də güclü olub və belə nəticəyə gəlirikki, ‚“Arabi“ oğlan üçün
yeni dünya arzusu imis.
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Dediyimiz kimi, Ceyms Coys iyirminci əsrin ən nüfuzlu yazıçılarından biri hesab
olunur. Onun əsərlərində istifadə etdiyi simvollardan həmçinin, Ceyms Coysun yaradıcılığından muasir yazıçılar istifadə etməkdədirlər.
1.
2.
3.
ƏDƏBİYYAT
Norton Anthology of English literature
Encyclopedia of World Biography.
www.jamesjoyce.ie
THE ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH CASTLES NAMES
Salmanli Aysel
Qafqaz University
ABSTRACT
Stone Age people lived in caves and made defenses to keep out wild animals. The first towns and
cities had walls to keep out invaders. Kings and nobles fortified their large homes to protect themselves.
The first castles were built by the Normans in England. The great age of castles began almost 1,000
years ago and lasted for nearly 500 years. The names were not originated from one language but also from
different sources.
We know that the English people’s root comes from the Celts and Anglo-Saxons. Before the last few
hundred years, the English language had no fast system of spelling rules. For that reason, spelling variations
are commonly found in early Anglo-Saxon surnames. Over the years, many variations of the name Castle
were recorded, including Castle, Castell, Castles, Castel, Castello and others. It was found first time in
Sussex where they held a family seat from very ancient times.
Key words: Castle, Origin, Normans.
The origin of the English castles names
Is the Etymology of a Word Its True Definition? Where Do Words Come From?
An etymology tells us where a word came from and what it used to mean. Though,
people sometimes try to make this argument. The word etymology is derived from the
Greek word etymon, which means "the true sense of a word." But in fact the original
meaning of a word is often different from its contemporary definition. The meanings
of many words have changed over time, and older senses of a word may grow uncommon
or disappear entirely from everyday use. New words have entered (and continue to
enter) the English language in many different ways. Here are some of the most common ways. One of them is borrowing. The majority of the words used in modern English
have been borrowed from other languages. Although most of our vocabulary comes
from Latin and Greek (often by way of other European languages), English has borrowed
words from more than 300 different languages around the world.
Where do the castles names come? And what is the meaning of the “castle”?
This word is coming from early medieval English topographical origin, and is
derived from the Anglo-Norman French "castel", castle, fortified building or set of
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April 27, 2012
buildings, especially the residence of a feudal lord. The name could also have denoted
a servant who lived and worked at such a place. Topographical surnames were among
the earliest created, since both natural and man-made features in the landscape provided
easily recognisable distinguishing names. The name development since 1154 includes
the following: Henry de Castell (1260, Cambridgeshire), John del Castel (1307, Yorkshire), and William ate Castele (1317, Kent). The saga of the name Castle follows a line
reaching back through history to the days of the Anglo-Saxon tribes in Britain. It was
a name for someone who worked as a person who worked in a castle. The original bearer
of the surname Castle may have held the post of governor or constable of the castle.
However, the surname might also be derived from residence near a castle, or from
services or rent owed to a castle. The surname Castle is derived from the Old Norman
French word castel, which means castle.
During the period of the Fall of the Roman Empire and the Rise of the Anglo Saxons
there were built many burhs in England. 'What is the Burhs? ’Burhs' or 'Burghs' is a
meaning of which meant "fortress" or castle. The meaning gradually changed from
"fortress," to "fortified town," to simply "town". The word 'Burhs' later changed to
Burgh, Bury then Borough which are evident in many modern British place names.
Any such place name is an immediate indication that signifies that a Burh was once
built in the area. What was the difference between the Burhs and Castles? Burhs were
developed as a community effort where as a castle was a private enterprise. A castle
was privately owned under Royal license.
Many place names are derived from the person or group of people who first settled
in the area. The earliest of these place names usually end in ing which is derived from
the Old English ingas and originally meant 'dependants or relatives' of a certain man.
British place names contain elements that can be traced back to the languages spoken
by at least five quite distinct groups of people. The Welsh, the Scots, and the Irish are
well aware that they have often been invaded by the English (amongst others). And a
brief excursion into English history will reveal that the country has been invaded by the
Celts, the Romans, the Anglo-Saxons, the Scandinavians, and the French. All of these
groups contributed words which make up the place names we have today.
The Celts
The Celts were one of the many tribes living in Europe in the years before Christ.
The Celts from Northern France and the Netherlands settled in England. They were
known as the Brythons (Britons). Later, Celts from Southern France settled in Ireland.
They spoke Goidelic (Gaelic).
The Celts left behind names that are found most abundantly in the North and West.
They also gave names to many rivers. Celtic names are often found in isolated spots
which suggest that more remote groups remained Celtic-speaking long after other groups
had accepted that language of the Anglo-Saxons.
One of the castles take its name from the celts. That castle is Balmoral castle. The
name Balmoral from the Gaelic, meaning is Majestic Residence.
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The Windsor
One of the most famous castles in England is a Windsor. Windsor began as a Saxon
village. The name Windsor is believed to be a corruption of the Saxon words 'windlass
Oran' meaning a bank with a windlass. After the Saxons founded the settlement it grew
into a town because of its position by a river. The original settlement was at Old Windsor
but William built a castle on an escarpment at Clewer. Windsor Castle, which was
strengthened and improved by Henry II and Henry III, would have a large staff of defenders and servants and provided a market for the townspeople’s goods.
Here comes the other castle. The Buckingham Palace is a palace and London residence of the British sovereign. It is situated within the borough of Westminister. The palace
takes its name from the house built (c. 1705) for John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham.
It was bought in 1762 by George III for his wife, Queen Charlotte, and became known
as the queen’s house.
The Camelot castle
The Legends and stories about Camelot create an enduring impression of a wonderful,
mystical castle and land where Knights in shining armour lived to an honourable Code
of Chivalry. Did Camelot really exist? There is no historical evidence that King Arthur
existed. The Arthurian legends were based on the books written by the clerics of the
Medieval era or the Middles Ages. But there is some evidence that King Arthur might
have been based on a real person.
Where did the name Camelot originate? There is some speculation that Camelot
was derived from the Latin word 'Camelodunum'. The oldest known literature about
King Arthur makes no reference to Camelot by name. Camelot is first mentioned explicitly in the romance called Lancelot written by the French poet Chretien de Troyes
between 1170 and 1185. The patroness of Chretien de Troyes was the Countess Marie
de Champagne who was the daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine who married King Henry
II of England. The name Camelot is mentioned as follows:"Upon a certain Ascension
Day King Arthur had come from Caerleon, and had held a very magnificent court at
Camelot as was fitting on such a day. But the legends of Camelot are legion - there are
no definitive answers!
After learning this information we understand that the English castles names
originated from not only one language, but also different sources. For that reason, the
English castles names have various origins.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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http://primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/celts.htm
http://primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/Castles.html
http://www.guide-to-castles-of-europe.com/english-castles.html
http://primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/castles/normancastles.htm
http://primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/castles/motteandbailey.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camelot
April 27, 2012
APPROACHES TO SHEAKESPEARE ‘S OTHELLO
Sevda Huseynova
Qafqaz University
ABSTRACT
Othello is the tragedy of a noble hero brought down by a fatal flaw -- jealousy -- in his character.
Shakespeare's other great tragedies -- Hamlet, King Lear and Macbeth -- deal with issues that affect the
well-being of entire nations, whereas Othello is a domestic tragedy with timeless themes such as love, hate,
jealousy, intrigue, revenge, trust, suspicion, self-interest, racism, judgment and reason. Here we have
humanity in all its dazzling diversity.
Key words: Otello, tragedy, love, jealousy, humanity.
There is hardly a person in this world that doesn’t know anything or at least never
heard the name of Shakespeare. This figure is famous not only because of his talent and
masterpieces in literature, but for his enigmatic life as well. Only some general facts
are known about him and his life, but the certain part of his life is still covered with
mystery.
John Shakespeare and Mary Arden had a child in April of 1564 in Stratford-uponAvon. It is not possible to find the record of his birth, but the baptism was written in
church and thus his birth date is considered to be the 23d of April. His father was
alderman in the same town. The sources do not provide enough information about the
youth of Shakespeare, it is known that he attended the Stratford Grammar School and
then could not proceed to Oxford or Cambridge. In the year 1582 he married the girl,
whose name was Anne Hathaway. They had a daughter in a year and later on twins. By
the year 1589 people talked about Shakespeare as about an actor, a poet and a playwright.
Later he joined “The Lord Chamberlain’s Men”-this was a really famous acting troupe
in London. In 1599 this troupe lost lease of the theatre called “The Theatre”; they had
enough money to build their own theater - “The Globe”. It was opened in July 1599,
the motto of it was: “Totus mundus agit historionem” – meaning “a whole world of
players” (J. Bate, 85).By the year 1603 James the first came to throne and the troupe
was renamed into “King’s Men”. In their patent was mentioned that they are “free to
use and exercise the art and faculty of playing Comedies, Tragedies, Histories, Interludes,
Morals, Pastorals, stage plays… as well for recreation of our loving subjects as for
our solace and pleasure.” (S. Wells, 335). Thus the entertaining programs for the king
started and then lasted for another ten years, afterwards the theatre burned. The theatre
was reconstructed and Shakespeare contributed to this reconstruction, but he never
returned to the stage again, he went on writing his works and at the age of 52, on the
same day he was born, he died.
Shakespeare is the author of many masterpieces; one of them is his play – Othello.
If to take the period between 1603 and 1604 “Othello” is the most remarkable tragedy
written by Shakespeare. In Othello we find the combination of most vital human emotions
and feelings – hate and love. The story is serious and ironical. We can not judge about
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any point of view because there is no narrator in a play, the play tells the audience about
an honest and noble man who can be influenced so that he is ready to kill the woman
he loves. This tragedy is well known all over the world and there are even set phrases
about the main hero and his jealousy.
The main plot of the tragedy comes from Giraldi Clinthio’s Gli Hecatommithi that
was a tale about love and betrayal. But the characters and themes still differ a lot.
Shakespeare pays more attention to human nature and psychology. The important
difference lies for example in the motivations that Iago had, in the version of Cithio
Iago just wanted to revenge on Desdemona for her refusal, in the Shakespeare’s play
the situation is more complicated.
The play of Shakespeare is as well connected with the important matter in Europe
at that time, the Muslim religion and culture and their relations with West. The play
was written a century later after the Muslims were moved from Spain, and the readers
and audience could feel the hostility towards Othello because of his origin, religion
beliefs and culture. The conflict between Venice and Turks presents the same hostility
between West and East. The Venetians are trying to protect Christendom from the
coming influence of Muslim Turks, the irony is in the fact that Othello is sent to manage
this mission.
Some researches state that Othello is a good example of Aristotelian drama: there
are not many characters in the play, for Shakespeare this was actually the smallest set
of characters, some certain distractions from the main plot line and concentration on
several themes, including for example jealousy in this case. This play of Shakespeare
proves to be of a great interest for its readers from the very moment it appeared.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
174
G. B. Harrison, Shakespeare’s Tragedies (ROUTLEDGE and KEGAN PAUL LTD, Broadway
House,68-74 Carter Lane, London, E.C.4)
G. Taylor, Reinventing Shakespeare (1989); 98-265
J. Bate, The Genius of Shakespeare (1997); 2-87
Prof. Dr. Sh. Khalilli and S. Magill, Shakespeare’s English Historic Plays (Qafqaz University Press,
N: 41, Baku, 2009)
S. Greenblatt, Will in the World (2004), 13-19
S. Wells, ed., Current Approaches to Shakespeare: Language, Text, Theatre, and Ideology (1988);
333-335
Vilyam Şekspirin seçilmiє əsərləri, Sabir Mustafayev (Öndər nəşriyyat, Bakı, 2004)
www.enotes.com
www.wikipedia.org
EDUCATION
175
MODERN APPROACHES IN ENGLISH
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Shirley A. Stanley
Qafqaz University, Baku, 27 April, 2012
I would like to thank all of you for coming together today to discuss one of the most
important activities necessary in an institution of higher learning – RESEARCH.
Oftentimes, I am hesitant to spend conference time thanking individuals on such
an occasion as this because there is always the risk of omitting the name of some one
person who has been essential for the creation of my presentation. On this occasion,
however, I would be negligent if I did not publicly thank at least a few people. If your
name is not on this list, please know that you are still important to this work. I have
shortened the public listing only due to time and space constraints.
First, I want to thank the Rektor, Dr. Ahmet Sanic, and CAG Education Systems
for allowing me the privilege of participating in the work of this great university named
Qafqaz University. Next, it is essential to thank Cehun Mikayilov, a mathematician on
the Qafqaz Faulty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of World
Economy. Without this man, it would have been impossible to prepare my presentation
quickly and skillfully for you today. He has proven to be a mathematician, statistician,
and scholar of the highest order. Kaitlin Ward, my colleague and friend has generously
taught me much in the short time I have known her. She is herself a superb educator
who really cares about her students. Yagut Bakhshaliyeva is a native Azerbaijani
renaissance woman. This woman has talent in so many different areas, that it will be
impossible for Qafqaz to utilize all of her many skills and insights. It will be impossible
simply because of the large number of things this woman knows and can do. Without
Yagut, I would not have survived those first weeks at Qafqaz University.
Of course, I want to thank the Faculty of Pedagogy of the Department of English
Language and Literature, who specifically invited me to participate in this conference.
Research is essential.
In order to give this subject due respect, I must state plainly, “Without research,
there is no university.”
Without research, there is no university!
Without research, there may be a school or there may be a building in which teachers
give instruction to students, but without research, this entity is not a university.
Why is it important for you as teachers to conduct research?
1. Without research, you cannot know what fields must be taught.
2. Without research, you cannot know which things within a given field need to be
taught.
3. Without research, you cannot know who to teach.
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April 27, 2012
4. Without research, you cannot know how to teach.
5. Without research, you cannot know if your teaching was successful.
If you are teaching using the exact same methods and educational strategies you
used when you graduated and obtained your initial degree, you are not teaching well.
If you are teaching using the exact same methods and educational strategies you
used last term, you are not teaching well.
If you are teaching by blindly following a “canned” curriculum or course exactly
as presented by another person or company, you are not teaching well.
What things are necessary in order to do research?
1. Curiosity, or an inquiring mind
2. An open mind
3. Knowledge of effective techniques for the different types of research.
4. Knowledge of statistics
5. Willingness to expend time and energy in personal learning
When should you be doing research?
You should be doing research at all times you are not sleeping.
Informally, you do research constantly. You might research to select the best market
to buy good vegetables at a fair price. You might research the best method of transportation for commuting to Qafqaz University. This is continually occurring informal
research that most human beings do constantly as part of their everyday lives.
Formal research should be just as ubiquitous as the informal research you do in
order to make decisions in your everyday life.
Formal research allows you to live your teaching life as skillfully as you live your
human life.
I spend a minimum of two hours of preparation time for every single hour of class
time where I am actively engaged in working with students. A portion of this preparation
time is always devoted to devising research methods and strategies for use in my
classroom as well as for analyzing the results of that research which has been conducted
already.
This is because I change my teaching methods based upon the results of my continual
research.
I will share with you a few tidbits from a bit of research I did with my students the
first week of this term. I did this research so that I could effectively teach best. In other
words, this research was not conducted for the purposes of presenting at this conference.
Instead, it was conducted because I am a teacher and I needed to research my students
in order to tailor specific teaching strategies to the students I have. Otherwise, I would
be devising teaching methods and strategies based upon some mythical, “usual” or
“average” student. If that “mythical” student was not like MY student, then those “same
old – same old” or “standard” teaching methodologies would be ineffective.
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One size shirt will not fit every person attending this conference. One way of
teaching will not fit every student and every situation.
Simply being present in a class with students and teaching in some way does not
equal teaching effectively in much the same way as copying or memorizing does not
equal student learning.
As part of my first week of the new term, I prepared and executed a survey. All of
my students were asked to complete the survey. The survey was written utilizing methods
research has indicated would be most likely to be effective. Next, the surveys were
distributed in class. That class period was spent discussing vocabulary words used in
the survey and the meanings of the questions themselves were discussed. The students
were given the opportunity to ask questions if they did not understand anything at all
on the survey. Only AFTER all this had been done did the students begin their completion
of the survey.
The survey responses were tabulated, and then placed into the form of “pie” graphs.
While this is useful even at this step, there is further analysis to be made in order
to gain the most useful information for planning for students.
In interpreting the results of the survey, many things must be taken into account. For
example, did the students really understand the question? Did the student understand
the meaning of the possible responses? Did the students know how to mark the survey
in order to indicate the student’s real opinions? It must be realized that humans of all
ages tend to over-represent in certain areas of inquiry and under-represent in other areas
of inquiry. (How do we know this? We know this from research.)
This is why learning effective techniques for conducting research is essential. If
you do not know the difference between a “p value” for example and an “n value” then
it is difficult for you to be an effective researcher. If you do not understand fully the
difference between “data” and “information” then it is impossible for you to conduct
effective research.
How can you gain these necessary skills? Take courses in research design and interpretation. Study statistics. Have the good fortune to have a statistician as a friend. There
are innumerable things can be done to improve your ability to conduct effective, useful
research.
Effective research improves the student’s ability to learn, the teacher’s ability to
instruct skillfully, and raises the status of your profession. Research does this for your
profession by adding to the collective knowledge available to everyone in your field
as they pursue work in teaching. The more the group knows, the better each individual
can practice.
The world is ever changing and complex. Research is the only way to know “reality”.
If one does not function in the context of reality, then one is just expending effort without
making a positive change or improvement.
The following represents a simplified and abbreviated rendering of the results of
this survey. While I did not have time to specifically include the entire survey or the
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April 27, 2012
actual wording you may still get the idea of how research is useful in the everyday
teacher/student relationship.
Week One Survey
Shirley A Stanley’s Communication Level 4 students Qafqaz University
How many hours a day do you watch television programs in English?
How many hours a day do you listen to radio programs in English
How many?
179
How many times a week do you practice English outside of class?
How many times a week outside of class do you actively seek people
with whom to speak English?
I follow English directions or recipes that are written in English
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April 27, 2012
“INTRODUCING AUTHENTIC LITERATURE
TO AN EFL CLASSROOMS”
Aynur Bashirova
Ganja StateUniversity
The supervisor is Mehdi Rahimov
ABSTRACT
This paper is a review of literature on how literature can be integrated as a language teaching material
in EFL/ESL classes. First, it tracks down the place of literature in language classes from the early Grammar
Translation Method (GTM) to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) era. The paper then discusses
the reasons for the demise and resurrection of literature as an input for language classes. After that the
reasons for and against the use of literature in EFL/ESL classes are enumerated and discussed. I’ll draw
upon recent ideas on language teaching practice and theories. Finally in a practical move, this paper reviews
the past and current approaches to teaching literature in language teaching classes. Literature for language
teaching and learning purposes are deliberated and carefully reflected upon. Literature, in spite of some
weak points it might have as any language teaching material might possess, provides a motivating drive
for language learning and teaching due to its spectacular features not readily found in any other texts. Finally,
in order to practically establish these merits, some of the main methodological approaches to teaching
literature are put forward. Relevant practical classroom techniques can be discerned from these models.
Key Words: EFL, Teaching , GTM ,CLT.
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Introducing Authentic Literature to an EFL Classrooms
It cannot be denied that in universities the language-literature divide in modern
foreign language departments is well-known and longstanding nevertheless, the separation of language from literature in practice involves no rigid dichotomy because “no
teacher of literature ignores linguistic problems and no language teacher really wants
to leave his students speaking an impoverished version of the language”. Researchers
have argued that literature is valuable authentic and motivating material, which is conducive to students’ linguistic development, personal involvement, and cultural enrichment.
To maximize the benefits of literature teaching in language classrooms, selection of
literary text is a crucial issue. Criteria for literature selection generally involve two
aspects: students and the text itself. Regarding the students, the literary text selected
should cater for the students’ tastes, interests and hobbies, and should take into consideration their linguistic proficiency, cultural background, and literary background.
Given the above criteria, selection of literary texts should partly depend on the target
students’ needs and preferences. However, in many ‘literature teaching in language
classrooms’, students’ attitudes toward literature are often neglected or not given due
attention. Instead, the literary texts selected are usually determined by curriculum
authorities, materials writers, or classroom practitioners. But these professionals’ preferences of literature might not be similar to students’, and their assumptions of which
literary text will be motivating and appropriate for students might not always be correct.
Since students are the main beneficiary of literature teaching, and investigations or
surveys of students’ attitudes toward literature are also less conducted in research, it is
worthwhile to investigate students’ attitudes toward literature and their preferences over
different literary genres. Nevertheless, the main purpose of these studies was to examine
the effects of that particular literary genre on EFL students’ development of language
skills. Therefore, students’ positive attitude toward the literary texts taught might be interpreted as their acknowledgement of literary texts as useful instructional materials,
but probably not as their true appreciation of literature for literature’s own sake.
Literature is considered as a promising tool for language learning purposes. There
are various advantages for the use of literature in EFL/ESL classes. The merits of literature in EFL/ESL include: Authenticity, Motivation,Cultural/Intercultural Awareness
and Globalization,Intensive/Extensive Reading Practice, Sociolinguistic/Pragmatic
Knowledge, Grammar and Vocabulary Knowledge, Language Skills, Emotional Intelligence, Critical Thinking.
Literary text selection is based on the following criteria. First, the texts should include works of different genres. Second, the texts should include works of familiar,
established writers, or works with classic status It is because such texts have more ‘face
validity’ and are more easily recognized by EFL students as literature. Moreover, since
this experiment was to enable students to ‘experience’ literature, I consider it essential
to include some classic literature, especially those which the students may have known
the titles but are probably unfamiliar with the contents. Third, the texts should have a
connection with students’ here and now learning context. It would be motivating for
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April 27, 2012
students to study the literature which is currently being discussed in their society, particularly when that literature has been interpreted through other media, such as movies
or musicals. In preparing, I explored the possibility of computer-assisted literature
teaching (CALT). Nowadays, technology has made teaching and learning easier and
more efficient. Nevertheless, most of the technological applications are concerned with
language teaching and learning (e.g. the widespread applications and discussions of computer-assisted language learning), and there have been few technological applications
regarding literature teaching and learning. Since there are also countless literature resources online, teachers should be encouraged to use them to make their literature class
more interesting. It is expected that having students experience literature in different
modes of delivery may add variety and pleasure to literature classes. Moreover, literature
in music, pictures, or films might motivate students to read literature in print. Compared
with the substantial amount of research on students’ attitude toward general foreign
language study, research on students’ attitude toward literature is quite slim. Students’
Perceptions of Literature investigates university students’ attitudes toward the study
of literature in a foreign language as well as the factors affecting their opinions about
literature in general. Moreover, two factors were found to be significantly related to their
attitudes toward literature study, namely, the amount of leisure reading done in the foreign
language, and the preferred learning styles, such as being given opportunities to express
their personal opinions, to look for the underlying meaning of the text, and to read about
people and experiences different from their own. In other words, students’ attitude toward
literature may be influenced not only by their own reading habits but also by the teachers’
instructional methods. It is possible that students have different perceptions of ‘literature
for pleasure’ (i.e. reading literature for its own sake) and ‘literature for instrumental
use’ (e.g. reading literature to sharpen language skills).
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
3.
Brumfit, C.J.(1981). Reading skills and the study of literature in a foreign language. System 9.3, 243–248.
www.onestopenglish.com
Baird, A. (1976). The study and teaching of literature.ELT Journal XXX, 281–286
QUALIFIED EDUCATION AND ITS GLORIOUS FUTURE
Aygun Guliyeva
Ganja State University
Supervisor M. Rahimov
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
My current article is about the productive teaching method of grammar. Here I offer different methods
of teaching so that to improve the teaching quality and to provide our education system with new methods
that belong to my own experience. “Education is the future of nation” by Heydar Aliyev Education is
regarded as the base system and the inseparable part of the government. Of course, while speaking of the
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target matter, our national leader took into consideration a deeply rooted and a qualified education system.
As a future young teacher, the burden of a good education lies in our shoulders, I'd say.
It is a real fact that if any of the students of foreign language faculty is asked “What do you want to
become?” -among the 100% of the given answers you'll hardly be able to hear any opinion like “I want to
be a teacher”. So, there is a serious obstacle in the methodology of teaching process. As the grammar is
regarded as the ‘backbone” of the language, I found it necessary to touch upon the teaching of this aspect.
Most students, especially those who want to access language learning run away from the ridged grammar
rules as far as possible. The theme of my dissertation work is “modality”. That’s why I'll draw your atention
to this side of grammar.
Key words: Education, modality, methods.
In the center of all processes stands the problem of “human being” -an individual,
a person with certain psychological character, with his complicated qualities. In all these
complications there appears an urgent need to express one's feelings in foreign language.
Fairly speaking, I improved my English in this way. Every time when I listened to my
heart, every time when I heard its constant beatings there was a great need to utter it in
English. So, I had to look up dictionary for any unknown word that I didn’t know. But,
of course, the chain of words is not sufficient for expressing deeper emotions. This is
here that modality “comes” to answer our calls. Modality is the life itself, I would say.
To teach modality just on the basis of strict, ridged grammar rules will lose its beauty,
its significance. If we carry on like this, students will pay no attention either to the
teacher or to the lesson she teaches.
For example, while speaking of the modal verb “can” and its function denoting physical or mental ability, if you cite such an example as “I can speak English” then wait
nothing from your teaching method. As John Locke said: “It is difficult to instruct
children because of their natural inattention; the true mode, of course, is to first make
our modes interesting to them”.
I offer my own method: Try to start the lesson with construction “once upon a
time…” as if you are going to narrate a tale of something mysterious or with such
gestures, intonations and emotions as though you speak of your personal life (students
are curious about their teacher's personal life-especially when she is young and pretty).
They will glaze at what you are talking about. Even the most chatter-box girls will be
eager about what you are going to say later. Speak about love matters, marriage relationship and include the grammar lesson that you are going to teach in this frame. In case
of choosing examples appropriate to any grammar rule give such sentences that reflect
the moral commotions of your students. For example: “You could put all the hearts
together in the world and that still wouldn’t describe how much I love you” instead of “I
could speak English when I was a child” while teaching the use of modal verbs “could”,
”would”, or “may you never feel what I then felt, may your eyes never shed such stormy,
heart-wrung tears as poured from mine” instead of “may I use your phone?”.
Stimulate your students. Ask them to write compositions on the matters they are
mostly interested in, as “Friendship between Men and Women”. It will help them to
enrich the bulk of vocabulary. In my monthly pedagogical experiment I gave them such
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instruction. Results admired everyone. Even one of the students had drawn a beautiful
picture under her writing. I hung it from the board of glory.
Praise them, but no often. Ask some questions those who are morally far away from
the lesson as if you are interested in them and whether they have girl-friends or not (in
most cases it belongs to boys). They will awake from their sleep. Ask them to write
their opinions about their friends in English. But don't forget: they have to use current
grammar rule or speech pattern. Because we have our definite aim-to involve them and
teach by this method.
Speak about your achievements. Be sincere as much as possible. They will appreciate
you and ask questions that they are interested in. run away of using any word that will
insult them. Don’t be rude.
At the end of my article I'd like to stress that a responsible teacher is a real treasure
of the future development of the state system. That’s all what I noticed in my monthly
pedagogical experiment.
REFERENCES
1.
V.L. Kaushanskaya “A grammar of the English language”, Baki, 2004
2.
Http: arts.uwaterloo.ca/~oops/quotes.php.
THE ROLE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Sadigli Aysel
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
September 20th, 1994 after 3,5 years of arduous negotiations, Contract of the Century was signed to
develop Azerbaijan's Caspian oil reserves.
At that time there were a number of barriers one of which was knowledge of English for implementation
of the Contract. Workers in oil fields were not able to communicate, report or evaluate in English. Even
those who knew English had no idea of applying it in industrial operations. Where was the solution? Employ
all the workers from abroad? The project was believed to open new opportunities and ensure thousands
of occupations.
Key words: English, education, oil, gas.
A group of scientists proposed to teach the workers the English language. For the
first time, thanks to Agreement of total $7.4 billion investment, workers started to learn
English. But there was no time for teaching them Alphabet by means of the following
cliché:
A – is for Apple, B – is for Book, C – is for Cat.
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The new approach was introduced, carrying out all the lessons not at the desk but
in oil fields. The industry urgently needed technology, education and specialists. The
scientific exchange started where visitors from Baku were sent for learning new methods
of well deepening and exploitation.
The new Alphabet was:
A – for Assessment,
B – for Barrel,
C – for Capacity.
The birthplace of the international oil industry, Azerbaijan by realization of the
“Contract of the Century” gained a brilliant result in conducting right oil policy. This
Contract gave opportunity to thousands of workers to integrate in World oil industry
by learning English as an international language. Language barrier was very important
for cooperation and experience exchange.
When we begin to learn a foreign language, we usually use a book whose first
chapters are filled with: "Hello, how are you? My name is Jane." Of course, that would
seem easier to learn, but there was no time to wait for years until the workers manage
the challenge of mastering another tongue.
One of the modern approaches of teaching was Heinrich Schliemann's method.
The famous 19th-century German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890),
who pursued a life-long dream of excavating the remains of Homeric Troy, no doubt
was a genius for language. Within two years, he taught himself fluent Dutch, English,
French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and later learnt seven more languages, including
both modern and ancient Greek.
How could we, who generally consider ourselves lucky if we manage to learn only
one or two foreign languages in entire lifetime, not be curious about the method he used?
"In order to acquire quickly the Greek vocabulary," Schliemann wrote, "I procured a
modern Greek translation of 'Paul et Virginie' [a French novel; Schliemann already
knew French], and read it through, comparing every word with its equivalent in the
French original. When I had finished this task I knew at least one half the Greek words
the book contained; and after repeating the operation I knew them all, or nearly so,
without having lost a single minute by being obliged to use a dictionary. I never lost
my precious time in studying grammar rules."
He doesn't say how he learned to pronounce ancient Greek, but since nobody speaks
it any more, this probably didn't really matter to him too much. Oil workers were taught
English by this way. They knew the process and terminology. The only thing workers had
to do was studying reports, manuals in two languages by comparing every single word.
The other modern approach is between learning music and learning languages.
Musicians are known to have a special talent for picking up new languages. There are
many famous classical musicians who speak several languages with relative ease. Normally, we attribute this ability to the musician's superior listening skills, and this is no
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doubt part of it: the more we train ourselves to listen carefully, the better we will be able
to pronounce foreign words.
Obviously, mastering a foreign language has much to do with our natural talents.
German Grand Master of Chess, Robert Hübner in his article described his visit to
Hungary, but unfortunately, he didn't speak the language. He bought a good book, boarded the train, and when he arrived in Budapest after an eight-hour journey, he could
speak Hungarian more than well enough to get by. Presumably, Herr Hübner had a
photographic memory and an extremely high IQ.
Make a commitment to your goal, and follow through on it with enthusiasm, even
obsession: that's the surest ticket to learning a foreign language in record time!
Just as it's important to have the "feel" of a piece of music in order to play it well,
you must also have the "sense" of a language.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
REFERENCES
Mir-Babayev, M.F., “Brief chronology of the history of Azerbaijan’s oil business”. Baku, “Sabah”,
2004, 200 s. ISBN 978-5-86106-083-7
Mir-Babayev, M.F., "The Contribution of Azerbaijan to the World's Oil Industry", "Reservoir"
(Canada), Issue 3, March, 2011, pp. 30–31.
http://www.language-learning-tips.com/17_Schliemanns_method.htm
http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/24_folder/24_articles/24_aioc.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Azerbaijan#.22Contract_of_the_Century.22_and_
following_years.
MODERN APPROACHES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Echon Mendoza Alina
Odlar Yurdu University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
My report is about 4 main problems in our modern education system, problems that every student,
every university, every teacher has to deal with. But if we’ll be brave enough to face them and analyze
realities of education problems we can get rid of them. The first problem that had been touched in my report
is disinterest in the subject studied by students. There are some tips for teachers to make their lessons more
interesting. The second problem that I want to emphasize is the incompetence of teachers and hesitation
of teachers to develop their knowledge in a modern ways and denial of new books and methods. I described
some new methods and literature that students would be more interested to learn. The third problem that
I point out in my report is absence of modern equipment in most of local universities, which leads to
students’ disinterest in learning. The forth problem is absence of student assessment methods which could
divide students according to their knowledge level. Besides these four, there are many other significant
problems touched and described in my report.
Key words: teaching methods, problems, literature, students, solution.
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Learning foreign language is not an easy task. The primary goal of teachers (that
is alive people, not any self-study methods) is to simplify the learning process and help
students to overcome any obstacles on the road of mastering the new skills. I would
like to draw your attention to the 4 main difficulties teachers usually experience, and
which modern educational system still can't deal with.
The first problem is disinterest in the subject studied by students. There may be
two reasons correspond for this.
1. Inability of teacher to present material under study the right way.
2. Wrong choice of profession (teacher or translator) or wrong choice of target language
by students & lack of motivation.
If the student is doubting about English as target language, the teacher should explain that: over 410 mln people speak English as a first language, with over 1 mlrd (2007)
speaking it as an additional language.1 It is the official language of the United Nations
and aviation. It’s the most widely used language in science and on the Internet. If two
non-native speakers want to communicate, it’s likely they’ll do it in English. English
is the international language that gives many opportunities.
About doubts choosing profession: actually teacher can’t predetermine the choice
of each student, mostly the choice is dictated by parents (according to their family traditions or social status) or society (social trends), but teacher can direct study in path
of interest of student.
About inability of teacher to present material under study on a right way:
There are about 10 well known methods and approaches of teaching English language.
What is a teaching method?
Teaching method is a way of teaching a language which is based on systematic
principles and procedures, i.e., which is an application of views on how a language is
best taught and learned.2
Methods of language teaching include:
1. Grammar-translation approach
2. Direct approach or the natural method
3. Reading approach
4. Audio-lingual method
5. Suggestopedia
6. Total Physical Response (TPR)
7. Communicative language teaching (CLT)
8. Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP)
9. Task-based method
10. The silent way3
But along this methods teacher should use alternative methods considering the
physiological characteristics and the need of each student.
As in my opinion:
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1. Karaoke-is one of the greatest non-traditional ways of learning English as a spoken
language.
2. Second is crossword, puzzles, quizzes, “Wheel of fortune” - this kind of interactive
games does not bore students and develops their thinking skills, learning new words
broaden vocabulary
3. Conversations or conversation clubs on a different interesting actual topic, so students
can stay up to date Also on this conversation clubs students can discuss poetry,
written by them or written by their favorite authors. It will also expand their vocabulary.
4. Movies with subtitles-so students can hear daily conversations and get used to them.
5. Reading interesting novels, fiction, English literature classics and further discussion
expands vocabulary of students. Reading literature is also important for students'
moral development.
6. Using audio materials .Learning and repeating them under teacher’s control.
As we see teachers’ main goal should be the expanding of students’ vocabulary
because:
The importance of vocabulary
•
2000 words is recognized as the absolute minimum a language learner needs –the
“survival” level
• “knowing” 2000 words means that about 80% of a text will be understood( or 1 in
5 words will be unknown)
• “knowing” 10 000 words means that 93% of a text will be understood –this is the
ideal target for a language learner.4
The second major problem is the incompetence of teachers and hesitation of teachers
to develop their knowledge in a modern ways and denial of new books and methods.
Despite the boring titles, often forced upon high school students, classics of British
literature have well-paced plots and interesting stories.
Surely every high school student has had to read at one time or another one of the
interminably long and dry books that English teachers love to call "classics" and make a
class read agonizingly slowly over a period of months. Something like, oh, Charles
Dickens' Great Expectations comes to mind. There's nothing wrong with the book, except
that it is too long and too dry and too often read in English classes. It is not any more
impressive the second time it is required than the first, either. Perhaps the problem is
that teachers spend too much time psychoanalyzing the main characters.
At any rate, there do exist classics that have well-paced plots and interesting stories
to tell, however few and far between. The primary feature of such interesting books
seems to be that they introduce relatively surprising plot twists that serve to carry the
momentum of reading. Second, they have interesting characters that the reader learns
to truly care about as they go through the events of the book. Third, they realistically
and accurately depict an era of history, by being set either in the era of the author, which
is still historical to a modern reader, or further back in history than the author. Highlighted
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here are three classics that possess each of these features. A Tale of Two Cities, by
Charles Dickens In case it seemed that way by the criticism of Great Expectations, for
the record there is nothing wrong with Dickens himself. In fact, he wrote one of the best
classics of all time, A Tale of Two Cities, which is a heart-wrenchingly accurate story
set during the French Revolution about two men who look almost identical, and the
heroic sacrifice of one of them. The two cities are London and Paris, and the two men
are Charles Darnay, a French nobleman, and Sydney Carton, an English lawyer. While
the opening statement, "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times..." is one of
the more famous quotes from English literature, the ending is just as memorable. However, it is generally only known by those who have read the book. No spoilers here.
Wade through Dickens' rambling text and uncover a gem of a story.
The Scarlet Pimpernel by Baroness Orczy
If you are interested in the French Revolution and think A Tale of Two Cities is
accurate, take a look at The Scarlet Pimpernel. Not only is the setting accurate, but
Orczy wrote about people who actually existed. The Scarlet Pimpernel itself is the code
name for an English aristocrat who is smuggling refugees out of Paris during the Revolution. The book is crafted as a mystery, so that even the reader is not told the identity
of this man until at least halfway through the book, because he is extremely clever at
hiding his identity and pretending to be much less clever than he really is. Throw in some
romance, betrayal, and disguises, and get a really captivating story. Orczy originally
wrote the story as a play, which became very popular. She also went on to write a series
of sequels about the Scarlet Pimpernel and his family, but only the original book is
very commonly read.
The Woman in White by Wilkie Collins
This book is an early form of the modern detective novel. Walter Hartwright meets
and rescues the "woman in white" of the title on the way to a new job working for Mr.
Fairlie. When he arrives, he is extremely surprised to meet Mr. Fairlie's beautiful niece
Laura, because she closely resembles the woman in white. Add insanity, deceit, an
unwanted betrothal, and multiple shifting points of view to produce a very interesting
plot that unwinds slowly, with several surprising twists.
There are others, as well, but these three are a good place to start. Further reading
might include some of the Scarlet Pimpernel sequels, or perhaps some French or German
literature. The third problem in our local universities is absence of modern equipment.
As fact students can’t show their slides, movies or audio files. As a result students may
lose their interest of doing some interesting projects at home and be less enthusiastic.
Or, for example, phonetic lessons are impossible without laboratory lessons with head
phones. As a solution of this problem I will suggest students to write petitions to dean
or administration of universities.
− The forth problem of our educational system in teaching foreign language is
inability of teachers to choose the right materials and literature for students with different
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knowledge levels. Our university system’s syllabus and books seems same for every
student. But in some universities there is test based system that allocates students to
classes according to their knowledge.
Despite of all problems and defects that our education system has students’ desire
to learn language is determinative.
END NOTE
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Wikipedia
Anthony Edward M. Approach, Method and Technique. ELT Journal, Oxford University Press.1963.
Diane Larsen-Freeman. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press,
USA; 2 edition (May 11, 2000)
REFERENCES
Charles Dickens. A Tale of Two Cities. Signet classic, 1997
Willkie Collins .The Woman in White. Arcturus Publishing Limited, (June 11, 2011)
Baroness Emmuska Orczy. The Scarlet Pimpernel. Simon & Brown, (November 29, 2011)
Diane Larsen-Freeman. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press,
USA; 2 edition (May 11, 2000)
USING POEMS TO DEVELOP PRODUCTIVE SKILLS
Elchin Hamidov
Shaki branch of The Azerbaijan Teachers Institute
ABSTRACT
Poems are, after all, authentic texts. This is a great motivator. Poems are often rich in cultural references,
and they present a wide range of learning opportunities. Teach English through poetry, not to teach the
poetry itself, so you don't need to be a literature expert. Communicative speaking activities: As a way in
to a poem, I might play some background music to create the atmosphere, show some pictures to introduce
the topic, and then get students to think about their personal knowledge or experience which relates to this
topic. Working on pronunciation: The teacher reads the poem to them or play a recording, and they identify
the stresses and pauses. We take a chunk at a time, and one half of the class claps out the rhythm while the
other half beats time, and then they swap over. I recite while they mumble rhythmically, and then as their
confidence grows they could chant in a whisper, a shout, or show a range of emotion.
Writing activities: A poem can spark off some wonderful creative writing. Students can write a letter to
a character in the poem, write about what happened before the beginning or after the ending of the poem
and so on.
Key words: Poems, productive skill, education.
Poems are, after all, authentic texts. This is a great motivator. Poems are often rich
in cultural references, and they present a wide range of learning opportunities. For me,
the aim is to teach English through poetry, not to teach the poetry itself, so you don't
191
need to be a literature expert. Most of the tried and tested activities used regularly by
language teachers can be adapted easily to bring poetry into the classroom.
Communicative speaking activities
Before doing any productive work, the teacher must give the students plenty of
pre-reading activities so that they are adequately prepared.
As a way in to a poem, I might play some background music to create the atmosphere,
show some pictures to introduce the topic, and then get students to think about their
personal knowledge or experience which relates to this topic.
They then talk about the poem, first with a partner and then in small groups, perhaps
coming together as a class at the end to share ideas. The teacher monitors and feeds in
ideas and vocabulary if necessary, gives brief feedback on language used and notes any
language problems to be dealt with at a later date.
The teacher prepares worksheets for pre-reading speaking activities which might
involve a quiz, a questionnaire, sentence stems to be completed and discussed, statements to be ranked and discussed, and so on.
Students might predict endings to verses, the whole poem, or events occurring after
the end of the poem.
Afterwards, the students could talk about their personal response to the poem,
discuss the characters and theme, or debate the moral issues.
Role plays work well, interviewing a partner, or even dramatizing the poem and
making a video. Students could compare poems on related topics, with different groups
working on different poems and then regrouping to pool their ideas.
Working on pronunciation
It can be fun to get students to rehearse and perform a poem. The teacher reads the
poem to them or play a recording, and they identify the stresses and pauses.
We take a chunk (usually a line, sometimes two) at a time, and one half of the class
claps out the rhythm while the other half beats time, and then they swap over.
I recite while they mumble rhythmically, and then as their confidence grows they
could chant in a whisper, a shout, or show a range of emotion. For me, this tends to
work best when it is improvised. I keep it snappy - it's a high energy activity, and you
have to know and trust each other!
I sometimes do intensive phoneme work centred on the rhyming patterns in the poem:
Some poems are crying out to be exploited in this way. I elicit possible rhymes before
revealing the poet's choice, and discuss which suggestions have exactly the same sound
and which don't, leading to a minimal pair activity.
Writing activities
A poem can spark off some wonderful creative writing. Students can add more lines
or stanzas individually or in pairs or groups.
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They can write a letter to a character in the poem, write about what happened before
the beginning or after the ending of the poem and so on.
Students could use the poem as a starting point and model for some parallel writing:
Each group might contribute a verse to a collective poem (or rap).
Genre transfer presents a lot of opportunities for writing practice; letters, diary
entries, radio plays, newspaper articles, agony aunt columns all based on the original
text from a poem.
My students have found reformulation exercises very stimulating, where they switch
between formal and informal language.
Longer poems can be summarized in fifty words.
It is also fun to get students to transform content words to synonyms or antonyms
and then discuss the subtleties of vocabulary.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Austin, JL, 1962. How To Do Things With Words Harvard University Press
Maley, A and Duff, A, 1982 (2nd Edition). Drama Techniques in Language Learning CUP
McRae, J, 1985. Using Drama in the Classroom. Pergamon Press
Phillips, S. Drama With Children Oxford University Press
Soyinka, W, 1984. Six Plays: (inc) The Trails of Brother Jero, Methuen
White, R.V. 1988, The ELT Curriculum: Design, Innovation and Management. Oxford: Blackwell
Wessels, Charlyn, 1987. Drama (Resource Books for Teachers) Oxford University Press.
THE INCREASE OF INTERPERSONAL REGARD
AND UNDERSTANDING
Elnara Sevdimova
Shaki Branch of The Azerbaijan Teachers Institute
ABSTRACT
There are four communication skills described by Schmuck and chmuck(2001), that people can use
to make the process of sending and receiving messages more effective and thereby reduce the gap in
communication .Two of these skills assist the sender; two assist the receiver. Paraphrase- Paraphrasing is
a skill for checking whether or not you understand the ideas being communicated to you. Paraphrasing is
more than word swapping or merely saying back what another person says. Describes Behavior- In using
behavior description, one person reports specific observable behaviors of another person without evaluating
them or making inferences about the other's motives. Describe Feelings- Although people often take pains
to make sure that others understand their ideas, only rarely do they describe how they are feeling. Instead,
they act on their feelings, sending messages that others draw inferences from. Check Impressions- Checking
impressions is a skill that complements describing your own feeling and involves checking your sense of
what is going on inside the other person. You transform the other's expression of feelings (the blush, the
silence, the tone of voice)into a tentative description of feelings and check it out for accuracy.
Key words: communication, skill, teacher, accuracy.
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There are four communication skills described by Schmuck and Schmuck (2001),
that people can use to make the process of sending and receiving messages more effective
and thereby reduce the gap in communication .
1. Paraphrase. Paraphrasing is a skill for checking whether or not you understand the
ideas being communicated to you. Any means of revealing your understanding of
a message constitutes a paraphrase. Paraphrasing is more than word swapping or
merely saying back what another person says. It answers the question, "What exactly
does the sender's statement mean to me?" and asks the sender to verify the correctness
of the receiver's interpretation. The sender's statement may convey specific information, an example, or a more general idea
2. Describe Behavior. In using behavior description, one person reports specific observable behaviors of another person without evaluating them or making inferences
about the other's motives. If you tell me that I am rude (a trait) or that I do not care
about your opinion (my motivations) when I am not trying to be rude and do care
about your opinion, I may not understand what you are trying to communicate. How
ever, if you point out that I have interrupted you several times in the last ten minutes,
I would receive a clearer picture of how my actions were affecting you. Sometimes
it is helpful to preface a behavior description with, "I noticed that ..." or "I hear you
say..."to remind yourself that you are trying to describe specific actions.
3. Describe Feelings. Although people often take pains to make sure that others understand their ideas, only rarely do they describe how they are feeling .Instead, they
act on their feelings, sending messages that others draw inferences from. If you
think that others are failing to take your feelings into account, it is helpful to put
those feelings into words. Instead of blushing and saying nothing, try "I feel embarrassed" or "I feel pleased." Instead of "Shut up!" try "I hurt too much to hear any
more" or "I'm angry with you.
4. Check Impressions. Checking impressions is a skill that complements describing
your own feeling and involves checking your sense of what is going on inside the
other person. You transform the other's expression of feelings (the blush, the silence,
the tone of voice)into a tentative description of feelings and check it out for accuracy.
An impression check describes what you think the other's feelings may be and does
not express disapproval or approval. It merely conveys, "This is how I understand
your feelings. Am I accurate?" Examples include the following: "I get the impression
you are angry with me. Are you?" "Am I right that you feel disappointed that no
body commented on your suggestions?"
Often an impression check can be coupled easily with a behavior description, as in
these examples:
"Ellen, you've said nothing so far and seem upset with the class. "Jim, you've made
that proposal a couple of times. Are you feeling put down because we haven't accepted it?"
Teachers can learn and model these skills in their classrooms. They can also teach
them directly to students, just as they teach many other skills.
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REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Richard İ. Arends. Learning to teach. USA New York -2004
Joanna Baker How to teach large classes with few resources. London- 2005
Adrienne Herrell and Michael Jordan. Fifty strategies for teaching English language learners.
Second edition. USA. California SU.-2004
Ulduz Murshudova. Ingilis dili dərslərində interaktiv metodlardan istifadə qaydaları. Bakı-2007
THE NEED FOR ELECTRONIC LEARNING IN EDUCATION
Esra Arslan
Undergraduate student, Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
In this century technology develops very rapidly. Our life style, perspectives and ideas are changing.
Everything is going positively because we can access whatever we want very easily, quickly and clearly.
Nowadays computer and internet are part of our life we use them everywhere, especially in education. In
recent times computer becomes more important teacher’s use computer more than before, although some
lecturers refuse using visual aids like slide show, pictures realia, songs. As a result lesson’s become more
interesting and useful, today’s generation is accepted as technology generation. Because of the innovations
that took place in technology, positively influenced education. As a result a big deal of investment put in
to education as well as in to electronic learning. E-learning attracts students, because they don’t want to
go abroad and spend millions of dollars to accommodation,travel, renting adopting new society and education.1
The computer-assisted learning environment emerged after 1980’s. The education moved to the Internet
with the development of Internet network installed among computers in 1994’s. Internet-sup-ported education has developed rapidly. Since 2000’s the technology has encountered in all aspects of our lives and
changed its name as e-learning. E-Learning has developed the positive aspects of computer-supported
education and with the assistance of technology much negativity has been eliminated. E-learning is a great
chance for students to get education without having trouble with finance and society. It focuses just on
getting education.
Key words: technology, education, electronic learning (e-learning).
Electironic learning (E-Learning)
Electronic learning is a new system that contains all forms of supported learning
and teaching. This system facilitates education by the helping of information and communication systems, whether networked learning or not, serve specific media to implement the learning process. The term will still most likely be utilized to reference outof-classroom and in-classroom educational experiences via technology, even as advances
continue in regard to devices and curriculum.
E-learning is essentially the computer and network-enabled transfer of skills and
knowledge. E-learning applications and processes include Web-based learning, computerbased learning, virtual education opportunities and digital collaboration. Content is
delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio or video tape, satellite TV, and CDROM. It can be self-paced or instructor-led and includes media in the form of text,
image, animation, streaming video and audio. 2
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E-learning is very useful in this century. Learners in front of the computer they can
follow every conference or lessons without time problem, information problem and
economical problem because of e-learning. So e- learning has two sessions, these are
synchronous learning and asynchronous learning.
Synchronous learning is students and teachers communicate with each other through
e-chats. Chat, officially give the educator and the continuation of the course before the
realization of the remote or through conversation. Generally, real-time e-learning educators Internet broadcast, simultaneously with the presentation of images and performed
with the use of smart board. Students voice or written answers to questions. 3
Asynchronous learning is learner self-governing and determines its own pace. Elearning, teachers and students require to be online at the same time. This kind of elearning is called asynchronous e-learning. The materials are organized according to
classes, learning methods, such as, the problem and is included in the simulation. Each
student, during the course directly interact with the computer. Ideally, this kind of
meaningful interaction between students and their learning orientations requires lessons.
The lessons usually include assessments and tests.4
Asynchronous Learning
Fax
E-mail
Knowledge Base
Forum
Computer Based Training
Quick Reference Guide
Synchronous Learning
Telephone
Screen Sharing
Chat
Desktop Conferencing
Online seminar
So learners have a lot of reason for a prefering e-learning. For ex: The most important
reason for prefer e-learning is, student doesn’t have time and place problem. Anytime,
anywhere (campus,school, home, at work…) we can connect our lecturer or classmates.
So we can access the information through of electronic devices and internet connection.
Another reason is this learning style is student centered. In traditional face to face
teaching method generally teacher centered in classroom and sometimes it’s boring for
students also in this style student must came to class and student must participate in
lesson because teacher doesn’t repeat his lesson but in e-learning system is student centered. Student doesn’t need to participate in classroom, and doesn’t need to learn to his
or her lesson by the teacher also we can whenever we want connect our lecturer and if
we don’t understand lesson we can repeat one more time till we get a lesson or subject.
Also another important point is, the cheapest way for a learning. Specially nowadays
e-learning is more common in MBA programs. Learners both they can work in their
country and they can follow master program in another country. E- learning is suitable.
In the same time students can to compose online debate session in this way students
can share their information with their friends whom from Africa, America, Japanese
China, Turkey, Azerbaijan….like these everybody is in same session and we can share
our idea with them in chat rooms. Only we need computer and internet connection. Also
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another reason is, we can access the information very fast. We touch only one button
and we connect one place to another place to fast. For these reason, we choose e-learning.
This is the great chance for us.5
END NOTE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
www.eogrenme.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=6 accessed on 10.10.2011
www.howstuffworks.com/elearning1.htm accessed on 15.10.2011
sneg.turkcer.org.tr/eogrenme-nedir.pdf accessed on 20.11.12
www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Quarterly/EDUCAUSEQuarterlyMagazineVolum/AsynchronousandSynchronousELea/163445 accessed on 20.11.12
http://www.articulate.com/rapid-elearning/why-e-learning-is-so-effective/
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
www.eogrenme.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=6
www.howstuffworks.com/elearning1.htm
sneg.turkcer.org.tr/eogrenme-nedir.pdf
www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Quarterly/EDUCAUSEQuarterlyMagazineVolum/Asynchronous
andSynchronousELea/163445
http://www.articulate.com/rapid-elearning/why-e-learning-is-so-effective/
INVESTIGATING THE USE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
STRATEGIES AMONG IRANIAN EFL STUDENTS
Hamidreza Bolhari
Islamic Azad University - South Tehran Branch
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Since Language learning strategies, defined by Chamot (2005) as “procedures that facilitate language
learning tasks”, have a crucial role in students’ language learning, the present study dealt with this issue
in a two dimensional way: First, the existence of using different types of learning strategies among EFL
students was investigated; therefore, it showed that which kinds of learning strategies are overlooked and
which are favored. Second, the students’ opinions and feelings of each kind of strategy were discovered.
The results of first dimension were quantitatively conducted by a standard questionnaire and the other
dimension were qualitatively managed by carrying out interviews. The result of this study would be beneficial for students to be aware of their strengths and weaknesses in using learning strategies, and also
professors could have a thorough understanding of students’ current status and needs in case of language
learning strategies; and as a result, they could adopt some changes in their methodology to bold the effect of
these strategies to learners, and moreover teach and encourage students to use those overlooked learning
strategies.
Keywords: Strategy, Learning strategy, Language learning strategy.
Over the last few decades, a gradual shift has taken place, from the emphesis on
language teachers to students themselves. The reason is to make students less dependent
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to teachers and make them autonomous in learning. This change in second language
learning is very dominant. Therefore, language learning strategies which language
learners independently use in order to acquire a new language become more integral
in the process of second or foreign language learning. Therefore, This research is concerned with language learning strategies which are strategies students use to learn a new
language better. Also in this article we will find out more about language learning strategies. We will find out Where they are come from, how many types they have and so on.
It is an old saying which says: “Instead of giving fish, teach how to fish”;
therefore, in second language teaching this criteria should be take into account but
making students independent is a very difficult task in this regard, especially in some
cultures which students are strongly dependent to their teachers and they do not apt to
do things on their own decisions.
Language learning strategies are those ones which could help students to become
autonomous, but we should investigate how students should deal with these strategies,
where they can learn these strategies, and which strategies are more useful and more
popular than others.
Methodology
1. Participants. 100 students were as our participants, all of them were from 5 different
inistitutes. They were between the ages of 20 to 30. They were all randomly chosen,
and to make their level of proficiency constant I take their previous semsters
average score into account. Their average scrores were between 70 to 90 out of 100.
2. Design. This descriptive research is conducted in five different inistitutes and it
involves students of these inistitutes in case of LLS. In order to reach the appropriate
results for our research questions, two way of gathering data were used (Qualitative
and Quantitative).
3. Instruments. For the quantitative purpose I used the standard LLS Questionnaire.
And for qualitative in order to elicit more information from the participants, I
asked 4 open-ended questions.
4. Procedure. The questionnaires were administered to those 100 students and they
were asked to fill out the questionnaire precisely and also answer to those 4 openended questions. While students were filling out the questionnaire, they were provided with complementery information about what each strategy is. Finally, data
were gathered and interpreted.
Conclusion
To sum it up It is good to mention again that in cognitive strategies, Repetition,
Note Taking and Classifying were used mostly by our participants. While Concept
mapping, Imagery and Translation have recieved less attention.
Also in metacognitive strategies, strategies like Self-evaluation, Self-management
and Selective attention have recieved more attention by srudents, in contrast, Selfreinforcement, Delayed production and Advance organizers were not used much by
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participants. Social strategies are not in good condition either. But overall view of statistics
shows that our participants are average strategy users. They neither use them alot nor
use them a little.
1.
2.
3.
4.
REFERENCES
Brown (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching.
Nunan (2001). Second language learning and teaching.
Susan Bull and Yingxin Ma (2001). Raising awareness of language learning strategies in situations
of limited resources.
J. Michael O’Malley, Anna Uhl Chamot (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition.
Michael Lessard-Clouston (1997). Language learning strategies: An Overview for L2 teachers.
APPLICATION OF GAMES INTO THE TEACHING PROCESS
OF ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Leyla Alili
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTACT
People acquire new knowledge and complex skills from game play, suggesting gaming could help
address one of the nation’s most pressing needs — strengthening our system of education and preparing
workers for 21st century jobs. The success of complex video games demonstrates games can teach higherorder thinking skills such as strategic thinking, interpretative analysis, problem solving, plan formulation
and execution, and adaptation to rapid change. Games and simulations can also serve as powerful “handson” tools for teaching practical and technical skills. In addition, today’s students who have grown-up with
digital technology and video games are especially poised to take advantage of the features of educational
games. The creation, commercialization and adoption of games for learning is a multidisciplinary innovation
challenge-involving scientific discovery and technical advancement, creative design and development, a
friendly investment climate, changes in pedagogy, and new roles for teachers and students. Schools of
education should engage the learning games community to develop new and revamp old pedagogy to take
advantage of these new educational tools.
Key words: education, games, teaching, technology
Students are not merely technology savvy, they are approaching their lives differently
as they integrate digital technologies-such as computers, the Internet, instant messaging,
cell phones, and e-mail-seamlessly throughout their daily activities. Time spent using
digital media by children aged 13–17 has now surpassed the time they spend watching
television.
The digital natives use digital tools in support of their schoolwork. For example,
students aged 6–17 who go on-line, report that educational activities such as homework
and research are among their top five daily uses of the Internet. One in five children
who use the Internet at home report that they go on-line every day for educational
purposes. Just 6-17 go on-line to play individual or multiplayer games at least once a week.
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These individuals spend a significant amount of time playing digital games. On average,
kids aged 8-18 spend about 50 minutes per day playing video games. (Connected to the
Future: A Report on Children’s Internet Use, Corporation for Public Broadcasting,
March 2003.)
There are 3 types of game: board, card and video games. A board game is a game
played with counters or pieces that are placed on, removed from, or moved across a
"board" premarked surface, usually specific to that game). Frequent subject matters for
educational board games are geographical, and the board is a map of the region taught.
An educational card game is any game using playing cards, either traditional or gamespecific. Generally these dula expand concepts, such as the food chain, set matching,
etc. Flash card games are used to teach math, animal, and dinosaur species.
Some card games improve memory. To aid in educating students and adults about
the finer details of different political systems, numerous companies have developed
simulations that immerse the player into different political systems by forcing them to
make realistic political decisions. These games vary from running an actual election
campaign to games that allow the player to make the day-to-day decisions of running
a country, as seen in Democracy. These types of games are targeted at students, educators
and adults alike.While the digital natives have embraced new technologies, including
video gaming, they are largely disconnected in their classrooms. Most student educational
use of the Internet occurs outside of the school day, outside of the school building, and
outside the direction of their teachers. For example, among students aged 12-17 who go
on-line from more than one location, 83 percent say they go on-line mostly from
home, and only 11 percent say they go on-line mostly from school.16 Students are
frustrated and increasingly dissatisfied by the digital disconnect they experience at
school. They cannot conceive of doing schoolwork without Internet access and they
are not given many opportunities in school to take advantage of the Internet. In addition,
interactive games are the medium of attention for youth, who spend large numbers of
hours playing these games.. Yet, most instruction is still “tell and test”, in which students
take in information passively from reading and lectures, reciting it back in the form of
work sheets, reports, and tests. Commercial games are vivid and action oriented, compared to teachers in classrooms using chalkboards. Given these contrasts, educational
games might improve students’ attitudes about learning even difficult subjects, including
those who are not attracted to studying mathematics and science.
Many game features, combined and designed effectively into educational gaming,
could teach many things in an engaging and motivating manner. Games could be used
for the expansion of cognitive abilities, as well as a platform for developing new or
practicing existing skills in the context of real world goals, rules, and situations. Games
could also be used to teach old subjects in new ways. For example, in the civilizationbuilding games, players may explore subjects such as math, how computers work, and
geography within the rules structure of the game. Through games and simulations,
learners can exercise practical skills-such as operating sophisticated aircraft, building
a bridge, tinkering with chemical reactions in living cells, experimenting with marketing
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techniques, performing surgery, or controlling scientific equipment-in a safe, low
consequence-for-failure environment. This allows learners to move up the learning
curve, without risking life, limb, or damage to expensive equipment in the early part
of training and practice. If learners fail in the tasks they are learning, little harm is done,
and they can try repeatedly to gain mastery of the required knowledge and skills.
Chemikul is an online science/ chemistry-based game that will send you on an atomic
mind-bender of confusion-as well as provide endless hours of enjoyment! With super-slick
ambient graphics and simple acoustics, it’s a learning experience that anyone can enjoy.
The goal is to create molecules using all of the atoms floating in the game screen.
Arithmetic Challenge is the questions appear for a short period of time in this
quick-reactions, interactive arithmetic math game .
Magic Library is a fun game to help children and players of all ages to improve
your typing and keyboard skills, by testing your familiarity and memory of where each
letter is on your computer keyboard, and also developing your fast-reactions skills. You
are challenged to learn your keyboard letter keys by heart, and gain fast typing skills
while enjoying a fun online activity at the same time.
Different types of games and simulations may teach different knowledge and skills
more effectively. In addition, different game and simulation environments, structures,
and sequences are likely to be needed for different learning tasks and learning groups.
Games have numerous features that work together to create compelling play and
experiences, and high levels of time-on-task. Studies have shown that incorporating
challenges into learning has motivational benefits. Many of today’s commercial video
and computer games demonstrate this feature through players’ high levels of time ontask. The nature of challenges, competition, and why they motivate should be explored.
This includes better understanding of the motivational and engagement aspects of games
at the neurobiological, cognitive, and socio-cultural levels.
REFERENCES:
1.
What Would a State of the Art Instructional Video Game Look Like?,J.P.Gee, Innovate, September 2005
2.
Education and Training for the Information Technology Workforce Report to Congress from the
Secretary of Commerce, U.S. Department of Commerce, June 2003.
3.
Connected to the Future: A Report on Children’s Internet Use, Corporation for Public Broadcasting,
March 2003.
4.
Video games 'stimulate learning , BBC News, March 18, 2002
5.
Dostál, J. Educational software and computer games - tools of modern education, Journal of Technology and Information Education. 2009, Palacký University
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER AND STUDENT
INCREASES EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE
LEARNING PROCESS
Matanat Rustamova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
What is educational psychology? Educational psychology is very important period in the learning
process. The changes require learning and teaching skills that were less important in earlier time. But the
new skills are quite learnable. Educational psychology can help to learners in this way. Every joy of teaching
has a possible frustration related to educational psychology. If you are a teacher, you may wish to make a
positive difference in students’ lives, but you may also have trouble reaching individuals. A student seems
not to learn much, or to be unmotivated, or unfriendly, or whatever. And some teaching problems can be
subtle: when you call attention to the wonderful immensity or an area of knowledge, you might accidentally
discourage a student by implying that the student can never learn “enough”. The complexity of designing
and implementing instruction can sometimes seem overwhelming, instead of satisfying. But if you believe
yourself and your students’ knowledge, everything will be good for you. A teacher’s job -in fact a teacher’s
privilege-is to help particular “young people” to realize their potential. As a teacher, you will be able to
do this by laying groundwork for lifelong learning. You will not teach any one student forever, of course,
but you will often with them long enough to convey message: that there is much in life to learn -more in
fact than any one teacher or school can provide in a lifetime. The knowledge may be about science, math, or
learning to read; the skills may be sports, music, or art-anything. Whatever you teach, its immensity can
be a curiosity, wonder and excitement. It can be a reason to be optimistic about life in general and about
your students in particular. Learning, when properly understood, is never-ending, even thought it often
focuses on short-term, immediate concerns. As a teacher, you will have an advantage not shared by every
member of society, namely the excuse not only to teach valuable knowledge and skills, but to point students
beyond what they will be able to learn from you. As an old limerick put it.”The world is full of such a plenty
of things, I’m sure we should all be as happy as kings”. In the learning processes, it is very important student
and teacher relationship, because its improving high level of learning. However in this process, it is very
important thing that, teachers must know what and how they teach, or which way better for student to study
in the learning process. All things considered, then, times have changed for teachers. But teaching remains
an attractive, satisfying, and worthwhile profession. The resent trends mean simply that you need to prepare
for teaching differently than you might have in the past, and perhaps differently than own school teachers
did a generation ago.
Key words: educational psychology, implementing instruction, student and teacher relationship,
learning process, short-term, accountability in education, lifelong learning.
Niyə görə müəllim olmalı? Hər şeydən əvvəl müəllimlik peşəsi- imtiyazlı peşədir
və gənc insanlara kömək etmək ,onların istedadlarını üzə çıxarmağa xidmət edir. Müəllim
gənc insanların inkişafına, onların öyrənmək sevinclərinə şahid olur. Gəncləri həyata
hazırlayir. Təhsildə müəllim və tələbə münasibəti çox vacibdir. Bir müəllim kimi, qarşımızdakı insan,kasıb, varlı,ortabab imkana sahib ola bilər və mümkündür ki, hər birinin
müəyyən problemləri də olsun,amma bütün bunlara baxmayaraq hər şeydən əvvəl onların hər biri tələbədir. Danılmaz faktdır ki, onların içində, gələcəyin liderləri,savadlı
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şəxsləri vardır. Məhz buna görə də, müəllim hər şeydən əvvəl qarşısındakı tələbə ilə
münasibətini dostca qormalıdır ki,tədrisinin kefiyyəti yüksək olsun. Araşdırmalarım
nəticəsində belə qənayətə gəldim ki, müəllimin verdiyi dərslərin kefiyyəti onun dərs
demək metodundan və qarşısındakı tələbənin onu necə qavramasından aslıdır. Məhz
buna görə, mənim fikrimcə müəllimin dərs demək metodu üç yerə ayrılır:
1. Xəyali öyrətmək
2. Qiyabi öyrətmək
3. Əyani öyrətmək
Xəyali öyrətmək. Buna misal olaraq dənizi götürək. Xəyali öyrətmək ömründə heç
vaxt dənizi görməyən insana, dənizin nə olduğunu başa salmağa bənziyir. Həmin insan
“dəniz” haqqında eşitdiklərini sadəcə xəyalında canlandıra bilər.
Qiyabi öyrətmək. Dəniz görməyən və onu xəyal edən bir insana dənizi göstərməyə
bənzəyir. Yəni artıq hər zaman xəyalında bir şeyi canlandıran insan, real olaraq onu
gözlə görür və nə olduğunu öyrənir.
Əyani öyrənmək. Hər zaman xəyalında canlandırdığı bir məvhumu, artıq hər hansısa
vasitəylə sonradan görməyə müvəffəq olur və onu real olaraq yaşayır. Məhz bu əyani
öyrənməkdir.Əgər bu terminlərin başqa cür açıqlamasını versək, belə söyləyə bilərik.
Hər zaman gözündə dənizi canlandıran və sonra onu görən insan arasındakı fərq o qədər
də böyük deyil,amma dənizi görənlə, dənizdə boğulmaq təhlükəsi qarşısında qalan insan
arasındakı fərq açıq-aydın məlum olur.
Elm də buna bənziyir. Bir insan hələ balaca olarkən ona söylənilən “elm öyrənmək
gözəldir,insanı kamilləşdirir” fikri ilə sonradan təhsil alan və sonda elmdən bəhrələnən
insan arasındakı açıq-aydın fərq də buna bənzəyir.
Məhz bir tələbəyə elm öyrətmək və ona bu yolda həqiqi dost olmaq, tələbənin inkişafını görmək bir müəllim üçün cox vacib və sevindirici haldır. Tələbənin əsil elmə
yiyelənməsi üçün ona bu yolda kömək etmək və onu elmdəki hər şeylə əyani tanış etmək
lazımdır. Bundan başqa,elmi zəngin xəzinəyə bənzətmək olar. Nəzərə alsaq ki, halhazırda elm sahəsində bir çox dəyişkənliklər və yeniliklər mövcuddur,məhz bu da istənilən gəncə elmdən məharətlə faydalanmaq imkanı yaradır. Müasir zamanda, elm sahəsində texnologiyanın geniş yer tutması danılmaz faktdır. Buna misal olaraq, təhsil
sisteminin texnologiya üzrə proqramlaşmasıdır. Amma texnologiya özü ilə birgə bəzi
problemlər də gətirir, sinif otaqlarını və məktəbləri texniki vasitələr ilə təhciz etmək
olduqca çox vəsait tələb etməklə yanaşı, bundan başqa dəyərli mənbə olan kitablardan
tələbələri qismən məhrum edir. Məhz bu faktırların da, təhsil pisxologiyasına böyük
təsiri var. Təhsilə təsir edə biləcək ikinci faktır da, xarici dilin sürətlə təhsil sisteminə
daxil olmasıdır. Başqa sözlə söyləsək, dili tədris edən müəllim qarşısındakı tələbənin
“dil səviyyəsini” mütləq bilməlidir ki, tədrisin kefiyyəti aşağı düşməsin. Bu yolda
müəllimlərə kömək etmək üçün müasir təhsil proqramlarının rolu böyükdür. Ən yeni
təhsil proqramları müəllimlərin öz peşəkarlıqlarını artırmasıyla yanaşı, tələbələrdə də
özünə inam yaradır. Məhz bütün bunlar da, müəllim-tələbə kollektivini təhsil həyatında
daha da yaxınlaşdırır.
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Gönümüzdə, tələbələrin öz gələcəylərini gözəl şəkildə qormaq istəmələri, onların
daha çox rəqabət aparmalarına və özünü inkişafa gəyirib çıxarır. Bu yolda valideyinlərlə yanaşı, müəllimlərin də dəstəkləri həmin tələbələr üçün çox faydalı ola bilər. Təlim
pisxologiyası məhz bu zaman müəllimlərin köməyinə çatır. Misal olaraq, təlim pisxologiyasındakı bu fikirləri göstərmək olar:
1. Tələbələrin müxtəlif olmaları, onlar arasındakı rəqabətin səviyyəsini qaldırır.
2. Təlimin inkişafı və müasir dünya standartları ilə ayaqlaşmaq üçün sinif otaqlarını
texnologiya ilə təhciz etməyin vacibliyi.
3. Təhsildə qarşıya qoyulan hədəflər, təlim səviyyəsini qaldırır və sağlam rəqabəti
artırır.
4. Müəllimlər arasında peşəkarlığın artmasına gətirib çıxarır.
Təlim pisxologiyasına aid fikirlər hələ keçmişdən bəri aktualdır. Buna misal olaraq
Platonun fikirlərini göstərmək mümkündür:
• Platon nıüəllimə yüksək qiymət verirdi. O deyirdi: Atam məni göydən yerə endirmişdir, müəllim isə məni yerdən göyələrə qaldırmışdır. Platon tərbiyənin ictimai
sistemini hazırlamış, onun dövlətin ixtiyarında olmasını zəruri saymışdır. Onun
fikrincə, müəllim təhsildə yol göstərəndir, amma tədrisin inkişafı müəllimdən daha
çox tələbənin elmi hansı səviyyədə qavramasından asılıdır.
Nizami Gəncəvi də təlim və tərbiyyə barəsində çox dəyərli fikirlər söyləmişdir.
Nizami insanı yer üzünün ən qüdrətli, ağıllı varlığı hesab etmişdir. O, insan şəxsiyyətinin
formalaşmasına təsir edən obyektiv və subyekiv amillərə geniş yer vermişdir. O, zəhmət
çəkməyi, elm öyrənməyi, əməklə ucalmağı zəruri sayırdı. Nizami Gəncəviyə görə təlimin köməyi ilə insanlar təbiətin və insanın mənəvi aləminin sirlərini öyrənə bilər.
Təlim pisxologiyası müəllimlərə öz işlərində çox böyük dəstək olmaqla yanaşı, onların peşəkarlığını artırır və tələbələrə dərs gedişatında necə yanaşmağın yollarını öyrədir.
Daha dəqiq desək, təlim pisxologiyası təhsil sistemində müəllim-tələbə münasibətini
nizamlayır və təlimin səviyyəsini qaldırır. Məhz buna görə də, təlim pisxologiyası elmdə,
təhsildə əvəz olunmaz prosesdir.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
204
REFERENCES
Harris,D.& Herrington, C.(2006). Acountability, standards, and the growing achievement gap: Lesson
from the past half-century. American Journal of Education, 122(2),163-208.
Harvard Educational Review.(2005). Interview: United States Secretary of Education Margaret
Spellings. Harvard Educational Review,75(4), 364-382.
Neil,M. (2003). The dangers of testing. Educational Leadership, 60(5), 43-46
Stringer, E.(2004). Action research in education. Upper Saddle River,NJ: Pearson Education.
Federal Registry.(2005 Juny 21). Assistance To States for the Education of Children with Disabilities.
United States Government Printing Office :Author.
Volante ,L. (2004). Teaching to the test:What every educator and policy-maker should know. Canadian
Journal of Educational Administration and Policy,Issue #35. Online at www.umanitoba.ca/publications/cjeap/articles/volante.html.
www.ets.org/praxis.
April 27, 2012
8.
9.
www.portal.unesco.org./www.education/on.
www.edchange.org/<www.cec.sped.org
USING SITUATION COMEDIES AS A TOOL FOR ELT
Merve Turan
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
This article will inform you about why situation comedies are used as a tool in the ELT classes. Some
students can learn and understand the lesson by watching. Sitcoms are short and have many features.
That’s why teachers prefer to use it in their lessons. Sitcoms help students to improve their listening
skills and vocabulary knowledge easily and make the lesson entertaining.
Key words: comedy, Sitcoms, ELT, language.
Katherine Bilsb says, “English teachers have been using videos in the classroom
for decades and, more recently DVDs and online video clips from Youtube or Myspace.
Sitcoms are an excellent classroom resource for a number of reasons. An episode generally lasts 30 minutes – so we don’t have to worry about students getting bored or
losing the plot – as sometimes happens when we watch a feature film. Sitcoms are often
repetitive too. Students who watch more than one episode become familiar with the
characters and their catchphrases. As students begin to predict how a character might
behave in a particular circumstance they will become more motivated and enjoy a sense
of achievement”.
Situation comedy or shortly sitcom, generally known that is a kind of radio or television comedy series that characters sharing the same common environment in every
episode such as; an apartment building or workplace and accompanied with jokes as a
part of the dialogue. It’s interesting that nowadays situation comedy is used as an important tool to teach the students the language, especially new vocabularies almost every
ELT classes. So why do the teachers use the sitcoms? What are the features of it?
Firstly sitcoms are funny that make everyone laughed. It really provides the positive
atmosphere in the class and students become motivated about it. If the learners being
motivated their interest to lesson will increase and they can learn and understand the
language without being bored.
Sitcoms provide us with authentic English. English teaching videos are designed
for the classroom and purvey authentic materials and different varieties of the English
language; for example with typical slangs, locutions and sayings. With this, students
make contacts with humorous utterances and expressions. Also they can learn pronunciation of the words and improve their listening ability by watching sitcoms. These
205
features build up the student’s understanding for the English language in natural and
authentic way. It is said that a large part of communication is nonverbal. That’s why
seeing the facial expressions and gestures of the characters help students understand the
meaning of the words and acquire it easily.
Anywhere in the world there are many sitcoms. This exposure to different varieties
of English introduces to learners that there isn’t one standardized version of the language.
However, English language has different accent and pronunciation versions such as;
American English, British English, Australian English. This varieties may cause misunderstanding by students.
Sitcoms are full of cultural references. Depending on the situation these references
portray the city that we live and show the differences and similarities between other
countries such as; culture, lifestyle, religion and etc.
Also there are many different topics and situations in the sitcoms that teachers can
work with the students on their vocabulary by watching a short part of the scene.
Teachers can pick some unknown vocabularies from that scene and they can discuss
the meaning of the word. This is also help students to acquire the new vocabularies and
use it in a sentence. Most of the students are shy about speaking target language. Acting
a scene from the sitcom in the class can increase their self-confident and it helps students
to communicate with other people in daily life.
REFERENCE
1.
Katherine Bilsb ,14 September Conference for ELT New York 2011 2.www.teachingenglish.org/
article/sitcoms
ORGANIZING LESSONS TO IMPROVE LANGUAGE SKILLS
Parvana Hajiyeva
Shaki branch of The Azerbaijan Teachers Institute
ABSRACT
Some linguists divide language learning into the four language skills of listening, reading, speaking
and writing. When students read and listen to English, they only have to recognize and understand the
language that they read or listen to. So we call these the two ‘receptive’ skills. Speaking and writing also
have some similar features. When students speak or write, they have to produce language. So we call these
the ‘productive’ skills.
The linguistics plan a reading skills lesson in three parts:
•
pre, while and post – reading.
The purpose of ‘pre - reading’ activities is to help students to think about the activity and motivate
them to read the text, or listen to the story or conversation.
The purpose of ‘while - reading’ task is to give students a real reason to read. The teacher can set
different types of tasks in order to help students to read either for the general idea or for specific information.
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April 27, 2012
In the ‘post’ phase of the lesson, it is useful to do activities which require students to react to what
they have read by using the information they have found out.
Key words: Lesson, language, reading, listening, speaking, skills.
Some linguists divide language learning into the four language skills of listening,
reading, speaking and writing. Reading and listening have some similar features. When
students read and listen to English, they only have to recognize and understand the language that they read or listen to. So we call these the two ‘receptive’ skills. Speaking
and writing also have some similar features. When students speak or write, they have
to produce language. So we call these the ‘productive’ skills.
Reading also has some features which are similar to writing. When students read
or write, they have time to think about the meaning of the language. They can read the
text again, they can rewrite and correct. What they have written. They have time to
think about what they have read or written.
When students listen or speak, they have less time: they have to react quickly. In
real-life situations, you usually only hear something once. Sometimes you can ask someone to repeat it-but you cannot do that if you are listening to a station announcement
or to the television or radio. When someone asks you a question, you have to understand
what they said, think of a reply and say it in English – in a short space of time.
These different features of reading, listening, speaking and writing mean that we
need to plan our lessons to give students different kinds of learning activities to practice
each language skill.
Speaking and writing can be taught and practiced either as part of a PPP lesson or
as a separate lesson. So first, let’s look at a slightly different lesson framework for
teaching reading and listening.
We plan a reading skills lesson in three parts:
1. pre – reading
2. while – reading
3. post – reading
Before we read in our own language, we usually already know something about the
text we are reading, The information we choose to read is not often completely new
or uninteresting to us. This is a skill called prediction.
In the ‘pre’ phase, students prepare for the main reading activity. The purpose of
‘pre - reading’ activities is to help students to think about the activity and motivate them
to read the text, or listen to the story or conversation. The activities aim to help students
use the skill of prediction:
Then, while we read we usually do this in two ways. We may want to find out the
general idea or topic of something we are reading, or we may want some very specific
information. To find a general idea, we read everything from start to end, so that we
can identify the main idea. This sub skill is called reading for the main idea (s). If we
207
want very specific information from what we are reading, then we try to select the
particular information we want: we do not worry about other information or ideas that
we do not need. This sub – skills is called reading for specific information.
In the ‘while’ phase, the teacher gives the students a task to do while they are reading.
The purpose of the task is to give students a real reason to read. The teacher can set
different types of tasks in order to help students to read either for the general idea or
for specific information.
Finally, in real life, we usually take action after we have read something or listened
to something. We reply, we tell a friend about it, we make a note of it, we write to
someone about it, or we act upon it (we catch the right train or bus!).
In the ‘post’ phase of the lesson, it is useful to do activities which require students
to react to what they have read by using the information they have found out. This allows
you to check whether your students have understood what they have read or what they
have listened to, and to practice reading and listening in real-life situations.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Richard İ. Arends. Learning to teach. USA New York -2004
Joanna Baker How to teach large classes with few resources. London- 2005
Adrienne Herrell and Michael Jordan. Fifty strategies for teaching English language learners.
Second edition. USA. California SU.-2004
Ulduz Murshudova. Ingilis dili dərslərində interaktiv metodlardan istifadə qaydaları. Bakı-2007
TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN THROUGH STORIES
Sevda Kelbiyeva
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Nowadays more and more English teachers use stories cautiously and relevantly selected from children’s
literature. Benjamin Franklin said: “Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.”
This paper is about benefits of using stories in teaching a foreign language. Illustrations, meaningful content
of stories and their association, familiarity with the real world help a teacher stimulate interest, attention,
curiosity in children and engage, involve them in learning a foreign language. It’s fun and enjoyable for
children to read, listen to stories and to use different activities, through which they practice and learn to use
the target language, during the lesson. Stories also help to develop and improve reading, listening, speaking
and writing skills. Through stories different social skills, imaginative creativity can also be developed.
Stories supply children with examples of reliable language use.
Key words: stories, story books, a target language, skills.
Since English is an international language of communication, science, information
technology, business, radio, diplomacy and so on, it is important to teach English to
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children as early as possible. Many teaching techniques can be used to realize this aim.
And one of them is using story books. Stories can help children in learning both their
mother tongue and different foreign languages. Of course, in countries of which native
language isn’t English using story books is important and useful because it enlarges
children’s experience in English.
First of all through stories children get information about different people, new
countries and various cultural values. They can read abbreviated parts of famous authors’
works in a simplified way in story books. So it can broaden their horizon. “Learning
English through stories can lay the foundations for secondary school in terms of learning
basic language functions and structures, vocabulary and language learning skills.”
“Stories can help develop positive attitudes towards the foreign language, culture and
language learning.”1 Stories increase children’s interest in the target language and culture.
Besides children enjoy reading especially if the book is illustrated. Stories with
illustrations attract not only a child’s attention but also an adult’s , make them be interested, curious in reading and learning a foreign language. So stories increase motivation
in children, but stories should fit a child’s age and developmental level, be appropriate,
interesting, meaningful and not to be very complicated, otherwise the child can be demotivated and lose his interest in learning a target language. Illustrations also help them
understand the content of a story.
“Bruner has noted, we live our lives and shape our identities through stories. Basing
on this view Carol Read writes that stories and drama help children to make sense of
their own behavior and others, and to develop aspects of emotional, such as empathy.”2
A story is a part of literature. Reading literature develops tolerance and creativity
in children. Northrop Frye writes: “It’s clear that the end of literary teaching isn’t simply
the admiration of literature; it’s something more like the transfer of imaginative energy
from literature to the students.” (1: 193) “Stories are a useful tool in linking fantasy and
the imagination with the child’s real world. They provide a way of enabling children
to make sense of their everyday life and forge links between home and school.”3
Widdowson identifies two levels of linguistic knowledge: the level of usage and
the level of use. In his opinion the level of usage demands knowledge of linguistic rules
and the latter demands knowing how to use the very rules in communication. And literature is useful in developing knowledge both in a usage level and in a use level. (1: 191)
Listening to stories is useful as well as reading. It improves their listening comprehension and pronunciation. “Children enjoy listening to stories over and over again.
This frequent repetition allows certain language items to be acquired while others are
being overtly reinforced. Many stories contain natural repetition of key vocabulary and
structures. This helps children remember every detail, so they can gradually learn to
anticipate what is about to happen next in the story. Repetition also encourages participation in the narrative.”4 Repetition of different words and grammatical structures in
stories enlarges a child’s vocabulary and strengthens his knowledge of grammar, at the
same time makes them memorable. This in its turn helps to develop a child’s self-esteem
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and courage. A child begins to hold intercourse in a foreign language with others easily
without shyness. So stories improve not only reading skills, but also a child’s speaking
and his communication both with the teacher and with his peers. The more they read,
the more their thinking in a target language will be encouraged. “Stories allow the
teacher to introduce or revise new vocabulary and sentence structures by exposing the
children to language in varied, memorable and familiar contexts, which will enrich their
thinking and gradually enter their own speech.” “Children who read daily over long
periods of time is better on measure of vocabulary, comprehension and decoding ability
than did children in the control groups who were not read to by an adult.”5
Through stories and activities social skills such as cooperation, collaboration,
listening and turn taking can be developed too.
Activities used during reading stories also play an important role in children’s
motivation. Especially diversity of activities helps the teacher keep children motivated
and makes the lesson unpredictable. “Good language activities have no age limits, an
idea which works with five-year-olds will, with some minor adaptations in content and
presentation, probably work equally well with much older learners.”6
Pre-story activities usually play an important role as they help to introduce the topic
to learners, to identify what the learners know about it, help to encourage topical
thinking and to be more active and interested in participating in the lesson.
While reading a story it is important to go back and ask a child questions in order
to check his understanding and give him a chance to predict the story. Asking such kind
of questions improves both speaking and thinking in a target language.
After activities such as: information gaps, questionnaires and surveys, guessing
games, matching, sequencing, retelling the story, writing a letter, role play, etc. provide
children with the practice of using the target language.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
END NOTE
universityofibnkhaldunbogar-indonesia.blogspot.com
carolread.com
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
C. J. Brumfit and R. A. Carter. 2000. Literature and Language Teaching. Oxford University Press.
David E. Freeman and Yvonne S. Freeman. 2000. Teaching Reading in Multilingual Classrooms.
Sandra Silberstein. 1994. Techniques and Resources in Teaching Reading.
www. carolread.com : 16/02/2012
www. teachingenglish.org.uk : 16/02/2012
www. universityofibnkhaldunbogar-indonesia.blogspot.com : 16/02/2012
www. encuentrojournal.org : 16/02/2012
REFERENCES
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April 27, 2012
COMMON PROBLEMS HINDERING AZERI LEARNERS
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Khazar Novruzov
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
A teacher can employ a lot of ways in teaching process. The extent to which the instruction is successful
depends significantly on the way or methodology employed and the teacher’s alertness to the potential
problems that are likely to arise during instruction. The scope of the teacher’s pedagogical creativity
encompasses consideration of both the factors. Language teaching seems to have been switching its focus
from one method to a supposedly more effective one during the last century so that students are more proficient in the target language. As time passes new problems in learning English are uncovered and new
solutions are suggested. Azeri learners of English have common problems mainly due to the grammatical
differences between Azerbaijani and English. I think the role of metalinguistic awareness on the part of
learners and teachers is dependable in overcoming such problems. On the basis of my observations first as a
learner and then a teacher of English, I can definitely tell that students with more metalinguistic awareness
are more successful in learning a second language.
Key words: method, metalingiuistic awareness, problem, teacher creativity.
There are many methods of teaching in education in general. Teaching methods
can be defined as the types of principles and ways used for instruction. Class participation,
demonstration, explaining, recitation, and memorization are good examples. When a
teacher is deciding on a method, he or she needs to be flexible and willing to adjust the
style according to the students. Student success in the classroom depends largely on
effective teaching methods. As for language teaching, being a main part of pedagogy,
it employs three main concepts: approach, method and technique. Approach embodies
theories about the nature of language and language teaching. Method is an overall plan
for presenting teaching process, that is, a teaching plan. Technique represents a procedure
or tactic to obtain an immediate objective. New words, some grammatical rule are good
examples of such objectives. The way a student learns a new item is a technique. A
method employs a lot of techniques for teaching language items. During the twentieth
century many methods were used in language teaching. For example, Grammar-translation method, Silent way, Situational learning etc. Still, new problems turn out to be
present in language teaching, which means the various methods created as yet are not
sufficient. Over time most of them proved very difficult to apply and with almost no
empirical value. In the 1990s the term ‘post methods era’ was sometimes used.
‘Absent from the traditional view of methods are learner-centeredness and teacher
creativity. Practicality is a key issue in language teaching. A methodology that can readily
be turned into teaching materials and textbooks and whose use requires no special
training is valuable in terms of making successful language learners’ (Richards and
Rodgers.2001).
A good way to start developing a language teaching process is to look at ourselves
and to explore to what extent our second language teaching has been influenced by our
211
own language learning and language teaching experiences. Some background events
that can be expected to influence our way of teaching are likely to include: a) our informal language learning (first, second language) b) the way we were taught languages
at school and how we responded to such teaching c)other formal or informal second
language learning experiences as an adult (Stern H.1991)
The aim of my paper is to enlarge teacher creativity. A person teaching English to
native speakers of Azerbaijani should be alert to hindrances resulting from the grammatical
differences between the two languages. The hindrances are usual for almost any learner
of English whose first language is Azerbaijani. As a learner and a teacher of English
whose native language is Azerbaijani I observe such hindrances very often. I would
like to enumerate some of them below:
1. Prepositional phrases used as attributive adjectives. For example:
a. The books on the green table are all about African countries.
b. I didn’t like the buildings around Baku
c. The shop at the corner of the street sells clothes from Germany.
Because of the interference of Azerbaijani, elementary level learners tend to incorrectly build the sentences like the following often with the omission of articles:
a. On the green table the books are all about African countries.
b. I didn’t like around Baku the buildings.
c. At corner of the street shop sells from Germany clothes.
2. Articles. Azerbaijani has no article so at first, learners take this part of speech as
strange and a burden to learn. Moreover, most of times it requires no direct translation,
this ,in turn, makes matters ‘complicated’ for learners(if they don’t know another
language with articles, like German). I will try to illuminate the problem in the
following examples:
My teacher has got a new computer. The computer is very heavy.
The dog is a faithful animal.
It is difficult to explain why we use a and the instead of it in the first example. And,
why the second sentence uses first the, then a requires skill and patience for explanation.
3. ‘There is/There are’ expressions. To build a sentence with the expressions a new
learner has structural problems. The following sentence has a reversed structure in
Azebaijani translation:
English sentence ; There are(1) two pens in my pocket(2).
Its Azerbaijani translation; Cibimdə(2) iki qələm var(1).
4. The place of prepositions in expressions or sentences. They come before related
words, I mean, in pre-position but their equivalents in Azerbaijani come in postposition such as:
English sentence; I saw a lot of animals in Australia.
Azerbaijani translation; Avstraliyada çoxlu heyvan gördüm.
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April 27, 2012
The preposition in in the English sentence comes in front of the related word
‘Australia’. By contrast, in the Azerbaijani one its equivalent da comes after the related
word ‘Avstraliya’. Putting the preposition to the correct place in an English sentence
is a great feat.
5. Word order. It is obvious that the general structure of sentence elements in English
is like this: SUBJECT + PREDICATE+OBJECT + ADVERBIAL. In Azerbaijani
the order is very different: SUBBJECT+OBJECT+ADVERBIAL+PREDICATE.
Thus a learner should avoid the danger of interference.
6. Countability and uncountability of English nouns. The relationship between whether
a noun is countable or uncountable and article use in expressions.
The points in 5 and 6 are easy to understand that is why I didn’t give example sentences. So far, I have discussed the hindrances or problems usually faced by elementary
learners of English, whose first language is Azerbaijani. For upper levels also, there
are such ‘adaptation’ problems. For example:
7. Functions of modal verbs, especially the secondary ones. Students often get confused
about different functions of modal verbs. One example from my learning experience:
I saw a presentation like the following table in ‘Longman English Grammar’
(Alexander.2003).
Secondary function of modals is expressing degrees of certainty.
You
might could may should ought to must will
You are right.
be right.
very uncertain
↓
↓
almost certain
certain
Then I made it clear for myself why modal verbs are sometimes used ‘unusually’.
It turned out, for instance, that ‘John should be at home now’ is another way of telling
‘Probably, John is at home now’.
8. English has a vast store of words, a lot of synonyms. This fact sometimes discourages
students and makes them impatient in learning. A teacher has got to give explanations
for this fact by for example, talking a little about styles in language.
There are a lot of other problems worth considering. Azerbaijani and English are
quite different languages. The difference is both convenient and inconvenient for learning
English. Conveniently English possesses much fewer grammatical suffixes or prefixes
than Azerbaijani, and this saves us from memorizing a lot of grammatical burden for
speaking English normally. The problems I have dealt with in this article are signs of
the inconvenient facet.
As for the solutions to the problems, I think the development of students’ metalinguistic abilities is necessary because in order to explain the problems to students a teacher
benefit from metalanguage. Metalanguage generally means the use of language to
describe and discuss itself. This is the property of human language which is also called
213
reflexivity (Yule.1996).Students with more metalinguistic awareness succeed more in
learning English. This helps learners generalize where necessary, know how and when
to use grammatical rules in building English sentences etc. For example: a learner should
be able to generalize words as nouns, verbs, adjectives etc. to put them in correct order
in sentences. It can be a source of curiosity about the target language: one day a student
of mine asked about the formation of English participles. He knows about the form of
Azerbaijani participles and this makes him interested in the English counterpart. For
teachers it is a convenience. Imagine a teacher explains the use of present simple in time
and conditional clauses. He can write a lot of sample sentences on the board to explain it,
but instead, he can rely on the students’ metalinguistic abilities and tell that in time and
conditional clauses present simple is used with reference to the future. The latter is a
shortcut in the teaching process. Metalanguage use can be identified as an element of
the supposedly unsuccessful Grammar-Translation method. But if it is discussed for the
sake of facilitating teaching, not for its own sake, it is beneficial.
As the last point of my paper, there can be shortcomings in my observations and
suggestionss because I do not possess a sound knowledge of pedagogy or human psychology. I am still learning English as a foreign language and whatever I suggest for
facilitation in teaching is ultimately based on my own experiences as a teacher and a
learner.That is why I think them reliable and valuable.
REFERENCES
Richards Jack C and Rodgers Theodore S.(2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge University Press.
2. Cook Vivian. (2001). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London
3. Stern H, H. (1991). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford University Press
4. Talıbov Y,R. Ağayev Ə, A. İsayev İ,N. Eminov A. S.(1993).Pedaqogika.Bakı.
5. A Textbook of Translation. Peter NEWMARK,1998, Prentice-Hall International, New York
6. Alexander Louis George. (2003). Longman English Grammar. Longman.
7. The Study of Language. George Yule, 1996, Cambridge University Press, New York
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_styles
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_method
10. www.englishaustralia.com.au/index.cgi?E=hcatfuncs
1.
TEACHING ENGLISH TO ARABIC- SPEAKING STUDENTS:
CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS
Yegane Memmedova
Qafqaz University
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Given the rapidly increasing number of Arabic-speaking students in U.S. public schools, English as
a second language (ESL) and bilingual teachers need to be cognizant of sociolinguistic, historical and
cultural considerations affecting the educational needs of these students and their families. This paper
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April 27, 2012
provides relevant information which will assist teachers to develop sensitivity and understanding of this
unique language-minority population. I hope that this material will help the teachers determine how to
structure the curriculum better, pinpoint transfer pitfalls between English and Arabic, enhance students’
social integration and accelerate their acquisition of English.
Key words: English Arabic, culture, linguistic, human relations.
One of the regions of the world most affected by political unrest and turmoil is the
Middle East. The increasing population of Arabic- speaking students in the American
schools has become a reality that merits attention. The purpose of this paper is to share
cultural and linguistic information with bilingual and ESL teachers to enable them to
promote intercultural understanding and facilitate the acquisition of English as a second
language. Arabs live within the borders of over twenty nations throughout the Middle
East, North Africa, and the Arabian Peninsula. Nevertheless, “ to avoid offending many
Arabs, [ teachers ] would be prudent to use the singular ‘Arab nation ’ instead of the
plural ‘Arab nations ’ in [ their ] conversations with the Arabs “ in acknowledgement
of their shared language , religion and culture. Although 90 percent of the more than
160 million Arabic- speakers in the region are Muslim, there are also many Arab Jews
and Chiristians. Minorities are identified by either religion or language. Some examples
of non- Arabs are Kurds, Druze, Copts, Assyrians and Berbers.
There is great pride and prestige associated with the Arabic language. “Arabic is
the language one of the world’s great civilizations, and one to which the West has been
profoundly indebted for over a millennium in fields as diverse as mathematics, chemistry,
geography and philosophy”. Not only is it the language of the Holy Koran, but it is a
language which enjoys wide usage in the creation of great literature and poetry, as well
as having influenced Spanish greatly through 700 years of presence in Spain. One
example of the love and respect for the written word was the care and attention given
to libraries during Arab period in Spain. In one of Cordobas 70 libraries, for example,
400,000 books were collected.
Geographic proximity allows for the common bond of language to remain strong
despite variations in the spoken language among people of varying regions and nationalities. Children commonly grow up with sense of bilingualism in that they aware of
these regional dialectical differences and how the standart written forms differ from their
spoken dialects. This experience with Arabic can be helpful as students are introduced
to English.
Arabic is different from English is many ways. Problems ranging from phonological
to morphological and structural difficulties that face Arabic speaking students while
learning English have been well- documented. There are unique aspects of the Arabic
language which pose special transfer problems with English which have pedagogical
implications for ESL teaching and curriculum design.1
When teaching English to Arabic- speakers some linguistic considerations should
be kept in mind: First , the writing system goes from right to left . The way the letters
are written depends upon their position in Arabic words. The orthographies of both
languages are different and tend to pose difficulty in pronunciation and spelling. Some
215
sounds in English do not exist in Arabic: an example is the substitution of the “b“ for
a “p“ ( beople ) … “ compination “. Arabic does not have two distinctive bilabial plosives, only the voiced /b/ and hypercorrected spelling that represents both “b“ and “p“
as “p“. There are no written vowels. Diacritics are used instead to indicate vowels.
Second, recognizing syntactinc differences between English and Arabic can guide
ESL teachers and help them deal with transfer problems effectively. ESL teachers should
train their students to make linguistic adjustments when learning English. For example
they should make it clear that word order (e.g. Dead sea vs. sea dead), language typology
(Ali goes to school vs. goes Ali to school), structural patterns (that’s the teacher whom I
met vs. That’s the the teacher whom I met him)… are different in both languages.
Most importantly, the sociolinguistic aspects of Arabic differ from those of English.
Some these features usually transfer to English inappropriate manner. For example, the
depth of questioning about family affairs, health and other private matters are culturally
incompatible. Jokes are also culture – bound; what is humorous to an Arab might be
outrageous to an American and vice versa.
Finally, written discourse of Arab ESL learners is dependent on the Arabic logic
and cultural thought patterns. The rhetoric of a tightly organized, logical presentation
of ideas is as foreign to Arab students as English itself. On other hand, English rhetoric
is often construed as cold and highly impersonal rather than embellished as is the elite
style of literary Arabic2.
1.
2.
1.
3.
4.
5.
6.
216
END NOTE
Al – Batal, M. (1988). Towards cultural proficiency in Arabic. Foreign Language Annals. 21(5),
443- 453 .
Yorkey, R . (1977). Practical techniques for teaching Arabic – speaking students . In J. Alatis & R .
Crymes ( Eds ) . The human factors in ESL ; A series of six lectures ( pp. 57-85 ) .
REFERENCES
Abraham, S., & Abraham, N. (Eds). (1983). Arabs in the New World: Studies on Arab- American
communities .
Butt, G. (1987). The Arab world. London: BBC Books .
Al Batal, M. (1988). Towards cultural proficiency in Arabic. Foreign Language Annals .
Suleiman, M. F. (1987). A Cross-phonological analysis between Arabic and English. The segmental
phonemes.
Yorkey, R. (1977). Practical techniques for teaching Arabic-speaking students. In J. Alatis & R.
Crymes (Eds). The human factors in ESL; A series of six lectures.

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